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Self-efficacy, job/home attitudes and career concept relationships in pairs of mothers and undergraduate daughters

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Self-efficacy, job/home attitudes and career concept relationships in pairs of mothers and undergraduate daughters

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Content SELF-EFFICACY, JOB/HOME ATTITUDES AND CAREER CONCEPT RELATIONSHIPS IN PAIRS OF MOTHERS AND UNDERGRADUATE DAUGHTERS by Lynne Peterson Hall A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Education - Counseling Psychology) December 1989 Copyright 1989 - Lynne Peterson Hall UMI Number: DP25275 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMI DP25275 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Dissertaifen Publ sfeng Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CAUFORNIA £ 1S LI k . THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES, CAUFORNIA 90089 H177 i. i' J This dissertation, written by Lynne Peterson Hall under the direction of hsP. Dissertation Committee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Graduate School, in partial fulfillm ent of re quirements fo r the degree of D O C T O R O F P H ILO S O P H Y Dean of Graduate Studies Date November 29, 1989 DISSERTATION COMMITTEE Chairperson " ii Acknowledgments I am thankful to have this opportunity to acknowledge the support I received during my doctoral program from people in many different parts of my life. Academically, the support and guidance of my committee; Laurie Mintz, Michael Driver, and Rod Goodyear, my chair person, was invaluable. Kelly Heindel's assistance as my statistical consultant helped a challenging task become a satisfying learning experience. Professionally, my colleagues at Bakersfield College and Westchester Counseling Center were consistent in boosting my morale each step of the way. Personally, the friendships of Margaret, Kathy, Bobbie, Harriet, Janet and Jon provided a sounding board for ideas, consistent caring concern and unwavering belief I that I too would survive the doctoral process. The support provided by my mother, father and sister, Carol, has been a constant through my life, being even stronger during the last six years. And finally, I dedicate this work to my three children— Michelle Lorraine, Brian Terry and Mark Enoksen. It is their generation which will continue the search for livable answers to questions regarding the balancing of relationship, parenting and work roles. Dear Michelle, jBrian and Mark, for your willingness to be flexible, your |support and your love, I thank you. in TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables...................................... Abstract............................................. Chapter 1 Introduction................................... Review of the Literature...................... Self-Efficacy............................. Female Adult Development................. Female Career Development................ ___17 Role Conflict............................. Summary................................... Purpose of the Study........................... . . .44 Research Questions............................. ! Summary........................................ Chapter 2 i 1 Method.......................................... ---48 j Participants.............................. . . .48 ! Procedures................................ Instruments............................... . . .52 Chapter 3 Results........................................ ... 62 Cluster Analysis of Cases................ ___62 Total Group Data.......................... . . .64 Mothers Clusters.......................... ___75 Daughters Clusters....................... Mother/Daughter Clusters................. . . 105 Chapter 4 Discussion..................................... Limitations of Study............................ Implications for Counselor..................... . . 136 Directions for Further Research................ . . 141 References............................................ Appendices............................................ . . 152 A. Figures 1 through 7 displaying demographic information of total sample... . . 152 LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Demographic Data Summary of Mothers...............50 2 Means and Standard Deviations for Job/Home Attitude Scale Conflict Elements for Mothers and Daughters............................. 65 3 Correlations for Job/Home Attitude Scale Conflict Elements for Mothers and Daughters......67 4 Means and Standard Deviations for Job/Home Attitude Scale Conflict Types for Mothers and Daughters.......................................... 69 5 Correlations for Job/Home Attitude Scale Conflict Types for Mothers and Daughters.........70 6 Means and Standard Deviations of Career Concept Questionnaire Scores for Mothers and Daughters... 71 7 Correlations of Career Concept Questionnaire Scores for Mothers and Daughters............... 8 Means and Standard Deviations of Career Concept Motive Scores for Mothers and Daughters....... 9 Correlation of Career Concept Questionnaire Motives for Mothers and Daughters.............. 10 Means and Standard Deviations of Career Decision Factor Scores for Mothers and Daughters......... 7 3 11 Means and Standard Deviations of Daughters Occupational Self-Efficacy Scores................76 12 Means and Standard Deviations of Mothers General Self-Efficacy Scores..............................77 13 Demographic Data For Mother Clusters.............79 i 14 Means and Standard Deviations of Career Concept Questionnaire Scores for Mother Clusters....... 8 0 ' 15 Means and Standard Deviations of Job/Home Attitude Scale Conflict Elements for Mothers Clusters.....81 16 Means and Standard Deviations of Job/Home Attitude Scale Conflict Types for Mother Clusters.........83 71 i 72 V 17 Means and Standard Deviation Scores for Long Range Career Goals and Self-efficacy for Mother Clusters........................................... 85 18 F Values for Univariate ANOVAs on 2 6 Variables Utilized to Generate Mother*s Cluster, with Student Newman-Kuel's Post Hoc Results........... 88 19 Demographic Data for Daughters Clusters..........93 2 0 Means and Standard Deviation of Career Concept Questionnaire Scores for Daughter Clusters.......94 21 Means and Standard Deviation of Job/Home Attitude Scale Conflict Element Scores for Daughter Clusters............................. 95 22 Means and Standard Deviation of Job/Home Attitude Scale Conflict Type Scores for Daughter Clusters........................................... 97 2 3 Means and Standard Deviations of Occupational Self-efficacy Scores for Daughter Clusters.......99 24 F Values for Univariate ANOVAs on 27 Variables Utilized to Generate Daughter Clusters, with Student Neuman-Kuel*s Post Hoc Results......100 2 5 Demographic Data for Mother/Daughter Clusters.... 107 2 6 Means and Standard Deviation of Career Concepts Scores for Mother/Daughter Clusters.............. 109 27 Means and Standard Deviations of Job/Home Conflict Element Scores for Mother/Daughter Cluster............................................ Ill 28 Means and Standard Deviations of Job/Home Conflict Type Scores for Mother/Daughter Clusters.........115 29 Means and Standard Deviations of Mothers* Self- efficacy and Long Range Career Goal Scores and Daughters' Occupational Self-efficacy Scores in Mother/Daughter Clusters.......................... 119 3 0 F Values for Univariate ANOVAs on 53 Variables Utilized to Generate Mother/Daughter Clusters, with Student Newman-Kuel's Post Hoc Results......121 Abstract The purpose of this exploratory study was to broaden the research base on female career development with the |inclusion of paired mother-daughter data focusing on the variables of self-efficacy, career concept and job/home I attitudes. Subjects for the study were 90 mother/daughter I ipairs. The daughters were drawn from undergraduate classes at one of three schools, a community and state college in a i |semi-rural area and a state college in a major metropolitan I |area. Requirements for participation were 1) biological 'parents were still married and 2) mothers would be willing ! to participate. Participants completed the Career Concept Questionnaire (Short Form) (Driver, 1983), Job/Home Attitude Scale (Stake and Rogers 1988), Career Self- Efficacy Scale (Hackett & Betz 1981), and Self-Efficacy Scale (Sherer, Maddux, Mercadante, Prentice-Dunn, Jacobs and Rogers, 1982). Data gathered was analyzed for similarities and ;differences in the mother and daughter groups and using j data from the previously mentioned instruments clusters were generated for mothers, daughters and mother/daughter Ipairs. Four clusters were found in each group, however the reliability of these clusters can not be stated. Results indicated that the mothers interest in home activities is higher than in their occupation. The reverse is true of their daughters whose interest in job related activities is higher. Daughters most strongly endorsed the achievement motivated Linear career concept to a degree I significantly different from their mothers. Daughters i |occupational self-efficacy scores replicate the pattern 1 | described m the 1981 Eetz and Hackett study. i Three groups of daughters were identified: 1) those jwith confidence in, minimal conflict between and support t for home and occupation related activities; 2) those with 'moderate confidence, conflict and support for home and I joccupation related activities but limited confidence in their ability to carry out occupational related activities; land, 3) those experiencing strong conflict between external expectations for home activities and internal interest in jjob related activities coupled with low emotional and i ipractical support for both home related and occupation .related activities. Each of these groups calls for I |different counselor interventions in the career development !process. 1 CHAPTER I Introduction As today's undergraduate women attempt to develop life structures which will carry them into their 20's they are afloat in uncharted waters. Several currents move through this water. One pertains to career choice and its implementation. Another pertains to decisions about the iprimary relationship which these women wish to have in their lives and the position with regards to power and equality they want to have in that relationship. Yet another current— one which flows next to and intermingles l with the relationship current— pertains to decisions about parenting. A multitude of unanswered questions exist about the "how to's" of navigating within and among the currents. Unfortunately role models who have done so successfully are scarce. Women who entered young adulthood in the late 1960's and early 1970's had been socialized to assume their course was charted. These women were socialized in the wife/mother role during the period of the "homogenization of women" (Bern & Bern, 197 6). The world in which these women live today, and into which their daughters are preparing to move, is different. In 1965 34.6% of married women were in the labor force, 23.3% of whom had children under the age of six. In 1985, 54.3% of married women were in the labor force, 53.7% of whom had children under the age of 6 (U.S. Dept, of Commerce, 1988). The divorce rate for 1965 was 2.5 per thousand people, and in 1985 it was 5.0 per thousand people (U.S. Dept, of Commerce). Statistical Abstracts of the United States (U.S. Dept, of Commerce, 1988) presents a clear picture of the 1986 labor force. In 1986 the overall median wage for women 25 and older was $308 a week compared to a weekly median wage of $462 for men age 25 and older. Closer examination of these data reveals that within the U.S. Bureau of Labor category for administrative support (80.4% women) the median weekly wage was $300, while for private household service (9 6% women) the median weekly wage was $121. In the executive, administrative and managerial categories which is only 36.8% women, the median wage rises to $511 a week. The professional specialty category has a median wage of $500. This category is 49.4% women primarily because it contains within it the occupations of registered nurse (94.3% women) and all teachers except college teachers (7 3% women). Also within this category are the professional specialties of architect, 9.7% women; engineers, 6.0% women; physicians, 17.6% women, dentists, 4.4% women and lawyers & judges, 18.1% women. Women without professional or managerial skills today occupy what Howe (1978) called the "pink collar ghetto", either by choice or default. Even within the professional 3 specialties women are clustered in the teaching and helping professions (U.S. Dept, of Commerce, 1988). Today's young woman faces the reality of earning less than a young man especially if she moves into the occupations where women are currently clustered. Today's undergraduate women must wrestle with the pressures from two primary forces which have evolved over the last 20 years. The first force is that of the multiple effects of the women's movement. Beginning with the feminist consciousness raising of the late 1960's and continuing into the '80's, the women's movement has pushed for broadened choices for women, for equal opportunity and for equal pay. At times this push for broadened choices has carried with it the message, explicitly or implicitly stated that women should work. Friedan (1981) points out that the women's movement seemed to have fallen into a "feminist" mystique increasingly in the 1970's which denied the core of women's personhood, that part which is fulfilled through love, nurture and home. The second force has been economic. The inflation within our economy in the 1970's and '80's has accelerated the movement of women into the work force, leading to the increase of married women with young children in the work force. Thus, even when married, it is quite probable that today's young woman also will be working. She is more likely than those in her mother's generation, to be supporting herself (quite possibly with several children i under the age of 18) for some period of her adult life. As Betz and Fitzgerald (1987) point out, the impact of these current social changes is not well understood. Many ;mothers of today*s undergraduate women have been I !trailblazers. That is, they are part of a cohort of women who were socialized to hold the wife/mother role as primary, yet who during the past 20 years modified that view in the face both of economic realities and of the womens* movement. These women have found themselves maintaining the multiple roles of wife, mother and worker. In the past 2 0 years, researchers in diverse psychological areas increasingly have focused on women. Two such areas relevant to this study are female adult I development and female career development. A third, and relatively new specialty, that of dual career or dual job marriages also is relevant to this study. Finally, the concept of self-efficacy has been tied to female career choice and studied within the area of female career development. Preparatory to this study, the literatures on female (adult development, female career choice and implementation, I dual career/dual job relationships and self efficacy were I (reviewed. Those studies and theoretical resources most I relevant to this study are reviewed in the sections that 5 follow. Self-efficacy will be addressed first, followed by female adult development, female career development and finally role conflict. Self Efficacy The concept of self-efficacy is an integral part of Bandura's (1977, 1984, 1986) social cognitive theory. Bandura defines perceived self-efficacy as a personal judgment about our personal capabilities, influenced by and in turn influencing performance. He postulated that behavior and behavior change is mediated primarily by expectations of personal efficacy (Bandura, 1977). Efficacy expectations determine whether or not a behavior will be initiated, how much effort will be expended and how long the behavior will be sustained in the face of obstacles. Self-efficacy cannot be reduced to objective skills. Rather, it determines what we do with the skills we have (Lent & Hackett 1987). Bandura (1984) stated that people who regard themselves as highly efficacious will act, think and feel differently from those who perceive themselves as inefficacious. Therefore, self percepts of efficacy icontribute significantly to performance accomplishments. Perceived self-efficacy represents a generative capability in which multiple subskills must be flexibly orchestrated in dealing with continuously changing realities, often containing ambiguous, unpredictable and stressful elements, (p.23 3) 6 Efficacy information is conveyed to the individual in four ways. In the following list they are ordered from what Bandura regarded as the most effective conveyal form to the least: a) enactive, by doing; b) vicarious, by observing another; c) persuasory, by persuasion; and, d) physiological, by body response. Bandura maintains that self-efficacy is the central cognitive mediating structure determining choice, persistence, and achievement. A large empirical foundation has been generated validating a relationship between ratings of self-efficacy and behavior in a variety of situations and settings: social competencies (Kanfer & Zeiss, 1983); positive health behaviors (Beck & Lund, 1981); cessation of smoking behaviors (Condiotte & Lichtenstein (1981); and, academic performance (Lent, Brown & Larkin, 1986). Career self-efficacy is a generic label encompassing judgments of personal efficacy in relation to a wide range of behavior involved in career choice and adjustment. A seminal paper by Hackett and Betz (1981) presented a model postulating the effects of traditional female socialization on career related self efficacy expectations. That model states that female socialization restricts the career options considered by women to traditional roles and 7 occupations. Hackett and Betz reviewed the four methods by which efficacy is conveyed to the individual, illustrating in each case ways female socialization is a limiting factor. Betz and Hackett (1981) conducted a study of 2 35 undergraduates (134 women; 101 men) on the nature and range of their perceived occupational alternatives. Students rated 10 traditionally female dominated jobs and 10 male dominated jobs, according to their confidence they could meet the educational requirements, carry out the job duties, and according to the interest they would have in that job. Although men reported equivalent self efficacy with regard to traditional and non-traditional occupations, women were more traditional than men in the occupations in which they reported confidence. Men also had higher interests in non-traditional jobs than did the women. Taylor and Betz (1983) conducted a study of 346 undergraduates (128 men; 208 women) to assess the utility of the concept of self-efficacy expectations in the understanding and treatment of career indecision. A career decision making efficacy scale was developed using the Crites Career Choice Competencies as the theoretical foundation. The Career Decision Scale (Osipow, Carney, Winner, Yanico & Koschier, 1980) was also administered to assess vocational indecision. It was found that the level of self-efficacy was significantly predictive of levels of 8 career indecision and that the Career Decision Making Self Efficacy Scale was a reliable measure of self-efficacy expectations with respect to the tasks required in career decision making. Rotberg, Brown, and Ware (1987) extended the 1981 Betz and Hackett study by incorporating SES, race, gender and sex role orientation measures and by revising the occupations so that there were five male dominated, five female dominated and five non gender dominated occupations to be rated. The occupations also were balanced for status, an identified weakness of the 2 0 occupations used earlier jby Betz and Hackett. Rotberg et al. included job descriptions on their Career Self-efficacy Scale and subject interest was rated on a 5 point Likert scale. The range of careers being considered was measured with a yes/no response and the Bern Sex Role Inventory was administered to measure sex-role orientation. Career interest was a strong predictor of both range and self efficacy expectations but gender was not a significant predictor of range of perceived career choice, possibly i because of the inclusion of the non-gender dominated careers and the more equal balance in occupational status of career. Sex role orientation did not predict range but it did predict career self-efficacy expectations. Layton (1984) measured locus of control, self-efficacy, and work role salience to ascertain their relationships to 9 women's career decisions. Her primary questions were whether self-efficacy or locus of control does a better job of explaining women's career exploration and nontraditional career choice and whether work-role salience is a significant factor moderating these relationships. Four hundred subjects, 2 36 in a Minnesota sample and 164 in an Iowa sample, participated in this study. The two samples were analyzed separately because they differed significantly on several variables. Layton's conclusion was that perhaps locus of control and self-efficacy are two different aspects of the same internal process and determining which does the better job of predicting women's i jcareer exploration is not the primary issue. Lent, Brown and Larkin (1986) administered measures of self-efficacy, career indecision, self esteem, expressed vocational interests and range of perceived vocational options during the first and final class sections of a course for majors in technical and scientific fields. They found that measures of self-efficacy had utility in predicting academic performance of relatively homogeneous groups. Lent and Hackett (1987) observed that career self- efficacy research has used measures which have varied along a continuum of specificity, tapping self perceptions of ability that ranged from highly discrete to those that are complex and multi-faceted. They perceived a need for an 10 expanded model of research which will, in part, look at environmental variables so the interplay of person- environment can be assessed. This expanded model can address the issue of bi-directionality of influence among predictors of career behavior, exploring more completely the phenomenon of reciprocal interaction posited by Bandura (1986). Lent and Hackett believe addressing the environmental variables can prevent the occurrence of a "blame the victim mentality." That is, by acknowledging the environment's influence, the individual is not left with the belief that if one's self-efficacy expectations were different they wouldn't be where they are. Sherer, Maddux, Mercandante, Prentice-Dunn, Jacobs and Rogers (1982) developed the Self Efficacy-Scale to measure an individual's global self-efficacy. It is assumed that I individuals with histories of varied and numerous experiences of success can be expected to have positive self-efficacy expectancies in a greater variety of situations than individuals with experiences of limited success and of failures. Thus individual differences in past experiences and in attributions of success will lead to different levels of self-efficacy. Balancing multiple roles with conflicting psychosocial expectations often place women in conflict. The concept of self-efficacy offers one way of looking at how an individual female 11 perceives she will balance the multiple roles of worker, spouse, and parent. Astin (1984) commented on the need to identify the most appropriate balance of activities at different points in the career cycle and the life cycle. Undergraduate women today see, hear, and read in the media how women in the cohorts ahead of them are adjusting vocationally? they see the effects of vocational choice activities on personal life. Role balancing is an ill-defined task. Increasingly the popular literature is providing information on the "how to's" of balancing for the working women of the 1980's. Bandura (1984) pointed out that with an ill- defined task, people must judge self-efficacy in terms of what they imagine the tasks to be. Undergraduate j college women with mothers who have been employed have had a first hand opportunity to see what is involved. Female Adult Development As an area of study, adult development had until the 1970's meant primarily adult male development. With few exceptions, the adolescent and adult development literature prior to 1970 evolved from research with male samples. Perhaps consequently, theories of development seemed to be models explaining the process of separating from others. With the influence of the feminist movement in the 1970's, the female perspective has been a growing focus of study, 12 female development over the life span being just one area of focus (Miller, 1986). Three theories of life span development developed with a male sample (Havighurst, Erikson, Levinson) will be reviewed. Then two theories which have been proposed to understand the uniqueness of female development (Gilligan and Peck) will be reviewed. Havighurst and Erikson each are developmental theorists who have based their work on research and I ;clinical experiences with men. Havighurst (1948, 1953) i proposed a series of developmental tasks created by physiological, psychological and social demands the person must satisfy to be judged by others and by self to be reasonably happy and successful. Havighurst asserted that I knowledge of social and historical factors defining the I alternatives available to the person is required to predict how a person will try to achieve the tasks of any t developmental period. The four developmental tasks of youth (ages 16-2 3) are: a) achieving emotional independence, b) preparing for marriage and family life, c) choosing and preparing for a career and d) developing an ethical system. Erikson (1950) also conceptualized human development from the psychosocial perspective in an eight stage model. The adolescent, young adult, tasks are defined in the fifth stage of this eight-stage model. The adolescent's primary __ challenge is to define an identity. Erikson maintains that if this is not accomplished, the person will live in an unresolved state of role confusion. Gilligan (1982) however, criticized this model by pointing out that Erikson focused initially on adolescent male development; then, in 1968 extrapolated his theory to adolescent women. Gilligan (1982) cited Erikson's model of female identity development as follows: She holds her identity in abeyance as she prepares to attract the man by whose name she will be known, by whose status she will be defined, the man who will rescue her from emptiness and loneliness by filling the 'inner space.1 While for men, identity precedes intimacy and generativity in the optimal cycle of human separation and attachment, for women these tasks seem to be fused. Intimacy goes along with identity, as the female comes to know herself as she is known, through her identity with others, (p.12) Levinson's (1978, 1986) theory of adult development also was developed with a male sample; in 1979 he began work to replicate his original study with a female sample (Levinson, 1987). A fundamental element in Levinson's theory is the life structure, which is the underlying pattern or design of a persons life at a given time. Life sequences consist of structure building and structure changing, or times of transition. Preliminary data indicate that the age periods of these sequences are the same for women and men. The concept of the life dream is also fundamental in Levinson's theory. The life dream provides the vision for 14 one's life structure. Roberts and Newton (1987) reviewed four unpublished dissertations which used Levinson's theory and procedures to study female development. They found it common that female dreams were split, with the image of self-in-adult world defined both in relation to others and in terms of an individual identity represented often by their involvement in a career. For women, the transitional periods represent movement toward increased individuation: from family of origin at the end of adolescence; from husband at 30; and, from family of procreation at middle age. The findings in the four dissertations were consistent with the hypotheses of Miller (1986) and Gilligan (1982) that women strive for attachment, whereas men strive for separation. Gilligan's (1982) research based theory of the differential development of women and men posits that: a) identity is defined in the context of relationships, and b) identity is judged by a standard of responsibility and care. A fusion of identity and intimacy is articulated by women's self descriptions in Gilligan's data. Men's self descriptions are clearer and more distinct. Men describe their individual identities in a way which connotes separation, not by what they say but by what they don't say. Instead of attachment, individual achievement rivets the male imagination and great ideas or distinctive activity defines the standard 15 of self assessment and success. (Gilligan, 1982, p. 163) The fusion of identity and intimacy which Gilligan proposed as unique in female development is a counterbalance to Erikson's work. The sequential ordering of identity and intimacy described by Erikson (1968) in the transition from adolescence to adulthood fits the development of men better than women— a finding that is not surprising considering that Erikson's theory grew from work with a male population. The developmental experiences of the female population in the earlier stages of psycho-social development is a possible place to focus for gaining an understanding of the differences in the identity stage. Chodorow (1978), speaking from the psychoanalytic perspective, delineated the process by which identity and intimacy are fused at an early age for women thereby creating the female developmental task of separating self from others and developing an awareness of the responsibility to self as well as to others (Hotelling & Forrest, 1985). Peck (1986) has proposed a descriptive model of female development according to which a woman's sphere of influence is the sum of the relationships in which she is involved. The sphere incorporates a woman's affective, work, and mastery issues as well as her identification with a particular group. This sphere of influence has a bi- directional effect: just as maintaining relationships enhances a woman's sphere there is the potential that the loss off relationship could be perceived as a loss of self. Two critical characteristics of the sphere are its flexibility and elasticity. The flexibility of the sphere speaks to its potential for expansion and contraction to include or prevent new relationships. The elasticity of the sphere refers to the degree to which the relationships in the sphere are responsive to a woman*s changing needs, motivations and self-definitions. The lack of elasticity forces a woman to weigh the impact of developmental changes against a possible loss of relationships which are part of her self-definition. Peck viewed the process of self definition as emerging from the center of the sphere but heavily dependent on the sum of social historical forces externally impacting as well as the elasticity and flexibility of the sphere. Female self-definition is portrayed as occurring by means of a spiraling motion. "The spiraling suggests that a woman is engaged in a constant process of monitoring her own growth and change against its possible impact upon the relationships she values. This need to modulate personal growth against any possible negative effects upon key relationships seems to be a central dynamic in women's self definition." (p. 281) Support for Peck's description of female self-definition is found in a study by Mahoney and Anderson (1988) who interviewed 38 women, ages 25-46, who were returning to 17 college. The timing for the women's return was determined by the state of their relationships and life events, not just their motivation. Thus, women entering young adulthood face the dilemma of incorporating a work role, spouse role, and perhaps parental role with their conflicting frames of reference. Young women are faced with internally balancing a work role calling for autonomous, independent actions with the spouse and parental role calling for actions facilitating attachment and maintaining connection through consideration for others needs. Perun and Bielby (1981) identified the need for addressing the work cycle of women as a distinct |process within female development in future studies of i adult development. Female Career Development The field of career psychology can be divided into the two fundamental domains of vocational choice activities and vocational adjustment activities. Perceptions of adjustment activities required by a given job/career can i affect whether that job/career is chosen. Traditional women's jobs are perceived as requiring less adjustment for they allow dropping in and out of the work force to i accommodate the needs of one's family or spouse (Howe, 1977) . All women who work exhibit occupational behavior. But only a few exhibit an orderly sequence of career development with progressively higher level stages within a small number of occupations. Historically when the family cycle began for women, their outside work ended. In the post World War II years life expectancy has consistently increased, thereby lengthening the post-parental stage. Current evidence suggests that the female life course is now composed of work and family cycles in simultaneous operation throughout adulthood (Perun & Bielby, 1981). Career development theories originally were developed for males because that was the group for which they had greater relevance. Sonnenfeld and Kotter (1982) reviewed the historical path of these theories, concluding that the conceptual foundation for career theories has moved from a static to a dynamic, interactive perspective. Theorists of the late 1800*s utilized a deterministic premise relating social status to career attainment. Those of the early 1900's incorporated the rising individual difference perspective relating individual traits to career choice. This was exemplified by Parson's guidance movement and has continued in the present, for Holland's theory is grounded in assessing the individual difference of the person and the work environment. Theory development in the 1950's and 19 60's, was influenced by the massive numbers of veterans returning to school. This period found stage based approaches to occupational choice evolving in the work of Ginzberg et al. 19 (1951), Tiedman and O'Hara (1963), Super et al. (1963), and Schein (1971). The life cycle approach evolved in the 1970's with the work of Levinson (1978), Valliant (1977), and Gould (1978). This approach is process focused and has increasingly viewed work, family, and personal life stages as interactive. Many of the current career development theories have been reworked to accommodate women. Perhaps the most notable of these is Super's (1980) descriptive proposal of a life span, life space approach which defines careers in their broadest sense as roles played in such theaters as home, community, school, and workplace. The breadth of this approach accommodates the female experience, but does not clearly facilitate an understanding of why one occupational choice, or lack of choice is made. Despite this and other such theory adaptations, Perun & Bielby (1981) stated that no formal theory of the development of female occupational behavior exists. changes in adult life course patterns of contemporary women suggest determinants of occupational behavior of women are different from those of men, the trajectory of the work cycle of women is less predictable than that of men and the process of synchronizing work and family cycles throughout adulthood my be more difficult for women than for men. (p.249) Tittle (1981, 1983) called for a broadening of research efforts in the career choice process to include research on 2 0 the values of and perspective of career and life planning in relation to marriage and parenthood in addition to values on different occupations. This would expand the goals of career research to study an individual's satisfaction with work as it fits into a life pattern versus the current limited goal of just understanding or predicting occupational patterns and satisfaction. Marriage and child bearing decisions are vocationally relevant variables when the major salient roles for women are worker, marriage partner, and parent. Angrist (1974) found the adult sex role for men was occupation directed, whereas for women it was family directed. To maintain some flexibility in future roles Angrist and Almquist (1975) found that career choice and development was socialized for women as "contingency" training. The relevant question of the 1980's and 1990's has moved from whether a women will work or not to the question of how work will fit in with the other roles of spouse and mother. Tittle (1983) views today's women as faced with making psychological choices about working. Some of these psychological choices may lead to choosing less demanding occupations or work settings, or a less intense level of involvement in work. Tittle proposed focusing attention on the responsibilities of the adult roles of marriage partner, parent and worker at earlier stages of vocational planning. Assisting women to learn about the 2 1 variety of patterns that can exist for maintaining the spouse, parent and worker roles could lessen entry into traditional female occupations with their accompanying consequence of lower earnings. Osipow (198 6) described the style of career choice by route of least resistance as one in which people perceive the array of options accessible to them and pursue the most accessible. Traditional female occupations are currently most !accessible for women. Perhaps an objective of career I psychology is to help young women examine their options and sometimes go for the line of most resistance if it would yield higher long range benefits. Models of career choice, achievement & work behavior. Several models that have evolved over the past 10 ■ years to describe and/or explain the career choice process as it applies to both men and women, or to just women. Four of these are reviewed, three addressing both men and women (Astin; Driver? Farmer) and one (Fassinger) addressing college women specifically. Driver's, which was developed by an industrial organizational psychologist is covered first. The career concept model was proposed and developed by Driver (1978, 1980, 1987) as a useful individual difference model for the field of organizational development. The basic premise of this model is that people develop three types of relatively stable cognitive structures concerning 2 2 their careers: first, in the permanence of career choice; second, in the direction of career movement; and, third, in the time of career choice in one's life. Driver identified four patterns: a) the steady state pattern in which one vocation is chosen for life, b) the transitory pattern in which the individual changes fields every one to four years, c) the linear pattern which is defined in terms of upward movement, and d) the spiral pattern in which a field change occurs every five to ten years. The linear pattern most strongly relates to management, power, recognition and achievement; the transitory pattern focuses on novelty; the steady state pattern relates to competence and security; and the spiral pattern is characterized as an evolving process in which each new choice builds on the past and allows the development of new skills. The career concept model provides a way to measure an individual's perceptions of his or her career, looking at career choice, career direction and career permanence. It does not, however, address what forces may influence the individual's perceptions that in turn lead to their choice. / 23 Astin (1984) proposed a socio-psychological model of career choice and work behavior which addresses the personal characteristics and social forces which interact in career choice and work behavior. This model is intended to explain both gender differences in career choice and recent changes in women's career aspirations and occupational behavior. Astin presented the concept of "structure of opportunity" as a way to conceptualize how social forces shape and reshape occupational decisions. Her premise is that for both men and women work behavior is motivated activity which is undertaken to satisfy the basic needs of: a) survival; b) pleasure; and, c) contribution. Career choices are based on one's expectations concerning the accessibility of alternative forms of work and relative capacity to satisfy the three basic needs. Expectations are shaped in part by early socialization, early work experiences, and by the perceived structure of opportunity. Changes in the structure of opportunity can lead to modifications of expectations shaped by early socialization and work experiences, leading to changes in career choice. Male and female expectations concerning what type of work is available and accessible is a function of their sex role socialization and perceived structure of opportunity. Astin outlined seven societal trends bearing directly on work expectations: (a) increased longevity, (b) declining birth rate, (c) increasing divorce rate, (d) proliferation 24 of non-traditional life styles, (e) medical advances and reproductive technology, (f) codification of women's rights, and (g) changes in the nation's economy. As women enter the work force in ever increasing numbers and with children at younger and younger ages, identifying the most appropriate balance of activities at different points in the career cycle and life cycle becomes a pertinent research question. In commenting on Astin's model Gilbert (1984) suggested that the main barrier to women's involvement in the male dominated professions is inherent in the assumptions about professional work that have evolved from that male dominance. Gilbert noted, for example, that the persistent assumption that active participation in family roles is harmonious with occupational achievement and advancement for both men and women is very much at odds with current institutional structure. She raises the question, "Can a concept of career that includes involvement in family and occupational roles (and principles of equity between women and men) realistically co-exist with social institutions that embody the values of a patriarchal society?" (p.129) In such female dominated professions as K-12 education, valuing family and children is part of the training. But this is not necessarily the case in training for participation in the management of corporate America. 25 Farmer (1985) proposed a model of career achievement and motivation for women and men. It is multidimensional with three sets of influence (background; personal; and, environmental) that interact with three dimensions of i motivation (aspiration, as measured by level of occupation chosen; mastery, as measured by motivation to achieve on a j short range challenging task; and, career commitment, measured by degree of commitment to long range prospects of career). The three dimensions of motivation (aspiration, mastery and career commitment) are assumed to be interdependent. Farmer's model presupposes a reciprocal interaction effect between the personal and the jenvironmental influences. Farmer's findings provided some l |support for Astin's concept of the structure of opportunity j J as a significant influence on career achievement and i motivation. Though a high homemaking commitment appeared I to have a dampening effect on some young women's long-range career motivation, for young men such commitment was able to coexist with higher career motivation. Long-range career motivation for women appeared more vulnerable to competing role priorities such as homemaking. It is clear from the test of Farmer's model that the changing environment has a powerful role in career and achievement motivation. Fassinger (1985) proposed a multidimensional causal model for the career choice of female college students. 26 Her findings suggested that variables such as ability, achievement orientation and feminist orientation effect dependent variables involving family and career orientation which in turn effects the career choice variable. Osipow (198 6) observed that the new models are focusing on career entry rather than adjustment and progress. He suggested that perhaps a shift in emphasis is in order now because understanding what happens to women in their careers might provide a feedback loop useful to younger women. Shifts in adolescent career choice In the section that follows, three specific studies are reviewed. Two illustrate the major shifts in career choice patterns for young women today; one study illustrates that even within those changes, gender influences were operating. Prediger and Sawyer (198 6) analyzed the ACT career planning questions for grades 8 and 11 in a 1973 and 1983 national sample. The 10 year trend indicated that dramatic changes were occurring in the occupations students were considering. There was a decrease in the proportion of girls aspiring to social, health, and personal service occupations (from 4 6% to 17% for eighth grade girls and from 43% to 20% in 11th grade girls). On the other hand, there was an increase in the number of girls aspiring to occupations in the traditionally male oriented fields of business and sales 27 management; technologies and trades; and the natural, social, and medical sciences. Whether these data can be attributed to career counseling, societal trends, or other factors is not clear. Farmer (1983), in a study of the career choices of high school girls and boys career choices (N = 1,234), ifound that high school girls were choosing more non- traditional careers than were the boys (3 5% vs. 3%); and that the girls were aspiring to higher career levels and scored higher on measures of career commitment than were the boys. Seventy five percent of the boys indicated they would share parenting equally with their future spouse as well as being employed. Interestingly, significantly fewer girls endorsed a statement regarding sharing financial responsibility with their spouse. Oggins, Inglehart, and Brown (1988) reported on a 5 year study of 383 men and 189 women high school students who had applied to an accelerated 6-year A.B./M.D. program but had not been admitted. After receiving their traditional 4 year B.A., 48% of the men and 28% of the women had enrolled in medical school. This choice pattern might be explained either by a deficiency model, (i.e. women were not as competent as the men and therefore couldn't gain admittance to medical school) or by a subjective choice model (i.e., presuming women are as 28 talented and competent as men but chose not to go into medicine). An analysis of the careers people went into who didn't enter medical school indicated choices were made in gender stereotypical fashion. The deficiency model was rejected and clear support occurred for the subjective choice model. Even for those who went into medical school it was clear that the career had a different purpose for men and women. Women chose medicine if they valued serving mankind and !expected satisfaction from their career but knew it was not going to be the most important thing in their life. Men chose medicine for the comfortable life style, higher income, leadership position, and challenging tasks. It also was found that the sources of support and the availability of role models was important in bolstering the decision for medicine as a field. Role modeling was most important for women and parental support was for men. Maternal employment Several studies have provided support for the influence of maternal employment on daughters attitudes towards working. Baruch (1972) found that a tendency to devalue women's working was significantly greater among subjects with non working mothers. Mothers who were perceived to have a positive combination of work and family roles fostered more flexible sex role ideology in their daughters. Angrist and Almquist (1975) reported on a 29 longitudinal study of two groups from the 1964 freshman class: career oriented women who wanted to work even when their husbands earned enough and when their children were young; and, non-career oriented women who were unlikely to work if their husbands earnings were adequate and who saw themselves as housewives at home when their children were young. They found evidence that women benefit from role models who had demonstrated a life style which incorporated work and family. The career oriented women perceived more persons and greater diversity of reference groups as affecting their future plans. Though mothers exerted influence as role models for their daughters, no unique influence for the father was found. Bielby (1978) looked at the transfer of career salience of previously or currently employed mothers to their daughters in a seven year longitudinal study of a sample of June, 1961 female graduates. Two groups were identified as college seniors, never married and ever married (i.e., married throughout the study), and sampled one year post baccalaureate and seven years post baccalaureate. She found that among ever married, those from lower SES tended to have more career salience. When SES was controlled, then the mother's presence in the labor force related positively only to married daughters stated career commitment seven years post baccalaureate. Mothers presence in the labor force has an ultimate _____positive influence on their daughters, but its effects 30 become latent at some point prior to or immediately following college graduation until their daughters have essentially completed child bearing, (p. 2 63) Smith (1981) observed in a critique of the research on the working mother that from the perspective of role model theory, maternal employment appears associated with: greater approval of working mothers; with daughter holding higher career aspiration; daughters being less traditionally female oriented in occupational choice; and, less sex role stereotyping of career behavior. Smith found that a sizeable minority of women who do choose a demanding professional career often resolve their conflict by remaining single and that those who do marry frequently remain childless. Lunneborg (1982) studied the role model influences of non traditional professional women from a 1977-78 graduate sample, (N = 14 2). Her results supported the conclusion that non-traditional careers are fostered more by identification with and emotional support of both parents rather than with identification with mother or father alone. However, her sample appears largely to agree that it is complementary for women to work and have a family. Eighty eight percent of the mothers had a positive attitude toward working, 74% said their fathers had a positive attitude toward his wife working and 73% of the mothers rated the homemaker role as mostly or entirely satisfying. Adhering to traditional sex roles was considered fairly or 31 very unimportant to 56% of the fathers and 59% of the mothers. Betz (1989) reviewed the implications of the null environment hypothesis on female career development. As defined for an academic setting (Freeman, 1979) the null environment is one that neither encourages nor discourages the individual. It simply is neutral. In light of the empirical base for the importance of environmental factors in female career choice, lack of support from the external environment becomes passive discrimination against women. Failure to act, to support, a non-directive parental stance, a null educational environment all add up to apparent neutrality and apparent freedom of choice. But the external environment has not been neutral, students have received 18 to 2 0 years of messages pushing traditional female direction. Betz argues that the null environment does not facilitate free choice. Employment and female mental health Three studies are reviewed which have found that female employment enhances women's mental health, life satisfaction and facilitates development over the life span. Coleman and Antonucci (1983) compared 206 employed women and 183 homemakers (all 40-49 years old), on measures of self- esteem, lack of depression, lack of psychological anxiety, and physical health and happiness. The working women reported higher levels of self-esteem than homemakers 32 and better physical health while working woman and married women were less anxious than the homemaker or their single, widowed or divorced counterparts. It was found that working was the only significant predictor of self-esteem in mid-life women. Helson and Moane (1987) examined the data generated from a longitudinal study of 1958 and 1960 graduates of a women's college. There purpose was to determine if changes in personality were demonstrable across different life paths and, if so, whether the identified changes supported hypotheses derived from concepts of adult development. Helson & Moane hypothesized that from college to mid life women would have increased in self-discipline and commitment to duties, in independence and in confidence and in coping skills and ego development. Measures of role involvement included an assumption that people who choose different roles differ in personality and people tend to change in personality as activities change. It was their premise that if a general or normative personality change occurs it should be demonstrated across a variety of life paths. Seven life path patterns were distinguished. Three paths were variations for women who have sought their place in society primarily through family and three paths were variations for women who had sought their place through upwardly mobile careers. The seventh path was comprised of women who did not undertake either family or 22 career. Members of the group as a whole changed in personality and in role involvements. Six of the seven groups had changed more than .25 S.D. across the nine measured scales therefore the normative pattern of change was not attributable to any particular sequence of role involvements. The group with neither family nor career involvement showed zero change. 1 Baruch, Barnett, and Rivers (1983) studied adult women's role involvements, with a sample of 239 35 to 55 I [year old women. They found that the right combination of i roles seemed to be the key to well being. Women with the roles of wife, mother, and employee in a high prestige job had the highest well being scores among all women. The lowest scoring women were those with the fewest roles (e.g., married without children or job). Light (1984), however, using a sample of 2 84 women employed full time (ages 21-63, 38% of whom had no children) studied differences in employed women's anxiety, depression and hostility levels according to their career and family role commitment. Women who placed career over family scored significantly higher on anxiety, depression, and hostility subscales whereas women reporting their families had priorities over their career had the lowest mean scores on anxiety, depression and hostility. Support was found for Bernard's (1980) contentions that women who step outside 34 the socially ascribed role experience emotional turmoil and stress. Role Conflict Role conflict can be defined in many ways. One type of conflict is the intra-psychic conflict between doing what one is expected to do and doing what one wants, or would like to do. Another type of conflict is the interpersonal conflict between spouses over what one is expected to do, what one would prefer to do and who is going to do what needs to be done. A final type of conflict is that which exists between what one is willing to do and what the organization is expecting should be done to demonstrate commitment and motivation. Stake (1979) investigated the relationship among role factors, self-estimates of competence, and career commitment using 80 female business students and 94 male business students and 111 female and 138 male business alumnae Contrasting groups of high and low scoring women student and alumnae groups on the Performance Self Esteem Scale (PSES), the high PSES female alumnae who expressed higher career motivation were more likely to be unmarried, without children, working and non-traditional in sex role attitudes. Stake found that those who indicated the strongest career motivation had attitudes and a life i situation most compatible with demands of full career involvement; those with more traditional attitudes and with 35 family ties indicated a more moderate level of career interest. No relationship was found with the male sample between career motivation and family factors, perhaps reflecting their expectations about the male role. Hornstein (1986) analyzed data from a longitudinal data base of 1958 and 1960 graduates of a women's college (N=96), to outline some of the ways mid-life women incorporated employment within their identity structure and to identify differentiating characteristics of each of the groups identified. Three groups were formed based on their pattern of employment: Group I, continuous low involvement in employment and a positive, confident view of involvement in the traditional roles of mother, wife and volunteer; Group II shifted from low to high involvement in employment, substituting employment for more traditional pursuits; and Group III, maintained continuous high involvement in employment as well as involvement in the multiple roles of worker, wife, mother and volunteer. Groups I, II and III had similar demographics regarding the number of marriages, average age of children and number of marital breakups. One significant difference emerged: Group III had fewer children than Group I. Group III differs from I and II in terms of the extent of their involvement in their job and not in the status of the job held. In this study a high level of involvement in employment is not synonymous with having a high status job. 36 Role involvement was measured in terms of psychological commitment to a particular set of activities constituting the social roles of wife, mother, worker, volunteer. One finding of this study was that the two worlds of wife and mother were not necessarily experienced as if they were related. Involvement in the world of wife was considerably less variable than involvement in the mothering world which showed significant differences in involvement over points of time measured and between groups. Stake and Rogers (1988) studied the job and home attitudes of undergraduate women and their mothers. Two intrapsychic elements, interest and confidence were identified and three interpersonal elements: expectations, emotional support"and practical support. Mother* current perceptions were measured as well as retrospective perceptions when they were their daughter*s ages, and the daughter*s perceptions were measured. Daughters showed an equally strong internal pull for home and career but perceived stronger external pressure for career. Mothers showed a clear priority for home at both life stages, current and retrospective. Both mothers and daughters acknowledged the difficulty of combining the two roles. Bailyn (1984) observed that as the issues of work and family are being rethought, awareness continues to grow that they are not independent of each other and that the interrelatedness is not just an individual issue. The term 37 "non-traditional" has had a variety of meanings over time, always dependent upon what is viewed as the norm or traditional. Bailyn reviewed-some traditional organizational assumptions about employees which are being challenged: first, that their family patterns are traditional; second, that employees should be totally work involved; third, that everyone wants to move up; and fourth, that within a given organizational category employees orientations are similar and unchanging. These assumptions of homogeneity become dysfunctional as the organization becomes increasingly heterogeneous. Changing these assumptions would mean moving from a belief in the homogeneous pattern to a heterogeneous pattern. Bailyn pointed out that from the organizational perspective, however, it is easier to move to a new homogeneous pattern, i.e., family is all important so if we know there are children in high school don't offer the opportunity which requires a move for it will be turned down: assumption, "family first." The concept of negotiating careers is offered by Bailyn as a way of accommodating a heterogeneous work force. In negotiating careers, the individual confronts the task of integrating the demands imposed by the work system and family system. The crux of the difficulty for organizations is how to fit individuals with different accommodations between work and family into the job 38 structure. From the point of view of changing life patterns it makes more sense to view career as a series of discrete chunks rather than a continuous line. Bailyn believes that we need a whole new set of assumptions based on diversity and discontinuity. Works such as The Best Companies for Women (Zeitz & Dusky, 1988) provide directions to companies which might be open to at least minimal negotiation, as well as document that many of today's women are, in fact, attempting to negotiate their careers. Gilbert and Rachlin (1987) examined the literature on mental health and psychological functioning of dual career families. Three variations of the nuclear family structure were identified: a) traditional family role where one member was in the paid work force and one was primarily involved in family work, b) dual earner family where both work and c) the dual career family. The dual career family, a unique subset of the dual earner family, is founded on the implicit assumption that neither spouse will necessarily subordinate career expectations to family expectations and that each spouse is committed to participation in both career and family life. The literature reviewed supports the inhibiting effects of gender role socialization on women's achievement behavior. Gilbert and Rachlin point out that a career and a family, a "given" for men is viewed as "trying to have it 39 all" for women. One inhibiting factor of traditional socialization is the encouragement women receive to strengthen men by relinquishing or hiding their own strength and by protecting men from the knowledge that women can take care of themselves. Role expansion derives from this socialization process, i.e. women add the role of paid worker to family roles but request little of the family in accommodating. One concluding observation Gilbert and Rachlin drew from the literature reviewed is that a women who is reluctant to challenge her spouse, fearful of ruining her marriage or worried about harming her children psychologically is likely to consider the following options: a) cut back on career, b) choose a less demanding profession, c) remain in low status position or d) stop working all together. Four sources of stress for living as a dual career family were identified by Gilbert and Rachlin: a) whether and when to parent, b) child care, c) combining occupational and family roles, and d) occupational mobility and job placement. Two characteristics central to maintenance of the dual career life style were also identified: a) mutual spouse support and shared values and b) coping strategies that reflect redefinition, compromise and commitment. Structural societal barriers such as not providing adequate child care, nor allowing flex schedules, job sharing alternatives, and maternity or paternity leave, 40 as well as rigid concepts of what constitutes commitment to the organization can work against or complicate the life of a dual career family. In commenting on Astin*s 1984 model for career development, Nevill (1984) suggested the use of the term "work" to include paid employment, volunteer work and family work, makes it difficult to gain clarity about the conflict and balancing taking place. Speaking of these in terms of roles would allow that clarity. Role conflict comes into play when an individual attempts to fill more than one role simultaneously and is faced with multiple sets of expectations. Hodgson (1984) in a review of the effects of working mothers on the marriage and on the mother, concludes "we are in a transition period between the sex differentiated nuclear family and an emerging companionate family where children are raised cooperatively by both parents, with role involvement determined by stage of family cycle, time available and skills of each parent" (p. 45). Greenhaus and Beutell (1985) examined the literature on the conflict between work and family roles and found that it suggests the existence of three types of conflict: (a) time based, when the time devoted to the requirements of one role make it difficult to fulfill the requirements of another and (b) strain based, when the strain from participating in one role make it difficult to fulfill the requirements of another, and, (c) behavior 41 based, when specific behaviors required by one role make it difficult to fulfill the requirements of another. These conflicts arise from the interactive effects of work and family pressures, leading to the suggestion that scales designed to assess work/family conflict should reflect both work's interference with family and family's interference with work. Beutell and Greenhaus (1983) research focused on female college students, (N = 115 married couples) who were married and had children, a group susceptible to diverse role pressures. The husbands attitudes toward women were significantly more traditional than their wives attitudes. This finding suggested that under certain conditions, husbands sex role attitudes may be associated with wives home, non-home conflicts and wives sex role attitudes may be associated with her choice of strategy to cope with the conflict. In other words the wives may use structural role redefinition, personal role redefinition or reactive role behavior, i.e. trying to do it all in response to her spouses sex role attitudes. Greenglass, Pantony, and Burke (1988), studied sex differences in role conflict in a sample of male and female teachers. They found women were experiencing greater role conflict than men. Role conflict was high mainly among women who experienced job dissatisfaction. The work and family sphere was more independent in men and interdependent in women. They concluded that women may be 42 more able than men to utilize social support as a way of reducing role conflict. Richardson (1981) offered a conceptual framework for understanding the interactions between occupational and family (marital and parental) roles. Her premise is that these major social roles provide the basic structure of the adult life experience and are the major life roles for adults in our society. Further, work and intimacy are processes which occur in both occupational and familial roles. Gender, race and class are critical variables which affect the nature and process of role interaction. Richardson pointed out that as flexibility in choice, timing and sequencing of roles in adulthood increases for both men and women the assumptions of normative role patterns becomes more questionable. Richardson stated that the current stage models of development are useful but increasingly questionable in their universality. Womens role patterns differ from men's and a stage model developed on the basis of womens lives would differ markedly from that developed on men's lives. Richardson proposed a life events model focusing on antecedent-consequent relations rather than organic structure as in a developmental stage model. In such a model causes can be identified and the reaction of the individual to the cause can be analyzed in terms of the various elements comprising the situation. Such a model could validate the importance of timing and sequencing of events in men and women's lives. Summary Four primary areas of literature have been reviewed as a foundation for this study. The theoretical construct of self-efficacy as a cognitive variable mediating motivation and persistence has been briefly described. The application of self-efficacy to the career development area has been reviewed, beginning with the seminal work of Hackett and Betz. The section on female adult development reviewed the j still largely descriptive base for understanding female I development in terms of attachment and the female identity as defined in the context of relationships. Standards of i context and care rather than the more masculine perspective; of individuality appear relevant to developing the female I I identity. From current literature on female career l I !development, differing ways of understanding the career i choice process were reviewed. The changing career choice patterns in young women over the last 10 years also were identified. In addition, literature providing some insight into the role of mothers was reviewed. This review found that 1 there were conflicting results in terms of the singular influence of mothers or the balanced influence of mothers and fathers on daughters career choice. The final section 44 of literature reviewed was in the area of role conflict as it pertained to holding and carrying out the worker role, spouse role and parent role. Studies have focused on attempting to define conflict and the variables which lead to conflict in relationships when two people work. Several major themes can be discerned from the literature reviewed. First, it is increasingly the norm for women's adult lives to include the role of worker simultaneously with that of spouse and parent. Second, women's occupational choices are still clustered in occupations predominantly female (which pay less than occupations currently predominantly male). Third, female implementation of the work role both fosters self esteem and development as well as creating the potential for conflict with the spouse and parent role. This conflict arises from the conflicting societal and internal expectations about what is appropriate for a female in our society. Finally, the literature in all areas reviewed recognizes the transitory nature of this period in time. Realities are changing but it is not clear how perceptions are changing which could influence young women in their career choice process. Purpose of the Present Study This exploratory study was designed to broaden the research base on female career development with the inclusion of paired mother-daughter data focusing on the 45 variables of self-efficacy, career concept and job/home attitudes. Those studying female career development increasingly are acknowledging a need to broaden the scope of career research to include the interaction of work and family roles (Astin, 1983, Tittle, 1983). Nevertheless, the impact on undergraduate women of choices made by their mothers has received limited attention (Stake & Rogers, 1988) . The general research question driving this study was "what are the career concepts, job/home attitudes and perceptions of self-efficacy of American women who have made and acted on work and home choices over a 2 0 year period paired with data on their daughters, who are i currently enrolled in undergraduate courses at a community I i or state college?11. Thus these young adulthood women already have chosen to continue their education beyond a high school degree. Because the sample of mothers was identified through their daughters, they were expected to be a diverse group. i ; It is hoped that the results of this study will assist in developing hypotheses about the enhancement of career self-efficacy expectations of undergraduate women. It is also anticipated that the perceptions of undergraduate women from intact families, pertaining to career concepts, career self-efficacy and job home attitudes will be clarified. 46 Research Questions Research Question 1: What relationships can be identified and where do significant differences occur between the mothers and daughters job/home attitudes and career concepts. Research Question 2: Can mothers be clustered reliably as a result of their involvement in the work force, stated interest and confidence in job and/or home activities, self-efficacy beliefs and career concepts? Research Question 3: Can daughters be clustered reliably as a function of their interest and confidence in job and/or home activities, self-efficacy beliefs, and career concepts? Research Question 4: Can relationships be identified’ I between mothers clusters and daughters clusters? An analysis of the ranges of variables which comprise jeach generated cluster will provide information on areas for further research. It is anticipated that the relationships between the clusters of mothers and of their daughters also will identify areas for further research as well as identify potential areas for career intervention. Summary The economic realities and societal attitudes affecting undergraduate women today are more diverse than those their mothers faced 2 0 years ago. Labor force involvement is more of a reality for this generation of 47 young women than it was for their mothers; in many instances this involvement will come from the necessity of supporting oneself. Female career choices affect their earning power. Identifying the factors which influence career choice is increasingly relevant, yet an understanding of the career decision making process of undergraduate women is i | still unclear. Decisions about how to navigate the currents of relationship, career and family need to be made by today*s undergraduate women. This study was designed to provide a small segment of information which may help in designing interventions or in programmatic development to |help in the making of thgse individual decisions. [— 48' i | CHAPTER II I Method The purpose of this study was to identify possible relationships between mothers' work behaviors and their beliefs in the implementation of the worker, marital, and parental role and their undergraduate daughter's projected behavior in these roles. The variables of career concept, job-home attitudes and general self-efficacy beliefs were measured in 9 0 mother-daughter pairs. This chapter describes the experimental methods and instruments used in !this study. ! i | j Participants j The participants for this study were 90 undergraduate women and their 89 mothers (one mother had two daughters participate). This sample was generated by requesting participants from lower division classes in three colleges in two different geographical settings. The first school (n = 67) was an urban state university in southern California, with an enrollment of 33,000 students. The second (n = 8) and third (n = 15) schools were a state university and community college in an urban/rural setting in central California with student enrollments of 5,000 and 10,000 respectively. Women were asked to participate if they met two criteria: a) their parents were alive and currently married to one another; and b) they believed their mothers would be willing to participate in the study. 4 9 The 89 mothers had a mean age of 46.93 (SD = 5.57) ; had been wed at the mean age of 21.56 (SD = 3.01) and had a mean number of 3.44 children (SD = 2.05). Of these !mothers, 21.10% worked part time, 52.20% were employed full time, 5.6% were students and 21.10% had no job outside the home. At the time of marriage these mothers had 13.4 3 years of education (SD = 2.04). Table 1 displays the demographic data summary for participating mothers. Appendix A contains 7 figures displaying the distribution of mothers among 4 job status categories; wives and husbands distribution among 15 Dept, of Labor job categories; percentage of mothers working full time by !necessity or choice during the 8 family life cycle stages; percentage of full time homemakers during the 8 family lifej icycle stages; and the daughters distribution among college majors and job choices. The 90 daughters had a mean age of 19.33 (SD = 1.28). The reported ethnicity of this group was 64.4% white, 6.7% Black, 6.7% Hispanic and 21.1% Asian. Distribution of declared majors was: 42.2% definitely declared. 27.8% tentatively declared, 16.7% had an idea of their major and 13.3% had more than one idea. Procedures Participants for this study were recruited, on all three campuses, from the lower division, introductory psychology courses. They chose to participate for nominal 5 0 T a b l e 1 Demographic Data Summary of Mothers M SD Median 1. Age 46.93 5.57 45.87 2 . Age when married 21.56 3 .01 21.23 3 . Number of children 3.44 2.05 2.79 4. Husbands education level (in years) 14.58 2.71 15.61 5. Own education level when married (in years) 13.43 2.04 i 13.40 1 5' 1 - course credit. The requirement that the young women*s parents still be married to each other eliminated many potential participants. The study was presented as a survey of job/career and home attitudes of undergraduate women and their mothers. | ! Daughters (N = 118) came in groups of 10 to the i assigned classroom or testing area during their scheduled !times. After reading and signing an informed consent form (and completing a 3x5 data card with her mother's name and f ► address, each daughter was given a numbered research packet for herself and an identically numbered packet for her | mother. When they had completed and returned their packet J jto the experimenter, they were given a debriefing j |information sheet and encouraged to have their mothers ! return their packets within 10 days. The daughters then i jtook, or mailed, their mothers' packets home, j Mothers completed their packets at home and returned l |them in the stamped, addressed envelope which had been i i jprovided for them. Eighty nine returned packets. Ten days after the daughters had completed their questionnaires, a post card was sent to all mothers, thanking them for participating in the study and encouraging them to return their questionnaires if they had not already done so. See Appendix B for the daughters protocol, and Appendix C for the mothers cover letter and follow-up post card 5 2 Instruments Each participant completed a Personal Data Form, a measure of career concept, a measure of job/home attitudes, and a measure of self efficacy. Several instruments were iunique to the mothers group and to the daughters group and !two were completed by both groups. Instruments given only to mothers. j Demographic Questionnaire. The mother's questionnaire was designed for this study to obtain basic demographic 'data. It consisted of 16 items. It also gathered information relevant to the mother's involvement in the work force (to determine if she had returned to school at | any time during her marriage and to determine the choices i I made regarding work and/or school during her family's life j cycle). Mothers were asked their age at marriage, the j j highest level of education prior to marriage and any j |education obtained during marriage. Mothers who had I j returned to school were asked to respond to an open ended i question about their reason for doing so. i Information was requested regarding current employment (whether full or part time; job title). If a participants |was not presently employed, she was requested to provide information about her employment in the last five years j (full or part time; job title). Information also was !requested about husbands' highest level of education and current occupation. 5 3 Information was requested regarding the number and ages of children and the ages of children still residing at home. Ordinal data were coded as reported, occupations were coded utilizing the Department of Labor 15 occupation areas, education attained was coded by year completed (8 through 16), Masters and other. Majors were coded on a broad seven i point scale, (Business, Behavioral Science, Natural Science; & Math, Humanities, Physical Education, Health Sciences, 1 Undeclared/Other). The open ended question was not i quantified. A family life cycle chart was developed for this study ]by the author to assess mother*s activities during eight periods in their familie*s life cycle. For each of those periods, mothers were asked whether they were (a) working full time (and, if so, mostly by choice or mostly from necessity), (b) working part time (and, if so, mostly by choice, or mostly by necessity), (c) a student part time and working part time, (d) a student full time, or (e) a homemaker full time. The eight periods were: married with no children; youngest child an infant; youngest child a toddler; youngest child in pre-school; youngest child in kindergarten through 3rd grade; youngest child in 4th through 6th grade; youngest child in 7th to 8th grade; and, youngest child in 9th through 12th grade. Self-efficacy scale (SES)* The mothers measure of self-efficacy was a scale developed by Sherer, Maddux, 5 4 Mercadante, Prentice-Dunn, Jacobs and Rogers (1982). The scale was designed to measure general levels of belief in one's own competence. It measures general expectations of self-efficacy and is not tied to specific situations or behaviors. The scale consists of two subscales, general self-efficacy and social self-efficacy. For the purposes of this research a 2 0 item questionnaire consisting of the 17 item general self- efficacy subscale, plus three filler items, were used to measure maternal self-efficacy. One of the filler items was the statement, "I think of myself as having long range employment goals in a specific field or type of work." which was utilized as a measure of long range career goals. The 2 0 statements of personal attitudes and traits were rated from 1 (disagree strongly) to 5 (agree strongly). The self-efficacy score is presented as the average score over the 17 items measured. The self-efficacy score can range from 1 = minimal self-efficacv to 5 = total self- efficacy . Construct and criterion validity for the self- efficacy scale are reported by Sherer et al (1982) and Sherer and Adams (1983). Construct validity was established with confirmation of the predicted conceptual relationships with locus of control, personal control, social desirability, ego strength, interpersonal competence and self-esteem. Criterion validity was established with positive relationships between vocational, educational and 5 5 ' * [military success. The self-efficacy scale measures igeneralized self-efficacy expectations dependent on past I experiences and on tendencies to attribute success to skill 1 opposed to chance. A reliability of Cronbach alpha = .86 |is reported for the scale. i Job/Home attitude open ended questions. Following the \format developed by Stake & Rogers (1988), mothers were I asked to respond to open ended questions relating to the conflicts they rated on the Job/Home Attitude Scale. They |were asked to describe their most serious career/home conflict; changes in their interest toward home/ family and job/career activities since young adulthood; differences between their career/home interests at age 2 0 and those of their daughters, and the career/home choices they would make were they 2 0 years old today. This information was I 1 not quantified but rather utilized as a means to gain j i anecdotal information on the perceptions of participating mothers. Instruments given only to daughters. Demographic questionnaire. The 10 item daughter's questionnaire was designed by the author to gather information about the daughters' age, ethnicity, college major, choice of occupation and highest level of education jto be achieved. Four open ended questions were also asked concerning the daughters' "Dream" for enacting the worker, spouse and parent role. Levinson (1978) conceptualizes the I i development of a Dream as one of the major tasks of the I novice phase of adulthood. The Dream is described as an i imagined possibility of self-in-adult-world that generates I excitement and vitality. These questions were developed by the author as open ended prompts to gather four types of information: a) the existence of a Dream for these daughters; b) anticipated obstacles for achieving the Dream; c) their mothers influence on the development of the dream and d) their fathers influence at work in creating the Dream. These data were grouped by the researcher by common themes but not quantified for the purpose of analysis. Career self-efficacy (CSE). The self-efficacy measure used for the daughters was an adaptation of the instrument developed by Hackett & Betz (1981) to provide a measure of perceived occupational self-efficacy for 10 traditionally male and 10 traditionally female occupations. The occupations selected by Hackett and Betz represented a range of interests on the Holland scale and were based on 1975 Women's Bureau data. The traditional occupations had 7 0% more women occupying them and the non-traditional occupations consisted of 3 0% or fewer women. Daughters were required first to rate on a scale from 1 (no confidence at all) to 5 (complete confidence) the degree of confidence they had that they could successfully complete the job duties of each of the 2 0 occupations if they had 5 7 the necessary education and or training. Secondly, they rated their interest in the 2 0 occupations on a scale from 1 (haven't any interest) to 4 (much interest). The interest in the occupations is reported in two ways, first in the number of jobs in which a) interest and b) confidence exists. The range is 20 total occupations, 10 traditional and 10 non-traditional. Second, the level of interest and of confidence is presented as an average of total confidence and total interest scores across the 20 occupations and then as the average interest and confidence in the 10 traditional and 10 non-traditional occupations. Instruments given to both mothers and daughters. Job/Home Attitude Scale (JHAS^. The Job/Home Attitude Scale (Stake & Rogers, 1988) consists of 18 statements which describe 10 conflict elements and eight conflict types in the job/home arena. Participants rated the 18 statements on a scale of 1 (not at all true) to 5 (almost always true). Five of the conflict elements were job j related: interest in occupational and career related activities; confidence in occupational/career roles; worry that others expect occupational/career activities; emotional support received from others for occupational/career activities and practical help for occupational/career activities. Five conflict elements were home related, paralleling the job related format. The eight conflict types were: interest in family/home 58 activities but lack of confidence; interest in occupational/career activities but lack of confidence? worry that others expect family/home activities but lack of confidence? worry that others expect occupational/career activities but lack of confidence; worry that others expect occupational/career activities, but more interest in family/home activities? interest in both areas and finding difficulty in doing both; worry that others expect both and finding difficulty in doing both. Thus the intra-psychic elements of interest and confidence were tapped into as well as the three interpersonal elements of expectations, emotional support and practical support in relation to job/home involvement. The daughters responded only to the rating scales. The mothers, as indicated above, responded to related open ended questions. Scores on each item range from 1 to 5. Career Concept Questionnaire (short form) (CCOV. The Career Concept Questionnaire (Driver, 1983) consists of 35 items which survey an individuals ideal career pattern. Items are scored on a 5 point scale, from 1 fverv little^ to 5 (very much) in response to "would you like 1 1 stems. The areas rated were frequency of change in career area, direction of movement within one's career, preferences on job content changes, general career patterns and 2 0 career decision factors. The four career concept scores are developed by averaging the responses to the — - Career decision factors and the career motives. Scores for each of the career concepts range from 1 (little subscription to this concept) to 5 (total subscription to this concept). A construct validation of the Career Concept Questionnaire (Driver & Sundby, 1983) found a good fit between the basic descriptions of the career concepts and the key elements of those concepts. Research with the Career Concept Questionnaire has primarily occurred within the field of Industrial Organization Psychology and has primarily been with students in Schools of Business or (predominantly male work forces in large organizations. This study develops a data base from a very different I setting, undergraduate women with a variety of majors and career/occupational choices, and their mothers who also represent diverse levels of training and work experience. Data Analysis Mothers, daughters, and mother-daughter pairs were sorted by cluster analytic techniques to identify clusters. The 2 6 variables used to sort mothers were: A. their four career concepts (Spiral, Linear, Steady State, Transitory) from the Career Concept Questionnaire B. eighteen job/home attitudes and one conflict between job/home score from the Job/Home Attitude Scale 6 0 C. general self-efficacy score from the Self Efficacy Scale D. stated long range career path score; E. current job status (employed or not employed). The 27 variables used to sort the daughters were: A. their four career concepts from the Career t Concept Questionnaire, B. eighteen job/home attitudes and one over all conflict rating between job/home from the Job/Home Attitude Scale C. interest and confidence scores in traditional and non-traditional occupations from the Occupational Self-Efficacy Questionnaire. The mother and daughter pairs were sorted using the previously identified 53 variables. BMDP software, which provides a program for hierarchical clustering by case, was utilized. A more detailed description of the P2M Clustering technique utilized will be presented in Chapter III. Descriptive statistics were compiled on mothers* demographic data as well as their career concepts, career decision factors, job/home attitudes and self-efficacy ratings. Descriptive statistics were also compiled on daughters' demographic data, career concepts, career decision factors, job/home attitudes and occupational self- efficacy ratings. T-tests were performed to identify possible mother and daughter differences in career concepts, career decision factors and job home attitudes. Correlations were performed to identify significant relationships between mothers and daughters in career concept, career concept motives, and job/home conflict elements and types. Univariate ANOVAs were applied to separate dependent variables, with cluster membership as the independent variable to determine which variables significantly discriminated clusters. 6 2 CHAPTER III Results This chapter is divided into five sections. The statistical procedure of cluster analysis will be discussed first. The next section will focus on the descriptive statistics for the mothers and daughters participating in this study. The final three sections will be devoted to presentations of the data generated by the clustering process using the mothers, daughters and mother/daughter pairs data. Cluster Analysis of Cases Cluster analysis is a classification technique utilized to form homogenous groups within complex data sets. Borgen and Barnett (1987) point out that clustering can be used to sort fairly complex multivariate data. It can be used for exploration, confirmation and simplification of data. In this study cluster analysis was utilized to explore the data with the expectation of obtaining a picture of the data's underlying structure. BMDP software (Dixon, 1985) offers several options for clustering. The average linkage, agglomerative, hierarchical technique (P2M- centroid) was chosen as most appropriate for the exploratory purposes of this study. Average linkage is generally considered the best of the hierarchical clustering techniques (Borgen & Barnett, 1987; Hair, 6 3 Anderson & Tatham, 1987). This technique begins by computing the Euclidian distance between each pair of cases, that is the square root of the sum of squares of differences between the values of the variables for each case. The clustering process begins by joining the two cases with the shortest distance between their centroids. After two cases are joined, a new centroid is formed by averaging the coordinates of each variable. Then distances are measured from this new centroid to all other candidates for amalgamation and, again, the case with the shortest distance is joined. This hierarchical amalgamation process reduces the number of unattached clusters by one at each step until all cases are joined into one cluster. Mothers were clustered on 2 6 variables (4 career concepts, 19 job/home attitudes, stated long range career 1 goal score, self efficacy score and job status (employed j j full time, part time, student, full time homemaker) . i Daughters were clustered on 27 variables (4 career concepts, 19 job/home attitudes and 4 confidence and interest scores in traditional and non traditional occupations). The mother/daughter pairs were clustered using the above named 53 variables. When the clustering process was computed for each of the three data groups (mothers, daughters and mother/daughter pairs) the tree diagrams generated by the BMDP P2-M program were analyzed to determine the clusters. 6 4 Borgen and Barnett (1987) point out that determining the number of final groups can be the most problematic part of the process. The mother/daughter tree and the mother tree clearly presented a four cluster solution. The daughter tree, however, could have been carved into a 5, 4 or 3 cluster solution. The four cluster solution was chosen to maintain consistency with the other two data sets. Univariate ANOVA's were applied to separate dependent variables, with cluster membership as the independent variable to determine which variables significantly discriminated clusters in all three data sets. The results of these ANOVAs are reported in each of the appropriate sections. Total Group Data Tables 2 through 12 summarize total mother and daughter group data sampled by the Career Concept Questionnaire (Driver, 198 3), the Job/Home Attitude Questionnaire (Stake & Rogers, 1988), the Occupational Self-Efficacy instruments (Hackett & Betz, 1981) administered to the daughters and the Self-Efficacy scale (Sherer, Maddux, Mercadante, Prentice-Dunn, Jacobs and Rogers, 1982) completed by the mothers. Table 2 displays the mean scores on the 10 job/home conflict elements. T-tests were conducted comparing daughters to mothers on these 10 elements. Mothers and daughters were significantly different on 7 of the conflict 6 5 T a b l e 2 M e a n s a n d S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s f o r J o b / H o m e A t t i t u d e S c a l e C o n f l i c t E l e m e n t s f o r M o t h e r s a n d D a u g h t e r s Conflict Mothers Daughters Element M SD M SD ** Interest-home 4. 65 . 64 4.06 1.10 , ** Interest-j ob 3.44 1. 03 4 . 06 .87 • . ** Confidence-home 4.58 . 64 4.12 1.01 Confidence-j ob 3 .86 1. 06 4 . 08 .81 Expectations-home 2 . 19 1. 00 2 . 41 1. 08 , , ** Expectations-j ob 2. 07 1. 13 2. 68 1. 17 Emotional support-home 4.07 . 87 4.11 1. 04 . • ** Emotional support-job 3 . 65 1. 10 4.30 .83 Practical support-home* 3 . 82 .97 3 . 50 1. 07 • • ** Practical support-job 3.19 1.05 3.82 .98 I * * * _ p< .05, p< .0005 Note: Mean scores can range from 1 (none) to 5 (a great deal). 66j elements. Mothers were more interested, had more confidence and received more practical support for home related activities than the daughters reported. On the other hand, daughters were more interested in, had more emotional and practical support for, as well as more expectations for, job related activities. Table 3 presents the correlations between the mothers and daughters on the 10 Job/Home Attitude Scale conflict elements. There were significant relationships between confidence in, expectations for and emotional support for job related activities. A significant correlation was also identified in expectations for home related activities. Table 4 displays the means and standard deviations for the Job/Home Attitude Scale conflict types. The results of t-tests on the 10 job/home conflict types are also indicated. As shown in the table, significant differences existed between mothers and daughters on 3 of the conflict types. The relationship between mothers and daughters on the 8 Job/Home Attitude Scale conflict types as well as the over all conflict score, are presented in Table 5. There are significant correlations on six conflict types and on the overall conflict score. Table 6 displays the career concept scores of mothers and daughters. There were significant differences on two of the career concepts: the linear career concept, which is Table 3 Correlations for Job/Home Attitude Scale Conflict 67 Elements for Mothers and Daucrhters i I Conflict elements I! = p = i !Interest - home . 10 Interest - job . 03 Confidence - home . 15 Confidence - job . 19 <.05 Expectations - home . 30 <.005 Expectations - job . 25 A • O H Emotional support - home . 00 Emotional support - job . 18 <.05 Practical support - home . 07 Practical support - job H O • 1 related to upward movement, management, power and recognition; and, the steady state pattern, in which one vocation is chosen for life and in which competence and security are valued. Table 7 displays the correlations between mothers and daughters Career Concept Questionnaire scores. There were no significant relationships identified. Table 8 displays the mean career concept motive scores for mothers and daughters. Daughters spiral and linear career motives were higher than their mothers to a significant degree. The relationship between mothers and daughters Career Concept Questionnaire motives are presented in Table 9. Significant relationships were identified between mothers and daughters on the linear, steady state and transitory career motives. Table 10 presents the mean scores for mothers and daughters on the 2 0 career decision factors. These factors are part of the computation of the career concepts. Mothers and daughters differed significantly on 9 of the factors. Table 11 presents the means and standard deviations for the total number of occupations in which daughters had at least some confidence in their ability to complete the educational requirements and job duties. The mean level of confidence reported (on a 4.0 scale ranging from 0 = no 6 9 T a b l e 4 Means and Standard Deviations for Job/Home Attitude Scale Conflict Tvoes for Mothers and Daucrhters * Conflict type Mothers M SD Daughters M SD Interest/ no confidence-home 1. 52 . 84 1.96 . 96 Interest/ no confidence-job 2 . 04 1.05 2.25 1. 05 Expectations/ no confidence-home 1.43 .76 1.82 . 93 Expectations/ no confidence-job . 91 1. 92 1.10 2.15 Expectations home^/ interest-job 1. 87 .97 2.28 1. 08 Expectations job/ interest home 2 . 30 1.31 2 .16 1. 14 Interest in both but difficult to do 2.75 1.23 3.10 1. 14 Expectations for both 2 . 34 1. 32 2 .53 1.21 Overall conflict between family/home, career/job 2 . 52 1. 00 2 .45 1.04 p< .005, p< .0005 Note. Mean scores can range from 1 (none) to 5 (a areat deal). 70 Table 5 Correlations for Job/Home Attitude Scale Conflict Tvoes for Mothers and Daucrhters Conflict types r = £> = Interest/no confidence - home .31 = .001 Interest/no confidence - job .25 <.05 Expectations/no confidence - home .30 <.005 Expectations/no confidence - job .30 <.005 Expectations home/interest job .25 <.01 Expectations job/interest home . 09 Interest in both but difficult to do -. 01 Expectations for both . 32 = .001 Overall conflict between family/home carrer/job . 25 A • o H 7 1 T a b l e 6 M e a n s a n d S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s o f C a r e e r C o n c e p t Q u e s t i o n n a i r e S c o r e s f o r M o t h e r s a n d D a u g h t e r s Career Concept Mother M SD Daughter M SD Spiral 3 . 08 .83 3 .31 . 90 Linear** 2 . 94 1.00 3 . 53 .86 Steady State* 2.72 .74 3 . 07 . 84 Transitory 2 . 07 .84 2.20 . 77 i f ^ p< .01, p< .0005 Table 7 Correlations of Career Concept Questionnaire Scores for Mothers and Daughters Career Concept r = p = Sprial .12 Linear .09 Steady State -.05 Transitory .09 7 2 l T a b l e 8 M e a n s a n d S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s o f C a r e e r C o n c e p t Q u e s t i o n n a i r e M o t i v e s f o r M o t h e r s a n d D a u g h t e r s Career Concept Motive M Mother SD Daughter M SD Spiral* 3.83 .77 4.14 .70 ** Linear 3 . 35 1. 05 3 .83 .76 Steady State 3.99 .81 4.05 .77 Transitory 3.54 .82 3.71 .76 p< .01, p< .0005 Table 9 Correlation of Career Concept Questionnaire Motives for Mothers and Daucrhters Career Concept Motives £ = E = Sprial . 00 Linear .29 <.005 Steady State .20 in o • V Transitory .23 <.05 73 Table 10 Means and Standard Deviations of Career Decision Factor Scores for Mothers and Daughters Career Decision Factor Mothers M SD Daughters M SD icieiele Gain prestige & status 2.66 1.33 3 . 47 1.25 Remain free from constraint 3.28 1.15 3 . 28 1. 08 Work without close supervision 4.22 .96 4.03 1.00 Absence of strict rules regulations 3.40 1.18 3. 43 1.13 Ability to influence goals in work 4 . 18 .89 4.36 .79 Ability to move from job to job easily 3.48 1.22 3.52 1.18' Refine technical skills 3.75 1. 10 3 . 66 1. 13 Gain long range employment stability 4 . 24 .93 4.43 .88! i Develop or improve managerial skills & abilities 3.57 1.28 3.74 1.22 Gain a very high income* 3.70 1.03 4.02 1.08 Develop and train others 3 . 60 1.14 4. 03 1. 05 icieie Develop self as a person 4.37 .76 4.70 .59 Be involved in new & different activities 3.83 1.06 4. 13 .94 Influence and direct other ^p^p^p people's activities 3 . 17 1.23 3 . 80 1. 14 Be involved in and around 4r iip^p^p other people 4. 02 1.13 4.60 table . 81 continues 74 Career Decision Factor Mothers M SD Daughters M SD Develop or create something new and different 3 .47 1.25 3.67 1.23 Receive high recognition for special knowledge 3 .28 1.27 3.82 1.24 Prove self against ickick .94 challenging goals 3.69 1. 10 4.23 Use talents to improve the organization 3 .94 .99 4.37 .90 Exploring to find the type of work you do best 3.71 1. 12 4.00 1.11 ^p< .05, p< .01, *** p< .005 **** E< . 0005 Note. Mean scores can range from 1 (very little) to 5 (very much). 75 confidence to 4 = total confidence) for all 20 occupations is reported as well as the level of confidence in the 10 traditional and 10 non traditional occupations. There wer significant differences between confidence and interest in all 2 0 occupations with confidence consistently higher than interest. The data for confidence and interest in the 2 0 occupations is displayed in Appendix D. I Table 12 presents the self-efficacy scores for the total group of mothers (M = 3.90, SD = .63, n =89) as well as for subgroups of mothers created by dividing the group |along age, employment status and number of children. !Mothers Clusters | Tables 13 through 17 present descriptive data on the four mother's clusters generated by the cluster analysis procedure. Table 13 summarizes the demographic data of age, number of children, race, education level when married iand percent pursuing more education sometime during their \ i jmarriage. The distribution among the four job status |categories for each cluster; part time, full time, student, I homemaker, is also included. | Table 14 displays the mean scores for the four career i concepts across each cluster. Table 15 summarizes the mean scores for the 10 job/home conflict elements across the four mother clusters. The mean scores for the 9 job/home conflict types are displayed in Table 16. Mean scores for the mothers response to a statement regarding having long Table 11 Means and Standard Deviations of Daucrhters 76 Occupational Self-Efficacv Scores M SD Stated confidence in meeting educational requirements and job duties Total occupations 18.48 2 .31 Traditional jobs 9.54 .98 Non traditional jobs 8.94 1.55 Level of Confidence reported level over all jobs 2.75 . 49 level for traditional jobs 2.97 . 52 level for non traditional jobs Stated interest in occupations 2.52 .53 1 Total jobs 12.33 3 .97 Non traditional jobs 5.31 2 . 37 Traditional jobs 7.02 2 . 09 Level of interest In all occupations 2.11 . 39 In traditional jobs 2 . 30 . 45 In non-traditional jobs 1.93 .45 T a b le 12 M e a n s a n d S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s o f M o th e r s G e n e r a l S e l f - Efficacv Scores Self-efficacy M SD All mothers (n = 89) 3.90 . 63 Sub group scores Mothers 46 and younger (n = 52) 3 . 92 . 67 Mothers 47 and older (n = 38) 3 . 88 . 56 Mothers employed full time (n = 47) 3 . 90 .66 Mothers employed part/time (n = 24) 4.00 . 55 Mothers home full time (n - 19) 3 . 77 . 64 Mothers with one or two children (n = 40) 3.94 .65 Mothers with three or more children (n = 50) 3 . 87 . 61 Note: Subgroup scores total 9 0 per group because one mother is counted twice due to the participation of both of her daughters in this study. 78 range career goals (from 1 = disagree strongly to 5 = agree strongly) as well as the mean self-efficacy score for each cluster of mothers are presented in Table 17. One way ANOVAs were run for each of the 2 6 variables utilized to generate the mothers* clusters. The Student Newman-Kuel1s post hoc test was then used to identify the clusters which were significantly different from each other. i iTable 14 presents the results of these ANOVA*s along with the Student Newman-Kuel*s post hoc results. The following ten variables were not significantly different across the four clusters: the spiral, linear and steady state career concepts; long range career goals; interest in, emotional and practical support for home activities; interest in and i emotional support for occupational related activities, and;j job status. Cluster profiles were then generated by analyzing the patterns of difference presented in Table 19. The primary characteristics of each cluster are discussed in the next four sections. Cluster 1. This cluster of mothers had the highest endorsement of the transitory career concept (M = 2.64 SD = .96) which was significantly different from cluster 3 (M = 1.95, SD = .63) and cluster 4 (M = 1.67, SD = .55). Self- efficacy ratings for these mothers were in the bottom half of the sample (M = 3.69, SD = .73), and were significantly different from the most efficacious mothers in cluster 4 (M = 4.23, SD = .38). This cluster reported the highest T a b le 13 Demographic Data for Mother1s Clusters Cluster I II III IV (n = 10) (n = 16) (n = 18) (n = 24) 4 Age 45.7 45. 3 47. 16 47 . 2 Number of children 3.40 3.0 3.50 3. 12 Race3 White 30.0 68 . 8 50. 0 87.5 Black 0 12 . 5 5.6 4.2 Hispanic 20.0 0 5.6 8 . 3 Asian 50. 0 18.8 38. 9 0 Education level when married 12.5 13.94 13.22 13.97 Continuing education after marriage3 60.0 56. 2 61. 1 50. 0 Job Status part time 10.0 37.5 22 . 2 20.8 full time 50. 0 37.5 44.4 58.2 student 20. 0 0 0 12.5 homemaker 20.0 25. 0 33.3 8 . 3 Percentage. 80 T a b le 14 M e a n s a n d S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s o f C a r e e r C o n c e p ts Q u e s t i o n n a i r e S c o r e s f o r M o t h e r s C l u s t e r s Cluster I (n = 10) II (n = 16) III (n = 18) IV (n = 24) Career Concepts Spiral M 3 . 28 3 . 22 3 . 00 2.85 SD Linear M SD Steady State M SD Transitory M SD . 82 2.98 . 65 3 . 28 .96 2 . 64 .96 . 93 3 . 07 1.23 2 . 80 . 90 2 . 08 .81 . 77 2.67 .81 3.19 . 74 1. 95 . 63 .83 2.93 1.14 3.25 . 68 1.67 .54 Note: Mean scores can range from 1 (very little) to 5 (very much). 81 Table 15 Means and Standard Deviations of Job/Home Attitude Scale Conflict Elements for Mothers Clusters Cluster I II III IV (n = 10) (n = 16) (n = 18) (n = 24) Conflict Elements Interest Home M 4.50 4.75 4.33 4.75 SD .97 .58 .68 . 61 Job M 3.70 3.00 3.33 3 . 71 SD .67 1.51 .68 .75 Confidence Home M 4.10 4.75 4.39 4.75 SD .99 .58 .70 .44 Job M 3.50 3.50 3.89 4.33 SD 1.35 1.41 .85 .64 Expectations Home M 3.10 1.62 2.39 1.96 SD 1.37 .81 .79 .86 table continues 82 Cluster I II III IV (n = 10) (n = 16) (n = 18) (n = 24) Job M 2.80 1.31 3.05 1.50 SD 1.40 .60 .87 .59 Emotional Support Home M 4.00 3.87 3. 89 4. 17 SD 1.25 1.02 .83 .76' Job M 3.40 3.06 3.44 4 . 00 SD 1.26 1.48 . 98 .78 Practical Support Home M 3.60 3.87 3.72 i 4.00 SD 1.26 1.15 .82 .66 Job M 3.20 2.37 3.28 3.35 SD 1.32 1.31 .75 .77 Note: Mean scores can range from 1 (none) to 5 (a great deal). 83 T a b le 16 Mean and Standard Deviations of Job/Home Attitude Scale ) Conflict Types for Mothers Clusters Cluster (n I = 20) II (n = 20 III (n = 21) IV (n = 20) Conflict Types Interest/ no confidence Home M 2 . 80 1.25 1. 61 1.21 SD 1. 32 . 58 . 61 .41 J ob M 3 . 10 1.94 2.50 1.37 SD 1.20 1. 06 .92 . 49 Expectations/ no confidence Home M 2.20 1.12 1.78 1 1 1 1. 12 SD 1.32 .34 .73 .34 Job M 3.00 1.44 2.94 1.21 SD .94 .63 1. 16 . 41 Expectations home/ interest job M 3.40 1.75 2 . 00 1. 50 SD .96 .77 .84 . 78 table continues ----------------------------- 1 84 Cluster I II III IV (n = 20) (n = 20 (n = 21) (n = 20) Expectations job/ interest home M 3.20 1.75 3 . 38 1.50 SD 1.32 1. 12 1. 07 . 72 Interest in both/ difficult to do M 3.90 2 .81 3 . 39 2 . 08 1 SD 3.20 1.38 1. 04 . 83 Expectations for both | M 3.80 \ 2.12 3 . 00 1.75 SD 1.55 1.41 1. 03 . 90 Overall conflict between family/ home-career/job M 3.50 2 . 06 3 . 05 2 . 12 SD 1.18 1. 18 .80 . 61 Note. Mean scores can range from 1 (none) to 5 (a great deal). T a b le 17 M e a n s a n d S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s f o r L o n g R a n g e C a r e e r G o a l a n c . S e l f - e f f i c a c v S c o r e s f o r M o th e r s C l u s t e r s I II III IV (n = 10) (n = 16) (n = 18) (n = 24) 3 . 58 1. 56 4 . 23 . 38 Long range career goals M 3.50 2.75 3.22 SD 1.27 1.61 1.35 Self-efficacy M 3.69 3.94 3.55 SD .73 .59 .49 _ 8 -6 - conflict on eight of the nine conflict types (see Table 16). These mothers were significantly different from the other three clusters in the conflict between interest in homeand lack of confidence in their abilities at home (M = 2.80, SD = 1.32); cluster 2 M = 1.25, SD = .58, cluster 3 M = 1.61, SD = .61 and cluster 4 M = 1.21, SD = .41. These mothers most strongly felt the conflict between others !expectations for home related activities and their interest in pursuing occupational activities (M = 3.40, SD = .96). Looking at the job/home conflict elements individually this cluster presents the lowest confidence in home related activities (M = 4.10, SD .99). They also perceive the highest external expectations for both home (M = 3.10) and high expectations for occupational (M = 2.80) activities. Demographically this cluster was 50% Asian, 2 0% Hispanic and 3 0% white and had the lowest educational level when married (M = 12.5 yrs.). i In summary, Cluster 1 was characterized by the most conflict between home and work, low confidence in home and work, and a transitory (change every 1 to 4 years) perspective on careers. They also had the lowest education i , . level when married and were predominantly Asian or Hispanic. Cluster 2. Cluster 2 is characterized by holding the lowest score for conflict between home and job related activities (M = 2.06, SD = 1.08). This perception of conflict differs significantly from cluster 1 (M = 3.50, SD 87 = 1.18). These mothers also report the lowest score for practical support in holding a job (M = 2.38, SD = 1.31), a score significantly different from the other 3 clusters. Job activities are not a priority to this cluster. These mothers hold the lowest long range career goals (M = 2.75, SD = 1.61); report the lowest interest in job related activities (M = 3.00, SD = 1.51); perceive the lowest ex ternal expectations for job activities (M = 1.31, SD = .60) and are in the bottom half of the sample regarding confi dence in job related activities (M = 3.50, SD = 1.41). Conversely this cluster is in the top half of the sample in confidence in home related activities (M = 4.75, SD = .58) which is significantly different from cluster 1. These mothers report experiencing minimal conflict between job related and home related activities across all of the conflict types (see Table 16). Demographically this cluster has the smallest percentage of full time workers (37.5%) and the largest group of part time workers (37.5%). It is also 69% white and 19% Asian with no hispanics. In summary, Cluster 2 can be characterized as primarily home focused. The life choices these women have made regarding involvement in the work world is a satisfactory one as evidenced by their low perceptions of conflict in their lives. Cluster 3. Cluster 3 does not significantly differ from the other clusters on any one variable but does differ 88 T a b le 18 F Values for Univariate ANOVAS on 26 Variables Utilized to Generate Mother's Clusters with Student Newman-Kuel's Post Hoc Results Variable F = Student Newman- Kuel s Results Self-efficacy 6.48 Career Concept - Spiral 0.9 3 Career Concept - Linear 0.4 6 Career Concept - Steady State Career Concept - Transitory Long Range Career Goals 1.10 Conflict Between Home/Job Interest Home 1.62 Confidence Home 3.27* Expectations Home 6.07* Emotional Support Home 0.44 Practical Support Home 0.56 Interest Job 2.06 Confidence Job 3.80* Expectations Job 1.30* (1,4) (3,4) 1.25 4.59 (1,4) (1,3) ***** 8.67 (1,4) (1,2) (1/4) (1,2) (1,2) (1,4) (2,3) (2,4) (3,4) (1/2) (1,4) (3,4) (2,3) Emotional Support Job Practical Support Job Interest/No Confidence Home 2.49 3.59* (1,2) (2,3) (2,4) 13. 79****** (1,2) (1,3) (1,4) table continues 89 Variable F = Student Newman- Kuels Results Expectations/No Confidence Home ***** 8.64 (1,2) (2,3)(3,4) (1,4) Interest/ No Confidence Job (3,4) ****** 11.02 (1,2) (1,4) Expectations/ No Confidence Job (2,3) (3,4) ****** 24.10 (1,2) (1,4) Expectations Home/Interest Job (1,4) ****** 13.05 (1,2) (1,3) Expectations Job/Interest Home 14 . 65 (2,4) (1,2) (3,4) (1,4) Interest in Both 8. ★ ★★★Ilf 58 (1, (3,4) 2) (1,4) (2,4) Expectations for Both Job Status .67 ****** 9.01 (2,3) (1,2) (3,4) (1,4) ** *** **** *** * * p <.05, p <.01, p <.005, p <.001, p <.0001, ★ ★★★ p <.00005 90 significantly from two of the clusters on 5 variables (see Table 18). Demographically this cluster is 33.3% full time homemakers, 44% working full time and 22% working part time This cluster is 50% white, 39% Asian, 6% Black and 6% Hispanic. These women are in the bottom half of the sample in experiencing conflicts between external expectations for job and home activities and their confidence in being able to meet those expectations as well as minimal conflict between external expectations for job, and internal interest in home activities. They do not report experiencing external expectations to be involved in both job and home activities (M = 2.12, SD = 1.41). When evaluating the conflict elements individually, however, this cluster did report perceiving the highest external expectations for occupation related activities (M = 3.05, SD = .87). In summary, Cluster 3 can be characterized as "middle of the road." The high perceptions of external expectations for job related activities do not seem to be matched with high conflict over dealing with those expectations. Cluster 4. Cluster 4 reports the highest self- efficacy (M = 4.23, SD = .38) as well as the highest endorsement of long range career goals (M = 3.58, SD = 1.56). These mothers also express low overall conflict between job and home activities (M — 2.12, SD = .61), the 91 highest emotional support and practical support for both home and job activities and the highest job confidence and job interest coupled with high interest and confidence in home related activities. Consistently this group experiences the least conflict in carrying out both job and home activities (see Table 17) with the lowest reported conflict (M = 2.08, SD = .83) between interest in both roles and the ability to carry out those job and home responsibilities. This low conflict score differs significantly from the mothers in the other three clusters. Demographically this cluster has the largest white population (87.5%) and the smallest percentage of homemakers (8.3%). In summary, cluster 4 is career/job oriented. These mothers perceive themselves as highly competent and report minimal conflict in their lives between work and home. Daughters clusters. j Four daughters clusters were generated by the cluster analysis procedure. Tables 19 through 2 3 present descriptive data on these four clusters. Table 19 displays demographic data. Mean scores for the clusters career concepts are presented in Table 20. Data for the 10 job/home conflict elements is displayed in Table 21, data for the 9 conflict types is presented in Table 22. The mean occupational self-efficacy scores for each cluster are displayed in Table 23. 92 One way ANOVA's were conducted for each of the 27 variables utilized to generate the daughters clusters. Post hoc Student Newman-Kuel* s tests were used for each variable which contained significant differences between the clusters to isolate which clusters were significantly different. Table 2 0 presents both the F values and the results of the Student Newman-Kuel*s tests for the daughters 2 7 variables. There were no significant differences among clusters on the four career concepts nor the conflict between external expectations for work and internal interest in home. The daughters also were not significantly different on the practical support they received for activities related to achieving occupational goals or on their interest in both job and home activities while being aware of the difficulty of doing both. Finally, the confidence in ability to meet ithe educational and job requirements for both traditional and non traditional jobs was similar. The clusters were significantly different on 19 variables. Cluster profiles were developed by analysis of the data in Table 24. The primary characteristics of each cluster are discussed in the next 4 sections. Cluster 1. Cluster 1 consistently reported the lowest conflict scores across the 9 conflict types (see Table 22). These young women reported the highest confidence (M = 3.05] ------------------------------------------------------- 93 T a b le 19 Demographic Data for Daughters Clusters Cluster I II III IV (n = 21) (n = 19) (n = 26) (n = 15) Daughters Age 19.58 19.11 19.21 Choice of Major declared 47.4 36.8 42 . 3 46.7 tentative 36.8 31.6 30.8 20.0 idea of major 15.8 15.8 7.7 20.0 several ideas 0 15. 8 19.2 13 . 3 Mothers age 46.84 46.9 45.81 45. 64 Race3 White 68.4 68.4 57.7 53 . 3 Black 5.3 0 11.5 6.7 Hispanic 10.5 5.3 3.8 13.3 Asian 15.8 26.3 26.9 26.7 Number of children 3.21 4 .31 2.73 3 . 27 Mothers self- efficacy 4.07 3.88 3.96 3 .89 Mothers job status3 part time 15.8 31.6 11.5 20.0 full time 57.9 57.9 57.7 53 . 3 student 5.3 5.3 11.5 0 home/full time 21.1 5.3 19.2 26.7 aNumber represents percentage ... . ...1 94 Table 20 Means and Standard Deviations of Career Concent Questionnaire Scores for Daucrhter' s Clusters Cluster I II III IV (n = 21) (n = 19) (n = 26) (n = 15) Career Concepts Spiral M 3.31 3.68 3.14 3.23 SD . 90 .57 .89 1.09 Linear M 3 . 61 3.79 3.55 3. 11 SD .68 .62 1.01 .94 Steady State M 3 . 60 3.92 3.29 3.31 SD .93 .55 .91 .95 Transitory M 2 . 02 2.41 2.06 2.44 SD .76 .72 .78 .71 Note. Mean scores can range from 1 (very little) to 5 (very much) 9 5 T a b le 2 1 Means and Standard Deviations of Job/Home Conflict Element Scores for Dauahter Clusters Cluster I II III IV (n = 21) (n = 19) (n = 26) (n = 15) Conflict Elements Interest Home M 3 . 07 4.24 4.28 4 . 28 SD .83 .75 .98 1. 53 Job M 4 .43 4.00 4.24 3.40 SD . 60 .77 .72 1.18 Confidence Home M 4.33 4.22 4.52 2.87 SD .73 .81 .71 1.30 Job M 4.29 4.05 4.28 3.53 SD . 64 .72 .74 .91 t table continues 96 Cluster I (n = 21) II (n = 19) III (n = 26) IV (n = 15) Expectations Home M 1.95 2.50 2.48 3 . 20 SD .80 . 79 1. 08 1.42 Job M 1.86 2.89 3.20 2.00 SD . 65 1. 13 1.12 1.15 Emotional Support Home M 4 . 19 4 . 39 4.40 3 . 00 SD . 81 .70 .87 1.41 Job M 4.57 4.22 4.68 3.40 1 SD .51 .81 .48 1.18 j Practical Support Home M 3 . 62 3 . 39 3 .84 2.93 SD .97 .77 .99 1.39 Job M 4.24 3.56 3.96 3.27 SD .89 .92 .84 1.22 Note. Mean scores can range from 1 (none) to 5 (a great deal}. 97 Table 22 Means and Standard Deviations of Job/Home Attitude Scale Conflict Tvoe Scores for Daucrhter Clusters Cluster I II III IV (n = 21) (n = 19 (n = 26) (n = 15) Conflict Types Interest/ no confidence Home M 1. 62 1. 94 1. 88 2 . 60 SD . 67 .87 . 88 1.24 Job M 1.77 2. 61 2.44 2.40 SD .77 . 61 1. 19 1. 24 Expectations/ no confidence i Home M 1. 38 1.78 1.80 2.60 SD .50 .73 .87 1.40 * Job M 1.71 2 . 33 2 . 48 2 .20 SD .64 . 59 1. 12 . 94 Expectations home/ interest job M 1.81 2.28 2.24 3.27 SD .60 .82 1. 13 1.49 table continues . .. . _L 98 Cluster I II III IV (n = 21) (n = 19 (n = 26) (n = 15) Expectations job/ interest home M 1.77 2 . 61 2.44 2.40 SD .77 . 61 1. 19 1. 24 Interest in both M 2.86 3 . 28 3 . 16 3.47 SD 1.11 1.02 1.21 1.19 Expectations for both M 1.81 2.78 2. 68 3.27 SD . 75 .88 1.28 1.49 Overall conflict between family/ home, career/job M 1.86 2 .28 2.76 3.27 SD . 65 . 57 1. 13 1.22 Note. Mean scores can range from 1 (none) to 5 (a great deal). 99 T a b le 23 Mean Occupational Self-efficacv Scores for Daughters Clusters Cluster I II III IV (n = 21) (n = 19) (n = 26) (n = 15) Confidence - traditional occupations M 3 . 05 2 . 98 2 . 91 2.91 SD .38 .57 . 52 .66 Confidence - non-traditional occupations M 1.75 2.34 1.86 1. 92 SD . 35 .40 .41 .41 Interest - traditional occupations M 2.37 2.56 2 . 25 2.10 SD .24 .47 .44 .51 Interest - non-traditional occupations M 1.75 2.34 1.86 1.93 SD . 35 .40 . 41 .41 Note. Mean scores can range from 1 (no interest or no confidence) to 5 (much interest or much confidence). 1 0 0 T a b le 2 4 F Values for Univariate ANOVAS on 27 Variables Utilized to Generate Daughter1 s Clusters with Student. Newman-Kuel1 s Post. Hoc Results Variable F = Student Newman- Kuels Results Career Concept - Spiral 1. 05 Career Concept - Linear 1.72 Career Concept - Steady State 1.54 Career Concept - Transitory 1.31 |Conflict Between Home/Job ** 5.10 (1/3) (1/4) Interest Home ** 5.16 (1/4) (2,4) (3,4) Confidence Home 12.57 (1/4) (2,4) (3,4) ■ Expectations Home 3.52* (1/4) Emotional Support Home ** 5.62 (1/4) (2,4) (3,4) Practical Support Home 2 .84* (3,4) Interest Job ** 4.71 (1/4) (2,4) (3,4) Confidence Job 3 . 60* (1/4) (3,4) Expectations Job **** 7.17 (1,2) (1,3) (3,4) Emotional Support Job ***** 9.20 (1/4) (2,4) (3,4) Practical Support Job 2.82 Interest/No Confidence Home 3 . 06* (1/4) (2,4) i table continues 1 0 1 Variable F = Student Newman- Kuel s Result Expectations/No Confidence Home ** 4.67 (1.4) (3.4) (2,4) (3,4) Interest/ No Confidence Job 2.66* (1,2) Expectations/ No Confidence Job 3.25* (1,3) Expectations Home/Interest Job * * 4.98 (1,4) (2,4) (3,4) Expectations Job/Interest Home 2.55 Interest in Both 73 Expectations for Both * * * 4.33 (1,2) (3,4) (1,3) (1,4) Confidence in ability to meet educational and job require ments for traditional jobs . 17 Confidence in ability for non- traditional jobs 71 Interest in traditional j obs 4. **** 88 (2,4) (2,3) I i Interest in non-traditional jobs 6. • k l t r k r k 78 (2,1) (2,3) (2,4) *** **** ***** I E <.05, E <.005, E <.001, E <.0005, E <.00005 1 02 in their abilities to complete the educational and job requirements (M = 2.40) for non-traditional occupations. They also had the lowest interest (M = 1.75) in the non traditional occupations. The young women in this cluster had the highest interest in occupational activities (M = 4.43) across all clusters, and were significantly different from cluster 4 (M = 3.40). This group perceives the lowest external pressure for either home or occupation related activities (expectations home, M = 1.95; job, M = 1.86). They feel high emotional support for job related activities (M = 4.57) as well as receive the highest reported level of practical support for job-related activities (M = 4.24). Cluster 1 differs significantly from cluster 4 on 15 variables. In summary, this cluster feels high practical and emotional support for job related activities, perceives low conflict in interest, confidence and expectations for job or home activities and has the most confidence and interest in pursuing occupations traditionally held by women. Cluster 2. This cluster is significantly more interested in non-traditional occupations (M = 2.34, SD = .39) than the other 3 clusters (cluster 1, M = 1.75; cluster 3 M = 1.86, SD = .41; cluster 4, M = 1.93, SD = .43). Its scores are also the highest in interest in traditional occupations (M = 2.56) and in confidence in their ability to complete the educational requirements and 1 0 3 job duties for both traditional and non-traditional occupations. This cluster displays mid-range scores on the 10 job/home conflict elements and the 9 conflict types. They are the highest endorsers of the spiral, linear and steady state career concepts but there are no statistically significant difference across clusters for these variables. In summary, this cluster, is highly interested in both traditional and non-traditional occupations as well as confident in their ability to meet both educational and iwork requirements for those occupations. Conflict between job and home on the variables of expectation, interest, confidence is reported as minimal. The mothers of 90 percent of these daughters are working; 58% full time and 3 2% part time (see Table 19). Cluster 3. Cluster 3 reports the highest conflict ibetween expectations for occupational activities and confidence in carrying out those activities (M = 2.48, SD = 1.12). They are significantly different from cluster 1 (M = 1.71) in this regard. This group of young women is also the highest in perceiving expectations for occupational activities while wanting home activities (M = 2.60) but this is not significantly different from the other 3 clusters. These women report confidence in home related activities (M = 4.52, SD = .71) to a degree significantly different from cluster 4 (M = 2.87, SD = 1.30). They are in the top half of the group in confidence in job related 104 activities. The expectations for job related activities is highest in this group (M = 3.20, SD = 1.12) as well as reporting the highest emotional and practical support for home related activities and the highest emotional support for job activities (see Table 18. In summary, this cluster appears in moderate conflict over home and job with respect to confidence in themselves I :and expectations of others. They perceive the highest I emotional support of others as well as the highest i !expectations for the job related activities. These young jwomen are mid-range in their interest and confidence in jboth traditional and non-traditional occupations. Cluster 4. Cluster 4 is significantly different from the 3 other clusters on 11 of the measured variables. Their scores are consistently the lowest in both interest i |and confidence in home and job activities. They also i report the smallest amount of emotional and practical support for home and job activities (see Table 21). They perceive the external expectations for home activities (M = 3.20, SD = 1.42) significantly differently than cluster 1 (M = 1.95, SD = .80), cluster 2 (M = 2.50, SD = .79) or cluster 3 (M = 2.48, SD = 1.08). These young women are experiencing the strongest conflict between both their personal interest in and the expectations of others for home activities and their confidence in being able to implement the home activities. This cluster of young women 1 0 5 experiences conflict between these external expectations for home activities and their interest in occupational activities (M = 3.27, SD = 1.49) more intensely than cluster 1 (M = 1.81, SD = .60), cluster 2 (M = 2.28, SD = .83) or cluster 3 (M = 2.24, SD = 1.13). In summary, this group of daughters is unique in their overall sense of conflict between job and home and the muted interest in either home or job activities coupled with high external expectations for home activities. Demographically this cluster has the highest representation! of other races (46.7%; 6.7% Black, 13.3% Hispannic, 26.7% Asian) as well as the highest number of homemakers (26.7%). Mother/Daughter Clusters. ! Tables 2 5 through 29 present the descriptive ' statistics for the mother/daughter clusters generated by I the clustering procedure. Demographic data for the !mother/daughter pairs in the four clusters is presented in Table 25. The career concept scores for the Mother/Daughter pairs is displayed in Table 26. Table 27 presents data on the 10 job/home conflict elements by icluster. The mother/daughter data on the 9 conflict types is displayed in Table 28. Table 2 9 summarizes the motherfs self-efficacy scores and long range career goal score across the four clusters as well as the daughters occupational self-efficacy scores. 1 0 6 The mother/daughter clusters were generated using the 53 variables previously analyzed in separate mother and daughter data sets. Univariate ANOVA's were used to test differences among the groups on the 53 variables and Student Newman-Kuel1s tests were used to follow up on those ANOVAS which were significant. Table 2 6 present the F values generated by the ANOVA's as well as the Student Newman-Kuel1s results. There were significant differences |between clusters on 23 of the variables and no significant I differences on 3 0 variables. Cluster characteristics were developed by an analysis of the data on Table 3 0 as well as Tables 25 through 29. The next four sections will summarize the characteristics of each cluster. I Cluster 1. The mothers in Cluster 1 experience over all conflict between work and home activities (M = 3.31, SD = 1.18), to a degree significantly different from the conflict experienced in the other 3 clusters. These mothers report the lowest interest (M = 2.85) in job activities and the highest conflict between external expectations for job activities (M = 2.92) while being interested in home activities. They also report the highest conflict in their interest in both job and home activities and finding it difficult to do both coupled with external expectations for doing both. The daughters of these mothers perceive the highest expectations for occupational activities (M = 3.00, SD = T a b le 2 5 Demographic Data for Mother/Daughter Clusters 1 0 7 Cluster I II III IV (n = 13) (n = 15) (n = 17) (n = 16) Age Mother 45.84 46.7 47.0 45.00 Number of Children Mother 3.08 3.53 2.82 3.50 Race3 White 61.5 73.3 70.6 50.0 Black 0 6.7 5.9 6.3 Hispanic 0 20.0 0 12.5 Asian 38.5 0 23.5 31.3 Mothers 1 education level when married 13.23 14.14 13.41 12.56 Continuing education after marriage3 76.5 53.3 58.8 50.0 Job status - Mother part time 38.5 6.7 29.4 18.8 full time 46.2 66.7 52.9 37.5 student 0 2 0.0 0 12.5 homemaker 15.4 6.7 17.6 31.3 ( t a b l e c o n t in u e d ) ) 1 0 8 Cluster I II III IV (n = 13) (n = 15) (n = 17) (n = 16) Daughters with3 declared major 30.8 46.7 47 .1 25.0 tentatively chosen major 46.2 26.7 35.3 37 . 5 idea of major 15.4 13 . 3 11.8 25. 0 more than one idea 19.2 19.1 19.2 19. 1 Percentage. 1 0 9 Table 2 6 Mean Scores of Career Conceots for Mother/ Daucrhter Clusters Cluster I II III IV (n = 13) (n = 15) (n = 17) (n = 16) Spiral Mother M 3 .16 3 .11 2 . 66 3.31 SD 1. 02 .83 . 65 .82 Daughter M 3 . 52 3.42 3 .18 3 .31 SD . 75 . 73 1. 07 1. 01 Linear Mother M 2 . 69 3.44 2.82 2.80 SD .86 .91 1. 17 .89 Daughter M 3 . 64 3.49 3.75 3.49 SD . 65 .72 1.02 1. 06 Steady State Mother M 2.86 3 .30 2.91 3 .37 SD .76 .72 .86 .75 (table continues) Cluster 1 1 0 I (n = 13) II (n = 15) III (n = 17) IV (n = 16) Daughter M 3.68 3.75 3 . 37 3.41 SD .71 .77 1. 05 1. 05 Transitory Mother M 2 . 23 1.95 1. 61 2 .33 SD .90 . 63 . 43 .93 Daughter M 2 . 42 2 . 24 1.85 2 . 30 SD . 99 . 63 . 79 .79 111 Table 27 Mean Scores of Job/Home Conflict Elements for Mother/Daucrhter Cluster Cluster I II III IV (n = 13) (n = 15) (n = 17) (n = 16) Interest - Conflict Elements Home Mother M 4.54 4. 67 4.59 4.56 SD . 66 . 72 . 62 .89 Daughter M 4 . 00 4 . 53 4.41 3 . 37 SD .71 . 64 .87 1.45 Job Mother M 2.85 3.93 3 . 65 3.19 SD 1. 07 . 80 .86 1.05 Daughter M 4 . 15 4.20 4.41 3 . 75 SD . 69 .86 .71 1.18 table continues 112 Cluster I II III IV (n = 13) (n = 15) (n = 17) (n = 16) Confidence - Conflict Elements Home Mother M 4.46 4.73 4.59 4.37 SD .66 .46 .71 . 88 Daughter M 4.15 4.47 4.53 3 . 50 SD .90 .64 .78 1.46 Job Mother M 3.31 4.53 4.00 3 .25 SD 1.03 .51 .71 1.39 Daughter M 4.23 4.40 4.06 3 . 69 SD .60 .63 .83 1. 01 Expectations - Home Mother M 2.15 2.13 1.76 2 . 62 SD 1.07 1.06 .56 (table 1.36 continues) 113 (n I = 13) II (n = 15) III (n = 17) IV (n = 16) Expectations - Home Daughter M Conflict Elements 2.54 2.40 1. 94 2.87 SD .97 1. 05 .75 1.41 Expectations - Job Mother M 2 . 00 1. 60 1. 88 2 . 62 SD 1.08 . 63 .93 1.41 Daughter M 3 . 00 2.40 1. 94 2 . 94 SD 1.15 1. 12 .75 1. 00 Emotional Support - Home Mother M 3.67 4.33 3 . 76 4. 19 SD 1.18 .90 . 75 .91 Daughter M 4 . 00 4.60 4 .23 3.31 SD .81 .51 .90 1.49 Cluster 114 (n I = 13) II (n = 15) III (n = 17) IV (n = 16) Emotional Support - Job Mother M 3.00 4.27 3.65 3 . 19 SD 1. 00 .88 .78 1. 50 Daughter M 4. 15 4.80 4.47 3 . 75 SD .80 . 41 .72 1. 24 Practical Support - Home Mother M 3 . 54 4 . 27 3.70 3 . 87 SD 1. 05 . 59 . 68 1. 15 I Daughter M 3 .30 4.07 3.59 1 2.94 SD .85 . 88 .94 1.39 Job Mother M 2.77 3.80 2 .88 3 . 00 SD 1.01 1. 01 .60 1.41 Daughter M 3.61 4.33 3 . 82 3.56 SD . 87 . 72 1. 13 1.21 115 Table 28 Mean Scores of Job/Home Conflict Types for Mother/Daughter Clusters Cluster III IV II 13) 17) 16) 15) Conflict Type Interest No Confidence Home Mother 1.41 1. 84 1.20 1. 81 62 SD 1.34 41 98 Daughter 1. 53 2.15 1. 67 2.31 90 72 SD 81 1. 25 Job Mother 2.38 2.23 1.13 2.50 90 SD 1.19 1.21 35 Daughter 2 . 44 2 . 17 2.38 2 . 00 1. 19 SD 88 1.26 92 ( t a b l e c o n t i n u e s ) 116 Cluster I II III IV (n = 13) (n = 15) (n = 17) (n = 16) Conflict Type Expectations No confidence Home Mother M 1.54 1.20 1.29 1.81 SD .97 .41 .59 1. 05 Daughter M 1.84 1.60 1.47 2 . 06 SD .80 .63 . 62 1.24 Expectations home interest job Mother M 1.77 1.47 2 . 00 2 . 62 SD .83 .74 .79 1.31 Daughter M 2.31 2.13 1.94 3 . 19 SD 1.18 .74 .75 1.42 Expectations job interest home Mother M 2.92 1.40 2 . 17 2.75 SD 1.50 .51 1. 07 (table 1. 44 continues) 1 1 7 Cluster I (n = 13) II (n = 15) III (n = 17) IV (n = 16) Daughter M Conflict Type 2.38 1.80 2.41 2 .12 SD 1.19 .86 1.28 1.45 Interest in both Mother M 3 . 69 2 . 00 3 .12 2.81 SD 1. 25 .84 1.22 1.33 Daughter M 2.92 3 .13 3 . 00 3 . 19 SD 1. 19 .91 1.22 1. 51 Expectations for Mother M both 3 . 00 1.93 2 .35 2 . 62 SD 1.35 1.22 1.27 1.58 Daughter M 2.46 2.53 2 . 12 3 . 06 SD 1.05 .91 1.27 1.52 ( t a b l e c o n t in u e s ) 1 1 8 Cluster I II III IV (n = 13) (n = 15) (n = 17) (n = 16) Conflict Type Overall conflict between family/home, career/j ob Mother M 3 . 31 2.07 2.41 2.50 SD 1.18 .70 .71 1.26 Daughter M 2 .46 2.13 1.94 3 . 06 SD .88 .83 .66 1.48 119 Table 2 9 Mean Scores for Mothers' Self-efficacy and Long Range Career Daughters* Occupational Self-efficacv in Goals and Mother/Daughter Clusters Cluster IV II III 15) 17) 16) 13) n n n n Mothers self- efficacy 3.59 3.62 4 . 34 4 . 02 SD 38 47 60 59 Mothers Long Range Career Goals 2.87 2.92 4.20 2 . 88 SD 1.14 1. 62 1.26 1.44 Daughters confidence traditional occupations 3 . 04 2.68 2.94 3 . 01 SD 31 .49 . 61 .55 Daughters confidence non-traditional occupations 2.53 2.47 2.32 2.45 61 41 .47 SD .50 (table continues) 1 2 0 Cluster I II III IV (n = 13) (n = 15) (n = 17) (n = 16) Interest traditional occupations M 2 . 43 2.41 2 . 33 2 . 09 SD . 60 . 39 .23 .51 Interest non-traditional occupations M 2 . 17 2 . 00 1. 63 1.82 SD .46 .40 .29 .49 1 2 1 T a b le 30 F Values for Univariate ANOVAS on 53 Variables Utilized to Generate Mother/Daucrhter Clusters with Student Newman- Kuel1s Post Hoc Results Variable F = Student Newman- Kuels Results Career Concept - Spiral Mothers 1.93 Daughters . 38 Career Concept - Linear Mothers 1.80 Daughters .33 Career Concept - Steady State Mothers 1.73 Daughters . 67 Career Concept - Transitory Mothers * 3 .10 (4,3) Daughters 1.49 Conflict Between Home/Job Mothers * 3 .86 (1,2) (1,3) (1,4) Daughters ** 3.78 (4.3) (4.2) Interest Home Mothers . 08 Daughters ** 4.44 (1,4) (3,4) t a b l e c o n t in u e s 1 2 2 Variable F = Student Newman- Kuels Results Confidence Home Mothers .76 Daughters * 2.95 (2,4) (3,4) Expectations Home Mothers 1.87 Daughters 2 . 15 Emotional Support Home Mothers 1. 69 Daughters ** 4.53 (2,4) (3,4) Practical Support Home Mothers 1.77 Daughters 3 .16* (2,4) Interest Job Mothers 3.72* (2,1) Daughters 1.57 Confidence Job Mothers *** 5.94 (2,4) (2,1) Daughters 2.25 Expectations Job Mothers 2.65* (4,2) Daughters 3.86* (4,3) (1,3) t a b l e c o n t in u e s 123 1 1 Variable F = Student Newman- Kuels Results Emotional Support Job Mothers ** 3 .92 (2,1) (2,4) Daughters ** 4.30 (2,4) (3,4) Practical Support Job Mothers * 2.96 (2,3) (2,4) Daughters 1.79 Interest/No Confidence Home Mothers 1. 87 Daughters 2 . 52 Expectations/No Confidence Home Mothers 1.87 Daughters 1.49 Interest/ No Confidence Job Mothers *** 6.30 (2.3) (2.4) (2,1) Daughters .53 Expectations/ No Confidence Job Mothers **** 8. 00 (1/2) (4,3) (4,2) Daughters * 2.71 (2,4) Expectations Home/Interest Job Mothers 4. 11 (4,2) Daughters ** 4.36 (4,3) (4,1) (4,2) table continues 124 Variable F = Student Kuels Newman- Results Expectations Job/Interest Home Mothers ** 4.91 (4,2) (1.2) Daughters . 82 Interest in Both Mothers 5.11 (3,2) (1.2) Daughters . 14 Expectations for Both Mothers 1. 53 Daughters 1. 66 Daughters: Confidence in ability to meet educational and job require ments for traditional jobs 1. 51 Confidence in ability for non- traditional jobs .50 Interest in traditional jobs 1.94 Interest in non-traditional jobs ** 4 . 64 (2,3) (1.3) Mothers Self-efficacy **** 7.05 (2,4) (3,1) (2,1) Mothers Long Range Career Goals 3 . 38* (2,4) (2,1) (2,3) p <.05 . p <.01, p <.001, p <.0005 1 2 5 1.15) coupled with high emotional support (M = 4.15, SD = .80) for job related activities. These daughters also report the strongest interest in non-traditional occupations (M = 2.17, SD, = .46), significantly different from cluster 3 (M = 1.63, SD = .29). In summary, mother/daughter cluster 1 is characterized i by mothers in conflict between outside expectations for jjobs and internal interest in home. The daughters in this igroup also have the highest perceptions of external <expectations for occupational related activities but they are receiving high emotional support for these activities. | Cluster 2. The mothers in cluster 2 differ !significantly from the mothers in the other clusters by their acknowledgement of having long range career goals (M = 4.20, SD = 1.15); cluster 1 (M = 2.92, SD = 1.44), cluster 3 (M = 2.88, SD = 1.62) and cluster 4 (M = 2.88, SD = 1.26). Demographically this group of women was the most educated when married (M = 14.14 yrs) and have the highest full time participation in the work force (66.7%). These mothers also have the highest ratings from the linear (M = 3.44, SD = .91) and steady state (M = 3.3, SD = .72) career patterns, though not to the level of being significantly different from the mothers in the other three clusters. These mothers also report the lowest overall conflict between family and home activities (M = 2.07, SD = .70) These mothers consistently report the lowest conflict in 1 2 6 all 9 conflict elements (see Table 30). They hold the highest self-efficacy scores (M = 4.34, SD = .39), significantly different from cluster 1 (M = 3.62, SD = .59) and cluster 4 (M = 3.59, SD = .60). Both mothers and daughters in this cluster report receiving the highest amounts of practical support for both job and home activities; (daughters job M = 4.33, home M = 4.07 and mothers home M = 4.27, job M = 3.80). The mothers in cluster 2 are career motivated, highly efficacious, and report the lowest conflict on all measures of conflict. Their daughters are in the top half of the sample in interest in non-traditional occupations, as well as traditional occupations. The daughters also report the highest emotional and practical support for both home and occupation related activities. Cluster 3. The mothers in this cluster are the lowest subscribers to the transitory career concept; report moderate holding of long range career goals (M = 2.88, SD = 1.62) and are mid range in the sample in reporting over all conflict between work and home activities (M = 2.41, SD = .71). Daughters in this cluster report the highest interest in home (M = 4.41) and job (M = 4.41) activities i and they are in the top half of the sample in confidence in home activities (M = 4.53). These daughters report the lowest expectations for home (M = 1.94) and job (M = 1.94) activities and perceive the lowest emotional support for 1 2 7 job related activities (M = 1.85). These daughters are the lowest in over all conflict between home and job activities (M = 1.94) and have the lowest interest in non-traditional occupations (M - 1.63), to a degree significantly different from daughters in cluster 1 (M = 2.17) and 2 (M = 1.63) in this respect. In summary, the mothers of cluster 3 appear to be "middle of the road" in conflict between job and home. With 82% of the mothers working (2 9% part time and 53% full time) this clusters work pattern is comparable to cluster 1. These mothers do not report comparable conflict however. The daughters in this cluster do not perceive the high expectations for job related activities. Cluster 4. Cluster 4 is significantly different from the other 3 clusters in the daughters perceived expectations for home activities while holding an interest in job related activities (M = 3.19); cluster 1 (M = 2.31), cluster 2 (M - 2.13) and cluster 3 (M = 1.94). Demographically this cluster consists of 31.3% homemakers and has the smallest percentage of mothers involved full time in the work force (37.5%). The mothers' confidence in !job related activities (M = 3.25) is significantly i ! |different from the mothers in cluster 2 (M = 4.53). Daughters in this cluster report the lowest interest in home activities (M = 3.37) significantly different from cluster 2 (M = 4.53) and cluster 3 (M — 4.41). These young 1 2 8 women also report the least confidence in home related activities (M = 3.5) which is signficantly different from cluster 2 (M = 4.47) and cluster 3 (M = 4.53). In summary, the daughters in this cluster are in conflict between external expectations for home related activities and their internal interest in occupational related activities. Their perceptions of emotional and practical support for both home and job related activities is the lowest all daughters. - . _ _ _ . . 1 2 91 CHAPTER IV Discussion The preceding three chapters have reviewed the literature, methodology and results of the present study. This chapter will summarize and discuss the findings as they relate to the four research questions. It is divided into four sections for this purpose. The first section discusses the results in connection with the research questions. The second section reviews the limitations of the study. The third section covers implications of this l study for counseling practice and the final section highlights directions for further research. i Discussion j i The general research question motivating this study, j "what are the career concepts, job/home attitudes and perceptions of self-efficacy of American women who have made and acted on work and home choices over a 2 0 year I period paired with data on their daughters who are currently enrolled in undergraduate courses at a community or state college?" was answered by the data gathered in the spring of 1989. These data are presented in the "Total i Group Data" section in Chapter III. The first specific research question, "what relationships can be identified and where do significant differences occur between mothers and daughters job/home attitudes and career concepts?" was also answered. _____ A clear pattern emerges from the data on the Job/Home Attitude Scale that the mothers* interest in home, on a whole, is higher than in their occupation. The reverse is \ true of their daughters whose interest in job related activities is higher. The mothers as a group also display- much higher confidence in home related activities while the daughters present a picture of uncertainty about home activities. Daughters acknowledge the high expectations others have for their involvement in job related activities. These daughters receive emotional support for job related activities and perceive practical support for | home activities. It is difficult to ascertain how much of this difference between the groups is part of the normative I i development process and how much is unique to the times. With 2 0+ years experience in family/home, spouse and occupational roles it is not surprising that the mothers are more confident on the whole than their daughters, who have minimal experience in this arena. It is also developmentally appropriate that the daughters are concerned about occupational activities. It is not surprising that they are feeling expectations for them. | Parental expectations of transferring responsibility for financial support from themselves to their children increases as their daughters mature. Parental financial I ;support typically is completely ended upon college I graduation, and for many of these women it is probable „ 13. that monetary support is already limited. The picture of the mothers and daughters presented by the Career Concept Questionnaire data finds the daughters most strongly endorsing the achievement motivated Linear career concept, to a degree significantly different from the mothers career concept. The mothers are much stronger holders of the Spiral concept which is characterized by growth and change with each career or occupational move building on the past. The career motives which make up one portion of the career concept find mothers most highly holding the Steady State, one career path for life, approach while the motives the daughters were the highest in were the Spiral, personal development motives. Again it is difficult to know how much of these perceptions are I I partially developmentally biased. Responses to the 2 0 career decision factors which are j also part of the Career Concept Questionnaire shows daughters to differ from their mothers on the following: endorsing prestige and status; aspirations for high income; developing self and training and others; developing self as a person; influencing others; involvement with people; receiving high recognition for special knowledge; proving self against a challenge; and using talents to improve the organization. The mothers did not support these factors with the intensity of their daughters. The strongest 1 3 2 mother-daughter difference was the daughters expressed need to gain prestige and status, the item with the lowest score for the mothers group. Again, it is difficult to know the extent to which these differences can be accounted for by developmental issues. The daughters occupational self-efficacy scores replicate the pattern of the undergraduate women Betz and Hackett (1981) studied. Like the women in that study, the daughters also maintained higher confidence in and interest in traditional occupations. High confidence is reported for their ability to meet both the training and the job requirements for the 10 traditional and 10 non-traditional occupations. Interest in the non-traditional occupations j is much weaker, however, than interest in the traditional jjobs. i The three specific research questions concerning reliable clustering of (1) mothers, (2) daughters and (3) mother/daughter pairs have not been cleanly answered. The ambiguity rests on the word reliable, this will be discussed in the limitations section. Four cluster solutions were determined for each of the data groups and univariate ANOVAs conducted for each |variable used in the clustering procedures. There was a homogeneity noted across certain variable in all three clustering procedures. In the mothers sample 10 (38%) of the 26 variables used in the clustering process did not 1 33 significantly differ across the 4 clusters (see Table 18). Thus the clusters generated were significantly different on 62% of the variables. Looking at the data on the daughters clusters (see Table 24) we find that across the clusters generated, they were a homogeneous group on 9 (33%) of the variables used. i The daughters clusters were different to some degree of significance on 18 (66%) of the variables. When the mother/daughter pair clusters were determined, it was found that significant differences across clusters existed on 23 variables (43%). There were i no significant differences on 30 (57%) of the variables used in the clustering procedure. The mother/daughter pairj clusters do not present a distinctness which would indicate, any reliability that these clusters could be replicated with a different sample of 1989 mothers of undergraduate women. In all 3 groups (mothers; daughters; and, mother/daughter pairs) there was a homogeneity in the three career concepts spiral, linear and steady state across the I determined clusters. Only the transitory career concept was ascribed to differently among mothers. Five job/home attitudes were common across the mothers clusters; interest in, emotional support for and practical support for home related activities as well as interest in job and emotional support for job related activities. The daughters clusters were not significantly different on the practical support they received for activities working toward occupational or job related goals. They also experienced conflict between the external expectations for occupation related activities and their internal interest for home related activities across all clusters. The daughters interest in doing both while being aware of the difficulty in doing both job and home was comparable across all clusters. Finally, the daughters confidence in their i i t abilities to meet both the educational requirements and to J do the required job activities for traditional and non ( traditional occupations displayed no significant | differences across clusters. j i The clusters generated with mother/daughter pairs maintained the across cluster common subscriptions to the spiral, linear and steady state career concept. Again ■ f there were significant differences among the mothers on the transitory concept. Across clusters, the differences among mothers between confidence for and expectations for home activities was lost. Limitations Two primary limitations exist to this study, the first occurs because of the statistical procedure utilized. The second relates to the sample selection. The statistical procedure of cluster analysis is based on a variety of assumptions that influence the clusters _ _ _ produced. A cluster solution can be reached on totally unrelated variables, (Punj & Stewart, 1987). The variables utilized were not randomly chosen and a rationale existed for the inclusion of each of the variables utilized in the clustering procedure. However, it can not be stated clearly that these cluster patterns would be replicated. The study's results would have more validity if a second j cluster analysis was performed on at least one other sample! !of mothers and daughters for cross validation. Clustering the same sample using the K-means, iterative partitioning j method of cluster analysis would have provided another | potential for cross validation. With this procedure the researcher specifies the number of clusters to be created j based on a rationale generated by the literature (Dixon, 1985, Punj & Stewart, 1987). i The sample selection presents several additional limitations to the findings of this study. A major limitation is this study's sampling of only undergraduate college women and their mothers. At least 50% of the 19-22 year old cohort in both communities from which participants were obtained do not go on to higher education. It can be 1 i assumed that these women have entered the "pink collar ghetto" of clerical and service occupations which require only a high school education. This population is one about which little is known in terms of career concept, job/home attitude or occupational self-efficacy. _ _ _ 13 6 Several other limitations exist in the way which this undergraduate population was sampled. First the specific criteria that biological parents must be married greatly limits the generalizeability to the population as a whole. Secondly, because the sample was drawn from the college student population at publicly funded, low tuition state schools there is the potential for great diversity in parents background, specifically education level and acculturation level when ethnicity is involved. I By not controlling for racial background the large number of Asians potentially biased the sample so that the results can be generalized neither to Asians, nor to a 1 i j white population. The large urban school from which the j majority of the sample was drawn contains a diverse Asian | population ranging from immigrant Indochinese families to ! i 3rd generation children of Japanese and Chinese families. I I A final problem in the sample selection relates to controlling for marital status but not obtaining any measure of marital satisfaction. It is not possible, therefore, to make any statements of the quality of the spousal relationship which these undergraduate women have |observed and of determining if the conflict experienced is !conflict in the relationship displaced onto work. i i ;Implications for Counselors This study did provide a snapshot picture of 89 mothers and their 90 undergraduate daughters. From this 13 7 snapshot we obtain a picture of women who are involved in the three roles of wife, mother, and worker. They have varying perceptions of their careers as measured by the Career Concept Questionnaire, they have a high sense of self-efficacy as measured by The Self Efficacy Scale and they are experiencing conflicts and have preferences about job and home activities as measured by the Job/Home Attitude Survey. All of these responses are based on 2 0+ years of marriage to the same man and some pattern of involvement in the work force coupled with parenting the i daughter who has participated in the study plus any other children in the home. ; The daughters data has been influenced by two major \ factors: the home she has lived in for the past 2 0+ years and the society she has been exposed to. The media has presented varying pictures of women's participation in the worker, wife and mother roles throughout the life cycle over the past 2 0 years. Some of the optimism of youth is evidenced by the high confidence scores in both traditional and non traditional occupations. This is not matched by an interest in the non-traditional and higher paying occupations. It does appear that these 90 daughters are conflicted over job and home. How they anticipate handling that conflict was not accessed through this study. To what extent that conflict X 3 8 _ influencer— and to what extent the conflict is fueled by her future projections is also not addressed in this study. Future research can help bring the focus on this subject— influence of childhood and adolescence and inability to see clear models in the future— into a clearer j perspective. j Mothers messages to their daughters can be inferred from the open ended questions which were part of the job/home attitude survey mothers took. Responses like "I i would finish my education before marriage" or "complete my bachelors degree before having children" are potentially influencing, but to what degree and in what direction is ! not clear. Consistently mothers message about what they j would do differently would indicate that they are | attempting to encourage their daughters to obtain more education than they had upon marriage. Looking at daughters choices of professional occupations and the majors the daughters are clustered in, the occupational progression seems to move from the mothers generation predominantly holding clerical positions to the daughters aspiring to traditionally female professions. Perhaps it is these daughters children which will move into other professional areas currently traditionally male. The results of this study indicate that differences in daughters attitudes toward work and home exist and that it ,is probable that a part of these differences are determined 1 3 9 by maternal attitudes. The daughters clusters points toward the existence of three groups of undergraduate women, each of which would benefit from different counseling strategies. The first group contains cluster 1 and 2. This group is high in interest and confidence in traditional, and to a lesser extent non traditional occupations. The conflict between home and job activities is low or minimal. This group would appear open to counselor support for clarifying career goals and to life i planning activities related to balancing the roles of worker, spouse and parent. The second group, represented by cluster 3, experiences moderate conflict between expectations for home i and job, feels more confident in home related activities and perceives strong emotional support for both home and :job related activities. They express limited confidence inj their ability to meet the expectations for job related activities. Counseling strategies developed to implement a confident worker identity along with the existing confident home identity would provide a foundation for the types of activities which the first group already appears to ready |to benefit from . i ! The final group, suggested by cluster 4, appears to be I !a group whose interests inn job and home activities appears i jgreatly muted by the conflict expressed between job and ihome activities. The data suggests a dichotomizing of the 140 worlds of job and home requiring different counseling interventions than the previously described groups. Counselors working with adolescent women would be wise to assess maternal involvement in the work force and the expectations for work and home activities the young women feels coming from her immediate interpersonal world (maternal, paternal, friends S t other family). A respectful attitude toward the pressures and lack of confidence presented in making choices also seems warranted. Though the structure of opportunity may exist, the confidence and support to take advantage of that opportunity may not exist at home. It is in this instance j I that the counselor can work to overcome the "null environment." , At the present time we still have limited information on what adjustment activities are required of women who move into the new realm of traditionally male occupations. Conflicting information reaches us through the media. On one hand we hear of the flight of managerial women from corporate America, on the other of women who are i I negotiating the "mommy track" in major corporations. \ iCounselors need to be aware of these conflicting messages. i When possible, counselors can provide opportunities for i ]young women to meet and talk with women in the adjustment !phase of career development. ’ 1411 Directions for Future Research The implications for counselors section also points to several areas where an empirical foundation is needed to determine helpful interventions in the career choice process for young women. First, research is needed on the total cohort of 18-2 0 year old women to gather information on choices made concerning continuing education, going directly into the work force, or marrying and working right out of high school. Secondly, so information can be provided to adolescent women as they contemplate their vocational choices, j research is needed on the adjustment process entry level |women experience in occupations which are not traditionally held by females. Specifically on how the roles of worker j i and spouse/mother are balanced. This study provides baseline information on conflicts perceived between expectations, confidence, support, and interest in job and home activities. Conflict does exist. How have other ;women managed that conflict? 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Sciences 2=Humanities 3=Undecided/Other 4=Business 5=Natural Sciences/Math 6=Health Sciences 1 2 3 4 5 6 Major i 41.1 Distribution of Daughter's Present Job Choice* 1=Professional 2=Services: food, health, cleaning 3=Executive, administ rative .managerial 4=Sales 5=Administrative Support 6=Private household services 7=Protective Services Occupation *38.9% made no choice 154 Employment Summary of Mothers 5.60% Fulltime Part time Full time homemaker Full time student i % Working Fulltime 30 - 20 - 10 0 -H 155 Percentage of Women Working Fulltime by Necessity or By Choice During The Eight Family Life Cycle Stages 0 Choice Eg Necessity 1*no children Youngest Child is: 2=an infant 3=a toddler 4=in preschool 5=in K-3rd 6=in 4th-6th grade 7=in junior high 8=in high school 2 3 4 5 Life Cycle Stages t % Hom e Full-time 156 Percentage of Fulltime Homemakers During The Eight Family Life Cycle Stages 80 60 - 40 - 20 - l=no children Youngest child is: 2=an infant 3=a toddler 4=inpreschool 5* in K-3rd 6=in 4th-6th grade 7=in junior high 8=in high school Life Cycle Stages t Wive's Distribution Among 15* Job Categories 1=administrative support, including clerical 2=professional 3=fulltime homemaker 4=sales 5=executive, administrative, managerial 6=service: health, food & cleaning 7=technician & related support 8=private household service 9=farm operator, manager, worker 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I Occupation * There were no subjects in 6 of the job categories Percent 158 Husband's Distribution Among 15* Job Categories 40 - i 30 - 20 - 10 - co CM I ^professional 2=execuiive, administrative, managerial 3-sales 4=machine operators 5=technician 6=transport 7-protective service 8=mechanics 9=construction 10=administrative support I I ^private household service 12« services: food,health,cleaning 13sfarming 1 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Occupation "There were no subjects in two of the job categories

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Creator Hall, Lynne Peterson (author)

Core Title Self-efficacy, job/home attitudes and career concept relationships in pairs of mothers and undergraduate daughters

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education (Counseling Psychology)

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Psychology, clinical,Psychology, industrial

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-525829

Unique identifier UC11245062

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Document Type Dissertation

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