The socio-educational significance of the revival of interest in the works of Juan Luis Vives

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Content THE SOCIO-EDUCATIOML SIGNIFICANCE OF THE
REVIVAL OF INTEREST IN THE W O RK S OF
JUAN LUIS VIVES
A D i s s e r t a t i o n
P r e s e n te d to
th e F a c u lty o f t h e S c h o o l o f E d u ca tio n
U n iv e r s i t y o f S o u th e r n C a lif o r n ia
In P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t
o f th e R equ irem ents f o r th e D egree
D octor o f P h ilo s o p h y
by
Mary F lo r e n c e M ecredy
June 1942
UMI Number: DP23464
All rights reserved
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This dissertation, written by
Haiy Horence Mecredy
under the guidance of h§¥... Faculty Committee
on Studies, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Council
on Graduate Study and Research, in partial ful
fillment of requirements for the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y
Secretary
April 10, 19^2
Committee on Studies
Chairman
TABLE OF CONTESTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I . THE POINT OF VIEW AND THE PROBLEM.......................... 1
I n t r o d u c t i o n ............................................................................. 1
The problem . ..................................................... . . 5
Im portance o f th e s t u d y .............................................. 6
R e la te d l i t e r a t u r e . • . 8
Scope o f th e problem . . . . .................................... 13
S o u rc e m a t e r ia ls ♦ . . ..................................... • • 14
Method o f t r e a t m e n t ........................................................ 25
O r g a n iz a tio n o f t h e s t u d y ......................................... 27
I I . VIVES* BOYHOOD IN VALENCIA (1 492 -1509 ) . . . . 31
I n t r o d u c tio n ............................................................................. 31
V ives* S p a n ish h e r it a g e . . 33
S p a in a s a Roman p r o v i n c e .................................... 35
S p a in a s a G o th ic t h e o c r a c y ............................... 36
S p a in a s a c e n t e r o f Moslem c u lt u r e . . . 37
C h r is t ia n c ru sa d e s a g a in s t t h e Moors . . . 38
R e g io n a l c u lt u r e i n S p a i n .................................... 38
N a tio n a l u n it y under F erdinan d and
I s a b e l l a ............................................................................. 39
V ives* fa m ily background . . . . .......................... 40
V ives* h o m e .............................. 42
V a le n c ia n s e t t i n g ........................................ 44
i i i
CHAPTER PAGE
The U n i v e r s i t y o f V a l e n c i a ......................................... 48
The New L ea rn in g i n S p a i n ......................................... 50
Summary o f c h a p ter . . . .............................................. 55
I I I . STUDENT DATS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF PARIS
1 5 0 9 -1 5 1 4 57
I n t r o d u c t io n . . . . ......................................................... 57
F ren ch h u m a n i s m ................................................................... 59
S c h o l a s t i c i s m ........................................................................ 61
The U n i v e r s i t y o f P a r is . ......................................... 64
V ives* stu d e n t l i f e .................................... 64
Bazoche and E n fan s S an s S o u c i ........................ 68
V iv e s debut as an a u th o r ............................... 70
V iv e s d e p a r tu r e f o r F l a n d e r s .................................... 72
IV . VIVES IN FLANDERS (1 514-1540 ) 74
I n t r o d u c t io n . . ........................................ 74
Contem porary e v e n ts ........................................................ 75
The N orth ern R e n a i s s a n c e .............................................. 76
B r eth re n o f th e Common L i f e .................................... 79
U n iv e r s i t y o f L ou vain . ................................... 80
V iv e s break w ith s c h o l a s t i c i s m ......................... 82
B ruges ........................................................................ 86
E n g lis h e x p e r ie n c e s • . • • • . . . • • • . 87
R eturn to F la n d e r s • « . • • • ............................... 90
S u m m a r y ............................................. 91
l v
CHAPTER PAGE
V. THE SOCIAL BACKGROUND OF VIVES1 TIMES . . . * 97
I n t r o d u c t i o n .................................................................. . 97
C h r o n o lo g ic a l o r i e n t a t i o n ......................................... 98
The R e n a i s s a n c e .......................................................... 101
S o c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e R e n a is s a n c e . . 102
S o c i a l i l l s .................................................................... 104
Summary .................................................................................. 105
V I. SURVEY OF VIVES1 SOCIOLOGICAL W O R K S............ 107
D e f i n i t i o n s ........................................................ 107
V i v e s 1 w r i t i n g s ......................................... . 110
S o c io lo g y ..................... 113
W a r .................................................................................... 113
P o v e r ty ............................................................ 119
V I I. SURVEY OF VIVES1 EDUCATIONAL ??0RKS . . . . . . 128
I n t r o d u c t io n ........................................ 128
P h i l o s o p h y ............................................. 129
P s y c h o l o g y ......................... 132
H i s t o r y ............................................................. .......................... 137
M e t h o d o l o g y ...................................• • • • • • • 144
Moral e d u c a tio n .................................... 150
Summary o f C hapter VI and V II . .................... 184
V I I I . SOCIAL AND EDUCATIONAL REFORMS .. . . . . . . 189
I n tr o d u c t io n 189
D e f i n i t i o n s • .............................. 189
CHAPTER PAGE
Y i v e s 1 d e d ic a t io n s . . .................................... 192
The r o le o f t h e p o l i t i c a l p h ilo s o p h e r . . . 193
The r e l a t i o n s o f p r in c e and p h ilo s o p h e r . 194
The r e l a t i o n o f p r in c e and p o p u la c e . • . 198
The k e y n o te o f Y i v e s 1 s o c i o l o g i c a l refo rm s . 201
W a r ........................................ 203
P o v e r t y ......................... 206
L a w .................................................................................................. 211
E d u c a t i o n ............................................. 215
S i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y decadence . . . . . . . 215
The h i s t o r i c a l developm ent o f e d u c a tio n . . 216
O r ig in o f k n o w l e d g e .................................................... 216
The n a tu r e o f m a n ......................................................... 217
The S e v e n L ib e r a l A r ts ... .. .. .. 219
E d u c a tio n f o r th e new age .................................... 220
The new p h ilo s o p h y . . . ....................................... 220
The s c ie n c e o f e d u c a t i o n .............................................. 225
Language— t h e medium o f com m unication . . . 232
The v e r n a c u l a r ................................................................... 233
L a t in . ...................................................................... . 234
O ther l a n g u a g e s .............................................................. 235
E d u c a tio n a l g o a l s ................................................•... . . 235
Summary ........................................................ 238
v i
CHAPTER PA&E
IX . VIVES* PLACE IN EDUCATIONAL H IS T O R Y ..................... 243
I n t r o d u c t io n ....................................................... 243
I d e o lo g y o f to d a y • • • • • • • • • • • * • 244
The Second R e n a issa n c e . . 244
T w e n tie th c e n tu r y d ecad en ce ............................... 248
G oa ls o f t h e new age .............................. . 251
T r a n s it io n ep och s ; 254
V ives* r e p u t a t i o n .............................. 257
The t r iu m v ir a t e o f l e t t e r s .................................... 258
V iv e s : The "Second Q u in tilia n " . . . . . 261
The "Way-Breaker" ................................................... 262
The e d u c a tio n a l im p l ic a t i o n s o f V ives*
rea p p ea ra n ce i n l i t e r a t u r e . . . 265
S u m m a r y ................................................................................ .. • 274
X. SUM M ARY AND CONCLUSIONS ..................................... 276
S u m m a r y ....................................................................................... 276
C o n c l u s i o n s ............................................................................. 290
F u tu re r e s e a r c h ........................................ 299
BIBLIOGRAPHY
V i v e s ’ Works in th e O r i g i n a l .............................................301
V ives* Works in T r a n s la t io n .................... 301
O ther .................................................................................. 304
CHAPTER I
THE POINT OF VIEW AND THE PROBLEM
INTRODUCTION
T h is stu d y h a s a s i t s i n c e p t io n a c h a lle n g in g s t a t e
ment made by Michaud**- t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t t h e honor o f
sp o n so r in g t h e id e a s o f R e a lism , h y g ie n e , and p h y s ic a l
t r a i n i n g a s d e s i r a b l e e d u c a tio n a l g o a l s b e lo n g s not to
R a b e la is , a s h a s b een th o u g h t, bu t to Juan L u is V iv e s .
C e r ta in q u e s t io n s n a t u r a l l y come t o mind i n r e sp o n se to
t h i s s t a r t l i n g c la im su ch a s , "Who was V iv e s? What d id he
w r ite ? What was h is m essage? What p la c e h a s he i n t h e
h i s t o r y o f e d u c a tio n ? Why i s he o m itte d from t h e u su a l
te x tb o o k s? What h a s b rou gh t him back t o p u b lic n o tic e ? *
That V iv e s h a s been b rou gh t back t o p u b lic n o t i c e
cannot be d e n ie d . Ib y and Arrowood d e v o te c o n s id e r a b le
sp ace t o him , c l a s s i f y i n g him n ot m er ely a s a p ro p h et o f
R e a lism , bu t a l s o a s th e f i r s t g r e a t modern stu d e n t o f
e d u c a tio n a l t h e o r y .2 They c o n s id e r V iv e s t h e most
1
G. L . M ichaud, " L u is V iv e s and R a b e l a i s ’ P ed agogy,"
P u b li c a t i o n s o f Modern Language A s s o c i a t i o n , 3 8 :4 1 9 -2 4 ,
J u n e, 1 9 2 3 .
2
F r e d e r ic k Eby and C h a r le s F lyn n Arrowood, The
D evelopm ent o f Modern E d u c a tio n (New York: P r e n t i c e - H a l l ,
I n c . , 1 9 2 3 ) , p . 2(51.
2
d em o cra tic and h u m a n ita ria n o f th e g r e a t H u m a n ists.5
Twenty C e n tu r ie s o f E d u c a tio n , p u b lis h e d i n 1 9 4 0 , s t a r t s
i t s f i r s t c h a p te r w ith an e x c e r p t on t h e v a lu e o f h i s t o r i c a l
p e r s p e c t i v e ta k e n alm ost v erb a tim from t h e E n g lis h t r a n s l a
t i o n o f V ives* De T r a d e n d is D i s c i p l i n i s . 4 Lynn T h o rn d ik e’ s
a r t i c l e Juan L u is V i v e s : H is A t t i t u d e t o L ea rn in g and to
L i f e , s u g g e s t s t h a t V iv e s did not b e lo n g t o th e c l a s s o f
t h o s e who " f l a t t e r e d p r in c e s and t o a d ie d to p a tr o n s ” bu t
t h a t he w a s, in t h i s r e s p e c t , s u p e r io r t o Erasm us. Thorn
d ik e s a y s , i n c o n c lu s io n , t h a t V iv e s had t h e i m p a r t i a l i t y
o f th e tr u e s c h o la r and showed t h e p o i s e o f a c i t i z e n o f
th e w orld *5
A nother p r o o f o f contem porary i n t e r e s t i s a book
j u s t o f f th e p r e s s , C a th er in e o f A ragon, w h ich g i v e s V iv e s
f o o t i n g among t h e E n g lis h H u m an ists. The a u th o r G a r r e tt
M a t t in g ly , s a y s , i n p a r t , t h a t , d u rin g t h e y e a r s o f V ives*
r e s id e n c e i n E n glan d, 1 5 2 3 -1 5 2 8 , h i s w r i t i n g s and l e c t u r e s
d id much to f i l l th e gaps caused by t h e d e a th s 6 f L in a c r e
3
I b i d . , p . 2 0 6 .
4
Edgar W a lla c e K n ig h t, Twenty C e n tu r ie s o f l o c a
t i o n (B o sto n : G inn and Company, 1940] , p . 3 .
5
Lynn T h orn d ik e, ”Juan L u is V iv e s: H is A t t it u d e to
L e a r n in g and to L i f e , ” E ssa y s i n I n t e l l e c t u a l H is t o r y (New
York: Harper B r o th e r s , 1 9 2 9 ), C hapter V I I I , p . 3 4 2 .
and C o l e t . 6
S t i l l o th e r i n s t a n c e s o f a r e v i v a l o f i n t e r e s t i n
V iv e s are in d ic a t e d by r e p r i n t s and t r a n s l a t i o n s o f h i s
works i n Europe and by th 6 i n c l u s i o n o f V ives* D ia lo g u e s
i n Read*s B ib lio g r a p h y o f t h e Tudor P e r io d . E ngland, a s
a p a r t o f i t s p r e s e n t program o f t h e d i r e c t method i n
t e a c h in g a n c ie n t la n g u a g e s , i s u s in g V ives* L in gu ae L a tin a e
i x e r e i t a t i o , a t e x t r e p r i n t e d , w ith m inor ch an ges o n ly ,
from V ives* B a s le e d i t i o n o f 1 5 3 9 .7 The e d i t o r s , Rouse
and Andrew, p u b lis h e d t h i s book w ith t h e h o p e, as t h e y
s a i d , t h a t i t would p rove "an in v a lu a b le h e lp to t h o s e who
w ish to b r in g L a tin i n t o r e l a t i o n w ith boys* own p u r s u i t s ."
q u it e a t r i b u t e to V ives* u n i v e r s a l i t y , c o n s id e r in g th e
D ia lo g u e s are o v e r fo u r hundred y e a r s o l d !
S p a in h a s r e s t o r e d t h e D ia lo g u e s t o t h e i r form er
p la c e i n th e cu r ricu lu m o f S p a n ish s c h o o l s . In 1 9 2 8 , th e
C r is to b a l C oret y P e r is * t r a n s l a t i o n was r e p r in t e d w ith
Q
n o t e s and c o r r e c t i o n s .
6
G a r r e tt M a t t in g ly , C a th er in e o f Aragon (B o sto n :
L i t t l e , Brown and Company, 1 9 4 i ) , p . 1 8 4 .
7
W * H. D. Rouse and S . 0 . Andrew, e d i t o r s , L u d o v icu s
V i v e s * S c e n e s o f S c h o o l and C o lle g e L i f e i n L a t in D ia lo g u e s
LVives L in gu ae L a tin a e E x e r c it a t io j (Oxf o r c T r d a r e n d o n P r e s s ,
1 9 3 1 ) . 8
C r is t o b a l C oret y P e r i s , t r a n s l a t o r s , D ia lo g o s de
Juan L u is V iv e s [V ives* L in gu ae L a tin a e E x e r c it a t io j (MacCrid:
Im prenta La R afa, 1 9 2 8 ) . Former e d i t i o n s M adrid: 1 7 9 2 , 1 8 1 7 ,
1 9 1 9 ; V a le n c ia : 1 7 2 3 , 1 7 4 9 , 1 7 5 9 , 1 7 6 7 , 1 7 6 8 , 1 7 7 4 , 1 7 8 8 , 1 8 0 7 .
4
S im ila r honor h a s b een p a id V i v e s ’ g r e a t te x tb o o k
on e d u c a t io n a l p h ilo s o p h y De T ra n d en d is D i s c i p l i n i s . A
t r a n s l a t i o n f o r German s t u d e n t s o f e d u c a tio n was p u b lis h e d
by E d e lb lu th i n 1 9 1 2 a t r a n s l a t i o n f o r E n g lis h s t u d e n t s
was p rep ared by W atson i n 1913 w h ile a S p a n ish t r a n s l a
t i o n was made by Ontaifon i n 1 9 2 3 .* ^
V i v e s ’ t h e o r i e s on t h e e d u c a tio n o f g i r l s ,
I n s t i t u t i o n e Fem inae C h r i s t i a n a s , h as a ls o been th e o b j e c t
o f a t t e n t i o n . E d e lb lu th 1 ^ t r a n s l a t e d i t in to German;
J u s t ia n o ’ s S p a n ish t e x t was r e p r in t e d i n S p a i n ,13 and
9
Th. E d e lb lu th , t r a n s l a t o r , Johann Ludwig V i v e s ’
P & dagogische H aupts c h r i f t e n : Uber d ie W isse n sc h a r te n (V ives*
De T ra d en d is D i s c i p i i n i s i fP&derborn: F . S ch B n ig b , 1 9 1 2 ) •
10
F o s t e r W atson, t r a n s l a t o r . V i v e s : On E d u c a tio n
{Vive s ’ De T ra d en d is D i s c i p i i n i s i (Cam bridge: The U n iv e r s i t y
P r e s s , 1913TI
11 ^
J o s e Ontanbn, t r a n s l a t o r , T ratado de l a gn sen an za
[ V iv e s ’ De T ra d en d is D i s c i p l i n i s ! (M adrid: EcTfcTones de l a
L e c t u r a ,“ Tr92S) . I n t r o d u c t io n by F o s t e r W atson.
12
Th. E d e lb lu t h , t r a n s l a t o r , Johann Ludwig V i v e s ’
P & dagogische H a u p t s c h r if t e n : D ie E rzieh u n g d e r C h r is tI n
( V iv e s ’ De I n s t i t u t i o n e Fem inae Chri s t ia n a e l fP aderborn:
F . ShdnigET, 1912} .
1 3
Juan J u s t ia n o , t r a n s l a t o r , I n s t r u c t i o n de l a M ujer
C h r is t ia n a [V ives* De I n s t i t u t i o n e Fem inae c h r is tT a n a e l
(M adrid: 1 9 3 6 ) . F i r s t e d i t i o n , V a le n c ia : 1 6 2 6 .
5
F o s t e r W atson14 e d it e d and p u b lis h e d in E n g lis h th e 1540
t r a n s l a t i o n o f R ichard H yrde’ s , J . L. F i v e s : I n s t r u c t i o n o f
a C h r is t ia n Woman.
Such i n s t a n c e s show t h a t F iv e s h a s d e f i n i t e l y
rea p p ea red on t o d a y ’ s w orld h o r iz o n . F u r th e r exam ples o f
F i v e s 1 r e t u r n to n o t i c e w i l l b e d is c u s s e d i n th e body o f
th e d i s s e r t a t i o n . I t sh o u ld be e v id e n t , h o w ev er, from th e
few r e f e r e n c e s c i t e d th u s f a r t h a t an i n v e s t i g a t i o n in t o th e
l i f e and works o f F iv e s g i v e s prom ise o f b e in g b oth
p r o f i t a b l e and tim e ly * f o r m e r ic a n s t u d e n ts o f e d u c a tio n .
THE PROELM
The p u rp ose o f t h i s stu d y was t o d is c o v e r i n th e
l i f e and works o f Juan L u is F iv e s t h e s o c i a l problem s o f th e
t r a n s i t i o n p e r io d i n w hich he l i v e d ; h i s r e a c t i o n s t o such
p rob lem s; and, i n t h e l i g h t o f th e r e c e n t r e v iv a l o f i n t e r e s t
i n h i s w ork s, to p o in t o u t th e p o s s i b l e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f h i s
t h in k in g to p r e s e n t - d a y e d u c a tio n a l p la n n in g . Such a d i s
c u s s io n w i l l in v o lv e an sw erin g th e f o l lo w in g q u e s t io n s :
1 . Who was F iv e s ? What en viron m en tal f a c t o r s i n
f lu e n c e d h i s l i f e and form ed h i s sta n d a r d s o f judgment?
14
F o s t e r W atson, e d i t o r , F iv e s and t h e R enascence
E d u ca tio n o f Women { j n c lu d e s E n g lis h t r a n s l a t i o n o f F i v e s 1
De I n s t i t u t i o n s Fem inae C h r is t ia n a e l (London: Edward A r n o ld .
T f l S l :
6
2 . What are h i s m ost im p o rtan t works?
5 . What was V iv e s 1 a t t i t u d e tow ards th e s o c i a l
problem s o f h i s tim es? What reform s d o e s he su g g e s t?
4 . What are h i s t h e o r i e s o f ed u ca tio n ?
5 . What ch an ges d o e s he su g g e s t i n e d u c a tio n a l
p r a c t ic e ?
6 . ' ?Jhat i s h i s p la c e i n th e h i s t o r y o f e d u c a tio n ?
7 . Has th e r e-a p p e a r a n c e o f V iv e s i n l i t e r a t u r e any
s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r t h e e d u c a tio n a l program o f today?
IMPORTANCES OF THE STUDY
A s id e from a few p e r i o d i c a l a r t i c l e s , th e r e h a s b een
l i t t l e s e r i o u s stu d y o f V ives* w orks i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s ,
In c o n t r a s t , th e r e h a s b een much r e s e a r c h i n E urope, e s p e c i
a l l y i n Germany, V iv e s h as b e e n i n v e s t i g a t e d a s a m o r a l i s t ,
a t h e o l o g ia n , a p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m ist, a s o c i o l o g i s t , a h i s t o r
i a n , a p s y c h o l o g i s t , a p h ilo s o p h e r , and a p ed a gogu e. H is
in f l u e n c e on Com enius, Ramus, Sturm , B acon, R a b e la is ,
D e s c a r t e s , L o y o la , Ben Joh n son , S h a k e sp e a r e , M ilto n , H obbes,
L o c k e , and o t h e r s h a s been m in u te ly a p p r a is e d .15 In f a c t ,
15
For s p e c i f i c t i t l e s s e e : F o s t e r W atson, V i v e s :
on E d u c a tio n (Cam bridge: The U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 191371
M o l f o B o n i l l a Y San M a r tin , L u is V iv e s £ l a F i l o s o f i a d e l
R en acim ien to (M adrid: s . A. E s p a s a -C a lp e , 11)29); E n c ic lo p e d ia
U n iv e r s a l i l u s t r a d a (Madrid: S . A. E sp a sa -C a lp e , 1 9 3 0 ) , LXIX,
p p . 7 1 9 -2 0 .
7
a t f i r s t g la n c e , i t would seem t h a t w ith so many le a r n e d
and ponderous tom es a lr e a d y com p iled t h e r e was l i t t l e more
m a t e r ia l l e f t f o r r e s e a r c h . V iv e s , how ever, was one o f t h e
s o - c a l l e d p o l y g r a f s .' There was n o t much i n t h e f i e l d o f
human endeavor t h a t he d id not to u c h on h i s w r i t i n g s .
A p p a r en tly w h ole new f i e l d s o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n are o p en in g
up w ith t h e t r a n s l a t i o n s and r e - t r a n s l a t i o n s o f h i s w ork s.
A ls o , t h e r e a r e s t i l l volum es t o be t r a n s l a t e d . There i s
no E n g lis h t r a n s l a t i o n , f o r i n s t a n c e , o f De Anima e t V it a
( On t h e S o u l and L i f e ) , p u b lis h e d i n 1 5 3 9 . Yet t h i s book
i s v ery im p ortan t s i n c e i t p o i n t s o u t , p ro b a b ly f o r th e
f i r s t t im e , th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l b a s i s o f e d u c a tio n .
As n in e te e n th c en tu ry l i t e r a r y r e s e a r c h h a s c e n te r e d
l a r g e l y on t h e d e te r m in a tio n o f so u r c e s and o r i g i n s much
f a c t u a l d a ta h a s b een u n co v e r ed . T h is r e s e a r c h h a s l e d to
t h e rea p p earan ce o f g r e a t men te m p o r a r ily o b scu re d and o f a
rea d ju stm e n t o f v a lu e s and r e p u t a t io n s i n th e l i g h t o f new
in fo r m a tio n . Among t h e s e men have been V iv e s and h i s con
te m p o r a r ie s . F o rm erly , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n th e c a s e o f l i t e r a r y
r e s e a r c h , im p ortan t p e r so n a g e s w ere s tu d ie d a s i f th e y had
l i v e d i n a vacuum o f tim e and sp a ce but t h i s p r a c t i c e , l i k e
16
Only t r a n s l a t i o n i s i n S p a n ish ; made by O ntanon,
1 9 1 6 .
8
a mere en u m eration o f b a t t l e s won and l o s t , no lo n g e r
s a t i s f i e s t w e n t ie t h - c e n t u r y r e q u ir e m e n ts. H en ce, to d a y ,
th e ten d e n c y i s to stu d y a g r e a t s c h o la r i n r e l a t i o n t o
h i s en viron m en t, to. d is c o v e r what i n f l u e n c e s produced him .
As f a r a s can be a s c e r t a in e d , no o u ts t a n d in g stu d y
h a s been p u b lis h e d i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s w hich a p p r a is e s
V ives* e d u c a tio n a l w orks nor any c o n s id e r in g him a g a in s t
th e background o f h i s tim e s . With t h e r e c e n t r e v i v a l o f
i n t e r e s t i n V iv e s i n E urope, th e moment seems a u s p ic io u s to
exam ine h i s w orks and t o c a l l them t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f
Am erican e d u c a t o r s .
RELATED LITERATURE
As s t a t e d i n t h e in tr o d u c to r y rem arks, t h i s stu d y
came in to e x i s t e n c e th ro u g h t h e chance r e a d in g o f M ichaud’ s
a r t i c l e c la im in g t h a t R a b e la is had borrowed some o f h i s m ost
a c c la im e d t h e o r i e s from V i v e s . T h e name o f V iv e s was
u n f a m ilia r . None o f t h e u su a l h i s t o r y o f e d u c a tio n t e x t
books made any m en tio n o f such a p e r s o n . How th e n c o u ld he
be so im p o rta n t a s M ichaud claim ed?
The f i r s t e f f o r t to o b t a in in fo r m a tio n w as through a
sea rch o f h i s t o r y o f e d u c a tio n t e x tb o o k s , e n c y c lo p e d ia s ,
1 7
M ichaud, £ £ . c i t . t pp . 4 1 9 -2 4 .
9
I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n d e x , e n c y c lo p e d ia s on e d u c a t io n , c a t a lo g u e s
o f v a r io u s t y p e s , b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l l i s t s , t i t l e s o f d o c t o r a l
d i s s e r t a t i o n s , e t c . T h ese works y i e l d e d v e r y l i t t l e f i r s t
hand in fo r m a tio n , bu t gav e c lu e s w hich on b e in g fo llo w e d up
produced r e s u l t s .
The p r e p a r a tio n o f t h i s stu d y was made p o s s i b l e
through th e l ib r a r y f a c i l i t i e s o f : th e U n i v e r s i t y o f
S o u th ern C a l i f o r n i a , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n ia a t Los A n g e le s
and B e r k e le y , P r in c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y , Los A n g e le s C ity P u b lic
L ib r a r y , H u n tin g to n L ib r a r y , P eabody I n s t i t u t e L ib r a r y ,
L ib r a r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s D epartm ent o f E d u c a tio n , and
th e L ib r a ry o f C o n g r e ss.
I n Am erican and E n g lis h a r t i c l e s i t was o b v io u s from
t h e f i r s t t h a t on e name sto o d o u t a lm o st e x c l u s i v e l y a s an
a u t h o r it y on V iv e s , nam ely P o s t e r W atson, l a t e P r o f e s s o r
o f E d u c a tio n i n A b ery stw y th , W a le s .18 F o o tn o te s i n d i c a t e
t h a t much o f th e m a te r ia l i n M The D evelopm ent o f Modern
E d u c a tio n ,1,19 b e a r in g on V iv e s was b a sed on W atson»s V i v e s :
On E d u c a tio n , th e E n g lis h t r a n s l a t i o n o f V ives* De T ra d en d is
D i s c i p l i n i s .
18
E d ito r o f The E n c y c lo p e d ia and D ic tio n a r y o f Edu
c a t i o n ; D epartm en tal e d i t o r o f M on roV s A C y c lo p e d ia o f
E d u c a tio n ; F . R. S . L . ; tr a n sla to r " 'o F many o f V iv es* w orks,
e t c .
19
Eby and Arrowood, o p . c i t .
The r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e a v a i l a b l e simmered down to a
few p e r io d ic a l a r t i c l e s . L e a v in g W atson’ s c o n t r ib u t io n s to
be r e f e r r e d to l a t e r under so u rce m a te r ia l-, t h e r e rem ained
o n ly f o u r a r t i c l e s i n American m a g a zin es ildiich were co n cern ed
w ith V iv e s o r h i s w o rk s. The f i r s t , c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y , was
"Two S c h o o lm a ste r s o f th e R e n a is s a n c e ,” p u b lis h e d i n 1 9 1 9 .
I t i s an i n v e s t i g a t i o n in t o th e r e l a t i v e m e r it s o f t h e t h r e e
m ost o u t s t a n d in g C o llo q u ie s p u b lis h e d i n t h e s i x t e e n t h
c e n tu r y , v i z . , t h o s e o f Erasm us, V iv e s , and C o r d ie r . The
o b j e c t i v e o f t h e s e c o l l o q u i e s i n th e p e r io d o f th e
R e n a issa n c e w as th e t e a c h in g o f good L a t in s p e e c h . The
problem i s app roached from th e p o in t o f v iew o f a la n g u a g e
t e a c h e r . The ap p ro a ch , t h e r e f o r e , i s s y m p a th e tic . The
a u th o r c o n c lu d e s t h a t both V iv e s and C o r d ie r are e x c e l l e n t
f o r t h e i r p u r p o se , th e one su p p lem en tin g t h e o t h e r . Erasm us,
she f i n d s , i n s p i t e o f b e in g t h e m ost p u b l i c i z e d , produced a
work more s u i t a b l e f o r a d u lt s than f o r c h ild r e n .
The n e x t two a r t i c l e s i n p o in t o f tim e were th o s e o f
M ichaud. The f i r s t o f t h e s e h a s a lr e a d y b e e n r e f e r r e d t o . 2 - * -
T h is a r t i c l e , L u is V iv e s and R a b e la is* P ed a g o g y , p u b lis h e d
20
F lo r e n c e A. G ragg, "Two S c h o o lm a ste r s o f t h e
R e n a is s a n c e ,” C l a s s i c a l J o u r n a l, 1 4 : 2 1 1 - 2 5 , Ja n u a ry , 1 9 1 9 .
21
M ichaud, 0 £ . c l t . , pp. 4 1 9 -2 4 .
i n 1 9 2 3 , a tte m p ts t o p ro v e t h a t c e r t a i n id e a s su p p osed to
he o r i g i n a l w it h R a b e la is r e a l l y came from V i v e s ’ Be
T r a d e n d is D i s c i p l i n i s .
The o r i g i n o f M ichaud’ s i n v e s t i g a t i o n was t w o - f o ld :
v i z . , (1) r e a d in g o f an a r t i c l e by D e l a u r e l l e on th e d e b t
owed by R a b e la is t o Erasmus and Bude; (2) a r e c o g n i t io n o f
p a r a l l e l p a s s a g e s b e tw e en R a b e la is and V i v e s ’ De T rad en d is
D i s c i p l i n i s ( i n t r a n s l a t i o n ) w hich he th o u g h t w arran ted
i nve s t i g a t i o n .
The i n v e s t i g a t i o n i t s e l f c o n sid e r e d th e t h r e e
e d u c a tio n a l i d e a l s g e n e r a l ly su p p osed t o b e o r i g i n a l w ith
R a b e la is , i . e . , th e d e s i r e to a s s o c i a t e e d u c a tio n w ith l i f e ;
th e u s e o f i n c i d e n t s o f everyd ay l i f e a s c u r r ic u la r m a t e r ia l
t h e in t r o d u c t i o n o f h y g ie n e in t o e d u c a tio n . P a s s a g e s w ere
found i n V i v e s ’ work s t r e s s i n g t h e same t h r e e p o i n t s .
Michaud c o n c lu d e s th a t t h e s e t h r e e id e a s w ere a l l
d e v e lo p e d by V iv e s and p u b lis h e d by him i n De T rad en d is
D i s c i p l i n i s w h ich was p r in t e d i n ,&ntwerp i n J u ly , 1 5 3 1 ,
n e a r ly t h r e e y e a r s b e fo r e R a b e la is ’ book. He c o n c lu d e s ,
a l s o , t h a t , i n v ie w o f V i v e s ’ r e p u t a t io n a s one o f t h e g r e a t
e s t H um anists i n E u rop e, R a b e la is must have known o f him and
o f h i s w ork.
IS
The seco n d M ichaud a r t i c l e "L * I n flu e n c e de V iv e s su r
R a b e la is was p u b lis h e d i n 1 9 2 5 . This stu d y c o n tin u e s t h e
same l i n e o f argum en t, b u t su p p o r ts th e s t a te m e n t s by
q u o tin g p a r a l l e l p a s s a g e s from each a u th o r , making com pari
so n s on f o u r t e e n it e m s . In a d d it io n , M ichaud h as d is c o v e r e d ,
th ro u g h f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h , a p ro b a b le in te r m e d ia r y betw een
V iv e s and R a b e la is in th e p e r so n o f one H i l a i r e B e r t h o l f ,
a B e lg ia n and form er s c h o o l-m a te o f V iv e s , and e x - s 6 c r e t a r y
t o Erasm us. In 1 9 3 2 , B e r t h o lf had r e tu r n e d from B a s le to
Lyons where he l i v e d on in t im a t e ter m s w ith R a b e la is . He
co u ld e a s i l y have b rou gh t w ith him a copy o f De T ra d en d is
D i s c i p l i n i s w h ich had j u s t made such an im p r e s s io n in
H u m a n istic c i r c l e s . M ichaud f e e l s c o n fir m e d , t h e n , i n h i s
form er c o n c lu s io n t h a t R a b e la is owed th e id e a s , supposed
t o be o r i g i n a l w it h him , t o V iv e s .
In t h e secon d h a l f o f t h i s a r t i c l e , Michaud ta k e s
up t h e problem o f P an u rge. I t h a s been r a th e r g e n e r a lly
th o u g h t t h a t R a b e la is g o t h i s m a t e r ia l on P a n u rg e, C h ap ters
XXX and XXXI o f Book I I I , from T ira q u e a u f s De L e g ib u s
C o n n u b ia lib u s . The th e o r y u n d e r ly in g t h i s b e l i e f was t h a t
he had had am ple o p p o r tu n ity o f exam ining T ir a q u e a u ’ s book
i n v i s i t i n g K e r v e r , T ir a q u e a u ’ s p u b lis h e r . T h is same
22
G. L." M ichaud, "L1 I n f lu e n c e de V iv e s sur R a b e l a i s ,*
Revue du S e iz ie m e S i e c l e , 1 2 : 1 4 8 - 5 6 , 1 9 2 5 .
1 3
p u b l i s h e r , how ever, p u b lis h e d th e F rench t r a n s l a t i o n o f
V ives* I n s i t u t i o n e Fem inae C h r is t ia n a s and De O f f i c i o
M a r i t i . By t e x t u a l com p arison , M ichaud f e e l s j u s t i f i e d i n
a s s e r t i n g t h a t R a b e la is to o k h i s m a t e r ia l f o r C hapter XXX
from V iv e s . T h is f a c t may e x p la in t h e o r i g i n o f R a b e la is*
e n tr y in t o th e fam ous " Q u e r e lle d e s Femmes.”
The fo u r th stu d y o f t h e r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e group i s
t h a t o f T horndike a lre a d y m e n tio n e d .225 T h is a r t i c l e , Juan
L u is V iv e s : H is A t t it u d e t o L e a rn in g and t o L i f e , i s more
g e n e r a l i n n a tu r e . H is a t t i t u d e t o le a r n in g i s c h a r a c te r
i z e d , sa y s T h o rn d ik e, by h i s o n s la u g h t on s c h o l a s t i c i s m ,
h i s v iew s on t h e p la c e o f L a t in i n e d u c a t io n , h i s co n cep t o f
e r u d i t i o n , h i s a t t i t u d e to w a rd s h i s t o r y and tow ard s c i v i l
la w . As to V ives* a t t i t u d e to w a rd s l i f e i t s e l f , T horndike
s t r e s s e s h i s r e a c t i o n to war and n a t i o n a l i s t i c p o l i c i e s and
c o n c lu d e s by s a y in g t h a t i f V iv e s d id not have th e ”g e n iu s
o f Erasmus fo r s l y sarcasm and r i d i c u l e o f human f o l l y , he
was, p e r h a p s, a man o f w id er r e a d in g and g r e a t e r s i n c e r i t y . ”
SCOPE OF THE PROBLM
T h ese a r t i c l e s on r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e w i l l be r e f e r r e d
to l a t e r . T here w i l l b e no a tte m p t made i n t h i s stu d y , how
e v e r , t o p ro ve t h e p r i o r i t y o f V i v e s ’ t h e o r i e s o v e r t h o s e o f
23
T h o rn d ik e, 0 £ . c i t . , p . 3 4 2 .
14
o th e r g r e a t e d u c a to r s , su ch a s R a b e la is , nor t o m easure t h e
r e l a t i v e g r e a t n e s s o f V iv e s i n r e l a t i o n to such s c h o la r s a s
Erasm us, nor to e s t im a t e h i s in f l u e n c e on l a t e r w r i t e r s
such as Bacon o r C om enius. Nei t h e r h i s p o l i t i c a l nor h i s
r e l i g i o u s w r i t i n g s w i l l be d is c u s s e d a s su c h . The i n v e s t i
g a t io n w i l l c e n t e r p r im a r ily on V ives* work a s a c o n s t r u c
t i v e refo rm er i n t h e f i e l d o f human r e l a t i o n s . V ives* l i f e
and w orks w i l l be m easured a g a in s t t h e background o f t h e
s o c i a l u p h e a v a ls w h ich c h a r a c t e r iz e d h i s day to d e ter m in e
h i s e d u c a tio n a l and m oral p h ilo s o p h y and to d is c o v e r h i s
c o n t r ib u t io n s , i f any, to p r e s e n t-d a y e d u c a t io n a l p r o b le m s.
SOURCE MATERIALS
B e fo r e b e g in n in g th e r e s e a r c h on th e s p e c i f i c problem
to be i n v e s t i g a t e d , much g e n e r a l r e a d in g was n e c e s s a r y . The
b io g r a p h y o f V iv e s , from t h e a n g le o f a man i n r e l a t i o n to
h i s t im e s , in v o lv e d t h e a ss e m b lin g o f m a t e r ia l on t h e s o c i e t y
and c u lt u r e o f R e n a is s a n c e E u rop e. As th e m ost im p r e s s io n
a b le y e a r s o f V ives* l i f e w ere sp e n t i n S p a in , a s p e c i a l
stu d y o f S p a n id i h i s t o r y — p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l , e t h n o l o g i c a l —
had to be u n d e r ta k e n . The f a c t t h a t Humanism was c h a r a c t e r
iz e d by a stu d y o f Roman c o n t r ib u t io n s to p o s t e r i t y made a
stu d y o f Roman l i f e o b l i g a t o r y . As V iv e s w as e x p o sed t o a l l
v a r i e t i e s o f n a t io n a l Humanism, each o f t h e s e c a l l e d f o r an
1 5
e v a lu a t io n o f s y n t h e s i s and d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . F i n a l l y ,
ad d ition al r e s e a r c h was r e q u ir e d to a tte m p t to u n d erstan d
th e a l l u s i o n s t o m y th o lo g y , r e l i g i o n , l i t e r a t u r e , e t c . , i n
w hich V ives* w orks abound— r e f e r e n c e s w h ic h , t o him , w ere
m er ely i n c i d e n t a l .
The stu d y o f c e r t a i n w orks o f V iv e s i n o r i g i n a l s ,
a b s t r a c t s , and t r a n s l a t i o n s was i n i t s e l f a heavy t a s k . A
s l i g h t i n d i c a t i o n o f h i s s c h o l a r l y accom p lish m en ts may be
su rm ised from th e f a c t th a t B o n i l l a l i s t s f i f t y - s e v e n
im p orta n t p u b l i c a t i o n s — n o t in c lu d in g t r a n s l a t i o n s and r e
p r i n t s . T h ese a r e a l l , w ith t h e e x c e p t io n o f t h e i x e r c i t a t i o ,
on s e r i o u s th e m e s. P r o b a b ly th e l o n g e s t work i s V ives*
e d i t i o n , w ith com m en taries, o f S t . A u g u s t in e ’ s De C i v i t a t e
D ei w hich c o n t a in s w it h i n i t s c o v e r s tw e n ty -tw o b o o k s.
Two r e c o g n iz e d e d i t i o n s o f V iv es* c o l l e c t e d works
have been p u b lis h e d . The f i r s t g e n e r a l e d i t i o n was pub
l i s h e d i n two vo lu m es by N ic o la s L ’Fvesque l e J e u n e , i n
p R
B a s l e , 1 5 5 5 . The seco n d c o l l e c t i o n i s th e e la b o r a te e i g h t -
volumed e d i t i o n o f M a ja n siu s p u b lis h e d i n V a le n c ia , 1 7 8 2 .26
24
B o n i l l a , o p . c i t . , I I I , 1 6 5 -6 8 .
25
Photo s t a t i c c o p ie s from B a s le e d i t i o n u sed i n p r e
p a r a t io n o f t h i s m a n u s c r i p t ..
26
G r e g o r iu s M a ja n siu s , J o a n n is L u d o v ic i V iv e s
V a l e n t i n i Oflera Omnia ( V a le n c ia : 1 7 6 2 . P u b lis h e d a t e x p e n se
o f F r a n c is c o F ab ian and F u ero , A rch b ish op o f V a l e n c i a ) .
16
B oth c o l l e c t i o n s a r e c o n s id e r e d b a s ic c r i t i c a l t e x t s . De
C i v i t a t e D ei o f S t . A u g u stin e i s o m itte d from b o th e d i t i o n s .
Im erto n i n h i s s tu d y on Erasmus**7 s a y s th a t t h e
a u th o r o f a com p lete and s a t i s f a c t o r y l i f e o f Erasmus w ould
have to b e , tfa thorough s tu d e n t o f th e c l a s s i c l i t e r a t u r e s ,
a t h e o lo g ia n f a m i l i a r w ith e v e r y fo n a o f C h r is t ia n s p e c u la
t i o n , a h i s t o r i a n t o whom th e c o m p lic a te d movement o f t h e
R eform ation was a l t o g e t h e r i n t e l l i g i b l e , an e d u c a to r , a
m o r a l i s t , and a man o f hum or.n One m igh t add t h a t a
b io g r a p h e r o f V iv e s w ould have to be i n a d d i t io n , a
p h ilo s o p h e r , a p s y c h o l o g i s t , an e c o n o m is t, and a j u r is c o n
s u l t . F o r t u n a t e ly , d u rin g t h e fo u r c e n t u r i e s which have
e la p s e d s in c e h i s d eath th e r e have been men who have met
t h e s e r e q u ir e m e n ts.
V iv e s h a s b een p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r t u n a t e i n h i s
b io g r a p h e r s . S t a r t i n g w ith M a ja n siu s, whose work was spon
so red by th e A rch bish op o f V a le n c ia , a l l o f t h e m ajor works
d e a lin g w ith h i s l i f e have been w r i t t e n by o u ts ta n d in g
s c h o l a r s , and p u b lis h e d un der th e a e g is o f U n i v e r s i t i e s or
le a r n e d s o c i e t i e s . There h a s b e e n , i n c o n se q u e n c e , much l e s s
b ic k e r in g o v e r m inor d e t a i l s th an i n th e b io g r a p h ie s o f o t h e r
g r e a t H u m a n ists. A ls o , V iv e s , h i m s e l f , h a s h e lp e d f a c i l i t a t e
th e a sse m b lin g o f b io g r a p h ic a l m a t e r ia l as i n h i s w r i t i n g s
27
Ephraim Em erton, D e s id e r iu s Erasmus o f R otterdam
(New York: G. P . P utnam sf S o n s, 1899) , p . i i i .
17
he n a r r a te s many p e r s o n a l it e m s . L a te r b io g r a p h e r s have
p r e s e n te d a d d i t io n a l d e t a i l s and new e v id e n c e on d is p u te d
p o i n t s . They have done t h e i r r e s e a r c h , a s a r u l e , i n th e ,
l o c a l i t i e s where V iv e s , h i m s e l f , a c t u a l l y l i v e d and w orked.
T h ere a r e fo u r o u t s t a n d in g b io g r a p h ie s ofr V iv e s . The
f i r s t and t h e m ost im p o rtan t b e c a u s e o f i t s s i z e and d e t a i l
i s t h a t o f G r e g o r iu s M a ja n siu s (G re g o rio Mayans y S is c a r )
Mayans was a p r o f e s s o r o f la w a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f V a le n c ia ,
t h e b i r t h p la c e o f V iv e s . H is e d i t i o n was p u b lis h e d i n 1 7 8 2 ,
i n e i g h t v olu m es under t h e p a tr o n a g e o f th e A rch bish op o f
V a le n c ia . T h is work i s th e fo u n d a tio n on w hich much o f t h e
l a t e r r e s e a r c h on V iv e s i s b a sed . Volume I c o n t a in s t h e
g e n e o lo g y and l i f e o f V iv e s .
The se co n d b io g ra p h y was u n d erta k en a t t h e r e q u e s t o f
th e R oyal Academy o f S c ie n c e and L e t t e r s o f B r u s s e ls and was
i n t h e n a tu r e o f a t r i b u t e to V iv e s a s a form er stu d e n t and
p r o f e s s o r o f t h e U n iv e r s i t y o f L o u v a in . I t was w r i t t e n by
A lex a n d re J o s e Nameche, l a t e r R e cto r o f t h e C a t h o lic U n iv e r
s i t y o f L o u v a in .29 T h is m onograph,, p u b lis h e d i n 1 8 4 1 , was
e n t i t l e d Memo i r e su r l a v i e e t l e s tier i t s de J e a n -L o u is
28
F or b io g ra p h y o f M ayans, s e e E n c ic lo p e d ia U n iv e r
s a l , o p . c i t . , XXXIII, p p . 1 2 9 4 -9 6 .
29
I b i d . , XXXVII, p . 9 6 4 .
18
( 5/\ ^
V iv e s , and was a "memoire su r l a v i e e t l e s e c r i t s de
J e a n -L o u is V iv S s, p r o f e s s e u r de B e l l e s - L e t t r e s & l ’U n i v e r s i t e
de L o u v a in , e t L*un d e s s a v a n t s l e s p lu s c e lh b r e s du XVI&&
s i e c l e , en r a t t a c h a n t c e s u j e t a l t h i s t o i r e l i t t e r a i r e de l a
B e lg iq u e a c e t t e e p o q u e .” I t c o n s i s t e d o f t h r e e p a r t s p r e
ced ed by an in t r o d u c tio n * The in t r o d u c t i o n p r e s e n te d an
o v e r v ie w o f g e n e r a l European c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e tim e o f v i v e s .
I t s t r e s s e d p a r t i c u l a r l y , B e lg ia n c o n d i t i o n s , and g a v e , i n
c o n c lu s io n , t h e r e a s o n s u n d e r ly in g th e w id e -sp r 6 a d s o c i a l
d is t u r b a n c e s o f t h e d ay. The monograph p r o p e r (1) d e s c r ib e d
th e l i f e o f V i v e s , u s in g a s s o u r c e s t h e works o f V iv e s and
th e l e t t e r s o f Erasmus; (S) a n a ly z e d and c l a s s i f i e d V i v e s T
w ork s; m en tion ed im p o r ta n t e d i t i o n s , and made c r i t i c a l
comments; (3) e v a lu a te d V iv e s a s a man and a s a w r i t e r . I t
sh o u ld be remembered t h a t V iv e s lo o k e d upon th e N e th e r la n d s
a s h i s " secon d oo u n try ” and t h a t he made h i s h e a d q u a r te r s
t h e r e from 1514 t o t h e tim e o f h i s d ea th i n 1 5 4 0 ,
The t h i r d b io g ra p h y w as w r i t t e n by t h e w ell-k n o w n
S p a n is h s c h o l a r , A d o lfo B o n i l l a y San M a r tin , form er
p r o f e s s o r o f p h ilo s o p h y a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Madrid and o f
t h e R oyal Academy o f J u r isp r u d e n c e and L e g i s l a t i o n , and
A* J* Nameche, Memo i r e su r l a V ie e t l e s E c r i t s de
J e a n -L o u is V iv e s (M em oires c o u r o n n fs p ar 1 'A cadem ic r o y a le
d es S c i e n c e s e t B e l l e s - L e t t r e s d e B r u x e l l e s . Tome XV.,
P re m ie re P a r t i e , 1 8 4 0 -4 1 . B r u x e lle s : M. H ayex, 1 8 4 1 ) .
19
o n e -tim e p r o f e s s o r o f m e r c a n t ile la w a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f
V a l e n c i a . ^ H is r e s e a r c h was a ls o un der th e sp o n so r sh ip o f
a R oyal Academy, t h a t o f t h e S p a n ish R oyal Academy o f M oral
and P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e . I t i s e n t i t l e d L u is V iv e s £ La
F i l o s o f i a d e l R e n a c i m i e n t o a work d e s c r ib e d by W atson a s
a * * v e r i t a b l e s t o r e - h o u s e o f kn ow led ge w it h r e g a r d to
V iv6s.**33 B o n i l l a w as a s tu d e n t o f M a rcelin o Men^ndez y
P e la y o th r o u g h whose e f f o r t s V iv e s was r e s t o r e d t o p rom inence
i n S p a in a s a p h ilo s o p h e r . T h is work c o n s i s t s of t h r e e
volu m es: v i z . , I . El Hombre jr l a E p oca; I I . L as p o c t r i n a s ;
I I I . H o ta s, A p e n d ic e s , B i b l i o g r a f i a . The d o cu m en ta tio n o f
V b l. I l l m ust h ave r e p r e s e n te d an e x tr a o r d in a r y amount o f
p a in s t a k in g r e s e a r c h . I n a d d it io n t o d e t a i l e d n o t e s and
comments, i t l i s t s th e l o c a t i o n s o f many o f t h e o r i g i n a l
m a n u sc r ip ts and e a r l y e d i t i o n s o f V ives* w o rk s.
The f o u r th and l a s t o f t h e s e b io g r a p h ie s was w r i t t e n
by th e E n g lis h s c h o la r , F o s t e r W atson, whose a d m ir a tio n and
r e s p e c t f o r V iv e s was so g r e a t t h a t i n 1926 he p u t up a
p la q u e a t O xford a t h i s own e x p e n se i n commemoration o f
V ives* r e s id e n c e t h e r e . 34 W atson answ ered th e p l e a v o ic e d
51
For b io g r a p h y , s e e E n c ic lo p e d ia U n iv e r s a l , o p . c i t . ,
IX , 1 9 - 2 0 .
52
B o n i l l a , o p . c i t . , 5 v o l s . , o r i g i n a l p r i n t i n g , 1 9 0 5 .
55
W atson, ojd• c i t . , p. x v i i .
54
E n c ic lo p e d ia U n i v e r s a l , o p . c i t ., LXIX, 7 1 4 .
by Woodward who, a s l a t e a s 1 9 0 6 , com p lain ed "There i s
n o th in g s u b s t a n t i a l upon V iv e s i n E n g lis h . An e d i t i o n o f
Be B i s c i p l i n i s (b o th p a r t s ) , and o f t h e E x e r c i t a t i o or
C o llo q u ie s i s much to b e d esired .* * 35 W atson s e t t o work
t o make E n g lis h t r a n s l a t i o n s a v a i l a b l e . In 1 9 0 8 , h e
t r a n s l a t e d t h e F r e i g i u s E d it io n (N urnberg, 1582) o f V ives*
L in g u a e L a tin a e E x e r c i t a t i o un der t h e t i t l e Tudor S c h o o l-
Boy L i f e . 56 I n 1 9 1 2 , he co m p iled a book w h ich he c a l l e d
V iv e s and t h e R en ascen ce E d u c a tio n o f Women. T h is i n c lu d e s
a l a r g e p a r t o f H yrde*s J . L . V i v e s : I n s t r u c t i o n o f a
C h r i s t i a n Woman (V iv es* De I n s t i t u t i o n s Fem inae C h r i s t i a n a e )
th e two v e r s i o n s o f De R a tio n e P u e r i l i s t r a n s l a t e d by W atson
a s P la n o f S tu d y f o r a G ir l ( P r in c e s s Mary) , and P la n o f
S tu d y f o r a Boy (C h a r le s B lo u n t, so n o f Lord Mount joy) ;
e x c e r p t s from P a y n e l l ’ s t r a n s l a t i o n o f De O f f i c i o M a r i t i :
and o t h e r m a t e r i a l . 37
In 1 9 1 3 , W atson t r a n s l a t e d t h e Ja ck so n e d i t i o n o f
V ives* De T r a d e n d is D i s c i p l i n i s , un der th e t i t l e V i v e s : On
35
W illia m H a r r is o n Woodward, S t u d i e s in E d u c a tio n
D u ring t h e Age o f t h e R e n a is s a n c e , 1 4 0 0 - 1666 TCambridge:
The U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1924), f . n . 1, p. 1 8 0 .
36
F o s t e r W atson, t r a n s l a t o r , Tudor S c h o o l-B o y L ife:
The D ia lo g u e s o f Juan L u is V iv e s ives' LTnguae L a tin a e
E x e r c it a t i o } (London: J . M. D eni and Company, 1908).
37
F o s t e r W atson, e d i t o r , V iv e s and th e R en a scen ce
E d u c a tio n o f Women (New York: Longmans, G reen and- Company.
1 9 1 2 ) .
21
E d u c a tio n .^® The J a ck so n t e x t , p u b lis h e d in L eyden i n 1 6 1 2 ,
was u sed b e c a u se o f i t s t o p i c a l h e a d in g s and f o o t n o t e
r e f e r e n c e s to V ives* own so u r c e m a t e r i a l s . In t h e in tr o d u c
t i o n , about one h u n d r e d - f if t y p a g e s , W atson g i v e s an e x c e l
l e n t b iog rap h y o f V i v e s , He c o n t in u e s h i s b io g r a p h ic a l
stu d y o f V iv e s i n L u is V i v e s : E l Oran V a le n c ia n o a book
d e a lin g w ith V i v e s ’ r e s id e n c e i n England a s a member o f t h e
C ourt o f H enry V I I I and C a th e r in e o f A ragon.
Some o t h e r t r a n s l a t i o n s i n E n g lis h , i n a d d i t io n to
t h o s e o f W atson a r e a v a i l a b l e ; v i z . , V ives* I n t r o d u c t io ad
S a p ie n t!a m t r a n s l a t e d by M orysin e under t h e t i t l e An I n t r o -
40
d u c t i o n to Wysdome made by L u d o v ic u s V iv e s ; V ives* De
S u b v e n tio n e Pauperum t r a n s l a t e d i n p a r t by Sherwood a s Con
c e r n in g t h e R e l i e f o f t h e P o o r ;^ ! V i v e s ’ Com m entarii i n
XXII l i b r o s de C i v i t a t e D ei S . A u g u s t in i , t r a n s l a t e d by
H ea ley w ith t h e t i t l e S t . A u g u stin e o f t h e C ity o f God: w ith
58
W atson, V iv e s : On E d u c a tio n , o p . c i t .
39
F o s t e r W atson, L u is V i v e s : S i Gran Val en cia n o
1 4 9 2 - 1540 (O xford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s : Humphrey M ilf o r d , 1922).
W
R ycharde M o r y sin e , t r a n s l a t o r , An i n t r o d u c t i o n t o
Wysdome made by L u d o v icu s V iv e s [V ives* I n t r o d u c t io ad
S a p ijen tia m l (London: Thomas B erth e l e t u s , 154b) *
- j —
M argaret M. Sherw ood, t r a n s l a t o r , C on cern in g t h e
R e l i e f o f t h e P oor [V ives* De S u b v e n tio n e PauperumV (New York
C ity : Hew York S c h o o l o f p h ila n t h r o p y , 1917}♦
22
th e L earn ed Comments o f Io. L o d . V i v e s . 4 * ^
F or c r i t i c a l m a t e r i a l , b io g r a p h ic a l comments and
t r a n s l a t i o n s th e works o f su ch r e c o g n iz e d s c h o l a r s as
L a n g e ;45 N ic e r o n ,44 H e i n e ,45 E d e l b l u t h ,45 De V och t47 and
C astro y R o s s i48 w ere c o n s u l t e d .
42
J . H. H e a le y , t r a n s l a t o r , S t . A u g u stin e o f th e
C i t i e o f G-od: W ith t h e L earn ed comments or I o . L od . V iv e s
{V ives* CommenEarli i n XXII L lb r o s de C iv T ta te de S .
A u g u stin T j (London: G eorge E l d , idlUT*
43
F . A* L an ge, " L u d ovicu s V i v e s , ” D ie Encyklop& die
d e s gesam mten I r z ie h u n g s und U n t e r r ic h t s w e s e n s , V ol . IX ,
p p . 7 3 7 -8 1 4 . D r. K. A. Schm id, e d i t o r (G otha: V e r la g von
R u d o lf B e s s e r , 1 8 7 3 )•
44
Jean P ie r r e H ic^ ro n , "Jean L o u is V i v e s , ” M em oires
pour s e r y i r a l * h i s t o i r e d e s hommes i l l u s ^ r e s de l a r b p u b li-
que d e s l e t t r e s , a v e c un c a ta lo g u e r a is o n h de s e s o e u v r e s ,
t e , “T 7 2 -S 5 ‘ 'T P ariirch ez B r la s io n T VTZZT:--------------------------------
45
R u d o lf H 6 in e , t r a n s l a t o r , J . L. V i v e s * A u sg ew S h lte
P S d a g o g isc h e S c h r i f t e n ( L e ip z ig : Max H e s s e , 0 . J . ) , V o l.
LXIV. -
46
E d e lb lu t h , T h ., t r a n s l a t o r , J . L . V i v e s *
p S d a g o g is c h e H a u p t s c h r if t 6 n , o p . c i t .
47
H enry de V o c h t, Monument a H u m a n istica L o y a n ie n s ia
(T e x ts and S t u d i e s ab o u t L o u v a in H um anists i n t h e f i r s t h a l f
o f t h e 1 6 th c e n tu r y , V o l. IV; London: O xford U n iv e r s i t y
P r e s s , 1 9 3 4 )•
48
S . D. A d o lfo de C a stro y R o s s i , t r a n s l a t o r , Obras
E sc o g n id a s de F i l o s o f o s " I n tr o d u c tio n a l a S a b id u r ia ”
{v iv es* I n t r o d u c ll o ad S a p ien tia m ] (M adrid: S u e e s o r e s de
H ernando, 1 $ 2 2 ) , 6 5 : 2 ^ 5 - 2 o l .
S . D. A d o lfo de C a stro y R o s s i , "Del S o c o r ro de
l o s P o b r e s ," Obras E sc o g n id a s de F i l o s o f o s , 6 5 :2 6 1 -9 1 (v iv e s *
De S u b v e n tio n e Pauperum] .
23
T h re e o t h e r s o u r c e s o f in fo r m a tio n rem ain t o be
r e p o r te d : v i z . , Watson* s p e r i o d i c a l a r t i c l e s ; m a t e r ia l on
S p a in ; and r e c e n t se m i-p o p u la r works on im p o r ta n t co n
tem porary R e n a iss a n c e f i g u r e s . S i x e s s a y s o f W atson w ere
v a lu a b le f o r t h e i r i n f o r m a t i o n : 'Juan L u is V i v e s : A S u g g e s te d
■Source o f M ilton * s " T r a c ta te o f E d u c a tio n ;" 49 V i v e s : On
E d u c a tio n ; 50 The F a th e r o f M odem P s y c h o lo g y ; 51 A F r ie n d o f
S i r Thomas M ore;52 S h a k e sp e a r e and Two S t o r i e s o f L u is
V i v e s ; 55 and A S c h o la r o f t h e R e n a is s a n c e .54
49
F o s t e r W atson, "A S u g g e s te d S o u r c e o f M ilto n * s
T r a c ta t e o f E d u c a tio n ," N in e te e n th C e n tu r y , 6 6 : 6 0 7 - 1 7 ,
O c to b e r , 1 9 0 9 .
50
F o s t e r W atson, " V iv es on E d u c a tio n ," J o u rn a l o f
B n g lis h and Germanic P h i l o l o g y , 1 4 : 2 7 1 - 7 4 , A p r i l , IS 1 5 .
51
F o s t e r W atson, "The F a th e r o f Modern P s y c h o lo g y ,"
P s y c h o lo g ic a l R e v ie w , 2 2 : 3 3 3 - 5 3 , S ep tem b er, 1 9 1 5 .
52
F o s t e r W atson, "A F r ie n d o f S i r Thomas M ore,"
N in e te e n th C e n tu r y , 8 3 : 5 4 0 - 5 2 , M arch, 1 9 1 8 .
53
F o s t e r W gtson, " S h ak esp eare and Two S t o r i e s o f
L u is V iv e s ," N in e te e n th C en tu ry , 8 5 : 2 9 7 - 3 0 6 , F eb ru a ry .
1 9 1 9 .
54
F o s t e r W atson, "Juan L u is V iv e s : A S c h o la r o f
th e R en a scen ce 1 4 9 2 -1 5 4 0 ," E ssa y s by D iv e r s H ands, New
S e r i e s (London: Humphrey M ilf o r d , O xford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,
1 9 2 1 ) , I , 8 1 - 9 3 .
24
E x c e l l e n t m a t e r ia l on S p a in was fo u n d i n th e w orks
o f Hume,55 D a v i e s , 56 and L y n n .57
The c u r r e n t p o p u la r b io g r a p h ie s a r e im p o r ta n t f o r
th e i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p s th e y v i s u a l i z e , and f o r t h e s p i r i t
o f R e n a iss a n c e tim e s w h ich th e y ev o k e . A few o f t h e m ost
s t r i k i n g o f t h e s e as f a r a s F i v e s ’ c o n te m p o r a r ie s a r e co n
c ern ed are by W a lsh ,58 Putaiam,5^ M a t t i n g l y ,60 H a c k e t t, 61
Z w eig,62 and E sh lem an n .68
55
M a rtin A. S . Hume, S p a in — I t s G r e a tn e s s and Decay
( 1 4 7 9 - 1 7 8 8 ) ( r e v i s e d by Edward A rm strong; Cambridge: The
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 3 1 ) .
56
R. T rev o r D a v ie s , The G olden C entu ry o f S p a in
( 1 5 0 1 -1 6 2 1 ) ( S t . M a r tin ’ s S t , London: M acm illan and
Company, L t d . , 1 9 3 7 ) . 327 pp.
57
Caro Lynn, A C o lle g e P r o f e s s o r o f th e R e n a issa n c e
(L u cio M arineo S ic u ld T (C h ic a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago P r e s s ,
1^37 J .
58
W illia m Thomas W alsh, I s a b e l l a o f S p a in : The L a s t
C ru sad er (New York: R o b ert N. M cBride and Company, 1 9 3 0 ] .
T 9
Samuel Putnam , M a r g u e r ite o f N a v a rre: F i r s t Modern
Woman (New York: G r o s s e t and D u n la p ,T 9 3 5 ) .
60
M a tt in g ly , o p . c i t .
61
F r a n c is H a c k e tt, Henry th e E igh th (New York: H.
L i v e r i g h t , 1 9 2 9 ) .
F r a n c is H a c k e tt , F r a n c is th e F i r s t , 1 4 9 4 -1 5 4 7
(London: W. H einem ann, L t d . , 1 9 3 4 ) .
62
S t e f a n Z w eig, Erasmus o f R otterdam ( t r a n s l a t i o n o f
Eden and Cedar P a u l, New Y ork: Garden C ity P u b lis h in g
Company, 1 9 3 7 ) .
63
L lo y d W. E shlem ann, M oulders o f D e s t i n y : R e n a issa n c e
L i v e s and Times (New York: C o v ic i F r ie d e , 1 § 3 8 ) .
25
Thus th e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s f o r t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n
have in c lu d e d p h o to g ra p h ic c o p ie s o f o r i g i n a l w orks from
th e B a s le e d i t i o n o f 15 5 5 ; a u t h e n t ic t r a n s l a t i o n s o f V ives*
works i n E n g lis h , F r e n c h , German and S p a n ish a l l made by
s c h o la r s o f r e p u t e ; le a r n e d m onographs i n v a r io u s la n g u a g e s ;
and, contem porary s e m i-p o p u la r b io g r a p h ie s o f im p o rta n t
s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y p e r s o n a g e s . The m ost o u ts ta n d in g r e f e r
e n c e s have b een l i s t e d h e r e . H ow ever, a f u l l e r b io g r a p h y
w i l l b e fou n d ap p en ded.
METHOD OF TREATMENT
The g e n e r a l tr e a tm e n t o f t h i s s tu d y w i l l b e h i s t o r i
c a l and p h i l o s o p h i c a l . I t w i l l b e h i s t o r i c a l i n t h a t a
stu d y w i l l be made o f p a s t c o n d i t i o n s i n o r d e r to a n t i c i p a t e
p o s s i b l e f u t u r e s i t u a t i o n s ; i . e . , an a tte m p t w i l l be made to
v ie w t h e d a ta g a th e r e d i n th e l i g h t o f p r e v io u s h i s t o r y . I t
w i l l b e p h i lo s o p h ic a l i n i t s e v a lu a t io n o f d a ta and se a rc h
f o r u n d e r ly in g p r i n c i p l e s . T here i s ample p r e c e d e n t f o r
t h i s m ethod i n t h e many c u r r e n t R e n a is s a n c e b io g r a p h ie s . I t
i s p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p l i c a b l e , t o o , t o r e s e a r c h i n th e f i e l d o f
e d u c a tio n a l p h ilo s o p h y .
In so f a r a s e d u c a tio n i s a s o c i a l p r o c e s s , com
p r e h e n s iv e and r e a l i s t i c t h in k in g ab ou t e d u c a tio n m ust
depend upon t h e know ledge o f t h e o r i g i n s w h ich i n f l u e n c e
i t s p r e s e n t s t a t e . . . . A c r i t i c a l e s t im a t e o f t h e
p a r t i a l v ie w p o in t s and t h e k een i n s i g h t s o f educa
t i o n a l t h in k e r s who h ave w r it t e n t h e i r names in t o th e
26
h i s t o r y o f W estern c i v i l i z a t i o n n ot o n ly may p r o t e c t
u s a g a i n s t th e t o o - e a s y a c c e p ta n c e o f h a l f - c o n c e p t s
f o r our a p p r o v a l, hut may a l s o r e v e a l t o u s t h e
o r g a n ic and com p reh en sive m eaning o f e d u c a tio n w h ich
th e f u t u r e may make in t o a r e a l i t y . 64
A b io g r a p h ic a l b a s i s i s a v e ry u s e f u l p o in t o f
d e p a r tu r e . C u r t i65 made u s e o f t h i s m ethod i n h i s R eport
on S o c i a l S t u d i e s . Here he exam ined th e l i v e s o f v a r io u s
im p o r ta n t l e a d e r s i n th e f i e l d o f Am erican e d u c a tio n t o
d e ter m in e : (1) t h e ; s o c i a l im p l ic a t i o n s o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e
p h i lo s o p h ie s o f l i f e ; (2) th e f a c t o r s w hich had c o n d it io n e d
t h e i r t h in k in g and form ed t h e i r sta n d a r d s o f judgm ent.
T h is b io g r a p h ic a l method o f approach h a s b een u sed
r e c e n t l y f o r c o m p a ra tiv e p u r p o se s t o u n r a v e l problem s o f
human r e l a t i o n s h i p s even i n th e f i e l d s o f m a th e m a tic s and
p h ilo s o p h y . By s tu d y in g t h e l i v e s o f men who w ere, a t t h e
same t im e , b o th p h ilo s o p h e r s and m a th e m a tic ia n s , M o o r m a n 6 6
was a b le t o g a in some i d e a s o f F ren ch e d u c a tio n a l p h ilo s o p h y .
A seco n d m ethod o f t r e a t i n g d a ta f o r h i s t o r i c a l
p e r s p e c t i v e , e s p e c i a l l y i n r e l a t i o n to e n v iro n m en ta l
64
Edward H. H e is n e r , "The H is t o r y o f E d u c a tio n a s a
S o u rc e o f Fundam ental A ssu m p tio n s i n E d u c a tio n ," E d u c a tio n a l
A d m ln is tr a tio n and s u p e r v i s i o n . 1 4 : 5 8 4 , S ep tem b er, 1§2&.
65
M erle 1 . C u r t i , "The S o c i a l I d e a s o f Am erican
E d u c a to r s," R eport o f Com m ittee on S o c i a l S tu d i e s , Am erican
H i s t o r i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n , P a r t X (New York: C h a s. S c r ib n e r * s
S o n s , 1 9 3 5 ) .
66
R ich ard H. Moorman, Some E d u c a tio n a l I m p li c a t io n s
o f D e s c a r t e s 1 S y n t h e s i s o f M ath em atics and P h ilo sophy ( Na sh -
v T l l e , T e n n essee :G eo r g e Peabody C o lle g e f o r - T e a c h e r s, 1 9 4 0 ) .
27
s e t t i n g s , i s t h e c h r o n o lo g ic a l a p p roach . E m erto n 's work on
Erasmus i s an example o f t h i s m e th o d .67 He j u s t i f i e s i t by-
s a y in g t h a t he h a s u se d t h e c h r o n o lo g ic a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f
h i s m a t e r ia l b e c a u se i t i s th e b e s t way t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e
develop m en t o f a man i n r e l a t i o n t o h i s t i m e .
A t h i r d m ethod o f o r g a n iz in g h i s t o r i c a l d a ta i s t h e
t o p i c a l o r th e m a tic s t y l e : G ood, Barr and S ca tes^ ® a d v o c a te
t h e u s e o f a c o m b in a tio n o f c h r o n o lo g ic a l and t o p i c a l d a ta .
T h is s t u d y , t h e n , g o in g back to R e n a is s a n c e o r i g i n s
f o r i t s h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , w i l l a ttem p t to o r g a n iz e t h e
d a ta f o r l a t e r e v a lu a t io n by a co m b in a tio n o f t h e t h r e e
m eth ods l i s t e d a b o v e , v i z . , th e b i o g r a p h ic a l , t h e
c h r o n o lo g ic a l and t h e t o p i c a l .
ORGANIZATION O F THE STUDY
T h is f i r s t c h a p te r h a s i n d ic a t e d t h e p o i n t o f v ie w
and d is c u s s e d th e problem ; i t s o r i g i n , im p o r ta n c e, r e l a t e d
l i t e r a t u r e , s c o p e , s o u r c e s and m ethod o f tr e a tm e n t o f d a t a .
The bod3^ o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n w i l l c o n s i s t o f n in e a d d it io n a l
c h a p t e r s . C h apter I I , v h ic h f o l l o w s im m e d ia te ly , w i l l b e g in
V iv es* b io g r a p h y . I t w i l l d e a l w it h h i s c h ild h o o d y e a r s —
67
Em erton, ojd. c i t . , p . v .
68
C a r te r Good, A. S . B arr, and D o u g la s S c a t e s , The
M eth od ology o f E d u c a tio n a l R esea rch (New York: - D. A ppleton-
C en tu ry Company, I n c . , 1 9 3 6 7 , p . 2 6 5 .
1492 to 1 5 0 9 — and t h e s e t t i n g i n w hich t h e y were l i v e d . I t
w i l l in c lu d e a d i s c u s s i o n o f h i s S p a n is h h e r i t a g e , f a m ily
t r a d i t i o n s , V a le n c ia n s u r r o u n d in g s , in fo r m a l e d u c a tio n a l
i n f l u e n c e s , fo rm a l, e d u c a tio n a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f V a le n c ia ,
and a b r i e f sk e tc h o f t h e h i s t o r y and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
S p a n is h Humanism. C h a p te rs t h r e e and f o u r w i l l c o n c lu d e h i s
b io g r a p h y . They w i l l s t r e s s Humanism a s a background and
w i l l to u c h on o th e r a s p e c t s o f th e R e n a is s a n c e . As t o V iv e s ,
h i m s e l f , h i s c a r e e r w i l l be t r a c e d a t th e U n i v e r s i t i e s o f
P a r i s , L o u v a in and O xford; a s a r e s i d e n t o f F ra n ce , B elg iu m ,
and In g la n d ; and as an i n t e r n a t i o n a l s c h o l a r , f r i e n d o f More
and o f C a th e r in e o f A ragon, and d i s c i p l e o f Erasm us. Chap
t e r I I I w i l l d e s c r ib e V iv es* s tu d e n t d ays a t t h e U n iv e r s it y
o f P a r i s from 1 5 0 9 -1 5 1 4 . I t w i l l in c lu d e , a l s o , a b r i e f
resum ^ o f F rench Humanism and a d i g e s t o f t h e p r a c t i c e of
S c h o l a s t i c is m a s t y p i f i e d i n th e c o u r s e s o f t h e Sorbonne o f
t h a t d a y . C h ap ter IV w i l l d e a l w it h V ives* a d u lt l i f e from
th e tim e he r ea c h e d F la n d e r s i n 1 5 1 4 , a young man o f tw e n t y -
tw o, to h i s d eath i n 1 5 4 0 . I n a d d i t io n t o a c h r o n o lo g ic a l
o r i e n t a t i o n , t h e c h a p te r w i l l d i s c u s s t h e i n f l u e n c e o f
F le m ish and E n g lis h Humanism and t h e N o rth ern R e n a iss a n c e i n
g e n e r a l . V iv es* w orks w i l l be to u c h e d on b r i e f l y i n c o n n e c
t i o n w ith th e b ack grou n d s w h ich in f lu e n c e d t h e i r p r o d u c tio n .
C h a p ters tw o , t h r e e , and f o u r w i l l d e a l , t h e r e f o r e , w ith th e
29
im p o r ta n t i n c i d e n t s o f V ives* b io g r a p h y , th e s e t t i n g i n
which h i s l i f e was p a s s e d , and t h e d ev elo p m en ta l i n f l u e n c e s
w hich form ed h i s sta n d a r d s o f jud gm en t.
C h ap ter V w i l l bum m arize^the d etai& b o f t h e e n v ir o n
m en ta l R e n a iss a n c e i n f l u e n c e s so t h a t t h e s o c i a l background
o f V iv es* tim e s may be b e t t e r u n d e r s to o d . I t w i l l p r e s e n t
a c h r o n o lo g ic a l o r i e n t a t i o n o f im p o rta n t R e n a is s a n c e
f i g u r e s ; a b r i e f r e v ie w o f o u t s t a n d in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e
R e n a iss a n c e i t s e l f ; and, a d i s c u s s i o n o f s o c i a l i l l s w ith
p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e to th e s o c i a l i s s u e s o f V ives* d a y .
C h apter VI w i l l d e f i n e su ch s o c i o l o g i c a l ter m s a s s o c i a l
p rob lem s and c u lt u r e m a la d ju s tm e n ts. I t w i l l l i s t t h e p r i n
c i p a l works o f V iv e s un der t o p i c a l h e a d in g s and r e v ie w some
o f h i s im p o r ta n t w orks i n th e f i e l d s o f s o c i o l o g y . C h ap ter
V II w i l l sum m arize h i s e d u c a tio n a l w ork s. T hese t h r e e
c h a p t e r s , t h e n , w i l l r e v ie w V ives* w r i t i n g s and i n d i c a t e t h e
i n f l u e n c e s w h ich b ro u g h t them f o r t h .
The s u c c e e d in g c h a p te r s w i l l stu dy, i n more d e t a i l
c e r t a i n o f t h e works p r e s e n t e d i n t h o s e c h a p t e r s . C hapter
V I II w i l l d e a l w ith s o c i a l and e d u c a tio n a l r e fo r m s , p r e s e n t
in g V i v e s ’ v ie w s on w ar, p o v e r t y , la w and e d u c a t io n .
C h apter IX w i l l have a s i t s theme V i v e s ’ p la c e i n e d u c a t io n a l
h i s t o r y : h i s i n f l u e n c e i n h i s own and s u c c e e d in g t im e s ; t h e
r e a s o n f o r h i s a p p a ren t o b l i v i o n d u r in g t h e l a t e r c e n t u r i e s ,
and, t h e p o s s i b l e s i g n i f i c a n c e to p r e s e n t - d a y e d u c a tio n o f
30
h i s r e -a p p e a r a n c e a s a g r e a t e d u c a t io n a l f i g u r e . C hapter X
w i l l sum marize t h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d , e v a lu a t e i t , and
i n d i c a t e p o s s i b l e c h a n n e ls f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h . A f u l l e r
b ib lio g r a p h y , p a r t i a l l y a n n o ta te d , w i l l c o m p lete t h e s tu d y .
The term e d u c a t io n i s u se d i n t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n i n
th e s e n s e o f " a d a p tiv e ” c u l t u r e . As t h e s o c i a l o r d e r
ch a n ges i n r e a c t i o n i n i n v e n t i o n s , d i s c o v e r i e s , w ar, e t c . ,
e d u c a tio n a l p r a c t i c e i s m o d ifie d to m eet new n e e d s . Educa
t i o n a ls o h a s th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , th r o u g h th 6 d evelop m en t o f
an i d e o l o g y , o f s e t t i n g up t h e p h ilo s o p h y o f t h e new o r d e r .
The g o a l s s e t up may b e w i t h i n th e i n t e l l e c t u a l compass o f
o n ly t h e advanced t h i n k e r s o f t h e t i m e s . As tim e p a s s e s ,
how ever, one t e s t o f t h e i r v a l i d i t y l i e s i n t h e g ra d u a l
i n c r e a s e o f p e o p le who g r a sp t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e . V iv es* l i f e
and works w i l l be s t u d i e d w ith e s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o ed u ca
t i o n a l s o c i o lo g y and h i s t o r y .
To form a r e f e r e n c e f o r s o c i o l o g i c a l com p arison o f th e
t r a n s i t i o n e r a s o f th e s i x t e e n t h and t w e n t ie t h c e n t u r i e s ,
th e b io g r a p h ic a l c h a p te r s have f o u r p h a s e s , v i z : (1) o u t
s ta n d in g i n c i d e n t s o f V i v e s 1 p e r s o n a l l i f e ; (2 ) h i s t o r i c a l
b ackgroun d, i . e . , c h r o n o lo g ic a l s e t t i n g ; (3) contem porary
l e a r n i n g , e s p e c i a l l y n a t i o n a l i s t i c s c h o o ls o f Humanism; and
(4) m a la d ju stm e n ts i n t h e s o c i a l o r d e r .
P s y c h o l o g i c a l l y , e d u c a tio n may be d e fin e d a s a p r o c e s s
o f a d ju stm en t b etw een th e o rg a n ism and i t s en v iro n m en t.
CHAPTER I I
VIVES’ BOYHOOD IN VALENCIA (1 4 9 2 -1 5 0 9 )
INTRODUCTION
The p u rp ose o f t h i s s t u d y , a s a lr e a d y o u t l i n e d i n
t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r , i s t o d i s c o v e r , th ro u g h a stu d y o f th e
l i f e and w orks o f Juan L u is V iv e s , t h e e d u c a tio n a l s i g n i
f i c a n c e , i f a n y , o f t h e r e v i v a l o f i n t e r e s t i n him t o d a y .
B e fo r e any c o n c lu s io n s can be r ea c h e d c e r t a i n q u e s t io n s
m ust be an sw ered . The f i r s t o f t h e s e q u e s t io n s i s : Who
was V iv e s? The se co n d i s : What en v iro n m en ta l f a c t o r s
in f lu e n c e d h i s l i f e and form ed h i s s ta n d a r d s o f judgment?
The n e x t t h r e e c h a p te r s w i l l a tte m p t to answ er t h e s e q u e s
t i o n s . They w i l l d e a l w ith im p o r ta n t b io g r a p h ic a l e v e n t s ,
d e s c r ib e th e background a g a i n s t w h ich V ives* l i f e was
p a s s e d , and t r a c e th e d e v e lo p m en ta l i n f l u e n c e s to w h ich he
was s u b j e c t e d . C h ap ter two w i l l d i s c u s s V iv es* S p a n ish
h e r it a g e and h i s boyhood e x p e r ie n c e s i n V a le n c ia ; C h apter I I I
w i l l d e s c r ib e h i s s t u d e n t d a y s a t th e U n iv e r s it y o f P a r is ;
C h apter IV w i l l p o r tr a y h i s a d u lt l i f e w ith F la n d e r s a s h i s
h e a d - q u a r t e r s . B e fo r e b e g in n in g t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f V ives*
e a r ly y o u th , a t home i n h i s n a t i v e V a le n c ia , a b r i e f
c h r o n o lo g ic a l resume o f th e im p o r ta n t p e r io d s o f h i s l i f e
w i l l be s k e t c h e d .
32
C h r o n o lo g i c a ll y , V ives* l i f e may h e d iv id e d in t o
s i x p e r io d s : 1 4 9 2 -1 5 0 9 , c h ild h o o d and e a r ly y o u t h p e r i o d
o f S p a n ish i n f l u e n c e ; 1 5 0 9 - 1 5 1 4 ,1 s tu d e n t d ays a t t h e
U n i v e r s i t y o f P a r i s , — p e r io d o f F rench i n f l u e n c e ; 1 5 1 4 -
1 5 1 9 , s tu d e n t and t e a c h e r a t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f L o u v a in ,—
p e r io d o f c o n f l i c t b etw een S c h o l a s t i c i s m and Humanism;
1 5 1 9 -1 5 2 3 , r e s i d e n c e i n F la n d e r s , d i s c i p l e o f E ra sm u s,—
p e r io d o f n o r th e r n H u m a n istic i n f l u e n c e ; 1 5 2 3 -1 5 2 8 , l e c t u r e r
a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f O xfo rd , e d u c a tio n a l c o n s u lt a n t t o t h e
P r i n c e s s M ary, f r i e n d o f M ore,— p e r io d o f E n g lis h H u m a n istic
i n f l u e n c e ; 1 5 2 8 -1 5 4 0 , perm anent home a t B r u g e s, i n t e r n a t i o n
a l l y known s c h o l a r , — p e r io d o f g r e a t l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t y .
The b r i e f c h r o n o lo g ic a l resume ab ove h i n t s a t th e
i n t e r n a t i o n a l background w hich s e t th e s t a g 6 f o r V iv es* l i f e
a c t i v i t i e s . Born i n M ed iterra n ea n S p a in , w ith i t s dual
i n f l u e n c e o f Mohammedan and C h r is t ia n f a i t h s ; t r a i n e d i n t h e
two c o n f l i c t i n g c u l t u r e s o f t h e S c h o l a s t i c Sorbon ne and t h e
R e n a iss a n c e T r o is L angues (L o u v a in ); p r o te g s ' o f t h e E n g lis h
Henry and th e S p a n ish C a th e r in e , f r ie n d o f More and o f
Erasm us; and honored c i t i z e n o f t h e S p a n ish N e t h e r la n d s ; - -
t h e s e w ere t h e s h i f t i n g n o t e s o f h i s e a r t h l y drama. One
1
L a te r s c h o l a r s g i v e th e d a te a s 1 5 1 4 . E a r l i e r
s c h o l a r s g iv e th e d a t e a s 1 5 1 2 . S e e F o s t e r W atson, V i v e s :
on E d u c a tio n (Cam bridge: The U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1913) , n o te
2 , p . l x i i l .
33
can n ot bu t wonder what manner o f man su ch d i v e r s e i n f l u e n c e s
c o u ld p rod u ce; and w hich o f h i s e x p e r ie n c e s w ould l e a v e t h e
s t r o n g e s t im p r in t upon h i s mind and w ork s.
T h is S p a n ish p e r io d was v e r y im p o rta n t b o th i n th e
d evelop m en t o f V iv es* a t t i t u d e s tow ard l i f e and i n t h e form a
t i o n o f h i s i d e a l s and s ta n d a r d s . The im p ortan ce o f t h i s
p e r io d , h ow ever, i s due n o t m e r e ly to t h e f a c t t h a t i t
encom passed th e m ost im p r e s s io n a b le y e a r s o f V iv es* l i f e a s
an in d iv i d u a l b u t a l s o , b e c a u se t h e S p a n ish back grou n d ,
w ith i t s M oorish and M ed ite rr a n e a n h e r i t a g e , b rou gh t i n t o
V iv es* l i f e en v iro n m en ta l f a c t o r s l a c k in g i n th e e a r l y l i v e s
o f t h e g r e a t R e n a iss a n c e s c h o la r s o f h i s a g e . What, t h e n ,
were t h e s e d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g f a c t o r s ? How d id t h e c u l t u r a l
h e r i t a g e o f S p a in , e s p e c i a l l y t h a t o f C a ta la n V a le n c ia ,
d i f f e r from t h a t o f o t h e r European n a t io n s a t th e c l o s e o f
th e f i f t e e n t h cen tu ry ?
VIVES* SPANISH HERITAGE
In o r d e r to u n d e r sta n d t h e com plex f a c t o r s o f t h e
r a c i a l and n a t io n a l h e r i t a g e p a s s e d on to V iv e s i n 1 4 9 2 , i t
i s n e c e s s a r y to c o n s id e r t h e h i s t o r y o f S p a in from t h r e e
a n g l e s , - - i t s c u l t u r e , govern m en t, and e th n o lo g y . A cco rd in g
to Hume, S p a in i s t h e .e p it o m e o f a l l t h e p r e c e d in g c u l t u r e s
34
o f th e w o r id .^ S p a n is h o r i g i n s , t h e r e f o r e , a re deeply-
r o o te d i n t h e p a s t . T h is was a t o p i c w hich was v e r y
i n t r i g u i n g to V i v e s . I n f a c t , he on ce s a i d , " I have i n
mind t h e w r it in g o f a hook i n L a t in on w hat t h e L a t i n and-
Greek h i s t o r i e s sa y on s u b j e c t s o f S p a n is h h i s t o r y and t h u s
I in te n d t o i l l u s t r a t e S p a n is h o r i g i n s . " 3
S p a in , i t w i l l be rem em bered, i s l o c a t e d at t h e
j u n c t i o n o f th e A t l a n t i c Ocean and th e M ed ite r r a n e a n S e a ,
a t t h e ex trem e so u th w e st c o r n e r o f t h e c o n t in e n t o f E u rop e.
I t i s s e p a r a te d from A f r i c a , (S p a n ish M o r o c c o ), by t h e
S t r a i t o f G ib r a lt a r o n ly and fo rm s t h e w e s t e r n te r m in a l o f
M e d ite rr a n e a n c i v i l i z a t i o n . B ecau se o f t h i s g e o g r a p h ic a l
l o c a t i o n S p a in h a s b een o v e rr u n by s u c c e s s i v e m ig r a t io n s —
I b e r i a n , P h o e n ic ia n , C a r th a g in ia n , G reek , C e l t i c , Roman,
G erm anic, M oslem— from e a r l i e s t h i s t o r i c a l t i m e s .
Each o f t h e s e p e o p l e s , i n i t s tu r n f e l l b e f o r e th e
n e x t oncom ing in v a d e r , b u t n ot w ith o u t l e a v i n g i t s own
c u l t u r a l and e t h n o l o g i c a l im p r in t b e h in d . S p a in , s a y s Hume,
was th e b a t t le -g r o u n d on w h ich w as d e c id e d th e form w h ich
4
modern c u lt u r e was to t a k e . S p a n is h c u l t u r e , t h e n , due t o
2
M a rtin S . Hume, The S p a n is h P e o p le ; T h e ir O r i g i n ,
Growth and I n f lu e n c e (N6w York: D. A p p le to n and Company,
1901) .
3
John Twyne, "de Rebus A l b i o n i c i s , " ( p u b lis h e d 1590)
q u oted i n F o s t e r W atson, L u is V i v e s : E l Gran V a le n c ia n o
(1 4 9 3 -1 5 4 0 ) (O xford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s : Humphrey M ilf o r d ,
1& 22) , p . 4 7 .
4
I b i d . , p . v i i i .
35
th e a c c u m u la tin g r e s i d u e s o f su c c e e d in g c o n q u e s t s ,
e p it o m iz e s to a l a r g e e x te n t th e v a r io u s s y s te m s and
i n s t i t u t i o n s th ro u g h w hich th e w orld h a s d e v e lo p e d .
The t h r e e c o n q u er in g r a c e s vihich have l e f t th e m ost
v i s i b l e t r a c e s on th e p e o p le and i n s t i t u t i o n s o f S p a in a r e
th e Romans, t h e G o th s, and th e M oslem s. A cco rd in g to V i v e s ,
th e P h o e n ic ia n s a ls o l e f t t h e i r mark. He i s q u oted a s
s a y in g t h a t H by t h e i r in t r o d u c t i o n o f c o v e to u s and c o n te n
t i o u s ways i n S p a in , th e P h o e n ic ia n s w ere th e i n i t i a t o r s o f
th e p r e s e n t and f u t u r e m i s e r i e s o f t h a t c o u n t r y .” 5
S p a in a s a Roman p r o v in c e . The Romans w ith t h e i r
o r g a n iz in g g e n iu s l a i d t h e fo u n d a tio n o f S p a n is h c i v i l i z a
t i o n . They e s t a b l i s h e d L a t in i n s t i t u t i o n s , la n g u a g e , la w ,
a d m in is t r a t io n , commerce; b u i l t r o a d s , c i t i e s , b r i d g e s ,
a m p h ith e a tr e s ; b a t h s , p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s , s c h o o l s . They i n
tr o d u c e d C h r i s t i a n i t y i n th e secon d c e n tu r y . In t h e fo u r th
c e n tu r y T h e o d o s iu s , h i m s e l f a S p a n ia r d , made C h r i s t i a n i t y
th e r e l i g i o n o f t h e e n t i r e Roman w o r ld .
The P r o v in c e o f S p a in p la y e d a v e r y im p o r ta n t p a r t
i n t h e l i f e o f t h e Roman Bm pire. She f u r n is h e d w e a lth and
th e fo o d on Tfthich m arched t h e c o n q u e r in g Roman a r m ie s . Some
o f th e g r e a t e s t Romans— r u l e r s , s c h o l a r s , s o l d i e r s , sta te sm e n
5
I b i d . , p . 4 6 .
36
w ere born i n S p a in . Among them w ere such fam ous names a s
Marcus A u r e l iu s , T r a ja n , A d ria n , L u can , S e n e c a , M a r tia l
and Q u i n t i l i a n . 6 H owever, S p a in , l i k e t h e o t h e r members o f
th e Homan Em pire, f e l t th e e f f e c t o f t o o much o p u le n c e and
s o p h i s t r y . As Roman l i f e in c r e a s e d i n s p le n d o r and lu x u r y ,
th e S p a n ia r d s began t o d e g e n e r a te i n i d e a l s m o ra ls and
m an n ers. A p e r io d o f d e c a y s e t i n . Rome f e l l and so o n
a f t e r , t h e S p a n is h p r o v in c e f e l l w it h i t .
S p a in a s a G o th ic t h e o c r a c y . F o llo w in g th e d e c l i n e
o f Roman pow er came th e G o th ic i n v a s i o n s . The V i s i g o t h s
b rou gh t from t h e n o rth a s t r a i n o f more p r i m i t i v e and
v ig o r o u s s t r e n g t h , g i v i n g new b lo o d t o t h e weakened
S p a n ia r d s and l e a v i n g b e h in d im p o r ta n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o be
b u i l t in t o th e f u t u r e l i f e o f S p a in . They r e v is e d and
a d a p ted t h e J u s t i n i a n c o d e , and p u b lis h e d i t a s th e Lex
V is ig o th o r u m . S p a in th u s w as t h e o n ly c o u n tr y i n Europe a t
7
t h a t tim e t o f u n c t i o n un der c i v i l a s w e ll a s C a n o n ica l la w .
The G o th ic governm ent was a th e o c r a c y u n d er a puppet
k in g . From 509 o n , p r i e s t s w ere paramount i n S p a n ish
p o l i t i c s . 8 The G o th ic s o c i a l sy stem r e c o g n iz e d p e r s o n a l
6
V iv e s was known as t h e "Second Q u in t ilia n " by
E n g lis h and F lem ish H u m a n ists.
7
Hume, o p . c i t . , p . 6 5 .
8
I b i d . , p. x i .
37
in d e p e n d e n c e , e q u a l i t y o f t h e s e x e s a s i n d i v i d u a l s , and t h e
Germ anic t r a d i t i o n s o f e l e c t i v e and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e p a r t i c i
p a t io n i n g o v e r n m e n t.9 T h us, c i v i l la w , p r i e s t l y domina
t i o n , and d e m o c r a tic i d e a s o f govern m en t h e lp e d shape th e
i d e a l s o f t h e s t a t e i n w h ich l i v e d th e p r o g e n it o r s o f
V iv e s , i . e . , A ragon.
S p a in a s a c e n t e r o f Moslem c u l t u r e . Then came t h e
M oslem s. They came from t h e so u th and pu sh ed f a r t h e r and
f a r t h e r n o r th u n t i l o n ly th e n o rth e a s t c o r n e r o f t h e
p e n i n s u la , th e p r e s e n t p r o v in c e o f A ragon w as l e f t t o t h e
C h r i s t i a n s . For e ig h t c e n t u r i e s , t h e M oslem s r u le d S p a in
and s e t t h e sta n d a r d o f l i f e . They e s t a b l i s h e d im p o r ta n t
c i t i e s . One o f t h e i r g r e a t s tr o n g h o ld s was V a le n c ia where
V iv e s was b o r n .
Ibero-H om an c u l t u r e was th u s su p e r c e d e d by th e A r a b ic
c u lt u r e o f B y z a n tin e c i v i l i z a t i o n s . L e a r n in g was h e ld i n
h ig h r e p u t e . To th e h e r it a g e o f R om an -G reek -Ib erian c u l t u r e ,
was added t h e s c i e n t i f i c and m a th e m a tic a l a t t a in m e n t s o f t h e
A rab s, and t h e O r ie n ta l lo v e o f b r ig h t c o l o r s and v e g e t a t i o n .
I n 9 1 2 -9 6 1 A.D. un der Abd-er-Rahman I I I , S p a in became th 6
g r e a t e s t s t a t e i n Europe and was th e c e n t e r o f i t s h i g h e s t
c u l t u r e . As tim e p a s s e d o n , e le m e n ts o f th e g r e a t u n d e r ly
in g Roman c i v i l i z a t i o n began to emerge and t o f u s e w ith t h e
9
I b i d . , p . 4 6 .
38
A rabian l e a r n i n g , b u ild in g a fo u n d a t io n f o r th e s p le n d id
S p a n is h R e n a is s a n c e o f th e f i f t e e n t h c e n tu r y ,
C h r i s t i a n c r u sa d e s a g a i n s t t h e M oors, In th e mean
w h i l e , h ow ever, t h e r e s t i l l rem ain ed some l i t t l e n u c l e i o f
C h r i s t i a n s . One n u c le u s became f i n a l l y t h e kingdom o f
C a s t i l e . The o th e r was A ragon w h ic h , i n t h e t w e l f t h c e n tu r y ,
u n it e d w ith C a t a lo n ia , i n th e t h i r t e e n t h c e n tu r y , th e p e o p le
o f t h e s e C h r is t ia n s e t t le m e n t s began t h e i r c r u s a d e s a g a i n s t
th e M oslem s. I n 1 2 3 8 , Jaim e I , o f A ragon, c a p tu r e d t h e
kingdom o f V a le n c ia d e l i v e r i n g i t from th e M oors. T h is
c o n q u e s t, f o r A ragon, ranked i n im p o r ta n c e w ith t h e c a p tu r e
o f S e v i l l e f o r C a s t il- 6 : . V ives* p r o g e n it o r s w ere among
t h o s e who a s s i s t e d i n th e c o n q u e st o f V a le n c ia . They l a t e r
foun ded t h e V a le n c ia n f a m ily o f w hich Juan L u is V iv e s was
th e d e s c e n d a n t.
R e g io n a l c u lt u r e i n S p a i n . Hume c a u t io n s t h a t th e
k ey t o many o t h e r w is e in c o m p r e h e n sib le h i s t o r i c a l d e v e lo p
m en ts l i e s i n a r e c o g n i t i o n o f th 6 f a c t t h a t t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s
o f S p a in were l i k e l y t o be r e g io n a l i n c h a r a c t e r . T h e y
had r e s i s t e d a b s o r p t io n f o r two r e a s o n s : (1) e t h n o l o g i c a l
r e s i d u e s h in d e r e d r a c i a l f u s i o n e s p e c i a l l y w here d i f f e r e n t
la w s and d i f f e r e n t la n g u a g e s were in v o lv e d ; (2) t h e r e w ere
10
Hume, 0 £ . c i t . , p . i x
39
so many i s o l a t e d v a l l e y s and m ou n tain t o p s t h a t communica
t i o n , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , and commerce w ere c a r r ie d on w ith
d i f f i c u l t y . U n t i l th e R e n a is s a n c e p e r io d , t h e S p a n ia r d
lo o k e d upon t h e town a s h i s f a t h e r la n d , r a t h e r th a n upon
h i s c o u n tr y . T h is a t t i t u d e came a b o u t from th e f a c t t h a t
th e tow ns had a lw a y s b een : th e c e n t e r o f S p a n ish l i f e ; th e
u n i t o f g overn m en t; t h e b i r t h p la c e o f t r a d i t i o n ; and, t h e
f o c u s o f p a t r i o t i s m . 11 The id e a o f a n a t io n a l s t a t e had to
be. b u i l t upon t h e c o n c e p t io n o f r e g i o n a l p a t r i o t i s m , liven
V iv e s r e f e r s f r e q u e n t l y t o V a le n c ia a s h i s c o u n tr y r a t h e r
th a n to S p a in .
N a tio n a l u n i t y un der F erd in a n d and I s a b e l l a . S p a in
was d e s t i n e d to become a g r e a t n a t io n a l s t a t e b e c a u se o f
f o r t u i t o u s c ir c u m s ta n c e s and o f s k i l l f u l m an eu verin g. The
j o i n t - r u l e r s h i p o f F erd in a n d and I s a b e l l a fw h ich b rou gh t
about a l a r g e amount o f t e r r i t o r y u n d er a c e n t r a l i z e d g o v e r n
m ent, p l u s an a p p ea l to r e l i g i o u s f a n a t i c i s m , u n it e d t h e
c o u n tr y i n a r e l i g i o u s c ru sa d e t o r id th e c o u n tr y o f t h e
i n f i d e l M oor, and to c o n v e r t o r d e s t r o y a l l h e r e t i c s .
I n t h i s way S p a in moved on to N a tio n a lis m , a
n a t io n a lis m more a b s o lu t e th a n i n t h e o t h e r em erging s t a t e s
o f F urope s i n c e th e S p a n is h r e l i g i o u s h ie r a r c h y was a lm o st
11
I b i d . , p . x i i .
40
c o m p le t e ly u n d er t h e d o m in a tio n o f t h e Crown. The Pope had
l e s s power i n S p a in th a n i n any o t h e r C a t h o lic c o u n tr y o f
E u r o p e .12 C o m p lic a tio n s such a s F ra n ce had w ith t h e
Sorbon ne and E ngland and Germany w ith th e Pope w ere a v o id e d .
I s a b e l l a was a b le w ith co m p a ra tiv e e a s e t o s t r a i g h t e n o u t
t h e d i s s o l u t e churchmen and, w it h t h e h e lp o f Jim en ez de
C is n e r o s , to p u rge th e church o f i t s w o r st -a b u ses.
I n 1 4 9 2 , Granada was con q u ered and e ig h t c e n t u r i e s
o f M oorish d o m in a tio n b rou gh t to an end; i n 1 4 9 2 , I s a b e l l a
o r d e re d P e t e r M artyr to r e s c u e th e young n o b le s o f S p a in
from i d l e n e s s and t o i n s t i l l i n them a l o v e f o r l e t t e r s ;
i n 1 4 9 2 , A n ton io de L e b r ij a w r o te h i s G a s t i l l i a n grammar
f o r t h e l a d i e s o.f th e S p a n is h C o u r t;13 an d , i n 1 4 9 2 , Columbus
d is c o v e r e d A m erica and b ega n t h e b u i l d i n g o f S p a in ’ s c o l o n i a l
em p ire.
VIVES * FJMILY BACKGROUND
T h is same y e a r , 1 4 9 2 , marked th e ad v en t in t o t h i s
w o r ld o f Juan L u is V iv e s , b o r n March 6 , i n V a le n c ia . He
came o f d i s t i n g u i s h e d a n c e s t r y , b o th p a r e n ts b e in g o f n o b le
b i r t h . H is f a t h e r ’ s f a m ily had a c h ie v e d a r e p u t a t io n f o r
12
R. T rev o r D a v ie s , The G olden C en tu ry o f S p a i n ,
(1 5 0 1 -1 6 2 1 ) (London: M a cm illa n and Company, l^ sT T , p . 1 0 .
nr
A c co r d in g to W atson, t h e f i r s t grammar o f a
v e r n a c u la r la n g u a g e t o be w r i t t e n by a hu m an ist s c h o l a r .
S e e F o s t e r W atson, L u is V i v e s : E l Gran V a le n c ia n o , o p . c i t . ,
p . 1 0 4 , N ote 1 .
41
m a r t ia l v a l o r . They had won t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n i n t h e
C h r is t ia n C ru sad es a g a i n s t t h e M oors. H is m o th e r ’ s f a m ily
was known f o r o u t s ta n d in g s c h o la r s h ip and in c lu d e d s e v e r a l
fam ous p o e t s , among then* A u sia s M arch, t h e n a t io n a l p o e t
o f C a t a lo n ia . As h i s p a r e n t s , h ow ever, w ere i n c o m p a ra tiv e
l y m od est c ir c u m s ta n c e s , Y iv e s w as r e a r e d w ith o u t o s t e n t a
t i o n .
The p i c t u r e o f th e fa m ily l i f e as g i v e n by Y iv e s i n
h i s w r i t i n g s r e v e a l s a harm onious h o u se h o ld ru n o n S p a rta n
p r i n c i p l e s and h ig h i d e a l s , hut perm eated w it h l o v i n g c o n
s i d e r a t i o n . A p p a r e n tly Y iv e s had one s i s t e r . 14 He m e n tio n s
h i s f a t h e r b u t o n c e i n h i s w r i t i n g s and th e n o n ly t o empha
s i z e t h e c o n g e n i a l i t y o f h i s p a r e n t s . . H is m other he r e f e r s
to many t i m e s , a lw a y s w it h a f f e c t i o n t i n g e d w ith w holesom e
r e s p e c t . He sa y s o f them M My m other B lan ch e when sh e had
b e e n f i f t e e n y e a r s m a r r ie d u n to my f a t h e r , I c o u ld n e v e r
s e e h e r s t r i v e w ith my f a t h e r . . . . t h e con cord o f Y iv e s
and B la n ch e was ta k e n up and u s e d , i n a m anner, f o r a p r o
v e r b . . . . But i t i s n o t to be t a lk e d abou t i n a book (made
f o r a n o th e r p u rp ose) o f my m ost h o ly m o th er, whom I d ou b t
n o t now to have i n h e a v e n th e f r u i t and rew ard o f h e r pu re
14
Juan B u is Y iv e s , Opera (Y a le n c ia : M a ja n s iu s , 1782) ,
q u o ted by A d o lfo B o n i l l a y San M a rtin i n L u is Y iv e s £ l a
F i l o s o f i a d e l R en a cim ien to (S .A . E s p a s a -C a lp e , 192$) , I , 2 4 5 .
42
and h o ly l i v i n g . ”15
V iv e s even w ent f u r t h e r and in c lu d e d h i s m other
among t h e s a i n t s w ith A gn es, C a t h e r in e , A g a th a , M a rg a r et,
B arbara, M on ica, e t c . 15 Erasm us to o k e x c e p t io n t o t h e s e
p e r s o n a l r e f e r e n c e s s a y in g t h a t su ch p io u s t r i b u t e s w ere
u n seem ly and i n bad t a s t e and t h a t no one w as i n t e r e s t e d i n
r e a d in g ab ou t t h e v i r t u e s o f s t r a n g e r s . V iv e s r e p l i e d he
was o n ly f o l l o w i n g t h e exam ple s e t by S e n e c a , Q u i n t i l i a n and
o t h e r s and t h a t he had b e e n moved to in e lu d e h i s m other by
h i s l o v e o f t r u t h . 17
V i v e s 1 hom e. V iv e s was born i n a s e c t i o n o f V a le n c ia
known a s t h e C a rrer de l a ta b e r n a d e l l g a l l . He r e f e r s t o
th e f a m ily home i n L e g e s L u d i, (a v a r ie d d ia lo g u e on th e c i t y
o f V a l e n c i a ) . H ere he h a s s c i n t i l l a s u g g e s t g o in g "th rou gh
th e q u a r te r o f t h e Cock T avern ( t a b e r n a ie g a l l i n a c e a e ) . For
i n t h a t q u a r te r I sh o u ld l i k e to s e e t h e home i n w h ich my
3-5
H yrde*s t r a n s l a t i o n o f V i v e s 1 I n s t i t u t i o n s Fem inae
C h r is t ia n a e found i n F o s t e r W atson, V iv e s and th e
R e n a sce n c e E d u c a tio n o f Women (New Y ork: Longmans, G reen
and Company, 1 9 l2 ) , p . iT T l ”
16
P a y n e ll * s t r a n s l a t i o n o f V iv es* Djs O f f i c i i M a r iti
found i n F o s t e r W atson, V iv e s and t h e R e n a sce n c e E d u c a tio n
o f Women, o p . c i t . , p . 1 1 7 .
--------------T7
A d o lfo B o n i l l a y San M a r tin , L u is V iv e s £ l a
F i l o s o f i a d e l R e n a c im ie n to (M adrid: S . A. E s p a s a -C a lp e ,
t s s s t t iV p T it : — : ---------
43
Y iv e s was born* I t i s s i t u a t e d , as I h av e h e a r d , t o t h e
l e f t a s W 6 d e sc e n d q u i t e a t t h e end o f t h e q u a r te r .
W atson com pares Y i v e s ’ Y a le n c ia n home w ith t h a t o f
S i r Thomas More a t C h e l s e a .19 He i m p l ie s n o t o n ly a
s i m i l a r i t y i n harm onious atm osp here but a l s o i n o t h e r
q u a l i t i e s o f M ore’ s home. Erasmus h a s d e s c r ib e d t h e h ou se
i n d e t a i l . 20 He h a s c h a r a e t e r i z e d ’M ore’ s Academy" a s
p erm eated w ith s i m p l i c i t y , k i n d l i n e s s , a f f e c t i o n , in d u s t r y ,
p i e t y , j o y f u l c o - o p e r a t i o n , so b e r m irth and a l o v e o f
le a r n i n g w h ich in c lu d e d b o th young and o l d . The h o u se h o ld
w a s, he s a y s , a v e r i t a b l e s c h o o l o f C h r is t ia n r e l i g i o n i n
w hich th e w h o le h o u s e h o ld ,— M ore, h i s w i f e , h i s c h ild r e n and
t h e i r f a m i l i e s — a n d , i t m igh t be a d d ed , t h e C h a n c e llo r ’ s
r e l u c t a n t r e t i n u e , j o i n e d i n a c q u ir in g t h e b r a n c h e s o f a
l i b e r a l e d u c a t io n . T/atson f i n d s a r e se m b la n c e h e r e to
Y i v e s ’ o ld Y a le n c ia n home w here Y i v e s ’ g r a n d f a t h e r , Henry
M arch, i n s t r u c t e d him i n t h e e le m e n ts o f la w , h i s m other
ta u g h t him S p a n is h , and a f r i e n d o f t h e f a m i l y , t h e p h y s i
c ia n Juan P o b la c io n , t a u g h t him th e fu n d a m e n ta ls o f m e d ic in e .
Y i v e s ’ own c h ild h o o d home, h o w ev e r, was more a u s t e r e i n
18
F o s t e r W atson, t r a n s l a t o r , Y i v e s ’ L in g u a e L a t in a e
E x e r c i t a t i o n e s ( Tudor S c h o o l- Boy L i f e ; London: J . M. D ent
and Company, 1 9 0 8 ) , p . 2 6 1 .
19
F o s t e r W atson, L u is Y iv e s ; El Gran Y a le n o la n o ,
o p . c i t . , p . 52•
20
L o c . c i t .
44
c h a r a c te r th a n t h e R e n a iss a n c e s tr o n g h o ld o f S i r Thomas
More •
Y a le n c ia n s e t t i n g . The s e t t i n g o f V a le n c ia was
v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f th e E n g lis h C h e ls e a . V a le n
c i a i s s a i d t o h ave h een c a p tu r ed and r e - c a p tu r e d more th a n
any o t h e r c i t y o f t h e w o r ld . The ep itom e o f c u l t u r e s , men
t i o n e d e a r l i e r i n t h i s c h a p te r , was m ark ed ly i n e v id e n c e .
The V a le n c ia n C a th e d r a l was e r e c t e d i n 1262 on t h e r u i n s o f
a M oorish M osque. The G reat M osque, i n i t s tu r n , had b een
b u i l t on t h e r e m a in s o f t h e Temple o f D ia n a . The G oth s
conqu ered V a le n c ia from th e Romans i n 413 A .D ., th e Moors
to o k i t from t h e G oth s th r e 6 c e n t u r i e s l a t e r . The Moors
w ith t h e i r k n ow led ge o f s c i e n t i f i c h y d r a u lic s r e c la im e d th e
d 6 S 6 rt by t h e i r c a n a ls and i r r i g a t i o n d i t c h e s making
V a le n c ia a r e g i o n o f u n su r p a sse d b e a u ty and f e r t i l i t y . The
c a p i t a l i z a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s o u r c e s b rou gh t w e a lth and
p r o s p e r i t y to th e p r o v in c e .
A lth o u g h V a le n c ia w as a C h r i s t i a n p r o v in c e , h a v in g
b een co n q u ered , a s h a s been p r e v i o u s l y s t a t e d , by t h e
A rag on ese u n d er Jaim e I i n 1 2 3 8 , y e t t h e r e s t i l l rem a in ed ,
i n 1 5 0 0 , c o n s id e r a b le r e l i g i o u s t o l e r a n c e . Aragon had i t s
f a c e tu r n e d to w a rd s M e d ite rr a n e a n tr a d e and d ip lo m a cy r a t h e r
th a n t o t h e e x t i n c t i o n o f h e r e t i c s w i t h i n i t s b o r d e r s . A ls o ,
t h e r a id s o f th e Turks and C o r s a ir s from w ith o u t more o r l e s s
u n i t e d t h e p e o p le i n p rob lem s o f common d e f e n s e . Even up to
45
V i v e s 1 d a y , tlie M oors w ere p e r m itte d t o c o n tin u e t h e i r own
r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s * I t w as t h e Jews who a n ta g o n iz e d t h e
V a le n c ia n s and who "by t h e i r c o v e to u s and c o n t e n t io u s
w ays," a s V iv e s s a i d , 21 brought on r e l i g i o u s a n ta g o n ism s.
They had come i n l a r g e numbers i n th e t r a i n o f t h e C h r is
t i a n c r u s a d e r s from A ragon. They began im m e d ia te ly to
a c q u ir e c o n t r o l o f t h e commerce and w e a lth w hich t h e Moors
had p r o d u ce d . In 1 3 9 1 , t h e i r power was somewhat w eakened
by an u p r i s in g and m a s s a c r e , i n 1 4 9 2 , t h e y had t o make a
e h o ic e b etw een C h r i s t i a n i t y or e x i l e .
V a le n c ia , i n v iv e s * t im e , w as a f l o u r i s h i n g c i t y .
C o m m ercia lly , i t had i t s s i l k exch ange and w as th e c e n t e r o f
a t h r i v i n g M e d ite rr a n e a n t r a d e o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s .
Thanks l a r g e l y to t h e M oors and th e J e w s, i t had p rom u lgated
and m a in ta in e d th r o u g h o u t t h e c e n t u r i e s a h ig h sta n d a rd o f
s c h o l a r s h i p . V a le n c ia had an u n u s u a lly l a r g e p r o p o r t io n o f
s c h o la r s and p a tr o n s o f th e a r t s . To V a le n c ia b e lo n g e d t h e
honor o f e s t a b l i s h i n g S p a in ’ s f i r s t p r i n t i n g - p r e s s . T h is
p r e s s was s e t up i n 1 4 7 4 , t h r e e y e a r s b e fo r e C axton s e t up
h i s i n E n glan d .
I n c lu d e d among t h e m u n ic ip a l l e a d e r s i n V a le n c ia
w ere b a n k e r s , e n g i n e e r s , a g r i c u l t u r a l s c i e n t i s t s , p h y s i c i a n s ,
and la w y e r s . The p r o f e s s i o n s o f m e d ic in e and la w were v e ry
21
C f. a n te , p . 2 7 .
46
p rom in en t i n V a le n c ia , b o th i n t h e i r th e o r y and in t h e i r
p r a c t i c a l a s p e c t s . T h ese p r o f e s s i o n s had what w ould b e
c a l l e d now a modern v ie w p o in t , Y a le n c ia n d o c t o r s had
d e v e lo p e d a d e f i n i t e program o f tr e a tm e n t and t r a i n i n g f o r
p h y s i c a l and m en ta l d e f e c t i v e s . 22
I t was a g r e a t t r i b u t e t o t h e o p e n -m in d ed n e ss o f th e
l e g a l p r o f e s s i o n t h a t t h e y p e r m itte d t h e c d n tin u a n c e o f t h 6
c o l o r f u l exam ple o f p r i m i t i v e j u s t i c e and dem ocracy known
a s t h e ”T r ib u n a l o f th e W a te r s,^ T h is 1 1 C ourt o f t h e
W a te r s ,” a s i t was som etim es c a l l e d , f u n c t io n e d to a d j u s t
d i s p u t e s . I t o p e r a te d w ith o u t c o n t r o l o f any w r i t t e n la w ,
w ith o u t i n t e r f e r e n c e by th e gov ern m en t, and w ith no w r i t t e n
r e c o r d s . The ju d g e s , one f o r each c a n a l , w ere e l e c t e d by
t h e p e a s a n t s o f t h e r e s p e c t i v e c a n a l d i s t r i c t s . The d e c i
s i o n s o f th e ju d g e s w ere u s u a l l y a c c e p te d by t h e l i t i g a n t s
a s f i n a l and w ith o u t r e s e n t f u l comments. Could t h e r e be a
more p ic t u r e s q u e exam ple o f f u n c t i o n a l dem ocracy?
T here r em a in , i n Y i v e s ’ Y a le n c ia n s e t t i n g , two o t h e r
a s p e c t s t o be c o n s id e r e d , i . e . , th e r e l i g i o u s , and t h e
p h y s i c a l . Y a le n c ia h a s been known i n h i s t o r y a s t h e C ity
o f C h u rch es. At one tim e , i t was c r e d i t e d w ith h a v in g o v e r
t h r e e hundred r e l i g i o u s e d i f i c e s w i t h i n i t s l i m i t s . O u tsid e
22
F o s t e r W atson, L u is Y i v e s : E l Gran Y a le n c ia n o ,
o p . c i t . , p .
47
th e c i t y p r o p e r , i n t h e t im e s o f Y iv e s , t h e r e w ere l a r g e
e s t a t e s , owned by t h e n o b le s and w orked by t h e M oors.
B la sc o I b a n e z , a l s o a n a t i v e o f V a le n c ia , h a s g iv e n an
e n tr a n c in g d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s e c o l o r f u l e n v ir o n s .
Immense i s th e e n e r g y , th e e x p l o s i o n o f l i f e o f
midsummer t h e b e s t s e a s o n o f th e y e a r , t h e tim e o f
h a r v e s t and abu nd ance. . . . The A f r ic a n sun r a i n s
t o r r e n t s o f f i r e on the la n d a lr e a d y c r a c k le d and
w r in k le d by i t s b u rn in g c a r e s s e s , and i t s g o ld e n
beams p i e r c 6 th e d en s6 f o l i a g e , b e n e a th w hich a r e
h id d e n t h e c a n a ls and t r e n c h e s to sa v e them from t h e
a l l p o w e r fu l v i v i f y i n g h e a t .
The b r a n c h e s o f t h e t r e e s a r e h eavy w it h f r u i t .
They bend b en ea th th e w e ig h t o f y e llo w g r a p e s c o v e r e d
w ith g la z e d l e a v e s . L ik e t h e p in k c h e e k s o f a c h i ld
grow th e a p r i c o t s amid th e v e r d u r e . C h ild r e n
g r e e d i l y e y e t h e l u x u r io u s burden o f t h e f i g t r e e s .
From th e g a r d e n s i s w a fte d th e s c e n t o f ja sm in , and
t h e m a g n o lia s d is p e n s e t h e i r i n c e n s e i n th e b u rn in g
a i r , la d e n w it h th e perfum e o f c e r e a l s .
Y i v e s , w ith a f f e c t i o n and i l l - c o n c e a l e d p r i d e , h a s
a l s o penned h i s m em ories o f V a le n c ia and i t s p e o p le .
The p e o p le o f V a le n c ia a r e * by n a tu r e j o y o u s , a l e r t ,
f a c i l e , and y e t t r a c t a b l e and o b e d i e n t ..........................................
. . . The members o f th e n o b i l i t y a r e more numerous
i n t h a t c i t y th a n i n any o t h e r , o f m a rv e lo u s m a g n if i
c e n c e , a f f a b i l i t y and h u m an ity. So f e r t i l e i s th e
c o u n tr y th e r e i s a lm o st none o f t h e r a c e s o f men, o r
any k in d o f f r u i t or v e g e t a b l e s o r h e a l t h - g i v i n g h e r b s ,
w h ich i t d o e s n o t p rod u ce and pour f o r t h i n f u l l
m easu re. I t i s so b e a u t i f u l t h a t t h e r e i s no tim e i n
th e y e a r i n w h ich b oth t h e meadows and t h e abundant
23
B la s c o I b a n e z , i n A. F . C a l v e r t , V a le n c ia and
M a r c ia , A G la n ce a t A fr ic a n S p a in (New York: John Lane
Company, 1 9 l i ) , p p . 4 - 5 .
48
t r e e s a r e not c lo t h e d and p a i n t e d w ith f o l i a g e , f l o w e r s ,
v e r d u r e , and v a r i e t y o f c o l o r s . I speak o f my c o u n tr y
somewhat m o d e s t l y , l e s t my w ords sh o u ld a f f o r d ground
f o r t h e s u s p i c i o n t h a t I was b o a s t i n g . 24
THE UNIVERSITY OF VALENCIA
The o n ly r e c o r d o f V ives* fo rm a l e d u c a t io n i n
V a le n c ia i s h i s a tte n d a n c e a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y (Academy) o f
V a le n c ia . A c co u n ts d i f f e r a s to when he w as f i r s t e n te r e d
t h e r e . I t i s a g r e e d , h ow ever, t h a t he was t h e r e by 1507
and p o s s i b l y e a r l i e r . V a le n c ia was one o f t h e s c h o o ls w ith
a lo n g h i s t o r y w h ich was r efo u n d e d a s I s a b e l l a ’ s r e v i v a l o f
S p a n is h l e t t e r s g a in e d momentum. O r i g i n a l l y fou n d ed i n 1 2 4 5 ,
u n d er o r d e r s o f Pope In n o c e n t IV , i t s p r i v i l e g e s w ere
e x te n d e d i n 1 5 0 1 , by Pope A le x a n d e r VI (D. B o r ja y B o r ja ,
fo rm er A rch b ish op o f V a le n c ia ) . I n 1 5 0 2 , K ing F erd in a n d
ga v e h i s form al a p p ro v a l o f th e r i g h t o f th e U n i v e r s i t y t o
c o n fe r th e d e g r e e s o f d o c to r and l i c e n t i a t e i n a d d it io n to
t h a t o f b a c h e lo r . I t i s , p e r h a p s , n o t s u r p r is in g t h a t t h e
c o u r se i n a r t s and , p r o b a b ly , th e o lo g y w as so d e f i n i t e l y
m e d ia e v a l i n t o n e . V a le n c ia was f a r from A lca llk , th e c e n t e r
o f t h e New L e a r n in g an d , o f c o u r s e , i n a c h u r c h -r id d e n tow n
l i k e V a le n c ia , th 6 s c h o l a s t i c t r a d i t i o n s were en th ro n ed i n
c o u r s e s d i r e c t l y co n c er n e d w ith p r e p a r a tio n f o r t h e Church.
24
W atson, El Gran V a le n c ia n o , o p . c i t . , p . 7.
49
A t any r a t e , t h e t r a i n i n g g iv e n V iv e s h er6 w as o f t h e o ld
m ed ia e v a l t y p e : — d i s p u t a t i o n a l i n m ethod; s c h o l a s t i c i n con
t e n t . A more l i b e r a l n o te was s tr u c k i n th e o f f e r i n g o f
c i v i l la w , m e d ic in e and s u r g e r y and o t h e r s c i e n c e su ch a s
th e c i t y m ig h t demand. 25 E v id e n t ly t h e lo n g arm o f th e
Sorbonne w as n o t i n p o s s e s s i o n o f European e d u c a tio n * t h e r e ..
Jerom e I m ig u e t was one o f t h e m ost im p o r ta n t o f
V iv es* t e a e h e r s . V iv e s a fte r w a r d s d e s c r ib e d him a s a "good
man and a s e r i o u s t h e o l o g i a n .* 26 A m ig u e t, h o w ever, was o u t
s ta n d in g i n th e f i e l d s o f m e d ia e v a l l e a r n i n g and r e s i s t e d
the a p p ea ra n ce o f R e n a is s a n c e L e t t e r s . H is p o s i t i o n i s w e l l
shown by h i s r e f u s a l to in tr o d u c e t o h i s s t u d e n t s th e new
I n s t i t u t i o n e s gram m aticae o f t h e H um anist L e b r i j a . More
o v e r , he e n co u ra g ed poor V i v e s , th e n a b oy o f f i f t e e n to
r a i s e h i s y o u t h f u l p en i n p r o t e s t a g a i n s t S p a in ’ s fo r e m o s t
p r o p o n en t o f th e Hew L e a r n in g , A n to n io de L e b r ij a . Thus
V iv e s began h i s l i t e r a r y c a r e e r by a t t a c k i n g t h e f i e l d o f
h u m a n is tic l e a r n i n g , o f w hich l a t e r he becam e one o f t h e
m ost a c t i v e d e f e n d e r s .
25
A d o lfo B o n i l l a y S an M a r tin , L u is V iv e s £ a l
F i l o s o f i a d e l R e n a c im ie n to , o p . c i t . , I , 2 8 - 2 $ .
26
G -• M a ja n s iu s , V a le n t ia n E d it i o n o f V iv es* Works
( V iv e s O pera) I , 1 9 - 2 0 , i n F o s t e r W atson, On E d u c a tio n , o p .
c it '. , p . x l v i i i .
50
P erh a p s t h e p r i n c i p a l it e m to remember in r e s p e c t to
Y ives* fo rm a l s c h o o lin g i n Y a le n c ia i s t h a t i t was i n d i r e c t
c o n t r a s t t o t h e i n f l u e n c e s b ro u g h t to b e a r upon him o u t s id e
th e s c h o o l w a lls * Here b egan t h e c o n f l i c t b etw een th e t r a d i
t i o n a l and t h e new le a r n i n g w h ich d id n ot c e a s e u n t i l Y iv e s ,-
i n 1 5 1 9 , a c c e p te d th e modern v ie w p o in t and th r e w h i m s e l f
w h o le - h e a r t e d ly in t o t h e ran k s o f i t s s u p p o r t e r s . H ow ever,
h i s p o s i t i o n i n th e new movement was much s t r e n g th e n e d by
v i r t u e o f h i s e a r l y t r a i n i n g i n u n i v e r s i t i e s where m e d ia e v a l
s c h o l a s t i c i s m was s t i l l e n tr e n c h e d b e c a u se he knew from h i s
own e x p e r ie n c e t h e f u t i l i t y and s t e r i l i t y o f m e d ia e v a l
m eth o d s,
THE H EW LEARNIEG IN SPAIN
I t i s a m a tte r o f comment among s c h o l a r s i n t e r e s t e d
i n th e S p a n is h R e n a is s a n c e t h a t t h e g r e a t S p a n ish s c h o la r s
and S p a n is h u n i v e r s i t i e s h a v e b een p a s s e d o v e r and t h e lim e
l i g h t t a k e n by F r a n c e , I t a l y , Germany, and E n glan d , W atson
e m p h a siz e s t h a t A n to n io de L e b r ij a w as to S p a in what Y a lla
was to I t a l y , Erasmus to Germany, o r Budaeus to F r a n c e ,”27
He a l s o m e n tio n s a s w orth y o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n
27
H allam from M cC rie*s H is t o r y o f t h e R e fo r m a tio n o f
S p a in , p , 6 1 , i n F o s t e r W atson, El Gran Y a le n c ia n o , o p .~ i t , >
p . x l i x .
51
A r ia s B arb osa, a G reek s c h o la r and s t u d e n t o f P o l i t i a n ;
Nunez de Guzman, e d i t o r o f t h e L a t in v e r s i o n f o r t h e Com-
p l u t e n s i a n B i b l e ; and Juan M a r tin e z p o b l a c i o n , fam ous
p h y s i c ia n ,, and f r i e n d o f Y i v e s 1 f a m i l y .
The S p a n is h u n i v e r s i t i e s p a r a l l e l l e d more n e a r ly
t h o s e o f I t a l y th a n t h o s e o f F r a n c e , E n glan d , o r Germany.
C h a ir s o f L a t i n and G reek w ere e s t a b l i s h e d a t Salam anca
lo n g b e f o r e t h e y w ere a t O xford and P a r i s . In Y i v e s 1 d ay,
S a la m a n ca , Y a l l a d o l i d , and th e new A l c a la w ere a l l fam ou s.
Salam an ca was t h e m ecca f o r a l l c l a s s e s o f s t u d e n t s , r i c h
and p o o r; n o b le and b o u r g e o is . Salam anca en cou raged t h e
new l e a r n i n g . The new v e r s i o n s o f geograp h y and o f C oper-
n ic a n astronom y w ere p e r m itte d t o be g i v e n . H ere Columbus
t o l d h i s t a l e s o f new w o r ld w on d ers. Anatomy and d i s s e c t i o n ,
ta b o o i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s b e c a u se o f r e l i g i o u s s u p e r s t i t i o n s ,
were* p a r t o f t h e m e d ic a l c o u r s e s . Women s t u d e n t s w ere not
d is c r im in a t e d a g a i n s t , b u t w ere a llo w e d to e n t e r c o u r s e s and
e v en to l e c t u r e . 28 Y a l l a d o l i d had a lr e a d y won renown f o r
i t s h i g h ly s p e c i a l i z e d s u r g ic a l w ork .
A lc a la w as u n iq u e i n th a t i t w as a u n i v e r s i t y c i t y
a s w e l l a s a u n i v e r s i t y p r o p e r . I t in c lu d e d , w it h in i t s
b o u n d a r ie s , h o u s e s f o r b o o k - s e l l e r s as w e l l a s f o r s t u d e n t s .
28
D a v i e s , o p . c i t . . pp . 2 5 - 2 6 .
5 2
The C o m p lu ten sia n B i b l e , ranked a s t h e f i r s t s c i e n t i f i c
work o f th e m odern w o r ld , was c o m p ile d and p r in t e d a t
A l c a l a . T h is g i g a n t i c wqrk, a c o - o p e r a t i v e u n d e r ta k in g o f
th e b e s t s c h o l a r s i n S p a in , was begun i n 1492 u n d er t h e
i n s p i r a t i o n o f C a rd in al Jim en ez de C is n e r o s . A l c a la had
th e d i s t i n c t i o n , a l s o , o f p r i n t i n g th e f i r s t G reek t e x t o f
th e New T e sta m e n t. T h is G reek T estam en t was p r in t e d i n
1 5 1 4 , two y e a r s b e fo r e t h a t o f E rasm us. To t h e ' e y e s o f
modern s c h o l a r s , i t i s a much s u p e r io r c r i t i c a l t e x t . The
Hebrew t e x t , a l s o , c o n t r ib u t e d to th e fame o f A lcaT h . I t
was c o n s id e r e d so o u t s t a n d in g t h a t i t was u se d a s a m odel
u n t i l l a t e i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y .29
Lynn i n h i s comments on S alam an ca U n i v e r s i t y d e f i n e s
t h e tim e n e c e s s a r y to a c q u ir e th e v a r io u s d e g r e e s . A know
l e d g e o f "Grammar" ( i . e . , t h e L a t in la n g u a g e ) w as r e q u ir e d
f o r e n t r a n c e . T h ree y e a r s o f l o g i c ( A r i s t o t l e ) and
p h ilo s o p h y ( A r i s t o t l e ) , th e g i v in g o f t w e lv e p u b lic l e c
t u r e s , and s u s t a i n i n g o f a t h e s i s a g a i n s t a t t a c k w ere r e q u ir e d
f o r a b a c h e l o r ' s d e g r e e i n a r t s . T hree y e a r s more work on
th e same s u b j e c t s w as r e q u ir e d f o r t h e l i c e n t i a t e . The
m e d ic a l c o u r se w as e i g h t y e a r s , t h e l e g a l , t e n y e a r s . The
tim e was red u ced f o r n o b le s b e c a u se t h e y w ere su p p osed to
have had s u p e r io r c u l t u r a l a d v a n ta g e s . The f a c u l t i e s r a t e d
29
M enendez y P e la y o , " H i s t o r i a d e L os H e te r o d o x o s
E s p a n o le s ," Tome I I , p . 46 (M adrid: 1880) , i n D a v ie s , o p .
c i t . , p . 2 6 .
55
i n o r d e r o f im p o r ta n c e w ere la w , t h e o l o g y , m e d ic in e and
p h ilo s o p h y . Canon la w p r e c e d e d c i v i l la w . O nly t h e j u r i s t s
c o u ld c a l l t h e m s e lv e s d o c t o r . The o t h e r s had to c a l l them
s e l v e s m a e s t r o .3 0
R e in fo r c e m e n ts t o th e S p a n ish R e n a is s a n c e c a u se came
i n ! 4 7 4 , th r o u g h th e a c c e s s i o n o f I s a b e l l a who p la y e d t h e
p a r t i n S p a in ’ s G old en Age t h a t E liz a b e t h l a t e r c a r r ie d i n
E n g la n d . The queen h e r s e l f had been e d u c a te d by churchm en.
B e fo r e she prom oted any clerg y m a n t o a h ig h o f f i c e sh e
i n v e s t i g a t e d h i s s c h o l a s t i c a t t a in m e n t s . T h e r e fo r e , t h e
g r e a t churchman i n S p a in p la y e d an im p o r ta n t p a r t i n th e
d evelop m en t o f l e a r n i n g : M endoza, A rch b ish o p o f T o le d o ;
T a la v e r a , B ish o p o f Granada whose h o u se ( l i k e t h a t o f S i r
Thomas More) was an Academy f o r l i t e r a r y men; C a r d in a l
J im en ez de C is n e r o s , fo u n d e r o f A la c a la U n i v e r s i t y and
sp o n so r o f t h e C o m p lu ten sia n P o ly g o t B i b l e ; a l l o f t h e s e
g a v e th e s a n c t io n o f t h e ch u rch t o t h e new e d u c a t io n a l
e n t e r p r i s e s .
The R e n a is s a n c e movement i n S p a in was v e r y d e f i n i t e l y
in f l u e n c e d by I t a l y . The n a t i o n a l i s t i c R e n a is s a n c e o f I t a l y
em p hasized p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e g r e a t n e s s o f A n c ie n t Rome. Out
s ta n d in g i n i t s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o Roman sp le n d o r was th e
30
Caro Lynn, a C o lle g e P r o f e s s o r o f t h e R e n a is s a n c e
(C h ica g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f C hicago P r e s s , 1 9 2 7 ) , p . 2 3 .
i
54
S p a n is h P r o v in c e , e s p e c i a l l y M e d ite r r a n e a n S p a in . The
S p a n ia r d s th u s r e j o i c e d i n t h e r e t u r n t o g lo r y o f t h e i r own
n a t io n a l l e a d e r s — Q u i n t i l i a n , S e n e c a , L ucan and o t h e r
o u t s t a n d in g f i g u r e s o f a n t i q u i t y . T h en , t o o , I s a b e l l a
c a l l e d I t a l i a n s c h o l a r s t o S p a in and s e t S p a n ish s c h o l a r s t o
I t a l y t o b r in g b ack I t a l i a n l e a r n i n g . B ooks w ere p u rc h a sed
and even w r i t t e n i n an e f f o r t to e d u c a te t h e n o b i l i t y .
L e b r ij a w r o te h i s C a s t i l l i a n grammar e s p e c i a l l y f o r th e
l a d i e s o f t h e C o u r t. P e t e r M artyr to o k t h e young n o b le s
i n hand, M arineo th e o l d e r o n e s . L e a r n in g became t h e u n i
v e r s a l f a s h io n f o r I s a b e l l a in te n d e d t o h ave S p a in assum e
i t s r i g h t f u l p l a c e i n th e w orld o f l e t t e r s . U nder h e r s tr o n g
hand l e a r n i n g w as r e s t o r e d and S p a in e n te r e d upon a n o th e r
era o f l e t t e r s .
A cco rd in g to D a v ie s , n o t l e s s th a n 720 b ook s w ere
p r in t e d i n S p a in b e f o r e t h e end o f th e f i f t e e n t h c e n tu r y ,
w h ile o n ly 353 b o o k s w e r e - p r in t e d i n England d u rin g t h a t
t im e . In 1 4 8 0 , f o r e i g n books w ere a d m itte d t o S p a in f r e e
o f d u t y . 31
E c o n o m ic a lly S p a in was on i t s way to d o m in a te
E u rop e. Her m erin o f l e e c e had lo n g been ren ow n ed , s h e
in a u g u r a te d what was p e r h a p s t h e f i r s t s c i e n t i f i c m a rk etin g
31
D a v ie s, £ £ . c i t . , p. 27.
55
sy stem by se n d in g raw p r o d u c ts to E ngland and F la n d e r s to
be m a n u fa ctu re d . With th e i n c r e a s e o f c u r r e n c y due to
grow in g s u p p l i e s o f m e ta l from h e r new c o l o n i e s , new
i n d u s t r i e s w ere s t im u la t e d . M o b ilit y o f c a p i t a l and la b o r
was made p o s s i b l e by new la w s . The c o u n tr y had b een
changed from a s t a t e o f a n arch y i n t o d i s c i p l i n e and o r d e r .
On t h e o t h e r s i d e , was t h e i n q u i s i t i o n -vrfaich r e ta r d e d
i n i t i a t i v e and f o r c e d s o c i a l c o n f l i c t s . I t s w o r st f e a t u r e s ,
h o w ev er, w ere n o t t o b e f e l t u n t i l l a t e r i n t h e s i x t e e n t h
c e n tu r y . M ea n w h ile, w ith a s tr o n g c e n t r a l govern m ent
e s t a b l i s h e d , a m b itio u s and e n l ig h t e n e d r u l e r s , i n c r e a s i n g
r e s o u r c e s o f g o ld and l a n d s , S p a in to o k h e r p l a c e a s one o f
th e f o u r g r e a t n a t i o n a l i s t i c s t a t e s o f E urope. E n glan d ,
F r a n c e , and P o r t u g a l, by 1 4 9 2 , had a l s o a c h ie v e d t h e s t a t u s
o f n a t i o n a l s t a t e s . C h risten d om w as no lo n g e r e n t i r e l y a
t h e o c r a c y .
•SUM M ARY OF CHAPTER
An e f f o r t h a s b e e n made i n t h i s c h a p te r to p i c t u r e
F i v e s a s a c h i l d and y o u th i n h i s own home; i n h i s n a t i v e
c i t y , V a le n c ia ; i n t h e kingdom o f A ragon; and th e c o u n tr y
o f S p a in . He was born to s o c i a l p o s i t i o n ; e d u c a ted a t home
by c o n t a c t w ith t h e b e s t t h a t a c o s m o p o lita n c i t y o f M edi
t e r r a n e a n S p a in had to o f f e r ; r e a r e d c a r e f u l l y and sim p ly
by a d e v o u t m o th er; began h i s fo rm a l e d u c a tio n a t t h e
56
U n i v e r s i t y o f V a l e n c ia . L a te r c h a p t e r s w i l l a tte m p t to
e v a lu a t e th e i n d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e s w hich had been a t work
b r o a d e n in g h i s m e n ta l o u t lo o k , a r o u s in g a l o v e o f n a t u r e ,
g i v i n g a p e r s p e c t i v e o f p a s t c u l t u r e s , and g lim p s e s o f
c i v i c r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s .
V iv e s was an e x p o n e n t o f Humanism. The S p a n is h
R e n a is s a n c e and S p a n ish Humanism have been r ev ie w e d h e r e
a s th e f i r s t p h a se o f Humanism t o w hich he w as e x p o se d . I t
h a s b een d i s c u s s e d , a l s o , a s a b a s i s o f com p arison w it h t h e
h u m a n is tic t r e n d s i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s .
The f o l l o w i n g c h a p te r w i l l c o n tin u e t h e l i f e o f
V i v e s . I t w i l l b e g in when he e n t e r e d t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f
P a r i s i n 1 5 0 9 , and w i l l d e s c r ib e h i s e x p e r ie n c e s t h e r e up
to th e tim e he l e f t f o r P la n d e r s , i n 1 5 1 4 .
CHAPTER I I I
STUD EM* DAYS IT THE UNIVERSITY OF PARIS
1 5 0 9 -1 5 1 4
INTRODUCTION
When V iv e s made t h i s t r a n s f e r from t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f
V a le n c ia to t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f P a r i s , he was j u s t s e v e n t e e n
y e a r s o f a g e . I t i s n o t known d e f i n i t e l y w h eth er o r n o t he
made t h e change m e r e ly b e c a u s e P a r i s was t h e mode o f t h e
t i m e s . A fe w m onths b e f o r e h i s d e p a r tu r e a t e r r i b l e p la g u e
had r a v a g ed V a le n c ia . H is p a r e n t s , among many o t h e r s ,
abandoned t h e i r home and f l e d t o t h e c o u n tr y . B o n i l l a
s u g g e s t s t h i s sc o u r g e may have h a s te n e d V i v e s 1 p la n s f o r a
P a r i s i a n education.-*-
I t h a s been rem arked t h a t V iv e s was b orn d u r in g t h e
tu m u ltu o u s age o f I s a b e l l a i n t h e t e r r i t o r y o v e r w h ich
F er d in a n d r e ig n e d . The backgroun d o f A ragon , ( t o w h ich
V a le n c ia b e lo n g e d ) , was v e r y d i f f e r e n t i n c h a r a c t e r and
h i s t o r y from C a s t i l e , w h ich w as t h e i n h e r i t e d t e r r i t o r y o f
I s a b e l l a . V iv e s was g iv e n ev ery e d u c a t i o n a l , c u l t u r a l and
s o c i a l a d v a n ta g e o b t a i n a b l e i n th e v ig o r o u s m a n y -sid e d
s e t t i n g o f h i s n a t i v e V a l e n c ia . H is e d u c a tio n amid t h e
A. B o n i l l a y S a n M a r tin , L u is V iv e s £ l a F i l o s o f i a
d e l R e n a c im ie n to (M adrid: S . A. E s p a s a -C a lp e , 1 9 2 9 ) , V o l. I ,
p . 3 8 .
58
e n v ir o n m e n ta l i n f l u e n c e s i n t h i s s e m i - t r o p i e e l c i t y o f th e
M oors, had d i f f e r e d g r e a t l y from t h a t o f t h e u s u a l narrow ,
o r th o d o x C h r i s t i a n background o f h i s c o n te m p o r a r ie s i n t h e
f i e l d o f h u m a n is tic l e t t e r s . &ny c o u n tr y i n w h ich two
r a c e s l i v e s id e by s i d e f o r g e n e r a t io n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y w here
t h e r e i s an a l t e r n a t i o n o f pow er, i s f o r c e d to r e c o g n iz e
t h a t t h e r e a r e o t h e r r e l i g i o n s , o t h e r la n g u a g e s , o th e r
c u l t u r e s . The C h r i s t i a n s o f V a le n c ia owed much t o t h e
g e n iu s and in d u s tr y o f t h e M oors. On th e o t h e r h an d , t h e
C a ta la n t r a d i t i o n s o f d i g n i t y , s i m p l i c i t y , and " n o b le s s e
o b lig e " form ed a com plem ent t o t h e M oslem c u l t u r e s . T h ere
i s a c e r t a i n g a i e t y t o o , a jo y i n l i v i n g w h ich seem s t o
accom pany an en v iro n m en t i n w h ich t h e sw ee t s c e n t s , h ig h
c o l o r s , and lu x u r i a n t v e g e t a t i o n o f t h e t r o p i c s p r e d o m in a te .
The two o r more y e a r s s p e n t by V iv e s i n t h e U n i v e r s i t y
o f V a l e n c ia , came a t a tim e when th e new l e a r n i n g was f i g h t
in g f o r a f o o t h o l d t h e r e . I t so happened t h a t V i v e s ’ L a t i n
t e a c h e r had a c h ie v e d fam e i n th e f i e l d s o f m e d ia e v a l l e a r n
i n g . He r e s e n t e d th e approach o f t h e new h u m a n is tic m ethods
and s u p p lie d h i s p u p i l s w it h argum ents and d a ta c a l c u l a t e d
t o s u s t a i n h i s own c a u s e . V i v e s ’ u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n i n g had
b e e n t h e o n ly m e d ia e v a l n o te i n h i s V a le n c ia n s u r r o u n d in g s .
The echo o f d i a l e c t i c s was to c o n tin u e i n h i s n e x t s t e p o f
fo rm a l e d u c a tio n w hen, i n 1 5 0 9 , he e n te r e d t h a t l a s t and
m ost fo r m id a b le f o r t r e s s o f S c h o l a s t i c i s m — t h e S o rb o n n e.
FRENCH HOMANISM
59
D u rin g t h e r u l e o f C h a r le s V I I , F ra n ce b r o u g h t to a
s u c c e s s f u l c o n c lu s i o n t h e b i t t e r Hundred Y e a r s f War.
B e ca u se o f h e r d e f e a t , E n glan d gave up a l l c la im on F ra n ce
w ith t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e p o r t o f C a l a i s . C h a r le s V II th e n
p r o c e e d e d to e s t a b l i s h a s t a b l e g o v ern m en t, e r e a te a s ta n d
in g army, make f i n a n c i a l r e fo r m s , and to r a i s e th e k in g s h ip
t o t h e " d iv in e r ig h t" s t a t u s . F ra n ce became a n a t i o n and a
r e c o g n iz e d w o r ld -p o w e r . L o u is XI c o n tin u e d to u n i f y t h e
n a t i o n and to b u i ld up m a t e r ia l p r o s p e r i t y . Thus t h e s o i l
was p r e p a r e d f o r th e p r o p a g a tio n o f t h e New L e a r n in g .
L o u is XI to o k t h e n e x t im p o r ta n t s t e p . He renew ed
f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s w it h I t a l y . T h is a c t b ro u g h t ab ou t an
in t e r c h a n g e b e tw e e n t h e two n a t i o n s o f b a n k e r s , a r t i s t s ,
s c h o l a r s , a r c h i t e c t s and churchm en. Thus F ra n ce came i n
c o n t a c t w it h t h e s p i r i t and t h e S u i t s o f th e I t a l i a n
R e n a is s a n c e .
A n o th er l i n k i n t h e c h a in o f e v e n t s was fo r g e d by
C h a r le s V I I I when he marched on N a p le s . A lth o u g h p o l i t i c a l
r e l a t i o n s w ere s t r a i n e d by t h i s a c t , t h e i n f l u e n c e o f
Humanism was b rou gh t n e a r e r f o r , when C h a r le s r e tu r n e d t o
F ran ce i n 1 4 9 5 , he b r o u g h t th e G reek , Janus L a s c a r i s , w it h
him . Then, t o o , i n t h e march th ro u g h I t a l y , C h a r le s ’ army
60
had " d is c o v e r e d ” I t a l y had s e e n i t s t r e a s u r e s o f a r t . The
m i l i t a r y c o n t a c t th r o u g h t h e y e a r s 1495 t o 1 5 1 4 w as v e r y
s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h e d ev elo p m en t o f Humanism. L o u is X I I ,
c o n tin u e d t h e I t a l i a n i n v a s i o n s , w ith a l t e r n a t i n g v i c t o r i e s
and f a i l u r e s . In tim e^ he a l s o d e v e lo p e d a n i n t e r e s t i n
t h e R e n a is s a n c e . I n f lu e n c e d , p o s s i b l y , by C a r d in a l d ’
A m boise who was n o te d f o r h i s su p p o r t o f a r t and l e t t e r s ,
he i n v i t e d to h i s c o u r t l e a d i n g I t a l i a n a r c h i t e c t s and
s c h o l a r s .
The f i r s t a c t i v e p h a se o f Humanism i n F r a n c e was th e
stu d y and p r a c t i c e i n L a t in r h e t o r i c and th e p r i n t i n g o f
L a t i n c l a s s i c s . Among t h e l e a d e r s o f t h i s p e r io d o f Humanism
w ere t h e F le m ish p r i n t e r s , G aguin and B a d iu s . T h ese two men
e d i t e d , w ith comm ents, m ost o f th e L a t in c l a s s i c s .
The c i t y o f L y o n s, on t h e m ain highw ay t o I t a l y ,
became an i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s t c e n t e r o f F le m ish t r a d e r s and
p r i n t e r s and o f b o th F ren ch and I t a l i a n s c h o l a r s . F ren ch
Humanism, t h e r e f o r e , was form ed o f t h e s t r a n d s woven by
t h i s F le m is h and I t a l i a n c o m b in a tio n . U n f o r t u n a t e ly , by
V i v e s 1 tim e , t h e I t a l i a n R e n a is s a n c e , h a v in g p a s s e d i t s
z e n i t h , w as s t r u g g l i n g i n t h e t h r o e s o f p o l i t i c a l , r e l i g i o u s ,
and s o c i a l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n . I t a l y ’ s p o l i t i c a l ch a o s was
t y p i f i e d by th e e x p e d ie n c y o f M a c h ia v e ll i ; h e r r e l i g i o u s
sc h ism by t h e f a n a t i c i s m o f S a v a n a r o la ; and, h e r s o c i a l
o r d e r by th e l i c e n t i o u s n e s s o f B occac#o and A r e t i n o . V i v e s ’
b io g r a p h e r s make f r e q u e n t m e n tio n o f t r i p s t o L y o n s.
Erasm us, to o made many v i s i t s and fu s e d t o g e t h e r th e v a r
i o u s s t r a n d s o f H u m a n istic i n t e r e s t s . Many o f V iv e s w orks
w ere p u b lis h e d i n L y o n s. I n c lu d e d among t h e s e , w as an
e d i t i o n o f De I n s t i t u t i o n a e Fem inae C h r i s t i a n a s , and De
O f f i c i o M a r iti by K e r v e r . As R a b e la is was em ployed by
K e r v e r , M ichaud s u g g e s t s t h i s a s h i s s o u r c e o f th e m a t e r ia l
on P anurge and h i s m a tr im o n ia l a s p i r a t i o n s .
SCHOLASTICISM
P r o b a b ly t h e b e s t d e f i n i t i o n o f S c h o l a s t i c i s m a s i t
was p r a c t i c e d a t t h e Sorbon ne a t th e c l o s e o f th e m id d le
a g e s i s t h a t o f T i l l e y . 2 S c h o l a s t i c , t h e word i t s e l f ,
sim p ly m ean s, he s a y s , ta u g h t i n s c h o o l s . Th6 term S c h o l a s
t i c i s m m eans a t y p e o f e d u c a t io n a l program w hich w as d i s
t i n g u is h e d by t h r e e g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : (1) an a lm o st
e x c l u s i v e d e v o t i o n to a t h e o lo g y b a sed on t h e S e n t e n c e s o f
P e t e r Lombard; (2) an e x a g g e r a te d r e v e r e n c e f o r t h e name o f
A r i s t o t l e , but an A r i s t o t l e o v e r l a i d w ith i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
and o u t down by oompendiums u n t i l h e was b a r e ly r e c o g n iz a b le
(3) th e p e n e t r a t i o n o f l o g i c and d i s p u t a t i o n o f a m ost
2
A rth u r T i l l e y , The L itera tu re o f t h e F rench
R e n a is s a n c e , An I n t r o d u c t o r y E ssa y (C am bridge: U n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s , 1 8 8 5 ) , pp . 1 0 6 - 1 1 .
q u ib b lin g and s o p h i s t i c a l t y p e in t o e v e r y b ran ch o f s t u d y .
S c h o l a s t i c p h ilo s o p h y , T i l l e y c o n t i n u e s , d i f f e r e d from
m odern r e l i g i o u s p h ilo s o p h y in t h a t i t a c c e p t e d n o t o n ly
t h e g e n e r a l t r u t h s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n , but a l s o th e
w h o le d o c t r in e o f th e Roman C a t h o lic c h u r c h . In an e f f o r t
t o r e c o n c i l e th e tw o , t h e t h e o l o g i a n s t r i e d to "prop up
th e e d i f i c e o f f a i t h w ith th e b u t t r e s s o f s y l l o g i s m ."
I n s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t th e f i r s t G reek t e a c h e r
came t o P a r i s i n 1 4 5 8 , and t h a t t h e f i r s t p r i n t i n g p r e s s
was e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1 4 5 9 — b o th un der U n i v e r s i t y p a tr o n a g e —
th e y were a c c o r d in g t o T i l l e y , " s u f f e r e d w ith c o n te m p t,
r a t h e r th a n h a i l e d w ith e n th u sia sm ." Even i n 1 5 1 5 , a t th e
tim e o f th e a c c e s s i o n o f F r a n c is I , arid a fe w m onths a f t e r
Y iv e s had te r m in a te d h i s s t u d i e s a t P a r i s and gone on to
F la n d e r s , " th e s c h o l a s t i c f l a g s t i l l waved b r a v e ly o v e r t h e
U n i v e r s i t y o f P a r i s ; t h e r a g s o f t h e o l o g y s t i l l f l u t t e r e d
on t h e i r p o l e s o f d i a l e c t i c ; t h e Summulae and th e S e n t e n c e s
s t i l l h e ld t h e i r own i n th e s c h o o l s ; th e c o n t r o v e r s i e s o f
S c o t i s t s and T h o m ists; o f r e a l i s t s and n o m i n a li s t s ; o f
t e r m i n i s t s and f o r m a l i s t s , s t i l l r a g ed w it h f u r y . But i t
5
was a l l l i f e l e s s , w it h e r e d , b a r r e n ."
The p r o d u c ts o f t h i s sy stem a r e m e r c i l e s s l y
s a t i r i z e d by Erasmus i n h i s P r a i s e o f F o l l y . Of t h e
6 3
d i a l e c t i c i a n s , lie s a y s , "They a r e happy i n t h e i r s e l f
e ste e m , f o r armed w ith t h o s e s y l l o g i s m s , th e y a r e read y to
en gage w ith anybody on any t o p i c ." The p h i lo s o p h e r s , he
c o n t i n u e s , "though th e y know a b s o l u t e l y n o t h in g , y e t p r o f e s s
t h a t t h e y know e v e r y th in g ; and though th e y do n o t know
t h e m s e lv e s . . . y e t d e c la r e t h a t t h e y can s e e i d e a s , u n i v e r -
s a l s , s e p a r a t e fo rm s, f i r s t m a t t e r , t h i n g s so f i n e t h a t
L yn ceu s c o u ld n o t d i s c e r n them b e t t e r th a n t h e y d o." He
d e s c r i b e s t h e t h e o l o g ia n s a l s o i n ter m s o f t h e i r h a i r
s p l i t t i n g p h ilo s o p h y : " t h e i r m ost s u b t l e s u b t l e t i e s a r e
r en d e re d ev en more s u b t l e by th e v a r io u s s c h o l a s t i c s e c t s ,
so t h a t i t i s e a s i e r t o make y o u r way o u t o f a l a b y r in t h
th an o u t o f th e w r a p p in g s o f R e a l i s t s , N o m in a lis t s , T h o m is ts ,
A l b e r t i s t s , O c e a m is ts , S c o t i s t s and o t h e r s . " 4 R a b e l a i s , i n
h i s anagram s on t h e s o r b o n n e , adds a f i n a l tou ch t o Erasmus*
u n co m p lim en tary rem arks by h a v in g Thaumast s a y , " as f o r d i s
p u t in g c o n t e n t i o u s l y , I w i l l n o t do i t , f o r i t i s to o b a s e
a t h i n g , and t h e r e f o r e l e a v e i t to t h o s e s o t t i s h s o p h i s t e r s ,
s o r b i l l a n t s , s o r b o n a g r e s , s o r b o n ig e n e s , s o r b o n i c l e s ,
n i b o r c i s a n t s , s o r b o n i s a n t s , s a n i b o r s a n t s , who i n t h e i r d i s
p u t e s do n o t s e a r c h f o r t r u t h , but f o r c o n t r a d i c t i o n o n ly
4
D. E rasm us, M oriae Encomium ( S t r a s s b u r g , 1511)
q u o ted by A rthur T i l l e y , Dawn o f t h e F ren ch R e n a is s a n c e ,
o p . c i t . , p . 296 *
and d e b a t e ." 5
E rasm us, h i m s e l f , was a form er s tu d e n t o f t h e
S o r b o n n e . He had b een t r a i n e d i n d i a l e c t i c s and knew
w h e r e o f he sp o k e . T h is a r t i f i c i a l , l i f e l e s s d o c t r i n e was
to form t h e e d u c a t io n a l en viron m en t o f V iv e s f o r t h e n e x t
f i v e y e a r s — from th e a g e o f s e v e n t e e n to t h a t o f tw e n ty -tw o
I t was a d e a d e n in g a tm o sp h ere f o r e v e n t h e m ost c a l l o u s ,
but f o r a s e n s i t i v e y o u t h , a t t u n e d , a s V iv e s w a s, t o t h e
j o y s and b e a u t i e s o f n a tu r e i t m eant a m en ta l im p rison m en t
w h ich h e , i n h i s t u r n , i n d ig n a n t l y d e s c r ib e d and r e p u d ia t e d
THE UNIVERSITY OF PARIS
V i v e s * s tu d e n t l i f e . When V iv e s a r r iv e d a t t h e
U n i v e r s i t y o f P a r i s , to m a t r i c u l a t e , he f o l lo w e d t h e e s t a b
l i s h e d custom o f w r i t i n g h i s name on th e r e g i s t e r s o f t h e
p r o f e s s o r s o f t h e F a c u lt y o f A r t s . He was r e q u ir e d t o
r e g i s t e r t h e r e i n o r d e r t o q u a l i f y f o r a d e g r e e . He th e n
r e p o r te d to th e m a s te r f o r h i s own c o u n tr y . S p a n is h
s t u d e n t s w ere a s s ig n e d t o th e " h on orab le" n a t io n o f t h e
G a u ls w hich in c lu d e d th e s t u d e n t s from I t a l y . V iv e s was
5
F . R a b e l a i s , P l n t a g r u e l , seco n d e d i t i o n , 1 5 3 3 ,
q u o ted by A lb e r t Jay Nock i n ' F r a n c is R a b e l a i s — The Man and
H is Work (New York: H arper B r o t h e r s , 1 9 2 9 } , p . 1 5 3 .
65
t h e n a s s ig n e d a t u t o r o f h i s own n a t i o n a l i t y , w ho, i n h i s
e a s e , tu r n e d o u t t o h e t h e A r a g o n e se , C aspar L ax. S t u d e n t s
and m a s te r s w ere o n a more f a m i l i a r f o o t i n g th a n t o d a y .
They l i v e d t o g e t h e r and o f t e n a t e a t th e same t a b l e .
O p in io n s d i f f e r a s t o t h e c o l l e g e i n w h ic h Y iv e s
e n r o l l e d . Yanden B u ssc h e t h i n k s i t w as t h e C o lle g e o f
B e a u v a i s .6 B o n i l l a sa y s Y iv e s f o llo w e d th e c o u r s e s a t
N a v a r re .^ N avarre, fo u n d ed i n 1 5 0 4 , r i v a l l e d th e S orb on n e
i n im p o r ta n c e . I t m a in ta in e d a h ig h sta n d a r d o f d i s c i p l i n e
and was th e m ost p o p u la r and f a s h i o n a b l e o f th e c o l l e g e s .
B e in g h e ld i n h ig h e ste e m by t h e c o u r t , i t was c a l l e d upon
to p r o v id e t u t o r s f o r t h e r o y a l p r in c e s .® Y iv es* own
d e s c r i p t i o n w ould seem t o i n d i c a t e N avarre r a t h e r th a n
B e a u v a is . A l s o , V iv 6 s h i m s e l f was a noblem an and N avarre
c a te r e d t o t h e u p p er s o c i a l c i r c l e s .
Y iv e s r e c o r d s h i s own m em ories o f h i s c o l l e g e l i f e
a s f o l l o w s :
T h ere a r e t h i r t y g y m n a sia , more o r l e s s i n t h a t
u n i v e r s i t y (a c a d e m ia ), w h ich p r o v id e s f o r e v e r y k in d
o f e r u d i t i o n , k n o w led g e, and wisdom ; le a r n e d t e a c h e r s ,
6
E m ile Yanden B u s s c h e , L u is Y i v e s : TJn Mot (La
F la n d r e : 2 9 8 , 1876) i n F o s t e r W atson , Y i v e s : On E d u c a tio n
(C am bridge: U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1913) , p . l i v .
7
B o n i l l a , ojd. c i t . , p . 4 3 .
8
T i l l e y , The L i t e r a t u r e o f t h e F rench R e n a is s a n c e ,
o p . c i t . , p . 9 2 .
66
and m ost s t u d io u s y o u t h s , who are th o r o u g h ly w e l l -
b r e d . . . . I can t e l l you t h a t th e y o u th t h e r e v e r y
l a r g e l y c o n s i s t s o f p r i n c e s , l e a d e r s o f men, n o b l e s ,
and t h e w e a l t h i e s t p e r s o n s , n o t o n ly from F r a n c e , b u t
a l s o from Germany, I t a l y , G re a t B r i t i a n , S p a in ,
B e lg iu m , m a r v e l lo u s l y d e v o te d to th e s tu d y o f l e t t e r s ,
o b e y in g th e p r e c e p t s and i n s t r u c t i o n s o f t h e i r
t e a c h e r s . T h e ir co n d u ct i s n o t form ed th r o u g h sim p le
a d m o n itio n m e r e ly , b u t by sh arp r e p r o o f and when i t
i s n e c e s s a r y , e v e n by p u n ish m en t, by b lo w s and
l a s h e s . A l l w h ich th e y r e c e i v e and b e a r w it h m od est
m ind, and t h e m ost c o l l e c t e d c o u n t e n a n c e .9
The r e q u ir e m e n ts f o r e n tr a n c e upon th e c o u r s e s o f t h e
u n i v e r s i t y , p r o p e r , t h e stu d y o f l o g i c and d i a l e c t i c , w ere
th e f a m i l i a r t r iv iu m (grammar, d i a l e c t i c , and r h e t o r i c ) , and
th e q u a d r iv iu m , ( a r i t h m e t i c , g e o m e tr y , a stro n o m y , and
m u s i c ) . T h is , o f c o u r s e , im p lie d a m a ste r y o f L a t i n . In
V a le n c ia , V iv e s had r e c e i v e d th orou gh t r a i n i n g i n L a t i n
from h i s t e a c h e r s , J m ig u e tu s and D a n ie l S i s o . B o n i l l a con
j e c t u r e s t h a t he was a l s o t r a i n e d i n G reek by Bernardo
V illa n o v a o N a v a rro , a f r i e n d o f A m igu et. I t i s assum ed
f u r t h e r t h a t he had n o t o n ly b een th o r o u g h ly d r i l l e d i n
d i a l e c t i c s , b u t a l s o , t h a t h e had ta k e n a d v a n ta g e o f t h e
new ly o r g a n iz e d c o u r s e s i n p o e tr y and p h ilo s o p h y a t V a le n
c i a . 10
When h e e n t e r e d upon h i s work a t P a r i s he fo u n d t h a t ,
a lth o u g h a s u p e r f i c i a l a r t s c o u r s e was r e q u ir e d a s a
9
F o s t e r W atson , t r a n s l a t o r , Tudor S c h o o l-B o y L i f e
( The B ia lo g u e s o f Juan L u is V i v e s ; London: J . M. D ent and
Company, 1 9 0 8 ) , p . 9 9 .
10
B o n i l l a , £ £ . c i t ., p. 3 4 .
67
f o u n d a t io n f o r l a t e r m ajor c o u r s e s su ch a s t h e o lo g y and
canon la w , d i a l e c t i c and l o g i c w ere e m p h a siz e d r a t h e r th a n
grammar and r h e t o r i c . H is own m a ste r a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f
P a r i s , Juan D u lla r d o f G h e n t, i s q u o te d a s h a v in g r e p e a t e d l y
a d v is e d V i v e s , " th e b e t t e r gram m arian you a r e , th e w o r se
d i a l e c t i c i a n and t h e o l o g i a n you w i l l b e ." 11 I t sh o u ld b e
em p h asized t h a t th e w h o le b a t t l e o f Humanism c e n te r e d a b o u t
t h i s a ss u m p tio n . Grammar and r h e t o r i c w ere u s6 d by V iv e s
i n th e s e n s e o f a stu d y o f l i t e r a t u r e , i . e . , th e c r i t i c a l
s tu d y and r e a d in g o f a u t h o r s , p o e t s , and h i s t o r i a n s , e t c . 12
The f i r s t Greek b ook had b e e n p r in t e d i n P a r i s i n
1 5 0 7 , and t h e f i r s t Hebrew book i n 1 5 0 8 , y e t , when V iv e s
e n te r e d t h e u n i v e r s i t y , i n 1 5 0 9 , h e foun d t h a t t h e a t t i t u d e
to th e New L e a r n in g w as g e n e r a l l y on e o f con tem p tu ou s
t o l e r a t i o n — n o t on e o f r e s p e c t . A c co r d in g to T i l l e y , t h e
t e a c h e r s o f r h e t o r i c , grammar, and G reek , w ith t h e new
p o i n t o f v ie w , w ere c a l l e d "grammarians^ o r " p o e t s ." They
w ere lo o k e d upon w ith s u s p i c i o n and a s s ig n e d t h e s l e e p y ,
a f t e r - d i n n e r h o u r f o r t h e i r l e c t u r e s . 15
S h o r t l y a f t e r V iv e s* e n tr a n c e upon h i s s t u d i e s ,
s e v e r a l e v e n t s happened w h ich changed t h e a t t i t u d e o f th e
11
I b i d . , p . 5 1 .
IS
F o s t e r W atson , V iv e s : On E d u c a tio n (Cam bridge:
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1913) , p . I v i .
13
T i l l e y , £ £ . c i t . , p. 148.
68
S orb on n e from p a s s i v e endu ran ce o f t h e Hew L e a r n in g t o one
o f open h o s t i l i t y and e n m ity . T h ese e v e n t s w ere i n tu r n :
an in c r e a s e d c i r c u l a t i o n o f th e B a d iu s 1 e d i t i o n o f t h e
"S hip o f F o o ls " ; th e Gourmont p u b l i c a t i o n o f E rasm us’ P r a i s e
o f F o l l y ; th e R e u c h lin O c u la r s S p ecu lu m ; and , t h e L e f e v r e
Commentary o f t h e E p i s t l e s o f S t . P a u l .
The C ourt J e s t e r i n t h o s e d ays w as a p r i v i l e g e d
c h a r a c t e r . Under th e g u i s e o f f o o l i s h n e s s i t was p o s s i b l e
t o r i d i c u l e b o th s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s o f t h e day*
The S h ip o f F o o ls made a b lu n t a t t a c k on a l l t h e e v i l s o f
th e t i m e s . Erasmus f o llo w e d t h e exam ple o f B randt but made
h i s r i d i c u l e t a k e t h e form o f a p p a r e n t p r a i s e . He a l s o
l i m i t e d th e sphere." o f h i s a t t a c k s to t h e m onks, t h e o l o g y
and s c h o l a s t i c i s m . In h i s Q cu la re S p ecu lu m , H e u c h lin
c r i t i c i z e d th e d e s t r u c t i o n o f Hebrew b o o k s; L e f e v r e d a red t o
comment on t h e sa c r e d s c r i p t u r e s w ith o u t b e in g a D o c to r o f
T h e o lo g y . The S o r b o n n e , s c e n t in g d a n g er to i t s a b s o lu t is m ,
armed f o r b a t t l e . From t h i s tim e o n , i t so u g h t a c t i v e l y t o
p r e v e n t th e sp rea d o f t h e New L e a r n in g .
B azoch e and E n fa n s S a n s S o u c i . A n oth er p h a se o f t h e
in d u lg e n t a t t i t u d e tow ard t h e c o u r t f o o l was fo u n d i n t h e
d ra m a tic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f th e t i m e s . I t i s w e ll-k n o w n
t h a t t h i s p e r io d i n P a r i s w as a tim e o f g r o s s im m o r a lity on
t h e p a r t o f th e c o u r t and o f v e r y lo w s o c i a l s ta n d a r d s , even
69
i n d e c e n c i e s , among t h e p e o p le . A c c o u n ts o f t h e s e days h ave
b e e n p o r tr a y e d by R a b e la is i n h i s G a r g a n tu a ; by Brantome i n
Dames G a l a n t e s ; and by M a r g u e r ite o f N a v a r r e , s i s t e r o f
F r a n c is I , i n h e r t a l e s o f th e H eptam eron. The s o t i e s ,
d r a m a tic s k i t s i n w hich th e l e a d in g c h a r a c t e r s w ere f o o l s ,
w ere v e r y p o p u la r a t t h i s t i m e . The two c h i e f com p an ies
w ere B azoch e and t h e E n fan s S a n s S o u c i , whose r i g h t s t o
p erform t h e i r s o t i e s and f a r c e s had been r e s t o r e d to them by
L o u is X I I . By p l a y i n g th e f o o l , t h e y were a b le t o c r i t i c i z e
e v er y b o d y and e v e r y t h in g w ith o u t harm t o t h e m s e lv e s . D uring
t h e tim e o f V iv es* r e s i d e n c e i n P a r i s , P i e r r e G r in g o ir e w as
a t t h e h e ig h t o f h i s fa m e. On S h r o v e T u esd a y , i n 1 5 1 1 , Le
Jen du P r in e e d e s S o t z e t Mere s o t t e was p r e s e n t e d f o r t h e
k i n g . I t was a g a l a o c c a s i o n i n P a r i s .
The p r e s e n t a t i o n was composed o f a s o t i e , a m o r a l i t y ,
and a f a r c e i n a d d i t i o n to t h e c r y , w hich a week b e fo r e t h e
day o f p r o d u c tio n summoned a l l c l a s s e s o f p e o p le to come and
h e a r t h e p l a y . The argum ent o f t h e s k i t w as a q u a r r e l
b e tw e en L o u is X II and Pope J u l i u s t h e I I . T h ere w ere t h r e e
m ain c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e s k i t — t h e two s to c k c h a r a c t e r s , th e
P r in c e d e s S o t z and Mere S o t t e , and a t h i r d c h a r a c t e r ,
S o t t e Commune. T h e se r e p r e s e n t e d , r e s p e c t i v e l y , L o u is X I I ,
t h e C hurch, and t h e Commons. The c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e m o r a lit y
w ere th e F re n c h p e o p le , t h e I t a l i a n p e o p l e , th e o b s t i n a t e
man ( J u l i u s I I ) , t h e q u a l i t i e s , — sim o n ism , h y p o c r i s y , and
70
r e l i g i o u s c o n t e n t i o u s n e s s . S o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l e v i l s
w ere c r i t i c i z e d i n g a y abandon. The f a r c e w h ich c o m p lete d
t h e group had n o th in g t o do w ith th e m ain a r g u m e n ts .14
As e x p la in e d , a t t h e c l o s e o f C h ap ter I* a n e f f o r t
h a s been made t o d e p i c t t h e p e r s o n a l i n c i d e n t s o f V iv e s*
l i f e i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e o f h i s t im e s
n o t in g p a r t i c u l a r l y su c h p h a s e s a s h i s t o r i c a l b ack grou n d ,
contem p orary l e a r n i n g , and symptoms o f s o c i a l m a la d ju s t
m e n ts. T h is q u o t a t io n from T i l l e y , b a se d o n c o u r se m a t e r i a l
g i v e n a t Cam bridge U n i v e r s i t y , i s in c lu d e d h e r e a s an i n d i
c a t i o n o f s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s i n P a r i s i n 1 5 1 1 . Hot o n l y d o e s
i t a f f o r d a n o th e r exam ple o f i n d i r e c t c r i t i c i s m o f s o c i a l
and p o l i t i c a l e v i l s , th r o u g h th e medium o f t h e f o o l b u t i t
i n d i c a t e s b e h a v io r r e s p o n s e bn th e p a r t o f th e m a ss e s and,
a l s o , p r o v i s i o n f o r e m o tio n a l r e l e a s e madbhbyp^rt o f th e
C o u r t.
I t m ig h t be n o t e d , i n p a s s i n g , t h a t t h e "p opu lar"
serm ons o f t h e day a l s o d e a l t w ith th e e v i l s and f o i b l e s o f
P a r i s i a n s o c i e t y . One o f th e m ost fam ous o f t h e s e p r e a c h e r s
was Jean R a u lin , D o c to r o f T h eo lo g y and D i r e c t o r o f th e
C o lle g e o f N avarre i n w h ic h , i t i s p resu m ed , V iv e s was a
stu d e n t .
VIVES DEBUT AS AN AUTHOR
On E a s t e r d a y , 1 5 1 4 , Y iv e s prod u ced a b r i e f work
e n t i t l e d C h r i s t ! J e s u T rium phus. T h is work i s p a r t i c u l a r l y
T i l l e y , op. c i t . , p. 177.
71
v a lu a b le f o r i t s f i r s t h a n d in f o r m a tio n on y e t a n o th e r p h a se
o f F iv e s * u n i v e r s i t y l i f e . A f t e r a t t e n d in g m a ss, F i v e s ,
w ith some o f h i s s t u d e n t - f r i e n d s — t h e S p a n is h P e t e r I b o r r a ,
M ig u el de San A n g e l, and F r a n c is c o C r i s t o b a l , t o g e t h e r w ith
John F o r t i s o f L o u v a in — m et w ith t h e t u t o r , C aspar L a x , i n
h i s q u a r t e r s . They had been i n v i t e d t o h ave su p p er and t o
m eet two F a l e n c i a n s . The g u e s t s b r o u g h t w it h them a
m in ia t u r e c a l l e d th e Triumph o f C a e s a r . The i n s p i r a t i o n f o r
t h e c o m p o s itio n came th r o u g h a remark made by t h e h o s t ,
C aspar L a x , who s a i d , "How much mor6 e x c e l l e n t i f t h e m in ia -
tur'e had b een C h r i s t , our O ptim us M axim us, i n s t e a d o f
C a e sa r , *a man by no m eans good* !* » T h is comment l e d F iv e s
1 P n
t o im a g in e what Lax meant by t h e Triumph o f C h r i s t . I n an
e f f o r t to an sw er t h i s q u e s t i o n F i v e s w r o te h i s C h r i s t i J e su
T rium phus.
F iv e s * f i r s t l i t e r a r y e f f o r t , a c c o r d in g to W atson ,
r ese m b le d th e d i a l o g u e s o f t h e fam ous g a t h e r i n g s o f I t a l i a n
H u m a n ists. The d i f f e r e n c e i n s e t t i n g i s v e r y m arked, how
e v e r . The sc e n e i s l a i d i n t h e l i t t l e c u b i c l e o f a p ed a g o
g u e , n ot a t a m a g n if ic e n t b a n q u e t. The c h a r a c t e r s a r e s t u
d en ts w ith t h e i r t u t o r . The atm osp h ere i s p r i m i t i v e C h r i s t i a n ,
15
F o s t e r W atson , L u is F i v e s : E l Gran F a le n c ia n o
( 1 4 9 2 - 1 5 4 0 ) (O xford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s : Humphrey M ilf o r d , 1 9 2 2 ) ,
p . 2 5 .
72
n o t p a g a n . The s t u d e n t s a r e d e e p ly i n t e n t o n t h e triu m p h
o f t h e P r in c e o f P e a c e , n o t t h e lo r d o f w ar. H ere we h ave
th e f i r s t i n d i c a t i o n o f Y i v e s ’ d i s l i k e o f w ar. The
triu m p h s o f C a esa r h e ld no i n t e r e s t f o r him . . V iv e s was
d e f i n i t e l y d i s i l l u s i o n e d by t h i s t im e , sa y s W atson, as t o
th e e d u c a tio n to be a c q u ir e d from t h e M a ste r s o f t h e
S o r b o n n e . He w as p a r t i c u l a r l y ashamed t h a t among th e
S p a n ia r d s w ere t o b e fou n d some o f t h e m ost b i g o t e d o f th e
s c h o l a s t i c s . 16
YIVES’ DEPARTURE FOR FLANDERS
A lm ost im m e d ia te ly f o l l o w i n g t h e p r o d u c t io n o f t h i s
b o o k l e t , Y iv e s l e f t F r a n c e . I n s t e a d o f r e t u r n in g to S p a in
a s m igh t h ave b een e x p e c t e d , he w ent to F la n d e r s . H is b i o
g r a p h e r s g i v e s e v e r a l p o s s i b l e r e a s o n s f o r h i s d e p a r tu r e :
(1) t h e S p a n ia r d s w e re v e r y u n p o p u la r i n P a r i s b e c a u se o f
K ing F e r d in a n d ’ s m aneuvres to c a p tu r e t h e I t a l i a n c i t i e s
and th e r e b y d r iv e o u t t h e F re n c h ; (2) i t i s assum ed t h a t ,
by t h i s t i m e , b o th o f Y i v e s ’ p a r e n t s m ust h ave b een dead f o r
h e n e v e r r e tu r n e d t o S p a in a g a i n , even f o r a v i s i t ; (3) t h e
F le m is h ty p e o f s c h o l a r s h i p w as c o n g e n ia l t o Y iv e s ; (4)
many S p a n ia r d s l i v e d i n F la n d e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e c i t y
o f B ru g es w here t h e r e was such a l a r g e S p a n ish q u a r t e r t h a t
16
I b i d . , pp. 2 5 -2 6 .
th e s e c t i o n w as known a s a S eco n d S p a in ; and (5) Y iv e s had
to earn h i s own l i v i n g . An o p p o r t u n it y was o f f e r e d t o him
i n F la n d e r s to /become t u t o r in th e Y a ld a u ra f a m i l y — d i s t a n t
f a m ily c o n n e c t io n s who had b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d a t B ru ges f o r
so m etim e. He a c c e p t e d t h i s o f f e r and t r a n s f e r r e d t o B e lg iu m ,
w here he was to m a in t a in h i s h e a d q u a r te r s f o r t h e r e s t o f '
h i s l i f e . H is e x p e r ie n c e s i n F la n d e r s and i n E ngland w i l l
be t h e s u b j e c t o f th e n e x t c h a p t e r .
CHAPTER IV
VIVES IN FLANDERS (1 5 1 4 -1 5 4 0 )
INTRODUCTION
The y e a r s p a s s e d a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f P a r i s had
b e e n , i n many w ays, d i s a g r e e a b le f o r V iv e s . H is l i f e a t
B r u g e s, h o w ev e r, was a p le a s a n t c o n t r a s t . H ere h e had t h e
com p an ion sh ip o f f e l l o w countrym en; h e resum ed h i s S p a n is h
h a b i t s o f l i f e ; and h e w as a b le t o r e l a x i n t h e c o n g e n ia l
i n t e l l e c t u a l and s o c i a l a tm osp h ere o f F le m is h H u m a n ists.
The m ost im p r e s s io n a b le y e a r s o f h i s l i f e w ere o v e r f o r ,
when he rea c h e d B r u g e s, h e was a young man o f t w e n ty - tw o .
He l i t t l e knew t h a t f a t e had a lr e a d y l e d him t o t h e l o c a l e
i n w h ich he w as t o make h i s h e a d q u a r te r s f o r th e r e s t o f
h i s l i f e , ev en th o u g h h i s r e s i d e n c e t h e r e w as n ot to be
c o n t i n u o u s , b u t d iv id e d f o r a tim e w ith E ngland and B r a b a n t.
The b io g r a p h y o f V iv e s w i l l be c o m p le te d i n t h i s
c h a p t e r . The F le m is h and E n g lis h H u m a n istic i n f l u e n c e s
w h ich rounded o u t h i s d ev elo p m en t and p rod u ced a t l a s t t h e
b r i l l i a n t i n t e r n a t i o n a l s c h o la r and w r i t e r w ere im p o r ta n t
s t e p s i n h i s d e v e lo p m e n t. H is l i t e r a r y c a r e e r , a lr e a d y
la u n c h e d by t h e l i t t l e b r o c h u r e , " C h r is t i J e su Triumphus"
c o n tin u e d a lm o s t u n b rok en u n t i l t h e tim e o f h i s d eath i n
1 5 4 0 . H is w orks w i l l b e m en tio n e d i n t h i s c h a p te r
75
p r i n c i p a l l y i n term s o f c h r o n o lo g y and s e t t i n g . H is m ost
o u t s t a n d in g p r o d u c t io n s w i l l be r e v ie w e d i n more d e t a i l i n
l a t e r c h a p te r s *
CONTEMPORARY EVENTS
The f i r s t e v e n t o f im p o r ta n c e to con tem p orary Human
ism a f t e r V i v e s 1 a r r i v a l i n B ru g es was t h e a p p ea ra n ce o f
E p i s t o l a e Qbscurorum V iroru m . T h is s a t i r i c a l work c o m p le te d
t h e cam paign b eg u n by B randt and c a r r ie d on by Erasm us
a g a i n s t t h e ig n o r a n c e , s t u p i d i t y , and p r o f l i g a c y o f t h e
m onks. The p r o o f o f t h e i r t o t a l ig n o r a n c e o f th e L a t in
la n g u a g e was c o m p le te d when i t became e v i d e n t , a f t e r
s e v e r a l m o n th s, t h a t th e y had f a i l e d t o r e a l i z e t h a t t h e
work w as an e x p o su r e o f t h e i r s h o r t - c o m in g s r a t h e r th a n a
com plim ent t o t h e i r a c h ie v e m e n ts . ?tfien t h e y d id f i n d o u t
t h a t t h e y had b e e n h e ld up to th e r i d i c u l e o f t h e w o r ld ,
th e y w ere v e ry much e n r a g e d . The E p i s t l e s were im p o r ta n t
a s on e o f th e f a c t o r s w hich p r e c i p i t a t e d t h e R e fo r m a tio n .
M a c h ia v e ll i had c o m p le te d h i s I I P r i n c ip e i n 1 5 1 3 ,
two y e a r s b e f o r e th e p r i n t i n g o f th e E p i s t o l a e Qbscurorum
V iroru m . O ther e v e n t s im p o r ta n t to t h e sp read o f Humanism
o c c u r r e d r a p i d l y . The y e a r 1515 marked th e a c c e s s i o n o f
th e H um anist p r i n c e , F r a n c is I to th e th r o n e o f F r a n c e .
Three b ook s w ere p u b lis h e d w i t h i n a fe w m onths o f each
o t h e r on t h e e d u c a t io n and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f a p r i n c e ,
v i z . , B u de’ s L * I n s t i t u t i o n d e P r i n c e ; E rasm us’ I n s t i t u t i o
P r i n c i p i s C h r i s t i a n i ; C a s t i g l i o n e ’ s I I C o r ^ e g ia n o . In 1 5 1 6 ,
two v e r y im p o r ta n t e v e n t s happened i n E n glan d; S i r Thomas
More p u b lis h e d h i s U t o p i a ; C h r i s t ’ s C o l l e g e , H um anist, was
opened a t C am bridge. The y e a r f o l l o w i n g , 1 5 1 7 , saw two
more H um anist c o l l e g e s o p e n t h e i r d o o r s ; th e C o lle g iu m
T r i l i n g u e a t L o u v a in , and C orpus C h r i s t i a t O x fo rd . In
1 5 1 8 , two C-erman u n i v e r s i t i e s changed to Humanism— E r f u r t
and L e i p s i g . C ologn e rem ain ed th e German s t r o n g h o ld o f
S c h o l a s t i c i s m . The y e a r p r e v io u s , a m ost s i g n i f i c a n t
h a p p en in g had b ro u g h t o u t i n t o th e o p en a n o th e r p h a se o f
th e R e n a is s a n c e : M a r tin L u th e r had n a i l e d h i s t h e s e s o f
d e f i a n c e on t h e door o f th e W itte n b e r g c h u r c h , a t t a c h i n g
th e s a l e o f i n d u l g e n c e s . The R e fo r m a tio n had b e g u n ’
THE NORTHERN RENAISSANCE
The N o r th e rn R e n a is s a n c e owed i t s i n s p i r a t i o n and
i t s c h a r a c t e r l a r g e l y to t h e work o f R udolph A g r i c o l a .
A g r i c o l a , l i k e V i v e s , was t h e p r o d u c t o f more th a n one r a c
i a l c u l t u r e . He i t was who t r i e d to a s s i m i l a t e t h e b e s t o f
I t a l i a n c u lt u r e , so t h a t h e m ig h t p a s s on i t s s p i r i t a s w e l l
a s i t s c u l t u r e to h i s own p e o p l e . He, t h e r e f o r e , l a i d t h e
f o u n d a t io n s and s e t t h e g o a l s w h ich d i f f e r e n t i a t e d th e
T e u to n ic R e n a is s a n c e from t h e R e n a is s a n c e o f I t a l y , o f S p a in ,
o f F r a n c e , and o f E n g la n d .
77
A g r i c o l a had s t u d ie d a t F e r r a r a , a u n i v e r s i t y w h ic h
p la y e d an im p o r ta n t p a r t i n th e d e v e lo p m en t o f German and
E n g lis h Humanism, F e r r a r a , e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1 4 4 2 , em p h asized
t h e s tu d y o f L e t t e r s a s an end. i n i t s e l f r a t h e r th a n a s a
p r e p a r a t io n f o r t h e p r o f e s s i o n s o f la w , t h e o l o g y , and
m e d ic in e . As m ig h t b e e x p e c t e d , D i a l e c t i c s d id n o t o c cu p y
a t F e r r a r a t h e e x a l t e d p o s i t i o n w hich h e ld a t P a r i s . L o g ic ,
a t F e r r a r a , w as e n t i r e l y d e ta c h e d from g r a m m a tica l a b s t r a c
t i o n s and d i s p u t a t i o n a l s u b t l e t i e s . L o g ic was ta u g h t m ere
l y a s an a id t o t h e d evelo p m en t o f e x p r e s s i o n .
The b r i l l i a n t A g r i c o l a , — m u s ic ia n , a r t i s t , d ip lo m a t;
l i n g u i s t , gram m arian, r h e t o r i c i a n ; h i s t o r i c a l t h e o l o g i a n ,
o r a t o r , and m a ste r o f th e nTrue A r i s t o t l e ” - - t u r n e d th e t i d e
o f Humanism i n t h e Low C o u n tr ie s t o s c h o l a r l y r e s e a r c h i n
th e new H u m a n itie s . The medium o f e x p r e s s i o n was to be t h e
e s s a y w h ic h to o k th e p l a c e , i n F la n d e r s , o f t h e f u t i l e
w r a n g lin g o f P a r i s , and th e o r a t i o n s o f I t a l y . L ik e t h e
g r e a t S p a n is h H u m a n ists, A g r ic o la c o n s id e r e d s c h o l a r s h i p a
n e c e s s a r y b a s e f o r exam in in g and im p r o v in g t h e work o f t h e
C hurch. He d id n o t c o n s id e r Humanism and r e l i g i o n a n ta
g o n i s t i c a s d id th e S o r b o n n e . The c h i e f e d u c a t io n a l g o a l t o
h i s mind was r i g h t c o n d u c t. He condemned t h e M ed ia ev a l
d i s c i p l i n e a s ta u g h t by P a r i s and C o lo g n e , i n b o th o f w h ich
i n s t i t u t i o n s he had b e e n a p u p i l .
78
A g r i c o l a ’ s t a l e n t s w ere more i n s p i r a t i o n a l th a n
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e . He d id l i t t l e a c t u a l t e a c h in g and l e f t
o n ly two sm a ll m a n u s c r ip ts on e d u c a t io n . The absurd
g y r a t i o n s o f th e d i a l e c t i c i a n s w it h t h e i r s y l l o g i s m s , d i s
p u t e s , and fo rm u la e w ere lo o k e d upon by him a s o b j e c t s o f
s c o r n . He c o n s id e r e d c o n t e n t o f i d e a s more im p o r ta n t th a n
form ; ranked co n d u ct and e t h i c s h ig h e r th a n m ere k n o w led g e;
lo o k e d upon f a c i l i t y o f e x p r e s s io n a s an e s s e n t i a l o f
u t i l i t y r a t h e r th a n an ornam ent to e r u d i t i o n . L o g ic he
c o n s id e r e d an in s tr u m e n t o f reason *
A g r i c o l a d ie d i n 1 4 8 5 , se v e n y e a r s b e f o r e t h e b i r t h
o f Y i v e s , y e t he e n v is io n e d many o f t h e i d e a l s f o r w h ich
Erasmus and Y iv e s w ere l a t e r t o f i g h t . H onored by Erasm us
and by German H u m an ists i n g e n e r a l a s th e fo u n d e r o f
N o rth ern Humanism, h e s e t t h e to n e o f s i n c e r i t y , s i m p l i c i t y ,
p r a c t i c a l i t y , and a p p r e c ia t i o n o f b e a u ty and d i g n i t y i n
l i t e r a t u r e w h ich d i f f e r e n t i a t e d t h e N o r th e rn R e n a is s a n c e
from t h a t o f th e S o u th .
The two m ajor s o u r c e s o f i n s p i r a t i o n o f t h e g r e a t
Erasm us w ere h i s cou n trym an , A g r i c o l a , and L a u r e n t iu s Y a l l a ,
o f I t a l y . I n Y i v e s ’ d a y , F le m ish Humanism w as v e r y l a r g e l y
d om in ated by E rasm us. Y iv e s came u n d er th e i n f l u e n c e o f
A g r ic o la w h ile a s tu d e n t o f Erasmus a t L o u v a in U n i v e r s i t y —
th e u n i v e r s i t y i n w h ich A g r i c o l a had r e c e i v e d h i s m a s t e r ’ s
d e g r e e . The i n f l u e n c e o f Erasmus w as, o f c o u r s e , an
79
im m ed ia te and p e r s o n a l f o r c e i n V iv es* l i f e . The i n f l u e n c e
o f I g r i c o l a , a lth o u g h more r em o te, l e f t a v e r y d e f i n i t e
im p r in t on t h e p h ilo s o p h y and th e w ork s o f h i s a d m ir e r ,
V iv e s,* —a d e h t ■which V iv e s f r e q u e n t l y a c k n o w le d g e d .
BRETHREN OF THE COM M ON LIFE
No d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e H u m an ists o f F la n d e r s can be
made w it h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o members o f t h e c o - o p e r a t i v e ed u ca
t i o n a l group known a s t h e B r e th r e n o f t h e Common L i f e . The
B r o th e r s to o k no vows i n s p i t e o f th e f a c t t h a t t h e i r
o r g a n i z a t i o n was an o u tg r o w th o f r e l i g i o u s o r d e r s and t h a t
its ,m e m b e r s su c c e e d e d th e m en d ica n t monks a s p r o m o te r s o f
e d u c a t io n . The o r d e r , fo u n d ed i n 1 5 8 4 , by G erard G r o o t,
was a g e s t u r e a g a i n s t s c h o l a s t i c t h e o l o g y , o r g a n iz e d , (1)
i n t h e hope o f c o r r e c t i n g e v i l s b ro u g h t a b o u t by t h e
c o r r u p t io n o f t h e m onks, and (2) w it h a s p i r a t i o n s o f b e t t e r
in g t h e s o c i a l o r d e r . L ik e m ost o t h e r s c h o l a r s o f th e a g e ,
G erard G root was h i m s e l f a p r o d u c t o f s c h o l a s t i c t r a i n i n g
a t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f P a r i s . He e x p r e s s e d h i s r e b e l l i o n to
th e p h ilo s o p h y and p r a c t i c e o f m e d ia e v a l e d u c a t io n a t th e
Sorb on n e by e s t a b l i s h i n g s c h o o l s o f H u m a n istic p h ilo s o p h y
th r o u g h o u t t h e N e th e r la n d s and Germany. H is s c h o o l s had two
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e s , v i z . , a stu d y (1) o f t h e B i b l e ,
(2) o f th e L a t i n c l a s s i c s . S i n c e G roo t was a g r e a t a d m irer
o f b o th P la t o and S o c r a t e s , h i s s c h o o l s w ere not a p o s t l e s
80
o f th e ftA r i s t o t l e has s a i d s o tt d o c t r i n e .
The B r e th r e n sought to em phasize i n t h e i r s c h o o ls
t h e in n e r l i f e o f t h e in d iv i d u a l r a t h e r than a s t a t e o f
conform ance to e x te r n a l form s o f e c c l e s i a s t i c a l d o c t r i n e .
They were c o n t r ib u t o r y to th e developm ent o f b o th Humanism
and t h e R efo rm a tio n . They had a U to p ia n ty p e o f o r g a n iz a
t i o n i n v h ic h t h e members gave up t h e i r p r o p e r ty f o r th e
common good i n o r d e r t o p erm it each to l i v e more e f f e c t i v e l y
th e l i f e o f th e s p i r i t . T h is p h ase o f t h e i r a c t i v i t y com
b in ed w ith t h e i r sim p le , m y s t i c a l f a i t h prepared th e way
f o r t h e E v a n g e lic a l c reed o f i n d i v i d u a l s a l v a t i o n .
The Order presum ably supported i t s e l f by manual l a b o r ,
but i t ren d ered a g r e a t c o n t r i b u t i o n to th e R e n a issa n c e by
i t s cop yin g o f a n c ie n t and sa c r e d docum ents. Both Erasmus
and A g r ic o la a re s a id to have been t r a in e d i n s c h o o l s o f t h e
B reth ren : Erasmus a t D e v e n te r ; A g r i c o l a , a t Z w o lle .
U n i v e r s i t y o f L o u v a in . The U n i v e r s i t y o f L ou vain
founded i n 1 4 2 6 , was th e o n ly u n i v e r s i t y i n B elgium . Like
F e r r a r a , i t had e n jo y ed a h ig h r e p u t a t i o n f o r L e t t e r s . I t
was famous th ro u g h ou t Europe f o r i t s F a c u lty o f A r ts and
f o r i t s p r i n t i n g o f a n c ie n t m a n u sc r ip ts . However, i t was
not exempt from t h e g e n e r a l decad en ce o f l e a r n i n g w hich
c h a r a c t e r iz e d Europe i n th e l a t t e r p a r t o f th e f i f t e e n t h
c e n tu r y .
81
T h is a r t i f i c i a l and s t e r i l e c h a r a c t e r o f e d u c a tio n
was due to th e p r e v a le n c e o f d e g e n e r a te A r i s t o t e l i a n
p h ilo s o p h y , and t o t h e l a c k o f u p - t o - d a t e t e x t b o o k s . B e fo re
any reform s c o u ld be i n s t i t u t e d th 6 f a l s e p h ilo s o p h y on
which s c h o o ls w ere f u n c t i o n i n g had t o be e x p o se d . The con
s e r v a t i v e s and the a c t i v e p rop on en ts o f t h e s a n c t i o n s o f th e
p a s t r e s i s t e d t h e encroachm ents o f t h e H um an ists. However,
l e d by Erasmus, t h e reform was begun. H is t r a n s l a t i o n o f
Theodore G aza’ s Greek Grammar l e d th e p r o c e s s i o n o f t e x t s
w hich were to g i v e a c c e s s to th e new s c i e n c e s , to r e v e a l t h e
c u l t u r e o f t h e a n c i e n t s , to r e s t o r e h i s t o r y and l i t e r a t u r e ,
qnd, i n g e n e r a l , t o r e p la c e out-moded m ed ia ev a l t e x t s .
The C o lle g e d es T r o is Langues e s t a b l i s h e d i n J u ly ,
1 5 1 7 , was made p o s s i b l e through a b e q u est i n t h e w i l l o f
Jerome B u s le id e n . I t had a s i t s aim th e stu d y o f R e n a issa n c e
and c l a s s i c a l l i t e r a t u r e . Erasmus was d i r e c t o r and p rom oter.
The c o l l e g e w hich was a f f i l i a t e d w ith t h e U n i v e r s i t y , opened
i n S eptem ber, 1 5 1 8 , i n tem porary q u a r t e r s c l o s e to t h e F i s h -
m ark et. As m ight be e x p e c t e d , t h e r e was g r e a t o p p o s i t i o n
on th e p a r t o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l i s t s and e p i t h e t s as to
"Fishm arket L a t i n ” were t o s s e d back and f o r t h w it h much
g u s t o .
V iv e s i s s a i d to have been i n L ou vain i n 1 5 1 6 . He
w as, a t t h i s t i m e , t u t o r to G uillau m e de Croy, C ard in a l and
A r c h b ish o p -D e s ig n a te o f T o le d o . The y o u th , a nephew o f t h e
82
Duke o f C h ie v r e s , a lth o u g h o n ly e ig h t e e n y e a r s of a g e , was
a lr e a d y P rim a te o f S p a in . I t was, t h e r e f o r e , a g r e a t honor
to V i v e s ’ c h a r a c t e r , b r e e d in g , and le a r n i n g t h a t he sh ou ld
have b een ch osen a s m en tor. I n 1 5 1 8 , he had j u s t co m p leted
h i s ’’M e d it a t io n e s i n P salm os P e n it a h t ia e * w hich he d e d ic a t e d
to th e young C a r d in a l, h i s p u p i l . In t h i s y e a r he i s men
t io n e d d e f i n i t e l y a s b e in g a p u p il o f E rasm us,— presum ably
i n t h e C o lle g e d es T r o is L an gu es. In 1 5 1 9 , V iv e s became a
l e c t u r e r i n t h e H a i l e s o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y i t s e l f , where he
ta u g h t N atu ral H i s t o r y . In th e a f t e r n o o n , he t a u g h t th e
G e o r g ie s o f V i r g i l , i n h i s own h o u se . I n 1 5 2 2 , he added
l e c t u r e s on th e g e o g ra p h e r, Pomponius M ela. He i s r e p o r te d
a l s o to have been g i v i n g p u b lic l e c t u r e s d u rin g t h i s p e r io d .
In c lu d e d among h i s t o p i c s w ere: C i c e r o ’ s D _e s e n e c t u t e , De
L e g ib u s ; P h i l e l p h u s ’ C o n v iv i a ; h i s own C h r i s t i Trium phus;
and , ” co smography. w
VIVES* BREAK WITH SCHOLASTICISM
The y e a r 1519 was a v e r y im p o rta n t one f o r V iv e s and,
i f we a re to b e l i e v e F o s t e r W atson, a v e r y o u t s t a n d in g la n d
mark i n th e h i s t o r y o f e d u c a t io n . I n 1 5 1 9 , V iv e s w rote In
F seu d o- D i a l e c t i c o s . In t h i s work V iv e s t o s s e d down to th e
l e a d e r s o f t h e d i a l e c t i c t e a c h i n g s in t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f
1
F o s t e r W atson, t r a n s l a t o r , V i v e s : On E d u ca tio n
(Cambridge: The U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 l 3 ) , p. LXX.
85
P a r i s a c h a lle n g e on t h e t e a c h in g s o f s c h o l a s t i c i s m and on
t h e a u t h o r i t y o f th e U n i v e r s i t y o f P a r i s i n m a t te r s o f
l e a r n i n g . W atson b e l i e v e s h i s a t t a c k on th e s c h o l a s t i c
r e a c t i o n a r i e s was equal i n im portance to L u th er a f f i x i n g
h i s t h e s e s a t W itten b e rg o r to Copernicus* d i s c o v e r i e s about
t h e s o l a r sy stem . " V iv es i s an i n t e l l e c t u a l C aesar c r o s s in g
th e Rubicon from t h e m ed ia ev a l t o th e modern e r a o f th o u g h t.
I t i s s u r e l y a supreme moment, and h i s book i s worthy o f
r e c o g n i t i o n , s i d e by s i d e w ith Erasmus and h i s M oriae
p
Encomium.*1^
The p e r io d o f i n d e c i s i o n was o v e r f o r V iv e s . He had
made h i s c h o ic e betw een t h e two e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m s . He was
no lo n g e r w averin g betw een th e M ed ia e v a lism o f P a r i s and th e
New L earn in g o f L o u v a in . Overcome w ith r e g r e t a t h i s w a ste
o f v a lu a b le tim e he s a y s o f h i s M ed ia eval s t u d i e s ,
I r e c e i v e d them in t o my mind, when I was im p res
s i o n a b l e . I a p p lie d m y s e lf t o them w ith th e h i g h e s t
z e a l . They s t i c k t e n a c i o u s l y . They come i n t o my mind
a g a i n s t my w i l l . They s t u p e fy my mind j u s t a s I am
r e a c h in g forw ard t o b e t t e r t h i n g s . What would one not
g i v e , he c r i e s o u t , t o u n -te a c h them from one* mind—
money, c l o t h e s , b o o k s, any m a t e r ia l com m odity!3
The p r e v io u s y e a r , 1 5 1 8 , V iv e s had com p leted what i s
p ro b a b ly th e f i r s t modern work on p h ilo s o p h y , De I n i t i i s ,
2
F o s t e r W atson, L u is V i v e s : El Gran V a le n c ia n o (1492-
1 5 4 0 ) (O xford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ; Humphrey M ilf o r d , 1 9 2 2 ) , p . 31.
3
Ibid., p. 30.
84
S e c t i s e t L au dibu s P h i l o s o p h i s e . In 1 5 1 9 , b e s i d e s In
Pseudo D i a l e c t i c o s V iv e s w rote t h r e e o t h e r works: Pompeius
F u g i e n s , th e D ia lo g u e c a l l e d S a p i e n s , and C6nsura de
j j r i s t o t e l i s Q p e r ib u s. He a ls o e d it e d somnium S c i p i o n i s ,
th e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o which was a fte r w a r d s known as Somnium
V i v i s . ^11 o t t h e s e w r i t i n g s o f V iv e s had been s e n t t o S i r
Thomas More f o r h i s c r i t i c i s m . M ore’ s r e p ly c o n s t i t u t e s
one o f t h e m ost c o n c lu s i v e b i t s o f e v id e n c e on th e
r e c o g n iz e d g e n i u s o f V iv e s a t t h i s t im e . More sa y s:
C e r t a i n l y , my d ea r Erasmus, I am ashamed o f m y s e lf
and my f r i e n d s , who ta k e c r e d i t to o u r s e l v e s f o r a
few b ro c h u r e s o f a q u i t e i n s i g n i f i c a n t k in d , when I
s e e a young man l i k e V iv e s p ro d u cin g so many w e l l -
d i g e s t e d w orks, i n a good s t y l e , g i v i n g p r o o f o f an
e x q u i s i t e e r u d i t i o n . How g r e a t i s h i s knowledge o f
Greek and L a t in ; g r e a t e r s t i l l i s t h e way i n w hich he
i s v e r s e d i n b r a n ch es o f knowledge o f t h e f i r s t rank.
Who i n t h i s r e s p e c t i s t h e r e who s u r p a s s e s V iv e s i n
t h e q u a n t it y and d epth o f h i s know ledge?4
Erasmus, t o o , was q u i t e fra n k i n s t a t i n g h i s o p in io n
o f V iv e s . From Lyons where V iv e s , C ard in a l de Croy, and
Erasmus w ere a l l v i s i t i n g , i n 1 5 1 8 , Erasmus w r o te t o a f r i e n d .
Here we have L u is V iv e s , who h as not p a sse d h i s
t w e n t y - s i x t h y e a r o f a g e . Young a s he i s t h e r e i s no
p a r t o f p h ilo s o p h y i n w hich he d o es not p o s s e s s a
knowledge w hich f a r o u t s t r i p s th e mass o f s t u d e n t s .
H is power o f e x p r e s s i o n i n speech and w r i t i n g i s such
a s I do not know any one who can be d e c la r e d h i s
4
F o s t e r W atson, t r a n s l a t o r , Tudor S c h o o l- Boy L i f e
( The D ia lo g u e s o f Juan L u is V i v e s ; London: J . M. Dent and
Company, 1 9 0 8 ) , pp. x i i - x i i i .
85
equal a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e . 5
On h e a r in g o f t h e fu r o r c r e a te d i n P a r i s by Y i v e s 1
In Pseudo D i a l e c t i c o s , Erasmus w r o te t o s i r Thomas More
" V iv es i s one who w i l l overshadow th e name o f Erasmus."
At t h i s tim e Erasmus was f i f t y - f i v e y e a r s o l d ; Y iv e s had
reach ed th e age o f t w e n t y - s e v e n .
In 1 5 1 9 , a l s o , Erasmus recommended Y iv e s a s t u t o r
f o r E erd in an d , b r o th e r o f C h a rle s V, s t a t i n g "X h a r d ly know
anyone t h a t I would dare match w ith h im ." 7
In t h i s same y e a r , Y iv e s p a id a v i s i t to P a r i s . He
was q u i t e u p s e t w ondering what h i s r e c e p t i o n would be a f t e r
h i s p u b l i c condem nation o f t h e Sorbonne and i t s m eth ods.
To h i s s u r p r i s e he was warmly welcorned. He found t h a t , i n
the b r i e f f i v e y e a r s s i n c e he had l e f t P a r i s , many o f h i s
f r i e n d s , i n c lu d i n g h i s t u t o r s , had been o p e n ly c o n v e r te d to
th e New L e a r n in g . H is t r e a t i s e had had an u n b e l ie v a b l e
i n f l u e n c e i n d i v i d i n g th e U n i v e r s i t y o f P a r i s i n t o two
camps; th e p a r t i s a n s o f th e H um anists; and th e s u p p o r te r s
o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l l e a r n i n g . The y e a r 1 5 1 9 , w as, in d e e d , a
m ost momentous one f o r Y i v e s .
5
I b i d . , p . x i i .
6
W atson, El Gran V a le n c ia n o , op. c i t . , p . 3 3 .
7
I b i d . , p . 3 5 .
86
BRUGES
Bruges was a very im p ortan t c i t y i n 1 6 th C entury
Europe, I t was renowned f o r l e t t e r s , f o r commerce, and f o r
i t s p a r t i n g r e a t p o l i t i c a l m e e t in g s . In t h e s e g a t h e r in g s
o f s c h o l a r s and d ip lo m a ts V iv e s found an openin g wedge f o r
advancement f o r h i m s e l f . I t was h e r e t h a t he met S i r
Thomas More, C ard in al W oolsey, and Lord Mount jo y . Such
o c c a s i o n gave him h i s f i r s t c o n t a c t w ith t h e E n g lis h
Hum anists a lt h o u g h , a s a c o m p a trio t o f C a th e r in e o f d r a g o n ,
he had been a lr e a d y i n t e r e s t e d i n E ngland.
On January 1 0 , 1 5 2 1 , V ives* p u p il C ard in al d6 Croy
su d d en ly d ie d . T h is d e a th was a g r e a t l o s s t o V i v e s .
Towards t h e end o f the p r e v io u s y e a r , V iv e s , at t h e r e q u e s t
o f Erasmus, had begun w orking on th e Commentaries on S t .
A u gu stin e* s C i v i t a s D e i . Erasmus wanted to. make t h i s a
p a r t o f a s e r i e s w hich he had begun on S t . Cyprian and S t .
Jerom6. V iv e s began e d i t i n g , t h in k in g t h a t th e t a s k would
be com p leted i n a few m onths. M eanw hile, Erasmus had l e f t
L o u v a in . The c o m b in a tio n o f th e i n t e n s i v e work on S t .
A u g u stin e and t h e d ea th o f Croy were too much o f a s t r a i n
f o r V i v e s . He became s e r i o u s l y i l l and was ta k e n back t o
Bruges i n t o t h e h o u se o f a r i c h S p a n is h m erchant, Pedro de
A g u ir r a . By Ju n e, he was c o n v a le s c e n t and was p r e s e n t a t
the f e s t i v i t i e s which c e le b r a t e d th e v i s i t o f C ard in al
W oolsey w ith C h a r le s V at B ru g es.
87
When V iv e s com p leted S t . A u g u s tin e , i n 1 5 2 2 , he
d e d ic a t e d i t to K in g Henry V I I I . T h is f a c t , t o g e t h e r w ith
p r a i s e g i v e n to Erasmus i n th e i n t r o d u c t i o n , g r e a t l y pro
voked t h e V a t i c a n , - which prom ptly put t h e work on t h e In dex
(donee c o r r i g a t u r ) .
I n 152 2 , a l s o , th e Duke o f A lva se n t a m essage to
V iv e s through a D om inican Monk to o f f e r him th e p o s i t i o n o f
t u t o r t o h i s g r a n d c h ild r e n a t a s a la r y o f two hundred g o ld e n
d u c a t s . The Monk d id not d e l i v e r th e m essage. V iv e s was i n
a had c o n d i t i o n f i n a n c i a l l y a t t h a t t im e , t o o . F o r t u n a t e l y ,
j u s t t h e n , (1523) , he r e c e i v e d an i n v i t a t i o n from W oolsey to
l e c t u r e i n r h e t o r i c i n Corpus C h r i s t i C o l l e g e , a t Oxford
U n i v e r s i t y . When he l e f t f o r England a ssu r ed o f a warm
welcome from King Henry V I I I , Queen C a th e r in e o f Aragon, and
S i r Thomas More, he l i t t l e knew under what c ir c u m sta n c e s h i s
v i s i t t o England would be te r m in a te d .
Em LISH EXPERIENCES
B e fo r e s e t t i n g o u t f o r England, V iv e s r e f u s e d a . p o s t
o f f e r e d him i n t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f A l c a l a . Whether t h i s
r e f u s a l s was due t o f e a r o f th e r e l i g i o u s b i g o t r y th e n
d e v e lo p in g i n S p a in o r w h eth er i t was b e c a u se h i s S t .
A u g u stin e had j u s t been p la c e d on th e In dex by th e V a tic a n
i s not known. V iv e s had f i n i s h e d I)e I n s t i t u t i o n s Feminae
C h r i s t i a n a s , d e d ic a te d t o Queen C a th er in e o f E ngland, b e f o r e
88
he l e f t B r u g e s. On h i s a r r i v a l , V iv e s , a t t h e r e q u e s t o f
W oolsey, u n d ertook the d i r e c t i o n o f t h e e d u c a tio n o f t h e
P r i n c e s s Mary. 4 s a g u id e f o r h er e d u c a tio n he w ro te t h e
P la n o f S t u d i e s f o r G i r l s (De R a tio n e s t u d i i P u e r i l i s ) .
A lso , he w ro te a P la n o f S t u d i e s f o r Boys f o r C h a r le s, so n
o f l o r d Mount jo y , C a t h e r in e ’ s ch am b erlain . On O ctob er 1 0 ,
1 5 2 3 , he was made a 11 .D. a t Oxford U n i v e r s i t y .
In May, 1 5 2 4 , V iv e s made a t r i p t o Bruges where he
m arried M argaret V ald a u ra , a member o f t h e f a m i ly i n which
he had tu to r e d i n 1 5 1 4 . In 1 5 2 6 - 2 7 , he sp en t t h e summer i n
England and t h e w in t e r i n B ru g es. I n 1 5 2 6 , he w rote h i s
famous Djs S u b v e n tio n s Pauperum ( C oncerning th e R e l i e f o f
th e P o o r ) . In 1 5 2 8 , he s id e d w ith h i s c o m p a t r io t , C a th e r in e
o f 4 r a g o n , on th e q u e s t io n of- t h e p r o j e c t e d d i v o r c e .
W oolsey examined him a s to h i s a t t i t u d e i n t h e m a tte r and
q u e s tio n e d him about h i s c o n v e r s a t io n s w it h C a th e r in e . He
was im p riso n ed i n t h e tow er f o r s i x w eek s and th e n sen t from
th e Court and t h e c o u n tr y . He r e tu r n e d to B ruges where f o r
the n e x t t h r e e y e a r s he was i n v e r y d i f f i c u l t s t r a i t s
f i n a n c i a l l y . In November o f th e same y e a r , he was s e n t a
s a f e conduct by M argaret o f Savoy to go to England a s a
p a r t o f th e Q ueen’ s C o u n se l. He was d e la y e d on th e t r i p and
f a i l e d to r e a c h England i n tim e f o r th e t r i a l .
Some o f t h e p l e a s a n t e s t y e a r s o f V i v e s ’ l i f e were
sp en t i n E n glan d. He had had v e ry a g r e e a b le r e l a t i o n s w ith
89
C ard in al W oolsey to whom he d e d ic a t e d h i s L a t i n t r a n s l a t i o n s
o f two I s o c r a t e s ’ o r a t i o n s . He worked a ls o w ith a group o f
men i n t e r e s t e d i n S p a n ish s t u d i e s , among them S i r R ichard
Q
M o rriso n and Thomas P a y n e l l . M orrison t r a n s l a t e d Vives*
I n t r o d u c t io ad S a p ie n s m entioned in t h e b ib lio g r a p h y o f t h i s
stu d y : P a y n e ll t r a n s l a t e d Be O f f i c i o M a r i t i .
V iv e s was one o f t h e group o f H um anists who met a t
M ore’ s h o u se . V iv e s and More d e v e lo p ed a very c l o s e f r i e n d
sh ip f o r th e y had many t r a i t s i n common. Through t h e s e
h u m a n istic g a t h e r in g s a t M ore’ s house V iv e s made h i s most
im p o r ta n t c o n t a c t s w ith th e Humanist l e a d e r s .
P erhap s V i v e s ’ g r e a t e s t p l e a s u r e , th o u g h , was h i s
a s s o c i a t i o n w ith t h e Queen. They had much t o t a l k about i n
t h e i r r e m in is c e n c e s o f th e happy days i n S p a in . They were
such c l o s e f r i e n d s t h a t V iv e s f r e q u e n t l y accom panied Queen
C a th e r in e on h e r t r a v e l s from Richmond t o S io n where she made
h e r d e v o t i o n s . V iv e s was, a l s o , i n a tte n d a n c e on t h e c o u r t.
When he l e f t England, V iv e s f e l t b i t t e r l y the l o s s o f
C a t h e r in e ’ s f r i e n d s h i p . He g r i e v e d , t o o , o v e r h er m isu n d er
s ta n d in g o f h i s w arning not to be trap p ed i n t o d e fen d in g
h e r s e l f i n t h e mockery o f a t r i a l whose r e s u l t s were p r e
d e ter m in e d .
8
W atson, V i v e s : On E d u c a tio n , o p . c i t .
RETURN TO FLANDERS
90
Owing to p o v e r ty and i l l h e a l t h , t h e n e x t t h r e e
y e a r s , 1 5 2 8 -1 5 3 1 , were to be th e d a r k e s t o f F i v e s ’ l i f e .
They marked a ls o th e b e g in n in g o f F i v e s ’ g r e a t e s t l i t e r a r y
a c t i v i t y . In 1529 he w rote C oncordia e t P i s c o r d i a i n
Humano G e n e r e . In J u l y , he p u b lis h e d what h as b e e n c a l l e d
t h e f i r s t g r e a t te x t b o o k on th e s c i e n c e o f e d u c a t io n , pe
D i s c i p l i n i s . He d e d ic a t e d th e work to King John I I I o f
P o r t u g a l. De C on cordia had b een d e d ic a te d t o F i v e s ’ own
monarch Emperor C h a r le s F, r u l e r o f b o th S p a in and t h e
N e th e r la n d s. The c o m p le tio n o f t h e s e two im p o rta n t works
r e s u l t e d in p e n s io n s from b oth m onarchs, t h u s r e l e a s i n g
F i v e s from t h e d e p th s o f p o v e r ty i n t o which t h e sudden
rem oval o f h i s E n g lis h p e n s io n s and u n i v e r s i t y f e e s had
p lu n g ed him. In 1 5 3 1 , he had i n v i t e d h i s s i s t e r to make
h e r home w it h him . D uring th e p e r io d , 1 5 2 8 -1 5 3 4 , I g n a t iu s
L o y o la v i s i t e d Bruges y e a r l y t o s o l i c i t h e lp from S p a n ish
c o m p a t r io ts . In s p i t e o f h i s extrem e p o v e r t y , F i v e s e n t e r
t a in e d L o y o la a t b r e a k f a s t , s a y in g a f t e r w a r d s , acco rd in g
t o Watson, ’’T h is man i s a s a i n t , who w i l l , o f a s u r e t y ,
found an Order.
F i v e s ’ h e a l t h had been v e ry poor f o l l o w i n g h i s sudden
banishm ent from E ngland. By 1 5 3 6 , he had r e c o v e r e d
9
F o s t e r W atson, t r a n s l a t o r , F iv e s : On E d u c a tio n ,
o p . c i t . , p . IXXXF.
91
s u f f i c i e n t l y t o u n d erta k e a s i x m onths v i s i t to P a r i s . In
1 5 3 8 , he p u b lis h e d Be Anima e t V it a which he d e d ic a t e d to
th e Duke o f Be j a r . In 1 5 3 8 , a l s o , he w ro te t h e g x e r c i t a t i o
L in gu a e L a t in a e , h i s L a t i n D i a l o g u e s , a te x tb o o k to h e lp
s c h o o l- b o y s l e a r n t o speak L a t i n . T h is book he d e d ic a te d
to P r in c e P h i l i p , son o f C h a r le s Y, o v e r whose e d u c a tio n , i t
i s assumed, he a s s i s t e d i n an a d v is o r y c a p a c it y . I n 1 5 3 9 ,
he com pleted h i s l a s t work, p u b lis h e d p o sth u m o u sly , De
Y e r i t a t e F id e i C h r i s t i a n a e — an e x p o s i t i o n on t h e p r a c t i c a l
a p p l i c a t i o n t o l i f e ’ s problem s o f r e l i g i o n , w ith C h r i s t i a n i t y
as th e supreme f a i t h .
From 1537 t o 1 5 3 9 , Y iv e s l i v e d a t Breda a s t u t o r to
M encia de Mendoza, th e n i e c e o f C a r d in a l Mendoza o f T o le d o ,
and th e w i f e o f t h e co u n t o f N assau . Y iv e s had s u f f e r e d f o r
many y e a r s from g o u t . In 1 5 3 9 , t h i s was a g g r a v a te d by a
c o m p lic a t io n o f d i s e a s e s , from w hich he d ie d on May 6 , 1 5 4 0 ,
a t B r u g e s.
S U M M A R Y
The e v e n ts n a r r a te d i n t h i s c h a p te r f o r a t h e back
ground o f Y ives* l i t e r a r y p r o d u c t io n s . L e s s sp a ce h as been
d e v o ted t o th e n a r r a t io n o f . d e t a i l s o f th e p e r io d , 1 5 1 4 , to
1 5 4 0 , th a n t o th e e a r l i e r p e r io d s o f h i s l i f e , b e c a u se h i s
works speak f o r him. In f a c t h i s a d u lt l i f e i s known p r i n
c i p a l l y through h i s w r i t i n g s . Y iv e s , i n c o n t r a s t t o
92
Erasmus, d id not b u s t l e around. N e ith e r was he i n c o n s ta n t
sea rch o f sa n c tu a r y to e sca p e h i s enem ies a s was Erasmus.
He l i v e d a s q u i e t l y and in c o n s p i c u o u s ly a s a p e r so n o f h i s
s o c i a l p o s i t i o n and l i t e r a r y fame c o u ld manage to d o . V iv e s
had many f r i e n d s , m o s tly c o m p a tr io ts . They were u s u a l l y
p e o p le prom inent i n s o c i a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e . V iv e s
a p p a r e n tly k ep t th e r e s p e c t o f h i s c o n te m p o r a r ie s even
though he cru sad ed a g a i n s t th e a b u se s and i l l s o f h i s t i m e s .
He s to o d h i s ground and waged h i s b a t t l e s im p e r s o n a lly ,
alw ays a t t a c k i n g th e e v i l or t h e i n s t i t u t i o n , n ev er t h e
i n d i v i d u a l .
D uring t h i s p e r io d , V iv e s w as i n v i t e d to tea c h at
t h e R e n a iss a n c e U n i v e r s i t y o f jH ca llt. He r e f u s e d t h i s honor
but a c c e p te d p o s i t i o n s a t L ou vain and O xford, t h e two m ost
p r o g r e s s i v e Humanist U n i v e r s i t i e s o f th e a g e . In both
F la n d e r s and England he was a member o f th e l i t t l e group o f
l e a d e r s i n H u m an istic th o u g h t. He can be compared t o
Erasmus i n t h e b read th o f s c h o la r s h ip ; to BudC i n h i s
m e t ic u lo u s knowledge o f p h i l o l o g y ; t o More i n h i s i n t e r e s t
i n th e W e lfa r e o f Humanity; and, to R a b e l a i s , in h i s i n t e r e s t
i n b i o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e .
C h apters I I and I I I have tr a c e d th e i n f l u e n c e s which
a f f e c t e d V iv e s i n h i s c h ild h o o d and y o u th . He w as, and
alw ays rem ained, a M ed iterran ean S p a n ia r d . H is mem ories
o f t h e s o c i a l , k i n d l y , d em ocratic l i f e i n t h e S p a n ish -M o o rish
93
c i t y o f V a le n c ia p r o b a b ly a c cou n ted f o r h i s i n t e r e s t i n
even th e hum blest o f human b e i n g s . H is r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s
made him h o ld a l l men r e s p o n s i b l e f o r making t h e m ost o f
t h e m s e lv e s . V a le n c ia p r o v id e d th e p o s i t i v e i n f l u e n c e s
which formed th e co re o f h i s p h ilo s o p h y . He moved from one
environm ent to a n o th e r expanding h i s sy m p a th ies and h i s
know ledge as he a ccu m u lated th e f r u i t s o f new e x p e r i e n c e s .
P a r i s formed th e n e g a t i v e a s p e c t . I t p r e s e n te d th e p i c t u r e
o f t h e i n f l u e n c e s t r y i n g to b lo c k H e n a is sa n c e a c t i v i t i e s ,
t o h o ld back t h e New L e a r n in g . These two p h a s e s , t h e n , o f
V ives* c a r e e r gave him a v i s i o n not o n ly o f t h e new age in to
which c i v i l i z a t i o n was e n t e r i n g b u t a l s o o f th e e v i l s o f
th e o ld w hich w ould have t o be c o r r e c t e d . I t was not u n t i l
he rea ch ed t h e t h i r d s t a g e o f h i s l i f e e x p e r i e n c e , F la n d e r s ,
t h a t he compared t h e two p h i l o s o p h i e s and, f o r t i f i e d by t h e
example o f F lem ish Humanism, threw h i m s e l f i n t o th e b a t t l e
o f u p h o ld in g , d e v e lo p in g and expanding t h e i d e a l s s e t by
th e g r e a t A g r i c o l a .
The renew al o f S p a n is h memories and t r a d i t i o n s i n
h i s f r i e n d s h i p w ith C a th e r in e o f Aragon; t h e s o c i a l p h i l o s o
p h ie s o f S i r Thomas More; the p o l i t i c a l a s t u t e n e s s and q u es
t i o n a b l e p r a c t i c e s o f ffo o ls e y ; th e Oxford U n i v e r s i t y e x p e r i
e n c e s and th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f E n g lis h Humanism; th e
E n g lis h s o c i a l , econ o m ic, and r e l i g i o u s p r o b lem s, v i z . , th e
E n c lo su r e A c t s , th e s u p p r e s s io n o f m o n a s t e r ie s , t h e i n d i c a t i o n s
94
o f Henry V I I I ’ s dual p e r s o n a l i t y and h i s d e t e r i o r a t i o n ; a l l
t h e s e i n f l u e n c e s fo r c e d him to a n o th er momentous d e c i s i o n
t h i s tim e o f a moral r a t h e r th a n an i n t e l l e c t u a l n a tu r e .
Sh ould he evade t h e i s s u e s in v o lv e d i n H enry’ s d iv o r c e ?
S h ould he brave th e wrath o f Henry t h e E igh th ? S h ould he
support C a th erin e? In t h e end, he su p p o rte d n e i t h e r . He
a d v is e d C a th e r in e n o t to submit t o t h e mockery o f a p seu d o
t r i a l . He warned Henry o f the r e s u l t s to be e x p e c te d from
h i s n e f a r i o u s p l a n s . In h i s own words:
. . . The Queen was th e n angry w ith me t h a t I had
not im m ed ia te ly obeyed h er w i l l r a t h e r th a n my own
judgm ent. But to judgment i s worth a l l t h e
p r i n c e s t h e r e a r e . And th u s th e Kang h e l d me a s
h i s enemy and th e Queen regard ed me a s d i l a t o r y and
r e f r a c t o r y . And b o th o f them have ta k e n away my
s a l a r y . 10
The f i f t h and l a s t ph ase o f V ives* l i f e was t h e
p e r io d o f g r e a t l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t y which f o llo w e d h i s d e c i
s i o n to r i s k s t a r v a t i o n r a th e r th a n be a p a r ty to t h e i n t r i
g u e s o f the r o y a l d iv o r c e d i s p u t a n t s . A ft e r t h r e e y e a r s o f
d i r e s t p o v e r ty , d u rin g which he produced two o f h i s g r e a t e s t
w orks, he r e g a in e d h i s f i n a n c i a l f o o t i n g . H is h e a l t h became
i n c r e a s i n g l y w o r se . Most o f h i s works were w r i t t e n w h ile
he was s u f f e r i n g i n t e n s e p a in from gout i n h i s h a n d s, arms,
and s h o u ld e r s . He composed du rin g t h i s l a s t ph ase o f h i s
10
W atson, V iv e s: On E d u c a tio n , o p . c i t . , p . l x x x i .
95
l i f e a g r e a t work on i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s , one on t h e
s c i e n c e and p h ilo s o p h y o f e d u c a t io n , p u b lis h e d a book on
a p p lie d p s y c h o lo g y , w r o te a te x tb o o k f o r th e l e a r n i n g o f
spoken L a t i n , and f i n a l l y , as th e f r u i t s o f l i f e - l o n g l e a r n
in g and i n t e l l i g e n t l i v i n g , l e f t a s a posthumous h e r i t a g e ,
the e v o lu t io n a r y h i s t o r y o f man’ s e f f o r t to ap p ly h i s
r e l i g i o u s ( e t h i c a l ) b e l i e f s t o p r a c t i c a l l i v i n g .
V i v e s , h i m s e l f , as an i n d i v i d u a l seems to have been
a s e r e n e , g e n e r o u s , c o m p a s s io n a te , c o u r te o u s , gentilhom m e
who, i n s p i t e o f h i s rank, u sed h i s g r e a t e r u d i t i o n i n th e
s e r v i c e o f h i s f e l l o w men. An atm osphere o f r e s p e c t and
a f f e c t i o n tow ards him p e r v a d e s g e n e r a l l y t h e s t u d i e s on
V i v e s . H is l i f e p r e s e n t s , as h a s b een i n d i c a t e d ab ove,
f i v e d i s t i n c t d ev elo p m en ta l s t e p s : (1) th e c o n s t r u c t i v e
fo r m a tiv e i n f l u e n c e s o f V a le n c ia w ith i t s v i t a l i t y and
m u l t i - c o l o r e d background; (2) th e c o n t r a s t in g r e p r e s s i o n s
o f the Sorbonne w ith i t s f u t i l e e f f o r t s to h o ld back th e
t i d e s o f th e R e n a iss a n c e s p i r i t o f in q u ir y ; (3) th e i n
f l u e n c e o f A g r i c o l a , Erasmus, and th e B reth ren o f th e
Common L i f e w hich p r e c i p i t a t e d a c o n f l i c t r e s u l t i n g i n the
e d u c a t io n a l m a s t e r p ie c e I n P seu d o- D i a l e c t i c o s ; (4) V i v e s ’
d e c i s i o n on H enry’ s d i v o r c e t a c t i c s w hich in v o lv e d g iv in g
up h i s l i v e l i h o o d and p r o f e s s i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s , b e in g
b a n is h e d , and r e t u r n in g t o F la n d e r s to b e g in h i s c a r e e r
o v e r a g a in ; and (5) h i s g i f t to th e w orld o f h i s g r e a t
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w r i t i n g s — the f r u i t s o f h i s l e a r n i n g and l i v i n g .
The im m ediate environ m en tal i n f l u e n c e s on th e l i f e
o f V iv e s have been d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r s tw o , t h r e e , and
f o u r . In C hapter V, an e f f o r t w i l l be made to p r e s e n t
th e i n d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e s a f f e c t i n g V iv e s — t h e g r e a t s o c i a l
i s s u e s o f t h e a g e w hich formed th e s o c i o l o g i c a l background
o f h i s w r i t i n g s . T h is c h a p te r w i l l form a t r a n s i t i o n
b etw een th e b io g r a p h ic a l phase o f th e s t u d y , w hich empha
s i z e s t h e p e r s o n a l and group i n f l u e n c e s on V ives* l i f e , and
t h e secon d s e c t i o n o f t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n w h ich g i v e s a resume
o f h i s w ork s. H is w r i t i n g s embody h i s r e a c t i o n s to t h e
s o c i a l dynam ics o f h i s t i m e s . The c h a p te r i s n o t o n ly a
summary o f t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s a lr e a d y c o n s id e r e d i n
th e f i r s t f o u r c h a p t e r s a s background t o i n d i v i d u a l
i n c i d e n t s i n V ives* b io g r a p h y , but i s , a l s o , a f o r e c a s t o f
t h e q u e s t io n s w hich V iv e s a tte m p ts to d i s c u s s i n h i s
w r i t i n g s .
CHAPTER V
THE SOCIAL BACKGROUND OF VIVES* TIMES
INTRODUCTION
Tlie t h r e e p r e c e d in g c h a p te r s have g i v e n a s k e tc h
o f th e p r i n c i p a l e v e n t s o f Vives* l i f e , t o g e t h e r w ith t h e
"background i n w h ich t h e y happened. I t i s the pu rp ose o f
t h i s c h a p te r t o co m p lete t h e survey o f e n v iro n m en ta l f a c
t o r s w hich i n f l u e n c e d Vives* l i f e and w hich formed h i s
sta n d a r d s o f judgm ent.
Born i n V a le n c ia , i n th e c r i t i c a l y e a r o f 1 4 9 2 , th e
annus m i r a b i l i s a s i t h as b een c a l l e d , V iv e s l i v e d th r o u g h ,
i n h i s own l i f e , th e t r a n s i t i o n p e r io d from m ed iaeval t o
modern t i m e s . The r ic h c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e s o f M ed iterran ean
S p a in had p r o v id e d him w ith a p e r s p e c t i v e o f w orld c u l t u r e s .
H is th o u g h t had been turned to t h e problem s o f human r e l a
t i o n s h i p s and human n e e d s . His t r a i n i n g a t th e U n i v e r s i t y
o f V a le n c ia had a c q u a in te d him w ith th e s c h o l a s t i c s * p r id e
i n t h e outgrow n m ed ia ev a l l e a r n i n g . F iv e y e a r s a t t h e
U n i v e r s i t y o f P a r i s w ith i t s D i a l e c t i c r e g im e n t a tio n had
ta x e d h i s i n q u i s i t i v e and j u d i c i a l mind to th e u tm o st. He
r e b e l l e d and l e f t f o r F la n d e r s , t h e s e a t o f N orthern Human
ism . Here he s t u d ie d under th e g r e a t H um anist, Erasmus,
a t L o u v a in . In 1 5 1 9 , he f lu n g f o r t h h i s c h a lle n g e t o th e
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p s e u d o - s c h o la r s o f th e S orb on n e. H is P seu d o - D ia le c t o s »
t o g e t h e r w ith f i v e o t h e r im portant works w r i t t e n i n t h i s
p e r io d , a t t r a c t e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l a t t e n t i o n . The C o u n c il o f
B ruges gave him p e r so n a l c o n ta c t w ith W oolsey, a p a tr o n o f
th e New L e a rn in g . He com p leted h i s m a s s iv e work on S t .
A u g u stin e which he d e d ic a t e d to Henry V I I I . By t h i s tim e
he was i n r e c e i p t o f p e n s io n s from b o th More and C a th e r in e
o f Aragon. He a c c e p te d an o f f e r t o l e c t u r e a t Oxford and
to d i r e c t th e e d u c a t io n o f P r i n c e s s Mary. A f t e r f i v e y e a r s
o f a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the work o f th e E n g lis h Human
i s t s , he had to l e a v e England b e c a u se o f h i s a t t i t u d e on
th e d iv o r c e q u e s t i o n . A r r iv in g back a t B r u g e s, he w r o te
h i s m ost s e r i o u s w orks. Twelve y e a r s a f t e r h i s r e tu r n from
E n g la n d , he di e d .
CHRONOLOGICAL ORIENTATION
As h a s been remarked, V iv e s was born i n t h e ep och al
y e a r o f 1 4 9 2 , when: (1) S p a in was saved t o C hristendom by
th e Conquest o f Granada; (2) Columbus d is c o v e r e d t h e new
w orld and s t a r t e d t h e westw ard tr e n d o f c i v i l i z a t i o n ; (3)
I s a b e l l a made a t r a g i c m ista k e i n t h e b i g o t r y u n d e r ly in g
her e x p u ls io n o f th e Jews and Moors -vdio had r e f u s e d t o
become C h r i s t i a n i z e d ; (4) Lorenzo de M ed ic i d i e d , u p s e t t i n g
th e p o l i t i c a l b a la n ce o f power i n Europe and p r e c i p i t a t i n g
t h e dism em bering o f I t a l y ; and (5) Roderigo B o r g ia , o f
un savory fame, became Pope A lexan d er V I.
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By 1 4 9 2 , t h e r e were fo u r major n a t i o n a l s t a t e s ;
F ra n ce, S p a in , P o r tu g a l and E ngland, S p a in was r u le d by
F erdinand and I s a b e l l a ; F rance by C h a r le s V I II ; England
by Henry V II; P o r tu g a l by Manuel I ; t h e German and A u s tr ia n
S t a t e s by th e Emperor M a x im ilia n . The t h r e e new
R e n a iss a n c e k in g s w ere a l l born d u rin g t h i s decade 1 4 9 0 -
1500: Henry V I I I , i n 1491; F r a n c is I , i n 1494; C h a r le s V,
i n 1 5 0 0 . T h is p e r io d , a l s o , saw t h e b i r t h o f E ly o t (1 4 9 0 );
L o y o la (1 4 9 1 ); R a b e l a i s ( c . 1 4 9 5 ); and M elan cton ( 1 4 9 7 ) .
M a r g u e r ite , th e Humanist s i s t e r o f F r a n c i s I , was born i n
t h e same y e a r a s V iv e s , 1 4 9 2 . C a th e r in e o f A ragon, L u th er
and More were born i n t h e e i g h t i e s ; Bude, Erasmus, and
M a c h ia v e ll i were born i n t h e s i x t i e s .
F e r d in a n d , M ax im ilian , and Henry V II c o n s t i t u t e d a
t r i o o f schem ers, each o f whom t r i e d t o s e i z e th e advan tage
o v e r th e o t h e r tw o . By 1 5 0 8 , a f t e r Henry V I I I a cced ed t o
t h e t h r o n e , t h e t r i o s t i l l in c lu d e d t h e w i l y F erd in an d and
th e c r a f t y M a x im ilia n , but had r e p la c e d Henry VII by the
a m b itio u s W oolsey. In t h e s e hands l a y th e t a n g le d s k e in s
o f European power p o l i t i c s w h ile V iv e s was a stu d e n t in
P a r i s .
At t h e tim e o f V i v e s 1 so jo u r n i n L o u v a in , 1 5 1 6 ,
C h a r le s I o f S p a in su cceed ed t o t h e th r o n e o f S p a in ( C a s t i l e
and A ra g o n ). F r a n c is I , who had a scen d ed th e French th r o n e
i n 1 5 1 5 , had r u le d one y e a r as k in g o f F r a n c e . In 1 5 1 9 ,
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when h i s g r a n d fa t h e r M a x im illia n o f A u s t r ia d i e d , C h a r le s
i n h e r i t e d t h e g r e a t Hapsburg p o s s e s s i o n s o f A u s t r ia and the
N e th e r la n d s . In 15 2 1 , he was e l e c t e d Emperor o f t h e H oly
Roman Empire which made him th e r u l in g p r in c e o f t h e t h r e e
hundred fe u d a l s t a t e s o f Germany. When he became r u l e r o f
t h e s e v a s t p o s s e s s i o n s , he was known a s Emperor C h a r le s V.
F r a n c is I had a ls o endeavored to se c u r e t h e im p e r ia l h on or.
O hagrinned a t t h i s f a i l u r e , he recommenced th e d i s a s t r o u s
I t a l i a n w a r s.
In 1 5 2 1 , th e y e a r which saw C h a r le s V crowned Roman
Emperor, L u th er was excom m unicated. In 1 5 2 9 , L utheranism
was condemned a s h e r e s y . In 1 5 2 3 , Zurich s t o o d by th e
\
Reformer ^ w in g li and renounced C a t h o lic is m . In 1 5 3 6 , a t
B a s l e , John C a lv in w rote The I n s t i t u t e s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n
R e l i g i o n .
The f o u n d a t io n o f n a t i o n a li s m was l a i d w ith t h e
growth o f a b s o lu t is m and t h e r i s e o f t h e m id d le c l a s s . T his
b a s i s was p a r t i c u l a r l y tr u e i n E ngland. The n o b i l i t y had
b een e x h a u ste d by th e Wars o f t h e R o s e s . The breakdown o f
fe u d a lis m and i n c r e a s e o f commerce was c a p i t a l i z e d by
Henry V II; th e d e c a d en ce and s c a n d a ls o f t h e Church, by
Henry V I I I . Henry V I I I d e f y in g th e P o p e , made h i m s e l f head
o f t h e A n g lic a n Church i n 1 5 3 4 . T h is y e a r , 1 5 3 4 , i s t o be
n o te d , a l s o , as th e d a te o f t h e fo u n d in g o f t h e J e s u i t
S o c i e t y , a p ro ced u re c o n s t i t u t i n g one o f t h e i n i t i a l s t e p s
i n t h e C o u n te r-R e fo rm a tio n ,
Trade r o u t e s w ere r e - c h a r t e d w ith th e p a s sa g e o f
Vasco da Gama around t h e Cape o f Good Hope i n 1 4 9 7 ,
M a g ella n c ir c u m n a v ig a te d th e g lo b e i n 1 5 1 9 -1 5 2 2 . M exico
was conquered by Hernando C o r te z i n 1 5 1 9 . P eru , by
P iz a r r o i n 1 5 3 1 . Both o f t h o s e c o n q u e s ts brought g r e a t
w e a lth to S p a in . John C abot, 1 4 9 6 -9 7 , and C a r t i e r , 1 5 3 4 ,
e x p lo r e d th e c o a s t s o f North A m erica.
Mohammedan e f f o r t s a t t h e c o n q u est o f C h r i s t i a n
Europe c o n tin u e d . In 1 5 2 1 , S u leim an I I d e c la r e d war on
Hungary; in 1 5 2 6 , he overcame th e H ungarians a t M ohacs.
In 1 5 2 9 , he l a i d s i e g e to V ienna but f a i l e d , how ever, t o
conquer th e c i t y ,
THE RENAISSANCE
There h a s been much b ic k e r in g back and f o r t h among
h i s t o r i a n s , p h i l o s o p h e r s , a r t i s t s and men o f l e t t e r s as t o
what t h e R e n a issa n c e r e a l l y was and when i t b egan. I t seems
w i s e , t h e r e f o r e , to e s t a b l i s h some p o i n t s o f r e f e r e n c e
b e f o r e b e g in n in g t h e a n a l y s i s o f V ives* w orks from th e v ie w
p o i n t o f h i s en viro n m en t.
The I t a l i a n R e n a iss a n c e r e a l l y began i n I t a l y w ith
th e r e v i v a l o f c l a s s i c a l l e a r n i n g i n t h e e a r l y f o u r t e e n t h
c e n tu r y . T h is r e v i v a l , how ever, was e s s e n t i a l l y a Roman
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R e n a is s a n c e , a r a c i a l movement, r a th e r than th e g r e a t up
s u r g in g o f a l l t h e c r o s s - c u r r e n t s o f a n t i q u i t y - - w h i c h were
p r e lim in a r y to th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a new w orld era*
For t h e p u rp o se s o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , th e tim e
l i m i t s o f th e R e n a iss a n c e w i l l be s e t p r im a r ily from t h e
t r a d i t i o n o f men o f l e t t e r s , i . e . , b e g in n in g a t 1 4 5 3 -5 4 ,
t h e d a t e s o f t h e f a l l o f C o n s t a n t in o p le , and t h e i n v e n t i o n
o f p r i n t i n g , r e s p e c t i v e l y . I t w i l l be d e f in e d as a p e r io d
c h a r a c t e r iz e d by (1) t h e s p i r i t o f f r e e in q u ir y ; (2) a
r e c o g n i t i o n o f b e a u ty i n i t s v a r io u s form s; (3) a r e v i v a l
o f i n t e r e s t i n Greek and Roman l e a r n i n g . C h r o n o lo g i c a ll y ,
i t w i l l be assumed t o f a l l i n th e p e r io d 1 4 5 0 -1 6 5 0 . The
p o in t o f d e f i n i t e t r a n s i t i o n from th e o l d t o th e new w i l l be
s e t a t 1492— t h e d a te a t which t h e modern v ie w p o in t began
a c t u a l l y to be p e r c e p t i b l e .
SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE R1NAISSAHCF
A t t e n t i o n h a s a lr e a d y been c a l l e d to t h e f a c t t h a t
1 4 9 2 , th e y e a r o f v iv es* b i r t h , marked a c r i t i c a l p o in t i n
th e w o r l d ' s h i s t o r y — a p o in t i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n from m ed ia ev a l
t o modern t i m e s , when t h e r e were d e f i n i t e e v id e n c e s t h a t an
o ld s o c i a l o r d e r was p a s s i n g out and a new one coming i n .
A lread y i n s t i t u t i o n s were b e g in n in g to crum ble; a lr e a d y th e
l i n e s o f b a t t l e b etw een t r a d i t i o n a l i s t s and in n o v a t o r s were
b e g in n in g to be d e f i n e d .
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In th e m e d ia e v a l a g e s , t h e r e was one dom in ant, un
i f y i n g power w hich c o n t r o l l e d men’ s s o u l s , t h e i r l i v e s ,
and t h e i r s o c i e t y — t h e Church. V a r io u s f o r c e s combined t o
break down t h e t h e o c r a c y which had s e t up i n s t i t u t i o n s t o
o rd e r and c o n t r o l men’ s l i v e s . Some o f t h e s e d i s s o l v e n t
f o r c e s were: (1) Mohammedan c o n q u e s ts which a f f e c t e d th e
p r e s t i g e o f th e church; (2) th e decay o f fe u d a lis m w h ich
had b een a weapon o f enforcem ent f o r t h e church; (3) t h e
b e g in n in g s o f c e n t r a l i z e d p o p u la t io n s ; (4) th e growth o f
commerce w ith t h e r i s e o f m e r c h a n ts’ s law ; (5) a change from
b a r t e r economy to an exchange economy (m oney); (6) a s t r u g g l e
f o r power b etw een Church and S t a t e ; (7) a s t r u g g l e f o r
supremacy betw een c l e r g y and n o b le s ; (8) in c r e a s e i n g o ld
and s i l v e r ; (9) r i s e o f c a p i t a li s m ; (10) c o r r u p tio n o f
c le r g y ; (11) d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f e d u c a tio n ; (12) s t r u g g l e o f
th e papacy f o r s e c u l a r power; (13) i n v e n t i o n s , d i s c o v e r i e s ,
v o y a g e s o f e x p l o r a t i o n s ; (14) r e c o v e r y o f d e t a i l s o f p a s t
c i v i l i z a t i o n s ; (15) b e g in n in g o f i n d i v i d u a l i z e d s o c i e t y as
opp osed to a communal s o c i e t y ; and (16) spread of know ledge
th rou gh p r i n t e d b o o k s.
Any human s o c i e t y has to p r o v id e f o r fundam ental
human n eed s such as (1) f o o d , (2) s h e l t e r , (3) c l o t h i n g ,
(4) h e a l t h , (5) t r a n s p o r a t i o n , (6) commerce, (7) e d u c a t io n ,
and (8) r e l i g i o n . The i n s t i t u t i o n s s e t up to me6t t h e s e
n eed s c e a s e to f u n c t i o n when t h e need ch a n g es. Then th e y
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must be r e p la c e d , The q u e s t io n f i n a l l y r e s o l v e s i t s e l f in to
■which i s B u p e r io r , th e in d iv i d u a l or t h e i n s t i t u t i o n . Van
der Leeuw an sw ers t h i s q u e s t io n by s a y in g ,
W e a re apt t o t h in k o f i n s t i t u t i o n s a s t h i n g s , a s
o b j e c t s , w hich can be changed o u t s i d e o f man. Y e t, i f
a l l human b e in g s were to su d d en ly d is a p p e a r from t h i s
e a r t h , th e r e would not be a n y th in g l e f t o f t h e s e s o c i a l
form s. They a r e but l i v i n g r e l a t i o n s betw een men;
c r e a te d by man, t h e y l i v e i n him and d is a p p e a r w ith
him . T h e r e f o r e , man, i n d i v i d u a l l i v i n g man., i s prim ary
i n a l l s o c i a l c h a n g e s .1
I t i s p r o b a b ly g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d to d a y t h a t i n s t i t u
t i o n s i n t h e m s e lv e s a r e n e i t h e r good o r bad; th e y are m erely
t h e f r u i t o f human r e l a t i o n s h i p s . They v a r y w ith th e a v e ra g e
s o c i a l i n t e l l i g e n c e o f t h e m a ss, and w ith t h e w id th o f th e
gap betw een r u l e r and r u le d . The H um anists r e a l i z e d th e
im p ortan ce o f th e i n d i v i d u a l , and o f human r e l a t i o n s h i p s ;
th e Church, i t s e l f an i n s t i t u t i o n , t r i 6 d to make s o c i e t y
s u b s e r v ie n t to i n s t i t u t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y to t h o s e i t con
t r o l l e d . T h is d i f f e r e n c e o f v ie w p o in t formed th e b a s i s o f
one o f t h e m ost s e r i o u s s o c i a l c o n f l i c t s o f t h e day.
SOCIAL ILLS
An e r a i n w h ich t r a d i t i o n s break down i s accompanied
by o t h e r s o c i a l ch an ges: a u t h o r i t y i s q u e s tio n e d ; manners
1
J . I . van der Leeuw, "The Task o f E d u c a tio n i n a
World C r i s i s , " qu oted from Wyatt Rawson, e d i t o r , A New World
i n th e M aking: An I n t e r n a t i o n a l Survey o f t h e New E d u c a tio n
TLondon: New E d u c a tio n a l F e l l o w s h i p , 1933) , p . 1 1 .
105
ch an ge, and v a lu e s f l u c t u a t e . S o c i e t y i n e v i t a b l y d e t e r i o r
a t e s u n t i l su ch tim e a s th e new sta n d a r d s and modes o f co n
d u ct are r e c o g n iz e d . Someone must s e t t h e s e new sta n d a r d s
but b e fo r e t h a t happens t h e c a u s e s o f s o c i a l breakdown must
be a n a ly z e d . An a n a l y s i s o f the e v i l s i n V ives* t im e s
shows, a s h as a lr e a d y been i n d i c a t e d , t h a t r u l e r s o f b o th
church and s t a t e were f i g h t i n g a g a i n s t each o t h e r and
a g a i n s t th e m s e lv e s a t a moment when th e common enemy o f a l l
C hristendom was m oving on v i c t o r i o u s l y i n h i s c o n q u est from
th e e a s t . The d i s s o l u t e c le r g y were d e s t r o y i n g r e s p e c t f o r
th e ch u rch . The wars among C h r i s t i a n p r i n c e s had brought
i n t h e i r t r a i n vagabond s o l d i e r s , d e s e r t e d hom es, b e g g a rs
and d i s e a s e . H e r e t o f o r e , i t had been t h e p r o v in c e o f t h e
Church to ta k e care o f th e d e s t i t u t e , but t h e m isu se o f
money g i v e n f o r c h a r i t y c o n s t i t u t e d a n o th e r sca n d a l o f the
tim e s . G-ambling o f a l l k i n d s , d r in k in g , l i c e n t i o u s n e s s ,
corru p t c o u r t s w ith t h e i r i n t r i g u e s , v u l g a r i t y o f a l l ty p e s --
i n f a c t co m p lete breakdown o f p e r s o n a l as w e l l a s p u b l i c
m o ra le — c h a r a c t e r i z e d th e s o c i e t y o f th e d a y .
SUMMARY
The fundam ental s o c i a l i s s u e s a t s ta k e i n t h e t r a n s i
t i o n p e r io d i n w h ich V iv e s l i v e d and w r o te have b een i n d i
c a t e d . The d evelop m en t o f Humanism c e n te r e d around (1) t h e
spread o f c l a s s i c a l l e a r n i n g , (2) th e p e r f e c t i n g o f p r i n t i n g
106
and th e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n o f b o o k s. The t h r e e m ajor problem s
c o n f r o n t in g th e C h r i s t i a n w orld w ere: (1) th e t h r e a t to
C h r i s t i a n c o u n t r i e s th rou gh t h e i n v a s io n s o f t h e Turks;
(2) th e d e s t r u c t i o n o f Rome’ s c la im to s p i r i t u a l supremacy
through co rru p t c l e r g y and q u e s t io n a b le church p o l i c i e s ;
(3) th e r i s e o f n a t i o n a l i s t i c s t a t e s w ith t h e co n seq u en t
c o n f l i c t f o r p o l i t i c a l and r e l i g i o u s supremacy. From t h e s e
c o n f l i c t s a r o se such q u e s t io n s a s : To whom sh o u ld
a l l e g i a n c e be p a id ? — k in g o r pope? Which la w s sh o u ld be
f o llo w e d : — canon, c i v i l , k i n g ’ s o r m e r c h a n ts’ ? Who was
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e w e l f a r e o f th e d is lo d g e d poor? Church
o r S t a t e ? Who were th e a r b i t e r s o f ed u c a tio n ? S c h o l a s t i c s
o r H um anists? The Sorbonne or th e kin g? Such q u e s t io n s
form th e p o i n t o f d e p a r tu r e f o r V iv e s i n h i s w r i t i n g s . A
b r i e f resume o f h i s p r i n c i p a l works w i l l be g i v e n in t h e
two c h a p t e r s w hich f o l l o w .
CHAPTER VI
SURVEY OF VIVES* SOCIOLOGICAL WORKS
I n making an a n a l y s i s o f V ives* w o ik s , two v ie w
p o i n t s must be k e p t i n mind: th e o n e , o f V iv e s a s an
i n d i v i d u a l ; th e o t h e r , o f V iv e s a s a member o f th e epoch
i n w hich he l i v e d . H is p e r s o n a l background was t h a t o f
th e S p a n ish s c h o l a r and n o b le ; h i s s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l back
ground, t h a t o f a refo rm e r i n an era o f c a t a s t r o p h i c
change. B oth en viron m en ts I n flu e n c e d h i s w r i t i n g s ; t h e
f i r s t had d eterm in ed h i s p o in t o f view ; th e se c o n d , h i s
t h e a t r e o f a c t i o n . H is g r e a t o b j e c t i v e was t o e x p l a in ,
and to a ttem p t to r e s o l v e , some o f t h e s o c i a l problem s o f
h i s e r a . V ives* s o c i o l o g i c a l works w i l l form t h e b a s i s o f
t h i s c h a p t e r . E d u c a tio n a l w orks w i l l f o l l o w i n Chapter V I I.
DEFINITIONS
"A. s o c i a l problem a r i s e s , ” s a y s F u l l e r , ”when th e r e
i s an a w aren ess among a g iv e n p e o p le t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l
s i t u a t i o n i s a t h r e a t t o c e r t a i n group v a l u e s w hich th e y
c h e r is h and t h a t t h i s s i t u a t i o n can be removed or c o r r e c t e d
o n ly by c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n . ”1 Such a s i t u a t i o n a rose when
1
.R ic h a r d C. F u l l e r , e t a . , R ob ert E. P ark , e d i t o r ,
An O u tlin e o f t h e P r i n c i p l e s o f s o c i o l o g y (New York: B arnes
and N o b le , 1939) , p i Yl
108
L u th er n a i l e d h i s t h e s e s on t h e door o f th e W itten b e rg
ch u rch . A nother such a s i t u a t i o n was p r e c i p i t a t e d by H enry’ s
a ttem p t to d iv o r c e C a t h e r in e . S t i l l a t h i r d example o f
group v a l u e s b e in g th r e a t e n e d was th e p u b l i c i t y g iv e n
Erasm us’ P r a i s e o f F o l l y .
’’The r o o t s o f any s o c i a l problem are to be found i n
both p e r s o n a l and gx-oup f a c t o r s , ” s a y s F u l l e r , c o n t in u in g
h i s e x p la n a t io n . "When any c l a s s o f i n d i v i d u a l s f a l l s b e lo w
a c e r t a i n sta n d a rd s e t by th e grou p , a s i n th e c a se o f t h e
in s a n e , t h e p h y s i c a l l y d i s a b l e d , th e c r i m i n a l s , and t h e p o o r ,
t h e i r c o n d i t i o n may be t r a c e d i n p a r t to b i o l o g i c a l and
m en tal d i s a b i l i t i e s ; i n p a r t to t h e f a i l u r e o f our s o c i a l
i n s t i t u t i o n s * ” 2 That V iv e s co n cu rred i n t h e s e v ie w s o f the
o r i g i n s o f s o c i a l problem s i s shown i n m ost o f h i s w r i t i n g s ,
b u t m ost s t r i k i n g l y i n h i s I)e S u b v e n tio n e Fauperum.
’’C h an ge,” e x p l a i n s F u l l e r , ” d o e s not go on a t t h e
same pace i n a l l p a r t s o f our c u l t u r e . ” Changes i n t h e
economic sp h ere u s u a l l y come f i r s t . ' Next come changes i n
t h e ’’a d a p tiv e c u l t u r e e x ta n t i n t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l a r e a s o f
govern m ent, la w , f a m i ly , s c h o o l , and ch u rch . L a s t o f a l l
o ccu r changes i n t h e s o c i a l and econom ic p h i l o s o p h i e s . . . .
’ C u ltu r a l l a g ’ d e s c r i b e s a ’ te n d e n c y on th e p a r t of t h e
2
I b i d . , p . 1 0 .
109
a d a p tin g or c o n t r o l l i n g c u l t u r e to f a i l to keep up w it h th e
pace s e t by t e c h n o l o g i c a l changes i n th e m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e . "3
Thus t h e change from b a r t e r to a money b a s i s o f commerce
p r e c i p i t a t e d many s o c i a l p r o b lem s, in c lu d e d among which
were e d u c a t io n a l ch a n g es. The i n v e n t i o n o f p r i n t i n g , f o r
i n s t a n c e , was one o f t h e prim ary c a u se s o f t h e sp re a d o f
know ledge which brought a b ou t t h e R e fo rm a tio n , y i v e s l i v e d
i n th e secon d and t h i r d phases' o f c h a n g e ,— t h a t o f th e
m a la d ju stm en ts ca u se d in t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l a r e a s and i n th e
e x p r e s s i o n o f a new p h ilo s o p h y to e x p l a in t h e new a g e .
" C u ltu ra l m a la d ju stm en ts a r e ," a g a in q u o tin g F u l l e r ,
"problem s o f s o c i a l d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n i n v o l v i n g t h e b rea k
down o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t r a d i t i o n a l g ro u p s, i n s t i t u t i o n s ,
and a g e n c ie s which form th e a u t h o r i t a t i v e c u l t u r e .
M ala d ju stm en ts w hich may be c o n s id e r e d from t h i s p o in t o f
v ie w a r e: f a m ily d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n , th e n e g l e c t e d c h i l d ,
th e d e c l i n e o f t h e ch u rch , and crim e. I f we assume t h e
e x i s t e n c e o f a w orld o r d e r , th e n war may a l s o be c o n c e iv e d
a s a problem o f s o c i a l m a la d ju stm en t— i n t e r n a t i o n a l d is o r g a n
i z a t i o n . " 4 C u ltu r a l m a la d ju s tm e n ts, i n c lu d i n g war, form t h e
theme o f T i v e s f w orks. The t o p i c s he d i s c u s s e s a re w ar,
p o v e r t y , e d u c a t io n , r e l i g i o n , s c i e n c e , h i s t o r y , la w , f a m ily
3
I b i d . , pp. 1 1 - 1 8 .
4
I b i d . , p . 1 8 .
110
r e l a t i o n s , and govern m ent.
YIVES • WRITINGS
V iv e s was a v e r y p r o l i f i c w r i t e r . B o n i l l a l i s t s
some f i f t y - s e v e n works. Be has c l a s s i f i e d t h e s e works under
f o u r main h e a d in g s: m e t a p h y s ic a l, l o g i c a l , s c i e n t i f i c , and
h i s t o r i c a l . The l i s t , w h ich i s qu oted i n f u l l , g i v e s some
i d e a o f th e v e r s a t i l i t y and e r u d i t i o n o f V i v e s .
A. OBRAS MgTAIISICASL
D iv id im o s e s t s s e c c i o n en dos s u b s e c c i o n e s , a sab er:
a . Obras o n t o l S g i c a s :
1 . De prima p h i l o s o p h i a , s i v e de in tim o
n a tu ra e o p i f i c i o , l i b r i t r e s .
b . Obras t e o l o g i c a s :
2 . Be v e r i t a t e f i d e i c h r i s t i a n a e , l i b r i
q u in q u e .
3 . Commentaria i n XXXI l i b r o s c i v i t a t e
D ei D iv i A. A u g u s t in i.
4 . E x c i t a t i o n e s anim i i n Deum.
5 . G e n e th lia c o n I e s u C h r i s t i .
6 . De tempore quo, i d e s t , de p ace i n qua
n a tu s e s t C h r i s t u s .
7. C ly p e i C h r i s t i d e s c r i p t i o .
8 . Sacrum Diurnum, de su dore Domini N O stri
I e s u C h r i s t i .
9 . M e d it a t io a l t e r a i n P s a l . eumdem XXXVII.
1 0 . P r a e l e c t i o i n suum C h r i s t i triumphum,
quae d i c i t u r : V e r i t a s f u e a t a .
1 1 . C h r i s t i I e s u triu m p h u s.
1 2 . O vatio V i r g i n i s D e i - P a r e n t i s .
B. OBRAS LOGICAS. ^
D iv id im o s e s t a s e c c i o n en cu a tro s u b s e c c io n e s :
a . Obras c r i t i c a s y m e t o d o l o g i c a s :
1 . De c a u s i s corru p t arum a r tiu m .
2 . De t r a d e n d i s d i s c i p l i n i s .
3 . De in stu m en to p r o b a b i l i t at i s .
4 . De e x p la n a t i o n s c u iu sq u e e s s e n t i a e .
5 . De cen su r a v e r i .
6 . De A r i s t o t e l i s o p e r ib u s c e n s u r a .
b . Obras g r a m a tic a s:
I l l
7*. L inguae l a t i n a e e x e r c i t a t i o .
8 . Be r a t i o n e s t u d i i p u e r i l i s , e p i s t o l a e I I .
9 . Be co n serilD en d is e p i s t o l i s .
1 0 . I s o e r a t i s A r e o p a g it ic a o r a t i o .
1 1 . I s o e r a t i s N i c o c l e s , s i v e a u x i l i a r i s .
1 2 . B u co licoru m Y e r g i l i i i n t e r p r e t a t i o
p o tissim u m a l e g o r i e a .
1 3 . I n G e o r g ic a P u b l i i Y e r g i l i i M aronis.
p r a e l e c t i o .
1 4 . In C o n v iv ia F r a n c i s c i P h i l e l p h i
p r a e l e c t i o .
1 5 . Y e r i t a s f a c u t a , s i v e de l i e e n t i a p o e t i c a ,
quantum P o e t i s l i e e a t a v e r i t a t e
a b s c e d e r e .
16.. SoEinium, quae e s t p r a e f a t i o ad somnium
S c i p i o n i s C i c e r o n i a n i .
1 7 . Y i g i l i a in Somnium S c i p i o n i s .
c . Obras r e t d r i c a s :
1 8 . Be r a t i o n e d i c e n d i , l i b r i t r e s .
1 9 . De c o n s u l t a t i o n s .
2 0 . D e c la m a tio n e s s e x .
2 1 . P o p e iu s f u g i e n s .
2 2 . In quartum R h etoricoru m ad Herennium
p r a e l e c t i o .
d. Obras d i a l e c t i c a s :
2 3 .” In p s e u d o - d i a l e c t i c o s .
2 4 . De d i s p u t a t i o n e .
C. OBRAS FISICAS:
S e c c i o n que d iv id im o s en s i e t e s u b s e c c io n e s :
a * Obras r e f e r e n t e s a l e s t u d io de l a s f u e r z a s £
de l a m a t e r i a l
Ro tT ene Y iv e s n in gu a obra e s p e c i a l a c e r c a de e s t e
p u n t o , pero t r a t a n de e l e x ten sa m en te l o s
s i g u i e n t e s l i b r o s :
a) Be prim a p h i l o s o p h i a , s i v e de in tim o n a tu ra e
o p i f i c i o .
b) De anima e t v i t a .
b . Obras b i o l o g i c a s :
Tampoco hay ninguna obra de^ Y ives que e s t r i c t a -
m ente se ocupe e n l a B i o l o g i a - - s e g u n e l s e n t id o
en cue hoy tomamos e l V o c a b l o - - , pero a e l l a se
r e f i e r e buena p a r t e d e l l i b r o :
a) Be anima e t v i t a .
112
Obras p s i c o l o g i c a s :
1 . De anima e t v i t a , l i b r i t r e s .
Obras m o r a le s :
2 . I n t r o d u e t io ad s a p ie n tia m .
3 . F ab u la de Homine.
4 . Ad Catonem maiorem, s i v e de s e n e c t u t e
C i c e r o n i s , P r a e l e c t i o quae d i c i t u r
Anima s e n i s .
5 . S p i e n t i s i n q u i s i t i o , d i a l o g u s .
6. S a t e llit iu m anim i, vel symbola.
7. De i n s t i t u t i o n s fem in a e c h r i s t i a n a e .
8 . De o f f i c i o m a r i t i .
Obras j u r i d i c a s :
§. Aedes legum.
1 0 . I n L e g e s C ic e r o n is P r a e l e c t i o .
Obras eco n o m ic a s:
1 1 . De su b v e n tio n e pauperum, s i v e de humanis
n e c e s s i t a t i b u s .
1 2 . De communione rerum, ad Germanos
i n f e r i o r e s .
Obras p o l i t i c a s :
1 3 . De c o n c o r d ia e t d i s c o r d i a humani g e n e r i s .
1 4 . De p a c i f i c a t i o n s .
1 5 . De Europae s t a t u ac t u m u lt ib u s .
1 6 . De P ace i n t e r Caesarem e t F ranciscum
’ G a llia r u m Regem, deque optim o r e g n i s t a t u .
P roced e a n a d ir o t r a s e c c i o n , l a de
D. OBRAS HISTORICAS:
1 . De i n i t i i s , s e c t i s , e t la u d ib u s p h i l o s o -
p h i a e .
2 . De c o n d i t i o n e v i t a e c h r is tia n o r u m sub
T u rca.
3 . In S u eton ium quaedam.
4 . De F r a n c is c o G a l l i a e Rege a C aesare
c a p t o .
5 . De Europae d i s s i d i i s e t b e l l o T urcico
d i a l o g u s . 5
5
A. B o n i l l a y San M a r tin , L u is V iv e s l a F i l o s o f i a
d e l R enacim iento (Madrid: E s p a s a - C a ip e , 1^2^ }, p p .— 1 6 - 1 2 .
d.
e .
f .
SOCIOLOGY
IIS
For t h e p u rp o se s o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n , th e books m ost
p e r t i n e n t a re t h o s e u r g in g reform s i n t h e a r ea o f s o c i a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p s and a d a p tiv e c u l t u r e . Three b ook s w i l l be
rev iew ed i n t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l f i e l d . They w i l l d eal w it h th e
problem s o f war and p o v e r t y .
War. V iv e s was w e l l equipped to t r e a t o f t h e s u b j e c t
o f war. I t was e v e r - p r e s e n t i n ".his t h in k in g and th e theme
ru n s th ro u g h o u t h i s w o r k s. S p a in was b u i l t upon wars— wars
o f c o n q u e s t; w ars o f d e f e n s e . V i v e s ’ v e ry b i r t h - d a t e , 1 4 9 2 ,
sy m b o lized t h e c o n c lu s i o n o f e i g h t hundred y e a r s o f war
betw een C h r i s t i a n s and M oors. He sp e n t h i s youth and e a r l y
manhood amid t h e e c h o e s o f F e r d in a n d ’ s schem es f o r I t a l i a n
con q u est and th e p la n s o f V a le n c ia n d e f e n s e a g a i n s t p lu n d e r
in g c o r s a i r s . H is manhood w it n e s s e d th e s p e c t a c l e o f
C h r i s t i a n p r i n c e s jo c k e y in g f o r prepond erance o f power among
th e n a t io n s ; i n c r e a s i n g encroachm ents o f th e Turks; and
c l a s h e s b etw e en L u th era n s and C a t h o l i c s .
Two o f V i v e s ’ b e s t known works on war are Bj3 Europae
D i s s i d i l s e t B e l l o T u rcico D ia lo g u s and C on cordia e t Con
c o r d ia e t D i s c o r d i a i n Huma.no G e n e r e . k b r i e f r e v ie w o f
t h e s e two w r i t i n g s sh o u ld g i v e a f a i r id e a o f V i v e s ’ a t t i t u d e
to w ard s war and h i s e f f o r t s to awaken Europe’ s l e a d e r s to
c o n s t r u c t i v e a c t i o n .
B e l l o T u rcico w i l l be c o n s id e r e d f i r s t . The con
v e r s a t i o n s r e p o r te d a re b e tw e en Minos and th e S h ad es r e c e n t
l y a r r iv e d i n H ades. In c lu d e d among the S h a d es a r e , B a s i -
l i u s C olax ( f l a t t e r e r o f k i n g s ) , and Polypragm on— a s e e - a l l ,
k n o w -a ll t y p e . o f p e r s o n . These two are c l e v e r l y us6d to
r e v e a l th e sad s t a t e i n w hich Europe found i t s e l f a t t h a t
t im e . T h is book , w r i t t e n i n 1 5 2 6 , and p u b lis h e d i n B ruges by
de Croock i n t h a t y e a r , was d e d ic a t e d to Pope A d ria n V I,
i n th e h o p e, p r o b a b ly , t h a t he would u s e h i s p o n t i f i c a l
power t o u n i t e C hristendom a g a i n s t Is la m . U n f o r t u n a t e ly ,
Pope A d ria n d ie d b e fo r e he was a b le t o answ er t h i s c h a l l e n g e .
V iv e s p r e s e n t s a h i s t o r i c a l accou nt o f th e w ars w h ich
w ere, a t t h a t t im e , w reck in g Europe. He s t a r t s w ith th e
N e a p o lit a n w ars begun by A lfo n s o o f Aragon. He c o n t in u e s
w ith th e c o n q u e s ts o f th e T u r k s -- C o n s t a n t in o p le , G r e e c e ,
and th e Aegean I s l a n d s . He t o u c h e s on t h e F rench i n v a s io n s
o f I t a l y by C h a r le s V I I I and L o u is X II. He d e c r i b e s t h e
m a c h in a tio n s o f th e Pope J u l i u s I I and Pope Leon X; t h e
cam paigns i n Lombardy; th e r i v a l r y b etw een F r a n c is I o f
F ra n ce and C h a r le s V f o r t h e im p e r ia l crown; t h e i n v a s i o n
o f N avarre by th e King o f France; t h e H oly L eague; t h e
c a p tu r e o f Rhodes by th e Turks; t h e d e v a s t a t i o n o f Hungary
by S u leim a n I I ; and t h e S p a n ish s u c c e s s e s i n t h e I t a l i a n
115
war up t o 1 5 2 6 .
The c h a r a c t e r Polypragm on sum m arizes t h e s o c i a l con
d i t i o n s i n 1 5 2 6 . He announces t h a t a t no tim e and i n no
n a t i o n had t h e r e e v e r b e e n such d i s c o r d a s t h e r e was among
th e C h r i s t i a n s o f h i s d ay . I n form er t i m e s , he s a y s , t h e r e
had b een enm ity b etw een c o n t i n e n t s , su ch a s A s ia and E urope.
There had b een r i v a l r y b etw een p o w erfu l c o u n t r i e s , such as
C arthage and Home. But t o d a y i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by m ortal
enm ity b e tw e en p r o v in c e and p r o v in c e , by r a c i a l h a tr e d ,
g e o g r a p h ic a l h a t r e d , and f a m ily h a t r e d s . The I t a l i a n s d i s
d a in th e p e o p l e s beyond th e A lp s; th e French d e s p i s e t h e
E n g lis h ; t h e E n g lis h l i k e n e i t h e r th e S c o t c h nor t h e F ren ch .
W ith in t h e c i t i e s , th e p o p u la c e r e v o l t a g a i n s t th e c i v i c
a u t h o r i t i e s ; th e y f i g h t each o t h e r o v e r a few drop s o f w a ter
or a few f e e t o f la n d . T h ese h a t r e d s are e v e n t r a n s m it t e d
from f a t h e r t o so n . The l a i t y lo o k w ith contem pt on t h e
c le r g y ; t h e p o p u la ce r e s e n t th e n o b le s ; and s u b j e c t - p e o p l e s
l o a t h e t h e i r r u l e r s . The d i a l e c t i c i a n s r e s e n t t h e p h i l o s o
p h e r s ; a d v o c a te s o f L a t i n s t r i v e w it h th o s e who p r e f e r
Greek; t h e L u th era n s abhor th e a n t i- L u t h e r a n s . Not even
w i t h i n t h e ranks o f th e L u th e r a n s , or t h e r e l i g i o u s o r d e r s
i s t h e r e p e a c e . E x p u ls io n s , i n s u l t s , t h r e a t s , p e r s e c u t i o n s
are th e o r d e r o f th e d a y .
The b a s i c c a u se o f t h i s b i t t e r s t r i f e , V iv e s c la im s ,
i s t h e i n t e r n a l d is c o r d and r i v a l r y o f t h e I t a l i a n s t a t e s .
116
The s i t u a t i o n cou ld be rem edied i f a common ca u se c o u ld be
found i n w hich a l l c o u ld u n i t e . The menace o f th e Turks t o
C hristendom sh o u ld be th e r a l l y i n g p o i n t f o r a l l C h r i s t i a n
s t a t e s . A C h r i s t i a n Crusade sh o u ld be s u f f i c i e n t i n c e n t i v e
f o r C h a r le s 7 and F r a n c is I to p u t a s id e n a t i o n a l i s t i c
a m b itio n s and p e r s o n a l r i v a l r i e s and f o r Henry V III t o keep
f r e e o f b a l a n c e - o f power e n ta n g le m e n ts . U n ite d i n a common
c a u s e , under t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f th e Poph> , a l l C hristendom
c o u ld t a k e th e o f f e n s i v e , a t t a c k Isia m ism on i t s own t e r r i
t o r y and r e s c u e t h e e n s la v e d p o p u la t io n s now a t t h e mercy
o f S u leim a n I I .
Tlle C on cordia 6t D i s c o r d i a i n Humano G enere was
w r i t t e n im m ed ia te ly a f t e r V iv e s had b e e n b a n ish ed from
England b e c a u se he had r e f u s e d to be i n t i m i d a t e d , or
d e c e i v e d , by H enry*s i n t r i g u e s i n reg a rd to Queen C a th e r in e
o f d rago n , v iv e s * c o m p a tr io t— dau gh ter o f h i s form er l i e g e
k i n g , and aunt o f h i s contem porary s o v e r e i g n , C h a r le s V.
I t was t o t h i s s o v e r e i g n , K ing o f S p a in , r u l e r o f th e Low
C o u n t r ie s , and Emperor o f Rome, t h a t V iv e s d e d ic a t e d h i s
Concord and D is c o r d among M ankind, p u b lis h e d by M ich a el
H i l l e n i u s o f Antwerp, i n 1 5 2 9 .
The i n t r o d u c t i o n d e p i c t s i n c l e a r cu t term s t h e
s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n o f th e t i m e s , and shows th e d i s a s t r o u s
e v i l s r e s u l t i n g from t h e c o n tin u o u s and b i t t e r w ars r a v a g in g
117
Europe, V iv e s a p p e a ls to the Emperor t o u s e h i s g r e a t power
t o b r in g about o r d e r i n Europe a s k in g him to make p ea c e
among t h e C h r i s t i a n p r i n c e s , and s u g g e s t s c a l l i n g t o g e t h e r
a g e n e r a l c o u n c i l f o r d i s c u s s i o n and a r b i t r a t i o n o f
d i f f e r e n c e s .
The g e n e r a l theme o f th e book i s th e paramount need
o f u n i v e r s a l p e a c e among C h r i s t i a n s t a t e s and r u l e r s . The
book i s d iv id e d i n t o f o u r s e c t i o n s . S e c t i o n I unmasks th e
s o c i a l e v i l s o f V iv es* day and p a i n t s an uncom prom ising
d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e h y p o c r i t i c a l fo rm a lism o f t h e s c h o o ls ,
t h e p s e u d o - C h r i s t i a n i t y o f th e c l e r g y , th e c o v e t o u s n e s s o f
th e m er ch a n ts, t h e u n b r id le d a m b itio n o f p r i n c e s , and th e
g e n e r a l s e l f i s h n e s s w hich c h a r a c t e r iz e d t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e .
V iv e s th e n r e v ie w s th e o r i g i n s o f s o c i e t y . Man, he
s a y s , was in te n d e d t o be a s o c i a b l e b e i n g . The power o f
sp eech i s h i s a lo n e . H is means o f com m unication have been
much i n c r e a s e d , f i r s t by w r i t i n g and th e n by th e developm ent
o f p r i n t i n g . As h i s n e e d s have i n c r e a s e d , he h a s te n d e d to
become more and more s e l f i s h . God h a s g iv e n t h e s e g i f t s
t h a t t h e y m ight be u se d i n H is s e r v i c e f o r t h e concord and
p r o g r e s s o f hum anity and n ot th a t men sh ould r e tu r n to th e
s t a t u s o f b e a s t s and f i g h t each o t h e r f o r s u r v iv a l and
p r e s t i g e . The p r e s e n t e v i l c o n d i t i o n o f s o c i e t y , he con
t i n u e s , i s caused by a d e s i r e f o r a d u l a t io n on t h e one s i d e
and by th e v i c e s o f th e c a r n a l mind, on t h e o t h e r . S u p e r f i c i a l
118
l e a r n i n g , i n v e n t i o n s , o p u le n c e , s u b s e r v ie n c e to e x te r n a l
pomp and pow er, and th e p resu m p tio n o f k in g s and n o b le s have
produced a so rry c o n d i t i o n o f a f f a i r s . S o c i e t y can be
saved o n ly by a s c i e n t i f i c , p h i l o s o p h i c , and r e l i g i o u s
approach t o t h e problem s i n v o l v e d .
In th e secon d s e c t i o n , Y iv e s em p h a sizes t h a t d is c o r d
and o p p o s i t i o n a r e not t h e n a tu r a l s t a t e o f th e C h r i s t i a n .
Yengeance i s n ot a c o n s t r u c t iv e but a d e s t r u c t i v e f o r c e .
P r i e s t s and s c h o l a r s are b o th t o blam e. They have b oth
f a i l e d t o employ t h e i r r e s o u r c e s to b r in g about p e a c e .
I n s t e a d o f w orking i n concord, t h e y a r e w a r rin g f o r p r e s t i g e
and g a i n ev en a s th e p r i n c e s are s t r u g g l i n g a g a i n s t each
o t h e r f o r m a t e r i a l w e a lth and power.
v iv e s * theme i n t h e t h i r d s e c t i o n I s th e h o r r i b l e
p r i c e o f war. He draws upon h i s t o r y to em phasize i t s e v i l s
and t h e s u f f e r i n g s which f o l l o w i n i t s t r a i n . Ho good , he
s a y s , was e v e r brough t about by w ar. On th e c o n tr a r y , i t
g i v e s o p p o r t u n ity f o r a l l t y p e s o f e v i l to f l o u r i s h . Some
o f t h e d i s a s t e r s caused by war, i n h i s o p i n io n , a r e : war
p r e v e n t s th e p r o d u c t io n and a c cu m u la tio n o f r e s o u r c e s ;
d e p l e t e s th e p o p u la t io n ; d e s t r o y s commerce; r e s u l t s i n th e
p i l l a g e and d e s t r u c t i o n o f c i t i e s and c o u n t r y s id e ; i n v o l v e s
t e r r i b l e e x p e n d itu r e and w a ste; accu stom s t h e mind t o
e x h i b i t i o n s o f c r u e l t y ; p u ts undue em p h asis on t h e t r a i n i n g
and m ain ten an ce o f a r m ie s; and i n c r e a s e s crim e b eca u se o f t h e
119
u n b r id le d exam ples s e t by t h e s o l d i e r s .
The f o u r t h , and l a s t , s e c t i o n i s d e v o ted by Y iv e s to
th e means w hich sh o u ld be employed t o b r in g about p e a c e .
The m ost im p o rta n t in str u m e n t o f co n cord , he c la im s , i s a
r e c o g n i t i o n by th e r u l e r s o f Europe o f t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ,
a s r u l i n g p r i n c e s , f o r t h e w e l f a r e and h a p p in e s s o f t h e i r
p e o p l e s . He c a l l s p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r h i s own s o v e r e i g n , t o
whom t h e book i s d e d i c a t e d , to ta k e t h e l e a d in s e t t i n g an
example f o r t h e o t h e r monarchs to f o l l o w to th e end t h a t
p r a c t i c a l C h r i s t i a n i t y may be r e s t o r e d , C hristendom be u n i
f i e d , and p r i n c e s e x e m p lif y , i n t h e i r own l i v e s and c o n d u c t,
w orthy exam ples f o r t h e i r p e o p le t o em u late.
P o v e r t y . S o c i e t y h as been fa c e d a t a l l t im e s o f
s o c i a l d i s r u p t i o n by th e s p e c t r e o f p o v e r t y . In V ives* day,
t h e c o n d i t i o n was p a r t i c u l a r l y s e r i o u s i n b o th F la n d e r s and
E n glan d . F la n d e r s and t h e o t h e r Low C o u n tr ie s formed th e
c r o s s - r o a d s o f Europe. Thus t h e i r problem was a g g r a v a te d by
t h e mobs o f d is c h a r g e d and runaway s o l d i e r s i n t r a n s i t , i n
England t h e problem was a c u te b e c a u se o f th e E n c lo s u r e s Act
w hich had d r iv e n out on th e road h o r d e s o f h o m eless v a g r a n t s —
men, women, and c h i l d r e n - - a b r u p t l y u p r o o te d and f o r c e d t o
s t e a l or beg i n o r d e r to l i v e . More, V iv e s , and Queen
C a th e r in e — h e r s e l f a lay-m em ber o f t h e o r d e r o f S t . F r a n c i s - -
were a p p a lle d by th e s i t u a t i o n p r e s e n t e d .
120
De S u b v e n tio n s Pauperum s i v e de Humanis N e c e s s i t a t i -
bus was w r i t t e n by Y iv e s a t th e r e q u e s t o f S e ig n e u r de
P r a e t , Burgom aster o f B r u g e s. I t was p u b lis h e d by de Crook
i n 1 5 2 6 , and d e d ic a t e d to t h e m a g is tr a c y o f B ru g es. The
book had a d ou b le o b j e c t i v e : (1) t o p o in t o u t t h a t t h e c a re
of th e poor had now become a c i v i c o b l i g a t i o n ; and (2) to
i n d i c a t e p o s s i b l e m ach inery f o r a c c o m p lis h in g t h i s ta s k
e f f e c t i v e l y , i n t e l l i g e n t l y , and e c o n o m ic a lly . The in t r o d u c
t i o n , w r i t t e n i n l e t t e r form , e x p la in s Y ives* r e a s o n s f o r
w r i t i n g t h e t r e a t i s e . Book I d i s c u s s e s th e h i s t o r y o f alm s
g i v i n g , s t a r t i n g w it h i t s o r i g i n s and e x p l a in i n g how i n e q u a l
i t i e s o f w ea lth and p o s i t i o n had g r a d u a lly d e v e lo p e d . Book
I I e x p r e s s e s Y ives* t h e o r i e s on th e a d m in is t r a t io n o f poor
r e l i e f .
In h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n , Y iv e s s a y s t h a t he i s w r i t i n g to
t h e c o u n s e lo r s and the s e n a t o r s o f Bruges ou t o f c o n c e r n f o r
th e w e l l - b e i n g o f th e c i t y . He p r a i s e s t h e e q u it y o f i t s
govern m ent, t h e f i n e e d u c a tio n a l f a c i l i t i e s o f f e r e d , t h e
c o u r te s y o f i t s c i t i z e n s , i t s t r a n q u i l i t y , and i t s renowned
j u s t i c e . He s a y s t h a t B ruges i s th6 c o u n try o f h i s a d o p tio n
to w hich he i s bound by t i e s as s tr o n g a s t h o s e w hich b in d
him t o h i s n a t i v e Y a le n c ia . I t i s , t h e r e f o r e , as a f e l l o w -
c i t i z e n t h a t he w r i t e s to them to c a l l a t t e n t i o n to t h e
s u f f e r i n g and n e e d s i n t h e c i t y .
121
The g e n e r o s i t y o f B ruges i s so w e l l known t h a t t h e
d e s t i t u t e f l o e k th e r e f o r a i d . I t i s fu n d a m en tal, he con
t i n u e s , t h a t t h e r e sh ou ld be a p la c e i n ev er y c i t y f o r t h e
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f alm s. I t i s th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f p u b l i c
o f f i c i a l s to s e e t h a t th e needy are h e lp e d and t h a t e v ery
c i t i z e n i s made p a r t o f a harm onious c i v i c f a m ily . C e r t a in
l y , i n a w e a lth y c i t y - - s u c h a s B r u g e s - - i t i s j u s t a s d i s
g r a c e f u l f o r t h e poor t o go hungry o r i n ra g s a s i t would be
f o r t h e head o f a lu x u r io u s home t o p erm it such d e s t i t u t i o n
i n h i s h o u s e h o ld .
In Book I V iv e s s t a r t s back t o o r i g i n a l s i n w h ich , he
a r g u e s , b ro u g h t a b ou t m isery and p o v e r ty . Two o t h e r f a c t o r s
have g r e a t l y c o n t r ib u t e d to t h e i r i n c r e a s e — th e banding
t o g e t h e r o f men i n t o l a r g e r and l a r g e r g ro u p s which d e v e lo p e d
f i n a l l y in t o c i t y l i f e , and the d i v i s i o n o f work w hich
r e s u l t e d i n man c e a s in g to be s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t . He r e v ie w s
t h e t h e o r i e s o f t h e p h i lo s o p h e r s o f a n t i q u i t y on t h i s s u b j e c t
and f i n a l l y r e a c h e s th e q u e s t io n o f money and c r e d i t w hich
have brought about t h e m o b i l i t y o f l a b o r .
U lm sg iv in g h as been t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f th e Church
i n r e s p o n s e to th e t e a c h in g o f th e sa c re d t e x t s , i n which
c h a r it y and d o n a tio n s w ere g iv e n i n t h e name o f C h r i s t . I t
i s t h e d u ty o f man to c a r e f o r t h e u n f o r t u n a t e . Men must
not lo o k upon money as t h e o n ly form o f h e l p , how ever. The
122
m ost im p ortan t form o f lielp i s t h a t w hich e n a b le s a man t o
h e lp h i m s e l f . T r a in in g which d e v e lo p s moral e x c e l l e n c e and
v o c a t i o n a l s k i l l s sh o u ld be p r o v id e d . C h a r ity to be w orth
w h ile must be g iv e n i n t h e s p i r i t o f k in d n e s s — n e v er a s
o s t e n t a t i o u s d i s p l a y .
Book I I s e t s up a p r a c t i c a l p la n f o r poor r e l i e f .
In c lu d e d under t h i s h e a d in g a r e a l l h e l p l e s s p e o p l e - - t h e
s i c k , th e h an d icap p ed , t h e orphaned, th e d e s t i t u t e , t h e
i n s a n e , th e f e e b le - m in d e d , th e d e a f, th e b l i n d , th e aged .
Book I d e a l s w ith th e du ty o f th e i n d i v i d u a l ; Book I I t a k e s
up t h e d u ty o f th e s t a t e and i t s r u l e r i n th e m e e tin g o f
human n e e d s . The s t a t e i s r e s p o n s i b l e , says V iv e s , f o r
e v er y c i t i z e n w i t h i n i t s b o r d e r s .
The weaker e le m e n ts cannot be n e g l e c t e d w ith o u t danger
to a l l c i t i z e n s . D riv en by n e c e s s i t y , th e poor s t e a l .
C i v i l wars have been cau sed by th e d i s d a i n o f t h e r i c h f o r
t h e p o o r . The p o o r r e b e l when t h e r i c h f la u n t th e w e a lth
wrung from t h e i r l a b o r s , w h ile t h e y , th e m s e lv e s , have no fo o d
f o r t h e i r s t a r v in g c h i l d r e n . Through la c k o f c a r e , th e p o or
sp read d i s e a s e th rou gh t h e community. The s t a t e sh ou ld i n v e s
t i g a t e , t h e r e f o r e , how d i s e a s e may be cured and i t s spread be
ch eck ed . M oreover, no moral t r a i n i n g i s p ro v id ed f o r th e
p o o r . They a r e n ot a llo w e d t o p a r ta k e o f church s e r v i c e s
h en ce t h e y h e a r no sermons and have not the b e n e f i t o f th e
s a c r a m e n ts. M a g is t r a t e s sh o u ld d e v o te t h e i r tim e and energy
1B3
t o c o r r e c t i n g t h i s e v i l . I t i s n o t enough to p u n ish e v i l
d o e r s , th e s t a t e sh o u ld i n s t i t u t e c o n s t r u c t i v e m easu res so
t h a t th e p oor may have b e t t e r sta n d a r d s and so t h a t t h e
c i t y w i l l not be d is g r a c e d by th e p r e v a le n c e o f crim e,
p o v e r t y , and d i s t r e s s .
At th e p r e s e n t tim e a s p e c i a l em ergency r e n d e r s
in a d e q u a te form er p r o v i s i o n s o f t a x e s and p u b lic l a n d s . The
s t a t e assum es t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f r e s t o r i n g t h e damage to
p h y s i c a l p r o p e r ty a s t h e r e s u l t o f storm s and d e t e r i o r a t i o n .
I t i s , a l s o , im p e r a tiv e t h a t t h e s t a t e assume, l i k e w i s e , th e
t a s k o f r e h a b i l i t a t i n g human b e in g s i n t r o u b l e — a c o n d i t i o n
brought a b o u t, o f t e n , through no f a u l t o f t h e i r own. True
c h a r i t y demands t h a t a l l c i t i z e n s , in c lu d i n g t h o s e who l i v e
i n i n s t i t u t i o n s and t h o s e who b eg, be made th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
o f th e s t a t e . The s t a t e sh o u ld p r o v id e c a r e , t h e n , f o r th e
s i c k , p a u p ers, abandoned i n f a n t s , h o m e less c h i l d r e n , th e
i n s a n e , t h e b l i n d , and a l l o t h e r s i n m is f o r t u n e .
V iv e s s u g g e s t s t h a t a l l th e poor sh o u ld be r e g i s t e r e d ,
c h a r i t y fu n d s and r e s o u r c e s e s t im a t e d , and e x p e n d itu r e s
r e g u l a t e d . He s a y s , s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h a t an in q u ir y sh ould be
made in t o t h e c o n d i t i o n s l a i d down by t h e fo u n d e r s o f th e
i n s t i t u t i o n s to f i n d o u t i f fu n d s are b e in g d i s t r i b u t e d t o
th e b e s t a d v a n ta g e. He a n t i c i p a t e s th e o b j e c t i o n s o f t h o s e
who have b een a p p r o p r ia t in g fu n d s by s a y in g t h a t t h e r e i s
n o t h in g so f r e e i n the s t a t e t h a t i t i s not s u b j e c t .to
124
in q u ir y “ by t h o s e who a d m in is te r the govern m en t. He a d v i s e s
th e s e n a t o r s to v i s i t each i n s t i t u t i o n , i n s p e c t i t , w r i t e a
f u l l account o f i t s c o n d i t i o n , n o te th e number o f in m ates
t o g e t h e r w ith t h e i r names and t h e i r ca u se f o r b e in g t h e r e .
The p o or l i v i n g a t home sh ou ld be r e g i s t e r e d a s w e l l as
t h o s e i n i n s t i t u t i o n s and th e h i s t o r y o f t h e i r c a s e s
r e c o r d e d . B eggars who wander about and have no f i x e d
d w e llin g p l a c e s sh o u ld be made to d e c la r e t h e i r names and
t h e r e a so n f o r t h e i r m en d ican cy. T h is d e c l a r a t i o n sh o u ld be
made i n th e p r e s e n c e o f th e s e n a t e i n an open p l a c e so t h a t
t h e S e n a t e Chamber i s not i n f e c t e d by t h e i r f i l t h . Those
who are s i c k sh o u ld be r e q u ir e d t o g i v e in fo r m a tio n i n th e
p r e s e n c e o f s e n a t o r s and a p h y s i c ia n . The s e n a te sh o u ld
have w i t n e s s e s to t e s t i f y a s to t h e manner o f l i f e o f t h o s e
r e g i s t e r e d .
V iv e s t h i n k s t h a t , as f a r as p o s s i b l e , everyone sh o u ld
be p r o d u c t iv e . Ho one among the poor sh o u ld be a llo w ed to be
i d l e u n l e s s u n f i t f o r work b e c a u se o f age o r h e a l t h . In th e
s t a t e , a s i n a w e l l- o r d e r e d home, ev er y o n e ought t o have a
t a s k . I d l e n e s s b r e e d s s l o v e n l i n e s s and i n a c t i v i t y . Even
t h e b lin d do not need to be i d l e . They sh o u ld b e p r o v id e d
w ith work s u i t a b l e to t h e i r c o n d i t i o n . The o ld and in fir m
sh o u ld have t a s k s s u i t e d to t h e i r age and s t r e n g t h . The un
employed sh o u ld be fou n d work. Where t h e r e a re no jo b s
a v a i l a b l e , t h e s t a t e sh o u ld u n d ertak e p r o j e c t s such a s p u b lic
125
b u i l d i n g s and ro a d s where t h e poor may work under s u p e r v i
s i o n .
The in s a n e sh ou ld be cured i f p o s s i b l e . Y iv e s s a y s
t h a t an e x a m in a tio n sh o u ld be made to s e e i f t h e i n s a n i t y
i s a c c i d e n t a l o r t h e r e s u l t o f m is f o r t u n e . I t i s through
r e l e a s e from s t r a i n t h a t t h e mind r e g a i n s i t s e q u ilib r iu m .
As f a r a s p o s s i b l e t h e r e f o r e p ea c e and t r a n q u i l i t y sh o u ld
be p r o v id e d . Ho on6 sh ou ld amuse h i m s e l f a t t h e exp en se
o f an in s a n e p e r s o n , nor e x c i t e such an i n d i v i d u a l to anger
o r v i o l e n t em otion . They sh o u ld be p r o v id e d f o r i n i n s t i t u
t i o n s . S p G c ia l ca re sh o u ld be taken o f th6m and o f o t h e r
s i c k p e o p le . Those s u f f e r i n g from lo a th e so m e o r c o n ta g io u s
d i s e a s e s sh o u ld be s e g r e g a t e d so t h a t o t h e r s may be p r o
t e c t e d from c o n ta m in a tio n . Every h o s p i t a l sh o u ld be s t a f f e d
w ith a p h y s i c i a n and p h a rm a cist and sh o u ld have b oth men
and women a t t e n d a n t s .
Y iv e s c o n s i d e r s a ls o t h e w e l f a r e o f abandoned and
orphaned c h i ld r e n . They sh o u ld be t r a i n e d and su p p orted a t
p u b l i c e x p e n se , he s a y s , and l a t e r ta u g h t t h e t r a d e f o r
w hich t h e y show a p t i t u d e . Orphanages should be under t h e
care o f c u lt u r e d men so t h a t t h e c h i l d r e n may d e v e lo p s e l f -
c o n t r o l and p r o p e r sta n d a r d s o f c u l t u r e . As t h e E n g lis h
t r a n s l a t i o n h as i t :
N o th in g h a s g r e a t e r danger f o r t h e so n s o f t h e
p oor th a n a cheap and low and so r d id e d u c a t io n . . . .
126
L e t th e p u p i l s l e a r n to l i v e f r u g a l l y , but n e a t l y and
c l e a n l y , and to be co n ten t w ith l i t t l e . L et them be
k e p t from a l l form s o f d i s s i p a t i o n . L e t them n o t grow
accustom ed t o lu x u ry and g l u t t o n y ; nor become s l a v e s
o f t h e b e l l y , so t h a t , when t h e y m is s som eth in g w hich
h as been f r e e l y s u p p lie d , t h e y c a s t a s id e shame and
commence b e g g in g , a s we have se e n some do t h e v e ry
moment t h a t m ustard, o r some such t r i f l e , was w a n t in g .6
7 i v e s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e s t a t e sh o u ld m a in ta in co n
t in u o u s s u p e r v i s i o n o v e r i t s wards and d e p e n d e n ts. He
a d v i s e s th e S e n a te t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e l i f e and m o ra ls o f t h e
poor to s e e what t h e y are d o in g from tim e to tim e and t o
h e lp them a d j u s t t h e m s e lv e s . He s u g g e s t s th e appointm ent
o f two c e n s o r s whose d u t i e s s h a l l i n c lu d e reprim ands t o t h o s e
who fr e q u e n t gaming p l a c e s and wine and b e e r t a v e r n s . The
c e n s o r s sh o u ld a ls o i n v e s t i g a t e th e h a b i t s o f th e s o n s o f
th e w e a lth y s i n c e no one sh ould be a llo w e d to l i v e i n
i d l e n e s s .
y i v e s d e p r e c a t e s th e d is h o n e s t y o f t h e age. He h i n t s
t h a t t h e c l e r g y , and even t h e b is h o p s , are a b le to l i v e
o s t e n t a t i o u s l y b e ca u se t h e y have d i v e r t e d fu n d s from t h e
church in te n d e d f o r th e p o o r . He c a u t i o n s about h a v in g to o
much rea d y money on hand f o r th e care o f t h e poor l e s t t h e
money be m is a p p r o p r ia te d . He i n s i s t s t h a t th e i n s t i t u t i o n s
have abundant w e a lt h . He s u g g e s t s t h a t a su rvey be made o f
6
M argaret M. Sherwood, t r a n s l a t o r , C oncerning t h e
R e l i e f o f t h e P oor [V iv e s* De S u b v e n tio n s Pauperumj [“ Hew
York CiW * Hew York S c h o o l oT P h ila n t h r o p y , 1917) , p. 2 1 .
127
t h e i r r e v e n u e s , t h a t t h e amounts h e t o t a l l e d , and th e n d i s
t r i b u t e d e q u a b ly . The c l e r g y , he f e e l s , sh o u ld l i v e l e s s
s u m p tio u s ly . They would t h e n be a b le t o c o n t r i b u t e t o
w e l f a r e fu n d s . Alms b o x e s sh o u ld be put i n e v e r y ch u rch .
The sums t h u s . c o l l e c t e d , added to a llo w a n c e s p r o v id e d by
t h e s t a t e , would be more th a n adequate to f i n a n c e s u c c e s s
f u l l y t h e program he h a s o u t l i n e d .
Y iv e s c o n c lu d e s by one l a s t c a u t i o n . Good i n t e n t i o n s ,
he s a y s , a r e n ot enough. A c tio n i s demanded. S i n c e i t i s
in e x c u s a b le to s e e an i l l and t h e n n o t c o r r e c t i t , n o th in g
sh o u ld be a llo w e d t o b lo c k t h e im m ediate in a u g u r a tio n o f
such a program f o r poor r e l i e f .
. . . There w i l l be j u s t so many c i t i z e n s more
v i r t u o u s , more la w - a b id in g more u s e f u l to th e c o u n t i y ,
and t h e y w i l l a l l h o ld t h a t s t a t e d e a r e r i n w h ich , o r
by means o f w h ic h , t h e y a r e m a in ta in e d . Kor w i l l
t h e y p a r t i c i p a t e i n r e v o l u t i o n s o r s e d i t i o n s . Boys and
g i r l s w i l l b e ta u g h t l e t t e r s , r e l i g i o n , tem p er a n c e,
s e l f - s u p p o r t ; t h i n g s w h ich form t h e b a s i s o f a good and
h o n e s t and p io u s l i f e . F i n a l l y , a l l o f them w i l l
r e g a i n judgm ent, s e n s i b i l i t y , p i e t y . They w i l l l i v e
among men l i k e c i t i z e n s , d i s c i p l i n e d , o b s e r v a n t o f
human la w s ; t h e y w i l l keep t h e i r hands pure from a c t s
o f v i o l e n c e ; t h e y w i l l s e r v e God t r u l y and h o n e s t l y ;
t h e y w i l l be men; th e y w i l l be what t h e y are c a l l e d ,
C h r i s t i a n s . 7
The r e v ie w s on war and p o v e r ty were s e l e c t e d b e c a u se
t h e y are im p o r ta n t t o p i c s o f d i s c u s s i o n i n contem porary edu
c a t i o n a l program s. Y ives* w r i t i n g s i n t h e g e n e r a l f i e l d o f
e d u c a tio n f o l l o w .
7
I b i d . , p p . 4 5 - 4 6 .
CHAPTER V II
SURVEY OF VIVE8* EDUCATIONAL WORKS
INTRODUCTION
Three o f y iv e s * g r e a t s o c i o l o g i c a l works have b een
rev iew ed i n C h apter V I. T h is c h a p te r w i l l be d e v o te d to a
c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f h i s works on e d u c a t io n . V iv e s was n ot
p r im a r ily an e d u c a to r as such. To be s u r e , he had t u t o r e d
an o c c a s i o n a l p u p i l — alw ays o f h ig h s o c i a l rank— and had
d e l i v e r e d l e c t u r e s i n Oxford and L ou vain U n i v e r s i t i e s . He
had se r v e d , t o o , a s e d u c a t io n a l a d v is o r to v a r io u s c h i l d r e n
o f r o y a l and d i s t i n g u i s h e d b i r t h . By p r o f e s s i o n , how ever,
he was a la w y e r o r , a s he h i m s e l f would p r o b a b ly have p u t
i t , — a p o l i t i c a l p h i lo s o p h e r . In h i s day, t o o , compartmen-
t a l e d u c a t io n had not y e t been d e v is e d . B ecau se of t h e s e
two f a c t s , i t i s somewhat d i f f i c u l t t o com press i n t o
c a t e g o r i e s V i v e s 1 e d u c a t io n a l w orks. They w i l l have to be
a r b i t r a r i l y c l a s s i f i e d , under th e modern h e a d in g s i n w hich
th e y seem b e s t to f i t , such a s p h ilo s o p h y , h i s t o r y ,
p s y c h o lo g y , m eth od ology and moral e d u c a t io n . One book ,
V ives* e d u c a t io n a l m a s t e r p ie c e , Dje T r a d en d is D i s c i p l i n i s i s ,
p e r f o r c e , i n a c l a s s by i t s e l f s i n c e i t c o n t a i n s w i t h i n i t s
c o v e r s th e whole range o f e d u c a t io n a l th e o r y and p r a c t i c e .
PHILOSOPHY
129
There are two o f Y ives* w r i t i n g s w hich app ear t o
b e lo n g i n t h i s c a t e g o r y , i . e . , In P seu d o- P i a l e c t i c o s and
De I n i t i i s , S e c t i s , e t L audibus P h i l o s o p h i s e . One t r e a t s
o f th e c la s h o f p h i l o s o p h i e s w hich marked t h e advent , o f a
new a ge; th e o t h e r g i v e s t h e d evelop m en ta l h i s t o r y o f
p h ilo s o p h y .
A t t e n t i o n h a s a lr e a d y b een c a l l e d to th e c ir c u m sta n c e s
which produced In P s e u d o - D i a l e c t i c o s and t h e f u r o r cau sed i n
th e ranks o f t h e S c h o l a s t i c s by i t s app earance i n 1 5 1 9 . T h is
b r i e f work, which was f i r s t w r i t t e n i n t h e form o f a l e t t e r
by Y iv e s to h i s f r i e n d John F o r t i s s t i l l a stu d e n t a t t h e
U n i v e r s i t y o f P a r i s , h a s a lr e a d y b e e n p a r t i a l l y d i s c u s s e d . 1
Y iv e s w r i t e s John F o r t i s t h a t i t i s s u r p r is in g t h a t t h e
U n i v e r s i t y o f P a r i s which sh o u ld have l e d i n t h e in t r o d u c
t i o n o f th e new m ethods and th e New L ea rn in g sh o u ld be th e
o n ly one to p r e s e r v e t h e b arb arou s methods o f th e M iddle
A g e s. He th e n shows th e a b s u r d i t i e s o f th e d i a l e c t i c i a n s :
(1) t h e u n i n t e l l i g i b l e and r i d i c u l o u s la n gu ag e u s e d , and
(2) th e b arb arou s d i c t i o n , a f r i g h t f u l ja rg o n w hich C ic e r o ,
i f he c o u ld have r e t u r n e d , would n ever have u n d e r s to o d . He
r i d i c u l e s t h e w orsh ip o f A r i s t o t l e e s p e c i a l l y as t h e
Sorbonne i s ig n o r a n t b o th o f h i s d o c t r in e and h i s w ork s. He
1
S e e p p . 8 2 - 8 3 , i n f r a .
130
a c c u s e s t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f h avin g made an end o f what sh o u ld
o n ly have been a t o o l , sa y in g t h a t D i a l e c t i c s i s not an a r t
i n i t s e l f but m e r e ly an in str u m e n t to l e a d to more im p o rta n t
k n ow led ge. He d e r id e s t h e accom p lish m en ts o f t h e S c h o l a s
t i c s s a y in g no one would endure a p a i n t e r who d id n o th in g
but mix h i s c o l o r s . He c o n t in u e s by t e l l i n g F o r t i s t h a t
th e t u t o r s Lax and D u lla r d have wept b i t t e r l y o v e r th e tim e
l o s t i n t h e p u r s u i t o f such f u t i l e l e a r n i n g . He hop es t h a t
h i s f r i e n d F o r t i s w i l l not have c a u se l a t e r f o r th e same
r e g r e t s . D i a l e c t i c s , he g o e s on, was once a n e c e s s a r y and
r e s p e c t a b l e a r t b u t i t s d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n t o b a b b lin g and
w r a n g lin g h as underm ined a l l e d u c a t io n a l p r o g r e s s . He,
Y iv e s , sh ou ld know b e c a u se he had b een brou gh t up i n th e
m id st o f f u r i o u s d i s p u t e s where t h e boy w it h th e l o u d e s t
v o i c e and th e m ost endurance came o f f v i c t o r in th e b a t t l e
o f w ords. He u t t e r s a n o te o f w arning a s t o th e e f f e c t on
t h e p o p u la c e o f P a r i s sh o u ld t h e y e v e r l e a r n t h e ig n o r a n c e
and s t u p i d i t y c o n c e a le d un der th e pompous L a t i n p h r a s e s o f
the S c h o l a s t i c s . He ends h i s l e t t e r on a n o te o f prophecy:
I s e e from th e d e p th s a change i s com ing. Amongst
a l l th e n a t i o n s men are s p r in g in g up, o f c l e a r ,
e x c e l l e n t and f r e e i n t e l l e c t s , im p a tie n t o f s e r v i
t u d e , d eterm in ed to t h r u s t o f f th e yoke o f t h i s
ty ra n n y from t h e i r n e c k s . They a r e c a l l i n g t h e i r
f e l l o w - c i t i z e n s to l i b e r t y . 2
T here i s , p r o b a b ly , no f u l l E n g lis h t r a n s l a t i o n o f
t h i s work. F o s t e r W atson has t r a n s l a t e d sm a ll e x c e r p t s such
as th e above quoted from h i s L u is Y i v e s , Ej Gran Y a le n c ia n o
(O xford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s : Humphrey MilforTJ" 1§£2) , p . 3 2 .
131
JH though D _e i n i t i i s , S e c t i s , e t L au dibu s P h i lo s o p h ia e
was w r i t t e n i n 1 5 1 8 , i t was not p u b lis h e d u n t i l 1 5 2 1 .
W r itte n a t t h e i n s t i g a t i o n o f th e B e n e d i c t i n e , B e r s e l i u s ,
t h i s book was th e f i r s t s e r i o u s work u n d e rta k en by Y i v e s .
I t s theme i s th e h i s t o r y o f p h ilo s o p h y w h ic h Y iv e s d e f i n e s
a s t h e s c i e n c e o f m a t t e r , — human and d i v i n e . Y iv e s d i s
c u s s e s t h e o r i g i n o f know ledge and i t s developm ent among t h e
d i f f e r e n t p e o p le s o f th e w o r ld . He d i v i d e s know ledge i n t o
t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s : (1) astronom y, o r i g i n a t e d by t h e
C haldeans and E g y p tia n s; d e v e lo p e d by t h e G reeks and
Homans; (2) m u s ic , o r i g i n a t e d from man’ s e f f o r t to c a tc h
th e haimony o f th e c e l e s t i a l sp h e r e s; (5) m a th em a tics and
m e d ic in e . The m e d ic in e o f t h e s o u l i s C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y .
The h e a l i n g o f t h e s o u l i s a s im p orta n t as h e a l i n g f o r t h e
body.
Y iv e s d i s c u s s e s n e x t t h e in s tr u m e n ts o f k n ow led ge.
He c la im s th e m ost im p o rtan t in str u m e n t i s la n g u a g e . He
c o n t in u e s h i s d i s c u s s i o n by t r a c i n g th e developm ent o f
p h ilo s o p h y i n G reece th rou gh P y th a g o r a s and o t h e r p h i lo s o p
h e r s . He a p p ro a c h e s t h e p h ilo s o p h y o f r e l i g i o n th ro u g h the
medium o f an i n t e r e s t i n and a know ledge o f n a tu r e . I t
cannot b e d o u b ted , he s a y s , t h a t man i s d e s t i n e d f o r a
h ig h e r sp h ere th a n an enjoym ent o f t h e t r i f l e s w hich occu py
h i s mind o n ly to o o f t e n d u rin g h i s e a r t h l y l i f e . What
g r e a t e r p le a s u r e can he g i v e h i m s e l f th a n t o l i f t h i s e y e s
152
t o t h e h e a v en s and to im agin e h i m s e l f l i v i n g i n th e s t a r r y
s k i e s , to f o r e s e e th e e c l i p s e s w hich roh t h e e a r t h o f i t s
l i g h t ? What Joy, he c o n t i n u e s , man can g i v e to h i m s e l f by
f o r e c a s t i n g th e tim e and t h e ca u se o f th e r a i n , th e w in d s,
snow s, t e m p e s t s , t h e c h a n g es o f th e s e a s o n s . A f t e r e n jo y in g
t h e wonders o f n a tu re by c o n te m p la tio n o f t h e h e a v e n s, man
sh o u ld tu r n h i s e y e s t o t h e e a r t h t h e r e to c o n te m p la te th e
i n f i n i t e v a r i e t y o f b i r d s , f i s h , and o t h e r a n im a ls . He
sh o u ld stu d y t h e i r d i f f e r e n t v a r i e t i e s , t h e i r h a b i t s , t h e i r
mode o f r e p r o d u c tio n and t h e i r d evelop m en t. The stu d y o f
p l a n t s and m e t a ls i s a l s o f a s c i n a t i n g . Ouch i n t e r e s t s l e a d
to t h e a p p r e c ia t i o n o f th e grandeur and d i g n i t y o f n a tu r e
ta k e o n e ’ s mind o f f man’ s p e t t y d e s i r e s and t h e f o o l i s h
j o y s o f e a r th ; and b r in g t o th e i n d i v i d u a l some k in s h ip
w it h , and a p p r e c i a t i o n o f , God, h i s m aker.
PSYCHOLOGY
The o n ly book o f Y iv e s d e v o te d e n t i r e l y to p sy c h o lo g y
2® Anima e t V i t a . T h is book was n ot p u b lis h e d u n t i l 1558
bu t as Y iv e s makes s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e s t o i t i n De T rad en d is
D i s c i p l i n i s , p u b lis h e d i n 1 5 5 1 , i t i s g e n e r a l l y conceded
t h a t a l l , o r a t l e a s t p a r t , o f i t must have been w r i t t e n
p r i o r t o t h a t d a t e . The work i s w r i t t e n i n t h r e e p a r t s .
Book I t r e a t s o f l i f e i n g e n e r a l ; Book I I d i s c u s s e s i n t e l l i
g e n c e , memory, w i l l , and o t h e r f a c u l t i e s ; Book I I I d e a l s
15 3
w ith s e n t i m e n t s , p a s s i o n s and a f f e c t i o n s .
In P a r t I y i v e s d i s c u s s e s l i f e i n th e b r o a d e st
s e n s e . He b e g in s by se a r c h in g f o r t h e f i r s t t r a c e s o f
v i t a l i t y i n v i s i b l e b e i n g s . He n o t e s (1) th e power o f
a s s i m i l a t i o n o f s o - c a l l e d in o r g a n ic o r g a n ism s; (3) t h e l i f e
o f p l a n t s ; (3) th e l i f e o f the o r d in a r y anim al; and (4) th e
l i f e o f man. Man, b e in g g i f t e d w i t h .r e a s o n and i n t e l l i
g e n c e , he s a y s , i s a t th e h a lf-w a y p o in t b etw een t h e p u r e ly
s p i r i t u a l su b s ta n c e and t h e e x c l u s i v e l y c o r p o r e a l.
Y iv e s t h e n exam ines c o n d i t i o n s w hich a r e common to
a l l v e g e t a b l e and anim al l i f e , i n c l u d i n g man. He f i n d s
t h a t man may be d i f f e r e n t i a t e d from lo w e r o r g a n ism s b e ca u se
he i s c a p a b le o f c o n s c io u s s e n s a t io n and p e r c e p t i o n . Man,
a l s o h a s t h e power o f judgm ent. He d i f f e r s from b r u t e s i n
t h a t he i s r a t i o n a l . The a n tago n ism w i t h i n man a r i s e s
b e c a u se he i s s u b j e c t to e f f e c t s from b o th p h y s ic a l and
m ental c a u s e s , y i v e s d i f f e r e n t i a t e s betw een m a tte r and
so u l s a y in g t h a t m a tte r i s i n e r t , but t h a t th e s o u l a c t i v e l y
g o v e r n s or r e s t r a i n s a c t i o n a c c o r d in g to i t s w i l l . He sa y s
t h a t so u l can n e v e r be d e f in e d in i t s e s s e n c e , b u t t h a t i t
can be known through i t s o p e r a t i o n . In o th e r w ords, what
th e so u l d oes i s more im p ortan t th a n what i t i s .
C o n d itio n s common t o v e g e t a b l e , anim al and human l i f e
a r e , he t h i n k s , warmth, m o is t u r e , means o f m a in ta in in g
134
e q u ilib r iu m , n o u rish m en t, grow th , r e p r o d u c t io n , and s e l f -
p r e s e r v a t i o n . In a d d i t i o n , man h a s s e n s e s th rou g h w hich he
c o n t a c t s e x te r n a l n a tu r e . Y iv e s enum erates th e s e n s e s ,
t h e i r n a t u r e , t h e i r u s e , t h e i r s t r u c t u r e . The p r i n c i p l e
o f s e n s a t i o n , he t h i n k s , l i e s i n t h e ra p p o r t betw een t h e
se n s e w h ich p e r c e i v e s and th e o b j e c t p e r c e iv e d . He d o e s not
t h in k th e s e n s e s can be d e c e iv e d but he t h in k s t h e y can
d e c e i v e . The s e n s e s a r e p a s s i v e i n t h a t t h e y r e c e i v e se n
s a t i o n but cannot e v a lu a t e i t . S e n s a t i o n p rod u ces a know
l e d g e o f e x t e r n a l i n f l u e n c e s p r e s e n t . When th e s e n s a t i o n
c e a s e s , i t i s p r e s e r v e d by memory w it h im a g in a tio n a s an
in t e r m e d ia r y . Im a g in a tio n r e c e i v e s im ages im p r in ted on th e
s e n s e s by e x t e r n a l o b j e c t s ; memory r e t a i n s them; f a n c y
e l a b o r a t e s them, r e u n i t e s them or s e p a r a t e s them . Judgment
d e te r m in e s a c c e p ta n c e , r e j e c t i o n , a f f i r m a t i o n , or d e n i a l .
Y iv e s exam ines th e f i e l d o f i n t r o s p e c t i o n . T h is e x p e r i
e n c e , d e a l in g w it h th e im m a te ria l and b e in g s u b j e c t i v e , he
s a y s , i s a m a tte r o f p s y c h i c a l r a th e r th a n o f p h y s i c a l
e x p e r i e n c e .
Y iv e s b e l i e v e s , l i k e A r i s t o t l e , t h a t t h e so u l i s o f
a s u p e r io r o r d e r and e n c l o s e s w i t h i n i t s e l f i n f e r i o r o r d e r s .
The s o u l , he s a y s , p e r v a d e s t h e w hole b o d y - - s e e s through t h e
e y e s , h e a r s through t h e e a r s , e t c . Y iv e s t u r n s from t h e
c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f l i f e i n g e n e r a l t o l i f e i n i n d iv i d u a l man,
a f r e e and i n t e l l i g e n t c r e a t u r e whose f a c u l t i e s a re th e
135
s u b j e c t o f th e secon d p a r t o f th6 t r e a t i s e .
Book I I d i s c u s s e s t h e f a c u l t i e s o f man. Man, Y iv e s
t h i n k s , i s c r e a te d f o r supreme h a p p in e s s . Man i s a b le t o
e n v i s i o n t h i s supreme b l i s s , s e e k f o r i t , and make i t a
p a r t o f h i m s e l f . The f a c u l t y th rou gh w hich man can a t t a i n
to h i s d e s i r e s i s w i l l . W ill p r e su p p o se s i n t e l l i g e n c e .
S in c e man p a s s e s from one th o u g h t t o a n o th e r , t h e so u l h a s
to p r o v id e f o r a c l e a r i n g - h o u s e . Memory f u n c t i o n s a s such
a d e p o s i t o r y . The t h r e e f a c u l t i e s , w i l l , i n t e l l i g e n c e , and
memory r e f l e c t th e d i v i n e t r i n i t y . Y iv e s s a y s t h e s e f a c u l
t i e s a re t h e so u r c e o f a l l th e o t h e r f a c u l t i e s : v i z . ,
i n t e l l i g e n c e t o know th e good; memory to r e t a i n t h a t know
l e d g e ; w i l l , to a c t i t o u t i n l i f e .
Mind, by t h i n k i n g , p u ts i t s e l f i n r a p p o r t w ith
b e in g s d i s t i n c t from i t s e l f . Memory p r e s e r v e s t h e n o t i o n s
which a r e t h e r e s u l t o f t h i s o p e r a t io n . Reason compares
t h e i d e a s and p u t s them i n ra p p o r t w ith one a n o t h e r .
Judgment s e p a r a t e s th e tr u e from t h e f a l s e — t h e good from
th e bad. F i n a l l y , w i l l c h o o se s th e one and r e j e c t s t h e
o t h e r . The l a s t f a c u l t y d i s c u s s e d i s r e f l e c t i o n by w hich
th e s o u l c o n s id e r s im p e r s o n a lly i t s judgm ents, d e s i r e s , and
a v e r s i o n s . H aving e s t a b l i s h e d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een t h e
f a c u l t i e s , V iv e s p r o g r e s s e s to an e x a m in a tio n o f t h e i r u s e ,
e x t e n t , i n t e n s i t y , i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a t i o n s , and th e means o f
f a c i t a t i n g or b lo c k in g t h e i r a c t i o n .
136
Y iv e s n e x t c o n s i d e r s th e n a tu re o f g e n e r a l i n t e l l i
g e n c e , S p i r i t u a l man advances g r a d u a l l y tow a rd s h i s f i n a l
g o a l by r a i s i n g i n e r t m a tte r t o s e n s a t i o n ; s e n s a t i o n to
im a g in a t io n ; im a g in a t io n to em otion ; em otion to r e a so n ;
r e a so n to g e n e r a l i z a t i o n ; g e n e r a l i z a t i o n to d i v i n e l o v e ;
d i v i n e l o v e to u n io n w it h God. Mind i s an a c t i v e p r i n c i p l e .
I t c e a s e s to a c t o n ly when b lo c k e d by o b s t r u c t i n g c o n d i t i o n s
i n t h e o rgan ism i t s e l f .
L e a v in g th e g e n e r a l a c t i v i t i e s o f m ind, Y iv e s t u r n s to
a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f s l e e p , dream s, h a b i t s , o ld a g e , l o n g e v i t y ,
and, f i n a l l y , o f th e im m o r t a lit y o f t h e s o u l . There a re but
two r e a s o n s l e a d i n g to a d e n ia l o f im m o r t a lit y he e x p l a in s ;
(1) ig n o r a n c e w hich can o n l y m easure i n term s o f t h e p h y s i
c a l s e n s e s and t h e r e f o r e r e j e c t s a n y th in g n ot a p p aren t t o
th e p h y s i c a l s e n s e s ; and (2) s e l f - i n d u l g e n c e w hich d oes n ot
w ish th e s o u l t o s u r v iv e f o r f e a r o f f u t u r e r e t r i b u t i o n .
On th e p o s i t i v e s i d e , he s a y s , e v e r y th in g b e a r s w i t n e s s to
th e f a c t t h a t th e so u l o f man i s im m ortal: i . e . , n a tu r e ;
t h e e s s e n c e o f th e s o u l i t s e l f ; i t s f a c u l t i e s ; i t s i n s t i n c t s ;
a n a l o g i e s ; c a u se and e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p s ; human d i g n i t y ;
and d i v i n e b o u n ty .
Book I I I , a lth o u g h p r im a r ily d e v o te d to a stu d y o f
t h e e m o tio n s, b e g in s d i s c u s s i o n on t h e s u b j e c t from t h e
b a s i s o f God a s manf s b a s i c a c t i v a t i n g p r i n c i p l e . The pur
p o s e o f t h i s c r e a t i o n , Y iv e s t h i n k s , i s to communicate t o
H is c r e a t u r e s a s much in d iv i d u a l h a p p in e s s as each p e r s o n
i s a b le t o r e c e i v e . He p r o v id e s f o r th e ach ievem en t o f
t h i s l o f t y g o a l th rou gh th e i n s t i n c t s o f s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n ,
an i n n a t e a v e r s i o n to e v i l , and a d e s i r e f o r good . A l l
a c t i o n s a r e m o tiv a te d by t h e s e t h r e e i n s t i n c t s . A l s o ,
th e y are t h e so u r c e o f a l l manf s em otion s and a f f e c t i v e
r e s p o n s e s . Y iv e s enum erates th e d i f f e r e n t form s o f emo
t i o n a l r e a c t i o n , t o g e t h e r w ith t h e i r o r i g i n s , r e l a t i o n s h i p s ,
and o r g a n ic e x p r e s s i o n s . He d i s c u s s e s , from t h i s v ie w
p o i n t , l o v e ( a f f e c t i o n ) i n g e n e r a l , w e l l - r e g u l a t e d d e s i r e s ,
v i c i o u s t e n d e n c i e s , r e s p e c t , p i t y , sym pathy, j o y , p l e a s u r e ,
l a u g h t e r , umbrage, s c o r n , a n g e r , h a t r e d , envy, j e a l o u s y ,
i n d i g n a t i o n , v e n g e a n c e , c r u e l t y , g r i e f , t e a r s , f e a r , h op e,
shame, and p r i d e .
HISTORY
In 1 5 5 1 , Y iv e s p u b lis h e d h i s g r e a t e d u c a tio n a l work
De P i s c i p l i n i s . T h is t e x t c o n s i s t s o f two s e p a r a te
t r e a t i s e s : th e one De_ C a u sis Corrupt arum A rtium , w ith
se v e n books; th e o t h e r , De T ra d en d is D i s c i p l i n i s , w ith f i v e .
In the f i r s t o f t h e s e w orks, Y iv e s t r a c e s th e h i s t o r y o f
e d u c a t io n , from t h e b e g in n in g o f h i s t o r y up to h i s own t im e s
a n a ly z e s th e e d u c a tio n a l e v i l s o f h i s day and t h o s e o f
p r e v io u s t r a n s i t i o n e r a s ; and, e x p l a in s th e c a u se s o f the
138
d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f m ed ia e v a l l e a r n i n g . In th e secon d t r e a t
i s e , he a p p ro a ch es th e problem from t h e p o s i t i v e s i d e . He
th u s e x p la in s th e e v o l u t i o n o f e d u c a tio n from e a r l y o r i g i n s
up to h i s own tim e s and s e t s f o r t h a com p lete e d u c a t io n a l
program t o ta k e c a r e o f th e n eed s o f th e new a g e — a program
d e sig n e d to ta k e ca re o f th e e d u c a tio n a l l a g produced by
th e r a p i d l y changin g t e c h n o l o g i c a l , econ om ic, and s o c i a l
c a ta c ly sm s o f th e R e n a is s a n c e . S in c e De T ra d en d is D i s c i p -
l i n i s i n v o l v e s more than t h e h i s t o r y o f e d u c a t io n , i t w i l l
be d i s c u s s e d i n a s e c t i o n o f i t s own. I t w i l l be a m a tte r
o f i n t e r e s t , l a t e r i n t h e c h a p t e r , to see how p e r f e c t i s
t h e b a la n c e betw een the e v i l s enumerated i n De C a u s is
Corruptarum Artium and t h e rem ed ies s u g g e s te d i n D£ Traden
d i s D i s c i p l i n i s . De C a u s is Corruptarum w i l l be th e n e x t book
to be r e v ie w e d .
De C a u sis Corruptarum A r tiu m , i s a good exam ple o f
V iv6s* approach t o th e h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e o f s o c i a l
ch an ge. Book I i s d ev o ted to th e g e n e r a l c a u s e s u n d e r ly in g
th e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f th e a r t s ; Book I I , th e la n g u a g e a r t s ;
Book I I I , d i a l e c t i c s ; Book IV, grammar; Book V, n a tu r a l
p h ilo s o p h y , p h y s i c s , m e d ic in e , m a th em atics; Book ¥ 1 , moral
p h ilo s o p h y ; and Book V I I , Law. V iv e s th u s c o v e r s (w ith
t h e e x c e p t i o n o f th e o lo g y ) th e w hole u n i v e r s i t y c u r ricu lu m .
Book I t r e a t s o f th e g e n e r a l c a u s e s w hich u n d e r l i e
th e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f t h e - a r t s . V iv e s b e g in s h i s s y n o p s is
159
by g o in g back to th e o r i g i n o f h i s t o r y to make a com parison
betw een anim al and man. A nim als, he s a y s , have one
ad van tage o v e r man i n t h a t n a tu re h as p r o v id e d them w ith a
c o v e r in g and w ith weapons to p r o t e c t t h e m s e lv e s . Man a lo n e
i s born naked and a t t h e mercy o f th e e le m e n t s . As compen
s a t i o n he i s g iv e n an i n v e n t i v e mind w h ic h , i f u se d c o r r e c t
l y , e n a b le s him to surmount h i s d i f f i c u l t i e s . T h is
n e c e s s i t y o f overcom ing h a n d ic a p s i s th e o r i g i n o f a l l t h e
i n v e n t i o n s o f man— good , bad, u s e f u l , and d e s t r u c t i v e .
V iv e s e x p l a in s t h a t th e f i r s t im p ortan t d is c o v e r y o f
man was t h a t o f l e t t e r s a s d i s t i n c t from h i e r o g l y p h i c s .
Prom l e t t e r s , man p r o g r e s s e d among th e a n c i e n t s to a know
l e d g e o f th e S even L ib e r a l A r t s . The S ev en L i b e r a l A r ts i n
t h e i r tu r n c o n s t i t u t e d t h e base on w h ich t h e s c i e n c e s were
b u i l t : i . e . , m e d ic in e , t h e o l o g y , law , and moral p h ilo s o p h y .
The c a u s e s o f d e c a d e n c es i n a n t i q u i t y were: (1) ig n o r a n c e
w hich alw ays c a r r i e s w ith i t a sc o r n o f t r u e l e a r n i n g , (S)
t h e in n a t e p e r v e r s i t y o f man, who alw ays r e s e n t s th e b e s t
and c a u s e s t r u e a r t s to d e g e n e r a te by h i s p r a c t i c e o f
p s e u d o - a r t s , (3) t h e v a n i t y and e g o tis m o f s c h o l a r s who th u s
d e s t r o y t h e i r own work, and (4) th e j e a l o u s y o f s c h o l a r s who
j o i n i n o b s t r u c t i n g w h a tever i s new and t h r e a t e n s t h e i r
p r e s t i g e . S o c r a t e s had v e r y l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e i n h i s tim e
b e c a u se o f S o p h i s t s who p reach ed th e easy way to l e a r n i n g .
140
The i n v a s i o n s o f t h e b a r b a r ia n s from t h e north d e s tr o y e d
Rome w ith a co n seq u en t l o s s o f t h e c l a s s i c s and th e
la n g u a g e o f th e A n c i e n t s , th u s th e r e a l m a s t e r p ie c e s o f
Greek and L a t i n were l o s t and a group o f p s e u d o - c l a s s i c s
grew up. In s p i t e o f th e r e c o v e r y o f a n c i e n t knowledge
S c h o l a s t i c i s m would l i k e to condemn know ledge to rem ain
e t e r n a l l y a t th e p o i n t rea ch ed by i t s p r e d e c e s s o r s , i . e . ,
c o n tin u e the use o f j p s e u d o - c la s s i c s .
V iv e s a r g u es h e a t e d l y a g a in s t th e u n fo r t u n a te r o u t in e
which d e c r e e s an e t e r n a l s t e r i l i t y o f mind. As i f , he s a y s ,
t h e f i e l d o f p r o g r e s s was not a s much open to t h e H um anists
a s to t h o s e who p r e ce d e d them; and, a s i f th e n a tu re o f t h e
man o f t h e R e n a iss a n c e was d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f th e a n c ie n t
Romans. V iv e s d e p lo r e s f u r t h e r , th e l o s s o f t h e a r t o f con
s t r u c t i v e c r i t i c i s m and th e c o r r u p tio n o f a n c i e n t t e x t s . He
bemoans t h a t a u t h e n t ic t e x t s are h o p e l e s s l y m ixed up w it h
co rr u p t t e x t s . He u p b r a id s th e S c h o la s tic s who d is p u t e not
to c l a r i f y , but m e r e ly to g i v e a f a l s e f a c i l i t y i n th e u se
o f w ords.
He condemns t h e u s e o f i r r a t i o n a l m ethods i n
s c h o o l s ; t h e s o r d id v i c e s o f both t e a c h e r s and p u p i l s ; th e
h a b it o f t h i n k i n g i n term s o f empty words; t h e custom o f
l i v i n g by fo r m u la s i n s t e a d o f by r e a so n ; t h e l o s s o f i n t e r e s t
i n g e n u in e s c i e n c e ; t h e a c c e p ta n c e o f s h a llo w l e a r n i n g and
f r i v o l o u s sta n d a r d s .
Book I I d e a l s with, t h e d ecad en ce o f t h e la n g u a g e a r t s
w hich Y iv e s d e s c r i b e s as: grammar— a pure e x p r e s s i o n o f
th o u g h t; r h e t o r i c , th e s t y l e o f th o u g h t; and, d i a l e c t i c ,
t h e p r o o f o f th o u g h t. He th e n p r o c e e d s to a d i s c u s s i o n o f
t h e c a u se s o f d e c a d en ce in grammar. E x c e s s i v e dependence
on r u l e s , he s a y s , f i x e s a c a c h e t o f im m o b ility on a t h i n g
which sh o u ld have f l u i d i t y and v i t a l i t y . N e ith e r A r i s t o t l e
nor C ic e r o w ere exempt from such t r a n s g r e s s i o n s . The
S c h o l a s t i c s o f th e Sorbonne p r id e t h e m s e lv e s on p r o v in g t h a t
b la c k i s w h it e . To them d i a l e c t i c i s an end, not a m eans.
T h is u n fo r tu n a t e m isu s e o f a v a l u a b le in str u m e n t h as
co rru p ted a l l l e a r n i n g .
Book IV t a k e s up th e s u b j e c t o f r h e t o r i c . R h e t o r ic ,
Y iv e s t h i n k s , h a s an im p o rta n t r o l e to p la y i n s o c i e t y . On
r h e t o r i c depend b o th j u s t i c e and la n g u a g e . W ithout j u s t i c e ,
t h e r e w ould be no m oral bond b e tw e en men; w ith o u t la n g u a g e ,
no s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s c o u ld e x i s t . Sp eech made g r e a t
p r o g r e s s i n G reece b e c a u se sp eech a c q u i r e s vv a lu e more
r e a d i l y i n f r e e s t a t e s . Y iv e s a t t a c k s th e u n f o r t u n a t e
custom o f sp ea k in g a lm o st e n t i r e l y through fo r m u la s and
q u o t a t i o n s .
Book Y i s d e v o te d t o t h e stu d y o f n a tu r a l p h ilo s o p h y ,
p h y s i c s , m e d ic in e , and m a th e m a tic s. The d ecay i n t h e s e
142
f i e l d s have been due t o (1) to o much c r e d e n c e ; (2) t o o much
d o u b tin g ; (3) th e drawing o f in a c c u r a t e c o n c lu s i o n s by
r e a c h in g g e n e r a l c o n c lu s i o n s from p a r t i c u l a r i n s t a n c e s ; (4)
th e ten d e n c y among t h e d i s c i p l e s o f d i f f e r e n t p h i lo s o p h ic
s c h o o l s to a ttem p t t o p e r p e tu a te t h e i r own b e l i e f s i n s t e a d
o f s e e k in g t r u t h . He s u b j e c t s t h e " A r i s t o t l e h as s a id i t "
h a b i t t o m e r c i l e s s r i d i c u l e .
M athem atics h as b een l e s s a f f e c t e d by d ecad en ce th a n
o t h e r s c i e n c e s b e c a u se i t i s u sed l e s s . M ed icin e has
s u f f e r e d many ab u ses due to t h e l o v e o f g a i n and c h a r la t a n
ism on th e p a r t o f p s e u d o - d o c t o r s . He a d v i s e s h i s r e a d e r s
t o stu d y n a tu r e i t s e l f , and not to depend on second-hand
k n o w le d g e .
Book VI "Moral P h ilo s o p h y " — I f s c h o l a r s must stu d y
secon d-h and p h ilo s o p h y why sh o u ld t h e y n ot stu d y P l a t o , or
t h e S t o i c s , f o r t h e s e p h i l o s o p h i e s , at l e a s t , have some
t i e w it h C h r i s t i a n i t y , w h i l e A r i s t o t l e w orks o n ly on th e
p u r e ly o b j e c t i v e and p h y s i c a l p l a n s . The g r e a t e v i l o f
man i s t o l i s t e n to p h ilo s o p h e r s who have n o th in g t o o f f e r
s u p e r io r t o what he h a s a lr e a d y . P la t o has som eth in g to
u p l i f t th e w o r ld . He p l a c e s t h e s o v e r e ig n good i n a u n io n
o f l o v e and b e a u ty . T h is b e a u ty cannot be su r p a sse d and i s
n ot s u b j e c t t o change o r d e c l i n e . A r i s t o t l e on t h e o t h e r
hand p l a c e s th e s o v e r e ig n good on th e e a rth and says t h a t
145
man can f i n d i t o n ly i n h i m s e l f . A r i s t o t l e s e e s v i r t u e as
a h a b it ; P la t o s e e s i t a s an a c t i v e p r i n c i p l e . I f A r i s t o t l e
must be s t u d i e d , h i s R h e to r ic and P o l i t i c s are p r e f e r a b l e t o
k i s E t h i c s . Even A r i s t o t l e i s debased by th e t e a c h i n g s o f
th e S c h o l a s t i c s b e c a u se th e y depend upon in a c c u r a t e and
o b scu re t r a n s l a t i o n s .
Book T i l d e a l s w it h la w , a s u b j e c t v e r y c l o s e to
T ives* h e a r t . E q u it y , he s a y s , i s one o f th e b a s e s o f
s o c i e t y . E gotism t r i e s c e a s e l e s s l y t o th row th e s c a l e s o f f
b a la n c e tow ard s i t s s i d e . From t h i s te n d e n c y comes t h e
need o f s o c i a l f o r c e t o r e - e s t a b l i s h t h e e q u ilib r iu m . T h is
need o f s o c i a l f o r c e i s a t th e r o o t o f th e o r i g i n o f la w s .
As t h e f r u i t o f e x p e r ie n c e , d e d u c tio n s have been made as to
t h e r e s u l t s o f c e r t a i n h a p p e n in g s. From th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f
many la w s g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s o f j u s t i c e have been ded u ced .
A buses o f la w have come from (1) u n j u s t la w s; (2) poor
en forcem en t o f law ; (3) o b s c u r i t y o f la w s ; (4) m u l t i p l i c i t y
o f la w s . D e t e r i o r a t i o n h a s become m a n i f e s t ; the l e t t e r o f
th e la w h a s been s t r e s s e d r a th e r th a n th e s p i r i t ; and,
c l e v e r j u g g l i n g o f la w s h a s ta k e n t h e p l a c e o f t r u e
j u r i sp r u d e n c e .
METHODOLOGY
144
The two b e s t exam ples o f V ives* c o n c e p tio n o f ed u ca
t i o n a l m ethods are to he foun d i n D e^ R a tio n e S t u d i i
P u e r i l i s , g p i s t o l a e I I and L in g u ae L a t in a e E x e r c i t a t i o .
The f i r s t o f t h e s e , t h e P Ia n s o f S tu d y f o r Young P e o p l e ,
g i v e s a d v ic e a s t o what and how to stu d y ; th e se co n d , t h e
L a t i n D i a l o g u e s , p r o v id e s an a c tu a l te x tb o o k f o r th e stu d y
and p r a c t i c e o f spoken L a t i n . The G ir l * s P la n o f S tu d i e s
was w r i t t e n a t th e r e q u e s t o f C a th e r in e o f Aragon f o r t h e
u s e o f P r i n c e s s Mary; t h e Boys? P la n o f S tu d y was drawn up
f o r C h a r le s Mount j o y , t h e son o f C a t h e r in e ’ s Lord Chamber
l a i n . The P la n s were p u b l i s h e d , f i r s t , i n L ou v ain i n 1 5 2 4 .
A nother o f Y ives* books w hich m igh t be c o n s id e r e d
under m ethods i s h i s Dj$ I n s t i t u t i o n e Pemlnae C h r i s t i a n a s ,
p u b lis h e d i n Antwerp i n 1 5 2 3 , d e d ic a te d t o C a th e r in e o f
Aragon, and t r a n s l a t e d in t o E n g lis h by R ichard Hyrde, a
p r o t e g e o f S i r Thomas More. I t seems t h a t More h i m s e l f had
in te n d e d t o make th e t r a n s l a t i o n b u t, f i n d i n g i t a lr e a d y
a c co m p lish ed , he made h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n by r e v i s i n g and
e d i t i n g th e m a n u sc rip t a t Hyrde*s r e q u e s t . P o s t e r W atson
made th e E n g lis h t r a n s l a t i o n s o f th e D < 3 R a tio n e S t u d i i
P u e r i l i s and L inguae L a tin a e g x e r c i t a t i o . De I n s t i t u t i o n e
Feminae C h r i s t i a n a e i s as much a t r e a t i s e on m o r a ls a s on
e d u c a t io n . However, s i n c e i t c o m p le te s th e background o f
145
t h e t r a i n i n g o f P r i n c e s s Mary, i t w i l l be r e v ie w e d h e r e
w it h th e P la n o f S tu d i es f o r G i r l s .
V i v e s 1 p la n o f s t u d i e s h as fo u r im p o rta n t f e a t u r e s .
The f i r s t o f t h e s e i s c h a r a c t e r fo r m a t io n . For th e d e v e lo p
ment o f a h ig h m oral sta n d a r d , t h e b e s t l i t e r a t u r e sh o u ld be
s t u d ie d .and b ook s sh o u ld be ch osen f o r t h e i r c o n t e n t r a t h e r
th a n form and s t y l e . The seco n d g o a l i s t r a i n i n g i n o r a l
e x p r e s s i o n so t h a t L a t i n may be u sed f l u e n t l y i n c o n v e r s a
t i o n . The t h i r d i s b u i l d i n g up a v o c a b u la r y by k e e p in g
n o te b o o k s on words and p h r a s e s . V iv e s recommends w r i t i n g
o r i g i n a l c o m p o s itio n s i n L a t i n so t h a t e le g a n c e o f s t y l e
may be d e v e lo p e d . The f o u r t h o b j e c t i v e i s r ea d in g o f o n ly
th e b e s t a u th o rs so t h a t from them , th r o u g h o b s e r v a t i o n ,
an u n d e r s ta n d in g o f grammar may be a c q u ir e d .
G oing i n t o more d e t a i l , V iv e s s a y s t h a t t h e p r i n c e s s
must l e a r n th o r o u g h ly t h e sounds o f l e t t e r s i n o r d e r to
a r t i c u l a t e d i s t i n c t l y ; sh e must m a ste r t h e r u l e s o f s y l l a b i
c a t i o n so t h a t no e rr o r rem ains i n h er sp e e c h , sh e must
l e a r n a ls o t h a t t h e r e are e ig h t p a r t s o f s p e e c h , f o u r o f
which are d e c l i n a b l e and f o u r i n d e c l i n a b l e . Good penman
sh ip i s a n o th er n e c e s s a r y a ccom p lish m en t. S w i f t w r it in g i s
m ost e s s e n t i a l so she may j o t down n o t e s o f f e l i c i t o u s
p h r a s e s , o r p l e a s i n g t h o u g h t s . The l i n e s ch osen f o r copy
sh o u ld e o n t a in some w e ig h ty o p in io n t o f i x in th e mind,
th u s b a r r in g o u t t h e th o u g h t o f f r i v o l o u s o r im proper '
146
s u b j e c t s . As one ph ase o f memory t r a i n i n g , he s u g g e s t s t h e
r ea d in g o f p a s s a g e s a t nigirfc, s e v e r a l t i m e s , ftwhat sh6
w is h e s to g i v e i n charge to h e r memory” and t h e n th e f o l l o w
in g m orning to t r y to r e p e a t th e p a s s a g e s from memory. He
c o n t in u e s w ith a l i s t o f p o i n t s o f L a t i n sy n ta x which sh e
sh ou ld m a ste r ; s u g g e s t s t e x t s by L in a c r e , M ela n e to n , and
Erasmus f o r s tu d y . He warns t h e P r i n c e s s a g a i n s t t h e
co rr u p t and b a rb a ro u s words brough t in t o L a t i n u sa g e by
t h e S c h o l a s t i c s . He a d v i s e s t h e stu d y o f etym ology and
c a u t io n s t h e t u t o r to be c a r e f u l i n th e s e l e c t i o n o f m a ter
i a l s so t h a t f r i v o l o u s , f a l s e , and m is le a d in g p a s s a g e s may
be a v o id e d .
The a u th o r s ch osen f o r h er sh ou ld be t h o s e whose
w r i t i n g s w i l l i n c u l c a t e n ot o n ly good la n g u a g e but r i g h t
l i v i n g . He recommends C ic e r o , S e n e c a , P lu t a r c h , and some
o f P l a t o ’ s D i a l o g u e s — e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e d e a l in g w ith t h e
s t a t e ; th e e p i s t l e s o f Jerom e, and some o f t h e w r i t i n g s o f
^m brosius and S t . A u g u stin e; some modern works such a s t h o s e
o f Erasmus and t h e U to p ia o f S i r Thomas More; h i s t o r i c a l
works such as t h o s e o f J u s t i n u s , F o ru s and V a le r iu s Maximus;
p a s s a g e s from th e New T estam ent a s s u g g e s t e d by h e r t u t o r ;
t h e C h r i s t i a n p o e t s ; and some h e a th e n p o e t s , c a r e f u l l y
c h o s e n ,— such works a s Lucan, S e n e c a , H o ra ce.
147
He a d v i s e s h er to b e g in e a r l y t o w r ite and to advance
g r a d u a lly from ea sy t o more d i f f i c u l t s u b j e c t s . The t o p i c s
sh ou ld be a l t e r n a t e l y s e r i o u s and t h o s e l e s s s e r i o u s so
t h a t some may b r in g th e c h i l d p l e a s u r e . He s u g g e s t s a l s o
th e u s e o f s l i g h t rew ards a s means o f s t i m u l a t i o n and
e n cou rag em en t.
In t h e I n s t i t u t i o n e Feminae G h r i s t i a n a e , V iv e s
a tte m p ts to g i v e t h e r u l e s o f b e h a v io r f o r a woman’ s w hole
l i f e , from in f a n c y t o th e g r a v e . The e d u c a tio n p rop osed i s
d e f i n i t e l y p i e t i s t i c i n c h a r a c te r , p r o b a b ly he was
i n f l u e n c e d by t h e ty p e o f e d u c a t io n C a t h e r in e , h e r s e l f , had
r e c e i v e d . However, t h e e d u c a t io n a l p la n u n d e r ly in g i s q u i t e
l i b e r a l , d i f f e r i n g from t h a t p roposed f o r b o y s o n ly i n t h a t
th e g i r l i s e x p e c te d to be more r e l i g i o u s and i s n o t e x p e c te d
to in d u lg e to o much i n th e r ea d in g o f pagan p o e t s . More
o v e r , t h e g i r l i s en cou raged to sa y h e r p r a y e r s i n th e
v e r n a c u la r . V ives* i d e a o f what t h e w i f e ought t o do a t
home i s i n d i c a t i v e o f th e g e n e r a l s p i r i t o f t h e b oo k .
She must have s k i l l i n r u l in g h e r h o u se h o ld . As
A r i s t o t l e s a y s , i t i s t h e man’ s duty to g e t and th e
woman’ s to k e e p . N e v e r t h e l e s s , she m ust not be too
n i g g a r d ly . She must e x e r e i s e s o b e r n e s s and m ea su re.
Her h o u se h o ld must l a c k n e i t h e r fo o d (meat) nor
c l o t h , s h e must p r o v id e due work f o r a l l in t h e
h o u s e , and y e t o r d e r a l l more l i k e a m other th a n a
m i s t r e s s . . . . P r e c a u t io n s must be ta k en a g a i n s t
d i c e - p l a y i n g by any i n t h e h o u se. The m i s t r e s s
sh o u ld d i s t r i b u t e t o poor f o l k s , and h e lp them t h a t
have n e e d . She must show h e r s e l f an example o f
148
so b er f a r e . 3
The E x e r c i t a t i o c o n s i s t s o f t w e n t y - f o u r d i a l o g u e s .
The f i r s t tw en ty-tw o d i a l o g u e s d e s c r i b e f a m i l i a r s c e n e s i n
t h e l i f e o f a w e l l- b o r n youth o f V i v e s ’ d a y . The l a s t two
d i a l o g u e s summarize t h e th o u g h t o f th e o t h e r d i a l o g u e s .
The s c h o o l- b o y s e t t i n g s are: g e t t i n g up i n t h e m orning;
morning g r e e t i n g s ; e s c o r t i n g to- s c h o o l; g o in g to s c h o o l;
r e a d in g ; th e r e t u r n home and c h i l d r e n ’ s p la y ; sc h o o l m e a ls ,
s t u d e n t s ’ c h a t t e r , jo u rn ey on h o u rseb ack ; w r i t i n g ; g e t t i n g
d r e s s e d and t h e morning c o n s t i t u t i o n a l ; t h e new h o u se; th e
s c h o o l; t h e s l e e p i n g room and s t u d i e s by n ig h t ; t h e k it c h e n ;
t h e d in in g -r o o m ; t h e b a n q u et; d run kenn ess; t h e K in g ’ s
p a la c e ; th e young p r i n c e ; c a r d -p la y in g or pap er-gam es;
la w s o f p la y in g ; and th e e x t e r i o r o f man’ s body. They are
w r i t t e n i n sim p le la n g u a g e and form t h e b a s i s o f o r a l d i s
c u s s io n s i n L a t i n on* s c h o o l- b o y i n t e r e s t s . C hapter X X III,
E d u c a tio , g i v e s V i v e s ’ i d e a s on th e e d u c a t io n o f a r o y a l
p r i n c e . C hapter XXIV g i v e s , i n a n u t s h e l l , V i v e s ’ p r e c e p t s
o f e d u c a t io n .
As t r a n s l a t e d by W atson, t h e p r e c e p t s a r e , i n p a r t ,
a s f o l l o w s :
3
Hi chard H yrde, t r a n s l a t o r , The I n s t i t u t i o n o f a
C h r i s t ! an Woman, i n F o s t e r W atson, e d i t o r , V iv e s "and th e
R enascence E d u c a tio n o f Women (New York: Longmans, Green
and Company, 1 9 1 2 ) , p . l l § .
149
F i r s t o f . a l l t h e m a ste r ta u g h t me t h a t no one ou gh t
t o th in k h i g h l y o f h i m s e l f , but m o d e r a te ly o r , more
t r u l y , humbly; t h a t t h i s was th e s o l i d a n d . s p e c i a l
fo u n d a t io n o f t h e b e s t e d u c a t io n , and t r u l y o f s o c i e t y .
One sh ould be i n t e r e s t e d i n sa c r e d m a tte r s and
r ega rd them w it h t h e g r e a t e s t a t t e n t i o n and r e v e r e n c e .
You sh ou ld f r e q u e n t l y commend y o u r s e l f to C h r is t
i n p r a y e r s , have you r hope and a l l your t r u s t p la c e d
i n Him. You sh ould show y o u r s e l f o b e d ie n t to p a r e n t s ,
se r v e them , m i n i s t e r to them and, as each one h a s
power,' be good and u s e f u l to them .
We sh o u ld honour and l o v e th e t e a c h e r even as th e
p a r e n t , not o f o u r body but (what i s g r e a t e r ) o f our
m ind. We sh o u ld r e v e r e th e p r i e s t s o f th e Lord, and
show o u r s e l v e s a t t e n t i v e to t h e i r t e a c h i n g , s i n c e t h e y
are to u s i n p l a c e o f t h e A p o s t l e s and even o f t h e
Lord H im s e lf. We sh ou ld sta n d up b e f o r e th e o l d , un
c o v e r in g our h e a d s , and a t t e n t i v e l y l i s t e n to them ,
from whom th ro u g h t h e i r lo n g e x p e r ie n c e o f l i f e ,
wisdom be g a t h e r e d . We sh o u ld honour m a g i s t r a t e s ,
and t h a t when t h e y o r d e r an y th in g we sh ould l i s t e n t o
what t h e y sa y — s i n c e God h a s com m itted u s t o t h e i r
c a r e . We sh o u ld lo o k f o r , adm ire, hon our, and w ish
a l l good t o , men o f g r e a t a b i l i t y , o f g r e a t l e a r n i n g ,
and to h o n e s t men, and seek th e f r i e n d s h i p and in tim a c y
o f t h o s e from whom so g r e a t f r u i t s can be o b t a in e d ,
and t h a t we a tte n d t o i t e s p e c i a l l y t h a t we tu r n ou t
1 ik e th em.
And i n th e l a s t p l a c e , he ta u g h t t h a t r e v e r e n c e i s
due t o t h o s e who are i n p l a c e s o f d i g n i t y , and t h e r e f o r e
i t sh o u ld be g iv e n f r e e l y and g l a d l y . 4
The s h o r t e s t way to k n ow led ge, a c c o r d in g to W ives, i s
d i l i g e n c e i n l i s t e n i n g . N othing more becomes a youth, th a n
m o d e sty . I d l e n e s s l e a d s to e v i l . N oth in g i s more s p i t e f u l
or h a t e f u l th an im pudence, s o r d id n e s s or o b s c e n i t y . Speech
4
F o s t e r W atson, t r a n s l a t o r , Tudor S c h o o l- Boy L i f e
^Vives* L in g u a e L a t in a e E x e r c i t a t i o V (London: J . M. Dent
and Company, 1 9 0 8 ) , pp. 2 3 6 -3 8 .
150
sh ou ld be sim p le and n o t m is l e a d in g . N oth in g i s v i l e r th a n
l y i n g . A l i a r ough t to be sh u t out from t h e company o f
o t h e r men more th a n he who h a s com m itted t h e f t ; o r who h a s
b e a te n a n o th e r , or who h a s debased th e c o in a g e . F r ie n d s
sh ould be chosen f o r s t u d e n t s by t h e i r p a r e n t s and t e a c h e r s .
They sh o u ld n o t be s e l e c t e d by th e s t u d e n t h i m s e l f .
MORAL EDUCATION
The theme o f moral e d u c a t io n runs l i k e a th r e a d
through a l l o f V ives* w orks. In f a c t , a lth o u g h a la w y e r
and n o t a p r i e s t , p i e t y to him, as to S i r Thomas More, was
an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f d a i l y l i v i n g . To l i v e a l i f e "approved
unto God" was one o f h i s main e d u c a t io n a l o b j e c t i v e s . Two
l i t t l e b r o c h u res Ad S a p ie n tia m and S a t e l l i t i u m were r e c e iv e d
w ith p a r t i c u l a r f a v o r i n h i s day and have had many r e p r i n t s
and t r a n s l a t i o n s .
The Ad S a p ie n tia m i s th e ty p e o f book known as a
s t u d e n t ’ s vade- mecum, a manual which i n c l u d e s t h e su b s ta n c e
o f th e p h ilo s o p h y o f th e a n c i e n t s and th e t e a c h i n g s o f th e
G o s p e ls w ith t h e s u g g e s t i o n o f an u n d e r ly in g u n i t y betw een
t h e t w o . I t c o n t a i n s abou t f i f t e e n c h a p te r s so t h a t each
c h a p te r may be read about t w ic e a month, a c h a p te r a day
u n t i l t h e book i s f i n i s h e d , a f t e r w hich i t i s to be r e - r e a d .
In t h i s way, th e s t u d e n t ’ s mind becomes perm eated w ith th e
151
i d e a s s e t f o r t h . The u n d e r ly in g p r i n c i p l e i s t h a t t h e b e s t
"way o f t e a c h in g m o ra ls i s by m em orizing p r o v e r b s and maxims
which a r e i n t h i s way so im p r in te d upon t h e c h i l d ’ s mind
as to become a p a r t o f h i m s e l f . Watson c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h i s
l i t t l e volume as a " m a n ife sto o f hum anist aims and s e l f -
d e d i c a t i o n . ” 5 Some o f t h e maxims f o l lo w :
A l l t h e r e s t e o f our l y f e h a n g eth uppon our
bryngynge up , when we be c h i l d e r n e .
Make v i r t u e a m easure t o t r y a l l m a t t e r s b y.
He i s t o be rec k e n e d n o b le , t h a t i s knowen by
some e x c e l l e n t a c t e , to be n o b le .
H eal t h e i s a tem p erat hab ytud e o f t h e bod ye,
whereby th e mynde b o th e k ep eth her s t r e n g t h , and
e x e r c y s e t h h e r pow er.
The bodye i t s e l f e i s n o th in g e l s b u t a c o v e r
t u r e , and a t h in g bound to se r v e t h e s o u l e , w here-
unto both n a tu r e , r e a s o n and com lynes com aunde.6
The S a t e l l i t i u m i s a c o m p ila t io n o f th e maxims w hich
a c h i l d sh ou ld l e a r n by h e a r t. I t v/as w r i t t e n i n 1 5 2 4 , f o r
th e P r i n c e s s Mary, i n r e sp o n s e to a r e q u e s t from h er m other,
and p u b lis h e d w ith th e R a tio n e and Ad S a p ie n tia m i n t h e same
y e a r . I t i n c l u d e s two hundred t h i r t y - n i n e sym bols supposed
5
F o s t e r W atson, L u is T i v e s : El Gran V a le n c ia n o
(14 9 2 -1 5 4 0 ) (O xford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s : Humphrey M ilf o r d ,
1 922 J, p . 7 2 .
6
M o ry sin e, Rycharde, t r a n s l a t o r , An I n t r o d u c t io n to
Wysedome made by L u d o v icu s V iv e s (London: Thomas
B e r t h e l e t u s , 154071
152
to s e r v e as a b od y-guard to p r o t e c t t h e c h i l d ’ s mind from
f o o l i s h >or e v i l th o u g h ts and dan ger to mind or body. Y iv e s
s a y s t h e s e maxims w i l l p r e s e r v e h e r from h a m i f sh e
m a ste r s them and r e f u s e s to d e p a r t a f i n g e r ’ s b r e a d th from
them. The i n t r o d u c t i o n announces t h a t i t has b een c u s t o
mary f o r a s a t e l l i t i u m ( e s c o r t , guard) to be a t t a c h e d t o
p r i n c e s , to keep watch o v e r t h e s a f e t y o f t h e i r l i f e and
body and t h a t t h e s e v e r s e s w i l l s e r v e in th e same c a p a c it y
f o r t h e s o u l . In clu d e d among th e m o t to e s are t h e f o l l o w i n g :
G e n e r o s i t a s v i r t u s , non s a n g u is ( N o b i l i t y c o n s i s t s
i n moral e x c e l l e n c e , n o t i n d e s c e n t ) .
P r i n c e p s , m u l t i s c o n su len d o (A p r in c e must c o n s u lt
t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e m any).
P ortu na f a l l a c i o r , quo b l a n d i o r (The more f o r t u n e
s m ile s on u s , th e more d e c e p t i v e i t i s ) .
Y iv e s c o n c lu d e s w ith h i s own m otto: S in e Q uerela
(W ithout C o m p la in t). He e x p l a in s t h a t ,
L i f e sh o u ld be so l e d t h a t t h e r e sh ould be no
r e a so n why any one should co m p lain o f t h e e , o r thou
• o f any o n e , o r o f f o r t u n e . Nor s h o u ld s t thou do any
wrong to any o n e , nor b e l i e v e t h a t any one h a s done
any to t h e e . . . So accu stom ed sh ould we be t o our
p o s i t i o n i n l i f e th a t we sh ou ld b r in g c o m p la in t to
a minimum, and we sh ould r e c o g n iz e w h a tev e r t h e r e i s
o f p l e a s a n t n e s s i n i t . For t h e r e i s n o th in g so
g r i e v o u s , i n w hich t h e j u s t mind cannot f i n d some
s o l a c e . T h is i s my m d t t o .7
7
Juan L u is Y i v e s , S a t e l l i t i u m , W atson’ s t r a n s l a t i o n ,
quoted i n F o s t e r Watson Y iv e s and th e R en a scen ce E d u c a tio n o f
Women (New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 1 9 1 2 ) , p . 1 5 7 .
153
V i v e s ’ g r e a t te x tb o o k De T r a d e n d is B i s c i p l i n i s - —The
p
T r a n sm iss io n o f K n o w le d g e — , i s , p o s s i b l y , th e f i r s t t e x t
book d e v o te d d e l i b e r a t e l y to e d u c a t io n a s an a p p lie d
s c i e n c e . The work i s b ased on p s y c h o lo g y and p h ilo s o p h y
and g i v e s a su rvey o f contem porary e d u c a t io n a l f a c i l i t i e s ,
t e x t s , m ethods and o b j e c t i v e s . W atson l i s t s sev en e d i t i o n s
p u b lis h e d i n Antwerp, C ologn e, L eyden, and N ap les r e s p e c
t i v e l y . i n a d d i t i o n to t h e d e d i c a t i o n , p r e f a c e and appen
d i x , th e t e x t i s w r i t t e n i n f i v e p a r t s or b ook s. Each book
i s su b d iv id e d i n t o s e v e r a l p a r t s . The b a s i c t i t l e are:
Book I , E d u c a tio n a l O r ig in s ; Book I I , S c h o o ls ; Book I I I ,
Language T e a c h in g ; Book IV, H ig h er S t u d i e s ; Book V, S t u d i e s
Q
and L i f e ; and A ppendix, The S c h o l a r ’ s L i f e and C h a r a c te r ♦
The work i s d e d i c a t e d to K ing John I I I o f P o r t u g a l.
V iv e s p r a i s e s t h e i l l u s t r i o u s d eed s o f King Jo h n ’ s a n c e s t o r s
and c a l l s upon K ing John n ot t o f a l l b elow th e sta n d a r d w hich
h i s f o r e b e a r s have s e t . He rem inds him t h a t h i s p r o g e n i t o r s
dared to s e t o u t from P o r tu g a l t o e x p lo r e new s e a s , new
l a n d s , and new and unknown c lim e s ; th e y o v erth rew t h e Arabs
8
F o s t e r W atson, t r a n s l a t o r , V i v e s : On E d u ca tio n
(Cambridge: The U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 l 3 ) , p . xiTT T h is i s
r e c o g n iz e d a s an a u t h e n t ic E n g lis h t r a n s l a t i o n .
9
Ja c k so n E d it io n of Be T rad en d is B i s c i p l i n i s . S e e
Watson, o p . c i t . , p . x v i i , f . n .
154
and to o k p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e A t l a n t i c S e a .
They have shown u s th e p a th s o f th e h eav en and th 6
s e a , b e f o r e not even known by name. They a ls o d i s
c o vered p e o p le s and n a t i o n s who perform m a rv elou s
r e l i g i o u s r i t e s and a r e i n a s t a t e o f b arb arism ,
though p o s s e s s i n g w e a lth on w hich our p e o p le so k e e n
l y c a s t t h e i r a f f e c t i o n s . The whole g lo b e i s opened
up to th e human r a c e . 10
V iv e s r e j o i c e s o v e r t h e f a c t t h a t th e C h r i s t i a n
r e l i g i o n has b een p rop ag ated f a r and w id e . He rem inds K ing
John I I I t h a t he i s n o t so much to be c o n g r a t u la t e d a s to
be ex h o r te d t o f o l l o w t h e s e n o b le exam ples. He c o n c lu d e s
w ith a com parison b etw een p r i n c e s and le a r n e d men, sa y in g
t h a t p r i n c e s can p r o v id e s c h o l a r s w ith freed om and l e i s u r e
f o r l e a r n i n g w h il e t h e s c h o l a r s can co u n sel th e p r i n c e s i n
p r a c t i c a l wisdom.
The p r e f a c e s t a t e s th e p u rp o se s o f th e book , (1) to
a t t r a c t n o b le m inds to make o t h e r s t u d i e s o f t h i s k in d ; (2)
t o encourage a t a s t e f o r l i t e r a t u r e by c l o t h i n g t h i s work
f*in g r a c e o f s t y l e b e c a u se i t i s not f i t t i n g t h a t n o b le
s u b j e c t s sh o u ld be p r e s e n t e d i n a mean and base m anner.
O ther p u r p o se s o f t h e book a r e (1) to f r e e s c i e n c e from
e n v io u s d ou b ts; (2) to b r in g s c i e n c e in t o th e l i g h t o f
10
I b i d . , p. 3 .
11 "
I b i d . , p . 6 .
155
C h r i s t i a n i t y ; and (3) to show t h a t th e o l d w r i t e r s were
m ista k en by t h e i r own f a u l t and not from l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e
human i n t e l l e c t .
V iv e s d o e s n o t p r o f e s s h i m s e l f t o be equal to th e
A n c ie n t s ; he m e r e ly b r in g s h i s v ie w s i n t o com parison w ith
t h e i r s . He d o es not d e s i r e t h a t anyone sh o u ld be in f l u e n c e d
by h i s o p in io n . He s a y s , " I f you t h in k f r i e n d s t h a t I seem
to o f f e r r i g h t judgm ents, s e e w e l l to i t t h a t you g i v e your
ad h eren ce to them b e c a u se th e y a r e t r u e , n ot b e c a u se t h e y
a re mine . . . . You, who seek t r u t h , make your sta n d wher
e v e r you t h in k she i s . ^
Being w r i t t e n o r i g i n a l l y i n L a t i n , th e t e x t i s , o f
n e c e s s i t y , c o n c i s e . Much i s crowded in t o a 'short s p a c e . I t
l a c k s c o h eren ce i n t h e s e n s e o f t o d a y ’ s s t a n d a r d s . Jack son
h a s , how ever, g iv e n an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e g e n e r a l them es i n
h i s v a r io u s h e a d in g s . Book I , E d u c a tio n a l O r i g i n s , i s
f u r t h e r d iv id e d i n t o : Chapter I , " B e g in n in g s o f s o c i e t y " ;
C hapter I I , " B e g in n in g s o f s t u d i e s " ; C hapter I I I , "A rts and
S c i e n c e s " ; C hapter IV , "God Our H ig h e s t Good"; C hapter V,
" D iv i s i o n s o f Knowledge"; C hapter V I, "C hoice o f B ooks."
Book I , C hapter I , "The B e g in n in g s o f S o c ie t y " makes
a survey o f human n e e d s and t r i e s to show how man h as
% 12
Ibid., p. 9 .
156
a ttem p ted to s a t i s f y them . The g r e a t e s t g i f t w hich man has
r e c e i v e d from God i s mind w hich i n c l u d e s t h e power o f
i n q u i r i n g in t o t h i n g s , p r e s e n t , p a s t , and f u t u r e . C hapter
I I d e a l s w ith " B e g in n in g s o f S t u d i e s ." V iv e s e x p l a in s h e r e
t h a t man e s t im a t e d t h e g o a l s n e c e s s a r y t o c h a r t h i s l i f e
c o u r se s u c c e s s f u l l y ; i . e . , he found r e l i g i o n and acq u ired
kn ow led ge. V iv e s d i f f e r e n t i a t e s b etw een s c i e n c e and o p in io n .
He d e f i n e s a r t ( l e t t e r s ) a s t h e means o f a t t a i n i n g a su re
and d eterm in ed end. C hapter I I I , "The A r ts and S c i e n c e s ,"
s t a t e s t h a t th e o b j e c t o f s tu d y in g t h e a r t s and s c i e n c e s i s
to e n a b le one t o la b o r f o r th e s t a t e and f o r p o s t e r i t y . The
v a lu e o f t h e stu d y o f any a r t , s a y s V iv e s , may be judged by
t h e d evelo p m en t o f th e s t u d e n t , and t h e r e s u l t i n g , i n him or
through him t o o t h e r s , o f ad van tage or d is a d v a n t a g e s .
C hapter IV d e fe n d s th e t h e s i s t h a t God i s th e h i g h e s t
g o o d . V iv e s e x p l a in s how t h i s p r o p o s i t i o n a f f e c t s t h e
c o n c e p tio n o f t h e a r t s and s c i e n c e s .
What can we f i x as t h e end o f man, e x ce p t God Him
s e l f ? Or where can man more b l e s s e d l y r e p o s e , th a n
when he i s , as i t w e r e , absorbed in God and changed
i n t o H is natu re? We must r e t u r n to Him by t h e same
way we came f o r t h from Him. Love was th e ca u se o f
our b e in g c r e a te d ; f o r no s i g n o f H is l o v e can be more
e v id e n t th a n t h a t He c r e a t e d u s , i n o r d e r t h a t such
g r e a t h a p p in e s s m ight b e communicated to u s . From t h a t
l o v e we have been s e p a r a t e d , f o r s o o th by th e l o v e o f
o u r s e l v e s . By t h a t l o v e we have been r e c a l l e d and
r a i s e d up , t h a t i s t o s a y , by t h e l o v e o f C h r is t . By
l o v e , i . e . , by our l o v e to God, we a r e to r e t u r n to
our s o u r c e , w h ich i s a l s o our end; f o r n o th in g e l s e i s
a b le to bind t o g e t h e r s p i r i t u a l t h i n g s , n o th in g i s
157
a b le t o make one o u t o f many, e x c e p t l o v e ; but know
le d g e must p r e c e d e l o v e . ^
V iv e s d e f i n e s th e end o f man and c a u tio n s a g a i n s t
in d u lg in g i n th e l o v e o f e a s e . The stu d y o f f o o d s , m e d ic in e ,
c l o t h i n g , d w e l l i n g s , a re n e c e s s a r y f o r man*s h e a l t h . The
so u l i s n o u rish e d and made pure by t h a t w hich b r in g s l i g h t
o r z e a l t o i t , so t h a t i t may know how t o pu rsue what sh ould
be d e s i r e d i n l i f e , o r to e sc a p e what ou gh t to be a v o id e d .
To t h i s end we must p a r t l y l e a r n and a c c e p t what has
been handed t o u s , and p a r t l y th in k i t o u t f o r o u r
s e l v e s and l e a r n i t by p r a c t i s i n g i t . For God has
g i v e n o u r so u l one power, t h e i n t e l l e c t ; and ou r body
a n o th e r power, t h e h an d s. With t h e s e two p o w ers, we
su r p a s s a l l o t h e r l i v i n g c r e a t u r e s . 14
Chapter V d i s c u s s e s t h e d i v i s i o n s o f k n ow led g e. I t
c a l l s a t t e n t i o n to th e two f u n c t i o n s o f t h e m ind, v i z . , th e
power o f o b s e r v in g and t h e power o f ju d g in g . V iv e s s t a t e s
t h a t men are born f o r s o c i e t y and can n ot l i v e f a i r l y w ith o u t
i t . The bond o f s o c i e t y i s g o o d n e ss; i t s g u id e i s sound
judgm ent. P r a c t i c a l wisdom i s i n c r e a s e d by e x p e r ie n c e and
su p p orted by memory. S o c i e t y c o u ld not e x i s t w ith o u t
s p e e c h . W r itin g t a k e s t h e p l a c e o f speech when p e o p le a r e
a b s e n t from one a n o th e r . Speech i s u sed as a p r a c t i c a l
n e c e s s i t y and a l s o f o r p le a s u r e . Laws had to be i n s t i t u t e d
b e c a u se o f uncurbed m in d s. V iv e s h e r e g i v e s a r e v ie w o f a l l
13
I b i d . , p. 2 8 .
14
I b i d . , p. 36.
158
t h e a r t s and s c i e n c e s i n c lu d i n g d i a l e c t i c s and m ed icin e*
C hapter YI d e a l s w it h c h o ic e o f b o o k s. Y iv e s coun
s e l s th a t a stu dy sh ould be made o f u s e f u l s c i e n c e s . He
t h in k s t h e y sh o u ld b e a p p l ie d n ot to an empty d i l e t t a n t i s m
but to l i f e . On th e im p ortan t q u e s t io n a s t o w h eth er
h e a th e n l i t e r a t u r e sh o u ld be r e a d , Y iv e s sa y s t h e answ er
depends upon th e p u rp ose f o r which i t i s rea d and on th e
c h a r a c t e r and t r a i n i n g o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l .
. . . i t i s b e t t e r t o a c c e p t t h e C h r i s t i a n t e a c h i n g
handed down through C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n from C h r is t
th a n to l e a r n from monumental w orks o f th e im p io u s ,
even i f we cu t o u t t h o s e t h i n g s -which m ight in j u r e
t h e i n t e g r i t y o f good m o r a l s .15
Book I I i s d e v o te d to s c h o o l s . C hapter I d i s c u s s e s
where s c h o o l s sh ould be e r e c t e d ; who sh o u ld be ch o sen f o r
t e a c h e r s , how and by whom; how much s a l a r y t h e y should
r e c e i v e ; what sh o u ld be th e b a s i s o f c h o o sin g t e a c h e r s .
Y iv e s sa y s s c h o o l s sh o u ld be l o c a t e d p r e f e r a b l y i n t h e
c o u n tr y on a c co u n t o f h e a l t h . They sh o u ld n o t be n ear t h e
b o u n d a rie s o f a c o u n tr y l i k e l y to be i n f e s t e d by war b eca u se
th e f e a r o f war m igh t p r e v e n t t h e p u p i l s from s tu d y in g .
Y iv e s a d v o c a te s a p u b l i c academy i n each p r o v in c e o f a
c o u n tr y . T h is recom m endation, a g a in , i s based on th e
p o s s i b i l i t y o f s t u d i e s b e in g in t e r r u p t e d by w ar.
15
I b i d . , p. 5 2 .
159
As q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r t e a c h e r s , Y iv e s s u g g e s t s t h a t
t h e y must have a s u f f i c i e n t l y broad base o f l e a r n i n g to be
a b le t o e d u c a te w e l l . They sh ou ld have s k i l l and judgment
i n t e a c h i n g . He s e t s up t h e f o l l o w i n g p e r s o n a l sta n d a r d s:
th e y must be a b le t o s e t a good example t o t h e i r p u p i l s ;
be o f u p r ig h t c h a r a c t e r and have common s e n s e . They must
n ot be a r ro g a n t o r to o c r i t i c a l o f th e f a u l t s o f o t h e r s .
They a r e to be l o v e r s o f l e t t e r s ; not to o a v a r i c i o u s o r to o
a m b it io u s , to o stu b b o rn , to o o s t e n t a t i o u s , o r to o v a i n .
Nor must t h e y d e s i r e t o be th o u g h t w i t t y or c l e v e r . T h e ir
p h ilo s o p h y m ust be l i v e d n ot m e r e ly t a l k e d a b o u t. T h e ir
l i v e s must c o rresp o n d to t h e i r t e a c h i n g . They sh o u ld ,
through t h e i r l e a r n i n g , t h e i r judgment and t h e i r c h a r a c t e r ,
be a b le n ot o n ly to t e a c h o t h e r s , but a ls o to g a i n th e
a p p r o b a tio n o f t h e p u b l i c . They a r e e x p e c te d to be g o o d ,
le a r n e d , and p r a c t i c a l . They sh o u ld spend t h e i r l i v e s
h arm o n io u sly so t h a t t h e y may m u tu a lly h e lp each o t h e r
knowing t h a t th e y are d o in g God’ s work.
C hapter I I i s t i t l e d The I d e a l S c h o o l . The t o p i c s
a r e : t h e p u rp ose o f se n d in g b o y s t o s c h o o l ; t h e i r m en tal
a b i l i t y and how to e s t i m a t e i t ; w hether i t i s w is e r f o r a
boy to be e d u c a te d a t home o r i n s c h o o l; aim s oJ* sc h o o l l i f e ;
th e i d e a l s c h o o l; and th e r e s p e c t i v e m e r it s o f p u b l i c and
p r i v a t e s c h o o l t r a i n i n g . Y iv e s d e f i n e s a tr u e academy a s
"an a s s o c i a t i o n and harmony o f men e q u a lly good and l e a r n e d ,
160
met t o g e t h e r to c o n f e r th e same b l e s s i n g s on a l l t h o s e who
come t h e r e f o r t h e sake o f l e a r n i n g , " ! 6 He a d v o c a t e s t h a t
a boy sh o u ld n o t be ta u g h t a l o n e , but i n a g r o u p . I f i t
i s n ot p o s s i b l e to do t h i s he sh o u ld be se n t to a p u b l i e
S t a t e gymnasium. He sh ou ld be a day stu d -en t, n o t a board
in g s t u d e n t . He a d v o c a t e s e d u c a t io n a t home, i f p o s s i b l e .
He c a l l s a t t e n t i o n to i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s and a d v i s e s
t h a t t h e t r a i n i n g sh o u ld be s u i t e d t o th e b o y .
C hapter I I I i s headed "C hoice o f P u p i l s . " The d i s
c u s s io n on i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i s c o n tin u e d .
In d e te r m in in g th e i n s t r u c t i o n to be g iv e n t o each
p e r s o n , th e d i s p o s i t i o n i s to be regarded; t h e c l o s e
c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h i s s u b j e c t b e lo n g s to p s y c h o l o g ic a l
in q u i r y . I w i l l t h e r e f o r e borrow some rem arks from
th e t r e a t i s e I have w r i t t e n on t h i s s u b j e c t ( de
Anima) *
The c h a p te r i s con clu d ed by l i s t i n g d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f
p e r s o n a l i t i e s :
Some are s im p le , u p r i g h t , good; some c r a f t y and
crook ed ; some who c o n s t a n t l y h id e t h e m s e lv e s ; some
w ho, on t h e c o n t r a r y , a lw a y s push t h e m s e lv e s fo rw a rd .
With some m ind s, f e a r o n ly e f f e c t s a n y th in g ; w it h
o t h e r s , k i n d n e s s . Some minds a re s e n s i b l e , s o b e r and
tem p er a te; o t h e r s i n s a n e and f u r i o u s , and t h i s e i t h e r
h a b i t u a l l y or a t i n t e r v a l s . Some are g e n t l e , o t h e r s
f i e r c e and ea g er ; some even are o f an u n b r id le d n a t u r e .
Some s u s t a i n t h e movements o f t h e i r minds by j u s t and
g r e a t u n d e r t a k in g s , and t h e s e we c a l l m anly; o t h e r s by
s l i g h t e n t e r p r i s e s o r none a t a l l , and are tu r n e d a s id e
16
I b i d . , pp. 6 5 - 6 4 .
17
I b i d . , p . 73.
161
by a s l i g h t w h if f o f a i r : t h e s e are c a l l e d c h i l d i s h
and f i c k l e . 0 ad m ira b le Author o f such g r e a t
v a r i e t y ! Thou Who aTone h a s t c r e a te d t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s
o f m ind, a lo n e kn ow est th e c a u s e s . There are in d ee d
o t h e r d i f f e r e n c e s o f mind, but h i s tr e a tm e n t s u f f i c e s
f o r t h e p r e s e n t . 1®
Chapter IV i s on " T each ers and T a u g h t.” The t o p i c s
in c lu d e d a r e:
By what means and how f a r t h e mind and n a tu re o f
th e boy may be c l e a r l y p e r c e iv e d . For t h e r e i s
s c a r c e l y anyone o f such a s tu p id d i s p o s i t i o n t h a t he
w i l l n ot p r o f i t by some t e a c h i n g , i f t h e r e be s u f f i
c i e n t care g i v e n . How t e a c h e r s sh o u ld bear th e m s e lv e s
to w ard s t h e i r p u p i l s and what t h e y sh o u ld f i r s t t e a c h .
T r i a l o f w i t s . S tr o n g p o i n t s o f weak b o y s . The r e l a
t i o n o f t e a c h e r s to s c h o l a r s . What sh ould be f i r s t
ta u g h t?
V iv e s t h i n k s t h a t a r i t h m e t i c d i s p l a y s t h e d eg ree o f sh a r p
n e s s o f t h e mind v e r y a c c u r a t e l y . He a d v i s e s t h a t t h e
t e a c h e r s h o ld c o n f e r e n c e s to d i s c u s s what i s b e s t f o r t h e
p u p i l s . He em p h asizes d i a g n o s i s and g u id a n c e . Not a l l boys
are s u i t e d f o r stu d y and e r u d i t i o n i n V ives* o p in io n .
Some p a r e n ts (and t h e r e i s n o th in g more r i d i c u l o u s )
send to s c h o o l t h o s e boys who are u n f i t f o r commerce
o r w ar, o r o t h e r c i v i l d u t i e s , and o r d e r them to be
t a u g h t; and, what i s a m ost im pious d e e d , t h e y d e v o te
to God th e most c o n te m p t ib le and u s e l e s s o f t h e i r
o f f s p r i n g , and t h in k t h a t he who h as n o t judgment and
i n t e l l e c t f o r th e s m a l l e s t and m ost t r i f l i n g m a tte r s
has q u i t e enough f o r such g r e a t d u t i e s . 20
L e t t h e t e a c h e r se 6 who a re f i t f o r l e a r n i n g ; who
are n o t . There are some m inds which are s t u p i d , v e r y
d u l l , rough and d i s t o r t e d . I t i s w o n d erfu l and
18
I b i d . , p . 8 0 .
19
I b i d . , p . 8 1 .
20
I b i d . , p. 8 5 .
162
p i t i a b l e t o r e l a t e , t h a t human minds produce good
f r u i t more e a s i l y i n th e coipmoner and more w o r t h l e s s ,
th a n i n t h e more l i b e r a l and d i s t i n g u i s h e d a r t s . For
i n t r a d e , i n th e p r a c t i c e o f a r t i f i c e r s , i n w e a v in g ,
f i n a l l y i n th e manual and m ec h a n ica l a r t s , we s e e few er
p e r s o n s sp e n d in g t h e i r la b o u r in v a i n th a n i n th e pur
s u i t o f l e a r n i n g . 23-
Book I I I i s d e v o te d t o la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g . C hapter I
has a s i t s theme L a t i n and o th e r la n g u a g e s . L anguage, s a y s
y i v e s , " i s t h e s h r in e o f e r u d i t i o n and a s i t were a s t o r e
h ou se f o r what sh o u ld be c o n c e a le d and what sh o u ld be made
p u b l i c . 22 y i v e s a d v o c a te s a s i n g l e la n g u a g e which sh ould
be u sed i n common b y , a t l e a s t , a l l C h r i s t i a n n a t i o n s . The
common la n g u a g e sh o u ld be L a t in . He b e l i e v e s t h a t i f t h e r e
were some la n g u a g e i n common w ith th e A r a b s, many o f them
would be c o n v e r te d to C h r i s t i a n i t y . A common la n g u a g e i s
a l s o n e c e s s a r y f o r th e sp read in g o f p i e t y g e n e r a l l y . There
sh o u ld be a la n g u a g e sa c r e d to th e le a r n e d t o o . P rob a b ly a
d i f f e r e n t la n g u a g e from th e common la n g u a g e p r e v i o u s l y men
t i o n e d . A know ledge o f Greek i s a l s o v e r y d e s i r a b l e . I t i s
r e a l l y n e c e s s a r y t o th e c u ltu r e d man s i n c e i t i n c r e a s e s h i s
v o c a b u la r y , h i s know ledge o f L a t in i t s e l f , and o f Greek
l i t e r a t u r e . Hebrew i s a d v i s a b l e f o r th e stu d y o f t h e Old
T estam en t. He a d v o c a te s a l s o th e u se o f v e r n a c u la r . He
s u g g e s t s what i n p r e s e n t d a y s i s c a l l e d t h e d i r e c t method
21
I b i d . , p. 8 5 .
22
I b i d . , p. 91.
163
o f l e a r n i n g la n g u a g e s , t h a t i s , l e a r n i n g th ro u g h speech and
w ith o u t form al grammar.
C hapter I I i s c a l l e d "The V e r n a c u la r i n T each in g" —
th e te a c h e r sh o u ld know t h e m other to n g u e o f t h e h o y s w e l l
so t h a t he may mak6 h i s i n s t r u c t i o n t o them e a s i e r and more
p l e a s a n t . V iv e s t a k e s up th e m ethods o f i n t e r p r e t i n g L a t i n
a u t h o r s . The t e a c h e r he s a y s , sh o u ld d e a l w i t h what i s
p r a ise w o r th y and a ls o what i s blam ew orthy. He sh o u ld s t a t e
t h e most im p o rta n t c h r o n o l o g ic a l d a t e s and he should b r in g
to b ear as many a s s o c i a t i o n s a s p o s s i b l e i n c o n n e c t io n w ith
th e s u b j e c t m a tte r about w hich he i s sp e a k in g . I n s t r u c t i o n
sh ou ld be g iv e n g r a d u a l l y . T ea ch ers sh o u ld b e g i n w it h easy
m a t te r s o f i n s t r u c t i o n and more from th e r e t o more d i f f i
c u l t t o p i c s .
C hapter I I I , i s t i t l e d " L a tin S p eak in g " — V iv e s
a c c e n t s s t h e v a lu e o f l i s t e n i n g i n t e n t l y and lo o k in g a t th e
t e a c h e r when l e a r n i n g L a t i n . He em p h a siz e s t h a t i t i s
n e c e s s a r y to l e a r n to w r i t e c o r r e c t l y and q u ic k ly . V iv e s
t h in k s t h a t c o r r e c t n o t e - t a k i n g i s a v e r y im p ortan t p a r t o f
a l l e d u c a t io n e s p e c i a l l y i n la n g u a g e work. He b e l i e v e s
t h a t m em o riza tio n sh ou ld be begun e a r l y , as sh o u ld o t h e r
d i s a g r e e a b le t h i n g s , w h ile t h e c h i l d i s i n t h e i m i t a t i v e
s t a g e . He s u g g e s t s w r i t i n g , s t u d y in g , o r w r i t i n g a p a s s a g e
to be memorized j u s t b e f o r e g o in g to bed. Boys on e n t e r i n g
sc h o o l sh ould speak a t f i r s t i n t h e i r own to n g u e . The
164
m a ste r sh o u ld c o r r e c t t h e i r m is t a k e s . From sp e a k in g th e
v e r n a c u la r t h e y sh ould g r a d u a lly change to sp ea k in g i n L a t i n .
The m a ste r must s u p e r v is e them c a r e f u l l y so t h a t t h e y u s e
good pure L a t i n ,
The prim ary r e a s o n f o r g i v i n g la n g u a g e t o men was
t h a t th e y m ight exchange i d e a s , t h e r e f o r e la n g u a g e sh ou ld he
sim p le and c l e a r . In s tu d y in g la n g u a g e th e c h i l d sh ou ld
l e a r n not t o speak to o q u i c k ly . He sh o u ld combine sp eech
w ith w r i t i n g and t r a n s l a t i o n .
C hapter IV, i s t i t l e d "The C ourse o f T r a i n i n g ." When
a c h i l d f i r s t comes to s c h o o l he sh o u ld be a llo w e d to watch
s i l e n t l y and l i s t e n to the e x e r c i s e s . Then, he may be p e r
m it t e d to q u e s t io n h i s sc h o o lm a te s about m a t t e r s o f i n t e r e s t .
F i n a l l y , he may be p e r m itte d th e p le a s u r e o f e n t e r i n g b r i e f
c o n t e s t s on sim p le m a t t e r s o f d e b a t e . The m a ste r sh o u ld not
e x p e c t to o much o f p u p i l s . I f t h e m a ste r g e t s angry a t a
c h i l d , t h e m a ste r sh ould be b e a t e n , not t h e c h i l d . V iv e s
s e t s f o r t h h e r e some o f h i s t h e o r i e s on p u n ish m en t. Boys
sh o u ld be r e s t r a i n e d m a in ly by awe and r e s p e c t f o r t h e i r
m a s t e r s , r a t h e r t h a n , f e a r o f p h y s i c a l f o r c e . M a ste r s are
n ot t o produce i n s e n s i b i l i t y by r e p e a te d blow s a lth o u g h
th e y may u s e blow s when n e c e s s a r y .
V ives* m ed ica l p e r s p e c t i v e shows c l e a r l y i n h i s
recom m endation f o r r e c r e a t i o n . The e x e r c i s e , he s a y s , sh ou ld
165
be s u i t e d to th e age and p h y s i c a l c o n d it io n of t h e c h i l d .
There sh o u ld be games w hich g i v e t h e c h i l d p l e a s u r e and,
a t t h e same t im e , e x e r c i s e h i s m u s c le s . The b o y s sh o u ld
speak i n L a t i n w h ile p l a y i n g . They sh o u ld n ot p la y t h e
game m er ely f o r c o m p e t it io n . When th e w e a th e r i s in c le m e n t ,
in d o o r games o r s t o r i e s sh o u ld be s u b s t i t u t e d . There
sh ou ld be p o r c h e s or w id e h a l l s f o r u s e in, r a in y w e a th e r .
C l e a n l i n e s s i s very e s s e n t i a l to h e a lt h as i s a l s o good
nourishm ent v a r ie d to s u i t t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l .
I n Chapter V, "The R eading o f A u th o r s ," — V iv e s l i s t s
t h e d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s o f a u th o r s , the r e a d in g o f whom i s
v a l u a b le o r h a r m fu l. He e x p l a i n s how to ch o o se betw een th e
good and t h e bad .
The t i t l e o f C hapter VI i s " L a tin A uthors"— V iv e s
d i v i d e s th e s e l e c t i o n o f books in to f o u r c l a s s e s (1) books
w h ich a re s u i t a b l e f o r boys t o r e a d , (2) b ook s w h ich are not
s u i t a b l e b e c a u se o f u n d e s ir a b le i n f l u e n c e s , (3) books by th e
h e a th e n , and (4) p o e t r y . Among t h e books w h ich are s u i t a b l e
f o r rea d in g he c o n s i d e r s t h o s e o f contem porary H um anists as
w e l l a s t h o s e o f o u t s t a n d in g a u th o rs o f p a s t d a y s .
Chapter VII i s d e v o te d to th e stu d y o f G reek. Chap
t e r V I II e x p l a in s c l a s s i c a l p h i l o l o g y . In C hapter IX,
V iv e s d i s c u s s e s h i s c o n te m p o r a r ie s, n o t in g any c o n s t r u c t i v e
c o n t r i b u t i o n . He makes no d e s t r u c t i v e c r i t i c i s m s , but makes
166
h i s d is a p p r o v a l e v id e n t by such remarks a s tfI have no d e s i r e
t o speak o f B a p t i s t e P iu s and C o r n e liu s V i t e l l i u s . P o s t e r
i t y may judge o f our c o n t e m p o r a r ie s .23
Book IV h a s i t s t i t l e H ig h er S t u d i e s . C hapter I
d i s c u s s e s l o g i c and n a tu re stu d y . The stu d y o f la n g u a g e
V iv e s c o n s id e r s i s a n e c e s s a r y p r e p a r a tio n f o r f u r t h e r
stu d y .
So f a r we have d e a l t w ith t h e know ledge o f la n g u a g e s ,
w hich are th e g a t e s o f a l l s c i e n c e s and a r t s , a t a l l
events, t h o s e la n g u a g e s i n which t h e works o f g r e a t
m inds are handed down to u s . Thus ig n o r a n c e o f any
la n g u a g e s h u ts t h e g a t e to th e knowledge w hich i s
w r i t t e n , s ig n e d and s e a le d in t h a t la n g u a g e . But l e t
t h o s e who stu d y remember, t h a t i f n o th in g i s added
t o t h e i r know ledge by th e s tu d y o f t h e la n g u a g e , th e y
have o n ly a r r iv e d a t th e g a t e s o f k n ow led ge, or a re
s t i l l h o v e r in g i n th e e n tr a n c e h a l l . L et them remem
ber t h a t i t i s o f no more u se to know L a tin and G reek,
th a n F rench o r S p a n is h i f t h e v a lu e o f t h e know ledge
w hich can be o b ta in e d from th e le a r n e d la n g u a g e s i s
l e f t o u t o f t h e a c c o u n t . And t h a t no la n g u a g e i s i n
i t s e l f w orth t h e t r o u b l e o f l e a r n i n g , i f n o th in g i s
so u g h t beyond th e l i n g u i s t i c a s p e c t . R ather l e t
s t u d e n t s g a in as much o f th e la n g u a g e as w i l l e n a b le
them to p e n e t r a t e t o t h o s e f a c t s and i d e a s , w hich are
c o n ta in e d i n t h e s e la n g u a g e s , l i k e b e a u t i f u l and
v a l u a b le t h i n g s are lo c k e d up i n t r e a s u r i e s . 24
V iv e s n e x t t e l l s how d i a l e c t i c s sh o u ld be t a u g h t . He th e n
em p h asizes t h e o u t s t a n d in g im p ortan ce o f a knowledge o f
n a tu r e , recommending books to be rea d i n th e s c i e n c e s .
What we know o f n a tu r e h a s been g a in e d p a r t l y
through t h e s e n s e s , p a r t l y through t h e im a g in a t io n ,
though r e a so n has been at hand a s a g u id e to th e
23
I b i d . , p . 1 6 2 .
24
I b i d . , p. 163.
167
s e n s e s ; on t h i s a c co u n t we have g a in e d know ledge i n
few s u b j e c t s and i n t h o s e s p a r i n g l y , b e c a u se o f t h o s e
shadows w hich e n v e lo p e and o p p r e s s th e human mind. . .
F i r s t we must c o n s i d e r t h e e a s i e s t %:inds o f know
l e d g e , v i z . , t h o s e t h i n g s t h a t are e v id e n t to. th e
s e n s e s . For th e s e n s e s open up th e way to a l l 'know
l e d g e . There sh ou ld b e, i n th e f i r s t p l a c e , a g e n e r a l
e x p la n a t io n an e x p o s i t i o n o r , a s i t w ere, a p i c t u r e o f
th e w h ole o f n a tu r e , o f t h e h e a v e n s, t h e e le m e n ts , i n
f i r e , a i r , w a ter and e a r t h ; so t h a t a f u l l r e p r e s e n t a
t i o n and d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e w h ole e a r th i s in c lu d e d
as i n a p i c t u r e . 25
These b ook s must be read by th e s tu d e n t who w is h e s
t o g e t a r e a l h o ld on t h i s p a r t o f s t u d i e s , and th e y
m ust be th o r o u g h ly and i n d u s t r i o u s l y s t u d ie d . He who
would advance s t i l l f u r t h e r must stu d y outw ard n atu re
by c l o s e o b s e r v a t i o n , and t h i s w i l l be as i t were a
p l e a s a n t r e c r e a t i o n ..........................................................................................
A l l t h a t i s wanted i s a c e r t a i n power o f o b s e r v a t io n .
So w i l l . h e o b s e r v e th e n a tu re o f t h i n g s i n t h e h e a v e n s,
i n clo u d y and i n c l e a r w e a th e r , i n t h e p l a i n s , on th e
m o u n ta in s, i n th e w oods. Hence he w i l l s e e k o u t , and
g e t to know, many t h i n g s from t h o s e who in h a b i t t h o s e
s p o t s .26
C hapter I I d e a l s w ith d i s p u t a t i o n s and th e f i r s t
p h ilo s o p h y . The f i r s t p h ilo s o p h y i s "an e x a m in a tio n o f th e
c o n n e c tio n o f t h i n g s and o f a l l t h e f u n c t i o n s which a r i s e
n a t u r a l l y from th e v e r y e s s e n c e o f a n y t h i n g ."27 y i v e s
recommends th e stu d y o f C icero and A g r i c o l a , a s m a s te r s o f
d i s p u t a t i o n .
25
I b i d . , pp. 1 6 6 - 6 8 .
26
I b i d . , p . 1 7 0 .
27
I b i d . , p . 1 7 2 .
168
C hapter I I I d e a l s w ith "The S tu d y o f R h e t o r ic ."
Y iv e s l i s t s t h e r h e t o r i c a l w r i t e r s and e v a l u a t e s t h e i r
w orks. R h e t o r ic , he f e e l s i s o f th e g r e a t e s t im p o rta n ce
and t h e r e f o r e , sh o u ld be r e t a i n e d i n t h e c u r ricu lu m and
em p hasized. I t i s n e c e s s a r y f o r a l l p o s i t i o n i n l i f e .
"In th e whole kingdom o f th e a c t i v i t i e s o f man, sp e e c h
h o ld s i n i t s p o s s e s s i o n a m igh ty stren gth w hich i t c o n t i n
u a l l y m a n i f e s t s . " 28 The end o f r h e t o r i c i s t o te a c h and
to a r o u s e . The h i s t o r y o f la n g u a g e s ; t h e i r r i s e , o r i g i n ,
and d ecay; t h e i r power, e le g a n c e , and s p e c i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s ;
a l l t h e s e sh ou ld be c o n s id e r e d . One must be c a r e f u l n ev er
t o argue a g a i n s t what i s t r u e nor to argue on d i s r e p u t a b l e
t o p i c s . E loq u en ce sh ou ld be u sed f o r g o o d n e ss and p i e t y
and a g a i n s t crime and w ic k e d n e s s . True and g en u in e
r h e t o r i c i s t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f wisdom. C h r i s t i a n s must not
copy th e e v i l p r a c t i c e s o f t h e h e a th e n , i . e . , " S la n d e r ,
t a u n t i n g s , i n s i n u a t i o n o f th e b a s e s t s u s p i c i o n s , i n v e r s i o n s
o f what i s t r u e , and th e a ttem p t t o do e v i l from a good
p u r p o se , and to do good from an e v i l m o tiv e . I t i s b e t t e r
t o s u f f e r th e l o s s o f t h e ca u se f o r w hich we f i g h t th a n to
pQ *
l o s e our own i n t e g r i t y . " V iv e s i n c lu d e s i n s t r u c t i o n s as
t o p r o n u n c ia t io n , and v o i c e p r o d u c t io n . Wisdom m ust be u sed
by th e t u t o r s i n c o a c h in g , and s t u d e n t s must l i s t e n i n t e n t l y
28
I b i d . , p . 1 8 0 .
I b i d . , p . 1 8 5 .
169
to c r i t i c i s m s *
" I m ita tio n " i s t h e s u b j e c t and t i t l e o f C hapter IV.
S p e e c h , says V i v e s , i s based on i m i t a t i o n . I t i s , t h e r e
f o r e , o f t h e u tm o st im p ortan ce t h a t good m odels b e p r o v id e d .
He a d v i s e s many m o d e ls, and m od els o f d i v e r s e t y p e s . He
m e n tio n s as w orthy o f em u la tio n : C ic e r o , D em osth en es,
C a e l i u s , B r u tu s , A t t i c u s , T a c i t u s , and Q u i n t i l i a n . Words
may be i m it a t e d b u t V iv e s c a u t i o n s a g a in s t w h o le s a l e
i m i t a t i o n o f s t y l e . S t y l e must be s u i t e d t o t h e p e r s o n a l i t y
and background o f t h e sp ea k er and t h e t o p i c . " I t i s seem ly
t h a t sa c r e d m a t t e r s sh ou ld be c lo t h e d i n w h ite and c le a n
l i n e n , n ot i n f i n e v e l v e t or s i l k ; c e r t a i n l y not i n h a in y
c l o t h o r s p o t t e d f l a x , so much f o r r h e t o r i c a l s p e e c h ." 30
C hapter V d e a l s w it h t h e "M athem atical S c i e n c e s ."
M a th em a tics, s a y s V i v e s , i s b a se d on q u a n t it y and number.
The m a th e m a tic a l a r t s are n e c e s s a r y " in o rd er t h a t m u ten ess
may su c c e e d t a l k , and s i l e n c e be im posed on a tongu e p r e
v i o u s l y busy; w h er efo r e work w i l l be t r a n s f e r r e d from th e
e a r s to t h e e y e s . " ^ l A r ith m e tic and geom etry are t h e
s im p le s t form s o f m athem atics* Geometry a p p lie d to t h e
h e a v e n s becomes astronom y, an d , a p p lie d to v i s i b l e t h i n g s ,
o p t i c s ( p h y s i c s ) • A r ith m e t ic a p p lie d to sounds r e s u l t s i n
30
I b i d . , p . 2 0 0 .
31
I b i d . , p . 2 0 1 .
170
th e s c i e n c e o f m u s ic . Each o f t h e s e s c i e n c e s h a s two
p h a s e s - - t h e o r e t i c a l and p r a c t i c a l — , t h e co m tem p la tive and
t h e work a s p e c t s . M ath em atical s t u d i e s are s u i t a b l e f o r
o n ly c e r t a i n t y p e s o f m in d s. He i n c l u d e s a r c h i t e c t u r e and
th e th e o r y o f t h e m irr o r i n h i s program. V iv e s w a rn s, how
e v e r , a g a in s t t h e d an ger o f g e t t i n g i n t o t h e f i e l d o f mere
s p e c u l a t i o n .
V iv e s la m e n ts th e d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n m u s ic , s a y in g e a r s
have d u l l e d and t h a t t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f m e tr e s and th e
p r i m i t i v e harmony o f t o n e s has b een l o s t . He r e f e r s t o
t a l e s o f Orpheus and Amphion f o r th e t h e r a p e u t i c v a l u e s o f
m u s ic . He em p hasizes t h e s c i e n t i f i c u s e s o f astronom y i n
a g r i c u l t u r e , n a v i g a t i o n , e t c . He th e n l i s t s r e c o g n iz e d
t e x tb o o k s i n th e f i e l d s o f m a th e m a tic a l s c i e n c e , recommend
i n g , i n p a r t i c u l a r , A rchim edes.
Chapter VI i s o f much i n t e r e s t s i n c e i t i n v o l v e s p a r t
o f t h e d a ta u sed by Michaud32 to s u b s t a n t i a t e h i s c la im t h a t
R a b e la is to o k from V iv e s h i s i d e a s on t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f
e d u c a tio n w ith l i f e , t h e u s e o f i n c i d e n t s o f everyday l i f e
f o r c u r r i c u l a r m a t e r i a l , and th e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f h y g ie n e i n t o
e d u c a t io n . The t i t l e o f t h e c h a p te r i s " A u x ilia r y P r a c t i ca l
A r ts and S c i e n c e s " . . . . A f t e r h a v in g co m p leted h i s a c a d e
m ic t r a i n i n g , t h in k s v i v e s , a young man sh o u ld t u r n h i s
a t t e n t i o n to human l i f e and stu d y t h e a r t s ana i n v e n t i o n s
32
See pp. 9 - 1 1 , i n f r a .
171
o f men, e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e con cern in g f o o d , c l o t h i n g , and
s h e l t e r . Then he sh o u ld study h e r b s and l i v i n g a n im a ls .
A f t e r t h i s , he sh o u ld read about a r c h i t e c t u r e . H6 sh o u ld
th e n i n v e s t i g a t e th e means o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , i n c lu d i n g th e
stu d y o f a n im a ls u sed to draw c o n v e y a n c e s, and o f s h ip s u sed
i n n a v i g a t i o n .
He w i l l s tu d y a l l t h e s e subjects; w h e r e fo r e and
how t h e y were in v e n t e d , pursued, d e v e lo p e d , p r e se r v e d
and how t h e y can be a p p lie d to our u se and p r o f i t . . .
He sh o u ld n ot be ashamed to e n t e r i n t o shops and
f a c t o r i e s , and t o a sk q u e s tio n s from c r a ftsm e n , and
g e t t o know about t h e d e t a i l s o f t h e i r work. Former
l y , le a r n e d men d is d a in e d to in q u ir e i n t o t h e s e t h i n g s
w hich i t i s o f such g r e a t im port to l i f e to know and
remember, and many m a t te r s w ere d e s p i s e d and so w ere
l e f t alm ost unknown t o them. The ig n o r a n c e grew in
s u c c e e d in g c e n t u r i e s up to th e p r e s e n t , and i n a lo n g
s u c c e s s i o n o f y e a r s n o th in g was d i s c l o s e d c o n c e r n in g
th e m o ra ls and t h e a r t o f l i f e . So t h a t we know
f a r more o f th e age o f C icero o r P l i n y th an o f t h a t
o f ou r g r a n d f a t h e r s , i n r e s p e c t o f t h e i r fo o d , a t t i r e ,
w orsh ip and d w e l l i n g s .
V i v e s 1 n e x t t o p i c i s th e h e a l i n g o f s o u l o r bod y,
through p r i e s t or p h y s i c i a n . He g o e s on in some d e t a i l
e m p h a sizin g th e need o f o b s e r v a t i o n , and d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n
t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f n e c e s s a r y kn ow led ge. He warns t h a t
A r i s t o t l e was a h e a th e n and a d v i s e s th e o m is s io n o f Book I
o f De Anim a. P la t o sh o u ld be s t u d ie d i n s o l i t u d e . He i s
i s s u p e r io r to A r i s t o t l e i n th e p r e c e p t s o f m o r a ls .
33
F o s t e r W atson, 0£ . c i t . , pp . 208-2.09.
172
He who i s abou t to p a s s on, w it h h i s g a th e re d know
l e d g e , t o t h e m ed ica l a r t must l e a r n w ith e x a c t i t u d e
th e pow ers and e s s e n c e s o f a l l m in e r a l s u b s t a n c e s ,
which a r e o f m a n ifo ld k in d s , v i z . , p ig m e n ts , s t o n e s ,
gem s, p l a n t s , a n im a ls, t h e human bod y. From t h i s
n a tu re -k n o w led g e a r i s e two s u b j e c t s founded on o b s e r
v a t i o n , D i e t e t i c s and M ed icin e p r o p e r . . . . flhen we
have a c q u ir e d a know ledge o f th e powers and n a tu r e s
o f t h i n g s , and compared t o g e t h e r o t h e r l i v i n g b e i n g s ,
e s p e c i a l l y w ith t h e n a tu r e .a n d c o n s t i t u t i o n o f th e
human b od y , we se e what i s s t r o n g e r than t h e i n t e r i o r
o f th e human body co u ld b e a r , a s w e l l a s what i s too
sm all and weak t o s t r e n g th e n t h e body, and to s u s t a i n
i t ; what su b sta n c e b r i n g s to t h e body t h a t to n e o r
q u a l i t y w hich i s a l i e n o r i n i m i c a l to i t , and, i f i t
i s ta k e n in t o th e body, l e a d s to i t s g r e a t a f f l i c t i o n ,
o r p a in s and s u f f e r i n g s o f th e m ost g r ie v o u s k in d . We
s e e , on t h e o t h e r hand, what i s congruent and f r i e n d l y
t o t h e l i f e o f t h e body, t o i t s s e n s e s , mind, i n t e l
l e c t , i . e . , what w i l l p r e s e r v e i t , i n v ig o u r and con
f ir m i t i n s t r e n g t h , so t h a t t h e r e w i l l r e s u l t a
c e r t a i n jo y o u s se n s e o f h e a l t h . In t h i s tr e a tm e n t in
th e f i r s t p l a c e , what i s s u i t a b l e to t h e whole r a c e
o f man, i n common, must be c o n s id e r e d . Then, t h e
i n d i v i d u a l man must be s t u d ie d i n p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t s
and r e l a t i o n s , e . g . , a s to a ge, p l a c e , t im e , a c t i v i t y ,
m anners and h a b i t s . S i m i l a r o b s e r v a t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y
w ith regard t o the fo o d s w hich s a t i s f y h i s n e e d s . 34
V iv e s c o n c lu d e s C hapter VI by a resume o f th e d u t i e s
o f a p h y s i c i a n .
C hapter V II which c o n c lu d e s Book IV, i s e n t i t l e d "The
T r a in in g o f t h e P h y s i c i a n . ” V iv e s p l a c e s th e p h y s i c ia n on
a v e ry h ig h p e d e s t a l , an o r a c l e , to whom o t h e r s t u r n f o r
h e l p . He a d v i s e s b e g in n in g w ith ea sy p r e c e p t s such as t h e
A phorism s o f H ip p o c r a te s o r t h e A rt o f G alen . He recommends
a s e r i e s o f te x t b o o k s i n c l u d i n g one f o r v e t e r i n a r i e s .
34
I b i d . , pp. 2 1 4 -1 5
173
There are t h r e e s t a g e s o f t r a i n i n g t o he f o llo w e d :
(1) r e m e d ie s , (2) anatomy, and i n t e r n s h i p , and (3) c h o ic e
o f t h e f i e l d o f a c tu a l p r a c t i c e , i . e . , g e n e r a l p h y s i c ia n or
r e s e a r c h . He b e l i e v e s t h a t e x p e r im e n ta l r e s e a r c h sh ou ld be
done on a n im a ls i f p o s s i b l e . The p h y s i c i a n , h i m s e l f , sh ou ld
be in good h e a l t h , be n e a t l y c lo t h e d , be a b le to l i s t e n to
h i s c l i e n t w ith p a t i e n c e and ”n ot pant a f t e r t h e g lo r y o f
lo n g - w in d e d n e s s .” H is hands sh o u ld b e c le a n , h i s 6 y e s
c l e a r . He sh o u ld n ot be to o i n t e n t on h i s f e e . ”1 , f o r
my p a r t , ” sa y s V iv e s ,
am o f t e n l o s t i n wonderment t o se e many d o c t o r s
i n t e n t on f i l t h y l u c r e , s i n c e none more c l e a r l y
u n d e r s ta n d , and e x p e r i e n c e , ev er y day how s h o r t i s
l i f e , how f l e e t i n g , , u n s t a b l e , and how l i g h t , are
t h e c a u se s t h a t sn a tch away t h e s t r o n g e s t o f men;
and a c c o r d in g ly , o f how l i t t l e account i s w e a l t h ,
s i n c e th e tim e i n w hich i t can be en joy ed i s so s h o r t
and i t s u s e so l i m i t e d . . . . In t h e b e g in n in g he
w i l l make a ttem p t t o s e e w h eth er he can h e a l h i s
p a t i e n t by a r a t i o n a l mode o f l i v i n g , t h a t i s by
d i e t i n g , b u t, i f t h e c a se demands i t , h e w i l l u se i n
a d d i t i o n , m e d ic in e , y e t o f a sim p le s o r t : but i f
th e f o r c e o f th e m alady be r a th e r s e v e r e and w id e s p r e a d ,
he w i l l have r e c o u r s e to m ix tu r e s o f m e d i c i n e s . 35
The t i t l e o f Book V i s S t u d i e s and L i f e . C hapter I
d i s c u s s e s p r a c t i c a l wisdom , i t s aim and u s e . Summ arizing
th e f i r s t f o u r b o o k s, V iv e s s a y s t h a t th e know ledge o f t h e
n a tu r e o f t h i n g s , o f b o d i l y n u r tu r e , and a n t i d o t e s and
r em ed ies o f d i s e a s e s , h as a lr e a d y b e e n d i s c u s s e d , so t h a t
he now p r o p o s e s to e x p la in how th e so u l i s t o be t r a i n e d
35
I b i d . , pp. 2 2 5 - 2 6 .
174
and made sou nd . P r a c t i c a l wisdom i n v o l v e s prudence and
f o r e s i g h t .
, . . t h e b e s t p a r t o f wisdom c o n s i s t s in th e c o n j e c
t u r e s w hich we form o f f u t u r e t h i n g s from the combina
t i o n s o f p a s t e v e n t s . P r a c t i c a l wisdom i s t h u s a
c e r t a i n k in d o f d i v i n a t i o n , as t h a t o ld maxim d e c la r e s :
A ccount a s b e s t p rop h et him -who has made t h e b e s t
i n f e r e n c e s . . . . . ..........................................................................................
But t h e s e w i l l n o t be f r i v o l o u s w i t s , such as a r e i n
d u lg e n t t o t h e m s e lv e s , fo r t h e w i s e s t men are not
t h o s e who f l i t t e r o v e r t h e s u p e r f i c i a l i t i e s o f t h i n g s ,
but t h o s e who go th e d e e p e s t i n t o t h i n g s by a d i l i g e n c e
and a s s i d u i t y such a s p i e a s u r e - s e e k i n g minds can n ot
e n j o i n upon t h e m s e lv e s . Much l e s s s u i t e d s t i l l are
b u ff o o n s , im p o s t o r s , g a r r u lo u s and f a c e t i o u s p e o p le
who make l i g h t o f m a t te r s o f th e h i g h e s t im p orta n ce w ith
t h e i r f e s t i v e c h a t t e r . They f r u s t r a t e th e g r e a t hope
o f t h o s e c o n s u l t i n g them on t h e w e i g h t i e s t a f f a i r s w ith
j o c u la r l i c e n c e , and show t h e m s e lv e s in e p t t r i f l e r s on
g ra v e i s s u e s ...............................................................................................................
A lso stu b b orn and c o n t e n t i o u s men cannot p o s s e s s much
wisdom, as I s h a l l soon show*. Men o f t h i s k in d , s i n c e
t h e y have no c a p a c it y f o r p r a c t i c a l wisdom, i . e . , t h e
a r t o f r u l i n g , sh ou ld r u l e o v e r n on e, but sh o u ld r a th e r
be d i r e c t e d by t h o s e whom n a tu re h a s fa s h io n e d w ith a
g r e a t e r c a p a c i t y f o r g ov ern m en t.36
Judgment can be c u l t i v a t e d by r e a d in g , by d i a l e c t i c ,
by r h e t o r i c , and by e x p e r ie n c e , K n ig h t f s r e f e r e n c e ^ to
h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e i s found i n t h i s c h a p te r . V iv e s
e x p l a in s t h a t e x p e r ie n c e i s g a in e d o v e r a p e r io d o f tim e i n
c o n d u c tin g th e o r d in a r y p r a c t i c a l a f f a i r s o f l i f e . H is t o r y
i s th e r e c o r d o f such e x p e r i e n c e s . I t i s not o n ly a
p l e a s a n t b u t , a l s o , a u s e f u l stu d y s i n c e i t e n a b le s one to
36
I b i d . , p p . 2 2 9 -3 0 .
37
Bee p . 2 , i n f r a .
175
l i v e v i c a r i o u s l y .
To be s u r e , no one can deny t h a t e v e r y th in g h a s
changed, and c o n t in u e s to change, ev er y day, b e c a u se
t h e s e changes ^>ring from our v o l i t i o n and i n d u s t r y .
But s i m i l a r changes do n ot e v er t a k e p l a c e i n th e
e s s e n t i a l n a tu re o f human b e i n g s , i . e . , in t h e fou n d a
t i o n s o f t h e a f f e c t i o n s o f th e human m ind, and t h e
r e s u l t s w h ich th e y produce on a c t i o n s and v o l i t i o n s .
T h is f a c t h a s f a r more s i g n i f i c a n c e than th e r a i s i n g
o f such q u e s t io n s a s t o how t h e a n c i e n t s b u i l t t h e i r
h o u s e s or how t h e y c lo t h e d t h e m s e lv e s . For what
g r e a t e r p r a c t i c a l wisdom i s t h e r e th a n t o know how
and what th e human p a s s i o n s a r e : how t h e y a re r o u s e d ,
how q u e lle d ? F u r th e r , what i n f l u e n c e t h e y have on
t h e commonwealth, what i s t h e i r pow er, how t h e y can
be r e s t r a i n e d , h e a l e d , put a s i d e , or on t h e c o n tr a r y ,
a ro u sed and fom en ted , e i t h e r i n o t h e r s or i n o u r
s e l v e s ? tfhat know ledge can be p r e f e r a b l e f o r th e
r u l e r o f a s t a t e , , or more e x p e d ie n t f o r any o f h i s
s u b j e c t s to know? and what so d e l i g h t f u l , i n th e
h i g h e s t d e g r e e ! and what more co n d u cive to t h e
h a p p ie s t k in d o f p r a c t i c a l wisdom ! . . . . . . . . .
In d e e d , t h e r e i s n o th in g o f t h e a n c i e n t s so worn out
by ag e and so d e c a y e d , t h a t i t may n ot i n some m easure
be accommodated to our modes o f l i f e . For a lth o u g h
now we may employ a d i f f e r e n t form , t h e u s e f u l n e s s
y e t r em a in s. T h is c o u ld e a s i l y be shown by d i s c u s s i n g
c u sto m s, one by o n e . Now th e stu d y o f t h o s e v e r y a r t s
co u ld n o t p e r s i s t i f th e stu d y o f h i s t o r y c e a s e d . 38
He rem inds h i s r e a d e r s o f th e debt owed by m e d ic in e
t o h i s t o r y . "For ou t o f how many p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e s on
a l l s i d e s d oes t h e a r t o f m e d ic in e have to be b u i l t up,
39
l i k e r a in w a te r composed o f d r o p s! Law and t h e o l o g y a ls o
d e r iv e from h i s t o r y . I n f a c t , h i s t o r y i s t h e so u r c e o f
a l l t h e a r t s .
38
F o s t e r W atson, op. c i t . , pp. 2 3 2 - 3 3 .
39
I b i d . , p. 2 3 3 .
176
In t h e s tu d y o f h i s t o r y , however, V iv e s p o i n t s out
t h a t :
Wars and b a t t l e s need not be s t u d ie d c l o s e l y , f o r
th e y m e r e ly equip t h e mind w it h exam ples f o r t h e
perform ance o f e v i l , and show th e ways i n which we
may i n f l i c t i n j u r i e s , one on a n o th e r . Y et we cannot
h e lp n o t i c i n g b r i e f l y , who to o k up arms, who were th e
l e a d e r s on e i t h e r s i d e , w here t h e c o n f l i c t to o k p l a c e ,
who were b e a t e n , and what happened t o them . But w hat
e v e r i s s a id or r ea d in h i s t o r y , w ars sh o u ld be
reg a rd ed n o t o t h e r w is e th a n a s c a s e s o f t h e f t , a s
in d e e d t h e y u s u a l l y w ere, e x c e p tin g p erh ap s when u n d er
taken a g a i n s t t h i e v e s . 40
C hapter I I i s based on t h e stu d y o f h i s t o r y t o o .
V iv e s has a lr e a d y p o in te d o u t , in C hapter I , t h a t h i s t o r y
cannot be le a r n e d w ith o u t a g e o g r a p h ic a l background. T h is
c h a p te r i s d e v o te d to a stu d y o f g r e a t h i s t o r i a n s th r o u g h
o u t t h e a g e s . I t shows th e d i f f e r i n g p o i n t s o f em phasis i n
th e p a s s a g e o f c u l t u r a l and i n s t i t u t i o n a l e v o l u t i o n . V iv e s
em p hasizes t h e im p o rta n ce o f s tu d y in g h i s t o r y from th e v ie w
p o in t o f c o n t i n u i t y s a y in g :
Hence i s a p p e a r s t h a t H is t o r y to o k i t s r i s e a t on ce
w it h t h a t o f men, b e c a u se i t was th u s e x p e d ie n t f o r
th e human r a c e . I t i s w e l l t o l e a r n th e c o u r se o f
h i s t o r y from t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e w o rld or o f a p e o p le
c o n t in u o u s ly r i g h t through t h e i r c o u r se t o th e l a t e s t
tim e f o r , t h e n , a l l i s more r i g h t l y u n d e r sto o d and
f i r m l y r e t a i n e d th a n i f we read i t i n d is c o n n e c te d
p a r t s , i n t h e same way t h a t I n a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e
w h ole w o r ld , la n d and s e a are p la c e d b e f o r e th e e y e s
a t a g l a n c e . For th u s i t i s e a s i e r to s e e th e .fa ce o f
th e w orld and th e arrangem ent o f i t s p a r t s one by one
and t o u n d ersta n d how each i s p l a c e d . 4 1
40
I b i d . , p . 2 3 6 .
41
I b i d . , p . 237.
177
C h apter I I I d i s c u s s e s t h e a f f i n i t y o f h i s t o r y and
m o r a ls . I t i s e s s e n t i a l , V iv e s c o n t i n u e s , t h a t th e mind he
i n c o n t r o l o f t h e hody b e c a u s e i t i s t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f r e a
son which u n i t e s u s most c l o s e l y w ith t h e d i v i n e N a tu re.
The w hole man must be u n d e r s to o d , from w it h in and from
w it h o u t . W ith in t h e mind are t h e i n t e l l e c t and e m o tio n s.
In o r d e r to know h i m s e l f a man must know by what t h i n g s
em otion s are arou sed and d e v e lo p e d and a l s o by what t h i n g s
t h e y a re r e s t r a i n e d , calm ed, and rem oved. In ord er to
com p lete th e t a s k o f e d u c a t io n t h e p a s s i o n s o f th 6 mind
sh ould be su b o r d in a te d by R eason. T h is con q u est i s
n e c e s s a r y b e c a u se Reason shows th e way by w hich we may
come to God, w hich i s th e end f o r w hich man i s c r e a t e d .
The p r e c e p t s must be o b t a in e d from G od 's own t e a c h i n g s ,
i n t e r p r e t e d th rou gh h i s d i s c i p l e s and a fte r w a r d by o t h e r
h o ly men.
. . . From t h e t e a c h i n g and w ords o f t h e s e men
sh o u ld be g a t h e r e d , a s i t w ere, r em ed ies f o r th e
d i s e a s e s o f t h e mind, so t h a t th e p a s s i o n s may be
su b ju g a ted t o th e hand and power o f r e a s o n . When
t h i s p r e c e d e n c e i s e s t a b l i s h e d , and a s f a r a s i s
p e r m it t e d , i s f i r m l y grounded, man th e n b e a r s h i m s e l f
r i g h t l y to w a rd s h i m s e l f and tow ard s God, and tow ards
t h o s e h ig h e r , lo w e r , and equal t o h i m s e l f i n s t a t i o n ,
w h eth er we speak o f p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s , o f f a m i l i e s ,
or t h e commonwealth: w h eth er we speak o f p u b lic l i f e
a t home o r a b r o a d .42
42
I b i d . , p . 2 5 2 .
178
A s h o r t c l e a r book sh o u ld be w r i t t e n and expounded f o r t h i s
i n s t r u c t i o n .
The s u b j e c t o f m o r a ls may be d iv id e d i n t o f o u r p a r t s :
(1) e t h i c s , w hich c o n c e r n s i t s e l f w i t h th e mind and t h e
fo r m a tio n o f i n d i v i d u a l m o r a ls; (2) e co n o m ic s, w hich d e a l s
w ith th e c o n c e r n f o r f a m ily l i f e ; (3) p o l i t i c s , w hich s t a t e s
th e p r i n c i p l e s o f g ro u p s and g a t h e r i n g s o f p e o p le ; and (4)
custom s and e d u c a t io n o f r e g io n s and p e o p le . V iv e s warns
t h a t t h e stu d y o f m o ra ls i m p l i e s e n t e r in g on a dark road
b e s e t w ith th o r n s w h ich must be t r a v e r s e d s lo w ly and w e a r i l y
and w h ich can be o n l y s a f e l y t r o d when t h e s t u d e n t h a s th e
l i g h t o f r e l i g i o n b e f o r e him . V iv e s c r i t i c i z e s A r t i s t o t l e ' s
M o ra ls sa y in g t h a t th e y ten d to inform about m o ra ls more
th a n t h e y im pel t h e r e a d e r s t o l i v e a m oral l i f e . He com
m ents on t h e Summa o f A q u in as, s a y in g t h a t t h i s work i s t h e
so u n d e s t and l e a s t in e p t o f a l l th e s c h o l a s t i c w r i t e r s .
A t e a c h e r o f m oral p h ilo s o p h y must be a h o ly pure man,
w ith no o s t e n t a t i o n about him; a man o f p r a c t i c a l wisdom;
n ot o n ly w ith many k in d s o f k n ow led ge, but on6 p o s s e s s i n g
a l s o e x p e r ie n c e s from o r d in a r y l i f e . He must t e a c h t h e
p r e c e p t s o f r i g h t l i v i n g so t h a t h i s p u p i l s may be i n s p i r e d
to a c t w e l l . He must alw ays g i v e h i s r e a s o n s f o r w h a tev er
judgm ents he m akes. V iv e s d i v i d e s v i c e s in t o two c l a s s e s ,
t h o s e o f t h e mind and o f th e body. V i c e s o f th e mind a re
p r i d e , a n g e r , h a t e , en vy, e t c . V i c e s o f t h e body are
179
d r in k in g , c a r o u s in g , and o th e r form s o f l i c e n t i o u s n e s s .
The p r a c t i c a l d u t i e s o f l i f e , s a y s V i v e s , a r e h e s t
le a r n e d from men o f p r a c t i c a l wisdom and from t h o s e c i t i z e n s
who have been w e l l brought up. Every n a t io n h as i t s own
s p e c i a l p r a c t i c e s . In ch o o sin g p r a c t i c e s from o t h e r coun
t r i e s , c i t i z e n s sh o u ld ta k e care t h a t t h e y c h o o se som ething
n ot i n o p p o s i t i o n to th e n eed s and t a l e n t s o f t h e p e o p le o f
t h e i r own c o u n t r i e s .
Care f o r h o u se h o ld a f f a i r s d oes n o t c o n s i s t o f p r e
s e r v i n g w e a lt h , but i n m a in t a in in g t h e p e a ce and t r a n q u i l i t y
o f f a m ily l i f e . Care must be ta k e n t h a t t h e members o f t h e
f a m ily are f e d h e a l t h i l y , c lo t h e d s u i t a b l y , a r e a b le to l i v e
s a t i s f a c t o r i l y , and l o v e one a n o th e r and t h e i r home not l e s s
th a n t h e i r n a t i v e c o u n tr y .
The r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e S t a t e i s to p re p a r e f o r
q u i e t , p e a c e f u l l i v i n g so t h a t i t s c i t i z e n s may h e lp one
a n o th e r t o l i v e i n a g e n e r o u s and b e n e v o le n t manner. Har
mony i s in c r e a s e d by m utual u s e f u l n e s s . Where l o v e i s
a b s e n t , t h e f u n c t i o n o f l e g a l j u s t i c e t a k e s i t s p l a c e .
J u s t i c e sh o u ld have such armed power and s t r e n g t h t h a t i t
may p u t t h e curb on in s u r g e n t s p i r i t s .
The r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e p o l i t i c a l p h ilo s o p h e r i s
to d e c la r e what a t t i t u d e s c i t i z e n s ought to have tow ards one
a n o th e r ; what r e l a t i o n s th e r e sh o u ld be b etw een s u b j e c t s and
p r i n e e s and m a g i s t r a t e s ; what r e l a t i o n s t h e r e sh o u ld be
180
b etw een th e m a g i s t r a t e s amongst th e m s e lv e s and to w a r d s
s u b o r d in a te s ; and, what a c t i o n s and works a r i s e from t h e s e
r e l a t i o n s , p o l i t i c a l p h ilo s o p h y , o n l y , d e a l s w ith th e
d i s p o s i t i o n o f th e minds o f th e p e o p le and th e m orals o f
th e s t a t e . P o l i t i c a l p h ilo s o p h y and law s have a m utual r e
l a t i o n to each o t h e r s i n c e many la w s a r i s e o u t o f p o l i t i c a l
c o n s i d e r a t io n s and v i c e v e r s a .
Judgment i s fundam ental to t h e s u c c e s s f u l a d m in is t r a
t i o n o f t h e a f f a i r s o f th e s t a t e . Sound, w h o le , s o l i d
judgment i s b e t t e r th an s u b t l e o r a c u te judgm ent. The l e a d e r
o f t h e c i t y sh ou ld have a g e n e r a l a c q u a in ta n c e w it h t h e con
t e n t s and aim s o f th e s c i e n c e s and a r t s , t h o s e which a re
p r a c t i c e d by u s e o f t h e han ds, and t h o s e w hich s o l e l y occupy
th e mind. In t h i s way he would know, to what e x t e n t , and,
i n what way, in n o v a t io n s sh ou ld be a d m itted t o t h e S t a t e o r
be e x p e l l e d from i t . J u s t i c e i s t h e p r e s e r v e r , and, a s i t
w ere, t h e s o u l o f a l l human s o c i e t y . I t i s p a r t o f th e
p h ilo s o p h e r s t a s k t o t r e a t o f lav/ and to p l a c e law on a
p h i l o s o p h i c a l b a s i s . Those who made d e c r e e s e s t a b l i s h i n g
th e a n c ie n t p o p u la r la w s , were p h i lo s o p h e r s .
C hapter IV d e a l s w ith t h e stu d y o f la w . A la w y er
sh o u ld be a b le to i n t e r p r e t th e good and t h e r i g h t i n la w s .
C o n d it io n s o f good l e g i s l a t i o n demand (1) t h a t la w s must be
known by a l l , (3) t h e y sh ou ld be w r i t t e n i n few , but
181
a p p r o p r ia te words,' (3) th e y sh ould appear i n an i n t e l l i g i b l e
form , and i n t h e v e r n a c u la r , (4) la w s sh o u ld be adapted t o
d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f men. They sh ou ld be m ild f o r th e weak;
se v e r e f o r t h e s tr o n g ; and d eter m in e d f o r t h e o b s t i n a t e ;
(5) th e y sh o u ld m a in ta in p e a c e . Laws should not o n ly p r e
s e r v e harmony among t h e c i t i z e n s t h e m s e lv e s , but i n th e
w hole r a c e o f mankind whose r e l i g i o u s c o n d i t i o n sh o u ld be
regard ed by c i t i z e n s a s c a r e f u l l y a s t h e f a m i ly concord w it h
i n th e t h r e s h o l d . (6) They sh o u ld be c o n s t r u c t i v e i n t h e i r
a t t i t u d e toward t h e e d u c a tio n o f y o u th . They sh ou ld f o l l o w
th e example o f t h e P e r s i a n s who th rou g h t h e i r law s p r e v e n t
e v i l d eed s b e in g done by t h e i r c i t i z e n s . T h e ir la w s p r o v id e
from t h e v e r y f i r s t t h a t c a r e be ta k e n t h a t no one grows
up d e s i r o u s o f com m ittin g a w icked o r f o u l d e e d . (7) The
p e o p le sh o u ld have a r i g h t to d e l i b e r a t e o v e r la w s and v o t e
on them b e f o r e t h e la w s are f i x e d or d e c r e e d . A ll la w i s
founded on rea so n ^ , (8) The c i t y should p r o v id e w i s e i n t e r
p r e t e r s o f t h e la w s . The number p r a c t i c i n g i t as a p r o f e s
s i o n sh o u ld be l i m i t e d . (9) Laws sh ould be ta u g h t by making
books o f la w a c c e s s i b l e and by h a v in g m e e tin g s where t h o u g h t
f u l men can c o n s u lt t o g e t h e r on th e la w s . L eg a l d i s p u t a
t i o n s sh o u ld ta k e p l a c e amongst t h e m s e lv e s and n ot i n a
p u b l i c a sse m b ly . Y iv e s p r a i s e s t h e o ld Roman Law, sa y in g i t
i s th e m ost e x c e l l e n t o f w r i t t e n la w s . The p r a c t i c a l s i d e
182
o f t h e stu d y o f la w c o n s i s t s i n the r a t i o n a l i z i n g o f t h e
good and th e j u s t i n th e la w s .
The s u b j e c t o f C hapter I i n t h e Appendix i s t h e
"Aim o f S t u d i e s . " V iv e s a g r e e s w it h S e n e c a t h a t many men
would a t t a i n to t r u e l e a r n i n g i f t h e y d id not b e l i e v e t h a t
th e y £ad a lr e a d y a t t a i n e d i t . He a g r e e s w it h L u c i l i u s
t h a t a man must go on l e a r n i n g a s lo n g a s he i s ig n o r a n t o f
a n y t h in g . H ea lth i s v e r y im p o r ta n t, b oth f o r t e a c h e r s and
s t u d e n t s . D i a l e c t i c and r h e t o r i c a re t h e means o f kn ow led ge,
n o t know ledge i t s e l f . They a re b e t t e r .ta u g h t u s by n a tu re
than by a m a s te r . Learned men must remember t h a t t h e y
r e c e i v e d 'th e ir wisdom from God.
L ea rn in g c o n s i s t s o f f o u r f a c t o r s ; (1) n a tu r a l
c a p a c i t y , (£) judgm ent, (3) memory, and (4) a p p l i c a t i o n .
The f i r s t th r e e o f t h e s e come from God. I f a le a r n e d man
i s to be p r a is e d i t sh o u ld be b e c a u s e .h e h a s th e l a s t power,
a p p l i c a t i o n . The le a r n e d man has n o th in g to b o a s t a b o u t.
We sh ou ld p ray to God who g i v e s us e v e r y t h in g and who works
th r o u g h u s t h a t our l e a r n i n g be tu rn ed to our go o d . We
sh o u ld pray b e f o r e we p r o c e e d to stu d y . Learned men do n o t
f l a t t e r ig n o r a n t p r i n c e s . T he.m ass o f p e o p le suppose t h a t
everyone i s a le a r n e d man who -w rites o r sp ea k s t h e L a t in
t o n g u e . P r i n c e s sh o u ld be p r a i s e d s p a r i n g ly . They should
be r e p r o v e d , but w ith o u t b i t t e r n e s s o r f a g e . S c h o la r s
sh ou ld not work m e r e ly f o r th e p r a i s e o f p o s t e r i t y . For
183
what God g i v e s us f r e e l y , he rewards u s amply i f we b esto w
i t on o t h e r s . The f r u i t o f a l l s t u d i e s , th e g o a l , i s t h i s ,
. . . h a v in g a c q u ir ed our know ledge we must t u r n
i t to u s e f u l n e s s and employ i t to a common good . . . .
We must stu d y a l l b ra n ch es o f l e a r n i n g f o r t h a t u se
f o r which t h e y were a p p o in te d by God. Our stu d y must
be a ttu n ed to p r a c t i c a l u s e f u l n e s s in l i f e . For t h i s
p u rp ose p r a c t i c a l wisdom i s n e c e s s a r y . 43
C hapter I I d e a l s w ith th e s c h o l a r and t h e w o r ld ,
The le a r n e d man alw ays w i l l r e f l e c t t h a t o t h e r s may
lo o k upon him and i m i t a t e him, t o t h e i r harm, and t h a t
t h e r e f o r e he must bear h i m s e l f a s becom es a w is e man,
i . e . , as an i m i t a t o r o f C h r is t . He w i l l w ish to do
good to o t h e r s , n ot t o se c u r e a l a r g e sc h o o l o f p u p i l s .
He w i l l w ish to be o f such a f f a b i l i t y and e a s e o f con
d u ct t h a t o t h e r s w i l l d e s i r e to be a s s o c i a t e d w it h him
and t o p r e s e r v e f r i e n d s h i p w ith him when on ce begun.
C r i t i c i s m , and th e method t o be adopted i n g i v i n g i t . 44
I t i s t h e work o f a le a r n e d man to p a s s on h i s l e a r n i n g to
o t h e r s and as i t were from h i s own l i g h t to k i n d l e l i g h t in
t h e m inds o f o t h e r s . A d i s p u t a t i o n sh o u ld be a f r i e n d l y
d i s c u s s i o n r a th e r th an a h o s t i l e f i g h t f o r v i c t o r y . Learned
men sh ould n e i t h e r jud ge a n o th e r or have to l i s t e n u n w i l l i n g
l y t o a judgment p a s s e d on th e m s e lv e s . They should w a it f o r
judgment by t h e c o u r t o f God.
C hapter I I I t r e a t s o f a s c h o l a r ’ s d i f f i c u l t i e s .
Learned men are admonished to be p rep ared a g a i n s t
u n a v o id a b le d a r t s o f en vy. S u g g e s t io n s are o f f e r e d to
t h o s e who are f i t t e d t o become a u th o r s a s to t h e con
s i d e r a t i o n s to be borne i n mind, b e fo r e t h e y b r in g
43
I b i d . , pp. 2 8 3 - 8 4 .
44
I b i d . , p . 2 8 5 .
184
t h e i r work to t h e l i g h t o f day by p u b l i c a t i o n . 45
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER VI AND VII
B e fo r e p r o c e e d in g t o a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e reform s
in a u g u r a te d by V iv e s , o r t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e s i g n i
f i c a n c e o f V ives* w r i t i n g s i n g e n e r a l , i t h as b e e n n e c e s s a r y
t o r e v ie w an ad eq u ate sam p lin g o f h i s w orks. The b ook s
have been r e v ie w e d i n c o n s id e r a b le d e t a i l and numerous
e x c e r p t s have b een g i v e n b e c a u se o f th e f a c t t h a t V ives*
w orks are very s c a r c e i n t h i s c o u n tr y .
In d e e d , t h e r e are no E n g lis h t r a n s l a t i o n s a t a l l
a v a i l a b l e f o r m ost o f t h e w orks and p o s s i b l y o n ly one
so u rc e f o r works i n t h e o r i g i n a l . The p a r t i a l t r a n s l a t i o n
C o n cern in g th e R e l i e f o f th e Poor i s now o u t o f p r i n t ;
Tudor- S c h o o l Boy L i f e and On E d u c a tio n , b e in g p r in t e d i n
G reat B r i t a i n , a re d i f f i c u l t t o p ro cu re tT f o r t h e duration.**
W a tso n 's R en ascen ce E d u c a tio n o f Women, w hich has been
r e f e r r e d to b r i e f l y i s p u b lis h e d i n New York a s w e l l a s i n
London.
T h ese tw> c h a p te r s have t r i e d to s e t up a fram e o f •
r e f e r e n c e th rou gh s o c i o l o g i c a l d e f i n i t i o n s . They have g i v e n
a co m p lete l i s t o f V iv e s m ajor w o rk s. They have a n a ly z e d
im p o rta n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s i n t h e f i e l d s o f s o c i o l o g y and
e d u c a t io n . Of t h e two books d e a l in g w ith w ar, t h e f i r s t
c a l l e d on Pope A d rian to h a n d le th e problem o f t h e i n t e r n e c i n e
185
s t r u g g l e s o f th e I t a l i a n c i t y - s t a t e s and t o u n i f y t h e
C h r i s t i a n s t a t e s i n a common c ru sa d e a g a i n s t th e Turks;
t h e second c a l l e d upon t h e Homan Emperor C h a r le s V, t o ta k e
th e l e a d i n t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f p r a c t i c a l C h r i s t i a n i t y among
C h r i s t i a n m onarchs, t o th e end t h a t th e y m igh t make p e a c e
among t h e m s e lv e s and s e t exam ples o f good condu ct w orthy o f
e m u la tio n by t h e i r s u b j e c t s .
V i v e s ’ r e v o l u t i o n a r y book on P oor R e l i e f p o i n t s o u t
t h a t t h e c a r e o f t h e poor h as become a c i v i c and s t a t e
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . Here V iv e s d e s c r i b e s f i r s t th e c a u s e s o f
th e c r i s i s c o n f r o n t in g t h e c i t y o f B ru g es, and th e n e x p la in s
h i s t h e o r i e s a s to how poor r e l i e f may, and sh o u ld b e ,
admini s t e r e d .
The summary o f e d u c a tio n a l w orks h a s been d i v i d e d
in t o s i x s e c t i o n s * (1) p h ilo s o p h y , (2) p s y c h o lo g y ; (5)
h i s t o r y ; (4) m eth od ology ; (5) moral e d u c a tio n ; and (6)
th e o r y and p r a c t i c e o f t e a c h i n g . Two books have b e e n con
s id e r e d under p h ilo s o p h y . The f i r s t o f t h e s e d e a l s w ith
th e c la s h o f p h i l o s o p h i e s b etw een t h e S c h o l a s t i c s and Human
i s t s ; t h e se co n d , t r e a t s o f the e v o lu t io n a r y growth o f
p h ilo s o p h y , Under p s y c h o lo g y , V i v e s ’ g r e a t p r o d u c tio n De
Anima e t V i t a has been r ev iew ed i n some d e t a i l . T h is book
s t r e s s e s th e p s y c h o l o g i c a l b a s i s o f human a c t i o n , and d i s
c u s s e s , among o t h e r t o p i c s , s e n s a t i o n s , i n s t i n c t s , im agin a
t i o n , i n t e l l i g e n c e , memory, w i l l , e m o tio n s, and im m o r t a lit y .
186
The book, C au ses o f th e C o r ru p tio n o f t h e & r t s , i s th e b a s i s
o f th e s e c t i o n on h is t o r y * T h is i s an e x c e l l e n t h i s t o r i c a l
resume o f s o c i a l change s i n c e i t t r a c e s , w it h th e e x c e p t io n
o f t h e o l o g y , th e d evelop m en t and d e c l i n e o f t h e w h o le u n i
v e r s i t y c u r r ic u lu m . The n e g a t i v e s i d e i s em phasized. V iv e s
r e v i e w s , i n t u r n , th e g e n e r a l c a u s e s o f e d u c a t io n a l d e t e r
i o r a t i o n ; th e decay o f la n g u a g e , d i a l e c t i c s , grammar,
s c i e n c e s and m a th e m a tic s, moral p h ilo s o p h y , and la w .
Three books were c h o sen f o r r e v ie w i n t h e f i e l d o f
m eth o d o lo g y . The f i r s t work, P la n s o f S tu d y f o r Young
P e o p l e t was w r i t t e n f o r t h e P r i n c e s s Mary, th e n a c h i l d o f
s e v e n , and f o r C h a r le s Mount j o y , son o f Queen C a t h e r in e ’ s
Lord C h am berlain. The secon d work, L a t in D ia lo g u e s was
d e d ic a t e d t o P h i l i p I I o f S p a in , l a t e r th e c o n s o r t o f th e
p r i n c e s s when she r u le d England as Mary I .
The t h i r d work^S was d e d ic a t e d t o Queen C a th e r in e ,
h e r s e l f , and was i n th e n a tu r e o f a t r i b u t e to h e r . The
em phasis o f t h i s book i s l a r g e l y on m o r a ls . Td V i v e s ,
c h a r a c te r b u i ld in g was o n e o f th e m ost im p ortan t o f educa
t i o n a l aim s as shown i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n on th e aim o f s t u d i e s ,
v i z . , th e s c h o l a r ’ s g o a l sh o u ld be t o be approved o f God.
T hese t h r e e works a l l em phasize t h e same p o i n t , — th e
developm ent o f a h ig h m oral sta n d a r d . The p l a n s o f s tu d y a re
46
R ichard H yrde, t r a n s l a t o r , E d u c a tio n o f a C h r i s t i a n
Woman, W atson, o p . c i t . ,
187
based l a r g e l y on th e stu d y o f the b e s t i n l i t e r a t u r e , t h e
a c q u i s i t i o n o f good L a t i n s p e e c h , and t h e w r i t i n g o f L a t i n
i n an e le g a n t s t y l e . The S x e r c i t a t i o b u i l d s up a w orking
L a t i n v o c a b u la r y from i n c i d e n t s o f t h e e v er y day l i f e o f a
w e l l- b o r n s c h o o l- b o y ; The C h r i s t i a n Woman s e t s up t h e
sta n d a r d s o f p i e t y and e f f i c i e n t h o u se h o ld management
e x p e c te d from a d a u g h ter o f t h e n o b i l i t y .
Two l i t t l e b r o c h u r e s, Ad S a p ie n tia m and S a t e l l i t i u m ,
are review ed i n th e s e c t i o n on moral e d u c a t io n . These
m anuals were to be r ea d , s t u d i e d , and made a p a r t o f th e
C h ild ’ s t h i n k i n g . T h e ir p o p u la r it y and t i m e l i n e s s may be
e stim a te d from t h e l a r g e number o f e d i t i o n s and t r a n s l a
t i o n s l i s t e d by B o n i l l a .
The s e c t i o n on th e o ry and p r a c t i c e o f t e a c h i n g i s
b a sed e n t i r e l y on a r e v ie w o f V i v e s 1 te x tb o o k on E d u c a tio n ,
De T rad en d is D l s c i p l i n i s . On E d u c a tio n c o v e r s e v e r y p h a se
o f e d u c a t io n a l t r a i n i n g . The book w i l l be d i s c u s s e d a t
some l e n g t h i n Chapter V I I I . S u f f i c e i t t o say h e r e t h a t
V iv e s f e e l s t h a t know ledge i s v a l u e l e s s u n l e s s p u t t o u s e ,
and t h a t th e h i g h e s t u se t o which i t can be put i s f o r t h e
’’common good ." He a d v o c a t e s l i f e - l o n g e d u c a t io n - - a n educa
t i o n w hich i n c lu d e s t r a i n i n g o f t h e e m o tio n s, p r a c t i c a l
s o c i o l o g y , community and p e r s o n a l h e a l t h , and c i v i c r e sp o n
s i b i l i t y f o r e d u c a t io n o f t h e p o o r .
188
C hapter V I I I , which f o l l o w s , w i l l a g a in s e t up
d e f i n i t i o n s as a b a s i s o f m easurem ent and w i l l p r o c e e d to
a d i s c u s s i o n o f V i v e s ’ v ie w s on su ch s o c i a l problem s a s
war, p o v e r ty , la w and e d u c a t io n , t o g e t h e r w ith s u g g e s t io n s
f o r reform i n t h e s e f i e l d s .
C h ap ters VI and V II have had , n e c e s s a r i l y , t o d i f f e r
from resum es g iv e n on a u th o r s whose books a r e r e a d i l y
a c c e s s i b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e .
In o r d e r t o o b t a in t h e m a t e r i a l from w hich t o make
t h e s e d i g e s t s , i t was n e c e s s a r y to send t o England t o p u r
c h a se W atson’ s b o o k s , 54 and t o t h e C i t y o f M exico f o r
B o n i l l a ’ s . A u t h e n tic t r a n s l a t i o n s and im p o rta n t c r i t i c a l
monographs w ere o b t a in e d o n ly a f t e r much e x p e n d itu r e o f tim e
and e n e rg y . F or t h i s r e a s o n , t h e su rv e y o f V i v e s ’ -works
g i v e n i n t h e s e two c h a p t e r s c o n t a i n s more e x c e r p t s and
f u l l e r d e s c r i p t i v e m a t e r i a l than w ould have been n e c e s s a r y
o t h e r w is e . The summaries o f V i v e s ’ works g iv e n i n Chapters VI and
V3I a re u sed a s a b a s i s f o r th e d i s c u s s i o n s in C hapter V I I I .
T h is h a s b een done so t h a t s t u d e n t s o f e d u c a tio n m ight have
b e f o r e them m a t e r i a l s u g g e s t i v e o f V i v e s ’ method o f t r e a t
ment o f problem s i n hum an r e l a t i o n s h i p s . C h a p ters VI and
V I I , t h e n , are p r im a r ily d e s c r i p t i v e i n n a tu r e . C h apter V III
i s i n t e r p r e t a t i v e .
54
The R en a scen ce E d u c a tio n o f Women e x c e p te d .
C H A P T E R VIII
SOCIAL AM) EDUCATIONAL REFORMS
INTRODUCTION
I n o r d e r t o h a ve a b a s i s f o r co m p a riso n from w h ich
t o e v a lu a t e V iv e s* w o r k s, c e r t a i n s o c i o l o g i c a l d e f i n i t i o n s
w ere s e t o u t a t t h e b e g in n in g o f C h a p ter VI* I t w as shown
t h a t s o c i a l p ro b lem s a r o s e when grou p v a l u e s w ere
t h r e a t e n e d and t h a t m a la d ju s tm e n ts i n t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l
a r e a s f o l lo w e d a f t e r t e c h n o l o g i c a l c h a n g e s had t a k e n p l a c e
i n t h e m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e . S i m i l a r l y , a d e f i n i t i o n o f s o c i a l
m ovem ents m ust form t h e p o i n t o f d e p a r tu r e f o r t h i s c h a p t e r .
DEFINITIONS
B ack grou n d s o f g e n e r a l s o c i a l m ovem ents a r e made up
o f g r a d u a l c h a n g e s o f c u l t u r a l v a l u e s i n t h e c o l l e c t i v e
group t h i n k i n g . T h ese c h a n g e s a re r e f e r r e d t o by Blum er
a s wc u l t u r a l d r i f t s . "
S u ch c u l t u r a l d r i f t s s ta n d f o r a g e n e r a l s h i f t i n g
i n t h e i d e a s o f p e o p le * p a r t i c u l a r l y a lo n g t h e l i n e
o f t h e c o n c e p t io n s w h ich p e o p le h ave o f t h e m s e lv e s ,
and o f t h e i r r i g h t s and p r i v i l e g e s . Over a p e r io d
o f tim e many p e o p le may d e v e lo p a hew v ie w o f w hat
t h e y b e l i e v e t h e y a r e e n t i t l e d t o ^ - a v ie w l a r g e l y
made up o f d e s i r e s and h o p e s . I t s i g n i f i e s t h e
em ergence o f a new s e t o f v a l u e s , w h ich i n f l u e n c e
p e o p le i n t h e way i n w h ic h t h e y lo o k upon t h e i r own
l i v e s . E xam ples o f su c h c u l t u r a l d r i f t s i n o u r own
r e c e n t h i s t o r y a r e t h e i n c r e a s e d v a l u e o f h e a l t h , t h e
b e lie f i n f r e e e d u c a t i o n , t h e e x t e n s i o n o f t h e f r a n
c h i s e , t h e e m a n c ip a tio n o f women, t h e i n c r e a s i n g
190
r e g a r d f o r c h i l d r e n , and th e i n c r e a s i n g p r e s t i g e
o f s c i e n c e . !
T h ese c u l t u r a l d r i f t s a r e , a t f i r s t , u n o r g a n iz e d .
4 s t h e y c o n s o l i d a t e , p ropagan da b e g i n s . L i t e r a t u r e a p p e a r s
sh ow ing o b j e c t i o n s t o c o n d i t i o n s a s th e y a r e and s e t t i n g up
U to p ia n g o a l s a s t h i n g s t h a t m ig h t b e . T h is p h a s e , a c c o r d
i n g t o B lu m er, i s t h e ^ v o i c e s - i n - t h e - w i l d e r n e s s " p e r i o d , i n
w h ich t h e p i o n e e r s h a v e no d e f i n i t e f o l l o w i n g and a r e s t i l l
u n c e r t a i n a b o u t t h e i r own o b j e c t i v e s . The g e n e r a l s o c i a l
movement s t a r t s th r o u g h u n d ergrou n d c h a n n e ls . I t s p r e a d s
th r o u g h r e a d in g , d i s c u s s i o n s , ex a m p les and i s l a r g e l y a
m a t te r o f c o n v e r s io n o f i n d i v i d u a l a d h e r e n t s . S p e c i f i c
s o c i a l m ovem ents come fro m t h e c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n o f t h e s e
c u l t u r a l d r if t s .* *
The o r g a n i z a t i o n o f s p e c i f i c s o c i a l m ovem ents i s t h e
outcom e o f f i v e c o n t r i b u t i n g m ech a n ism s, a c c o r d in g to B lu m er,
v i z . , (a ) a g i t a t i o n , (b) d e v e lo p m en t o f e s p r i t de c o r p s ,
(c ) d e v e lo p m en t o f m o r a le , (d) t h e d e v e lo p m en t o f an
i d e o l o g y , and (e ) t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f o p e r a t in g t a c t i c s . ®
A g i t a t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y t o b r e a k p e o p le l o o s e from t r a d i
t i o n a l p o i n t s o f v ie w , r o u se them from t h e i r i n e r t i a , and
1
I n R ic h a r d C. F u l l e r , e t a l . , e d i t o r R o b ert 1 .
P a r k , JUi O u t lin e o f t h e P r i n c i p l e s o f S o c i o l o g y (New York:
B a r n e s and N o b le , 193&) , p . 2 5 6 .
2
I b i d . , p . 2 5 8 .
3
I b i d . , p . 260.
191
f o c u s t h e i r e n e r g ie s * In t im e s o f c r i s i s , t h e r e are a lw a y s
two t e c h n iq u e s n e c e s s a r y — t h e on e t o a p p e a l t o t h e
l e t h a r g i c t y p e o f i n d i v i d u a l ; t h e o t h e r , f o r t h e e x c i t a b l e
o r t h e r e s e n t f u l t y p e . H en ce, Blum er t h i n k s two t y p e s o f
a g i t a t o r s a r e n e c e s s a r y : t h e o n e , dynam ic and a g g r e s s i v e ;
t h e o t h e r , c a u s t i c , q u i e t , s a t i r i c a l . E s p r it de c o r p s
fo rm s an e m o tio n a l bond i n t h e r e v o l t i n g g r o u p ; m o ra le g i v e s
t h e d e t e r m in a t io n and e n d u r a n c e . B oth a c r e e d and a l i t e r a
t u r e a r e n e c e s s a r y i n g r e d i e n t s to t h e b u i l d i n g o f m o r a le .
H en ce, an i d e o l o g y becom es t h e n e x t im p o r ta n t p h a se o f
d e v e lo p m e n t.
T h is i d e o lo g y i s a lm o s t c e r t a i n t o b e o f a tw o
f o l d c h a r a c t e r . I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , much o f i t i s
e r u d i t e and s c h o l a r l y . T h is i s t h e form i n w h ic h i t
i s d e v e lo p e d by t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l s o f t h e m ovem ent.
I t i s l i k e l y to c o n s i s t o f e la b o r a t e t r e a t i s e s o f an
a b s t r a c t and h i g h l y l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r . I t grow s up
u s u a l l y i n r e s p o n s e t o t h e c r i t i c i s m o f o u t s i d e
i n t e l l e c t u a l s , and s e e k s to g a in f o r i t s t e n e t s a
r e s p e c t a b l e and d e f e n s i b l e p o s i t i o n i n t h i s w o r ld o f
h ig h e r l e a r n i n g and h ig h e r i n t e l l e c t u a l v a l u e s . The
i d e o l o g y h a s a n o th e r c h a r a c t e r , h ow ever— a p o p u la r
c h a r a c t e r . I n t h i s g u i s e , i t s e e k s to appeed t o t h e
u n e d u c a te d and t o t h e m a s s e s . In i t s p o p u la r
c h a r a c t e r , t h e i d e o l o g y t a k e s t h e form o f e m o tio n a l
s y m b o ls , s h i b b o l e t h s , s t e r e o t y p e s , sm ooth and g r a p h ic
p h r a s e s , and f o l k a r g u m en ts. I t d e a l s , a l s o , w ith
t h e t e n e t s o f t h e m ovem ent, b u t p r e s e n t s them i n a
form t h a t m akes f o r t h e i r r e a d y c o m p r e h e n sio n and
c o n s u m p tio n .4
V iv e s v e r y d e f i n i t e l y b e lo n g s to t h e e r u d i t e and
s c h o l a r l y g r o u p .
4
I b i d . , p . 268
The i d e o l o g y o f a m ovem ent, c o n t i n u e s B lu m er, n o t
o n l y p r o v id e s i t s p h ilo s o p h y and p s y c h o lo g y b u t ,
I t g i v e s a s e t o f v a l u e s , a s e t o f c o n v i c t i o n s , a
s e t o f c r i t i c i s m s , a s e t o f a r g u m e n ts, and a s e t o f
d e f e n s e s . As s u c h , i t f u r n i s h e s to a movement (a)
d i r e c t i o n , (b) j u s t i f i c a t i o n , (c ) w eap on s o f a t t a c k ,
(d) w eap on s o f d e f e n s e , and ( e) i n s p i r a t i o n and h o p e .
To be e f f e c t i v e i n t h e s e r e s p e c t s * t h e i d e o l o g y m ust
c a r r y r e s p e c t a b i l i t y and p r e s t i g e — a c h a r a c t e r t h a t i s
‘ ~ r i m a r i l y by t h e i n t e l l i g e n t s i a o f t h e
I t i s o b v i o u s l y im p o s s i b l e to e s t i m a t e t h e e x t e n t
o r t h e im p o r ta n c e o f V i v e s f c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e r e fo r m s o f
h i s own and s u c c e e d in g e r a s w it h o u t know ing t o whom he
a d d r e s s e d h i s w r i t i n g s , w hat h i s m e ssa g e w a s, and w hat he
th o u g h t h i s m i s s i o n w a s.
T u rn in g back t o t h e b o o k s r e v ie w e d in C h a p te r s VI
and V I I , i t w i l l b e i n t e r e s t i n g to n o te to whom t h e y w ere
d e d i c a t e d . D£ K uropae D i s s i d i i s w as i n s c r i b e d to P ope
A d r ia n V I; C o n c o r d ia e t D i s c o r d i a i n Humano G en ere to
C h a r le s V; De S u b v e n tio n e Pauperum t o th e S e n a t e o f B r u g e s;
I n P s e u d o - P i a l e c t i c o s to a f e l l o w s t u d e n t s t i l l a t t e n d i n g
t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f P a r i s , Joh n F o r t i s ; De I n i t i i s , S e c t i s e t
L a u d ib u s P h i l o s o p h i a e to C ount Herman d e N eeuw ender; De
Anima e t V i t a to t h e Duke o f Be j a r ; Dei D i s c i p l i n i s t o
M a n o e l ,I I I , K in g o f P o r t u g a l; D < e R at io n e S t u d i i P u e r i l i s
(E p . I I ) t o t h e P r i n c e s s Mary and t o C h a r le s Mount j o y ;
VIVES* DEDICATIONS
1 9 3
De I n s t i t u t i o n e F em inae C h r i s t l a n a e t o C a th e r in e o f A ra gon ;
and L in g u a e L a t in a e E x e r c i t a t i o t o P r i n c e P h i l i p o f S p a in
( s o n o f C h a r le s V) . V i v e s ’ C om m entaries o n S t . A u g u s t in e ’ s
" C i v i t a t e D ei" w as d e d i c a t e d t o H enry V I I I ; De O f f i c i o
M a r it i to F r a n c is c o de B o r g ia , Duke o f'G a n d ia ; The O r a t io n s
o f I s o c r a t e s t o C a r d in a l W o lse y ; M e d it a t io n s on t h e
P e n i t e n t i a l P sa lm s to C a r d in a l de C roy; a n d , The T ruth o f
t h e C h r i s t i a n F a i t h t o p op e P a u l I I I . One m ig h t c o n t in u e
t h e s e e n u m e r a tio n s , b u t t h i s l i s t e s t a b l i s h e s t h e f a c t t h a t
V iv e s a d d r e s s e d h i s w orks t o th e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e l e a d e r s o f
t h e s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , and r e l i g i o u s w o rld o f h i s d a y . H is
w orks w o u ld , t h e r e f o r e , c a r r y t h e c a c h e t o f "r e s p e c t a b i l i t y
and p r e s t i g e " w h ich Blum er h a s m e n tio n e d a s n e c e s s a r y f o r an
i d e o l o g y d e s t i n e d t o a r o u se t h e i n t e l l i g e n t s i a .
THE HOLE OF THE POLITICAL PHILOSOPHER
"The b e s t p a r t o f w isd om ," s a y s V i v e s , " c o n s i s t s i n
t h e c o n j e c t u r e s w h ic h we: form o f f u t u r e t h i n g s from t h e
c o m b in a tio n o f p a s t e v e n t s . P r a c t i c a l w isdom i s t h u s a
c e r t a i n k in d o f d i v i n a t i o n * . . ." F r i v o l o u s , s u p e r f i
c i a l , g a r r u lo u s , f a c e t i o u s , s tu b b o r n , o r c o n t e n t i o u s m en,
h e c o n t i n u e s , do n o t p o s s e s s t h i s f a c u l t y , i . e . , t h e a r t
o f r u l i n g , an d , t h e r e f o r e , s h o u ld b e d i r e c t e d b y o t h e r s who
6
S e e p . 1 6 8 , i n f r a .
194-
h a v e g r e a t e r n a t u r a l c a p a c it y f o r g ov ern m en t.
The p o l i t i c a l p h ilo s o p h e r h a s th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f
d e c l a r i n g t h e a t t i t u d e s c i t i z e n s s h o u ld b e a r t o e a c h o t h e r ;
t h e r e l a t i o n s o f s u b j e c t s to w a r d s p r i n c e s and m a g i s t r a t e s ;
th e r e l a t i o n s o f m a g i s t r a t e s among t h e m s e lv e s and t o t h e i r
s u b o r d in a t e s ; and t h e p r o b le m s and a c t i v i t i e s a r i s i n g from
t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . P o l i t i c a l p h ilo s o p h y d e a l s w it h th e
a t t i t u d e s o f p e o p le and th e m o r a ls o f th e s t a t e . P o l i t i c a l
p h ilo s o p h y and la w s t h e r e f o r e , h a v e a m u tu al r e l a t i o n s h i p .
The r e l a t i o n s o f p r in c e and p h i l o s o p h e r . The l e a d e r
o f a c i t y sh o u ld h a v e sound judgm ent and b e f a m i l i a r w ith
f i n e i n d u s t r i a l a r t s a s w e l l a s w ith s c i e n t i f i c and
a ca d em ic l e a r n i n g . He sh o u ld know how and when t o e n c o u r a g e
i n n o v a t io n s and when to e x p e l them from t h e s t a t e . S i n c e
j u s t i c e i s t h e s o u l o f a l l human s o c i e t y , la w sh o u ld be
p l a c e d o n a p h i l o s o p h i c a l b a s i s . 7
P r i n c e s and le a r n e d m en, V iv e s b e l i e v e s , h a v e a
s i m i l a r i t y o f g i f t s * He s a y s t h a t b oth a r e g iv e n b y God t o
s t a t e s and p e o p l e s , t h a t t h e y may h ave w i s e r e g a r d f o r t h e
common g ood o f th e s t a t e ; t h e le a r n e d by t h e i r p r e c e p t s ;
p r i n c e s by t h e i r e d i c t s and la w s ; b o th b y t h e i r ex a m p le.
R oyal pow er can make p o s s i b l e t h e freed o m and l e i s u r e n eed ed
7
S e e pp . 1 7 8 - 7 9 , i n f r a *
195
f o r s c h o l a r l y r e s e a r c h . The p h i l o s o p h e r s , a s t h e f r u i t o f
t h e i r l e a r n i n g , can c o u n s e l p r i n c e s on d i f f i c u l t m a t t e r s
i n t h e b u s i n e s s o f g o v ern m en t. Thus b o t h t h e p r i n c e and
t h e s c h o la r b e in g n e c e s s a r y to each o t h e r * s s u c c e s s ,
sh o u ld be c o - p a r t n e r s i n m a t t e r s c o n c e r n in g t h e w e l f a r e o f
t h e s t a t e . 8
I n t e r e s t i n g e x a m p les o f t h i s f u n c t i o n o f t h e p o l i t i
c a l p h i lo s o p h e r a r e fo u n d i n V iv es* w orks and c o r r e s p o n d
e n c e . H enry V I I I a c k n o w le d g e s V iv e s* d e d i c a t i o n t o him o f
t h e g r e a t w ork o n S t . A u g u s tin e by w r i t i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g
l e t t e r q u o te d by W a tson .
•W orthy S i r , o u r w e l l - b e l o v e d f r i e n d . A s so on a s
S . A u g u s t i n e * s C i v i t a s D e i came t o o u r h a n d s ,
i l l u m i n a t e d by y o u r C om m en taries, i t was r i g h t w elco m e.
I t , In d e e d , r a i s e d t h e d o u b t w i t h i n u s , whom we sh o u ld
c h i e f l y c o n g r a t u l a t e , w h e th e r , f i r s t l y , y o u , who h ave
b r o u g h t t o a c l o s e , by such le a r n e d la b o u r , so c h o ic e
a w ork; o r , s e c o n d l y , S . A u g u s t in e , who h a s b een f o r
so lo n g a t i m e , so i m p e r f e c t l y a c c e s s i b l e , and who
now a t l a s t i s b r o u g h t from d a r k n e s s t o l i g h t , r e s t o r e d
to h i s a n c i e n t i n t e g r i t y ; o r t h i r d l y , a l l p o s t e r i t y ,
f o r w hose g r e a t p r o f i t y o u r C om m entaries a r e now a t
h a n d . S i n c e i t h a s p l e a s e d you t o d e d i c a t e t h o s e
C om m entaries t o o u r name, we c a n n o t b u t r e t a i n a
g r a t e f u l m in d , and r e t u r n you o u r warm th a n k s ;
e s p e c i a l l y a s y o u r k in d a t t e n t i o n shows no o r d in a r y
l o v e and o b s e r v a n c e to w a r d s u s . F or w h ic h r e a s o n s ,
we ca n a s s u r e you t h a t o u r f a v o u r and g o o d - w i l l s h a l l
n e v e r f a i l i n y o u r a f ? a l r s » w h en ever o p p o r t u n it y
s h a l l o f f er" T t s e l f o n o u r p a r t to be o f h e l p f u l n e s s t o
y o u . From ou r CourTTat G reen w icE , 24 J a n . 1 5 2 3 .^
8
F o s t e r W a tso n , t r a n s l a t o r , V i v e s : On E d u c a tio n
(C am bridge: The U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 191S) ~ p . S .
9
F o s t e r W atso n , L u is V i v e s : E l Gran V a le n c ia n o
(O x fo rd U n i v e r s i t y p r e s s , Humphrey M TTford, 1922 ) , p . 3 9 .
196
The d i v i n e - r i g h t o f Icings w as a t h e o r y ^diich V iv e s
n e v e r a c c e p t e d . He sp u r n e d , t o o , t h e s e r v i l i t y and
f l a t t e r y w h ich i t c r e a t e d .
. . . P r i n c e s a r e , f o r t h e m ost p a r t , o f h e a r t s so
c o r r u p t , and so i n t o x i c a t e d by t h e m a g n itu d e o f t h e i r
good f o r t u n e , t h a t by no a r t can t h e y show t h e m s e lv e s
h a r sh and i n s e n s a t e t o t h o s e who w ould h e a l them .
T h ose b l i n d men and l e a d e r s o f t h e b l i n d , a s t h e Lord
c a l l s th em , m ust be l e f t a l o n e . We m ust t r a n s f e r ou r
s o l i c i t u d e t o t h e p e o p le who a r e more t r a c t a b l e , f o r
t n e y o r r e r t E e m s e lv e s more e a s i l y to be d e a l t w it h
and a r e more r e s p o n s iv e t o one c a r in g f o r them . T h is
a l s o d id C h r i s t , w i t h Whom a P r in c e i s n o t v a lu e d more
h i g h l y th a n an yon e o f t h e p e o p l e . 2-0
When c ir c u m s t a n c e s j u s t i f y t h e p r a i s e o f p r i n c e s ,
l e t t h e p r a i s e b e somewhat s p a r in g , and i n su ch a
m ann er, t h a t t h e y f e e l t h a t t h e y w ould r a t h e r be
adm on ished and s t im u la t e d i n t h e i r a c t i o n s th a n h a v e
t h e i r p r a i s e s sung a s i f t h e i r c o u r s e o f l i f e w ere
a lr e a d y en d ed . I f you may h op e f o r any good from
i t , v i c e s o u g h t to b e f r e e l y condem ned, o n l y l e t
t h e r e be no b i t t e r n e s s nor r a g e . ^
V iv e s p u t h i s own t h e o r i e s i n t o p r a c t i c e when he
w r o te t o H enry V I I I * a f t e r h i s b a n ish m en t from E n glan d f o r
h i s su p p o r t o f C a th e r in e on t h e d i v o r c e i s s u e . The l e t t e r
f o l l o w s .
'Thou h a s t a f l o u r i s h i n g k in gd om , and a r t b e lo v e d
by t h y p e o p le , and th o u a r t now a t t h e h e ig h t and
s t r e n g t h o f t h y l i f e . C o n s id e r i n t o w hat t r o u b l e
th o u w i l t p lu n g e t h y s e l f and t h y k in gdom , i f th o u
b r i n g e s t a b o u t h o s t i l i t y and war w it h t h y m ost pow er
f u l n e ig h b o r in g p r i n c e , and c o n s i d e r a l s o w h at good
can come o f e v e n a m ost s u c c e s s f u l w ar. And i f th o u
w e r t a b le t o in d u c e o t h e r p r i n c e s t o h e l p t h e e i n
g o in g t o w a r, w here w ou ld th e m a t te r end? You k i n g s
i n t h e C h r i s t i a n w o r ld a r e b u t two o r t h r e e , to su ch
1 0
W atson, V iv es: On E d u c a tio n , op. e i t . # p . 2 7 8 .
U
I b i d . , p . 2 8 0 .
197
e x t e m i t i e s h a ve t h e T u rk ish v i c t o r i e s r ed u ced u s . Do
you w is h t o , i n t h e s e c ir c u m s t a n c e s , c r e a t e f u r t h e r
c o n fu s io n ? B ven i f th o u w e rt t o i n f l i c t d e f e a t o n
t h i n e a d v e r s a r y , th o u w i l t n o t p r o s p e r , f o r God w i l l
n o t exem pt t h e e from H is p u n ish m e n t. And w hat c o u id s t
th o u g a in ? A w if e ? Thou h a s t a w i f e ; t o whom t h e
woman whom th o u d e s i r e s t c a n n o t be com pared i n g o o d n e s s ,
i n a n c e s t r y , i n b e a u t y ; o r i n p i e t y . . . . Do you
r e p l y , *1 d e s i r e c h i l d r e n t o be h e i r s o f my kingdom *?
You h a v e a c h i l d , th a n k s b e t o C h r i s t , a d a u g h te r o f
w o n d e r fu l charm. Thou c a n s t c h o o se f o r h e r , a t th y
w is h , a s o n - in - l a w . I f th o u w e r t t o h a v e a s o n , th o u
m ust b e s a t i s f i e d w it h him a s N a tu re m igh t sh a p e him ;
b u t t h e s o n - i n - l a w th o u c a n s t s e l e c t a t t h y w i l l .
B e s i d e s who can g u a r a n te e t h a t a n o th e r w i f e w i l l b e a r
t h e e a so n t i l l t h e e x a c t tim e th o u s h a l t d ie ? I f
each o f t h e s e p o i n t s be u n c e r t a i n , how c a n s t th o u b e
c e r t a i n o f t h e w h o le m a tte r ? C o n s id e r a l s o t h e w e ig h t
o f t h y e x a m p le . and how g r ^ a t an o c c a s i o n o f - stu m b lin g
th o u w i l t a f f o r d t o o t h e r s * L a s t l y , r e c a l l t o t h y
s e l f how g r e a t a c a u se f o r ^ c i v i l s t r i f e th o u w i l t
l e a v e t o th y B r i t i a n , when i t becom es d i v i d e d a s t o
t h e l e g i t i m a t e s u c c e s s i o n , w h ich th o u m ust r e n d e r
d o u b t f u l by t h i s new m a r r ia g e . . . . My r e g a r d f o r
t h e e h a s moved me t o w r i t e a s I h a v e d o n e . ’i ^
i n h i s c a p a c i t y o f p o l i t i c a l p h i lo s o p h e r , Y iv e s
com m ents, t o o , o n t h e s h o r t - c o m in g s o f t h e p r i n c e s o f t h e
C hurch, i n De S u b v e n tio n s Pauperum he d o e s n o t h e s i t a t e
t o rem ind b is h o p s o f t h e i r o b l i g a t i o n s .
I t i s t h e d u ty o f t h e b is h o p s n o t o n ly t o t e a c h , t o
c o n s o l e , to c o r r e c t , a s f a r a s c o n c e r n s t h e s o u l s o f
m en, b u t a l s o t o h e a l t h e i r b o d ie s (w h ic h t h e y w ou ld
do i f t h e i r f a i t h i n C h r is t w ere a s g r e a t a s t h e y
w is h t h e f a i t h o f o t h e r s t o b e , f o r t h e i r own
a d v a n ta g e ; b u t t h i s i s a common f a i l i n g — we a l l
s e v e r e l y demand i n a n o th e r t h e v e r y v i r t u e w h ich we
o u t s e l v e s la c k ) t o a id t h e p o o r o u t o f t h e i r own su b
s t a n c e , even th o u g h i t b e e x c e e d in g ly s m a ll; i n s h o r t ,
a f t e r t h e exam p le o f P a u l , t o b e p e r f e c t i n c h a r i t y ,
t h a t t h e y may be a l l t h i n g s t o a l l men, n o t d e s p i s i n g
t h e l o w l y , b u t r a t h e r p u t t in g t h e m s e lv e s on t h e sam e
l e v e l w it h th em , t o h e lp th e m , a n d , a c c o r d in g t o th e
IS
F o s t e r W atson , "A F r ie n d o f S i r Thomas M o r e ,”
N in e t e e n t h C e n tu r y , 8 3 : 5 5 0 , M arch, 1 9 1 8 .
198
word o f C h r i s t , d e f e r r i n g n o t t o th e l o f t y — f o r t h e i r
e d i f i c a t i o n . B is h o p s and a b b o ts and o t h e r f u n c t i o n
a r i e s o f t h e ohurch m ig h t , i f t h e y w is h e d , r e l i e v e a
v e r y l a r g e p o r t i o n o f t h e e x i s t i n g p o v e r ty o u t o f
t h e i r l a r g e in c o m e s . I f t h e y do n o t w ish t o do s o ,
C h r i s t w i l l a v e n g e i t .1 3
The r e l a t i o n o f p r i n c e and p o p u la c e . V iv e s* v ie w s
on t h i s s u b j e c t a r e s t r o n g l y t i n g e d w it h P la to * s c o n c e p t io n
o f t h e d u t i e s o f t h e p h i l o s o p h e r - p r i n e e . R e p e a t e d ly , h e
th r o w s o u t rem ark s t h a t d e c e p t i o n and e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e
common man ca n n o t c o n t in u e i n d e f i n i t e l y . A change i s com
in g when f r e e men w i l l c a s t o f f t h e t y r a n n y o f p se u d o
s c h o l a r s and s e l f i s h l o r d s and demand t h e i r r i g h t s a s human
b e i n g s . E d u c a tio n , V iv e s a s s e r t s s h o u ld b e t h e r e s p o n s i
b i l i t y o f t h e s t a t e u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n o f i t s l e a d e r . The
c r i t e r i a a s to a s u c c e s s f u l l i f e , V iv e s a d m o n ish es t h e
l i t t l e P r in c e P h i l i p a r e n o t e n t i r e l y b a se d o n r a n k . He
e x p l a i n s i n t h e s e w o r d s .
Then w i l t th o u e v e n t u a l l y s e e t h a t th o u a r t n o t
y e t adorned and p r o v id e d w ith g o o d s , g r e a t and m any,
and t h a t no o n e am ongst t h e m ass o f p e o p le i s l e s s
p r o v id e d w ith them th a n t h y s e l f . F or among t h e m u l t i
tu d e a r e o l d p e o p l e , who h a v e s e e n and h e a r d much,
and p e r s o n s e x p e r ie n c e d i n m o st t h i n g s . O th e r s t h e r e
a r e , d e v o t in g t h e m s e lv e s t o s t u d i e s , who sh a r p e n
t h e i r w i t s by l e a r n i n g , and become c u lt u r e d men;
o t h e r s en g a g e i n p u b lic a f f a i r s ; o t h e r s o c c u p y them
s e l v e s w it h a u t h o r s , who w i l l g i v e them t h e k n ow led g e
t h e y w a n t. O th e rs a r e i n d u s t r i o u s f a t h e r s o f f a m i l i e s .
O th e rs f o l l o w v a r i o u s a r t s and e x c e l i n th em . Even
1 3
M a rgaret M. S h erw o o d , t r a n s l a t o r , C o n c e r n in g t h e
R e l i e f o f t h e P oor o r C o n c e r n in g Human Heed (New Y ork: The
New York S c h o o l o f P h ila n t h r o p y 7 l9i*?) , p . 2 5 .
199
p e a s a n t s t h e m s e lv e s - - h o w many o f t h e s e c r e t s o f
n a tu r e t h e y p o s s e s s 1 S a i l o r s , t o o , know o f t h e
c o u r s e o f d ay and m ig h t, t h e n a tu r e o f w in d s , t h e
p o s i t i o n o f la n d s and s e a s . Some o f t h e p e o p le a r e
h o l y and r e l i g i o u s m en, who s e r v e t h e D e i t y w it h
d e v o t io n and w o r sh ip Him. O th e r s e n jo y s u c c e s s w it h
m o d e r a tio n and b e a r a d v e r s i t y w it h b r a v e r y . What
d o s t th o u know o f t h e s e ? What e n e r g y l i k e t h e i r s
d o s t th o u p r a c t i s e ? In w hat d o s t th o u e x c e l? I n
n o th in g a t a l l e x c e p t t h a t *No one i s b e t t e r th a n
me: I am o f a good s t o c k .* How c a n s t th o u be b e t t e r ,
when a s y e t th o u a r e n o t g o o d , u n l e s s t h e y had t h e s e
t h i n g s w h ic h I h a v e r e c o u n te d . I f t h e y had th em ,
y o u can t e l l . But I d o u b t i t much. You c e r t a i n l y
w i l l n o t be g o o d u n l e s s you become l i k e t h o s e I
h a v e d e s c r i b e d . 14
V iv e s c o n g r a t u l a t e s K in g John I I I o f P o r t u g a l on h i s
good f o r t u n e i n h a v in g su ch p i e t y and b r i l l i a n c e i n h i s
a n c e s t o r s t h a t t h e y en co u ra g ed t h e a r t o f n a v ig a t io n and
c a r r ie d t h e b a n n er o f C h r is t th r o u g h o u t t h e w o r ld . H e, t h e n ,
r em in d s t h e k in g o f t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f su ch an
i n h e r i t a n c e .
. . . Thou m u st m a in t a in what th o u h a s t r e c e i v e d from
th em , and by t h e same m ean s, t h o s e o f c a r e f u l n e s s ,
i n d u s t r y , g e n t l e n e s s , m a g n a n im ity , g r e a t n e s s o f d e e d s ,
c o n s t a n c y , f i d e l i t y . I f th o u d o s t t h i s , t h e n , i n t h e
same way t h a t we sp u r t h e e o n , to r i s e to t h e v i r t u e
o f th y a n c e s t o r s , th y d e s c e n d a n ts w i l l b e a b l e to
c i t e and p le a d th y exam ple f o r i m i t a t i o n . We can
f a i r l y e x p e c t t h a t t h i s w i l l b e t h e c a s e from some o f
t h e d e e d s th o u h a s t a lr e a d y a c c o m p lis h e d , a s i f th o u
h a d s t b e e n p u t on t r i a l ; d e e d s i n s p h e r e s w o r th y o f a
p r i n c e , o f s a c r e d and u n c o r r u p te d j u s t i c e , and w h ere
n e c e s s a r y , d e e d s o f s t e r n n e s s and i n f l e x i b i l i t y . . . .
T h is i s a f o r e t a s t e o f th y m in d , t o t o show th o u d o s t
14
F o s t e r W atson , t r a n s l a t o r , Tudor S c h o o l-B o y L i f e
( The D ia lo g u e s o f Juan L u is V i v e s ; L o n d o n : J . M. D en t and
Company, 1 9 0 6 ) , p p . 2 3 0 - S I .
20 0
n o t m e r e ly p l e a s e t h y s e l f ; and a t th e same t im e , a s i t
w e r e , i t i s a p le d g e t o a l l t h y p e o p l e , from w h ic h
t h e y lo o k f o r g r e a t and n o b le w o r k s, a s i f due from
t h e e , and t h e y w i l l b e tr o u b le s o m e r e m in d e r s i n t h e
f u t u r e , u n l e s s th o u p e r fo r m what t h o u h a s t l e d them
t o e x p e c t .
E xam ples h ave a lr e a d y b e e n c i t e d to show V i v e s ’ c o n
c e r n f o r th e e d u c a t io n o f t h e orp h an ed p o o r .16 The
p h ilo s o p h y by w h ich a k in g sh o u ld be g u id e d i n t h e d e v e lo p
m ent o f such a program i s o u t l i n e d i n a l e t t e r w h ich V iv e s
w r o te to H enry V I I I , i n w h ic h he i m p l i e s What t h e k in g
s h o u ld be i n t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l c l a s s t o be a l e a d e r o f h i s
p e o p l e . He s a y s :
N o th in g i s more v i t a l th a n t h a t due c a r e s h o u ld b e
t a k e n i n t h e fo r m a tio n by t h e young o f r i g h t and
sa n e o p i n io n s . They sh o u ld know th e aim and a d v a n ta g e
o f ea ch e le m e n t o f w e l f a r e , i t s e s s e n t i a l p r o p o r t io n ,a n d
hoft t o e s t i m a t e i t . Y outh w i l l th e n become l i k e
t r i e d g o l d s m i t h s , w ith a L y d ia n s t o n e , w h ich s e r v e s
a s an i n d i c a t i o n o f v a l u e s ( p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e ) ,
o f su ch f a c t o r s i n l i f e a s m oney, p o s s e s s i o n s ,
f r i e n d s , h o n o u r s , n o b i l i t y , d i g n i t y , s o v e r e i g n t y ,
ou tw ard form , p h y s iq u e , p l e a s u r e , w i t , e r u d i t i o n ,
m o r a l i t y , r e l i g i o n . They w i l l t h u s l e a r n n o t t o co n
f u s e s m a ll t h i n g s w ith g r e a t . . . . T h u s, p r o v id e d
w it h s t a n d a r d s , t h e i r r e l i g i o n w i l l n o t y i e l d p r e -
ceT en ce t o outw ard form and c e r e m o n ie s , and t h e i r
c o n c e p t io n o f l i t e r a t u r e w i l l n o t a llo w them to d e v o t e
t h e i r e n e r g i e s t o t o p i c s p r o v o c a t i v e o f s t r u g g l e and
c o n t e n t i o n , w h ic h r e n d e r men stu b b o r n r a t h e r th a n
w i s e . They w i l l be drawn r a t h e r t o t h o s e s t u d i e s w h ich
l e a d t o t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f m orals" and t h e b u i l d i n g up
o f l i f e . . . . No one i s o u t s i d e o f t h e sc o p e o f
r e l i g i o n , and t h e m ass o f t h e p e o p le ( v u lg u s ) w i l l be
15
W a tso n , V iv e s : On E d u c a tio n , o p . c i t . , p . 4 .
16 “ ' ““ “
S e e p . 1 2 5 , i n f r a .
201
h e lp e d i n l i t e r a t u r e , p a r t l y by a d d r e s s e s ( c o n e io n ib u s ) ,
p a r t l y by b o o k s, w r i t t e n i n t h e m oth er to n g u e , a d v i s in g
them a s to th e s u b j e c t s w o r th y o f s t u d y , by w h ich t h e i r
good h o u r s may n o t b e p a s s e d i n r e c i t i n g o l d women’ s
f a b l e s , n o r i n a c t i o n s i n d i f f e r e n t to g ood c o n d u c t .17
In a n o th e r w ork, De S u b v e n tio n e Pauperum , V iv e s com
m en ts on t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e g o v e r n in g body o f f r e e
c i t i e s to s e e t h a t c i v i c m o r a le i s d e v e lo p e d t o t h e end t h a t
t h e fu n d a m en ta l n e e d s o f a l l c i t i z e n s b e p r o v id e d f o r . Some
im p o r ta n t n e e d s a r e :
. . . a p l a c e i n w h ich alm s a r e g i v e n and r e c e i v e d ,
and t h a t l o v e sh o u ld t a k e r o o t i n m utual h e l p f u l n e s s
and t h e f e l l o w s h i p o f men b e s t r e n g t h e n e d , I t o u g h t
to be t h e d u ty o f t h e p u b lic o f f i c i a l s t o ta k e p a in s
t o s e e t h a t men h e lp on e a n o t h e r , t h a t no one i s
o p p r e s s e d , no one w ronged by an u n j u s t c o n d em n a tio n ,
and t h a t t h e s t r o n g come t o t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f t h e
w eak , i n o r d e r t h a t t h e harmony o f t h e u n i t e d body o f
c i t i z e n s may grow I n l o v e day by d a y and en d u re
f o r e v e r . 18
THE Kir-NO.TE OF VIVES* SOCIOLOGICAL REFORMS
I n t h e p a s s a g e s th u s f a r c i t e d , some s i g n i f i c a n t
p h r a s e s o f w h ic h have b e e n u n d e r l i n e d , i t i s q u i t e e v id e n t
t h a t V iv e s s u b s c r i b e s n e i t h e r t o a d e s p o t i c t h e o c r a c y n o r
t o a d e s p o t i c m onarch y. He i n c l i n e s r a t h e r t o w hat i s
known to d a y a s C h r i s t i a n S o c i a l i s m , i . e . , a b r o t h e r - i n - C h r i s t
17
M. A. E . Wood, L e t t e r s o f R oyal and I l l u s t r i o u s
L a d ie s ( 1 8 4 6 , V o l. I I , p p . 201 -2 0 F T q u o te d i n F o s t e r W atson,
L u is V iv e s : E l G ran V a le n c ia n o , o p . c i t . , p . 7 2 .
-------------- 1 S T --------------------— ------ .
Sherwood, 0 £ . c i t . , p . 4 .
2 0 2
t y p e o f s o c i a l o r d e r . T h is d o e s n o t mean t h a t h e th o u g h t
a l l men o f e q u a l s o c i a l r a n k . He d id b e l i e v e , h o w ev e r, t h a t
each man, a s a so n o f God, had a r i g h t t o C h r i s t i a n t r a i n
i n g i n t h e s p h e r e t o w h ich h i s b i r t h , h i s t a l e n t s , and h i s
p i e t y e n t i t l e d h im . *
*
The k e y - n o t e o f V iv e s* r e fo r m s a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e s e
e x c e r p t s i s d e f i n i t e l y t h a t o f a ch an ge i n em p h a sis on
human r e l a t i o n s h i p s . I t i s e q u a l l y a p p a r e n t t h a t V iv e s*
e x p e r ie n c e s a t t h e S o r b o n n e , c u lm in a t in g i n h i s d e f i a n t I n
P se u d o - D i a l e c t i c o s , h a s made him an enemy o f C h urch -dom i
n a te d e d u c a t io n and C h u rch -d om in ated c h a r i t y , a l i k e . Educa
t i o n , he f e e l s , s h o u ld be d i r e c t e d by t h e p o l i t i c a l r u l e r s
o f t h e s t a t e ; c h a r i t y sh o u ld b e a c i v i c o r r e g i o n a l r e s p o n
s i b i l i t y f u n c t i o n i n g u n d er l e g i s l a t i v e a u t h o r i t y . V iv e s
d i r e c t s h i s w r i t i n g s to t h e l e a d e r s o f h i s d ay i n t h e hop e
t h a t t h e y w i l l c a t c h h i s v i s i o n , and t h a t , h a v in g g r a sp e d
i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e , t h e y w i l l th e n u s e th e p ow ers o f t h e i r
e x a l t e d p o s i t i o n to p a s s on t h e m essa g e to t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e
c o u n t r i e s and f i e l d s o f i n f l u e n c e .
V iv e s* r e fo r m s c o n c e r n i n d i v i d u a l s and t h e i r r e l a t i o n
s h ip to each o t h e r . To h i s m in d , human b e i n g s n eed t o b e
c a l l e d upon t o f a c e b a s i c r e l i g i o u s and e t h i c a l t r u t h s .
They a r e e x p e c te d t o p u t t h e i r k n ow led ge i n t o a c t i o n f o r
t h e common g o o d . He a d v o c a t e s f i r s t , t h e n , r efo rm o f th e
i n v i d i d u a l . G o ll e c t i v e l y i " t h i s w i l l a u t o m a t i c a l l y mean
203
r e f o m o f t h e s o c i a l o r d e r . He a d v o c a t e s , s e c o n d ly ,
r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e common man a s a f r e e i n d i v i d u a l w it h
r i g h t s and p r i v i l e g e s — n o t a c r e a t u r e b l i n d l y o b e d ie n t t o
t h e o r d e r s o f Church a u t o c r a c y .
Thus V iv e s in t e n d e d t o u s e im p o r ta n t p e r s o n a g e s a s
th 6 c h a n n e ls o f d i s s e m i n a t i o n f o r h i s m e s s a g e . He so u g h t
to r efo rm t h e i n d i v i d u a l r a t h e r th a n t h e i n s t i t u t i o n , p er
s e . H is r e fo r m s w ere in te n d e d f o r t h e " u n it e d body o f
c i t i z e n s " n o t m e r e ly a s e l e c t e d f e w . He r e c o g n iz e d t h a t
t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e was a c o m p o site o f v a r i e d t a s k s and
d iv e r g e n t p e r s o n a l i t i e s and h e v ie w e d t h e s o c i a l break-dow ns
o f h i s day a s p r o b le m s t o b e s o l v e d .
H is f i r s t s t e p i n a p r o p o se d refo rm was t o p r e s e n t
a u t h e n t ic f a c t u a l in f o r m a tio n ; h i s s e c o n d , t o e x p la in t h e
c a u s e s f o r e x i s t i n g c o n d i t i o n s ; h i s t h i r d , t o im p e r s o n a l! z e
th e p ro b lem by l i n k i n g t h e p r e s e n t to t h e p a s t i n t h e l i g h t
o f h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e ; h i s f o u r t h , and l a s t , s t e p t o
s e t a g o a l o r rem edy. M ost o f h i s w r i t i n g s f o l l o w t h e s e
p h a s e s . T h is d i s s e r t a t i o n i s l i m i t e d to a d i s c u s s i o n o f
V iv e s* v ie w s on w ar, p o v e r t y , la w , and e d u c a t i o n .
mm
The b o o k s c i t e d on war d e a l w it h two d i f f e r e n t a n g l e s
o f t h e p r o b le m . The s i t u a t i o n s t o be f a c e d w ere: o n e , t h e
d a n g er t o C h r i s t i a n n a t i o n s from t h e T u r k is h a g g r e s s i o n s ;
204
tw o , t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e in n o c e n t p o p u la c e o f E urope due
t o r i v a l r i e s o f a m b itio u s p r i n c e s .
T ak in g a s h i s f i r s t c r u sa d e t h e d a n g e r s t o C h r is t e n
dom, V iv e s d e d i c a t e s h i s De E uropae D i s s i d l i s e t B e l l o
T u r c ic o D ia lo g u s t o t h e head o f t h e C h r i s t i a n C hurch, P op e
A d r ia n 7 1 . A s h i s f a c t u a l in f o r m a t io n , he s e t s f o r t h t h e
p i c t u r e o f E uropean s o c i e t y i n t h e y e a r 1 5 2 6 . I t i s c h a r a c
t e r i z e d , s a y s h e , by d i s c o r d and s t r i f e o f e v e r y known
v a r i e t y . E x p u l s i o n s , i n s u l t s , t h r e a t s , p e r s e c u t i o n s ,
r i v a l r i e s , s u s p i c i o n s , e n m i t i e s , s c o r n , 4 c o n te m p t, and
h a t r e d — r a c i a l , g e o g r a p h i c a l , and f a m i ly — abound. Even
t h e c l e r g y and t h e s c h o l a r s f i g h t , n ot o n ly each o t h e r b u t ,
a l s o , among t h e m s e lv e s . The c a u s e o f t h e s t r i f e , i n V iv e s*
o p i n i o n , i s p r i m a r i l y , t h e i n t e r n a l d is c o r d and r i v a l r y o f
t h e I t a l i a n S t a t e s . V iv e s g i v e s a h i s t o r i c a l resum e o f
t h e s e r i v a l r i e s w ith t h e i r su b s e q u e n t c o n s e q u e n c e s i n d i s
r u p t in g t h e p e a c e o f a l l E u ro p e. As a rem ed y, he p r o p o s e s
t h a t th e Pope s h o u ld s t a r t a C h r i s t i a n C ru sa d e, i n w h ic h
t h e p r i n c e s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n n a t i o n s m ig h t make common c a u se
a g a i n s t t h e i n f i d e l T u rk .
The ground on w h ich V iv e s la u n c h e d h i s o t h e r a t t a c k
o n w ar, De C o n c o r d ia e t D i s c o r d i a Humano G e n e r o , was t h a t
g r e a t s u f f e r i n g w as b e in g i n f l i c t e d on t h e in n o c e n t s u b j e c t s
o f F r a n c e , S p a in , and I t a l y th r o u g h th e i n t e r n e c i n e
205
r i v a l r i e s o f t h e i r r u l e r s . V iv e s d i r e c t s h i s a p p e a l t o t h e
E m p eror,— on© o f t h e c o m b a ta n ts . A s h i s f a c t s i n th e c a s e ,
V iv e s a g a in p a i n t s a p o r t r a i t o f con tem p orary s o c i e t y — t h e
h y p o c r i t i c a l fo r m a lis m o f t h e s c h o o l s , t h e g r e e d o f t h e
c l e r g y , t h e i n s a t i a b l e a m b itio n s o f m on arch s, and t h e
g e n e r a l s e l f i s h n e s s o f t h e p e o p l e . By m eans o f a h i s t o r i c a l
re su m e , V iv e s e x p l a i n s man’ s o r i g i n a s a s o c i a b l e b e i n g ,
and p o i n t s o u t t h e c a u s e s o f t h e p r e s e n t d e t e r i o r a t i o n — a
s i t u a t i o n w h ich h a s r e s u l t e d from man’ s v a n i t y , c o v e t o u s
n e s s , and s u p e r f i c i a l i t y . Even p r i n c e s and s c h o l a r s h a v e
f o r g o t t e n t h a t v e n g e a n c e i s n o t c o m p a tib le w i t h C h r i s t i a n i t y .
V iv e s* p r e s e n t s more f a c t s , w h ich he s u p p o r ts by
h i s t o r i c a l r e f e r e n c e s , t o em p h a size t h e e v i l s and s u f f e r i n g
w h ic h war b r in g s t o n o n -c o m b a ta n ts , and t h e damage i t
i n f l i c t s on t h e r e s o u r c e s o f t h e c o u n tr y . No good e v e r
ceme o u t o f w ar, h e a r g u e s . Gn t h e c o n t r a r y , i t a c cu sto m s
t h e mind t o e x h i b i t i o n s o f c r u e l t y and i n c r e a s e s c r im e , i n
a d d i t i o n t o d e p l e t i n g t h e p o p u l a t i o n and d e s t r o y i n g
com m erce.
H is s o l u t i o n f o r th e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f p e a c e , i s t h a t
th e r u l e r s o f E u rop e sh o u ld b e g i n t o assum e t h e r e s p o n s i
b i l i t y f o r th e w e l f a r e o f t h e i r p e o p l e s . He c a l l s upon h i s
own m onarch, t h e E m p eror,— w ho, w ith h i s g r e a t p o s s e s s i o n s
and r e c e n t triu m p h o v e r F r a n c is I a t P a v ia , i s i n a p o s i t i o n
t o s e t t h e exam p le f o r o t h e r m o n a r c h s,— t o t a k e t h e le a d i n
t h i s e x p r e s s i o n o f p r a c t i c a l C h r i s t i a n i t y .
206
POVERTY
V iv e s had e n jo y e d t h e o p p o r t u n it y o f r e s i d e n c e i n
tw o d e m o c r a tic c o m m u n itie s. He had s e e n p r a c t i c a l c h a r i t y
i n t h e f r e e c i t i e s o f t h e N e t h e r la n d s , and a l s o i n h i s
n a t i v e V a le n c ia w here t h e d u a l strea m o f G o th ic and M oorish
t r a d i t i o n s had r e s u l t e d i n v e r y e n l ig h t e n e d tr e a tm e n t o f
t h e p o o r , t h e s i c k , and t h e h a n d ic a p p e d . V i v e s , t o o , i s
d i s t i n g u i s h e d from m ost o f h i s c o n te m p o r a r ie s by h i s
g e n u in e i n t e r e s t i n m ankind. In f a c t he s t a t e s , t h a t a s
t h e f r u i t and g o a l o f a l l s t u d i e s , k n o w led g e m ust be tu r n e d
t o u s e f u l n e s s and em p loyed f o r t h e common g o o d .^ 9
V iv e s w e ll-k n o w n t r e a t i s e on t h e R e l i e f o f t h e p o o r
w as w r i t t e n a t t h e r e q u e s t o f t h e B u rgo m aster o f t h e c i t y
o f B ru g es who knew V iv e s and h e ld him i n v e r y h ig h r e p u t e .
The c i t y was f a c i n g an em e rg e n c y , due t o t h e w a rs b e tw e e n
F r a n c is I and C h a r le s V, and w as swamped by s o l d i e r s ,
d e s e r t e r s , and w a n d e r e r s , i n a d d i t i o n to i t s own p o o r .
V iv e s d i v i d e s h i s work o n p o o r r e l i e f i n t o two p a r t s :
th e o n e , d e a l in g w ith t h e n e e d s o f i n d i v i d u a l s ; th e o t h e r ,
w it h t h e c i v i c m a ch in e ry n e c e s s a r y t o p u t a r e m e d ia l program
i n t o o p e r a t i o n . Jls u s u a l , he m akes u s e o f h i s t o r i c a l
19
W atson, o p . c i t . . p . 283.
207
p e r s p e c t i v e , sh ow in g t h a t , a s t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f l i f e
i n c r e a s e , and work i s d i f f e r e n t i a t e d , t h e d e g r ee and t y p e
o f p o v e r t y c h a n g e s . He e x p l a i n s a lm s g iv in g among p a g a n s ,
and u n d er t h e a u s p i c e s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h . Now, he
i n t i m a t e s , t h e problem i n v o l v e s more th a n t h e a lm s g iv in g
o f t h e p i o u s . I t i n v o l v e s t h e h e a l t h and w e l f a r e o f t h e
p u b l i c . T h ie v e r y and crim e j e o p a r d iz e t h e s a f e t y o f
c i t i z e n s ; p la g u e s a r e num erous; c h i ld r e n o f t h e p o o r a re
s h u t o u t from t h e c h u r c h e s ; and in s a n e p e o p le a r e made t h e
t a r g e t s o f r i d i c u l e and a b u se . On t h e o t h e r side^, t h e r e h a s
b e e n am ple money s e t a s i d e f o r th e c a r e o f th e p o o r p r o
v id e d t h e fu n d s w ere n o t m is a p p r o p r ia t e d and m a la d m in is t e r e d .
Y iv e s i n s i n u a t e s t h i s d i s h o n e s t y i s t h e c a s e o n l y t o o o f t e n ,
a d d in g : "Care sh o u ld be ta k e n t h a t t h e p r i e s t s , u n d er
c o v e r o f t h e i r d i v i n e o f f i c e and t h e m a ss, do n o t t u r n th e
money i n t o t h e i r own p o c k e t s ." 20
The p r o b le m o f th e p o o r , t h e orp h a n ed , t h e s i c k , t h e
i n s a n e , and t h e d e f e c t i v e i s a d e f i n i t e c i v i c r e s p o n s i b i l
i t y , s a y s T i v e s . He g o e s f u r t h e r and s a y s t h a t t h e r u l e r s
o f t h e c i t y sh o u ld f e e l th e same d i s g r a c e a t h a v in g c i t i z e n s
i n h u n g er and want a s a w e a lth y h o u s e h o ld s h o u ld t o f i n d
d e s t i t u t i o n among i t s m em bers.
2 0
Sherw ood, o p . c i t . , p . 2 9 .
208
The hook h a s b e e n r e v ie w e d in some d e t a i l i n c h a p te r
V I. V iv e s a g a in s e t s f o r t h h i s f a c t s ; p o i n t s o u t t h e c a u se
o f p o v e r ty ; a c c o u n ts f o r th e s e r i o u s c r i s i s a s due to th e
e v o l u t i o n o f human i n s t i t u t i o n s and t o t h e s o c i a l m a la d j u s t
ment o f a c h a n g in g e r a ; and t h e n p o i n t s t h e way t o a s o l u
t i o n . H is a d v ic e i s : (1) t h i s i s a community p rob lem and
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; (2) a su r v e y sh o u ld be made t o s e e t h e
e x a c t ty p e and e x t e n t o f h e lp n e e d e d ; (5 ) a l l t h o s e w ith o u t
homes and m eans o f s u p p o r t sh o u ld be r e g i s t e r e d ; (4) i n s t i
t u t i o n s i n c l u d i n g h o s p i t a l s , sh o u ld b6 s e t up f o r t h e c a r e
o f t h e s i c k and h a n d ic a p p ed and f o r orphan ed c h i ld r e n ; (5)
p r o v i s i o n sh o u ld b e made f o r t h e c h i l d r e n ’ s e d u c a t io n w hich
sh o u ld in c lu d e t r a i n i n g f o r a t r a d e ; (6 ) work sh o u ld be
p r o v id e d f o r t h e i d l e — work on p u b l i c p r o j e c t s sh o u ld b e
r e s o r t e d t o i f t h e r e a r e not enough p r i v a t e e m p lo y e r s; (7)
e v e r y on e sh o u ld work t o th e e x t e n t o f h i s s t r e n g t h and
a b i l i t y , e v e n t h e o l d , th e d e a f , and th e b l i n d .
T h ose who w ork w i l l be w h o lly o r p a r t i a l l y s e l f -
s u p p o r t in g . The money n eed ed to f i n a n c e t h e b a la n c e o f
t h e program sh o u ld b e se c u r e d by a lm s , by a n a llo w a n c e from
t h e s t a t e , and by a r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e v e n u e s from
c h a r i t a b l e f o u n d a t i o n s . The incom e and e x p e n d it u r e s o f
p r e s e n t i n s t i t u t i o n s sh o u ld be th o r o u g h ly i n v e s t i g a t e d .
C hanges i n p e r s o n n e l s h o u ld be made w here n e e d e d . The s t a t e
sh o u ld m a in t a in c o n t in u o u s s u p e r v i s i o n o v e r i t s w ards and
209
d e p e n d e n ts . Two c e n s o r s sh o u ld be a p p o in te d t o s e e t h a t
su ch w ards do n o t v i s i t gam ing p l a c e s o r t a v e r n s , o r o t h e r
w is e w a s te t h e i r t im e .
V iv e s r e a l i z e s t h a t t h e r e w i l l b e two g r o u p s o f
o b j e c t o r s to h i s schem e: v i z . , t h e p o o r t h e m s e lv e s , many
o f whom w i l l p r e f e r t h e i r a ccu sto m ed s q u a lo r and i d l e n e s s ,
and t h o s e o u s t e d from t h e m anagem ent o f f u n d s . V iv e s
t h i n k s , h ow ever t h a t i t i s M The d u ty o f t h e r u l e r o f t h e
s t a t e n o t to b e d is t u r b e d b y w hat one o r a n o th e r o r c e r t a i n
fe w t h in k about t h e la w s o r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , p r o v id e d h e h a s
c o n s u lt e d t h e common b e n e f i t o f t h e body o f t h e e n t i r e s t a t e .
F or la w s a r e o f b e n e f i t e v e n to th e e v i l - d o e r s t h e m s e lv e s —
c o r r e c t i n g them o r c h e c k in g them i n t h e i r e v i l - d o i n g .* ’2^ -
Thus V iv e s e n v i s i o n s p r o v id in g n o t m e r e ly f o r im m ed iate
p o o r r e l i e f b u t a l s o f o r a s o c i a l and c i v i c s e t - u p in t e n d e d
to e r a d i c a t e p o v e r t y a t i t s s o u r c e .
H is book w as q u i c k ly t r a n s l a t e d from L a t in i n t o t h e
v e r n a c u la r a t th e e x p e n se o f th e to w n a u t h o r i t i e s . On
D ecem ber 3 , 1 5 2 5 , t h e m a g i s t r a t e s p a s s e d a la w in c o r p o r a t i n g
m ost o f V iv e s* s u g g e s t i o n s . F our p r e f e c t s w ere th e n e l e c t e d
i n B r u g e s to e n f o r c e i t s p r o v i s i o n s . V iv e s* t h e o r i e s , how
e v e r , a r o u se d r e t a l i a t i o n i n t h e r a n k s o f t h e M en d ica n t
2 1
I b i d . , p p . 3 9 - 4 0 .
210
O r d e r s. They p u b lis h e d a m onograph, i n 1 5 3 1 , condem ning
h i s i d e a o f p r e v e n t in g b e g g in g , and o f m aking t h e p o o r t h e
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e S t a t e i n s t e a d o f t h e C hurch. The
S orb o n n e u p h e ld t h e c la im s o f t h e M e n d ic a n ts , condem ning
De S u b v e n tio n e Pauperum (1 5 3 1 ) . C h a r le s V o f S p a in , w here
t h e i n q u i s i t i o n and t h e C a t h o li c R e fo r m a tio n w ere g a t h e r i n g
momentum, a l s o s id e d w it h t h e o u tr a g e d and alarm ed M endi
c a n t O rd ers ( 1 5 3 1 ) .
I n s p i t e o f su ch e v id e n c e s o f h o s t i l i t y , h o w ev e r,
t h e book i s known t o h a v e had a t l e a s t s i x e d i t i o n s and
t r a n s l a t i o n s i n th e f i r s t s e v e n y e a r s - o f i t s e x i s t e n c e .
V e r i f i e d e d i t i o n s a r e : B r u g e s , 1 5 2 6 ; B r u g e s , D utch t r a n s
l a t i o n , 1 5 2 6 ; P a r i s , C o l i n a e , 1 5 3 0 ; P a r i s , C o lin a e , 1 5 3 1 ;
L y o n s, 1 5 3 2 ; German t r a n s l a t i o n , S t r a s s b u r g , 1 5 3 3 ; I t a l i a n
t r a n s l a t i o n , V e n ic e , 1 5 4 5 ; F ren ch t r a n s l a t i o n , L y o n s, 1 5 8 3 ;
pp
S p a n is h t r a n s l a t i o n s 1781 and 1 8 7 3 ; and p a r t i a l E n g lis h
t r a n s l a t i o n , New York C i t y , 1 9 1 7 . The a n ta g o n ism o f t h e
Sorbon ne and .M endicant O r d e r s, t o g e t h e r w ith t h e e c c l e s i a s
t i c s o f S p a in , d e la y e d S p a n is h t r a n s l a t i o n s u n t i l t h e tim e
o f t h e M ayans’ e d i t i o n o f V i v e s ’ c o l l e c t e d w orks i n V a l e n c ia .
V iv e s w r o te De S u b v e n t io n e Pauperum and p u b lis h e d i t
d u r in g h i s p e r io d o f r e s i d e n c e a t t h e E n g lis h c o u r t . He i s
22
A. B o n i l l a y S an M a r t in , L u is V iv e s jr l a F i l o s o f i a
d e l R e n a c im ie n to (M adrid: E sp a sa C a lp e , 1 9 2 9 ) , VoT. I l l ,
p p . 2 1 6 - 1 2 .
2 1 1
r e p o r t e d a s h a v in g had fr e q u e n t d i s c u s s i o n s w it h C a th e r in e
o f A ra g o n , M ore, and o t h e r l e a d e r s o f E n g li s h th o u g h t on
th e p o v e r ty w h ic h w as t h e n p r e v a l e n t th r o u g h o u t Europe and
w h ich c o n s t i t u t e d on e o f t h e m ost s e r i o u s p r o b le m s o f t h e
s o c i a l m a la d ju stm e n t c a u se d by t r a n s i t i o n from a s t a t u s quo t o
a dynam ic s o c i e t y . The E n g lis h P o o r Laws o f 1601 em bodied
th e ^ p r in c ip le s s e t f o r t h by V iv e s i n 1 5 2 6 . The New E n glan d
P o o r Laws w ere m od eled on t h e E n g l i s h . Thus t h e i d e a s
w h ich w ere e n u n c ia t e d by V iv e s w ere b r o u g h t o v e r to A m e rica ,
w here t h e y h a v e s i n c e d e v e lo p e d i n t o F a m ily W e lfa r e w ork,
C .C .C ., W .P .A ., and o t h e r e f f o r t s to w a r d s c o n s t r u c t i v e
r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f t h e p o o r .
LAW
I t w i l l b e r e c a l l e d t h a t V i v e s b ega n t h e s tu d y o f
la w a s a young boy a t h i s home i n V a le n c ia u n d er t h e t u t e
l a g e o f h i s g r a n d f a t h e r , H enry M arch. He r e c e i v e d h i s
d e g r e e o f D o c to r o f C i v i l Law a t O xford U n i v e r s i t y i n 1 5 2 3 .
V iv e s w as a g r e a t a d m ir e r o f S i r Thomas M ore. He p a y s
t r i b u t e to him i n h i s C om m entaries on S t . A u g u s t in e 1 s
• C i v i t a s D ei* i n t h e s e w ord s:
F o r w hat i s h e t h a t can w o r t h i l y l i m f o r t h h i s
s h a r p n e s s o f w i t * h i s d ep th o f ju d g em en t, h i s
e x c e l l e n c e and v a r i e t y o f l e a r n i n g , h i s e lo q u e n c e
o f p h r a s e , h i s p l a u s i b i l i t y and i n t e g r i t y o f m an n ers,
h i s j u d i c i o u s f o r e s i g h t , h i s e x a c t e x e c u t i o n , h i s
g e n t l e m o d e sty and u p r ig h t n e s s and h i s unmoved
2 1 2
l o y a l t y ? 23
One o f t h e bon ds i n common b etw een V iv e s and t h e
f u t u r e Lord C h a n c e llo r o f I n g la n d w as t h e i r m u tu al i n t e r e s t
i n j u r is p r u d e n c e and i n S t . A u g u s t in e . More p r e a c h e d on
S t . A u g u s tin e d u r in g t h e tim e V iv e s was w r i t i n g h i s
C o m m en ta ries. B o th , t o o , w ere la w y e r s . H ow ever, V iv e s was
more th a n a j u r i s c o n s u l t ; h e w a s , what h e c a l l e d h i m s e l f ,
a p o l i t i c a l p h i lo s o p h e r . P o s s i b l y , t o d a y , h e wou^d b e c a l l e d
a l e g a l s p e c i a l i s t . At a l l e v e n t s , he was s u f f i c i e n t l y
renow ned to be ask ed t o j o i n t h e fam ous g a la x y o f E uropean
l e g a l t a l e n t i n H enry V I I I ’ s d iv o r c e p r o c e e d in g s .
V i v e s f t h e o r i e s o n la w and h i s r eco m m en d a tio n s f o r
r e fo r m a re fou n d i n h i s two sm a ll w ork s— A e d e s Legum and
P r a e l e c t i c o i n L e g e s C i c e r o n i s — and i n Book! V > o f De T r a d e n d is
S i s c i p l i n i s .
A s s t a t e d e a r l i e r i n t h e c h a p t e r , V iv e s b e l i e v e d t h a t
t h e r e w as a c l o s e k i n s h i p b e tw e e n p o l i t i c a l p h ilo s o p h y and
la w . V iv e s v i s u a l i z e s j u s t i c e a s t h e s o u l o f human s o c i e t y .
J u s t i b e i s o n l y p o s s i b l e i n a s t a t e where t h e r e a r e w is e
la w s . I t i s a m a t t e r o f i n t e r e s t , s a y s V i v e s , t h a t t h o s e
who h a v e w r i t t e n on t h e o r i g i n o f s t a t e s and p e o p l e , t h o s e
who d e c r e e d t h e a n c i e n t p o p u la r l a w s , and t h o s e who h a v e
23
John H. H e a le y , t r a n s l a t o r , S t . Aug u s t i n e o f t h e
C i t i e o f God Comments o f i o . L o d . V iv e s (London: G eorge
M T ," 1 6T07T~Book I I , d~ 5 T 7
213
handed down le g a l r u lin g s w ere, th e m se lv e s, p h ilo s o p h e r s ,
i . e . , Draco, S o lo n , and L ycurgus.
The la w s o f V iv e s* t im e s w ere i n a sad s t a t e o f
d e t e r i o r a t i o n and v e r y c o n f u s in g b e c a u s e o f t h e r e b e in g
f o u r s e t s , i . 6 . — canon ( e c c l e s i a s t i c a l ) , m erch an t ( t r a d e ) ,
k i n g ’ s ( r o y a l e d i t s ) , and c i v i l . V iv e s s k i p s n im b ly o v e r
t h i s p rob lem by s a y in g t h a t t h e r e s h o u ld be a new b ran ch
o f stu d y c a l l e d J u s t i c e (A r s J u s t i t i a e ) i n w h ich t h e j u r i s
c o n s u l t w ou ld f u n c t i o n a s t h e i n t e r p r e t e r o f t h e good and
t h e r i g h t i n la w s r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r o r i g i n . A j u r i s c o n
s u l t w ou ld t h u s h a v e t o be a c q u a in t e d w it h m oral a s w e l l
a s w ith p o l i t i c a l p h ilo s o p h y . . C ic e r o , V iv e s s a y s , o n c e
th o u g h t o f r e d u c in g to a s y s te m th e c o u n t l e s s la w s i n e v e r y
s t a t e , h eap ed t o g e t h e r w it h o u t aim and w it h o u t e f f e c t . He
th o u g h t o f d i v i d i n g a l l t h e d i f f e r e n t k in d s o f la w s i n t o
c l a s s e s and t h e n i n fo rm s i n t o w h ich t h e d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s
w ou ld f i t . He n e v e r c o m p le te d t h i s p r o j e c t . V i v e s , h o w ev e r,
m akes an a tte m p t t o r e d u c e t h e l e g a l c o n f u s io n o f h i s d a y ,
s e t t i n g f o r t h an e la b o r a t e p la n .
The lo w ebb o f j u s t i c e i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f t h e
s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y i s d u e , i n V iv e s o p i n i o n , t o a l o s s o f
r e s p e c t f o r la w due t o t h e fra m in g o f u n j u s t la w s ; p o o r la w
e n fo r c e m e n t; t h e p a s s i n g o f la w s w h ose m eaning w as o b s c u r e ;
a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f la w s ; l e g a l p r a c t i c e b a s e d o n t h e l e t t e r
o f t h e la w r a t h e r th a n i t s s p i r i t ; and t h e j u g g l i n g o f la w s
El 4
by c h a r la t a n j u r i s t s .
H is t o r y i s a t t h e b a s e o f th e o r i g i n o f l a w s , S a y s
V iv e s :
. ♦ • t h e p o s i t i o n o f la w i s d e s c r ib e d a s b e in g j u s t
w hat t h e Romans w r o te , d e te r m in e d , p e r fo r m e d , w hat
t h e S e n a t e d e c r e e d , what t h e m a g i s t r a t e s , a c c o r d in g t o
t h e i r p o w er, o r d a in e d , w hat t h e l e a d e r s o r d e r e d . . . .
So t h a t Law, w h e th e r t h e Roman o r any o t h e r Law, i s
n o t h in g e l s e th a n t h a t p a r t o f h i s t o r y w h ich i n v e s t i
g a t e s t h e cu sto m s o f any p e o p l e . In cu sto m s i s in c lu d e d
t h e i n t e r c o u r s e w h ic h t h e y have am ongst t h e m s e lv e s a s
a p e o p l e , and t h e i r i n t e r c o u r s e w it h o t h e r n a t i o n s . 24
Laws s h o u ld b e r e fo r m e d , a s s e r t s V i v e s , i n a c c o r d a n c e
w it h t h e demands o f goo d l e g i s l a t i o n ; v i z . , la w s sh o u ld be
(a) known b y a l l ; (b) cou ch ed i n few b u t a p p r o p r ia te w ord s;
( c) w r i t t e n i n i n t e l l i g i b l e form and i n t h e v e r n a c u la r ;
(d) a d a p ted t o d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f men; ( e) s t a t e d i n term s
o f m a in t a in in g p 6 a c e ; ( f ) h a v e a c o n s t r u c t i v e a t t i t u d e t o
w ard s y o u th ; (g ) be p a s s e d o n by t h e p e o p le ; (h) i n t e r
p r e t e d by a l i m i t e d number o f w e l l - t r a i n e d la w y e r s ; and ( i )
t a u g h t by m aking la w b o o k s a c c e s s i b l e f o r r e a d in g and by
t h e fo r m a tio n o f s m a ll d i s c u s s i o n g r o u p s .
The o ld Roman c o d e , t o V iv es* m in d , i s t h e b e s t m odel
f o r w r i t t e n l a w s . I t i s , h e s t a t e s , b e s t f i t t e d f o r a d j u s t
in g man to h i s s o c i a l g r o u p . I t h a s a u n i f y i n g e f f e c t and
t e n d s to p rom ote p e a c e . I t s l a w s , m o r e o v e r , a r e w e l l
E4
ifa tso n , o p . c i t . » p . S34.
215
o r g a n i z e d , b a sed on r e a s o n , and e x p r e s s e d i n c l e a r ,
a p p r o p r ia t e w o r d s. Thus th e cod e e m b o d ies many o f t h e
s ta n d a r d s s e t up by V iv e s a s c r i t e r i a o f good l a w s .
EDUCATION
S i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y d e c a d e n c e . The p i c t u r e o f ed u ca
t i o n w hich V iv e s p r e s e n t s a s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e e a r l y
s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y i s a s o r r y one in d e e d . I t i s c h a r a c t e r
i z e d by: th e d e g e n e r a t io n o f d i a l e c t i c s i n t o b a b b lin g and
w r a n g lin g ; t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f sp e e c h in t o a r t i f i c i a l i t y
and e m p tin e s s o f th o u g h t e x p r e s s e d i n an u n i n t e l l i g e n t
ja r g o n o f pompous L a t i n ; t h e a c c u m u la tio n o f p s e u d o - c l a s s i c s —
t h e w o r s t b e in g a c o r r u p t v e r s i o n o f A r i s t o t l e — sp o n s o r e d by
t h e S o r b o n n e ; s t e r i l i t y o f m in d ; i r r a t i o n a l i t y o f argum en t;
a l a c k o f c o n s t r u c t i v e c r i t i c i s m ; a l a c k o f i n t e r e s t i n
g e n u in e s c i e n c e ; i m i t a t i o n ; an e d u c a t io n b a se d o n fo r m u la e
i p s t e a d o f o r i g i n a l i t y o r r e a s o n ; p l a g i a r i s m s and w o r d in e s s ;
f r i v o l o u s and s h a llo w s t a n d a r d s o f l e a r n i n g ; and o u t-g r o w n ,
ou t-m od ed t e x t s .
The c a u s e s o f t h i s d e t e r i o r a t i o n , V iv e s c la i m s , a r e
t h e same w h ich b r o u g h t ab o u t a s i m i l a r d e c a d e n c e i n t r a n s i
t i o n p e r io d s o f a n t i q u i t y , v i z . , (1 ) th e s c o r n o f th e
ig n o r a n t f o r t r u e l e a r n i n g ; (2) an in n a t e human p e r v e r s i t y
w h ich s u p p o r ts t h e f a l s e b e c a u s e i t r e s e n t s t h e b e s t ; (3)
th e v a n i t y and e g o tis m o f s c h o l a r s who can s e e o n l y i n te r m s
o f t h e i r own owrk; (4 ) j e a l o u s y i n s c h o l a r s o f a n y th in g new
216
which, may t h r e a t e n t h e i r p r e s t i g e . In a d d it io n t o t h e s e
g e n e r a l c a u s e s , V iv e s c i t e s , i n co n tem p ora ry s o c i e t y , t h e
e f f o r t s o f t h e Sorbon ne *s v e s t e d i n t e r e s t s to r e t a r d ed u ca
t i o n by k e e p in g back th.6 R e n a is s a n c e s p i r i t o f i n q u ir y ; by
p e r m i t t i n g e d u c a t i o n t o s t a g n a t e r a t h e r t h a n s u b j e c t i t s
d o c t r i n e s t o t h e l i g h t o f s c i e n c e ; by r e f u s i n g c o n t a c t
w it h "pagan le a r n in g " i n th e name o f C h r i s t i a n i t y ; by
d e s t r o y i n g and p r o s c r i b i n g H um anist b o o k s; and by condemn
i n g o r l i q u i d a t i n g t h e i r a u th o r s .
THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION
O r ig in o f k n o w le d g e . V iv e s o p e n s h i s stu d y o f edu
c a t i o n a l h i s t o r y w ith th e b e g in n in g s o f k n ow led ge i t s e l f .
He th e n t r a c e s t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f k n o w led g e among t h e d i f
f e r e n t r a c e s o f m ank ind . T h ere a r e , he s a y s , t h r e e b a s e s
from w h ich t h e e d u c a t io n o f t h e a n c i e n t s d e v e lo p e d : (1 )
o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h e s t a r s ( a s t r o n o m y ); (2) o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h e
rhythm and harmony o f t h e u n i v e r s e ( m u s i c ) ; (5 ) s c i e n c e and
h e a l i n g (m a th e m a tic s and m e d i c i n e ) . U nder h e a l i n g , h e
in c l u d e s b oth t h e la w s g o v e r n in g p h y s i c a l h e a l t h , and t h e
la w s g o v e r n in g t h e h e a l t h o f t h e s o u l ( r e l i g i o n ) . The
p h ilo s o p h y o f r e l i g i o n , he b e l i e v e s , h a s b e e n d e v e lo p e d
p r i m a r i ly from th e o b s e r v a t i o n and l o v e o f n a t u r e , whbse
w o n d e rs, v a r i e t y , and la w , le a d t o an a p p r e c i a t i o n o f i t s
217
g r a n d e u r and d i g n i t y . From l o v e o f n a tu r e i t i s a s im p le
s t e p t o a p p r e c i a t i o n , k i n s h i p , and l o v e f o r th e c r e a t o r o f
t h e p h y s i c a l u n i v e r s e . The m ost im p o r ta n t t o o l i n t h e
d e v e lo p m en t o f man’ s k n o w le d g e , he s t a t e s , i s l a n g u a g e .25
The n a tu r e o f man. S i n c e man i s a l i v i n g c r e a t u r e ,
V iv e s la u n c h e s t h i s p h a se o f h i s s t u d i e s by s e a r c h in g o u t
t h e f i r s t t r a c e s o f v i t a l i t y i n v i s i b l e b e i n g s , i . e . , i n
s o - c a l l e d in o r g a n ic o r g a n ism s, p l a n t s , a n im a ls , and man.
He f i n d s t h a t man i s g i f t e d w ith r e a s o n and i n t e l l i g e n c e
w h ich t h e o t h e r o r g a n ism s l a c k . He c l a s s i f i e s man a s
h a v in g r e a c h e d , i n h i s d e v e lo p m e n t, th 6 h a lf - w a y p o i n t
b e tw e e n t h e p u r e ly s p i r i t u a l and th e e x c l u s i v e l y c o r p o r e a l *
V iv e s t h e n ex a m in es (1 ) how man d i f f e r s from t h e
a n im a l kingdom and (2 ) w hat c o n d i t i o n s a r e common t o v e g e
t a b l e , a n im a l, and human l i f e . He c o n c lu d e s t h a t man i s
c a p a b le o f c o n s c io u s s e n s a t i o n and p e r c e p t i o n , h a s ju d g
m en t, i s r a t i o n a l , and h a s s e n s e s th r o u g h isfoich he c o n t a c t s
e x t e r n a l n a t u r e . Man, b e in g s u b j e c t to e f f e c t s from b o th
p h y s i c a l and m e n ta l c a u s e s , i s s u b j e c t t o c o n f l i c t s w i t h i n
h i m s e l f . I n t h i s c o n f l i c t b e tw e e n m a tte r and s o u l , V iv e s
s a y s , m a tte r i s i n e r t b u t t h 6 s o u l can g o v e r n o r r e s t r a i n
a c t i o n a c c o r d in g t o i t s w i l l .
25
S e e pp. 1 2 7 - 2 9 , i n f r a .
218
C e n t u r ie s h ave b e e n d e v o te d to s t u d y in g th e n a tu r e o r
e s s e n c e o f t h e s o u l , s a y s V iv e s , t h e p o in t o f e m p h a sis,
h o w ev e r, sh o u ld be n o t w hat t h e s o u l i s b u t what i t d o e s ,
i . e . , t h e la w s u n d er w h ic h i t f u n c t i o n s .
The t h r e e m o st im p o r ta n t f a c u l t i e s and t h o s e th r o u g h
w h ich t h e o t h e r f a c u l t i e s f u n c t i o n a r e , h e s a y s , i n t e l l i
g e n c e , memory, and w i l l . T h ese f a c u l t i e s r e p r e s e n t t h e
d i v i n e t r i n i t y . I n t e l l i g e n c e mak6s i t p o s s i b l e t o know t h e
gpod ; memory e n a b le s man t o r e t a i n t h a t k n o w led g e; and w i l l
p r o v id e s t h e m o tiv e pow er f o r a c t i n g i t o u t i n l i f e . The
p u r p o se o f man*s c r e a t i o n , V iv e s t h i n k s , i s t h e e v e n t u a l
a t ta in m e n t o f suprem e h a p p i n e s s .
M ind, by t h i n k i n g , i s a b l e t o p u t i t s e l f i n r a p p o r t
w ith b e in g s d i s t i n c t fro m i t s e l f . Through r e f l e c t i o n , t h e
s o u l c o n s i d e r s im p e r s o n a lly i t s ju d g m en ts, d e s i r e s , and
a v e r s i o n s . S p i r i t u a l man a d v a n ce s g r a d u a l l y , th ro u g h
d i v i n e l o v e , to w a r d s h i s f i n a l g o a l , i . e . , h i s u n io n w it h
God. M ind, V iv e s t h i n k s , i s an a c t i v e p r i n c i p l e w h ich
c e a s e s to a c t o n ly when b lo c k e d b y o b s t r u c t i n g c o n d i t i o n s
i n t h e o r g a n ism i t s e l f . 4 d e n i a l o f i m m o r t a lit y , h e c la i m s ,
i s made o n l y by t h o s e who i g n o r a n t l y m easure e v e r y t h i n g i n
ter m s o f t h e p h y s i c a l s e n s e s , o r by s e l f - i n d u l g e n t p e r s o n s
who f e a r h a v in g t o f a c e t h e r e s u l t s o f wrong l i v i n g . 26
26
S e e pp . 1 2 9 -1 3 4 , i n f r a .
219
The s e v e n L i b e r a l A r t s . Man’ s p r o g r e s s i s b a se d upon
an i n v e n t i v e mind w h ic h h e draws o n when d i f f i c u l t i e s e o n -
f r o n t him . S u ch a n e c e s s i t y f o r o v e rc o m in g h a n d ic a p s , l i e s ,
i n t h e o p i n io n s o f V i v e s , a t t h e r o o t o f a l l p r o g r e s s — good
o r b a d , u s e f u l o r d e s t r u c t i v e . The d i s c o v e r y o f l e t t e r s a s
d i s t i n c t fro m h i e r o g l y p h i c s was an im p o r ta n t s t e p i n e d u c a
t i o n a l p r o g r e s s . W ith l e t t e r s t o h e lp him man ad van ced t o a
k n ow led ge o f th e S e v e n L ib e r a l A r t s . The S e v e n L ib e r a l A r t s ,
i n t u r n , made p o s s i b l e t h e s c i e n c e s o f m e d ic in e , la w ,
t h e o l o g y , and m oral p h ilo s o p h y .
The la n g u a g e a r t s a r e t h o s e n eed ed f o r t h e e x p r e s s i o n ,
s t y l e , and p r o o f o f t h o u g h t . They are c a l l e d grammar,
r h e t o r i c , and d i a l e c t i c s . As t h e g ro w th o f la n g u a g e d e p e n d s
e s s e n t i a l l y on m o b i l i t y and u s e , t h e sp e e c h o f th e S c h o l a s
t i c s n a t u r a l l y becom es r i g i d and i n f l e x i b l e . T h in k in g i n
te r m s o f g ra m m a tica l r u l e s , t h e c o n t e n t o f th o u g h t i s l o s t
s i g h t o f . I t am uses Y iv e s t h a t t h e S c h o l a s t i c s sh o u ld lo o k
w ith s c o r n on th e l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e a n c i e n t s b e c a u se t h e y
w ere p a g a n s and t h e n , i n c o n s i s t e n t l y en o u g h , u s e t h e i r
s p e e c h . They even owe to t h e u s e o f t h i s s e l f - s a m e L a t i n
t h e i r f e e l i n g o f s u p e r i o r i t y o v e r t h e p o p u la c e . Were i t
n o t , s a y s V iv e s i r o n i c a l l y , t h a t t h e y d i s c u s s e d t h e i r
p e d a n t ic f o o l i s h n e s s i n a la n g u a g e th e p e o p le d id n o t u n d e r
s t a n d , t h e mob i n s t e a d o f b e in g i n awe o f them w ould h o o t a t
230
them a s th e y d e s e r v e *
P o e t r y h a s d e t e r i o r a t e d , c o n t in u e s V i v e s , b e c a u s e
em p h a sis h a s b e e n l a i d on t h e l i c e n t i o u s a s p e c t o f m ytho
l o g i c a l f i c t i o n s . H i s t o r y h a s d e g e n e r a te d b e c a u s e em p h asis
h a s b e e n l a i d on c h r o n o lo g y , p s e u d o - p a t r i o t is m , and m ere
d e t a i l s o f e v e n t s . D i a l e c t i c s , from b e in g a u s e f u l i n s t r u
ment i n t h e s e a r c h f o r t r u t h , h a s become an end i n i t s e l f —
t h e end a s p r o m u lg a te d by t h e S o rb o n n e b e in g t o p r o v e t h a t
b la c k i s w h it e . Such an a b u se o f one o f t h e m ost v a lu a b le
in s tr u m e n t s o f k n o w le d g e , V iv e s i n s i s t s , h a s c o r r u p te d a l l
l e a r n i n g .
The r e t r o g r e s s i o n o f t h e s c i e n c e s , n a t u r a l p h ilo s o p h y ,
p h y s i c s , m e d ic in e , and m a th e m a tic s i s due l a r g e l y t o a
d ep en d en ce on se c o n d -h a n d in f o r m a t io n , and th e i n a b i l i t y to
g e n e r a l i z e . I f s c h o l a r s m ust u s e seco n d -h a n d p h i lo s o p h y ,
V iv e s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e y stu d y P la t o o r th e S t o i c s s i n c e
t h e y , a t l e a s t , h a v e some t i e w it h C h r i s t i a n i t y .
EDUCATION FOR THE W AGE
(SIXTEENTH CENTURY)
The new p h i l o s o p h y . V iv e s* f i r s t a d v ic e t o h i s r e a d
i n g p u b l i c on t h 6 q u e s t i o n o f e d u c a t io n a l r e f o r m a t io n was:
T hink f o r y o u r s e lf. C ea se g i v i n g b l i n d o b e d ie n c e t o t h e
rem n an ts o f o u tg ro w n m e d ia e v a l s c h o l a s t i c i s m . The Sorbonne
i s no l o n g e r d e s p o t i c a r b i t e r i n f i e l d s o f l e a r n i n g . O b serve
n a tu r e ; s e e k f o r u n d e r ly in g c a u s e s b e f o r e you i n t e r p r e t
2 2 1
r e s u l t s ; stu d y o r i g i n s o f la w s , c u sto m s , and s ta n d a r d s ;
i n v e s t i g a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s ; s i f t v a l u e s ; r e p l a c e , " A r i s t o t l e
h a s s a i d t h i s o r t h a t ," by an im p e r so n a l s e a r c h f o r t r u t h ,
"For my own p a r t , I w ou ld n o t d e s i r e t h a t an yon e sh o u ld
y i e l d h i s o p in io n t o m ind. I do n o t w is h t o be t h e fo u n d e r
o f a s e c t , o r to p e r su a d e anyone t o sw ea r by my c o n c lu
s i o n s . " 27
To make a v a i l a b l e t h e n e c e s s a r y f a c t u a l m a t e r i a l s ,
F i v e s embarked on a s e a r c h f o r in f o r m a tio n w h ich e v e n t u a l ly
r e s u l t e d i n a su r v e y o f a l l t h e f i e l d s o f k n o w led g e. The
d a ta t h u s o b t a in e d h e e v a lu a t e d u n d er t h e c a t e g o r i e s b e f o r e
m e n tio n e d ; (1 ) a u t h e n t ic in f o r m a tio n ; (2) c a u s e s f o r
d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f k n o w le d g e , f o r i n s t i t u t i o n a l d e c a y , and o f
i n d i v i d u a l d e g e n e r a t io n ; (5 ) im p e r s o n a l ! z a t i o n o f c r i t i c i s m s
th r o u g h t h e lo n g r a n g e p e r s p e c t i v e o f h i s t o r i c a l e v o l u t i o n ;
and (4) t h e n e e d s and g o a l s o f t h e new a g e . Of t h i s monu
m e n ta l t a s k o f r e s e a r c h , about f i f t y - s e v e n w orks o f V iv e s
a r e a c c o u n te d f o r and a v a i l a b l e . 28 V ery fe w o f F i v e s f
w r i t i n g s and none o f h i s l e t t e r s h a v e , a s y e t , b e e n t r a n s
l a t e d i n t o E n g li s h . T r a n s l a t i o n s i n t o o t h e r la n g u a g e s a r e
much more nu m erous. E x c e r p t s have b een g i v e n by W atson.
27
W a tso n , o p . c i t ., p. 9.
28
S e e Pp. 1 0 7 - 1 0 9 , i n f r a .
2 2 2
As t o t h e i r i n f l u e n c e , t h e e x t e n t o f d i r e c t c o n t a c t
may b e i n d i c a t e d by th e f a c t t h a t o v e r one hundred e d i t i o n s
h a ve b e e n l o c a t e d o f t h e L a t i n D ia lo g u e s a l o n e I n d i r e c t e
i n f l u e n c e s a r e e s t im a t e d to b e enorm ous. F o r e x a m p le ,
e x c e r p t s a re g iv e n from S t . A u g u s tin e i n a r e c e n t A m erican
book o n s o c i o l o g y . The f o o t n o t e a t t a c h e d r e a d s a s f o l l o w s ,
" R e p r in te d from S t . A u g u s t in e , t h e C it y o f God, V o l. I I ,
t r a n s l a t e d by John H e a le y , J . M. D ent and Company, L o n d o n ." 30
As h a s b een p r e v i o u s l y s t a t e d , i n C h a p ter I , H e a le y ’ s t r a n s
l a t i o n s w ere made i n 1610 and 1 6 2 0 . They a r e t r a n s l a t i o n s
o f V i v e s 1 m a s s iv e c o m m en ta ries o n S t . A u g u s t in e ’ s C i t y o f
G od, t h e m onum ental work w h ich V iv e s d e d ic a t e d to H enry
V I I I . H en ry ’ s l e t t e r o f g r a t i t u d e f o r th e d e d i c a t i o n i s
q u o ted i n t h i s c h a p t e r .3^ -
The se c o n d s te p i n V i v e s ’ p h i l o s o p h i c a l r efo rm was
t o em p h a size th e n e c e s s i t y o f o p e n -m in d e d n e ss . S t a g n a t io n
o f k n o w led g e h e s a y s h a s r e s u l t e d from a r e f u s a l t o grow
beyond t h e k n o w led g e a c q u ir e d by t h e a n c i e n t s . P r e v e n te d
from norm al p r o g r e s s , th e s c h o l a s t i c s can n o t d e a l w it h
r e a l i t y and so a r e f o r c e d to c o n t e n t t h e m s e lv e s w it h
29
W atson , o p . c i t . , p . x c i v .
30
Emory S . B o g a r d u s, H is t o r y o f S o c i a l Thought
(L o s A n g e le s : J e s s i e Ray M i l l e r , 1329*77 p . 154 f .ri.
31
S e e p . 196 i n f r a .
223
q u i b b l i n g s , a n n o t a t i o n s , and d i a l e c t i c b a t t l e s . H en ce, tb e
M e d ia e v a l D i s c i p l i n e h a s n o t h in g i n s p i r a t i o n a l to o f f e r .
T h is i s wrong s a y s V i v e s .
. . . N atu re i s n o t y e t so e f f e t e and e x h a u s te d
a s t o b e u n a b le to b r in g f o r t h , i n ou r t i m e s , r e s u l t s
com p arab le to t h o s e o f e a r l i e r a g e s . S h e a lw a y s r e
m ain s e q u a l to h e r s e l f , and n o t r a r e l y sh e com es f o r
ward more s t r o n g l y and p o w e r fu l th a n i n th e p a s t , a s
i f m u s te r in g t o g e t h e r a l l h e r f o r c e s . So we m ust
r e g a r d h e r i n t h i s p r e s e n t a g e , a s r e - e n f o r c e d b y t h e
c o n firm e d s t r e n g t h w h ich h a s d e v e lo p e d , by d e g r e e s
th r o u g h so many c e n t u r i e s . 32
V iv e s t h e n t r i e s t o e n c o u r a g e o t h e r s t o f o l l o w h i s
exam ple i n m aking an a p p r a is a l o f th 6 o u t - g o i n g e d u c a t i o n a l
d i s c i p l i n e and to a n t i c i p a t e t h e o n -co m in g d e v e lo p m e n ts . He
e m p h a siz e s t h a t f?T ru th i s open to a l l . I t i s n o t a s y e t
ta k e n p o s s e s s i o n o f . Much o f t r u t h h a s b e e n l e f t f o r
f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s t o d i s c o v e r 33
V iv e s c o n t i n u e s to em p h a size t h e n eed f o r r e s e a r c h
s a y in g :
. . . To t h i s end we m ust p a r t l y l e a r n and a c c e p t
what h a s b e e n handed down to u s , and p a r t l y th in k i t
o u t f o r o u r s e l v e s and l e a r n i t by p r a c t i s i n g i t . For
God h a s g iv e n o u r s o u l one pow er, t h e i n t e l l e c t ; and
o u r body a n o th e r pow er, i n t h e h a n d s. W ith t h e s e %
two p o w e r s, we s u r p a s s a l l o t h e r l i v i n g c r e a t u r e s . 4
32
W a tso n , o p . c i t . , p. 8 .
35
I b i d . , p. 9.
34
I b i d . , p . 3 6 .
2 2 4 :
To a id i n t h e r e s e a r c h he a d v o c a t e s , V iv e s g ^ v e s a
v e r y i n c l u s i v e b i b li o g r a p h y i n De T r a d e n d is D i s c i p l i n i s .
He c o v e r s a l l f i e l d s o f k n o w led g e; g i v e s n o t o n ly a u th o r s
and b o o k s bu t c o p io u s a n n o t a t io n s . He c o v e r s t h e w hole
ra n g e o f w r i t t e n h i s t o r y from t h e a n c i e n t s t o h i s own d a y .
He o m it s t h e names and w ork s o f t h o s e w h ose w r i t i n g s f a l l
i n th e c l a s s o f t h e im p io u s , t h e s o r d i d , o r t h e o b s c e n e .
He n e v e r sp e a k s i l l o f any one b u t he l e a v e s no dou bt when
he d is a p p r o v e s o f th em . An i n t e r e s t i n g exam p le i s h i s
r e f e r e n c e to B o c e a e e io .
F r a n c i s P e t r a r c h , l i t t l e more th a n two hu nd red y e a r s
a g o , f i r s t o p e n e d up t h e c l o s e d l i b r a r i e s and sh o o k t h e
d u s t and d i r t from o f f t h e w ork s o f t h e g r e a t e s t
w r i t e r s . I n t h i s r e s p e c t L a t i n ow es him a v e r y g r e a t
d e b t o f g r a t i t u d e . He i s n o t a l t o g e t h e r im p u re, b u t
h e c o u ld n o t r i s e ab o ve t h e f i l t h o f h i s t im e . John
B o c c a c c io , h i s p u p i l , i s n o t t o b e compared to h i s
m a ste r i n any d e t a i l . 35
The t h i r d im p o r ta n t a s p e c t o f V i v e s ’ p h ilo s o p h y , a s
e x p la in e d t o h i s c o n t e m p o r a r ie s , i s t h e im p e r so n a l exa m in a
t i o n o f con tem p orary s o c i a l p ro b lem s w h ich i s p o s s i b l e
th r o u g h t h e u s e o f h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e . From t h e v ie w
p o i n t o f e v o l v i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s and o f men i n v a r io u s a g e s
and s e t t i n g s m e e tin g t h e same fu n d am en tal p ro b lem s and
h a v in g t o s o l v e th em , V iv e s i n t r o d u c e s two new f a c t o r s t o
R e n a is s a n c e t h o u g h t . He sp e a k s o f h i s t o r i c a l e v e n ts i n
35
I b i d . . p . 1 5 6 .
225
ter m s o f g e o g r a p h ic a l l o c a t i o n and o f man a s a p a r t o f a
s o c i a l g r o u p . H i s t o r y , he e x p l a i n s , i s fu n d a m e n ta lly a
r e c o r d o f man’ s e x p e r i e n c e s i n an e v o lv in g c i v i l i z a t i o n .
He c la im s t h a t men a r e b o r n f o r s o c i e t y and t h a t t h e y
ca n n o t l i v e a d e q u a te ly a p a r t fro m a s o c i a l g r o u p .56 S p eech
was g i v e n them f o r t h e e x e r c i s e o f t h i s s o c i a l i n s t i n c t .
When men are s e p a r a te d from ea ch o t h e r i n s p a c e o r t i m e ,
w r i t i n g r e p l a c e s s p e e c h . W r it in g , i n t h e form o f h i s t o r y ,
m akes p o s s i b l e v i c a r i o u s l i v i n g . Knowing w hat o t h e r men
h a v e done e x p l a i n s t h e p r e s e n t and h e l p s t o f o r e c a s t t h e
f u t u r e . H en ce, s a y s V i v e s , h i s t o r y i s t h e suprem e
d i s c i p l i n e . ^ 7
THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION
E qual i n im p o r ta n c e to t h e p h ilo s o p h y f o r t h e new
a g e — t h e a t t i t u d e s w it h vfcich men sh o u ld app roach t h e
p r o b le m s o f t h e in -c o m in g e r a — i s t h e e x p l a n a t i o n g iv e n by
V iv e s o f th e s c i e n c e o f e d u c a t i o n . H is d e f i n i t e c o n c e p t o f
c la s s - r o o m p r o c e d u r e a s b a sed on a p p lie d p s y c h o lo g y ; h i s
e f f o r t s t o d i s c o v e r t h e la w s o f l e a r n i n g ; t o s e t up a form
o f g u id a n c e b a s e d on i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s ; h i s r e c o g n i t i o n
o f e m o tio n s a s a s o u r c e o f b e h a v io r ; and h i s p l a c i n g t h e
36
S e e p . 1 5 7 , i n f r a .
37
S e e pp. 1 7 4 - 7 5 , i n f r a .
226
d ev elo p m en t o f k n ow led g e on an e m p ir ic a l b a s i s ; t h e s e
i n n o v a t io n s c o n s t i t u t e a m omentous s t e p fo rw a rd in e d u c a
t i o n a l p ro ced u re*
V iv e s d e f i n e s p h ilo s o p h y (p s y c h o lo g y ) a s t h e s c i e n c e
38
o f m a t t e r , — human and d i v i n e . The b a s i s o f V iv es* ed u ca
t i o n a l p s y c h o lo g y i s t h a t t h e s o u l (m ind) i s a c t i v e and t h a t
i t l e a r n s th r o u g h e x p e r i e n c e . H is p s y c h o lo g y i s , t h e r e f o r e ,
o f a f u n c t i o n a l and e m p ir ic a l ( i n d u c t i v e ) t y p e . J l l know
l e d g e , he s a y s , w as i n n a tu r e f i r s t . 39 He c a u t i o n s t h a t t h e
co n tem p orary k n ow led ge o f n a tu r e h a s been le a r n e d p a r t l y
th r o u g h t h e s e n s e s and p a r t l y th r o u g h t h e im a g in a t io n and
t h a t , a lth o u g h r e a s o n h a s b e e n p r e s e n t a s a g u id e , t h e know
l e d g e i s f a u l t y and i n a c c u r a t e . The t h i n g s e v id e n t t o t h e
s e n s e s a r e t h e e a s i e s t k i n d s o f k n o w le d g e . The s e n s e s o p en
up th e way t o a l l k n o w le d g e .40 When c o n c l u s i o n s r e s t upon
m ere c o n j e c t u r e , h ow ever, t h e y a r e s im p ly o p i n i o n s . To be
s c i e n t i f i c , t h e s e n s e s m ust o b s e r v e phenom ena i n a m e th o d i
c a l w ay. The o b s e r v e r m ust be g u id e d by r e a s o n and r e a c h
c o n c l u s i o n s so l o g i c a l , t h a t o t h e r s a c c e p t h i s l e a d .
. . . I n t h e b e g in n in g f i r s t o n e , t h e n a n o th e r
e x p e r ie n c e , th ro u g h , w onder a t i t s n o v e l t y , was n o te d
down f o r u s e i n l i f e ; from a number o f s e p a r a t e
e x p e r im e n ts t h e m ind g a th e r e d a u n i v e r s a l la w , w h ich
38
S e e p . 1 3 0 , i n f r a .
39
W atson , £ £ . c i t . , p . 2 0 .
40
S e e p . 1 6 6 , i n f r a .
227
a f t e r i t w as f u r t h e r su p p o r te d and c o n firm e d by many
e x p e r im e n t s , was c o n s id e r e d c e r t a i n , and e s t a b l i s h e d .
Then i t was handed down t o p o s t e r i t y . O th er men
added s u b j e c t - m a t t e r w h ich te n d e d to t h e same u s e and
e n d . T h is m a t e r i a l , c o l l e c t e d by men o f g r e a t and
d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n t e l l e c t , c o n s t i t u t e d t h e b r a n c h e s o f
k n o w le d g e , o r t h e a r t s , to u s e t h e g e n e r a l n am e.41
The se c o n d im p o r ta n t s c i e n t i f i c c o n t r i b u t i o n made by
V iv e s w as h i s r e c o g n i t i o n o f i n d iv i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s , h i s
e m p h a sis on g u id a n c e , and h i s recom m en d ation t h a t y o u t h s be
t r a i n e d f o r t h e work f o r w h ich t h e y w ere b e s t q u a l i f i e d . In
t h e t h i r d c h a p te r o f Book I I , V iv e s d i s c u s s e s th e a d m is s io n
o f p u p i l s to s c h o o l . He s u g g e s t s a p e r io d o f o b s e r v a t i o n
and t r i a l f o r t h e boy b e f o r e he i s a c c e p t e d i n t h e s c h o o l a s
a r e g u la r p u p i l . The p o i n t s to b e i n v e s t i g a t e d a r e h i s
n a tu r a l p ow ers o f m ind: i . e . , h i s s h a r p n e s s i n o b s e r v in g ;
h i s c a p a c it y f o r com p reh en d in g; and h i s pow er i n com paring
and j u d g in g . He comments on t h e f a c t t h a t some p e o p le a r e
v e r y c l e v e r i n t h e t h i n g s t h e y do w ith t h e i r h a n d s; some
b o y s a r e d e v o te d to su b lim e m a t t e r s o f judgm ent and r e a s o n ;
a c h o se n f e w s u r p a s s o t h e r s i n b o th m e n ta l and m anual endow
m e n ts . B o y s d i f f e r a l s o i n m oral a t t r i b u t e s . ^
V iv e s i n d i c a t e s some p r o c e d u r e s f o r t e s t i n g
i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s . He r e f e r s t o t h e G reek s who u s e d
41
W atson , £ £ . c i t . , p p . 2 0 - 2 2 .
42
S e e p . 1 6 0 , i n f r a .
228
a r it h m e t i c a s t h e b e s t means o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g i n t e l l e c t u a l
c a lib r e * He q u o t e s t h e S p an ish -R om an , Q u i n t i l i a n , a s con
s i d e r i n g memory t h e b e s t i n d i c a t i o n o f n a t u r a l a b i l i t y —
k e e n n e s s o f m ind b e in g shown b y q u ic k c o m p re h e n sio n ;
c a p a c it y by th e a c c u r a t e n e s s o f r e t e n t i o n . V iv e s a d d s, a s
h i s own c o n t r i b u t i o n , t h e v a lu e o f c o n tin u e d o b s e r v a t i o n
o v e r a p e r io d o f t im e — a t e c h n iq u e known t o d a y a s t h e
a n e c d o t a l m eth o d . He a d v i s e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y , o b s e r v a t i o n o f
th e c h i l d a t p l a y to d e t e m i n e h i s p o t e n t i a l i t i e s f o r
l e a d e r s h i p and s o c i a l a d a p t a b i l i t y . 43
V iv e s b e l i e v e d i n p e r i o d i c c o n f e r e n c e s o f t e a c h e r s
i n w hich t h e c h i l d ’ s a p t i t u d e s and p r o g r e s s sh o u ld b e d i s
c u s s e d . The c h i l d ’ s program s h o u ld b e r e v i s e d a s n eed ed and
t h e b oy p u t t o work on t h e t a s k f o r w h ic h he was b e s t f i t t e d .
I t w a s, t h u s , t h e t e a c h e r ’ s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o s e e w h ich b o y s
w ere f i t t e d f o r l e a r n i n g and w h ic h w ere n o t .
. . . When u n w i l l i n g m ind s a r e d r iv e n to u n c o n g e n ia l
w ork, we s e e t h a t a lm o s t a l l t h i n g s t u r n o u t wrong
and d i s t o r t e d . I t i s n ot r i g h t t o t h in k to o much ab ou t
h a v in g a g r e a t number o f s c h o l a r s ; how much b e t t e r i t
i s to have a l i t t l e s a l t o f good sa v o u r th a n a g r e a t
d e a l t h a t i s i n s i p i d ? 44
V iv e s d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e tw e e n m ere f a c t u a l in f o r m a tio n
and u n fou n d ed t h e o r i e s and t h e n a t u r a l phenomena from w h ic h
43
W a tso n , o p . c i t . , C h a p ter IV .
44
I b i d . , p . 8 2 .
229
su ch in f o r m a t io n h a s b e e n d e d u c e d . He b e l i e v e s l e a r n i n g
c o n s i s t s o f fb u r f a c t o r s : (1 ) n a t u r a l c a p a c i t y ; (2 )
jugm ent; (5) memory; (4) a p p l i c a t i o n . The f i r s t t h r e e o f
t h e s e f a c t o r s he c l a s s i f i e s a s h e r e d i t a r y endowm ent, i . e . ,
t h e y come from God. Man’ s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s to c a p i t a l i z e
to t h e f u l l e s t t h e s e p o t e n t i a l c a p a c i t i e s th r o u g h p e r s i s t e n t
a p p l i c a t i o n . 45
V iv e s id e a o f t h e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s i s v e r y d e f i n i t e l y
a c t i v e . L e a r n in g , h e c la i m s , p r o c e e d s p r im a r ily from th e
o b s e r v a t i o n o f n a t u r a l phenomena and from t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
o f e x p e r i e n c e . P r a c t i c a l w isdom comes from th e a c c u m u la tio n
o f e x p e r i e n c e , p e r s o n a l o r v i c a r i o u s .
. , . How much w e a lth o f human w isdom i s b r o u g h t
t o mankind by t h o s e who commit t o w r i t i n g w h at t h e y
have g a th e r e d o n th e s u b j e c t s o f ea ch a r t from t h e
m ost e x p e r ie n c e d t h e r e i n * T h is w i l l be a p l e a s a n t
change and r e c r e a t i o n o f t h e mind from t h e i r s t u d i e s
f o r th e more ad van ced s t u d e n t s , and a r e l i e f from t h e
c a r e s o f s e t w ork; f o r i t i s a m ost h o n o u r a b le
o c c u p a t io n and one c l e a r l y w o r th y o f a gsod c i t i z e n .
By su ch o b s e r v a t i o n i n e v e r y w alk o f l i f e , p r a c t i c a l
w isdom i s i n c r e a s e d to an a lm o st i n c r e d i b l e d e g r e e ;
t h o s e who make such o b s e r v a t i o n s s h o u ld hand them
down and l e t them s e r v e p o s t e r i t y , f o r whom we o u g h t
t o c a r e a s we do f o r o u r own s o n s . They w i l l add
t h e i r own jud gm en ts i n t h e a p p r o b a tio n o f v i r t u e and
r i g h t c o n d u c t, m an n ers, and m o r a ls , and by b r i e f l y
and k e e n ly condem ning t h e v i c e s , t h e y w i l l more e a s i l y
p i e r c e th e r e a d e r s* mind a s th ou gh th e y w ere s t i n g s . 46
45
I b i d . , p . 8 2 .
46
I b i d . , p. 2 1 0 .
230
The i d e a o f c a u s a t i o n i n n a tu r e m ust h e e m p h a siz e d ,
he c o n t i n u e s . The d e v e lo p m e n t o f k n ow led ge sh o u ld p a r a l l e l
t h e o r d e r o f d e v e lo p m e n t i n n a t u r e , i . e . , be from an e v o lu
t i o n a r y v ie w p o i n t . The stu d y o f man sh o u ld s t a r t w it h a
k n ow led ge o f l i f e i t s e l f ( t h e w h ole) t h e n o f v e g e t a t i o n ,
s e n s a t i o n , f e e l i n g s , and t h e i n t e l l e c t w ith i t s f o u r fu n c
t i o n s — i n t e l l i g e n c e , memory, r e a s o n , ju d g m en t. He a d v i s e s
b o th p u p i l s and t e a c h e r s t o c o m p ile n o t e b o o k s . T e a c h e r s
sh o u ld n o t a tte m p t t o t e a c h by mere n a r r a t io n b u t sh o u ld
" i n v e s t i g a t e c a u s e s , w hence t h i n g s a r e d e r iv e d , how t h e y
e x i s t , d e v e lo p , c o n t i n u e , a c t and d is c h a r g e t h e i r own
f u n c t i o n s ; w h ic h o f them i n c r e a s e and d e c r e a s e , f a l l ,
p e r i s h , d i s s o l v e .**47
V iv e s b e l i e v e s v e r y d e f i n i t e l y i n th e u s e o f
a s s o c i a t i o n o f i d e a s a s a n e c e s s a r y p a r t o f th e l e a r n i n g
p r o c e s s . L e a r n in g , t o o , s h o u ld be m o tiv a te d by u s e s i n c e
k n ow led ge a lo n e d o e s n o t c o n s t i t u t e an end i n i t s e l f . He
a d v i s e s t h e u s e o f su ch a i d s t o l e a r n i n g a s w r i t i n g ; r e p e t i
t i o n o u t lo u d ; r e a d in g p a s s a g e s in te n d e d f o r m e m o r iz a tio n
j u s t b e f o r e g o in g t o s l e e p ; r e a d in g a lo u d ; l i s t e n i n g a t t e n
t i v e l y ; p r o c e e d in g from th e sim p le to t h e co m p lex; le a r n in g
f i r s t i n te r m s o f w h o le s ; s tu d y o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s b etw een
c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t s ; c o m p ila t io n and u s e o f n o te b o o k s ; and
47
I b i d . , pp. 2 1 3 -1 4 .
231
t h e im p o r ta n c e o f p la y *
P er h a p s V ives* m o st a s t o n i s h i n g c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e
s c i e n c e o f e d u c a t io n i s h i s r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e im p o r ta n t
p a r t p la y e d by t h e e m o tio n s a s m a in s p r in g s o f human a c t i o n ;
and a s im p o r ta n t f a c t o r s i n t h e v i v i d n e s s o f a s s o c i a t i o n
and memory* The p rim ary b a s i s o f e m o tio n a l r e s p o n s e , he
t h i n k s , l i e s i n t h e i n s t i n c t i v e r e - a c t i o n s s e t i n m o tio n by
s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n , a v e r s i o n to e v i l , and l o v e o f g o o d . The
e s s e n t i a l n a tu r e o f human b e i n g s p e r s i s t s ev en when e x t e r n a l s
change* To make a s u c c e s s o f l i f e , he s a y s , i t i s e s s e n t i a l
t o know how and Tidiat t h e human p a s s i o n s a r e ; how t h e y a r e
a r o u s e d ; and how r e s t r a i n e d . 4 ®
I t w i l l be r e c a l l e d t h a t V iv e s o u t l i n e s th e s t e p s
th r o u g h w h ich s p i r i t u a l man a d v a n ce s tow ard h i s suprem e g o a l
a s f o l l o w s : i n e r t m a t te r t o s e n s a t io n ; s e n s a t i o n to im a g in a
t i o n ; im a g in a t io n t o e m o tio n ; em o tio n t o r e a s o n ; r e a s o n t o
g e n e r a l i z a t i o n ; g e n e r a l i z a t i o n t o d i v i n e l o v e ; d i v i n e l o v e
t o u n io n w i t h G o d .49
V iv e s e m p h a siz e s t h e im p o r ta n t r o l e o f r e a s o n . I t
i s n e c e s s a r y , he c la i m s , t o know how t h e p a s s i o n s o f t h e
m ind may be s u b o r d in a te d to th e a u t h o r i t y and judgm ent o f
r e a s o n . The A n c ie n t W isdom, he s a y s , commands man t o know
48
S e e p . 1 7 5 , i n f r a .
49
S e e p . 1 3 5 , i n f r a .
zzz
h i m s e l f , i . e . , t h e n a tu r e o f t h e m in d , i t s q u a l i t y , w i t ,
s t r e n g t h and f e e l i n g s . The body m ust be made to o b e y t h e
m in d . R eason b e in g t h e h i g h e s t q u a l i t y o f t h e human m ind,
i t i s t h e c h a n n e l th r o u g h w h ic h man can b e m ost c l o s e l y
u n i t e d to t h e d i v i n e n a t u r e . R eason " show s t h e way by w h ich
we may come t o G od, w h ich i s th e end f o r w h ic h man i s
c r e a t e d . w The p r e c e p t s , by w h ich r e a s o n c a n c o n t r o l t h e
lo w e r e m o tio n s , a r e t o be fo u n d th r o u g h God’ s own t e a c h i n g s .
The B i b l e and o t h e r s a c r e d w r i t i n g s a r e t h e s o u r c e s f o r
t h i s in f o r m a t io n . H avin g t h u s made a s p i r i t u a l a d ju stm e n t
and r e c o g n iz e d h i s r e l a t i o n t o h i s c r e a t o r , man i s a b le
th r o u g h w i l l t o m a in t a in a r i g h t a t t i t u d e to w a r d s h i m s e l f
and o t h e r s , t o co n q u er unw orthy e m o t io n s , and t o d e v e lo p
t h e h ig h e r e m o t i o n s .5^
LANGUAGE--THE MEDIUM OF COMMUNICATION
The b a s i s o f a l l k n o w led g e, a c c o r d in g t o V iv e s i s
la n g u a g e w h ich h e s a y s i s " t h e s h r i n e o f e r u d i t i o n and a s i t
w e r e , a s to r e - r o o m f o r w hat sh o u ld b e c o n c e a le d , and w hat
sh o u ld be made p u b l i c . " 5^ - Through la n g u a g e m in d s have b e e n
a b l e to com m unicate w it h each o t h e r . I t i s sp e e c h w h ich
50
W atson , o p . c i t . , pp . 2 5 1 - 5 2 .
51 “—
S e e p . 1 6 2 , i n f r a .
233
h a s e n a b le d man t o d e v e lo p h i s s o c i a l i n s t i n c t s . L a n gu age,
t h e r e f o r e , i s t h e b a s e n ot o n ly o f th e a r t s b u t , a l s o , o f
human i n s t i t u t i o n s .
V i v e s , l i k e A g r i c o l a and u n l i k e E rasm us, w as a
l i n g u i s t . He w as i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e s c i e n c e o f la n g u a g e ,
i t s d e r i v a t i o n , i t s so u n d s, and i t s d e v e lo p m e n t. He
b e l i e v e d t h a t la n g u a g e , l i k e o t h e r human i n s t i t u t i o n s , was
s u b j e c t to ch a n g e. C hanges i n la n g u a g e come from u s e . I n
t h e s tu d y o f l a n g u a g e s , t h e r e f o r e , u s a g e i s more im p o r ta n t
th a n g r a m m a tica l r u l e s and c o n te n t more e s s e n t i a l th a n
e l a b o r a t i o n o f fo rm . V iv e s w as a m a s te r o f p h i l o l o g y . He
w as i n t r i g u e d a l s o by t h e rhythm and m u sic o f p o e t i c a l
m e tr e , i n a d d i t i o n t o a p r o fo u n d k n ow led ge o f L a t i n and
G reek , V iv e s w as p r o f i c i e n t i n Hebrew and t h e v e r n a c u la r s
o f E n g li s h , F r e n c h , and F le m is h . S p a n is h , h i s n a t i v e t o n
g u e , he had sp o k en from i n f a n c y .
The v e r n a c u la r . V iv e s b e l i e v e d i n b i l i n g u a l i s m ,
i . e . , t h e v e r n a c u la r f o r ev ery d a y p u r p o s e s and f o r c o n t a c t
w ith th e p e o p le a t l a r g e , and L a t in f o r s c h o l a r s h i p and a s
an i n t e r n a t i o n a l la n g u a g e . He c o n s id e r e d t h e n a t i o n a l
la n g u a g e a n e c e s s a r y accom panim ent o f p o l i t i c a l n a t i o n a l i s m .
He had b e e n r e a r e d in a b i l i n g u a l c o u n t r y , M e d ite r r a n e a n
S p a in , w here t h e v e r n a c u la r , ta u g h t to l i t t l e c h i l d r e n by t h e i r
m o th e r s , w as a mark o f d i s t i n c t i o n from th e A r a b ic o f t h e
234
Moors* He t h e r e f o r e had a r e s p e c t f o r t h e v e r n a c u la r l a c k
i n g i n Erasmus and m ost con tem p ora ry H um anists* The f i r s t
grammar and d i c t i o n a r y i n a Romance la n g u a g e was S p a n ish *
I t was w r i t t e n by L e b r i j a , i n 1 4 9 2 , t h e y e a r o f V iv e s*
b i r t h . V i v e s , i n h i s t u r n was t h e f i r s t H u m a n is t-s c h o la r
to a d v i s e t e a c h e r s t o stu d y and t e a c h i n th e v e r n a c u la r i n
a d d i t i o n t o L a t i n . 52 V iv es* c o n c e r n f o r t h e w e l f a r e o f t h e
m a sse s h a s a lr e a d y b e e n d e s c r i b e d . He f e l t t h a t p u b l i c
w e l f a r e depended on c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f and o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r
th e m a s s e s . He a d v is e d t h e r e f o r e , t h a t la w s sh o u ld be
w r i t t e n i n th e v e r n a c u la r so t h e y c o u ld be u n d e r s to o d b y a l l
and recommended t h a t e a r l y s c h o o l i n s t r u c t i o n sh o u ld b e
g iv e n i n t h e n a t i v e l a n g u a g e .53
L a t i n * V iv e s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e e d u c a t iv e v a lu e o f
a la n g u a g e was i n d i r e c t p r o p o r t io n t o th e v a r i e t y , abund
a n c e , and s u i t a b i l i t y o f i t s d i c t i o n . He b e l i e v e d t h a t
L a t i n m et t h i s r e q u ir e m e n t and was t h e r e f o r e t h e m ost
s u i t a b l e f o r le a r n e d s t u d i e s . He c r u sa d e d f o r th e e s t a b
lis h m e n t o f c o r r e c t sp oken and w r i t t e n L a t i n and waged
v i g i l a n t war on t h e c o r r u p t L a t i n i n vo gu e i n th e camps o f
t h e d i a l e c t i c i a n s . He a d v o c a te d a n a tu r a l t r a n s i t i o n from
52
I b i d . , p p . 1 0 3 - 0 4 .
53
L o c . c i t .
235
t h e u s e o f t h e v e r n a c u la r to th e s p e a k in g o f L a t i n , empha
s i z i n g u s a g e r a t h e r th a n a c o m p lic a t e d g r a m m a tica l a p p ro a ch .
O ther l a n g u a g e s . V iv e s c o n s id e r e d G reek se c o n d o n l y
t o L a t in i n a s c h o l a r ’ s eq u ip m en t. H is c o n c e p t io n o f sp ee ch
a s a s o c i a l medium made him p on d er a l s o o v e r t h e q u e s t i o n
o f an i n t e r n a t i o n a l la n g u a g e . Such a la n g u a g e he f e l t
m ig h t e v en s o l v e t h e r e l i g i o u s d i f f e r e n c e s b etw een A rab,
Jew , and C h r i s t i a n by m aking p o s s i b l e a medium o f d i s c u s
s i o n . He f e l t , h o w ev e r, t h a t L a t i n w as t h e o n ly f e a s i b l e
common la n g u a g e p o s s i b l e i n h i s t im e s e v e n f o r commerce
b e c a u s e i t was a lr e a d y d i f f u s e d th r o u g h so many n a t i o n s and
b e c a u se i t s l i t e r a t u r e w as t h e d e p o s i t o r y o f so much o f t h e
w o r ld ’ s l e a r n i n g .
SDUCATIOML GOALS
In h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f M o r a ls, V iv e s c o n s i d e r s fo u r
a s p e c t s : e t h i c s , e c o n o m ic s , p o l i t i c s , and c u sto m s and
e d u c a t i o n .55 V i v e s , t h e r e f o r e , p l a c e s e d u c a t io n i n a
p o s i t i o n s u b o r d in a te to m o r a ls ( r e l i g i o n ) . T h is i s n a tu r a l
i n v ie w o f h i s p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e s o l e aim o f l i f e , and man’ s
c o n s t a n t a s p i r a t i o n , s h o u ld b e t o be approved o f God.
54
I b i d . , p p . 9 1 - 9 3 .
55
S e e p . 1 7 8 , i n f r a .
256
E v e r y th in g b e in g c o n s e c r a t e d to God, l e a r n i n g b ec o m e s, i n
V i v e s ’ e y e , n o t t h e m ere a c q u i s i t i o n o f k n ow led ge b u t an
a g e n c y f o r t h e h e lp o f God’ s c r e a t u r e s . From t h i s a n g l e ,
i t i s a n a t u r a l t r a n s i t i o n t o F i v e s ’ i n s i s t e n c e t h a t know
l e d g e i s o f no u s e u n l e s s tu r n e d t o t h e common g o o d . He
e x p l a i n s h i s v ie w p o in t b y s a y in g :
C e r t a i n l y , t h e r e can b e n o t h in g more p l e a s a n t t o
Him, th a n t h a t we o f f e r ou r e r u d i t i o n and w h a ts o e v e r
o f H is g i f t s we p o s s e s s t o t h e u s e o f o u r f e l l o w men,
i . e . , o f H is c h i l d r e n , forvhom God h a s im p a rted t h o s e
g r e a t g o o d s t h a t t o w hom soever t h e y a r e a l l o t t e d ,
th e y sh o u ld b e o f u s e to th e community a t l a r g e . . . .
F or w hat He g i v e s u s f r e e l y * He m ost am ply rew a rd s u s
i f we b e sto w i t on o t h e r s .
F i r s t i n o r d e r o f im p o r ta n c e i n human a t t a i n m e n t , V iv e s
p l a c e s m oral e x c e l l e n c e o r c h a r a c t e r ; s e c o n d , i n t e l l i g e n c e ,
l e a r n i n g , and good s e n s e ; t h i r d , h e a l t h ; and f o u r t h , w e a lth
and r e s o u r c e s .^ 7 Thus t h e m ere a c q u i s i t i o n o f k n ow led ge or
s k i l l s was n o t t o V i v e s , t h e prim ary aim o f e d u c a t i o n . I n
h i s t r a i n i n g program , he c o n s i d e r s t h e w h o le man, a f u n c
t i o n i n g e n t i t y , and a member o f a s o c i a l o r d e r , w ith
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s to b o th God and h i s f e l l o w men.
V iv e s c o n c lu d e s h i s c h a p te r on t h e ’’Aim o f S t u d i e s ”
w it h t h e f o l l o w i n g a d v ic e :
56
W atson , o p . c i t . , p . 2 8 3 .
57 :
S h erw ood , o p . c i t . , p . 5.
237
W ith h o ld c o n f i d e n c e , t h e r e f o r e , we m ust s tu d y
a l l b r a n c h e s o f k n ow led ge f o r t h a t u s e , f o r w h ich
t h e y w ere a p p o in te d by God. We o u g h t t h e r e f o r e ,
n o t a lw a y s t o be s t u d y i n g , b u t ou r stu d y m ust be
a ttu n e d t o p r a c t i c a l u s e f u l n e s s i n l i f e . S v e r y
stu d y i s u n l im i t e d i n i t s e l f , b u t a t some s t a g e we
o u g h t to b e g i n t o t u r n i t to t h e u s e and a d v a n ta g e
o f o t h e r p e o p l e . F or t h i s p u r p o se , p r a c t i c a l
wisdom i s n e c e s s a r y , b e c a u se p r a c t i c e l e a d s u s t o
th e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f s u b j e c t s s e p a r a t e from one
a n o t h e r , and p r a c t i c a l w isdom r u l e s a s t h e v a lu e r
and ju d g e o f th e c ir c u m s ta n c e s c o n s id e r e d a s a w h o le . 8
To h e lp i n t h e m a in te n a n c e o f h e a l t h , V iv e s d i s
c u s s e s n o t o n ly t h e t r a i n i n g o f t h e p h y s i c i a n b u t e m p h a s iz e s ,
a l s o , t h e n eed o f p r o p e r d i e t , r e c r e a t i o n , and c l e a n l i n e s s . 59
He r e c o g n i z e s t h e w o r ld f s d i s t r i b u t i o n o f wrork and, w h ile h e
p l a c e s w e a lth as t h e l e a s t im p o r ta n t g o a l o f e d u c a t i o n ,
b e l i e v e s t h e l a b o r e r w o rth y o f h i s h i r e . He i n c lu d e s i n
h i s schem e o f e d u c a t io n , t h e r e f o r e , a l l th e p r a c t i c a l p h a s e s
o f l i f e , v i z . , f o o d , c l o t h i n g , s h e l t e r , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n ,
c r a f t s , i n d u s t r i e s , n a v i g a t i o n , a g r i c u l t u r e , and co m m erce.60
The s c h o l a r , h e f e e l s , sh o u ld work to e n k in d le t h e d e s i r e
f o r k n ow led ge i n thJe m in d s o f o t h e r s and sh o u ld c o n s id e r
fame o r w e a lth o n ly a s a p o s s i b l e b y - p r o d u c t . x
58
W atson , o p . c i t . , p p . 2 8 3 - 8 4 .
59
I b i d . , p p . 1 2 1 - 2 3 .
60
I b i d . , p p . 1 6 5 - 6 6 .
61
I b i d . , p . 288*
238
E d u c a tio n , he i n s i s t s , i s n o t t o b6 m o n o p o liz e d by
t h e r u l i n g c l a s s e s * G i r l s a s w e l l a s b oys a r e e n t i t l e d t o
i t s a d v a n ta g e s . L e a r n in g i s a l i f e - t i m e p r o c e s s . E ven
when men a re ad van ced i n y e a r s t h e y s h o u ld n ot w a s te t h e i r
tim e i n " p la y and t r i f l i n g " b u t s h o u ld d e v o te i t to s t u d y .
V i v e s f p r i n c i p a l e d u c a t i o n a l aim , t h e n , i s t h e f u l l
d e v e lo p m en t o f th e i n d i v i d u a l — a p r o c e s s w h ich o c c u p i e s a
l i f e - t i m e . The c h i e f q u a l i t y t o be d e v e lo p e d i s l o v e , f o r
l o v e was t h e c a u se o f man’ s b e in g c r e a t e d and i s t h e r e f o r e
t h e way by w h ic h he r e t u r n s to God. S i n c e t h e w eapon f o r
t h e c o n q u e st o f mind o v e r body i s r e a s o n , t h i s f a c u l t y ,
m ust be c u l t i v a t e d . S ta n d a r d s m ust b e s e t up so t h a t a
s e n s e o f v a l u e s i s d e v e lo p e d . I n d u s t r y , and a s n e a r ly a s
p o s s i b l e p e r f e c t i o n , m ust b e t h e g o a l b o th i n s c h o l a r s h i p
and o t h e r f i e l d s . S t u d i e s em p h a sized m ust be t h o s e w h ich
l e a d t o t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f m o r a ls and t h e b u i l d i n g up o f
l i f e . S k i l l s and k n o w le d g e s m ust a l l b e p u t to u s e i n t h e
s e r v i c e n o t o n ly o f God and k in g b u t o f hu m anity i n
g e n e r a l
SUMMARY
The p e r io d 1 5 1 9 -1 5 3 9 may b e c o n s id e r e d t h e p e r io d
o f V iv e s* a c t i v e l i t e r a r y p r o d u c t io n . T h ese tw e n ty y e a r s
62
I b i d . , p . 2 4 9 .
63
S e e pp. 2 0 0 - 2 0 1 , i n f r a .
259
w ere momentous o n e s i n R e n a is s a n c e E u rop e. The k a l e i d o
s c o p ic s o c i a l c h a n g es d u r in g t h i s tim e w e r e , a s h a s b e e n
i n d i c a t e d , c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a s t r u g g l e , i n e d u c a t io n a l
f i e l d s , b etw een t h e S c h o l a s t i c s , w ith t h e so r b o n n e and
C olo gn e a s a r b i t e r s , and t h e H u m an ists w it h t h e new
R e n a is s a n c e i n s t i t u t i o n s o f T r o is L an gu es ( L o u v a in ) , C h r is t
C o l l e g e (C a m b r id g e ), C orpus C h r i s t i ( O x f o r d ) , E r f u r t
(G erm any), and C o l l e g e de F ra n ce ( P a r is ) a s c e n t e r s . In
r e l i g i o n , t h e m ost s e r i o u s c o n f l i c t s w ere i n Germany and
E n g la n d . The m ost d i a s t r o u s w ars w ere— t h o s e i n v o l v i n g th e
I t a l i a n c i t y - s t a t e s w h ic h r e s u l t e d i n d e e p - s e a t e d h a tr e d
b e tw e en t h e F ren ch and S p a n is h , th e i n v a s io n by t h e Ottoman
T u r k s, and t h e P e a s a n ts * War i n Germany. P o v e r t y had become
a s e r i o u s prob lem due t o s o c i a l d is p la c e m e n t s r e s u l t i n g
from t h e w a r s and from c h a n g in g n a t i o n a l , eco n o m ic and s o c i a l
p o l i c i e s — t h e t r a n s i t i o n from f e u d a lis m to c a p i t a l i s m ,
communal to c i t y l i f e , t h e o c r a c y t o m onarch y.
I n t h e e d u c a t io n a l f i e l d , two p r o d u c t io n s a r e s i g n i
f i c a n t i n c o n n e c t io n w it h a r e v ie w o f V iv e s* w o r k s , v i z . ,
Erasmus* P r a i s e o f F o l l y w r i t t e n in 1509 when Y iv e s was
e n t e r i n g upon h i s t r a i n i n g a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f P a r i s and
t h e U to p ia o f S i r Thomas More w r i t t e n i n 1516 when V iv e s
w as i n L o u v a in . B o th Erasmus and More ap p roach ed t h e
p r o b le m o f co n tem p o ra ry e v i l s i n d i r e c t l y : Erasm us th ro u g h
s a t i r e ; More th r o u g h w i s h f u l t h i n k i n g . Erasmus* a t t a c k s
240
w ere p r i m a r i ly on th e d e c a d e n c e i n r e l i g i o n and e d u c a t io n ;
M ore*s on t h e sa d s t a t e o f t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . V iv es*
d i f f e r e d from t h e s e two g r e a t H u m an ists and from t h e i r
c o n te m p o r a r ie s b y m aking f r o n t a l a t t a c k s . I n h i s P se u d o -
D i a l e c t i c o s (151 9) , h e a n a ly z e d t h e p rob lem o f e d u c a t io n a l
d e c a d e n c e , s t a t e d i t s c a u s e , and l a i d t h e blam e f o r t h e
b lo c k in g o f an e d u c a t i o n a l program s u i t e d to th e new a g e ,
d i r e c t l y and c a t e g o r i c a l l y on t h e s h o u ld e r s o f t h e f a l s e -
d i a l e c t i c i a n s o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f P a r i s . T h is o p en
c h a l le n g e f o r c e d a l i n e - u p o f t h e p r o p o n e n ts o f th e two
s y s te m s . I n h i s De_ S u b v e n t io n s Pauperum (1 5 2 6 ) h e made
a n o th e r f r o n t a l a t t a c k t h i s tim e on t h e Church and t h e
M en dican t O rders who had f a i l e d i n t h e i r t a s k o f p r o t e c t i n g
and p r o v id in g f o r t h e p o o r . He a d v o c a t e s t h e a ssu m p tio n o f
t h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y by t h e c i v i l govern m en t and draws up a
p la n f o r p r o c e d u r e and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . When he s t a r t s h i s
cam paign t o r e d u c e t h e h avoc ca u se d by w ar, he a d d r e s s e s
h i m s e l f t o P ope A d r ia n to r e l i e v e t h e I t a l i a n c i t y - s t a t e
dism em berm ent, and t o t h e Em peror, a b i t t e r p e r s o n a l enemy
o f F r a n c is I , t o r e d u c e t h e d i s s e n t i o n s among m o n a rch s.
On t h e p o s i t i v e s i d e , h e w r i t e s a h i s t o r y o f p h i l o
so p h y , t r a c i n g t h e e v o l u t i o n o f k n o w led g e, and C om m entaries
on S t . A u g u s tin e * s **De C i v i t a s D e i” i n w h ich he e x p l a i n s
t h e e v o l u t i o n o f r e l i g i o n and t h e t r a n s i t i o n from th e pagan
p h ilo s o p h y o f t h e S t o i c s to C h r i s t i a n i t y . H is l a s t work
241
(1 5 3 9 ) De V e r i t a t e F i d e i C h r i s t i a n a e » s e t s f o r t h t h e p r a c
t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f r e l i g i o n t o d a i l y l i f e *
I n h i s e d u c a t io n a l w o r k s, more e s p e c i a l l y i n h i s
g r e a t m a s t e r p ie c e De D i s c i p l i n i s , he g i v e s a r e v ie w o f th e
e x i s t i n g k n ow led ge o f h i s w o r ld , t h e c a u s e s f o r t h e
d e c a d e n c e o f e d u c a t io n and o f la w and t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e
d i f f e r e n t a r t s and s c i e n c e s . He s e t s up a p h ilo s o p h y ,
e x p l a i n s t h e s c i e n t i f i c p r i n c i p l e s on w h ic h l e a r n i n g i s
b a s e d , p la n s a c o u r s e o f s t u d y , g i v e s a v e r i t a b l e
e n c y c lo p e d ia o f r e f e r e n c e s t o w orks o f h i s own and p r e v io u s
d a y d , t e l l s how t o o r g a n iz e a s c h o o l , o u t l i n e s a t e a c h e r -
t r a i n i n g program , d i s c u s s e s m eth o d s, and ends by s a y in g t h a t
k n o w led g e p e r s e h a s no i n t r i n s i c v a l u e ; i t b ecom es v a l u a b le
i n p r o p o r t io n to t h e manner i n w h ich i t i s u s e d .
E d u c a tio n , i t s e l f , h e c o n s id e r s i s a means t o an
e n d , t h a t end b e in g to be app roved o f God. To be ap p roved
o f God, man m ust h a v e c a p i t a l i z e d e v e r y r e s o u r c e , w orked
w it h th e u tm o s t d i l i g e n c e , d i r e c t e d $ris e f f o r t s t o t h e
c r e a t i o n o f a s o c i e t y o f w hich j u s t i c e i s t h e s o u l , and
l o v e t h e cem ent by w hich i t i s bound t o g e t h e r . The s c h o l a r
h a s a s p e c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o c o u n s e l and d i r e c t t h e
e f f o r t s o f o t h e r s . He m ust be e r u d i t e , p e r f e c t l y p o i s e d ,
s e l f l e s s , and work f o r t h e g o od o f p o s t e r i t y n o t f o r h i m s e l f .
242
An o u t s t a n d in g p o i n t o f V iv es* p h ilo s o p h y i s h i s
r e v o l t from th e a u t h o r i t a r ia n is m o f M e d ia e v a l s c h o l a s t i c i s m .
He i n s i s t s t h a t kn ow led ge i s t h e f r u i t o f o b s e r v a t io n and
t h e r e c o r d o f e x p e r ie n c e . He e m p h a siz e s t h e im p o r ta n c e o f
man a s a s o c i a l b e in g . He l o o k s fo rw a rd w it h c o n f id e n c e
t o a f u t u r e o f g r e a t e r a c h ie v e m e n t th a n h i s t o r y r e c o r d s up
t o h i s t im e . He r e c o g n i z e s t h e s o c i a l c h a n g e s g o in g on
abou t him ; h e i s aw are o f t h e momentous im p o r ta n c e o f t h e
g e o g r a p h ic a l e x p l o r a t i o n s o f h i s day; s t i l l more c o n s c io u s
o f s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o v e r i e s e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e f i e l d s o f
astron om y and cosm ograp hy; and, w h ile a c c e p t in g t h e f a c t
o f g ro w in g n a t i o n a l i s m , he a n t i c i p a t e s a f u t u r e d e m o c r a tic
s o c i e t y r e l e a s e d from t h e ty r a n n y o f b o th an a u t o c r a t i c
t h e o c r a c y and an a b s o l u t e m onarchy. L ik e Erasm us and M ore,
V iv e s rem ain ed i n t h e e s t a b l i s h e d c h u r c h , i . e . , Homan
C a t h o l i c . He was aware o f t h e a b u se s i n t h e Church b u t
worked f o r i n t e r n a l reform r a t h e r th a n r e v o l t .
O p en -m in d ed n ess, a d e d i c a t i o n to s e l f - m a s t e r y and
t o th e a c q u i s i t i o n o f kno^&edge and s k i l l , a w i l l i n g n e s s
to i n v e s t i g a t e o r i g i n s and t o a b id e by la w , a h ig h sta n d a r d
o f p e r s o n a l c o n d u c t, a h e a lt h y b o d y , co u ra g e t o f a c e a d v e r
s i t y , c o n f id e n c e i n God and a d e s i r e t o s e r v e h i s f e llo w m a n --
t h e s e a r e t h e g o a l s h e s e t s b e f o r e h i s c o n te m p o r a r ie s t o
h e lp b r id g e th e gap from m e d ia e v a l t o m odern c i v i l i z a t i o n .
CHAPTER IX
VIVIES * PLACE IN EDUCATIONAL HISTORY
INTRODUCTION
T h is stu d y o f V iv e s and h i s w orks was u n d e r ta k e n
p r im a r ily t o d i s c o v e r w h eth er V iv es* c o n t r i h u t i o n s t o ed u
c a t i o n w ere o f any v a l u e t o t o d a y ’ s t h i n k i n g . I t i s ,
t h e r e f o r e , b e s i d e t h e p o i n t t o a tte m p t t o p ro v e t h a t
V iv e s was g r e a t e r th a n h i s c o n te m p o r a r ie s o r h i s p r e d e c e s
s o r s o r h i s s u c c e s s o r s . From t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f s o c i a l
d ynam ics i n t h e c h a p te r p r e c e d in g , i t h a s b e e n i n d i c a t e d
t h a t v a r io u s im p o r ta n t i n d i v i d u a l s , w it h s p e c i f i c m i s s i o n s ,
a r e n eed ed t o c a r r y o v e r s u c c e s s f u l l y t h e c h a n g e s i n
a t t i t u d e w h ich accompany t h e s o c i a l c h a n g e s o f a t r a n s i t i o n
p e r io d . The q u e s t io n a t i s s u e , t h e n , i s n o t who was t h e
g r e a t e s t b u t r a t h e r , what i n d i v i d u a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s were
made by su ch H u m an ists a s V i v e s , E rasm us, M ore, o r R a b e la is ?
T h is i s s u e s e t t l e d , t h e n e x t m a t t e r s to be c o n s id e r e d a r e
how w e l l t h e t a s k s w e re a c c o m p lish e d and w h e th e r o r n o t t h e
t w e n t i e t h c e n tu r y f a c e s p r o b le m s o f a s i m i l a r n a t u r e .
From t h e f i v e m echan ism s o f s o c i a l change s e t up
by B lu m er, i t w ould a p p ea r t h a t Erasm us and M a c c h i a v e l l i
m ig h t be c l a s s i f i e d u n d er t h e p e r io d o f a g i t a t i o n ; More and
244
L u th e r i n t h e p h a se o f e s p r i t de c o r p s ; and V iv e s and
R a b e la is i n t h e s e c t i o n o f i d e o l o g y . V iv e s th r o u g h h i s
p r o fo u n d e r u d i t i o n and s o c i a l d i s t i n c t i o n c a l l e d t h e i n
t e l l i g e n t s i a t o arm s; R a b e l a i s ’ work was i n a p o p u la r v e i n .
He p r e s e n t e d t h e p r o b le m s o f t h e day i n t h e la n g u a g e o f t h e
P a r i s i a n p o p u la c e and w orked to a f f e c t c h a n g e s i n t h e
a t t i t u d e o f t h e m a s s e s . S i m i l a r l y , i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e
f i e l d s , Erasm us a p p e a le d to t h e i n t e l l i g e n t s i a ; L u th e r t o
t h e m a s s e s . T here a r e many i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t t w e n t i e t h
c e n tu r y t r a n s i t i o n h a s r e a c h e d t h e i d e o l o g i c a l s t a g e , t h e
same s t a g e w h ich p ro d u ced i n t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y , t h e
w orks o f V iv e s and R a b e l a i s .
IDEOLOGY OF TODAY
S o c i o l o g i s t s and e d u c a t o r s d i f f e r among t h e m s e lv e s
a s t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s o c i a l change and i n c l a s s i
f i c a t i o n by s o c i a l e p o c h s . T od ay’ s outgrow n t r a d i t i o n s
and m o r e s , a s w e l l a s in c o m in g c h a n g e s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d
v a r i o u s l y a s th e C o u n te r -R e n a is s a n c e , t h e S econ d R e n a is s a n c e ,
t h e i n d u s t r i a l p h a se o f t h e f i r s t R e n a is s a n c e , and t h e
^Second Coming o f C h r i s t ” e r a .
The S eco n d R e n a is s a n c e ? B r u g e r d e f i n e s a t r a n s i t i o n
p e r io d a s a s o c i a l era i n ’ vtfiich d e c l i n e r e a c h e s i t s c u lm in a
t i o n and r e j u v e n a t i o n , c h a r a c t e r i z e d by new s ta n d a r d s and
245
a t t i t u d e s , s e t s i n . H6 e x p l a in s t h a t t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e
i s o n ly an outw ard s i g n o f an in n e r s p i r i t w h ich m a n i f e s t s
i t s e l f i n a r t , l i t e r a t u r e , p h i lo s o p h y r r e l i g i o n , l a w s ,
i n s t i t u t i o n s , and i n t h e fo rm s o f e v e r y d a y l i f e and b e h a v io r .
I f t h i s in n e r l i g h t b ecom es dim , and d ou b t a s t o dogmas and
v a l u e s s e t s i n , i n d iv i d u a l is m and s e l f i s h n e s s becom e rampant
and s o c i e t y f a l l s i n t o a s t a t e o f d i s i n t e g r a t i o n . C i v i l i
z a t i o n can o n ly b e sa v e d from t h i s d e c l i n e and ch a o s by
t h e com ing o f a new th e o r y o f th e u n i v e r s e w h ic h w i l l e v o lv e
f o r i t s e l f new form s o f e x p r e s s i o n and new h a b i t s o f l i f e
and g o v ern m en t. W estern c i v i l i z a t i o n , he c o n t i n u e s , s t r a
t i f i e d i n t o f o u r s o c i a l c a s t e s , each o f w h ic h , in t u r n ,
d o m in ated s o c i e t y and im p r e s se d upon t h e s o c i a l o r d e r i t s
own p e c u l i a r * stam p . T h ese f o u r c l a s s e s w e r e : (1) c l e r i c s ;
(2) n o b i l i t y and a r i s t o c r a c y ; (3) b u r g h e r s; and (4 ) in d u s
t r i a l w o r k e r s. The w o r ld ’ s p r e s e n t t r a n s i t i o n c o v e r s t h e
c l o s e o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t reg im e and t h e r i s e o f th e t e c h n i
c i a n . In t h e o p in io n o f B u rger t h e i n d u s t r i a l w o r k e r s w i l l
d o m in a te t h e in -c o m in g c y c l e p r o v id in g t h e y h ave t h e r e
q u i s i t e o r i g i n a l i t y and s p i r i t u a l v i t a l i t y .
R eform ers o f on e a g e , he s a y s , d is a p p e a r from n o t i c e
o n ly t o r e t u r n i n a n o th e r e r a h a v in g t h e same p ro b lem s and
phenom ena. T h e ir i d e a s a r e o n l y f r u i t f u l i n a p e r io d w h ich
r e s e m b le s t h e i r own:
So V i t t o r i n o da B e l t r e , V iv e s . . . a r e much i n
vogue to d a y b e c a u s e th e y l i v e d and w orked i n a
246
t r a n s i t i o n p e r io d l i k e o u r own, , . . N e v e r t h e l e s s ,
su b lim e i d e a s and t r u t h s do n o t p e r is h b u t run l i k e
a red th r e a d th ro u g h t h e t e x t u r e o f o u r c i v i l i z a t i o n ,
even th o u g h t h e i r e x p r e s s i o n may b e m o d if ie d t o
conform w ith t h e s p i r i t o f the t i m e s . 1
A c c o r d in g t o van d e r Leeuw , n a t i o n s l i k 6 i n d i v i d u a l s ,
p a s s th r o u g h t h r e e p h a s e s o f d e v e lo p m e n t, (1 ) Man i s so
c l o s e to n a tu r e a s to be a lm o st p a r t o f i t s u n i t y o f l i f e
(communal s t a g e ) . (2 ) He r e a l i z e s h i m s e l f a s an i n d i v i d u a l ,
s e p a r a t e from t h e w o r ld around him . T h is i s t h e p e r io d o f
i n d i v i d u a l c h a l le n g e and e x p l o r a t i o n . I t c o v e r s t h e b ir t h
o f s c i e n c e , t h e p e r io d o f c o n q u e s t, d em o cra cy , and t h e
d ev elo p m en t o f t h e a c q u i s i t i v e i n s t i n c t . Man i s su rrou n d ed
by t h e t h r i l l o f pow er and d i s c o v e r y . G re ec e i n th e s i x t h
c e n tu r y and t h e European R e n a is s a n c e o f t h e s i x t e e n t h a re
e xam p les o f t h i s s t a g e . The e n d le s s d i v e r s i t y o f an o u t
s i d e w o r ld d e v e lo p s . Man m oves from th e c e n t e r o f t h i n g s
and becom es im m ersed i n h i s own s e p a r a t e i n t e r e s t s . T h is
d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n and c o m p e t it io n r e s u l t s i n t r a g e d y , w a r ,
and r e v o l u t i o n . The c e n tu r y p r e c e d in g t h e b i r t h o f C h r is t
and t h e p r e s e n t e r a o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n tu r y e x e m p lify t h i s
p h a s e . (3 ) Man becom es t i r e d o f a s e p a r a t e and a c q u i s i t i v e
l i f e and s e e k s t o r e t u r n c o n s c i o u s l y to t h e u n i t y o f t h e
1
E. J . B u rger (S o u th A f r ic a n D e le g a t e ) q u oted i n A
New W orld i n t h e M ak in g, W yatt Rawson, e d i t o r (London: N6W
E d u c a tio n F e l l o w s h i p , 1 9 3 3 ) , p p . 3 3 2 - 3 6 .
247
l i f e he o n c e sh a re d u n c o n s c i o u s l y . T e c h n ic a l and s c i e n t i f i c
a c h ie v e m e n ts a r e f o r c i n g n a t i o n s i n t o su ch a w o r ld u n i t y . 2
T e c h n i c a l l y w o rld u n i t y h a s b een a c h ie v e d .* 5
E d u c a tio n m ust t e a c h a new t y p e o f n a t i o n a l i s m ,
a c r e a t i v e n a t i o n a l i s m , i n w h ic h each n a t io n s t r i k e s
i t s own e s p e c i a l ch ord i n t h e harmony o f t h e w h o le
w it h o u t t r y i n g t o drown o u t o t h e r so u n d s and f i l l
s p a c e w it h t h e m onotony o f i t s own n o t e . 4
Time d o e s n o t p e r m it an in q u ir y i n t o V i v e s f own
c o n c lu s i o n s a s t o w h ich im p o r ta n t epoch h i s own e r a r e
se m b le d . I t i s o f i n t e r e s t , h o w ev er, t o n o t e t h a t he w as
p a r t i c u l a r l y c h a lle n g e d by P y th a g o r a s ( s i x t h c e n tu r y B .C .),
C ic e r o ( f i r s t c e n tu r y B. C .) , Q u i n t i l i a n ( f i r s t c e n tu r y
A . D . ) , and S t . A u g u s tin e ( f o u r t h — f i f t h c e n tu r y A. D .)
and t h a t he was known among F le m is h and E n g lis h H u m an ists
a s t h e "S econd Q u i n t i l i a n ." S t . A u g u s t in e , o f c o u r s e ,
i n t r i g u e d V iv e s b e c a u s e he d e s c r ib e d t h e t r a n s i t i o n from
p a g a n t o C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t V iv e s
w ent back to th e s i x t h c e n tu r y f o r c o m p a r iso n s w ith h i s own
age and to th e f i r s t c e n tu r y f o r i n s p i r a t i o n a s t o f u t u r e
g o a l s . At any r a t e , he was e v i d e n t l y aware o f s e t t i n g lo n g
r a n g e o b j e c t i v e s f o r he s a y s , "M oreover, t h e r o o t s o f t r u t h
2
J . J . van d e r L eeuw , (H o lla n d D e le g a t e ) q u oted i n
W yatt E aw son, e d i t o r , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 1 - 1 2 .
3
I b i d . , p . 1 4 .
4
I b i d . , pp. 2 9 1 - 9 2 .
248
a r e g r e a t and s o l i d . However much i t may he h id d e n , l i g h t
w i l l send f o r t h i t s s p le n d o r e v e n t u a l l y . 1,4 I n a n o th e r
p a s s a g e he comments "T here a re many who w ere hon ored i n
t h e i r l i f e t i m e , who a f t e r d e a th have b e e n a c c o u n te d ig n o b le
and c o n t e m p t ib le . H ence i t h a p p e n s, a s I h a v e a lr e a d y s a i d t h a t
tlm& d e s t r o y s t h e f a l s i t y o f o p i n i o n s , w h ile i t s t r e n g t h e n s
r i g h t ju d g m e n ts .5
T w e n tie th c e n tu r y d e c a d e n c e . L i t e r a t u r e o f tod ay,
c o n t a in s more and more m a t e r ia l w h ich resembLess s u r p r i s i n g l y
w ith th e e d u c a t io n a l d e t e r i o r a t i o n d e s c r ib e d in p a r t s o f
V iv e s* C o r r u p tio n o f t h e A r t s . For ex a m p le, a m odern w r i t e r
s a y s :
. . . I f we sh o u ld f a i l t o f u l f i l l o u r m a n if e s t
d e s t i n y a s a p e o p le i t w i l l n o t be due to f i f t h
colum n e le m e n t s , o r t o t h e breakdow n o f o u r p o l i t i
c a l and econ om ic m a ch in e ry ; i t w i l l be due t o in n e r
d r y - r o t ; t o m oral c o m p la c e n c y , i n t e l l e c t u a l t r i v i a l i t y ,
and l a c k o f w isdom on th e p a r t o f t h o s e t h i n k e r s ,
w r i t e r s , e d u c a t o r s , s t a t e s m e n , and m i n i s t e r s o f t h e
c h u r c h , w hose f u n c t i o n i n t h e o r g a n ism , i s t o show
th e road a h e a d .6
The a r t i c l e c o n t in u e s by l i s t i n g s p e c i f i c e d u c a t io n a l
f a u l t s : i . e . ,
(1) The o v e r - s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o f h ig h e r and a d u lt
e d u c a t io n in t o h u n d red s o f d i f f e r e n t * and o f t e n con
f l i c t i n g k n o w le d g e s .
4
F o s t e r W a tso n , t r a n s l a t o r , V i v e s : On E d u c a tio n
( U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s : C am bridge, 1 9 1 3 ) , p . &87.
5
I b i d . , p . 2 8 1 .
6
C olb y D orr Dam, wThe I n n e r P o w e r ," Tomorrow. 1 : 3 ,
Novem ber, 1 9 4 1 , p . 3 8 .
249
(2 ) The l a c k o f g r a d u a te s c h o o l s o f p h ilo s o p h y
w here s p e c i a l l y e q u ip p ed a d u lt s t u d e n t s a r e
e n c o u r a g ed t o h a rm o n ize t h e s e k n o w le d g e s i n t o o n e
w isdom .
(3) Ho e f f o r t i s made by h ig h e r e d u c a tio n t o i n
t e g r a t e t h e p h y s i c a l w ith th e human s c i e n c e s ; what
s t u d e n t s l e a r n i n o n e c o u r s e t h e y a r e a p t t o u n le a r n
i n a n o t h e r .
(4 ) Our t h e o l o g i c a l s c h o o l s c o n tin u e t o p r o d u ce
c le rg y m e n and p r i e s t s f o r t h e m a s s e s , b u t h ave f a i l e d
t o e d u c a te s p i r i t u a l p h i lo s o p h e r s who know how t o
d e f i n e r e l a t i o n s b e tw e en t h e a n im a l, t h e human, and
t h e s p i r i t u a l man, i n w ays c l e a r and l o g i c a l enough
t o a t t r a c t a s p i r i n g and i n t u i t i v e t h i n k e r s .
(5 ) C ontem porary p s y c h o lo g y , w h ich h a s t h e v i t a l l y
im p o r ta n t t a s k o f b u i l d i n g a b r id g e b etw een t h e
i n t e g r a t e d p e r s o n a l i t y and t h e in n e r s p i r i t u a l f a c u l
t i e s , c o n t in u e s t o c o n c e r n i t s e l f m e r e ly w it h r e l a
t i o n s b e tw e en th e p e r s o n a l i t y , i t s n e r v o u s sy s te m ,
and i t s p h y s i c a l b o d y .?
A n o th e r i n d i c a t i o n o f e d u c a t io n a l m a la d ju stm e n t i s
q u o te d i n a r e v ie w o f The P r o m ise o f S c i e n t i f i c Humanism:
The w o r ld we l i v e i n i s g e a r e d to o h ig h f o r ou r
s a n i t y . Our e t h i c a l i n s i g h t s and s o c i a l r e fo r m s
h a r d ly keep p a c e w it h ou r t e c h n o l o g i c a l a d v a n c e s . .
. . We l i v e i n a new w orld o f e n e r g i e s , c u r v e s ,
i n t a n g i b l e r e a l i t i e s ; t h e s e we a c c e p t m e n t a lly but
h a v e done l i t t l e t o a d j u s t o u r a c t i o n s , ou r econ om ic
p r a c t i c e s , ou r s e n s e o f v a l u e s t o i t . I t i s a s th o u g h
a w e ll-m e a n in g and h i g h l y d e v e lo p e d worm -knowing o n l y
a p la n e s u r f a c e and tw o -d im e n s io n a l l i f e — sh o u ld be
c a l l e d on to f l y .
7
I b i d . , p. 40.
8
O l i v e r L . R e i s e r , The P ro m ise o f S c i e n t i f i c Human
is m . Q uoted by Anne P i e r c e , r e v i e w e r , Tomorrow, 1 : 2 ,
O c to b e r , 1 9 4 1 , p p . 4 8 - 5 2 .
250
A t h i r d c r i t i c i s m o f t h e s h o r t -c o m in g s o f to d a y i s
t h a t o f MacMurray who b e l i e v e s t h a t th e o m is s io n o f a
program o f e m o tio n a l t r a i n i n g i s a v e r y s e r i o u s f a u l t .
E m o tio n a l l i f e , he b e l i e v e s , i s t h e c o r e and e s s e n c e o f
human l i f e . . I n f a c t , he s a y s , em o tio n i s t h e u n i f y i n g
f a c t o r o f l i f e w h ich m akes p o s s i b l e b a la n c e , rhythm , and
w h o le n e s s . The i n t e l l e c t can r e c o g n iz e t h e n eed f o r c o
o r d i n a t i n g r i v a l c la i m s b u t i n d i v i d u a l s o f to d a y a re
e m o t io n a lly to o u n d e v e lo p e d to b r in g su ch a c o o r d in a t io n
t o f u l f i l l m e n t . E d u c a to r s h ave made o f a n * 'in stru m en t, —
i n t e l l e c t — th 6 m ost im p o r ta n t p a r t n e r i n human eco n o m y .9
D r. W ill D u r a n t, i n a sp e e c h r e c e n t l y g i v e n i n L os
A n g e le s , to u c h e s on a n o th e r p h a se o f s o c i a l c h a l l e n g e . He
f e e l s t h a t t h e s u r v i v a l o f a C h r i s t i a n co d e o f e t h i c s i s ,
i n t h e l a s t a n a l y s i s , t h e t h i n g f o r w h ich t h e U n ite d
N a t io n s a r e f i g h t i n g — n o t e c o n o m ic s, o r s h i f t s i n p ow er,
o r g o v ern m en ta l c h a n g e s . On t h i s C h r i s t i a n c o d e , he
b e l i e v e s , h a n g s t h e c h a r a c t e r o f i n d i v i d u a l s a n d , on t h e
c h a r a c t e r s o f i t s p e o p l e s , t h e c i v i l i z a t i o n s o f t h e w o r ld .
A m e rica , h e a s s e r t s , f o r g e t t i n g t h a t r i g h t s o n c e g a in e d
m ust be m a in t a in e d , h a s b e e n d e g e n e r a t in g in t o a w o r sh ip o f
w e a lth and l u x u r y , a c o n f u s io n o f l i c e n s e w ith l i b e r t y , and
i n o t h e r w ays a p p r o a c h in g t h e c o n d i t i o n s w h ic h p r e c e d e d t h e
9
Joh n MacMurray ( S c o t c h D e le g a t e ) q u o te d i n W yatt
Rawson, o n . c i t . , pp. 4 - 5 .
251
f a l l o f a n c i e n t Rome.10
G o a ls o f t h e new a g e . One o f. th e m ost im p o r ta n t
g o a l s f o r th e new age i s an i n t e r n a t i o n a l la n g u a g e . Two
t y p e s h a v e b een s u g g e s t e d : (1) a new, s y n t h e t i c l a n g u a g e - -
E sp e r a n to ; and (2) s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f an e x i s t i n g la n g u a g e .
C. K. Ogden h a s a lr e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d su ch a s i m p l i f i c a t i o n
w h ich he c a l l s B a s ic E n g li s h . I t c o n s i s t s o f e i g h t hundred
f i f t y f o u n d a t io n w ords w h ich th ro u g h t h e u s e o f f i v e
e le m e n ta r y r u l e s , can be u s e d f o r fo r m in g a w o rk in g
v o c a b u la r y . The s t r u c t u r e o f E n g lis h i s su ch t h a t com plex
i d e a s can be r e a d i l y b ro k en up i n t o s im p le r u n i t s . T h ese
s im p le u n i t s can b e e a s i l y p u t t o g e t h e r by a p p ly in g t h e
e le m e n ta r y r u l e s . I t i s c la im e d t h a t t h i s schem e i s so
sim p le t h a t t h e se n s e o f a r a d io t a l k o r b u s i n e s s l e t t e r
ca n be g r a sp e d a f t e r one w eek ’ s stu d y o f word l i s t and
1 1
r e c o r d s .
The n e c e s s i t y o f o b t a i n in g a h i s t o r i c a l o v e r v ie w i s
s t r e s s e d . E d u c a tio n m ust be u n i f i e d th r o u g h t h e u n d e r s ta n d
in g o f t h e c i v i l i z a t i o n w h ic h -h a s -b e e n i n o r d e r to u n d e r
sta n d t h e c i v i l i z a t i o n w h ic h - m a y - c o m e - t o - p a s s .12 "The
10
L o s A n g e l6 s T im es (L o s A n g e le s , C a l i f o r n i a ,
Jan u ary 2 4 , 1942) , p . 3 , P a r t I I .
11
Rawson, Q£. c i t ., pp. 2 6 8 -7 0 .
12
I b i d . . p . 3 3 7 .
252
e d u c a to r m ust become a s o c i a l p h ilo s o p h e r a n d , w it h th e
eye o f a s e e r , i n t e r p r e t t h e t r e n d o f s o c i a l e v o lu t io n ," - 1 -5
E very one m ust work; no o n e may b e i d l e ; t h e r e sh o u ld
be no g a m b lin g , d a n c in g , sn o k in g , o r s i l k d r e s s e s ; such i s
t h e s t r i n g e n t i n j u n c t i o n o f t h e Mew L i f e Movement i n C h in a.
Opium s e l l e r s and opium sm okers a r e s h o t .
A p rim a ry need o f e d u c a t io n s a y s one l e a d e r i s t h e
b u i l d i n g up o f a new p e r s o n a l code o f e t h i c s t o ta k e t h e
p l a c e o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l t i e s o f c o l l e c t i v i s t m o r a ls and
cu stom s and t o te n d to w a r d s t h e e v o l u t i o n o f a new form o f
community f e e l i n g . 14 The t a s k o f t h e e d u c a to r i s t o
e d u c a te beyond h i m s e l f , s a y s a n o th e r , to s e n s e t h e l i f e
beyond h i s own and t o s e t f r e e t h a t l i f e . 15
T h ese a r e b u t a fe w i n d i c a t i o n s o f t h e g e n e r a l
r e c o g n i t i o n o f c u l t u r a l l a g . Many s t r a w s p o i n t t o t h e
n eed o f o u r a d a p t iv e c u l t u r e t o c a tc h up w it h t w e n t i e t h
c e n tu r y c h a n g e s . They a r e i n v e n t i o n s ; t e c h n o l o g i c a l
a d v a n c e s— t h e a u to m o b ile , t h e r a d i o , t h e a e r o p la n e ; new
s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o v e r i e s and t h e o r i e s — r e l a t i v e l y , e n e r g y ,
f o u r t h d im e n s io n a l t h i n k i n g ; and w o r ld w id e w a r s— t h i s tim e
on a g i g a n t i c s c a l e . E d u c a t io n a l, l e g a l , r e l i g i o u s , and
14
I b i d . , p. 1 9 1 .
15
I b i d . / p . 1 9 6 .
253
s o c i a l s h o r t-c o m in g s a r e now f r e e l y c r i t i c i z e d . E d u c a to r s
a r e t r y i n g t o s e n s e com ing c h a n g e s , t o f o r m u la t e a
p h ilo s o p h y f o r th e New A g e , and t o a n t i c i p a t e t h e c u l t u r e
o f t h e f u t u r e .
I n p o l i t i c s , n a t i o n a li s m i s m oving on t o i n t e r n a t i o n
a lis m ; i n r e l i g i o n , t h e many d i v e r s e C h r i s t i a n s e c t s a r e
te n d in g tow ard u n i f i c a t i o n ; i n e d u c a t io n , ( a t l e a s t , i n t h e
d e m o c r a c i e s ) , a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e s o c i a l g r o u p ,
grow th o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l , c o - o p e r a t i o n , t h e r i g h t to f r e e
s p e e c h , o p e n -m in d e d n e ss , harm ony, h e a l t h and a w e l l -
i n t e g r a t e d p e r s o n a l i t y a r e among t h e g o a l s e n v is io n e d ;
and i n i t s s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , more e q u i t a b l e l a w s , a p la n n e d
s o c i a l econom y, c i v i c and n a t i o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e
u n f o r t u n a t e , t h e s i c k and t h e a g e d , and t h e d e c e n t r a l i z a
t i o n o f p o p u la t io n seem t o b e i n p r o s p e c t .
T h us, l o o k i n g o u t upon an e v o lv i n g c i v i l i z a t i o n
i t w i l l b e n o t i c e d t h a t w h il e t h e narrow m e d ia e v a l i n t e r
n a t i o n a li s m o f t h e s c h o l a r s 1 and c l e r i c s * w o r ld , broke
down i n t o s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y n a t i o n s ; now t h e many s e p a r a te
p o l i t i c a l n a t io n s o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y , a re j o i n i n g
i n t o two l a r g e i n t e r n a t i o n a l g r o u p s . The d e s p o t i c Homan
t h e o c r a c y s e p a r a te d i n t o a number o f s e c t s ; b u t now many
o f t h e s e a r e s e e k i n g a common ground upon w h ich t o r e u n i t e .
The ch u rch s c h o o l s f o r t h e fe w have g i v e n p l a c e t o s t a t e
254
s c h o o l s f o r th e many. Thus a s s o c i a l and i n d i v i d u a l grow th
c o n t in u e , and i n v e n t i o n s change t h e s e t t i n g o f man’ s
e x i s t e n c e , i n s t i t u t i o n s , w h ic h r e f l e c t t h e s o c i a l r e l a
t i o n s o f each p e r i o d , m ust a ls o c h a n g e .
TRANSITION EPOCHS
The o r i g i n s o f t h e e a r l i e s t r e c o r d e d c i v i l i z a t i o n s
l i e i n an a g r a r ia n s o c i e t y , i n t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y ,
s o c i a l l i f e b eg an t o sw in g from an a g r a r ia n t o an in d u s
t r i a l b a s e . B u rger c a l l s a t t e n t i o n t o th e f a c t t h a t ,
a lth o u g h th e tempo o f change sp ee d e d up i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h
c e n t u r y , y e t t h e t r a n s f e r t o an i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t y i s n o t ,
e v e n y e t w h o lly c o m p le te d . P r e s e n t i n s t i t u t i o n s , ways o f
l i f e , and h a b i t s o f t h o u g h t , h e s a y s , a r e rem nan ts o f t h i s
a n c ie n t a g r a r ia n s o c i e t y . He i m p l i e s t h a t th e r a p id ch a n g es
now b e in g f o r c e d by t e c h n o l o g i c a l a d v a n c e s , may soon r e s u l t
i n w ip in g away a l l v e s t i g e s o f t h e o ld e r a , and i n th e
/
r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s o c i e t y on a p u r e ly i n d u s t r i a l b a s i s .
T h is , i n i t s t u r n , w i l l p r e d i c a t e new i n s t i t u t i o n s and form s
o f l i f e s u i t e d to t h e new s o c i a l o r d e r . He v o i c e s t h e
hope t h a t t h i s t r a n s i t i o n w i l l be a c c o m p lis h e d by e v o l u t i o n ,
r a t h e r th a n by r e v o l u t i o n , b e c a u s e a r e v o l u t i o n w ould
im p a ir t h e s p i r i t u a l c o n t i n u i t y o f c i v i l i z a t i o n . H owever,
i f a g g r e s s i o n , can b e c l a s s e d i n th e same c a te g o r y a s
r e v o l u t i o n , t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s a r e t h a t such a c o n t i n u i t y i s
255
a lr e a d y i n je o p a r d y due to th e p r e s e n t w o rld c r i s i s .
t o o t h e r p h a se o f t h i s lo n g r a n g e v ie w , i s c o n t r ib u t e d
i n a s t a te m e n t by R e i s e r i n d ic a t e d in an a r t i c l e a lr e a d y
c i t e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r . R e i s e r , t o o , t h i n k s t h a t i f t h e
m odern w o r ld i s t o s u r v iv e and p r o g r e s s i t w i l l be o b l i g e d
to h a v e a new c u l t u r e p a t t e r n . The d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f con
tem p orary c i v i l i z a t i o n i s , he f e e l s , t h e c o n c o m ita n t and
p r e lu d e t o t h e d ev elo p m en t o f a new w o r ld c u l t u r e . The o ld
A r i s t o t e l i a n l o g i c , h e c la i m s , was b a se d on a m a t e r i a l co n
c e p t i o n o f t h e u n i v e r s e , " t o atom o f s o l i d i n d i v i s i b l e
m a t t e r , and t h e E u c l id i a n m a th e m a tic s o f t h r e e d im e n s io n s ,
d is a p p e a r b e f o r e t h e new, e n e r g y t h e o r y o f t h e atom , and t h e
E i n s t e i n f o u r t h - d im e n s io n a l m a th e m a tic s and p h y s i c s ." ^ 7
The i m p l i c a t i o n s i n t h e s e s t a te m e n t s a s to t h e com ing
c i v i l i z a t i o n a r e q u i t e o v e r w h e lm in g . Tan d er Leeuw , B u r g e r ,
and R e i s e r a l l seem to a g r e e i n one r e s p e c t ; i . e . , a l l
t h r e e i n c lu d e i n t h e i r p i c t u r e t h e v a r io u s t r a n s i t i o n
p e r io d s from t h e s i x t h c e n tu r y B. C. to th e t w e n t i e t h
c e n tu r y , A. D. Tan d e r Leeuw s e t s up two g r o u p s o f r e l a
t i o n s h i p . He com pares t h e p e r io d o f t h e P e r s ia n Wars (5 0 0 -
479 B .C .) w it h t h e c o n t i n e n t a l w ars o f t h e R e n a is s a n c e ; t h e
f i r s t c e n tu r y B .C . (a b o u t 51 B .C .) w ith th6 p r e s e n t c e n tu r y
17
P i e r c e , r e v ie w e r e , £ £ . c i t . , p . 4 9 .
256
(a b o u t 1930 A .D . on) , i . e . , t h e r e i g n o f O c ta v iu s w ith t h a t
o f H i t l e r . B u rg e r, w h ile he b r e a k s up t h e p e r io d o f
f f e s t e r n c i v i l i z a t i o n i n t o f o u r p a r t s , t h e l a s t o f w h ic h i s
t h e i n d u s t r i a l e r a , a l s o t a llc s i n ter m s o f th e a g r a r ia n
age a s h a v in g begun w ith th e dawn o f h i s t o r y and a s b e in g
now about to d is a p p e a r and l e a v e th e f i e l d to th e r e i g n o f
t h e m a ch in e. R e i s e r a l s o g o e s b ack to th e G r e e k s , t a k in g
A r i s t o t l e (3 8 4 -3 2 2 B .C .) a s h i s p o in t o f d e p a r tu r e and
E i n s t e i n a s h i s p o i n t o f c o m p a r iso n .
I n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e s e c r i t i c a l e p o c h s , on e f i n d s t h a t
th e P e r s i a n Wars p aved th e way f o r t h e New G reek E d u c a tio n
o f w h ich S p c r a t e s , P l a t o , and A r i s t o t l e w ere t h e f r u i t s .
The p e r io d b e f o r e th e b i r t h o f C h r is t p rod u ced C ic e r o ,
renowned f 6 r h i s e m p h a sis on o r a t o r y , la w , and s o c i a l
p h ilo s o p h y o f a P l a t o n i c t y p e . T h is t r a n s i t i o n p e r io d
p ro d u ced l i k e w i s e A u g u stu s C a e s a r , d i c t a t o r o f th e Roman
w o r ld from 31 B .C . t o 14 A .D . Then came J e s u s o f N a z a r e th ,
p r e a c h in g a u n i v e r s a l God, t h e b r o th e r h o o d o f man, and
fo u n d in g t h e C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n . The S p a n ia r d , Q u i n t i l i a n ,
(3 5 c . - 9 7 A . D . ) , c o m p le te d t h e work o f t h e f i r s t c e n tu r y
t r a n s i t i o n i s t s . He was t r a i n e d a s a la w y e r and was a
t e a c h e r p a r t i c u l a r l y renowned f o r h i s tw e lv e -v o lu m n e d
I n s t i t u t e s o f O r a to r y — a t r e a t i s e on e d u c a t io n d e s ig n e d t o
p r e p a r e b o y s f o r a p u b l i c c a r e e r . Q u i n t i l l i a n , t o o , was
P l a t o n i c i n h i s p h ilo s o p h y and m od eled much o f h i s work
256
on th e t e a c h i n g s o f C ic e r o . The w ars and th e im p e r ia l co n
q u e s t s o f J u l i u s C a e sa r p r e p a r ed t h e way f o r t h i s ep och o f
t r a n s i t i o n w h ich b r id g e d t h e gap a l s o from a pagan p h ilo s o p h y
to t h e humble b e g in n in g s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y .
The germ o f C h r i s t i a n i t y to o k some tim e t o s p r e a d .
I t w as n ot u n t i l t h e fo u r th c e n tu r y t h a t C o n s ta n tin e p r o
c la im e d i t a s t a t e r e l i g i o n . The t r a n s i t i o n i n d o c t r i n e w as
n o t c o m p lete d u n t i l 426 when S t . A u g u s tin e made p u b lic h i s
De C i v i t a t e D e i ( C i t y o f God) . S t . A u g u s tin e , born o f a p a g
an f a t h e r and C h r i s t i a n m o th e r, e x p o se d to v a r io u s s y s te m s o f
p h ilo s o p h y - - g o o d and b ad , w as f i n a l l y c o n v e r te d t o C h r is
t i a n i t y and p ro d u ced a s h i s l i f e w ork a C h r i s t i a n ' s e x p la n a
t i o n o f th e e v o l u t i o n o f pagan p h ilo s o p h y . M eanw hile p o l i
t i c a l l y , t h e in r o a d s o f t h e b a r b a r ia n s w ere i n c r e a s i n g .
Rome w as sa c k e d b y t h e V i s i g o t h s i n 4 1 0 . The V i s i g o t h s ,
S u e v e s , A la n s and V a n d a ls moved on t o S o u th e r n F ra n ce and
S p a in ; th e V a n d als co n q u ered A f r ic a ; and t h e F ranks and
B u rgu n d ian s to o k o v e r N o r th e rn F r a n c e . I n 476 Rome f e l l
and E d ovacar p r o c la im e d h i m s e l f k i n g .
In t h e f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e w orks o f th e A n c i e n t s ,
i n c lu d i n g P l a t o , A r i s t o t l e and C ic e r o w ere r e d is c o v e r e d .
T h e ir r e - a p p e a r a n c e , w ith th e su b se q u e n t p a s s i o n f o r
L e t t e r s , b r o u g h t on th e Roman R e n a is s a n c e . N e a r ly one
hundred y e a r s l a t e r , ( 1 4 1 6 ) , a monk, P o g g i o , d is c o v e r e d t h e
m a n u sc r ip t o f Q u i n t i l i a n ' s O r a t i o r i c a l I n s t i t u t i o n s w h ich
257
had b e e n l o s t , e x c e p t i n fr a g m e n ta r y fo rm , f o r c e n t u r i e s .
Q u i n t i l i a n ’ s m a s t e r p ie c e , i n i t s t u r n , s e r v e d a s t h e b a s i s
o f f i f t e e n t h c e n tu r y H u m a n is tic t r a i n i n g . H is i n f l u e n c e
sp re a d r a p i d l y a f t e r th e p r i n t i n g - p r e s s b e g a n t o f u n c t i o n .
A p p r o x im a te ly a c e n tu r y a f t e r P o g g io ’ s d i s c o v e r y , v i z . , i n
1 5 2 2 , V i v e s , w ork in g from t h r e e in c o m p le te and i n a c c u r a t e
m a n u s c r ip t s , r e c o n s t r u c t e d th e t e s t o f De C i v i t a t e D e i and
p r e s e n t e d h i s a n n o ta te d e d i t i o n t o t h e w o rld a s C om m entaries
on S t . A u g u s t in e ’ s ”De C i v i t a t e D e i . ” T h ereb y , a s H enry
V I I I q u a i n t l y o b s e r v e d , he c a u se d d ou b t a s t o who* sh o u ld
be c o n g r a t u la t e d , i . e . , V iv e s f o r h a v in g c o m p le te d ”by su ch
le a r n e d l a b o r , so c h o ic e a w ork ;” o r S t . A u g u stin e ”who h a s
b een f o r ao lo n g a tim e so i m p e r f e c t l y a c c e s s i b l e , ” and was
by V i v e s ’ work b rou gh t ’’from d a r k n e ss to l i g h t , r e s t o r e d to
h i s a n c ie n t i n t e g r i t y ; ” o r a l l p o s t e r i t y ’’f o r whose g r e a t
p r o f i t y o u r C om m entaries a r e now a t h a n d .”18
VIVES’ REPUTATION
The m ain s o u r c e o f in f o r m a t io n r e g a r d in g V ives*
r e p u t a t i o n i n h i s own d a y s l i e s i n t h e c o r r e sp o n d e n c e o f
V i v e s , E rasm us, M ore, H enry V I I I and o t h e r s . A se c o n d a r y
s o u r c e i s , o f c o u r s e , t h e e x a l t e d s o c i a l p o s i t i o n o f h i s
p a t r o n s , f r i e n d s , and s t u d e n t s , a f a c t w h ich b e a r s m ute
18
S e e p . 1 9 6 , i n f r a .
258
t e s t im o n y t o th e r e c o g n i t i o n o f h i s l e a r n i n g and p e r s o n a l
d i s t i n c t i o n , A n o th e r b i t o f e v id e n c e i s t h e o f f e r t e n d e r e d
him o f u n i v e r s i t y c h a i r s i n t h r e e d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s , v i z , ,
i '
B e lg iu m , E ngland and S p a in . F i n a l l y t h e s a l e o f h i s b o o k s as
i n d i c a t e d by many e d i t i o n s , r e p r i n t s , and t r a n s l a t i o n s ,
sh o w s, beyond d o u b t, t h a t h i s b o o k s w ere a p p r e c ia t e d i n h i s
own and f o l l o w i n g t i m e s .
The t r i u m v ir a t e o f l e t t e r s . At th e age o f t w e n t y - f i v e ,
b e f o r e V iv e s had c o m p le te d h i s own u n i v e r s i t y s t u d i e s and
b e f o r e he had become a ,p u p i l o f E rasm us, h i s r e p u t a t i o n f o r
l e a r n i n g w as s u f f i c i e n t l y e s t a b l i s h e d f o r t h e Due de
C h ie v r e s to e n t r u s t him w ith t h e s u p e r v i s i o n o f h i s n ep h ew 's
e d u c a t io n . The l a t t e r , C a r d in a l de C roy, a lth o u g h o n ly
e ig h t e e n y e a r s o f age was a lr e a d y A r c h b is h o p -D e s ig n a te o f
T o led o and P r im a te o f S p a in — an o f f i c e i n th e r e l i g i o u s
h ie r a r c h y se c o n d o n ly t o t h a t o f t h e Pope h i m s e l f .
I n 1 5 1 8 , V iv e s i s known t o have b e e n a p u p i l o f
Erasm us i n L o u v a in U n i v e r s i t y . Erasmus w r o te o f him a t t h i s
tim e to More s a y in g t h a t h i s k n ow led ge w as u n i v e r s a l . In
t h e same y e a r , V iv e s* f i r s t w r i t i n g s , i n c lu d i n g a c r i t i c i s m
o f A r i s t o t l e and h i s w o r k s, w ere s e n t to S i r Thomas M ore.
As h a s a lr e a d y b een n o t e d , More r e p l i e d i n t h e m ost c p m p li-
m en ta ry f a s h i o n ^saying t h a t t h e w orks showed u n q u e s tio n e d
g e n i u s and r e v e a le d an e r u d i t i o n o f a s to u n d in g q u a l i t y and
269
dep th * I n th e v ie w o f E rasm us, t h e r e was no p a r t o f p h i l
o so p h y i n w h ich V iv e s d id n o t f a r o u t s t r i p th e o r d in a r y
s t u d e n t . Ho o n e , i n h i s o p i n io n , e q u a lle d V iv e s i n e i t h e r
sp e e c h o r w r i t i n g . I n 1 5 1 9 , he p r o p h e s ie d t h a t V iv e s*
fam e w ould s u r p a s s h i s own. At t h i s t i m e , a l s o , h e
recommended V iv e s a s t u t o r t o P r in c e F e r d in a n d , b r o t h e r o f
C h a r le s t h e F i f t h . B oth Erasmus and More w ere c o n s id e r a b ly
o l d e r t h a n V iv e s who w as th e n t w e n t y - s e v e n .19
Erasm us f u r t h e r showed h i s r e s p e c t f o r V iv es*
s c h o l a r s h i p by a s k in g him t o p r e p a r e an a n n o ta te d t e x t o f
S t . A u g u stin e * s **City o f God” a s a com panion volum e t o h i s
own work on S t . Jerom e. V iv es* c o m p lete d work was r e f e r
r e d t o by H enry V I I I , t o whom i t w as d e d ic a t e d a s a **very
le a r n e d la b o r * and a " c h o ic e w o r k .”
V iv es* p o s i t i o n i n t h e w o rld o f H u m a n istic l e t t e r s
w as d e f i n i t e l y e s t a b l i s h e d by h i s t r e a t i s e a t t a c k i n g t h e
P s e u d o - D i a l e c t i c i a n s a s he c a l l e d t h e Sorbonne t r a d i t i o n
a l i s t s . Thus from 1519 o n , h e w as a c c e p te d as a l e a d e r i n
t h e b a t t l e a g a i n s t M ed iaeval s c h o l a s t i c i s m . By 1 5 2 3 ,
V iv e s* w orks had won f o r him t h e p a tr o n a g e o f M ore, W o lse y ,
C a th e r in e o f A ragon , and H enry V I I I o f E n g la n d .
U nder th e p a tr o n a g e o f C a r d in a l W o lse y , he w as made
a l e c t u r e r a t Corpus C h r i s t i , t h e new R e n a is s a n c e C o lle g e
o f O x fo rd . He w a s, a l s o a t t a c h e d t o t h e E n g lis h c o u r t
w here he w as g iv e n ch a rg e o f t h e e d u c a tio n o f t h e P r i n c e s s
260
R o y a l, l a t e r Mary I o f E n glan d . At t h e r e q u e s t o f
C a th e r in e o f A ragon he w r o te h id t r e a t i s e on t h e E d u c a tio n
o f a C h r i s t i a n Woman and t h e P la n s o f S tu d y f o r you n g
P e o p l e . w M ore, h i p s e l f , i n s p i t e o f h i s many o f f i c i a l
d u t i e s , had p la n n e d to t r a n s l a t e V iv es* hook i n t o E n g li s h .
H ow ever, he c o n t e n te d h i m s e l f w it h th e p r o o f r e a d in g and
c o r r e c t i o n o f H yrd e’ s t r a n s l a t i o n . 20
V i v e s ’ t r e a t i s e on th e r e l i e f o f t h e p o o r was
w r i t t e n a t t h e r e q u e s t o f t h e B u rgom aster o f B r u g e s, Lord
de P r a i t . As t e s t im o n y o f h i s a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e d e d i c a t io n
to him o f Concord and D is c o r d among Men, C hari e s V g r a n te d
V iv e s a p e n s io n . Joh n I I I o f P o r tu g a l became a p a tr o n o f
V i v e s , l i k e w i s e , i n r e s p o n s e t o th e im p lie d d e d ic a t o r y honor
of T r a d e n d is D i s c i p l i n i s .
O ther i n s t a n c e s c o u ld b e c i t e d . The ab ove e x a m p les,
h o w ev er, p r o b a b ly e x p l a i n why V iv e s i n h i s d a y , and i n t h e
c e n tu r y f o l l o w i n g , was r a t e d o n e o f a g r e a t t r iu m v ir a t e o f
l e t t e r s , i n w h ich Erasm us was famed f o r h i s d i c t i o n , Bude
f o r h i s i n t e l l e c t , and V iv e s f o r h i s w isdom .
20
F o s t e r W atson , e d i t o r , V iv e s and t h e R e n a sce n c e
E d u c a tio n o f Women (New Y ork: Longmans, G reen and Company,
1 9 i2 ) , p p .“T 5 - 1 6 .
21
A. T e i s s i e r , L e s E lo g e s d e s Hommes S c a v a n s
( U t r e c h t , 1 6 9 6 ) . F r e q u e n t ly quo€ ed i n w orks and a r t i c l e s
on V i v e s .
261
W atson q u o te s numerous s o u r c e s t o show t h a t Y iv e s
was w e l l known t o s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y w r i t e r s . T r a n s l a t i o n s
o f h i s w orks d u r in g t h i s c e n tu r y c o r r o b o r a te t h i s f a c t .
Y iv e s a t t h i s tim 6 , a p p a r e n t ly , d is a p p e a r e d a lm o s t c o m p le te
l y from v ie w . He r ea p p e a re d f o r a s h o r t tim e i n S p a in
tow ard t h e end o f t h e e ig h t e e n t h c e n tu r y when t h e e la b o r a t e
M ajan siu s* e d i t i o n o f h i s w orks was p u b lis h e d . Then came
th e p e r io d o f t h e F ren ch R e v o lu t io n when w o r ld u p h e a v a ls
o c c u p ie d t h e s t a g e . At ab ou t t h e tim e o f t h e A m erican
C i v i l War, German s c h o la r s b ega n t o e x h i b i t ren ew ed i n t e r e s t
i n Y iv es* w o r k s. Nameche o f L o u v a in w r o te h i s Memoir
s l i g h t l y e a r l i e r . S p a in , l a t e r , a c c la im e d him w ith g r e a t
p r id e and t h e Y i v e s t i c S c h o o l o f P h ilo s o p h y d e v e lo p e d . In
t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n tu r y , Woodward, W atson and t h e O xford
s c h o l a r s began p u b l i s h in g th e r e s u l t s t h e i r r e s e a r c h . As
i n d i c a t e d i n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h i s s t u d y , an in c r e a s i n g
i n t e r e s t i n Y iv e s and h i s w orks seem s to be d e v e lo p in g .
The r e a s o n s f o r h i s d is a p p e a r a n c e l i e o u t s i d e t h e f i e l d o f
t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . The r e a s o n s f o r h i s r e t u r n h ave b e e n
s u g g e s te d a s due to t h e r e tu r n o f a p e r io d s i m i l a r to th e
one i n w h ic h h e l i v e d and w r o t e .
Y i v e s : The "S e c o n d Q u i n t i l i a n ." The i n f e r e n c e h e r e
w o u ld , i n i t s e l f , f u r n is h m a t e r ia l f o r a d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a
t i o n . Y iv e s was g iv e n t h i s name, a c c o r d in g to W atson ,
b e c a u s e he w as to th e Europe o f h i s tim e what Q u i n t i l i a n
262
w as to t h e Roman w o r ld o f t h e f i r s t c e n tu r y A .D .22 The
nicknam e w as f i r s t a p p lie d to V iv e s b e c a u s e o f a d ecla m a
t i o n w h ich he w r o te , a t t h e r e q u e s t o f S i r Thomas M ore, in
prz
answ er t o an im a g in a r y o r a t i o n o f Q u i n t i l i a n . ° V i v e s ,
l i k e Q u i n t i l i a n , was a S p a n ia r d . He was a ls o an e d u c a to r
c o n s c i o u s l y w ork in g to fo r m u la te a sy ste m o f e d u c a tio n
s u i t e d to a new a g e . The name, t h e r e f o r e , seem ed a p p r o p r i
a t e . H e n c e f o r th , h e w as f r e q u e n t ly r e f e r r e d to a s "The
S econ d Q u in t ilia n " e s p e c i a l l y by F le m ish H u m a n ists.
The "W ay-B rea k er." T h is term w as f i r s t a p p lie d to
V iv e s by L an ge24 i n an e f f o r t to t r a c e h i s i n f l u e n c e o n t h e
w r i t e r s who su c c e e d e d him and who w ere g i v e n c r e d i t f o r
o r i g i n a t i n g i d e a s a l r e a d y , a c c o r d in g to Lange and o t h e r s ,
e x p r e s s e d by V iv e s . H is i n f l u e n c e , L ange a s s e r t s , m ust be
m easured i n term s o f u n a ck n o w led g ed , a s w e l l a s o f o p e n ly
q u o te d , b o r r o w in g s . Lange s u b s t a n t i a t e s h i s p o i n t by
t e x t u a l c o m p a r iso n s. B o n i l l a s u p p o r ts h i s c la im s by a d d i
t i o n a l e v id e n c e . S o , a l s o , d o e s W atson . &mong th e p e r s o n s
22
F o s t e r W atson , t r a n s l a t o r , V i v e s : On Educ a t i o n .
o p . c i t . , p p . c i - c i i .
23
F o s t e r W atso n , e d i t o r , V iv e s and th e R en a scen ce
E d u c a tio n o f Women, o p . c i t . , p . 1 7 .
S?
S e e p . 2 0 , i n f r a .
263
sh ow ing r e s u l t s o f h a v in g b een in f l u e n c e d by Y iv e s , i t i s
s a i d , a r e L o y o la , Ramus, R a b e l a i s , M o n ta ig n e , Ascham,
M u lc a s t e r , B acon , Ben J o n s o n , R a ti e h , C om enius, S h a k e s p e a r e ,
and M ilt o n . V iv e s i s r e p u te d t o h a ve l e f t a d i s t i n c t
im p r in t on p i e t i s t i c e d u c a t io n i n E n glan d and H o lla n d and
on t h e e d u c a t io n o f t h e p o o r i n v a r io u s c o u n t r i e s . H is
i n f l u e n c e c a r r ie d o v e r , t o o , i n t o th e f i e l d o f r e l i g i o n
th r o u g h h i s r e c o n s t r u c t e d t e x t o f S t . A u g u s t in e 's " C ity o f
Cod," known l a t e r u n d e r t h e name o f h i s t r a n s l a t o r s more
o f t e n th a n under h i s own and p u b lis h e d , f r e q u e n t l y m inus
co m m e n ta r ie s.
Y iv e s h i n t s f r e q u e n t ly t h a t he th ou gh t h i s m i s s i o n i n
l i f e was t o p u t b e f o r e t h e s c h o l a r s o f h i s day in f o r m a t io n
w h ich m ig h t be to o f a r ahead o f t h e t h in k in g o f h i s con tem
p o r a r i e s to p r o v e a c c e p t a b l e . I n o t h e r w ords t h a t , i n
s e t t i n g t h e g o a l s o f e d u c a t io n t o keep p a c e w ith th e s o c i a l
ch a n g e s o f h i s d a y , he w ou ld n a t u r a l l y a r o u se o p p o n e n ts o f
t h e s t a t u s quo t y p e . E ven h i s o l d t e a c h e r , E rasm us,
reb uked him f o r n ot c a p i t a l i z i n g t h e fam e w h ich was h i s d u e .
V iv e s r e p l i e d i n a l e t t e r d a te d 1 5 2 8 : " I a sk you my t e a c h e r ,
a f t e r t h i s n ot t o u r g e me on t o p e r s o n a l fame o r g l o r y . For
I s o le m n ly s t a t e t h a t t h e s e en d s move me l e s s th a n you
w ould b e l i e v e . I s e t g r e a t s t o r e by t h e p u b lic g o o d . M ost
264
k e e n ly w ould I ad van ce t h a t i n any way I c o u l d . E r a s m u s
b e in g a g e n e r a t io n o l d e r th a n Y iv e s , i t t o o k co u ra g e f o r
Y iv e s to t h u s s t a t e h i s p o s i t i o n , f o r E rasm us, as i s w e l l
known, was i n t e r e s t e d i n l i t e r a r y s c h o l a r s h i p r a t h e r th a n
i n s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s o r h u m a n ita r ia n e n t e r p r i s e s *
Y iv e s d id n o t w r i t e f o r p o p u l a r i t y . He w r o t e ,
th r o u g h c h o i c e , i n t h e f i e l d s o f human r e l a t i o n s t r y i n g t o
h e lp i n th e s o c i a l a d ju s tm e n ts n e c e s s a r i l y c o n c o m ita n t to
a d e v e lo p in g n a t i o n a l i s t i c p e r io d . T hat he w as f u l l y aware
o f t h e t a s k b e f o r e him i s shown by h i s own w o r d s. " T h is
i s an e s p e c i a l dan ger o f o u r t i m e s , when i t i s m ost d a n g er
o u s t o sp eak on a lm o st any s u b j e c t . So s t i r r e d a r e m en’ s
m inds t o c o n t e n t i o n s , and p r e p a r e d f o r wordy f i g h t i n g , t h a t
i t i s n o t s a f e to o f f e r o b s e r v a t i o n s on any m a t t e r s even i f
o n e i s l o o k in g a t them from a n o th e r s t a n d p o in t th a n t h a t i n
d e b a t e ." ^ 6
t o o n g t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s Y iv e s l i s t s a s n e c e s s a r y f o r
a p o l i t i c a l p h ilo s o p h e r i s p r e v i s i o n , i . e . , t h e a b i l i t y , on
t h e b a s i s o f a k n ow led ge o f p a s t e v e n t s , t o c o n j e c t u r e t h e
f u t u r e . He a p p a r e n t ly f e l t c o n fid e n c e i n h i s own i n s i g h t o f
t h e e d u c a t io n a l n e e d s o f t h e new a g e . He r e l i e d not on t h e
25
M a ja n s iu s , O p era , Y I I , p . 1 9 1 , d a te d B r u g e s ,
O c to b e r , 1 5 2 8 . Q uoted i n If a t s o n ’ s Y i v e s : On E d u c a tio n , o p .
c i t . , p . LXXX.
26
W atson , o p . c i t . , p . 2 9 1 .
265
judgm ent o f h i s day h u t on h i s own maxim f o r j u s t i f i c a t i o n ,
s a y in g * * th o u g h T ru th h a s b e e n h id d e n f o r a lo n g t im e , i t
m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f a s tim e p r o c e e d s .” H is m otto h a s b e e n
j u s t i f i e d i n t h e i n c r e a s i n g r e c o g n i t i o n o f h i s w orks by
p o s t e r i t y .
THE EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATION OF ¥ 1 7 ® * .
REAPPEARANCE IN LITERATURE
The somewhat extrem e v ie w s o f van d e r Leeuw , Dam and
R e i s e r may seem r a t h e r f a r - f e t c h e d to t h e c i t i z e n o f t o d a y #
B u t, can one im a g in e how p rep o sterS m u c., ev en b la sp h em o u s,
t o th e S orb on n e m ust have seem ed Y ives* p r o p o s a ls o f o p e n -
m in d e d n e ss, o b s e r v a t i o n o f n a t u r e , c i v i c c o n t r o l o f poor
r e l i e f , and an e d u c a tio n d i r e c t e d by th e S t a t e and b a sed on
s c i e n c e and e m o tio n a l a d ju stm en t? Y et t h e i d e o l o g y o f
t r a n s i t i o n a l i s t s m ust c o n t a i n t h i s e le m e n t o f f u t u r i t y and
i t s p r o p o n e n ts m ust ”w it h th e e y e o f t h e s e e r i n t e r p r e t
t h e tr e n d o f s o c i a l e v o l u t i o n . ”
T h is c h a p te r h a s s u g g e s t e d t h e p r i n c i p a l h i s t o r i c a l
p e r io d s w h ich h ave had s o c i a l d i s l o c a t i o n s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e
o f t o d a y . Not a l l t h e a u th o r s c i t e d a g r e e on t h e e x a c t
p e r io d w h ich t h e p r e s e n t c r i s i s m ost r e s e m b le s . They a l l
a g r e e , h o w ev e r, In d e f i n i n g to d a y a s a t r a n s i t i o n p e r io d .
I t i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d , as a r e a l l o t h e r t r a n s i t i o n p e r i o d s ,
266
by w a r s , t e c h n o l o g i c a l and s c i e n t i f i c ch an ge, breakdow n
o f p e r s o n a l and p u b lic m o r a le , s h i f t i n g sta n d a r d s o f v a l u e s ,
r e - a lig n m e n t s i n e t h i c a l , c u l t u r a l , and r e l i g i o u s v a l u e s ,
w o r sh ip o f m oney, d is r e g a r d o f la w and by a l l form s o f
c u l t u r a l l a g .
The c o m p a riso n s o f van d e r Leeuw seem t o be t h e m ost
a p p r o p r ia t e . T here a re many p o i n t s i n con tem p orary s o c i a l
change s i m i l a r to t h o s e o f th e p e r io d im m e d ia te ly p r e c e d in g
th e b i r t h o f C h r i s t . T h is e r a , a s h a s b e e n p r e v io u s l y
n o te d had a d i c t a t o r - e m p e r i o r w a s p r e c e d e d by w ars o f con
q u e s t u n d e r J u l i u s C a esa r; saw t h e b i r t h o f a new r e l i g i o n ;
and w as f o l lo w e d , e a r l y A.D., by Q u i n t i l i a n ’ s e x p o s i t i o n o f
an e d u c a t io n a l sy ste m t o m eet th e n e e d s o f t h e new a g e .
T h is e r a , a l s o , p r e c e d e d , by a few c e n t u r i e s , a t r a n s i t i o n
to th e new C h r i s t i a n i t y , a s a s t a t e r e l i g i o n , and l a t e r ,
th e d o w n fa ll o f t h e g r e a t Roman E m pire. Q u i n t i l i a n ’ s
volu m es on e d u c a t io n were th o r o u g h ly m a ste r e d by Y iv e s who
m akes fr e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e t o them f o r e d u c a t io n a l p r e c e d e n t s .
He u s e s them c o n s t a n t l y a s p o i n t s o f r e f e r e n c e a s a b r ld g 6
b e tw e en t h e y e a r s b e f o r e and a f t e r t h e bifcth o f C h r i s t , and
b e tw e en t h e f i r s t and t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s A .D .
On t h e n e g a t i v e s i d e , Y iv e s e x p o se d t h e e v i l s and
t h e ou tgrow n p h ilo s o p h y and m ores o f h i s t i m e s . He d i f f e r e d
from h i s c o n te m p o r a r ie s E rasm us, L u th e r , and R a b e la is i n
267
t h e i m p e r s o n a lit y o f h i s r e a c t i o n s # He h e ld not on e up t o
r i d i c u l e hu t d ia g n o s e d s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y d e ca d en ce a s th e
f r u i t s o f e v o lu t io n a r y c h a n g e s i n w h ic h some i n d i v i d u a l s
r e f u s e d t o p r o g r e s s from ou tgrow n m e d ia e v a l h a b i t s o f
th o u g h t and b e h a v io r #
The n e g a t i v e a s p e c t o f V iv e s* w r i t i n g s i s v a l u a b le
f o r t h e p i c t u r e i t g i v e s o f h i s contem porary l i f e , i n s t i t u
t i o n s , and le a r n in g # H is w r i t i n g s a re s t i l l more v a lu a b le
f o r t h e i r d i a g n o s i s o f t h e breakdown o f s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y
s o c i e t y and f o r th e h i s t o r i c a l resum e o f a l l man’ s a c t i v i
t i e s and c u l t u r e from th e b e g in n in g o f c i v i l i z a t i o n up t o ,
and i n c l u d i n g , Y iv es* own day#
The c o n s t r u c t i v e or p o s i t i v e a s p e c t o f h i s w orks
o f f e r s a more im p o r ta n t c lu e t o h i s r e a p p e a r a n c e i n th e
l i t e r a t u r e o f t o d a y . I t i s , h ow ev er, n o t w i t h i n t h e p r o
v in c e o f t h i s stu d y to make a co m p a riso n b e tw e en th 6 g o a l s
s e t up a s o b j e c t i v e s f o r t h e "new -age" i n t h e 1 5 5 0 ’ s w ith
th e a c co m p lish m e n ts and f a i l u r e s o f t h e "new -age" i n t h e
1 9 3 0 ’ s . A t t e n t i o n h a s b een c a l l e d t o t h e s i m i l a r i t y o f
p r o b le m s. I t i s th e s o l u t i o n w h ich m ust b e d i f f e r e n t . The
a g r a r ia n age i s p r o b a b ly now c o m p lete d ; t h e s e t t i n g , t h e r e
f o r e , h a s c h a n g ed . A s i n t h e f i f t e e n h u n d r e d s, s c i e n t i f i c
d i s c o v e r i e s h ave n u l l i f i e d p r e v io u s s y s te m s o f t h o u g h t .
F our f a c t o r s c o m p le t e ly r e v o l u t i o n i z e t h e c u l t u r e p a t t e r n
268
w h ich i s to come from t h a t o f a l l p r e v io u s c i v i l i z a t i o n s ,
i . e . , (1) a to m ic a c t i v i t y and f i e l d s o f f o r c e ; (2 ) E i n s t e i n ’ s
m a th e m a tic a l t h e o r i e s ; (3) t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n v e n t i o n s ; and
(4 ) human r e l a t i o n s h i p s on a w o r ld -w id e s c a l e . Y et th e
p ro b lem s s e t f o r t h by V iv e s a s b a s i c to an a d e q u a te s o l u t i o n
o f human r e l a t i o n s h i p s , t o t h e c o n q u e st o f t h e p h y s i c a l
e n v ir o n m e n t, and to s p i r i t u a l f u l f i l l m e n t a re e s s e n t i a l l y
t h e sam e. T h is a g e , t o o , a w a it s t h e w a y -b r e a k e r s w ho, on
th e b a s i s o f s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n and p r o p h e tic f o r e
s i g h t , w i l l do f o r t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n tu r y tom orrow what
V iv e s a tte m p te d to do f o r h i s tom orrow .
P la t o s e t f o r t h a p h ilo s o p h y b a sed on b e a u ty , t r u t h ,
and i n s i g h t ; A r i s t o t l e exam ined and c o r r e l a t e d t h e f i e l d s o f
human k n ow led ge; J e s u s o f N a z a r e th p r e a ch ed t h e b r o th e rh o o d
o f man; and Q u i n t i l i a n drew up a co m p reh en siv e p la n o f
e d u c a t io n . Y iv e s a tte m p te d to u n i f y t h e s e f o u r g r e a t a s p e c t s
o f human d e v e lo p m e n t, t o e s t a b l i s h a new b a s e , a s i t w e r e ,
from w h ich to p r e d i c a t e h i s a s s u m p tio n s o f t h e a g e t o come.
A b r i e f r e v ie w o f Y iv es* e d u c a t io n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s
may h e lp t o s u g g e s t f u r t h e r i m p l i c a t i o n s as to t h e c a u s e s o f
h i s r e a p p e a r a n c e i n contem p orary l i t e r a t u r e . F i r s t o f a l l ,
he s e t s f o r t h th e d o c t r i n e , more and more o f t e n p u b l i c i z e d
to d a y , t h a t one can o n ly f o r e c a s t th e f u t u r e i n term s o f
w hat i s now and what h a s b e e n . He e m p h a siz e s, i n o t h e r
269
w o rd s, a c o n t i n u i t y i n human and s o c i a l d e v e lo p m en t, s e c o n d
l y , he lo o k s upon h i s t o r y a s a r e c o r d o f man’ s e x p e r ie n c e s
and p l a c e s g r e a t e m p h a sis on t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f su ch
e x p e r i e n c e s . In o t h e r t e m i n o l o g y , he u s e s t h e d e v e lo p
m e n ta l a p p ro a ch . I n t h e t h i r d p l a c e , he e m p h a siz e s t h e
stu d y and o b s e r v a t io n o f n a tu r e s a y in g t h a t t h e s e n s e s a r e
t h e f i r s t and b e s t t e a c h e r s . T h is was a r e v o l u t i o n a r y ste p
fo rw a rd from th e a u t h o r it a r ia n is m o f t h e m e d ia e v a l church
and from t h e a l l e g o r i c a l , a r t i f i c i a l a t t i t u d e tow ard n a tu r e
shown i n th e l i t e r a t u r e o f th e e a r l y , and even t h e l a t e r ,
s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y . Such a d e s c r i p t i o n a s t h e e x c e r p t f o l l o w
i n g , f o r exam p le, m ig h t b e a t w e n t i e t h c e n tu r y p r o d u c t .
O b ser v e, t h e r e i s no s e n s e w h ich h a s n ot a l o r d l y
en joym en t: F i r s t t h e l y e s I What v a r ie d c o l o r s , what
c l o t h i n g o f th e e a r th and t r e e s , what t a p e s t r y ! . . . .
Then th e e a r . How d e l i g h t f u l to h e a r th e s in g f n g o f
th e b i r d s , and e s p e c i a l l y th e n i g h t i n g a l e . . . Add to
t h i s t h e r e i s a sw eet s c e n t b r e a th in g i n from th e
t r e e s , e v en from th e f a l l o w la n d s and th e n e g l e c t e d
f i e l d s ! W h atsoever you l i f t t o y o u r mouth h a s i t s
r e l i s h , a s e v e n from t h e a i r i t s e l f , l i k e th e
e a r l i e s t and s o f t e s t h o n e y . . . . M o reo v er, we h ave
o n ly spoken o f th e b o d y . How g r e a t l y a r e th e s o u l
and mind e x i l a r a t e d and aro u sed by su ch an e a r l y
m orn in g a s t h i s . 27
F u r th e rm o re , F iv e s r e c o g n i z e s t h e v a lu e o f la n g u a g e
a s a means o f s o c i a l i z a t i o n : t h e v e r n a c u la r f o r t h e
im m ed iate s o c i a l g ro u p ; L a t i n o r some o t h e r medium f o r
27
F o s t e r W atson, Tudor S c h o o l- Boy L i f e ( The D i a l o -
f
u e s o f Juan L „ i s F i v e s ; London: J . M. D ent and Company,
908), pp. 88^8^7
270
i n t e r n a t i o n a l g r o u p s , A g a in , a s an im p o r ta n t p h a se o f
s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , h e em p h a siz e s t h e im p ortan ce o f th e
u n d e r s ta n d in g and c o n t r o l ' o f t h e e m o tio n s , A ls o , he
e n d e a v o r s t o d i s c o v e r t h e la w s o f l e a r n i n g and t o u s e h i s
c o n c lu s i o n s a s a b a s i s f o r a s c i e n t i f i c approach t o ed u c a
t i o n a l p r o b le m s, A n o th er modern n o te i s h i s i n s i s t e n c e
t h a t a l l e d u c a t io n be tu r n e d t o t h e common g o o d . He r e c o g
n i z e s t h a t a t t e n t i o n sh o u ld b e tu r n e d from e d u c a t in g p r i n c e s
o n ly t o g i v i n g t h e common p e o p le a c h a n ce t o d e v e lo p . T hen,
he b e l i e v e s i n s t a t e c o n t r o l o f p u b l i c w e l f a r e , i n c lu d i n g
s u p e r v i s i o n o f p o v e r t y , s i c k n e s s , d e f e c t i v e s , and e d u c a t io n .
I n a d d i t i o n , h e a d v o c a t e s s im p le , e n f o r c e a b l e , s u i t a b l e la w s .
He e m p h a siz e s t h e n eed o f good h e a l t h and d e v o t e s c o n s id e r
a b le sp a c e to d i e t , r e c r e a t i o n , c l e a n l i n e s s , and o t h e r
m eans o f s e c u r in g and p r e s e r v in g th e sam e. He s t u d i e s t h e
p rob lem o f woman’ s p l a c e i n t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , e n la r g e s
t h e sp h e re o f h e r d o m e s t ic , n u r s in g , and e d u c a t io n a l a c t i v i
t i e s , r e l e a s e s h e r from c o n v e n tu a l l i m i t a t i o n s , and s e t s up
a sta n d a r d f o r t h e t r a i n i n g o f g i r l s w h ich was f o llo w e d f o r
two c e n t u r i e s .
He i n s i s t s on a ty p e o f c h a r a c t e r t r a i n i n g w h ich
s t r e s s e s th e fu n d am en tal e t h i c s , su ch a s t r u t h , j u s t i c e ,
b r o t h e r ly l o v e , h o n e s t y , in d u s t r y and c o u r a g e . He c o u n s e l s
t h e need o f d i s c r i m i n a t i n g v a l u e s . He w arn s a g a i n s t su p e r
f i c i a l i t y and w o r sh ip o f e x t e r n a l s . He a d v i s e s th e
271
d ev elo p m en t o f c i v i c and p e r s o n a l m o r a le , c o o p e r a t io n ,
o p e n -m in d e d n e ss , and t h e u n d e r s ta n d in g o f o t h e r r a c e s . He,
p o i n t s o u t t h e n e c e s s i t y o f s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h to s o l v e
th e p ro b lem s o f t h e d a y . He s u g g e s t s , a s p r o c ed u r e t h e
a c c u m u la tio n o f d a ta , an a n a l y s i s o f c a u s e s , an im p e r s o n a l
d i a g n o s i s o f t h e p ro b lem , and t h e s t a t i n g o f a p o s s i b l e
s o l u t i o n o r rem edy. He cam p aign s a g a i n s t war w hich h e
c a l l s " rob b ery w ith o u t p u n ish m en t.** He s e t s f o r t h i t s
c a u s e s , and t h e e v i l s w h ich f o l l o w i n i t s t r a i n . He t h in k s
p e a c e i s t h e o n ly c o n d i t i o n c o m p a tib le w ith p r a c t i c a l ,
C h r i s t i a n i t y . He s u g g e s t s p u b lic works* program s f o r th e
r e l i e f o f p o v e r t y .
I n c o n c l u s i o n , h e sums up h i s a t t i t u d e to w a r d s human
grow th and an e v o lv i n g c i v i l i z a t i o n i n t h e s e w ord s: T ruth
i s open t o a l l ; l i f e i s a c t i v e n o t p a s s i v e ; and t h e r e a l
g o a l o f l i f e i s th e h a p p in e s s w h ich comes from c a r r y in g
o u t God*s p la n s f o r man.
V/hether o r n o t , one a g r e e s w ith th e co m p a riso n s made
o f t o d a y ’ s t r a n s i t i o n e r a w ith t h o s e o f t h e s i x t h , f o u r t h
and f i r s t B.C. o r t h e f i r s t , f i f t h and s i x t e e n t h A.D., no
o n e now d o u b ts t h a t t h e w o rld i s e n t e r in g upon a new p e r io d
f o r w h ich a new c u l t u r e m ust be d e v e lo p e d , new g o a l s s e t ,
and new i n s t i t u t i o n s o r g a n iz e d . U s u a l l y a t p e r io d s s i m i l a r
to t h i s , g r e a t men— p o l y g r a f s , su ch a s P l a t o , A r i s t o t l e o r
Q u i n t i l i a n — h ave a r is e n w h ose m i s s i o n h a s b e e n v a r i o u s l y
27 2
d e s c r ib e d a s t h a t o f w a y -s h o w e r s , p a t h - b r e a k e r s , p r o p h e t s ,
o r g a n i z e r s and t h e l i k e . T h ese men h a v e had t h e work o f
b r in g in g ab ou t c h a n g e s i n t h e c o l l e c t i v e grou p t h i n k i n g o f
t h e i r t im e s . The d ev elo p m en t o f t h e i r work i n o r g a n iz in g
s o c i a l m ovem ents h a s b e e n r e f e r r e d t o a lr e a d y . I t w ould
seem t h a t th e i d e o l o g i c a l group c o n t a i n s t h e i n d i v i d u a l s t o
whom t h e w orld h a s l a t e r r e tu r n e d f o r i n s p i r a t i o n . T h e ir
work i m p l i e s a r e a d ju stm e n t o f v a l u e s , an im p a r t ia l
s c r u t i n y o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e i r t i m e s , an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
o f t r e n d s and a d e t e r m in a t io n o f g o a l s . I t i n v o l v e s a l s o a
stu d y o f p a s t e x p e r i e n c e s i n th e h i s t o r y o f man to d i s c o v e r
h i s w e a k n e s s e s , h i s f a i l u r e s , and h i s s u c c e s s e s . I t i m p l i e s ,
t o o , an i n t e l l e c t u a l a p p ea l from a background o f e r u d i t i o n .
F i n a l l y , a s Blum er h a s i n d i c a t e d , t h e r e fo r m e r h i m s e l f m ust
h ave s u f f i c i e n t s o c i a l p r e s t i g e and s c h o l a r l y r e p u t a t i o n t o
r e a c h th e e a r s o f t h e l e a d e r s o f h i s d a y .
W ith t h e l a s t v e s t i g i a l rem nants o f t h e a g r a r ia n age
r a p id ly d is a p p e a r in g from v ie w , th e tim e may b e r ip e f o r
som eone t o do f o r t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n tu r y w hat T iv e s d id f o r
s i x t e e n t h . He b r o u g h t a l l a v a i l a b l e k n ow led ge i n b o th
s c i e n c e and l e t t e r s up to d a t e ; s e t f o r t h a new e d u c a t io n a l
p h ilo s o p h y , r e a f f ir m e d th e b a s i c t r u t h s and g o a l s o f th e
C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n ; in t r o d u c e d t h e n o te o f man a s a s o c i a l
b e in g ; a d v o c a te d i n d u c t i v e r e a s o n in g and s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s - ,
t i g a t i o n ; d e s tr o y e d t h e "A r i s t o t l e h as s a i d i t " a u th o r ita r ia n !sm T
273
em p h asized t h e f a c t o f an e v o l v i n g c i v i l i z a t i o n and th e
c o n se q u e n t n eed o f h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e ; t r a n s f e r r e d th e
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f e d u c a t io n a l t r a i n i n g and s o c i a l w e lf a r e
from a t h e o c r a t i c t o a c i v i l b a s i s ; p o in te d o u t t h a t know
l e d g e w as v a lu a b le o n ly i n te r m s o f u s e ; and i n s i s t e d on
t h e f u l l d ev elo p m en t o f th e pow ers o f man— i n t e l l e c t u a l ,
p h y s ic a l , e m o t io n a l, and s p i r i t u a l •
Y iv es* c o n c e p t io n o f e d u c a t io n i s v e r y b r o a d , i n
com p arison w it h th e d e f i n i t i o n s s e t up by o t h e r g r e a t
e d u c a t o r s 28 he c o v e r s a f a r l a r g e r f i e l d . He a g r e e s w ith
S o c r a t e s i n th e d i s p e r s i o n o f e r r o r and d is c o v e r y o f t r u t h ;
w ith P la t o i n th e g o a l o f p e r f e c t i o n ; w it h M on taign e i n th e
m aking o f man r a th e r th a n s p e c i a l i s t s ; w it h Bacon t h a t
e d u c a tio n i s a s c i e n c e u s e d f o r c o n t r o l o v e r e n v iro n m en t;
w ith Com enius t h a t t h e u l t i m a t e end o f man i s h a p p in e s s w ith
God; w it h M ilto n t h a t a man be t r a i n e d j u s t l y , s k i l l f u l l y ,
and m agnan im ou sly f o r a l l v o c a t i o n s ; w ith L ocke i n t h e
n e c e s s i t y o f c o u p lin g a s tr o n g body w it h a s t r o n g m ind;
w ith Jam es M il l t h a t t h e ed u c a ted man sh o u ld be an i n s t r u
m ent o f h a p p in e s s t o h i m s e l f and to h i s f e l l o w s ; and w ith
B u t l e r i n t h e g r a d u a l m a ste r y o f t h e s p i r i t u a l h e r i t a g e o f
t h e r a c e . P e r h a p s th e p e r s o n w it h whom he i s n e a r e s t i n
28
M e r r it t M. Thompson, An O u t lin e o f t h e H is t o r y o f
E d u c a tio n (Hew York: B a r n e s , No'BTe, I n c . , ) , p p . 1 4 2 - 4 5 .
274
a c c o r d i s John D ewey. B oth t h e s e p h ilo s o p h e r s em p h asize a s
b a s i c m o t iv a t io n ; (1 ) th e s o c i a l i z a t i o n w h ic h comes from
sh a red a c t i v i t i e s on th e one hand; and (2) p e r s o n a l g r o w th ,
o n t h e o t h e r .
SUMMARY
T h is c h a p te r o n V iv e s* p la c e i n e d u c a t io n a l h i s t o r y
was n o t u n d e r ta k e n w ith t h e id e a o f l o c a t i n g V iv e s i n a
s c a l e o f r e l a t i v e g r e a t n e s s . I t s p u rp o se was to compare
m a t e r ia l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f V iv es* a g e — t h e f i r s t f o r t y y e a r s
o f th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y — w ith th e f i r s t f o r t y y e a r s o f th e
t w e n t i e t h c e n tu r y ; t o r e v ie w t h e p o i n t s o f d e c a d e n c e and
th e g o a l s s e t f o r t h e f u t u r e i n b oth p e r i o d s , so t h a t a
com p arison m ight b e made. I t in c lu d e s a d i s c u s s i o n o f
V iv e s* r e p u t a t i o n , and c o v e r s n o t o n ly th e p e r io d o f h i s
own l i f e - t i m e b u t from t h e n o n , th ro u g h th e c e n t u r i e s i n t e r
v e n in g u p , t o t h e p r e s e n t moment when L o u v a in and O xford
U n i v e r s i t i e s - - t h e s c e n e o f h i s t e a c h i n g , and U n i v e r s i t y o f
V a le n c ia — h i s b i r t h p l a c e , a r e both a c t i v e l y engaged i n
r e s e a r c h to b r in g o u t th e d e t a i l s o f h i s l i f e and w o r k s.
The e d u c a t io n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f h i s r e a p p e a r a n c e i n l i t e r a
t u r e l i e i n t h e s i m i l a r i t y o f c o n d i t i o n s i n th e p ro b lem s
o f t r a n s i t i o n ep och s and i n th e e f f o r t s o f V iv e s to p r e s e n t
s o l u t i o n s , i n h i s w o ik s , f o r s o c i a l and e d u c a t io n a l i l l s .
£75
T h ere h a s b een no a ttem p t t o p r o v e o r t o d is p r o v e t h e v a r
i o u s t h e o r i e s ad van ced a s t o w h e th e r t h e p r e s e n t a g e
r e s e m b le s t h a t o f b e g in n in g C h r i s t i a n i t y o r i s m e r e ly th e
i n d u s t r i a l s t a g e o f th e R e n a is s a n c e . L ik e w is e , t h e c r i t i
c ism s o f to d a y * s e d u c a tio n and s o c i a l o r d e r a r e p r e s e n t e d ,
w it h o u t b i a s , f o r m ere p u r p o se s o f c o m p a r iso n .
The b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n o n s o c i a l ch an ge was g iv e n a s
a p o in t o f d e p a r tu r e f o r s o c i o l o g i c a l c o m p a r is o n s. As t o
th e g o a l s o f V i v e s , p e r s o n a l l y , t h e b e s t c lu e i s g iv e n by
h i s own w o rd s. "Each on e h a s h i s i l l u m i n a t i o n from w i t h i n
w h ich w i l l le a d him t o t h e T ru th i f he d o e s n o t abandon
t h i s t o r c h k in d le d by God to l i g h t h i s w a y ." 29
£9
Juan L u is V iv e s , C a u se s o f t h e C o r r u p tio n o f t h e
A r t s ( B a s le : N i c o la s L ’E sv esq u e l e J e u n e , 1555) , V o l. I ,
Boole V I.
CHAPTER X
SUMMARY A M D CONCLUSION
The p u rp o se o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n was to s tu d y
V iv e s i n r e l a t i o n t o h i s e n v ir o n m e n t, t o compare h i s
e n v iro n m en ta l p ro b lem s w it h t h o s e o f to d a y and to make
d e d u c t io n s as to t h e p o s s i b l e s o c i o - e d u c a t i o n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e
t o t o d a y ’ s w o rld o f t h e r e v i v a l o f i n t e r e s t i n V i v e s . The
i n v e s t i g a t i o n h a s , t h e r e f o r e , c o v e r e d , i n c o n s id e r a b le
d e t a i l , t h e p e r s o n a l l i f e o f V iv e s and a tte m p te d to g i v e
a g e n e r a l su rv ey o f h i s w r i t i n g s . In e lu d e d i n t h e n a r r a
t i v e o f b io g r a p h ic a l e v e n t s h ave been t h e c u l t u r e s by w hich
he w as i n f l u e n c e d , a s tu d y o f t h e g e n e r a l R e n a is s a n c e
s e t t i n g , th e d i f f e r e n t s c h o o l s o f Humanism t o w h ich h e was
e x p o se d , t h e e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f S c h o l a s t i c i s m
w h ich op p osed th e New L e a r n in g o f t h e H u m a n ists, and a
c h r o n o lo g ic a l o r i e n t a t i o n o f th e h ig h p o i n t s o f th e c e n tu r y
1450 to 1 5 5 0 .
The d i s s e r t a t i o n w as p r e d ic a t e d on t h e f a c t t h a t
e d u c a t io n i s an " a d a p tiv e " c u l t u r e . I t was hoped t h a t an
i n t e r e s t m igh t be s t im u la t e d i n V iv e s and h i s w orks by
p o i n t i n g o u t t h e p a r a l l e l b etw een t h e twD c e n t u r i e s i n r e l a
t i o n to d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n e d u c a t io n , d e c a d e n c e o f la w , break
down o f t r a d i t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s , w a r s , and t h e need f o r an
277
e x p r e s s io n o f a new s o c i a l and e d u c a t io n a l p h ilo s o p h y .
The f i r s t q u e s t io n t o b e answ ered i s wWho was V iv e s w?
V iv e s w as a M e d ite r r a n e a n S p a n ia r d o f n o b le b i r t h born i n
t h e M oorish c i t y o f V a le n c ia i n 1 4 9 2 . He w as r e a r e d c a r e
f u l l y by a p io u s m o th er. H is e a r l y in fo r m a l e d u c a t io n was
o f v e r y u n u su a l sc o p e f o r h i s d a y . He w as ta u g h t t o sp eak
i n th e v e r n a c u la r , S p a n is h , i n in f a n c y b y h i s m o th er. H is
g r a n d f a th e r ta u g h t him t h e e le m e n ts o f common la w ; a
f r i e n d o f th e f a m ily ta u g h t him t h e e le m e n ts o f m e d ic in e .
As a young l a d i n h i s w a lk s around V a l e n c ia , he saw t h e
g r e a t e s t a t e s w h ich t h e M oors, th ro u g h t h e i r know ledge o f
h y d r a u lic s and a g r i c u l t u r e , had r e c la im e d from th e d e s e r t
and made i n t o m i r a c l e s o f b e a u ty and f e r t i l i t y . He saw
th e commerce o f th e S i l k E xch a n g e, th e d e m o c r a tic la w
c o u r t o f The W a te r s, th e c i v i c c a r e o f th e p o o r and t h e
d e f e c t i v e s , t h e new p r i n t i n g p r e s s e s , and t h e many c h u r c h e s .
He s e n s e d , t o o , t h e d o u b le c u l t u r e , M oorish and C h r i s t i a n ,
and th e se n s u o u s b ea u ty and c o l o r o f t h e v e g e t a t i o n , sky
and s e a .
H is fo rm a l e d u c a t io n b egan w it h th e U n i v e r s i t y o f
V a le n c ia w h ic h , w ith a fe w im p o r ta n t e x c e p t i o n s , s t i l l
c lu n g to t h e M ed ia e v a l d i s c i p l i n e s . He was th o r o u g h ly
t r a i n e d i n L a t i n , p r o b a b ly a l s o i n G reek , and p o s s i b l y i n
p o e t r y and p h ilo s o p h y .
278
At t h e age o f s e v e n t e e n , he t r a n s f e r r e d to t h e
U n i v e r s i t y o f P a r i s where he e n c o u n te r e d t h e c h i l l i n g d i s
c i p l i n e o f t h e S o r b o n n e . H e r e , p e r f o r c e , he c o n tin u e d w ith
S c h o l a s t i c t r a i n i n g . At l e n g t h , h e r e b e l l e d an d , a t t h e
a g e o f tw e n ty - tw o , l e f t f o r th e S p a n is h N e th e r la n d s where
h e had o b ta in e d a p o s i t i o n a s t u t o r i n t h 6 c i t y o f B r u g e s.
B r u g e s, was h e n c e f o r t h , h i s perm anent home, a lth o u g h as was
t h e custom o f t h e s c h o l a r s o f h i s t im e , he t r a v e l l e d a
g r e a t d e a l .
In t h e N e t h e r la n d s , he came u n d er t h e i n f l u e n c e o f
Erasm us and t h e N orth ern H u m a n ists. He began h i s l i t e r a r y
c a r e e r i n 1518 a t th e age o f t w e n t y - s i x . He becam e t u t o r
to t h e A r c h b is h o p -D e s ig n a te o f T o le d o , l e c t u r e d a t L o u v a in
U n i v e r s i t y and i n 1 5 2 3 t r a n s f e r r e d t o E n glan d . H er e, un der
t h e p a tr o n a g e o f w o l s e y , he w as on t h e s t a f f o f th e U n iv e r
s i t y o f O xford w h ere, in O cto b er o f t h i s same y e a r he was
g i v e n t h e d e g r e e o f D o c to r o f Common Law.
He w as made a member o f th e C ourt o f Henry V I I I , was
a f r i e n d o f C a th e r in e o f A ragon , d i r e c t e d t h e e d u c a tio n o f
t h e P r i n c e s s Maiy and w as a w elcom e member o f th e l i t t l e
group o f E n g lis h H um an ists headed b y s i r Thomas M ore. In
1 5 2 8 , l i k e S i r Thomas M ore, he was o b l i g e d to t a k e a sta n d
i n th e d iv o r c e p r o c e e d in g s o f Henry V I I I . He to o k C a th e r in e Vs
s i d e bu t o f f e n d e d h e r b e c a u s e h e a d v is e d h e r n o t to c o n t e s t
279
t h e d iv o r c e . A f t e r a s h o r t d e ta in m e n t i n th e T ow er, he was
b a n ish e d from E ngland and r e tu r n e d t o B ru g es t o s t a r t l i f e
o v e r a g a in .
H is g r e a t e s t p e r io d o f l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t y now b e g a n ,
a lt h o u g h , p r e v i o u s l y t o t h i s , he had a lr e a d y composed f o u r
g r e a t w ork s. I n 1 5 5 1 , he had r e t r i e v e d h i s f o r t u n e s and
g a in e d t h e p a tr o n a g e o f Emperor C h a r le s V, and K ing John I I I
o f P o r t u g a l. H is h e a l t h u n f o r t u n a t e ly had b e e n grow in g
s t e a d i l y w o r s e . He a c c o m p lish e d a p r o d ig io u s amount o f
w r i t i n g , how ever, i n s p i t e o f b e in g i n c r e a s i n g l y c r ip p le d
by g o u t . He d ie d i n B ru g es i n 1 5 4 0 , l e a v i n g f o r posthum ous
p u b l i c a t i o n h i s g r e a t book o n C h r i s t i a n p h ilo s o p h y .
V iv e s th u s had t h e ad van ta ge o f th e s c i e n t i f i c o u t
lo o k m a in ta in e d by th 6 M oors; t h e C h r i s t i a n i d e a l s and
s ta n d a r d s f o llo w e d i n h i s home; l e g a l and m e d ic a l t r a i n i n g ;
p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a d o u b le c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e ; an a p p r e c ia t i o n
o f an e v o lv i n g c i v i l i z a t i o n from t h e many r a c i a l o v e r tu r n
i n g s i n V a le n c ia n h i s t o r y ; an a c q u a in ta n c e w ith th e dem ocra
t i c p r a c t i c e s i n V a le n c ia n c i v i c and p r o f e s s i o n a l f i e l d s ;
th e b e a u t i e s and d e l i g h t s o f a s e m i - t r o p i c a l la n d ; and, on
t h e o t h e r sid e, t r a i n i n g i n t h e outgrow n d i s c i p l i n e o f
S c h o l a s t i c i s m . T h is broad b a s e o f e n v ir o n m e n ta l i n f l u e n c e s
was l a i d i n h i s S p a n is h c h ild h o o d and e a r l y y o u th . He t h e n
moved on t o t h e more c o n v e n t io n a l t r a i n i n g o f th e day a t t h e
380
U n i v e r s i t y o f P a r i s . The n e x t a d d i t io n t o h i s e n v ir o n m e n ta l
equipm ent w as F le m is h Humanism. H avin g a b so rb ed i t , he
made h i s d e c i s i o n and j o in e d t h e r a n k s o f t h e Hew L e a r n in g .
H is O xford t r a i n i n g co m p leted h i s p r e p a r a t io n f o r l i f e and
he r e tu r n e d to h i s home i n B ru g es e q u ip p ed w i t h a l l h i s
w o rld had to o f f e r i n l e a r n i n g and i n t h e f i e l d s o f human
r e l a t i o n s and i n s t i t u t i o n s .
J L se co n d q u e s t io n in v o lv e d i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n i s
"What a r e V iv e s* m ost im p o r ta n t works"? V iv e s was a p r o l i
f i c , e r u d i t e w r i t e r w hose w orks a re p r im a r ily p h i lo s o p h ic
and h i s t o r i c a l i n t o n e . H is l i f e w as d e v o te d t o r e s e a r c h
i n a l l th e f i e l d s o f know ledge known i n h i s d a y . Some
f i f t y - s e v e n o f h i s w r i t i n g s , and two c o l l e c t e d e d i t i o n s
a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r r e s e a r c h t o d a y . I t i s d i f f i c u l t to l i s t
h i s w orks i n c a t e g o r i e s f a m i l i a r t o th e m odem r e a d e r
b e c a u se k n ow led ge i n t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y was n o t s i m i l a r
l y c l a s s i f i e d . N e it h e r w ere b o o k s l i m i t e d to a s i n g l e
t o p i c o f d i s c u s s i o n . F or t h a t r e a s o n , i t seem s w is e to
u s e t h e g r o u p in g o f t h e S p a n ia r d , B o n i l l a , e v e n th ou gh t o
t h e A m erican mind t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s somewhat c o n f u s in g .
I t w as n ot p o s s i b l e , o f c o u r s e , t o make a su rv ey o f a l l o f
V iv es* w o r k s. A l s o , t h e f i e l d o f h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n was
l i m i t e d to a stu d y o f book s s t r e s s i n g human r e l a t i o n s h i p s ,
e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e sp h e r e o f s o c i a l ch a n g e.
281
U s in g B o n i l l a * s c a t e g o r i e s , t h e h ook s w h ich have b een
r e v ie w e d i n t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n may h e l i s t e d a s f o l l o w s :
1 . M e ta p h y s ic s — (1) C om m entaries on S t . A u g u s tin e * s
fDe C i v i t a t e Dei*; (2) On th e T ruth o f th e C h r i s t i a n
F a i t h .
2 . L o g i c - - (1) The C au ses o f t h e C o r r u p tio n o f t h e
A r t s ; (2) The T r a n s m is s io n o f K now ledge; (3) L a t in
C o l l o q u ie s ; (4) P la n s o f S tu d y f o r Young P e o p le ; (5)
F a l s e D i a l e c t i c i a n s .
3 . S c i e n c e — (1 ) Mind and Body; (2) I n t r o d u c t io n
to Wisdom; (3) G uards o f t h e Mind; (4) The E d u c a tio n
o f a C h r i s t i a n Woman; (5) The D uty o f a Husband; (6)
C o n cern in g H elp f o r th e P o o r; (7) Concord and D is c o r d
i n t h e Human H ace.
4 . H is t o r y — (1) The B e g in n in g s o f p h ilo s o p h y ; (2)
A D ia lo g u e , D iv id e d E u ro p e, and t h e T u rk ish War.
The b ook s h e r e l i s t e d h ave a l l b e e n commented upon
o r r e v ie w e d i n th e body o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . As y e t , some
o f t h e m ost im p o r ta n t a r e n ot a v a i l a b l e in E n g lis h t r a n s l a
t i o n .
A t h i r d p h a se o f b a s i c d i s c u s s i o n r e s t s on th e q u e s
t i o n o f F iv e s * s o c i a l a t t i t u d e to th e p rob lem s o f h i s tim e s
and t h e r e fo r m s s u g g e s t e d by him . F iv e s* a t t i t u d e to t h e
s o c i a l p rob lem s o f h i s day s u g g e s t s t h a t o f a modern s o c i o l o
g i s t r a t h e r th a n t h a t o f a man born i n 1 4 9 2 . He s e n s e d
t h a t e a r l y s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y s o c i a l p rob lem s in v o lv e d b o th
i n d i v i d u a l and group b reak d ow n s, i . e . , p e r s o n a l d i s a b i l i t i e s
and i n s t i t u t i o n a l l a g . I n s t i t u t i o n a l f a i l u r e s , w e re , he
r e a l i z e d , c a u se d by c h a n g e s i n t h e s o c i a l p a t t e r n a s th e
282
r e s u l t o f stu p e n d o u s g e o g r a p h i c a l , t e c h n i c a l , and s c i e n t i f i c
d i s c o v e r i e s . He b e l i e v e d t h a t e d u c a tio n o f t h e p u b lic was
th e b e s t means o f c o m b a ttin g t h o s e f o r c e s who p r o f i t e d by-
t r y i n g to h o ld back th e t i d e o f p r o g r e s s . A c c o r d in g ly , he
s e t h i m s e l f to d i s c o v e r th e c a u s e s and p o s s i b l e r e m e d ie s o f
th e c u l t u r a l m a la d ju s tm e n ts c u r r e n t i n E u rop e. In t h e s e
m a la d ju s tm e n ts , V iv e s , l i k e some con tem p orary s o c i o l o g i s t s ,
in c lu d e d w ar.
The k e y n o te o f v iv e s * s o c i o l o g i c a l r efo rm s i s found
i n h i s a w a ren ess o f t h e s h i f t i n em p h a sis from a t h e o c r a t i c
to a n a t io n a l b a s i s o f c o n t r o l ; h i s r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e
s o c i a l and s p i r i t u a l r i g h t s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ; and h i s
em p h asis on j u s t i c e . H is r e fo r m s w ere p r e d ic a t e d on th e sad
s t a t e o f t h e p o o r , th e orp h a n ed , th e d e f e c t i v e and th e s i c k ;
t h e n e c e s s i t y o f m aking la w s more i n t e l l i g i b l e ; and t h e cu r
t a i l i n g o f c a la m ito u s w ars. He worked f o r g o v ern m en ta l
c h a n g e s , on t h e one h an d, and i n d iv i d u a l grow th on t h e o t h e r .
He lo o k e d upon t h e s o c i a l o r d e r as a " u n ite d body o f c i t i
z e n s" — a d e m o c r a tic c o n c e p t f a r beyond th e p o l i t i c a l and
r e l i g i o u s a u to c r a c y o f h i s d a y .
H is t e c h n iq u e was to p r e s e n t f a c t u a l in f o r m a tio n ;
e x p la in th e c a u s e s f o r e x i s t i n g c o n d i t i o n s ; make an im p a r t ia l
d i a g n o s i s o f t h e p rob lem i n t h 6 l i g h t o f h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c
t i v e ; and s u g g e s t o b j e c t i v e s o r r e m e d ie s . H is w orks w ere
283
a lw a y s d e d ic a t e d to p o w e r fu l p e r so n s o f Church and S t a t e .
H ow ever, he n a t u r a l l y a ro u sed en em ies i n th 6 ranks o f t h o s e
l i k e t h e M en d ican t O rd ers w hose f u n c t i o n s he s u g g e s te d he
t r a n s f e r r e d to t h e S t a t e , and i n t h e Sorbonne whose p h i l o
sophy he r i d i c u l e d a s p a s s e .
A f o u r t h , and n a t u r a l , query i s "What are V iv es*
t h e o r i e s o f e d u c a tio n " ? V i v e s , i n c o u r a g e o u s d e f ia n c e o f
th e " A r i s t o t l e h a s s a id i t " f a n a t i c a l o b s e s s i o n o f t h e
S o r b o n n e , b a s e d h i s p h ilo s o p h y o f e d u c a tio n on o p en -m in d ed
n e s s , s e n s e - o b s e r v a t i o n s , t h e e v a lu a t io n o f e x p e r ie n c e ,
and a c o n v i c t i o n t h a t k n ow led ge w as o f no v a lu e u n l e s s p u t
i n t o s e r v i c e f o r t h e common g o o d .
H is e d u c a t io n a l g o a l s are b a se d on a r e c o g n i t i o n o f
i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s and d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g n e e d s . H is edu
c a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s a r e (1) k n o w led g e, (2) p e r s o n a l g r o w th >
(3) p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a s o c i a l g r o u p , and (4) e m o tio n a l and
s p i r i t u a l a d ju stm e n t. L i f e g o a l s a r e , i n o r d e r o f im por
t a n c e , (1) m oral e x c e l l e n c e , (2) i n t e l l i g e n c e , l e a r n i n g ,
and good s e n s e , (3) h e a l t h , and (4 ) w e a lth and r e s o u r c e s .
The consum m ation o f a l i f e - t i m e o f en d ea vor i s "to be
app roved o f God."
A f i f t h im p o r ta n t q u e s t io n i s "What ch a n g es d o e s
V iv e s s u g g e s t i n e d u c a tio n a l p r a c t ic e " ? V iv e s , h a v in g
r e j e c t e d a u t h o r i t a r ia n is m , p l a c e s e d u c a tio n on an e m p ir ic a l,
i n d u c t iv e b a s i s , s t r e s s i n g l e a r n i n g b a se d on s e n s e o b s e r v a
t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f e x p e r ie n c e . The r e s u l t s o f
2 8 4
o b s e r v a t i o n s sh o u ld b e c o l l e c t e d , e v a lu a t e d , s u b j e c t e d t o
th e t e s t s o f r e a s o n , and a se a r c h made f o r t h e g e n e r a l p r in
c i p l e s u n d e r ly in g , s a y s V iv e s . P r i n c i p l e s h a v in g b een d i s
c o v e r e d , s h o u ld be a p p lie d . He th u s a d v o c a te d m odern
s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h .
V iv e s s u g g e s t s t h a t a y o u th sh o u ld be t r a i n e d t o be a
s o c i a l a s w e l l a s an i n t e l l e c t u a l b e in g . He p l a c e s g r e a t
em p h asis on s u p e r v is e d p l a y , d i e t , c l e a n l i n e s s , and s i m p l i
c i t y o f f o o d , d r e s s , and m an n ers.
T hese c h a n g e s a re n o t y e t f u l l y in c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e
"new" e d u c a tio n o f to d a y , ev en th o u g h th e m ost p r o g r e s s i v e
program s in c lu d e s o c i a l i z a t i o n th ro u g h sh a re d e x p e r ie n c e s and
p h y s i c a l f i t n e s s th rou gh r e c r e a t i o n , e x e r c i s e , d i e t and
c l e a n l i n e s s .
V iv e s s t r e s s e s o p en -m in d ed n ess a s an im p e r a tiv e need
o f th 6 d a y . He a d v i s e s su c h t e c h n iq u e s a s i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f
o r i g i n s ; se a r c h f o r r e l a t i o n s h i p ; th e d e v e lo p m e n ta l approach
to h i s t o r y ; p l a c in g o f i n c i d e n t s i n b o th t h e i r g e o g r a p h ic a l
and h i s t o r i c a l backgroun d; em p h asis on th e c o n s t r u c t i v e con
t r i b u t i o n s made by man r a th e r an en u m era tio n o f b a t t l e s ; and
f i n a l l y , n s e e k in g T ruth w h erev er sh e may be fo u n d 0 s i n c e
"much o f T ruth h a s b een l e f t f o r f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s to
d i s c o v e r . 0
V iv e s lo o k s upon e d u c a t io n a l p r a c t i c e a s a s c i e n c e
b a sed on t h e la w s o f l e a r n i n g . To him , le a r n i n g c o n s i s t s o f
2 85
fo u r f a c t o r s : (1) n a tu r a l c a p a c it y ; (2) judgm ent; (3)
memory; (4) a p p lic a t io n * I n t e l l e c t a l s o h a s fo u r a s p e c t s :
i n t e l l i g e n c e , memory, r e a s o n , and judgm ent. As he b e l i e v e s
i n i n d iv i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s , he a d v i s e s t e s t s , g u id a n c e ,
c o n f e r e n c e s o f t e a c h e r s , and a program s u i t e d to th e
p u p i l ’ s c a p a c i t i e s . He a s s e r t s t h a t le a r n i n g i s an a c t i v e
p r o c e s s . He c a l l s a t t e n t i o n t o th e a s s o c i a t i o n o f id e a s
and th e u s e o f l e a r n i n g c u e s such a s w r i t i n g , r e a d in g o u t
lo u d , l i s t e n i n g a t t e n t i v e l y , c o m p ilin g and u s in g n o te b o o k s.
He s u g g e s t s l e a r n i n g f i r s t i n te r m s o f # i o l e s , t h e n e le m e n ts ;
and p r o c e e d in g from t h e s im p le to t h e c o m p le x . He r e c o g n i z e s
t h e im p o rta n ce o f e m o tio n a l r e s p o n s e and s u g g e s t s e m o tio n a l
a p p ea l a s a m eans o f m o t iv a t io n .
H is schem e o f e d u c a tio n p r o v id e s f o r t h e poor a s w e l l
a s t h e r i c h , g i r l s a s w e l l a s b o y s , and b o th young and o l d .
He recommends t h a t t h e orphaned poor be ta u g h t t h e t r a d e s
f o r w h ich t h e y show a p t i t u d e . In d e e d , h e f e e l s t h a t a l l
s o c i a l c l a s s e s sh o u ld be a c q u a in te d w ith th e p r a c t i c a l
p h a se s o f l i f e , i n c lu d i n g c r a f t s and commerce, and sh ou ld
e n jo y t h e b e a u ty o f n a tu r e .
W hile V iv e s c o n s id e r s h i s t o r y t h e supreme d i s c i p l i n e ,
h e p l a c e s la n g u a g e secon d i n r a n k . I t s prim ary f u n c t i o n ,
h e b e l i e v e s , l i e s i n s o c i a l com m u n ication . S p eech i s ,
t h e r e f o r e , v e r y im p o r ta n t. He a d v o c a t e s l e a r n i n g th e
286
v e r n a c u la r from th e m oth er i n in f a n c y . He b e l i e v e s t h a t
e a r l y s c h o o l i n s t r u c t i o n sh o u ld be g iv e n i n th e v e r n a c u la r ,
a l s o . He a d v i s e s th 6 stu d y o f p h i l o l o g y and p o e t r y . He
i n s i s t s on c o r r e c t p r o n u n c ia t io n , an e x t e n s i v e v o c a b u la r y ,
and e le g a n c e o f d i c t i o n . He b e l i e v e s t h a t la n g u a g e i s a
dynam ic p r o c e s s t h a t sh o u ld be d e v e lo p e d by u s e r a t h e r th a n
by e x c l u s i v e d ep en d en ce on gram m atical r u l e s . B e in g a
l i n g u i s t h i m s e l f , he s u g g e s t s t h e stu d y o f G reek a s w e l l
a s L a t i n , and Hebrew i f tim e p e i m i t s . He demands c o r r e c t
n e s s i n w r i t t e n and sp o k en L a t i n . He b e l i e v e s t h a t th e
v e r n a c u la r sh o u ld be u s e d i n ev ery d a y a f f a i r s .
A m ost im p o r ta n t q u e s t io n and t h e l a s t t o be answ ered
i n t h i s summary i s "Hhat i s Y iv es* p l a c e i n t h e h i s t o r y o f
E d u cation " ? C e r t a i n l y i f t h e number o f w o r k s, t o g e t h e r w ith
r e p e a te d e d i t i o n s and t r a n s l a t i o n s , w ere h i s o n ly c o n t r ib u
t i o n to e d u c a tio n h e w ou ld r a t e an im p o r ta n t p la c e i n t h e
h i s t o r y o f e d u c a t io n . Over one hundred e d i t i o n s o f h i s
L a t i n D ia lo g u e s (L in g u a e L a tin a e E x e r c l t a t i o ) a r e v e r i f i e d .
T h is same t e x t i s e v en now, i n s l i g h t l y r e v i s e d form , u sed
i n E n g lis h s c h o o l s to t e a c h o r a l L a t in b e c a u se o f t h e
a p p r o p r ia t e n e s s o f i t s v o c a b u la r y t o s c h o o l- b o y l i f e . I t
i s a ls o l i s t e d by C on yers Head a s one o f s e v e n im p o r ta n t
book s on ped agogy i n th e w h o le Tudor p e r io d b e c a u se o f th e
v a lu a b le m a t e r ia l i t p r e s e n t s o f t h e l i f e o f t h e d a y .
287
As a u th o r o f a pam phlet a g a i n s t t h e F a ls e D i a l e c t i
c i a n s , V iv e s p la y e d a momentous r o l e i n t h e b a t t l e b etw een
t h e o u t - g o in g and in -c o m in g l e a d e r s o f e a r l y s i x t e e n t h
c e n tu r y e d u c a t io n . T h is document s e n t to a f r i e n d o f V iv e s
a t t h e Sorbon ne and c i r c u l a t e d by him among t h e H um anists
i n P a r i s b ro u g h t t o a c u lm in a tio n t h e fe u d b e tw e e n th e two
camps o f l e a r n i n g . In o t h e r w o rd s, i t d e f in e d t h e i s s u e s
a t s t a k e b e tw e e n them and f o r c e d t h e w h o le q u a r r e l o u t i n t o
th e o p e n . T h is docum ent, a l s o , f o r e c a s t s com ing e d u c a t io n a l
ch a n g e. M ost s i g n i f i c a n t o f a l l , V i v e s f d e f i n i t e l y a c c u s e s
t h e Sorbon ne o f p e r p e tu a t in g t h e b a r b a r ism s o f t h e M id d le
A ges and o f b e in g r e s p o n s ib l e f o r t h e d e g e n e r a te u s e o f
D i a l e c t i c s , i n a d d i t io n t o o b s t r u c t in g th e New L e a r n in g .
B eca u se o f h i s k e e n m ind, h i s v a s t e r u d i t i o n , w ide
e x p e r ie n c e , and v a r ie d t r a i n i n g V iv e s w as p e c u l i a r l y w e ll
eq u ip p ed t o v ie w h i s own s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e i n th e l i g h t o f
h i s t o r i c a l p r o g r e s s i o n . H is t r a i n i n g a s a la w y e r had
ta u g h t him t o w eigh e v id e n c e , h i s i n t e r e s t i n m e d ic in e had
f o c u s s e d h i s a t t e n t i o n on th e p h y s ic a l h e a l t h o f i n d i v i d u a l s ,
and h i s g e n u in e l o v e f o r hum anity made him c o n s c io u s o f
s o c i a l n e e d s . H is a t t i t u d e o f th e e q u a l i t y o f a l l m ankind
i n t h e s i g h t o f God made i t p o s s i b l e f o r him t o s e n s e a
p o s s i b l e f u t u r e s o c i e t y i n w h ich th e l i b e r t i e s and r i g h t s
o f man w ould be more g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n iz e d .
288
As a r e s u l t o f h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , he became con
v in c e d t h a t th 6 m ost p r e s s in g n eed o f h i s t im e , and t h e
f i e l d i n w hich h e c o u ld u s e h i s t a l e n t s to t h e b e s t advan
t a g e , w as i n th e e d u c a t io n o f t h e p u b lic t o a r e c o g n i t i o n
o f needed s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l a d ju stm e n t to c o rr esp o n d to
t h e c a t a c ly s m ic s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l u p h e a v a ls . He t h e r e
f o r e s e t h i m s e l f to t h e H e r c u le a n t a s k , among o t h e r s , o f
r e - o r g a n i z i n g th e e d u c a t io n a l s t r u c t u r e and s e t t i n g up an
e d u c a t io n a l p h ilo s o p h y and p r a c t i c e s u i t e d to th 6 New A ge,
H is m ost im portant* s i n g l e w ork, e d u c a t i o n a l l y , i s
h i s 0j3 D i s c i p l i n i s , w ith i t s two s e c t i o n s , v i z . , The Cor
r u p tio n o f t h e A r t s , and The T r a n sm iss io n o f K n ow led ge.
The C o r r u p tio n o f th e A r ts d e s c r i b e s i n d e t a i l con tem p ora ry
e d u c a tio n and g i v e s t h e h i s t o r y o f e d u c a tio n from e a r l i e s t
t im e s . The T r a n s m is s io n o f K nowledge a p p ro a ch es t h e problem
o f e d u c a tio n from t h e b a s i s o f a p p lie d p s y c h o lo g y and co n
t a i n s t h e w h o le f i e l d o f e d u c a t io n a l th e o r y and p r a c t i c e .
In a d d i t i o n , i t sum m arizes t h e c u lt u r e o f t h e r a c e to d a t e ,
d i s c u s s e s th e im p o r ta n t w r i t i n g s and a c h ie v e m e n ts , and l i s t s
and e v a lu a t e s t h e i r t i t l e s and a u th o r s . T h is o n e book s e t s
up e d u c a t io n a l g o a l s , e x p l a in s m eth o d s, d i s c u s s e s t h e educa
t i o n a l program from in f a n c y to o ld a g e , i n c l u d e s t h e d u t i e s ,
q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , a n d ' t r a i n i n g o f t e a c h e r s , s c h o o l o r g a n iz a t io n
and a d m i n is t r a t i o n , a n d , f i n a l l y , c o n c lu d e s w it h th e t r i a l s
and p i t f a l l s o f w o u ld -b e a u t h o r s .
£89
The T r a n s m is s io n o f K now ledge was p r o b a b ly th e f i r s t
t e x t t o be b a se d on th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f p s y c h o l o g ic a l p r i n
c i p l e s o f l e a r n i n g . I t was t h e o n ly t r e a t i s e , w it h th e
e x c e p t io n o f Q u i n t i l i a n * s I n s t i t u t e s o f O r a to r y , up t o t h e
s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , to be w r i t t e n s p e c i f i c a l l y on t h e t h e o r y
and p r a c t i c e o f e d u c a t io n , in c lu d i n g s u b j e c t c o n te n t f o r a
w h ole e d u c a t io n a l program . Y i v e s , w as, t h e r e f o r e , known
among h i s c o n te m p o r a r ie s a s t h e S econ d Q u i n t i l i a n .
T iv es* i n s i g h t i n t o p r o b a b le s o c i a l e v o lu t io n l e d
him to s u g g e s t d r a s t i c ch an ges i n t h e e d u c a tio n a l p r o c e s s .
H is r e v o lu t io n a r y s u g g e s t io n s were so e s s e n t i a l l y modern
t h a t ) t h e y a re n o t y e t f u l l y in c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t o d a y ’ s
e d u c a t io n a l p r a c t i c e . The m ost im p o r ta n t o f t h e s e modern
v ie w p o in t s a r e : (1) i n d u c t iv e r e a s o n in g ; (2) s e n s e o b s e r
v a t i o n s ; (3) l o v e o f n a tu r e ; (4 ) e d u c a t io n a l p r a c t i c e
ba sed on la w s o f l e a r n i n g ; (5) r e c o g n i t i o n o f i n d iv i d u a l
d i f f e r e n c e s ; (6) d i f f e r e n t i a t e d program s; (7) s o c i a l ed u ca
t i o n ; (8) h i s t o r y from an e v o lu t io n a r y v ie w p o in t; (9) u s e
o f th e v e r n a c u la r ; (10) h e a l t h program ; (11) r e c r e a t i o n
program s; (12) t r a i n i n g o f t h e e m o tio n s; (13) c o n t a c t w ith
t h e p r a c t i c a l a r t s , in c lu d in g commerce and in d u s tr y ; and
(14) t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f know ledge to t h e common g o o d .
B ecau se o f t h e s e p r a c t i c a l in n o v a t io n s and b e c a u s e ,
from t h e r o o t s o f t h e p a s t , he f o r e - c a s t t h e f u t u r e , sh ed d in g
l i g h t on t h e e d u c a t io n a l road t o com e, Y iv e s i s a l s o known
290
a s on e o f t h e g r e a t W ay-B reakers o f h i s t o r y ; t h o s e g r e a t
i n d i v i d u a l s who com e, o c c a s i o n a l l y , a t tim e o f m ajor s o c i a l
t r a n s i t i o n s t o g a th e r up t h e t h r e a d s o f th e p a s t and weave
them in t o t h e s tr a n d s o f th e f u t u r e . I n h i s own w ords ”1
s e e from th e d e p th s a change i s co m in g , Amongst a l l n a t i o n s
men a re s p r in g in g u p , o f c l e a r i n t e l l e c t . . . . They a re
c a l l i n g t h e i r f e l l o w c i t i z e n s t o l i b e r t y .
CONCLUSIONS
I n o r d e r to a p p r e c ia t e t h e e d u c a t io n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e
o f th e r e v i v a l o f i n t e r e s t i n V iv e s t h r e e o t h e r im p o rta n t
q u e s t io n s m ust be an sw ered : (1) I s t h e r e a r e v i v a l o f
i n t e r e s t i n V ives? (2) By whom i s t h i s r e a p p e a r a n c e spon
so red ? and (3) w hat are th e e d u c a t io n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s , i f
a n y , i n t h e p u b l i c a t i o n s o n , o r b y , V iv e s now a p p e a r in g i n
th e l i t e r a t u r e o f to d a y ?
The in t r o d u c t o r y c h a p te r o f t h i s stu d y h a s i n d ic a t e d
t h a t th e r e v i v a l o f i n t e r e s t i n V iv e s in S p a in b egan a f t e r
th e p a s s io n s o f t h e I n q u i s i t i o n had su b s id e d and a f t e r
S p a in , h a v in g f a c e d th e l o s s o f g r e a t p a r t o f h e r im p e r ia l
em p ir e , began an i n t e r n a l r e o r g a n i z a t i o n . In 1782 th e
e x p e n s iv e e ig h t-v o lu m e d e d i t i o n o f v i v e s ’ l i f e and w orks
was p u b lis h e d u n d er t h e a u s p ic e s o f th e A rch b ish op o f
1
S e e p . 1 3 0 , i n f r a .
2 9 1
V a le n c ia . The tim e ch o sen was r a t h e r u n fo r t u n a t e b e c a u s e ,
s h o r t l y a f t e r , th e w h ole o f Europe was in v o lv e d i n t h e
r e p e r c u s s io n s o f t h e F ren ch R e v o lu t io n , i n t h e m id d le o f
th e n in e t e e n t h c e n tu r y , 1 8 4 1 , th e U n i v e r s i t y o f L o u v a in
d e c id e d t o do h on or t o V iv e s and com m ission ed A. J . Nameche
t o w r it e a monograph on h i s l i f e and w o r k s. In Germany,
F . Jk. Lange w r o te h i s fam ous monograph L u d o v ic u s V i v e s ,
p u b lis h e d i n t h e 1 8 7 0 ’ s . T h is monograph d i s c u s s e d , a t
l e n g t h , th e p e d a g o g ic a l i n f l u e n c e o f V iv e s , p o i n t i n g ou t
th e many i n s t a n c e s i n w h ich im p o r ta n t e d u c a t io n a l p r i n c i
p l e s e n u n c ia te d by V iv e s i n h i s w orks had b een p u b l i c i z e d
by l a t e r a u th o r s who w ere g iv e n c r e d i t f o r w hat had ,
a p p a r e n t ly , b e e n borrow ed from V i v e s .
B o n i l l a , i n 1 9 0 3 , p u b lis h e d un der th e a u s p i c e s o f
t h e S p a n is h R oyal Academy o f M oral and P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e ,
h i s th r e e -v o lu m e d e d i t i o n o f L u is V iv e s £ l a F i l o s o f i a d e l
R e n a c im in e to , i n w h ich he d e s c r i b e s i n s c h o l a r l y d e t a i l th e
l i f e and works o f V iv e s and r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e , e d i t i o n s
and t r a n s l a t i o n s .
Woodward, i n 1 9 0 6 , i n h i s r e s e a r c h on R e n a is s a n c e
e d u c a t io n , c a l l e d a t t e n t i o n to th e f a c t t h a t p r a c t i c a l l y
none o f V i v e s ’ im p o r ta n t e d u c a t io n a l w orks w ere a v a i l a b l e
f o r E n g lis h s t u d e n t s . W atson ’ s t r a n s l a t i o n s and c o m p ila
t i o n s f o llo w e d m aking a v a i l a b l e t o E n g lis h sp e a k in g s t u d e n t s
292
V ives* T r a n s m is s io n o f K n ow led ge, L a t in D i a l o g u e s , Educa
t i o n o f a C h r i s t i a n Woman ( i n p a r t) , and t h e P la n s o f S tu d y
f o r Young P e o p l e , S p a in in 1 9 1 9 , and 1928 p r in t e d r e v is e d
S p a n is h t r a n s l a t i o n s o f t h e L a t in D ia lo g u e s . E n g la n d ,
1 9 3 1 , p u b lis h e d a r e v i s e d L a t in t e x t o f th e same w ork.
V iv e s* g r e a t s c i e n t i f i c t e x t on t h e T r a n sm iss io n o f
K now ledge was p u b lis h e d i n German t r a n s l a t i o n , 1 912; in
E n g lis h , by W atson , 1 9 1 3 ; a r e p r in t o f 1528 e d i t i o n was
made i n S p a in , 1 9 3 6 . V iv e s E d u c a tio n o f a C h r is t ia n Woman
was p a r t i a l l y r e p r in t e d i n E n g lis h , 1 9 1 2 ; p u b lis h e d in
Germany i n 191 2 ; and r e p r in t e d i n S p a n is h , 1 9 2 3 .
A c t iv e c e n t e r s f o r r e s e a r c h on V iv e s a r e V a le n c ia
U n i v e r s i t y , L o u v a in U n i v e r s i t y , and O xford U n i v e r s i t y . To
d a t e , t h e r e i s no e v id e n c e to p rove t h e e x i s t e n c e o f any
d e f i n i t e c e n t e r o f stu d y on V iv e s i n U n ite d S t a t e s a lth o u g h
2
r e f e r e n c e s to V iv e s a re becom ing i n c r e a s i n g l y f r e q u e n t .
I t sh o u ld be rem arked t h a t th e modern t r a n s l a t o r s and
s c h o la r s c o n n e c te d w ith t h e r e v i v a l o f V iv es* works a re
p e r s o n s o f r e p u te in s c h o l a s t i c c i r c l e s .
B e fo r e p a s s in g on to t h e p h ase o f e d u c a tio n a l
i m p l i c a t i o n s i n V iv es* r e v i v a l , i t m ig h t be w e l l to summarize
b r i e f l y h i n t s throw n o u t d u rin g t h e p r o g r e s s o f th e stu d y a s
to th e r e a s o n s fo r V iv e s* tem porary e c l i p s e . He rem ained
2
S e e p p . 1 - 3 , 8 - 1 2 , 2 0 - 2 1 , i n f r a .
293
a C a t h o l i c — th u s h i s w orks w ere n o t p u sh ed i n P r o t e s t a n t
c i r c l e s . In common w it h M ore, h e denounced Henry V I I I * s
d iv o r c e p r o c e e d in g s . More was beheaded; V iv e s b a n ish e d
from E n glan d . I n P r a n c e , he c h a lle n g e d th e a u t h o r i t y o f
t h e Sorbon ne and tu r n e d t h e l i g h t o f p u b l i c i t y on t h e i r
e d u c a t io n a l s h o r t - c o m in g s . I n S p a in , he a n ta g o n iz e d t h e
I n q u i s i t i o n by h i s C om m entaries on S t . A u g u stin e* s
’’C i v i t a t e D e i H e o u tr a g e d t h e M endicant O rders by
s u g g e s t in g t h e i r work be tu r n e d o v e r to c i v i c a u t h o r i t i e s .
S p a n ia r d s w ere m ost u n p o p u la r i n F ra n ce b e c a u se o f K ing
F erdinan d’s I t a l i a n a m b itio n s ; i n E n glan d , b e c a u s e o f th e
a fte r m a th o f C a th e r in e o f A ragon ’ s d iv o r c e ; i n th e N e th e r
l a n d s , b e c a u se o f P h i l i p I I ’ s f a n a t i c is m and t h e I n q u i s i
t i o n . V iv e s w as proud o f b e in g a S p a n ia r d and to o k p le a s u r e
i n r e f e r r i n g to h i s S p a n is h o r i g i n .
A sid e from t h e s e p o s s i b l e c a u s e s o f su b m ergen ce, no
r e fo r m e r i s p o p u la r i n h i s own day i n t h e m id st o f c la s h in g
p r e j u d i c e s and u p r o o te d t r a d i t i o n a l t h o u g h t . In f a c t ,
i d e o l o g i s t s o f th e e r u d it e ty p e w r i t e f o r a v ery sm a ll and
v e r y advanced p u b l i c . B eca u se o f t h e i r p r e s e n t a t i o n o f
u n b ia s e d e v id e n c e on c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s , h ow ever, th e y
become v e r y im p o r ta n t to h i s t o r i a n s and s c h o la r s o f l a t e r
c e n t u r i e s . V i v e s ’ w orks th u s becom e o f v a lu e to s c h o l a r s
to d a y b e c a u se he summ arized t h e l e a d in g p h i l o s o p h i e s o f
2 9 4
t h o s e who p r e c e d e d him ; brough t e x i s t i n g kn ow led ge up to
d a te ; gave a c o m p lete b ib lio g r a p h y o f w orks o f im p o rta n ce
up to and i n c lu d i n g h i s own t im e s ; d ia g n o se d t h e i l l s o f
h i s own s o c i a l o r d e r ; and p ro p o sed r e m e d ie s .
E d u c a tio n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f V iv es* r ea p p e a ra n ce i n
l i t e r a t u r e may b e sum m arized as f o l l o w s :
1 . Our contem p orary t r a n s i t i o n p e r io d i s f a c i n g
p rob lem s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e w hich c o n fr o n te d V iv e s , such a s :
g o v ern m en ta l ch an ge, r e l i g i o u s u p s e t s , ou tgrow n e d u c a t io n a l
p h ilo s o p h y and p r a c t i c e , p o v e r t y , s h i f t i n g sta n d a r d s o f
v a l u e s , d is r e g a r d o f la w , a l l form s o f c u l t u r a l l a g , and
w ar. V i v e s , ranked a s one o f t h e t h r e e g r e a t e s t s c h o l a r s
o f h i s a g e , was th e o n ly g r e a t Humanist t o w r it e e x p o s it o r y
t r e a t i s e s on s o c i a l and e d u c a t io n a l refo rm . M ost o f h i s
c o n te m p o r a r ie s w ro te s a t i r e s , o r c lo a k e d t h e i r o p in io n s
u n d er o t h e r l e s s d an gero u s form s o f w r i t i n g . V ives*
d i a g n o s i s and s u g g e s t e d r e m e d ie s f o r t h e i l l s o f h i s age
s h o u ld , t h e r e f o r e , b e o f v a lu e t o to d a y * s t h i n k i n g .
2 . V iv e s e x p o s e d , p i t i l e s s l y bu t im p e r s o n a lly , th e
outgrow n p h ilo s o p h y and cu stom s o f h i s t i m e s . H is w orks
a r e , t h e r e f o r e , o f v a lu e n o t o n ly a s a p i c t u r e o f h i s tim e s
b u t , a l s o , f o r t h e h i s t o r i c a l resume he g i v e s on man’ s
c u l t u r e from th e o r i g i n s o f c i v i l i z a t i o n up to h i s own d ay.
5 . V iv e s en d eav ored to e s t a b l i s h a b a se from w h ich
t o s e n s e th e coming a g e by u n if y in g fo u r g r e a t a s p e c t s o f
295
d evelop m en t: (a) th e p h ilo s o p h y o f P l a t o , S o c r a t e s , and t h e
S t o i c s ; (b) t h e p o l i t i c s and e n c y lc o p e d ic resu m es o f
A r i s t o t l e i n th e f i e l d s o f s c i e n c e and l e t t e r s ; (c) th e
C h r is t ia n S o c i a li s m o f t h e e a r ly C h r i s t i a n s ; and (d) Quin
t i l i a n ’ s e d u c a t io n a l p h ilo s o p h y and program o f e d u c a t io n .
To t h e s e fo u r p h a se s o f human d e v e lo p m e n t, he added th e
work- o f S t . A u g u stin e w hose h i s t o r y o f C h r is t ia n a d a p ta tio n
o f pagan p h i l o s o p h i e s he r e s t o r e d and e d i t e d w ith comments;
th e work o f A quinas and o t h e r m e d ia e v a l s c h o l a r s ; and,
f i n a l l y , t h e work o f contem porary H u m a n ists. From t h i s
c o m p o site b a se he a tte m p te d to v i s u a l i z e th e n e e d s o f t h e
a p p ro a ch in g new age*
4 . Some o f V i v e s ’ c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o th e e d u c a tio n and
c u lt u r e o f th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y a r e:
a* He brough t a l l a v a i l a b l e kn ow led ge i n l e t t e r s
and s c i e n c e up to d a t e .
b . He s e t f o r t h a new e d u c a t io n a l p h ilo s o p h y ;
and r e a f fir m e d th e b a s i c t r u t h s and u n d e r ly in g p h ilo s o p h y
or t h e C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n .
c . He in tr o d u c e d th e c o n c e p tio n o f man a s a
s o c i a l b e in g w ith in h e r e n t r i g h t s i n t h e s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l
o r d e r .
d . He r i d i c u l e d th e w o rsh ip o f a u t h o r i t y , r o t e
m e m o r iz a tio n , and c o n t e n t io u s D i a l e c t i c s a d v o c a ted by t h e
Sorbonne*
296
e . He em p h asized t h e f a c t o f an e v o lv in g
c i v i l i z a t i o n , and p le a d e d r o r th e u s e o f h i s t o r i c a l p e r
s p e c t iv e *
f . He s u g g e s te d t h e t r a n s f e r o f th e d i r e c t i o n
o f e d u c a t io n a l t r a i n i n g and s o c i a l w e lfa r e from a t h e o
c r a t i c t o a c i v i l b a s i s .
g . He p o in t e d o u t t h a t th e mere p o s s e s s i o n o f
know ledge was f a r l e s s im p o r ta n t than th e manner i n w h ich
su ch kn ow led ge was p u t to u s e .
h . He a d v o c a te d t h e need o f an open m ind, t h e
a n a l y s i s o f e x p e r i e n c e , i n d u c t iv e r e a s o n in g , and s c i e n t i f i c
i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
i . He a d v is e d t h e stu d y o f h y g ie n e , d i e t , emo
t i o n a l c o n t r o l , f a c i l i t i e s f o r r e c r e a t i o n and t h e c u l t i v a
t i o n o f a jo y i n n a t u r a l b e a u t i e s and phenomena.
j . W hile h e c o n s id e r e d h i s t o r y t h e m ost im por
t a n t o f t h e d i s c i p l i n e s , he s t r e s s e d t h e im p o rta n ce o f
la n g u a g e a s a t o o l f o r s o c i a l i z a t i o n . He en cou raged th e
u s e o f th e v e r n a c u la r and recommended i t s b e in g ta u g h t i n
th e e a r l y s c h o o l y e a r s . He s t r e s s e d t h e f u n c t i o n a l t e a c h
in g o f L a t in r a th e r th a n fo rm a l grammar.
k . H is e d u c a t io n a l program in c lu d e d a k n ow led ge
o f t h e s o c i a l a r t s , c r a f t s , and in d u s t r y .
1 . He aim ed a t th e f u l l d evelo p m en t o f t h e
i n d i v i d u a l — i n t e l l e c t u a l , p h y s i c a l , s o c i a l , e m o t io n a l, and
s p i r i t u a l ,
297
5 . V iv es* De T r a d e n d is D i s c i p l i n i s was t h e o n ly
e d u c a tio n a l t r e a t i s e , from th e tim e o f Q u i n t i l i a n ’ s
I n s t i t u t e s o f O r a to r y , w hich o u t l i n e d a f u l l program o f
t r a i n i n g . I t i s , p r o b a b ly , th e f i r s t e d u c a t io n a l t e x t b a sed
on a p p lie d p s y c h o lo g y .
6 . V ives* t r e a t i s e A g a in s t th e F a l s e D i a l e c t i c i a n s
i s h i s t o r i c a l l y im p o r ta n t b e c a u se i t was th e f i r s t open
a t t a c k on th e S o rb o n n e’ s p o s i t i o n i n th e b lo c k in g o f ed u ca
t i o n a l p r o g r e s s .
7 . V ives* h a s b een c l a s s e d a s a "W ay-Breaker ,* * i . e ; ,
a man o f t h e c e n t u r i e s who a p p ea r s o n ly i n g r e a t t r a n s i t i o n
p e r io d s and s e t s t h e g o a l f o r su c c e e d in g e r a s .
The u n d e r ly in g p u rp o se o f t h i s stu d y was to compare
th e R e n a is s a n c e t r a n s i t i o n p e r io d o f V ives* 1?imes w ith t h e
t r a n s i t i o n p e r io d o f to d a y . By u s in g t h e p e r s o n a l i t y o f
V iv e s a g a i n s t th e background o f t h e f i r s t f o r t y y e a r s o f
t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y and by d e s c r i b in g th e fo r m a tiv e
i n f l u e n c e s o f h i s l i f e so t h a t h i s v ie w p o in t m ight be un der
s t o o d , i t was hoped t h a t t h e s c h o l a r ’ s w orld o f t h e tim e
m ig h t be v i s u a l i z e d . By r e v ie w in g a s e l e c t e d p o r t i o n o f
V ives* w ork s, t h o s e d e a l in g w ith human r e l a t i o n s h i p s and
l y i n g p r im a r ily i n t h e s o c i o - e d u c a t i o n a l f i e l d , i t seemed
p o s s i b l e to b r in g o u t t h e l e a d in g s o c i a l p rob lem s o f th e
d a y , t o g e t h e r w ith V ives* s u g g e s t e d r e fo r m s .
298
H aving th u s i s o l a t e d t h e a r e a s o f s o c i a l m a la d j u s t
m e n ts, i t w as n e c e s s a r y t o s e t up s o c i o l o g i c a l c r i t e r i a f o r
p u r p o se s o f com p arison b etw een th e two c e n t u r i e s . The
r e a s o n f o r t h e s e com p a rison s was t o f in d p o i n t s o f s i m i l a r i t y
and o f d iv e r g e n c e i n th e u p h e a v a ls o f t h e s e w id ely - s e p a r a te d
e r a s . S h o u ld t h e r e be such b a s e s o f com p arison , n o t o n ly
w ould t h e r e a p p e a ra n ce o f V iv e s be p a r t i a l l y a c co u n ted f o r .
but a stu d y o f h i s w orks would be o f g r e a t v a l u e . He was
t h e o n ly g r e a t s c h o la r o f h i s c e n tu r y t o p r e s e n t f a c t u a l
in fo r m a tio n ; e x p la in th e c a u s e s f o r e x i s t i n g c o n d i t i o n s ;
make an im p a r t ia l d i a g n o s i s o f s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y s o c i a l
p ro b lem s i n te r m s o f h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e ; and s u g g e s t
o b j e c t i v e s and r e m e d ie s . H is p r o l i f i c w r i t i n g s b ro u g h t
t h e le a r n in g o f h i s age up to d a t e , t r a c e d th e e v o lu t io n
o f th e se v e n L ib e r a l A r ts from t h e i r b e g in n in g s , a tte m p te d
to s y n t h e s i z e th e v a r io u s pagan and C h r is t ia n p h i l o s o p h i e s ,
and to s e t up a c c e p t a b le sta n d a r d s o f b e h a v io r and l e a r n i n g .
S i n c e e v e r y s o c i a l o r d e r h a s i t s r o o t s i n t h e p a s t , s c h o l a r s
o f tod ay would b e much h e lp e d th ro u g h a stu d y o f V ives*
w orks from w hich th e y m igh t s e n s e t h e n e e d s o f t h e f u t u r e in
t h i s g e n e r a t i o n ’ s ’’new a g e .”
V iv es* w o rk s, t h e n , a r e o f g r e a t s i g n i f i c a n c e and h i s
r e v i v a l i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f th e day i s v e r y im p o rta n t i n
s o c i o - e d u c a t i o n a l p la n n in g . H is w orks are im p o r ta n t h i s
t o r i c a l l y , f o r p u r p o se s o f com p arison w ith t o d a y ’ s u p h e a v a ls ,
299
and a s a sp r in g -b o a r d f o r p r o g n o s is as t o t h e n e e d s o f
t h e f u t u r e .
FUTURE RESEARCH
The m ost im p o r ta n t c o n t r ib u t io n a t p r e s e n t v/ould be
th e t r a n s l a t i o n in t o E n g lis h o f c e r t a i n b a s ic w orks o f
F i v e s , such as: De Anima e t F i t a , h i s t e x t on p s y c h o lo g y ;
De I n i t i i s , S e c t i s , e t L au d ib u s P h i l o s o p h i a e , t h e h i s t o r y o f
th e o r i g i n s o f p h ilo s o p h y ; D «e C a u s is Corruptarum A r tiu m ,
t h e c a u s e s o f t h e c o r r u p tio n o f th e a r t s ; De F e r i t a t e F i d e i
C h r i s t i a n a s , a resum e o f C h r is t ia n and pagan r e l i g i o n s , w ith
an e f f o r t t o f i n d a common d en o m in a to r; a more c o m p lete
t r a n s l a t i o n o f D e* S u b v e n tio n s Pauperum , th e R e l i e f o f t h e
P o o r , and o f De I n s t i t u t i o n e C h r is t ia n a s F em ln a e .
There a r e many o t h e r t o p i c s w hich m igh t be s u g g e s te d
such a s (1) a com p arison o f Dam’ s and R e i s e r ’ s c r i t i c i s m s
o f t h e p r e s e n t age w ith t h o s e o f F iv e s i n h i s C o r r u p tio n o f
t h e A r t s ; (2) an e x p a n sio n o f th e j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e t i t l e
"Second Q u i n t i l i a n ” ; and a com p arison b etw een th e g o a l s s e t
f o r t h by F iv e s and th e e d u c a tio n o f th e l a s t f o u r c e n t u r i e s
i n a c t u a l p r a c t i c e .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Asset Metadata

Creator Mecredy, Mary Florence (author)

Core Title The socio-educational significance of the revival of interest in the works of Juan Luis Vives

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, sociology of,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-408048

Unique identifier UC11244023

Identifier usctheses-c26-408048 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP23464.pdf

Dmrecord 408048

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Mecredy, Mary Florence

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA