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A study of educational policies and selected practices of mission societies with reference to intercultural education

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A study of educational policies and selected practices of mission societies with reference to intercultural education

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Content STUDY OF EDUCATIONAL POLICIES AND SELECTED PRACTICES OF MISSION SOCIETIES WITH REFERENCE TO INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the School of Education The University of Southern California In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy by Sidney P• Roger s June 1951 UMI Number: DP24002 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Pubi sh*ng UMI DP24002 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 pi,. D . \=<i '*! T h is dissertation, w ritte n by smrox_p.__m_QERs................ under the guidance of A. i.?— F a c u lty C om m ittee on Studies, #72* / approved by a ll its members, has been presented to and accepted by the C o u n c il on G raduate Study and Research, in p a rtia l f u l fillm e n t of requirements fo r the degree of D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y D ean Date... Com mittee on Studies TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITION OF TERMS . . . 1 Statement of the problem............... • 1 Mission policies examined ........... 2 Scope of the study ........... 6 Definition of terms 8 | i I Mission education ................... 8, Educational policy. .... 8 j j Mission society •••• 9 i Educational missionaries. . 9 ■ National personnel. . 9 , Indigenous schools. . 9 1 Democratic educational administration 10 Intercultural relations ............. 10 Intercultural education • • ......... 11 The procedure employed......... 11 Source of data. ................... 11 Mission societies studied . ......... 13 Evaluation of mission policies. . . . 17 Organization of the study....... 18 II. THE ORIGIN AND PLACE OF EDUCATION IN MISSIONS............................. . 20 Judaism and missions.............. 21 Early Christianity and missions • • • • 22 Iv CHAPTER PAGE Methods used in early Christian missions........... • • • 23 Medieval missions • ................... 25 Modern missions..................... . 27 China............. 29 India................................ 31 Japan .......... 31 Africa • • ......................... 33 Purposes underlying development of mission education .......... 33 Relationship of religion and education 36 Stages of evolution of missionary education .......................... 37 problems of present day mission education • ••.•••••••••• 39 Summary ............ 40 III* ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES IN MISSION EDUCATION.............................. 42 Questions relative to administration. • 43 Cooperation among missionaries, national teachers, and pupils • • • • 45 Missionaries and national staff in respect to educational policies . . . 47 • • * • • • CHAPTER Relation of the home church to curriculum construction* . . . . ................. Missionaries and national staff in curriculum construction . • • Inter-denominational cooperation Training of national teachers • . • • National personnel and administrative positions .......................... Co-educational policies ........... . Mission expenditures on education Government grants-in-aid to missions. • Support of national teachers. • • • • • Salaries of national teachers ......... Financing of mission school buildings . Summary ••••• ...................... IV. CURRICULAR POLICIES IN MISSION EDUCATION. Curricular organization ............... Folklore and the curriculum •••••• Religious services in mission schools • Vernacular as the medium for Instruction Time alloted to religious and educational subjects................................ Inter-group correspondence Summary . . . • . . . . . . . . v PAGE 49 53 55 59 62 66 69 71 74 76 78 79 84 85 88 92 97 99 101 104 vi CHAPTER PAGE V. POLICIES WITH REFERENCE TO QUALIFICATIONS AND TRAINING OF EDUCATIONAL PERSONNEL . . . 108 Essential qualities in educational missionaries .... ......... ..... 109 Procedures in selecting mission educators 113 The use of testing materials in select ing educational missionaries. ...... 117 Levels of education required of educa tional missionaries 121 Married and single missionaries ...... 124 Orientation requirements ••••••••• 126 Pre-field service requirements........ ..... 129 Educational requirements of national teachers. *•••••.••••••••• 133 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 VI. BASIC AIMS AND PURPOSES OF MISSION EDUCA TION.................................... 139 Purpose in establishing educational work...................•••••••••• 140 Mission educational objectives. ...... 147 The heart or center of religious experience. ................... 150 Christianity and the indigenous traditions 154 CHAPTER Extent of religious freedom within the mission school • ••••••••.•• Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII. MISSION EDUCATIONAL POLICIES AND GOOD INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION . . ............. Procedure followed In evaluation of mission educational policies and practices • Evaluation of educational aims and purposes of mission societies . . . . • Criteria of good aims ......... Evaluation of religious experience. . • Evaluation of policies concerning religious freedom In the mission school. ••••••••••.•••• Evaluation of policies concerning the qualifications and training of mission educational personnel ••••••••• Essential qualities in educational missionaries. .••••••••••• Procedures followed In selecting educational missionaries •••••• Level of education required ...... vii PAGE 159 162 j 166 166 1 I i I 169 171 178 183 184 185 187 188 vlii CHAPTER PACE Orientation requirements. ....... 189 Evaluation of administrative policies in mission education ...................... 191 Policies concerning cooperation among j national teachers, missionaries, and pupils....................... 192 Policies concerning interdenominational cooperation ......... ........ 195 ' Policies concerning co-education. • . • 199 ! Evaluation of curricular policies in mission education . .................... 199 Organization of the curriculum. • • • • 199 Use of the vernacular ........... 202 Inter-group correspondence........... . 202 Pattern of religious services in the school. •••••••.•••..•• 203 The use of folklore In the curriculum • 204 Summary..................... 207 VIII. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . 214 Summary ......................... 214 The problem............................ 214 The scope of the study................ 215 Definition of terms used............... 215 ix CHAPTER PAGE Procedure employed. •••*•• .... 217 Organization of the study............. 218 The origin and place of education in missions. .....••••••••*• 219 Administrative policies in mission educa tion ................... ....... 220 Curricular policies in mission education. 223 policies with reference to qualifica tions and training of educational personnel •••«•••. .....•• 225 Basic aims and purposes of mission education 229 Mission educational policies and good intercultural education ............... 231 Conclusions ........................ 234 Recommendations for further research. . . . 237 BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................... 239 APPENDIX t t Aw - Questionnaire sent to mission secretaries.................... 244 CHAPTER I i THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED I. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Civilization is undergoing a continual process of change. One of the important factors contributing to this change, is the influence that missions have on the various cultures of the world. I Missionaries represent in person and profession, a j specific culture which is both American and Christian. j i The peoples whom the missionaries serve represent a native) i i culture which is non-American, (i.e., Chinese, Korean, Indian, etc.) and non-Christian, (i.e., Mohammedan, Buddhistic, Taoistic, etc.). These different cultures meet and interact in the mission field. The mission school is undoubtedly one of the most important agencies in this intercultural process. And the manner in which the schools are organized and conducted i determines to a great extent the values they are able to offer these social interactions. In view of the above situation, the purpose of this i | study was to examine the educational policies of mission societies, and to attempt to determine to what extent these policies promote desirable inter-personal and inter group relations and consequently, good intercultural 2 education* In other words, the purpose of this study was t an attempt to answer the following questions: i (a) What are the current and most common educa tional policies of mission societies? (h) To what extent are these policies based on edu cational principles and a philosophy which will i promote good intercultural education? j In seeking to answer the preceding questions, It was necessary to examine the following policies with reference to mission education: (a) The policies concerning the administrative organization of mission education* i (b) The policies with reference to the school curricula* 1 (c) The policies concerning qualifications and | i training of mission personnel* (d) The policies with reference to basic aims and purposes of mission education* In examining these areas of educational policies, it was found that certain questions relative to these i specific areas required consideration. These may be stated as follows: (a) Questions related to policies concerning the administrative organization of mission educa tion* _______________________________ 1. To what extent do the policies encourage an administrative practice which is demo cratic? 2* To what extent do the policies make provi sion for the nationals to occupy positions of leadership? 3. What is the general purpose of the educa tional program as interpreted from mission ; i policies? 4. To what extent are schools encouraged to become indigenous in leadership, in policy making, and in administration? (b) Questions related to policies concerning the j mission school curriculum: I !• What are the policies concerning the organization of the school curriculum? a* What provision is made in the curri- i culum for native crafts, folk music, ! folk philosophy and language, folk mores, family and community patterns of social organization; and how are these native arts, ideas and ways of living related to democratic inter-personal and inter-group relations? b. To what extent do the policies provide for an educational program which is of a functional nature, and one that is subject matter centered? 2* What are the intercultural policies concern ing the training of pupils in higher insti tutions of learning? 3* What provision is made in the policies for the counselling and guidance of pupils? 4# What are the intercultural policies concern ing co-education in mission education,— i.e., co-education as it involves inter group policy and practice as between boys and girls? 5* What are the intercultural policies con cerning the languages used as the medium for instruction? i | (c) Questions related to policies concerning ! qualifications and training of mission school personnel: 1* What do mission societies consider as neces sary qualifications and training for educa tional missionaries? What bearing do these qualifications have upon good intercultural relations? 2. To what extent do mission societies make provision for the inclusion of nationals in the teaching staff? 3* What provisions are made for the training of national personnel, and what kind of intercultural training do they receive for the school work? i 4* To what extent do mission societies make provisions for the national staff to make intercultural and world-wide contacts of a professional nature? (d) Questions related to policies concerning basic aims and purposes of mission educations 1« What is the purpose or aim in establishing mission educational work? 2* What is the relationship between Christian ity and the indigenous traditions in the mission field? 3* What is the essential core of real religious experience? The mission educational philosophy as interpreted from these prevailing policies, was criticized and evalu ated with respect to its intercultural content and 6 purpose. This evaluation was attempted by comparing the existing principles of mission education with suggested intercultural principles for mission education. The method for arriving at the proposed principles is more fully explained in the section under procedure. II. SCOPE OP THE STUDY As stated in the problem above, it was proposed in this dissertation to study policies and selected practices of mission societies. It was realized that these policies may not always coincide with what Is actually practiced in the mission field. Nevertheless, this study is con cerned with the opinions or policies as proposed by j mission societies. ' | The purpose of policies is to indicate procedures j i to be followed in practice. Consequently, in some in- 1 i stances in this study, where it was necessary to clarify aj given policy, practices were analyzed and policies Inferred from them. For this present study an attempt was made to study the policies of all the Protestant mission societies in the United States of America that carry on educational work in the mission fields. Since it was proposed to study the significance of the educational policies of missions as an educational force in the world, it was found necessary t© examine the policies of a large number of mission societies. In order to simplify the study, it j was limited to the Protestant groups. It would seem that the importance of the Catholic groups would justify a separate study* j It was assumed that some mission policies are the j same for all the mission fields of one society, while j other policies vary for different mission fields* For this reason, it was found that, in order to get a more ! accurate picture of the nature of the policies, it would be necessary to study them in connection with specific j mission fields. Thus, agreement or disagreement in the policies of the societies working in the same area would , become evident* j The mission fields selected for the purpose of this i study were Africa, Arabia, Burma, Central America, Ceylon,; China, East Indies, Egypt, Formosa, French Indo China, 1 Hawaiian Islands, India, Japan, Korea, Malay States, : Manchuria, Mexico, Hear East, Oceania, Philippine Islands,, Siam, South America, Tibet, West Indies, and also the American Indians. These areas are vital focal points in the missionary enterprise of today* Since, (1) missions are playing such a significant part in the educational work of the world, and (2) since the present world problems are making such increasingly great demands upon every educational institution, this study was considered to be of vital importance* The degree of success of the educational work of missions depends largely upon the policies adopted and practiced by mission societies* Although it would be a worthwhile study to examine the educational practices of mission fields, at first hand observation, this procedure was manifestly impossible in the present study. Within the limits of this study an attempt was made to examine the educational policies and stated practices of the mission societies of the United States of America* For the purpose of this study the following defini tions are used: Mission education* Mission education is thought of as the general educational work carried on in sehools operated by religious bodies as a part of their mission ary effort. Educational policy* A mission educational policy is taken to mean a settled course, adopted by a mission III. DEFINITION OF TERMS j society, with the hope and expectation that it will indi- I i | cate how given problems and jobs shall b© solved and administered in connection with the mission1s educational work* Mission society* By a mission society is meant a j religious body which is organized for the purpose of i | carrying on helpful service of a religious or educational I nature among needy peoples* j Educational missionaries* Educational missionaries are defined in this study as those persons who have been appointed by their mission society to engage primarily in school work in the mission fields* This school work is i i I thought of as that whieh is of a general nature, and not i limited to religious education* | i Hational personnel* In this study, national j i personnel refers to those individuals who are native to | i the country in which the mission work is being carried on, — native from the standpoint of birth or of place where , professional training is received* Indigenous schools* Indigenous schools refer to educational institutions that are supported and adminis tered by the nationals themselves* It is assumed that in 10 many instances these schools began with foreign support, under 1 1 foreign missionary" policy and with mission super vision. Democratic educational admlnlstratlon. A compre hensive definition of democratic educational administra tion as considered in this study is found in the following quotations By democratic administration, I mean the optimum arrangement whereby all persons affected are ade quately represented in policy making, whereby proper degrees of deference are given to the wishes of different classes of patrons and beneficiaries of the services, and whereby appropriate reliance is placed upon the special skills of different grades of professional and technical employees .2- Intercultural relations. Intercultural relations as used in this study may be defined as the social and psychological processes that take place In the meeting and F interaction of persons or groups who represent different ; social backgrounds. These inter-personal and inter-group j relations become very significant as the missionaries who represent a western civilization contact the diverse cultures of the mission fields. i Ployd Reeves, "Principles of Democratic Adminis tration," Democratic Practices in School Admini stratlon, 1939, p. 16, University of Chicago Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Conference. 11 Intercultural education* Intercultural education as it is used for the purpose of this dissertation refers to those learning situations which promote desirable inter group relations, by encouraging mutual understanding and cooperation between various members within a social group, and also between Individuals of different social groups* Such desirable learning situations tend to destroy false j and imaginary notions of differences between Individuals ' and groups* IV* THE PROCEDURE EMPLOYED A brief survey was made of the literature to learn of the historical development of educational work in missions. As a background for the problem of this dis- j i sertation, it seemed that an understanding of the past i trends in mission education, would help to show the im portance of this present study* Data concerning current educational policies were gathered from two sources, (1) by the use of a question naire which was sent to the secretaries or representatives of all the Protestant mission societies in the United States of America, (2) and from the use of publications obtained from the mission societies. The list of mission societies was taken from the 12 Directory of World Missions, published by the Internation al Missionary Council. All of the societies which ap peared to be engaged in mission work received question naires. There were one hundred seventy six mission groups to whom~ questionnaires were sent. All of these societies, ranging from the most conservative groups to the most liberal, received questionnaires. The mission secretaries or representatives were requested to answer the question- i naire, since, they as representatives of their societies, would be able to indicate the policies adopted by their < respective societies. The number of replies received from the total number of societies to whom questionnaires were sent was 119, or approximately 68 per cent. Of this group of 119 societies which replied, 52 indicated that they are doing educational work In mission fields and consequently re turned their questionnaires completed in most instances. The remaining societies stated that they either have no educational work or that what work they do in education is too limited to report on. The study of mission educa tional policies was consequently limited to the 52 socie ties which are doing educational work in connection with their evangelistic or religious work. This group seems to be a good sampling of the total number of societies. 13 ! I The mission societies dealt with in the study are i i listed below: j 1. American Baptist Foreign Mission Society. 2m American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (Congregational Christian Churches)* 3. American Lutheran Church, Board of Foreign Missions. 4. American Lutheran Church, Board of Mexican Missions. 5. American Lutheran Mission - New Guinea. 6. American University at Cairo. 7. Associated Executive Committee of Friends on Indian Affairs. 8* Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church, Board of Foreign Missions. I 9. Augustana Synod, Board of Foreign Missions. 1 10. Board of Christian Work in Santo Domingo. j 11. Brethren Church, Foreign Missionary Society. 12. California Yearly Meeting of Friends Church, Board of : i Missions. 13. Central Yearly Meeting of Friends, Missionary Department• I i 14* China Inland Mission. 15. Christian Reformed Board of Missions. 16. Church of God, Missionary Board. I 14 17. Evangelical Congregational Church, Missionary Society. 18. Evangelical and Beformed Church. 19. Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Missouri, Ohio, and other States. 20. Evangelical Mission Covenant Church of America. 21. Free Methodist Church of North America, General Missionary Board. 22. Friends Foreign Missionary Society of Ohio Yearly Meeting. 23. Hebron Mission, Inc. 24. Hephzibah Faith Missionary Association. 25. Incorporated Kwato Extension Association. 26. International Church of the Four Square Gospel. 27. Latin America Evangelization Campaign, Inc. 28. Mennonlte Board of Missions and Charities. 29. Mennonlte Brethren Church of North America, Board of ; Foreign Missions. j 30. Methodist Episcopal Church, Board of Foreign Missions. 31. Metropolitan Church Association, (Pentecostal). 32. National Baptist Convention, Inc., Foreign Mission Board. 33. National Holiness Missionary Society. 34. Norwegian Lutheran Church of America, Board of Foreign Missions. 35. Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, Board of Foreign Missions (Northern). 36. Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, Executive Committee of Foreign Missions (Southern). 37. Primitive Methodist Church, Foreign Missionary Board. 38. Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America, Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society. 39. Reformed Chureh in America, Board of Domestic ! Missions, and Missions in Mexico. 40. Reformed Church in America, Board of Foreign Missions. 41. Religious Society of Friends of Philadelphia and Vicinity. 42. Samaritan Missionary Association. j 43. St. Christopher’s Training College, Madras. 44. Seventh-Day Adventist Denomination (General Conference). 46. Seventh-Day Baptist Missionary Society. 46. Society of the United Brethren for Propagating the Gospel among the heathen. i 47. United Brethren in Christ, Foreign Missionary Society1 48. United Danish Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. 49. United Free Gospel and Missionary Society. 50. United Lutheran Church in America, Board of Foreign Missions. 16 51* Woman*s Union Missionary Society of America* 52. Yale-in-China Association, Inc* In the body of this study, the mission societies ! are designated by different numbers from the ones they I ' ' | are given in the listing above. This was done in order i - i that the main purpose of the dissertation (consideration I of mission policies in general), would not be lost sight I of in any attempt to follow the policies of a particular i i I mission organisation. For this reason, throughout the i dissertation mission societies are called by numbers i i rather than by names. The questionnaire was composed of questions se lected for the purpose of revealing policies of mission j societies with reference to various phases of the school work. These policies pertain to the administration of i school work, types of schools, school curricula, mission personnel, and purposes and aims of mission education. A , , i ! treatment of these related phases was considered necessary in order to get an adequate understanding of the Inter- cultural nature of mission education. Before the questionnaire was sent out, it was critically examined by a jury of interculturally minded Individuals who are competent in the fields of secular and religious education* The publications which were received from the societies included mission manuals, application forms, statements of mission policies, mission booklets, journals and church magazines, i j The data gathered from the questionnaires and i ! publications were arranged in the appropriate educational categories for the purpose of analysis and interpretation. Policies derived from this analysis and interpretation j i were evaluated to determine their intercultural signifi- 1 cance. This evaluation was done by comparing the poll- t 1 cies so derived with educational principles of a good i intercultural nature, and which had been critically chosen i by a jury of qualified educators. The initial step in an effort to obtain a body of j good educational principles for mission education, was to select from literature a body of educational principles of a wide variety. This prepared list was then submitted j to a qualified jury for their criticisms and evaluation. ' The educational principles which were finally selected I t and agreed upon by the jury as offering good practice in 1 intercultural education, were accepted and used in this study as the criterion with which current mission educa tional policies were compared and evaluated. V, ORGANIZATION OF THE DISSERTATION 18 Chapter I presents a statement of the problem Indi cating the importance of the study, the scope or limits of the study, and the procedure followed in the treatment of the problem* Chapter II is concerned with the origin and place of education in missions. A study was made of the litera ture to learn of the early missionary activities, their motives for establishing schools in connection with the mission work, the relation of the school work to the church, types of schools established, the curriculum of the early schools, and the relationship of the mission aries and the national personnel* j Chapter III deals with the administrative organiza tion of mission education* A critical analysis of the inter-personal and inter-group relationships of the school; personnel was attempted in this chapter* It also deals j 1 with policies concerning school finance, salaries, sources of support for teachers, and buildings, and the bearing all this has upon Intercultural problems in mission education* Chapter IV is devoted to a study of the school curricula as adopted by the missions concerned. Inter cultural values are closely related to the content and manner in which the school curriculum is organized* For this reason, an attempt was made to carefully analyze the mission policies pertaining to this area* Chapter V deals with the missionary educators and the national staff in the present-day missionary work* Attention was focused upon the training and qualifications of the teaching personnel* Since teachers are vital factors in the success or failure of an Intercultural program, their training and teaching qualifications were of special concern to this study* Chapter VI is a study of the basic aims and pur poses of mission education in existing missions* Chapter VII is devoted to a restatement of the policies revealed in the preceding chapters, and an analysis and evaluation of these policies from the stand point of good intercultural education* Chapter VIII gives a summary of the findings in this study, together with some conclusions and recom mendations* CHAPTER II THE ORIGIN AND PLACE OP EDUCATION IN MISSIONS Chapter I presented a statement of the problem, indicating the importance of the study, the scope, and procedure followed. In order to throw light upon the present day I problem of mission education, it seems fitting that one | should have some idea of mission education as It developed! in the past. This view of the rise of mission work should undoubtedly give the reader a better appreciation of the intercultural problems In connection with modern missions. Furthermore, it should help to show the rela tionships between missions as such, and the educational j work that has risen in connection with the mission. In this Chapter, the writer does not attempt to | I present a detailed account of the historical development of missions. Such a treatise would be outside the purpose of this study. The purpose of this Chapter will be to get a glimpse of missions as they developed and to indicate some of the motives and missionary activities of earlier missions. We may say that Christian missions began with t Christianity, although the missionary idea is much older. As will be seen later, the spirit of missions existed 21 within Judaism* However, the missionary idea in history takes on a more pronounced and universal meaning under the leadership of the founder of Christianity. Warneck expresses this thought when he says, “The prophetic thought of the universality of salvation first passes into missions proper, i.e., first becomes the actual offer of salvation to all nations, by the sending forth of messengers according to the missionary behest of Jesus.“ The early church believed that the very nature of Christianity makes it a missionary religion. In accordance with the fundamental character of Christianity as a missionary religion, missions are from the beginning a law of life in the Christian Church. . . . Missions are a natural outflow of the life of faith in the church,— a necessity for Its own preservation, and there fore, a self-evident duty. The church is untrue to itself, It Is false to Its origin and false to the essential character of Christianity, if it withdraws from its missionary obligation.2 Missionary endeavors were undoubtedly carried on to quite an extent in Judaism. The Jew was engaged in carrying out the ideals of the prophets. He was ap parently quite zealous in seeking to win men to a belief in Jehovah and to a high moral life. Studies in the 1 Gustav Warneck, Outline of ja History of Protestant Missions from the Reformation to TEe Pre sent (New York: Fleming H. Reveli Company, 1$037* P* T* 2 Ibid., p. 2. 22 | i history of the Jewish peoples reveal a faster than normal | increase in population. Professor Adolf Harnack points | i out that the rapid increase of the Jewish population could1 not have resulted only from normal family growth. He believes that the size of the Jewish Community must be | | explained to a large extent by religious propaganda. 1 I. EARLY CHRISTIANITY AND MISSIONS i ' i | I The ground for the growth of Christianity had ■ already been prepared by the conditions that existed with- i ■ in Judaism. Christianity appropriating the tradition and i patterns already In existence within Judaism, constructed a new pattern of religion with a universal emphasis. As expressed In the Gospels and writing of the early Christian leader, one senses the claim for Christian ity of a universal principle. The claim of the early Christians that their Lord was the Son of man, did not allow nationalistic limitations to his message. A uni versal significance was attached to their Master’s teachings. He was the universal Messiah, the center of | the Kingdom of God in humanity. Furthermore, the attitude of Jesus was sharply contrasted with that of the Jews who apparently, had little dealings with the Samaritans. The Christian mission field of the early Christian period was 23 somewhat limited by certain racial or political boundaries* As Warneck says, "The mission field of this first period extended in the main, as far as those splendid highways led which military necessity and the commerce of the age had made within the Roman Ekapire, as far as the knowledge of the Greek language had s p r e a d * Again, "At the close of the first century there were in the broad Roman Empire perhaps 200,000 Christians; at the end of the third j century, at the most eight millions; i*e*, one-fifteenth part of the entire population*114 II* METHODS USED IK EARLY CHRISTIAN MISSIONS What were the methods followed in the propagation j of the Christian gospel by the early Christian leaders? | Certainly, there was no elaborate religious organization or system of schools as usually accompanies mission work ■ of the present day* The early Christians claimed a gospel! of living faith and consequently were not primarily concerned about method* A living faith requires no special ’methods* for Its propagation; on it sweeps over every obstacle, nor even the strongest natural affections avail to overpower it* But it is only to a very Warneck, 0£. cit*» p* 2* 4 Ibid*| p* 3* 24 limited extent that the third century can be re garded in this ideal aspect* From that date, Christianity exerted her influence as the mono theistic religion of mysteries and as the powerful Church which embraced holy persons, holy books, a holy doctrine and a sanctifying cultus* She even stooped to meet the needs of the masses in a way very different from what had hitherto been followed, and she studied their traditional habits of wor ship and their polytheistic tendencies by insti tuting and organizing festivals, deliverers, saints, and local sacred sites, after the papular fashion.6 The Gospel of Jesus as expressed by Harnack was a gospel of love and charity. The Gospel thus became a social message* The preaching which laid hold of the outer man, de taching him from the world, and uniting him to his God, was also a preaching of solidarity and brotherliness. The Gospel, it has been truly said, is at bottom both individualistic and socialistic. Its tending towards mutual association, so far from being an accidental phenomenon in its history, is inherent in its character. It spiritualizes the irresistible impulse which draws one man to another and it raises the social connection of human beings from the sphere of a convention to that of moral obligation. In this way, it serves to heighten the worth of man, and essays to recast contemporary society, to transform the socialism which Involves a conflict of interests Into the socialism which rests upon the consciousness of a spiritual unity and common goal. This was ever present to the mind of the great apostle Paul to the Gentiles.6 5 Adolph Harnack, The Expansion of Christianity in the First Three Centuries ($ew York; G.P.Putnam1 s Sons, 1904}, p • 493. 6 Ibid., p. 184. We may conclude that the great mission of Christian ity was accomplished by Apostles, Evangelistfs prophets or teachers and informal missionaries* "It was character istic of this religion that everyone who seriously con- j fessed the faith proved of service to its propaganda. i Christians are to * let their light shine, that pagans may ! see their good works and glorify the Father in heaven.1 1 ^ j We note a triumph for Christianity during the I t early Christian era. Her religious philosophy was such that ancient philosophy was forced to give way to it to a large measure. However, may it not be said that only as Christianity or any organized body of knowledge carries on a continual reinterpretation and rediscovery of values which are intercultural and universal, can it hold a position approaching a world wide religion. It may be asked, "Have Christian missions fulfilled this role throughout history?" This study is concerned with the extent to which present day mission policies encourage an enriched program for inter-group learning of a satisfactory intercultural nature. III. MEDIEVAL MISSIONS One may say that the chief characteristic of 7 Harnack, o£. cit., p. 459. medieval missions is the part played by the rulers and leaders in the conversion of the people* The social ' organization and cultural pattern of the period was such | that the rulers exerted a tremendous religious influence The missions of the Middle Ages had to do with what were known as , f barbarous® people* They were considered in need of discipline and authority, and consequently their subjection and conversion was followed by strict disci pline* The medieval missions were staffed primarily by men and, as Latourette comments, they were financed by Frequently, what was called conversion was brought about by force, often as a feature of the imperialistic program of a dominant race or ruling house, and more than once as an instrument through which an able and ambitious ruler extended his authority over his people and built a monarchy. Conversions were usually en masse, with the mini mum of preliminary instruction, and repeatedly with very little education subsequent to baptism. The prince often led the way and encouraged or commanded his subjects to follow* • • • It was centuries before any but a few had more than an inkling of the inward significance of the Christian faith* For the majority, Christianity was a power ful and magical force through which miracles were wrought to the temporal advantage of the faithful and the skillful and by which hell was avoided and heaven attained*8 8 J.T. Addison, The Medieval Mlssionary,, Inter national Missionary Counci1, (Concord, N.H*: Rumford pess, 1936), p. 8. on their subjects* the state 27 Where mass conversion took place as was present in the Middle Ages, the individual was not moved by rational decisions* * The king or lord was usually the first to move and ffthe whole process moved from the top down.**9 Thus, the missionary methods of the medieval period were methods quite peculiar to that period* In an era when the religion of the ruler determined the religion of his people, when the power of the papacy was increasing and when monasteries were the stimulating centers of edu cation, and of religious zeal, missionary activity was inevitably guided and controlled by these factors. None of them was present in the first centuries of Christian expansion and none exists today in its original strength. For that reason, the methods of medieval missions taken as a whole, are in a class by themselves*10 IV. MODERN MISSIONS The first foreign Missionary Board formed upon the American Continent was organized in 1810 as the Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, with John Treadwell, Governor of Connecticut, as its president. It was organ ized as a non-denomlnational functionary body and conse quently for some time It served various denominations in their missionary efforts. However, with the urgency of 9 Addison, op. cit., p. 21. 10 Ibid.. p. 3. 28 the gospel message as set forth in the general statement nto preach the Gospel to the heathen nations," the various religious societies increased their missionary efforts to carry this message to the various so-called "heathen" areas of the world# Consequently, modern missions with their many and varied religious endeavors began to take place with ever increasing and widening programs# When the earlier missionaries reached their re- ] i spective fields, they soon saw the importance of beginning' i some kind of educational work and consequently schools of a low grade began to develop. These early beginnings in the establishment of schools, as simple as they were, indicate the importance that was placed upon educational work of some kind. The schools were deemed necessary in the establishment of a mission society and served as a foundation for the work. In most instances, these early schools were the only educational institutions in the country and consequently were of a quite primitive grade. Since the primary purpose of the mission work was to propagate the gospel, the emphasis was not laid upon the educational value of the early school so much as upon the approach to the people that the schools afforded. 29 China One of the earliest societies to carry on Protestant missionary education in China was organized in 1835 and named after Robert Morrison. The first school for boys was opened at Macao in 1839 and for girls at Ningpo very soon afterwards. In the beginning, two quite distinct types of schools emerged. As Kandel points out The opportunities which were thus created and the temperaments or group policies of missionary leaders caused two fairly pronounced types of sehools to emerge. One, which was confined in the main to port cities attracted the sons of well-to- do or cultural families, charged fees accordingly, specialized In English, and equipped its graduates to do advanced study in China or abroad, with the prospect of government or other lucrative employ ment. The other type limited itself to the generally poor and humble Christian constituency, used Chinese as the vehicle, and had a simpler, more immediately practical, course of study. Each had of course its special advantages and defects.11 Pressure was placed upon the early missionaries to teach English as a part of the curriculum for this language held out hope to the young students for more remunerative jobs. Consequently, in many respects English became a sort of inducement to the Chinese 11 I. L. Kandel, Educational Yearbook of the International Institute of Teachers College*""(Columbia University: Bureau of Publications, 1933), p. 303. 30 student to attend school* Furthermore, the student was willing to study the Bible or any other course, so long as he could have the opportunity to learn English* Kandel1^ mentions some of the more prominent schools which emphasized Einglish and consequently became quite popular during the early period of modem missions in China. Among these were, St. Johns University, Shanghai (American Episcopal), Canton Christian College (non- sectarian), the Anglo-Chinese College, Foochow (American Methodist), the Tientsin Anglo-Chinese College (London Mission)• It should not be forgotten, however, that the very purpose and nature of the missionary program caused the earliest schools to be predominantly religious* The motive of saving heathen souls from eternal damnation which was the inspiring cause of the missionary movement, the sacrificial giving of devoted and in the main not wealthy supporters actuated purely by this consideration, the con centration of the pioneers on this evangelistic purpose to which education, medicine, and all other aids, were thought of as contributory, combined to fix such an attitude toward the establishment of schools as axiomatic*3*3 Since the beginning of missions in China, there no doubt has been considerable influence upon the lives of 12 Kandel, op* clt*, p. 304. 13 Ibid.. p. 3X6. 31 the Chinese by mission activities# It would be impossible to accurately evaluate these influences* However, it may be said that the "real influence" as Kandel expresses It, "lies probably not so much in organized activities and in i statistics as in having released spiritual energies and | supplied demonstration of the spirit of Jesus In a Chinese and twentieth century environment#w^ i India I ( Mission education has played a very large part In the total educational endeavors of India. Until quite recent years It might be said, roughly but with substantial accuracy, that one- fourth of the entire education of India was con ducted by foreign missionary bodies# This numerical ratio is non-diminishing as it ought.-1 * 5 This statement Indicates, to some extent, the important place of mission education in India* And the mission educational program has been undertaken by many and varied mission groups* Japan Since Japan has for many years been a nation which 1 4 Kandel, op * cit., p. 349. 15 Ibid., p. 353. 32 believed strongly in education and an educational system, mission education must be considered In connection with this system* The statesmen of Japan have sought to provide j i elementary, secondary and higher education for the many j people of Japan and especially for the leaders* ( ] When Protestant missionaries entered Japan about j 1860, they found themselves In a country where a considers able degree of education was prevalent, but not of the Western type, so that when the missionaries arrived, the j i Japanese students were eager to enroll In the mission schools for they offered a fine opportunity for the students to study English, constitutional government, history of Western Nations, as well as the Christian fundamentals* The missionaries felt that although educational opportunities of a sort could be had by the Japanese students within the pattern of Japanese education, there was a great gap which could be filled only by the mission educational system* The mission school has as one of its major objectives, the formation of character, and the missionary contended that this training could be best handled In a religious atmosphere and in a Christian school* 33 Africa Missionary educational work has had great signifi cance in most of Africa since the beginning of missions in that continent. Right from the beginning most of the educational work carried on has been dependent upon mis sions. Missions have taken the initiative in most phases i of the educational endeavors. The importance of missions j has been realized by the governments concerned and in- j creasing amounts of grants-in-aid are given toward ! i mission education in that continent. i V. REASONS OR PURPOSES UNDERLYING DEVELOPMENT OP MISSION EDUCATION It seems reasonable to believe that, since most mission societies have not carried on mission work for any length of time without establishing some sort of edu- I cational work, the missionaries and mission boards must feel that permanent missionary Institutions cannot be established in any country unless they are related to some form of education. The first educational work undertaken by mlssion- j aries was of a very elementary nature. While the first missionaries were gaining a working knowledge of the 34 vernacular, they gathered groups of children together into rude schools• In cases where there was some form of literature of the country, the children were taught to read that literature* On the other hand, where there was ; no written language, as in the case of many of the i peoples of Africa, the children were taught the characters j i which the missionaries created and thus the beginning of | education was carried on in the vernacular* j - ’ I It is the village or primary school which lies at ( i the foundation of the educational work carried on In most mission fields* It is in these schools where the largest number of pupils are gathered under missionary instruc tion* From these crude beginnings have arisen various types and levels of schools, the type and levels being governed by several factors, including the educational aims of the mission, social pressures, mission finance, etc* The different Institutions include boarding schools, i j theological schools, normal or teacher training schools, < secondary schools, industrial schools, medical schools, and collegiate or schools of higher education. What were the motives that actuated the Protestant missionaries In founding schools? Kandel-**® discusses five i ^ i 16 Kandel, 0£. cit., pp. 37-40. 35 motives for founding mission schools* These motives are very characteristic and will he mentioned here* The first motive or "constant purpose has been the spread of the Christian faith." Many missionaries with this motive have hoped that the schools would help win their pupils to a Christian experience* Since the pupils are more easily molded than adults and the school forms as it does the larger part of the pupils environment, it is believed that the school is the best means of conversion and of Christian nurture. Furthermore, whether the pupil is converted to Christianity or adheres to his own religious beliefs, it is thought that the Christian environment would cause the pupils to become Christian in ethical.standards, If not in name* A second purpose or motive has been "the training of leaders for the Christian Community.w And these it is ! i believed can come best through the training received in i i a professedly Christian school. 1 A third purpose has been "the education of the Christian community.M If Christians are to be able to ! i read their Bibles (and Protestant missions have to a very large extent insisted that the Scriptures are their basis of faith and practice) the missionary Is faced with the necessity of carrying on a certain amount of elementary 36 education. Consequently, missionaries have devoted a great deal of time to the rudiments of reading* A fourth purpose has heen ”the assistance of a nation in a time of transition with or without the hope that schools established by Christians will lead either directly or indirectly to the spread of the Christian faith.” The missionaries believe that they can help the Nationals in making a proper adjustment to the Occidental civilization and to the modern world. A fifth purpose is %he belief in education as such.” When missionaries find that there are no schools in the country, or where the educational standards are very low in comparison to western standards, they sense ; an urgency for the establishment of schools. ; VI. RELATIONSHIP OP RELIGION AND EDUCATION In a typical Protestant mission, the school and the Church have grown up together. In practically all mission' fields the school in some form is seen in connec tion with the mission. Although some missionaries have j felt that too much emphasis was placed on education, they themselves have maintained schools of one type or another. It Is quite evident £hat all efforts at spreading a religion embodies an educational process. History is 37 replete with examples in Western Europe and in the Americas where the schools owe their beginning to the Church# Kandel contends that education is a part of religion, inseparable from the existence of religion in a community. He goes on to explain that Religion contains elements of thought as well as an emotional and moral discipline. Religion is not composed of truths, but its development is proportionate to the truths it contains# It offers a world picture# And this picture must live in adjustment with and provide a total frame for the partial world pictures proposed by all existing sciences# It exercises the imagination in its widest reaches; and its own poetry and art have a direct bearing on the whole cultural out put of its adherents. Anyone who undertakes to convey a religion will find himself by necessity trying to equip its adherents with the means to read its literature, think its thoughts, feel its emotions, and live Its life# All of these things require some form of schooling. Hence, all developed religions, wherever they go, must have their schools, first, for their own priests and teachers and then for the rank and file#17 VII. STAGES OP EVOLUTION OP MISSIONARY EDUCATION In the mission field as well as at home one notices quite pronounced changes in the history of educational i work. These changes or evolutionary processes may take place gradually over a considerable period of time or 17 Kandel, o£. cit., p. 5# j 38 relatively suddenly, depending upon the environment and sociological conditions of the country. Kandel,^ in discussing the changes that go on in relation to the place held by mission education, gives seven stages that seem to be quite apparent in the evolu tionary process: First stage: Educational pioneering* Second stage: Subordination of mission schools to ; i government schools and their declining importance as compared with them. Third stage: Changing character of control* The transition from foreign to ’native1 or ’indigenous1 personnel and control. This stage may follow or go along with the first two stages. | Fourth stage: The tendency toward cooperation and ^ union among mission societies* Like stage three this one may follow or run concurrently with the others* Fifth stage: The tendency to secularization. This, \ as Kandel points out is ^usually the final stage in the evolution of an IQ Kandel, o£. cit*, pp. 41-63. 39 educational institution under missionary auspices .I T Sixth stage: Relation between the church and school — the widening of the gulf between the church and the schools; and this is often associated with the progress of secularization. Seventh stage: The trend toward religious education. { VIII. THE PROBLEMS PACING PRESENT DAY MISSION EDUCATION i ! The world is changing rapidly. With the close communion and interpersonal relations between the various individuals and societies in different parts of the world,! brought about by the new scientific progress and advance- | I ment, it seems that the meaning of intercultural rela- j i tions takes on much greater significance. Undoubtedly mission education is engaged in a very far reaching inter-; group and interpersonal program. The effectiveness of | this program is dependent upon the extent to which good intercultural principles are observed in the educational programs of the mission. It would seem that this inter cultural problem is of utmost importance to mission societies which would be of greatest usefulness and of I real value to the peoples of the world. 40 The remaining chapters of this dissertation will be concerned with the present day policies of mission societies and the relation these policies have to effec tive intercultural education. IX. SUMMARY The spirit of missions and missionary endeavors was evident to some extent prior to the origin of Christianity. However, with the strong emphasis laid upon the universality of the Christian message by the founder of Christianity and his followers, one notices that the missionary idea takes on a more pronounced meaning and activity. This early Christian message was a gospel of “living faith** and consequently organized methods for its propagation were not of primary concern by its early leaders. Missions during the medieval period were character ized by the important part played by the leaders and ruler3 in the mass conversions of their subjects. These mass conversions were frequently brought about by force and as an instrument through which a leader or ruler extended his authority over his people and built a monarchy. The origin of modem missions may be roughly dated 41 i with the organization of the Board of Commissioners for j Foreign Mission in 1810# From this relatively small beginning have arisen many mission societies, until today, there are very few places in the so-called mission fields1 \ ' of the world where there is not a mission society carry- j ing on mission work of some kind. I i In most of the mission fields, including China, I i India, Japan, and Africa, the educational program of missions has had a noticeable influence upon the country. It is apparent that missionaries and mission boards have become aware of the necessity of establishing some type of educational work in connection with the mission program if the work is to have any degree of permanency. Consequently, the pattern of educational endeavor in mission fields varies according to mission policies and other determining factors. And one may find various types and levels of schools ranging from the rude village or vernacular school to the collegiate institutions. CHAPTER III ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES IN MISSION EDUCATION Chapter II endeavored to show something of the development of mission education indicating some of the motives and missionary educational activities of earlier missions. The present Chapter deals with the organization of mission education with respect to the administrative policies* It is quite evident that the form of mission school administration must he evaluated with respect to its effect upon the educational processes. When good educa tion is thought of as the Interaction of forces causing i personal and social experiences that are desirable, then j the administration of the school must encourage such development. John Dewey expresses this growth process when he says, Since in reality there is nothing to which growth Is relative save more growth, there is nothing to ! which education is subordinate save more education. I It is a commonplace to say that education should not cease when one leaves school. The point of this commonplace is that the purpose of school edu cation Is to insure the continuance of education by organizing the powers that insure growth. The 1 inclination to learn from life itself and to make the conditions of life such that all will learn in the process of living is the final product of schools.1 i John Dewey, Democracy and Education (New York: The Macmillan Company, i9l6), p. 6'0. It may b© said that that administration which improves the j learning condition by providing effective adaptation of the program to meet the growing needs of the individual, and inspires pupil interest, and encourages the growth of good attitudes and ideals in fulfilling its purpose* In view of the importance of interpersonal rela- i tionships as expressed in mission school organization and administration, this study attempted to discover some of the important policies relevant to this area* The societies were asked certain questions in an endeavor to ! discover such mission policies* It was thought that these questions would reveal mission policies and their inter* cultural content In the area of mission school adminis tration* The questions are given below: 1* To what extent do you recommend the following practice?: That national teachers, missionaries and pupils be bound together In an Intimacy of coopera tion and fellowship which obliterates very consider ably the consciousness of administrative superiority and racial differences. 2. To what extent is it recommended that mission ary educators and national staff sit together and In mutual discussion decide upon educational policies? 3. To what extent does your church in America make recommendations and supervise the construction of the school curriculum for the mission field? 4* It is the policy that the curriculum for the mission school be constructed by whom? 5. To what extent do you recommend that missions 44 of various denominations work together in forming mutual educational policies? 6. What method do you recommend as a means for the training of national teachers? 7. In your mission work, in accordance with policy and practice, what types of institutions are most often placed under charge of national personnel? 8* In what levels is co-education recommended j and practiced? ! I 9* What per cent of the total mission expendi- | tures is spent on the educational work? 10* To what extent does your educational work receive government grants? 11* Prom what source do the national teachers | receive most of their support? 12. What Is the average monthly salary of national teachers teaching in the various levels? 13. The construction of mission school buildings is financed in the most part by what source? j It is realized that the above questions do not cover every aspect of the administration of mission schools. The purpose of this study was to attempt an t ' t analysis of some of the policies that have the greatest i ; import to intercultural relations. It was believed that i the above questions, would reveal such inter-personal relations. Each question, with an analysis of mission responses will be dealt with separately In this chapter. 45 I. COOPERATION AMONG- MISSIONARIES, NATIONAL TEACHERS, AND PUPILS Question No. I i To what extent do you recommend the following practice?: That national teachers, missionaries and pupils ; he hound together in an intimacy of cooperation and fellowship which obliterates very considerably the consciousness of administrative superiority and racial differences. a. This practice Is to he recommended only with certain very definite reservations. . ( } | h. This practice Is heartily recommended . . ( ) 1 c. It is necessary that the line of ad ministrative authority he recognized and respected, from the mission super intendent, down through the mission educators, national teachers and finally to the pupils. This arrangement makes the above suggested administrative practice, impractical and conducive to inefficiency in mission educational work . ( ) i The following is the pattern of responses to | I | question number 1: j | Number of societies checking (a) • • 6 or 11.5 per cent j Number of societies checking (b) • .39 or 75.0 per cent Number of societies checking (c) • • 3 or 5.8 per cent Percentages given in connection with the number of societies checking a response, are to be interpreted In each instance to mean the per cent of the total number of 46 societies, i.e., of the fifty two societies considered In this study. It seems clearly evident that the greatest number of societies heartily recommend the practice as suggested in question one above: That national teachers, mission aries. and pupils be bound together in an intimacy of cooperation and fellowship which obliterates very con siderably the consciousness of administrative superiority j and racial differences. The following societies checking (b) also made these comments: Society Ho. 5. i While we heartily recommend (b), we at the same j time try to teach respect for authority including | officers and teachers in the school. It seems to i us that this is an important element in discipline ! and training. j Society No. 22. Always keeping in view that proper discipline be ; maintained. 1 * Society Ho. 51. Depending upon local circumstances. With primitive, people a development is necessary. ■ Society No. 14. In China, we have practiced electing Chinese presidents for all our schools (theological and secular), and we missionary teachers worked under Chinese presidents as equals and as comrades. 47 Two of the societies which checked (a), commented as follows: Society No* 32. Recommended in so far as it does not in any way interfere with discipline* ; Society No. 46. Much depends upon the local situation. Respect for authority is basic, whether that be vested with the principal, staff, or student council. In view of the fact that 39 mission societies, or 75 per cent of the societies included in this study, responded by checking (b), it seems reasonable to conclude that the general tendency among mission societies doing educational work, is to hold to a policy of cooperation i and fellowship which would tend to obliterate very con- j ! siderably the consciousness of administrative superiority j and racial differences. However, one must be careful not j to draw foregone conclusions with respect to the total intercultural picture until all the responses to all the i questions on administration have been studied. II. MISSIONARIES AND NATIONAL STAFF IN RESPECT TO EDUCATIONAL POLICIES ! i Question No. 2 To what extent Is It recommended that mission ary educators and national staff sit together and 48 in mutual discussion decide upon educational j policies? i a* Such practice is not recommended. Policies should be decided upon by the missionaries, since they have more mat tire judgment...........♦•() b. Such practice is highly recommended in policy making............ .............. () c. Such practice is recommended in a very limited way and when discussing only certain problems or policies •••••••() i Pattern of responses to question Ho. 2: Humber of societies checking (a) • • 2 or 3.8 per cent Humber of societies checking (b) . . 39 or 75.0 per cent Number of societies checking (c) • • 6 or 11.5 per cent Humber of societies commenting only. 2 Comments made by some of the societies: Society Ho. 20. (Made no check). I would say it depends greatly on the field and the amount of progress the national church has made. We recommend collaboration to the greatest extent possible. Society Ho. 51. (Checked b). In primitive work it takes of course, some time before the above (referring to the question) can be applied. Society Ho. 35. (Checked b). In India for many years policies have been evolved in bodies predominantly Indian. Society Ho. 32. (Checked b). Provided national staff have correct viewpoint, 49 which is spiritual. Society Ho* 8* (Checked c). Recommended wherever practical* (This society checked b in question Ho* 1.) It seems that a knowledge of the extent to which mission societies encourage mutual discussion of educa tional problems is very important in determining the 1 intercultural atmosphere of the educational program* i I In question two, 75 per cent of the societies checked (b) which seems to indicate that societies doing mission i education favor a policy where missionary educators and v national staff together consider educational policies* Two of the societies1 responses indicate that they feel that educational policies should be decided upon by the missionaries themselves* Six, or approximately 12 per cent, suggest that the practice of mutual discussion of problems by missionary ; educators and the national staff should be encouraged in ! a very limited way* III. RELATIOH OP THE HOME CHURCH TO CURRICULUM COHSTRUCTIOH An intercultural attitude is a problem solving I attitude, and problems cannot be solved adequately in 50 isolation from experience* Do mission societies possess ready made patterns or blue prints of mission education procedure for the missionaries to follow? To what extent are missionaries in the field encouraged to develop curri culum policies as they arise in the field? It was thought that the following question would help to Indicate mission policy in this respect* Question No* 3 To what extent does your church in America make recommendations and supervise the construc tion of the school curriculum for the mission field? a. The mission society in America constructs the curriculum and prepares the syllabus to be used by the missionaries...........( ) b. The curriculum is constructed by those In the field and is submitted to the mission Board In America for their approval............. ...................... () c* The planning, construction and approval of the curriculum Is left entirely in the hands of the missionaries in the field . . .................................( ) d. Other • • • • ..............................() Pattern of responses to question Ho* 3: Humber of societies checking (a) • • 0 Humber of societies checking (b) * . 7 or 13.4 per cent Humber of societies checking (c) » * 40 or 77.0 per cent One society Ho. 52 checked both (c) and (d) with the following comment: "Heretofore (c); now jointly 51 planned by mission board and field workers*1 1 The impli cation here, seems to indicate that the policy in con nection with the construction of the school curriculum has changed* It would be interesting to know what the factors are that brought about this change. The following societies checked no responses, but commented as follows: Society No. 9* In both Jamaica and Kenya, our educational fields, standard curricula are set up by governmental authorities. Society No. 43. We accept the planning of the Boards under which our missionaries work. The following are comments made by some of the societies which checked (c): Society No. 36. It is understood that the Government curriculum requirements are met and the additional requirements are made by the mission in the field. Society No. 39. The planning, construction and approval of the curriculum is left entirely In the hands of Chinese leaders and their American colleagues In China* Society No. 33. This is of course in close cooperation with the national church and leadership. 52 Society No. 51. ! In specific instances, such as a seminary curri culum, it may he submitted to the mission Board for approval. Society No. 2. We follow (c) except that the final decision rests with an educational hoard of the "Division1 1 which is i a regional unit of Church administration— usually so ' large as to he international. i 1 1 Comments made hy some of the societies which checked (d): Society No. 30 checked (d) with the following commentj! The curriculum is left entirely in the hands of the nationals and missionaries in the field. The curriculum is left entirely up to those on the field. Governments frequently have a large part to play In determining curriculum. Society No. 14 also checked (d) and commented as follows: j The missionaries in cooperation with native 1 qualified teachers. The largest number of societies 40 or 77 per cent checked (c), indicating that a policy is favored where i I the planning, construction, and approval of the curriculum! i is left entirely in the hands of the missionaries in the field. It Is interesting to note that not one of the ■ societies checked (a) in question No. 3. Seven societies checked (h), which may indicate that in some instances I the Mission Boards feel the need of quite close super vision. The comments made hy societies 14 and 30 would 53 seem to indicate that, had they checked responses, they would likely have checked (c). IV. MISSIONARIES AND NATIONAL STAFF IN CURRICULUM CONSTRUCTION Since mission policies favor the planning and con struction of the curriculum being left in the hands of : missionaries in the field and since mission policies also ; recommend that missionary educators and national staff sit j together and in mutual discussion decide upon educational i policies, it would undoubtedly follow that both missionary ! educators and nationals would be expected to work together in curriculum construction. The responses to the follow ing question seem to show this Interpretation to be true. Question No. 4 It is the policy that the curriculum for the mission school be constructed by: j a. The principal of the school.................( ) ! j b. The principal together with the ! missionary staff............................() i c. The principal, missionary staff, and national staff ............. d. Other........................................() Pattern of responses to question No. 4: ; Number of societies checking (a) . . 0 Number of societies checking (b) • • 8 or 15.4 per cent 54 Humber of societies checking (c) • . 39 or 75.0 per cent Humber of societies checking (d) . . 1 or 2.0 per cent Comments made by some of the societies: Society Ho. 5. While the principal is put in charge of curriculum building, it is understood that he is to do it in consultation with the missionaries and national staff, especially those who are in educational work. Society Ho. 24 checked (c). Depends on your schoolJ In some of our schools, we have only native personnel. There, (a) works. In other cases (c). Society Ho. 46 checked (c). Largely determined by the existing government curriculum. Society Ho. 37 checked (c). Of course in many areas, curricula are set by | governments of education. Society Ho. 51 checked (c). f In some countries, as you know, the state decides I upon the curriculum. f Society Ho. 30 checked (c). In many cases government plays an important part. Society Ho. 2 checked (c). General policies and patterns subject to approval by the educational board of the division. Question Ho. 4 is somewhat related to the preceding question, Ho. 3). However, the primary purpose of | 55 t question (5) was to discover the administrative relation ship between the missionary board at home and the educa tors in the field* Question (4) is primarily concerned with the interpersonal pattern among the educators in the field* The policy most generally accepted by the mission i | societies is apparently the one in which the principal, i missionary staff, and national staff work together in the ; construction of the curriculum* Eight societies checked i | (b), indicating that they favor the policy In which the curriculum is constructed by the principal and missionary i staff* This group represents only approximately 15 per cent of the total opinion, while those choosing (c), or j the policy in which the national staff are included also, represent approximately 75 per cent of the educational mission societies included in this study. i The policy with which this study is concerned in j ' question (4) is apparently very vital and touches the 1 very heart of the Intercultural problem* One is very much ! concerned about the reasons or factors operating which govern the degree in which the various members of an organization are permitted to participate in policy making ; V. INTER-DENOMINATIONAL COOPERATION The intercultural factors operate not only within ! 56 a specific mission organization, but also in a much wider sense as between different groups* This study was not only concerned about the interpersonal relations within i a given mission society, but also the Intercultural ! relations between different societies. , Question Ho* 5* j To what extent do you recommend that missions I of various denominations work together in form- ! ing mutual educational policies?: j a. It Is recommended only in certain instances* i b* It is not recommended. .............• ( ) c. It is highly recommended ...........() Pattern of responses to question No. 5: Number of societies checking (a) * . 20 or 38.5 per cent Number of societies checking (b).. 4 or 7.7 per cent Number of societies checking (c) • • 25 or 48.0 per cent Number of societies merely commenting without checking . . 2 The following two societies did not check re sponses but commented Instead: Society No. 32. Allowable In some conceivable instances, but not as a general practice. Society No. 43. No policy. a 57 One society (Ho. 21) checked both (a) and (c) with the following comment: (a) is recommended in all secular branches, (c) is recommended barring compromise of the fundamentals of the Christian faith* The following societies checked (a) with the | following comments: i Society No. 6. i j The missions would have to be of the same doctrinal i beliefs* I | Society No* 8. i Where a large degree of cooperation is attainable, this would be highly desirable. Society No. 36. We recommend that similar denominational groups work together. If you remove the word 1 highly1 from (c), I should check (c) rather than (a). Society No. 50. When there is no conflict in beliefs. Society No. 2. j i When the general value is obvious and when specific! and fundamental objectives of a denomination are not impaired. The following society checked (b) with the follow ing comments: Society No. 17. Although I personally would recommend (a). The following societies made comments as well a3 58 checking (c): Society Ho* 22. For non-theological education* Society No. 14* An exception may be where the different missions hold widely different views in regard to theology (modernistic and conservative) that they cannot be harmonized. But as to educational standards, etc., I it is highly recommended. | In considering the responses made by the various societies to question (5), there seems to be quite a r difference of opinion among the societies as to the degree i of cooperation which should be followed in working out i educational policies. Response (b) which is the most conservative view was checked by 4 societies, or approxi mately 8 per cent of the societies. Response (a) which recommends that mission societies work together only in certain instances, received 20 checks or approximately 59 per cent of all the societies. The most liberal view, i ; l that of highly recommending the above policy, was checked 1 ( : by 25 societies, which means that approximately 48 per cent of the societies favor this viewpoint as a policy of | mission procedure in their educational work. The responses to question (5) apparently indicate that societies are becoming increasingly aware of the possibilities and significance in working together in mutual educational policies. It may be that this widening policy results from the growing realization of actual similarity of purpose that exists among educational j missions when real values are considered. VI. TRAINING OF NATIONAL TEACHERS The policy in connection with the training of teachers in the mission field has a significant bearing i upon the intercultural content of the educational program. The following question was concerned with this particular ! problem. It was thought that this question might indicate the extent to which mission societies unite their efforts in teacher training. Question No. 6 j Which one of the following do you recommend as a j means for the training of national teachers?: j a. That each mission train its own teachers for both secular and theological teaching • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • . (]£) b. That various denominations in the area unite their efforts in the development of teacher trainin'g centers to train teachers for both secular and theo logical teaching c. That the various denominations in the area unite their efforts in the develop ment of teacher training centers to train teachers for teaching in the theological schools, and let the govern ment train the teachers for secular work ..................... . . (2) i 09) 60 d. That each mission society train its own teachers for the theological teaching and let the government train teachers for the secular education of the mission • ••••••••( 1) e. Other . . . ................................ (8) Pattern of responses to question No. 6.: Number of societies checking (a) • . 16 or 30.7 per cent Number of societies checking (b) • • 20 or 38.5 per cent Number of societies checking (c) . . 2 or 3.8 per cent Number of societies checking (d) • • 1 or 2.0 per cent Number of societies which gave responses other than those listed 8 The following are the societies which did not check responses, but indicated their policies by making comment s: Society No. 51. Training centers for secular education. Each mission train its own theologians. Society No. 45. That denominations of similar evangelical faith unite in training teachers for secular and theologi cal teaching. Society No. 22. That various denominations unite for secular training and that theological training be denomina tional. Government should train for secular work but present facilities are inadequate. Society No. 21. That each mission society train its own teachers 61 for theological teaching* That missions cooperate with the Government in training teachers as far as secular subjects are concerned. Society No. 14. That missionary groups train their own theologi cal teachers, and cooperate with the various denomi nations In training secular teachers. Society No. 24. Neither an absolute fyesf or ’no1 on either. Many types of schools and needs have various answers.j Society No. 9. j i Missions must train teachers for general education! where government schools are not founded on the ' Christian philosophy. j Society No. 44. That various missions, if of one mind in doctrine, unite to train teachers for theological teaching. Societies 14, 21, 22, and 51 seem to be In quite close agreement as to the method to be used in the train ing of national teachers. Each desires that the theo logical training be done by each individual society. They propose that the secular training be done either by the government or by a cooperative teacher training institution. These societies apparently would fit quite well under alternative (d) of question (6). Including these responses with the one checking (a) would make a percentage of 9.6. However, each society did not say to what extent it would be willing for the secular teacher 62 training to be handled exclusively by the government, or to what extent the missions should assist the government. Taking the responses as they stand, we may say that there are 16 of the societies which recommend that the mission train its own teachers for both secular and theological teaching. This number is approximately 31 per cent of the societies included in this study. Alternative (b) was checked by 20 of the societies or approximately 37 per cent. These societies apparently feel that various denominations in the area should unite their efforts in the development of teacher training centers to train teachers for both secular and theologi cal teaching. VII. NATIONAL PERSONNEL AND ADMINISTRATIVE POSITIONS This study was also concerned with the mission policies with respect to the placement of national personnel in administrative positions. The relationship of the national personnel to the total educational pro gram was also considered of vital importance in evalua ting the intercultural content of the mission school work. The purpose of the following question was to dis cover to what extent mission policies favor placing nationals in positions of administrative authority. Question No> 7 In your mission work, in accordance with policy and practice, the types of institutions which are most often placed under charge of national personnel are: a. Theological institutions ........*() b. Educational institutions • • • . .........( } c. Ho distinctions are made • • ...............() Comments: ( Pattern of responses to question No* 7.: Number of societies checking (a).. 2 or 3.8 per cent Number of societies checking (b) * . 20 or 38.5 per cent j i Number of societies checking (c) . . 21 or 40.0 per cent One society checked both (b) and (c) One society checked both (a) and (b) Number of societies making comments without checking. . . . 4 The following are comments made by the societies * which did not check one of the alternative responses: Society No. 46. General qualifications are the determining factors— not the type of Institution. Society No. 9. Our limited Institutions have had to be kept under missionary control. Ultimately, all mission insti tutions should be indigenous. Society No. 31. Have none under national charge. 64 Society No. 20. We have but one school under national personnel. The following society No. 55 checked (b) and then commented: This is the situation, but I am not sure that it Is the result of deliberate policy and It might change at any time without revolution* It was not true of Japan. The following societies checked (c) with the following i comments: Society No. 12. When capable nationals are available. j All churches, some theological schools and most educational institutions are under charge of nationals. Society No. 32. If we had more native help qualified, we would employ such to whatever extent convenient. Society No. 25. No distinctions are made if nationals are quali- f i ed • Society No. 30. Varies in different fields, depending upon national personnel available. Society No. 50. We use national personnel as much as possible. One of the societies which checked both (a) and (b) made the following comment: f,It is a sharing process .1 1 _______________________________ 65 Approximately 40 per cent of the societies indi cate that they make no distinctions as to the type of institutions which are placed under charge of national personnel* Whereas, approximately 39 per cent of the societies indicate by their responses that educational institutions are most often placed under charge of national personnel* It appears that societies which hold to a more fixed or static type of religion are more fearful of placing nationals in positions of administration* These i societies wish to guard their beliefs with utmost care* j i James Earnest Fisher expresses this view when he says, Those whose chief concern in all mission work is to keep intact the ’Faith once for all delivered to the saints,’ are naturally very zealous of the administrative power they wield, for fear that this power may get into hands which will not sufficiently guard the doctrinal purity of the teaching* If religious truth is fixed (once and for all), and if any deviation from that truth is likely to cause grave error and confusion, then of course, it is very important to have in administrative positions, and on boards of control men and women who are firmly grounded in the faith* Such men and women are more likely to be found among seasoned missionaries who have inherited their faith, and have the traditions of generations of the same faith behind them* l*he fresh point of view of the person with a different background and heritage is rather to be feared than welcomed. On the other hand, if our religion Is dynamic and growing, with its greatest truths and values yet to be discovered, then the doctrinal beliefs of the candidate for an administrative position are not so important 66 as some other qualifications. With this view of religion and life, we welcome as leaders and administrators those men and women who come in from a new culture and with new and varied views in religion We may say that, on the whole, the growing i tendency among mission societies seems to he that of i i welcoming the services of national personnel in positions; of administration. I VIII. CO-EDUCATIONAL POLICIES The next question for consideration in the organ ization of mission schools is the problem of co-education. Co-education as commonly spoken of, means the practice of giving Instruction to both sexes in the same insti tution and with the same teacher. This practice is almost universal In all levels of education in the United States. The frontier conditions in the rapid opening up of the West made such a policy a normal ad justment in school life. What is the policy in the mission fields, today? The following question attempted to answer this query: Question No. 8 ^ Earnest James Fisher, Democracy and Mission Education in Korea (New York City: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1928), p. 143. 67 Co-education is recommended and practiced in the mission schools as follows: a. It is recommended and practiced in the elementary level b. It is recommended and practiced in the high school level* ••••••»•••() c. It Is recommended and practiced in the college level* d. It is recommended that hoys and girls he taught separately in all levels ....() Comments: (If co-education Is not practiced in any field, state reasons here.) Pattern of responses to question No* 8. Number of societies checking (a) . • 30 or 57.7 per cent Number of societies cheeking (b) * . 16 or 30.7 per cent Number of societies checking (c) . • 9 or 17.0 per cent Number of societies checking (d) . . 1 or 2.0 per cent The following are comments made by some of the societies: Society No. 39. This society checked (b) and (c). Traditional, following the practice in China for boarding schools at the middle school level. Con ferences discussing the possibilities of change have been held, without deciding anything definite. Society No. 36. In India it is not the custom for the schools to be co-educational. We use co-education in the village schools. A city school is for girls, but takes a few boys In the Primary Department. Society No. 21. Parents and guardians still like to control 68 marriage to a degree at least* In co-educational schools that could not be done* (This society refers to work in Hew Guinea*) Society Ho* 2. It is practiced wherever national prejudice does not militate against the success of the total program. When considering the total number of responses, it was found that 34 of the societies or approximately 65 per cent of the societies under study indicated that they recommend and practice co-education in one or more of the levels in the school* Approximately 58 per cent of the total number indicate that they favor the policy of co-education in the elementary level. Sixteen of the societies, or approximately 31 per cent apparently favor a policy of co-education in the secondary level. On the college level co-education as a policy was indicated by 17 per cent of the societies* The above figures may be somewhat misleading if taken on face value. One should take into consideration the fact that some of the societies do not at present engage in secondary or college work* Were they doing work in these levels, quite likely co-education would be practiced there in various degrees. It may be stated that the problem of co-education 69 has considerable bearing upon the intercultural pattern of the educational work. Malette emphasizes this fact when he makes the following statement: Contending that in adult life the normal situation calls for the association of men and women, both in work and play, we come to the inevitable conclusion that the schools should provide adequate training for this relationship.2 It should be noted further that some of the societies indicated in their comments that, where co-edu cation was not practiced, it was due primarily to the fact, that certain customs or prejudices made It diffi cult at present. The writer feels it is fair to conclude that most societies doing educational work favor a policy of co-education from the standpoint of general educa tional principles. IX. MISSION EXPENDITURES ON EDUCATION The importance attached to the educational work of missions as compared with the more strictly religious phase, may be judged to some extent by the comparable amounts of money expended in these respective areas. In the case of societies which do both educational and ^ Prank L. Malette, nCo-educational Physical Education,1 1 California Physical Health and Recreational Journal, November, 1933, p. 15. 70 religious work, what is the extent of emphasis placed on each? The following question was asked to attempt to discover this fact: Question No* 9 What per cent of the total mission expenditures is spent on the educational work?: a* Per cent for all the fields taken together • • • • • • ......... () b. Per cent spent on education of total amount used in each individual f i e l d ................ .....................( ) Seventeen societies replied to this question. Several societies replied that they did not have suffi cient information in the office to give accurate data. Most of the societies checked only (a). Since this response has the most bearing upon this study, it alone will be considered. The societies together with the percentages expended on educational work is given below: Society No Society Ho Society No Society No Society No Society No Society No Society No Society No Society No Society No Society No Society No Society No Society No No. 8 . . . 3 per cent No. 6 . . . 10 per cent No. 7 . . . 10 per cent No. 16 . . . 10 per cent No. 38 . . . 10 per cent No. 28 . . . 13 per cent No. 21 . . * 20 per cent No. 31 . . . 20 per cent No. 36 . . . 30 per cent No. 46 . . . 31 per cent No. 5 . . . 40 per cent No. 17 . . . 50 per cent No. 22 . . . 50 per cent No. 40 . . . 50 per cent No. 50 . . . 50 per cent Society No* 12 ••••••• 52 per cent Society No* 59 ....... 80 per cent The per cent of expenditures for the seventeen societies was averaged and it was found that the average amount j spent on educational work by those replying is approxi- 1 mately 31 per cent. The median score is 30 per cent. ! It is interesting to note that the amounts given | i toward educational work, vary from 3 per cent to 80 per ! cent. One might ask what relationship there is between percentages spent on educational work and mission aims i and purposes* Furthermore, one might ask whether there | is a significant relationship between interest in edu cational work and intercultural attitudes. It should be borne In mind that the percentages of expenditures given above should not be taken by the reader as final indi cation of mission interest in education as compared with the religious phase of the school* There are quite likely other factors which have influenced the propor tions rather than only relative emphasis of interest. X. GOVERNMENT GRANTS-IN-AID TO MISSIONS The next question considered in respect to ad ministration is that concerning government grants-in-aid for mission education. In the beginning of educational 72 work in missions most if not all of the financial support was derived from the respective mission societies them selves. As time went on, however, governments began offering assistance in varying degrees. The amount of this aid depended upon a number of factors,--the mission area, government policies with respect to educational needs of the people concerned, educational interest and progress of the societies concerned, and so on. Sur prising as it may seem, in not every instance were societies willing to accept government assistance without some reservations. There was some fear that grant-in-aid might mean that the society would be limited in its aims and purposes. At the present time, however, quite a number of mission societies are receiving substantial educational grants. Several of these societies did not record responses to the question asked in this respect because of inadequate data at hand. A few societies are still very cautious about accepting government aid unless they can be certain that their efforts and aims will not be curtailed. Question No. 10 To what extent does your educational work receive government grants? 73 a. It is entirely supported by the government • • • • ....................... • ( ) b. It is largely supported by the government • ......... • •••••••••() c. It is supported only in a small part by the government grants • ••••••••(} d. It receives no government grants • ••..{) Pattern of responses to question Ho. 10. Humber of societies checking (a) . . 0 Humber of societies checking (b) . . 3 or 5.8 per cent Humber of societies checking (c) . • 6 or 11.5 per cent Humber of societies checking (a) . . 14 or 27.0 per cent Pour societies checked both (c) and (d) Two societies checked both (b) and (c) Comments made by some of the societies: Society No. 5. This society checked both (c) and (d). Less than half of our schools receive government grantj this is part payment on salaries. Government is now offering to pay approximately 50 per cent of • cost of new buildings and about the same per cent of school supplies in regular approved schools. Society Ho. 28. Checked (c) and commented: On High and Elementary (grades 4-8) government gives 1/3 of admissable expenditures. Society Ho. 2. In general all the work of our denomination is supported from the tithes and free will offerings of pur people and our friends. In some instances grants of land and material, and occasionally or, in some areas, subsidies have been accepted from the government, if the Church was left in complete 74 control of Its institutions and activities. Twenty-nine of the societies or approximately 55 per cent replied to this question. Fifteen of the societies or approximately 29 per cent state that they receive grants-in-aid from the governments. Nearly 27 per cent of the societies indicated that they receive no government grants* It should be noted that none of the societies indicated that their educational work Is entirely supported by the government. lack of data they could not give a fair response to the above question. XI. SUPPORT OF NATIONAL TEACHERS Question eleven was concerned with the support of national teachers. The writer was interested in attempt ing to discover mission policies with reference to the source of support of national teachers. Question No. 11 The national teachers receive most of their support from: Several mission groups replied that because of a. The home church b. The national church . ( ) . ( > c. The Government of the country d. Other ...................... ( ) ( ) 75 Humber of societies checking (a) • • 12 or 25.0 per cent Humber of societies checking (b) • • 5 or 5.7 per cent Humber of societies checking (c) • ♦ 4 or 7.7 per cent ■ Humber of societies checking (a) • • 2 i i Humber of societies checking a,c • • 2 i I j H umber of societies checking a,b • • 2 i i i Humber of societies checking e,d • • 1 Humber of societies checking b,c • • 1 Humber of societies checking a,d • • 2 Humber of societies making comments only • • 2 \ The following are comments made by some of the societies: Society Ho. 6. (a) was checked with reference to India and West Indie s• (c) was checked with reference to India. Society Ho* 5. (a) checked for West Africa, China and Philippine Islands. (b) checked for Philippine Islands. Supplemented by local school fees and government grant In schools of higher standing. Society Ho. 12* (b) checked for West Africa. (c) checked for South Africa, Ceylon, China, Bast Indies, India, Mexico, Oceania, Philippine Islands. Society No* 24. (c) checked. In Elementary schools, mostly supported by native church. In High school, about one half supported by native church. In specialized schools mostly supported by American church. Society No. 8. About two thirds from the national churches and one third from the American Church. Society No. 25. (a) checked. "We do not accept grant-in-aid." Here, again, some of the societies failed to respond. In some instances this failure apparently was due to lack of adequate data in the home office. Approximately 60 per cent of the societies under study responded to this question. Twenty three per cent of the total number of societies indicated that national teachers receive most of their support from the home Church. Approximately 6 per cent stated that this support comes from the national church, and nearly 8 per cent get such support from the government of the country. XII. SALARIES OP NATIONAL TEACHERS Question No. 12 What is the average monthly salary of national teachers teaching in the various levels? 77 There were twenty five replies to this question. On the elementary level the monthly salaries as indicated by mission responses range from $5 to $40, the average being $17.50; whereas, on the high school level, the | range is from #15 to #60 per month, the average being j approximately $32. This wide range is due to several j factors, one of the most important of which is the j mission area or standard of living of the locality. In j most instances It was found that where societies receive substantial educational grants from the government, the salaries of the national teachers are accordingly higher. Comments made by some of the societies: Society Ho. 33. Sorry, these figures not at hand. The problem is to do efficient work on the local basis of values and remuneration rather than on that of an imported United States of America standard. Society Ho. 2. Ho information in the headquarters. Society Ho. 9. **Do not know.” Society Ho. 32. "Unable to say.” Society Ho. 16. "I do not know.” Apparently such information as requested In question Ho. 12, is not readily available in mission home offices. 78 XIII. FINANCING OF MISSION SCHOOL BUILDINGS This study was also concerned about the way in which mission school buildings are financed. The follow ing question was accordingly asked: Question No. 15 The construction of mission school buildings is financed in most part by: a. The home church.......................() b. The local mission church................. ( ) c. The local government concerned • •••••() Number of societies checking (a) . . 21 or 40.4 per cent Number of societies checking (b) . . 3 or 5.8 per cent Number of societies checking (c) • • 1 or 2.0 per cent Number of societies checking a,b • • 2 Societies making only comments . • 4 The following are comments made by some of the societies: Society No. 12. Government and mission on 50-50 basis in India, Society No. 38. Checked (a) for American Indians. Checked (b) for West Africa. Society No. 39. "Combination of all three.** Society No. 45. f,Gifts from American friends.** Responses were received by 31 societies or 79 approximately 60 per cent of all the societies* The percentages no doubt would be somewhat different had all the societies responded* Nevertheless, it seems fair to conclude that quite the largest number of societies have been financing the construction of school buildings ! mostly from funds received from the home Church* Govern-! ments are gradually increasing the amounts given to i missions and consequently the ratio of the home Church j expenditures to that of the government is changing* XIV. SUMMARY The purpose of this Chapter was to discover some of the important educational policies relevant to mission school administration* Twelve questions were asked for the purpose of getting the reactions of mission societies to various problem areas In the field of ad ministration. In response to the first question, it was found that approximately 75 per cent of the mission societies favor a policy that national teachers, missionaries and pupils be bound together in an Intimacy of cooperation and fellowship which obliterates very considerably the consciousness of administrative superiority and of racial differences* 80 It was further found that most societies, or approximately 75 per cent favor a policy where missionary educators and national staff, together, consider educa tional policies. . — A i immmwmmmm i . The largest number of societies (77 per cent) indicated that they favor a policy where the planning, construction,and approval of the curriculum is left entirely in the hands of the missionaries in the field. Concerning the construction of the mission school curriculum, it was found that approximately 75 per cent of the societies favor a policy where the construction i i Is done by the principal, missionary staff and the national staff. Only about 15 per cent of the societies apparently hold to a policy in which the national staff are excluded from curriculum making. A question was asked concerning the extent to which societies recommend that missions of various denominations work together in foiming mutual educational policies. It was discovered that there is quite a difference of opinion among the societies as to the degree of cooperation which should be followed In work ing out educational policies. Approximately 59 per cent of the societies recommend that only In certain instances should the above policy be followed. Approximately 81 48 per cent of the societies highly recommend that various denominations work together in forming mutual educational policies, Concerning the training of national teachers this study found that approximately 31 per cent of the societies recomment that each respective mission train its own teachers for both secular and theological teach- i ing, Approximately 39 per cent of the societies favor ' the policy where various denominations in the area unite j their efforts in the development of teacher training ; centers to train teachers for both secular and theologi cal teaching* Only about 4 per cent of the societies favor a policy of having various denominations in the area unite their efforts in the development of teacher training centers to train teachers for teaching in the theological schools, while the government trains the teachers for the secular work. Approximately 40 per cent of the societies indicated that they make no distinctions as to the type of institutions which are placed under charge of national personnel. Again approximately 39 per cent indicate that they favor a policy in which educational institutions are most often placed under charge of national personnel. 82 Approximately 65 per cent of the societies indi cated that they recommend and practice co-education in one or more of the levels in the school. Fifty eight per cent of the societies stated that they favor the policy of co-education in the elementary level. Whereas, approximately 31 per cent of the societies favor a policy of co-education in the secondary level. This study was also concerned about the values placed upon the respective areas of education as such as compared to the more strictly religious phase in mission work. Thirty three per cent of the societies replied to the question asked concerning the amount spent on educa tional work. The replies from these societies indicate that the percentages given to education from the total mission expenditures, vary from 3 per cent to as much as 80 per cent. The average amount was found to be approxi mately 31 per cent. A question was asked mission societies concerning the extent to which they receive grants-in-aid from the respective governments concerned. Because of inadequate data at hand, some societies were unable to give data to this question. Approximately 55 per cent of the socie ties replied to this question. Hearly 29 per cent of the societies in this study stated that they receive grants-in-aid from the governments. Approximately 27 per cent of the societies indicate that they receive no government aid. CHAPTER IV CURRICULAR POLICIES IN MISSION EDUCATION Modern educators are realizing more and more the fact that child growth is a total process rather than a limited mental process* This new insight and enlarged j vision has added enrichment to the term curriculum until it has come to mean the pupil*s total learning activities or experiences* Since the learning experiences are on going growth processes, it would seem that the curri culum must not he a static program but rather an 1 1 emerg ing frame of reference*! t In order that the curriculum may have the most enriched Interpersonal and intercultural value it would seem that the educational missionaries or those who provide for the curriculum, must possess a full appreci ation of the cultural experiences, the needs and life values of the nationals* As Dewey says, Since the curriculum is always getting loaded down with purely inherited traditional matter and with subjects which represent mainly the energy of some influential person or group of persons in behalf of something dear to them, it requires constant inspection, criticism, and revision to make sure it Is accomplishing its purpose* Then there is always the probability that it represents the values of adults rather than those of children and youth, or those of pupils a generation ago rather than those of the 85 present day. Hence a further need for a critical outlook and survey.1 Until the democratic criterion of the intrinsic significance of every growing experience is recognized, we shall be intellectually confused l a y the demand for adaptation to external aims.2 Realizing the great relationship between the learning experiences and intercultural values this study attempted to discover some of the major curriculum policies of mission societies. It was thought that in this way mission societies might be better able to appreciate their curriculum programs* The questions relative to curricular policies of the mission societies will be dealt with separately in the following section. I.. CURRICULAR ORGANIZATION Question No. 1 The practice in the school curriculum organization as recommended for the mission schools, is as follows: a. In the elementary level-- 1. It Is subject-matter centered (i.e., the curriculum Is organ ized according to the traditional ^ John Dewey, Democracy and Education (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1916), p. 285. 2 Ibid., p. 127. 86 arrangement of subject matter for example, Reading, History, Geography, Bible, Mathematics, Music, Science, etc.) . . ( ) 2. It is organized around large problem areas, (i.e., the curriculum is organized in such a way that learning is stimulated by the creation of challenging situations that demand solution,--as opposed to subject- matter arrangement). The challenging situation becomes the central theme around which are organized various activities, and experiences. .....() 3. It is a combination of subject- matter centered and the large problem areas. ••••••••••..() b. In the high school level— 1. It is subject-matter centered. ....() 2. It is organized around large problem areas. *••••••••••.() 3. It is a combination of subject- matter centered and large problem areas. •• ................. •••••() c. In the college level— 1. It is subject-matter centered. *.♦•() 2. It is organized around large problem areas* ...............•••() 3. It is a combination of subject- matter centered and large problem areas ......... •••••••••••() Pattern of responses to question Wo* 1. Number checking (a-1).......... * 24 or 46 per cent Number checking (a-2) ...... 1 or 2 per cent 87 Number checking (a-3) ...... 4 or 7.7 per cent Number checking Number checking Number checking Number checking Number checking Number checking b-1) ...... 9 or 17.3 per cent b-2) 1 or 2.0 per cent b-3) . . . . . . 10 or 19.2 per cent c-1)...........4 or 7.7 per cent c-2) ...........1 or 2.0 per cent c-3) ...... 7 or 13.4 per cent The following comments made by some of the societies: Society No. 9. Do not know. Understand that curricula are pretty well set by the government. Society No. 34. These detailed questions would have to be referred to each of our fields for accurate answers. Because of the gradual change In the conception of learning through the stimulus of psychological investi gations, the curriculum has taken on new meanings. Prom the traditional arrangement of subject-matter centered learning, there has been developed the arrangement where by large problem areas become the dynamic learning centers. Also, there is the other alternative, whereby the curriculum Is organized in such a way that a combina tion of the above two methods is used, i.e., a combina tion of the subject-matter centered learning and that of creating challenging situations or vital problems requiring solution* Approximately 65 per cent of the societies under j study responded to the question above. From the re- J sponses, it appears that most mission societies still ad here to the traditional practice of subject-matter centered learning. Only one society indicated that in their educational work, the curriculum is organized around large problem areas. However, in the secondary and college levels there seems to be an increasing practice in the use of the combination method— of both the subject-matter centered and large problem area approach. It seems that the manner of curriculum organization is of vital importance from the standpoint of inter- cultural education. The manner in which the learning situations are organized (whether in traditionally set patterns or in dynamic challenging problem situations) has a great effect upon the interaction processes and interpersonal relations. II. FOLKLORE AND THE CURRICULUM Folklore plays a far larger part in the lives of people than many realize. An understanding and 89 appreciation of the folk lore and folk ways of any people is necessary to a clear understanding of their culture* Furthermore, unless mission educators respect the cultures with which they work, it seems that they will have difficulty in integrating the old with the new* The following question attempted to discover to what extent mission policy encourages the use of folklore in the curriculum: Question No* 2 Check the following channels through which mission policy encourages the use of the folklore of the people in the mission school curriculum as a part of the teaching and learning process: a* Native folk music is used frequently and whenever possible in religious services ..................... •••() b. Native folk music is used to quite an extent as a medium in the teaching of school subjects .......................... () c. Native crafts are given a prominent place in the art courses..................( ) d. The native family life is studied in the school and given high respect.........( ) e* The community and other social life of the nationals is studied and is given an important place in the curriculum . . . ( ) f. Since most folklore of the mission field is unchristian and degrading, it is not recommended that it be included in the school curriculum..................... () g* Other .................................() 90 Pattern of responses to question No# 2: Number of societies checking (a) • • 17 or 32#7 per cent Number of societies checking (b) • . 8 or 15*4 per cent Number of societies checking (c) • . 27 or 52#0 per cent Number of societies checking (d) • • 21 or 40.4 per cent I Number of societies checking (e) • . 23 or 44.2 per cent j Number of societies checking (f) • • 10 or 19.2 per cent ] i The following comments by some of the societies: j Society No. 5. This society checked a,b, and c, and then commented: (d) and (e) are studied and in so far as they can be applied to Christian ideals and practices they are recommended. Society No. 9. Our educational work too limited to report on above. Some of above used in program in Kenya, but reports too meagre for evaluation. Society No. 18. This society checked only (c) and commented as follows: The school curriculum is determined by the faculty and trustees of the school. The mission board has no authority over it. Since the war, we know very little of what the curriculum consists. Society No. 30. This society checked a,b,c,d,e, and commented: There is variation here between different countries. We insist that missionaries study anthropology. Society No. 34. This society checked a,b,c,e, and commented: We work in 27 countries. General answers do not 91 apply to all* Society No* 36* This society checked d,f and commented: The Christian family ideal is kept before the students* In each school are a number of Christian students. One third to three quarters are Christian. Society No* 35. This society did not check any but commented: Difficult to answer In form above given* In the church in India, which I know best, there are now developed indigenous ’lyrics,* which are rapidly crowding out the old western hymn tunes. Society No* 7 checked (f) and commented: Used only where it can illustrate or contrast with the gospel message and life. Society No. 25 checked a,b,d,e, and commented: It (folklore) is used critically placing it under the light of the Word of Cod. Society No. 41 checked d,f, and commented: Anything in heathen life contrary to Bible teaching is not allowed. Society No. 46 checked a,b,d,e, and commented: We have made a collection of Indian folk tales. With the exception of (a) the above ’channels* have not been used as extensively as they should be used to make missionary education really effective. Approximately 33 per cent of the societies in cluded in this study stated that they use folk music in religious services. Nearly 15 per cent make use of native folk music in the teaching of school subjects. 92 Native crafts are given a prominent place in the curriculum of 52 per cent of the societies# Apparently, approximately 40 per cent of the mission societies give considerable place to the study of native family life# f A study of the community and other social life of the I t nationals is given a prominent place In the curriculum , j as indicated by 44 per cent of the mission societies* t Some mission societies apparently feel that most j folklore in the mission field is un-Christian and de- j 1 grading and consequently, it should not be included in the school curriculum* Approximately 19 per cent of the societies expressed this view in their responses* However, It may be said that approximately 80 per cent of the societies make use of native folklore in one way or another in their educational work* III* RELIGIOUS SERVICES IN MISSION SCHOOLS The manner In which religious services are con ducted in the mission field may help to indicate the extent to which intercultural values are being expressed# The following question attempted to discover the extent to which ready made American patterns are transplanted into the religious services of the mission fields, and to what extent national customs and ways are utilized in 93 developing religious patterns: Question No* 5 Which of the following types of religious services is recommended for practice on the mission field? a. Services which are patterned in most ways after the home (American) church. « • ( ) b. Services which are an adaptation of that of the home church to the national ways and customs ......... c. Services which are an attempt to begin entirely with the national customs and ways, and to encourage the national church to develop its own meaningful patterns for religious services •••••••» • •••{/ d. Other •••••. ............. .....(] Pattern of responses to question No. 3: Number of societies checking (a) . . 3 or 5.8 per cent Number of societies checking (b) • . 25 or 48.0 per cent Number of societies checking (c) • • 9 or 17.3 per cent Number of societies checking (d).. 2 or 3.8 per cent Number of societies checking (b,and c)6 or 11.5 per cent Comments by some of the societies: Society No. 2 checked (b) with the following added: Which are in harmony with Christian principles. Society No. 5. At the present time (b) is the pattern we follow, although we recognize a strong element of truth in (c) and are moving toward that principle or type. 94 Society No* 9 checked (c) with the following comment added; < f within Christian limits. * 1 Society Ho. 12 checked (c) and commented: In attempting (c) it is almost inevitable that (b) will become the practice. Society No. 22 checked (b) and commented: The services of the *homel church in a church which has a liturgical service were not developed there, but are the heritage of many centuries from many lands. The aecumenical view must be maintained over against the nationalistic one. Society Ho. 24 checked (b) and (c) and commented: (b) to come first, (c) a later development. Society Ho. 28 checked (b) and commented: Adapt to customs, but not to non-Christian religion. Society Ho. 30 checked (b) and commented: (c) growing— Services which are an attempt to encourage the national church to develop its own meaningful patterns for religious services. Society Ho. 32 made no check, but commented: Services which in the judgment of field workers are best suited to impress natives as to truth of Christianity. Society Ho. 8 checked (a) and commented: Whenever local customs promote Christian ends they are to be recommended warmly. Society Ho. 33 checked (c) and commented: Inevitably, however, any Christian pattern would include prayer, singing, instruction, offer ing, meditation. There you begin to have a *type.* 95 Society No. 35 checked both (b) and (c) and commented: You should combine (b) and (c). I believe in a certain amount of emphasis on nationalizing the church. But we tend today with character istically American plunging all out for latest things to forget that the church is international* Much of the emphasis on *indigenizing* is today a part of the vicious swing toward narrow national ism. The great aim is the 1 ecumenical* church. Society No. 37 checked (c) with the following comment: Begin with expressions of truth which are uni versal and then follow (c). Society No. 15 checked (c) and commented: I would choose (c) above, with the understanding that this refers only to forms of worship. Truly Christian worship may be expressed in many forms. Society No. 46 checked (b) and commented: Number (c) would be ideal but it is difficult to build a house without some kind of a foundation. A Hindu view of course, for example, is radically different from the Christian view. The largest number of societies, 48 per cent checked (b) which indicates that they recommend services which are an adaptation of that of the home church to the national ways and customs. It appears that there is a strong tendency among mission societies to accept as much as possible from the national customs so long as these customs or ways are In harmony with Christian principles as conceived by the mission. Seventeen per cent of the societies checked 96 alternative (c) which states that types of religious services are recommended which are an attempt to begin entirely with the national customs and ways, and to encourage the national church to develop its own meaning ful patterns for religious services* However, it appears from some of the comments made by a few of the societies which checked (c) that they checked this response with the qualification that Christian principles are not lost sight of in accepting national forms or ways of worship* One might add here the question, ”To what extent is this practice allowing the nationals to develop their own meaningful patterns?” In analyzing some of the comments, such as, ”which are in harmony with Christian principles,” ”within Christian limits,” etc*, the writer finds him self constantly asking the question, ”What do mission educators mean when they speak of Christian principles?” Are they thinking of the liberation of dynamic forces for self unfoldment from within, or of the teaching of predetermined attitudes and ways of conduct— ways of thought that are taught through the ever common process of indoctrination? It seems that the effectiveness of the intercultural process in mission education hinges upon the proper answer to this question. 97 IV. THE VERNACULAR AS THE MEDIUM FOR INSTRUCTION It may be said that language is the indispensable instrument of all human knowledge. It very greatly affects thought and in turn is affected by thought. That everything we do and think creates, changes j destroys, or otherwise influences language is j self-evident. What is not so obvious, perhaps, is that language in return affects all our actions and thoughts. It has been fully established that a change in language on the part of an individual is f attended by corresponding changes in gestures, facial I expression, carriage, even humor and taboos. This is j readily observable in the case of bilingual speakers, when they pass from one language to the other.4 The following question was asked mission societies for the purpose of finding to what extent the vernacular is used as a medium for instructions Question No. 4 In what grades or levels of the school does your mission recommend and use the vernacular as the medium for Instruction? a. It Is recommended garten level. • • and used in the kinder- ( ) b. It Is recommended elementary level. and used in the ( ) c. It is recommended school level. • . and used in the high ( ) d. It Is recommended college level « • and used in the ( ) 4 Mario Andrew Pei, The Story of Language (Philadelphia: Lippincot Co., 1949), P. 190. Pattern of responses to question Ho* 4: Humber of societies checking (a) . . 20 or 38.5 per cent Number of societies checking (b) . . 24 or 46*0 per cent Humber of societies checking (c) * . 12 or 23.0 per cent Number of societies checking (d) ... 6 or 11.5 per cent Number of societies checking a,b,c,d 5 Number of societies checking a,b,d • 5 Number of societies checking a, b • • 8 Number of societies checking a only 2 Number of societies checking b only 4 Number of societies checking b, c * * 1 Number of societies checking c, d • • 1 Number of societies checking b,d • • 1 Comments made by some of the societies: Society No* 2 checked a,b,c,d, and commented: English often recommended as a second language on the college level— the denominational literature thus becomes more accessible* Society Ho* 33 checked a,b,c,d; following c and d is this comment f , with English* * * Society Ho* 36 checked a,b, and commented: High school uses mostly English, with some vernacular subjects* Mexico is altogether Spanish. Society No* 39 checked c,d and commented: English is taught by the direct method* In certain college fields, there are, as yet, no Chinese texts* (This society teaches only on the higher levels*) 99 Society No* 25 checked a,b,c, and commented: It is recommended and used in the high school level, with English* Several of the mission societies did not check this question. However, from the responses of the societies which responded, it is quite clear that the vernacular as the medium for instruction Is used pro gressively less in the higher levels than In the kinder garten and elementary levels. This is true except in cases where the vernacular is the officially accepted language of the place. Some of the societies use the vernacular as a medium in all levels, while others use the vernacular in only the lower levels. V. TIME ALLOTED TO RELIGIOUS AND EDUCATIONAL SUBJECTS If mission societies are doing educational work, it seems important to know to what extent they are carrying on an educational program. The writer felt that one way of discovering this fact would he to ask a question that would reveal the amount of the total school time given, to religious instruction. According ly, the following question was asked: Question No. 5 As a matter of policy, approximately, what per cent or part of the school day of actual class work is given to religious Instruction, as such? 100 a. In the elementary level. b. In the high school level c. In the college level • . ( ) ( ) ( ) Pattern of responses to question Ho. 5: Percentages listed for (a) 30,25,25,25,20,20,20,20, 20,20,17,16,15,15,15,15, 10, 10. Percentages listed for (b) 36,33,25,20,17,15,15,15, 12, 10. Percentages listed for (c) 50,27. Average for (a) . • .20 per cent. Average for (b) • • .20 per cent. Average for (c) • . • too few items to be very significant. Comments made by some of the societies: Society No. 11. Religious Instruction and attendance at religious services Is voluntary. Society Ho. 33 made no check but commented: A reasonable proportionate emphasis in accordance with aim already stated. Society Ho. 36 checked 1/7 for (a). After (b) is the following comment: About 45 minutes per day, usually after school hours. Society No. 39 made the following comment after checking (b): One class a week— voluntary. 101 Approximately 33 per cent of the societies in this study, responded to item (a). The amount of time given to religious instruction in the elementary level ranged from 10 per cent to 30 per cent. The average of all the responses in this level is 20 per cent. j i In the high school or secondary level, the re sponses indicate that about the same amount of time or 20 per cent of the school day is devoted to religious : instruction. Here the responses ranged from 10 per cent to 36 per cent, with an average of 20 per cent. Only , about 19 per cent of the societies checked response (b). Only two societies indicated percentages in the college level. It may be concluded that the average amount of the school day spent in educational work aside from purely religious instruction is approximately 80 per cent in the elementary level. The writer feels that the 80 per cent figure may be considered a pretty accurate figure for the secondary level, also* VI. INTER-GROUP CORRESPONDENCE In many schools in the United States, teachers have encouraged pupils to carry on correspondence with some one in a foreign country. It has been felt that 102 this practice would help to encourage better inter personal as well as international good will and under standing between people of different social groups. An attempt was made to find out whether mission educators encourage such a practice in their schools. In this respect the following question was asked: Question No. 6 To what extent are pupils of the mission schools encouraged to correspond with pupils in America or in other countries?: a. The practice Is discouraged. • I b. The missionary educators encourage the practice ............... .••••••() c. The practice is permitted only occasionally.............................. ( ) pattern of responses to question No. 62 Societies checking (a) • • • 9 or 17.3 per cent Societies checking (b) • • • 18 or 34.6 per cent Societies checking (c) . . . 6 or 11*6 per cent Societies making only comments . • 7 The following are comments made by some of the societies: Society No* 2 checked (b) and commented: Perhaps the foreign language teachers In the denomination1s American schools are the chief promoters. Society No* 5 checked (a) and commented: The practice is discouraged except in rare cases, among the younger school children. In the mature 103 and advanced young people we encourage it. Friends in America send gifts to those children with whom they correspond. This makes administrative problems, so we discourage writing. Society No. 10 checked (c) and commented: Such practice too often leads to misunderstanding and sometimes to unfortunate relations. Society No. 9 checked (a) and commented: * (a) due to present development on some fields. Other fields like Japan, India, Jamaica, it is encouraged. Society No. 21 checked (c) and commented: When the American correspondents are acquainted with the mentality and psychology of the natives. Society No. 30 checked (a) and commented: Discouraged because (1) the American has all too often failed to understand culture of the person and has offended, (2) sometimes results in requests for gifts. Society 33 made no check but commented: Not emphasized. Society No. 37 made no check but commented: Great variation as between schools. Depends on how much time a teacher can give. Society No. 17 made no check but commented: Neither encourage nor discourage. Society No. 44 made no check but commented: Left to individual educators. Approximately 77 per cent of the societies under consideration replied to this question. Nearly 35 per cent of the group indicated that they encourage the pupils to correspond with pupils in other countries* About 12 per cent stated that they permit the practice only occasionally. Whereas, nearly 17 per cent state that they discourage the practice. Prom the comments of some of the mission societies, it seems that in some instances the practice is dis couraged where the mission teachers feel that complica tions might arise in cases where the cultures of the respective peoples is not understood. j VII. SUMMAKY The attempt was made in this Chapter to discover some of the major curricular policies of mission soci eties. If the learning experiences are ongoing growth processes, the curricular patterns, it seems, must be carefully considered in a program of good intercultural education. In attempting to discover the type of curriculum organization In common use in mission schools, it was found that most societies still adhere to the traditional practice of subject-matter-centered learning. This Is especially true in the elementary levels. When one con siders the secondary and college levels, he finds an 105 Increasing practice in the use of the combination method of both the subject-matter-centered and large problem area approach* Folklore is an important factor in the lives of people and mission educators must reckon with this factor in their school work* Some mission societies feel that most folklore in the mission field is un-Christian and degrading and consequently should not be included in the school curriculum* Only about 19 per cent of the soci eties hold this view, however, whereas, nearly 81 per i cent of the mission groups make use of folklore in one or more ways in school work. This is done through the appreciation and use of native folk music, native crafts, and the study of native folk ways and family patterns. It was found that in religious services in mission fields 48 per cent or nearly one half of the mission societies recommend the practice which is an adaptation of that of the home church to the national ways and customs* There seems to be a strong tendency among mission societies to accept as much as possible from the national customs so long as these customs or ways are in harmony with the mission’s conception of the principles of Christianity. It was interesting to note that nearly 17 per cent 106 of the societies indicated that they favor types of i religious service which attempt to begin entirely with the national customs and ways, and to encourage the j national church to develop Its own meaningful patterns ! i for religious services. However,several of the societies j which indicated this policy also stated that this policy j j would be accepted so long as It remained within the i framework of Christianity. i I The vernacular as a medium for instruction j apparently Is used by most mission societies in the lower levels of the school. In the higher levels of i secondary school and college, the vernacular as the medium is used considerably less. In both the elementary and secondary levels approximately 20 per cent of the actual school day is spent in religious instruction. This means that nearly 80 per cent of the school day is spent in giving In struction in subject-matter other than purely religious education. Approximately 35 per cent of the mission soci eties encourage their pupils to carry on correspondence with pupils in other countries. The practice is permitted occasionally by about 12 per cent of the societies. This means that 47 per cent of the mission 107 groups permit the practice to some extent, at least* About 17 per cent of the societies indicated that they discourage the practice, altogether. CHAPTER V POLICIES WITH REFERENCE TO QUALIFICATIONS AND TRAINING OF EDUCATIONAL PERSONNEL The preceding chapter was concerned with curri cular policies in mission education* In the present j i chapter an attempt was made to discover the policies j with reference to the qualifications and training of ! educational personnel* Since teachers are vital factors ; in the success or failure of an Intercultural program, j t their training and teaching qualifications were of special concern to this study* When one becomes conscious of the meaning and significance of the educational process he becomes in creasingly aware of the relationship between pupil and teacher. If good education is to be interpreted as a continual interaction and re-evaluation of experience in the on going problem solving process, then the mission educators assume a position of tremendous importance, Dewey in defining education says, It is that reconstruction or reorganization of experience which adds to the meaning of experience, and which increase ability to direct the course of subsequent experience.1 1 John Dewey, Democracy and Education, p. 89. 109 In the mission field where various cultures meet and interact the reconstruction and reorganization process assumes great significance. For this reason, it would seem that those who propose to carry on the job of mission education should be well qualified for the j task. ! An attempt was made to get at mission policies pertaining to mission educators, by studying the re- ' ! sponses to specific questions, expressed by the various j ! societies* Each question together with the mission : responses will be dealt with separately in the remainder of this chapter. I. ESSENTIAL QUALITIES IN EDUCATIONAL MISSIONARIES Question No. 1 List below, in the order of importance, the five qualities which you consider most essential in an educational missionary. Make your selection from the qualities listed and write their numbers in the parentheses provided. Five most essential qualities in order of importance: 1st choice ( ) 4th choice ( ) 2nd choice ( ) 5th choice ( ) 3rd choice ( ) Following is a list of qualities which may be found in a missionary. Add other essential qualities 110 if you desire. Prom the total list make your five choices as indicated above. 1. Is submissive to recommendations from the board• 2. Cooperate with other societies in the field toward common goals. 3. Has a deep sense of his Christian vocation and is very devout in his personal religious life.! 4. Possesses a good general education of at least college level. ! 5. Has had considerable training in religious ! education, including a good knowledge of the ' Bible. ] i 6. Has the ability to understand the mind or | thinking of the nationals. 7. Believes firmly and uncompromisingly in the superiority of the Christian religion. 8. Is cheerful and possesses a good sense of humor • 9. Is very versatile and resourceful. 10. Is free from feelings of racial superiority. 11. Has an Idealistic sense of the importance of upholding the doctrines and creeds of his church* 12. Possesses a sharing attitude, and works democratically with his colleagues and peoples of other cultures. 13. Is a well trained teacher In his subject specialty. 14. Other Pinal ranking given above qualities by mission societies: Ill 1st choice: No. (3) Has a deep sense of his Christian vocation and is very devout in his personal religious life. 2nd choice:No. (4) Possesses a good general educa tion of at least college level. 3rd choice:No. (6) Has the ability to understand the mind or thinking of the nationals. 4th choice:No.(12) Possesses a sharing attitude, and works democratically with his colleagues and peoples of other cultures. 5th choice: No. (5) Has had considerable training in ! religious education, including a good * knowledge of the Bible. j Approximately 90 per cent of the mission societies! responded to the above question. The five qualities which received the highest number of votes and conse quently were placed among the first five choices are numbers 3, 4, 5, 6 and 12* Choice, number (3) was not only chosen by 79 per cent of the societies to be among the five most essential qualities, but it was ranked as first choice by 69 per cent of the mission groups* In other words most mission societies apparently believe that the most essential qualification of a mission educator is that he has a deep sense of his Christian vocation and is very devout in his personal religious life. For second choice, the societies selected number (4). Undoubtedly, educational mission societies, in 112 general, rate a good education as very important in i educational missionaries* The third place was given to alternative (6)* This apparently indicates the growing tendency among i mission groups to place greater emphasis upon an appreci-| i ation and understanding of indigenous cultures. Too, mission groups seem to feel that their edu cational missionaries should be well trained in religiousj education, for this qualification was given fourth place among the five choices. ! For fifth place, number (12) was selected. This choice states that the mission educator, ^possesses a sharing attitude and works democratically with his colleagues and peoples of other cultures.n In an inter- cultural program, it can be clearly seen that this quality is extremely essential. The writer will merely indicate here the rank given the other qualities by the societies: 6th choice: No. (7) Believes firmly and uncompro misingly in the superiority of the Christian religion. 7th choice: No.(10) Is free from feelings of racial superiority. 8th choice: No.(13) Is a well trained teacher in his subject speciality. 9th choice: No. (8) Is cheerful and possesses a good sense of humor. T 113 10th choice: No. (9) Is very versatile and resource ful. 11th choice: No. (1) Is submissive to recommendations from the home board. 12th choice: No. (2) Cooperates with other societies in the field toward common goals. 13th choice: No.(11) Has an idealistic sense of the importance of upholding the doctrines and creeds of his church. The following societies made suggestions of qualifications for educational missionaries: Society No. 30 placed as 2nd choice the following: Has promise of intelligent creative work. Society No. 33 placed the following as 1st choice: Has a clear cut and vital Christian experience. For 2nd choice, the following was given: Is adequately trained for the responsibility assigned him. II. PROCEDURES IN SELECTING MISSION EDUCATORS In the business world, employers consider it very essential for the success of the organization that the personnel be selected with considerable care. When one considers the responsibility placed upon the educational missionary In his Intercultural contacts in the field he is made to realize the Importance in the selection of personnel for this type of work. Consequently, in order 114 to determine the procedures followed by mission societies in selecting educational missionaries, a question to this effect was asked. Question No# 2 ; j Which of the folllwing procedures do you use in ! the selection of educational missionaries? On the I lines following each statement you mark, indicate briefly, just how the checking is done. j a. A check is made on his beliefs to see ! whether they are in harmony with the , church creed • ............. •••••••() b. A check is made on the quality and amount of his educational training. . . . . . . . ( ) c. A cheek is made on his personal religious life ...................•••() d. A check is made to determine his general philosophy of life (i.e., whether he is conservative, liberal, democratic, etc.). ••••• .............. {) e. A check is made to determine his attitude toward minority groups. .....() f. A check is made to determine his professional experience. . . . ......... • ( ) g. A check is made on his age and health. . . ( ) h. Other methods. ....................•••() Comments: Pattern of responses or the number of societies checking each item together with the respective percentages is indicated below: 115 a • • . 40 or 76.9 per cent e . • . 26 or 50.0 per cent b . . . 47 or 90.4 per cent f . . . 42 or 80.8 per cent c . • . 45 or 86.5 per cent g . . . 46 or 88.5 per cent d . . . 30 or 57.7 per cent Below is shown how the societies do their checking for each respective item. The number of societies using each method is indicated. The horizontal arrangement of j letters refers to the items in the questionnaire above: By questionnaire and reference blanks a 19 b 18 c 17 d 12 11 f 19 g 17 By interview 9 6 12 11 10 7 4 By recommendations of superiors and others 5 8 19 7 6 10 3 By physical examination 0 0 0 G 0 0 20 By records and transcripts 1 13 0 0 0 1 0 By written and oral examination 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 By observation of work in pastoral experience 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 By no method indicated 12 18 15 10 9 19 19 Additional procedures used in selecting educa- cational missionaries as suggested by some of the socie ties checking (h) in the question above are given below: Aptitude in acquiring language of the people 2 societies Personality tests .................. 1 society Willingness and ability to cooperate with other people .... 3 societies 116 I What skills he has 1 society Consciousness of vocation and sense of devotion to the teaching vocation • •••••••..•• 1 society On beliefs to see whether they are genuine and in harmony with basic Christian experience. ...... 2 societies His effectiveness, his leadership promise, his resourcefulness. • • 2 societies Whether he will be acceptable to other missionaries in the field .... 1 society Condition of engagement or marriage . . 1 society Prom the above responses It Is quite clear that mission societies are attempting to evaluate their edu cational personnel. Approximately 77 per cent of the societies Indicate that they are concerned whether the prospective educational individual is in harmony with the church creed. Again, 90 per cent of mission organizations state their concern In determining the quality and ©mount of educational training possessed by the mission teachers. Nearly as many, 86 per cent, indicated the importance they attach to the personal religious life of the candi date. Apparently not so many of the societies are aware of the importance of one’s philosophy of life, for only approximately 58 per cent of all the societies doing educational work expressed the fact that they make a 1X7 check in this area. Only 50 per cent of the organization doing educational work stated that a check is made to determine the candidates attitude toward minority groups i or peoples of other racial background. j The candidates professional experience is j apparently of importance to mission societies, as j I approximately 81 per cent of the educational missions j indicate that a check is made to determine this fact. ; The state of the candidates health is examined and evaluated as indicated by nearly 89 per cent of the societies under consideration. As a result of psychological investigations of recent years, a number of tests have been constructed. Many of these tests are used in the selection and places ment of personnel in the various occupations of industry. The more successful industrial organizations consider the use of these testing materials as a vital part of their programs. Leading educators, too, for some time, have realized the importance of testing materials as aids in the selection and placement of teachers. III. THE USE OP TESTING MATERIALS IN SELECTING EDUCATIONAL MISSIONARIES The writer was interested in learning to what extent 118 mission societies make use of testing materials in the selection of their educational personnel. The following question was asked to help reveal this fact: Question Ho. 3 I. Which of the following testing materials, if any, do you use in the selection of mission educators?: a. Personality tests ........... b. Aptitude tests indicating general missionary ability. . . . . . . . ( ) c. Tests for determining prejudices........ ( ) d. General intelligence tests. .......... ( ) e. Other.....................................() II. May samples of these testing materials be obtained? Yes «••••••() N o ............. ( ) Where?___________________________________ ______ Comments: Pattern of responses to question No. 3: Number of societies checking (a) • • 10 or 19.2 per cent Number of societies checking (b) • • 7 or 13.4 per cent Number of societies checking (c) . . 0 Number of societies checking (d) • • 6 or 11.5 per cent 119 Comments made by some of the societies: Society No. 2: Most young people now sent overseas are graduates of our colleges# Test returns are available in the colleges as required# Society Ho* 9: These are not given by our Board, but results of such tests are available from our own college, and often from others# Society Ho# 12: (a) Bernreuter’s Personality Inventory# (b) Strong and Kuder• (d) Ohio State. (e) Our own adaptability test. Allport’s "Study of Values.w Society Ho. 50: We get intelligence test results on many trans cripts# This is under study# There has been discussion on this question over a period of years. We have not yet become convinced of a method to be adopted# Society No* 17: We are just in the process of assembling a battery of tests as suggested above# I personally feel they are of tremendous importance# They have not been used by our Board in the past, but I trust they will in the future# Society Ho. 15: We do not use any of these tests# Applicants usually are known personally, or a personal inter view is arranged. Society Ho. 46: Professional psychologist conducts the psycho logical tests for us. Our candidates must have the 120 whole-hearted (confidential) recommendations of | their pastors, professors and associates* They i must pass through physical and psychological tests, and finally, they must meet the missionaries1 approval of the Board meeting in executive session* ■ I Society No* 48: j See 1 1 Ambassadors of Christ1 1 by Mildred Cable. j The results of question No. 3 clearly show that \ mission societies in general have not yet begun using J i psychological testing materials to any appreciable j extent* Apparently, most societies get what psychologi- j cal information they use, from college records of their j j candidates and from interviews* j Approximately 19 per cent of the societies stated that they employ personality tests* Only two of these societies indicated that samples of these materials are available. Seven mission societies or nearly 13 per cent of the societies indicated that they give aptitude tests for determining general missionary ability* Again only two of these societies state that samples of such tests may be obtained. None of the societies apparently uses any testing materials for determining prejudices. Society number 12 seems to be making use of several tests, such as "Bemreuter* s Personality 121 Inventory,n MStrong and Kuder,** ”The Ohio State,M "Allport^ Study of Values,M and a test which apparently the society has adapted to its own needs* One notices from the comments made by some of the societies that a growing interest Is being shown in the j Importance and helpfulness of adequate testing materials*j i l IV. LEVELS OP EDUCATION REQUIRED OP I EDUCATIONAL MISSIONARIES ] I If mission educators are to encourage growth and j i enrichment of the lives of the people among whom they work, it seems reasonable to believe that they them selves must be capable of appreciating the higher values in life* If there is any correlation between the educa tional status of missionaries themselves and their desire to raise the educational level of the communities in which they labor, then it would seem that the educational requirements of missionary candidates is of great importance* The following question put to mission societies, attempted to find out something of the educational requirements of educational missionaries: Question No* 4 What level of education do you require of your mission educators? If the requirement is different 122 for any particular field, indicate such. a. What level of general basic education is required?___________________________________ b. What level of religious education is required?____________ ______________________ c. What level of education is required for teaching specialties?_____________________ The following is the pattern of responses to the above question together with the number of societies checking the various responses: For (a) Level of General Basic Education Graduate from common (elementary school • • 1 High school « • • •• * « • • •• . • • » • 3 High school plus Bible school • •••••. 2 According to local requirements ...... 4 B. A. degree..................... 29 M. A. degree. •••••••• ............. 2 For (b) Level of Religious Education This requirement not sufficiently considered 1 Merely holiness in life and spiritual experience................. 1 According to local requirements ......... 2 Theological Seminary. •••••••»••• 16 No hard and fast rule, but feel it neces sary that the candidate have Bible School 123 training or an adequate religious educa tional course in college* ............... 4 B. A. degree* ............... 2 B. A. plus one year usually in seminary . 8 M. A. with strong emphasis in religious education • ........... 3 For (c) Level required for Teaching Specialties This requirement not sufficiently considered................. 1 Previous experience of teaching, no training stated •••••••• ......... 2 No hard and fast rule, but feel it necessary that the candidate have Bible school training or an adequate Religious Educational course in college . 1 According to local requirements . • • • • 1 High School, graduate and basic knowledge of the Bible............................... 1 B. A. degree. *•••• 7 M. A. degree.................. 15 Ph.D. (Strongly urged or required, depending on position.................. . 3 Approximately 50 per cent of the mission societies indicated that at least a bachelor’s degree is the requirement for basic general education* One society put this requirement as low as graduation from the elementary school* When asked what level of religious education is required, nearly 63 per cent of the missions doing 124 educational work stated that they require at least theo logical seminary training or a B. A. degree with con siderable training in religious education* For educational requirements for those with teaching specialties approximately 56 per cent of the j i societies stated that they require at least a bachelor’s J degree* J i Since approximately 21 per cent of the societies did not reply to the above question, the percentages given for the various requirements are undoubtedly some what lower than would be the case had all societies responded* V. MARRIED AND SINGLE MISSIONARIES This study was also concerned about mission policies with reference to married or single mission aries. Accordingly, the following question was asked: Question No* 5 Which kind of missionary educators do you prefer?: a* Married missionaries ••••••••*••() b. Single missionaries* ............ •••••() c* We make no distinctions. ..............() Pattern of responses to question No. 5: 125 Number of societies checking (a) • • 14 or 27 per cent Number of societies checking (b) ♦ . 4 or 7#7 per cent Number of societies checking (c) • * 27 or 52*0 per cent Comments made by some of the mission societies: By societies checking (a) Society No. 2. All fields* Society No. 10. This society checked both (a) and (b) and commented: Married for permanent appointments. Single for short terms. Society No. 12 checked (a) and (b). Except in West Central Africa, where women are not given due respect by governmental officials, each group (married or single) does effective work. Society No. 20. There are exceptions of course and some of our educational missionaries are single, but we gener ally feel it is best for married couples to handle the work. By societies checking (b) Society No. 37. The Womanfs Division sends only single women. By societies checking (c) Society No. 5. We make no distinction except the requirements of the position. We use more single women teachers because we have a number of girlsT schools which seem to us to be better served by women teachers. 126 Society No. 9. Depending on the field and the kind of schools. Society No. 21. Married couples preferred for girls1 schools. Society No. 24. For Madagascar all male teachers should be married. Society No. 36. Usually those who have work with boys are married, and those working with girls are unmarried* There is no rule. By societies making no check: Society No. 44. We prefer workers to go to the field unmarried and expect them to remain so for two years after arrival. Approximately 27 per cent of the societies indi cated that they prefer married missionaries. Whereas, only about 8 per cent checked their preference for single missionaries. Most of the societies or nearly 52 per cent make no distinctions as to whether candidates are married or single. VI. ORIENTATION REQUIREMENTS It is believed by many thoughtful educators that, before one is able to provide the most enriched learning situation he needs to understand the culture and 127 language of the people with whom he is working. The writer has known of missionaries who engaged in mission work without any appreciable knowledge of the history and culture of the nationals, and with no knowledge of the language of the place. The intercultural values the mission educator is able to express, seem most closely related to his under standing and appreciation of the intimate lives of the people in the mission field. The writer was concerned about the policies mission societies have in this connection and the following question was asked the mission societies: Question No. 6 Which of the following do you require of prospective mission educators? a. Orientation in the language of the field * • •• • • ••••••..«• () b. Orientation in the history of the people of the field ••••«••.. () c. Orientation in the cultures and the religions of the field () d. Other........................................() pattern of responses to question Ho. 6: Number of societies checking (a) • . 31 or 59.6 per cent Number of societies checking (b) « . 27 or 52.0 per cent 128 Number of societies checking (c) . * 27 or 52*0 per cent Number of societies commenting but not checking • .............• . • 3 Comments made by some of the societies: Society No* 2 checked b and c. Hardly required, but encouraged on appointees initiative. After arrival at his field, appropriate time allowed for language study and orientation. Society No. 5 made no check but commented: We recognize the importance of these phases of training, but we have not made them obligatory for appointment. We are moving rapidly toward the place where these will be given more consideration. Society No. 10— no check. We do not require 3uch orientation, but are glad to find it in the manf s majors in college or by travel. Society No. 12 checked a,b,c. Some take linguistic in 11 wks. course at the Oklahoma University. Some take linguistics and orientation at Hartford school of missions and Berkeley, California. Society No. 37 checked a,b,c. General studies in Anthropology. Society No. 7 checked (a). Urging our missionaries to have special language study either in Yale or School of Linguistics, Norman, Oklahoma. Study in Prance for those working in French Colonies. Society No. 51— no check. None of these are required, but are usually 129 acquired on the field before work is assigned* Approximately 60 per cent of the societies in cluded in this study, indicated that they require orientation in the language of the field by prospective mission educators* Nearly 52 per cent of the societies stated that they require orientation in both the history of the j people and also the cultures and religions of the people*1 t Prom the comments made by some of the societies j l and from readings in mission literature, it appears that ! there Is an increasing tendency among mission societies to require the prospective mission educator to acquire a good knowledge of the people before they arrive in the field. VII. PRE-FIELD SERVICE REQUIREMENTS In order to get a better view of mission policies concerning pre-field experiences by educational mission aries, the following question was asked: Question No. 7 In which of the following do you give mission educators pre-field service? a. In studying the administration of mission education. b. In church visitation of various congregations of your own denomination, 130 learning first hand the church they are representing, and the people to whom the mission field will be inter preted .............• ( ) c. In church visitation of various other denominations as well, for the purpose of getting a total picture of Christendom* d. In contacting people from the area to which they are going--but who are now residing in the United States. •••••() e. In visiting other mission fields enroute. ••••••••••• ......... () Pattern of responses to question No. 7: Number of societies checking (a) . . 14 or 27.0 per cent Number of societies checking (b) . . 23 or 44.0 per cent Number of societies checking (c) . . 1G or 19.0 per cent Number of societies checking (d) . . 15 or 29.0 per cent Number of societies checking (©) . . 17 or 33.0 per cent Comments and no check . . . Comments by some of the societies: Society No. 5 checked only (b) We occasionally send them to a school like Tuskegee to observe the work done there. Society No. 9 checked (b) and (d) we, f would not be too valuable for first term. Society No. 21 made no check. Post-graduate work In education and anthropology. 131 Society No. 33 checked b,c,d. All appointees are usually given an opportunity to visit their supporting churches before sailing. Also they are used at times in presenting the mission cause in various types and church assemblies before going out. Usually their only pre-field contact is with missionaries on furlough. These missionary contacts are usually frequent, however. Society No. 36 checked (e) and added the following comment: On the field we prefer at least a year or work in villages. Study of schools of other nominations in the area on the field. Society No. 35 no check: “Little of this has done•t t Society No. 37 no check: A good deal of this can best be done on the field or after one term of service. Society No. 39 checked (d) and commented: Language and cultural study (if possible) at Yale. Society No. 17 checked c,d,e, and commented: Language study. Society No. 31 made no check but commented: No pre-field service. Society No. 46 checked a,b,c, and commented: Much depends upon the Individual to what extent he will acquaint himself with education In churches and other mission'fields before going to their field of service. However, many of our teachers do seek to get acquainted before reaching their field of service. The importance of good school administration in two of de- been 132 establishing the right kind of intercultural relations is of no little significance. Pre-field service in studying the administration of mission education was i checked by 27 per cent of the societies. j Nearly 44 per cent of the mission groups checked j item (b) indicating that their educational missionaries do church visitation of various congregations of their own denomination, in order to learn first hand the church they are representing, and the people to whom the mission field will be interpreted* Apparently, not so many of j i the mission societies encourage their mission educators to visit other denominations as well, for the purpose of getting a total picture of Christendom. Only 19 per cent of the societies checked this item. Frequently missionaries can get better acquainted with the people to whom they expect to be sent, by trying to make acquaintances with such people who may at the time be residing in the United States. Nearly 20 per cent of mission societies indicated that they encourage this practice. Again, the practice of affording educational missionaries the opportunity of visiting other mission fields than their own, while enroute was checked by 33 per cent of the societies. These mission societies, 135 undoubtedly feel that their missionaries will gain much valuable intercultural experiences by such contacts* Some of the societies indicated that they feel the missionary would profit more by such experiences as indicated in the question after having had one term of service in the mission field* VIII* EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENTS OP NATIONAL TEACHERS The national teachers are vital factors in the intercultural program in the mission field* Consequent ly, their training and experiences are important con siderations* The purpose of the following question was to endeavor to find out what policies mission societies have with reference to the level of education required of national teachers* Question No* 8 What is your policy concerning the level of education required of national teachers? (This refers to your present standards)* a. For those teaching In the elementary level* b* For those teaching in the high school level* c. For those teaching In the college level* Most of the societies found it rather difficult to give definite answers to this question because of the diverse requirements of governments in different 134 localities* A very common comment to this question was ”Whatever is required by government regulations of the country.” Listed helow are some typical responses to question (8): Comments hy some of the societies: Society Ho. 2 checked a3, b4, c5 and commented: Difficult to give definite answer because of diversity of educational ”ladders” in mission lands. Generally, we seek to reach at least the national standards for teachers-certifieatlon on the appropriate level. Society Ho. 6 made no check but commented: Whatever is required by government regulations of the country. Society Ho. 9 made no check but commented: On present fields they meet government require ments. Society Ho. 11 checked a5, b4, c5, and commented: Pull professor or head of a department must have Ph.D. Society Ho. 33 made no check but commented: Varied depending on local situation and possibil ity of advance. Highest qualifications desired. Society Ho. 39 checked b5, c5, and commented: The higher the qualification the better. There are no iron-clad rules for the personality of the prospective teacher is also important. IX. SUMMARY If the educational process is to have real 135 significance and be very meaningful to those engaged in the learning situations, the teachers and all educa tors involved need to be well qualified. In attempting to study the policies of mission societies with reference to the qualifications and train ing of educational missionaries, the societies were asked certain questions# These questions pertained to the i following: j 1. Most important qualities essential in an j educational missionary# j i 2. Procedures used In the selection of educational j missionaries. | i 3# Psychological testing materials used in the selection of educational missionaries# 4. Levels of education required of mission educators# 5# Policies concerning married and single mission aries# 6. Policies concerning orientation of prospective mission educators in the language, history and culture of the people in the mission field. 7# Policies concerning pre-field experiences by mission educators in making contacts with various church organizations and also with various racial groups# 8# Policies concerning levels of education required of national teachers# The five qualities selected by mission societies as most essential in an educational missionary are given below in rank order of importance: 136 1. Has a deep sense of his Christian vocation and is very devout in his personal religious life. 2. Possesses a good general education of at least college level. 3. Has the ability to understand the mind and thinking of the nationals. 4. Possesses a sharing attitude, and works demo cratically with his colleagues and peoples of other cultures. 5. Has had considerable training in religious education, including a good knowledge of the Bible. Responses to the question procedures in the selection of educational missionaries reveal the fact that most mission societies use one or more of the follow ing methods in gathering information concerning candi dates: By questionnaires and reference blanks. By interview. By recommendations of superiors and others. By physical examinations. By records and transcripts. By written and oral examination* By observation of work in previous positions. It was found that the information most frequently desired concerning mission candidates is: a study of his beliefs to see whether they are in harmony with the 137 church creed; the quality and amount of his educational training; his personal religious life; his professional experience; and his age and condition of health# The number of societies which stated their concern about the candidate’s general philosophy of life and his attitude toward minority groups was considerably less than was indicated for the other items above# ] i Most mission societies have not yet begun the j i general use of testing materials as aids in the selection! of mission educators# However, several of the societies j i made the comment that they are making plans for greater use of such materials# The levels of education required of educational missionaries are becoming increasingly higher. Approxi mately 60 per cent of the societies indicated that at least a bachelor’s degree is the requirement for basic general education. Two societies raised it to the master’s degree# In both the fields of religious educa tion and of teaching specialties the standards are con sistently being raised for the educational missionary# In the former the requirement by most educational missions, is theological seminary training or a B# A. degree with considerable training in religious education. For teaching specialties at least a bachelor’s degree seems to be desired by most societies. Concerning the question of whether missionaries should be married or single, it was found that most societies make little distinction in the selection of | their mission educators. In some instances where the | environmental conditions areKSUch, some societies hold | definite policies in this respect. j i More than 50 per cent of the mission societies stated that they require their prospective mission edu cators to get orientation in the language, history, i culture and religion of the peoples with whom they expect to work. With reference to the educational standards re quired of national teachers, most mission societies stated that they usually follow the requirements set up by the respective governments. CHAPTER VI I I BASIC AIMS AND PURPOSES OP MISSION EDUCATION In the preceding chapter an attempt was made to i discover some of the more important mission policies i with reference to the qualifications and training of ! t mission educational personnel. j It is the purpose of the present chapter to find J out some of the basic aims and purposes of mission societies that are engaged in educational work. We may say that the missionary enterprise has entered a new era. This change has come about because of the many and varied factors affecting mission activi ties. New Insights, as a result of the various sciences,--the physical as well as the social, have en couraged a rethinking of the whole field of missionary work. With closer contacts and better understanding of peoples of other cultures many mission societies are finding it increasingly more Important to re-examine and re-evaluate the philosophical foundations of their beliefs and activities. Brubacher expresses very clearly the need for a firm foundation of sound educational theory in achieving practical success, when he says, Just as the builder must go deep to establish a solid base on which to erect the modern sky scraper, so too the educator must go down to 140 fundamentals to found a base for the structure of education. The bottom point for this latter enterprise is the nature of reality* No founda tion of professional thinking in education is properly laid unless it rests on a well-considered conception of the way things really are in this world.1 Each of the questions presented to mission societies concerning mission aims and purposes will be dealt with separately. I. PURPOSE IN ESTABLISHING EDUCATIONAL WORK Question No. 1 Briefly, what would you say is the primary purpose for the establishment by your church of educational work in the mission field?: The responses to this question, although variously stated, seem to be such that they can be divided Into four different groups: 1. The societies which have as their principal and about only purpose— that of pure evangelization. 2. The societies which are concerned primarily with the training of Christian leaders or native ministers. 3. The societies which are concerned with a completely rounded out education within the framework of John S. Brubacher, Modern Philosophies of Education (New York and London: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1939}, p. 24. 141 Christianity* 4* The societies concerned with the broad inter- cultural values and sharing (international outlook and understanding)• The following are typical responses to the four ■ different purposes* In each case, the number of mission societies electing a position is also given* The societies which apparently have as their | principal or main purpose— that of evangelization . * • j 14 or 27.0 per cent i The following are typical responses by societies in this ! group: Society No* 20* Evangelism is our main emphasis— by which we mean leading the people Into a definite experience of personal salvation and then Into a complete yielding of the life to Christ in the infilling with the Holy Spirit* Our educational program is designed to lead young people Into such an experi ence and then train them for leading their fellow- men Into such experience* Society No* ,32. Sole purpose is to make Christians of the natives in various fields. Society No* 38* Promotion of the evangelistic ideal of the church. Society No. 7. Our purpose In every instance is evangelistic* 142 We only have other types of endeavor to help in the saving of souls. Society No. 41. That the people may be able to read and study the Bible plan for life. [ Society No. 3. The principal purpose is to evangelize. Society No. 28. 1. As a Christian witness (serving the people). 2* As a point of eontact with the ‘best1 people and homes. 3. It gives an opportunity to teach the Gospel i and to meet many students personally. | 4. The final objective of the mission is to j bring all men into a saving relationship ] with Christ. Schools have value as mission j schools, only as they contribute to this end. Society No. 2. Conversion of young people to Jesus Christ as a personal Savior— then their development through education and training to the point where they become effective lay workers, or qualify for denominational employment* The societies which have as their primary aim the training of Christian leaders or national ministers • • 9 or 17.3 per cent The following are typical responses by societies in this group: Society No. 26. Primarily to secure Christian leaders. 143 Society No. 8* To train Christian leadership which can serve adequately in guiding the development of an indigenous culture and national church* Society Wo. 35* Training of Christian leaders and effective reach ing of certain classes not otherwise touched with the gospel* Society No. 31. Training of nationals for self-supporting, self- propagating church* Training of native ministry. The societies whose aim is a complete rounded out i I education within the framework of Christianity . . . i i 25 or 48.0 per cent. The following are typical responses by societies in the third group: Society Wo. 1. Our Christian faith is a religion of light and life and is therefore against ignorance, superstition and cramping customs at all times and in all places. Our God is a God of truth and the Source of all truth, and while the paramount purpose of Christian missionaries is fto reveal the light of the Glory of God in the face of Jesus Christ,* their full- orbed purpose includes the leading of men and women into all truth and into fullness of life. Whatever, therefore, will help to make men and women into better people, better members of their family, better servants of their community, better citizens of the Kingdom of our Lord, is a rightful part of Christian missions. Society Wo. 37. To increase the number of those who understand 144 and practice the religion of Jesus Christ and to help them apply this knowledge to every day living in family, community and state. Society No* 14* To strengthen the Christian church by providing trained leaders* To train Christian men and women for government service, the educational field, and the medical* In short, to train men for service in the church, the state and in the vocations. Society No. 5. In the early days, the primary purpose of establishing of schools was for training leadership for the Christian movement, but with the growth of the work and the spread of Christian influence, our educational plans became more general* Now, we seek to serve the whole community and lift the general level of literacy. Society No. 9. Education for life. We believe that such educa- tionT should be Christian, therefore the evangelistic element enters in, but* is not predominant* One can't teach without some point of view. If it is not Christian point of view, it will be something else. Society No. 12* To provide educational opportunities for people who are without them. To develop Christian leaders for the Christian movement and to develop Christian character in young people and adults where and when possible* Society No* 11* To bring education under Christian auspices with emphasis on Christian implications of the same. Society No. 22* To serve the Christian community by offering 145 rounded education based upon the development of character and religious training with a view to producing leaders in the Christian community who shall be able to play a useful part in the develop ment of national and cultural life and aspirations• Secondly, being an agency through staff and pupils I of contact with the non-Christian community and I thus through Christian service making its impact upon the whole community* Society Ho* 21* 1* To train native teachers and evangelists* 2* To enable the rank and file to use the j tools of education for their spiritual j and secular advancement* i 3. To acquaint the native peoples with other ! cultures of the world and to help them to j appreciate their own culture. t 1* To build an educated membership of the national church* 2* To train leaders. 3. As a contact agency with the non-Christian community* Society No* 30* To bring abundant life to individuals and groups, life which finds expression in family, vocational, community and religious life* This education is carried on in a Christian setting and the Christian faith is commended to students as the key to abundant living* Society No. 39* To cooperate with Chinese colleagues in training Chinese youth in an international outlook and under standing, and in providing these young people with the best tools of modem education— tools to be used in a Christian spirit of service rather than for selfish ends. Society No* 34. 146 Some of the societies which were placed under group three, have attitudes and purposes of such wide scope that in some respects they could be classed under group four, as well. Society No. 39 above, may be given as an example of one such society with just such views as indicated in group four above. In reviewing the responses made by the societies, one finds 27 per cent of those doing educational work, to have as their primary purpose for the establishment of educational work in the mission field,— that of pure evangelization* The following expression by mission society No. 38 illustrates this point of view: tf0ur purpose in every instance is evangelistic. We have other types of endeavor to help In the saving of souls.1 1 Apparently, nearly 17 per cent of the societies could properly be classed In the group which have as their primary aim— the training of Christian leaders or national ministers. The following response by society No. 31, may illustrate this point of view: ^Training of Christian leaders and effective reaching of certain classes not otherwise touched with the gospel.1 1 Although some of the following societies might be classed under group four as well as under group three, we may say that approximately 48 per cent of the 147 societies used in this study have as their primary purpose for the establishment of mission education,— the development of a complete rounded out education within the framework of Christianity* Society Ho. 5 may be used here as an example of this wider purpose. The following is the general purpose of mission educa tion as expressed by this society: 1 1 In early days, the primary purpose of establishing of schools was for training leadership for the Christian movement, but with the growth of the work and the spread of Christian influence, our educational plans became more general. Now, we seek to serve the whole community and lift the general level of literacy*1 1 The following response by one of the societies may serve as an example of an attitude that possesses strong intercultural and sharing elements Society No. 39: To cooperate with Chinese colleagues In training Chinese youth in an international outlook and understanding, and in providing these young people with the best tools of modern education— tools to be used In a Christian spirit of service rather than for selfish ends. II. MISSION EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVE In order to better understand and appreciate 148 responses to question one, another question somewhat similar was asked the mission societies. This question was separated some distance from question one in the questionnaire, and it was also set up in a different manner, but with the same purpose in mind. Question number 2 is given below: Question No* 2 A list of objectives for the establishment of mission education is given below. Blank lines are added so that you may write any other objectives you think should be included. Evaluate the objectives and rank them from the standpoint of your choices, beginning with the most desirable objective, and grading them bn down to the least desirable. 1* For the purpose of teaching the nationals to read the Bible. 2. For the purpose of offering a complete and truly rounded education, according to the conception of education in which the whole of culture is interpreted from the point of view of Christianity. 3. For the purpose of teaching the nationals the doctrines and creeds of the church and conse quently, convert them to membership into the mission church. 4. For the purpose of planting Western civiliza tion upon the mission field. 5. For the purpose of bringing the pupils together where an opportunity may be had for the saving of their souls and preparing them for the next world, (heaven). 6. For the purpose of offering a complete and truly rounded education by serving as an insti tution where various cultures meet and where a 149 synthesis of values is made through the process of mutual sharing and of critical problem solving* 7* For the purpose of offering a sort of bait or enticement in order to bring the pupils to gether so that they may get religious training. 8. For the purpose of training the pupils for future careers within the new religious group of your own mission. 9. ______________________________ ____________ __ 10. In order to pick out the objective considered most valuable by mission societies, only the ones ranking among the five given the highest number of votes were taken. They were ranked in order of preference as Indi cated by the total votes of the societies. Item number two was placed first by 46 per cent of the societies. Others placed it near the top, which is clear indication that objective No. 2 Is the most desirable objective as expressed by the missions included in this study. The final ranking of objectives as indicated by the societies is given below. First choice (objective No. 2) - For the purpose of offering a complete and truly rounded education, according to the conception of education In which the whole of culture is inter preted from the point of view of Christianity. Second choice (objective No. 8) - For the purpose of training the pupils for future 150 careers within the new religious group of your own mission. Third choice (objective No. 1) - For the purpose of teaching the nationals to read the Bible. Fourth choice (Both objectives No. 3 and No. 5) - No. 3: For the purpose of teaching the nationals the doctrines and creeds of the Church and conse quently, convert them to membership into the mission church. No. 5: For the purpose of bringing the pupils together where an opportunity may be had for the saving of their souls and preparing them for the next world (heaven). It should be noted that in question one, in discussing purposes, the largest number of societies chose as their primary purpose for the establishment of mission education— the development of a complete rounded out education within the framework of Christianity. The objective of first choice in question two apparently expresses a similar thought as a policy or purpose. III. THE HEART OR CENTER OF RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE It is undoubtedly true that one*s basic beliefs concerning the nature of reality as it pertains to religion and religious experiences, as well as in other respects, are dynamic forces, which to a very large degree, help to determine the pattern and purposes of 151 his activities* The motivating power of religion is aptly expressed by Houf, The motivation of individual and group life is one of the major functions of religion. In j recent times it has become increasingly clear 1 that religion involves a valuing attitude ! toward life, its interests and activities. Prom the earliest primitive times until now, religion has been identified with the choosing of values which are of group Importance and the rejection of those which are anti-social or too narrowly individual.2 I I In this study, it was felt that since religious j beliefs are such powerful motivating forces, they no doubt are guiding factors that help In the formulation of mission educational policies. Consequently, it seemed necessary to try to determine the general religious beliefs of mission societies in helping to determine the general direction their educational policies and activi ties take* The following question is concerned with the meaning of true religious experience: Question No. 5 Which one of the following statements most ade quately explains what you consider as the essential core or heart of all real religious experience? p Horace T. Houf, What Religion is and Does: An Introduction to the Study of Its Prolslems and values (New York and London: Harper and Brothers, 1935), P* 28. 152 a* It Is found in the ultimate and authoritative truth which originates in an unceasing and active God, and which is revealed through Jesus Christ who makes it possible for immediate relationship of the individual soul with God. ......... () b. In religious experience the individual stands In communication with the best in the universe* The result being a kind of experience in which intellect, will and feeling, all our conscious ness together, fuse and become integrated *•*.. .................. () c* It is found in the ultimate truth which originates in a God of un ceasing activity, and which is revealed to mankind through his universal religious consciousness, and through great religious leaders such as Jesus, Buddha, Lao-Tze, etc., and Is not specific religion or institution • . • ( ) d. Other ( ) The following shows the pattern of responses: Number of societies checking (a) • • 39 or 75.0 per cent Number of societies checking (b) . • 2 or 3.8 per cent Number of societies checking (c) . . 2 or 3.8 per cent Number of societies checking (a,b) . 1 Number of societies commenting only. 2 The following are comments made by some of the societies: Society No. 9 checked (a) and commented: I have checked *af but I think It goes beyond that in making clearer the personality of God, and the Uniqueness of the Revelation which God made in Christ. 153 Society Ho. 12 checked (b) and commented: (b) is checked on the assumption that a theistic interpretation of the universe is implied rather than a humanistic. Society Ho. 14 checked (a) and commented: We hold firmly to this--that there Is only one God and only one Savior, Jesus Christ. We also believe that non-Christian religious experiences are not on par with Christian religious experiences. They cannot be if we are consistent monotheists. Society Ho. 22 checked (a) and commented: Divine truth is not a synthesis, but a direct revelation; *Holy men of God spake as they were moved by the Holy Ghost.1 *Men search after Him if haply they may find Him,1 but * truth and grace came through Jesus Christ.* Society Ho. 30 checked none but made this interesting comment: The essential core of all religious experience is man*s conscious contact with God. *b* is re garded as valid and desirable but lacking the dynamic of a focus upon God; other religions bring this experience in some measure; the revelation of God through Jesus Christ Is the most valid and satisfying we know. Society Ho. 37 made no check but commented: I could answer this personally, but not as a Board executive. I therefore consider it irrelevant. Society Ho. 41 checked (a) and commented: Jesus alone is the Way, the Truth and the Life. Society Ho. 15 checked (c) and commented: My personal reaction is that (c) is nearest right, but that Jesus more perfectly revealed ultimate truth, though Buddha, Lao Tze and ethers have also discovered and taught parts of truth. X54 Society No* 43 checked (a) and commented: We would unquestionably repudiate (c) above* Society No* 46 checked (a) and commented: (c), (b), and (a), in the order mentioned, might j well mark progressive stages in the spiritual I development of a national* It is clearly evident that most of the societies doing educational work have the following belief with reference to the essential core or heart of all real religious experience: !>It is found in the ultimate and authoritative truth which originates in an unceasing and active God, and which is revealed through Jesus Christ who makes it possible for immediate relationship of the individual soul with God*t f Seventy five per cent of the societies checked this item* Items (b) and (c) were each checked by two societies* IV* CHRISTIANITY AND THE INDIGENOUS TRADITIONS The intercultural attitudes of mission societies may be revealed, to a considerable extent, by the considerations they give to the religious and social traditions of the peoples in the mission fields. What are the attitudes of mission societies in this respect? The writer attempted to discover some of these attitudes 155 toy analyzing the responses to the following question: Question No. 4 With reference to the religious and social tradi tions of the peoples of the mission field: a* It is recommended that the national tradi tions toe radically (completely and un compromisingly) displaced toy Christianity* ( ) to* It Is recommended that the traditions which are considered sacred by the nationals toe preserved, and a gradual synthesis take place of tooth Christianity and the best of the national religion* * . ( ) c* It Is recommended that these traditions toe respected and preserved only for a time, when only those customs which are in harmony with the Christian teaching, will toe kept..........••••••••••() The following is a pattern of the responses toy the societies: Number of societies checking (a) * * 7 or 13*4 per cent Number of societies checking (to) . • 5 or 9*6 per cent Number of societies checking (c) * • 24 or 46.0 per cent Number of societies commenting only. 8 The following are comments made toy some of the societies: Society No* 9 made no check tout commented: You seem to equate national traditions and national religion* Briefly, anything that is valuable and can toe Christianized, should be pre served* There should toe no synthesis of pagan and Christian elements* Society No* 14 checked (c) and commented: It is my belief that it is for the Chinese 156 Christians themselves to work out their own synthesis. I found many times that customs, etc., which appealed to me as a foreigner, did not appeal to my Chinese friends and vice versa. I believe in making all our schools Christian in character and practice, Society Ho# 21 checked (c) and commented: We gather everything in the realm of traditions, folklore, mythology and the ethnology of the people# We believe in keeping native people acquainted with their heritage. Native readers, at cetera, are composed of such materials# Society No. 24 made no check but commented: j Religious traditions— in most cases should not j be preserved. Clean break usually needed. Social ; traditions— to be preserved. Society No. 28 made no check but commented: | i Synthesis is not desirable# Keep all the customs and traditions you can if they do not compromise the Christian position. Society No. 30 checked (c) and commented: It is not the church but the inroads of Western civilization which is breaking up the old culture# We hope to provide a new Integration. Society No. 32 checked (a) and commented: This applies to traditions that are at variance with principles of Christianity. Harmless and indifferent traditions are not considered essential. Society No. 8 checked (a) and commented: In the fields we serve, the national traits cannot well be reconciled with Christian ideals. Society No. 33 checked (c) and commented: This would be excellent for the United States of America, too. 157 Society No. 36 checked (c) commented: We do not seek to change customs unless they are anti-Christian. If any are neutral, then give the Christian content to them* Society No* 17 made no check but commented: In some areas a definite break. In some areas a synthesis* Society No* 25 made no check but commented: It is recommended that all national religious traditions be examined and if at all possible, be harmonized with the Word of God, by washing them and filling with Christian content. Social tradi tions, not sinful, may be retained. Society No. 23 made no check but commented: Depends upon whether or not these traditions are anti-Christian. Society No. 43 checked (a) and commented: I would think, however, instead of radical change, our attitude would be to peimit certain traditions to stand, but only those that are not violations of the Christian way and those not contrary to and out of harmony with Christian teaching. Society No. 45 made no check but commented: Many national traditions are not of a religious nature; they are not un-Christian and may be preserved to great benefit* When true Christianity Is presented, the traditions of false religion will disappear as darkness before light. Approximately 85 per cent of the societies included In this study, responded to this question; nearly 13 per cent of the societies indicated that they hold to the view that national traditions be radically 158 displaced by Christianity* Approximately 10 per cent of the societies believe that the traditions which are considered sacred by the nationals should be preserved, and that a gradual synthesis take place of both Christianity and the best of the national religion. The largest number of societies seem to hold to the third position— that the traditions be respected and preserved only for a time, when only those customs which are in harmony with the Christian teaching, will be kept* Forty-six per cent of the societies checked this re sponse. Societies 9, 23, 25, 28 and 45 made no checks but according to their comments it would appear that they should be included with those checking (c). In this case, the number of those responding to (c) would be approximately 56 per cent. V. EXTENT OF RELIGIOUS FREEDOM WITHIN THE MISSION SCHOOL Mission purposes are further expressed quite clearly In the attitudes that are taken in connection with pupil enrollment in the school. What pupils are accepted? Does the mission society lay down specific requirements as to the candidate’s religious faith? How much freedom Is he allowed in arriving at his own 159 religious conclusions? Is he isolated from the so-called Christian pupils in school privileges until he becomes a Christian, alsof These are some of the questions for which an answer was sought in the following inquiry: Question go# 5 To what extent Is it recommended that the pupils in the mission school be left free to adhere to the religion of their own group or country, without loss of standing in the school and without sacrifice \ of any of its privileges?: a. A pupil may enroll and keep his father1s religion, but he is made to understand that he can have full privileges of the school only when he accepts the religion of the mission............. b* No issue is made concerning religious adherence* Pupils are merely requested to cooperate In the school functions, with the hope that they will acquire a sound method for critical thinking and of problem solving, rather than being required to adhere to any particular creed or doctrine............................() c. Pupils who enroll in the school, and who are not already members of the mission church, must indicate a willingness and a desire to become members • •••••••{) The following will indicate the pattern of re sponses: Number of societies checking (a) • . 0 Number of societies checking (b) • . 27 or 52 per cent Number of societies checking (c) . . 6 or 11*5 per cent Number of societies making only comments . * 9 160 The following are comments made by some of the societies: Society Ho. 2 checked (b) and commented: We generally follow »bf but with requirement of full compliance with regulations, including attending Bible classes and religious services. Society No. 9 checked (b) and commented: j There must of necessity be some limitation to j offset propaganda that would destroy the purpose of the school. ’There is no such thing as absolute | academic freedom.1 j Society No. 14 checked (b) and commented: | j It has been our practice to allow religious j freedom in the schools, but in order to create a Christian atmosphere the majority of the students i have been Christians. | Society No. 20 made no check but commented: Our primary purpose in educational work is to lead the pupils to Christ* Society No. 21 made no check but commented: Pagan boys and girls are acceptable. Acceptance of Christianity is voluntary. Society No. 24 made no check but commented: No pressure is made. We keep a high percentage of our students Christians to keep the spirit of the school and hope this plus teaching will Influence the non-Christians. Society No. 30 made no check but commented: It is recommended that the Christian spirit be embodied in every aspect of school life and that Christianity be presented as intelligently and winsomely as possible; that pupils be free to choose without loss of standing or sacrifice of privilege, If they do not become Christian;— that they be respected whatever their faith. 161 Society No* 32 checked (b), and commented: It is thought any system of rewarding them for becoming adherents to Christianity tends toward hypocrisy* Leaving it to themselves freely to choose as they grasp the principles of Christianity is considered best method* Society No* 8 made no check but commented: No distinctions are made in privileges offered scholars, but all children alike are helped and encouraged to gain true Christian experience of God and of eternal life* Society No* 36 checked (b) and commented: Bible Is offered* No one is required to take the course, but most of the pupils do* Society No* 7 made no check but commented: Our schools are for saved folk only— We have so many we can’t invite others* Society No* 44 made no check but commented: A pupil may enroll and keep his father’s religion* He is given complete school privileges and required to cooperate in school functions, with the hope that he will see the superiority of the Christian religion and later accept Christ* To question five, approximately 81 per cent of the societies responded* None of the societies checked response (a)* The largest number of mission societies checked (b), which says, t t No Issue is made concerning religious adherence* Pupils are merely requested to cooperate In the school functions, with the hope that they will acquire sound method for critical thinking and 162 of problem solving rather than being required to adhere to any particular creed or doctrine*1 1 Nearly 52 per centj checked this response* Societies No* 21 and No* 30 j checked no responses, but their comments indicate that l j they most likely should be included with the ones j i checking (b). In this case the number of societies holding to the policy indicated in (b) would approximate 56 per cent. Response (c) states, "Pupils who enroll in the school, and who are not already members of the mission church, must indicate a willingness and a desire to become members." This mission policy is held by approxi mately 15 per cent of the societies. Two societies merely commented without checking responses. However, since their views are similar to (c) the percentage is raised from 11.5 per cent to the number of 15 per cent making a response to (c). VI* SUMMARY Increased knowledge in the various branches of learning, together with recent research in connection with races and cultures, has made it essential that mission societies do some rethinking of their mission endeavors and activities. 165 Just as educational work in America and other similar endeavors must be based upon a pattern of philo sophical thinking in order to achieve success, so like wise, if mission education is to achieve success, it must be based on sound educational theory* In attempting to discover some of the basic beliefs and purposes upon which mission societies build the structure of their mission educational endeavors, certain questions were presented to the mission socie ties for their responses* These questions centered in the following issues or problems: 1* The primary purpose and objectives for the establishment of mission education. 2* The central core or heart of all real religious experience* 3* The attitude to take concerning the religious and social traditions of the people In the mission field* 4* The extent to which pupils in the mission school should be left free to adhere to the religions of their own group or country? In reviewing mission responses in connection with problem one, it was found that nearly 48 per cent of the societies have as their primary purpose for the establish ment of mission education,— the development of a com plete rounded out education within the framework of Christianity* Apparently, it is important to these 164 societies that the pattern of Christianity he seen and felt in every phase of the mission educational work. Pure evangelism as the main purpose for mission education was expressed hy nearly one fourth of the societies or 27 per cent. ( i Prom the comments by a few of the societies, one i notices some elements in the purposes expressed which i I i are of the wider intercultural and of a sharing nature. ; In ranking objectives for the establishment of j i mission education, it is clearly evident that most of the i societies selected as objective number one, the following,j "For the purpose of offering a complete and truly rounded education, according to the conception of education In which the whole of culture is interpreted from the point of view of Christian!ty." In considering the problem of the center of real religious experience, it was found that most of the societies or nearly 75 per cent, hold to the view that, "It is found in the ultimate and authoritative truth which originates in an unceasing and active God, and which is revealed through Jesus Christ who makes it possible for Immediate relationship of the individual soul with God.n It is apparent that the largest number of 165 societies i.e., 46 per cent hold to the view that the religious and social traditions of the peoples in the mission fields should he respected and preserved only for a time, when only those customs which are in harmony with the Christian teaching will be kept* Approximately 10 per cent of the societies recommend that the tradi tions which are considered sacred by the nationals be preserved, and a gradual synthesis take place of both Christianity and the best of the national religion* Concerning the extent to which pupils are to be left free to make their own religious choices, it was found that most of the mission societies indicated that, f , No issue is made concerning religious adherence* Pupils are merely requested to cooperate in the school function^ with the hope that they will acquire a sound method for critical thinking and of problem solving, rather than being required to adhere to any particular creed or doctrine.“ Approximately 12 per cent of the societies expressed their concern that pupils who enroll must indicate a willingness and a desire to become members of the mission church* CHAPTER VII MISSION EDUCATIONAL POLICIES AND GOOD INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION The preceding chapters dealt primarily with exiting mission policies. An endeavor was made to get a pattern of present day mission activities as indicated by these policies. In the present chapter, an attempt will be made to evaluate the existing mission policies in the light of sound educational principles and practices of a good intercultural nature, I It is assumed that the same principles of learning operate in the lives of people throughout the world. Prom studies made by the writer concerning the psychology of unlettered people, together with the experience of ten years as an educational missionary, the above con clusion has been reached, ”The fundamental unity and similarity of mankind--above minor and group differ- ences--is becoming scientifically established,”^ The intercultural attitude and practice is also the democratic attitude. Gunnar Myrdal, American Dilemma (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1944), p, 115, 167 A society which makes provision for participation in its good of all its members on equal terms and which secures flexible readjustment of its insti tutions through interaction of the different forms of associated life is insofar democratic. Such a society must have a type of education which gives individuals a personal interest in social relation- ■ ships and control, and the habits of mind which ' secure social changes without introducing disorder.2 The writer feels that, with the available body of present day knowledge concerning racial, religious, cultural and intercultural values, together with the consciousness of the present world situation, it be hooves all mission societies to rethink very seriously their mission aims and practices. Burton Henry, who recently completed a very valuable research endeavor concerning intercultural knowledge and attitudes of prospective teachers, concluded with this remark, Individuals with very unfavorable intercultural attitudes no more belong in the classroom than if they had chicken pox; both are equally communi cable. In other words, the state must make sure that those who presume to teach all the children of all the people should first of all care for all the people.3 Is it any less important that mission societies be concerned that people who are sent as ambassadors of 2 John Dewey, Democracy and Education, p. 115. 3 Burton Henry, Intercultural Knowledge and Attitudes of Prospective Teachers in the United States. {A Dissertation, University of SouFEern California, Los Angeles, California, 1948), p. 344. 168 some of the highest values be equipped with the most essential intercultural knowledge and attitudes? The procedure followed in evaluating mission policies and practices was to appraise thou from the standpoint of educational principles and practices which are generally accepted by qualified thinkers and leaders in the field, as promoting good interpersonal and inter cultural relations* In addition to this basis, a qualified jury was asked to evaluate some of the most vital policies and aims of mission societies* This jury was composed of persons with outstanding ability and recognition in the fields of Intercultural relations, sociology and race relations, educational philosophy, educational psychology, school administration, philosophy of religion and comparative religions, psychology of religion, and interdenominational and Inter-faith rela tions* Mission purposes and aims, will be considered first, followed by an evaluation of the policies con cerning qualification and training of mission personnel, administrative policies, and the mission school curri culum* 169 I. EVALUATION OP EDUCATIONAL AIMS AND PURPOSES OP MISSION SOCIETIES All activity is governed by aims of one kind or another— ready made and imposed from without, or as a part of the activity itself* In mission education, curriculum and administrative policies and other activi ties assume the directions they follow as a result of these aims and purposes* It almost goes without argument that the selection of curriculum and methods of Instruc tion, being instances of ways and means, must await a decision first as to what the parent or teacher Is trying to do, what he is aiming at .4 Since aims and purposes hold such a vital place In the direction of one’s activities, it becomes very necessary that mission societies make sure that their aims and purposes are chosen intelligently. At the International Missionary Council5 meeting held In Jerusalem in 1928, the meeting made the follow ing statement and then listed the main objectives of the 4 John S* Brubacher, National Society for the Study of Education, Forty First Yearbook, Part I, p. 290. 5 Jerusalem Meeting of the International Mission ary Council, March 24-April 8, 1928, The Christian Mission in Relation to Rural Problems (New York City; International Missionary Council, 1§28), Vol. VI, pp. 245-247. mission enterprise: In this endeavor, we realize that man is a unity, and that his spiritual life is indivisibly rooted in all his conditions— physical, mental, and social* We are therefore desirous that the program of missionary work among all peoples may be sufficiently comprehensive, to serve the whole man in every aspect of his life and relationships* The following are the main objectives given: 1* The development of Christian character, Christian fellowship, and Christian service. 2. Healthy living in a healthful environment. 3. The effective cultivation of the physical resources necessary to the food supply and the sound economic development of people In villages and in the open country. 4. The improvement of family life through a knowledge of such home activities as the care of children, food, sleeping facilities, sanitation, and all that centers about the life of women and children. 5. A social attitude toward neighbors which makes possible sincere cooperation despite obstacles of religion, nationality, race, color or language. 6. The constant recreation of personality- physical, mental, and spiritual— which may be gained not only from a sound use of leisure time, but from an appreciation of the beautiful, the good and the inspiring in nature and In humanity. In the preceding chapter it was noted that the following are some of the primary purposes and aims for mission education as expressed by existing mission societies: 171 1. For the purpose of offering a complete and truly rounded education according to the conception of education in which the whole of culture is interpreted from the point of view of Christianity. 2. For the purpose of training the pupils for future careers within the new religious group of your own mission. 3. For the purpose of teaching the nationals to read the Bible. 4. For the purpose of teaching the nationals the doctrines and creeds of the church and con sequently, convert them to membership into the mission church. 5. For the purpose of bringing the pupils to gether where an opportunity may be had for the saving of their souls and preparing them for the next world (heaven). 6. For the purpose of offering a complete and truly rounded education by serving as an institution where various cultures meet and where a synthesis of values is made through the process of mutual sharing and of critical problem solving. 7. For the purpose of offering a sort of bait or enticement in order to bring the pupils together so that they may get religious training. Each of the above aims was given quite high ranking by some of the mission groups. However, ob jective or purpose number one was given first place by most of the mission societies. Criteria of good aims. Let us consider the criteria for deciding upon 172 good aims for mission education— aims that will result in satisfactory interpersonal and intercultural rela tions and in an enrichment of the total fabric of mankind, John Dewey presents three criteria for the judging of good aims: 1* The aim set up must be an outgrowth of existing conditions# It must be based upon a considera tion of what is already going on; upon the resources and difficulties of the situation* 2# An aim must be flexible; it must be capable of alteration to meet circumstances# * . * A good aim surveys the present state of experi ence of pupils, and forming a tentative plan of treatment, keeps the plan constantly in view and yet modifies it as conditions develop# 3. The aim must always represent a freeing of activity* . * . In other words, the external idea of the aim leads to a separation of means from end, while an end which grows up within an activity as plan for its direction is always both ends and means, the distinction being only one of convenience.6 Using the criteria for judging good aims as given by John Dewey, let us look at the objective or aim of mission education which was given first place by most mission societies. It Is stated as follows: For the purpose of offering a complete and truly rounded educa tion according to the conception of education in which the whole of culture is interpreted from the point of g John Dewey, 0£. cit*, pp# 121-124. 173 view of Christianity, The first criterion states that ^The aim set up must be an outgrowth of existing conditions**1 It would seem that the first part of the mission aim,— * * Por the purpose of offering a complete and truly rounded education,*1 would fit the first criterion of Dewey, quite well. But what about the second part of the mission aim? This says, * yaccording to the con ception of education in which the whole of culture Is interpreted from the point of view of Christianity*1 1 It may be true that one who has lived in a Christian environment for many years will unconsciously see things from the standpoint of this "frame of reference,** or training* However, if an educational missionary inter prets every situation from the standpoint of his own pattern of thinking, (in this case, the Christian interpretation), is he doing justice to the criterion which says, **The aim set up must be an outgrowth of existing conditions**? What are the existing conditions In the mission fieldf It seems fair to say that the mission educator who approaches his work with his mind already set in a stereotyped pattern as to how every situation is to be decided upon, will be unable to sense the existing conditions. The writer recalls an experi ence he had in the mission field which quite clearly 174 illustrates this stereotyped pattern of thought. A certain missionary who apparently was very devoted to his aims and objectives of pure evangelism,— the winning of converts to his conception of Christianity, visited a certain tribe for the purpose of holding a religious service. When he arrived at the appointed spot, he noted to his surprise, that a group of Africans had already arrived and were engaged in a customary African dance* i In their usual fashion, the dancers had placed their j t walking sticks and clubs in a pile in the center of the ! clearing. The dance had already begun when the devoted missionary arrived on the scene. His sense of Christian obligation became intensified, and with a vehemence which he termed righteous indignation, he proceeded to force his way through the milling dancers and then to scatter the walking sticks and clubs with his feet. Out of surprise and respect for the uniform of the missionary, the dancers ceased from dancing and allowed the mission ary the opportunity of going ahead with his religious service. The missionary’s attitude of ’ ’religious sadism1 1 apparently was not sufficiently gratified by this one occasion, for he repeatedly spoke of this incident in a boasting manner. He seemed to feel that God was pleased that he was courageous enough to break up what he termed a heathen and unholy custom* Now, let us look at the second criterion with reference to the mission aim under consideration. This criterion states, ”An aim must be flexible; it must be capable of alteration to meet circumstances* According to this criterion, then, a mission educator who goes to the field must be prepared to adjust and possibly modify his established notions and beliefs in accordance with the requirements of the situation— realizing that there is the very likelihood that he himself may learn considerably from the situation. Griterion number three says, ftThe aim must always represent a freeing of activity. * . • In other words, the external idea of the aim leads to a separation of means from end, while an end which grows up within an activity as plan for its direction is always both ends and means, the distinction being one of convenience.w In contrast to this freeing of activity is the frozen or static character of aims which are imposed from outside the activity itself. Where activity is allowed the proper kind of freedom, there is the possibility that unforeseen aims, purposes, and values will originate which have much greater worth than the original or im posed outside aim. In the case of the above mission aim 176 which is under discussion, it may be said that there is the possibility that with established Christian aims and purposes imposed from without, there is little opportunity for the development of an enriched indigenous cultural J complex. Values which otherwise might be added to the j missionaries1 conception of Christianity would be lost. j Will any one of the seven objectives listed ful- j fill the requirements as a good aim for mission educa tion? The writer feels that number six most nearly J I approaches the requirements. It is stated thus; wFor i the purpose of offering a complete and truly rounded education by serving as an institution where various cultures meet and where a synthesis of values is made through the process of mutual sharing and of critical problem solving.1 1 The aim set up, here, is an “outgrowth of existing conditions,” it is flexible; and it allows for the freeing of activity. It seems that none of the other objectives so readily fulfills the requirements of the above criteria. Some may react to the above discussion by exclaim ing that an Injustice is done to Christianity if it is not set up as the ultimate and final standard and frame of reference for all mission activities. On the other hand, may it not be said that a much greater injustice is 177 done to Christianity or any body of knowledge for that matter, when it is set up as the w3ummum bonum*1 or the measure of all things. For, when one does this, he auto- i matically constructs a static wall around his present j ! conceived pattern and prevents a clarification and re- j I thinking of his position, which ought and can take place < ] only by a sharing and interaction with other minds and j with other cultures# j Let us see what the decision of the jury is con- j earning mission educational objectives or aims which encourage wholesome learning and good intercultural relations# When the list of objectives for mission educa tion were submitted to the qualified jury, for their responses, it was found that the following objective was given prime importance: For the purpose of offering a complete and truly rounded education by serving as an institution where various cultures meet and where a synthesis of values is made through the process of mutual sharing and of critical problem solving# Since the above objective seems to fulfill the criteria for good aims and since the jury also chose it as the best objective for mission education, it seems reasonable to conclude that mission societies which desire the highest good in their educational work will 178 make this objective their primary concern. Evaluation of religious experiences. The next point for consideration under mission i i I aims and purposes is that of religious experience. The | rj 1 following question7was asked mission societies as was noted in Chapter VI:" j Which one of the following statements most ' adequately explains what you consider as the essential core or heart of all real religious experience?: ! I a. It is found in the ultimate and authoritative j truth which originates in an unceasing and active God, and which Is revealed through Jesus Christ who makes it possible for immediate relationship of the individual soul with God* b. In religious experience the individual stands In communication with the best in the uni verse* The result being a kind of experience in which intellect, will and feeling, all our consciousness and all our subconscious ness together, fuse and become integrated. c. It is found in the ultimate truth which originates in a God of unceasing activity, and which is revealed to mankind through his universal religious consciousness, and through great religious leaders such as Jesus, Buddha, Lao-Tze, etc., and is not confined to a revelation through any specific religion or institution. It was noticed that 75 per cent of the mission 7 See p. 151, this study. 179 societies checked (a) as indicating what they believed to be the heart of religious experience* When this same question was presented to the jury, the responses checked were (b) and (c). Five of the members checked (c); four checked (b); two checked both (b) and (c). One of the jury who checked both (c) and (b) made this comment: HNot either b or e, but both b and c* They are comple mentary and essential to a balanced philosophy of faith*n It seems that whether one holds firmly to the idea expressed in (a) or whether he sees greatest values in (b) or (c), has significant bearing on intercultural possibilities. Religion is supposed to develop harmony and understanding, among men* But, in many instances, instead of doing this, it seems to have created a wider chasm of differences* Is this the fault of religion as such, or is it rather the result of an immature concep tion of what is the central oore or heart of real religious experience? ^Religion Is a passion for righteousness, and for the spread of righteousness, conceived as a cosmic demand* • • • The passion for righteousness is not a capacity of special men or races* It belongs to the psychology of man; that is, it is the response of human nature everywhere as it faces its finite situation in the great world. This passion is 180 certainly not equally distributed; in some persons it rises to the point of genius; many appear dull, and many more acquire dullness to the total situation, on the plausible plea that we can neither know nor do anything about it. But there are no natively unreligious peoples j i or individuals.f f ® ! If mankind everywhere possesses a universal ! religious consciousness, it would seem that by acquiring j I i a better understanding of the significance of this j religious consciousness and of the meaning of all real , j religious experience, that the apparent-global differ- I ences between the various peoples would be better appreci- / ated and consequently given their true value. In proportion as any religion grows in self- understanding through grasping its own essence, it grasps the essence of all religion and gains in power to interpret Its various forms.9 As opposed to Hocking*a idea of world brotherhood of world raindedness, and of true understanding of cultural values wherever found by getting at the essence of their values, we have the view of Kraemer. Kraemerfs view is shared by those who would begin at the root of ® W. E. Hocking, Living Religions and a World Faith (Hew York: The Macmillan Company, 1940) p. 26. 9 Ibid., p. 198. 181 an indigenous religion in the mission field and proceed to radically replace it by Christianity. The following expresses Kraemer*s view; The crucial fact on which alone a missionary movement can rest is that God has revealed the Way in Jesus Christ and wills this to be known through all the world. The conviction that this is the case is not to be defended by argument; it is a matter of faith. Ultimate convictions never rest on a universally lucid and valid argument. To adhere to a certain view of life has always meant a choice and a decision.3-0 Undoubtedly, people who hold to Kraemer*s position are not fully aware of the significance of religion in the lives of people. The whole social structure in many instances is bound up in the religion of the country— marriage customs, funeral rites, various festivals, etc., etc. So when missionaries consciously or ignorantly attempt to obliterate what they describe as an un christian and consequently a f f heathen” and evil religion, they are often destroying the very fabric of the national*s life. In such a procedure, it seems that the very essence of Christianity is lost sight of. The mission tries to make a particular religion universal. The new interest is to escape particu larity and localism, finding in religions what Is already universal. The urgency behind it is not Hendrik Kraemer, The Christian Message in a Non- Christian World (London: Edinburgh House Press, i§58T* p. 107. 182 that of the propagandist, but that of world citizenship. There is a universal science; there should be a universal law; why may we not also expect a world faithfH In the preceding chapter, the following question was asked: With reference to the religious and social traditions of the peoples in the mission field: a* It is recommended that the national traditions be radically (completely and uncompromisingly) displaced by Christianity. b. It is recommended that the traditions which are considered sacred by the nationals be preserved, and a gradual synthesis take place of both Christianity and the best of the national religion* c* It is recommended that these traditions be respected and preserved only for a time, when only those customs which are in harmony with the Christian teaching, will be kept. As was already noted, 13 per cent of the societies selected (a); 10 per cent chose (b) and 46 per cent chose (c). Of course one would naturally expect most of the societies to choose (c) which is quite In accordance with the mission aim or objective which judges everything, using Christianity or the missionary^ conception of Christianity as the frame of reference. When the question above was given to the jury for their analysis and choice, all members checked (b) as the 11 Hocking, o£. cit., p. 21. practice which would produce the greatest success from the standpoint of good intercultural relations, and of world harmony and of true progress. Evaluation of policies concerning religious freedom in the school. Question five^ in chapter VI dealt with the attitude which mission educators take in regard to the pupils and their relationship to the religious functions of the school. The largest number of societies chose (b), which says f f No issue is, made concerning religious adherence. Pupils are merely requested to cooperate in the school functions, with the hope that they will acquire a sound method for critical thinking and of problem solving rather than being required to adhere to any particular creed or doctrine.r f Item (b) was also chosen by all the members of the jury. This result undoubtedly strongly indicates that in a school where there Is the desire for good Interpersonal relations and wholesome learning that the policy indicated in item (b) should be followed out In practice. If pupils In the mission school are encouraged to 12 See p. 159, this study. 184 arrive at their decisions through intelligent thought and action, the result will be good and sound learning# There is no valid substitute for real thought as the promoter of important decisions. In the type of mission now before us, two fundamental laws of education have been commonly slighted: Use what is there; speak to the questions in the students1 mind. Use what is there; study the background of the students, and conserve every valuable element of habit and tradition. Speak to his questions, not yours. Nothing that you say will be more than a formula for the student until the question that is answered has arisen in his mind, through his own experience. Both of these laws demand a studious immersion of the mind of the missionary, not merely into the facts, but into the meanings of the social and traditional context of the convertfs life; They require the missionary to be a positive, not a negative, inter preter of those meanings. They imply immense patience, a willingness to accept very slow growth, and a creative insight into the spirit of alien customs which Is a rare gift among men.13 II. EVALUATION OP POLICIES CONCERNING THE QUALIFICATIONS AND TRAINING OP MISSION EDUCATIONAL PERSONNEL If the educational endeavors in the mission field are to be such that they are truly meaningful and stimu lators of wholesome learning, it would seem that the 13 I. L. Kandel, Educational Yearbook of the International Institute of Teachers CollegeT Columbia University (1933), p. 15. 185 educational personnel should be of the highest type* It has been well said that it takes two journeys to bring a missionary to his life work* The first is a journey of ten thousand miles to the foreign land. The second Is a journey of ten feet to bridge the social distance separating him from the people* There has been a great difference between missionaries with respect to this last journey# Some make itj others fail. The platform upon which the preacher stands, the office desk behind which the administrator sits, the walls of the mission compound, the table from behind which the teacher addresses his pupils, these and many other apparent | incidentals, may maintain a social distance over i which the missionary may never succeed in passing, ] limiting him to secondary and formal relationships. j In so far as this is true, benevolence still i remains a sacred hand-out and possibly a hand-down.14 Essential qualities in educational missionaries. In Chapter an attempt was made to find out what qualities are considered most essential in an educa tional missionary# Seventy-nine per cent of the societies chose the following quality as the most essential: 1 1 Has a deep sense of his Christian vocation and is very devout in his personal religious life.1 1 When the same question was presented to the jury, the following was the rank order of importance given to the qualities listed: Archibald G. Baker, Christian Missions and a Few World Culture (Chicago and Now York: Willett, Cork & Company, 1934), p. 295. 15 Sea pp. 109-113, this study. 186 1st choice: Possesses a sharing attitude, and works democratically with his colleagues and people of other cultures* 2nd choice: Has the ability to understand the mind and thinking of the nationals* 3rd choice: Possesses a good general education of at least college level* 4th choice: Is very versatile and resourceful* 5th choice: Is free from feelings of racial superiority* i The following qualities were included by some members of 1 the jury among the five most important: j Cooperates with other societies in the field toward | common goals* — Selected by three jury members. | Has a deep sense of his Christian vocation and is very devout in his personal religious life. — Selected by one jury member* Has had considerable training in religious education, including a good knowledge of the Bible. — Selected by two jury members. Is cheerful and possesses a good sense of humor. — Selected by one jury member. Is a well trained teacher in his subject specialty.— Selected by one jury member. The following are some comments made by jury members in connection with essential qualities: Jury member number (5) made the following statement and gave it first place: "Knowledge of language, culture, and history of the land he is assigned to." Jury member number (3) placed the following quality 187 in first place: "Quite mature emotionally with a great capacity for compassion." This same member placed number (12) in second place with the following remark: "I interpret this to include number (10)." By birth and ancestry, I am American; by choice and belief, I am a Christian; but by the years of my life, my sympathy and feeling, I am a Chinese. As a Chinese, I say to you what many Chinese have said to me: *Come to us no more in arrogance of spirit. Come to us as brothers and fellowmen. Let us see in you how your religion works. Preach to us no more, but share with us that better and more abundant life which your Christ lived. Give us your best or nothing.1 Procedures followed in selecting educational missionaries. How are mission societies going to select mission educators with the required qualities? It seems that with the knowledge of what qualities are considered most essential, an effort should be made to choose candidates who rank high in these qualities. In addition to the methods used by mission societies for the selection of missionaries, more attention should be paid to the candi date^ personality, his attitudes, philosophy of life, prejudices, etc. It appears that in the past, mission societies have woefully neglected these essentials. Pearl S. Buck, Isi There a Case For Missions (New York: The John Day Company, 1^32), p. 30. Mission societies might make use of some of the following tests until other tests are available for measuring the specific qualities desired: E. S. Bogardus - Social Distance Scale L. L. Thurstone - Scales Grice Remmers - Scales Progressive Education Association - Scale of Beliefs G* B. Watson - Opinions on Race Relations* E* G* Hunter - A Test of Social Attitudes In addition to the above tests, many personality tests and intelligence tests are available including other valuable tests* Many of these tests are listed and evaluated in the Mental Measurements Yearbook of Nineteen-Forty, by 0. K. Buros* Level of education required* As one of the five essential qualities of a good educational missionary, the jury indicated that he should possess a good general education of at least college level. Approximately 50 per cent of the mission societies stated the same requirement in their responses* It seems that this level of education should not be considered high when one realizes the important postion In which the educator is placed* 189 Orientation requirements. In order that the educational missionary may he properly oriented interculturally, he needs more than a mere basic general education* The jury as well as the more progressive mission societies indicated that the following should be required of prospective mission educators: a. Orientation in the language of the field. b. Orientation in the history of the people of the field. c. Orientation in the cultures and the religions of the field. In addition to the above requirements, some of the jury members made the following suggestions as requirements: Jury member No. (1) "An understanding of anthropo logical mat ter s.1 * Jury member No. (2) "Some knowledge of actual condi tions in the field." Jury member No. (4) "Presuming that *b» and *0* are presented in an objective, scholarly fashion, not in an indoctrinatlonal manner." 190 Jury member Ho. (5) "Contacts with representatives of the people in the United States ., f Jury member No. (6) "Orientation in the field of race relations, intercultural relations.1 1 It is little less than tragic that the young missionaries are not prepared for their work by some study of the culture and the psychology and the religion of the people with whom they seek to work. During the last few years numbers of young men and women of more than ordinary ability have resigned from the mission force, only after a few years of missionary service. In my opinion, much of the disillusionment on the part of the volunteers and much of the economic loss to the church could have been avoided by a brief preparatory study by the candidate of the cultural background, the social structure, and the religious beliefs and practices of the peoples among whom they meant to llve.^ The writer feels that the need for orientation in race relations and in Intercultural studies cannot be ! over-emphasized as a prerequisite for prospective educa- | tional missionaries. In his study on Intercultural j knowledge and attitudes, Burton Henry makes the following conclusion: Paul Monroe, Essays in Comparative Education, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, 1927, p. 225. 191 1. The amount of intercultural knowledge possessed by college students and the lay public is not high, usually averaging less than 50 per cent of the items on any specific test* 2. All groups possess the most favorable attitudes toward themselves*18 III* EVALUATION OF ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES IN MISSION EDUCATION History is replete with examples of institutions j i and organizations that have failed In their efforts be cause of unwholesome administrative policies and practices. When policies are set up that go counter to the essential harmonious Interactions of those concerned, eventual failure Is inevitable* The two points selected by which to measure the worth of a form of social life are the extent In which the interests of a group are shared by all its members, and the fullness and freedom with which it interacts with other groups* An undesirable society in other words, is one which internally and externally sets up barriers to free intercourse and communication of experience. A society which makes provision for participation in its good of all its members on equal terms and which secures flexible readjustment of its insti tutions through interaction of the different forms of associated life is so far democratic. Such a society must have a type of education which gives 18 Burton Henry, The Intercultural Knowledge and Attitudes of Prospective Teachers in the United States xi'948 ), - "p.~£3 :— ------------------------------------- -------- 192 Individuals a personal interest in social rela tionships and control, and the hahits of mind which secure social changes without introducing disorder. Policies concerning cooperation among missionaries, national teachers, and pupils* In Chapter III20 the following question was asked mission societies: t t To what extent do you recommend the following practice?: That national teachers, mission aries and pupils be bound together In an intimacy of cooperation and fellowship which obliterates very con siderably the consciousness of administrative superiority and racial differences*1 1 It was found that most of the mission groups (nearly 75 per cent), heartily recommend such a practice. A few societies are willing for the above practice to take place only with certain very definite reservations* Other societies feel that the policy suggested above is impractical and is conducive to inefficiency in mission educational work* In connection with the policy, under discussion, it should be said that every member of the jury voted for 19 Dewey, op. cit*, p. 115. 20 See p. 45, this study. 193 item (b)• In other words, they accept whole-heartedly, the policy stated above* Apparently, this is the only suitable policy and practice which will encourage good intercultural relations* If national teachers and missionaries are to be bound together In mutual sharing, to what extent should the missionary educators and national staff sit together i and In mutual discussion decide upon educational policies for the mission fieldf In some instances there are missionaries who feel that, with their mature judgment, and with their many years of religious training and experience, they should make most of the mission policies* The national person nel are merely supposed to serve as happy recipients of these ready made and ttsacredf t policies* The writer found that when mission societies were asked the above question,^1 approximately 73 per cent highly recommended such a practice* In other words, most of the educational mission societies favor the policy where the missionary educators and national staff sit together and in mutual discussion decide upon educational policies* The jury also voted unanimously for the i i ______________ _____ Pl See p* 47, this study* 194 acceptance of this policy in mission educational work# In some instances there has been the problem concerning the extent to which the American or the home church should supervise the construction of the curri culum for the mission school# A question^ of this nature was asked mission societies, and It was found that none of the mission groups propose a policy whereby the super- j vision and construction is in the hands of the American ! church# Nearly 13 per cent feel that the curriculum j should be constructed in the field but submitted to the ; mission board in America for their approval. The largest j number of societies or nearly 77 per cent would have the planning construction and approval of the curriculum left entirely In the hands of the missionaries in the field# One member of the jury checked item (b) which states that the curriculum should be constructed by those in the field and submitted to the home Board for their approval# However, all the other members of the jury chose item (c) and thereby give their vote to the policy where by the planning, construction and approval of the 29 See p. 50, this study. 195 curriculum be left entirely In the hands of the mission* aries in the field# It seems that this is the only sound procedure* And since it has been decided that the national staff are to share with the missionaries in making educational policies, it undoubtedly would follow that they would share also in the construction of the curriculum* The concept of the curriculum presented In this report requires a different view of the role of the teacher than that suggested by the foregoing practice. Rather than considering curriculum Improvement a primary concern to committees only, this concept implies that all teachers are curri culum workers and directly associated; by the very nature of their work, with curriculum improvement. It is impossible to isolate a teacher through any administrative organization from curriculum work. Arguments may wax and wane as to whether the expert or the teacher should make the curriculum, but the fact remains that no curriculum can be made without teachers, though one may be developed without experts.23 Policies concerning interdenominational cooperation. The preceding discussion seems to indicate that the administrative procedure which best encourages a good Intercultural and interpersonal environment is one in 23 The John Dewey Society, Democracy and the I Curriculum (New York and London: D* Appleton-Century ! Company, 1939), p. 456. 196 which th© various members concerned carry on a cooperative and sharing practice# This is true on the denominational level# Another problem arises when the question is asked t i whether the educational program that is truly inter- j cultural should be widened to include other denominations j as well, in the mission field# The following question^ j i was asked concerning this problem: r , To what extent do you j recommend that missions of various denominations work j together in forming mutual educational policies?1 1 Nearly j 48 per cent of the mission societies highly recommend i i this policy. Almost as many, 39 per cent indicated that they recommend this practice in only certain instances# Eight per cent stated that they do not recommend such a policy. What does this answer mean? Apparently, some societies are holding tenaciously to certain beliefs which they feel should be guarded against contamination from any outside influence. Prom an intercultural standpoint and from the point of view of the best interpersonal and most wholesome relations among mission societies, what should be the policy? The jury were asked to make their decisions as to the best policy. The jury composed of persons who are held in the highest esteem in the field 24 See p# 56, this study. 197 of learning, indicated by their responses that they feel missions of various denominations should work together in forming mutual educational policies. The jury, no doubt, feel that this is the most practicable and most educationally sound policy to follow for the highest good of mankind* Where a religion is dominant, as Christianity is dominant in America, there will be less reason for a distinctively Christian system of education, than where it stands in contrast with the dominant religion* . . . But in civilized communities such as India and China, where Christianity is a minority religion and therefore distinctive, there Is definite reason for the existence of colleges and schools for the exposition of the Christian** view of human culture and history* • • • There appears, however, no adequate ground for numerous systems of schools exhibiting the peculiarities of numerous Christian sects.25 The policies in connection with the training of national teachers are important factors in an inter cultural program. Societies seem to have quite different views in this respect. This variation undoubtedly is the source of considerable misunderstanding and confusion in some mission areas. In considering the question^ asked mission societies for the purpose of finding out their views on this issue, it was noted that 31 per cent of the 25 I. L. Kandel, 0£. cit., pp. 7,8. 26 See p. 59, this study. 198 societies hold to a policy of complete isolation* That is, they suggest that each mission train its own teachers for both secular and theological teaching. The policy of having various denominations in the area unite their efforts In the development of teacher training centers to train teachers for both secular and theological teaching was held by 39 per cent of the societies* Hone of the jury advocates item (a), I.e*, the policy which was held by 31 per cent of the mission societies. Three of the jury advocate policy (b), i.e., the policy held by 39 per cent of the societies. However, most of the jury (five of them) hold to the view expressed in item (c): That the various denominations in the area unite their efforts in the development of teacher training centers to train teachers for teaching in the theological schools» and let the government train the teachers for secular work. One jury member (Ho. 2) checked item (b) and followed with the comment: f l Where government is in adequate. Answer depends upon actual situation In a given field. The mission should not do what another agency in the field can do.t f It would seem then that jury member (No. 2) would check (c) If the local govern ment is in a position to do the secular teaching. 199 Policies concerning co-education. The problem of co-education becomes quite impor tant in some mission areas# In these areas, the existing customs militate against a co-edueational program* How ever, where conditions are at all favorable, both the majority of mission societies, as well as the jury are in favor of co-educational practices in all levels. IV. EVALUATION OP CURRICULAR POLICIES IN MISSION EDUCATION Mission educational institutions have as one of their purposes the encouragement of learning. The value of this learning situation varies according to the rich ness of the curriculum. The term curriculum in this study has been thought of as including the activities or experiences that affect the learning, development, attitudes and behavior of the individual pupil. Organ ization of the curriculum. Mission societies were requested to indicate the manner in which their curricula are generally organized. In reply to the question2^ asked in Chapter IV it was 27 See p. 85, this study. 200 found that mission societies still adhere to a large extent, to the traditional practice of subject-matter centered learning. Only one society indicated that in their educational work, the curriculum is organized around large problem areas. According to the older view, a curriculum consists of a specified body of subject-matter set-out-to-be-learned. This conception the committee rejects as unsatisfactory. We look on the curriculum as the succession of educative experiences for which the school accepts responsi bility. As the unit element of the old curriculum was an assigned lesson, so the unit element of what we call the new is an educative process.28 The following is the pattern of responses by the committee^ the members of the jury: A* For the elementary level: - That it should be subject matter centered . . . 1 - That it should be organized around large problem areas •••••• .......... . 6 - That It should be a combination of subject matter centered and large problem areas • • • • 1 B. For the secondary level* - That It should be subject matter centered . . . 0 - That It should be organized around large problem areas •••• 5 - That it should be a combination of subject matter centered and large problem areas • • • • 3 C. For the college level: - That It should be subject matter centered . . . 0 28 The John Dewey Society, o£. cit., p. 414. 201 - That it should b© organized around large problem areas 3 - That it should be a combination of subject matter centered and large problem areas • . 5 It can be clearly seen that the general response by the jury is not in favor of subject matter centered learning. In the elementary level, the emphasis is on organizing the learning around large problem areas or as is often termed activity learning. In the secondary level, five members of the jury are in favor of the organization of the curriculum around problem areas; three indicated that they suggest the combination method. In the college level the greatest emphasis is on the combination procedure. It would seem that the most intercultural program of learning is that which deals with the experiences and problems of learning. Until knowledge is put to work, It does not achieve the status of knowledge. It Is mere data or information till reflected on and comprehended. Knowledge, therefore, is not primary in the learning process. It is rather secondary, something derived from the attempt to solve a challenging problem. So, too, the curriculum made up In advance is not a curriculum; it is a mere course of study, suggestions of things that might be studied, The real curriculum is what children draw from the treasure chest of the past to achieve their current 202 purposes in solving problems; it is the curri culum in action.^ Use of the vernacular« Language as well as religion is an inseparable part of the total structure of a society. It seems that ! i mission educators who fail to give due respect to the indigenous language are missing some of the most valuable intercultural experiences. The jury indicated that they feel the vernacular should be used as the medium for instruction whenever possible. Inter-group correspondence. We noted that the curriculum includes all experi ences which influence the learning processes of the individual pupil. The wider the intercultural experiences the pupil enjoys, the more enriched will be his educa tional environment. Some mission educators encourage these interpersonal and Intercultural contacts by making it possible for their pupils to carry on correspondence with pupils in other countries. It seems that this Is a good practice. However, other missionaries apparently i i - I.. . . . i . .I— ., i- - - O Q John S. Brubacher, Modern philosophies of Education, p. 75. 203 discourage the practice because, as they say, the re spective cultures don’t understand each other* It seems to the writer that these excuses are not justifiable excuses for discouraging the practice* If one fears that the status quo would be disturbed, he naturally, would discourage communication with cultures outside the camp* The jury are in favor of the practice whereby pupils in the mission school correspond with pupils in other countries* The writer feels that this practice should be accepted and carried on in the interest of good intercultural education and wholesome learning* Pattern of religious services in the school* It may be that mission educators have not serious ly considered the significance that the type of religious services has upon the cultural life of the people* In asking the question^O in Chapter IV, concerning the types of religious services recommended, it was found that most of the mission societies (48 per cent) recommend services which are an adaptation of that of the home church to the national ways and customs. Only about 17 per cent See p. 93, this study. 204 recommend the practice where the religious services are an attempt to begin entirely with the national customs and ways, and to encourage the national church to develop its own meaningful patterns for religious services. This latter practice is also recommended by the jury. Only one jury member suggested alternative (b). The following are comments made by some of the jury members: Jury member No. 2: lf(c) is ideal but (b) is probably more practicable." Jury member No. 3: "{c) must be applied intelligently of course, guided by the sensi tivity of the nationals. (b) if the nationals want it.** Jury member No. 5: "Start with (b) and work toward (c)." The use of folklore in the curriculum. The use of and the study of the folklore of a people provides a valuable area for a true understanding of the lives of the people. In all that touches his inmost life and beliefs the savage is exceedingly suspicious and reserved; Europeans have resided among savages for years without discovering some of their capital articles of faith, and in the end the discovery has often 205 been the result of accident* Above all, the savage lives in an intense and perpetual dread of assassination by sorcery; the most trifling relics of his person— the clippings of his hair and nails, his spittle, the remnants of his food, his very name— -all these may, he fancies, be turned by the sorcerer to his destruction, and he is therefore anxiously careful to conceal or destroy them. But if in matters such as these, which are but the outposts and outworks of his life, he is so shy and secretive, how close must be the concealment, how impenetrable the reserve in which he enshrouds the inner deep and citadel of his being] When the princess in the fairy tale asks the giant where j he keeps his soul, he often gives false or evasive ; answers, and it is only after much coaxing and ; wheedling that the secret is at last wrung from j him. In his jealous reticence, the giant resembles the timid and furtive savage; but whereas the exigencies of the story demand that the giant should at last reveal his secret, no such obliga tion is laid on the savage; and no inducement that can be offered is likely to tempt him to imperil his soul by revealing'its hiding-place to a stranger. It is therefore no matter for surprise that the Central Mystery of the savage1s life should so long have remained a secret, and that we should be left to piece it together from scattered hints and fragments and from the recollections of It which linger in fairy tales.31 It may be said that not only among peoples of rude cultures, or among unlettered peoples (the writer prefers the term unlettered to that of savage), as described by Frazer, do we find mysteries hidden within the secrets of the Individuals mind, but even in higher levels of culture, a true understanding of the national is 31 Sir James G. Frazer, The Golden Bough (New Yoikj Macmillan and Company, 1922), p. 6911 206 difficult without an appreciation of his folklore. Some mission societies are aware of the education al value of folklore in the learning process# They are becoming aware of the possibilities in native folk music, in the native crafts, and in the family and social life of the people# Approximately, 80 per cent of the soci eties indicated that they made use of native folklore in one way or another in their educational work# About 20 per cent of the societies expressed their feeling that most folklore in the mission field is un-Christian and degrading and consequently, it should not be included in the school curriculum. The Jury expressed their views that folklore should be used in every way possible* The schoolfs primary concern should be that every child has a rounded program of living# The design of its curriculum consequently mustbe a function of the entire environment of the child, not just that of the school and the generalized aspects of the culture. It must include out-of- school activities as well as in-school activities. Recreation, health, creative activities, home adjustment, and the like, should be taken into account quite as much as problem-solving and work situations in the class r o o m .32 32 The John Dewey Society, Democracy and the Curriculum, p# 418# V. SUMMARY 207 people are essentially the same throughout the world, except for some cultural difference. Consequently, similar laws and principles of learning are applicable nearly everywhere. It is extremely important that mission societies base their educational work on good aims and purposes, since the whole structure of their work centers around these aims. Mission policies and practices were evaluated with reference to good intercultural principles and practices. In addition to this criterion, a qualified jury was chosen to help evaluate some of the most Important exist ing mission policies. The jury was composed of persons with outstanding ability and recognition In the fields of Intercultural relations, sociology, and race relations, educational philosophy, educational psychology, school administration, psychology of religion, philosophy of religion and comparative religions, and inter-denomina tional and inter-faith relations. ^ * » • Aims and purposes are vital factors in giving guidance to mission school activities, and consequently, they should be chosen intelligently. 208 John Dewey has set up three criteria for the judging of good aims: 1* ”The aim set up must be an outgrowth of existing conditions• ” 2* ”An aim must be flexible.1 * j i 3. ”The aim must always represent the freeing of ' activity.” J i Using John Dewey’s Criteria it was found that the j following objective for the establishing of mission educa-; tion is the most sound and most intercultural: For the purpose of offering a complete and truly rounded education by serving as an institution where various cultures meet and where a synthesis of values is made through the process of mutual sharing and of critical problem solving. The jury also selected the above objective as number one in their list of objectives. The missionary’s religious beliefs greatly in fluence his purposes and educational aims. The jury checked both (b) and (c) responses to the question33 asked concerning the core or true essence of religious experience. These responses indicate that the jury would suggest that mission societies rethink their positions 33 See pp. 178-179, this study. 209 and re-evaluate their conceptions of the meaning of true religious experience. Only as this is done can missions expect to carry on the intercultural program so badly needed in the mission field. Concerning the position Christianity should hold j i in relationship to other religions in the mission field, j i it was found that mission societies, although they have ] i broadened their conceptions, and do not to any great j » extent, believe in radical displacement by Christianity, j still they need to develop a more intercultural attitude. j ?/hereas most of the mission societies chose response (c), the jury indicated that they favored (b) which says; It is recommended that the traditions which are considered. sacred by the nationals be preserved, and a gradual synthesis take place of both Christianity and the best of the national religion. Both mission societies and the jury gave strong support to the following policy in connection with the pupils and their relationship to the religious functions in the school: No issue is made concerning religious adherence. Pupils are merely requested to cooperate in the school functions, with the hope that they will acquire a sound method for critical thinking and of problem solving, rather than being required to adhere to 210 any particular creed or doctrine* # ' O r %r i t Or The educational personnel hold positions in the mission field which require the very best qualified people* Mission societies chose the following quality i I as most important in an educational missionary: Has a j deep sense of his Christian vocation and is very devout j in his personal religious life* As the primary quality, J the jury chose the following: Possesses a sharing j f attitude and works democratically with his colleagues and with peoples of other cultures* Applying Dewey’s criteria of good aims, together with good intercultural concepts, one can easily see why the quality chosen by the jury Is more satisfactory* On close analysis, one can see that the essential elements in the societies* choice, are also included in the selection by the jury. Some mission societies are becoming aware of the need for more and better tests for use in selecting mission educators. The more progressive mission societies are con scious of the need for well trained educational mission aries; trained not only In basic college work but also In such orientation studies as the language of the field, the history, culture, and religion of the field. And in 211 addition to these subjects, anthropological studies are i i strongly advocated. Both jury members and mission societies with vision are advocating such training for educational missionaries. *■ # -x * *- Good administrative policies are essential to a harmonious and successful mission educational system. Unless the interests of each member in the group are shared by all the other members, true administrative success is quite impossible from an intercultural stand- j point• Both mission societies and the jury favor the administrative policy where the national teachers, the missionaries and the pupils are bound together in an intimacy of cooperation and of fellowship which obliter ates very considerably the consciousness of administrative superiority and racial differences. Again it was found that both the jury and mission groups are in agreement on the following administrative policy: That missionary educators and national staff sit together and in mutual discussion decide upon educational policies. Concerning the construction of the mission school curriculum, it was decided by both the mission societies 212 and by the qualified jury that the planning construction and approval of the curriculum be left entirely in the hands of the missionaries in the field# Mission societies are divided in their policies concerning the extent to which they are willing to co operate with other mission societies in forming mutual educational policies. The members of the jury indicated by their responses that they favor mutual sharing and the working together by various denominations in develop ing educational policies. Mission societies seem to have different policies concerning the training of national teachers. The view held by the jury was not held by many of the mission societies: That the various denominations in the area unite their efforts in the development of teacher train ing centers to train teachers for teaching in the theo logical schools; and let the government train the teachers for secular teaching. Co-education as a practice in mission fields is viewed with favor by mission societies in general, as well as by the jury, wherever the customs of the country permit it. i t . i t i t i t 213 Mission societies still adhere to a considerable extent to the traditional practice of subject-matter centered learning. In the elementary and secondary levels the jury are predominantly in favor of reorganiz ing the curriculum around large problem areas. In the j college level, a combination of large problem areas and ! subject matter centered plan is favored. ] i The jury Indicated that they feel the vernacular should be used as the medium for instruction wherever possible. In order that the pupils may gain as wide and rich Intercultural experiences as possible, the jury are in accord with the practice of encouraging the pupils to carry on correspondence with pupils in other countries. Concerning types of religious services to be used in the mission field it was found that the jury favors the policy of encouraging the national church to develop its own meaningful patterns. The use of folklore in teaching, and the study of the social and family life of the people is essential in good education. The jury heartily recommends the use of the above materials In as many ways as possible. CHAPTER VIII SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS I* SUMMARY Missions have played a large part in serving as vital agencies in the intercultural program of the world. To a considerable extent, In connection with the mission program educational work has been carried on* It was assumed that the manner in which the schools are organ ized and conducted determines to a great extent the values they are able to offer to these intercultural or social Interactions* The Problem This study attempted to examine the educational policies and selected practices of mission societies, in order to determine to what extent these policies promote desirable inter-personal and Inter-group rela tions and consequently good intercultural education* An attempt was made to answer the following questions: 1* What are the current and most common educa tional policies of mission societies? 2* To what extent are these policies based on educational principles and a philosophy which will 215 promote good intercultural education? In seeking to answer the preceding questions, it was found necessary to examine the following educational policies and purposes with reference to mission educa tion: 1* The policies concerning the administrative organization of mission education* 2* The policies with reference to the school curricula* 5* The policies concerning qualifications and training of mission personnel* 4. The basic aims and purposes of mission educa tion* The Scope of the Study In this study an attempt was made to study the policies and selected practices of all the Protestant mission societies in the United States of .American which carry on educational work in the mission fields* The Catholic and other groups were not included since it was felt that the significance of other groups would justify a separate study* Definition of Terms Used Some of the essential terms used in this study and 216 which were defined are: mission education, educational policy, mission society* educational missionaries, national personnel, indigenous schools, democratic educational administration, intercultural relations, and intercultural education. Since this study pertains to educational policies and intercultural education these two terms will he defined here. Educational policy. A mission educational policy is taken to mean a settled course, adopted by a mission society, with the hope and expectation that it will indicate how given problems and jobs shall be solved and administered in connection with the mission*s educational work. Intercultural education. Intercultural education as it is used for the purpose of this dissertation refers to those learning situations which promote desirable inter-group relations, by encouraging mutual understand ing and cooperation between various members within a social group, and also between individuals of different social groups. Such desirable learning situations tend to destroy false and imaginary notions of differences between Individuals and groups. 217 The Procedure Employed A brief survey was made of the origin and place of education in missions# Data concerning current educational policies were gathered from two sources, (1) by the use of a question naire which was sent to all the mission societies which appeared to be engaged in mission work# The questionnaire consequently was sent to 176 mission societies# It was sent to the secretaries of each society, since they represented their societies, and undoubtedly would be able to indicate the policies adopted by their respective groups? (2) from the use of publications obtained from the mission societies# Approximately, 68 per cent of the mission socie ties replied to the questionnaire. Of that group of 68 per cent or 119 societies, 52 indicated that they are doing educational work In mission fields and consequently returned their questionnaires completed In most instances The remaining societies stated that they either have no educational work or that what work they do is too limited to report on. Consequently, the study is limited to the 52 societies. These mission societies apparently are quite well representative of present day mission educa tional work# _________________ 218 The policies revealed from the questionnaire were evaluated with reference to good educational principles and practices and from the critical judgments of a well qualified jury* Organization of the Dissertation* Chapter I presents a statement of the problem, indicating the importance of the study, the scope or limits of the study, and the procedure followed in the treatment of the problem. Chapter II deals with the origin and place of education in missions* Chapter III is concerned with the administrative policies in mission education. Chapter IV is devoted to the study of curricular policies in mission education* Chapter V deals with the policies concerning qualifications and training of mission educational personnel* Chapter VI is a study of the basic aims and purposes of mission education. Chapter VII is concerned with an evaluation of the existing mission policies from the standpoint of good educational practices and good Intercultural education. 219 Chapter VIII presents a summary, conclusions and recommendations• The Origin and Place of Education in Missions The missionary idea assumes very pronounced signi ficance with the rise of Christianity. This early Christian message was a gospel of ^living faith” and consequently organized methods for its propagation were not of primary concern by its early leaders. During the medieval period mission efforts were characterized by mass conversions where the leader or ruler attempted to extend his authority by means of force. Roughly speaking It may be said that modern missions originate with the organization of the Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions in 1810. Prom these early beginnings, mission work has expanded until at the present time the influence of mission work has been felt in most sections of the world. The educational work in connection with mission enterprises has been increasingly expanding until the influence is very noticeable in many mission fields. Mission societies apparently had various motives for the establishment of educational work in missions. These motives are determined by various factors. 220 At the present time one finds quite a significant pattern of schools functioning in the various mission fields. These may include different types and levels of schools ranging from the rude village or vernacular school to the collegiate institutions. Administrative Policies in Mission Education In order to discover vital administrative policies in connection with mission education, certain significant questions were presented to the mission societies for their responses. An attempt was made to critically analyze the responses. The following are the questions considered of intercultural value and which were pre sented to the mission societies for their reactions and responses: 1. To what extent do you recommend the following practice?: That national teachers, missionaries and pupils he hound together In an intimacy of cooperation and fellowship which obliterates very considerably the consciousness of administrative superiority and racial differences. 2. To what extent is it recommended that missionary educators and national staff sit together and in mutual discussion decide upon educational policies? 221 3. To what extent does your church in America make recommendations and supervise the construction of the school curriculum for the mission field? 4. It is the policy that the curriculum for the mission school he constructed by whom? ; » r i 5. To what extent do you recommend that missions ! of various denominations work together in forming mutual educational policies? 6. m»t method do you r.commd for ] the training of national teachers? i 7• In your mission work, in accordance with j policy and practice, what types of institutions are most often placed under charge of national personnel? 8. In what levels is co-education recommended and practiced? 9* What per cent of the total mission expendi tures is spent on the educational work? It was found that approximately 75 per cent of the mission societies favor the practice as recommended in question one. Again, with reference to question two, it was discovered that nearly 75 per cent of the mission groups are in agreement with the policy advocating mutual sharing by mission educators and national staff In decid ing upon educationa 1 policies. __________________________ 222 The largest number of societies or 77 per cent indicated in connection with question three that they favor the policy where the planning, construction and approval of the curriculum is left entirely In the hands of the missionaries in the field# j In responding to question four, mission societies j i In general favor the policy where the principal, mission-| i ary staff, and national staff work together In curriculum; t construction# This view was indicated by 75 per cent of the societies. It was discovered that there is a considerable difference of opinion among the societies concerning the degree of cooperation that should be practiced between various denominations in forming educational policies nearly one half of the societies are in favor of such mutual cooperation# Others would tolerate cooperation in varying degrees# In response to question six, it was found that approximately 31 per cent of the societies recommend that each respective mission train its own teachers for both secular and theological teaching# Nearly 39 per cent favor the policy where various denominations in the area unite their efforts in the development of teacher training centers to train teachers for both secular and theological teaching* With reference to question seven, approximately, 40 per cent of the societies indicated that they make no distinctions as to the type of institutions which are placed under charge of national personnel. Thirty-nine ; j per cent stated that they usually place educational I I institutions under charge of national personnel. j Nearly 65 per cent of the societies indicated that j i they practice co-education in one or more of the levels j in the school. In connection with question nine, It was revealed that the average amount spent on educational work is approximately 31 per cent. Curricular Policies in Mission Education In connection with curricular policies, the responses of mission societies to the following questions were studied: 1. What Is the practice in school curricular organization as recommended for mission societies? 2. What are the channels through which mission policy encourage the use of the folklore of the people in the mission school curriculum as a part of the teach ing and learning process? 224 3. What type of religious services in recommended for practice in the mission field? 4. In what grades or levels of the school does your mission recommend and use the vernacular as the medium for instruction? 5. What per cent or part of the school day of actual class work is given to religious instruction? j i 6. To what extent are pupils of the mission i schools encouraged to correspond with pupils in America ] i or in other countries? ; The responses hy the mission societies to the first question indicate that most societies still adhere to the traditional practice of subject-matter-centered learning. In the secondary level the combination method of subject- matter-centered and large problem area approach is being more increasingly used. In analyzing the responses to question two, it was learned that some mission societies feel that most folklore in the mission field is un-Christian and de grading and consequently should not be included In the school curriculum. Only about 19 per cent hold to this view, however, whereas nearly 81 per cent of the mission groups indicated that they favor the use of folklore in one or more ways in school work. 225 In religious services, there seems to be the tendency among mission societies to accept as much as possible from the national customs and ways so long as these customs or ways are in harmony with the mission1s conception of the principles and practices of Christian ity. The vernacular as a medium for instruction, apparently, is used by most mission societies in the lower levels of the school. In the higher levels of secondary school and college, the vernacular as the medium is used considerably less. It appears that in most mission societies, approximately, 80 per cent of the school day Is given to instruction in subject-matter other than purely reli gious education. The other nearly 20 per cent is de voted to religious instruction* such as Bible study, etc. The practice of encouraging pupils in the school to experience wider intercultural contacts through the means of correspondence with pupils in other countries apparently, is being used to some extent at least by 47 per cent of the mission societies. Policies with Reference to Qualifications and Training of Educational Personnel An attempt was made to get at mission policies___ 226 pertaining to mission educators by studying responses to the following questions: 1. What are the five qualities which you consider most essential in an educational missionary? 2. What procedures do you follow in the selection of educational missionaries? 3* What testing materials, if any, do you use in the selection of mission educators? 4. What level of education do you require of your mission educators? 5- What is your policy concerning married and single missionaries? 6. What areas of orientation do you require of prospective mission educators? 7. In what respect do you give educators pre field service? 8* What is your policy concerning the level of education required of national teachers? In respect to question one, the five qualities selected by mission societies as most essential in an educational missionary are given below in rank order of importance: 1. Has a deep sense of his Christian vocation and is very devout in his personal religious life. 227 2. Possesses a good general education of at least college level. 3. Has the ability to understand the mind and thinking of the nationals. 4. Possesses a sharing attitude, and works democratically with his colleagues and peoples of other cultures. i 5. Has had considerable training in religious i education, including a good knowledge of the Bible. | Most mission societies apparently use one or more ! i of the following methods in gathering information con cerning candidates: by questionnaires and reference blanks, by interviews, by recommendations of superiors and others, by physical examinations, by records and transcripts, by written and oral examination, by ob servation of work in previous positions. It seems that not much attention has been given by missions in general to a checking on the candidates general philosophy of life, his attitudes, prejudices, etc. Most societies have not yet begun the general use of testing materials as aids in the selection of mission educators. The levels of education required of educational missionaries are becoming increasingly higher. It 228 Is true that the requirements range all the way from being a graduate from the common elementary school to the possession of a master1s degree* However, it may be said that the general policy is the requirement of a bachelor1s degree* Concerning the question of whether missionaries should be single or married, it was found in this respect that most societies make little distinction in the selection of their mission educators* At least 50 per cent of the mission societies stated that they require their prospective mission educators to get orientation in the language, history, culture and religion of the people with whom they expect to work* It was learned that a great number of mission societies are realizing the value of giving their mission educators pre-field service In the areas of mission school administration, church visitation, inter-racial contacts and in the visiting of other mission fields* With reference to the educational standards required of national teachers, most mission societies stated that they usually follow the requirements set up by the respective governments* 229 Basic Aims and Purposes of Mission Education It is becoming increasingly more apparent that mission societies need to re-examine and re-evaluate the philosophical foundations of their beliefs and activi ties. The following questions were presented to the mission societies for the purpose of discovering some of their more important basic aims and purposes: 1* Briefly, what would you say is the primary purpose and objective for the establishment by your church of educational work in the mission field? 2. What do you consider the essential core or heart of all real religious experience? 3. What is your attitude toward the religious and social traditions of the peoples of the mission field and their relationship to Christianity? 4. To what extent is it recommended that the pupils in the mission school be left free to adhere to the religion of their own group or country, without loss of standing in the school and without sacrifice of any of the privileges? Nearly 50 per cent of the societies have as their primary purpose for the establishment of mission educa- tion,— the development of a complete rounded-out 250 education within the framework of Christianity, The central purpose varies with the other societies. In considering the problem of the center or essence of real religious experience, it was found that most of the societies (nearly 75 per cent), hold to the view that^j ftIt is found in the ultimate and authoritative truth which originates in an unceasing and active God, and 1 i which is revealed through Jesus Christ who makes it i possible for immediate relationship of the individual j soul with God,*1 It is apparent that the largest number of socie ties hold to the view that the religious and social traditions of the people in the mission fields should be respected and preserved only for a time, when only those customs which are in harmony with the Christian teaching will be kept. Concerning the extent to which pupils are to be left free to make their own religious choices, It was found that most of the mission societies indicated that, f f no issue is made concerning religious adherence. Pupils are merely requested to cooperate in the school functions, with the hope that they will acquire a sound method for critical thinking and of problem solving rather than being required to adhere to any particular creed or 231 doctrine *t y i Mission Educational Policies and Good Intercultural Education People are essentially the same throughout the i world, except for some cultural differences* Existing mission policies and practices were i evaluated with reference to good educational principles j i and practices and with accepted intercultural principles* In addition to this, the judgments of a qualified jury were used in aiding in the appraisal* In using Dewey’s criteria for the judging of good aims together with the jury1s appraisal, it was decided that the following objective for the establishment of mission education is the best from the standpoint of wholesome educational principles and intercultural education: For the purpose of offering a complete and truly rounded education by serving as an institution where various cultures meet and where a synthesis of values is made through the process of mutual sharing and of critical problem solving* The essence or core of real religious experience as seen by most mission societies was judged differently by the jury* The jury apparently believe that real 232 religious experience is not limited to a revelation through any particular religion, institution or individ ual as expressed by most of the mission societies. It was found that the most intercultural view to hold with respect to the rol igious and social traditions j of the people in the mission field Is the following: I To hold to the policy that the traditions which are considered sacred by the nationals be preserved, and a gradual synthesis take place of both Christianity and the best of the national religion. The jury chose the following as the primary quality in a good educational missionary: Possesses a sharing attitude and works democratically with his colleagues and with peoples of other cultures. In connection with administrative policies of mission societies, the following are some of the more Important intercultural policies which met with the approval of the qualified jury, and which also are acceptable in respect to good educational principles. 1. That national teachers, the missionaries and pupils are to be bound together In an intimacy of cooperation and of fellowship which obliterates very considerably the consciousness of administrative superi ority and of racial differences. 2* That missionary educators and national staff sit together and in mutual discussion decide upon educa tional policies* 3* That the planning construction and approval of the curriculum be left entirely in the hands of the missionaries in the field* 4. That co-education should be practiced in all levels of education wherever the customs of the country permit it* 5. That there should be mutual sharing and the working together by the various denominations in developing educational policies* 6* That the various denominations in the area unite their efforts in the development of teacher training centers to train teachers for teaching in the theological schools, and let the government train teachers for the secular teaching* Some of the most important curricular policies, as finally decided upon by the jury together with the application of good educational principles are the following: 1* In the elementary and secondary levels the curriculum should be organized around large problem areas. In the college level a combination of large problem areas and subject-matter centered learning should be 234 followed. 2. The vernacular should be used as the medium for instruction wherever possible. 3. Pupils in the mission school should be en couraged to correspond with pupils in other parts of the j world* 4. The national church should be encouraged to develop its own meaningful patterns for religious ! worship. 5. In the teaching program there should be as much use as possible made of the folklore, native crafts, and of a study of family and social life. II. CONCLUSIONS In most instances, mission societies which are engaged in extensive educational programs seem to be the most interculturally minded. There seems to be a signi ficant relationship between a concern for educational work and the possession of a problem solving and criti cal frame of mind. Educational missions, in general, seem to be progressive and intercultural within the framework of Christianity. However, in many instances, the mission aries1 established conceptions of Christianity and of 235 the essence of real religious experience, have prevented a wholesome inter-personal, intercultural, and inter active process of mutual sharing and of cooperation between cultures. The intercultural problems in the mission field are of such a nature that it is essential that mission aries be selected who are well qualified and trained* The mission educator not only needs a good general education, but it is important that he be adequately trained in the fields of Anthropology and of Inter cultural Education. The most essential qualities in an educational missionary are: (a) That he possesses a sharing attitude and works democratically with his colleagues and people of other cultures; (b) that he has the ability to understand the mind and the thinking of the nationals; (c) that he has a good general education of at least college level; (d) that he is versatile and resourceful; (e) that he is emotionally mature and possesses a great capacity for compassion. The following is the most intercultural and wholesome objective for the establishment of mission education: For the purpose of offering a complete and truly rounded education by serving as an institution 236 where various cultures meet and where a synthesis of values is made through the process of mutual sharing and of critical problem solving* Because of the unwillingness of some mission societies for inter-denominational sharing and coopera- j tion in the formation of mutual educational policies, ] many intercultural values are lost* j More interest and effort needs to be placed upon J I the educational endeavors in the mission fields,-- j i education of the very highest and intercultural type* j i The quite prevalent practice among mission societies in using the subject-matter approach in mission education, seems to be due to the limited educational preparation of mission school educators* A number of mission societies have not yet learned of the many enriching possibilities inherent in the use of the folklore and of other cultural experiences of the people in the mission fields* It appears that some mission societies have made a fetish of some of their religious practices. This mental set seems to make It difficult for such societies to encourage the indigenous peoples to develop their own meaningful patterns for religious services* 237 III. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH This investigation has revealed a number of needs and possibilities for further study in connection with mission education. The following are some suggestions in this connection: 1. Further research needs to be done in connec tion with the development of valuable tests to aid in the i . selection of capable missionaries. Such tests should include an evaluation of the missionary*s attitudes, I aims and purposes, prejudices, etc. A test might be constructed in connection with the essential missionary qualities found in this study. 2. It might be worthwhile to see whether there is any significant relationship between the educational status and qualifications of missionaries, and their interest in raising the educational levels of the communities in which they labor. 3. There needs to be more research to determine just what Is held sacred or most valuable in the various cultures. If this knowledge were made available to the prospective missionaries, it would help them to get a more meaningful picture of the related strands in the social fabric of the cultures with which they are to work. 238 4* A knowledge of the true essence of religious values seems so vital to a successful missionary program,] that it is recommended that more studies be undertaken to discover to what extent there is, and can be a meeting of minds between the various cultures. i BI BL I O G R A P H Y BIBLIOGRAPHY Addison, J. T., The Medieval Missionary* (A Study of the Conversion of Northern Europe A.D. 500-1300.; Concord, N.H.: International Missionary Council, Rumford Press, 1936. 167 pp. | Baker, Archibald, G., Christian Missions and a New World j Culture. Chicago and New York: Willett, Clark and | Company, 1934. 322 pp. j Barnes, L. C., Two Thousand Years of Missions Before Carey. Boston: American Baptist" Publishing Society, 1900. 485 pp. Bates, Miner Searle, Missions in Par Eastern Cultural Relations. New York: American Council, Institute of Pacific Relations, 1942. Benedict, Ruth, Patterns of Culture. Boston and New York:' Houghton, Mifflin Company, 1934. 290 pp. i Boaz, Pranz, Race, Language, and Culture. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1940• ^647 pp. Brubacher, John S., Modern Philosophies of Education. New York and London: McGraw-Hill BoolF"’ Company, 1939. 370 pp. , "Comparative Philosophy of Education," Philosophies of Education, National Society for the Study of Education Porty-First Yearbo ok, Part I, p. 290. Buck, Pearl S., Ij3 There a Case for Missions? New York: The John Day Company, 19 32• 30 pp. Creighton, L., Missions: Their Rise and Development. London: Williams and Norgate, l9l2. 254 pp. Dewey, John, How We Think. Boston: D. C. Heath and Company, 'l9l0. 224 pp. _______ , Democracy and Education. New York: The Macmillan* Company, 1916. 434 pp. _______ , Experience and Education. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1938. 116 pp. 240 Eddy, Sherwood, Pathfinders of the World Missionary Crusade# New York: AbingcJon-Cokesbury Press, 1945# 3l9 pp. Pisher, James Earnest, Democracy and Mission Education in Korea# New York City: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1928. 187 pp. \ Frazer, Sir James, The Golden Bough; A Study in Magic and j Religion. New York: Macmillan anci Company, 1922. | 752 pp. ! Gates, Arthur, et al., Educational Psychology. New York: [ The Macmillan Company, 1^42• 805 pp. I -Glover, Robert Hall, The Progress of World-Wide Missions. j New York: George H. Doran Company, 1924• 416 pp. I Goucher, John Franklin, Growth of the Missi onary Concept. ' New York: Eaton and Mains, T^ll. 2l2 pp. : Harnack, Adolph, The Expansion of Christianity in the j First Three Centuries. New York: G. P. Putnam*s Sons, l904. 494 pp. Helser, Albert D., Education of Primitive People. New York, London and Edinburgh; Fleming H. Reveil Company, 1934. 317 pp. Henry, Burton, The Intercultural Knowledges and Attitudes of Prospective Teachers in the United States. Dissertation, University of Southern California, Los Ange3e s, California, 1948. 400 pp. Hocking, W. E., Living Religions and a World Faith. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1940. 291 pp. Houf, Horace, T., What Religion is and Does; An Introduc tion to the Study of Its 'Problems and Values. New York and London: Harper and Brothers, 1935• 411 pp. The Jerusalem Meeting of the International Missionary Council, March 24-April 8, 1928. The Christian in Relation to Rural Problems. New York City: International Missionary Council, 1928. Vol. VI. 272 pp. 241 Kandel, I* L., Educational Yearbook of the International Institute of Teachers College, Columbia Universi ty 1933. Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University. 642 pp. Klineberg, Otto, Race Differences. New York: Harper and Bros., 1935. 367 pp. i Kraemer, Hendrik, The Christian Message in a non-Christian World. London^ Edinburgh House Press, 1938. 455 pp. Latourette, Kenneth Scott, The Christian Outlook. New York: Harper and Bros., 1948. 229 pp. Locke, Alain, and Berhnhard J. Stern, When Peoples Meet; A Study of Race and Cultural Contacts. New York: Hinds', Hayden, and Eldredge, Inc., 1946. 825 pp. Malette, Frank L., uCo-educatIonal Physical Education,*1 California Physical Health and Recreational Journal, 3:13, November, 1933• Malinowski, Bronislaw, Myth in Primitive Psychology. New York: W. W. Norton & Co“ 1926. 94 pp. Mathews, Basil Joseph, East and West: Conflict or Cooperation. New York: The Association Press, 1936. 206 pp. McWilliams, Carey, Brothers Under the Skin. Boston: Little Brown and Company, 1943. 325 pp. Monroe, Paul, Essays in Comparative Education. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 13127• Montague, M. F. Ashley, Man1s Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race. New York: Columbia University Press, 1345. 304 pp. Myrdal, Gunnar, American Dilemma. New York: Harper and Bro s., 1944. 1483 pp. Northrop, Filmer Stuart Cuckow, Ideological Differences and World Order,— Studies in the Philosophies and* Sciences of the World1s Cultures. New Haven: The Emergence of a World Christian Community [aven: Yale University Press, 1949. 9l pp. Pub. for the Viking Fund by Yale University Press, 1949. 486 pp. Laymen's Foreign Missions Inquiry, Rethinking Missions; A Laymen * s Inquiry After One Hundred Years. New York and London: Harper and Bros., 1932• 349 pp. Parker, Joseph I., Directory of World Missions. New York International Missionary Council, 1938• <255 pp. Pei, Mario Andrew, The Story of Language. Philadelphia: Lippincott Co., l§4'9l 493 pp. Powdermaker, Hortense, Probing Qur prejudices. New York: Harper and Bros., 1944. 73 pp. Prescott, Daniel, Etootion and the Educative Process. Washington, D. C.: American Council on Education, 1938. 323 pp. Reeves, Floyd, ^Principles of Democratic Administration,” Democratic Practices in School Administration. University of Chicago Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Conference, 1939. Robinson, Charles Henry, The Conversion of Europe. London New York, Bombay and Calcutta: LongmanTs Green and Company, 1917. 607 pp. Ross, Floyd Hiatt, Addressed to Christians: Isolation vs. World Community! New York: Harper, 1950! 154 pp. Soper, Edmund D., The Philosophy of the Christian World Mission. New York: Abingdon-Cokesbury Press, 1943. 3l4 pp. Stauffer, Milton Theobald, China Her Own Interpreter. New York: Published forthe StudentVolunteer Movement, 1927. 170 pp. The John Dewey Society, Democracy and the Curriculum. New York and London: D. Appleton-Century, Company, 1939. Vickery, William E., and Stewart G. Cole, Intercultural Education in American Schools. New York: Harper and Bros. ,“T943. 215 pp. 243 Warneck, Gustav, Outline of A History of Protestant Missions from the Reformation to tEe Present* New York: Fleming HI Revell Company, 1903•Part I and Part II. APPENDIX A QUESTIONNAIRE; THE EDUCATIONAL POLICIES AND SELECTED PRACTICES OF MISSION SOCIETIES APPENDIX “A” 244 THE EDUCATIONAL POLICIES AND SELECTED PRACTICES OF MISSION SOCIETIES Dear Sir, The world wide missionary program is such an important factor in the changing civilizations of the world, today, that many people are becoming more concerned about its real significance. Missionaries represent a culture which is both American and Christian. Peoples whom the missionaries serve represent a culture which is non-American and non- Christian. These different cultures meet and interact on the mission field. Mission schools which have been established on the field serve as vital inter- cultural agencies. In view of the importance of this problem, a study is being conducted under the direction of the University of Southern California to discover the significance of the educational policies and practices of mission societies. ^ The inquiry presumes the following: (1) That the present world problems are making increasingly greater demands upon every educational institution. (2) That missions have been playing a significant part in the educational \ work of the world. v (5) That the degree of success of the educational work of missions depends largely upon the policies adopted and followed by mission societies. An investigation of this type should be of value in various ways. Some of these might be: (1) To .provide a picture of the areas of agreement or disagreement on basic issues in mission policies. (2) To indicate important trends in the world wide mission educational program. (3) To provide mission education with a better understanding of the educational possibilities available. It is hoped that this project will prove worthwhile and that the results will be of interest to you. Tour assistance in this study by completing the questionnaire on the following pages will prove invaluable. Those cooperating with this survey will receive a summary of results upon request. Tour kind cooperation will be thoroughly appreciated. For your convenience an addressed stamped envelope is enclosed. Blank you for your time and interest. Sincerely yours, Sidney P. Rogers. School of Education, University of Southern California. 245 (2) THE EDUCATIONAL POLICIES AND SELECTED PRACTICES OP MISSION SOCIETIES Explanation and directions for answering! A. In some instances you may feel that the questions could be answered better fay the missionaries in the field. However, since this is primarily, a study of policies of mission societies, it is desired to have your responses as representing the mission society. B» ||laaion educations For the purpose of this questionnaire mission education is thought of as the general educational work carried on in schools oper ated by religious bodies as a part of their missionaxy effort. C. National Personnelt This term refers to those individuals who cure native to the country in which the missionary work is being carried on,- native either by birth or fay place where training is received. D* In most of the questions, the answer you choose is to be indicated fay making a check inside the parenthesis (L^) which accompanies your choice. Where a different procedure is followed in any question, it is indicated. E. At the end of most groups of answers, the word ( other) is written to allow for the addition of other answers besides those stated, if you wish. Space is also provided should you desire to make additional comments* I- Answer the following questions in the manner indicated in each: (1) List below, in the order of importance, the five qualities which you consider most essential in an educational missionary. Make your selection from the qualities listed and write their numbers in the parentheses provided. Five moat essential anilities in order gf ipnno-r-hance. 1st choice ( ) 4th choice ( ) 2nd choice ( ) 5th choice ( ) 3rd choice ( ) Following is a list of qualities which may be found in a missionary. Add other essential qualities if you desire. From the total list make your five choices as indicated above. 1. Is submissive to recommendations from the home board. 2. Cooperates with other societies in the field toward common goals* 3. Has a deep sense of his Christian vocation and is very devout in, his personal religious life. 4. Possesses a good general education of at least college level. 5. Has had considerable training in religious education, including a good knowledge of the Bible. 6* Has the ability to understand the mind or thinking of the nationals. 7. Believes firmly and uncompromisingly in the superiority of the Christian religion. 8. Is cheerful and possesses a good sense of humor* 9* Is very versatile and resourceful. 10. Is free from feelings of racial superiority. 11. Has an Idealistic sense of the importance of upholding the doctrines and creeds of his church. 12. Possesses a sharing attitude, and works democratically with his colleagues and peoples of other cultures. 13, Is a well trained teacher in his subject speciality* 14, (Other) 15. «___________________________________________ 16. " _______________________ Commentss (2) Which of the following procedures do you use in the selection of educational missionaries? On the lines following each statement you mark, indicate briefly, just how the checking is done, a. A check is made on his beliefs to see whether they are in harmony with the church creed.,...................... .( ) b. A check is made on the quality and amount of his educational training....( ) c. A check is made on his personal religious life..• • • • • • • • • • • • ) d. A check is made to determine his general philosophy of life( i.e. whether he is conservative, liberal, democratic, etc.)*. ( ) e. A check is made to determine his attitude toward minority groups........ ( ) f. A check is made to determine his professional experience.• • • • ••••( ) g. A check is made on his age and health. ( ) h. (Other)............................................. .......... ..( ) i. (Other)... . . . . . . . . . . . . . ) Commentss 247 (4) (3) (a) Which of the following testing materials, if any, do you use in the selection of mission educators?: a. Personality tests........ ..... ................................( b. Apptitude tests indicating general missionary ability................( c. Tests for determining prejudices.............. ( d. General intelligence tests.......................................( e. (Other)A............................,............ ( f. ” ( (b) May samples of these testing materials be obtained? Yes.........( No........ .( ■Where? ____________________ . Comments: (4) What level of education do you require of your mission educators? If the re quirement is different for any particular field indicate such. (a)What level of general basic education is required?a ________ . (b)What level of religious education is required??________________________ (c)What level of education is required for teaching specialities?: (d) (Other) Comments: (5) Which of the following do you require of prospective mission educators?: a. Orientation in the language of the field..........«••••••••••••....... ( b. Orientation in the history of the people of the field......' ........... ( c. Orientation in the culture and religions of the field.... ........ ( d. (Other)______________________________ ( e. » ( Comments: (6) Briefly, what would you say is the primary purpose for the establishment by your church of educational work in the mission field?: 248 (5) (7) Check the following channels through which mission policy encourages the use of the folklore of the people in the mission school curriculum as a part of the teaching and learning process: a. Native folk music is used frequently and whenever possible in religious services......................... ... . ( ) b. Native folk music is used to quite an extent as a medium in the teaching of school subjects....... ( ) c. Native crafts are given a prominent place in the art c o u r s e s . ( ) d. The native family life is studied in the school and given high respect.. ( ) e. The community and other social life of the nationals is studied and is given an important place in the curriculum......................... ( ) f. since most folklore of the mission field is unchristian and degrading, it is not recommended that it be included in the school curriculum........ ( ) g. (Other)__________________________________________________________ ( ) Comments: (8) In which of the following do you give mission educators pre-field service?: a. In studying the administration of mission education...., ............ ( ) b. In church visitation of various congregations of your own denomination, learning first hand the church they are representing, and the people to whom the mission field will be interpreted........................... ( ) c. In church visitation of various other denominations as well, ior the purpose of getting a total picture of Christendom. ..........................( ) d. In contacting people from the area to which ibsy are going- but who are now. residing in the U.S.......... ••••••.......................... ( ) e. in visiting other mission fields enroute............. •••••...........( ) f. (Other)__________________________________________________________ ( ) 6* ■ : ; ( ) Comments: (9) Check the following fields in which you have missionary work: Africa- Central. ...••( ) East ( ) North ( ) South. ( ) West ( ) American Indians ( ) Arabia ( ) Burma ( ) Central Am ( ) () Ceylon..••••••••••• China.••.•••••••••• East Inuies..... . Egypt......... Formosa....... . French Indo China.. Hawaian Islands.... India.. ........ Japan............ Korea............ Malay States •••••( ) Manchuria ( ) Mexico ..( ) Near East ( ) Oceania. .( ) Philippine Islands......( ) Siam ( ) South America. ( ) Tibet ( ) West Indies ...( ) ( ) (10)Referring again to question (9), underline those fields in which you do general educational work as a part of the missionary effort. Comments: 249 (6) (11) a. A list of objectives for the establishment of mission education is given below. Blank lines are added so that you may write any other objectives you think should be included. 1. For the purpose of teaching the nationals to read the Bible. 2. For the purpose of offering a complete and truly rounded education,aceord- / ing to the conception of education in which the whole of culture is inter preted from the point of vie?/ of Christianity. 3. For the purpose of teaching the nationals the doctrines and creeds of the church and consequently, convert them to membership into the mission church. 4. For the £>urpose of plantin^Western civilization upon the mission field. 5. For the purpose of bringing tne pupils together v.here an opportunity may be had for the saving of their souls and preparing them for the next world (heaven), 6. For the purpose of offering a complete and truly rounded education by serv ing as an institution where various cultures meet ana where a synthesis df values is made through the process of mutual sharing and of critical problem solving. 7. For the purpose of offering a sort of bait or enticement in order to bring the pupils together so that they may get religious training. 8#/For the purpose of training the pupils for future careers 'within the new religious group of your own mission. 9. * 10. b. Evaluate the above objectives and rank them .from the standpoint of your choices, * beginning with the most desirable objective, and grading them on down to the least desirable. Place the numbers of the objectives as you rank them in the parentheses belo?*: Objectives for mission education ranked in order of value; 1st choice ^nd choice 3rd choice 4th choice 5th choice Corrjaents; 6th choice ( ) 7th choice ( ) 3th choice ( ) 9 th choice ( ) 10th choice ( ) II- In the following questions, check only one of the suggested answers, fthen space is given you may write your own*answer if you desire, and check it. (1) To what extent does your church in America make recommendations and su^erv^se the construction of the school curriculum for the mission field?; a. The mission society in America constructs the curriculum and prepares the syllabus to be used by the missionaries ( ) b. The curriculum is constructed by those in the field and is submitted to the mission Board in America for their approval ( ) c. The planning, construction and approval of the curriculum is left entirely in the hands of the missionaries in the field.........................( ) d. (0ther}___________________ ______________________ __ ^ \ ~ ' - - - - - - - Comments: ' % \ 250 :*) (2) Which one of the following do you recommend as a means for the training of ' national teachers?! a. That each mission train its own teachers for both secular and theological teaching •••••••••••••••••••.•••••••••••••.................. b. That various denominations in the area unite their efforts in the develop ment of teacher training centers to train teachers for both secular and theological teaching............. .. •. • • • • •....... c. That the various denominations in the area unite their efforts in the development of teacher training centers to train teachers for teaching in the theological schools* and let the government train the teachers for the secular work..*.*....... .••••*•••••................. ...... d. That each mission society train its own teachers for the theological teaching and let the government train teachers for the secular education of the mission............................... ................... e•(Other) ■ Comments! (3) To what extent do you recommend that missions of various denominations work together in forming mutual educational policies? ! a. It is recommended only in certain instances. ........... ( ) b. It is not r e c o m m e n d e d . ...... •••• C ) c. It is highly recommended.................... ....... ( ) Comments! (4) In your mission work* in accordance with policy and practice* the types of institutions which are most often placed under charge of national personnel are: a. Theological institutions. ......... ( ) b. Educational institutions....... ••••••••••••.•••.......•••• *•••• ( ) c. No distinctions are made ( ) Comments: (5) To what extent is it recommended that missionary educators and national staff sit together and in mutual discussion decide upon mission educational policies?: a. Such practice is not recommended. Policies should be decided upon by the missionaries* since they have more mature judgment.................. ( ) b. Such practice is highly recommended in policy making...... ••••••..... ( ) c. Such practice is recommended in a very limited way and when discussing only certain problems or policies.......... ( ) Comments: (6) It is the policy that the curriculum for the mission school be constructed by: a. The principal of the school........................................ ( b. The principal together with the missionary staff................... ( c. The principal* missionary staff* and national staff. ............. ( d. (Other) ( Comments: 251 (8) (7) To what extent do you recommend the following practice?: That national teachers, missionaries and pupils be bound together in an intimacy of cooperation and fellowship which obliterates very considerably the consciousness of administra tive superiority and racial differences. &• This practice is to be recommended only with certain very definite reservations .......... ( ) b. This practice is heartily recommended..... •••.••••*•••••• ( ) c. It is necessary that the line of administrative authority be recognized and respected, from the mission superintendent, down through the mission educators^ national teachers and finally to the pupils. This arrangement makes the above suggested administrative practice, impractical and conducive to inefficiency in mission educational work..... ...... ( ) Comments: (8) With reference to the religious and social traditions of the peoples of the mission field: &• It is recommended that the national traditions be radically ( completely and uncompromisingly) displaced by Christianity ••••••.• ••••••.•••••( ) . b. It is recommended that the traditions which are considered sacred by the nationals be preserved, and a gradual synthesis take place of both Christianity and the best of the national religion ( ) c. It is recommended that these traditions be respected and preserved only for a time; when only those customs which are in harmony with the Christian teaching, will be kept ( ) Comments: (9) Which of the following types of religious services is recommended for practice on the mission field?: a. Services which are patterned in most ways after the home (American) church. ( ) b. Services which are an adaptation of that of the home church to the national ways and customs.• ........... ( ) c. Services which are an attempt to begin entirely with the national customs and ways, and to encourage the national church to develop its own meaning ful patterns for religious services*••••• .... ( ) d. (Other) _______________ _________ __ Comments: (10) To what extent are pupils of the mission schools encouraged to correspond with pupils in America or in other countries?: a. The practice is discouraged....••••• .... '•••••*••........ •••••• ( ) b. The missionary educators encourage the practice. ........ ( ) c. Hie practice is peimitted only occasionally ............. ( ) Comments: (11) To what extent is it recommended that the pupils in the mission school be left free to adhere to the religion of their own group or country, without loss of standing in the school and without sacrifice of any of its privileges?: * a, A pupil may enroll and keep his father’s religion, but he is made to under stand that he can have full privileges of the school only when he accepts the religion of the mission*•••..*••.•••......... .. ( ) b. No issue is made concerning religious adherence* Pupils 4re merely requested to cooperate in the school functions, with the hope that they will acquire a sound method for critical thinking and of problem solving, rather than being required to adhere to any particular creed or doctrine......... ••«•.*«•.•••.•••....* ( ) c. Pupils who enroll in the school, and who are not already members of the mission church, must indicate a willingness and a desire to become m e m b e r s ( ) d. (Other- ) ___________________________________________________ ; ( ) Comments: (IE) Which one of the following statements most adequately explains what you consider as the essential core or heart of all real religious experience?: a* It is found in the ultimate and authoritative truth which originates in an unceasing end active God, and which is revealed through Jesus Christ who makes it possible for immediate relationship of the individual soul with God*. ( ) b. In religious experience the individual stands in communication with the best in the universe. The result being a kind of experience in which intellect, will and feeling, all our consciousness and all our sub- consciousness together, fuse and become integrated.................... ( ) c. It is found in the ultimate truth which originates in a God of un ceasing activity, and which is revealed to mankind through his universal religious consciousness, and through great religious leaders such as, Jesus, Buddha, Lao-Tze, etc., and is not confined to a revelation through any specific religion or institution ( ) d. (Other) Comments: / 253 (10) III- In the following questions indicate your answer or answers by placing checks inside the parentheses (j^). Also, make similar check marks in the appropriate columns directly opposite your answers , thus, indicating in which of your mission fields the answers you check are applicable. You will,no doubt, find it necessary, in some instances, to check more than one answer to a question, depending on policies and practices in different fields. (1) flfhich kind of missionary educators do you prefer?: a• Married .............. .............*.... ( )••* b. single missionaries. ................ ... ...( )•••• c• We make no distinctions. .... •••••••••. ••••••••••.•••••••( )•••• Comments: (2) How many nationals of the mission fields have you brought to America or sent to other countries for further training, during the past 10 years?: a. Total number from all your fields... (VJrite the number in the parenthesis( ) b. Number from each of your individual fi elds ( V . rite numbers in appropriate columns Comments: (3) Complete the following table of types of mission schools you have with reference to the following: (a) Total number of each; (b) Number which are indigenous, i.e. supported and administered entirely by the nationals; (c) Number of indigenous schools of each of the designated types in each of your mission fields(indicate by writing the numbers in the appropriate columns under mission fields following each school type). W Total No. _ Number of Indigenous S c f c i c kindergarten schools Elementary schools J^igh schools Collegiate institutions Normal schools (teacher training centers) - Medical schools Industrial schools Technical schools Agricultural schools Theological schools (Other) n Comments: (4) How many of your mission school principals or directors are nationrls?: a. Total number in all fields............. ( ) b. Numbers In each individual field ( Write numbers in columns).. . Comments: • • • * Africa (East) • • • • • Africa (North) • ♦ • ; Africa (South) • • • • Africa (West) • * % • I American Indians • « % % * • Arabia * i • 9 • • 9 % • • Burma 1 • • • I • • • • • • • Central America • • • • Ceylon • • • • China # • I East Indies • • • ♦ • • : Egypt • • • • Formosa • • • • French Indo Chin • • • • Hawaian Islands • • • I India • • I Japan m • • I Korea • • I Malay States • • • • Manchuria • • • I Mexico • • • Near East a • • • Oceania • • • Philippine Islai • • • Siam • • • • * South America • • • Tibet • • • West Indies • • • • • • • • • ----------------m — • * 254 (5) The practice in the school curriculum organization as recommended for the mission schools, is as follows* a* In the elementary level- g It is subject- matter centered, (i.e. the curriculum is organized according to the traditional arrangement of subject matter, for example, Reading, History, Geography, Bible, Mathematics, Music, Science, eto.).......• •• .•.... ........................ ( It is organized around large problem areas, (i.e. the curriculum is organized in such a way that learning is stimulated by the creation of challenging situations .that demand solution,-as opposed to subject-matter arrangement). The challenging situation becomes the central theme around which are organized various activities, and experiences ........... ••••••••••••••«••••...............( It is a combination of subject-matter centered and large problem areas( b. In the high school level- It is subjectHoatter cantered.................................. ( It is organized around large problem areas............ •••••....... ( It is a combination of subject-matter centered and large problem areas( c. In the college level- It is subject-matter centered. .... ( It is organized around large problem areas....••••••............ ( It is a combination of subject-matter centered and large problem areas( Comments* (6) Co-education is recommended and practiced in the mission schools as follows* a. It is recommended and practiced in thd elementary level............. ( b. It is recommended and practiced in the high school level............ ( c. It is recommended and practiced in the college level........... ( d. It is recommended that boys and girls be taught separately in all levels( Comments* (If co-education is not practiced in any field, state reasons here) (7) Mhat percentage of the pupils on completion of their school work become engaged in work other than that of teachers or full time religious workers in your own mission? Indicate also for each field if possible ...... ( Commentss Africa (East) Africa (North) Africa (South) Africa (West) American Indians Arabia Burma Central America Ceylon China East Indies Egypt Formosa French Indo China Hawaian Islands India Japan « Korea Malay States Manchuria ' Mexico Near East Oceania Philippine Islands Siam - South America Tibet West Indies 256 257 i ( 14) (8) What is your policy concerning the level of education required of national teachers? (This refers to your present standards). The possible answers for checking under teaching levels, a,b,and c, refer to the list of qualifications given here for the national teachers. Cross out the word with or without , whichever does not apply. Qualifications for national teacherss 1^Equivalent to eighth grade certificate with or without additional teacher trail ^.Equivalent to two years high school n n n ti it ti 5.Equivalent to four years high school n it it ii n 0 4.Squivalent to two years college it if n it it I I 5.Equivalent to four years college K it it i i n 0 6.Masters Degree n » n it n n 7.Ph.D. Degree n n n u it i t 8.(Other}. n H t ! n i t n Qualification requirements for national teachers in various teaching levels: a.For those teaching in the elementary level- Qualification No.l With, Without additional teacher.training...... ( Qualification No.2 With, Without 0 0 0 ( Qualification No.5 With, Without n ■ w .... ( Qualification No .4 With, Without 0 n n ...... ( Other. ..........With, .Without n " n ....... ( b.For those teaching in the high school level- Qualification No.2 With, Without additional teacher training. ..... ( Qualification No.5 With, Without 0 " 0 ♦......( Qualification No.4 With, Without 0 0 0 Qualification No.5 With, Without 0 0 0 ......... ( Qualification No.6 With, Without 1 1 0 0 ( ' ___________ With, Without 0 0 0 .....♦.( e.For those teaching in the college level- Qualification No.4 With, Without additional teacher training......... ( Qualification No.5 With, Without 0 0 0 ...... ( Qualification No. 6 With, Without 0 0 w ...... ( Qualification No.7 With, Without 0 0 0 ■....... ( Qualification No. 8 With, Without 0 0 0 ...... ( _______ With. Without 0 0 0 ( Comments: ♦ • * • • 9 « • • 9 • • (9)What is the average monthly salary of national teachers teaching in the various levels? Indicate for each field by writing figures in the columns. (Use pre-war figures and American dollar). a. In the elementary level. .............. ..................... b. In the high school level............. ............... c. In the college level................ ........................ . d. In theological institutions................. ............ ....... Comments: 4 0 Africa (East) ' Africa (Norik) Africa (South) Africa (lest) American Indians Arabia Burma Central Americe Ceylon China East Indies Egypt' Formosa French Indo China Ha.-aian Islands India Japan Korea Malay States Manchuria Kexic-o Near East Oceania * Philippine Islands Siam South America Tibet Kest Indies f y c 258 (10) As a matter of policy, approximately, what percent or part of the school day of actual class work is given to religious instruction, as such? (Indicate for each area if possible), a. In the elementary level................................. ............ ( ) b. In ohe high school level,......... ........... ( ) c. In the college level.......................... ( ) Consents: (11) In what grades or levels of the school does your mission recommend and use the vernacular as the medium for instruction?: a. It is recommended and used in the kindergarten level............... ( ) b. It is recommended and used in the elementary level..........*..... ( ) c. It is recommended and used in the high school level........ ( ) d. It is recommended and used in the college level. •...••••• ............ ( ) Comments: (12) The national teachers receive most of their support from: a. The American church...........................*...... ( ) b. The national church.............................. ( ) c. The Government of the country ( ) d . (Other)_________________________________ ( ) Comments: (13)To what extent does your educational work receive government grants?: a. It is entirely suvjported by the government grants............ ( ) b. It i3 largely supix>rted by the government grants......... ( ) c. It is supported only in f i small part by the government grants ( ) d. It receives no government grants.............. ( ) Comments: .... <f t-1 Africa (East) Africa (North) Africa (South) Africa (West) American Indians Arabia Burma Central America v Ceylon China East Indies Egypt Formosa French Indo China Hawaian Islands « ' India Japan Korea Malay States Manchuria Mexico Near East Oceania Philippine Islands Siam South America Tibet West Indies 4 \ 260 (I4)lhat percent of the total mission expenditures is spent on the educational work?: a. Percent for all the fields taken together........ ( ) b. Percent spent on education of total amfnt used in each individual field*...*.. Comments: (15)The construction of mission school buildings is financed in the most part by: a.The American church. ....••••••••••••••• ( ). b.The local mission church.•••••..... ••••••••......... ( )., c.The local government concerned. .... ( )., Comments: (16)How many educational missionaries do you have in active service?: a. Total number for all fields.......................................( ' ) b. Indicate numbers in each individual field................. . Comments: (17)How many pupils do you have in your mission schools?; a. Total number for all schools in all fields.................. ......( ) b. Number in each field. ...... ................................ ....... Comments: Africa (East) Africa (North) • s r Africa (South) • • Africa (West) • American Indians • • Arabia • Burma • Central America • * Ceylon China • " " * T ” ' East Indies • • Egypt ♦ Formosa • • • French Indo China * • Baw&lan Islands * • * India ♦ 9 9 Japan • 9 • Korea • • • • • Malay States • • • • Manchuria • • • • Mexico • • • • Near East • * • 9 Oceania • • ♦ • Philippine Islands • ♦ • Siam • • • • South America » " ' • • Tibet • • • • • - West Indies • • • • • • * • • # • • • 263 (20) (18) State briefly, your projected or proposed plans for the next five to ten years in connection with, (a) your toual missionary program, (b) the educational phase -of your mission&iy work; (19) Name of your church: (20) Name of your foreign mission society: TOdhrerskv ©£ Southern Califbrrife

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Creator Rogers, Sidney P (author)

Core Title A study of educational policies and selected practices of mission societies with reference to intercultural education

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, Multilingual,Education, Policy,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-423230

Unique identifier UC11245212

Identifier usctheses-c26-423230 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP24002.pdf

Dmrecord 423230

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Rogers, Sidney P.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA