The origin, philosophy, and development of education among the Mennonites

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Content THE ORIGIN, PHILOSOPHY, AND DEVELOPMENT OP EDUCATION AMOw/j THE MENNONITES A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Department of Education University of Southern California In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy by M. S. Harder June, 1949 UMI Number: DP23987 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Pubi sh»ng UMI DP23987 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 d' 4' Pk- P Ed'yf H s > sp T his dissertation, w ritte n by - ......... MENNO.. SIMON. HARDER...... under the guidance of h,I s . . . F a cu lty Comm ittee on Studies, and approved by a ll its members, has been presented to and accepted by the C o u n c il on Graduate Study and Research, in p a rtia l f u l fillm e n t of requirements fo r the degree of D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y ..... Dean D a te ..J .\k X l3 ....1 3 .\± 3 ................................. I ^ qJa & Committee on Studies 4 ) t I Q j g C G T L] I Chmrman ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The writer is indebted to Dr. C* Krahn, Professor of Church History at Bethel College, North Newton, Kansas, also editor of Mennonite Life and librarian of the Mennonite Histor ical Library in Bethel College* Dr* Krahn, who received his education in Mennonite schools in Russia and in universities of Germany and Holland, read the entire dissertation to check for error of fact and validity of interpretation* Acknowledgement is also made to a number of individuals who read certain sections of the study* J. P. Rogalsky, Pro fessor German and Mennonite History at Tabor College, Hills boro, Kansas, read the chapter dealing with Mennonite educa tion in, Russia. Professor Rogalsky was a teacher for twenty years in the Zentralschule at Dawlekanowo, in the province of Ufa, Russia. Dr. E. G* Kaufman, President of Bethel Col lege, North Newton, Kansas, read the chapter on Mennonite education in the United States. Dr. Kaufman wrote his doc toral dissertation at the University of Chicago on the prob- 1em, The Development of the Missionary and Philanthropic Interest among the Mennonites of North America. Dr* J. Win field Fret2, Professor of Sociology at Bethel College, North Newton, Kansas, read the section on education among the Mennonites in Mexico. Dr. Fretz»s firsthand experiences with the Mennonites in Mexico permitted him to read critic ally the designated section of this study. Waldo Hiebert, il Professor of Bible and Religious Education at Tabor College, Hillsboro, Kansas, read the section dealing with education among the Mennonites in Paraguay, Professor Hiebert spent two year (194-6-194-3) as teacher in the Fernheim Zentral schule in the newly organized colony in the Gran Chaco, Paraguay. Dr. H. A. Fast, Dean of the Bible Department at Bethel College, North Newton, Kansas, and vice-president of the Mennonite Central Committee, read the chapter on Mennonite education in Latin America. Dr. Fast is well acquainted, as a result of his extensive travels, with the Mennonites in Europe and South America. Acknowledgement is also made to presidents, principals, and teachers in Mennonite educational institutions for fill ing in questionnaires and responding kindly to special re quests for information. Without their help, this study would not have been complete. To many others whose names cannot all be listed, the writer*s slncerest appreciations are herewith expressed. The writer is greatly indebted to the University of Southern California in whose classrooms he completed his graduate work in education. The final words of gratitude and acknowledgement go to Dr. D. Welty LeFever, under whose guidance this study was made. — M. S. Harder North Newton, Kansas Kay, 19^9 TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PACE I, THE PROBLEM................................... 1 Statement of the Problem..................... 2 Justification of the study................... * 4 - Related investigations .... ................ 6 The procedure............................... 9 Organization of the dissertation............. . 10 II. THE ROOTS OF MENNONITISM....................... 16 The Reformation............... . . 16 The Anabaptists................................IS Menno Simons....................................22 Who are the Menno nites today?..................3° V III. EDUCATION AMONG THE MENNONITES IN WESTERN EUROPE . 37 Holland ............. 3$ Education among the Mennonites in Holland . . * 4 * 3 The early attitude toward education ... * 4 - 3 No Mennonite school system in Holland . . W- The Mennonite Seminary at Amsterdam ... * 4 - 5 Educational Foundations . . ................ 5° The Teyler Institute ................... 5° The Society for the Public Good ..... 52 Swlt zer l a n d ....................................53 Moravia ........................... ’. . 60 The schools of the Hutterian Brethren .... 6k ill iv CHAPTER PAGE A Hutterite School Discipline of 157$ and Peter Scherer*s Address to the schoolmasters.......................... 66 Germany........................................70 Education and the Mennonites in Germany ... 72 Realanstalt am Donnersberg ......... 73 France................. 77 The Mennonite school at Exincourt............ 7$ Summary........................... 79 IV. MENNONITE EDUCATION UNDER THE CZARS.............. S2 The pioneer years in South Russia . .......... $5 The establishment of Mennonite colonies ... 65 The first schools in the Chortitza Colony . . S9 The first schools in the Molotschna Colony . 93 The development of secondary education ..... 9^ The Ohrloff Zentralschule becomes a pattern . 9^ Teachers giving direction to the development of the Ohrloff and Chortitza Zentral- sohulen............. 95 Tobias V o t h .............................. 95 Heinrich Heese............. 99 Heinrich Franz...........................103 The achievements of Voth, Heese, and Franz . 105 The reforms of Johann Cornies ................ 106 The Agricultural Union.....................106 CHAPTER PAGE Johann Cornies, the Great Reformer ........ log The Agricultural Unions promotion of educa tion ........................... 112 General Rules Concerning Instruction and Treatment of School Children ............ 119 Cornies outlined a curriculum .............. 12^ The educational achievements of the Agricul tural Union.............................125 The Golden Age of Mennonite education in South Russia, lg^g-1917 ......................... 127 The schools under the Board of Education . . 127 The development of village elementary schools..................... ljl The development of the Zentralschulen from 1S22 to 1 9 1 0.............................llW Other Mennonite educational institutions . . 151 Mennonite education under communism .......... 161 Summary.......................................172 V. EDUCATION AMONG THE MENNONITES IN THE UNITED STATES................................. 175 Mennonites in New Netherland................... 176 The educational ideas of Pieter Cornells Plockhoy.................................17$ The meaning of Plockhoyfs educational phil- o sophy...................................l g ^ i - Vi CHAPTER PAGE Mennonites in Pennsylvania ......... 1S6 Education among the Mennonites in Pennsyl vania ............................. 190 Christopher Dock, the Pious Schoolmaster on the Skippack....................... 192 Christopher Dock and his principles of ed ucation ............................... 195 The Pennsylvania Mennonites in Conflict with the developing state public school system................................. 202 The Amish and education................... 206 The Mennonites from Russia................... 215 German elementary schools ................. 217 Conflict between the German schools and the state district schools ............. 222 Efforts to improve instruction ........... 226 The German preparatory schools ........... 239 The Hutterian Mennonites..................... 252 The educational system among the Hutterites 25^ Modern education threatens the Hutterian social order . ........... 257 Secondary education among the Mennonites in the United States......................... 260 Mennonite high schools................. 260 Public high schools in Mennonite commun ities ................................. 26S vi I CHAPTER PAGE Collegiate education among the Mennonites in the United States ................. 271 Mennonite educational ventures that would not take r o o t ......................... 271 Freeland Seminary ..................... 27^ The Wadsworth School................... 2SO Halstead Seminary. ........... 290 Elkhart Institute ..................... 3°° Central Mennonite College ....... 3 0 * 1 * The Mennonite Brethren in Christ Sem inary and Bible Training School . . . 310 The German Department at McPherson College .......... ......... 312 Witmarsum Theological Seminary .......... 316 The church-related colleges established by the Mennonites in the United States .... 321 Bethel College, North Newton, Kansas . . . 330 Bethel College, Mishawaka, Indiana .... 3 3 * 1 * Bluffton College, Bluffton, Ohio ..... 335 Eastern Mennonite College, Harrisonburg, Virginia............................. 339 Freeman Junior College, Freeman, South Da kota ........... . 3^2 Goshen College, Goshen, Indiana........... 3*14 Hesston College and Bible School, Hesston, Kansas ......................... 3^7 viii CHAPTER PACE Tabor College, Hillsboro, Kansas . . . . . . 3^9 The rise of Bible institutes among the Mennon ites ................................. 352 Grace Bible Institute, Omaha, Nebraska . . 35^ Pacific Bible Institute, Fresno, Califor nia ......................... 35g Theological Seminary education among the Men nonites ....................... . ....... 361 The Mennonite Biblical Seminary and the Mennonite Bible School ................... 362 The Christian Day School movement .... . . 36S Summary of education among the Mennonites in the United States ..................... 370 VI. EDUCATION AMONG THE MENNONITES IN CANADA .... 375 Pennsylvania Mennonites into Ontario .......... 375 Elementary education in pioneer Ontario . . 377 Bible and secondary schools in Ontario . . 379 The Ontario Mennonite Bible School . . . 379 Emmanuel Bible School ................. 3^0 Russian1 1 Mennonites in Manitoba......... J&l - Conflicting ideas disturb Mennonite educa tion in Manitoba.................... 3$5 The conservative Old Colonists in conflict with the state 3^9 CHAPTER PAGE Accommodation paved the way for education al progress...................... 4-01 Building a Mennonite school system in Canada . 4-02 The Mennonite Collegiate Institute at Gret na, Manitoba 4{>3 The Rosthern Junior College ............... 4-11 The new Mennonite high school movement . . 4-17 Mennonite Educational Institute at Abbotsford, British Columbia .... 4-25 The Mennonite Brethren High School at Winnipeg, Manitoba ......... 4*28 Sharon Mennonite Collegiate Institute, Yarrow, British Columbia.......... 4-2g Rockaway Mennonite Bible School at Kitchener, Ontario . 4-29 United Mennonite Bible School, Leaming ton, Ontario .................... 4*29 The Alberta Mennonite High School, Coal- dale, Alberta................. . . 4-JO The Eden Bible and High School at Niag ara-on-the-Lake, Ontario........... 4*31 The Mennonite Educational Institute at Sardis, British Columbia ...... 4-31 The Steinbach Bible Academy at Stein- bach, Manitoba.................... 4*32 CHAPTER PAGE Mennonite Bible Schools in Canada .••••• 432 Mennonite Bible colleges in Canada . . • . • 442 Mennonite Brethren Bible College ......... 445 Canadian Mennonite Bible College • . . . • 450 Summary . . ........................................453 VII. 'MENNONITE EDUCATION IN THE LATIN AMERICAS .... 455 Mexico................................. 458 ^ A typical Mennonite school in Mexico .... 460 Paraguay..................................... • . 467 Education in the Menno colony ••••...• 470 Elementary education in the Fernheim. Colony • 475 Secondary education in the Fernheim Colony • 475 Education in the Friesland Colony............482 Brazil ........................................485 Argentina and Uruguay .... ... ... •••• 488 Summary ............................... 489 VIII. SUMMA.BY............................................491 Characteristics of Mennonite education • • • • • 494 Trends in Mennonite education •• . ............497 Recommendations for further research in Men- honite education ............................ 498 BIBLIOGRAPHY.............................................. 501 APPENDICES................................................ 511 A. The Education of Children, by Menno Simons .... 512 B. A Hutterite Bchool Discipline of 1578 fsic., 1568J CHAPTER PAGE and Peter Schererfs Address to the School masters ...... ................. . . • • • 582 C• General Rules Concerning the Instruction and the Treatment of School Children in the Molotschna Colony ... ..... ............ . . . . 545 D. School Management by Christopher Dock ...... 556 E. A Hundred Necessary Rules of Conduct for Chil dren, by Christopher Dock • 581 xii LIST OP TABLES Table Page I. Mennonite Denominations and Distribution by tries................................. . . 32 II. Mennonite Population Classified by Countries . 36 III. Mennonite Elementary Schools in Switzerland, 19i j - S - 1 9 ^ 9................. 59 IV. Mennonite Zentralsohulen in Russia...........1^3 V. The Curriculum in a Zentralschule , ........... 1^5 VI. A Typical Dally Class Schedule in an Early Mennonite Private German School . . ........ 220 VII. The Daily Program of the German Teachers Institute ........... 23a VIII. Mennonite Preparatory Schools, 187^-19^ . . . 2^3 IX. Mennonite Schools which Discontinued the Pre paratory Course............... 2^7 X. Courses of Study in Three Selected Prepara tory Schools Chronologically Spaced ........ 2^9 XI. Mennonite Schools Offering an Accredited High School Course ............................. 26l XII. Two-Xear Bible Course Offered in the Oklahoma Bible Academy............................... 267 XIII. Mennonite Educational Ventures that Would Not Take Root............................... 273 XIV. Stuhdenplan of the Emmatal Fortbildungs- Schule 1SS2-1S8>3, H. H. Ewert, Teacher . . 29^ xlli Table Page XV. Mennonite Colleges— Their Location, Organiza tion, and Constituency.......................323 XVI. Staff, Students, and Financial Quanta in Men nonite Colleges, November 1, 19*1-5............ 329 XVII. Mennonite Bible Institutes.................... 353 XVIII. Staff, Students, and Financial Quanta of Men nonite Bible Institutes.......................355 XIX. Mennonite Theological Seminary................366 XX. Staff, Students, and Financial Quanta of the Mennonite Biblical Seminary and Bible School........................... 367 % XXI. Christian Day Schools Operating in 19^6-19*47 and 19*1-7-19^5................................. 371 XXII. Mennonite Secondary Schools.................... ^15 XXIII. Courses of Study in Selected Mennonite High Schools............................... * . . . *1-23 XXIV. Mennonite Bible Schools in Canada * . * 4 * 3 3 XXV. Courses of Study in Selected Bible Schools Having Three-Year Programs...................* 1 - 3 7 XXVI. Courses of Study in Selected Bible Schools Offering Four-Year Programs.................. *1-39 XXVII. The Two-Year Christian Education Course (Steinbach Bible School, 19*4-6-19*1-7)......... ^ 3 XXVIII. Canadian Mennonite Bible Colleges..............* l 4 * l - xllr LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS Plate Page 1. Elementary Schools in Switzerland ......... 5^ 2. Elementary Schools in Switzerland (Continued). ... 55 3* Elementary Schools in Russia......... 113 *K Zentralschulen (For Boys)...........................1 * * - 1 5. Zentralschulen (For Boys, Continued)............... 1 * 1 - 2 6. Zentralschulen (For G-irls).........................1^9 7. School for Deaf and Dumb in Tiege, Molotschna . . . 15*J* S. A Mennonite High School in the United States .... 269 9. Early American Mennonite Schools of High Learning. . 275 10. Early American Mennonite Schools of Higher Learning (Continued) ... ...................... 2gl 11. One of Eight Mennonite Collegiate Institutions . . . 317 12. Bible Institutes ....... .................... 359 1 3. Canadian Mennonite High Schools ............. . * * - 2 6 1 * 1 - . Canadian Mennonite High Sdhools (Continued) .... * 1 * 2 7 1 5. Mennonite Education in Mexico.....................* } - 6* l - 16. Elementary Schools in Paraguay.....................* 1 * 7 3 17. Zentralschulen in Paraguay.........................* ! - £ & - CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Human culture is w fearfully and wonderfully made*1 1 It is a product of an accumulation of human achievements during the past centuries. Its makeup is both rich and complex. One of the many aspects of human culture is group life. Men have always lived in groups, and human history is primarily a history of group life. The human being, as Aristotle described him, is a social and political animal who finds associations with his fellow beings pleasant. It seems that his physical nature and biological equipment have compelled him to associate with his fellowmen in order to assure his existence, comfort, protection, and progress. If a group remains intact for a considerable length of time, it develops culture patterns of its own. Such a group becomes, as the sociologist calls it, a cultural group. In the world, cultural groups are both plentiful and well distributed. Among well-known cultural groups may be listed Mormons, Molokans, Eskimoes, and the subject of this thesis, the Mennonites. Edwar Sapir, in studying the characteristics of group life says: Any group is constituted by the fact that there is some interest which holds its members together. The community of interest may range from a passing event which assembles people in a momentary aggregate to a relatively permanent functional interest which creates and maintains a cohesive unit.l 2 " 3 Sorokin and Sapir-' have listed the common interests which lie at the basis of the formation of a group. They include political, economic, vocational, meliorative, pro pagandist, racial, territorial, and religious Interests. The relative Importance of these interests would be debat able. Many cultural groups would, undoubtedly, be the re sult of the operation of several factors. Religion was the main cause which brought into existence the Mennonites. They built, thus, a religlo-cultural group. In the course of their history which now covers a period of four hundred years they have experienced persecu tions, privations, and hardships interspersed with periods of great prosperity, freedom, and influence. To human culture they have made worthy contributions in economics, ethical living, mutual aid, religious values, and to education, which is described in the following pages. Statement of the problem. This study is an attempt to trace the origin and development of education among the “ ^Edward Sapir, “Groups," Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, Vol. VII, p. 179. p Pitirim Sorokin, Carle C. Zimmerman, and Charles J. Golpin, et. al., A Systematic Source Book in Rural Sociol ogy (Minneapolis: l/niversTIJy^? Minnesota Press, 193OTJ Vol. I, pp. 307-30S. ^Edward Sapir, o£. clt., p. 1S1. Mennonites scattered over three continents* It includes not only a story of their different types of schools but also a description of the educational philosophies, often a great source of conflict within the group, that have molded and shaped their educational systems* It is doubtful whether any cultural group has been more concerned that its youth get a Christian education than the Mennonites. Again and again, large groups left their established homes and commun ities for distant lands, promising educational as well as re ligious freedom. In Mennonite culture, religion and educa tion have been inseparable. One cannot exist without the other. The present work describes (1) the educational phil osophy and school organization that develop when Mennonitism is free to apply its principles. This study also shows (2) the nature of Mennonite education where prevailing govern ments exercise control, both limited and extreme, upon all education within those respective countries. In an attempt to trace the origin, philosophy, and i development of education among the Mennonites, it is neces sary to recognize the many different branches within the Mennonite Church, each of which clings tenaciously to its own peculiar beliefs and practices. What should be termed a "History1 1 of Mennonite Education must be named "Histories" of Mennonite Education* Differences in the culture found in such countries l i as Russia, United States, or Paraguay have exerted decided influences upon the Mennonites living within those territor ies, and those differences tend to develop not a Mennonite Educational System but Mennonite Educational Systems, These differences must take on meaning in this study. The real problem of this dissertation is to describe the origin, philosophy, and development of Mennonite educa tion through a period of four hundred years in all the di verse branches that emerged during that time in all the countries where they have found refuge, -Justification of the study. At all times it is de sirable for any Institution, yes, for any cultural group, to study itself and to ask; “ What is its contribution to the social welfare of humanity? Is the product worth the price? During the past several decades the Mennonites in the United States, particularly the younger generation, have expressed an awakening consciousness in their own historical heritage. They have been trying to determine the significance of the "Mennonite way of life," This new interest has stimulated a demand for Information or literature pertaining to different phases of their past. Since the story of educational activi ties among the Mennonites traced among all the branches from their beginning to the present time has not been written, this study will fill a definite need. This study can be Justified, however, from another standpoint. In America there has been an awakening con- 5 sciousness of minority groups. Their culture, their contri butions, and their human rights are given new recognition. Americans are developing an interest In the experiences of the minority groups which compose their population. As one of the minority groups, the Mennonites possess a long history of experiences, particularly in the realm of education. This study offers students of education the complete history of the educational activities of a distinct religious group. There Is a growing concern on the part of public officials, churchmen, educators, and parents at the lack of religious instruction in American education today. Luther A. Welgle, Dean of the Yale University Divinity School, has been saying over the land for many years: The secularization of public education in America has issued In a situation fraught with danger. The situation is such as to imperil, in time, the future of religion among the people, and, with religion the future of the nation itself. A system of public educ ation that gives no place to religion is not in reality neutral, but exerts an Influence, untintentional though ^ ^e> a-gaAflst religion. For the state not to include In Its educational program a definite recognition of the place and value of religion In human life is to convey to children, with all the prestige and authority of the school maintained by the state, the suggestion that religion has no real place and value. The omission of religion from the public schools of today conveys a condemnatory suggestion to the children. Mennonites have always been concerned about the educa tion of their children. That it must not lack the religious k Luther A. Weigle, Federal Council Bulletin, November- December, 1S2J, p. 20. I 6 emphasis has been one of the basic principles in Mennonitism. An account of the Mennonite educational activities is a re cord of a constant striving against the processes of secular ization. The achievements and mistakes revealed in the re cord can be of considerable value to those officials, church men, educators, and parents that would like to make education more religious. The increase in crime and Juvenile delinquency which has occurred in America concurrently with the marvelous growth and improvement of education has led many to challenge the efficacy of schools that exclude religious instruction. If the elimination of religious instruction from American schools has paved the way for the increase in crime and juvenile delinquency, then Mennonite educational philosophy and schools that emphasize Christian character have a con tribution to make to American life. Related investigations. In 1925 J* E. Hartzler wrote his doctoral dissertation at the Hartford Theological Seminary on Education among the Mennonites of America.^ His purpose was to present a body of educational and institution al facts and events sufficient to Justify general conclusions on their philosophy of education as well as to venture, at some hazards as he stated in his preface, a suggestive program 5John Ellsworth Hartzler, Education among the Mennon ites of America (Danvers, Illinois'! The Central Mennonlte PubXisEing Board, 1925), 195 pp. for future procedure within the denomination. The period covered extended from the first settlement in Pennsylvania in 16S3 to I925. The study included, apparently, all the distinct racial groups and sects or branches of the Mennonites, and their secular educational institutions and Sunday schools, Bible conferences, and other similar agencies. Some of the more critical students of Mennonite history have pointed to Inaccuracies of fact and have ques tioned certain interpretations. They claim, too, that cer tain pertinent facts have been entirely omitted. Educational activities of the Mennonites in both Canada and Mexico are not included. In his master*s thesis written at the University of Kansas, H. P. Peters developed the problem, The HIstory and Development of Education, among the Mennonites in Kan- £ sag. The study is inclusive but it covers only the history of the Mennonite education from 16>7^ to 1923 in one state. Three master*s theses dealing with the problem of religious education were written at the Witmarsum Theological Seminary^ during the few years that that school was in oper ation. In I92G John F. Moyer wrote his thesis on the theme, Religious Education in the Mennonite Churches Comprising the g H. P. Peters, History and Development of Education among the Mennonites in Kansas (Hillsboro, Kansas: Mennon ite BreTJKren Publishing House, 1925), 222 pp. ?Cf., Chapter V, pp. 316 to 321. g Middle District Conference. Chapters II and III give a sur vey of parochial and public school education in Mennonite communities in the states of Ohio, Indiana, and Pennsylvania. J. J. Voth dealt with the problem, Religious Education in the Mennonite Churches Comprising the Western District o Conference,J This study describes in a very brief manner religious and secular education in the churches of one dis trict conference comprising Kansas, Oklahoma, Colorado, and Nebraska. This thesis was particularly limited because it dealt only with the churches belonging to one of the Mennon ite Church branches. In 1923 Gustav Prey traced the origin and development of higher education in the General Conference of the Mennon ite Church of North America. This study, entitled, "Higher 10 Education in the General Conference," describes the six schools which that conference had sponsored. The study ended with a plea to all Mennonite branches to cooperate in the support of Wltmarsum Theological Seminary as the school for the training of Mennonite ministers. g . John F. Moyer, "Religious Education in the Mennonite Churches Comprising the Middle District Conference1 1 (unpub lished Master1s thesis, Witmarsum Theological Seminary, Bluffton, Ohio, 1920), pp. 32. ^J. J. Voth, "Religious Education in the Mennonite Churches Comprising the Western District Conference" (unpub lished Master*s thesis, Witmarsum Theological Seminary, Bluff ton, Ohio, 1922), pp. §0. ^°Gustav Frey, "Higher Education in the General Con ference" (unpublished Master*s thesis, Witmarsum Theological Seminary, Bluffton, Ohio, I923), 12>0 pp. 9 Another Master's thesis in the field of Mennonite education was written by Louis L. Miller, in 191S, at the University of Chicago on the subject, "Religious Education 11 in Mennonite Preparatory Schools and Colleges* * Miller attempted to determine what was being done in the field of religious education in Mennonite schools on the secondary and college level. The study considered in addition to the regular curricula voluntary studies under the auspices of the 1CMCA and ¥WCA, as well as religious training connected with the organization of the college churches. The procedure. The data necessary to build a true and meaningful history of Mennonite education as it was traced from continent to continent to continent, from nation to nation, from one branch of the Mennonite Church to another, were gathered from many sources. Since the origin, philoso phy, and development of Mennonite education were studied by countries, the school system in each country proved to be literally a study by itself. The source material so helpful for one country had no value for another. 1. The Mennonite Historical Library* at Bethel College, North Newton, Kansas, with its many books, diaries, letters, bound volumes of periodicals, conference reports, and in many cases microfilms, all dealing with Mennonite life, was of ^Louis L. Miller, "Religious Education in Mennonite Preparatory Schools and Colleges" (unpublished Master*s thesis, University of Chicago, 191£>), 36 pp. 10 decided value in this study. The Mennonite Historical Li brary at Goshen College, Goshen, Indiana; and the school library at Tabor College, Hillsboro, Kansas, made all their source material available. 2. All Mennonite colleges, secondary schools, and Bible schools, both in the United States and Canada were sent a letter and questionnaire, whieh were completed in every case and returned. A copy of the questionaire appears on the following pages. A letter to the principal or presi dent of each school requested school catalogs, school annuals or yearbooks, class schedules, publicity literature, and any other printed materials that might be of value for the study. 3. Correspondence was carried on with ministers, teachers, and others possessing needed information both in the United States and foreign countries. k-. Interviews with teachers and ministers from al most every country in which Mennonites live. Considerable information was gathered that way. 5. A number of Mennonite schools were visited by the writer. Organization of the dissertation. In order to pre pare the reader for an intelligent consideration of the gen eral outline of the study, a brief description of each chap ter is now presented. The various countries in which Mennon ites have settled served to divide the contents of the dis sertation into chapters. 11 QU ES TI O NN A IR E 1, Official name of your school 2. Official address of your school^ 3. In the space below, please tell what kind of a school you maintain. (Describe freely.) In the space below, please tell from what type of group your school draws its main support. (Describe freely.) You may wish to use terms, such as: Bible School.--Main emphasis: Bible knowledge, personal salvation, with few or no educational pre-requisites. Academy.— As above, but in cluding a minimum of state- required courses. High School.— As above, but a fully state-accredited curriculum. Junior College.— Two years of work above 12th Grade. Senior College.— Pour years of work above 1 2th Grade. Seminary.— Specialized theo logical train!ng beyond senior college. Special School.— Not exactly any ofthe above; explain more fully. You may wish to use terms, such as: Schul-Vereln, a Local Church, a Group of Churches, “ Community Project;,TJlstrict Conference, Provincial Conference, General Conference, or other " arrange ments* please specify what BRANCH or BRANCHES of Mennon- ites belong and support.) 5. What year was your school first opened to students? 6. What is the enrollment now? year? ___ Total enrollment last 7. What was the total cost of operating your school the last year?______ i £>. How many teachers are now on the staff? Men? Women? ______ 9* What entrance requirements, if any, are there for new students? 10. What training and other preparation is required for your teachers before they are employed in your school? 11. We would like to get a list of the objectives or aims of your school. If these are included in your catalog, you need not list them here. If you do not print a cata log or your catalog does not include a list of aims, we would appreciate knowing what your school attempts to accomplish. 12. We would appreciate very much to receive some informa tion about the history of your school. A brief history of your school may be included in your school catalog or In some magazine or newspaper. If such is available, could we obtain such from you? If no history Is available, a few facts below would be greatly appreciated. (For addition space, use back of this sheet. 5 Reported by 13 Chapter II traces the roots of Mennonitism. These roots go back to the sixteenth century, when Anabaptism, a religious movement, spread over Europe. As the movement spread, differences in religious doctrines developed. Menno Simon, who forsook the priesthood in the Homan Catholic Church, gathered various groups of Anabaptists into organized churches , to which he later gave his name. Menno Simon wrote many pamphlets for the purpose of instructing young Anabaptists in his religious philosophy. His writings were collected 12 and published soon after his death. Chapter III is concerned with education among the Mennonites in Western Europe. It includes the countries of Switzerland, Germany, Holland, and an old province known as Moravia* The Mennonites identified themselves, more or less, with their non-Mennonite neighbors in these countries, and, as a result, they did not develop educational systems as are found elsewhere. Chapter IV contains the history of a gradual develop ment of a complete Mennonite educational system in South Russia. At first completely free to set up such educational facilities as the group determined, the Russian government began, in the course of time, to force upon the Mennonites its nationalization process that was finally accomplished by ^Die vollstSndige Werke Menno Simons, ubersetzt aus der OrlginelTsprache, den^oll&ndisohen (Elkhart, Indiana: Mennonitische verlags-Hahdlung, 1^/6). 1* by the communists. This chapter begins with the establish ment of the first colony on the Dnieper River and ends, tragically, with the destruction of the Mennonite colonies by the Russian government* Chapter V is the history of Mennonite education from the founding of New Netherland to the present time in the United States* It begins with a description of the educa tional ideas of Pieter Cornells Plockhoy, a social reformer, followed by Christopher Dock, a pious schoolmaster and the first writer of an educational treatise in American history. The chapter deals with those Mennonites who came to the United States upon the Invitation of William Penn and those who came more than a century later from the steppes of South Russia. The freedom of the American Way of Life encouraged the Men nonites to set up a school system that includes all the levels of modern education. Chapter VI is an account of the struggle of a very conservative wing and a more liberal branch of the Mennonite Church in the Dominion of Canada. The Mennonites in Canada are experiencing an awakened interest in education. They are building schools, enlarging curricular offerings, and im proving the quality of instruction. Chapter VII traces the origin and development of Mennonite education in Latin America— Mexico, Brazil, and Paraguay. Settlements in these countries are comparatively new and their schools are in the pioneer stage. Chapter VIII, a summary chapter, attempts to define the real essence of Mennonite education, irrespective of denominational differences and national loyalties* Of par ticular interest are the observable trends* CHAPTER II THE ROOTS OF MENNONITISM Before attempting to trace the origin, philosophy and development of education among the Mennonites, it is necessary to review, briefly, the conditions that gave rise to the origin of Mennonitlsm. A careful isolation of the conditions is necessary for a background against which Men nonite education must be reflected if it is to have any meaning at all. The Reformation. On October 3 1, 1$17, Martin Luther, a professor of theology, nailed his ninety-five theses on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg* This act launched a great revolt that split Christendom from its former basis of unity into unnumbered factions and sects. It set forces into operation which altered the entire religious and intellectual pattern of the western world. The greatest of all medieval institutions, the universal, all-powerful Church, was to be stripped of its supremacy. Henceforth, the Roman Church would have to share its influence with other churches, built upon different beliefs and goals* Long before Luther there had been urgent demands for a reform of the church, its head, and Its members. The roots of these demands reached back not only into the Middle Ages but almost to Apostolic times when the Christian church had its origin. This religious revolt, called by historians 17 the Reformation, really constituted but the climax and con vergence of a number of older forces which had been active for several generations. During the course of the development and growth of the Roman Church certain evils had been incorporated into its framework that were especially evident from 1300 to 15 00. Alexander Clarence Flick, the noted church historian, in The Decline of the Medieval Church?* has divided the causes of the decline into those which existed within the church structure itself and those which were weakening it from the outside. In the first category can be placed (1) the in creasingly formal nature of much of the church worship, (2) the failure of the church to keep pace with intellectual de velopments taking place in the outside world, (3) the immoral ity of many of the clergy, (4-) the concentration of all power over the Church in the hands of the Pope. In the second cate gory can be listed (1) the rise of skepticism, (2) the develop ment of nationalism and the growing reluctance of national monarchs to obey any alien institution, even the Church, (3) the intellectual results of printing, which hastened the spread of the new secular spirit of the Renaissance, and (4-) the revolutionary changes in the economic field, such as the rise of capitalism, the growth of the middle class, and the ^Alexander Clarence Flick, D_ecline of the Medieval Church (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, ~T93o; 2 voTsT), I, ^92. 18 expansion of Europe, forces that were found to determine the power of the Church. Anabaptists. This name was given by their enemies to p the various sects (about forty) who denied the validity of Infant baptism, and for other reasons became prominent in Holland, Germany, and Switzerland during the period of the Reformation. The word means to Bre-baptize." This name, however, describes the sects by one of the least important of their distinctive doctrines and practices. Rufus M. Jones is responsible for a very complete characterization of Anabaptism and its contributions to our modern Christian culture. Judged by the reception it met at the hands of those in power, both in Church and State, equally in Roman Catholic and in Protestant countries, the Anabaptist movement was one of the most tragic in the history of Christianity; but, judged by the principles, which were put into play by the men who bore this reproachful nickname, it must be pronounced one of the most momen tous and significant undertakings in man*s eventful re ligious struggle after the truth. It gathered up the gains of earlier movements, it is the spiritual soil out of which all nonconformist sects have sprung, and it is the first plain announcement in modem history of a program for a new type of Christian society which the modem world, especially in America and England, has been slowly realized— an absolutely free and independent religious society, and a state in which every man counts as a man, and has his share in shaping both Church and State.3 p G. Henry Smith, The Mennonites (Berne, Indiana: Mennonite Book Concern, 1920), p. 37. ^Rufus M. Jones, Studies in Mystical Religion (Lon don: Macmillan and Company, Ltd., I90I) , p. f 0 19 ”Anabaptism, as a system, may be described as the Reformation doctrine carried to its extreme limit; the Ana- k baptists were the extreme left in the army of the Reformers.” On the whole, there were two main streams in early Anabaptism,^ divided largely on the matter of non re si stance and the use of force. The majority belonged to the peaceful and nonresistant type, and soon after 1535 ^ was ‘ khe only £ kind that survived. The militant division of the Anabaptists came under the ’ 1 eadership of Muenzer, who began to wage a war against all constituted authority. He planned to set up by force an ideal Christian commonwealth with absolute equality and the community of goods. May 1 5, 15?5> Muenzer and his followers were defeated at Frankenhausen. Muenzer and some of his leaders were executed. Another more determined attempt to establish a Christian state was made at Muenster in Westphalia. At this place the sect gained considerable power through the addition of Rothman, a former Lutheran pastor. The leaders, Johann Matthiesen and Johann Bockholdt met little opposition u Rufus M. Jones. ”Anabaptists. ” Encyclopedia Britan- nica, l^th ed., I, 85 7. ^Ernest H. Correll, Das Schwelzerlsche Taeufer- Mennonitentum (Tuebingen: VerTag von J*. d. B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck;, 15)25), p. 10. 6 C. Henry Smith, The Mennonites, p. 3&* 20 In gaining possession of the town and disposing of all pub--- lie authorities. Efforts were immediately put forth to hold on to what had been gained and, when possible, to proceed from Muenster as a center to a conquest of the world* Soon the city was besieged by Francis of Waldeck, its expelled bishop. In April, 153**, Matthiesen made a sally with only thirty followers, believing that he was another Gideon^ and was destroyed with his whole band. Bockhodt, better known as John of Leydon, was now at the head of the group. Con- & sidering himself another King David he claimed royal honours and absolute power in the new 1 1 Zion.” He justified the most arbitrary and extravagant measures by the authority of vi sions from heaven. With his pretended divine sanction he legalized polygamy and himself took four wives, one of whom he beheaded in the marketplace in a fit of frenzy. As a natural consequence of such license, Muenster became a place of unbridled profligacy. About a year later, June 2**, 1535, the town was taken by the besiegers and Bockholdt and some of his followers executed. The outbreak at Muenster was in the Anabaptist move ment. The militant group of Anabaptists never again had the opportunity to assume political Importance. Everywhere gov ernment al authorities adopted the most severe measures to suppress any further attempts to set up a Christian state. 7judges 7:7-9* gII Samuel. 21 Naturally, the Muenster Insurrection worked a hard- shin on the peaceful, nonresistant wing of the movement. Its foes considered all Anabaptists alike. It led to the classi fication of many with the Muenster sect who had had no connec tion with it, Anabaptism fell into ill repute. The name “anabaptist" was proscribed in Europe, Persecutions, confusion of beliefs and practices, and disgusting religious fanaticism caused the militant Ana baptists to disappear. But In the nonresistant division of the movement a large group survived the tests, "These all became known later as Mennonites. While the various groups of Anabaptists or early Men nonites may have differed from each other in some respects, they were also agreed on certain major Issues, to which the various groups of Mennonites of today still hold. Briefly stated these principles may be listed thus: 1, The Bible is an open book to all and the only guide of faith and practice, particularly the New Testament, 2, The Church is an independent, voluntary group of believers banded together for the purpose of worship. This principle meant the separation of Church and State, 3, Infant baptism has no place in a voluntary insti tution as it is the sign of initiation into a universal state church. Henry Smith, The Mennonites, p, JB* 22 The office of magistrate cannot he filled by the Christian. Government, however, is a divine Institution or dained to protect the righteous and punish the wicked. The Christian must be obedient to his rulers, pray for them, and pay taxes to support the government. 5. The Christian cannot take up the sword. Love must be the ruling force in all social relations* It is wrong to kill as an individual, or by either judicial process or mili tary force. 6. Christians should live secluded from the outside evil world. 7. Church discipline is to be secured through the “ban, “ which is used to exclude the disobedient from the rights of membership. S. The Lord’s Supper is to be regarded merely as mem orial of the death and suffering of Christ, and not as con taining the Real Presence. 9* It is wrong to take an oath. Christ taught his disciples to say, “Yea, yea; nay, nay. 1,10 Menno Simons (variant spelling of Simon). Almost from its very origin, the Anabaptism movement spread rapid- ^°Smith, The Mennonites, pp. <?• H. Langen- walter, Christ’s Headship of the Church, According to Ana baptist Leaders Whose Followers Became Mennonites ('Herne, Indiana: Mennonite Hook Concern, I9I7, ~PP* 169-173; Edmund G. Kaufman, The Development of the Missionary and Philan thropic Interest among the Mennonites of Worth America (Berne, Indiana: Mennonite Book concern, 193177 pV "S. 2 3 ly in various parts of western Europe. Sebastian Franck, in kls Chronlck, III, says: The course of the Anabaptists was so swift that their doctrines soon overspread the whole land and they obtained much following, baptized thousands and drew many good hearts to them; for they thought, as it seemed, nothing but love, faith and endurance, showing themselves in much tribulation patient and humble........ An array of factors encouraged the rapid growth and spread of the Anabaptist movement. (1) The times were favorable for the movement. The masses were oppressed by landlords and church dignitaries. (2) Earlier evangelical sects, such as the Waldensians, helped to prepare the soil for such a movement. (3) The discovery of the printing press made the Bible accessible to the common man, and a general Interest among the common people to discover for themselves its con tents led to the reading of the Bible and new interpretations of its principles. The history of Anabaptism furnishes the names of many leaders who were instrumental in preserving the cause in spite of all efforts to exterminate it. Among the early leaders of the movement in Switzerland were men like Konrad Grebel, Felix Manz, Georg Blaurock, Michael Sattler, and Balthasar Hubmeier. In Germany some of the leaders were Ludwig Hetzer, Pilgram Marbeck, and Eitel Hans Langenmantel. In the Netherlands Dirck Philip and his brother Obbe, Edmund G. Kaufman, op. cit., p. 6, citing J. H. Langenwalter, op. pit., p. 2^. 2^ Leonhard Bouwens, and Menno Simons became the chief leaders. As for the Anabaptist movement itself, it came, es pecially in the Netherlands, under the wise, peace-loving, anti-fanatical leadership of Menno Simons (1^92-1559), * fco whom its worthy reorganization was primarily due, and from whom the term BMennoniteH is derived. Menno Simons was born in Witmarsum, West Friesland, Holland, some time during or near the year 1^9 6. Of his par entage and early life but little is known, except that he was educated for the priesthood, and assumed the duties of such an office at the age of twenty-eight in the village of Pinjum, near his birthplace. Of the experiences in this pastorate he writes: Two others of similar age to myself, also offi ciated in the same station. The one was my pastor, and well learned in part— the other succeeded me— both had read the scriptures partially; but I had not touched them during my life; for I feared, if I s h ould read them, they would mislead me. Behold] suoh a stupid preacher I was, for nearly two years. In the first year thereafter a thought occurred to me, as often as I handled the bredd and wine in the mass, that they were not the flesh and blood of the Lord. I thought that it was the suggestion of the de vil, that he might lead me off from my faith. I con fessed it often— sighed and prayed. Yet I could not be freed from this thought. Those two aforementioned young men and myself spent our time daily in playing, drinking, and all manner of frivolous diversion, alas] as it is the fashion and way of such useless people: and when we were to treat a little scripture, I could not speak a word with them without being scoffed at; for I did not know what I as serted— thus concealed was the word of God to my under standing. At length I resolved that I would examine the New 12Williston Walker, A History o_f the Christian Church (New York: Charles Scribner^ Sons, 375. 25 Testament attentively;--1 had not proceeded far therein ere I discovered that we were deceived. My conscience, which was troubled on account of the sacramental bread, aforementioned, soon obtained relief, without any human aid or advice; though I was encouraged by Luther in the belief that human authority cannot bind to eternal death.*3 Once led to doubt the truth of the prevailing system, his progress toward the light was rapid. He began to study earnestly the Bible, the writings of Luther, and development of Anabaptism all about him. In 1535 a grouP of several hundred Anabaptists who had taken refuge in an old cloister near his home were killed in a siege and the survivors exe cuted. The blood of the slain, although they were in error, grieved me so sorely that I could not endure it— I could find no rest in my soul. I reflected upon my carnal, sinful life— my hypocritical doctrine and idolatry, in which I continued daily under the appearance of godli ness. I perceived that these zealous persons would will ingly have resigned their lives and their estates, al though they were in error, for the principles which they maintained." In January, 1536, at the age of forty, Menno Simons i publicly renounced the Catholic Church. Almost immediately he left his home town and went to the province of Groningen, where he formally cast his lot with the peaceful Anabaptists. He now became subject to the rigorous decrees then in force ^^Menno Simons, A Foundation and plain Instruction of the Saving Doctrine of 0ur Lord Jesus"'"Christ (Printed in Knbpe7T565:— TransTatecTinto' ‘ tTie"’ EnglTsK by I. Daniel Hupp in 1S35 printed at Lancaster, Pa., Boswell andM'Cleery, p. A. 1^Ibld. , p. ! ( • . 26 against the Anabaptists. Soon he was marked for special at tention. For twenty-five years thereafter he had a life filled with humiliation, poverty, and persecution. But in spite of these discouraging conditions, Menno Simons went about preaching the Gospel, organizing new churches or re viving old ones and writing in defense of his faith. Menno Simons was not the founder of a new church but merely an able leader who accepted the leadership of many widely scattered and persecuted groups of devout Ana baptists and led them through the first period of growth and development. Before his death in 1561 he had the satisfac tion of seeing the new sect securely established. A care ful study of the life of this leader reveals no evidence that he attempted to found a religious sect of which he would be the head and patron saint. Of his real purpose and aims he wrote: I strive after nothing but that the God of heaven and earth, through His blessed Son Jesus Christ may have the glory through His blessed word; that all men may be saved, and that they may awaken in this acceptable time of grace from their deep sleep of sin; and that they may lay aside their besetting sins and the damnable works of darkness and put on the armor of light; that they with us by true penitence, true faith, true baptism, and the true supper, the true ban or discipline, true love, true obedience and consistent life may become a holy Christian church, the assembly and body of Christ. 15 Complete Works of Menno Simon, translated from the original Dutch or Holland. Second Part. (Elkhart, In diana: Published by John F. Funk and Brother, 1871)* P* 326. 27 The great work that Menno Simons was doing among a hated and persecuted people took such a hold upon them that the name Anabaptists became in places "Menonist, ” “Menist," and "Mennonite." Later the name was also adopted in Southern Germany and Switzerland, although Menno had never visited that part of Europe. It appears that other groups also ap propriated the name "Mennonite" or "Menist" to escape per- 16 seeution meted out to Anabaptists. In Holland, in later times, the old name "Doopsgezlnde"(Anabaptists) was again preferred and is generally used today.^ Menno Simons has not yet won the place he deserves IS among the great reformers listed in church history. His work seems to have been accompanied by less conspicuous at tention than that given to such reformers as Luther, Zwlng- li, and Calvin. Whereas Luther, for example, held to the union of church and state and thereby depended upon the gov ernmental powers to maintain his system, Menno Simons appealed to the force of love and the simple truth of the Gospel as the firm foundation of the true church. In this respect, Smith says: 16 Ernest H. Correll, og. cit., p. 3* ^C. Henry Smith, The Mennonites, pp. 57-5^* Ibid., p. 5 6; D. K. Cassel, Geschichte der Mennon- iten (Philadelphia: IS9 0), p. 87 ; John Hors oh, Menno Simons, His Life, Labors, and Teachings (Scottdale, Pennsylvania: ffennonite Publishing House, 1916), preface. Menno and his co-workers were centuries ahead of their day on many of the great fundamentals of religious and civil liberty which today in America and the other enlightened portions of Europe are taken for granted, such as religious toleration, separation of Church and State, and desirability of at least universal peace,19 Menno Simons did much writing. There seems to be hardly a single point of doctrine that he does not touch. His total literary contributions comprise twenty-four books and pamphlets. Most of the writings consist of short treat ises on the various distinctive Anabaptist doctrines and re lies to attacks made upon him by the various theologians of the day, 1 1 If Menno could have written pastoral epistles instead of controversial pamphlets,u Langenwalter feels, whis contribution to the Church and the world would have been much 20 more acceptable and valuable, 1 1 A collection of Menno Simons* writings were printed in 1600 and l601 at Hoorn, Holland, The large Polio Edition Simon* s Complete Works was published at Amsterdam in 16S1, In 1571 The Comple te Works of Menno Simons appeared at Elkhart, Indiana, in the English language and ten years later the same was printed in the German language. One of the most important of Menno Simon*s writings is The Foundation, a treatise on the fundamentals of Christian doctrine and life. In this literary work Menno Simons devotes ^C, Henry Smith, The Mennonites, p, 57* 20 J. H. Langenwalter, on. clt,, p, 9 5, 29 a whole chapter entitled, "The Education of Children," which presents his educational philosophy. A critical study of the chapter (Appendix A) reveals the strong emphasis upon train ing children "in the way of the Lord." Menno Simons considers children as gifts of Cod and that parents are responsible to God for their behavior. Menno Simons* strong emphasis on a truly Christian education has been the basic emphasis in all Mennonite educa tion. Only an education which leads persons to seek diligent ly the will of Cod can be approved. Throughout the history of education among the Mennonites Menno Simon*s emphasis has been dominant as the story in the following chapters proves. Menno Simon * s Writings Plain and Clear Proof against the Blasphemy of John of Leiden The Spiritual Resurrection Meditation on the Twenty-fifth Psalm The New Birth The Foundation Christian Baptism The Reason Why I do Not Cease Teaching Of the True Christian Faith Loving Admonition (on discipline) Brief and Clear Confession (to John a* Lasco) Clear Account on Excommunication Confession of the Triune Cod Questions and Answers (on discipline) Confession Concerning Justification Brief Defense to All Theologians Humble Supplication to All Magistrates Defense and Reply Concerning False Accusations The Cross of Christ Reply to Cellius Faber Confession (reply to a* Lasco on the incarnation of Christ) Reply to Martin Micron Duties Toward Children Instruction on the Excommunication Answer to Sielis and Lemeke Who Are the Mennonites Today? Seemingly a great deal of confusion exists in the minds of most non-Mennonites concerning the identity of this religious group. Thus, this term needs to be defined. Mennonites do not comprise a unified group possessing one creed, one church, or one set of religious practices. Menno Simons, as was already stated, was not the founder of a new church, but simply an organizer of a church already ex isting, composed of many scattered and discordant elements. The task he attempted to perform was not an easy one. HIn fact, dissension and division seems to have been the bane of 21 the successors of Anabaptism from that day to this. 1 1 There does not seem to be any evidence that Menno Simons was able to bring complete harmony and unity out of the many diverse elements in the ranks of the early Anabaptists. In the course of four hundred years many schisms have taken place wherever Mennonites have settled. In the United States there are at least sixteen distinct groups. In addition to this number a small group of independent churches are not affiliated 2 1 C. Henry Smith, , ! The Mennonites in Europe," Men nonite Church History, J. S. Hartzler and Daniel Kauffman, eds. f’ Scottdale, iPennsylvania: Mennonite Book and Tract Society, 1905), P. 92. 31 with any one of the branches. Clark, who made a study of small religious sects in the United States says: "In propor tion to their numerical strength, the Mennonites are the most 22 divided group of Christians in America*" In Table I the denominations listed as Mennonite bodies are shown* Many of the denominations appearing in the table are not in existence any longer* The splitting up into so many distinct branches has resulted from differences in religious practices rather than in doctrinal differences. Even in the most bitter periods of persecution they found time to argue over insignificant de tails of religious practices, which today would seem but mere trifles. Soon after Menno*s death one of the first distinct parties to be formed was that of the Flemish. The Flemish group consisted * . ..of refugees who, because of the serious religious persecutions in their own pro vince of Flanders, had sought refuge in Friesland during the middle of the sixteenth century. They differed in some respects from the Frisians among whom they settled, slightly in racial traits, in language and religious cus toms and practices. Having had little contact with Menno Simon and with Dirk Philips, they were less rigid in the use of the ban than were their northern brethren; and were less subject to the arbitrary control of their church elders in their religious life. In Friesland, the elders exercised considerable autocratic power, selecting the ministers, and holding the right to baptize within their own hands; while the Flemish were more democratic In their own practice, any preacher being allowed to baptize, and ministers being elected by the entire congregation. Be cause of their closer contact with the French, and their occupation as weavers, the Flemish wore finer clothes than did their Frisian brethren; although it is said 2%lmer T* Clark, The Small Sects in America (Nash ville: Cokesbury press, 1557), p. 2351 •32 TABLE I MENNONITE DENOMINATIONS2^ AND DISTRIBUTION BY COUNTRIES < 1 ) a s £ Denomination g (Name by which each is best known) ^ ^ Q § g 'S © Hj O &D ^ P O S - H « P r - 4 0 • r j « * k - r j H C © © ® £ o a > . £ > o S A « < Q w . s b (Old) Mennonite Church x. x General Conference Mennonite Church x x x x Mennonite Brethren Church x x x Old Order Amish Mennonite Church x United Missionary Church x x Old Order (Wisler) Mennonite Church x Conservative Amish Mennonite Church x Sommerfelder Mennonite Church x x x Church of God in Christ Mennonite x x x Old Colony Mennonite Church x x x Evangelical Mennonite Brethren Church x x Krtomer Mennonite Brethren Church x x Kleine Gemeinde Church x x Hudnerweide Mennonite Church x Chortitz Mennonite Church x x x Reformed Mennonite Church x Stauffer Mennonite Church x Weaver Mennonite Church x Hutterian Brethren x x Doopsgezinde (Dutch Mennonite Church) x Taufgesinnte (Swiss Mennonite Church) x Die Mennoniten G-emeinde x 25 This table does not include all the denomina tions within the Mennonite Church. Purpose of the table is to develop an awareness in the reader of the many divi sions* 33 that the latter were more particular and scrupulous in their household arrangements. 24 Mennonites are divided not only on the basis of dif ferences in religious practices, but also according to nation ality. As illustrated on Chart I, they originated, more or less, simultaneously in Holland, Germany, and Switzerland. Although nationality differences have played a small part in Mennonitism, yet they have always been in evidence, both as to their geographical distribution and as to conference divisions. In some of the denominations mostly Dutch Mennon ites are members. But in the General Conference of the Men nonite Church all the nationalities are represented. The term, “Mennonites, 0 must necessarily be used in a somewhat loose sense. They are a people divided on the basis of religious practices, yet holding in common very basic religious doctrines. They are a people composed of three difference nationalities, yet expressing that a common faith is greater than nationality traits. They are a people who exhibit in their religious philosopphy as to dress, means of transportation, utilization of educational opportunities and the like the most rigid conservatism on the one hand and a modern, up-to-date way of life in tune with the times on the other hand. Mennonites are a people who carry on energetically pk C* Henry Smith, The Story of the Mennonites, pp. 17&-179. 3^ !?0O 1 9 0 0 M l$ $ !O W C H u n C H ear oefencel v M O w r e s <£/ CQVSeJtVATJVS a *t/sh X7 f OLQ OTH>EQ AMiSH A M 1 S H STUCKY CENTRAL conference m e n n . ALSATIAN A M IS H IM M IG RANTS J 3 2 0 -J 8 5 0 AMtSH MENNONI TPS R E F O R M S * H 8N N O N IT S S C hurth o f God in C h ris t OLD ORDER MENNONtreS flggrwgy /* c H f f t s NEW MENU. U tre r a rS th *n "Brtih in C hrist CA S tcL u f/# /' M e n tfo rn te s P E N N S Y L V A N IA IM M IG R A N T S 1683- 1 7 6 0 \ O ld M e n n o m te M E U N Q N tT E S EVAN. MENU. ! * FUNK! i u F s n e u c e menu 9 6 0 GENERAL C S o u th G e r m a n I m m ig r a n t s $ r » is s I m m ig r a n t s H S O -IB S O 1 3 2 0 - *9 5* J ty s s ja n ^ M frm p ru te J m m y rq N tS j9 /7 _ M *n n . B fro th ro n — — RANTS 1370 -I3BO ■ ?/ o f No - Am RUSSIAN MENU QUITE /MM 16 \ l N D E P E H OENJ 0ROUFS \ p » / Mtnn. o f Up. Am . F L E /N E GE ME I NOE r KRfMMEP Z H N .B R E T H R E N RUSSIAN HUT7 TRITE IMMIGRANTS /87O-/08O i 2 a - 2 * i : « ■ is | S \ S * -3 S '; I ' S ft - 2^ L if >S V.M.— 7 ?elormed Mennonite& U. M. — Untied Mennonitts HE.Mr Untied futurgeiital Menn D.B.- Daniel Srenn eman «< 5 - s Pig. 1.— The Origin of Mennonite Divisions in America25 25C# Henry Smith, The Mennonites, p. 2k-2. missionary activities among Negroes, Chinese, Hindu, and oth ers, converting thousands to accept Christianity but who, in turn, are hardly accepted into the group. Mennonites are a cultural group in which membership is really won only through birth. All these factors have played a part in the origin, philosophy, and development of education in the whole group. Table II shows the approximate number of Mennonites in the various countries in which they have found refuge. During their history of ^00 years they have not become a large group. They must be numbered among the smaller Pro testant denominations. Scattered over three continents, they do not form at any particular place an Imposing group. 36 TABLE II MENNONITE POPULATION CLASSIFIED BY COUNTRIES Countries Total Population 19^3 Bapti zed Members27 19* 1 - 6 United States 175,000 133,66* 1 - Canada 111,000 ^6,972 Holland 70,000 *14, 500 Russia SO,000 G-ermany 15,000 12,900 Mexico 10,000 Paraguay 6,000 **-,000 France 2,200 Switzerland 2,000 1>l°9 Brazil 2,000 60^ Poland 2,000 215 Austria 1,000 In other lands Refugees in Europe 1,000 9.52**- Totals *1-79,000 262,1^5 War te ~ Jahrbuoh, 19*1-3, 1 Jahrgang. Herausgegeben von Arnold Dyck (Stelnbach, Manitoba: Prairie Press, North Kildonan, Manitoba), pp. 7-3. ^Mennonite Yearbook and Directory> 19*1-6 (Scottdale, Pennsylvania: Mennonite publishing House), p. 57* CHAPTER I I I EDUCATION AMONG THE MENNONITES IN WESTERN EUROPE When it became evident during the course of the Re forma ti on t ha t both of its leaders--Luther, in Germany, and 2wingli, in Switzerland, favored the retention of certain es sential principles of the Catholic Church, there developed a new, more radical movement, Anabaptism. Those who were dis satisfied with Luther’s and gwingli’s half-way measures met in private homes f or warship and Bible study with a view to es tablishing an independent church according to the New Testa ment principles. There were In the group a number of well- 1 educated men quite capable of giving the radical movement able leadership. Sebastian pranck, not an Anabaptist himself wrote: The Anabaptist movement developed so rapidly that their teaching was soon spread throughout the land, and they soon gained a large following and baptized thou sands and drew to themselves many worthy souls. For they taught nothing but love, faith, and forebearance. • • • • They Increased so rapidly that the world feared an up rising, which as I hear had no justification whatever. They were attacked in many places with groat tyranny, being Imprisoned, branded, tortured and executed with fire, water, and the sword. In a few years large num bers were put to death. They died as martyrs, patiently and humbly, enduring all these persecutions.2 ^Conrad Grebel, Manz, William Reublin; and George Blaurock were the foremost leaders of the movement. ^Sebastian ^rahck, Chronika, cited by C. H©nry Smith, The Mennonites (Berne, Indiana: Mennonite Book Concern, 1920), p. 22* Holland 38 wAnabaptists appB ared in the. Netherlands early in '3 the history of the movement.n They were chiefly in the northern-coast provinces— Flanders, geeland, Holland, Friesland, and Groningen; however, small groups were found in other parts of the Netherlands, too. wUp to the middle of the sixteenth century the Anabaptists were the predomin ant evangelical party in Netherlands and for a time seemed '4 destined to win t he entire land to their faith *w During the entire sixteenth centurjr the Anabaptists of Mennonites, as they were later called, were subjected to the most cruel persecutions by Charles V and later his son Philip. From 1531 to 1594, the dates of the first and the last executions, l f between fifteen hundred and two thousand 5 Anabaptists and Mennonites were sent to a martyr!s grave#w In 1660 Thielman J.van Braeht, a Mennonite preacher ,at Haarlem, published Het Bloedig Toneel der Doopsgesinde en Wereloose Christen, in which he lists 1,500 Anabaptists who were put to death. This book has been translated into both 6 German and English under the name,The Martyr *8 Mirror. ^G. H e n r y Smith, The Mennonites (Berne, Indiana: Mennonite Book Concern, 1"9£20), p. 61. 4Loc. oit. . 5Ibld., p.,62. ®Thielxnan J. van Braeht, The Bloody ^heatre or Mar- tyr's Mirror (Lancaster: Published by bavid Miller, 1831 /)/ T7M 8 pp;— 39 It is, perhaps, one of the best-known hooks among all Menno nite hooks. Menno Simons laid down his priestly office in January, 1536, renounced the Catholic ^hureh, and cast his lot with the Groningen Anabaptists* When the heads of that movement recognized M©nno Simons1 ability, they urged him to submit to ordinarion as an elder in the organization. From this time to his death in 1561 he went about organizing, new churches and encouraging the old ones. . . , it is quite evident that the seventeenth century, and especially the latter part, marked the peak of Mennonite growth both as to numbers and as to spiritual and 7 cultural self-consciousnes3 .w It was a period in which 8 much of the most significant literature of the Mennonites in Holland was written. During this century they became pros perous and in many cases wealthy. Their achievement in the business world would furnish material for a study of itself. In the field of science the Mennonites in the Netherlands in- 7C. Henry Smith, The Story of the Mennonites (Berne, Indiana: Mennonite Book t^oncern, 1941"), p. 2097 ®The writings of Menno Simons (See Bibliography) were collected and published in 1646. THe Martyr *s Mirror was compiled in 1660. the Biestkins Bible was published by the Mennonites during this century, “^he writings of Tobias Govertsz van den Wyngaert were outstanding as religious treatises. The life of Jesus, by ^an Philip schabalje were widely read in its day. His best-known works, however, was probably Lus thof des Gemoeds, a brief'history of the Bibli cal world. There w ere of her' writings. 40 clined more toward medicine. There was an unusual number 9 of doctors among them. °ften ^ennonite ministers were 10 chosen from the medical profession* ' ii Brons lists a number of Mennonite names of men who made a significant contribution to the culture of Holland during the eighteenth century. Dosker describes the status of 1iie Mennonites in this period: During the whole of this century they maintained their position and strengthened its considerably. If they did hot grovj in n u m b e r s in any considerable extent; if they even lost members all the time to the State Church on account of the growing liberalism and frater nization and intermarriage, especially among the lam-' mists (a liberal faction within the Menhohite Church), they certainly grew in the popular esteem, they were honored by their fellow citizens, and the time was long past that a Mennonite was pointed at with scorn, as a sort of gypsy, wandering among the churches of the Ref orma ti on. ^The most distinguished'^ennohite doctors were, un doubtedly, the Hidloo brothers, Nickolaus, or Zaandam, per sonal physician to Peter the Great of ^ussia during his ship building student-days in ^oHand, and later the director of the Czar,s first school of medicine in Moscow; Gottfried, body physician to William III; and Lambert, a well-known apothecary of the day. Such men as Galenus Abrahams deHaan and Anton Hale were not only physicians of note but also ministers. ^C. Henry Smith^ The Story of the Mennonites, p. 212. 11 A. Brons, Ursprung, Entwi eke lung und Schicksale der a11evangelischen Taufgesinnteri oder MdnngnTten (gweite Auf- lage; orden: Druck von Dietr. Sol£au, 1891), P» 158. Her- mannus Schym, scholar and historian; Maetschoen, a man of similar calibre; Iff. Schagen, famous in Holland for his trans lation of the works of Josephus into the vernacular; and there were others. ^Henry Elias DoSker, The HutchAnabaptists (Philadel phia: The Judson Press, 1921T, p. 246. 41 The Mennonite ^hurch in Holland was not a united body 15 for the first two hundred and fifty years. Doslcer names eight different groups of Mennonites in existence, even before the death of Menno Simons, their leader. The main cause of the schisms in the early Church, during the great persecutions, from Ippolitan schism of 217 A.D. till the Donatist schism of 311 A.D., was in variably the treatment of the lapsi; church discipline, therefore. And among the Anabaptis ts it w as again the subject of discipline which formed the main cause of disrupti ons Among the Dutch Mennonites there was a great deal of agreement on the religious doctrines that had been formulated. The troubles which divided them into distinct groups resulted 15 from the application of those doctrines. Regardless of what might be said concerning the sad situation, each differing viewpoint was, undoubtedly, expressed in genuine sincerity. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Hol land was disturbed by a number of unorthodox religious move ments. These movements represented different religious phil osophies or schools of thought concerning Bibilical doctrines. Among these were Socinianism, which rejected the doctrine of Ibid., pp. 126-127. The eight groups were: The Mftnster party, the Adam Pas tori tes, The House of Love, The party of Sebastian ^ranck, The Meerlanders, The M01d Congre gation, w The Few Congregation’ 1 (Sometimes called nThe Watlandians”), and The Frisians. 14Ibld., p. 125. 15C. Henry Smith, The story of the Mennonites, p. 192. 42 the trinity; Arminianism, ■which opposed the hyper-Calvinism of the ^uteh state church; and Gollegianism, which protested against the dogmatism of both the Calvinists and the Armin- ianis ts. These movements disturbed the religious life of Hol land as a whole, including the Mennonites. There was much in t he religious philosophies of these movements that ap pealed to the Mennonites. ^There can be little doubt but that all these disturbing religious movements above-mentioned with which the Mennonites were more or less closely affiliated had considerable influence upon the religious thinking of the denomination in the years that follow ed.w Collegianism had considerable influence upon the Mennonites for some of their ablest leaders were active in the movement. It turned away from church organization, became averse to a professional ministry, and to any basic, doctrinal beliefs. Individual freedomw as the essence of the movement. Collegianism was an effective movement until the be ginning of the mine teen th century, when it apparently died out. There was no longer any serious need for it since by that time the churches had grown so liberal that all members had 16 the freedom they desired. Wilbur states that most of the • * - GA. Brons, Ursprung, Entw 1 eke lung und Schicksale der altevangelis chen Taufgeslnnten oder Mann on 1 ten (ilritte Auf- lage; Emden: Verlag von Johannes Mfiller, Boekihande 1, 1912), p. 378. 43 Collegiants were absorbed by the Mennonites, Mfrom whom many 17 of them had come and with whom they had so much in common*” EDUCATION AMONG THE MENNONITES IN HOLLAND The early attitude toward education*— For two centuries or more the ^utch Mennonites in general were unfriendly to scholastic and scientific pursuits. While they did not despise learning, yet they did not encourage it. As a result of this ideal, education was neglected and conseauently the really efficient leaders were very few.16 To study the Bible and have explicit faith in God was con sidered Sufficient* nThus they had come to idolize the Scriptur es, to study them exclusively and subjectively, and 19 to disparage all human learning In every direction*n The development of an interest in education could not be prevented indefinitely. The more progressive Menno nites began to see !lthat this narrow limitation of their in tellectual horizon spelled disaster fcr the entire brother- 20 hood.” The need for education, was, undoubtedly, recognized *^Earl Maps© Wilbur, A History of Uhltarlanism, Socinlanism and Its Antecedents (GAmbrlcTgey Massachusetts: Harvard University Hress, 1946), p. 566. S. Hartzler and ^aniel Hauffinan, Mennonite Church History (Scottdale, Pennsylvania: Mennonite Hook and Tract Society, 1905), p. 95. ■^Henry Ellas Dosker, 0£. cit♦, p* 268* 20t ' AjOC * cit* 44 most by the ministers themselves* Their interest in Colle gianism may be explained, in part, by the opportunities that 21 that movement offered in debate, discussion, and study* No Mennonite school system in Holland * --The Mennonites in Holland have not lived in closed communities like their brethren have done, more or less, in other countries--in Russia, Canada, United States, and the Latin Republics* Be ing mostly an urban people engaged in business and in the pro fessions, they have become an integral part, of the national life of The Netherlands. Outside their religious faith they have learned to share their country*s economic activities, social relationships, and educational facilities* At the Mennonite World Conference, held in August, 1948, North Newton, Kansas, Dr* W. Leedertz said: There are no Mennonite schools here (Holland)* Here me knew ^hristiah schools (mostly Calvinistic), Re formed Church schools, and neutral schools, not to men tion a few others I Most of the Mennonite boys and girls go to the neutral schools, a few to Christian schools* Even if Mennonite schools should be preferred, this would be impossible on account of the sparse scattering of the Mennonites throughout the country* Thus our young people are brought up with Christians, Jews, and Lutherans, with Calvinists and communists. Thus it is at the elementary school, thus it is at the Latihpp grammar school, and also again at the University* ^ ^Earl Morse Wilbur, op. cit., p. 565* Leendertz, "Higher Education among the Mennonites in Europe", address delivered at the Mennonite World Confer ence, held in North Newton, Kansas, August, 1948* Dr. Leen dertz is dean of the School 0f Theology at the University of Amsterdam and president of the Mennonite Seminary in Amster dam. This address was distributed in printed form at the Conference and references to it in this study are taken from the printed copy; p. 1* 45 The Mennonites in Holland, unlike the Mennonites in other countries, have never developed their ovm system of schools. They feel that their country is too small and the differences among the various religious denominations too 23 insignificant to organize an educational system of their ovm* The Mennonite Seminary a t Ams ter dam.— For the first one hundred years of Mennonitism in Holland the ministers were elected from out of the membership in the various churches without regard to a theological training for such service. These men served as ministers without any theological training or financial reward, faithfully and sincerely. Conditions, however, mad© it necessary to place the church*s leadership into the hands of educated men. Thus the church'at H0rn had elected A. J. Eoeius, a doc tor of medicine. The church at Haarlem was served by < the well-known physician, A. v. Dale. In the Mennonite church at Alkmaar, J. P. Schnabalje, an accomplished author, was the minister. But it was almost impossible to fill all the pulpits with such educated men. In 1675 thirteen Mennonite churches were represented at a meeting in Haarlem to consider -the questions of a paid ministry, the training of young men for the work, and the care 25 of their widows and orphans. A beginning was made by the Mennonite church at Amsterdam in 1680 when it engaged the 25Loc. cit. ^Christian Hege, Kurze Geschichte der Mennoniten (Frankfurt am Main: Koramisionverlag von "Herman Minjon, 1909), pp. 59-60. Translated by Harder. pcz Ibid., p. 60. 46 26 medical physician, Galenus Abrahams de Haan with the two fold assignment to prepare young men for the Mennonite mini stry in addition to the regular ministry in the church* These young men were to be enrolled at the same time in the Seminary of the Remonstrants, a non-Mennonite school of that city. For the first time the Dutch Mennonites were provid- . ing their own theological training* A small library was begun in the Amsterdam Mennonite Church, and **to the best 27 of his ability, Galenus instructed his students.** The arrangement whereby the young Mennonites received part of their education in the Seminary of the Remonstrants and part with Galenus continued until his death in 1706, after which it was discontinued. For the next three decades Mennonites were again without a school. Their young ministerial students were forced to receive all their training in the Seminary of the Remonstrants. In time the fraternization of the Mennonites with the Remonstrants lead to an assimilation of attitudes that the more conservative in the various churches did not appreciate. When a number of the pulpits in Mennonite churches were filled with non-Mennonite graduates from the Seminary 26C. B. Hylkema, **Galenus Abrahams de Haan*1, ^enno- nitischer Lexicon, II, (eds. Christian Hege and Christian ifeff; Frankfurt am.. Main und Weierhof: Selbstverlag der Herausgeber, 1937), pp. 22-28. ten Doornkaat Koolman, * lAmsterdamer UniversitSt und Taufgesinntes Seminar, **Mennonitischer Lexicon, I, pp. 66- 68. 47 of the Remonstrants, the need for a Mennonite seminary m s '28 recognized more than ever. The church in Amsterdam again took the initiative and invited other Mennonite churches to cooperate in the estab lishment of a theological training school. Since only six churches responded, it was apparent that interest was not very widespread. In fact, there were those who opposed, 29 fearing that false doctrines would be taught. In 1735 the Amsterdam Mennonite Church (van’t Lam en Toren) organised its own seminary, assuming the financial burden of a teacher’s salary and scholarships for six or eight students. T. Nieuwenhuis became its first instructor. Between 1753 and 1781 the Mennonite Church of 2on did not only fail to cooperate with the Amsterdam educational project but even established its own school which emphasized a more con- 30 servative philosophy. The Seminary was open to students from all Mennonite churches, ^t even invited students from other denominations. At first the teachers in the Seminary were probably as much 31 philosophers as theologians, holding to the Dutch philoso phies prevailing at that time. In addition to the courses 2®Christian Hege, 0£. cit., p. .60. ® J. ten Doomkatt Koolman, op. c i t p. 67. ^^Ibid., p. 67. 3^Loc. cit. A 48 in theology, the Seminary introduced such courses as mathe matics, physics, and practical philosophy. In 1780 there i s ere eighteen students enrolled* Since the burden of maintaining the Seminary was too heavy for the Amsterdam Church, the continuation of the 32 School became doubtful* In 1811 an invitation was extended to all Mennonite churches to consider the future support of • • * ' . . . the School as a cooperative enterprise. As an outcome of this meeting the Allgemeene Doopsgezinde Societeit (”The 33 General Mennonite Society”) was organized. This organiza tion Smith calls ”the most significant event in the history of the Dutch Mennonites during the early part of the nine- 34 teenth century. • . * The Society assumed the owner ship and control of the Mennonite Seminary and has been operating its educational a citiviti es to the present day. The Mennonite Seminary has had a long history of growth and development. Prom 1827 the teaching staff was increased to two teachers. Since 1904 women were permitted to enroll* 32 Christian Hege, op. cit., pp. 60-61. * Z « 2 The Allgemeene Doopsgezinde Societeit (”The General Mennonite Society”) cannot be compared to an organized church conference as it exists in the United States or Canada* Although all the Mennonite churches in Holland belong to the Society, it never has assumed any organized control over the individual churches. Each church or congregation retains its independent ecclesiastical organization, selecting its own ministers, setting up'its own s tandards of faith, the making of its own rules, etc. The Seminary is one of its main activities. ' Z A C. Henry Smith, The Story of the Mennonites, p. 228. 49 The control of the Seminary is vested in a Board consisting of five members which are elected by the Society. The curricular procedures of the Seminary are strictly on the university level. Before admittance is applied for, the student must be well-versed in the modern languages— French, Berman, and English, and in the ancient languages — Latin and Greek. To be admitted to the Seminary young Mennonites must pass an entrance examination in Bible and public speaking. In addition they must pesent a medical certificate and a recommendation from their respective ministers concerning qualities of character. After gaining admittance to the Seminary three years must be pursued in the University of Amsterdam, where the following courses are studied: Old Testament in the original Hebrew and New Testa ment in the original Greek, philosophy, church history, the history of dogmatics, and the history of non-Christian religious and philosophical ethics. Completion of the three- year university course is the prerequisite for the theological course in the Mennonite Seminary. The two-year seminary train ing includes such subjects as Christian doctrine of faith and ethics, Mennonite history, and a number of practical studies in theology. Leendertz defined the underlying purpose of the Men nonite Seminary thus: The only provision for higher education among the Mennonites in Europe is in Holland, and there only in 50 Amsterdam. For us higher education means seminary training, things are different in Europe, Ihe Men nonite college in America cannot he compared with what we have in Holland, ^our colleges prepare for many different fields of work. Our Mennonite Sem inary trains young people exclusively to become Men nonite ministers. The Seminary was founded for that purpose.55 EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS The Dutch Mennonites do not follow the traditional rural way of life of the Mennonites in general. In the busy little country of Holland they are engaged in all the com mercial enterprises for which the Dutch have become famous. (Even though they) wasted a great deal of time quarreling over insignificant questions of human con duct, and burned up an abundance of energy defending inconsequential differences of practices and customs long since discarded, yet it must not he forgotten that Mennonites of every group were still a sincere, honest folk, among the most substantial, ofteh^the most wealthy and highly respected In the land. Two foundations for the advancement of educational progress in Holland had a Mennonite origin. Sinc8 the establishment of souch foundations by Mennonites is very rare, they will be included in this study. Ihe services of these foundations are not reserved to Mennonites only but include the whole Dutch population. The Teyler Institute. — Toward the close of the 55W. Leendertz, ££. c i t p. 1. 36q^ Henry Smith, The Story of the Mennonites, p. 224. 51 eighteenth century a danger threatened the Mennonites, not especially materialistic in its nature, but it lay in the subtle changes which were taking place in their deepest ‘37 religious convictions. To counteract this threat Pieter Teyler van der Hulst established, in 1778, nThe Society for the Extension of Knowledge and for the Establishment of the ' 38 Christian Religion**1 Pieter Teyler van der Hulst was a descendant of Thomas Taylor, who in 1580 fled from England to Holland where he later married Tryntje Kerkhoven, a refugee from Flanders. Making their home in Haarlem, they both joined the Mennonite Church in that city. Pieter, who had become wealthy as a manufacturer, endowed his Society with a large trust fund, the income from which was to be distributed in the form of prizes for the best annual discourse in the field of deism, which at that time was sweeping over Europe. Other prizes were to be given for the best contributions in science, history, numismatics, and art. He also founded a museum of natural history to which he gave 39 a collection of books and paintings.*1 The Teyler Institute is still functioning. Hot only Mennonite scholars but men of every conceivable religious ^H. E. Dosker, 0|>. cit., p. 271. 58Ibid., p. 270. A. Brons, og. cit., (Dritte Auflage), p. 153. 52 type, in Holland, Prance, and Germany,, compete for the hon- '40 ors it offers. The Society for the Public Good.— This organization, called by the Dutch MMaatschappij tot Hut van t1 Algemeen11, was established in 1784 to implement learning and culture among the common people. It is significant that more than 150 years ago there was a society that possessed a social concern for the masses. Brons calls it wone of the most fruitful and most promising organization of this type in 41 Burope.M The first project which the Society undertook was the establishment of an elementary school system among the poorer classes. In Holland as elsewhere education had not become universal nor had the state assumed control of it. In 3791 libraries for the poor were established, and later saving banks. The Society for the Public Good was organized through the efforts of Jan Hieuwenhulzen, a minister; his son M. Nieuwenhuizen, a physician; and two others: A. J, Hoekstra and A. H. van Gelder. The founders wrote into its regula tions that neither politics nor dogmatic religion were to enter into its activities. Although the founders intended the Society to be inter-denominational, the Catholics have 40H. E. Dosker, op. cit., p. 271. 41 A. Brons, op. cit., (Britte Auflage), p. 153. 53 never taken part* SWITZERLAND The Mennonites in Switzerland established their churches in the northern cantons— Zurich, Neuenberg, Basel, Aargau, Slothurn, Appenzell, and Bern— by the middle of the 42 sixteenth century* The Tltufer, as the Swiss Mennonites usually call themselves, were relentlessly attacked by both the state and the Church for nearly three hundred years. The persecutions suffered by the Mennonites in that country were the most bitter and the most disgraceful in all the 43 annals of Europe. Some fled from their homeland to Alsace, Germany, and Holland. Some were imprisoned, executed, or enslaved in the galleys* Many fled into the Jura Mountains, which lie about thirty miles from Bern. By 1800 the pro cess of extermination had all but succeeded except in the 44 Cantons of Bern and Basel* At the present time the Men nonite population in Switzerland is composed of, ! a small body of about a thousand baptized members, organized in fourteen 42 C* Henry Smith, The Story of the Mennonites* p. 125* ^Loc . cit* ^Sam Gerber, MDie Schuleri der Schweitzer Mennoniten”, unpublished manuscript. When Mr . Gerber attended the Men nonite World Conference, held in August, 1948, North Newton, Kansas, he was interviewed by the writer concerning Mennonite education in Switzerland. Gerber agreed to prepare an article on Mennonite education; it was from this manuscript that most of the information here presented was taken. 5^ Schulhaus La Chaux d*Abel ♦ - Schulhaus perceux PLATE I ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN SWITZERLAND 55 Sohulhaus Montbautler PLATE II ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN SWITZERLAND (Continued)' 45 congregati ons. The Mennonites who fled up into the Jura Mountains found there a few small scattered villages and a few iso lated farm homes, inhabited by a people that spoke French and professed the Catholic faith. The German speaking Men nonites were determined to organize their communities and religious and educational life apart from the native's whose 46 lower cultural life they did not care to share. Even after the Swiss government set up its national school system, the Mennonites were not inclined to schools which would bring their children together with those of the French. To comply with the school laws, elementary schools were organized in the homes of the Mennonite farmers. MWhere families contained from ten to fifteen children, the home maintained its own school. More often several families 47 organized a school together.w At first the teachers were untrained. When the State demanded qualified teachers for every school, it became necessary for the Mennonite schools to employ non-Mennonite teachers. The teacher's salary, the necessary materials had to be supplied by the families that were maintaining schools ^John C. Wenger, uThe Cradle of the Mennonite Churchn, Mennonite ^ife, II (January, 1947), 7. Sam Gerber, o£. cit., pp. 1-2. 47Ibldp. 2. 57 for their children. The financia 1 b urden of education was heavy for the mountaineer farmers whose income, at best, was limited. nDuring the last half of the nineteenth century there were at least twenty such family schools among the ‘ 48 Mennonites in the Jura Mountains .t t The Mennonite Conference of Switzerland, which meets bi-annually, became concerned over the instability of the educational system within the church. There were always families who could not maintain schools for their children and there were such who were either planning to discontinue theirs or had already done so. wThe Conference minutes be tween 1880 and 1900 indicate the realization of the serious- ' 49 ness of the problem.That the Mennonite German school should continue, in spite of the difficulties, was its firm conviction. The future of the church was dependent upon them. The Conference appointed some ministers who were to visit the struggling schools in order to encourage the families to con tinue them. Funds were taken out of the Home Missions trea sury to aid the most needy families in the education of their children. In 1920, the government of the Canton of Bern passed an Act that provided state aid to private schools. nThis state-aid was slow in coming.w During the last decade of the 4 8 r b i d . , p. 2 . 49Loc . cit. 58 nineteenth century, some of the better established Mennonite schools began to receive some financial aid from the local (township) government. Although the Swiss constitution pro hibited such aid to denominational schools, the local author ities recognized that the German Mennonites in the midst of a French population were a cultural unity, and, ! t according to good old Swiss tradition, were entitled to official recog nition and eligible to state financial aid for their ' * 50 schools.u The LaChaux dT Abel elementary school (See Table III) was the first to be granted equal status with other state schools. A few years later, 1899, the Mont- Tramelan School became a sta te-recogn ized school. In 1920 the parliament of the Canton of Bern adopted an Act that legalized state aid to denominational schools. wThis law was designed particularly to permit the continua- ’ 51 tion of the Mennonite parochial schools#n The seven Mennonite elementary schools operating at the present time comply with all the educational require ments provided by Swiss law . They are all one-teacher schools offering the nine grades as practiced in Switzerland. The schools at La Chaux d1 Abel, Montbautier, and Perceaux are provided with school buildings. The Moron and Jeangisboden schools are held in church basements and the Mont-Tramelan and La Perceaux schools meet in private homes. 5QIbid., p. 2. 5* LIbid., p. 3. 59 TABLE III MENNONITE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN SWITZERLAND 1948-1949 Nam© of School Source of Suppor t Approxima te Number of Children Name of Teacher La Chaux d* Abel State 30 0. Loosli Mont-Tram© lan State 30 P* Pulver Montbautier State 30 A# Amstutz Moron State 30 W. Loosli Jeangisboden Private 45 von Bergen La Paturatte Private 15 S* Gerber Lo Pereeux Private 10 BiJchner 60 52 Gerber expresses great concern over the future of the Mennonite German s chools in Switzerland. Already in two churches — les Bulles and < 30urgenay-Pruntrut--where no German schobls have been conducted for many years, the you th is de manding that the church services be in the French language. Should this demand develop in the other churches the question arises: What effect will the change of language have upon the church life and the traditional ^ennonite patterns of life? Since the close of World War II a critical attitude toward the Mennonite schools has become a serious threat. It is a natural aftermath of the war. Group pressure was ex erted upon the government to discontinue financial support. The township authorities have already notified the La Patur atte School officials that they will not receive any financial '53 support in the future. The Mennonites in Switzerland have never established any secondary or collegiate schools. Since many of the young men who went off to a school of higher learning failed to return, a suspicion toward advanced educational training has been generally expressed among the Mennonites. MORAVIA The Hutterian branch of the Mennonite church had its origin in the Anabaptist movement of the sixteenth century. 5^Ibi d., p. 4. S^Loc. eit. 61 The founders of this denomination were Swiss refugees who came to Moravia by way of South Germany* The outstanding feature in which it differed from other Anabaptists was the practice of ”the community of goods”. This strange way of living was based on a literal interpretation of the scriptural passage, 1 1 And all that believed were together, and had all things common; and sold their possessions and goods and parted them ' 54 to all men, as every man had need.1 1 This practice, a form of Christian communism, differs vitally and essentially from Russian communism in its fundamental purposes . The Hutterian community of goods is rooted and grounded in the Christian faith and is believed to be the necessary fruit and manifestation of brotherly love; it is religious, or Christian, to the core. Its aim is the realization of a true Christian church, a worthy embodiment of Christlike brotherhood. ^ The doctrine of ”the community of goods” was first taught by Jacob Wiedermann, a native Bavarian who had come to Moravia to find greater religious freedom. ”In pleasing contrast to the common experiences of the Anabaptists else where was the welcome they received for a few years in * 56 southern Moravia.” In his promotion of communism, which aggravated an already existing factional dispute among the 54Acts 2: 44-45. ®^John Horsch, The Hut terlan Brethren, X528-X951, (No. 2, ” Studies in Anabaptist and Mennonite Hi story J Goshen, Indiana: The Mennonite Historical Society, 1931), p. 4. p / * C. Henry Smith, Ihe Story of the Mennonites, p. 59. 62 Anabaptists in Moravia, Wiedemann caused a division within the ranks of the church. Palling into disfavor with the Baron von Lichtenstein upon whose estate these Anabaptists 57 were living, Wiedemann and about two hundred followers were asked to find refuge elsewhere. They were gladly accepted by the Barons von Kaunitz, who needed them for their devas tated estates near Austerlitz. nThe Austerlitz settlement was founded on a strictly communistic basis. The whole com munity lived as one family in a group called a Bruderhof ' 58 ("Household1 *) .** Here they were joined by hundred of per secuted brethren from many parts of Europe, and in a few years additional BruderhBfe had been established. In 1535 there came to the Austerlitz BruderhBfe a minister from Tyrol by the name of Jacob Hutter, who was to 59 play an important role among them for a few years. Being an aggressive personality, he gradually became the dominating leader among these people. Those opposing his control were excommunicated and, in time, only the loyal followers of Hutter remained to perpetuate the Christian movement begun by Wiedemann in 1528. In 1535 King Ferdinand of Austria, to which Moravia belonged, demanded the expulsion of the Butterian Brethren with such persistence that the Moravian nobles did not dare 57Ibld., p. 66. 59Ibld., p. 69. 58Ibld.. p. 67. 60 to refuse his orders, A severe persecution set in, which drove the Hutterians into hiding* When the period of perse cution had run its course, the nobles permitted them again to settle on their lands, In 1547 another wave of persecution swept over the Hutterian households. nAt the beginning of this persecution the Brethren had in Moravia twenty-six 61 colonies (BruderhBfe) .n Forced to flee from Moravia they found refuge in Hungary, Here they organized about a dozen households. Persecutions, however, overtook them there. After about four years of great hardships and suffer ing, they were again permitted to form colonies in various places in Moravia. From 1553 to 1592 they enjoyed consider able freedom and security. HIn this period the Brotherhood had in Moravia and a few points in Hungary between forty and fifty communities (BruderhBfe), numbering 12,000-15,000 ‘ 62 souls.w The Moravian nobles found it eminently to their own interest to tolerate and protect the Brethren. The economic benefits derived from the Hutterite settlements were very great, ^n reply to the oft-repeated demands of the royal government in Vienna far the suppression of this sect, the nobles insisted that these people were of the most law-abiding and useful subjects and that their expulsion would be a great loss to the country. Such demands from'Vienna were from time to time repeated but, on the whole, without success.^ In 1593 war between Turkey and Austria brought 60Ibld., p. 15. 62Ibld., p. 19. 61Ibld., p. 17. 63IbicU, p. 15. 64 severe oppression to the Hutterites. The outbreak, of the Thirty ^ears War brought relentless persecutions. "Neither Catholic nor Protestant knew anything of religious tolera- ' 64 tion." Eventually that war resulted in the final driving out of the Hutterian Mennonites from Moravia to Hungary, "65 Slovakia, and further east to Transylvania. Unwanted, they migrated eastward. By 1770 they es tablished their first "household" in the Ukraine. A few years later they settled near the Molotchna Mennonite Col- 66 ony. The Hutterites were not a part of the Mennonite church until they established themselves near the Mennonite colonies in South Russia and then later casting their lot with that of the Mennonites in the American venture in 1874. The schools of the Hutterian Brethren.— During their sojourn in Moravia, from 1528 to 1623, the Hutterian Brethren established rather unique schools in their BruderhBfe. The 67 Great Chronicle mentions the schools of the Hutterites as ^%lobert Friedmann, "Christian Love in Action— The Hutterites", Mennonite Life. X (July, 1946), 38. 65Ibid., p. 40. 66Cf. Chapter IV, pp. 106-112. 67 Chief Hutterite sources of information are two vol umes of their history, written by their own leaders in a chronological manner. The books might be better named "com munity diaries". (1) Grosse Geschicht-Buch (Great Chronicle), the most important of TThe two books, covers the first 137 years of Hutterian history, ^t serves, today, as a common-law code, though written, and as a handbook for common guidance in following the code and enforcing its sanctions. (2) Kleine Geschicht-Buch (Little Chronicle) brings the history of the group up to 1&24 and records a story of hardships, particularly dur ing th e mig ra ti ons. early as 1533* To compare the schools, as described in the 68 documents, with those in Europe in general during the six teenth century permits the conclusion that the Hutterians were educationally very progressive in their day* The Hutterian schools, seemingly, possessed a good reputation for, at times, even non-Hutterites attended them. When some of the new additions to the group were illiterate and past the school age, special schools were provided. Erorn the beginning school attendance was compulsory and the number of illiterates very low. The Hutterian schools were divided into three depart ments. The first accepted the children when they were one- and-a-half years old. It was like a Kindergarten in modern education. It was concerned chiefly with the physical care of the children. The little children were taught to speak, and received their first instruction in religion and social living. At the age of 5 or 6 the children entered the next department, not unlike an elementary school. Here they were under the supervision of a schoolmaster who taught them how to read and write. The religious graining was greatly empha sized. Eray0rs, the catechism, and religious hymns occupied ^Peter Ryedeman, Rechenschafft unsere Religion Leer und Glaubens, Von den iBrficfegn s~~o~man die Hutterisohen nennt aussgangen. Reprinted at^ern, Indiana, in 1902 "by the ttutterl sc hen Br$der, p. 130 ff. Also the Great Chronicle . John Horsch, og. cit., p. 152. Lists many manuscrlpts to be found in some 'of the BruderhBfe in Canada and the United States. 66 the center of the curriculum* In one of t heir early documents this statement appears: nThus we teach them not to seek the 69 temporal but the eternal things.” The catechism was so well- organized and mastered by the Hutterians that when some of the leaders were brought before magistrates and questioned on mat ters of belief, they were equipped with answers that were note- 70 worthy for their consistency* The children remained in this department until they were old enough to learn to work. A schoolmistress who taught the various household duties took charge of 1 he girls; and each boy was taught by a schoolmaster a specific trade for which he was seemingly best fitted. Whether academic subject-matter was taught in connection with 71 the vocational training is not certain. 72 £ Hutterite School Bisclpline of 1578 (sic., 1568) 75 and Peter ^cherer1s Address of 1568 to the Schoolmasters These two writings should prove of considerable interest to students of education. Both documents were, undoubtedly, 74 written by Peter Walpot, also kncwn as Peter Scherer (or ^Rudolf Wolkan, Die Hutterer (Wien, Germany: Wiener Bib 1 iophilen-Gesellschaf't",' 1918) , p. 71. v ^Loc. cit. ^Ibid., p. 75. ^Ibid., p. 75 (footnote) Wolkan states that the date 1578 was an error of the copyist and that it should be 1568. H© gives the credit for correcting the error to Johann Boserth, a student of Anabaptist history. ^These two educational documents were translated by Harold Bender (Goshen College), from the original German reprints which were published in Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft fuer deutsche Erzlehungs-uhd-8chulgeschichte"JJa3 3 rgang XI, Heft 2, pp. 112-1277 Berlin, 1901. Both translationsw ere printed in the Mennonite Historical Quarterly Review, V (October, 1931), pp. §31-5457 •7 4 - '^Peter Walpot was one of the greatest chief bishops 67 75 better yet, Peter the Shearer). Deets calls him the Horace Mann of Hutterdom. Among the ^ennonites he can be listed as one of their foremost educational reformers. In his educational treatise, A Hutterite school dis cipline, Walpot described very carefully the duties and responsibilities of the teachers in the Bruderhof schools. In order to appreciate more fully the educational principles which Walpot outlined, it is necessary to recognize that the Hutterian schools were hardly comparable to modem public schools . A Bruderhof was composed of a number of families practicing the Christian principle of wcoramunity of goods11. Their schools were, to some extent, more like boarding schools for the children were in the care of teachers both day and night. Walpot emphasizes harmonious relationships among the teachers and the importance of exemplary, ethical behavior. Consider the following selected quotation: They (teachers) shall take care that no disunity, strife, or boisterous speaking is heard by the children, but rather by a peaceful, cheerful, good-natured and sober life and quiet walk they shall inspire the youth likewise to ,quiet and s ober . living and give them a good example. They should avoid vain and idle words so that the children shall not have occasion to gossip.76 of the H'utteria“ n Brotherhood. He came from Tyrol. As the leading spiritual leader of the group he exerted great influence in favor of schoql reforms. ^Lee Emerson Beets, The Hutterites: A Study in Social Cohesion (G-ettysburg, Pa.: Times and News Publ. Co., 1939) ,p. 43. ^ A Hutteri te ^chool Discipline ' of 1578, Mennonite Quarterly^Review, V (October7 1931), p. 232. All other 68 Discipline and disciplinary measures are to "be ad ministered in a spirit of love and forgiveness. There is no evidence of the harsh, rigid discipline so common in the schools of that day. Walpot says 2 When one or more children are guilty of something, either of unbecoming conversation or other foolishness— if is ordered that not every sister should at once step in and punish but should take care in the fear of God so that the youth should not be hastily disciplined. For this reason in order to be better able to give account before God and man, it is believed best that the sisters should report <the matter to the brethren in the school or to the school mother and should not be too severe, seeing that the L0rd does not deal'with us elder ones always according to our deserts, but accord ing to grace. The discovery of the causes of infectious diseases is usually ascribed to ^ouis Pasteur (1822-1895). Walpot seem ingly was aware of contagion for be warned against exposure, as early as 1568: When the children are brought to the school they should be carefully examined and if anyone is found to have a contagious disease such as scurvy or French disease (syphilis or lem), the same should be instantly separated from the rest in sleeping and drinking and in particular in washing. Also special brushes and combs shall be used in taking care of the hair of those having skin eruptions. Those who have such eruptions shall be put together and not kept with those who are clean. Likewise those who have diseases. If a child suffers or receives an injury on account of carelessness of whatever sort it may be, the injury shall not be concealed, but help and counsel shall be sought as soon as possible before greater injury comes of it. The teachers are called upon to exercise great quoted educational principles that follow are taken from the same source. 69 patience the School filscipline requests the following: When children are sick one should not be too severe with them if they ask for this or that, but should in true faithfulness as unto Sod be diligent in waiting upon them, in lifting and laying down, in cleaning and washing. Walpotfs School Discipline is chiefly concerned with physical well-being of the children. Like a Pestalozzi he resented -the harsh treatment of children which had charac terized all school instruction for ages and tried to substi tute a strict but loving discipline, ^’ here are no principles that pertain to the learning processes nor the nature of men tal development. In 1568 Deter Walpot delivered an address at a con ference of teachers which was held at Niemschitz. Some of the references in the address indicate that the attitudes of some of the teachers and their relationships to each other were not beyond reproach. It must be remembered that this address was given but a few years after the origin of the communal way of life and that there was agreat deal of adjustment necessary. The surprising thing is not that there were pro blems but that the arrangement worked at all. The reader is urged to read the educational documents of Peter Walpot. They appear as Appendices B and C. Walpot*s understanding of child nature, hygiene, and humane methods of discipline are exceedingly modern. As an educational philoso pher Walpot deserves a foremost pice among Mennonite educators. 70 GERMANY The history of the Mennonites in Germany is somewhat difficult to trace. Mennonitism took root in a number of different sections of Germany during the middle of the six teenth century, and each section developed more or less in dependently. In spite of common religious traditions, the dif ferent districts or regions formed separate ecclesiastical 77 units and conferences, with only limited religious fellowship with one another. The fact that most of the Mennonites in the northern part of Germany ^ere of Dutch origin and those in the southern sections of Svsiss descent complicates the story considerably. 78 Smith divides the Mennonites in Germany into four sett laments--Northwestern Germany, the Vis tula-Nogat delta, the Palatinate and Upper Rhine, and Alsace-Lorraine. The first two— Northwestern Germany and the Vistula-Nogat delta-- became a refuge for Dutch Mennonites fleeing from the atroci ties of Spanish rule. Some Swiss refugees settled in North western Germany with the Dutch Mennonites. The southern part of Germany and Alsace-Lorraine was settled by Swiss Menno nites who had escaped torture and death in Switzerland. It might be significant to know that the Dutch Mennonites in 77 G. Henry Smith, The Story of the Mennonites, p. 339. 7®Loc . ci t. 71 the northern part of Germany became, in time, much more li beral in their interpretations of Mennonite religious prin ciples, while the Swiss Mennonites in the southern part of Germany remained mca?e conservative* Germany became the emanating region of several signi ficant Mennonite migrations* In 1683 the first thirteen Mennonite families of butch ancestory left the little town of Krefeld in Northwestern Germany and settled in Germantown, '79 Pennsylvania* In the middle of the eighteenth century several large groups of Mennonites of Swiss ancestry left 80 South Germany and also settled in Pennsylvania* in the last decade of the eighteenth century an extensive migration of butch Mennonites from the vistula-ITogat area accepted an invitation from Catherine the Great and settled on her vast 81 plains in South Russia* The picturesque Amish Mennonites came from the Platinate and established new homes in Penn- 82 sylvania • The rising tide of nationalism and patriotism that has pervaded German national life during the last century has engulfed the Mennonites in Germany* They have lost their traditional Mennonite conscience on fundamental Mennonite ^Cf. Chapter V, p* 188 ff. 80 Cf. Chapter V, p. 189 ff. 81Cf. Chapter XV, p. 87 ff. 82 Cf. Chapter V, p. 209 ff. 72 principle s* During the Nazi period, the Mennonites seemingly expressed very little opposition to a program of religious ' 83 oppression, of state worship, and of military aggression# The immediate future of Mennonitism in Germany can hardly be predicted# Education and the Mennonites in Germany#— Like their brethren in Holland the Mennonites in Germany failed to es tablish the ip own school system# during the period of per secution followed by various imposed economic, religious, and educationalr estrictions the Mennonites promoted no institu- '84 tions which would encourage greater opposition. At best it would seem almost an impossibility for a widely scattered and isolated people, speaking a foreign tongue, and practicing a prescribed religion, the object of the jealousies of a paw erful s tate church, tbggaintain and perpetuate their own religious institutions* Having survived four hundred years without schools to perpetuate their religious principles, the Mennonite churches in Germany have earned the Meloquent tribute to the 86 tenacity and genuineness of their religious convietions*M However, not all established communities have survived the disturbing influences pressing in upon them# For instance, 83H. A, Fast, interview* Dr* Fast, Vice-president of the ^ennonite Central Committee, spent some time in Ger many after World War II to help organize relief work among the Mennonites in Germany. ^C. Henry Smith, The Stary of the Mennonites, et passim* ^Ibid., p. 251. 86Loo . clt. 73 a Mennonite community in Northwestern Germany, which held its own for two centuries finally disappeared* l*he writers of the history of this community list $among the causes leading to the community’s dissolution the following: the practice among the Mennonites of sending their children to the Luther an schools to be educated* A careful study of 1 he literature pertaining to Men nonite life in Germany reveals but few references to educa tional activities promoted by the denomination. Sometimes communities where the population was solidly Mennonite or in communities where a sufficient nucfoer of Mennonite children were available, the local minister organized a school in the church • Realanstalt am Donnersberg.— Michael LBwenberg, a Mennonite minister of the Yifeierhof-Uffhofen congregation, recognized the great need of a training school to prepare ministers. Having demonstrated his excellent teaching abili ties in his private elementary school, LBwenberg succeeded 87 in organizing a society composed of fifty members. In order to arouse interest among the Mennonites, he wrote articles that appeared In the Mennonitischen BlMttern (Nos. 2 and 3), urging all Mennonite churches in Germany, Holland, 87 C. Handiges, nZum fBnfzigjithrigen Jubil^um der Real und Erziehungsanstalt auf dem Weierhof am Lonnersbergn, Men nonitischen ‘ Jugendwarte, No. 3, herausgegeben in Ibersheim b. WormsV p.'~6. 74 and ^ussia to support the establishment of a Mennonite sem inary and teacher-training institution at Weierhof in der Bfalz, Germany, On December 2, 1867, the Realanstalt am Donnersberg, now known as the Weierhof Keal-und-Erziehungs Anstalt, was formally opened in a private residence rented for that pur pose. The school, a secondary boarding school, grew immedi ately in students and financial gifts that came from Mennonite 88 churches near and far. On Septenber 22, 1869, the first new building was completed. The original purpose, a Biblical seminary for the training of Mennonite ministers, however, was not realized. All efforts by LBwenberg to secure the Confer- 89 ence sanction and acceptance of the school failed. Through out most of its history it remained a secondary school. After the close of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870 a spirit of intolerant nationalism, known in European history as the Kulturkampf, took possession of many Germans who began to denounce Catholics, socialists, Jews, and others, like the Mennonites, as enemies of the German Empire. In 1877 the Bavarian government notified the School that it would be re quired to choose one of two alternatives: either to reorgan ize its total educational program according to the state educational standards as to curriculum and teachers, or to 88Ibld.. p. 7. 89Loe. cit. 75 90 operate only as an elementary school. With uheavy hearts1 1 the administration of t he School chose the latter; and, from 1878 until 1884 the Weierhof Real-und-Erziehungs Anstalt functioned on the elementary level. In May, 1884, at a Mennonite Conference held at Friedelsheim, the question of reorganizing the School into a Biblical seminary, as originally planned by its founder, * 91 LBwenberg, was considered without reaching any decision. When, in 1886, the more progressive Mennonite church leaders in Germany organized the Union of Mennonites of the G©rraan '92 Reich, the question of the establishment of a seminary was considered by that organization. In the meantime the Society sponsoring, the Weierhof school selected a new principal, Dr. Ernst GBbel, and launched out with renewed hopes to revive the Realschule ♦ In 1885, during the first year of Gftbel’s principalship the Bavarian government granted permission to reopen the Realschule, which had not been allowed to operate for seven years. A few years later, in 1892, the government placed the Weierhof Real-und-Erziehungs Anstalt on the list of approved private Realschulen. O 90Ibid., p. 8. 91Ibid., p. 9. 9^The Union of Mennonites of the German Reich was a federation of Mennonite churches, not a Mennonite church conference, organized to provide for traveling evangelists, to encourage worthy students into the ministry, to aid under paid ministers, and to promote the Cause of Mennonite litera ture. 76 Sine© 1885 the School experienced considerable growth in buildings and equipment. Its dormitories were adequate to house 200 students* Its laboratories were supplied with the best in scientific apparatus. It became one of the 93 largest private boarding schools in Germany. Although the Weierhof School was established primarily - for Mennonite youth, the Mennonite churches in Germany never assumed the responsibility of its financial support and con trol. throughout its history it remained a project of an educational society* In 1907 the rules of the Society were changed to permit non-Mennonites to become members. The Society adopted the name Vereln fflr die Anstalt am Donners- berg (!,Socie ty f or the Institution at donnersberg*1) * The 94 chairman of the Society, by custom, was always a Mennonite. As the Society became more non-Mennonite, the Weierhof Real- schule remained no longer a distinctively Mennonite institution. Of the 246 students enrolled during the school year 1935-1936, 95 only 10 per cent were Mennonites. After the spring term of 1936 the German government assumed the control of the School and converted it into a Musterschule (,fModel School11) according to the Nazi education al program, ^csvever, the German government agreed to permit ^Die Realanstalt am Donnersberg wird nationalsozial- istische Mus terschule, Mennonitische Geschichtsblit11er, I. Jahrgang, November, 1936, p. 43. 94 , 9 5 _ . . Loc . cit. Ibid., p. 44. 77 a Mennonite minister to give religious instruction to all 96 Mennonite students. At the close of World War II when the German government disintegrated, the Realanstalt am Donners- herg ceased to operate. When -^0 French Occupation Forces moved in to take over their assigned section of Germany, the School was converted into a military base. The Weierhof School never achieved its founder*s original plans. LBwenberg saw the need of an educated min istry but never received the necessary encouragement from his brethren to develop his school into a theological seminary. As an educational institution wthe school was of great ser- 97 vice to the German Mennonites,w but as a Mennonite educa tional institution it became, less and less, effective towards the end of its existence. FRANCE The rather small group of Mennonites living in France today are descendants of Swiss Anabaptists who escaped the bitter persecutions at Bern and Zurich during the middle of the sixteenth century. During the past four hundred years the Mennonites in France have remained in touch with their brethren in Switzerland and South Germany and have shared ‘98 their religious and cultural heritage with them. The 96Loc. olt. 97Ibid., p. 44. 9®C. Henry Smith, The Story of the Mennonites. p. 327. 78 French Mennonites are practically all of the Amish branch of the church* The Mennonite School at Exincourt.--In 1869 Issak Rich, who had received a part of his education at the Wads~ *99 worth School, opened an elementary school in the little French village of Etupes for the children from the surround- 100 ing Mennonite churches. Rich planned to offer the Men nonite children a better religious instruction than they were receiving in the Catholic schools* While conducting his school, Rich developed a special interest in underprivileged children. ^hey were received either free of charges or upon a small payment which friends 101 of the Institution contributed for that purpose. Children were accepted irrespective of their religious affiliations and kept until they were fourteen years of age. Being an energetic promoter, Rich succeeded in inte resting people for his project and collecting considerable funds. efforts to make the S c h o o l a project of the gen eral German Mennonite conference failed. Anxious to develop the Institution, Rich bought an estate near Exincourt, a small village not far from Etupes. The School was novj moved 99Cf. Chapter V, p. 280 ff. 'lOOQhristian Neff, wExincourtM, Mennonitisches Lexi- kon, I, 622. • * - Q- * Tbid., p. 622. 79 into the roomy dwelling located upon the estate. The number of children increased to forty by 1876. Every indication pointed to continued growth and development. During the night of June 28, 1876, Rich disappeared. A few days later he was arrested and charged with illicit relations perpetrated upon some of the children* The court found Rich guilty and sentenced him to Devil1s Island, where he died in 1878. The Mennonite School at Exincourt, which had operated successfully for seven years, came to an abrupt “102 end. The French Mennonites do not possess an educated leadership. There are signs, however, that the old order “103 is passing. Some of the younger ministers are beginning to spend a fen months or even years in a Bible school at Basel, Switzerland* Since the close of World War II several young people have been attending Mennonite colleges in America* SUMMARY The Menn0nites in western Europe, Holland, Germany, France, and Switzerland, did not develop their own education al systems. Unlike the Mennonites in the United States, Can ada, and HUSsia, w H° fostered their traditional Mennonite ^ • ^Loc . cit. Henry Smith, The Story of the Mennonites t p. 338. 80 principles and institutions by means of private schools, the Mennonites in western Europe have identified themselves more and more with the national life in which each lives. Such identification, except possibly for the Mennonites in Switzer land, includes complete participation in the respective state school systems operating in those countries. The churches in western Europe have suffered numerical and spiritual decline during the last half century, A number of causes have promoted a disintegration Mennonitism, The lack of proper school ikcilities is undoubtedly one of the causes of the decline. The Mennonites in the United States and Canada have expressed considerable concern over the status of their brethren in Western Europe, Already before the close of W0rHd ^ar II relief centers were set up in those areas where Mennonites had suffered great losses. It was realized, however, by the Americans that material aid was not all that was needed. In the summer of 1946 the Association of Mennonite Colleges and Affiliated Schools sent Edmund G. Kaufman, president of Bethel College, and E. E. Miller, president of Goshen College to Europe to make contact with young Mennonites for the purpose of encouraging them to come to America and attend ^ennonite schools here. Free tuition, board and room, and a small monthly allowance was guaranteed to each. These offers have brought from 30 to 50 young people each year from Holland, Germany, and Erance to the United ^tates, where they were distributed among the 81 schools in the Association. It is hoped that the fundamental principles of the Mennonite church, which are still loyally preserved in this country, will be taken back to Europe by the returning students who, in turn, will stimulate the spiritual life in their home churches. CHAPTER IV MENNONITES UNDER THE CZARS For two and a half centuries the Mennonitles in the free city of Danzig and the two prussias had suffered dis crimination, intimidation, and persecution. Their habits of thrift and their shill as farmers had served them, both as a blessing and as an evil. Because of their ability to reclaim swamp lands for various German noblemen and to make hitherto worthless swamps produce abundant crops, they were threatened and oppressed but never driven from the country. They had proved to be an economic asset; thus, they were tolerated disrespectfully. Yet their way of life also proved to be a source of trouble when the non-Mennonites around them en vied them for their material prosperity and misunderstood their pacificism. Students of Mennonite history find the story of this religious group in the Prussias depressing when they become aware of the bitter persecutions and re lentless oppressions experienced by this people. It is not within the scope of this study to trace the history of the Mennonites in Germany during the first two hundred and fifty years of sojourn there. In the closing decades of the eighteenth century thoughts of emigration for conscience* sake were often expressed as an alternative to the oppressive conditions which are here briefly reviewed: 1. Military exemptions became increasingly more 63 precarious. Frederick the Great, who ruled from 17**0 to 17^6, depended too much upon his well-organized army for the expan sion of the Prussian kingdom to view with favorable consider ation the pacificism of the Mennonites. The growth of mili tarism in Europe during the eighteenth century presaged no bright future for the peace-loving Mennonites. With increas ing warfare and ever larger armies, military service for all able-bodied men became necessary. When the TOlunteers were not sufficient in numbers, the armies resorted to Impressment, which never proved popular. The Germans who were required to furnish men for the army became very critical and hostile to a privileged class in their midst who were afforded military exemption. Frequently, too, Mennonites were forced to fur nish substitutes, a privilege open to all others as well. A special exemption tax was commonly levied upon the Mennon ites and paid by them for the privileges they enjoyed. Pro mises of military exemptions from one king seemingly did not carry over to his successor. With each new monarch this pri vilege had to be regained. 2. In 177*1- the governmental assembly of Marienweder passed an act forbidding Mennonites from acquiring any more land through purchase unless the land had previously belonged to a Mennonite. Nor could any Mennonite engage in a trade which he had not followed previous to the passing of the law. Even though the law was not rigorously enforced, it served as a constant threat to the economic future of the group, g l j * nevertheless.^* When Mennonites did buy real estate from each other, they had to pay a sales tax of 6 per cent Instead of the 1 per cent required of non-Mennonites. 3. Again and again Mennonites were asked to pay tri bute money for one reason after another. In 1750 the mer chants of Danzig were able to close Mennonite shops and other places of business. Then the Mennonite merchants were pri vately given to understand that they might avoid financial ruin by paying a substantial sum of tribute money. After a sum of money had been agreed upon, the Mennonite merchants were permitted to reopen their places of business. In 17$9 the great Frederick granted the Mennonites a special charter in which they were guaranteed religious liberty with equal rights to carry on any kind of business, on condition, how ever, that they pay the annual sum of 5,000 Thaler for the support of the military academy of Culm. There were many other annoying restrictions. Men nonites, for example, were not permitted to hold public fun erals. Citizenship was granted to Mennonites at Koenigsberg in 17^, "but not to Mennonites in the Danzig area for another fifty years. Thus, in the closing decades of the eighteenth cen tury the conditions, as summarized by Smith were thus: It was quite evident by this time that both church **■&. Mannhardt, ^Die Mennoniten unter den Preuszischen Koenigen,1 1 Mennonltlsche Volkswarte (November, 1935), P- ^*36. 85 and state were determined upon stopping the further growth of Mennonitism. Hampered by excessive and un fair taxes, unable to provide new homes for their grow ing young people, and fearful of the future, with heavy hearts the Mennonites now looked about for a new asy lum where they might be free to exercise their religious convictions without fear of governmental restraints. Those most vitally concerned at first were the landless and the more conscientious.2 I. THE PIONEER YEARS IN SOUTH RUSSIA The Establishment of Mennonite Colonies. During the reign of Catherine the Great, Russia greatly extended her territories to the south. Vast areas of her southern terri tory were but sparsely settled. They held many roving tribes of Tartars and Cossacks who were not developing the region into an economic asset for the State. The government realized that to bring order to this frontier land and to make it eco nomically profitable it was necessary to settle on it a per manent, stable population. Realizing that Russia at the time lacked the manpower for an immediate extensive colonization of new country, and knowing, moreover, that the peasantry with its primi tive economic and agricultural systems could not be ex pected to perform a rapid civilizing function, Catherine turned for* the solution of the problem to an extensive program of colonization from abroad.3 Catherine the Great advertised the advantages of her p C. Henry Smith, The Story of the Mennonites (Berne, Indiana: Mennonite Book (Joricern, l^SWl), p. 2$$. ' ^David G. Rempel, "The Mennonite Colonies in New Russia. A Study of Their Settlement and Economic Development from 1789 to 191^.n Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Leland Stanford University, Palo Alto, Callforhia, 1933 > P* 83 • Rempel had access to original Russian material in the Hoover 56 unsettled lands in all parts of Europe. She promised; (1) Free lands in abundance; (2) free transportation and support until such time as the settlers should be established in their new homes; (3) tax exemptions for a limited time; (^) exemption from military duty and certain civil obligations; (5) religious toleration; and, (6) wide liberty in establish ing such educational and local political institutions as best suited their needs. During the month of August, 17^6, George von Trappe, a Russian colonization agent, appeared in the city of Danzig. Von Trappe established contact with Peter Epp, one of the leading elders in the Mennonite church, to whom was delivered the invitation for Mennonites to settle in Russia.^ Becoming convinced and enthusiastic concerning the possibilities of Catherines offer, Epp soon aroused the interest in the var ious Mennonite churches in Danzig and the surrounding communi ties. New hope came to the discouraged Mennonites who were suffering from a number of economic and religious restric tions which were making the future of the group increasingly War Library. This is a very scholarly study of the emigra tion and the subsequent economic development of the Mennon ites in South Russia. Void., p. H-2. -*D. H. Epp, Die Chortitzer Mennoniten (Odessa: Druck von A. Schultze, LangeronStrasze Jb," Etaus karuso, 1559), p. 2. 27 more uncertain. Soon two representatives, Johann Hoeppner and Jacob Bartsch, were chosen to accompany von Trappe, at Russian expense, to investigate the possibilities for a new home. During the course of the journey, the two deputies conferred with Prince Potempkin, Governor General of Hew Russia, with Catherine herself, who happened to be making an inspection tour of South Russia, and Crown Prince Paul. Prom these officials, confirmation of the promises made at Danzig by von Trappe were substantiated. Having selected a promising place near Berislav, along the Dnieper, not far from where that stream flows into the Black Sea,^ Hoeppner and Bartsch returned home bringing a very favorable report to the anxious Mennonites at Danzig. & In 17&9 the first group of 22S families arrived in South Russia after a hazardous Journey filled with privations, disappointments, and unexpected hindrances. Particularly great was the disappointment when the emigrants were told by Potempkin that they would have to settle on lands farther up the Dnieper River, near a small tributary called the Chor- titz region that turned out to be far less desirable than the original site chosen by the two deputies farther south.9 c P. M. Friesen, Die Alt-Evangelische Mennonitlsche Bruedersohaft in Ruszland~T789-1910 (Halbstadt, Taurlen: Veriagsgesells'cEaft l f Raduga,n 1911), p. 71* * G. Henry Smith, op. cit., p. 3$5» £ P. M. Friesen, op. cit., p. 73* 9C. Henry Smith, op. cit., p. 3^9* 66 By the end of the following year, 1790, the group had grown to 4-00 families,"^ and what came to he known as the Chortltza Colony had been established. Since the religious and economic restrictions imposed upon the Mennonites still living in Danzig and the Prusslas were becoming more and more severe, another wave of emigra tion to South Russia began in 1S0J. Obtaining the same pro mises from the Russian government granted to the Mennonites who had settled at the Ghortitz River fourteen years earlier, about 34-2 families established a new colony on the Molotchna River in 1S03. 11 This new colony came to be known as the Molotchna Colony. At first this colony was organized as a unit, but later when it had grown too large to be administered as one colony, it was divided into two colonies— Halbstadt and Gnadenfeld. In addition to the . two large Mennonite colonies Just described, several smaller groups migrated into Russia and established settlements during the same period. These smaller colonies may be listed into three groups: 1. From the churches at (Jraudenz and Culm in West Prussia, a small group of immigrants settled along the Vis tula near Warsaw, establishing two colonies— Deutsch-Kazun and Deutsch-Wymisle colonies. 10P. M. Friesen, og. cit., p. 73* U IMd., p. 7^. 29 (2) The settlement at Deutsch-Michalin near Machnof- ka, on the western border of the province of Kiev, just across from Volhynia, was composed of Prussians who had migrated to that region about the same time the first colony came to Ghor- titz. (3) After 125G another small wave of emigration be gan to move out of Prussia because the military exemption privileges became ever more precarious. This group could not obtain the generous concessions obtained by the earlier groups, but, considering the terms granted by the Russian government as more favorable than the restricted life in Prussia, a small number of Mennonites built a colony on the Volga River in the Province of Samara. According to the agreements with the Russian Govern ment, the Mennonite colonies were permitted almost complete self-determination concerning political, economic, and edu cational matters. In fact, the Mennonites with all their special exemp tions and privileges almost constituted a democratic state within an autocratic state, enjoying local auton omy far above the Russian communities.12 The First Schools in the Chortltza Colony. Poverty, privations of pioneer life, and conservative attitudes served to hinder the early development of an ade- 12C. Henry Smith, op. cit., p. ^13. 90 quate educational system. Epp,^ Friesen, ^ and Smith^ de scribe in woeful words the deplorable conditions found in the schools of the various villages during the first fifty years. One of the main reasons for the pitiable conditions of the schools was the lack of thoroughly prepared teachers. It seems to have been the prevailing opinion that anyone willing to teach was good enough. Often they were men and sometimes women too old or, for some reason, unfit to do anyting else. HIt is said to have actually happened that in lack of a schoolmaster, sometimes an old grandmother would undertake the business of keeping school, and would teach the lads and 16 lassies in her own way.M The village schools were at first conducted largely in the homes of the teachers. Instead of maps, charts, and blackboards, the schoolroom was cluttered with household furniture or such tools as were common in a rural shop of that day. Besides * keeping1 1 school, the teacher often prac ticed all sorts of HFrele Kuenste*1 (free arts) as a way of adding to the meager income derived from teaching. If the teacher possessed skill as a cabinet maker, the planing bench and carpenter*s tools found their needed space among ^D. H. Epp, op. cit., p. 122. ik ^ P. M. Friesen, op. cit., p. 6 2 9. Henry Smith, op. cit., p. J-KUJ*. 16 Peter Braun, t t The Educational System of the Mennon ite Colonies in South Russia,1 1 The Mennonite Quarterly Re view, III (July, 1929), 170. 91 the tables and benches occupied by the pupils* Tailoring and cobbling were other “free arts’ * pursued in this manner. Such a practice was considered appropriate for the teacher should have an occupation as a pastime, for what was there to do except to supervise the children as they memorized their les sons and to see that order was maintained* Where local villages constructed buildings for school purposes, conditions were no better* “The structures differed very little from the average dwelling built with adobe or mud walls, a few small windows and a straw roof.“^ Epp de- 1<2 scribes them as “small, low, and dark.” Two long tables, one for the boys and one for the girls, and the necessary ben ches composed the classroom furniture. Whatever subject matter could be found in available ABC books, catechisms, songbooks, and Bibles composed the curriculum. A little simple arithmetic, with much emphasis on the multiplication tables by rote, was added as a secular subject* “This was the food for the soul and mind during the early pioneer days in Russia.........While the text books were printed in the German language, the classroom 20 language was more often the Plattdeutsch. There were no t ^Cornelius Krahn, “Early Schools, “ Mennonite Weekly Review, May 22, 19^-J. H. Epp, op. cit*, p. 122; ^Cornelius Krahn, op. cit., p. 20 Plattdeutsch was the vernacular language of the Men nonites in Russia and of those descendants * 0 migrated to 92 uniform textbooks nor formal classes. One by one, the pupils appeared before the teacher to recite mechanically memorized lessons. Those who could recite most accurately were consid ered the best students. Teachers spent no time explaining meanings. Undoubtedly, the saddest commentary that can be made concerning these schools was the method of discipline. The usual punishments were kneeling on peas or on a little sharp board with a donkey*s picture hung around the offender*s neck. Guffs on the ears were all too common. The ever-present rod was freely used to cover up the wretched teaching. In the beginning, educational interest among the Men nonites in the Chortita Colony was not very evident. Pro gress, thus, was very slow. **The supervision of schools was, according to law, incumbent upon the bishops and ministers of the church. However, nothing from that source was ever 21 done for the schools.1 1 There seem to be at least two cau ses why the educational level remained so low during the first five decades. First,*1 .... the 2&S families [were] nearly 22 all from the poorer working classes of Danzig.........n That the group did not contain a minister, nor anyone prepared North and South America. It is a brqnch of the West Germanic language. It served as the basis for the Saxon language which later became modern English. 21 Peter Braun, og. cit., p. 171. 22C. Henry Smith, op. cit., p. 3^7. 93 to assume spiritual leadership, reveals the educational level of the emigrants that settled this colony. Second, during the first fifty years of its existence, the colony maintained no secondary or normal schools in which teachers might have been trained for the village schools, which were increasingly rapidly in number. The First Schools in the Molotchna Colony. The groups that founded the Molotchna Colony were, in most cases, rather well-to-do farmers; but the hardships accompanying pioneer life prevented the expression of concern for ade quate schools. The story describing the schools in this colony is much the same as that of the Chortltza Colony. In fact, Isaac critically states: H . . . . actual instruction was unknown.........in the schools. In 1820 there arose in the Molotchna Colony a sincere desire to improve the village schools. Some of the leading men began to realize that the continuous negleet of education prevented the healthy development of the spiritual and mater ial aspects of life. They realized also that the main cause of the deplorable conditions existing in their schools was the lack of trained teachers. They realized further that the first step necessary to improve the schools was the need to establish a school for the training of teachers. ^Franz Isaac, Die Molotchnaer Mennonlten (Halbstadt, Taurien: Kommissionsverlag und b’ ruck von H. J. Braun, 190&), pp. 273-27^ . 9^ In the village of Ohrloff, a group of schoolminded men organized a Sohulvereln (1 1 educational association") with the energetic, gifted Johann Cornies, who was later to become the great educational reformer in all the Mennonite colonies, as the first chairman. Two years later the Associ ation opened the Vereinschule, a type of secondary school designed mainly for the preparation of teachers. The name, Vereinschule, was later changed to Zentralschule,("Central School"). II. THE DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION The Ohrloff Zentralschule Becomes a Pattern. Near the outskirts of the village of Ohrloff the Educational Asso ciation constructed a building for the new Zentralschule. In 1822 it was formally opened. Being the first of its kind in the colonies, it had no model to follow. Once established, however, It became the pattern for subsequent secondary schools, not only in the Molotchna Colony, but in the Chortit- za Colony as well. The growth of the Zentralschul movement, at first, was slow. After the opening of the Ohrloff School, two more were established in the Molotchna Colony, during the next fifty years. One of these was opened in 1835 a<k Halbstadt and the other in Gnadenfeld In 1873* At Chortltza, the sister colony, the first Zentralschule was opened in 18*1-2. Until after 1905 the growing Mennonite settlements depended upon the four mentioned institutions to prepare the teachers for the 95 village schools. The organization, curriculum, and the es tablishment of other similar schools will be treated in a later part of the chapter* Teachers G-lvlng Direction to the Development of the Ohrloff and the Chortltza Central Schools. A study of the literature concerning the development of the Central Schools at Ohrloff and at Chortltza points to the work and influence of three teachers— Tobias Voth, Herinrich Heese, and Heinrich Franz. Without a brief study of these men the Central School movement in the Mennonite colonies of South Russia which had its beginning in 1822 cannot be understood. (1) Tobias Voth was the first of these pioneers. Af ter the newly formed Educational Association at Ohrloff had agreed to establish a school for the training of teach ers, a building was constructed which was ready for the open ing of its doors in 1822. The responsibilities of directing and teaching in this new institution was placed into the hands of young Tobias Voth, imported from West Prussia by the As sociation. Voth was born July 16, 1791, in Brenkenhofswalde, a small village near Driesen, in the Dutchy of Brandenburg. His father was a minister of the Mennonite Church at that place. At the age of sixteen young Voth began to teach in his home village. In 1812, five years later, he passed a governmental examination and became the schoolmaster in the school at Soldin. While teaching here, the schools were 96 closed for a brief time when the French soldiers returning from their campaign in Russia were passing through Prussia. During that time Voth accepted a temporary government job. Two years later, while teaching at Koenigsberg, Voth 2k. experienced a religious conversion which led to a very pious, spiritual outlook on life. Seeking encouragement for his spiritual Interests, he associated with a pietistic group that lived in a little village near Koenigsberg. His asso ciations with this group, called fanatics by its enemies, re sulted in some criticisms from the school officials whom he served. ^ From this time on, Voth«s greatest concern seems to have been to be constantly in the Will of G-od. His sin cere desire to influence his students with a searching, re ligious emphasis of life characterizes Voth*s teaching throughout his life. Then came the invitation from Russia to organize the new Central School at Ohrloff. Seemingly, without much hesitation, Voth accepted the call and moved his growing fam ily to the Molotchna Colony. From 1622 to 1629 Voth worked diligently and faith fully to achieve the purposes for which he had come. He realized, as never before, Aller Anfang ist schwer. Interest in the school was limited; many soon became suspicious and plL P. M. Friesen, op. cit., p. 570. 2^Loc. cit. 97 critical.^ Not only did Voth teach the courses offered to the students who had enrolled, but he taught evening classes in Bible Study, missions, and music to those who could not come during the day. Through the encouragement of Cornies, he organized a reading circle. Attendance and interest in the instruction Voth offered so generously grew during the first few years. ttThis active interest was due partly to the fact that the school was a new experience for all and partly because financial conditions were good.,f2^ Crop failure ushered in hard times. Parents were unable to pay the necessary tuition fees. Attendance de creased. The pious nature of Voth and the evangelical qual ity of his teaching had, in the course of time aroused re sentment and criticisms. Even Cornies, chairman of the As sociation did not altogether approve of him. In a meeting of the Association with Voth concerning the strained rela tionships that had developed, Cornies accused Voth of being p<§ too mild-mannered and gentle. Such mildness had not been conducive to good discipline among the boys in his classes. 26it>ia.. p. 571. 2' Loe. cit, 2gibia.. p. 57IK 96 "Voth was ahead of his times.1 1 Evidently Cornies, who was an aggressive, practical farmer, found this young teacher from Prussia a bit too much concerned with spiritual matters. Cornies felt, too, that the Russian language should be taught. Since Voth knew only the German, all his instruc tion had been given in that language* Realizing that his services were not desired any longer, he resigned his position on April 13, 1S29. From Ohrloff, Voth moved his family to a little village named Schoenwlese, located midway between the two colonies Molot chna and Ghortitza, near Alexandrovsk. There he opened a pri vate school in a building he constructed for that purpose. Due to the poor financial conditions existing in that coun try and the lack of interest in a private school, his venture which had been built on great hopes ended in failure. Utter ly discouraged, this devout, evangelical teacher moved to the village of Steinbach. Here the story of Voth seemingly ends. Friesen includes parts of Voth*s autobiography and some of his personal letters in his book in which his discouragement and great fears of the future are pathetically expressed.^ The seven years of work among the Mennonites at ohrloff had resulted in a specific contribution. Voth had introduced into the Zentralschule a definite spiritual emphasis. Many 29C. Henry Smith, o£. cit. , p. *J-l6. ^°P. M« Friesen, oj>. cit., pp. 569-577. 99 years later his students traced their Christian interests to the instruction received at the feet of Tobias Voth* (2) Heinrich Heese followed Voth as the second teacher of the Ohrloff School* He was also a Mennonite born and edu cated in Prussia. When Napoleon was reconstituting Germany and impressing Germans into his array, Heese fled to Russia to enjoy the privileges of his brethren in the Chortltza colony* After learning the Russian language, Heese became a tutor in homes of Russian noblemen* Not long after he became a secretary in the administrative office of the Colony* To fill the vacancy created by the dismissal of Tobias Voth Cornies extended an invitation to Heese of whom he had heard favorable reports. Cornies chose Heese for two reasons: In the first place Heese was able to teach the Russian language, a new course which Cornies demanded to be taught; in the second place Heesefs personality seemed to express the qual ity of firmness that promised better discipline in the class room* ^ Heese proved to be a strict disciplinarian and an outspoken pedagogue. He was truly nPrussianH in his methods* He emphasized the acquisition of practical knowledge and hab its of virtuous behavior. Thrift and orderliness were much stressed* He seems to have possessed an understanding of the objectives of education and the necessary conditions that 31ibia.. p, 577. 32ibia., p. 5^2. 100 would achieve the objectives.^3 A peculiar spirit of Russian patriotism possessed Heese. In a letter dated November 3, 1355, writes to a certain Peter Isaak in the Schoenau village: In the enclosed poems you will see my feelings con cerning the [Crimean] war. I have been true to my inner convictions which were determined by that same spirit which will lead our devout monarch [Russian Czar] to a successful victory to the Glory of God. Our enemy [Turks] scorn Jesus Christ. They worship the dragon; our monarch serves the Lord; his soldiers are believers, and God will come to their aid, for the prayer of the devout will be answered with victory* Why does Russia withdraw away from the other nations that boast of their high civilization? In England, in spite of all their liberties, the people are treated worse than animals by the aristocrats. The training of the masses is entirely neglected; Justice is interwoven with shameless intrigue; in France everyone is fettered by the chain of the dragon, and religion is an object of scorn. Russia, instead, how she grows continuously in her well-being.* How, wise, how Just are not her laws! How she honors religion! How tolerant is she to all confes sions! In Russia^ wildernesses, God will find ways of protecting the mother with her child from the dragon.3$* Such utterances of patriotism for his adopted country are strange when it is realized that he was a German Lutheran by birth, having become a Mennonite by baptism Into the Men nonite faith in Prussia, and that his sojourn in Russia was a matter of but a few years. His patriotism is even more interesting when viewed from a purely Mennonite viewpoint. ^^Mennonltlsohes Lexlkon, **Heinrich Heese, w II (1937), 269-270. (Im Selbstverlag des Merausgebers, Frankfurt am Main Welerhof [Pfalz]). M. Friesen, og. cit., p. 5SO. Only a few decades ago the Mennonitejs had moved out of Prus sia in order not to become too Prussianized, only to have one of the foremost teachers encourage a patriotism which could lead but to the Russianization of the group. Friesen^ feels that Heesefs patriotism for Russia- might have been responsible for the active participation of many young Mennonites in the medical corps during the Russo- Japanese War, a service the parents of the men offering their services, gladly financed. After serving the Ohrloff Central School for twelve years (1329-1S4-2), "Heese, too, in the course of time, en countered the displeasure of the local Association president.1 1 Ill feeling developed between the two men when Cornies re quired Heese to act as a private secretary, since he had a command of the Russian language. Cornies* heavy correspon dence demanded much night work which Heese finally objected to. Thus, Cornies, who could not appreciate any resistance to his wishes, dismissed Heese from his teaching position.37 From Ohrloff, Heese returned to Chortltza to organize the first Central School in that colony. After a brief period of four years, he was dismissed through the influence of Cor nies. This second dismissal produced in Heese a very bitter 35Ibid., pp. 5&L-5S2. 36C. Henry Smith, op. cit., p. ^16. 37p. m. Friesen, oj>. cit., p. 5S3. Unfv@F9 fty of S o u th ern C alifornia feeling against Cornies. Then he moved to the village of Einlage, where he set up a private school which he conducted into his old age. At the age of seventy he had to submit to a state teacher-examination, which he completed satisfactor ily. In lg&l Heese drew up the entrance requirements for the Chortitz Zentral School. These requirements were submit ted to the Educational Association for consideration. Al though they were not adopted at the time, they received ac ceptance and became standard procedure later on. Five of the entrance requirements suggested by Heese were the following: 1. Boys who have reached the age of ten, possessing some skill in reading, writing, and arithmetic, and who show promise to profit by instruction, shall be admitted. 2. They shall be physically fit, particularly the mind, hearing, sight, and lungs, otherwise the cost and effort expended in their education for usefulness in the colony will be wasted. Musical aptitude is also of great value. 3. Every boy shall possess a slate, slate pencil, paper, ruler, pencil, pen, pen-knife, ink bottle, candle sticks, three candle holders, pencil box, a Russian gram mar. Ink will be provided by the school. K All boys are to wear the same kind of clothes; each boy shall possess a Sunday suit and three extra shirts to make a change of linen possible. 5. For the purpose of patching their own clothes, the boys shall be supplied with the necessary equipment. Each boy shall have a pair of knitting needles and yarn so he can knit his own stocking. Heese was born in 17&7 an<i died April 12, 1&6&. Like 3gibia.. p. 523. Voth he had experienced considerable criticisms and opposi tion. However, his services at Ohrloff and Chortltza had been distinguished for his emphasis on practical knowledge thoroughly acquired and a spirit of patriotism which was ut terly new to a group that had avoided all assimilation into a national culture. (3) Heinrich Pranz was the third pioneer teacher to i shape the educational program of the Mennonites in South Russia. He was born October 6, 1812, in the village of Hest [?] in West Prussia. After receiving a good education, he taught a few years in various private and public schools. Shortly before 1835* ^ en about 22 years of age, he migrated to Russia, where he continued to teach. For a year or so he was engaged in a private school in the village of Felsentai; then he became the teacher in the Gnadenfeld village school for nine years (1835~1£^)* or<3- er le&rn Russian language, he next assumed the management of a boardinghouse at the Gymnasium in Ekaterinoslawer from 184*4- to 1846. In 1646 Franz took up the work in the Chortitz Cen tral School which Heese had begun five years before. Where Voth stressed the evangelical spirit, Heese a patriotic spirit, Franz came to be identified with thoroughness. Of the three, Franz was the scholar. His real ability seems to have been in the teaching of mathematics.*^ j£iS students either ^Xbld. , p. Z& 6. 10* admired him for his instruction in mathematics or they de spised him for it. He prepared a textbook in arithmetic, 150 Rechentafeln, together with a workbook which were used in all Mennonite elementary schools for the next fifty years. He was also responsible for a Choralbuch (t t hymnbookH) which, too, became well known throughout the colonies. In 1B*6 he was asked to work out a plan for the organization and ad ministration of the elementary schools in the Chortltza Colony. In 1B$1 Russian government instructed him to set up the procedure to be followed by all the German colonies in the Ukraine— Mennonite, Lutheran, and Catholic— in the ad ministration of educational institutions. Franz* success as a teacher was noteworthy. Years later many of his former students would say with pride, ttI lm was one of Franz* pupils.n A real compliment was expressed by Heese, who in an envious mood, perhaps, wrote these words in a letter, nFaith must be placed in God, not in Franz; he is a capable teacher of subject matter, but his ego, which 2 li he also Instills into his pupils— «what a poison,*1 1 After twelve years of service in the Chortltza Cen tral School, a controversy arose between Franz and the Ad ministrative Board of the Chortltza Colony. Criticisms of the severe punishments which Franz inflicted upon his students, ^°Loo. olt, . p. 3^7. 105 difference concerning the curriculum, and other disagree ments, led to Franz* dismissal. Deeply hurt at the ingratitude of the constituency of the Chortitza school, Franz taught in several private schools until his retirement in 1&30. He chose the village of Neu Halbstadt for his retirement. Here he taught a few years the courses in religion in the Maedchenschule ("School for G-irls1 1 — secondary level). May 26, 1S8>9, &e suddenly died while at tending the closing exercises in the school he had taught a few years. The Achievements of Voth, Heese, and Franz. These three men had accepted the responsibility to breathe life into the educational system of the two Mennonite colonies. Their achievements may be summarized thus: 1. All three men had succeeded in establishing a pattern for Zentralsohul education. This pattern became the standard for all subsequent schools established later in the colonies. 2. All three men being spiritually devout had intro duced a Christian emphasis into the newly established second ary school program. 3. They stressed the importance of practical knowledge which must be thoroughly learned. They succeeded in awakening an interest in higher education among the colonies which was destined to bring about an educational system of superior efficiency. 106 . 5* From the classrooms of these three teachers came the first better-trained village-school teachers who began to lift the schools from their sunken condition. 6. All three experienced considerable criticism, opposition, and forced dismissals. All three gave their best, even though they were repaid with ingratitude. III. THE REFORMS OF JOHANN CORNIES The Agricultural Union. When the Mennonites first settled upon the dry, barren steppes of South Russia, they experienced considerable difficulty adapting themselves to an unfamiliar climate and a different soil. They faced sever al years of sad disappointments to learn how to overcome drought, grasshoppers, and crop failures. Farming methods were needed to seed, harvest, and thresh their grains. The raising of sheep, cattle, and horses was pursued by all. The silk industry was introduced; flax, tobacco, and bee culture were common. Even though the early years of pion eer life were fraught with difficulties, progress in agri culture was more rapid than in education. After all, farm ing had been pursued for generations, while the building of an educational system was something out of their exper ience, more or less. In lg>25 Alexander I visited a number of the Molot chna villages on his way to the Crimea. To a gathering of Mennonites in Steinbach the Czar expressed his appreciation 107 for the fine conditions of their settlements, and he voiced kp the wish that every farmer plant a dessiatine of American acacias. Coming from the Czar, this wish was gladly ac cepted. To assist in obtaining acacia seed, but more in particular to force the colonists to plant more mulberry trees, "The development of the silk industry having almost become an obsession with the government, Fadeev, the chairman of the Ekaterinoslav branch office of the Guard- > i . ) i Ians Committee decided to found an agriculture society for the purpose of encouraging and supervising agriculture among the Mennonites. Johann Cornies, who as chairman of the Education al Association at Ohrloff had not only promoted education Improvement, but as a successful farmer had encouraged a few new experiments in agriculture, was becoming a leader whose ability was being recognized by the Russian govern ment. Rempel describes the formation of the Agricultural Union thus: It is not altogether improbable that Cornies was co-author of the plan. He was an intimate friend of Fadeev and had already accomplished splendid results ^ A dessiatine equals about 2.6996 acres. ^David <x. Rempel, op. cit., p. 1^2. The Guardians Committee was appointed by the Russ ian government stationed at Odessa and supported by all the German colonists— Mennonite and non-Mennonite. Its function was to supervise the political, and to a certain extent, the economic life of the colonists. lOg In tree planting on his farm in Ohrloff. Moreover, Cor nies, actuated by love for his fellowmen and possessed of an intense spirit of patriotism for his adopted country, was already busying himself with far-reaching plans for the development of the Mennonite colonies in order that they might achieve the purpose for which they had been called in, namely, to serve as models to the surrounding population. He knew the Mennonites too well— their hostility to any radical departure from the farm methods of father and grandfather, and their intense self-will— to expect from them full cooperation for the realization of his ambitious plans. But an Institution imposed from the outside and clothed with an amplitude of powers would furnish an excel lent vehicle for the carrying out of his ideas. In any event, it was Cornies who drafted the constitu tion for this institution which was approved by Gener al Inzov, President of the Guardians Committee on November 12, lgJO. Immediately afterwards the Molot chna Agricultural Union was constituted with Cornies as its chairman for life. Two years later the Chortit- za Agricultural Union was organ!zed.^5 In 18>36 ‘ k*16 Jurisdiction of the two Agricultural Unions was extended to agriculture in general and to all trades. In 18^3 ^ e unions even assumed the supervision of eduction. Thus, clothed with unlimited power, backed by the Russian government, Cornies began the difficult pro gram of economic, social, and educational reform. Need less to say, Cornies was not always popular with those who resisted change. Since this leader played such an Imposing part in the history of the Mennonite colonies, it is neces sary to review the biography of this man. Johann Cornies, the Great Reformer. Johann Cor nies was born June 20, 1J&9, In Boerwalde, a place near ^David G. Rempel, o£. cit., p. 1^3. / 109 Danzig, Prussia. His father, a former sailor, was rich with experiences which he had gathered in his voyages to many distant lands. When young Johann was sixteen years of age, the Cor- nies family Joined the second emigration movement to the Russian steppes. The first two years in the new country were spent in Chortitz. To help support the family, Johann assumed the management of a hrewery under the supervision of his father. Even though his formal education had been greatly neglected, his keen observation of the attitudes, ideas, and general behavior of his people under pioneer conditions proved an education in human nature so neces sary for the leadership he was to exercise a few years hr? hence. ' After two years of sojourn in Chortitz, the Cor- nles family moved on to the Molotchna Colony, their orig inal destination. The father bought farm No. 7, in the village of Ohrloff. Extremely poor, the family utilized every means at their disposal to supply the necessities k-6 D. H. Epp, 1 1 Johann Cornies,, ! Per Botsohafter (Iekaterinoslaw und Berdjansk), 1909, P. 6. ^Walter Qulring, 1 1 Johann Cornies,1 1 Warte-Jahrbuch fuer die Mennonitische Cemeinschaft in Canada, Arnold Dyck, ed. (Steinbach. kani^oba: Prairie Press, North Kildonan, Manitoba, 19^3), P* 110 of life. Young Johann found a Job in a flour mill, and the father, having acquired considerable knowledge of the medical qualities of some herbs while in the navy, became a “physician1 1 not only to his own neighbors but to Russians and Tartars of the surrounding country. The work in a dusty flour mill was too limiting for the aggressive nature of the young Mennonite. Purchas ing a small wagon and a horse, he began to peddle hams, eggs, butter, and other farm products in distant Russian towns. This venture proved so profitable that at the end of two years he had saved enough money to purchase a farm. In time Cornies became a successful big-scale far mer. His efficient management and skillful husbandry resulted in great prosperity. He conducted many experi ments and developed many farm methods now common in modern agriculture. He became known far and wide as an agricul tural expert, and his big estate on the Juschanlee became a show place for travellers through South Russia. His farm was visited by many government officials “including both Alexander I and Alexander II when they were still Crown IL& Princes.“ Cornies undertook other business ventures. He developed a brick and tile plant. In the course of time he accumulated a large amount of property, and some given him by the government as a gift as a reward for his Henry Smith, op. pit., p. *K)7 Ill services to the government. At the time of his death he held over nine hundred acres of land, with a flock of eight thousand imported Merino sheep, four hundred horses, and a large herd of thoroughbred cattle. As chairman of the Agricultural Union, Cornies be gan to enforce his progressive ideas upon all the Mennonite colonists. The ambitious farmers appreciated his supervis ion and control; the backward farmers considered him a heart less dictator. Among some of the results secured through the efforts of Cornies and his society were the practice of fallowing and dry farming, the use of fertilizer, the unsuccessful promotion of silk culture and tobacco, the four-year ro tation of crops, the breeding of improved strains of live stock, the introduction of more efficient farm machinery, the erection of more practical farm buildings, and the planting of shade and fruit trees, especially the mul berry tree for the silk growers.^9 Evidently Cornies hoped to promote the general wel fare of the Mennonites in the various colonies. When the Russian government extended the jurisdiction of the Agricul tural Union over education, Cornies began a systematic at tack on the deplorable schools maintained in the villages, possessing unlimited power, Cornies, in the name of the Agri cultural Union, proceeded to dictate radical changes which will be treated in the next section of this study. ^c. Henry Smith, loc. cit. 112 The Agricultural Union1s Promotion of Education, Un til the Union assumed the control of the schools, Johann Cor nies had been instrumental as chairman of the Educational As sociation at Ohrloff in the establishment of the first Cen tral School. Thus, from 1S22 to 16&3 he confined‘ his educa tional interests largely to this institution. Now his activi ties embraced the Mennonite colonies as a whole, and with that extension of activities 1 1 .... a new era dawned for the Mennonite schools.8^ Cornies divided the Molotchna settlements into six school districts in each of which he appointed two super visors. These supervisors followed a definite plan of school visitations. Every year the schools of a district were visit ed by the supervisors from one of the other districts; thus, in six years each supervisor had inspected every school in the colony. After each visitation a detailed report had to be submitted to the Union. The Union assumed the responsibility of the selection of teachers for the village schools. No teacher could be dismissed or appointed without Cornies* consent, periodic teachers conferences were held in which problems of education were discussed. These meetings were, especially at first, ^°Peter Braun, op. cit., p. 173* It should be stated that without exception all the sources studied for this part of the study (Epp, Isaac, Friesen, etc.) agree that with the supervision of education by the Union with Cornies as Chairman, a new era began in Mennonite education. i i ii ! ■ » ■ ■ " ii l ' iu i . ' ■ i ■ ■ ---------------- Early Elementary School 113 i i Elementary School of the Later Period PLATE III ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN RUSSIA Elementary School of the Cornlea Period 537 Hil led by Oornies himself.^ Regularity of school attendance had always been a problem. ' Parents had found many occasions for keeping their children home to work. At first absences of a day or so were overlooked, but where absences extended into longer periods, Cornies required the village mayors to report such cases to the Union, especially if the children missed school during seeding time or for herding stock in the fields. To enforce even more regularity of attendance, fines were imposed upon parents who persisted in ignoring the school attendance re gulations. Compulsory attendance applied to both boys and girls from the sixth to the fourteenth year. Uniform textbooks were introduced. Children had been bringing such books to school as were available in the homes. Those who were advanced enough to read the Bible were about the only pupils provided with a uniform textbook. Not only did the Union determine certain texts for the village schools in the accepted studies such as the ABC book for beginners* reading, catechism, and singing, but non-secular books were Introduced in such subjects as geography, history, and gram mar. The introduction of these ’ ’worldly1 1 books aroused con siderable concern among some of the parents, especially the ministers. To implement his educational reform with a minimum 5*4). H. Epp, "Johann Cornies,1 1 p. IO9. 115 of parental resistance, Cornies prepared two very significant pamphlets which were distributed in all the villages. These pamphlets were designed to show the people by contrast a very poor school and a model school. The first pamphlet which appeared March 5, lfi&6, de scribed in a realistic manner a typical school so common in the villages: School X52 In a room of a miserable looking house which is the dwelling of a schoolmaster, his wife, and children, sits the teacher dressed in a linen gown; he wears a cap on his head and probably holds a pipe in his mouth. He is surrounded by dirty books, paper, and instruments of all kinds for punishment. Around a table a group of pupils are seated in no recognizable order. On the walls of the dark room hang saws, planes, shoemaker*s knee-straps, and other household tools. The stove is behung with old stockings, trousers, and other articles of clothing. A little baby is crying in a cradle, which one of the girls has been asked to rock. A hen with her chicks and some pigeons are roaming about among the feet of the children. There is no schoolroom discipline apparent. The teacher proceeds aimlessly from one task to another, preparation and planning of work is foreign to him. With books of self-improvement he is unfamiliar. A seventeenth century book of spiritual devotion and meditation, a few story books, and an arithmetic book constitute the library. Since the schoolmaster is unable to arouse or hold the Interest of the pupils, they resort to all kinds of idle pastimes which cause the teacher to rant, yell, and curse. He punishes by having the disobedient child kneel on peas, or stand with a picture of a donkey hung around his neck, or whipped with ai(stock. These punishments are administered in the name of good discipline and child training. 52Franz Isaak, 0£. cit., pp. ZJf-ZJS 116 Instruction is carried on as follows: The beginners devote two or three years learning the alphabet and some spelling, both of which they find dry and*boring. Little more is learned except to repeat mechanically the Lord*s Prayer and the Ten Commandments. The older children read with great effort in a monotonous, dragging manner without any reference to commas or periods. Since almost every pupil has a different book, class recitations are impos sible. One by one, each pupil appears before the teacher to repeat by memory that which has been assigned to him. In such a procedure each pupil receives about two or three minutes of instruction. The remaining part of the day is literally wasted for each child. Drawing is sub stituted for writing, and arithmetic consists merely in copying the problems the teacher has solved. The last two studies are pursued only by the boys, but they soon forget because they have not learned the practical appli cation of the subject matter. Memorization is concerned only with the ability to repeat accurately. Interpreta tion of subject matter is of no concern to the teacher. One month later, April 6, the second pamphlet was distributed. In It a model school was described. Oornles, f who had not obtained even the equivalent of an elementary education, who had never visited a model school anywhere, who had never learned to organize and administer a school through experience, drew a word-picture that indicated the clear vision of the kind of school he desired in each Hen- nonite village. School A ^ In School A the room Is dry, well-lighted, and roomy. Its pleasant appearance is attractive, and its purpose is easily determined by a passerby. The living quarters of the teacher are separated from the schoolroom. In this school the children are seated according to classes, ability, and sex. The pupils sit on apprpriate benches with their faces directed toward the teacher. 5?Ibld., pp. 273-220. 117 The teacher wears clothes which are clean. In this respect he sets an example which he wants his pupils to imitate. He observes and supervises his students with dignity and friendly determination. He moves about the room rarely sitting in his chair. His diligence aims to keep his pupils constantly busy. Except for a blackboard and some teaching aids, the white walls are free from distracting things. In his presentations he alternates easy with diffi cult subject matter. Before each recitation he prepares the lessons with the help of books that he has bought with part of his income that many would spend on beer. He becomes steadily more skillful and understanding, and his knowledge more extensive. The realm of his services Increases. If a child errs in School A, the teacher reprimands him in a fatherly, kindly manner, pointing out the con sequences of such errors. Only the child that persists to err is finally punished. Rarely does the teacher use instuments of punishment; no punishment injures the child physically or mentally. Through such kind treatment and his interesting recitations, the teacher wins the respect and love of his children. The relationship be tween teacher and pupil is like that between friends. In order to stimulate the interest and develop the concepts of the pupils, he points out things in their surroundings. The teacher constructs questions In such a manner that the children feel they are furnishing him with information. In the course of a series of questions the children are led from the known to the unknown; they are led to dis tinguish the good from the bad in the things about them; they are led to separate the truth from the sham. Through the questions the children are led to think for themselves. The ability to interpret is emphasized more than the abil ity to memorize. They become convinced of the religious truths and the responsibilities of church and community membership necessary for their future lives. Teaching aids are used to stimulate and facilitate the teaching of reading and the use of the German language as the chief means for the acquisition of learning. In the class discussions the teacher makes the meaning of abstract and concrete subjects clear and understandable through his natural and living explanations, and through the stories woven into his discussions, and through the inspiring melodies sung harmoniously. And all instruction is given in classes equipped with uniform textbooks. By this method, whatever is said to one pupil automatically includes the whole class. IIS Class Instruction stimulates competition and a sense of worth, two qualities necessary in the pursuit of knowl edge. Through such instruction the greatest benefit in the learning of writing and arithmetic are obtained and their lifelong value realized. Such method of instruc tion leads the children to a knowledge of. Cod and a natur al religion rationally perceived. The children learn the story of Jesus Christ and His Cospel. In the instruction, subject matter is analyzed and ex plained until the mind and the heart perceive clearly and remember indefinitely. Through such teaching Christian attitudes and principles are planted into the souls; and reverence and devotion towards Cod, gratitutde for His Crace, and an earnest desire to be in His will will devel op in the child. Through the instructions in School A, every child will be developed to a full realization of his native capacities in order that he may serve in the welfare of the church and community. P.S: Piety in a child is not the result of talk and explanation; therefore, it cannot be achieved through diffuse, analytical catechization. Whether School X can be considered a typical village sehool in either of the two main colonies is open to question. Cornies may have exaggerated a little in order to impress upon the colonists the poor conditions of their schools. 1 1 We may consider [School X] more or less an exaggeration for a gooa purpose.Yet Frlesen goes on to say, "That If Cor- nies in the year 12&6 considered it necessary to present such a picture of the teachers, then the condition in the village schools must have been very sad. "55 School X has the nature of a satire which provokes laughter and then a feeling of sadness and shame. And nobody can measure the extent of influence satires have had in bringing about reforms. After having pointed out thewils of the educational system, Cornies, in his circular entitled, School A, presented the objective of his school reform. Like a school survey, he took up the building and the necessary equipment, the person 5^p. M. Priesen, oj>. clt. , p. 623. ^^Loc. clt. 119 ality and the methods of the teacher, the curriculum and in structional procedures, methods of discipline, teacher-pupil relationships, and the aims and objectives of the whole edu cational process. G-eneral Rules Concerning Instruction and Treatment of School Children. To implement his educational reform, Cornies proceeded to educate the teachers whose improvement he considered of greatest importance. He issued the Allge- melne Regeln ueber Unterrlcht und Behandlung der Schulklnder, fuer Sohullehrer des Molotsohnaer Mennoniten-Bezlrks (, ! G-en- eral Rules Concerning Instruction and Treatment of School Children for Teachers of the Molotschna Colony1 *). In eighty- eight rules Cornies presented the philosophical and psycho logical principles underlying teaching and discipline pro cedures. An analysis of the rules reveals, again, a pro found insight into the most basic, fundamental principles of education. Even though some of the rules have no justi fication in modern educational procedures, it is interesting to note that Cornies speaks of ideas considered most modern today, as the following rules indicate. The complete list of the eighty-eight rules appears in Appendix B. A selec tion will be given here: 1. The early training given to a child Is of great importance for his future. An educational procedure which is in harmony with the natural and undisturbed process of maturation is to be supported. [Purposeful activity, mental discipline, and opportunity for ex pression. J 120 2. Early training should consist solely of sensory impressions, i. e., the child should be surrounded with opportunities for sensory experiences in order that the mind be developed. Care needs to be exercised that such sensory experiences do not precede a natural readiness for such impressions. One must wait, patiently, for the awakening of each human desire and interest until the men tal machinery is set in motion. 6. Mistreated children develop adverse behavior and become unresponsive. Uhey become lazy, cold, irritable, taciturn, malicious, tricky. The exercise of harshness is unnecessary in the training process. No beating is necessary where a child with self-respect responds to encouraging words. 13. The child* s physical and mental well-being must be the great concern of every teacher; hence, he must be constantly on guard against the development of attitudes of fear and dread. 16. Subject matter must be presented so that all the senses are stimulated. Such a presentation promotes learning even in the most retarded child. 23. Association with each other should not be restricted too much among children. When necessary, such restric tions should be imposed only for the good of the child. Association of the children within their own age levels is highly important and necessary. 29. Do not expect children to comprehend the full meaning of abstract ideas and concepts immediately, and do not urge the use of abstract ideas and concepts in their full clarity and meaning until they have had time to grow in the minds of the children. 31. Mental powers of perception become dull and shal low when the vocabulary is limited or when the comprehen sion of abstract concepts is not developed. 36. A halt or retrogression in the educational de velopment sometimes results when the educational processes are too hurried or too rigid. [This refers to daily sche dules, educational principles, and the like.j 37* Religious instructions and religious impressions must furnish strength and meaning to all other instruc tions and impressions. Never will a person achieve a true character if he doesn*t express respect, love, faith, in a Supreme Being, whom he accepts as master of his des tiny. All educational procedures must be religious in 121 their emphasis, ta. if a teacher wants to awaken in the children a love for learning, he must prove that teaching is a joy. The main reason why young people in society feel strange, timid, and embarrassed is to be seen in their consciousness of ignorance, lack of thoughts and knowl edge, Education should, therefore, have provided oppor tunity for their participation in social discourses, ^9. All slavish obedience is banned in order that the child may become aware of the dignity of human nature. Obedience and studies should at no time be felt as labor ious tasks, but as the only means to an end. 53. A love for truthfulness will be encouraged if the openly confessed mistakes of children are judged mildly. When disciplining children, one should be a physician, not one who exercises vengeance. In order to build children into men, the teacher himself must become a child. Was not Jesus himself a -child with children? 5^. The physical body needs as much and the same care as the mind. This care does not call for two separate educational institutions for the two together constitute man. A human body perpetually at rest is like a lake without an outlet which produces only stagnant water. 60. The more a teacher wavers or shifts from feminine goodness to severest penalty; the more he permits sensu ality and tolerates moodiness; the harder it will be for him to keep his pupils in order and to elevate them to self-discipline. 65. The prevention of punishment is better than to punish. The teacher*s rod is no magic wand, and it does not possess the quality to bring forth fruits of good be havior. It can only stem evil vshen wisely used in time of need. 67. Every teacher should strive toward the goal where rewards and punishments are superfluous. He should direct not by authority of his office, but by the power of his personality. Rewards should bring out the fine feeling of worth; punishments should produce the feeling of un worthiness. 73* One sees results in a method that is true to natural principles. Much depends upon the mental diet. A true method does not depart from nature and it avoids 122 giving the illusion of the advantages of great stress on much and fast learning. Such precocity is disastrous to the inner development of a child. Whatever blossoms too soon bears little fruit. He who forces a bud sins against the flower. 7. Religiosity is the scope to which all true training must lead and in which all educational branches must unite. It is the sacred root out of which all life emerges; it concentrates true training with its germinating and un folding power. In his General Rules Cornies formulated an education al method for Mennonite teachers. The educational consequen ces of-these new ideas were seen in the subsequent development of education throughout the colonies as will be pointed out in the remaining part of this chapter. What were the sources of these educational principles? is a question every student of Mennonite education would like to determine. Had he come into contact with the writings of one of the educational thinkers whom the German historian of education, Karl von R aumer, called the innovators”? What books on education had Cornies read? A study of the General Rules indicates the apparent influence of Ratke, who in 1617 published his fundamental rules for teaching in his Methodus Nova; or Comenius, who had formulated the principles under lying school instruction, as he saw it, in a lengthy book, The Great Didactic; or Festalozzi, who explained his methods in How Gertrude Teaches Her Children; or Herbart, who pub lished his monumental work, The Outlines of Educational Doc trine, at Koenigsberg, in 1&35* It is quite feasible that both Voth and Heese, who received their education in Germany, 123 had been influenced by one of these educational philosophies before coming to the Ohrloff Zentralschule. Voth taught in a school in Koenigsberg at the same time that Herbart held the chair of philosophy in the University of Koenigsberg, and acquaintance with Herbart and his educational ideas may have been made there. It is altogether possible that the inquisi tive mind of Cornies had discovered in the possession of Voth or Heese some of the writings of the great educational think ers. The educational philosophy of Johann Cornies as re vealed in his eighty-eight rules concerning the instruction and treatment of school children may be listed as follows: 1. Religious instruction must furnish meaning and direction to all education. All educational procedure must be religious in its emphasis. 2. A strict but loving discipline in place of the brutal treatment of children that had characterized all in struction throughout the ages is to be consistently practiced. No punishment which violates the personality development of the child is tolerated. 3. Education takes place through sense-perception, not through memorization. Education must proceed from the easy to the diffi cult, the near to the remote, the general to the special, and from the known to the unknown. 5. Real education must develop the child as a whole-- mentally, physically, and morally* 6* Education must take account of and be consistent with the gradual unfolding or the maturation process of the child. 7* The normal activities of children call for oppor tunities and freedom of expression that the school must pro mote in various ways. &. Individual differences must be recognized and al lowed to determine organizational arrangements, achievement standards, disciplinary measures, and methods of instruction. 9. The personality and the behavior of the teacher, both in school and out of school, is very important. The teacher must be an example in every respect. 10. The school must lead to the formation of such habits which make good conduct, attitudes, interests, and desires to be natural, easy, and consistent. Cornies Outlined a Curriculum. One reform followed another. The old curriculum consisting of Bible reading, catechism, singing, and a little arithmetic was given a complete revision by Cornies. The hitherto ungraded school was organized. "Every school had three divisions,"^ and the new curriculum was as follows: 1. AB C on the blackboard. 2. Syllabification and spelling. 3. Reading, Bible reading, stressing correct enunci ation. ^Peter Braun, o£. cit., p. 17^. Penmanship. 5* Arithmetic (the four first rules of arithmetic and the three rules of fractions). 6. Mental arithmetic. 7. Singing according to numbers [ not notes} out of the church hymnbook. 8. German lan gua ge. 9. Memorization of Bible verses, prayer, and hymns. 10. Letter writing. 11. Rudiments of geography from the Laederfibel. 12. Bible history, nature study, church history, and writing according to dictation.57 The study of the Russian language does not appear on the new curriculum. The emphasis on religious training and the German language is very evident still, but the addition of geography and nature study reveals a new emphasis on the curriculum. The Educational Achievements of the Agricultural Union. Cornies died in 18&-&. As chairman of the Union, he had administered its activities for eighteen years, the last five of which included the supervision of education. During those five years he had laid a solid foundation for the growth and development of an adequate educational system.^ “Soon after the death of Cornies .... the authority of the Agricultural Association was considerably limited,“59 but it continued to improve Mennonite schools in all of their aspects. That the achievements of the Agricultural Union were 57pranz Isaac, op. clt., p. 290. ^^Loo. cit. 59peter Braun, ojd. clt., p. 173* 126 extensive, the following summary of accomplishments will indicate: 1. In many villages school buildings that were sub stantial and roomy had been built according to the require ments set up by the Union* 2. The general quality of teachers had been greatly improved. There was a permanent committee which examined those who wished to become teachers, and which saw to it that as far as possible, only well-prepared teachers were assigned to the schools* 3* General conferences for teachers were introduced where teachers compared experiences and achievements. ‘ Tke G-eneral Rules Concerning the Instruction and Treatment of School Children had established a method for the schoolroom procedure, 5. A standard curriculum for the village schools had achieved uniformity on the elementary level throughout the colonies. 6. Compulsory school attendance was required for both boys and girls from the sixth up to the fourteenth year. 7. Salaries of teachers had been improved* Cornies stressed the point that teachers must receive enough to be free from having to earn a living at some trade while teach ing* S>. A system of school inspection had been organized 127 which furnished the chairman of the Union with information of the progress of every school. 9. The teaching profession began to assume a dignity that placed the teachers, more and more, into the position of greatest importance in the community. IV. THE GOLDEN AGE OP MENNONITE EDUCATION IN SOOTH RUSSIA lS^g-1917 The Schools under the Board of Education. The super vision of education by the Agricultural Union was for the or ganization only of secondary importance. Its main purpose for which it had been created was to develop the economic life of the colonies. The authority placed in Cornies and exercised suc cessfully by virtue of the strength of his personality could not very well be assumed and administered by his successors. With each succeeding chairman of the Union, its prestige and Importance grew less and less as far as educational activities were concerned.6° Realizing the need for an organization that would be expressing concerned with the welfare of education, a group of Molotschna Teachers petitioned the Guardian*s Committee for the establishment of a colonial board of education to regu- 6l late and supervise educational activities. Permission was granted, and the Molotschna Mennonite Board of Education was organized in I&69, consisting, at first, of four members 60 P. M. Priesen, op. clt., p. 6^5. 61 Peter Holzrichter, Johann Braeul, P. Siemens, Kor- nelius Unruh, Bernhard Harder, Abr. Goerz, a certain Priesen, and possibly others. 128 but later increased to six. Five members were laymen chosen by the colonial administration and approved by the Guardians Committee, and the sixth member was appointed by the church assembly.^ Since 1906 the teachers had their representative on the Board of Education. The Board of Education was the director and guardian of the Mennonite educational sys tem for fifty years (until 1920).63 According to the regulations of the Russian govern ment concerning the responsibility of the supervision of edu cation in all the emigrant colonies, the clergy was to be 6 1 1 . responsible for the religious and moral training of youth. "Among the Lutherans and the Catholics such supervision caused no difficulty, 1 1 ^5 because among these the supervisors were usually trained men. The Mennonite clergy, by law, pos sessed the same responsibility as the ministers in the non- 66 Mennonite groups, but they were not, as yet, trained, and ^^Peter Braun, op. clt. , p. 175* ^Loo. cit. 6i± Friesen, op. cit., p. 537, states that according to the colonial statutes (part II, Vol. 12, Par* 12^ the Luther an pastors, the Catholic priests, and the Mennonite ministers shall maintain a careful supervision over the religious and moral training of their respective youth, both in school and out. On May 2, 1851, the Russian monarch had approved the colonial statutes, thus giving to the respective clergy by highest authority the full responsibility in educational matters. 65ibia., p. 6^5. 66 Throughout most of the history of the Mennonites, ministers were elected by the churches out of their respec tive memberships. The practice of appointing trained mini sters is a more or less recent practice. 129 experience had shown them to be greatly lacking in the abil ity to supervise the school system. ^ The authority of the Guardians Committee with its headquarters at Odessa, to create a Board of Education for the Mennonite settlements was challenged by the Russian State Department of Education by questioning the legality of such an act. The controversy between the G-uardian*s Committee and the Department of Education remained unresolved but the Department of Education continued to recognize the Molotschna Mennonite Board of Education as an official organ for the administration and supervision of Mennonite schools by approving the candidates the colonial administration sub mitted to the Department for verification.^ However, with the passing of years the Department of Education became more unfriendly and finally refused to approve the submitted can didates. Since the clergy was eligible by law^° to serve on school boards without official approval, the Molotschna Board of Education came to be composed entirely of ministers elected by the church assembly. As the years rolled by, a number of efficient, godly men were gathered together on the Board. These had not only a warm interest, but also the right appreciation for ^On page $2 of this chapter the failure of the minis ters to develop an adequate school system in the colonies was described. ^P. M. Priesen, oj>. cit. 3 p# 6^6. ^Loc. cit. 7°See footnote 6^. 130 the school and were fully alive to its needs* Their activities have left deep imprints behind them in the educational system. (We*may mention here; A* Voth, J. Klatt, p. Heese, A. G-oerz, H. Unruh.) Having come up from the ranks of the colonists, they understood their generation, and knew how to use their ideas and intentions for the service of others. Theirs was the privilege of unfolding the budding life and strength of the people and of helping it into a state of harmonious development. These three things were common to them all: their re spect for the work of the teacher, their progressive views, and their ethlco-religious philosophy of life. Christian principles were for them the only foundation for the true and reliable development of a people.71 The Guardians Committee also created a Board of Edu cation for the Chortitza Colony at the time the Molotschna 72 Board was organized. Between the year 1£§69 and I905 the leadership of the Chortitza Board was chiefly in the hands of two capable men, Heinrich Epp and A. A. Neufeld.^3 In October 30, 3*905, Nicholas II, Czar of Russia, issued a famous manifesto which yielded to the demands of the more moderate of the revolutionists. It contained the following provisions: a guarantee of the 1 1 immutable founda tions of civil liberty, based on inviolability of person, freedom of conscience, freedom of speech, of meeting, and of vIl association.1 1 1 The manifesto brought new hope and life to the masses throughout Russia. HThe wave of agitation of freedom rippled ^Peter Braun, ojd. clt. , p p . 175-176. 'P. M. Frlesen, og. olt. , pp. 652-653. ^ Loc. pit. 7 I J . ' J. Salwyn Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary Euro pean History (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, I9WJY pnsn 131 through the country until It reached the Molotschna colon ies."^ The Mennonite teachers lost no time in forming a "Teachers' Association,w which took over different func tions of the Board of Education, which had, little by little, been forced out of action. For instance, confer ence matters, the organizing of summer school courses, the treatment of questions concerning pedagogy and methods, the drawing up of curricula and schedules, the choice of textbooks, and articles for visual instructions, etc* At first the Teachers* Association was distrusted by the surrounding communities, but not many years passed before it was spoken of in an official document as fol lows: "The Association has increased and strengthened by its many-sided activities, the comprehension and cap abilities of the teachers in all fields of the teaching profession, and what is of utmost importance— the Associ ation cultivates love for the work and believes that faithfulness in the performance of duties is the highest virtue of a teacher." The Tea.chers* Association now held the leadership in school matters, until it died an untimely, violent death at the beginning of the World War. The former Board of Education, it is true, still existed, but it no longer possessed strength or energy for joyous work. It had its wings too closely clipped in its long battle with the Russian school official s.76 The Development of the Village Elementary Schools. From the founding of the two main colonies, Chortitza in 17^9 and Molotschna in 1803, until lg^3 when Johann Cornies as chairman of the Agricultural Union began to build an edu cational system among the Mennonites, "the schools had no 77 history, no progressive development."'' Through the energetic and decisive efforts of Cornies, the educational life in the 75peter Braun, op. cit., p. 179* ^ Ibid. , p. 1&0. 77ibia., p. 629. 132 Mennonite colonies began slowly to improve* ^ The newly-established Zentralschulen at Ohrloff, Halbstadt, and Chortitza were created for the purpose of train ing teachers for the village schools* MThe curriculum, however, had no provision for the teaching of educational subjects, and therefore the preparation of the teachers was entirely inade- 7Q quate.,f‘~ Friesen seems to be impressed with the fact that up to 1&&0 a large number of the most successful teachers were self-made teachers and concludes that the Zentral schulen were not very effective. To provide for adequate teacher training, the Molotschna Board of Education intro duced a department of education in the Halbstadt Zentralschule v offering a two-year course of teacher training and maintain- ing a model school for observation and practical experience. This arrangement for teacher-training will be discussed in a later section of this chapter. Quantitative information concerning the number of schools, teachers, and pupils before 1910 is not available. As new daughter-colonies and villages were started, schools were organized; and as the number of villages increased, so did Franz Isaac, op. clt. , p. 276; D. H. Epp, , ! Johann Cornies,1 1 p. 165; peter jSraun, og. cit., p. 173; P* Frie- sen, og. cit., p. 159. ^Peter Braun, og. clt., p. 176. ^°P. M. Friesen, op. cit., p. 635. aiIbld., p. 60S. 133 gp the number of schools* Friesen furnishes some quantitative data for 1910, and the following numbers are all taken from his book* By 1910 the number of elementary schools had grown to four hundred, most of which were one-room schools* Out of a total of about 25 schools, 20 contained two rooms and the remaining number were either three- or four-room schools. The four hundred schools were taught by nearly five hundred teachers, most of whom were men* Of these teachers, probably a dozen possessed official state teacher-credentials acceptable in any state school. About 15 per cent possessed no credentials at all, and these usually were teachers who were engaged in newly established villages which were added every year by the dozen in the colonies. However, these un licensed teachers never remained as teachers unless they were able to pass the teachers examination, given by the State Department of Education. In order to pass the examination successfully a candidate needed the equivalent of a three- year course in a Realschule without having to qualify in a foreign language, algebra, or nature study* A little over one-half of the five hundred teachers had completed or taken courses in the teacher-training departments of the Zentral- schule at Halbstadt or Chortitza. The remaining number, except for the 15 per cent having no credentials, had either g2m a .. pp. 63&-Sho 13^ completed the prescribed course or at least studied in one of the Zentralschulen. Whenever one of the Mennonite teach ers had successfully passed the state teachers examination which had to be taken in the Russian language without having had any formal education, the achievement indicated no mean ability on the part of the candidate. Even the graduates of one of the Zentralschulen had to pass the state examinations. Teachers of German and religion were examined by the Board of Education in their respective colonies. Sometimes the examination requirement was waived by the Board if the appli cant had proven himself as a minister or in some other field of comparable service. The total number of Mennonite youth enrolled in the various schools was probably about fifteen thousand. Since that number included those attending the Zentralschulen, it would be impossible to determine the number enrolled in the village schools. A very small number, if any, failed to at tend any school. About two hundred students were attending Russian high schools and colleges. Not over fifty were studying in one of the other European countries. Enrollment in the different village schools varied. The highest number for a one-room school was SO pupils; how ever, there were many schools whose enrollment was about one- half dozen. The average number per school was not given by Friesen. Average salary for elementary teachers in 1910 was 135 about 600 rubles* ^ A teacherage and fuel was usually fur nished. Sometimes a part of the salary was paid in provi sions which were estimated in terms of rubles in order to meet the salary requirements. As the Russian State Department of Education became more determined to exercise control over the educational life of the Mennonite colonies, it became increasingly more diffi cult for the Mennonite Boards of Education to maintain their c*h schools free from undesired changes. In 1&B1 the control of education among the G-erman colonies was surrendered by the Guardians Committee. Braun relates: They were then placed under the Department of Public Instruction, a department of the Russian government which had always been known as the most reactionary and hostile to popular education. Then during the nineties when the period of unmitigated endeavor to Russianize everything set in, the Board of Education had all it could do in fighting for the maintenance of the school and for its own existence. Positive work could not be accomplished.^5 This shift in control began to affect the elementary schools more and more. When the inspector of elementary schools for the province of Taurien visited the Mennonite schools for the first time after the Department of public Instruction started its supervision of all schools in the province, he wrote a favorable report of the schools and their teachers. , f This report was ill received in higher 85rbia., pp. 63&-6H0. 8S?eter Braun, og. cit., p. 176. 8^Loo. clt. 136 quarters, and only a year later the same gentleman could not do enough in discounting and severely criticizing the same schools that he had so praised the year before.1 1 The pro cess of Russianization of the Mennonite educational system was characterized by the following changes: 1. The first annoyance was the refusal to recognize the teacher’s certificate bestowed by the Mennonite Boards of Education. All teachers who wished to remain in their profession, whether young or old, were obliged to pass a state teachers examination at one of the Russian teacher seminaries. 2. The Boards of Education were not allowed to appoint teachers, but had to leave that to the Russian school offi cials, even though the teachers did not receive their re muneration from the State, but from monies raised in the vil lages for that purpose. Wherever it could be done without too great opposition, Russian teachers were appointed. 3. In 1&92 the order came that all subjects, with the exception of religion, be taught through the medium of the Russian language, including, therefore, even the G-erman language. 1 The required prayer for the Gzar was to be. given in the Russian language in the morning devotional period. Both of these requirements were never enforced very strictly, and after much opposition by the Mennonites, the restrictions g6ibia., p. iso. were somewhat overlooked* In lg>76 universal military service was introduced in Russia* According to the new military law, school educa tion assured certain desired exemptions. The six years of required military service was reduced to four years for all graduates from a school of the fourth 1 1 category1 1 (elementary level). Graduates from a school of the third Category1 1 (secondary level) were required to serve only three years. In order that the Mennonites might qualify for these exemp tions, their schools were obliged to adopt a curriculum of ficially approved for both the elementary and secondary schools. The new curriculum for the village schools appears here: Items Hours / Scripture study (with Mennonite catechism) .... 6 G-erman language (with grammar, spelling, and composition)........................ 10 Arithmetic (including common and decimal frac tions and the different methods of calcu lation) .......................................... 5 Russian language, reading, exercises in oral and written composition ........................ & Geograp3^r(local, general, and national)........ 2 Singing ........................................ . 21-2 Penmanship and drawing were to be practiced during the periods for German and Russian; and world history and natural science were taught in connection with the German and Russian readers. The German reader was, however, not in use until 1SS^. At first the new curriculum was still administered in the German, 13 a but in the nineties all subjects except religion, G-erman, and church music had to be taught in the Russian language* The ratio of the languages to each other was 1 to 2; that is, for German and religion ten hours of instruction per week were allowed, whereas for the Russian subjects twenty hours were required. 5* School hours were reduced next. In order to make the Mennonite schools agree with the Russian elementary school, the elementary course of study became a three-year, or at best, a four-year course Instead of the usual eight years. Since the curriculum as known was too large for a three-year program, it was necessary to reduce it. No book might be required for the school library before it had been approved by the Russian school officials, and they allowed no German books whatever. 6. The General Teachers Conferences which had been held since IS50 were forbidden. However, since all Mennonite teachers gave instruction in religion and German, the confer ences were, from that time, arranged by the church deacons, and were given the name, Beratungen ueber den Religionsunter- richt (nConsultations concerning religious instruction.H). 7. After the 1905 manifesto Issued by Nicholas II, the village schools, several of which already boasted of two teachers, were with the exception of a few very small ones, divided now into two or three departments. However, in 1920 reaction set in. The State Department of Education issued 139 an order requiring that in the future the second teacher in the village schools should be of Russian nationality and of the Greek Catholic faith. S>. After World War I broke out, and unreasonable and unbridled hate for everything German was considered the duty of every loyal citizen, the Mennonltes experience more dif ficulties. A decree was issued to the churches on June 1915, compelling them to nominate persons of Russian national ity for teaching all subjects except religion and German and to present such for government approval by June 20. In case suitable candidates could not be found by the first of July the schools were to be closed. Naturally, the Russian school officials saw to it that the necessary candidates were forthcoming. They were, almost without exception, young Russian ladies who came di rectly from the gymnasium, who spoke no word of German, who knew very little about teaching and who left behind them a very deplorable impression in the Mennonite schools. Thus, in many ways Mennonite educational life was experiencing strangulation. The privileges granted by Cather ine the Great and confirmed by later monarche were Ignored and forgotten. The Mennonltes had eniigrated from Germany, be cause basic human freedoms were denied them. Having enjoyed, them for a season in the land of the Cza.r.s, this religious ethnic group was gain subjected to the most severe educa tional and religious limitations. Having escaped from a l4o carefully planned German nationalization process, the Mennon- ites were now surrounded by the Russianization process that was forcing itself into their lives. With the 1917 revolu tion the new Soviet Russia came into existence. The tragic end of Mennonitism and all that it stood for will be dis cussed in the last part of this chapter under the subtitle, wMennonite Education under the Soviets.1 1 The Development of the Zentral schulen from 1822 to to lglO. Zentral schulen (1 1 CentralM or territorial Schools11) were organized and established mainly for the purpose of training teachers for the village schools which had remained very crude and inadequate from the beginning of the colonies. The Zentralschul movement began with the establishment of the first school at Ohrloff in 1822 (supra. , pp. , and it slowly developed until there were at least twenty of these distributed among the Mennonite settlements. Table IV presents a complete list of the Mennonite Zentralschulen. Interest in secondary education was not very active at first, for only four Zentralschulen were or ganized between 1822 and 1873, a period of.fifty years. However, between 1895 an& 19l°> a period of fifteen years, ten new schools were established. These schools were owned, controlled, and operated in different w a y s . ^he ohrloff Zentralschule was brought ^P. M. Friesen, oj>. clt., pp. 588-627 14-1 - ;■' K : . s : ' ! ' f r ^ < nT Ohrloff PLATE IV ZENTRALSCHULEH (For Boys) xhz Halbat&at PLATS f ZE1-ITHAL30HULEH (For Boys) (Continued) TABLE IV MENNONITE ZENTRALSCHULEN IN RUSSIA Village Colony province Year Number Teach ers of Or. En roll ment F o r Boys Ohrloff Molotschna Taurlen 1S22 ♦ • ♦ • 90 Halbstadt Molotschna Taurien 1835 ♦ • ♦ • 133 Chortitza Chortitza J akaterlnoslaw 1842 ♦ • ♦ • 202 Gnadenfeld Molotschna Taurien 1873 * • • • 63 Neu-Schoensee Sagradowka Cherson 1395 3 3 3S Nikolalpol Jasykowo J ekaterinoslaw • • • • • • • 9 115 New York IgnatJewo Jekat er i no si aw • • • 5 4 70 praetoria Orenburg Ohrneburg • • • • 4 3 • • Alexanderkrone Molotschna Taurien • • • • 3 3 90 Karassan Krlm Taurien • • • • 3 3 70 Spat Krim Taurien • ♦ • • 3 3 70 Schoenfeld Schoenfeld Jekaterinoslaw • • • • 3 3 80 Altonaul Molotschna Jekaterinoslaw • • • • • • Rosenortl Molotschna J ekaterinoslaw Lindenau^ Molotschna J akaterino slaw • • • • • • • • • • Llebenaul Molotschna J ekat eri no slaw • * • ♦ • • • Gnadenheiml Molotschna J ekaterino slaw • • • ♦ • • • F ar Girls Halbstadt Molotschna Taurien • • • • 6 5 • • Chortitza Chortitza J ekat eri no slaw 1S95 5 4 • • New York Ignatjewo Jekaterinoslaw )1905( 4 3 • • Ohrloff Molotschna Taurien ) to ( 4 3 • • G-nadenfeld Molotschna Taurien )i9io( 4 3 • • < S ) 1 i 1 o o I ducation a 1 Dawlekanowo Ufa Ufa 190S 8 4 • • 1 Some evidence to indicate that these might have been co-educational. 1W- into existence and directed by an Educational Association which was formed by interested individuals* The Halbstadt Zentralschule was planned and established by the Halbstadt colonial administration. Alexander&rone Zentralschule was privately owned* Schoenfeld was also a private school in which a number of individuals were interested. At first the curriculum of the Zentralschulen con tained, t t besides the ordinary courses in reading, writing, and mathematics in the G-erman language, also, in a few cases, grammar and even natural sciences and the Russian 88 language.1 1 This curriculum was built into a three-year program or course of study in the Ohrloff School and into a four-year program in the Chortitza school. All other Zentralschulen either patterned after the Ohrloff or the Chortitza plan. Since the new military service law of 187^ permit ted graduates of an approved secondary school to reduce the period of military training from six to three years, the Mennonltes were anxious to have their secondary school ap proved. In order to qualify, a new curriculum had to be planned for the Zentralschulen. The curriculum which the Russian Department of Education approved in 1876 is shown in Table V. 87 P. M. Friesen, 0£. clt., pp. 588-627* ^^Peter Braun, ojd. clt., p. 173* 1^5 TABLE V THE CURRICULUM IN A ZENTRALSCHULE Subject Matter I II III Bible Study ...................... Church History (with brief view of the history of the Mennonites 3 3 3 and their profession of faith). 1 2 2 G-erman Language.................. 6 5 6 Russian Language .................. 12 & g Arithmetic ........................ 6 3 2 Algebra ........................... 1 2 G-eometry........................... l 1 G-eneral World History........... 2 2 2 History of Russia ................ 2 2 Natural G-eography............... 2 2 2 Geography of R u s s i a ............. 2 2 Natural Science .................. 1 1 Physics ........................... 1 1 Penmanship ........................ 2 1 1 Drawing ........................... 2 2 1 Singing (Choral) .................. 2 2 2 Totals ...................... 3S 3& 3S 146 This curriculum was divided into three divisions, each of which constituted a three-year course of study. Hence, the curriculum approved by the Russian Government called for a six-year secondary school. "Later, however, the four-year type was again adopted, which was continued until 1920, thus making four classes [years] each having a one-year course of study. It has been stated before in this study that the ori ginal aim of the Zentral schulen was the preparation of teach ers for the village schools. Their curriculum, however, had no provision for the teaching of teacher-training courses; and, therefore, "the preparation of the teachers was entire ly inadequate. "9° in 12>7& the Molotschna Board of Education introduced a special department of education at the Halb stadt Zentralschule. This move on the part of the Board came as the result of much encouragement from church leaders, village mayors, teachers, and resolutions passed at confer ences assembled for the purpose of considering such a pro ject. The Board had also conferred with the Guardians Com mittee at Odessa and with the proper authorities at Peters- 91 burg to obtain official permission for such a program.^ The new teacher-training program consisted of a two- ^Peter Braun, ojd. cit., p. 17S. ^°Peter Braun, loc. cit. M. Friesen, op. cit., p. 607. 1^7 year course of study, and graduates of all the Zentralschulen in the colony were eligible to enroll* The first enrollment held in August, 1&7S, showed twelve students on the list. The village elementary school in Halbstadt served as a model school where the young teachers in training observed and received practical teaching experience during their sec ond year of study.^3 The curriculum was arranged in such a manner that all the students enrolled in the teacher-training department, whether first- or second-year students, were instructed in the same classes. Thus, every other year the new students were enrolled with the students talcing their second year*s work. Such an arrangement simplified the teaching load. The courses offered one year were psychology, theory of methods, Russian (grammar and etymology), and model-lesson demonstrations by the teacher. The next year offered history of pedagogy, practical methods, Russian (syntax), and model- lesson demonstrations by the teacher. This alternating ar rangement of the curriculum was followed in the Halbstadt Zentralschule from 1&7& "to 1&96. In IS90, ten years after the Halbstadt Zentralschule had added a department of education, a similar educational program was instituted into the Chortitza Zentralschule. The curriculum and arrangements were similar to the one at Halb- ^^Loc. cit. ^Loc. cit. 14-g stadt. It, too, possessed a model school where young teach ers in training received their practical experience. The creation of two 1 1 teachers collegesn^ by the Mennonltes in South Russia was a forward step in their edu cational system. In a short time, however, considerable thought and discussion was given to the creation of a sep arate three- or four-year teacher-training institute.^ In surmountable obstacles and hindrances were placed in the way by the Tsarish government, and not until its resignation in 1917 could the long-planned-for change be carried out."9^ Development of Zentral schulen for G-lrls. From the beginning of the Zentralschul movement, a few girls had been attending the established secondary schools. In Mennonite circles, such a practice created no opposition. But in 1570 the Guardians Committee issued an order that henceforth girls were not to be admitted into the regular Zentralschulen on the grounds that it was morally dangerous.^ Braun^ thinks that the true reason for such action was the fact that in Russia co-educational secondary schools were not customary. The Mennonite colonies faced the necessity of estab- qli y Peter Braun, ojd. cit. , p. 1J8. M. Friesen, o£. clt., p. 619. q6 ' Peter Braun, o£. clt., p. 17&. ^^Ibld. , p. 179; M. Friesen, op. cit. , p. 623. ^^peter Braun, og. cit., p. 179* chute High School for Girls In Chortitza PLATE VI ZENTHALSCHULEN (For Girls) 150 llshing Zentralschulen for girls* The situation remained unsolved for a number of years* In 1^7^> Andreas Voth, chairman of the Molotschna Board of Education, established a private school in his own home, assuming the responsibil ity of its financial needs, Voth employed Miss Sophie Schlen- ker, a young Moravian teacher from Koenigsfelden, Germany, to instruct the school. After a few years the school was discontinued for lack of sufficient interest and support* During the eighties, Heinrich Franz II, a businessman and former Zentralschule teacher, was instrumental in the opening of another private school for girls. This school, too, struggled along for a while, but it continued to operate until an educational association (Schulvereln) was organized at Halbstadt, which took over the school and assumed its control and support. Thus, the first, full-fledged Zentral schule for girls came into existence. As listed in Table V, five more such schools were established by 1910. These schools offered curricula varying from three- to five-year programs* The Halbstadt school later , f developed into a girls Gymnasium with eight classes [eight-year course of study].1 1 The eighth year in a Russian girls Gymnasium was devoted to the training of teachers. In 1906 a co-educational Zentralschule was estab lished at Dawlekanowo, in the province of Ufa. This school, listed among the schools shown in Table V, was organized and supported by six men who financed the necessary building and 151 equipment* It offered a four-year course of study. Enroll ment increased from 44 to 130 in three years. The admittance of both boys and girls in one school was a courageous move which proved highly successful.^9 Other Mennonite Educational Institutions. In addi tion to the village elementary schools and the Zentralschulen discussed thus far in this chapter, the Mennonltes in South Russia established other educational institutions. 1. The Mennonite Commercial School. This school was patterned after the G-erman Real gymnasium* It tended to satisfy a threefold need: (1) Since the Mennonite Commercial School was organized and approved as a Realschule, its grad uates were entitled to the same privileges as the graduates of any Russian Commercial or Realschule* Thus far the gradu ates of one of the Zentralschulen were not eligible to con tinue in one of the state schools. Admittance to one of the Russian universities was granted only to graduates of a classical gymnasium* This admittance-standard was not achieved by a graduate of the Mennonite Commercial School. But these graduates could, at least, enter higher schools in Russia. (2) As Realschule it offered a curriculum in which such sub jects as science, mathematics, languages, and business cour ses were emphasised. The Zentralschulen had placed the em phasis upon the study of history, the Russian language, M. Friesen, op* cit *, p. 624. 152 geography, and art. Mathematics and science were of second ary importance. (3) The Mennonite Commercial School offered training to such who were planning to enter into the commer cial activities. The Mennonite Commercial School established at Halb stadt was first conducted as a private school. As such it was too limited in its activities. The Mennonite Educational Association assumed the control and support of the school. The Association had decided to organize the curriculum into an eight-year course. To be approved as a Commercial School, certain commercial studies had to be added in addition to the customary Healschulen studies. Two foreign languages were required— G-erman and French— by choice of the students English could be substituted for French. Students coming from the Zentralschulen were admitted into the fifth-year level. The Mennonite educational system thus possessed a harmonious continuation arrangement whereby a Mennonite youth could continue from an elementary level on through the Zentralschule and into the Commercial school. 2. The Marien School for Deaf and Dumb. This school was brought into existence through the efforts of A* G-. Am- barzumow, an Armenian. As a student in Beuggen, Switzerland, he had become tremendously interested in deaf-mutes. What occasion brought him to the Mennonite colonies is not recorded anywhere. Being a good promoter, he succeeded in arousing the interest and support of two influential Mennonltes-- 153 Gerhard Klassen and Abraham Wiebe— who presented the idea of a school for deafmutes to the Halbstadt Colony Administra tion, who undertook the responsibility of establishing the school with the promised support of the churches in the col ony. In order to give the promotion of the new school- project greater interest among the people, Klassen and Wiebe promoted the school as a memorial to the twenty-fifth anniver sary celebration of the reign of Czar Alexander II. The school for the deaf and dumb was begun in IS90 in the private home of Klassen. In 1£>95> five years later, the school was able to move into its newly constructed build ing. The building included enough rooms to accommodate for ty children. Accommodations for married and single teachers were provided. Soon the school enjoyed the active stipport of all the Mennonite colonies in Russia, At the 1910 Conference of the Mennonite Church held in the village of Schoensee in October, Jacob Schroeder, of Ohrloff, reported to the conven tion that the School for Deaf and Dumb had a reserve fund of 10,000 rubles, but continuation of financial support from all Mennonite churches was encouraged.**-0^ Friesen enumerates the achievements of the school In I910 as follows: (1) Those who have been dismissed from the school are able to read, write, calculate, and are well ^ *00P. M. Friesen, op. cit. , p. 5^6. 15H SCHOOL FOR DEAF AND DUMB IN 'JJXEOE, UQLQTSCHNA PLATE V2I ^999965 155 acquainted with the Bible and geography* (2) They have learned to work with their hands^—the boys to weave baskets and working with wood; and girls, housekeeping. (3) They speak distinctly* (^) Many have become useful citizens in the esoaomic enterprises. (5) All have been taught Christian principles. 3. Bible Schools. When Tobias Voth came to the Molot schna Colony to be the first teacher of the Ohrloff Zentral schule, he emphasized a spirit of pietism, both in the school and in the surrounding community* This pietlstlc spirit had been evident among the Mennonltes before Voth's coming. Between 1S12 and 1 SI9 a small group separated from the established church and organized what came to be known as the Kleine G-emelnde (nThe Small Church11). It promoted a very conservative attitude toward dress, houses, furniture, and other phases of daily life. It was very much opposed to education. ‘ ’Tobias Voth was the first to give the name *Bru- dertum* [ “Brotherhood1 1 ] to the pletistlc movement^. The move ment stressed a deeply evangelical intercourse of believers. * The movement of pietism grew in strength and in mem- 102 bership. In 1S57 a group of men led by Johann Classen , p. 79. friesen, o£. oit.. p. 87, lists the following men as largely responsible for the school: Joh. Classen (of Lieb- enau), Jak. Reimer (G-nadenfeld), Heinrich Huebert (Liebenau), Abr. WIebe, and Abr. Matthies (Rudnerweide). Johann Schmidt (Onadenfeld), Peter and Abr. DIek (Pordenau). 156 energetically promoted the cause of the “Brotherhood1 1 and organized a Brotherhood School in the village of G-nadenfeld. Money and pledges began to flow into the project in great stuns; especially surprising were the contributions when the financial conditions of the times were considered.To add to the funds for the sehool, a lumberyard and a brick loli plant were opened which “netted not small profits.” Money from non-Mennonites from far and near supported the new school. A manufacturer by the name of Maibom (not a Mennon ite) from Moscow presented the school with a piano. orphans were encouraged to attend, the school was often called ”Walsenschule” (“Orphans School”). Its founders hoped that from its classrooms would come a goodly number of missionaries for foreign mission fields and teachers for the village schools. In 1S59 the Guardians Committee granted to the Brotherhood School the same educational recognition previous ly granted to the Zentralschulen. The Brotherhood School was formally opened in 1&57 in a private dwelling house bought to house the school, at The purpose of the school was to offer a more Chris tian education, emphasized by a strict, conservative spirit of pietism. Since many children from poor homes and even ^°\jOC. cit. lo6Loc. clt. 157 least temporarily. David Hausknecht^^ served as a temporary teacher until a qualified teacher was found. Heinrich Franz (See pp. 104 -105 ), who had been dismissed from the Chortitza Zentralschule, was asked to accept the responsibility of the school the following year* Franz* appointment caused dissen sion among the men #10 had promoted the school. Those oppos ing Pranz contended that he was not spiritual enough for the school. His scholarly educational interests and his intoler- ance toward any new teaching procedure■ were not appreci ated by the constituency of the school. As the points of difference concerning Biblical in terpretations deepened in the ranks of the Pietists, a schism occurred which resulted in the removal .of Franz and the withdrawal of a number of the friends and supporters of the school. In 16>6l Johann Lange replaced Heinrich Pranz as teacher ^David Hausknecht emigrated from Switzerland into South Russia. During the years between IS30 and 1&4-0 he es tablished a private school in the village of Einlage in the Chortitza Colony. His school was well attended by sons from homes of Russian merchants and noblemen. He was a disciple of Pestalozzl and practiced the educational principles of that great educator. Being a great student of nature, Hausknecht often took his pupils into the fields and w>ods to observe and study plants and animals. Even the heavens became familiar to his pupils as he explained its secrets. Hausknecht belongs among the list of foremost teachers among the Mennonite colonies. — Mennonltlsches Lexikon, p. 267, and P. M. Friesen, p. 631. •^^Clted by P. M. Friesen, p. £ > 4 - . 15$ of the Brotherhood School, which was now called Tempelschule ("Tempel School"). When the Pietistle movement became more unpopular, Lange moved the school accompanied by its most active supporters to the Caucasus, where a new Mennonite colony was founded* Here the Tempel School was established once more in 1€> 6 6, which functioned for a number of years. After the Tempel School was removed from the village of G-nadenfeld, a new school was organized specifically for children from poor homes among the Lutherans, Catholics, and other foreign groups. This Armenschule ("School for the Poor") operated but a year or two and then ceased to function for lack of a suitable teacher and necessary funds. During the first century of Mennonitism in South Russia the ministry served the churches satisfactorily with out having been trained for the work* "It delivered its sermons in simplicity and sincerity, illustrating them from common experiences familiar to all. In this manner it stirred the hearts of the worshipers. However, in the closing decades of the nineteenth century more and more educated individuals such as doctors, teachers, lawyers, farmers, became common among the Mennonltes. Little by little the Friesen, op. clt., p. 90* H O Prof. Dr. Karl LIndeman: "Von den deutschen Kolo- nisten in Ruszland, Ergebnisser einer Studlenreise 1919-1 9 2 1." Schriften des Deutschen Ausland-Instituts Stuttgart. A Kul- tur-historTsche Relhe herausgegeben von Dr. Walter^G-oetz in Leipzig und Prof. Dr. Julius Ziehen in Frankfurt a. Main. Bd. Stuttgart: Ausland und Heimate Verlags-Aktiengesellschaft, 192^, p. 1 5. 159 untrained ministry realized its inadequacy and began to de velop slowly a consciousness for the need of a theological training. There were among the ministers and laity, of course, such who were very reluctant to admit such a need contending that for a century the churches had fared well with an untrained ministry* BEven the government at St. Peters burg was unfavorable to a school for ministerial training, 111 and so the founding of a seminary was delayed. In the fall of I9I8 the permission to establish a Bible school was granted by the government. The school was located in the small village of Tschongraw (near Simferopol) in Crimea. At first the school offered a limited course 112 which was taught by two teachers. For the second school- term two more teachers were added to the staff. Of the four teachers, three devoted their full time to the teaching of courses in Bible and the fourth teacher taught such courses as mathematics, science, and other secular subjects. In May, 1921, the new school graduated its first class of eight graduates, of whom three had been village teachers 111Ibld., p. 1 6. H P Joh. E. Wiens, a former missionary, who lived in Tschongraw, assumed the leadership of the school. He was assisted by Jah. Braun. These two men had received a theo logical training in Hamburg. For the second school year two more teachers were appointed: Abraham Heinr. Unruh and Ger hard Joh. Reiraer. Unruh had been a teacher in a Gymnasium in Barwenhowo (Province of Charkow) and Reimer had compieted the course offered in the Commercial Institute at Kiev* l6o before entering the Bible school* The enrollment during the second year rose to ^5 students—*35 men 10 women. 1 1 The course of study was much like that In the semin ary at Hamburg, where two of the teachers had studied, h1^ However, LIndeman, who spent considerable time observing the school in 1 9 2 1, pointed out that the curriculum 1 1 lacked a critical survey of great religions and a course in the ilk history of the Mennonites and their principles of feith. n That the location of the school was unfortunate is seen in the following quotation: During my visit and study of the Tschongraw Bible School I became convinced that Tschongraw was not an ideal location for a school offering higher education. In this small village of twelve farmers, there is no stimulating spirit of learning to encourage the educa tional growth and development of good scholarship. The village offers no library nor contact with men of learn ing, both of which are necessary to bring forth the best In students and teachers. The community also lacks fa cilities for housing of students. Since many of the stu dents are married, they must spend too much of their time providing for the necessities of life when they should be engaged in their studies.115 LIndeman continues to contend that the Biblical Seminary should have been located either in Ohrloff or Halb- stadt, since these two villages contained, In 1 9 2 1, two Zentralschulen, one Commercial School, one girls secondary ^^Loc. clt. 11 II Karl Lindeman, loc. cit. 1 1 5Ibld., p. 1 7. 161 school, a school for the deafmutes, four elementary schools, one private school, and an elementary school for Russian children, publishing houses, hospitals, and homes containing educated individuals. Private schools. Throughout the history of the Men- nonites in South Russia, private schools were conducted in many villages. These schools were either elementary or sec ondary level. Wealthy estate owners often financed and pro moted such schools. In the Chortitza Colony the manufactur ing concern of Lepp, Wallmann, Koop, and Hildebrand maintained a school for the education of children of employees. This school was conducted in two parallel divisions— one for Mennonite children and the other for Russian children. V. MENNONITE EDUCGATION UNDER COMMUNISM The economic, political, religious, and educational concessions promised to the Mennonites by the Russian govern ment before their emigration were very generous and far- reaching. For over a half-century in the land of the Czars the Mennonites were free to order their own lives. But there came a time nwhen Pharaoh knew not Joseph.w All Mennonite education was In the hands of the mini sters from the beginning of the colonies until 18&3> when the Russian government placed the schools under the jurisdiction of the Agricultural Unions. As time went on, the Agricultur al Union lost its importance. It had supervised the educa tional system, more or less, as a secondary responsibility, 162 since its chief function was economic. Recognizing the need for a more responsible educational administration, Boards of ll6 Educaton were organized to supervise the schools. For a period of twenty-five years education among the Mennonites in South Russia enjoyed considerable freedom in its growth and development “which we can well call its brightest per iod. between the years 1SS1 and 1905 the Russian government promoted a Russianization process among the Men nonites (discussed on pages 1- 36-1 3 9)* which promised to strangle the most cherished ideals and values of Mennonitism. The year 1 9 0 5 brought, thanks to the granting of the four “liberties1 1 [freedom of speech, freedom of the press, liberty to assemble, and establish associations] , a great advance to the thought and will of the people throughout all classes in Russia. The wave of agitation for freedom ripped through the country until it reached the Molotschna colonies. This cultural growth found expression among the Mennonites, first of all in a ser ies of new school organizations. Three new central schools came into existence (Alexanderkrone, Onadenheim, and Lindenau) • two new schools for girls (Ohrloff and • I "I C . Each mother colony had a Board of Education. The Molotschna Board of Education was organized in I669 the Ghortitza Board of Education came into existence the same year. ^■^peter Braun, og. cit., p. 1 7 6. n n c * With the introduction of industry, Old Russia be gan to pass away. An accumulation of grievances due to serf dom, absolutism in governmental procedures, exploitation and oppression by the aristocracy finally culminated in a ser ies of revolutions. The historic Russian Revolution of 1905 brought the government face to face with a' situation such as had never confronted it before, and there was nothing else to do but to yield. On October 3 0, 1 9 0 5, Nicholas issued a fam ous manifesto which yielded to the masses a great many con cessions or liberties. 163 Gnadenfeld); an Intermediate school with eight classes was established in Halbstadt (first as a Realschule, la ter as a school of commerce); also a deaconess home in connection with a nurses training school, and the girls school in Halbstadt developed into a girls Gymnasium with eight classes. The village schools, several of which had already boasted of two teachers, were with the exception of a few very small ones, divided now into two or three departments. The Mennonite teachers lost no time in forming a “Teachers Association1 1 which tools: over different func tions of the Board of Education, which had, little by little, been forced out of action. For instance, con ference matters, the organizing of summer school courses, the treatment of questions concerning pedagogy and methods, the drawing up of curricula and schedules, the choice of textbooks, and articles for visual instruction, etc. 3^*9 Soon after the outbreak of World War I in 191^* many Mennonite teachers, being mostly men, were drafted into the military services, leaving many teaching vacancies in the schools. These schools were filled with young Russian lady teachers who had no “teaching experience, and, above all else, no acquaintance with customs, traditions, viewpoints, language, religious principles, and ethical standards of the 120 Mennonites. 8 A retrogression in educational activities was soon evident. After the revolution in 1917 and the demobilization of Russian troops, the Mennonite teachers returned home to resume their teaching. “They had not lost the love of teach ing during the period of military service. It had grown. ^^Peter Braun, og. clt., p. 179; also p. ISO. 120 Heinrich Toews, “Die ruszlanddeutsche Schule an der Molotchnaja unter dem Bolschewismus, “ Deutsche Post aus dem Osten (Berlin), Januar, 1939, P* 3-3* 16k - They set out, determined, to repair the neglected, schools and to uproot any false weeds that might have been sown dur- 121 ing their absence.* During the period from 1917 to 1920, when the Bolshe vists were attempting to gain complete control of Russia, they were faced with a counter-revolution and revolts. The Men nonite villages were plundered and many of its inhabitants murdered. Toews says: Even in those anarchic times, the colonists did not forget the schools. Astonishing.* during those hard times five new Zentralschulen were founded— Altonau, Rosenort, Lindenau, Liebenau, and G-nadenheim. Three of these were forced to discontinue, the Lindenau school functioned until 1929 and the Gnadenheim was still functioning in 1931. 3?he establishment of these new Zf t ntralschulen were becoming less effective. It meant only that the farmers were not able to pay room and board for their children. Out of 2*1-0 students that had in good times attended the older Zentralschulen only about 32 to 20 would have been able to do so now. The founding of the new schools was the only possible way to provide a secon dary education and it indicated that the Mennonites were determined to educate their children even in difficult times.3-22 Famine and economic disintegration resulting from the paralyzing influence of communism worked a tremendous hardship upon education, particularly secondary education. Many schools were closed for lack of funds and teachers had to eke out an existence in some other way. When the Mennonite colonies were unable to support their educational system, the 121 Loc. clt. *^%Ieinrlch Toews, loc. cit. 165 State assumed the financial responsibility of their schools. "Soon it was forbidden to appoint [by the Mennonites! any teachers. "^*23 In February, 1921, all teachers in Russia were re quired to become members of the Teachers Association. Ar ticle 11, in the Statutes said; "all persons are accepted in the Teachers Association, regardless of previous status, lpli financial conditions, or viewpoint." The nationalization of all schools in Russia by the Communists was particularly determined to root out all re ligious Instruction. Inspectors were sent into the Mennonite schools to examine all textbooks to see that no book contain ing the word "Q-od" was left in the libraries and classrooms. Teachers were required to organize Cultural Societies among the youth where "addresses on the popular theme, *The Origin of Man* could be delivered regularly.1,12^ Dramatic presenta tions by the young people in the different communities were also to be supervised by the teachers. For a brief period religious instruction was continued "L in Mennonite schools disguised as Mennonite history. But this practice was soon forbidden too. One of the main ob- 125Loc. olt. Loc. clt. ^ ^Loc. cit. IP ^ Heinrich Toews says that p. M. Friesen^ book on Mennonites in South Russia was used. This book has been a valuable sourcebook for this study.* 166 jectives of the Bolshevist program was the complete destruc tion of the established Greek Orthodox Church as an institu tion, on the ground that the Church had always been one of 13be chief supporters of the old economic and social order under the Czars. Hot only the established church, but religion itself as an *opiate of the people1 1 was to be entirely rooted out of the hearts and minds of the people as rapidly as possible. Mennonites shared in all the anti-religious crusades and persecutions. On May 23, 1924, a petition’ *'^ was sent by the Kom- mlsslon f uer Klrchlicheangelegenhelten ( "Commission on Church Relations") to Moscow. Item 7 In this petition read as fol lows; "The schools to follow at least a neutral course, per- ■^^An expression originating with Karl Marx and often used by those discussing his philosophy. C. Henry Smith, The Story of the Mennonites. pp. 5IO-5H, lists the following petitions: 1. Complete freedom of religious worship and assembly for large and small* 2* The unconditional right of children and young people to assemble for religious worship and instruction and choral renditions. 3* The establishment of Mennonite children!s homes un der religious training. 4. Repeal of the special taxes on church houses and preachers and the right to erect new church buildings. 5. Permission to furnish the churches with a much- needed supply of Bibles and other religious literature and periodicals. 6. Bible-training courses for the ministry. 7* The schools to follow at least a neutral course, permitting neither religious nor anti-religious propaganda. 6. Exemptions of Mennonites from military service and military drill in lieu of some other non-combatant, construc tive service; and the oath wherever an oath Is officially re quired. 167 sitting neither religious nor anti-religious propaganda1 1 (See footnote No* 12S). Realizing that it was impossible to get bach the right to teach religion the Mennonites hoped that, at least, they might keep out of the schools the direct anti-religious propaganda, and thus save their children for the faith in their home teaching. “Even though the time seemed propitious for making them [ the items in the petlt- tionj , only one of these demands was ever granted— the per mission to import a certain number of Bibles. Through the efforts of the Commission on Church Re lations permission was granted by the Soviet government at Moscow to hold a conference of Mennonites in Moscow in 1 9 25. Two resolutions passed by the Conference are of interest: (1) To organize a Bible School or a Biblical Seminary for the training of ministers and teachers of religious education; ♦ this school to be located in Moseow. (2) To publish a reli gious journal to be called Unser Blatt ( 1 1 Our Paper11). The school never materialized. Since Moscow was far removed from any Mennonite settlement, its selection as a location was not practical* The Journal was published monthly from October, 1 9 2 5, until June, I9 2 7. The Russian government demanded its discontinuance. By 192S the communists had succeeded in bringing their educational program into operation* The government, 12W . , p. 511. I6g not local Board® of Education, hired and paid the teachers. “Monthly salaries were often much delayed. January salaries were delayed as late as May.1 1 A school year began on the first of September and con tinued until the sixth or fifteenth of June. This period was divided into three terms. The vacation periods between terms were devoted to teachers conferences at which attend ance was compulsory upon threat of punishment. Even a part of the summer vacation was utilized for conferences. Toews lists a day's schedule at a seven-day teachers conference held during the period immediately preceding the opening of the school year. Dally Schedule at the Teachers Conference1^1 1. International Conditions (Reports given by some party member). 2. Report from an Inspector of Schools. 3. Reports from the different school districts (Gdven by teachers sympathetic to communism). 4*. Plans: a. Plans for the whole year. b. Plans for the first school term, o. Calendar for the year. d. Plans of the Communist Party. B. The bulletin board and plans for its effective use. S. The daily school schedule. 7. Pioneer movement (especially among children). S. Current events for the children. 9. Elections; etc., etc. A questionnaire was sent to all teachers in February, ^ Heinrich Toews, “Die ruszlanddeutsche Schule an der Molotschnaja unter dem Bolsehewismus Februar-Maerz, 1930.1 1 (Part II, “Die eigentliche Sowjetschule,1 1 Deutsche post aus dem Osten (Februar-Maerz, 193°5> P* 9* - glIbld., p. 10. 169 1929, which caused Mennonite teachers a great deal of concern* The first three questions were as follows: (1) What is your name? (2) What training have you had? (3) Are you a believer in God? Since most of the Mennonite teachers answered wYesM to the third question, the local school inspector organized a summer course in atheism, which Toews*^^ feels sure was never accepted by Mennonite teachers, barring a few excep tions* As the Russian Department of Education was able to supply more and more teachers who were in sympathy with Com munistic ideology and members of the Teachers Union, the Mennonite teachers were replaced* Thus, Mennonite schools came to be a part of the total communistic educational sys tem. The whole school curriculum was changed under the new system. Instead of teaching the usual cultural sub jects, teachers now were supposed to be propagandists for the new order, and agents for carrying out the agri cultural and industrial program of the local Soviets* Under the influence somewhat of the educational theories of the American, John Dewey, and his group, the school became decidedly child-centered. Children were given great freedom in the choice of the teacher. Church and parents lost all control of the education of their chil dren. Mennonite teachers in the Mennonite colonies were gradually replaced by non-Mennonite atheists, especially in those former Mennonite villages where the Mennonite population had entirely disappeared or where the Mennon ites had lost control of their affairs through the influx of native Russians or non-Mennonite G-ermans. Finally, under Stalin, all teachers had to sign the atheistic questionnaire sent them. A few Mennonites signed them 1?2ibia., p. 12. 170 and remained in service, but the great majority re fused, and lost their jobs.133 When the German army invated the Ukraine in the fall of 19*1-1, it assumed complete control of the Mennonite colon ies which were located in that area. The Mennonites welcomed their coming because, they believed at that time, Germany would again afford them religious freedom. During the German occupation the German language was reinstated and the teachers again predominantly became Mennonite again. Religious in struction was again given in the schools and the churches opened to worship. For a brief moment the future appeared bright. The Chortitza Zentralschule celebrated its hundredth anniversary in 19*^2 and planned to restore its former educa tional usefulness. Other* Zentralschulen which had not been functioning for years, were to be opened again. When the Wehrmacht turned the administration over to the civil government, consisting mainly of atheistic National Socialists, it soon became evident that the latter were opposed to Christianity. For the time being, however, they did not dare offend the religious feeling of the population. The German colonies of Russia, including those of the Mennonites, were especially entrusted to Himmler^ S3. Generally, they did not yet reveal their objective, but our people soon noticed whence the wind was blowing. In the long run the Mennonites were to give up their Christ ian faith an?L substitute for it the new faith of Blut und Boden.13^ X»c. Henry Smith, The Story of the Mennonites, pp. 509-510. ~ -^Gerhard Fast, "Mennonites of the Ukraine under Stalin and Hitler,1 * Mennonite Life, II (April, 19*17), pp. 18- 21 and p. *t4. 171 In some areas the control by the German occupation forces was very rigid. Fast says that in thoseplaces “The SS men acted very much like little, petty kings. They examined the ministers and supervised the schools.“^35 In the fall of 19*K5, when the G-erman army began to evacuate the Ukraine all the Mennonites; about 35>000, felt impelled to flee westward into Geimany, where “they were placed in villages and camps in eastern Germany and were, with one stroke of the pen, naturalized. “*^6 When in January, 19*1*5, the Red Army entered Germany, most of the Mennonites fled westward toward the provinces of Saxony, Thuringia, Mecklenburg, and Hannover. “Most of those who found themselves, in the summer of 39*^5> the Russian zone of occupation, have been forcibly sent back to Russia. This number must approximate 25,000 or more.0’ * ’ -^ Their present whereabouts is unknown. In 17&9 the first Mennonite settlers migrated into South Russia and began the first mother colony of Chortitza. In 19*1*3 their descendants had either been destroyed, exiled, or moved back to the land from whence they had come. For 15*1* years they had lived in the steppes of the Ukraine. - During that period they built a culture rich in its material and non-material traits. They had organized and developed a complete educational system based upon a philosophy of educa- 135ibia., p. 21. 136ibia., p. *14. i37L<t0. olt> tion deeply rooted in the Mennonite principles. 172 SUMMARY For the first hundred years of life on the steppes of South Russia, the Mennonites were enjoying almost complete political, religious, and educational autonomy. As Smith^^^ has stated it, the Mennonites operated a democratic state with in an autocratic state. Left free of governmental regulations and restrictions, the Mennonites developed an educational sys tem and its underlying philosophy determined by their reli gious principles, past experiences, and the Ideals of its leaders. The Importance of education was recognized even in the early, most difficult pioneer years. After the basic necessities of 1 1 food, clothing and shelter* 1 were not so pressing, educational activities became increasingly active. Improvement of instruction, organization, and physical equip ment followed in rapid succession. The first impetus towards the development of a pro gressive school system was given by the forceful Mennonite reformer, Johann Gornies. Possessing great insight into the economic, social, and educational problems of his people, he introduced and enforced many reforms. Although Cornies had not even obtained the equivalent ^ C . Henry Smith, op. clt., p. ^13. 173 of an elementary education, he was the author of a number of educational treatises dealing with every phase of the educational processes* He promoted teacher conferences, which he lead himself at first, pensions, and teacher-training institutions. He stressed the importance of humane treatment of children, vocational as well as cultural education, and the learning of the Russian language in the schools* The name of Johann Gornies deserves a place among the great educational leaders usually studied in any course in the history of education. In spite of the religious interests of the Mennon ites in Russia, they did not establish Bible schools or theological seminaries so common among their brethren in America. Religious instruction was given in all elementary and secondary schools and that constituted the training of the ministry. No educational institution of college level was ever organized. Beginning in 1S71, the Russian government began a program of , f the Russianization1 1 of the German Mennonite colonies. Little by little, their autonomous way of life was restricted. The educational system of the Mennonites experienced greater state control. Opposing every restric tion imposed by the State, the Mennonites steadily lost ground.Russian became the language of instruction and ^^Peter Braun, op. cit., p. 1S1. vjb Russian teachers adhering to the Greek Catholic faith were slowly pressed into the classrooms. In 1917 came the Russian revolutions out of which the present Soviet Russia emerged. When the communists "began their programs of reforms, the Mennonite settlements ceased to exist as separate cultural units. Their religious, economic, and educational Institutions were destroyed. More than thirty thousand Mennonites succeeded in escaping from communist oppressions, but an equal number (?) have been lost behind Hthe iron curtain. n CHAPTER V EDUCATION AMONG- THE MENNONITES IN THE United STATES The history of the origin and development of educa tion in the United States is a very significant story. But within that story, the student of American education finds many separate stories which all played a part in making this country great educationally. One of these separate stories, the content of this chapter, describes the educational activi ties among the Mennonites who have been a part of American life since early colonial times. The oppressive domination and restrictive interfer ence imposed by the various European States upon their peoples were important factors in the settlement of America. Although the cnurcn-state relationship was transplanted in the early administration of most of the colonies, the deluge of dissent ing religious groups forced the adherents to a state church into a minority and made freedom of conscience, in time, a part of the American system. Pilgrims, Puritans, Roman Catholics, Quakers, Hugo- nots, Moravians, Mennonites, mystics, and Pietists, all took part In the settlement of America, each group pri marily to escape from a land— England, France, Germany, and Austria— where they were unable either because of op position or actual persecution to live their lives as they wished. In these lands they were unable to gather in meetings or churches of their own convictions, to order their social and family relations according to what they believed to be the purpose of God, or to control 176 the opinions and practices of others, who were every where in the majority, in matters of ecclesiastical pol ity, religious creeds, and political government.! The Mennonites in the United States have always ex pressed a concern for the preservation and perpetuation of their beliefs and practices. To achieve these two aims, they have set up and maintained various educational institutions. Interest in elementary, secondary, and collegiate schools of their own has greatly increased during the past several decades. 1 B M 0 M D 1 S X H H B T O N E m E K L A N ® The first mention of Mennonites in America concerns immigrants from Holland who settled in the Dutch colony of Hew Netherland between 16*40 and 166*1*. Their numbers were few in comparison to the Mennonites who migrated to Pennsyl vania from Germany and Switzerland after 1 6 6 3. Their inter ests were primarily commercial, while the latter moved here to escape religious oppression. The Mennonites settling in Hew Hetherland represented a peculiar philosophy which had influenced some of the early Mennonite churches in Holland. ALthough it failed to gain a foothold on American soil, recognition of its existence and presence in early American life should be of considerable interest to a student of education. •^Charles M. Andrews, The Colonial Period of American History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1$35)> I, bb-b7. 177 New Netherland was first settled by the Dutch in l6l*l-, and from 1621 until its capture by the English in 166*1-, it was ruled by the Dutch West India Company. This company ad ministered the colony of New Netherland through autocratic landowners or t l patroonsH as they were called. However, in l6*J-0 the Dutch West India Company adopted a policy of greater freedom and more exemptions which nprovided for smaller grants 2 of free colonists and liberalized the commercial privileges." It was probably at this time that a few Dutch Mennonites mi grated to America. The first mention of them by name is found in the pri vate Journal written between 16*1-1 and l6k6 by a French Jesuit, Isaae Joques.^ They are mentioned a second time in a document by the pastor of the New Netherland Church and again two years later in a report, entitled, State of the Churches in New Netherland: Anno 1 6 57, which was sent to the Classis at Amsterdam. In this report the religious bodies composing the population of the villages of Long Island are enumerated: ^Ibld., ill, g*t- (footnote). ■'Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New York, edited by~U. I S . ' 0‘Callaghan (Albany: feed, Parsons ahdTCompany, I65O), III, 15. * 1 - 1 Marcus W. Jernegan, The American Colonies, 1*1-92-1750, "Epochs of American History,n edited by Albert Bushnell Hart (New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 1929), p. 2vJ2. ^Documents, Colonial History, New York, p. 69. Those of Gravesend are reported Mennonlsts; yea, they for the most part reject Infant Baptism, the Sab bath, the office of Preacher, and the Teachers of God's Word, saying that through these have come all sorts of contention into the world* Whenever they meet .together the one or the other reads something for them. 6 Information concerning these Mennonites cannot be found anywhere* Their religious activities were undoubtedly subjugated to the interests of the Dutch Reformed Church, for the Dutch West India Coup any decreed that No other religion shall be publicly admitted in New Netherland except the Reformed, as it is at present preached and practiced by public authority in the United Netherlands; and for this purpose the Company shall pro vide and maintain good and suitable preachers, school masters and comforters of the sick* privately, one might follow his own conscience, provided he avoid fre quenting any forbidden assemblies or conventicles, much less collect or get up any such*7 Their philosophy concerning preachers and teachers indicates, 8 as Smith points out, that they were Mennonites of the Col- leglant^ type* The educational ideas of Pieter Cornells Plockhoy*— Collegianism found one of its greatest advocates in Pieter Cornells Plockhoy. Very little is known concerning his early 6 Document, Colonial History, New York, p. 69* ^Luther A. Weigle, American Idealism, HThe Pageant of America,t t Ralph Henry Gabriel, editor, 14 vols*; (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1928), X, 9 6. 8 C. Henry Smith, The Mennonites of America (Scott- dale, Pa.: Mennonite Publishing House, p* 83. 9cf., ante, p. 179 life. He was born in ZIerikzee, in the Province of Zeeland, in the Netherlands. ^ He became associated with the Colleglant- Mennonites of Amsterdam and their leader, Galenas Abraham de Haan, sometime after 16*1-6, when de Haan became a minister in 11 the Amsterdam Mennonite Church. In I65S, Plockhoy appeared before Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of the Commonwealth, in London with a scheme for the establishment of a universal Christian assembly. This scheme, designed to abolish the state-church relationship and the compulsory tithe, was obviously modeled after the Colle- giant method of free discussion. Unfortunately, Cromwell died before taking any action on the plan. Failing to get any action on his petition from the Commonwealth Government, Plockhoy appealed to the English people directly hoping to awaken interest and support in his scheme. In the early part of 1659 published his ideas for a non-sectarian Christian assembly in a pamphlet with the title, The Way to the Peace and Settlement of these Nations 12 fully discovered. During the same year he published another 10K. H. Kossman MPieter Cornellsz Plockhoy,1 * Nieuw Nederlandsch Blografiscn Woordenboek, Vol. IX, (Leiden: A . W. Sijhoffts Uitgevers-MaatschappiJ N.V., 1933), Columns 807-09. 11 C. B. Hylkema, Reformateurs. Vol. II (Haarlem, Hol land: H. D. TJeenk Willink and Zoon, 1900), p. 100. ■*"%>eter Cornelius, The Way to the Peace and Settle ment of these Nations fully^STsoovered, VoY. VI,~"*fThe Sommers Collection of Tracts,1 1 edited by Walter Scott (London, 1811), pp. *4*2»7"^97* full title appearing on the title page of ISO pamphlet describing a plan for the establishment of an inde pendent, socialistic settlement of industrial workers. This publication bore the title, A Way Propounded to Make the Poor in these and other Nations Happy. ^ Plockhoyfs pamphlet was as follows: HThe Way to the Peace and Settlement of these Nations fully discovered, In two letters, delivered to his late Highness, the Lord Protector, and one of the present Parliament, wherein the Liberty of speaking (which every one desires for himself) is opposed against Anti-Ghrist, for the procuring of His Downfall, who will not grant the same to others; and now published to ' awaken the Public Spirits in England, and to raise up an universal Magis trate in Christendom, that can suffer all sorts of People (of what religion soever they are) in any Country, as God (the great Magistrate) suffers the same In all Countries of the World. , f Matth. v. 15. Men do not light a candle and put It un der a bushel, but on a candlestick, and it giveth light unto all that are in the house. By Peter Cornelius Van Zurick-Zee, a lover of Truth and Peace. Printed in the year 1659. ^Peter Cornelius, A Way Propounded to make the Poor in these and other Nations Happy (London, 1659)Z S copy of TiKls writing is preserved in tne New York Public Library. The full title is as follows: MA Way propounded to make the poor In these and other nations happy by bringing together a fit, suitable, and well qualified people into one Household, Government, or little Commonwealth, wherein every one may keep his proper ty, and be employed In some work or other, as he shall be fit, without being oppressed. Being the way not only to rid those and other nations from idle, evil and disorder ly persons, but also from all such that have sought and found out many Inventions to live upon the labor of others. Whereunto Is also annexed an invitation to this society, or little Commonwealth. Psalm 4-2:1. Blessed is he that considereth the poor, the Lord will deliver him in time of trouble; the Lord shall preserve him, and keep him alive, and he shall be blessed upon the earth. By Peter Cornelius, Van Zurik-Zee (London, 1659. Print ed by G-. C. [G-iles Calvert] at the sign of the Black- spread-eagle at the west-end of Paul1 s Churchyard". 1£L There is no record to indicate how Plockhoy fared in England with his utopian dreams, hut in 1662 he petitioned the Burgomasters of Amsterdam for a grant of land in Hew Nether- land and for financial assistance to begin a co-operative col- ony of wMennonist families111^ in the Hew World* Anxious to find colonists, the Amsterdam officials, who had authority to dispose of land on the Delaware River, completed a contract with Plockhoy. He succeeded in obtain ing several privileges and exemptions, plus a loan of 2 ,5 0 0 guilders^ for his Mennonites who hoped to migrate to the Dutch colony in America. Plockhoy, however, wanted to embark with a minimum of one hundred people; and, trusting that the government would extend loans to additional emigrants, he issued a prospectus for the purpose of enlisting more people. This prospectus was entitled, Kort en klaer ontwerp (t t brief i c and concise plan11).~ Finally, some forty-one persons agreed J to settle, and they arrived at their destination on July 29, 1663. 17 1 It Document, Colonial History, New York, II, 176-177. ^one guilder equals about * 1 - 0.2 cents. 16 Pieter Corneliez Plockhoy, Kort en klaer ontwerp, printed in Amsterdam in 1662. The Henry ETT“liuritington LiSra- ry has a copy of this writing. 17 1 Some Records of Sussex County, Delaware, edited by C. H. B. Turner (phlladelpMa: Allen, Lane and Scott, 1909), p. 6. 1S2 In August of the following year the Dutch surrendered New Netherland to the English, who commenced the reduction of the forts and settlements along the Delaware River, destroying 12» in turn, “the quaking society of Plockhoy to a naile. “ J What became of the forty-one'Mennonites is unknown, but thirty years later, Plockhoy, poor and blind, wandered with his wife into the Mennonite settlements at G-erman town, Penn sylvania, where he found a home, for his remaining years.^ Plockhoyfs Ideas of reform affected all the basic, social institutions. In his first publication, comprising the letters addressed to Cromwell and Parliament, the gi:st of his philosophy is probably expressed in the following se lected quotations: [In every community there should be] one general Christian assembling or meeting-place, In such a form that all people may see one another round about, by the help of seats rising by steps, having before them convenient leaning places to read and write upon; also one desk aloft, on one side or end, to hear the Holy Scriptures read at a set time, giving freedom after reading to all people orderly to confer together con cerning the doctrine and instruction of their Lord and Master Christ: That all lording over consciences being prevented, all people might come together without re ceiving any obstruction by any human forms or contri vances .... Hence [ when understandings might be so free and un- Documents, Colonial History, New York, II, 3*1-2. ^The G-erman town Rathbuch. This book (records of the Germantown court, lb9l to l7ob) is preserved in the library of the Pennsylvania Historial Society, 1300 Locust Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Mennonite Historical Library, North Newton, Kansas, contains a microfilmed copy. 163 Interrupted] there would not only arise a clearing of the understanding and reforming of the lives of people, but also a yielding, submissive, condescending love; for the wisest and expertest men daily, coming thus together to teach and to be taught, it would incline the hearts of those that should behold them, one towards another......... All of them sitting still so long after the reading of the Scriptures (as being swift to hear and slow to speak) till anyone think it fit (in his Judicious and humble mind) to propose somewhat for mutual edification, endeavoring wit hall to make his discourse short, that another may have his turn likewise, contrary to the cus tom of the common teachers, who only or solely speaking, do lengthen out their discourse......... The truth (which hath been long kept under, or with held in unrighteousness) will scatter the lies, as light doth darkness; and the great credit which we have given to some teachers in particular, will by opposition, be diminished ......... Plockhoy*s second publication, A Way Propounded to Make the Poor in these and other Nations Happy, described his educational Ideas in greater detail. In his co-operative Commonwealth the education of children was to be free of. the indoctrination of prejudices or dogma: The children are not to be taught any human forms of religion, but the writings of the saints, and natur al arts, sciences, and languages, that their understand ings (before they have the use of reason) be not spoiled, as for the most part is done amongst all people and na tions of the world; on the contrary it is to be imprinted in them, that they ought not in spiritual matters to be lieve any but those that have the spirit of God, doing miracles as the Prophets and Apostles, for our faith ought not to depend upon man's words, but upon the power (or wonderful works) of God: so doing there will be no foundation for sects, factions, and schisms laid in their 20 "The Somers Collection of Tracts,1 1 o£. clt., pp. ^92 et sea. hearts. J?he children of rich people (who are not of our So ciety) coming to school (after we have found the ablest mas ters) to be instructed in arts, sciences, and languages are every day (except the Sabbath, learning some useful trade) to work three hours, to the end that they may always in case of loss and want afterwards get their living without being necessitated to fall upon such courses (as we see happen often in the world) as may prove hurtful to their souls and bodies. They [ children) are to be taught only necessary and always useful trades, that they may continually, however the world changes, get their living; for some having learned only useful handicrafts, oftentimes through the change of the world (which falls into some other way and custom) come to poverty and want. 20 The schoolhouse in Plockhoy^s Commonwealth was to be 21 located in the country. Capable youth should be instructed 22 in ciphering and keeping books of accounts. He was convinced that children reared in his Society would always be cheerful, because they were not Hoppressed with bondage and slavery, as is commonly seen among the children of the world......... The meaning of plockhoy1s educational philosophy.— HA painful reflection,# states Eduard Bernstein, a famous Ger man writer on socialism, Hthat so gifted a man should fare so 2 k - poorly.1 1 Plockhoy is but another utopian dreamer with a plan of social reform who had to experience the tragic reali zation that the world neither recognized the true worth of 20 Peter Cornelius, A Way Propounded, et passim. 21Ibia.. p. g. ggLoe. oit.. 2^Ibia.. p. 11. plL Eduard Bernstein, Sozialismus und Demokratie in der f rossen engllschen Revolution ( . ^ 4 - . Aufl.. Stuttgart. 192157. t>. 55 his ideas nor expressed any willingness to give them a trial. Plockhoy could have found considerable comfort in the reflec tion that his fate has been shared by a host of other thinkers during the course of human history. Civilization in the Middle Ages was relatively static. The leaders of the time complacently' assumed that all knowledge had been discovered, and that human nature and society were unchangeable. The period of invention and discovery which followed, inspired the imagination of some to attempt great achievements. In the sixteenth century, and even more so in the first half of the seventeenth century, utopian schemes^ were numerous; all of them showed an interesting faith in the possibility of reconstructing human society, particularly through the power of education. The utopian plans showed that a spirit of freedom had been awakened and that the desire to start afresh and create a new mode of life free from the imperfections of the old had been born. In the religious field this found expression in the Protestant Reformation, and in the social field in a utopian plea for simplicity in civilization. 2^Some of the utopian plans for society and educa tion appearing in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuzSes are: Utopia^ Sir Thomas More, written in 1515-15-L6. $ he City of the Sun, Thomnas Campanella, written in 1619. Cfcristian“^lty7 JoEann Valentin Andre It, written in 1619. The New~Atiantis, Sir Francis Bacon, written in 1627. Nova gfo’ lyma, Samuel Oolt, written in l6*J-6. The Commonwealth of Oceana, James Harrington, published in 1556. 1S6 Although PlockhoyTs utopian scheme emphasized the economical and social activities of life, yet the following educational concepts are presented: 1. Children are not to he indoctrinated with any huraan form of religion. No foundation for sects, factions, and schisms shall he laid in their hearts. The under standing of the children must not he depraved before they are grown up. 2. All hoys and girls are to attend school three hours each day, except the Sahhath, and for another three hours learn some trade or vocation. 3. In addition to the Scriptures, the children shall study reading, writing, arithmetic, and natural sciences. Parents who prefer to set up private schools for * their own children may do so at their own expense. 5. Masters of arts and sciences or teachers are one of the four classes of persons in the Commonwealth, the other three heing husbandmen, craftsmen, and seamen. 6. Since teachers will he free from economic insecur ity and the need to please those in power, they will he able to teach truth for they have nothing to fear. mmiOlltUEB 111 PBMKayXVAKIA. The Mennonites in Germany and Switzerland at the close of the seventeenth century experienced considerable per secution and oppression. Even though they were given considerable freedom to worship in their o?«i desired way in most sections of Germany, their refusal to render military service and to take an oath were a constant source of trouble and expense. Large fees were exacted from them for the privilege of exemption. Their religious doctrines stirred up the ill feelings of the ecclesiastical hierarchies. In 16^7 George Pox began his public career as a preacher in England, and early In the next deca.de he organ ized his followers, called Quakers, into the Society of Friends. In its earlier years the Quaker movement was somewhat disor derly; but the leaders soon brought it under control and in the course of time the Friends found an honored place among the Protestant communions in England. Early in their history 1 1 the English Quakers crossed over into Holland and Northwestern G-ermany for the purpose of extending their faith. v When they preached to the * Mennonites, thejrf l met with great kindness especially from the sect called Minists, who in many respects resemble 1 Friends. 111 The strong missionary zeal of the Quaker preachers and the similarity of doctrines— non-resistance, non-swearing of the oath, and rejection of baptism— gained for the Quaker move ment many converts among the Mennonites there. u. . . .it is even suggested by some historians that Quakerism may owe pg its origin to Mennonite influence from Holland.M In 1677 William Penn and a group of Quaker leaders made a missionary tour through Holland and G-ermany. This tour was full of implications for the Mennonites and their later migration Into Pennsylvania. Several years later Penn was C. Henry Smith, The Mennonites of America (Scottdale, Pennsylvania: Mennonite Publishing House, 95* 2?C. Henry Smith, The Mennonite Immigration to Penn- sylvania (Norristown, Pa: The Norristown tress, I929T, p. $0. C. Henry Smith, The Mennonites of America, p. 9*K 18$ granted a large tract of land in America, which the King called Penn*s Woods, or Pennsylvania. This grant of land gave him the opportunity to carry a plan for the establishment of a haven for his persecuted brethren. He sent his agents throughout the various countries of Europe inviting Mennonites, Quakers, and Pietists to migrate to the Hew World. The first permanent Mennonite colony in America was established at Germantown, Pennsylvania, in I6S3, by a group of Mennonites and Mennonite-Quakers29 most of them coming from the town of Crefeld and the surrounding areas along the Dutch border. "The group was composed almost entirely of Hollanders and Germans of Dutch descent.If^0 It was the desire, then, for fuller religious free dom, and for exemption from heavy burdens of taxation and civil obligations which they could not conscientious ly accept that led the first Mennonites and Quakers to emigrate from Germany and Holland to Pennsylvania.31 By 1702 the available land around Germantown had been settled and a second Mennonite colony was begun along the Skippack Greek about thirty miles from Germantown. Beginning in 1709, si considerable number of immigrants from the Palatin ate in South Germany poured into P e n n s y l v a n i a .^2 i n 1710 29C. Henry Smith uses the term "Mennonit e-Quakers" to designate the Quakers who had originally been Mennonites. The Mennonite Immigration to Pennsylvania, p. 75* 3°C. Henry Smith, The Mennonite Immigration to Penn- sylvania, p. 123. »C. Henry Smith, The Mennonites of America, p. 100. 32C. Henry Smith, The Mennonite Immigration to Pennsyl vania, p. 123. 139 another colony along the Pequea Creek, a tributary of the Susquehanna, was founded by such Swiss Mennonites as had been driven into the Palatinate in l6jl and the years following.33 Immigration of Mennonites of Dutch, Cerman, and Swiss stock into Pennsylvania continued until 1727 unhindered, af ter which the English Provincial authorities became disturbed lest the G-ermans completely dominate the political and social life of the province. ,To discourage further immigration a head-tax was levied upon every immigrant. The most conservative branch of the Mennonite church is the Amish group. It originated under the leadership of Jacob Amman, a Mennonite preacher in the Canton of G-erne, Switzerland, about 1693. He stressed the rigid use of the ban and the greatest simplicity in all activities of life. Anything ornamental or new was to be avoided. By 17^-0 an Amish settlement had been established In the northwestern corner of Berks County. Later another settlement was started in Lancaster County, near the source of the Conestoga River, The total number of Mennonites coming to Pennsylvania ■ 7k was not large. Smith-' estimates that during the eighteenth century the period in which most of the Mennonites immigrated, the entire number, including children, was not over twenty- five hundred. However, as their numbers grew, new settlements 33C. Henry Smith, The Story of the Mennonites (Berne, Indiana: Mennonite Book Coneern, ), p. 5^6. ' ^ibia.. p. 5 1 4- 2. 190 were established both north and southward. When the west- ward movement of the American pioneers began to conquer the Ohio River valley, Mennonites from Pennsylvania joined the migration, establishing new congregations in many regions of the Middle West. Education among the Mennonites in Pennsylvania.— The State of Pennsylvania had no public school system during the eighteenth century; thus, the education of the youth was the responsibility of each community or local church. “Most Mennonite communities provided school facilities for their children either Independently, or sometimes in co-operation with other churches in the community.“35 Usually the *church- building served as a schoolhduse, except in a few places where separate buildings were constructed for that purpose. The needed funds to pay teacher salaries were raised through subscriptions, and the schools were open to all who wished to attend. It can be truthfully said that Mennonites, more or less, have been reluctant to desire an educated and supported ministry. For most of the Mennonite branches in the United States such a ministry is an achievement of the last quarter century. The Pennsylvania immigrants, retaining all the tra ditions of their European forefathers against an educated 35C. Henry Smith, The Mennonite Immigration to Penn- syjLvania, p. 401. 191 and supported ministry, had no interest here in higher education for either their ministry or laity.36 However, elementary education was necessary, and every community established a school as soon as possible to instruct the children nin the elements of the traditional 'Three R's* to which was added a fourth, 'Religion. «*»37 g^e failure to encourage higher education among the Mennonite young people was undoubtedly the main cause why qualified teachers of the Mennonite faith were not always available. Thus, frequently the elementary schools in the Mennonite communities were taught by teachers of other denominations. In most instances this arrangement proved successful, but Smith reports a case where an outside teacher was unsatisfactory. According to a letter written in 17*1-6 by John Philip Boehm, the organizer of the Reformed Ghurch in Pennsyl vania, the Mennonites of Lancaster County had engaged for a short time as a teacher in their schools a Refowned minister by the name of John Conrad Wuertz, who according to Boehm was soon dismissed by the Mennonites.3® Education of the children in Germantown was probably provided for in the various homes from 16SJ, the year in which the first Mennonites arrived, to 1702 when a school was organ ized. This school was a community project. "Of the first nineteen sponsors for the school, at least ten were Mennonites, while the others were Q u a k e r s . Necessary funds were ob- 3°Ibld., p. 400. 5?Ibid., p. 401. ^^Tbld., P. 402. ^Loc. olt. 192 tained through voluntary subscriptions from the sponsors and from tuition collected from each child at the rate from four to six shillings per week. The first teacher in the Germantown school was the l i -0 well-known leader, Francis Daniel Pastorius. Being very scholarly and well-educated in the universities of Europe, he can be truly called one of the first great American scholars. To relegate all colonial teachers to the level of Icobod Crane, the Washington Irving character, is to ignore superior quality of men like Francis Daniel Pastorius, who taught the Germantown school from 1702 to 1713. Christopher Dock, the pious schoolmaster on the Skip- pack. --Some time between 1710 and 171^ there immigrated into ^Francis Danile Pastorius was not a Mennonite, but in Mennonite history he deserves considerable recognition. As teacher, agent for the Frankfort Land Company, mayor and keeper of records, and in every way the chief citizen of Ger mantown, he exerted a great Influence upon the Mennonites. He was an accomplished scholar, having been a student in the Windsheim gymnasium and at the universities of Altdorf; Strassburg, Basel7 and Jena. He was made a Doctor of Laws at Nuremberg in 1676. He had command of Greek and Latin and most of the modern languages. In l6S2 he came in contact with friends of William Penn, and religion became his preoccupation. He was born into the Lutheran faith, but in America his religious affiliations seem uncertain. He has been claimed by the Quakers and Mennon ites. He undoubtedly worshipped with both. J. E. Hartzler, Education among the Mennonites of America (Danvers, Illinois: The dentraX Mennonite Publlshing^Board, I925), p. 55, says: wIt is altogether likely that he remained a Lutheran, sympathized strongly with the Mennonites, and leaned heavily toward the Quakers.w Pastorius was born September 26, 1651 at Sommerhausen, Franconia, Germany. He died January 1, 1720. He left behind a great quantity of manuscripts most of which have never been printed. Pennsylvania a young German Mennonite who was destined to become the most famous colonial Pennsylvania schoolmaster. Reliable information as to his family, early education, and the place and date of his birth is lacking. Extremely humble and unassuming, he avoided all publicity and public recogni tion. He was a product, however, of the eighteenth century. John Amos Comenius, the Moravian educator preceded him about one hundred years. Des Cartes, the philosopher; John Milton, the poet; and Locke, the champion of truth and reason, lived in the century preceding him. Voltaire, the skeptic, and Rousseau, the man of nature, were among his contemporaries. Basedow, the exponent of Comenius; Pestalozzi, with his reform through universal education; Froebel, with his Kindergarten, and Herbart, with his Hunity1 1 and “affinity,1 1 followed him. Soon after coming to America,Dock began teaching in * the Mennonite community of Skippack. This Skippack school was located on a plot of ground which a certain Matthias Van Bobber had given to seven trustees with the following stip ulation in the deed; . . . . It shall be lawful for all and every the inhabitants of the abovesaid Bebber*s Township to build a School House, and fence in a sufficient burying place upon the herein granted one hundred acres of .land, there to have their children, and those of their respective ^ families taught and Instructed, and to bury their dead. i i i John Ellsworth Hartzler, Education among the Mennon ites of America (Danvers, Illinois; The Central Mennonite Publishing Board, 1925), p. 59. iip S. W. Pennypacker, l l Bebber*s Township and the Dutch Patroons of Pennsylvania,1 1 Pennsylvania Magazine of History, XXI (January, 1907), 191 * - After Dock had taught the Skippack school for ten years, he became a farmer. One can easily imagine that the income from teaching was hardly adequate to meet the needs of a livelihood. Even though his family consisted only of his wife and two daughters, the simple, colonial life was not free from want. During the ten years on the farm 1 1 various I j . * * opportunities for teaching presented themselves..........1 1 ^ Dock wasn*t happy nor at peace with himself for he wrote ,concerning this period of his life: nBut in this country I neglected that profession for ten years, for which I often felt the smiting hand of God, which before then had served me I lI l well. In 173^ Bock returned to the profession of schoolmas ter, teaching two schools— one at Skippack and the other at Salford— each three days a week. He continued, seemingly, this arrangement for thirty-three years. During these years Christopher Dock became the most famous of the colonial Pennsylvania schoolmasters.^ »Dock must have had a genius for reform in teaching, for as early as 1725 ke was using a blackboard in his school, a hitherto unknown thing in art in G-. Brumbaugh, The Life and Works of Christo- pher Dock (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott' Company, 190$), P. 102. l i i i Ibid., p. 100 f. *5C. Henry Smith, The Mennonite Immigration to Penn sylvania, p. 402. 195 / teaching, B One autumn day in 1771 Pock did not return from his school at the close of day. When a search was made he was found in his schoolroom on his knees, dead. It was his cus tom to remain alone after all the pupils had left to pray for each pupil and for guidance and strength for his teaching responsibilities. Besides his teaching duties Christopher Dock found time to write seven hymns which have been sung by Mennonites for over a century; A Hundred Necessary Rules of Conduct for Children, which appeared in the Geistliches Magazien, No. *k), 176^, a periodical edited by Christopher Saur, the Germantown publisher; and the most significant work of all, the Schulord- nung, Bthe earliest, written and published [book] on educa- I lt tion in America.n 1 The next section of this study will at tempt to interpret the educational principles of Christopher Dock as revealed in his works. Christopher Dock and his principles of education.— The teaching methods of Dock attracted the attention of Chris topher Saur, the Germantown publisher, whose son had been one of his pupils. In 1750 Saur conceived the idea that it would be well to get a written description of Dock»s educational principles and print them in his publication, in order, as he _ _ Edwin Grant Dexter, A History of Education in the United States (New York: The Macmillan TJompany, 190^X7 P* 6l. ^7ibia., p. 61. 196 said: . . . .that other schoolteachers whose gift was not so great might be instructed; that those who cared only for the money they received might be shamed; and that parents might know how a well-arranged school, was con ducted, and how themselves to treat children. To obtain such a treatise, Saur experienced difficul ty for Dock contended wthat it was sinful to do anything for his own praise, credit or elevation. Saur appealed to Dielman Kolb, a Mennonite minister who was one of Dock1 s close friends. Saur had formulated a series of questions concerning methods of teaching and school management which he hoped the modest teacher would answer. A few months later, on August S, 1750, Dock submitted his treatise but stipulated that it should not be printed during his lifetime.-^ By 1769, nineteen years later, Dock was finally persuaded to consent to its publication. The full title of the educational essay which explained at the same time its contents follows: Eine einfaltige und grundlich abgefaszte Schul-Ordnung, darinnen deutl i ch. vorgestelt wird.~ u f welcEe Wei'se die Kinder nlcht nur In denen in Schulen gewohnlichen Lehren bestens angebr achtr sondern auch in der Lehre der Gottsel- igkelt wohl unterrichtet we . r&en mien. A m Llehe menschllchen Geschlecht auf gesetzt durch den wohl erf ahrnen und l_ang gelibten ^chuAm. ei.st.er, GhrA&kop.fo Hoqk. J J . nd h sJ-nX&s. Er em de. . 4es Bea tena 4 e m Dr.uck n M rg ehen. Germantown: , G e . 4gi L Q k . t. juad j&n lin d e n hey Hhr.ist.oph .Saur, 177Q.5-L ^Samuel W. Pennypacker, Historical and Biographical Sketches (Philadelphia: Robert A. Cripple, 1X93) / P* §5* ^■?Martin G. Brumbaugh, 0£. clt., p. 1^. 5°Quintus Leatherman, BChristopher Dock,1 1 The Mennon ite Quarterly Review, XVI (January, 1942}, p. 36. 5%artin G. Brumgaugh, o£. cit., p. 27* 197 The first edition of Dock*s Schulordnung^ was soon sold out and the second edition appeared the same year* A third edition was published by the Mennonite bishop, Jacob Hold, of Columbiana, Ohio, in lS6l. There are at present two English translations of the Schulordnung— one by Brumbaugh and the other by Pennypacker. The translation by Pennypacker ap pears as Appendix C in this dissertation. In the Schulordnung Christopher Dock revealed an in sight and understanding of educational theory and practice that place him with the great, described in the history of education. Although some of his ideas sound strange and crude in the light of modern theory and techniques, his me thods of teaching were determined by a philosophy of educa tion that will never be outmoded for it is rooted deep in human nature. Dock considered teaching as a divine calling of Cod. He considered the children in his school as gifts of Cod en trusted into his care. In my dealings with youth, this is of all my duties the heaviest burden upon my heart, and it outweighs everything else, call it what you may, namely this: How I may rule and conduct my household that I may some day receive a gracious testimonial from the great Shepherd 5 Samuel Pennypacker, o£. clt., p. 95, says: "The only copy of the original edition I Have ever seen is in the Cassel collection, recently secured by the Historical Society of Pennsylvania. There is a copy of the second edition in the library of the Cerman Society of Philadelphia.1 1 19& of the sheep, who entrusted the lambs to me through . . . . thirty-six years.53 The great reputation Dock earned for dealing with the children entrusted into his care can be attributed to his "extreme love for children."-^ Recognition of individual differences, a modern educa tional concept receiving much emphasis, is pointed out as necessary. Individualized treatment is particularly empha sized in matters of conduct. He says: How experience teaches that a timid child is harmed rather than benefitted by harsh ttfords and much applica tion of the rod, and to improve it other means must be employed. Likewise a stupid child is only harmed. A child that is treated to too much flogging at home is not laenefitted by it at school, but is made still worse. If such children are to be helped, it must happen through other means. A stubborn child that does not fear to do wrong needs to be harply punished with the rod, and also earnestly reminded of God* s word, in hope of reaching the heart. But the timid and stupid must be reached by other means that make them more free in spirit and more desirous to learn.55 Dock*s Schulordnung describes at length the pupil- centered school. There is no evidence of any grouping of children into classes. His great love and concern for each child led him to give to each the needed individual atten tion.^ Of particular interest in recognizing individual differences was the awareness of ^Martin G. Brumbaugh, o|>. cit., p. 100. 5^ibia., p. 12^. 55ibia.. pp. 122-1 2 3. - 56It>ia., et passim. 199 . . . . unequal ability of parents in the training of their children, for while some seek the salvation of their children in precept and example, and do all in their power to promote the glory of G*od and the good of their children, others are quite the opposite. They teach their children evil by their own example, and thus the teacher must counteract this influence and he stern toward such unruly pupils. This readily gives a teacher the reputation of being partial.57 The principle of motivation also played a part in Dock*s methods. He stimulated interest in let ter-writing by having the pupils of each of the two schools, Skippack and Salford, which he taught alternately three days each, ex change letters. Dock riding on horseback between the two schools served as the letter carrier. He also had developed an effective system of rewards. When a child had learned the alphabet, the father was to give him a penny and his mother was to fry him two eggs.^^ Being a very skillful pen man and artist, he produced a number of beautiful, illumina ted manuscripts^ which were given as awards. These illu minated manuscripts consisted of Scriptual passages of which the first letter of the first word or whole sentences were highly ornamented, often with differently colored ink. In collections of illuminated manuscripts, merit cards which 57ibia., p. 102. 5Sibia., p. l o * ! - . -^Several of Dock's original manuscripts have been preserved in the Pennypacker collection at the Schwenkfelder Historical Library, Pennsburg, Pennsylvania, and also in the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Although they are unsigned, historians have assigned them to Dock. He did not sign any of his work, for that would have violated his principle of humility. 200 may have been produced by Dock are found. On these cards are freehand drawings of doves or flowers, drawn in colors. In colonial Pennsylvania, when the children's lives were not filled with a myriad of things, the artwork of their beloved teacher must have had great value. Dock also believed in appealing to the sense of pride in the children as a motivating force to good work. The poorest reader in the New Testament class, which was the advanced reading class, had to go to the foot of the bench. The last one was always designated as "lazy.1 1 Those who know their lesson receive an "0t t on the hand, traced with crayon. This is a mark of excellence. Those who fail more than three times are sent back to study their lesson again. When all the little ones have recited, these are asked again, and anyone having failed in more than three trials a second time is called "Lazy" by the entire class and his name is written down. Whe ther such a child fear the rod or not, I know from ex perience that this denunciation of the children hurts more than if I were constantly to wield and flourish the rod.60 The methods of discipline described in the Schul- o r dn u nygr were, undoubtedly, quite common in the schools of that day. Dock, however, understood human nature well enough to appreciate the need for separate treatment of each discipline case, and that the rod was not a corrective for i all the children in his care. Only 1 1 a change of heart" can bring about lasting correction, and that "must come from a higher hand. 6oibia., p. 106. 6libia., p. nJj-. The social emphasis in education, too, finds expres sion in Dock*s Schulordnung. “The social mind of Dock had not advanced as far as that of modern thinkers, but it moved 62 in the same direction and along the same basic lines.” He expressed a genuine concern for the more unfortunate and de scribed the right attitude of a teacher toward such when he wrote: The poor beggar child, scurfy, ragged, and lousy, if otherwise it have a good disposition and willingness to learn, should be as dear to him though he never receives a penny for it in the world, as the child of wealth from whom he expects good remuneration.6 3 For many other interesting methods of teaching used by Christopher Dock, the reader is urged to turn to Appendix C and read the Sehulordnung as it is written. It “must have seemed to most of his contemporaries very strange and unreal, Ql so modern and orthodox it seems now,” In addition to the classical book on education, Dock wrote A Hundred Rules of Conduct for Children. These rules describe in detail what the behavior of children should be at all times in every circumstance,. . . .in the morning, at rising, at bedtime, at the table, in church and school, and on the street.“^5 jhese rules which appear as Appendix D John Ellsworth Hartzler, op. cit., p. 67. ^-^Martin G. Brumbaugh, op. cit., p. 103. 514. Richard G*. Boon, Education in the United States (Hew York: D. Appleton and Company, p. 5&.' 650. Henry Smith, The Mennonite Immigration to Penn sylvania, p. describe the folkways among the Pennsylvania Mennonites. They are also significant in that at least Dock was teaching rules of etiquette and proper health, Heven to the cleaning of the teeth by rubbing with the fingers, in a day when the 66 toothbrush was unknown.M Among all the early teachers of the province, the reputation of none is more worthy to be perpetuated than that of Christopher Dock. A simple but sehrilarly man, a Mennonite and teacher, exceedingly conscientious, a man little acquainted with the ways of the world, but devoted to his school, he acquaired a reputation as an instructor and companion of the young that, if the record of his life be true, makes him a veritable Pestalozzi in his way£7 Christopher Dock, the pious schoolmaster on the Skip pack, deserves a prominent place in the list of great Ameri can schoolmen. It must be said 1 1 that any treatise upon peda gogy which should omit recognition of his important labors would be regarded as a failure...............^9 The Pennsylvania Mennonites in conflict with the de veloping state public school system.— The most extreme ease of relinquishing all control of the school system to the church es among the American colonies occurred in Pennsylvania. This 66 Quintus Leatherman, og. cit., p. 3^- ^^Richard Gr. Boone, op., cit. , p. 56. 6g This name was given to Christopher Dock by Samuel Pennypacker, and it appeared, probably for the first time, in his Historical and Biographical Sketches, p. £> 9. ^%artin G-. Brumbaugh, op. cit., p. 3. The statement is found in the MIntroduction,w which was written by Samuel Pennypacker. colony was founded in 16&L by the protagonist of that age of liberty of conseience and democracy of government, William Penn. Naturally, a broad principle of religious toleration was adopted as the cornerstone of the whole social structure. The conception that the administration and control of educa tion belonged to the church was firmly held by the English at that time. The original 1 1 frame of government,"^0 given by Penn to his colonists gave to the governor and his council the privilege and duty 1 1 to erect and order all public schools9 and maintain a committee "of manners, education, and arts." With this granted authority, the council gave to the Quakers in 169S the right to set up a school "where poor % children may be freely maintained, taught, and education in good literature, until they be fit to be put out apprentices, or capable to be masters or ushers in said schools," and also to set up a public school "where all children and servants, male and female, whose guardians and masters be willing to subject them to the rules and orders of such schools." Upon this provision the Society of Friends established a school in Philadelphia. This became the famous Penn Charter School, "and for fifty years was the only public school in the pro vince. 7°paul G-. Monroe, Founding of the American Public School System (Ne\? York: ?he Macmillan Co. , 194-0), I, 93. ^Richard G-. Boone, op. cit., p. 55. ZOK This school, It seems, became the pattern of elementary education in colonial Pennsylvania which was preserved by some communities, as will be seen, late into the nineteenth cen tury* The private, church schools received legal protection when the council enacted the following: That it shall be lawful to and for all religious societies or assemblies, and congregations of Protestants, within this province, to purchase any lands or tenements for burying grounds and for erecting houses of religious worship, schools, and hospitals.72 Besides Quakers and Mennonites a great many other Protestant religious groups had been attracted to Pennsylvan ia by the assurance of liberty of religious worship. Among these were Baptists, Presbyterians, Methodists, Lutherans, Moravians, Schwenkfelders, Reformed, and others. Each of these groups believed in the principle of training to read the Bible as the road to salvation.^ When the state failed to set up a general system of education, these groups estab lished their own schools. The population of the Pennsylvania colony was, from the very beginning, heterogeneous. From 17^0 to 17$3 Germans numbered from one-third to one-half in that population. Monroe says: ^%>aul Monroe, op. cit., pp. 95~96. ^^Samuel Chester Parker, A Textbook in the History of Modern Elementary Education {cEicago: G-inn "and Company, 1912)7 P.' ST. 205 Among all the various religious bodies which played a part in developing Colonial America, perhaps none were more devoted to educational endeavor or made greater . sacrifices in its support than the German sectaries.7^ In the schools established by the Germans the language of instruction was, of course, German, Hsince that was not only his own language, but that of the Luther Bible, the book of books for the early Pennsylvania German.*73 The Pennsylvan ia German also possessed a strong resentment against an ortho dox state school and an orthodox state church 1 1 and strove with unquenchable zeal to protect, develop, and perpetuate as a part of their very existence an orthodox school of their own making.n7^ Thus it is evident that by 12>3* &n elementary educa tion in German was available to most Pennsylvania German children; and such education was firmly in the control of the churches. The instruction was in reading, writing, arithmetic, and the Catechism. With this the Pennsyl vania Germans were satisfied, for it seemed to be a piece with their economic and social life, in thorough agree ment with their philosophy of the goodness of religion and the soil.77 As the Pennsylvania Germans, and that included the 4 Mennonites, stubbornly insisted upon adherence to their past, a conflict arose between the English leaders of the colony 7 II 1 Paul Monroe, otd, cit., p. 100. 7^Clyde S. Stine, _et al., The Pennsylvania Germans (edited by Ralph Wood: Princeton: Princeton University press, 19*2), p. 105. ^Paul Monroe, o£. cit. , p. 96. 77Clyde S. Stone, og. cit., p. 112. and the German settlers. Benjamin Franklin and Dr. William Smith were two men who became very critical. Franklin deplored the fact that the Germans read German books, had German newspapers and preserved their own language. Dr. William Smith accused them*— these militant Protestants— of being wpopish” emissaries and tools of the French.7^ Undoubtedly, the schools taught by Christopher Dock and Francis Daniel Pastorius were representative of the very best in elementary education in colonial Pennsylvania. In struction was, however, not uniform. Stine^ points out that many Pennsylvania communities conducted schools in which teachers were incompetent, children ungraded, school build ings few and equipment crude, discipline erratic, required textbooks none, and attendance poor. It is not within the realm of this study to trace the stubborn course the State of Pennsylvania had to pursue to establish a public school system. In 1S>3^ legisla ture passed an act to establish a general system of education by common schools. This act was followed by many other school laws all of which were opposed. e Conflicting reports have been written on the part played by the Pennsylvania Germans in the. campaign for and against the first common school laws. It is evident, however, that the Lutherans, Reformed, and Mennonites, like the Quakers, were opposed to the public schools. These groups were not opposed to education, but to what they thought was the destruction of the church schools, the secularization of public instruction, in their eyes 7Srbia., p. in. 79it>ia.. p. 113 207 a godless act, and the threat of discrimination against the German language.^ When the State was slowly building, inspite of re- sistance, a public school system, the Pennsylvania Mennon ites could not understand why the State wanted to educate their children. For them true education consisted of the abil ity to read, write, and calculate enough for the needs of the rural economic and social world in which they lived. They coveted a simple life, unmarred by a strange educational philosophy that would lead their youth toward higher educa tion and city occupations. To put it briefly then, the history of education among the Pennsylvania Germans [which includes the Mennonites] has been largely one of a struggle between the state and the Pennsylvania German agrarian spirit, ' ‘ further its own philosophy of life and The Constitution of 1S73 ended the payment of state aid to sectarian schools, and in 1911 a legislative act re quired that only English be taught in the public schools. The state superintendents of schools and lawmakers were care ful during the long period of conflict not to move too rapid ly against the Mennonites and the other German groups. Time cures ills. As the German Mennonites became assimilated into the American way of life, resistance to a state school system and the English language became less and less. Today resist , p. 116. S1Xbid., p. 107. 208 ance is expressed mainly by the Amish, the most conserva tive wing of the Mennonite church. Because this group still keeps up a campaign of passive resistance, it will be consid ered separately in the next part of the study. The Amish and education.--Among the branches of Mennon ites in America the Amish have received the greatest amount of publicity. In the mind of the uninformed an Amishman, dressed in his traditional garb, is a stereotype of all Mennonites. Even though the more liberal minded Mennonites resent being Identified with such ultra-conservatism, he cannot deny that the Amish more nearly express the original Mennonite point of view as taught in the beginning. Switzerland, the original home of the Anabaptist movement, was also the birthplace of the Amish. Here, the Mennonites suffered the most bitter and disgraceful per secutions. Except for those who had left their native land between 1660 and 1680 the severe persecutions almost annihi lated the faith by 1S00. Unfortunately the same strong spirit of individualism which Inspired these men and women to face death rather than violate their religious convictions also frequently led them to hair-splitting arguments over unimportant questions of faith and practice.°3 A quarrel in 1693 in the Emmenthal congregation re sulted in a schism. Jacob Amman, a minister, became the 82 C. Henry Smith, The Mennonites (Berne, Indiana: Mennonite Book Concern, 1920). p. S3. 5f. ante,pp. 77-7S. 1 ' V 85Tbld., p. & 7. 209 leader of the conservative faction and Hans Heist, of the more liberal. The followers of Amman represented a movement 1 1 toward a strict observance of the older customs, a sort of worship of the past, and of suspicion of all innovations in the affairs of everyday living as well as in forms of wor ship. Amman and many of his sympathizers left Switzerland and located in the Bhineland in G-ermany. Persecutions and abuses were faced here, too. When William Penn invited the Mennonites in G-ermany to settle in his commonwealth in the New World, the Amish joined the migration; although, as Smith^ estimates, there were perhaps not over five hundred Amish immigrants migrating here during the eighteenth century. One of the earliest congregations of Amish Mennonites was established about 17^0 in Berks County. Another early congregation was established in Lancaster County. From these two colonies, most of the later settlements in western Penn sylvania and in most of the midwestern states were made. At first the Amish in America constituted one body which manifested a great deal of uniformity in social customs and religious faith and practices. Little by little, dis integrating influences began to appear in the group. Those who maintain the old customs of the fathers are known as the w01d Order1 1 Amish. There are many shades of more progressive g^Ibid., pp. gg-39. g5c. Henry Smith, The Mennonite Immigration to Penn sylvania, p. 240. Amish who, in this study, will he simply called HAmish- Mennonites.H The nonresistant Old Order Amish do have their conflict with outsiders. Perhaps their sharpest re lates to the school program. As non-Amish people living near the Amish naturally believe in Bbigger and better* 1 schools for their children, many advocate consolidated schools. Plans arranged to create them are fought and obstructed in various ways by the Old Order Amish. The foundation for their opposition to a public school system rests in the fundamental issue concerning the role of the family versus the State. The tendency for the State to appropriate to itself more and more responsibility for the training of children threatens the existence of their whole way of life. Again it must be said that the Amishman is not against all forms of education. He feels that the church should administer education so that the learning of the fundamentals will be strongly supplemented with religious instruction. On January 2, 19*4-1, the Old Order Amish presented to the state legislature of Pennsylvania a petition in which they not only expressed their educational philosophy but also what they desired in school legislation. A part of the petition read as follows: Throughout time past we have chosen and do yet choose to be a farming people. Farming is one of the tenets of our region. We wish to have our children educated by the best available means including Scripture in the home pf£ Walter M. Kollmorgen, The Old Order Amish of Lan caster County, Pennsylvania, t t Rural Life Studies No.--?, U. S. Department of Agriculture,~September, 19^2, p. 1. 211 and Ahe church, three H fs in school, and actual exper ienced training under parental supervision at home and on the farm. To this end we, the Plain Churches, petition you to give our petition serious consideration to the end that children in rural districts he not compelled to attend school beyond a l6o-day term (which term after this present school year automatically changes to ISO days, unless action is taken by your body in this next legis lative session) we also petition that the children of Plain People be granted exemption from school attendance upon request of Parent or Guardian and upon completing primary studies of the elementary grades or after at taining the age of fourteen years we further would desire to have sufficient privileges to establish independent tricts determine upon The Amish send their children to public schools, be- states in which the Amish have settled. They resent the com- tion of schools where Amish children are in attendance exper ience more or less trouble in maintaining good attendance re cords. Many Amish parents keep their children at home when farm work becomes pressing. As soon as a child reaches the age which exempts him from compulsory attendance, he discon tinues his formal education. Amish boys and girls do not attend high schools. Op position to a high school education is even stronger than that manifested against the public elementary school. ’ 'This educa tion, they believe, represents a real danger to their community cause they are compelled to do so by the laws of the different pulsory school attendance law. Teachers and boards of educa- S7Ibia., p. 66 ggIbld., p. 66 8> 8> integrity and their nonconforming way of life.1 1 There are several reasons for their opposition to a secondary educa tion; .... prominent among which are the realization that this schooling creates bridges which lead away from the farm, and the deep-seated conviction that the train ing they give their children on the farm at high-school age does more to make good farmers out of them than does the high school. In fact, they hold that high-school courses are a genuine liability to a future farmer in that they make youngsters weak and Igzy or fail to strengthen or harden them properly.s9 As the process of consolidation of schools became more pronounced in various states during the last several decades, the Amish became more disturbed over the school problem. ^However, the chief objection that the Amish had to the consolidated school was that it meant the closing of a number of community one-room houses, which their children had been attending. The modern consolidated school with its school buses, furnace-heated rooms, electric lights, and inside: toilet facilities is incompatible with the doctrine of extreme simplicity practiced in their daily lives, a simplicity de termined by the teachings of their faith. HConsolidated schools, on the other hand, tend to create a minority group of the Old Order Amish children and bring about association with non-farm children which threatens the life of non- ggIbld., p. 66. 9Ibld.. p. 67. 9°Calvin G-eorge Bachman, ”The Old Order Amish of Lan caster County, n Proceedings and Addresses at Doylestown, Pa., Octoby 20, 1939/ and at g j TEate College, Pa., October l~g, T94-0. Vol. XLIX, I942T " Published by the Pennsylvania G-erman Society, Norristown, Pennsylvania, p. 201. 213 conf ormity. The Old Order Amish have not established any denomin ational institutions of learning, secondary or collegiate, and they furnish no support for any such schools.They have, however, begun to establish and maintain some parochial elementary schools. In 1939 a consolidated elementary school was built in East Lampeter Township in Lancaster County, Penn sylvania, against the strong opposition of the Amish esqoressed both at the polls and in unprecedented court a c t i o n . un able to prevent the construction of the consolidated school, three obsolete one-room school buildings were purchased and Amish parochial schools established. Since Amish youth never obtain an education beyond the elementary level, and often not that, they do not pro duce qualified teachers from out of their own group. MMost of them come from families who live in or near the Amish settlements and are familiar with the ways of these Plain People.I ! ^ In Public schools where Amish children are in the minority, their parents exercise practically no control over the choice of a teacher because the rules of the church permit no member to hold any public office. ^Walter M. Kollmorgen, op. cit., p. 6 6. ^^Calvin George Bachman, 0£. cit., p. 200. ^Walter k. Kollmorgen, oj>. cit., p. 6^. ^ Ibid., p. 6S. 21% In 1937 the Amish in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, came into public notice when they called upon President Roose velt to protest against a proposed P. W. A. grant of $52,000 for the construction of a consolidated school. * * The Amish farmers wanted none of the money, nor did they want the pro posed consolidated schoolhouse* **^5 The Amish have been severely criticized for their **pecullar way of life*1 by their non-Amish neighbors. They have been called * *obstructionists1 1 standing in the way of progress. The conceptions and attitudes of outsiders toward the Amish are naturally conditioned by personal ambitions and experiences. Hobody doubts the loyalty and sincerity of the Amish as citizens of the United States. In their quaint garb they are definitely a part of the contemporary American scene. To appreciate their resistance to an imposed educa tional system it is necessary to keep in mind the principle of cause and effect. The Amishman is very much the product of his past. Bachman points out: We must again call attention to the evident fact that the Amish church in its attitude toi^ard education represents today what was formerly the position of the Mennonite church as a whole— a position from which the Mennonite church has moved rapidly. Possibly there is some significance to the saying which an Amish preacher claimed originated with his uncle: 1 1 We are all on the same train, but the Amish are on the last ear.**96 95rbia., p. 63. •'Calvin G-eorge Bachman, 0£. cit., p. I99. 215 Most of the customs of the Amish rest securely In the literal Interpretations of Scriptural Injunctions. When he reads in his German Bible, “Be ye no unequally yoked toge- ther with unbelievers,1 ’ he finds himself unable to enter into any kind of organization except with his fellow believers— unsere Lelt, as he says it. When he reads, “Wherefore come out from among them, and be ye separate,he has Scriptural grounds for all his practices of nonconformity. Just these two Biblical references and their interpretations account in a large measure for the school controversy that has existed between the Amish and the State for a century. How long the Amish will put forward this opposition to education beyond the elementary level is a question. As long as their people are able to remain an exclusively rural group, as they are at present, and as long as the people find their “peculiar** way of life adequate and satisfying— so long their attitude toward education will undergo little change. bs 'MsmmxWB arom Russia By 1S70 the first century of the Mennonites on the steppes of South Russia was drawing to a close. Russia had offered the Mennonites their first opportunity to put into Corinthians 6:1*1-. 9Sibia.. p. 17. 216 practice their religious philosophy and to permit it, in turn, to give directions to comparable economic, political, and ed ucational practices. uThe Mennonite settlements in Russia fur nish an interesting example of the course Mennonitism takes where it is free to apply its principles .... to everyday life."99 During the first century in Russia they had developed a strong group solidarity held firmly together 1 1 by ties of language, religion, racial pride, consciousness of superior culture, and by special political and civil privileges.1,100 These ties encouraged them to prosper and grow strong in num bers. The enjoyment of the generous privileges granted to them at the time of their immigration began to be questioned by the Russian government. In 1270 Czar determined to promote a thorough program of Russianizing all the foreign colonists in his realm. The program included government control of all educational institutions, the Russian language instead of German as the medium of instruction, abolition of all military exemptions, and direct control of all political 101 units operating among the Mennonite colonies. 99C. Henry Smith, The Coming of the Russian Mennon ites (Berne, Indiana: Mennonite Book Concern, 1927), p. 31. 100ibia.. p. U - 3 . 101Cf. Chapter IV, pp. lib - i 3 f 217 This program filled the hearts of the Mennonites in South Russia with fear and anxiety for; Opposition to war was such a fundamental part of their faith and the use of the German language and control of their schools was so vitally bound up with their whole religious system that the least infringement upon their freedom of choice in all these matters was re garded as a direct attack upon the religious liberties which they thought had been granted them in perpetuity, and for which they were willing to suffer persecution if need be.i02 Soon migration to another land promising religious freedom was considered* Twelve men were sent as a commission to investigate the opportunities and conditions in North America* The encouraging reports submitted by the commission upon its return set in motion a mass movement of several thousand families.10^ The two years, 1S7^ and lfi>75* brought the largest portion of the immigrants to this continent, although others continued to come for many years* Competition among the railroads and the scheming of eager land agents scattered the Mennonite immigrants among a tier of states stretching from Kansas north into Manitoba. A few decades later population pressure caused their children to join the Westward movement, and they established new settle ments in nearly all the western states of the Union. German elementary schools*— When the Mennonites from * i nor* * Henry Smith, The Coming of the Russian Mennon ites, pp. W —4-5. 10^Ibld., p. 107. 218 Russia settled on the midwestern plains, they repeated, in certain respects the experiences of their forefathers in southern Russia a century earlier. Moving again, as it were, among a foreign people, speaking a strange language, they were anxious to preserve hoth their religion and their G-erman language. Settling as they did, in most cases, in compact groups, even in villages according to the Russian pattern, they had to establish their own schools. Although the various state constitutions provided for public schools, no school districts had been organized in most of the places where the Mennonites settled. The western states were more interested in building up a prosper ous economic life rather than an efficient educational system. The educational standards were very low and the school laws very lenient and unenforced. During the first two deeades many private schools were opened by men who had been teachers in Russia. These schools were taught in the G-rota Stov (, l big room11) in the homes of the teachers. In some of the better-organized villages, such as G-nadenau, which was located about two miles south of the present town of Hillsboro, Kansas, erected a sod schoolhouse IqI l the second year, 1875* Some of these early teachers were Among the Kansas settlements the following early Mennonite teachers became well knoivn: Rev. Johann Harder, Rev. Abraham Harms, Rev. Dietrich G-aeddert, Rev. Peter Balzer, Rev. Heinrich Banman, Rev. Cornelius Wedel, Johann Fast, Sr., Johann Fast, Jr., Andreas Flaming, G-erhard Wieler, Johann Voth, Henrich Dalke, Cornelius Dirksen, Johann Unruh, H. R. remembered by their students far into the twentieth century. t t They did not come to this country, however, primarily to take up the teaching profession again, but to find a new home. They responded to the call for teachers only because of the pressing need. Table YX shows the daily program and curriculum used in the Gnadenau School during the first decade when Rev. Jo hann Harder was its teacher. The whole curriculum was basic ally religious. The Bible was not only studied as one of the basic subjects, but it served as a textbook in reading, too. Financial support of the private schools was secured in various ways. Charging a monthly tuition from each child was one way. If a teacher secured a good attendance, he fared fairly well. Some volunteered to teach without pay, as did Mr. Cornelius Dirksen and Mr. Heinrich Dalke in the Canton £ Kansasj church . . . . . After Mr. Dirksen had taught in this.school for three months, he had to go home and help his father on the farm. All the pay that he re ceived was a little freewill offering from other churches .........In G-nadenau Rev. Johann Harder made an agree ment with patrons that each should haul for him a load Yoth. Among the Minnesota settlements the following teachers deserve to be listed; Johan Becker, Dietrich Walde, Dietrich Peters, David Froese, I. I. Bargen, H. H. Regier, H. D. Loewen, David Janzen, Gerhard Rahn, Peter H. Balzer, J. A. Becker, and David Becker. ^H. P. Peters, History and Development of Education among the Mennonites in Kansas. Published by the author at Hillsboro, Kansas, 19^5, p. 25. 220 TABLE VI ' A TYPICAL DAILY CLASS SCHEDULE IN AN EARLY MENNONITE PRIVATE GERMAN SCHOOL Hour Monday, Wednesday, Friday Tuesday and Thursday 9:00-10:00 Bible History German Grammar 10:00-11:00 Reading, three classes: Old Testament New Testament A.B.C. for begin ners Sentence Construction 11:00-12:00 Penmanship for older pupils A.B.C. class taught by pupil Arithmetic and pen manship Noon hour 1:00- 2:00 Arithmetic, written Arithmetic and oral 2:00- 3s00 Reading classes Dictation exercises 3:00- ^-:00 Singing or Geography Reading classes t 221 of "building material, either rooks or lumber, for a house (from Peabody) [a distance of fifteen miles], . . . . In New Alexanderwohl teachers received from $15 to #20 a month, which was considered sufficient to make a living. 106 A private German school among the Mennonites from Russia represented the first educational efforts of the group. In some places where the private schools were not established, wboth the German and the Bible were provided for on the dally program of the regular district schools, since the laws at first were everywhere quite liberal.1 1 Hartzler summarizes the effectiveness of the private schools thus: The numerous schools held in private homes .... while very helpful, yet seemed unsatisfactory as a whole. One difficulty was in that they did not reach enough children. Besides this most of the teachers were men who were at the same time farmers, with little financial backing, men of limited educational qualifications, and teaching in many cases became something of a side Issue. 3-0° Two other types of German elementary schools were or ganized in various settlements. Some of the newly organized churches sponsored schools which were supported and administered by the churches. Oommunity schools were established in some places. These schools were similar to district schools ex cept they were operated by unorganized districts. In both cases an elected school board was given the direct responsibil- 1Q^Ibld., pp. 27-23. 10^G. Henry Smith, The Coming of the Russian Mennon ites, pp. 21*4-215. 102\john Ellsworth Hartzler, op. cit., p. 11*1*. 222 ity for making all arrangements and for the necessary funds. wIn some eases the church or community had a standing fund the income of which went to the support of the school.1 1 Conflict between the German schools and the state district schools. In the beginning the American school sys tem was viewed with suspicion by the newly arrived Mennonite immigrants. n. . . . they saw in it an avenue through which their children would pass from the German to the English language and thereby cause the whole people to lose religious- lio ly.n Therefore, their own parochial school system was be gun. That social conditions in America were different from those which they had known in Russia was not fully realized at first. They had come from a country where they possessed a cultural superiority over their non-Mennonite neighbors. If they wanted better schools, better economic, political, and social conditions in their colonies on the Russian steppes, they had to create them. In America the Mennonites found a people their equal in every way. Little by little they real ized that the Americans were progressive, tolerant, and in agreement with their own deepest concerns. Each state in which the Mennonites settled had a public school system. It provided for the organization of school districts, the nature of the curriculum, and the 109ibia.. p. 111. 110ibia.. p. 109. 223 certification of teachers. The public schools offered cer tain advantages. It could be supported by public taxation, while the private schools had to depend upon voluntary con tributions and tuition. Since most of the settlements con tained non-Mennonites, a school system serving both was nec essary. 1 1 And so the public and private school systems were 111 in competition from the start for a few years.1 1 Mennonite education passed into a second stage when the public schools were organized. Unwilling to support two school systems in the same community, yet desiring more G-erman and religion than the district schools provided, most of the Mennonite congregations solved the problem by co-ordinating the two systems as best they could. This was not difficult during the early years, when, in most states the school year was only three or four months in length and the laws regarding curriculum ex tremely liberal*112 In order to co-ordinate the G-erman school with the public school, different methods were tried. t ! There was no desire to conflict with the English schools. 1. The most satisfactory arrangement, and conse quently the most common, was to conduct the public school and the G-erman school consecutively, each for a part of the year. When this arrangement was practiced, the school boards tried to employ teachers who knew both language® and could teach both schools. As the various states began to lengthen 111 G. Henry Smith, The Coming of the Russian Mennon ites, p. 21^. 112Ibia., p. 217. •^John Ellsworth Hartzler, op. olt.p. 110. 22k the required school terms, the G-erman schools were forced to shorten theirs. When the public schools, particularly in the towns, adopted the nine-month term, the G-erman schools were held during the summer vacation, the school being in session only in the forenoon for a period ranging from two to eight weeks. Restriction of the G-erman school terms also affected the nature of its curriculum. Eventually, only Bible and G-erman were taught, leaving to the public schools the whole secular curriculum. When the two types of schools were coordinated, as described above, the financial support of the G-erman school remained a problem. According to most state school laws G-erman could be taught in public schools only as a language, and schools using any other language as a medium of instruc- 1 lo tion could not be supported by taxation. A questionable practice developed in some schools when the same teachers taught both the English public school and the G-erman paro chial school. BHe was paid more than the usual wages from the public treasury for the English months, with the understand ing that then he would serve during the G-erman months for only a nominal sum.1 1 This practice received so much cri ticism from within and without the Mennonite group that it 11^* Ibid., p. 111. i:L5c. Henry Smith, The Coming of the Russian Mennon ites f p. 219. 225 was largely discontinued* 2. Another arrangement quite common, especially dur ing the first two decades in the solidly Mennonite districts, was to teach Bible and G-erman to the whole school for an hour or so every day and then devote the rest of the day to the prescribed curriculum. The Mennonite Brethren Conference of 12>S3 passed a resolution that courses in Bible and G-erman be taught during the regular public school term by adding one hour in the morning and one hour in the afternoon to each ll6 school day for that purpose. However, as the educational systems of the various states extended their curriculums and control, the G-erman part was crowded out of the public school programs. 3. In a few G-erman schools the secular branches re quired by the state were included in the curriculum. This arrangement, so universal among the Catholics and Lutherans all over the country, never gained a foothold among the Men nonites. The practice of supporting two school systems has never appealed to the frugal immigrants from Russia. As the three described plans gradually disappeared, G-erman vacation schools were maintained in most of the set tlements. The local minister, one of the public school teach ers, or' some other person in command of the G-erman instructed 116 C. Henry Smith, The Coming of the Russian Mennon ites, p. 21S. A 226 on a tuition basis. A few such schools were held as late as 1930. The modern daily vacation Bible school movement has been introduced into Mennonite communities. They offer Bible instruction but in the English language. Efforts to improve instruction.--On November 15, 1S77, three years after their arrival in this country, a group of Mennonite teachers in Kansas met at the home of Heinrich Richert, a teacher and minister, who lived in the village of Alexanderwohl (about fifteen miles north of Newton, Kansas), to discuss various school problems.This meeting created a committee to select a series of uniform textbooks and to build a daily class schedule, Stundenplan, for Mennonite schools. The need for the establishment of a teacher training 112> school modeled after the Zentralschule in Russia was con sidered. A month later, December 1^, the first session of the Kansas Conference of Mennonites was held with delegates from ten c h u r c h e s . HMatters considered were such as the care of the poor, home mission, and a church hymnal. The most important point considered, however, was the question of edu- ■^^Feature article in the Zur Heimath, December 1, 16>77. This was the first newspaper published by the Russian Mennonites in America. David Goerz, a very noted leader in the group, was the editor. The press was located in Halstead, Kansas. 11SCf., Chapter IV, p. 94. . ^Zur Heimath, op. , olt., p. 5. 227 120 cation. The committee elected by the Mennonite teachers at their first meeting presented the following recommendations to the Conference: 1. Where Mennonites are in a majority in a school district, and are in a position to exert a deciding in fluence, it is suggested that they organize school dis tricts; but no recommendations were made in the matter of taking out citizenship papers. £Only citizens could be instrumental in organizing school districts.'] 2. Where it is not possible to exert a controlling influence in the public schools, Mennonites are encour aged to establish" their own schools. 3. The Conference recommends that both English and G-erman be taught for two reasons: (1) to facilitate the necessary relationships with non-Mennonite neighbors; (2) to promote the Kingdom of God among the English speaking people. 4-. It is the opinion of the teachers that in the matter of financial support, the local congregation which the school serves should be responsible for the necessary funds. 3*21 These recommendations expressed a definite fear that the public schools would exert an undesirable influence upon the Mennonite youth. This fear was voiced again and again by ministers, teachers, and parents in the letters that appeared 12P in the Mennonite periodical, Zur Heimath. IPO H. P. Krehblel, The History of the General Confer ence (Published by the author at Newton, Kansas, 189$)“ £52. 121 Abdruck der Gesamt-Protokolie der Kansas und West- lichen Distrikt-konferenz der Mennoniten von Nord-Araerika, T ^ ^ W l^roXcT^^r^^on'; T a n V a s ; T J IO J ~ p . " ITT:------- 122Zur Heimath, op. olt.. July 15, 1276, p. 107, No- vember 15, T876/ p. 172, and September 1, IS76, p. 130. A complete file of all the issues published of the Zur Heimath are available in the Mennonite Historical Library, Bethel College, North Newton, Kansas. Some of these letters described the American public schools as Godless and morally degraded. There were such letters, too, which pointed out that no one had been in this country long enough to become sufficiently acquainted with the Ameri can educational system to evaluate it* The fair-minded student of Mennonite education must recognize the fact that these immigrants were still judging America in terms of the intolerable Russian situation from which they had just newly come* The recommendations made to the Conference seem to be designed to prevent a state school system from jeopardizing all that they hoped to gain in the New World. The committee also submitted a list of textbooks'*"^ recommended for all Mennonite schools. Five recommendations were made; (1) Bible History, written by a number of ministers in Basel, Switzerland; (2) Sprach und Rechtschreibeschule, by Dr. F. D* Dessar, for Instruction in G-erman grammar; (3) Philip Boehm* s Practical Arithmetic; (4-) Since no text in geography could be recommended, the schools were urged to continue the course with whatever books they had; (5) the text, Buchstabier- 124* Fibel, by B. Eby should be replaced by a more suitable G-erman reader for beginners. 12^Abdruck der G-esamt-Protokolle der Kansas und Westlichen pTstrikt Konferenz, p. ll. 12V Chapter VI, p. JJg. 229 The committee also submitted the daily class schedule, Stundenplan, which it had been instructed to build and to present at the Conference. This daily class program is shown as originally printed,on Table II. The schedule was not de signed to meet the needs of every school; it was offered only as a guide which teachers could consider when building their own class schedules. The committee hoped to help particularly those teachers who had received no training in pedagogy in the Mennonite teacher training schools of Russia. The Conference spent some time considering the possi bility of establishing a school for training of teachers. Since the committee which represented the teachers had no recommendation to make, nothing concrete was done by the Conference at this session. It is of particular significance that all matters pertaining to education were the concerns of the churches. Even though the teachers had their own organization, its de cisions had no meaning until the church Conference sanctioned them. The school and the church shared the same educational objective, namely, to create in every child a genuine interest in religion and the church. At the thirteenth Kansas Conference of Mennonites, which met in November, lg£>9> a committee was appointed to work out a course of study for Mennonite schools. The next year the Committee presented a well-outlined course of study, Lehrplan, to the Conference where it was approved. To implement the 230 Lehrplan, the Conference Melected a committee on school and education to assist church schools to put this curriculum and program into practice. The preface to the Lehrplan contains, in a rather complete manner, the aims and objectives of Mennonite schools. It might be termed the philosophy of education held by the group in that particular period of their history here in America. In order to help present students of Mennonite education to understand better the yearning and thinking of the group, the preface appears in the following paragraphs in its complete form: The Course of Study [ Lehrplan] was planned according to fundamental principles"! It was recognized that the Course of Study must be built in the light of those principles and the prevailing conditions under which the schools operate. If the character of the schools is to be de termined, they will be best named uG-erma,n church schools.1 1 This type of schools combines three factors: the church, the school, and the G-erman language. The task of such a school is to furnish such instruction as will result in the natural and harmonious development of the native capacities of the child. Such a task requires that the Course of Study must not be one-sided; it must not de velop one incl:i n ation at the expense of other possible capacities; it must not assume that other, later educa tional experiences will supply what has not been included. The Course of Study shall include all that is necessary for a rounded, educational development without losing it self in the spaces of too much content. If our schools are to be church schools, it follows that they must assume the responsibility of serving the needs of the church. If the task of the church is to develop the qualities which G-od has placed into every individual and to combine these individuals into a church, then the instruction given in these church schools must 125H. P. Peters, op. cit., p. i j - l . 231 help to achieve that purpose. Hence, it is not only necessary that all Instruction be given from a religious standpoint, but that it be completely dominated by a religious spirit, and that religion, as revealed in the Will of God, become the main subject in the whole Course of Study. A further peculiarity of our schools is the fact that they are German. As long as our churches remain ^ German, oui? schools can nurture the children in the spiritual life only when they all learn German. In addi tion to the course in German grammar [ Sprachlehre] the Course of Study features such courses that will furnish many opportunities to hear and participate in the use of German. Since most of the children in our churches attend English district schools for a part of the year, recog nition must be given to the situation by surrendering many courses which otherwise would be offered in a church school, namely: English, United States History, arithme tic, and, to a large extent, geography. The prevailing situation* also determines the fact that our church schools cannot be in session longer than four months (about 17 weeks), and subject-matter has been outlined for this period of time for each year in the program. Schools which can be in session longer may proceed through the Course of Study more thoroughly; where schools continue through an eight-months terra, subject-matter planned for two years may be completed in one year. Such schools which must restrict the school term to less than 17 weeks, will not be able to carry out the Course of Study as planned. t Finally, the committee wants to admit the imperfec tions and incompleteness of its work, and in no way merits any pride in its achievement towards having met the needs and requirements of the various church schools. It hopes that this first atterrpt at setting up a Lehrplan will be followed by revisions that will become the Instrument through which our church schools will progress uniformly. Lehrplan fuer Deutsche Gemeinde Schulen (Herausge- geben von der Kansas Konferenz der Mennoniten von Nord Amerika). This pamphlet is in the Mennonite Historical Library, Bethel College, North Newton, Kansas. Translated by M. S. Harder. The Lehrplan12^ was divided into nine divisions. These divisions were as follows: 1. Religion; 2. Singing; 3. G-erman; * } - . Nature Study; 5. General History; 6. Churoh History; 7* (Geography; S. Arithmetic; and, 9. Penmanship. In some of the courses as religion, singing, and church history all the children, regardless of age, were taught as a class. In such courses as German the sohool was divided into three classes. Children in the first two years were in the Unter- stufet or primary class. Children from the third to the fifth year inclusive were in the Mittelstufe, or intermediate class, and the children from the sixth to the eighth year were in the Oberstufe, or upper class. Each of the three classes had assignments appropriate to the respective age levels. Bible history, a subdivision of religion, was organ ized into a four-year course of study. Ninety Bible stories, equally divided between the Old and New Testament, were listed. Each year studied thirty stories. Since some stories were considered more important, they appeared twice in the course. Many key Bible verses were memorized and certain appropriate hymns were sung to emphasize the stories. Bible reading, another subdivision to religion, was an extension, so to speak, of the course, Bible history. The aim of the course was to read such books in the Old and New 12?A11 the information pertaining to the Course of Study was obtained directly from the pamphlet entitled Lehr plan fuer Deutsche Gemelnde Schulen, pp. 5-20. Testament as were not studied in the Bible history class. In Bible reading the Oberstufe and the Mittelstufe were taught as one class. Two hours per week were devoted to this reading. The Psalms and church hymnal, the third subdivision in rehgion, devoted one hour each week for four years to the memorization of Psalms and the familiar hymns sung in the church worship services. The Lehrplan recommended which Psalms and hymns were to be memorized. The other divisions in the Course of Study were out lined Just as minutely as that of religion, except that they were not so extensive. At the Seventh Western District Con- ference of Mennonites, which was held in November, 1S9<3, it was reported by the committee on schools and education that the Lehrplan was used as a basis in twenty-seven schools. No school used it as it was set up. Fifteen schools were not using it at all. Since the recommended Course of Study was not compulsory, no action was taken against the fifteen school Another effort to improve instruction was the organi zation, Deutsche Lehrer Vereln (G-erman Teachers Association), which was begun in 1SS6. Its function was described by Peter Balzer at the Fourth Western District Conference of Mennonites October, 1&95, when he said; 1 ppi Abdruck der G-esamt-Protokolle der Kansas und West- lichen Distrikt Konferenz, p; 2?9. The German Teachers Association has done very much in its part that our German church and private schools are conducted more according to an appropriate, unified plan* The exercises and discussions at the semi-annual meetings have filled the teachers with more courage and delight for their work, and also the churches in whose midst such teachers conferences have been held, have derived, according to the testimony of many, great bene fits and blessings from them.129 In 1910 the German Teachers Association was reorgan ized and a new constitution was prepared. Its name was changed to ”The Mennonite Teachers Association of Kansas.” Before its reorganization the Association had been closely identified with the Western District Conference, and its members were largely teachers who belonged to the Conference. As the Mennonite Teachers Association of Kansas the organiza tion encouraged teachers from all the Mennonite branches to join. As the Kansas State Teachers Association and the var ious local country associations began to absorb the interest of Mennonite teachers formerly directed toward their own association, the Mennonite Teachers Association of Kansas experienced less and less support. Various effirts to keep it alive and active have failed. In 19^1 it held its last meeting. One of the most effective efforts to Improve instruc tion in the Mennonite schools was made when the German Teachers Association promoted and organized the German Teachers Institute in 12>9^. This organization met for two 129Ilbld., p. zzb. 235 weeks in August for intensive study and preparation for teach ing in the coming school term. Thorough reviews in the ele mentary school branches were pursued. Being usually well attended, the Institute was instrumental in improving in struction considerably in the schools. In the second year of its existence, the Institute launched out on a carefully planned three-year program of study.Like the Lehrplan it was very comprehensive and complete. It must be said to the credit of the Mennonite teachers of that period that they planned their cooperative efforts very thoroughly in the light of the knowledge they possessed. Undoubtedly, many teachers had obtained only an elementary education, and for them the highly concentrated course of study pursued during the Institute served a very worthwhile purpose. Peters enumerated its purposes as fol lows: 1. To strengthen the teacher In his acquired know- lege, 2. To keep alive the conscientiousness in the teacher and to emphasize it more and more. To be a teacher requires continued development of the teacher, therefore, the use of all means which are at his disposal to attain this goal, namely, cultivation of self, study, reading of a good professional journal, visiting confer ences, institutes, etc. 3. To cultivate in this way the art of instruction, which no one has completely mastered yet, to put the teacher into a position to instruct more and more peda gogic ally. *^0H. P. Peters, og. clt. , p. ^5 1^1Ibld., p. 86. 236 To strive towards more uniform methods of instruc tion. 5. To look upon the teaching profession as a call from Grod and it should, therefore, be considered as much by everyone who undertakes to be a teacher. 132 The curriculum to be covered in three years was di vided into five divisions:1?? (1) Bible and related courses; (2) German, grammar and composition; (3) education, which offered such specific courses as psychology, school manage ment, methods, history of education, and hiefcory of pedagogy; (^) arithmetic and geography; and (5) music. Present-day students of education who have experienced a good training in the modern principles of psychology will find the content of the course in psychology as outlined for the Institute very Interesting. The following elements were studied: I. First Year.— (1) Definition of psychology, its place among the sciences, sources of psychology, philosophy and empiricism, and the mind— the seat of intellectual facul ty and activity; (2) the senses and their relation to in tellectual life; (3) the essence of the mind— the Ego; (^) The consciousness, its definition and impetus; (5) First stage of perception and conception; (6) Attention; (7) Se cond step of perception, reproduction, laws, etc.; (&) The memory, its definition, its place, and the imagination; (9) Habit; (10) Speech. 132Ibld., p. 87. •^Lehrplan fUer* das Deutsche Lehrer-Instltut, pp. 1- 11. A copy of this curriculum is preserved in the Mennonite Historical Library, Bethel College, North Newton, Kansas. Second Year,— (1) Third step of the perception and reason"* (l^TrfEellectual capacity; (3) Judgment; (^*) and (5) Conclusions; (6) The faculty of ideas— the crea tive phantasy; (7) Peeling; (2>) The essence of feeling; (9) Division of feeling; (1°) The higher feeling. III. Third Year. — (1) The place of the will among the psychol'ogicelTTaculties; (2) The natural desires; the instinct: (3) The essence of the will; (^-) The reasonable will; (5) The rational will; (6) Is the will free? (7) Cultivating the will, mechanizing the acts of the will; (8) Love; (9) Character development* (10) Receptivity and spontaneity; the temperaments.133 Table IT I I shows the daily program of the German Teachers Institute. It seems to be patterned much after an average elementary school program with its short class reci tations and recesses. Demonstrations or model lessons played an important part in the daily program. These model demonstra tions were led by the different teachers attending the Insti tute. The class needed for the demonstration was composed either of teachers present or of children borrowed from the neighborhood. After the lesson a period of constructive cri ticism followed. In I90G there came a change in the program of the Institute. The time was reduced from two weeks to one week. The curriculum was revised In order to accommodate Sunday school teachers and Christian Endeavor leaders. A few years later the Institute became a mere three-day conference. When World War I brought so much ill feeling against things German, the German Teachers Institute disintegrated. As an institu- 153jibide t p. 6. TABLE VII THE DAILY PROGRAM OF THE , GERMAN TEACHERS INSTITUTE3^ Hours Courses 8: 00- 8:10 Opening 8:10- 8;50 Bible or Bible History in model lessons 8:50- 9:30 Psychology 9:30-10:10 Grammar 10:10-10:20 Recess 10:20-10:50 History of Music 10:50-11:20 History of Education 11:20-11; 50 A model lesson 11:50-12:20 Methods 12:20- 2:00 Recess 2:00- 2:1)0 Model Lesson 2: 4o- 3:20 Model Lesson In Language 3:20- 4:00 Address 239 tion it had served its purpose. It had run its course. Nor mal schools, colleges, and universities were sending forth trained teachers who possessed a preparation far beyond any that the Institute could supply. Always man tends to resist death to an institution which he has called into life. He has sentiments attached to it. Change makes institutions obsolete and they must, of necessity, disintegrate to make room for better ways of solving life*s many problems. The Mennonite settlements in the states of Nebraska, South Dakota, and Minnesota were much smaller than those in Kansas. These settlements never experienced such active ed ucational activities as those traced in Kansas. They all es tablished private and church schools which, one by one, were converted into public schools. As the assimilation process progressed among the Mennonites in the United States, their emphasis upon the German language gradually disappeared. They have attempted, however, to preserve their faith as they began to speak the American language. The G-erman schools, which played such an important part during the first half- century in America, have disappeared from the scene. The G-erman Preparatory .Schools.--With the gradual dis appearance of the German elementary schools from the Mennon ite communities, a new type of school began to appear— the German Preparatory School. The essential difference between the Parochial School and the German Preparatory School is not so much in aim and purpose as it is in the content of the courses offered and the grade and age of pupils. The - Preparatory School, in fact, is a parochial school. The elementary parochial school compares quite favorably with the elementary public school, while the Preparatory School compares more nearly with the public High School.3-35 These schools were called by various names— Vorbe- reitungs-Schule ("Preparatory School"), Vereins-Schule ("As sociation Schools"), Fortbildungs-Schule ("Continuation School"), and Bibel-Schnle ("Bible School"). They were also called "Preparatory Schools or Academies." It is just a lit tle confusing to find that in their bulletins and reports these schools used now one name now another. All of them used one of the G-erman names first, and as they began to add more English courses the name "Preparatory School" became more common. During the first two decades the Mennonites from Russia did not manifest much interest in any education beyond the elementary level. "True, among the immigrants there was a considerable number of well-educated men, as measured by the educational standards of that day" - L36 but higher education had little meaning for the common people. "It was generally conceded that school teachers needed, and that'church workers could profit by, special preparation for their specific tasks. ^ J o h n Ellsworth Hartzler, ojd. clt. , p. 117* ^-^P. J. Wedel, "Beginnings of Secondary Education in Kansas," Mennonite Life, III (October, 19*1-8), 1*1-17. ^ h b i a . , p. 2^1 Wedel indicates another factor that played a part in stimu lating interest in higher education; There were young men whose innate love of learning prompted them to attend state and other higher schools almost from the very beginning. The missionary spirit, so long suppressed in Russia by government decree, now found opportunity for practical expression in the free atmosphere of American civil and religious liberty. The preparation of teachers and church workers, an innate love of learning, and a desire to share the blessings of this faith with others were prime causes in the early efforts at higher education by the Mennonites ......... It is of special Interest to observe that the missionary note runs through these efforts from the very beginning. However, much uncertainty and confusion existed in the school situation in those early years. The Mennonites were gradually forced to relinquish their elementary schools and to submit to a school system controlled by the state. As the opportunity for Instruction in religion and the G-erman language on the lower level grew less and less, the desire to offer such instruction on a higher level increased. Since the state did not actively promote the establishment of secondary schools, and since most of the communities into which the Mennonites had moved did not have high schools, the way was open for the estab lishment of preparatory schools. The first attempt to organize a school that offered an education beyond that given in the state- and church ele mentary schools was made by Peter Balzer, a leading minister ■^^Loc. cit. zbz and leader in the Alexanderwohl Church. ^ Balzer first be- gan to instruct in 1&79 in his own home, until a separate building for his school was completed on his own yard. "This school may be regarded as the first step towards higher edu- l4o 1* 1 - 1 cation among the Mennonites in Kansas*1 1 Twenty students were enrolled the first year, many of whom were given board and room in Balzer*s own home. Records do not indicate any where how long this school continued to function. Table VIIIlists the names of sixteen German Prepara tory schools which were established by the Mennonites that immigrated into the Middle West from Europe after Igjk-. All but two of them have been discontinued. The first school was organized in 1S79 in ^93^* To trace and record the history of all sixteen schools would constitute a complete study by itself. Some of their histories are short and uneventful, and some are replete with failures and achievements, heartaches and successes. Since the origin and development of each was more or less unique, none can be considered a typical school. However, to afford ^*39rp]ais church and community is located about fifteen miles north of Newton, Kansas. It is, at present, one of the largest Mennonite communities in the United States. ^■^H. P. Krehbiel, ©£. clt. , p. 63* 1*1 - 1 Beschluesse des Schulkomltees der Kansaskonfer- enz. The conclusions reached by the committee* at a meeting heXd July 12, 1SSO, can be found in the Abdruck der Gesamt- Proto-kolle der Kansas und ¥/estllchen Dlstrikt Konferenz der Mennoniten von Nord Amerika, 1877-1909, P. TABLE VIII MENNONITE PREPARATORY SCHOOLS 1273-19^2 Name of School Location <D •0 0 O CD CO O (H O Peter Balzer*s School Mountain Lake Bible School Buhler Vereins Schule Mennonite -Bible Academy Hillsboro Preparatory School Whitewater Bible School Henderson Bible School Goessel Preparatory School Hoffnungsau Bible School Moundridge Bible School Gotebo Bible School Zoar Bible School (North) Enid Bible School Hoffnungsfeld Bible School Dinuba Bible School Beacon Bible School (Near) Goessel, Kans. 1S?9 Mountain Lake, Minn. 1SS6 Buhler, Kansas 1SS9 Beatrice, Nebraska IS90 Hillsboro, Kansas 1&97 Whitewater, Kansas 1900 Henderson, Nebraska 1§02 Goessel, Kansas 1906 Inman, Kansas 19°7 Moundridge, Kansas I90S Gotebo, Oklahoma 1910 Inman, Kansas 1915 Enid, Oklahoma 1921 Fairview, Oklahoma 1926 Dinuba, California 1937 Dallas, Oregon 193& 1SS? 1935 1915 19W 1925 1927 191S 1917 19^6 193^ 19fe 19^1 2l}4 the student of Mennonite education an opportunity to comprehend the nature of a G-erman Preparatory school, the origin, develop ment, and philosophy of one school will be presented. Since the Mountain Lake Bible School has sixty-two years of almost continuous operation, and, since it is still functioning, its experiences will be described here. The Mountain Lake Bible School was established soon after the Mennonites settled at Mountain Lake, Minnesota. In 1&S7, I* I* Bargen, a graduate of the Mankato Hormal School, organized in that community a Schulverein consisting of thirty i lip members. This organization established the German-English Preparatory School, as it was called, and it began to offer instruction to seventy students in the autumn of that year. Two years later considerable opposition against the school developed. When Bargen resigned to accept a teaching position elsewhere, the school experienced a set-back, the Schulverein was dissolved, and educational progress greatly retarded. Among the Mennonite teachers operating private schools in the Mountain Lake settlement during the first two decades, J. J. Balzer was a leading educator.1^ For a number of years he continued to conduct the school Bargen had begun, 1 1 in spite 1^2john Ellsworth Hartzler, og. clt. , p. IIS. 1*H Ferdinand P. Schultz, A History of the Settlement of German Mennonites from Russia at" Mountain Lake, Minnesota funiversTty Park, Iowa: John FleTfcher dollege Press",- l9^S), p. 100. liliL of opposition and great sacrifice in time and money. n In IS96 he invited those interested In education to a meeting held in one of the local Mennonite churches for the purpose of discussing educational needs among the Mennonites and the future of his school. A new Schulverein resulted from that meeting which promised the needed support and the erection of a needed building. After five years of delay the building was finally constructed. Eighty-six students were enrolled in the school the first year in the new building. For the next thirty-five years the school was known as the Mountain Lake German School.1^ In I909 Balzer resigned from the school he had ad ministered since 1SS6 and accepted the principalship of the Mennonite school at Altona, Manitoba. The school ceased to operate for one year. During the school term I9IO-I9H only an elementary school was conducted in the building. In 1912 the Schulverein was dissolved and the control of the school was assumed by five different Mennonite churches in Mountain Lake, who administered it until 1936 when another reorganiza tion took place. The Mountain Lake Bible school is still operating, being controlled and supported by ten churches which are liliL John Ellsworth Hartzler, oj>. cit., p. llg>. ^ ^The Mountain Lake Bible School Catalog for the school year 19^6-^7* located In three neighboring Mennonite communities— Mountain Lake, Delft, and Butterfield. Two separate departments are maintained, in the Bible department a two-year Bible course is offered to students beyond the elementary level. The parochial department is an approved elementary school consist ing of the first six grades, offering, in addition to the state-prescribed subjects, courses in G-erman and Bible. In order to appreciate the extent of the preparatory schools established by the Mennonites from Russia, it is ne cessary to refer to Table IV and Table V. In Table W all the Mennonite preparatory schools are listed, their location, the year of establishment and the year of their discontinuance. Only two preparatory schools are still functioning— the Mennonite Bible Academy, at Beatrice, Nebraska, and the Mountain Lake Bible School, at Mountain Lake, Minnesota. Both had their origin early in the history of the group here in America. Both have continued to function In the face of apparently disintegrating factors that forced the other schools to close their doors. Table IX presents the Mennonite schools operating at present, schools which formerly offered a prepara tory course but later substituted another type of curriculum. The twenty-four preparatory schools which have func tioned in the various settlements represent the first attempt at higher education among the Mennonites. Their adherence to a rural life and their emphasis on their religious concepts determined the nature of these educational institutions. TA B LE I X MENNONITE SCHOOLS WHICH DISCONTINUED THE PREPARATORY COURSE School Location Offering Now Bethel College North Newton Kansas Four-year liberal arts course Corn Bible School and Academy Corn, Oklahoma Four-year high school and a two-year Bible course Freeman College Freeman S. Dakota Two-year college and a four-year high school course Immanuel Bible and Academy Reedley California Four year high school course Lustre Bible Sehool Lustre Montana High sehool course Meade Bible Acad emy Meade Kansas Four-year high school course Oklahoma Bible Academy Meno Oklahoma High school and a two- year Bible course Tabor College Hillsboro Kansas Four-year liberal arts and several Bible courses and Academy 2kS They offered an education considered adequate by a majority within the group almost to the present day. Table X lists the courses offered to students by three selected preparatory schools. The curriculum of the Hillsboro Preparatory Sehool in 1903 a*1* 3- that the Zoar Vorbe- reitungs und Bibelschule in 1915 are very similar. Most of the instruction was in the G-erman. The course of study of fered in the Mountain Lake Bible School in 19^5 reveals a number of significant changes. All non-Bible subjects have disappeared and the language of instruction is English. A study of the curricula, of the various preparatory schools indicates that the two-year course was most common. A one- year- or a three-year curricular program was rarely offered. Hartzler has stated well the importance and achieve ments of these Mennonite schools when he said: The work and value of these G-erman Preparatory Schools must not be discounted. They have served large ly and very efficiently in various ways. They have brought about a spirit of cooperation among the churches interested. They have preserved the German language. They have been an inspiration to many young people to gain an education who otherwise never would have gone to school. It has opened the way for many young men and women to enter college and the university who today are found holding responsible positions in various fields. It has qualified many Sunday school teachers.!™ The disintegration of the preparatory school move ment was accomplished through the operation of a number of factors. As the various communities in which the Mennonites ^*^John Ellsworth Hartzler, op. cit., p. 12^4-, T ABLE X COURSES OF STUDY IN THREE SELECTED PREPARATORY SCHOOLS CHRONOLOGICALLY SPACED Hillsboro Preparatory Zoar Vorbereltungs Mountain Lake School und Bibelschule Bible School 1903-190^ 1915-1916 19^5-19116 First Year Biblische Geschiehte Weltgeschichte Sprachlehre Lesen (Lesebuch und Bibel) Schreiben (deutsch und engllseh) Aufsatz und Briefschreiben Noten (Lesen und singen) Geography (Erste Halfte) Reading (Bible) Spelling Arithmetic (1st Halfte) Grammar (1st Halfte) Biblische Geschiehte Sprachlehre Lesen Rechtschreiben und Auf satz Notenunterricht und sing en Reading Grammar Geography Arithmetic Schonschreiben Second Year Bible Geography Bible History I Biblical Introduction Book Study I Orientalisms Mennonite History Sunday school Admini stration Bible History II Book Study II Bible Doctrine Homiletics Chorus Biblische Geschiehte Bilder aus der Kirchenge- schichte Grammatik Lesen (Lesebuch und Bibel) Schreiben (deutsch und engliseh) Aufsatz und Briefschreiben Notenlesen und singen Geography Reading (Bible Biblische Geschiehte Sprachlehre Lesen Kirehengeschi chte Notenunterricht Weltgeschichte Grammar Biblische Geographie Arithmetic Spelling and Orthography Bibelkunde Personal Evangelism Child Study Bible History III Book Study III Missions Chorus Sunday School Peda- gogy Bible History IV £ Book Story IV ^ Dally.Vacation Bible TABLE % (Continued) COURSES OF STUDY IN THREE SELECTED PREPARATORY SCHOOLS CHRONOLOGICALLY SPACED \ Hillsboro Preparatory School 1903-190^ Zoar Vorbereitungs und Bibelsehule 1915-1916 Mountain Lake Bible Sehool 19^5-191+6 S e c 0 n d Year (Continued) Spelling Arithmetic (2te Halfte) Grammar (2te H&lfte) Schonschreiben School Methods Doctrine II Book Study V Chorus Third Year Bibelkunde Sprachlehre H Biblische Alterturner Kirchengeschichte Notenunterricht Weltgeschichte Grammar Glaubenslehre Mi ssionsgeschichte Literature Rhetorik Penmanship lived organized and developed their high schools, the result ing competition proved detrimental to the preparatory schools* The curriculum of the preparatory school did not qualify its graduates to enter college. As Mennonite youth became more college-minded, meeting college-entrance requirements became increasingly more important. With decreased interest also came decreased financial support for the schools. Adequate finan cial support was, very often, a difficult problem. Higher salaries in tax-supported high schools attracted the better- trained Mennonite;teachers more and more; thus facancies in the preparatory schools became more difficult to fill. Con cerning this problem one of the Mennonite teachers related the following experience: t f I taught in the Zoar Academy and Bible School for a year for $900, but since I couldn* t afford to teach for such wages, I resigned and accepted a high school teaching job which paid $1,2>00. ?/hen Mennonite parents living far removed from a preparatory school sent their chil dren, they had to place them in private homes near the school for board and room. As high schools became common in every community, many of these parents preferred to keep the children at home and sent them, instead, to the local high schools. This trend reduced the enrollments in the various preparatory schools until a number of them ceased to operate for want of students. ^^Statement was made by A. C. Ewert in an interview held on November 13, at Bethel College. 252 THE HUT'SRRX&M MEKNQN&BES The origin, development, and migrations of the Hutter- ian Mennonites was briefly traced in Chapter III. In three and one-half centuries they had been driven eastward from Mo ravia, the place of origin, by a relentless series of perse cutions. They migrated from Moravia to Hungary and Transyl- ilig vania, to Wall a chi a and finally to the Ukraine. Their so journ in South Russia was short. They arrived in 12&3, and after receiving permission from the Czar they set up Bruder- hoef e ("Communal households*1). When the Russian government began to demand military service, reorganization of the school / . system, and relin^quishment of much of the local autonomy which had been granted to them, the Hutterians joined the mass migration of Mennonites to America. "During the years 12>7^ “ to 1S79 three colonies of them, comprising a total of about 250 persons, migrated to Dakota Territory in America to settle in what is now southeastern South Dakota.From this beginning the Hutterian Mennon ites have grown both in population and in number of established John Horsch, The Hutterian Brethren 152S-1931 ("Studies in Anabaptist and Mennonite history, No. 2; Cfo- shen, Indiana: The Mennonite Historical Society, I93I), et. passim. ^^Lee Emerson Deets, The Hutterites; a Study In Social Cohesion ( G-ettysburg, Pennsy 1 vania: Times and Wews Publishing Co., 1939), p. o. 253 households. The total population in America, which includes both Canada and the United States is 7,023* number of colonies is 62*1^0 Each Bruderhof is a complete, independent almost self-sufficing economic and social unit, consisting of from fifteen to thirty families living together in a large house built dormitory like, and substantially of stone if possible. All eat in a common dining-room which is also used as an assembly room each evening for devo tional services and business meetings before retiring. , There is no private property, or income, or choice of occupation. ^-31 The social contacts of the Hutterites with the out side world have been few, and their knowledge of what is go ing on is very limited. As to the future of the group, Smith predicts the following: It is highly problematical whether even Christian communism, the most enduring of all types of communism can survive long in America against the dislntegratlng Influences of the automobile, the radio rural delivery, and compulsory high school attendance.Ip2 Deets, who has made a very thorough sociological study of the Hutterites, does not yet see disruptive factors seriously threatening the communal system. He says; The sect has existed for more than four centuries. It Is the patriarch of the Utopian communities, the first and oldest of the several hundred idealistic community groups in Europe and America which have attempted to ^^A. J. F. Zieglschmidt, MMust the Hutterites Leave Canada?H The Christian Century, LXIV (October 22, 19^7), 1269- 1271. Henry Smith, The Story of the Mennonites, p. 669. 152Ibid., p. 672. create more perfect social orders ......... There is no present basis for saying that the end is in sight,-*-53 Soon after the close of World War I all but three of the Hutterian Bruderhoefe moved to Canada where they hoped to gain greater religious freedom to worship, educate their children, and continue the practice of ttthe community cf' goods. ” Although some of them moved bach to the United States again, the majority of them still remain in Canada, The educational system maintained by the Hutterian colonies in both Canada and the United States will be described on the following pages. The educational system among the Hutterites.— nCom munism, pacifism, and avoidance of the world are today the three central Hutterite doctrines of living. «phe Hutter ites have clearly defined educational objectives. They aim to educate their youth by indoctrination until it has fully absorbed the central Hutterite doctrines. Every boy and girl must develop what they call the G-emelnslnn or “community spirit. w Deets defines the aims of their educational system thus: The chief objective of Hutterite education is the achievement of self-willed or voluntary conformity. The stress is upon self-discipline. The Hutterites ■^^Lee Emerson Deets, o£. cit. , p. 1. 1^Ibid., p. 255 frankly regard education as a means of preserving the status quo. Education for critical thinking is seen as a threat to the order, and is avoided. Basie beliefs are viewed without question as settled, and lesser beliefs are consistent with them. The Hutterites regard it as incon sistent to seek preservation of the status quo and at the same time to emphasize "free enterprise." Anything spring ing from individualistic as opposed to communal interests is vied as non-conformist or what in our society would be called "subversive," When the individual is indoctrin ated to feel that he autonomously supports the established order, a penal discipline by the group is little neces sary and sustaining loyalty is assured.^55 If conformity to the values of the group is the chief educational objective, then loyalty, unquestionably and sin cerely given, must become the desired educational outcome. Loyalty is largely an emotional response. Thus, as Deets says: "In consequence, the educational methods used by the Hutter ites are training of the emotions rather than the intellect ................Realizing that loyalty can be generated in the hearts of the young only by effective educational means, the Hutterites place great importance upon their schools. When a child becomes two and one-half years old, it enters the Klelne Schule ("Little School"), a form of Kinder garten. The children in the Kleine Schule are supervised and taught the whole day by women charged with that responsibility. They collect the children for breakfast in the children's dining-room. Here they learn their table prayers and table manners. They are given five meals each day. After breakfast, the children are taken to the schoolroom for instruction in 155rbid., p. ^5. songs, prayers, and children*s rhymes. After the noonday meal the children take a nap. After they awake, weather per- mitting, they are taken out into the yard or nearby field for play. Most of the year attendance is from nine in the morning until four in the afternoon; in summer it is from eight to five. In the history of modern education Friedrich Froebel is identified with the origin of the Kindergarten movement, which began about 12&0. Among the Hutterites the Kindergar ten has been an educational institution for over four hundred years. One of the most important influences of the kinder garten is habituation to the gregarious communal way of living. Children spend most of their waking hours in a group of ten to sixteen of their own age inhere cooperative relations are emphasized and competitiveness is severely suppressed.157 After the children have reached the age of aix, they enter the regular school, which is conducted in each Bruder- hof. The children remain in school until they have met the compulsory sehool-at tendance requirements. T , Most of the adult Hutterites,1 1 however, Mhave had no higher than an in ferior sixth-grade education, When the Bruderhoefe were first established in South Dakota, the curriculum of their schools was simple, consist ing of reading, writing, a little arithmetic, Bible, and 157ibia., pp. H-2-H-3. 1^gibia., p. l j - o 257 instruction in some of the practical arts. One of the men, poorly educated and wholly untrained, was chosen to instruct the children. The language of instruction was G-erman, a poor form of G-erman at that. When the state began to promote im proved educational standards for all the schools in the state, the Hutterites were asked to meet the improved standards, too. Having, in most cases, no person in the colony qualified to obtain a teaching certificate, outside teachers had to be brought into the Bruderhof. Attempts to educate some of their own men to become qualified teachers have not been very suc cessful in the past. In addition to the state-prescribed elementary schools the Hutterites have maintained their traditional G-erman school. It is usually held a half hour before and a half hour after school. Often it is conducted for a period during the summer. In this German school the children are taught to read, to re peat prayers, sing hymns, give the answers to questions in the catechism, Hand are given instruction in submissive co operative behavior. Modern education threatens the Hutterian social order.— It has been the sincere purpose of the various states and pro vinces in which Hutterites reside to improve their educational facilities. Forced to operate an educational program pre scribed by the state and, at the same time, determined to 1^9Ibid.. p. kj 255 maintain the traditional educational program deemed necessary for their future security, two educational systems exist in each Bruderhof. The Hutterites try hard to counteract the disrupting influences introduced by the superimposed system by their own educational institutions. The two programs conflict in their objectives, methods, and desired outcomes. One of the main sources through which disrupting influences enter a Bruderhof is the non-Hutterite teacher who consciously and unconsciously brings into the secluded world many aspects of the outside world. These teachers introduce strange songs and games and books. If they are very stimulating teachers, interest in knowledge is awakened. The clothes, things, and mannerisms of the teachers in their midst are silent influences from a beckoning outside world. If some of the teachers bring their radios, to which the Hutterite children are forbidden to listen, and ask for ex ceptions in food**"^ and lodging certain Influences are bound to result. Hutterite objections to the standard school program tend to be stereotypes defined with reference to the central beliefs. They think that the teachers make the young people Mworldly,1 1 that physical drill is too much like military drill, and that there is too mueh emphasis upon war in history textbooks. Some Hutterites criticize our teaching of history as an attempt to patriotic indoc trination. Hutterite children get their lowest grades in history, yet they learn the history taught to them from the Chronicles [In this book the first 137 years of Hutterite history is recorded.] in the "Geman school. m161 certain teacher who had taught in the Lake Byron Bruderhof told the writer that she had planned her own menu, and that she had always eaten at her own table out of dishes she had brought from home. l^lLee Emerson Deets, op. cit. , p. * J - 1 . Being very sensitive to the requirements expressed in laws, the Hutterites seek diligently to he law abiding citizens. In this respect their records are very good. There have been no significant conflicts between the state authori ties and the Hutterites concerning the enforcement of school laws. They attempt to counteract the undesirable effects of the English or state-imposed school system by teaching their principles and beliefs with the greatest effectiveness. Although the states and provinces have written new school laws to improve educational standards for all schools within their respective territories, it cannot be said that they have adopted a concerted plan to Americanize the Hutter ites. If better schools accomplish this end, state officials 1^0 will not be averse to it. Only time will reveal the final outcome of the silent conflict between a religious group in tent upon maintaining its priceless values and an outside world Intent upon destroying them. The following question may be asked; What should the attitude of the state be to the Hutterites, who adhere to a religious faith that is different from contemporary faiths? What controls should the majority in the total society impose upon a minority that asks only to be left alone? Constitutionally, both the United States and Canada, guarantee, boastfully, religious freedom to all within their boundaries. The Hutterlan Hway of life” Is not a passing dream of a utopia. It is deeply rooted in spiritual values 162Ibld., p. 39. which are read into the Bible. It has stood the tests of over four hundred years of persecutions and opposition. The Hutterites do not attempt to dominate America*s future. They don*t proselyte among their neighbors; they don*t promote a revolution. They are convinced that they have found security, freedom from conflict, and the will of Grod. Until the Hutterites become a dangerous force threaten ing America*s political, economic, or social welfare, so long controls are unnecessary. Until the guarantee of reli gious freedom is removed from the constitutions, so long they have an inherent right to worship a faith that includes such practices as “the community of goods,** separation from the world, and nonresistance. SECONflARy EflUCAMOH AMQKg- THE MMMOKimS in THE T3HITE& STATES The ever-increasing stream of America’s youth into the high schools during the last quarter century has swept the Mennonite boys and girls into the movement. Although in many Mennonite communities parents encourage high school at tendance, there still are places where they oppose secondary education as administered by the state. This opposition has been responsible for the establishment of private, Mennonite high schools. Mennonite high schools.— Table .XI lists the names of fourteen Mennonite schools offering accredited high school TABLE XI MENNONITE SCHOOLS OFFERING AN ACCREDITED HIGH SCHOOL COURSE Name of School Location © § o f x « <J\ C _ j © v Jlso 3 o\ 0 H © U © o .3 o * 0$ o © a eh Control Berean Academy Elbing 1946 5^ 6 Association of Mennon- Kansas ites Corn Bible School and Corn 1902 98 5 (Local) Mennonite Bre Academy Oklahoma thren Church Eastern Mennonite School Harrisonburg 1917 246 12* S Virginia (Old) Mennon Virginia ite Conference Freeman Junior College Freeman 1903 ill 2(14) Association of Mennon- So* Dak. ites from surround ing churches Hesston College and Bible Hesston 1909 Board of Education, School Kansas (Old) Mennonite Gen eral Conference Iowa Mennonite School Kalona 1945 77 6 Iowa-Nebraska (Old) Iowa Mennonite Conference Immanuel Bible School and Reedley 1927 189 8 Three Mennonite Church Academy California es— two M. B. and am a t j t T 5 Johnson Mennonite School Hollsopple 1944 0 ne & • i v i • j s 4 Johnson Mennonite Pennsylvania School Board Lancaster Mennonite School Lancaster, 1942 248 11 Lancaster (Old) Men Pennsyovania nonite Conference Lustre Bible Academy Lustre 192s 31 3 Association of Mennon- Montana ites from three ehurche s Meade Bible Academy Meade, Kansas 1936 4l 4 Two Mennonite Churches TABLE XI (Continued) MENNONITE SCHOOLS OFFERING AN ACCREDITED HIGH SCHOOL COURSE Name of School Location Founded Enrollment 19^-1949 G Q k o > O 3 O • c d 0 0 se* Control Oklahoma Bible Academy Meno 1917 6S 5 Association of Oklahoma Oklahoma General Conference Churches Tabor College Hillsboro 190s 19 3 Mennonite Brethren Con Kansas ference of North America Western Mennonite School Salem, Oregon 19^5 53 3-3 Pacific Coast (Old) Mennonite Conference 263 courses. These schools are distributed in nine different states. Kansas, which has a rather heavy Mennonite popula tion, leads with four such schools. Of the fourteen schools now operating, 9 were established since 1935* This number seems to indicate a trend among the Mennonites towards the establishment of their own secondary schools. Of the 16 or more branches within the Mennonite Ghurch, only 5 identi fied with these schools. The other branches either utilize the facilities of the public high schools or, like the Amish, refrain from such an education. The apparent trend toward the establishment of pri vate high schools by the Mennonites has been promoted by a number of factors. In the Promotional Manual, published by the Lancaster Conference Schools, Incorporated, the follow ing paragraph is found: But whether we have our own high school or not, many of our young people will go to high school anyway. Many young people will go to high school under very V unfavorable circumstances and will have their spiritual lives very much impaired. Many will be lost to lives of usefulness in the church because the church did not control their environment, while in high school. If we send our young people to the modern-day high school in a worldly influence, we cannot expect that they will come back loyal and spiritual. It is contrary to the nature of teaching principles 'and Bible principles.^ 3 The public high schools have been blamed for certain undesired influences by the more or less conservative elements ^Christian Day Schools for Mennonite Youth. Pro- tional Manual for Elementary and High Sch00Is/ Lancaster Con ference Schools, Inc., Lancaster, Pennsylvania, 19^5> P* 106. 26 b in all the different branches in the Mennonite faith. By “worldly influences” they refer especially to dancing, motion picture pictures for entertainment, the highly competitive athletic activities, school plays, and the absence of the Christian emphasis in the classroom. They accuse the public high school of generating in Mennonite youth a spirit of dis loyalty to the Church and the Mennonite heritage* The estab lishment of private high schools has resulted largely from these attitudes. World War II was instrumental in stimulating more ill feelings against the public high school. Boys and girls de fending the doctrine of nonresistance, which has been a car dinal principle of the Mennonite Church for over four hundred years, were made to feel uncomfortable and unwelcome by some of their non-Mennonite teachers and classmates. The various “war drives” promoted through the high schools worked a hard ship for the boys and girls who were not permitted to partici pate. Many parents were much concerned about the effects such a situation had upon the personality development of their children. In 19^3 ‘ fcke Board of Education of Bethel College, Newton, Kansas, yielded to the pressure which came from differ ent parents In her constituency and organized, as a separate school on the campus, the Mennonite Bible Academy, a four-year accredited high school. It opened its first term on Septem ber 3, 19^3* with forty-six pupils. The following year 70 enrolled. After the close of the spring term in 19*4-6 the College realized that increased enrollments (in the College proper) were in prospect, and, being unable to house the Academy any longer, it was discontinued. The Meononlte Bible Academy, which functioned three years, must be inter preted as an expression of the opposition, by its supporters, to the undesirable Influences which were exerted in public high schools. The Mennonite Brethren Church, at Corn, Oklahoma, has operated the Corn Bible School and Academy since 1902. The purposes the school tries to achieve are: 1. To combine a secular secondary education with a positive interpretation of the Scriptures as set forth in the doctrinal statement [The doctrinal principles of the Mennonite Brethren Church] , 2. To develop good American citizenship based upon an understanding of the physical world, man's origin and purpose, his e^qperience as recorded in history, his re lationship to the group and society as a whole, and his responsibility to political authority. 3. To train for its constituency leadership in the church, in the school and in the community. * 4 - . To stress the principles of Christian living, simplicity of life, habits of industry, integrity of character, sacredness of the home, respect for person ality, and freedom of c o n s c i e n c e .164 A comparison of the objectives of the fourteen Mennon- ite high schools with each other permits the conclusion that all share, fundamentally, the same aims. They attempt to l^Annual Bulletin, School Year 1946-19*4-7, Corn Bible School and Academy" Corn," Oklahoma. to place a standard secondary school into a Christian atmos phere. The curriculum, for each, is prescribed by the state, but the environment is determined by those who sponsor the schools. In addition to providing the required high school curriculum of the respective states in which the Mennonite high schools are located, instruction in Bible courses is given. The extent and arrangement of the Bible offerings differ among the schools. The Immanuel Bible School and Academy offers two separate courses of study: The Bible*-Academy Course and the High School Course. The Bible-Academy Course is a four-year course which includes one year of Bible studies and three years of high school work. After completing this course, students may obtain a standard high school diploma by one year of additional work. The High School Course, which meets all the requirements prescribed by the state, includes one unit of Bible for each year in attendance. The Oklahoma Bible Academy offers a two-year Bible course to the graduates of the high school course. Where students enroll in the Bible course without having first completed a high school course, they must take courses in both departments, especially English. The two-year Bible curriculum offered by the Oklahoma Bible Academy is shown in Table *XXI. It is designed to prepare religious education teachers who approximate the training possessed by public TA B LE X I I TWO-YEAR BIBLE COURSE OFFERED IN THE OKLAHOMA BIBLE ACADEMY First Y ear First Semester Second Semester Old Testament Synthesis I Old Testament Synthesis II Doetrine Doctrine Methods of Christian Edu Analysis I (Acts) cation Biblical Pedagogy Biblical Introduction Bible G-eography, customs Evangelism I and Manners Music Fundamentals Hermeneutics Practical Work Conducting I Practical Work Second Year New Testament Synthesis I New Testament Synthesis II Doctrine Doctrine Church History Mennonite History Sunday School Administra Daily Vacation Bible tion School Practice Teaching Departmental Specializa Analysis II (Romans) tion Harmony I Prophecy Missions Hymnology I Practical Work Practical Work school teachers. Extracurricular activities represent another area in which the Mennonite high schools depart from the usual prac tices of a public high school. All Mennonite high schools set aside a period a day for a devotional service for the faculty and students. Student organizations featuring prayer or some type of Christian volunteer service are usually found in each school. Athletics receives little emphasis. Athletic contests with other schools are very uncommon. Even strictly educational films are seldom shown. The necessary finances to maintain the fourteen Mennon ite high schools has proved to be an ever-present problem. They depend upon tuition fees and voluntary gifts from chur ches and friends for their financial needs. The decided in crease in the number of Mennonite high schools since 19*10 was, undoubtedly, encouraged by the prosperous financial condi tions which resulted from World War II. Most of the established schools have not yet experienced the trials of a financial depression. The future of the Mennonite secondary schools will depend upon the willingness of their respective constit uencies to continue their support. Public high schools in Mennonite communities.— Public tax-supported high schools are maintained in all but four*^^ l^Srpke Berean Academy at Elbing, Kansas; Hesston Ool- lege and Bible School Hesston, Kansas; Luster Bible Academy, Luster, Montana; and the Oklahoma Bible Academy, at Meno, Oklahoma. 269 Meade Bible Academy, Meade, Kansas PLATE VIII A MENNONITE HIGH SCHOOL IN THE UNITED STATES 27 0 of the fourteen communities in which the Mennonite high schools are located. Thus, in ten centers the Mennonites support a dual secondary school system— a public high school through taxation and a private academy through tuition and voluntary gifts. Corn, Oklahoma, a solidly Mennonite community, main tains the Corn Bible School and Academy and the Corn High School. Both schools offer the same high school curriculum; both enroll the same type of students; both employ Mennonite teachers. The people in this rather large Mennonite center are divided by their attitudes toward the nature of secondary education. There is mainly one difference between the two schools: The Corn Bible School and Academy offers Bible courses in addition to the prescribed high school curriculum. The situation at Corn, Oklahoma, is unique, however. In such cities as Lancaster (Penns3 rlva.nl a), Harrisonburg (Virginia), Reedley (California), and Salem (Oregon), the Mennonites form only minority groups. Largely because of their inability to exert a controlling influence over their local public high schools, they have established their own private secondary schools, as is shown in Table XI. It should be kept in mind, however, that in each place some par ents prefer to send their children to the public high schools. Here it must be pointed out that there are a number of centers in the United States where the Mennonites comprise 271 166 50 per cent or more of the population. In these communi ties, as yet without private high schools, the Mennonites send their children to their local high schools. Very often these high schools are administered by boards of education and in structed by teachers who are Mennonites. The extent to which these schools foster Mennonite ideals and principles is not within the realm of this study. GQLLSgrlATE EDUCATION AMOKS THE MEmiONXTSS IK THE UMITBB STATES Mennonite Educational Ventures that would not take root.— The development of collegiate Institutions among* the Mennonites in the United States has been hindered by an un friendliness which they have shown rather continuously toward hJ^ier education. This unfriendliness is rooted in certain customs and traditions that were formed in the early Histor ical development of the group. Mennonitism was born and nurtured in a hostile world. Its adherents, tortured and martyred, learned to exercise great caution In their contacts with the world. Isolation, through necessity, became a fixed pattern of living. In this mode of life the pursuit of higher education was untenable. Throughout their history Mennonites have been engaged 1 t-G Mountain Lake, Minnesota; Henderson, Nebraska; Inman, Buhler, Pretty Prairie, and Moundridge, Kansas; Sraith- ville, Ohio, Goessel, Kansas 272 in agriculture. The continuous pursuit of this occupation has given rise to certain attitudes: simplicity, narrowed interests, and dignity of physical labor. These attitudes have discouraged positive interest in collegiate education. Non-conformity has been one of the fundamental doc trines of the Mennonites. It resulted from the theory that the world was essentially evil, and to be linked up with its affairs was to partake of its evil nature. To improve the world, so their reasoning went, was impossible. The chief responsibility of man was to experience salvation and inher it eternal life. Such a philosophy of life found little need for any advanced education. True, the early leaders of the Mennonite Church, particularly Menno Simons, were men of learning, but v/hen these leaders passed from the scene, the rank and file of their followers were of the common people who possessed lit tle education. Because they were unlearned, they condemned all learning, even proclaiming that revelation and the inner light come only to the simple and ignorant. In spite of the enumerated hampering factors, there were in most Mennonite communities courageous individuals who tried to awaken an interest in the establishment of col leges for Mennonite youth. The first attempts to promote collegiate institutions, shown on Table XIII, ended in pain ful defeats, but in time Mennonite colleges were planted which took root deep enough to live. Although they were TABLE XIII MENNONITE EDUCATIONAL VENTURES THAT WOULD NOT TAKE ROOT Name of School Founded Closed J i By Whom Founded and Controlled Freeland Seminary 1869 Abraham Hunsicker The Christian Educational Institute of the Mennonite Denomination 1868 1878 General Conference of the Mennon ite Church of North America (The Wadsworth School) The Halstead Seminary 1883 1893 The Kansas Mennonite Conference The Elkhart Institute 189^ 1903 General Conference (Old) Mennon ites Central Mennonite College 1900 19114- Middle District Conference The Mennonite Brethren in Christ Seminary and Bible Training School 1903 190^ The Indiana and Ohio District Conference (Mennonite Breth ren in Christ Conference) The German Department in McPherson College (A college operated by 1898 1905 Mennonite Brethren Conference of North America the United Brethren) Witmarsum Theological Seminary 1921 1931 Six different Mennonite Confer ences (See text) 274- subjected to much criticism and forced to endure with meager support, they have grown to merit respectability and confi dence. The following pages trace the origin, philosophy, and development of the Mennonite educational ventures that would not tahe root. Freeland Seminary, the first Mennonite school of higher learning.— In order to understand more fully some of the aspects in the history of Freeland Seminary it is necessary to describe certain prevailing conditions in which the school was born and in which it died an untimely death. In the middle of the nineteenth century the Mennonite churches • * • in Pennsylvania were very conservative in all their religious practices and social customs. These congregations were lo cated almost entirely in small farm communities, clinging tenaciously to the old traditions, suspicious of the outside world, and associating very little in religious matters with their non-Mennonite neighbors. In this conservative atmosphere there appeared a few more-liberal-minded ministers who began to oppose some of the religious practices and customs of the church. The requirement that ministers must wear “plain clothes'1 and ad here to other formal customs became the causes of contention between the conservative and the liberal factions within the Mennonite churches. At the general Mennonite Conference held in Franconia, Pennsylvania, May, 1 <346, all those who dared 275 Hill Aim Freeland Seminary PLATE IX EARLY AMERICAN MENNONITE SCHOOLS OF HIGHER' LEARNING- 276 to oppose the long-established usages and customs were vir tually excommunicated. In January, lg&7> & meeting was held in the Mennonite church at Skippack, Pennsylvania, to choose by lot a new minister. Abraham Hunsicker was elected. Uneducated, a farmer, he became very disturbed that one so poorly qualified should be asked to assume such an important responsibility. In prayer to God he sought guidance, and with new devotion to duty imrdked spiritual illumination to aid him in his sacred calling. It was now that he felt more than ever before the need of a provision for more and better knowledge, and resolved before God to found a school that should afford to others means of obtaining that of which he was deprived and made to feel the sad disadvantages.167 The following year, l£&-g, Hunsicker purchased ten acres of land near Philadelphia with his own funds, erected a building, and established Freeland Seminary. The school was opened formally on November 7 of that year with an en rollment of three students. During the course of the first year the enrollment grew to seventy-nine. Abraham Hunsicker induced his son Henry Hunsicker, who had been teaching a subscription school in Lower Salford, Montgomery County .since 1 1 to take charge of Freeland Seminary, a boarding school for young men and boys which ^Henry A. Hunsicker, A Genealogical History of the Hunsicker Family (Printed for private*'“circulation by J. B. Liopincott Company, Philadelphia, 1911), p. This book, obtained from Goshen College" Library, Goshen, Indiana, was the main source of information about Freeland Seminary. his father founded the same year [ 16&C] . Freeland Serainary was not a liberal arts college in the modern sense. If it were operating now it would be termed a secondary school with its curriculum extended to include the first two years of college courses. Years later the Honorable Wayne Macveagh, who had been a student in Freeland Seminary in his boyhood, wrote of his educational experience the following tribute: I was prepared by them [ the teachers of Freeland] to enter the Junior Class at Yale in two years and two months, covering in that comparatively brief per iod the studies required to enter the Freshman Class as well as those required to enter the two higher classes. ***69 The collegiate nature of the curriculum offered in Freeland Seminary is evident in the following quoted paragraph: Assisted by a corps of able instructors, all the common branches, together with the higher mathematics, the sciences, and ancient and modern languages, were taught. 170 Abraham Hunsicker, the founder of the School, realized the great need of education among the Mennonites, and, together with his son Henry, worked hard to develop a good school. However, they encountered, increasingly, the opposition of the brethren in the church who regarded higher education a threat, an evil force that would destroy everything sacred. 276 The opposition to the school was encouraged by another fac tor. Both father and son were labeled as non-conformists. Both objected to the rigid austerity imposed by formal au thority of the Mennonite ministers and the unreasonable pre judices that abounded everywhere. "The school flourished beyond expectation, though it received but small patronage from the Mennonites whom it hoped to benefit."1^1 After seventeen years of diligent labor as principal of Freeland Seminary, Henry Hunsicker leased the school to A. H. Fetterolf, who later became president of G-irard College. Fetterolf, himself a former student of the School, had been acting as vice-principal and teaching mathematics for several years. February 10, I869, a group of men met in the city of Philadelphia, and 1 1 actuated by a desire to serve the inter ests of higher education and evangelical Christian religion," organized a corporation and began to plan for the establish ment of a college. Attracted by the beauty of the region of Perkio- men Bridge, where Freeland Seminary had flourished for twenty years, and impressed by the reputation of the community for its interest in education, the Board of Directors [ of the newly formed corporation] pur 171 Ibid. , p. 31. 279 chased the property of Freeland Seminary, and incorpor ated the latter into Ursinus College as its prepara tory department * 172 "Within a period of twenty years, more than three thousand young men from Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Maryland, and Delaware received their education at . . . .[Freeland Seminary] .1 1 ^ 3 Why the school was sold has not been deter mined. That discouragement caused by constant opposition from those who should have supported it is quite explainable. With the closing of the school the first attempt to provide higher education among the Mennonites in the United States came to an end. "The story of Mennonitism in America would be different today had the denomination taken a proper atti- 17^4- tude toward Freeland Seminary." f Encouraged by the success of his first venture in the field of education, Abraham Hunsicker founded yet another school. In 1&51 he established The Pennsylvania Female College. The school was strictly non-sectarian and can hardly be termed a Mennonite school. Operating at a time when op portunities for higher education for women were limited, this school served "in raising the high educational standard in the surrounding country. "^5 d72t£he Ursinus College Bulletin (Catalog Number for 13^7-13^) , CJo’ 1 legeville“ ] Fennsy 1 vania, p. S. 17?Ibid., p. K ^"^John Ellsworth Hartzler, op. cit., pp. 12B-9. ^ 5 Henry A. Hunsicker, op. cit. , p. 31* 230 The Wadsworth School.— The history of the Mennonite school of higher learning at Wadsworth, Ohio, can be told only when it is reflected against a background of a series of disrupting events that occurred in the Mennonite Church in the middle of the nineteenth century. Like Freeland Sem inary, the Wadsworth School had its beginning, a brief period of existence, and its termination. Soon after the founding of Germantown in 16S3 the Mennonites organized the Franconia Conference of the Mennon ite churches. The War of Independence presented to the Con ference a number of controversial questions pertaining to the doctrine of nonresistance and participation in the activities of that war. In 1777 a schism resulted. Since the group which withdrew was small, the schism was not ser ious. After this there was no event of special importance in the history of the church in this Conference district until the Oberholtzer schism in 13*1-7. J. H. Oberholtzer, a minister in the Swamp congregation, was the most outspoken among a number of ministers who thought that the church had fallen away from former aggressive spirit, and had become ti ed to forms which stood in the way of spiritual progress. At the general Mennonite Conference, held in May, 13*1-6, at Franconia, Pennsylvania, Oberholtzer, as well as Abraham Hunsicker and a few other ministers, were literally expelled from membership in the Conference. 261 The Wadsworth School \ i Elkhart Institute - PLATE IX EARLY AMERICAN MENNONITE SCHOOLS OP HIGHER LEARNING ( Continued) 282 Oberholtzer and his followers organized a new reli gious body, lb implement his ideas and to help the churches that had. cast their lot with his, he founded 1 1 the first Mennon ite church paper in America, called Bellgloeser Botschafter (‘ ’Religious Messenger”), later changed into Das Christllche Volksblatt (“The Christian People*s Paper”). ”^76 jn editorials Oberholtzer promoted the idea of reconciliation with the old mother church. “At the same time, too, he was advocating through his church paper a union of all the Mennon- 177 ite congregations of America." When reconciliation proved impossible, he concentrated on the formation of a union of all Mennonite branches in America. In May, 1S>60, Oberholtzer attended a Mennonite Con ference held near West Point, Iowa, as a representative of the Pennsylvania churches that shared his views. Although unpretentious and local in character, this meeting was not deterred by that fact from discussing a lofty and ambitious ideal, namely the unification of all the Mennonites of America under one working organi zation. Deploring the fact that there was so much factionalism among the Mennonites, and that the denomina tion'"has never since its existence in America conslt- tuted an ecclesiastical organization," and further that because of this factionalism there is "a corresponding decline in spiritual life," the assembly drew up a set of resolutions which it was hoped would serve as a common platform upon which all might unite for the extension of the mission and other Interests of the church. 177Lo o. cit. 17gTbld., p. 680. ■ * ' 7 C. Henry Smith, The Story of the Mennonites, p. 677. ’ 283 The need for the establishment of a publishing house and for the founding of an educational institution for theo logical training was also discussed. Both of the two issues had been advocated by Oberholtzer in his periodical for sever al years. A year later a meeting was held at Wadsworth, Ohio. The unification movement was taking hold for the number of Mennonite churches sending delegates had increased. Ober- holtzer*s efforts were bearing fruit. The meeting perfected the formation of the G-eneral Conference of the Mennonite Church of North America, which has played one of the leading roles among the Mennonite branches ever since. The need for a Mennonite school was again discussed. The meeting appointed Daniel Hege, a well-educated Mennonite minister, to visit the churches to arouse interest and to collect funds for the establishment. ^ 9 The task assigned to Hege by the Conference was sur rounded by many difficulties. Traveling from state to state and from home to home was an arduous task in those days of limited transportation facilities. The activities of the Civil War added new uncertainties which could not be ignored. An P. Krehbiel, og. cit. , p. This work pre sents a rather detailed account of the origin, development, and experiences with Conference activities, of the G-eneral Conference of the Mennonite Church of North America. Much of the information for this part of the study was obtained from this excellent source. 23*1- antipathy to schools of higher learning, harbored by many Mennonites, promised unpleasant situations. Hege began his work on May 12, 1362, and continued it without much interruption until November 22, 1363. The third session of the newly organized General Conference of the Mennonite Church of North America met in October, 1363, at Summerfield, Illinois. Hege reported that 1,200 subscribers had pledged $5,73&-toward the building of a school for 130 Mennonite youth. A committee of seven men was appointed to draw up a constitution for the prospective school. The committee went to work immediately on the prepar ation of a constitution which was presented to the Conference before its adjournment. Krehbiel feels: Unnecessary haste was certainly exercised here. For at this time there was neither a house in which to hold school nor a teacher to conduct it, no, nor any money with which to make a beginning. Surely it might have been foreseen that it would require several years in which to collect money, erect a building and get ready for the oper ation of a school. A committee would have had ample time during this interval to study the management and courses of other schools, adopt what could be utilized for their own school, and so draw up a constitutions which should in all respects best meet the requirements. But this work was done now, and to the honor of the committee it must be said that, notwithstanding the disadvantages under which they labored, they succeeded in preparing a consti tution upon which, had other conditions permitted, the school might have been successfully operated, Christian Schowalter, J. C. Krehbiel, j. H. Ober- holtzer, L. C. Schi|amel, Daniel Hoch, David Ruth, and Ephraim Hunsberger. 1S:lH. P. Krehbiel, 0£. olt., p. llg. 283 The name of the school, according to the constitu tion, was to be Christian Educational Institution of the Mennonite Denomination* In order to appreciate the educa tional philosophy that was to give direction to the adminis tration of the School, other items in the constitution need to be pointed out. The Conference was to have charge of the School. Direct management of the school was delegated to a committee of supervisors, composed of three members. Only we11-qualified men, thoroughly in harmony with the Mennonite cause, should be employed. The School was to be conducted in the German language; however, English should be taught as a course. Admission was to be granted, upon satisfactory certificate of good character, to young men not less than eighteen nor more than thirty years of age. The students should spend three hours each day doing physical work for the sake of their health and for the material welfare of the Institution. Soon after the close of the third Conference, the newly appointed supervisors selected Wadsworth, Ohio, as the location for the School. Upon a plot of twenty acres they began to lay out and construct a three-story brick building. Seven years were required to gather the necessary funds, to build a responsible organization, to provide the material equipment, and to select teachers. "The school at Wadsworth held the center of interest [in the Conference] from IS63, when the first committee was appointed until 286 T go when It was forced to close its doors.1 1 The selection of teachers who possessed the desired qualifications proved another difficult problem for the supervisors. "Among the adhering Mennonite youth of America none had so far secured for themselves higher education. Inquiries were made among the Mennonites in Germany for a teacher. Finally, the School was ready to begin its first term. Christian Schowalter, who was to act as principal and A. Fritz had been employed as teachers. On January 2, 1S6S, the first twenty-four students were enrolled into the study body. Before the end of the year C. J. van der Smission, from German arrived to become the third teacher on the staff. The curriculum was divided into three departments: (1) theology; (2) German and the elementary branches; (3) English and the sciences. The subjects taught in these three departments were elementary and the choices limited. The emphasis in the curriculum centered on the theological de- Igk partment in which the offerings were more complete. Accord ing to the curriculum the Wadsworth School "took on the char acter of an academy and theological seminary combined. lg2C. Henry Smith, The Story of the Mennonites, p. 6S6. lg^H. P. Krehbiel, op. clt. , p. 11^. ■^C. Henry Smith and E. J. Hirschler, The Story of Bluffton College (Published by Bluffton College, Bluffton, mxor&zsrrTriK 1S^Loo. clt. 287 1&6 "The school never prospered.1 1 Throughout its ten years of operation it was hampered by a number of factors. As the difficulties accumulated, their sheer weight finally crushed the school to death. The enrollment at the Wadsworth School remained very small throughout its history. The attendance hardly ever rose beyond that of the opening day. On the first day of the summer term in 1675, only thirteen students appeared and, of these, only six came from Mennonite homes.In the fall term of 1677 only three students enrolled. A year later the number stood at eight. The failure of Mennonite parents to send their children must be listed as the greatest contribu ting cause of the School's downfall. Considerable friction developed among the teachers. Van der Smissen, who had lately immigrated from Europe, could not in all respects make due allowance for American condi tions. The instructors themselves, instead of setting an example to the students of the application of the prin ciple of peace by friendly cooperation, studiously avoided each other and would have nothing to do with one another except where duty unavoidably compelled them to meet; the same unfriendly attitude being also observed between their families. This feud between two families, residing in the same building, sadly depressed the spirit ual life in the Institution; and separate aims were now 1 C. Henry Smith, The Story of the Mennonites, p.607* P. Krehbiel, on. cit., et passim. 288 Such a deplorable situation could not remain without its devastating influence upon the students. As the students carried reports of the feud among the teachers into their homes, the prestige of the School was hurt. This unhappy condition must, consequently, assume its due share of the blame for the final collpase of the School. A third vexing factor that hindered the growth of the School was the problem of inadequate financial support. The deficit of #1,760 that was outstanding at the time of the dedication of the building gradually increased and fin ally was one of the main reasons why the school was abandoned after ten years of operation.1^0 The unification movement, promoted by Oberholtzer and his followers among Mennonite churches in Pennsylvania and in the West, had resulted in the formation of the G-eneral Conference of the Mennonite Church of North America. The Wadsworth School was a project of that Conference. At the annual sessions the school had been the main subject of consideration. As the delicate school problem became more difficult, lg9H. P. Krehbiel, og. clt., p. 2^1. "'■^Eclmund George Kaufman, The Development of the Missionary and Philanthropic Interest among the Mennonites of* North Anerica ( Berne, Indiana: The Mennonite Boole Cone ern, T 5 ? T r r p . - y r . — ^^Verhandelungen der Allgemeinen Konferenz der Men- noniten von Nord eri Ea '(grste Bis 'Elft'e "Sftzung, l2>53'rlS&7’ . Published by the Conference at Berne, Indiana), et passim. Also H. P. Krehbiel, ojo. cit. , pp. 78-271♦ 2S9 the churches in Pennsylvania and those in tte West began to disagree over the issues involved.^ 2 There always had been “differences in language, customs, habits of life, tempera ments, and even from sectionalism and other such outward matters.Some of the leaders felt that continued dis cussion of the school question would lead to a break in the Conference.^ Just ten years after the first students had entered the school for instruction it was closed and the bulbing sold. K a u f m a n , 1 ^ Krehbiel, *^6 Smith, ^ 7 and Hartzler^^ agree that the. School was not a failure. Years later some of the leading minister and missionaries in the Conference had received their training at the Wadsworth School.^ 9 «The institution had, therefore, fulfilled the highest expecta tions; the School had given the churches in the Conference the opportunity to work in a common cause. It had served n 200 as a training in given and in working together. Al- 3-9 2C. Henry Smith, The Story of the Mennonites, p. 6S>7. 193h. p. Krehbiel, og. cit. , p. 225. 19Void. , p. 22b. ^^Edmund George Kaufman, og. cit., p. 96. 19°H. P. Krehbiel, og. cit., pp. 270-71. 197John Ellsworth Hartzler, og. clt., p. 13M-. 19°c. Henry Smith, The Story of the Mennonites, p. 159Ited., p. 131 ! - f. ^George Edmund Kaufman, og. clt., p. 9^. 290 though the General Conference never again attempted the estab lishment of another school^ distri ct conferences did, and their experiences will be discussed on the following pages. The Halstead Seminary.— After the school at Wads worth was closed by the General Conference, sitting in spe cial session on December 2, 1877, “ the Conference passed a number of resolutions, one of which is rather significant here. Be it resolved that the Mission Board be instructed to re-establish the school at some more convenient place, according to the constitution adapted by the Conference for the Wadsworth School. All the equipment now at Wadsworth shall be transferred to the new school after its location has been determined. Additional needed equipment shall be provided through voluntary contribu tions. 201 This resolution indicates that the General Conference was not abandoning her school project— merely moving it to another location. However, three-quarters of a century have passed and no Conference school has been re-established. Only the imagination can visualize how the Wadsworth School would have grown into a modern university if the first grow ing pains had been viewed with patience and hope— a school the Mennonites would be proud to claim. Even before the school at Wadsworth was closed some of the Mennonite churches in Kansas, which were affiliated with the General Conference of the Mennonite Church of North 201H. P. Krehbiel, o£. clt., p. 263. 291 America, began to discuss the establishment of their own school. The great distance from Kansas to Wadsworth, Ohio, had been a deterring factor to any possible growth of inter est in a school so far away. The following pages describe the experiences of the Kansas Conference of Mennonites in their attempt to establish a Conference school of their own. At the first Kansas Conference of Mennonites, which met November 1^, 1877, “ the need for a Fortbildungs-Sohule (11Continuation School11) was discussed. A committee was cre ated to formulate a plan and to make recommendations for the establishment of such a school and to report at the next meeting. At the second meeting of the Conference, held in November 6-7, 1873, appointed committee made the follow ing recommendations which the Conference adopted; 1. Since present conditions do not yet permit the selection of a location for the proposed Fortblldungs- Schule, it is recommended, in order that fThe school may he begun, that the Conference accept one of the invita tions extended by several churches which have available buildings for such a school. It would be possible to rotate the school in the various communities so that each would become acquainted with it. In the meantime the Conference could find a satisfactory location. 2. It is recommended that the Conference consider Heinrich Ewert, who is willing to serve his Conference when he has completed his training, to teach in the school. As soon as the English and German departments require two teachers, it is recommended that Hermann Lenzman, a teacher in the G-nadenberg, Russia, (school) be asked to teach the German courses, provided, of course, he immigrates to America. 3. When, through God's blessings, the school has grown in enrollment so that two teachers are necessary, the construction of a dormitory be undertaken to house the students. * 1 - . It is recommended that a treasurer be elected who 292 shall receive contributions in order to build up a school fund* 202 In the course of the discussion of these recommenda tions the Committee suggested to the Conference that Newton, Kansas, would be a suitable location for the school* It suggested further that a building be constructed as soon as $2,000 had been collected for that purpose* No significant progress was reported at the next two annual conferences. At the fifth Kansas Conference of Men nonites, which met in lggl* the Committee reported that $2,*1-11 had been collected. It alsoppointed out that some opposition existed in various places. MThis, the Committee suggested, could best be overcome by the successful opera tion of the proposed new school. The efforts of the Mennonites of Kansas to establish an institution of higher learning were now beginning to bear fruit* Progress, even though slow, was evident* A beginning seemed possible. Funds were available, a teacher was now in prospect, and the greatest obstacle now was finding suitable quarters for the school, but here, too, doors opened suddenly and unexpectedly. A special session of the Fifth Kansas Conference was called to meet in the Alexanderwohl community on March 16, 1882. The occasion for the call was an offer by the Emmantal brethren, a group of the Alexanderwohl community, of a building in which the new enterprise might make a begin ning: a humble, beginning, it is true, but nevertheless a beginning. 20k- The Conference considered the offer favorably and 202 Ibid. , p. 19. ^°*^P. J. Wedel, op. clt *, p. 16. poH- Lo g. clt. 293 instructed the school committee to make all the necessary arrangements for the opening of school. In September 1^ of that year twenty-one students enrolled, coming from nine different congregations and from three different states. Table XBT is a copy of the daily class schedule or Stundenplan, which was used in what was now the Emraental SciSaool. The wide range of subjects is significant. Al though the curriculum was elementary, it included Bible in struction, languages, history, natural sciences, music, and art. It emphasized the cultural education as well as the strictly religious. Wedel says, "It was well-adapted to the needs of the times."^0^ 207 The Emmental School, ' which was to be but a tempor ary arrangement, was so promising in its first year of oper ation that the prospects for a larger enrollment and the need for more teachers led the school committee to consider moving the school to larger quarters elsewhere for the next school year. At various committee meetings offers from Newton, Kan sas, and Halstead, Kansas, to furnish adquate buildings for the school were considered. The school committee decided to accept the offer from Halstead. An agreement was entered in to by the school committee and the Halstead School Building Association, which had been formed for the purpose of con structing a building for the Conference school in case it 2°5ibia., p. 17. 2o6loq. cit ,2®'For a comprehensive description of the Emmental TABLE X IV STUNDENPLAN OF THE EIvIMATAL FORTBILDUNGS-SCHULE, 1^S2-1SS3 H. H. EWERT, TEACHER Stunden lontag Dienstag Mittwoch Donnerstag Freltag 2:30 Kirehenge- schichte Bibelkunde Kirchenge- schichte Bibelkunde Kirchenge- schichte 9:05 Deutsche Grammatik Zeichnen Deutsche Grammatik Zeichnen Deutsche Grammatik 9t30 Englisehe Lesen, Klasse I Englisch Lesen Klasse I Aufsatz # Englisch Lesen Klasse I Englisch Lesen Klasse I 9:^5 Englisch Lesen Klasse II Englisch Lesen Klasse II Englisch Lesen Klasse II English Lesen Klasse II 10:00 English Lesen Klasse III Englisch Lesen Klasse III Aufsatz English Lesen Klasse III Englisch Lesen Klasse III 10:20 Dietando wSrter Zerlegung wftrter Zerlegung wSrter Zerlegung W^rter Zerlegung 10:50 Englisehe Grammatik Englisehe Grammatik Geschichte Ver. Staten EngLische Grammatik Engli sehe Grammatik I i t t a g 1:35 Biblische Geschichte Bible Lesen Biblisehe Geschichte Bibel Lesen Biblische Geschichte 2:10 Welt Geschichte Welt Geschichte Welt Geschichte Welt Geschichte felt Geschichte 2:50 Rechnen Klasse II Geographie Rechnen Klasse II Geographie Rechnen Klasse II 3:30 Gesang Schreiben Gesang Schreiben Gesang From Peter Penner, Beatrice, Nebraska, former student in the Emmatal School, who preserved the above copy of the Stundenplan (Daily Schedule) 295 20 S should locate there. The agreement stated that the Con ference was to keep the building in repair and pay the in surance for five years after which new arrangements would be made. On September 16, 1S&3, new building was dedicated and a few days later the Halstead Seminary enrolled its first fifteen students. Within a few weeks the student body had grown to thirty-seven with prospects for more.^ The ques tion of admitting girls to the School became an issue in the Conference. At the seventh annual conference it was decided to enroll a few girls for a year on a trial basis. In his report to the school committee at the close of the school year 1S&6-1887 Ewert, who acted as principal of the School, summarized the work of the Halstead Fortbildungs- Schule: during its first five years of operation: It is a blessing from God that He is still bringing young men and young women to our school into whose hearts we have been permitted to sow good seed. One hundred and sixty-three students have attended our school during the past five years. At the founding of the school the desire was strongly expressed that teachers should be trained for our churches and district schools. To this undertaking G-od gave His blessings. Two years ago we were permitted to send out the first class of six students, and since then seven others have followed, all of whom have passed the county School, the reader is invited to read P. J. Wedel, uBeginnings of Secondary Education in Kansas,’ 1 Mennonite Life, III (Octo ber, 19^-g), pp. 14-17. 20&The agreements are listed in the Committee Report to the Seventh Kansas Conference of Mennonites. Abdruck der G-esamt-Protokolle der Kansas und Westlichen Distrikt-Kcnferenz der Mennoniten von~Hord Amerlka, l8Y7~^9Q9> pp. 57“5^* gQ9lbld., p. 59. 296 teachers examinations and are, in general, much in demand as teachers in our settlements. Besides these there are a number of former students who left our Fortbildungs- Schule and entered the work of teaching before they fin ished the entire course. Thus, in all, there are about twenty-four of our students now actively engaged in teach ing. That, certainly, must be considered a blessing. Another important function of the School was the train ing of workers for the mission fields. Also in this ser vice it has pleased God to use our School. Our mission employs three teachers and one missionary all of whom were former students in our School. They work with love and devotion at the saving of heathen shrouded in dark ness. In contrast to this, many apprehensions have not come true. The fear that we would at great expense train teachers who would go into banking or some other type of business was often expressed. It must be pointed out that such has not been the case, neither individually nor in general. It was also feared that the School would become a kind of preacher factory, that the young men coming from our School would impose themselves as preachers. It may be said and gladly hoped for that among our former stu dents some will heed the call of the Lord to work in His vineyard. It is also hoped that another aim expressed at the founding of the School will be realized, namely, that the churches may later find men prepared for the min istry. Until now there has been no outside determining influence at work upon our former students. Such of our former students who feel.the inner call to the ministry hold themselves in quiet waiting until the call shall come to them directly from the churches. Such and similar fears that our school would have a disintegrating influ ence upon our church life have not been substantiated. Of course, notwithstanding the good influence of our School which is already felt, there is still much lacking in our School, and we pray to God continuously for more wisdom, efficiency, and sincerity. The blessings which we have received shall not serve us for self-satisfaction in what has been accomplished. When we see how the Lord has blessed us, we should begin anew with renewed joy, with more sacrifice, and with more wholehearted devotion to push this pleasing and blessed work of the Lord. Humbly yours, Q H. H. Ewert 210ibia.; pp. 107-iog 297 Life for the students at the Halstead Fortbildungs- Schule was rather rigidly prescribed. Ewert set up a set of rules which the Conference sanctioned. According to the rules a student spent his day in the following manner: 5:30 Rising bell 7:30 Breakfast following by the morning devotion 7:^5-10:00 Recitations 1:00 Lunch 1:30-5:00 Study 5:00-7:00 Clean-up period, errands to town, etc. 7:00 Supper followed by the evening devotion 7:30"10*00 Study 10:00 Lights out. For several years the Halstead Fortbildungs-Schule served not only the Mennonites and such non-Mennonites as enrolled in its courses, but it became also an Indian School. The Kansas Conference of Mennonites had established a mission among Indians in Oklahoma, and Indian children from this mission were brought, to Halstead to be educated. Since the United States Government paid #150 each year toward the edu cation of every child, no additional financial burden was in volved. Experience, however, showed that it was not practical to combine a preparatory school for Mennonite 3 /bung men and women with one for Indian children. In 16>S7 this arrangement was discontinued and the Indian children were instructed in a private school set up for that purpose until IS96, when the Government terminated all Indian contract schools. After the Halstead Fortbildungs-Schule had operated 211ibia., p. 59. 29& for a few years, it faced a number of specific problems, and the well-being and future of the school depended upon the satisfactory solution of these problems. Probably the most disturbing problem was that of adequate financial support. The school was not self-supporting. The income from tuition fees of $2.50 per month from each student left a large defi cit in the treasury. The various churches in the Conference were asked to collect money and receive gifts to help meet the current expenses of the School. The need for an endow ment fund was recognized as essential. Another problem concerned the need for an extension of the curricular offerings. Although completion of the eighth grade was a requirement'for entrance into the School, many of the students enrolled without meeting the educational requirement. The curriculum was thus, necessarily, elementary and limited. Students desiring a more advanced education were unable to obtain it. A permanent location for the School had never been fully agreed upon, and adequate building had never been pro vided for classes and living quarters. Although the agree ments with the Halstead School Building Association, which owned the buildings the school occupied, had been satisfactory, real growth and stability could not be achieved until the School could be housed in its own buildings, ? , In the English department there was a new teacher 299 2 1 2 nearly every year.w Every new teacher necessitated a change in 1he curricular program. This constant turnover also proved to be a serious handicap to the growth and de velopment of the School. Since Mennonite teachers quali fied to teach in the English department were few, at that time, each recurring vacancy was hard to fill. H. H. Ewert, who acted as principal and taught the courses in the German department, remained with the school for eight years. It was largely through his fine, tactful leadership that the school operated in the midst of so many obstacles. In 1&91 k© resigned to accept the urgent call to assume the leadership of the new Mennonite school at Gretna, Manitoba.21* ^ 'After Ewert left the School, even the princi pal ship changed every year until the School was closed in 1S93. After the Halstead Fortbildungs-Schule had operated five years, the invitation to locate the School permanently in Newton, Kansas, was renewed. The invitation was accompanied by an offer of $100,000. Those promoting to move the School to Newton were also in favor of converting the school into a college. At a special session of the Conference, held in April, 18&7> “ the offer from Newton was carefully considered. 212H. P. Peters, op. cit., p. 77. \f. Chapter VI, -g, 390. 300 The following decision was reached; The Conference accepts the Newton offer with the understanding that an association of brethren will be formed that will assume all responsibilities of the Newton project in all its details and that will incor porate, build, and operate the Betehl College. The school at Halstead shall maintain its preparatory course and serve to prepare students for Bethel College. Bethel College may solicit funds among the Conference churches as well as the Preparatory School at Halstead.214 Five years later Bethel College was ready to open its doors to students. When at the close of the school term, 1£>92-1893, *kwo teachers at the Halstead School submitted their resignation in order to take up teaching assignments in Bethel College, the Halstead Fortbildungs-Schule ended ten years of instruction and was merged into Bethel College. The Elkhart Institute*— The largest branch of the Mennonite Church is the General Mennonite Conference, commonly called the Old Mennonites. They are almost exclus ively of Pennsylvania origin and are, undoubtedly, entitled to the claim that they are the main body from which all O ') C L other branches departed. Although the Old Mennonites in the main have adopted a rather progressive program of church activities, they still remain quite conservative in upholding many of the traditional religious and social practices and cus toms of by-gone days.217 p i h Abdruck der Gesamt-Protokolle der Kansas und Westlichen Distrikt-Konferenz der Mennoniten von NorcF^ Am eri k a, p * ' i Q l. ^^It is necessary to call attention that there is a distinction between the G-eneral Mennonite Conference and the G-eneral Conference of MennonTTes of North America 21^C* Henry Smith, THe Story of the Mennonites, p. 61^. 217ibia., p. 6194 301 Before the beginning of the present century, some of the leaders in the G-eneral Mennonite Conference became disturbed that so many young people from their churches at tended academies and colleges and then, very often, united with the denominations sponsoring the schools which they at tended. HA young Mennonite who ventured into the field of higher education almost invariably found himself out of sym- Pl$ pa thy and out of favor with his Mennonite friends.*1 In order to bring some change into the discouraging situation John S. Coffman, an evangelist, John F. Funk, an. editor, and others began to urge the building of a school that would provide the kind of higher education the church could accept and approve. In August, 1^9^, Dr. H. A.Mumaw, a practicing physi cian, was encouraged by some of the church leaders to organ ize a private institution at Elkhart, Indiana. These leaders promised to support the venture and to encourage young people in the church to attend it. Dr. Mumaw had previously attempted to organize such a school, once in Nappanee and twice in Elkhart. His new school under the name, Elkhart Institute, was con ducted for some time in the G. A. H. Hall in Elkhart. Although the opening day, August 21, 12)9*1-, brought only four students, the spring term began on march 2§, 1S> 95, with an enrollment of eighty-five.219 21gpjf tieth Anniversary Goshen College (18>95“19^5), Published' by t he Facul ty o t Go she n College, Go shen, Indiana, April, 19^5, P. 5- 219rbid., p. 5. 302 In the spring of 1&95 & group of fifteen ministers and laymen organi zed a corporation known as the Elkhart In stitute Association, which assumed the responsibilities of the Elkhart Institute begun by Mumaw the previous year. Dur ing that summer the Association erected a building contain ing seven classrooms, an assembly hall, and two offices* During the first few years most of the students at tended irregularly for periods of ten to twenty weeks. Students could enter at any time and offerings were arranged to suit the demand. Chief emphasis was on short business or secretarial courses and a review of the elementary school subjects by prospective teachers in preparation for the county teachers examinations.220 In 1£>9& N. E. Byers, a young Mennonite who had re cently graduated from Northwestern University, was elected to the principalship of the School. Being interested in the liberal arts type of education he reorganized the curricu- 2P1 lum completely. Students graduating from his Latin- scientific course had completed the equivalent of a four- year high school course and the first year of college. Gradually the school grew in the estimation of the people, became more liberally patronized, and assumed more 222 and more the form of a de no mi national school.1 1 As the enrollment grew, it was soon realized that the newly con- 220Ibid., pp. 5-6. 221Ibld., p. 6. pop J. S. Hartzler and Daniel Kauffman, Mennonite Church History (Scottdale, Pennsylvania: Mennonite Book and Tract Society, I905), P* 3&0. 303 structed building was too small* In 1902 a committee was appointed to Investigate the possibilities of obtaining more suitable quarters. Several offers were considered. When Goshen, Indiana, offered to donate $10,000 to the Institu tion if it would be moved there, that offer was accepted. During the summer of 1903 a new building was constructed. The Elkhart Institute building was sold to the Mennonite Brethren in Christ, who were planning to open a school in that Conference. In June, 1903> ^ e Elkhart Institute Association was dissolved and the affairs of the school passed Into the hands of the Mennonite Board of Education, which is an ppL organization sponsored by the Mennonite General Conference. The Elkhart Institute, which had operated for eight years, passed out of existence, and in its place Goshen College came into being. During the short period of its existence the Elk hart Institute made an unusually large contribution to progress and effective service in the Old Conference. Ministers and missionaries, school teachers and profes sional men, in goodly numbers have been the finished product. The Institution had proved itself worthy of becoming a larger and more far-reaching institution which it did in Goshen College.225 ^^John Ellsworth Hartzler, ojd. cit. , p. 1^3* poll D. A. Yoder, “Mennonite Board of Education,” Mennonite Yearbook and Directory, Ellrose D. Zook Editor (Scottdale, Pennsylvania: Mennonite Publishing House), XXXIX, l6. j0hn Ellsworth Hartzler, op. cit., p. 1*4-3. 3cA Central Mennonite College.— The G-eneral Conference of the Mennonite Church of North America, which promoted the establishment of the Wadsworth School, is subdivided Into six district conferences, all separate from each other. These six conferences are the Eastern District, Middle District, Northern District, Pacific District, Canadian District, and the Western District Conferences. The Middle District Conference was organized in 1S6S. Its member churches are located in the states of Illinois, Ohio, Iowa, and Missouri. Central Mennonite College was an educational project of this Conference. The establishment of the Wadsworth School had awakened in the Mennonites of the United States a consciousness of the need of a school offering higher education according to the Mennonite ideals. The closing of that school had "left some 226 of the men with restless conscience." The values seen in Mennonitism were too great to be lost for want of a school. In IS93 a corporation composed of Mennonites estab lished Bethel College, at Newton, Kansas. This institution enjoyed the approval and support of the Western District Conference. But Bethel College was located on the western frontier as far as the Mennonite centers were concerned. The churches in the Middle and Eastern District Conferences John Ellsworth Hartzler, ojd. cit. , p. 151. 305 1 1 felt a serious need of a collegiate institution further east. «22? At the annual session of the Middle District Conference, which was held in Missouri, N. C. Hirschy, a p p g promising young minister from Wadsworth, Ohio, read a paper on the topic, “What Can the Middle District Conference Do for the Educational Interests of Our Denominati on? “ 22^ Hirschy contended that the Conference ought to estabLish its own school. The address aroused little or no discussion, but the Conference passed a resolution to the effect that the time for action on the school issue had not come and that the; young folk who were interested in higher education be urged to attend Bethel College.2^0 “Interest in a college for the Middle District grad ually increased.”2^ At the IS96 annual session of the Con ference a committee was appointed to study the question and make reports to the Conference.2*^2 This committee met in 22?Lo c . cit. C. Henry Smith and E. J. Hirschler, oj>. cit. , p. 3^. 22^Report of the Conference in the Bundesbote, Novem ber, 1, , ;p*. 60 ♦ 2^C. Henry Smith and E. J. Hirschler, ojd. clt., p. 25. 2*^2Report of the Conference in the Bundesbote, De cember 10, 1S96. Bluff ton, Ohio, January, 1697> and drew up plans for the es- 211 tablishment of a college. How in the world a conference of twelve churches with an approximate membership of 3,000, many of the churches small and weak, had the courage to launch out on so dif ficult and farreaching a task is almost staggering; the more so since the G-eneral Conference, as a whole, had failed in its effort to maintain the Wadsworth school on a smaller scale. Had such daring courage, or dare we call it faith, a parallel in history?23^ In July, 1697, Hirschy and I. A. Sommers, an editor and minister, unofficially contacted the leading promotors of the Elkhart Institute, which the Old Mennonites had been operating for two years, to see what possibilities there were for the Middle District Conference to unite its efforts with that school. r , It soon became evident that the proposi tion found little welcome at this time........ The time for such a larger united effort had not come.,,^ 5 With each succeeding conference the realization of a school for the Middle District became more hopeful. At the 1697 session the Conference enlarged its school committee from three to seven members and instructed it to decide on a location, secure funds, and submit full plans at the next 233c. Henry Smith and E. J. Hirschler, o£. cit., p. 26. 2^\|QC. cit. ^^Artlcle in the Herald of Truth, August 1, 1697. 307 annual session of the Conference* 2-^ The Conference elected a Board of Trustees composed of nine members. They were given permission to create funds and erect the first building. "The next Conference .... marked no definite progress other than the adoption of a somewhat lengthy con stitution, which proved later to be a cart before the horse, . . . . ”2^7 November 5> 1900, was set as the day for the formal opening and the enrollment of the first students. Only six years had been required to convert dreams into reality. Dur ing these years the Conference had chosen a location, raised the necessary funds, erected a building, and selected a staff of teachers. Only time could furnish cherished traditions, loyal alumni, and a maturity in administrative methods. Hope and concern for the school's future welfare were the two dominant themes in the new Presidents message at the opening. This is a modest beginning on a very small scale. We are not a university and probably never shall be. Neither can we claim to be a college. All we may rightly and truthfully claim to be is an academy. It is ours at the beginning to lay foundations. It behooves us to lay the foundations firm and broad so that the superstructure may have a strong support. Ours is the humbler task, but not the less important. Thoroughness should be written over every classroom door and should characterize every teacher and student. It will fall to other hands to rear 2^Conference report in The Mennonite, January, 1$9S. 23?C. Henry Smith and E. J. Hirschler, op. cit., pp. 30-31. 308 the edifice of the future of our school. Results will he ours only in a small part. When we have laid the foundation, we must learn to come face to face with truth, fearlessly to embrace it, and resolutely to live in every day. It may require years of hard and earnest toil to bring our ideals to light, but they will appear. In matters of the intellect let us be modest, in the presence of higher institutions and greater learning, but in matters of righteousness let us be firm and right with G-od, true to the high ideals represented here, and to the highest conception of truth and virtue.23$ Central Mennonite College never became a true col lege as its name implied. The first courses on the colleg iate level were offered in 1903. Two years later a junior- college department was made available. Owing to the finan cial limitations which made It possible to engage only a few full-time teachers, the enrollment in the college division remained small. The school remained predominantly an academy throughout its existence. Adequate financial support for Central Mennonite College was "small for the work undertaken, but large for the small constituency.1 1 running expenses cf the School were met by funds given by the churches in the Confer ence and by individuals interested in the welfare of the Institution. "The one great marvel if it all Is not that a financial crisis came, but that the work of the College ^^Address reproduced in the Berne Witness, November 21, 1900. Cited by C. Henry Smith and E. J. Hirschler, op. cit., pp. 35-36. -*°G. Henry Smith, and E. J. Hirschler, op. clt. , p. 77. 309 pilQ could be done at all with the funds available.’ 1 Central Mennonite College faced other difficult problems. Since all the teachers in the school had by neces sity received most of their education in some non-Mennonite school, the leaders of the churches expressed uncertainty as to the spirituality of the College. They questioned pki some of the textbooks; they misunderstood some of the pkp lectures. By 1910 there were three Mennonite schools offering courses on the college level. Only one, Goshen College, gave a full college course. Each of the three colleges was being sponsored by a different Mennonite Conference. Thi s left the other church groups without any provision for higher education. These groups were too .small to maintain their own colleges, yet most of them realized the need for training their own young people. A desire for cooperation among some of the branches began to grow. On May 29, 1913# representatives from the Mennonite Brethren in Christ, the Central Conference of Mennonites, the Defenseless Mennonites, the Old Mennonltes, and the General Conference,Mennonites held a meeting at Warsaw, Indiana, where they discussed a plan to cooperate in their efforts in the work of higher education. The 2iK)Loo. clt. 2^l ~ 1I’ bld. , p. g6. ^ hbia., p. 50. 3X0 following resolution was adopted: RESOLVED, That it is the sense of this meeting that an institution he established, representing the various branches of the Mennonite church, giving the undergrad uate and the graduate work of a standard college (courses leading to the A. B. and the A. M. degrees), the theologi cal and Biblical work of a standard seminary and courses in music aiming at the thorough., development of the musical, ability of our people and meeting the needs of our chur ches, "3 The meeting agreed further that the proposed educa tional institution should be established in connection with one of the three Mennonite colleges already functioning. A board of directors was organized to proceed with the proposed plans. The first meeting of the board of directors was held in Chicago, June 2^, 19X3* After some consideration it was decided that the proposed school should be established in connection with Central Mennonite College, The name of the new undertaking was to be Bluffton College and Mennonite Seminary. In January, 191^, the boards of directors of both Central Mennonite College and the new Bluffton College and Mennonite Seminary met for the purpose of transferring all the property of Central Mennonite College over to the new insti tution. With that meeting Central Mennonite College, which . had functioned from 1900 to 19X3 passed from the educational scene. The Mennonite Brethren In Christ Seminary and Bible Training School.— The Mennonite Brethren in Christ branch of 2^ibia., p. 119.. 311 the church is the result of a series of fusions of four small llkeminded groups, three of which had seceded from the parent body for similar reasons, namely, a more evangel istic and emotional type of religious life* The unification process was completed in . The Mennonite Brethren in Christ movement being from the start largely evangelistic, some other inter ests were left somewhat in the rear. * tile neg lected problems was that of education. At the general conference session, held April, 1SS2, the following resolution was submitted by the churches in Ontario; "RESOLVED, That we recommend to the G-eneral Con ference that there be a course of reading adopted for the ministry."2*^ This resolution led to the appointment of a committee which selected a list of books that became standard reading for in-service training for the ministers. At the G-eneral Conference held in 1900 the question of a Bible training school was considered and referred to the Committee on Foreign Mission. After the committee had met separately, it made the following recommendation; "RE SOLVED, That the subject of a training School be left to the piiA discretion of each district conference." pklL Jasper Abraham Huffman, History of the Mennonite Brethren in Christ Church (New Carlisle, OhTo; The Bethel Publishing Company, 1$20), p. 811 *. ^^Report of the conference, G-ospel Banner, May 1, 1SS2. pliA 1 ^ , G-eneral Conference Minutes, pp. 2%-47, cited by Jasper Abraham Huffman, op. clt. , p. 215. 312 That following fall the Indiana and Ohio District Conference of the Mennonite Brethren in Christ Church opened a Bible Training School in Elkhart, Indiana. After operating the school for two years at that place, it was moved to Goshen, Indiana and continued there for one year. In 1903 " f c * 1© Elkhart Institute Association b u i l d i n g 2 ^ was purchased by the Conference and the Bible Training School moved back from Goshen to Elkhart. The school was renamed The Mennonite Brethren in Ghrist Seminary and Bible Training School. A new organization was set up for the administration of the new institution. The school offered an ”Intermediate Department,” giv ing a standard, elementary program; an ”Academic Department” offering a four-year high school course; and a ”Bible De partment.” The teaching staff consisted of six members. The Seminary operated only one year. ”Some of the constituency within the Conference withheld support, and some prominent persons in other conferences gave the school active pit g opposition and the institution closed.” What had promised to develop into an adequate training institution for the young people in the Mennonite Brethren in Christ Church came to a close. The German Department in McPherson College.— Two other branches that manifested an interest in higher educa 2^ 0f. p. 303. 2^-S Jasper Abraham Huffman, og. olt. , p. 216 . 313 tion soon after their arrival in the United States in 1S7^ were the Mennonite Brethren and the Krimmer Mennonite Breth ren. These two groups are offshoots from the main Mennonite stem. Both trace their history bach to Russia. Beginning about 1S60 a rather strong reaction against the formal, Ritualistic, and unemotional religious life of the mother church resulted in a number of small dissatisfied factions which withdrew and set up their own church bodies. In 18>8>5 a ^ew school-minded men formed an association with the firm hopes of establishing a school when such an undertaking would become possible. The privations and hard ships of pioneer life on the Kansas prairies, intermingled with misunderstandings and distrust tended to discourage the activities of the association^*^ at first. The association held quarterly meetings in order to promote and nurture a school spirit among its membership. The quarterly assessment of #2 per member were paid very irregularly into the Associa tion treasury. The Association planned to create a fund to be used later for the establishment of a school. The Association assumed the responsibility of sup porting P. H. Wedel, a student, at the Rochester Biblical Sem inary, Rochester, New York, with the understanding that he would return, upon completion of his education, and help to ^*9j. Harms, G-eschlchte der Mennoniten Brftderge- meinde (Hillsboro, Kansas: Mennonite" Brethren Publishing Mouse, 192^), p. 331* 31^ establish a school for the Mennonite Brethren churches in Kansas. In IS90 the Conference elected Wedel to full-time evangelistic work and agreed to reimburse the Association for the financial aid given to Wedel!s education. At the Mennonite Brethren Conference held in IS92 the delegates from Nebraska churches urged the Conference to establish a school of higher learning at Henderson, Ne braska. After some consideration It was agreed that the cost of an institution which would meet the demands of the young people was too great to undertake. Long after the Association had dissolved some of Its former members remained actively interested in higher educa tion for their young people. In an unorganized way they be gan to discuss the possibility of an arrangement with McPher son College, a school sponsored by the Church of the Brethren, whereby the Mennonite Brethren and the Krimmer Mennonite Breth ren would maintain an independent department staffed by their own teachers. In such an arrangement students could obtain the German and Bible instruction In the Mennonite Department and, at the same timeutilize the instruction offered by the College in all other courses. A committeerepresenting both branches contacted 25°ibia., p. 332. 251Elder Heinrich Wiebe, of the Krimmer Mennonite Brethren Church, and Heinrich Ratzlaff and J. F. Harms, of the Mennonite Brethren Church. 315 the McPherson College authorities, who extended a warm wel come to such a proposal. The plan was then presented to the next Conference which met in Manitoba in friends of the plan tried to convince the Conference that such an arrangement would not injure the faith of the young people. However, the movement found little support, and it was de cided to let the matter rest for a time. The Kansas supporters of the MqPherson College plan decided to go on with the arrangement in spite of the lack of encouragement from the Conference. A school committee was organized for the purpose of selecting a teacher and raising the necessary funds. After obtaining sufficient encourage ment from some of the leaders in the Kansas churches, the committee proceeded with the plans. J. F. Duerksen was elect ed to serve as teacher in the German Department at a salary of $*K)0, which was to be raised by freewill offerings in the various churches. Eleven Mennonite students enrolled for the first term. By 190^ the enrollment had grown to twenty-five. The rela tionship with McPherson College was, from the beginning, very satisfactory. Both Duerksen and his Mennonite students were happy in the arrangement that had been made.^^ The committee responsible for Duerksen*s salary ex perienced considerable difficulty collecting the necessary Harms, 0£. clt., p. 33^. amounts.. Little by little misunderstandings and criticisms of the whole arrangement became very pronounced. Churches far away felt that the arrangement benefitted only Kansas churches and, therefore, they should also raise all the money. In order to prevent continued friction within the Conference over the school issue the I905 session voted to discontinue Conference support of the G-erman Department. Afraid to continue the program without Conference support the leaders originally responsible for the arrangement de cided to give up the program that had worloed so well. The G-erman Department affiliated with McPherson College operated seven years, during which 2^9 Mennonite students attended.^53 The first attempt on the part of the Mennonite Brethren and the Krimmer Mennonite Brethren had succeeded but not endured. Witmarsum Theological Seminary.--In the closing de cades of the last century the traditional practice of elect ing untrained men into the ministry was beginning to lose its firm hold. Many young people among the Mennonites everywhere were joining the American movement into the high schools and colleges, and so the demands of the pulpit began to change. HIt was not a new Gospel that they are [were] demanding, but more efficient and effective religious direction.1 1 When Central Mennonite College was reorganized in 253jQ] ln Ellsworth Hartzler, o£. clt. , p. 156. 2^xbld. . p. 17^. 317 Bethel College, North Newton, Kansas PLATE XI ONE OF EIGHT MENNONITE COLLEGIATE INSTITUTIONS 313 January, 191^* Bluffton College and Mennonite Seminary emerged in its place. Both the Seminary and the College were parts of the same organization, administered by the same board of trustees. This arrangement caused some to view the Seminary as a department within the College. However, the establishment of the Seminary in con nection with Bluffton College marked the realization of a dream that had been e;xpressed again and again by those who saw the need of that kind of school among the Mennonites. The two schools functioned together from 191^ to 1921. dur ing the first few years the Seminary was not very active. By 1917 Its faculty consisted of three men: J. A. Huffman, J. H. Langenwalter, and P. E. Whitmer. It was frequently urged to make the Seminary an in dependent institution **in order to permit freer cooperation with other Mennonite colleges as well as other branches of the Mennonites and also to enlarge the course of study to include undergraduate Bible courses................jn Decem ber, 1919, a meeting was held at Lima, Ohio, for the purpose of considering the advisability and possibility of setting up an independent seminary. Other meetings were held at Elkhart, Indiana, the following year. Out of these considerations came 25W . , p. 176. ^ 3 , F. Pannabecker, "Scenes from Mennonite Theologi- cal Education,H (Sec. IV, HWitmarsum Theological Seminary1 *) The Mennonite Biblical Seminary Bulletin, IX (December, 1947), pp. 7-^2. 319 the decision to move ahead. A petition was presented to the board of trustees of Bluffton College asking for the separa tion of the Seminary from the College. The petition was granted, and a separate organization was perfected. Like Bluffton College the Seminary was to be a cooperative insti tution among all the Mennonite branches that would like to participate. The first board, which was elected, contained representatives from six different conferences: Old Mennon ite Conference, The G-eneral Conference, Central Mennonites of Illinois, the Mennonite Brethren in Christ, the Mennonite Brethren Conference, and the Defenseless Mennonite Conference. The name of the Seminary at Bluffton College was changed to Witmarsum Seminary.- Wit mar sum was the birthplace of Men no Simon in 14-96. It can be said, in passing, that Mennonites have never overdone the paying of recognition to their founder. Witmarsum Seminary was officially opened to students on September, 1921. A faculty of nine men had been created. The curriculum was composed of three divisions: the three- year graduate course leading to the Bachelor of Divinity de gree, the theological course leading to the Bachelor of theolo gy degree, and the Bible School course leading to a diploma. Witmarsum Seminary operated for ten years, or until June, 1931> “when another attempt at ministerial training ^^witmarsum Seminary Catalog, 1921-1922. 320 came to a tragic end*,,25^ During the ten years 14-2 students had enrolled in its courses* The enrollment, never large, varied from five in the first year to 29 in 19^9. Of the 14-2 students, 31 came from non-Mennonite denominations* Pannabecker has presented, undoubtedly, the most inclusive analysis of the factors that contributed to the closing of the Seminary; What were the reasons for another apparent failure? It was not finances for, though the depression was on, the school was able to close with little debt and with resources available. It was not lack of support for, though the full cooperation of the branches represented was never secured, there was yet a hearty response* It was not due to lack of students for, though the enrollment decreased in the last two years, the decrease was appar ently an effect of the prospect of closing rather than its cause. Each of these may have had its bearing on the final decision to close but a more effective cause probably was the differences in viewpoint as to policy and procedure* Looking back objectively and without reference to personalities the problem of Witmarsum was particularly difficult. Its period of operation was at the height of liberal theology in Protestantism as a whole. Scholars in general were more concerned with critical issues than with the vital message of the Scriptures, while in prac tical work the social gospel overshadowed the message of personal salvation. Furthermore, the easy optimism of the era before and after the first World War undercut the consciousness of guilt and sin so central to Christian thought. Opposed to the current liberalism was a mili tant Fundamentalism* Mennonite teachers trained in the leading seminaries of the pre-war days, therefore, found it difficult to mediate between the two current posi tions— a sterile liberalism and a dogmatic orthodoxy. The problem of Witmarsum Seminary in interpreting the thought of its day to a Mennonite church essentially conservative was almost more than could be met. With a longer history and a more stable development or with a more favorable incidental factors the institution might well have survived.^59 259ibia., pp. g-9. 25%. p. pannabecker, 0£. oit. , p. g. 321 Witmarsum Seminary, like the Wadsworth School, made measurable contributions to Mennonitism. It gave to many churches bet ter-trained ministers. It stimulated the desire for ministerial education. After the closing of both schools, there emerged the general feeling that another attempt must be made to accomplish the ends for which both schools had been founded. The board of trustees of Witmarsum Seminary remained organized and. active. It held annual business meetings in order to administer an endowment fund and property left after the closing of the Seminary. In 19^5 the board surrendered its responsibilities to the organization that had, in the meantime been formed to establish the Mennonite Biblical Seminary at Chicago. With that act Witmarsum Seminary passed from the Mennonite educational scene. TEE CHUHQH^HSLATEQ CQLLSgES ESTAKLISHBB By THS HgiflfOHITBg m THE UHiTg® STATES In the history of American education denominational colleges have played a major role. The founding of these colleges was a part of frontier development. Many of the early pioneer settlements were made by religious groups that; possessed a certain homogeneity of religious convictions. To preserve their religious principles and to maintain their cultural values they established colleges for their children. At first the Mennonites were determined to root 322 Mennonitism firmly in American soil without the provision of collegiate education within their group life. Towards the close of the nineteenth century some of the young men began to attend colleges and universities elsewhere. When many of these men at the end of their college career failed to return to the church under whose wing they had been brought up gen uine concern was expressed over such loss* It finally began to dawn upon a few of the leaders of the denomination that if this process were to con tinue Indefinitely the Mennonites must ever play an insignificant role in the religious world, 26t) Inexperienced leadership, biased opposition, and an unwillingness among the various branches to cooperate with each other served to delay, too long, the development of adequate collegiate institutions among the Mennonites in America. Some of the first ventures to establish such schools failed. Some had to be reorganized and new beginnings made. Each failure, somehow, seemed to lead to a new determination to try again. There are at present eight Mennonite colleges in the United States. Table xy. lists their official names, locations, dates of establishment, the Conferences sponsoring each, and the type of administrative organization. Two of them are of the junior-college rank and four maintain academ ies in connection with the college programs. The Mennonite p^A C. Heniy Smith, The Mennonites of America, p. 399. TABLE XV MENNONITE COLLEGES— THEIR LOCATION, ORGANIZATION, AND CONSTITUENCY Name Location Founded CH w 3 O W -H h * * 0 3 U <D 3 N 0 With. Acad emy Mennonite Branch Form of Control Bethel College North Newton Kansas 1293 if G.C. Corporation Bethel College Mishawake, Indiana 19^7 if M*B,C, Indiana-Ohio-Michigan Conferences, Board of Education Bluffton College Bluffton Ohio 191^ if G.C. Corporation Eastern Mennonite j. College .Harrisonburg Virginia 1917 if + i.e. (Old) Mennonite Confer ence of Virginia Freeman College Goshen College Freeman So, Dak. Goshen Indiana 1903 1903 C V J I. .M. M.C* Corporation, members from churches lo cally (Old) Mennonite Gen eral Conference, Board of Educa tion Hesston College and Bible School Hesston Kansas 1909 2 + M.C, (Old) Mennonite Gen eral Conference, Board of Educ1n Tabor College Hillsboro Kansas 190s k - + tt.B. Board of Education elected by both conferences Abbreviations: G.C.=General Conference; l,B.C.=Iennonite Brethren in Christ; M.C.sMen- nonite Conference; I.M.=1nt er-Mennonite; K,M.B.=Krimmer Mennonite Brethren; M.B.*Mennon- ite Brethren of North America 261 Church has enough colleges. The history of the eight colleges is chiefly a re cord of their struggles to secure a firm foundation upon which they might rest unhesitatingly. All of them are comparative ly young. The oldest, Bethel College (Kansas) was organized in 1893 and ' t^Le youngest, Bethel College (Indiana) was es tablished in 19^7. None have reached the stability that comes with maturity. Finances, equipment, and accreditation are some of the major problems. An editorial, appearing in the Mennonite Quarterly Review presented a rather accurate picture of the conditions in which the Mennonite colleges work; Mennonite higher education as a whole has not yet solved its major problems of objectives, methods, and support; it is still on trial. But it is not only the educational institutions, but the Mennonite Church it self which is on trial The greatest handicap to a happy solution of the total problem of education in the church has been and continues to be the lack of cooperation be tween the educational leaders and the church leaders in solving these problems. Education in the church should not be the concern only of a small specialized group; it must be the concern of the whole church. Nor, if educa tion is primarily to serve the group, should the cost of it be borne by the students who patronize the schools, or by a select circle of supporters. Education, like missions and charities, must be the work of the church. When this ideal is some day achieved, the problems of objectives and methods and support, and all other related problems, can be effectively solved. Then such energy that is now devoted to promotion, to educational propa- 261^0 Mennonite Quarterly Review, editorial, XVI (January, lf^R?), p. 2. 325 ganda, to defense, to fund-raising, can be applied to education itself, with great gain to education as well as to the church.262 Of the sixteen Mennonite bodies^^ in the United 2614- States, only five have been instrumental in bringing the eight colleges into existence. These five branches consti tute about 75 Per cent of the total Mennonite population in the United States. Most of the other eleven bodies are strongly opposed to higher education..^5 No cause among Mennonites has cost more than our colleges. We think not only of material cost, but of the great agony of soul because of geographical re locations, of various misunderstandings, and of ideo- logi cal con f11ct.266 Smith and Hirschler^^sind Wedelagain and again describe in their respective books the difficult, uphill 262Ibld., p. 2. 2®5Cf. Table I, p. 32. The (Old) Mennonite G-eneral Conference, General Conference of the Mennonite Church of North America, the Mennonite Brethren Conference of North America, The United Mission Church (formerly The Mennonite Brethren in Christ), and the Krimmer Mennonite Brethren Conference. 2^5gdmund George Kaufman, The Liberal Arts Colleges frhe Life of the Mennonite Church in America" Address given aTT th e"~World Men nonlte C J onf er e n ce, Aug us t 10, 19^6. 2^6ibia. 2 ^C. Henry Smith and E. J. Hirschler, o£. olt., et passim. 26SP. J. Wedel, "The History of Bethel College" (Un- published manuscript in process of publication, authorized by the board of directors of Bethel College, £t passim. 326 climb higher education was asked to make among the Mennonites. The writer is definitely convinced that only those who have grown up within the group can understand and appreciate the vexatious problems. There are attitudes, folkways, and ideo logies deeply ingrained in the soul of Mennonitism that lie as immovable bodies in the road toward educational progress. If the Mennonite institutions of higher learning have been bought with a price, the following question may right fully be asked: What objectives are these schools hoping to achieve which are not accomplished in any state school? This question is repeatedly being asked by the Mennonite colleges as they plan their programs. Only a satisfactory answer can justify their existence. The eight colleges have never built a common set of objectives. The preservation and perpetuation of their basic religious principles and the Mennonite heritage are the criteria that have defined the specific objectives which each school includes in her annual catalog. In 19*1-1 Paul Mininger, acting dean of the Seminary at Goshen College, presented some of the major objectives which he believed should guide the educational program of the colleges that are maintained by the Mennnonite Church. For any student of edu- ^An address given at the Joint meeting of Mennonite college teachers at Wellman, Iowa, August 25, 19^- Printed in Mennonite Historical Quarterly, XVI (January, 19*1-2), 13-22. 327 cation Mlninger*s list will answer the question, "What are the Mennonite colleges trying to achieve?" 1. $0 build an intelligent Christian faith which is integrated with the student*s understanding of the various fields of knowledge and definitely related to the areas of life in which he will live and work* 2. To give students an enthusiasm for this faith that will lead them to witness to it before the world and defend it against the false beliefs that are current today* 3* To build Christian ideals of personal life and social relationships which will give students an enthus iasm for righteousness in living in the midst of an evil world* To lead students to evaluate and criticize the conventional practices of the society in which they live and to refuse to conform to those practices wherever they conflict with the New Testament standard for the Christian. 5* To help students to interpret the principles of the New Testament and to apply them creatively to the problems which are faced by the Christian today. 6. To help students establish the habit of private worship that is meaningful and vital. 7* To build within students a consciousness of be longing to the Mennonite Church and to lead them to loyal participation in the life and work. 6>. To lead young people to marry within the fellow ship of the church and help them establish and build Christian homes. 9. To guide young people in the selection of a voca tion to which they are suited, to which they can live the Christian life as interpreted by the Mennonite Church and in which they can given an effective witness to their faith. 10. To give prevocational training and vocational training in the fields in which our people can best render their services. 11. To provide trained workers to fill the positions of full-time leadership in the church. 270 ^ Paul Mininger, "Best Methods of Attaining Our Mennonite Educational Objectives," The Mennonite Quarterly Review. XVI (January, 1942), pp. 1^15. 32S The philosophy of higher education in America today is divided into two schools of thought. One school emphasizes the cultural subjects and the other stresses the practical. One gives priority to the liberal arts, the ether to vocational skills: All of the Mennonite colleges have consistently main tained a position between these two extremes. As indi cated by their curriculum offerings, our colleges have a threefold emphasis: (1) liberal arts, or basic cul ture: (2) vocational competence, or how to make a living: and (3) intelligent Christian motivation and devotion.271 Table XVI permits a comparative study of the eight Mennonite colleges. All are comparatively small institutions when their enrollments, teaching staffs and annual budgets are considered. If all the student bodies were combined into one, there would be 2,277 students, not an imposing figure. If all the Mennonites attending college would be enrolled in one of the Mennonite colleges, the total enrollment would be somewhat larger. Pour of the colleges listed include academies as a part of their organization. In these four schools the items dealing with finances, such as the value of plant and equipment, endowment, and budget, are shared by the academic and colle giate departments. There is some overlapping of teachers in these schools, as some teachers instruct in both divisions. C. Kaufman, wThe Liberal Arts College in the Life of the Mennonite Church in America,1 1 address, World Conference, 19^£>, p. 17. TABLE XVI STAFF, STUDENT, AMD FINANCIAL QUANTA IN MENNONITE COLLEGES, NOVEMBER 1, 19^ Financial Aspects* Name of College 0 P 0 © £5 •H 0 £ U •P C J * b o q q 0 9 m 0 0 0 u u a U Q 3 u © 0 < d * h p A 0 a' > X3 XI * H •H O G O 0 0 £* O •p c d a s a J . § 0 0 0 q 0 0 x l N < eh O E h Value of Plant and Equipment Value of Endowment Annual Budget 1943-1949 0 9 u 0 p a a > • H I q Bethel College (Kansas) *Freeman College Goshen College *Tabor College *Hesston College and Bible School Bluffton College *Eastern Mennonite College Bethel College (Indiana) Totals 1893 1903 1903 1908 1909 191J4. 1917 19^7 34 7 38 24 18 25 15 15 13 12 10 2 6 Ik- 12 k 2 *r 1 • • 4 i 1 • * 417 # 45 740 243 622,043 # 161 378 419;726 275,000 615,143 $ 11,147 263,000 5,000 335.000 86,061 482,635 140.000 1.500 1 8.500 976 112 208,500 35,000 131,000 1,185 339 245 136 387,000 462,487 260,000 176,000 2,261 (None) 199,276 245,810 60,000 1,000 1,380 1 176 57 35 2,277 12,796,134 11,107,551 #1,679,782 14,542 *The schools starred (*) maintain academies and active teachers and annual budget includes cost of both college and academy services. 330 The enrollments shown in the Table include only those classi fied as college students. All the other colleges, except Bethel College in Indiana have discontinued the academic departments. A very brief history of the origin and development of the eight Mennonite colleges follows. Only such incidents in their development will be described as may add to a better understanding of collegiate education among the Mennonites. The histories of Bethel College (Kansas)2^2 and Bluffton College2^3 have been written, and little could be added to those histories here. To trace the stories of the other six colleges thoroughly would hardly be within the realm of this study. Bethel College, North Newton, Kansas.— The Halstead Fortbildungs-Schule2^ which was organized and begun by the Kansas Mennonite Conference in lg>€>2, was a forerunner of Bethel College. As such, she exerted certain influences upon the origin of Bethel College and, to a certain extent, upon her early development. The Conference school had, during its eleven years of operation, two locations. During the first year, 1&S2-18>S3* 2^2P. J. Wedel, wThe History of Bethel College,w un published manuscript in process of publication. 273C. Henry Smith and E. J. Hirschler, The Story of Bluffton College. 2 A * . pp..291-300. 331 it utilized the Emmenthal School building near G-oessel, Kan sas. This was to be only a temporary arrangement. From 1&S3 to 1S93 It was located in Halstead, Kansas, where it occupied buildings provided by certain friends of the school in that community. This was to be an arrangement of five years. In the meantime the Conference hoped to find a suit able location and provide the necessary buildings. Newton, Kansas, was bidding for the Institution when the five-year agreement at Halstead was ended. Newton’s offer of $> 100,000, if the school would locate there permanent ly, was considered at a special session of the Conference held in April, 1S57* In order to get the Conference to ac cept the offer, it was recommended by those favoring Newton as the new location that a school be organized there itiich would be administered by an association foimied for that pur pose. ^ 5 This recommendation was accepted by the Conference, arid it formulated the following resolution: Be it understood that the Conference as such and the different churches of the Conference by their vote for the building of a new school at Newton, Bethel College, have taken no financial responsibility for it nor have they resigned any responsibility for the Halstead Fort- bUdungs-Sohule. The construction and the cost of opera tion of the new Bethel College shall in no way be considered the responsibility of the Conference. The two shall be considered as two separate institutions. The two schools shall supplement each other in the task of improving the educational situation among the churches. 27© J. Wedel, "The History of Bethel College,■ un- published manuscript, p. 1^3. ^ ^ Abdruck der G-esamt-Protokolle der Kansas und West- llchen Distrikt-Konferenz der Mennonlteri von Word Amerlka, p, 101. 332 An association was accordingly formed and incorpora ted* In the charter granted by the State of Kansas the school was given the name, Bethel College of the Mennonite Church of North America at Newton, Harvey County, Kansas. Five years later, IS93, a new "building was ready for us, and, when the teachers of the Halstead Fortbildungs-Schule left to join the new faculty at Bethel College, the school at Halstead was closed "temporarily" for lack of teachers. It was never re opened. Bethel College would never have been born but for the vision and patient labors of David Goerz. He was one of the ablest leaders among the Mennonites in Kansas at that time. Coming to America one year before the great 1S7^ immigration from Russia, he served as secretary of the Board of Guardians, which helped nearly fifteen thousand Mennonites settle in a New World. After this work was completed he served as teach er, editor, minister, businessman, Conference secretary, and organizer of a long list of Mennonite institutions of which Bethel College was one. Only because of his understanding of the "peculiarities1 1 of his brethren was he able to achieve so much. Recognizing the impossibility of developing the Conference school at Halstead, which he had helped to found, into a Mennonite college, he became the guiding spirit that promoted the establishment of Bethel College.He served Thierstein, "David Goerz," Mennonitlsches Lexikon, II, Im Selbstverlag der Herausgeber" Christian Hege und Christian Neff (Frankfurt am Main und Weierhof (Pfalz), 1913), PP. 131-132. 333 as business manager and secretary of the board of directors until his retirement in 1911. The first presidency of Bethel College was held by C. H. Wedel from 1$93 ^0 1910* A scholarly, well-trained, and masterful teacher, he built a "soul1 1 into the School which she has never lost. “The Conference took frequent and favorable action during the Wedel administration.”^ ^ During the first decade the curriculum consisted of three departments, the preparatory for students who had not completed the elementary school, the academy or high school, and the college course. In time both the preparatory and the academic courses were discontinued. The Bethel College Corporation of the Mennonite Church of North America owns and controls the school. Votes in the Corporation, issued for each #100-contribution, are limited to Mennonites of whatever denomination and are held by indi viduals, congregations, various district conferences and the General Conference as such. The board of directors, consist ing of thirteen members, are elected for a term of six years at the annual meeting of the Corporation. Bethel College has functioned continuously since 1S93* t f During its history over 7,000 persons have been enrolled and nearly 1,000 have graudated with the bachelor* s degree. 2^Abdruck der Gesamt-Protokolle der Kansas und West- llchen Dlstrlkt-Konferenz der Men noni ten von Nord Amerika, pp. 157 et seqq. 2^Ed. G. Kaufman, “The Liberal Arts College in the 33^ Bethel College, Mishawaka, Indiana.— The newest mem ber in the family of Mennonite colleges is Bethel College at ^ Mishawaka, Indiana. It was organized by the Indiana Confer ence of the United Missionary Church (formerly the Mennonite Brethren in Christ). Since 19^7 Ohio and Michigan Con ferences have also assumed shares in the support and control of the school. The United Missionary Church had two previous exper iences in higher education. In 1903 ‘ kk® Indiana and Ohio Conferences established the Mennonite Brethren in Christ Sem- og* o inary and Bible Training School at Elkhart, Indiana. It operated one year. HDespite the excellent beginning made by the school, the session of 1903-190^ was the last.” In 1913 the Middle District Conference of the General Conference Mennonites proposed cooperation in education in such branches of the Mennonites as desired to sponsor a college. They pro- 2S2 posed to turn over the Mennonite Central College, located at Bluffton, Ohio, then a junior college, to a new board composed of three representatives from each of the branches participating. The new school was to be called Bluffton College and Mennonite Seminary. Three branches united in the Life of the Mennonite Church of America,” address, Mennonite World Conference, 19^8, p. o. 2g00f. pp. 310-312. 2 J. A. Huffman, 0£. clt., p. 216. 2g2ibia., p. 219. 335 movement officially and two more connected unofficially* The Indiana and Ohio Conference gave its endorsement to the plan and elected three representatives to the board of directors. Later the Michigan Conference also joined the organization. At the I9W Indiana Conference of the United Mission ary Church a resolution was passed to the effect that a Bible school and college be organized by the Conference and that other sectional Conferences be invited to participate. Com mittees were appointed to investigate the possibilities for the founding of such a school. The purchase of land for a campus was officially ra tified by the 19^6 Indiana Conference and a board of direc tors was elected with the instructions to secure the inicorpor* ation, president, a staff of teachers, buildings, and the necessary organization to administer a college adequately. Throughout the sum me r of 19^7 'the building program proceeded until facilities to house 75 students, five faculty families, offices, library, classrooms, and chapel were completed. The first students were enrolled in September, 19^7* By Novem ber the enrollment had grown to 9°- As shown in Table XVI the enrollment in November, 194-g, increased to 136 students. Bethel College offers courses in three divisions: the liberal arts course, a music course, and a Bible course. Because of the newness of the College, material and curricu lar facilities are still limited. Bluffton College, Bluff ton, Ohio.— In 191^- Bluff ton 336 College arose out of the reorganization of Central Mennonite College,which had operated since 1900. Five different branches of Mennonites had agreed to maintain the new college together* WA new spirit was in evidence, new departments and courses were added and the union educational movement was on its way.1 1 A rather significant aspect of Bluffton1s history is the experiment of cooperation among Mennonite denominations in an educational enterprise* f , The fact that the Mennonites came from different parts of Europe at different times and settled in different parts of this large American continent has made cooperation difficult. At the first meeting of the newly elected board of trustees a code of regulations was perfected. By this code the adminstration of the school was to be determined. Ac- \ cording to the code any branch of the Mennonite Church could join in the cooperative work by assuming its share of responsibility and on approval by a two-thirds vote of the hoard at any regular meeting. The code stated further that when any cooperating Mennonite body failed to appoint its representatives to the board of trustees the board could fill r 2g3Cf. pp. 3oiJ-3io. q q()| John Ellsworth Hartzier, oj>. cit., p. 15^. AIso C. Henry Smith and E. J. Hirschler, 0£. cit. , p. 12$. 2g5itd.a., p. 110. 337 those vacancies.^* Thus the board of trustees was a self- perpetuating organization. During the first ten years, 191^ 1925 only one body--the Central Conference of Mennonites— had consistently appointed all of its members to the Board. As the Interest of some of the cooperating conferences waned, they remained wholly passive. Difference of opinion occasionally hindered united action by the Board of Trustees. Smith and Hirschler state: The major differences of opinion in the board have arisen from the fact that the cooperating branches seem to emphasize fundamental differences, especially in mat ters of church government. Each branch has its conser vatism and its liberal side. Again the concentration of authority especially as to the administration of college affairs, bias caused differences of opinion as has also the problem of athletics.2S6 During the first years of its existence there were individuals in the constituency who were dissatsfied with results. Some went so far as to suggest that a Bible school could meet their educational needs better than a college. In 1921 a committee on education of one of the district confer ences of the United 'Mission Church met and passed the fol lowing resolution: WHEREAS, In our Judgment, Bluffton College and Mennon ite Seminary failed in the solution of our educational problem; and Whereas, we are convinced that Bluffton College and Witmarsum Theological Seminary will not meet our needs 2g6rbld., p. 173. 2S7Loc. oit. 2S8ibia.. p. 176. 33$ in the future, Therefore, be it resolved, That we recommend to our various conferences, that our official and unofficial connections with these institutions be severed. We recommend that the body elect a committee of five representing the various conferences who shall study our educational problems and formulate some definite plans for a Bible training school.2&9 In order to increase and strengthen the interest in Bluffton College among the various groups cooperating, the board succeeded in building a teaching staff that contained members from all the participating conferences. The Code of Regulations was revised to prevent the concentration of au thority in the hands of any one of the conferences. Of the five conferences that entered into the cooperative enterprise, two later withdrew— The Defenseless Mennonites and the Mennon ite Brethren in Christ. In 1929 there came from the Berne, Indiana, G-eneral Conference Church an apparently organized attack on the school that threatened its continuation. Charges were hurled particularly at Dr. S. K. Mosiman, the president, questioning his spiritual 1 1 soundness.1 1 Experiences in this type of at tack have been more or less common in the histories of all the Mennonite colleges. Its visciousness has retarded progress 2g90. Henry Smith and E. J. Hirschler, op. cit., p. 120. 9°Mimeographed copies of letters making the charges and attempts to answer the letters satisfactorily, with other documents concerning the controversy are located in the Mennon ite Historical Library, North Newton, Kansas. 339 and made effective educational work difficult* Those who are familiar with the inside story of Bluffton College and Central Mennonite College, and who have served for many years as Trustee, know that Cod has answered too many prayers and that the College has been saved out of too many critical situations to regard it otherwise than a favored work of the Lord. This assurance has given the Board of Trustees not only vision, but faith and courage to do their work as unto the Lord.291 Eastern Mennonite College, Harrisonburg, Virginia.— This educational institution was begun by the Virginia Mennonite Conference in 1917. Until 19^6 it was officially known as Eastern Mennonite School. The Virginia Mennonite Conference is one of the state or district conferences in the (Old) Mennonite General Conference organization. Being decidedly conservative in its religious concepts, it has kept somewhat aloof fran other more liberal Mennonite bran ches. In February, 191*1-, a meeting of church leaders and others held a meeting at Maugansville, Maryland, to consider the establishment of a Conference school and take some of the preliminary s t eps .V irg inia Mennonite Conference, at its 191*4- session, took a favorable stand on the school pro ject. The School, offering a short Bible course, was started ^ C . Henry Smith and E. J. Hlrsohler, op. clt. , p. 1S7. ^Eastern Mennonite School Bulletin for 19*4-6-19*4-7> p. 13. Also John “ Ellsworth Hartzler, op. cit. , p. I/O. 3*K) in Warwick County, Virginia, in the fall of 191*1-, under the name, The Warwick Mennonite Institute*In January, 1915* a four-week Bible school was operated at the Hay field Man sion, Alexandria, Virginia. The mansion was a three-story building constructed under the direction of George Washington* Efforts to buy the building and 300 acres of land surround ing it failed* ^95 following two years the school was operated in the vacated industrial school at Assembly Park, near Harrisonburg, Virginia, which was chosen as the perman ent site for a school. In the fall of I917 a full year in academy and Bible departments was offered, and the School was incorporated under the laws of Virginia. In 1921 the academy was given the standing of a standard high school by the State. College work has been offered since 1921. In 1930 the college de partment was given an accredited Junior-college standing. In 1932 the State also approved a two-year teacher-training course leading to a Normal Professional Certificate. In 193^ a full four-year Bible course was made available lead ing to the Th. B. degree. The last curricular change came in 19^6 when a full four-year liberal arts course was begun., John Ellsworth Hartzler, o£. clt., p. 170. ^^Described in the Youth*s Christian Companion, June 2k-, 1923. 29 w . , June S H - , 1923. f t 3^1 All the Mennonite colleges include a Statement of Faith in their catalogs. In the catalog of Eastern Mennonite College the doctrinal standards fill four pages concerning eighteen points. These articles of faith were adopted by the Virginia Conference Hto safeguard the people from the * inroads of the false doctrines which assail the Word of God and threaten to undermine the foundations of our faith. Standards of conduct for both men and women are rather rigid. The standards for the men are; Our ideal for young men is an inner strength of character and nobleness of manhood that will manifest itself in their attire. In an effort to attain to this ideal, members of the church are encouraged to wear the regulation attire and to refrain from wearing the necktie. Those wearing ties are requested to limit them to black. Young men should limit hats, caps, suits, and athletic attire to such shapes, colors, and styles which are con sistent with Bible standards of modesty and non-conformity to the world. Hats should be worn when students leave the campus for engaging in Christian service, for attend ing church services, or for taking extended trips. When young men appear in the classroom, dining-hall, or in other mixed groups, they should be fully and neatly at tired with neckbands closed and with full-length sleeves. With the instructors permission and approval consistent adaptations may be made in times of laboratory work, hikes, and exercises. Young men should wear long socks of plain colors.29& The standards for women are Just as strict, if not more so. Quoting from the catalog: ^ ^Eastern Mennonite College Bulletin, 19^ - 19^9. 2^John Ellsworth Hartzler, op. cit. , p. 171. ^Eastern Mennonite College Bulletin, 19^-19^9. ?k2 In young women we look for an Inward beauty of nature, the imperishable ornament of a meek and quiet spirit which is indeed precious in the sight of God. The out ward adorning shall harmonize with the inward nature of the Christian young woman. In order to maintain the principles of simplicity and modesty, we encourage mem bers of the Church to wear the regulation attire. In keeping with the Christian spirit of natural adornment, rouge, lipstick, finger-nail polish, etc., are not to be used. For dresses: We ask that dress materials be non transparent, of quiet color and pattern and not costly; that the style of dress be such that the form be concealed and the body covered. This would eliminate form-fitting sweaters. Dresses with full-length sleeves to the wrist, and close-fitting necklines are required. In dress lengths we request of girls of freshman and sophomore age at least three inches below the knee; for girls of junior and senior high sdool age at least five Inches below the knee; for mature student glgls at least half way between the knee .and the ankle. ^99 Eastern Mennonite College represents conservative Mennonitism in higher education. Collegiate education en courages a liberalism and the erasing of barriers; Eastern Mennonite College emphasizes law and authority.Whether her educational philosophy is sound many would deny. The history of the School is a record of steady growth in her curriculum, size of faculty, equipment, and enrollment. Freeman Junior College, Freeman, South Dakota.— The Mennonite settlements in South Dakota were built by immigrants 2"lbid.. p. 20. ^ E. G&bel, "Eastern Mennonite School," Mennoniti- sches Lexikon, editors: Christian Hege and ChristXan Neff, Vol. I~ 1m Selbst verlag der Herausgeber, Frankfut am Main und Weierhof (Pfalz), 1913, pp. ^S-^99. who came from Russia in 1S74. For over twenty-five years they were without schools of their own, except a few private and church elementary schools. Like their brethren in Kan sas, Nebraska, and Minnesota, they were concerned about their children1 s education in Bible and G-erman.^0^ When a few from the settlements began to attend colleges maintained by the State and other denominations, a concern for a Mennonite college in South Dakota was expressed. The first efforts toward the founding of Freeman Junior College were made by the Mennonite churches in the Freeman, South Dakota, area. On December l4, 1900, Articles of Incorporation were filed with the State secretary. An organized educational committee worked out the problems connected with the purchase of a building site and the plan- nirg and construction of a building. Freeman Junior College began actual instruction in the fall of 1903, with a student body of 109. Most of the students were from the Mennonite homes in the community and were enrolled in the preparatory courses. Very little college work was done before 1913.^02 This Mennonite college has experienced several changes in name. It first operated as The South Dakota Mennonite College. In 1924 the school was renamed Freeman 303-preeman Junior College Catalog, 1946-194?, p. 6. 302preeman Junior College catalogs from 1903-1913* Junior College and Normal School, and now Freeman Junior College. The Institution is not under the direct management of any conference. It operates under a corporation consist ing largely of the various Mennonite churches of South Dakota and surrounding states. While established primarily for the benefit of the young people of the Mennonite faith, it Is open, like all the other Mennonite colleges, to students from any other non-Mennonite denomination. Goshen College, Coshen, Indiana.— In August, 1S9^, a small number of ministers and a few lay leaders in the (Old) Mennonite General Conference organized an educational asso ciation and founded Elkhart Institute.The general atti tude among their brethren in the Conference favored the es tablishment of a school.Even the Indiana Amish Mennon ite Conference passed resolutions in 1S99 urging her young people to patronize the Institute.After the School had outgrown its temporary quarters, a committee was appointed in 1901 to find a permanent site and provide suitable build ings. Coshen, Indiana, made an attractive offer of a gift of $10,000 toward a„ building fund and was rewarded by becom 3°3Cf. pp. 300-303. John Ellsworth Hartzler, op. olt.. p. XH-2. ™%inutes of the Amleh Mennonite Indiana Conference, lggg-1916, p. S5. 3*5 ing the site for the School. The name, Elkhart Institute, was changed to Goshen College. In I906 the association which had sponsored the Institution dissolved and the Mennonite Board of Education assumed control. The (Old) Mennonite General Conference, undoubtedly, has the best system among the various Mennonite denominations for the administration of Conference schools. Its growing school system, elementary, secondary, and collegiate, is administered by the Mennonite Board of Education, which is composed of thirty-four members representing the following: G-eneral Conference, sixteen individual district conferences, the alumni associations of G-oshen and Hesston Colleges, two ex-officio members from each eollege under the board, and four members at large. In order to facilitate the financial and legal matters pertaining to her educational enterprises the Mennonite Board of Education was incorporated under the laws of the State of Indiana in 1905* Elkhart Institute was an academy as far as its cur riculum was concerned. When it was moved to Goshen, the junior college course was added, and in I90S the complete college course was introduced. The academy department was dropped in June, 1935* Goshen College at present offers the standard liberal arts curriculum and a theological seminary leading to the bachelor of theology degree and the bachelor of divinity degree. In the course of her development Goshen College ex- perlenced the same discouraging problems met by all the other Mennonite colleges— lack of sufficient financial support, equipment, and a willingness to work together unselfishly. But this Mennonite college suffered more from differ ences in ideologies than from any of the other hindrances. These differences could hardly be avoided. There was, on the one hand, a rather conservative constituency and, on the other hand, the educational philosophy and policy that must needs go with any collegiate institution. Hartzler, who was president from 1913 to 191$, anal yses the situation in the following words: But the great hindrance to the progress of the Institution was .... the incompatible difference in the minds and ideals of the college and the non college groups responsible for the control and management of the institution. “Education* 1 in the college meant something quite different from what it meant outside of the college. A college and university-bred faculty try ing to serve a non-college and non-university-bred Board of Education tells the story.3°° The controversy would not dissolve either through the process of time nor the genuine efforts of those truly interested in the schoolfs continued operation. As the sit uation became more hopeless, the Mennonite Board of Educa tion voted in the Spring of I923 to close the School. / The action of the board left a large number of stu dents stranded In the middle of their courses.it re- ^^John Ellsworth Hartzler, op. cit. , p. l46. ^°^Upon recommendation of the G-oshen College Alumni Association about forty students enrolled at Bluffton College. See C. Henry Smith and J. E. Hirschler, o£. cit., p. 136. 3^7 suited In some criticism of the board. ^ It led to a thor- ough search of the underlying factors causing the situation. During the school year 1923-192^ the hoard reorgan ized the administration and the faculty of the School. A new president, dean of the College, and some new teachers were selected. From the date of the reorganization in 192* 1 - to the present time Goshen College has enjoyed a steady growth. As shown in Table 20^ it has the largest enrollment, teaching staff, and budget of all” the Mennonite colleges. In 19^1 Goshen College was granted recognition by the North Central Association of colleges and secondary schools. Hesston College and Bible School, Hesston, Kansas.— Although Goshen College had been operating for a few years the Kansas-Nebraska (Old Mennonite) Conference agitated, as early as 1907, for the establishment of another school for the middle western churches. In I90S the Board of Education of that Conference appointed a committee to select a loca tion and organize a school. A number of factors promoted the founding of another school within the (Old) Mennonite General Conference. The most conservative factions in the Conference were, at that time, not too happy with Goshen College, which they considered too progressive: ^O^The Goshen College Record, May-June, 1923. jM- 8 Goshen College represented the educated constituen cy and naturally was more progressive* The less educated constituency through its leadership was more conservative, attempting to conserve the past with its traditions, cus toms, and formal doctrinal statements......... 3°9 Western Mennonite School,as the Institution was first called, opened its doors for instruction in September, 1909. A few years later it was called Hesston Academy and Bible School, and, at present, Hesston College and Bible School. Hesston College was established by the Conference Board of Education and has been under it ever since. MUnder the blessings of God the work continued to grow from the very start.At first the School offered a preparatory course, a Bible department, and the regular academy or high school course. The school year 1915-1916 offered, for the first time, a two-year college course. In 191g the Mennonite Board of Education granted the request to make the school a four-year college* After the spring term of 1927 the Hesston College was reduced to the junior-college status. In the fall of 19^5 Hesston College was organized on a four-year plan. These years consist of the Junior and senior year in the standard high school and the freshman and * ^ ° 9 j o hn Ellsworth Hartzler, o j d . ci t. , p. 1 6 ^ 4 -. 31°He sston College and Bible School Bulletin, Annual Catalog for 19^6-19^7/ 311Ibld. , p. 16. 3*4-9 sophomore years of regular college work. For the first two years of the traditional high school courses the preparatory department has been set up. At the. end of the four-year course students are granted the Associate of Arts degree. Tabor College, Hillsboro, Kansas.— The first attempt by the Mennonite Brethren and the Krimmer Mennonite Brethren Conferences to provide higher education for their young peo ple was the organization of the German Department^*^ at McPherson College, a non-Mennonite school. This educational venture functioned from 1$9$ to I905. The lack of whole hearted support from the churches in both Conferences ended the arrangement after seven years of operation. H. W. Lohrenz, who had been a student in the German Department and at McPherson College became an active leader in a movement to establish an independent college for the two Conferences. During the winter of 1907“1 9 0 ^ , subscriptions were gathered to finance a school project. A mass meeting was called in spring of 19OS to organize an association and to appoint the necessary committees to establish a school. Hillsboro, Kansas, was selected as the most likely location. During the summer a building was constructed, and in September of that year Tabor College enrolled its first students. The enrollment grew during the year from 29 the first day to 1(A 312Cf. pp. 312-3x6. -^H. P. Peters, og. oit., p. l6g. by the elose of the first school year. In the morning of April 30, 191&, a fire destroyed the building and most of the equipment. Immediately after the fire the faculty and students cleared away the ruins of the old building, and the board of trustees began to plan a new building. Financial conditions being favorable due to war prices the financial campaign for a $100,000 rebuilding fund was enthusiastically received by the churches in the consituencies, and during that summer a new building was under construction. From the beginning of the School in I90S to the close of the school year 193^ Tabor College was owned, con trolled, and operated by the Tabor College Association.-^1^ During these years the School was always considerably handi capped by the lack of sufficient financial support. When the 1 1 depression” beginning in 1929 began to deepen, some of the alumni members and friends of the sdool agitated for a new school organization. At a special meeting of the Asso- *-■ elation held September IS, 1953, a resolution was passed to offer Tabor College to the Conference of the Mennonite Breth ren Church of North America. At the regular meeting of the G-eneral Conference, held in October, 1933, the resolution of the Association was ^ ^Tabor College Catalog, 19^3~19^> P* H ■^ibid. t p> 1!. 316Lqc. Pit. 351 presented. After Its consideration, the Conference voted to accept Tabor College as a Conference school, with the pro vision that all of the 116 churches in the Conference at that time submit the proposition to a vote of all the individual members. When, some months later, the count of the votes cast showed a two-thirds majority in favor of the School, Tabor College became a Conference educational enterprise. An educational committee was set up by the Conference in which each conference district had one representative. At its first meeting It was decided to close the School for the year 193^"1935 effect a complete reorganization of the administration and teaching staff. Time has not yet revealed the wisdom of the shift from an Association control to that of a Conference enterprise. The Krimmer Mennonite Brethren, who had been cooperat ing in the control and support of the School from its organi zation in 19OS to its closing In 193^ were largely ignored in the reorganization procedures. At the November, 19^5, session the Krimmer Mennonite Brethren voted to assume a part of the cost and administration and consider Tabor College as a Conference institution. 317ibia.. p. 12 352 m E RISE Off BIBLE m o m &&E MEmmiTEB In the general history of American educational insti tutions, such schools as the Moddy Bible Institute of Chica go and the Bible Institute of Los Angeles are well known. In their respective student bodies Mennonites have been quite common. Individuals and even churches have been in sympathy with their educational programs and have supported them with gifts. As shown In Table 10/11, Mennonites have established two Bible Institutes of their own since 19^3* Both schools were promoted and founded largely by Mennonite ministers and lay men who were, more or less, unfriendly toward colleges and collegiate education. Consequently, the relationship between the Bible Institutes and the Mennonite liberal arts colleges could be greatly improved. Among American Mennonites there is a school of thought that most colleges, universities, and even theological seminaries offer an education that is charged with liberalism, skepticism, and Infidelity. This viewpoint has been a source of tension that has, at times, threatened the unity within some conferences. The two Bible Institutes are not to be compared to either colleges or secondary schools. They are Bible schools emphasizing an evangelical Biblical education and practical work such as preaching, visiting the poor and the sick, and distributing religious literature. Although both Institutes 353 TABLE XVII MENNONITE BIBLE INSTITUTES Items Grace Bible Institute Pacific Bible Institute Location Omaha, Nebraska Fresno, California Date Pounded 19H-3 19^ Mennonite Branch Inter-Mennonites Mennonite Brethren Form of Gontrol Corporation. Board of 11 members controls the school Pacific District Conference of the Mennonite Brethren Church 35^ list high school diplomas as entrance requirements, they make provision to enroll students who cannot meet the requirement* ^*^ Tattle.XV3II reveals the extent of their growth in en rollment, value of plant and equipment, annual budget, and size of teaching staffs* These items are particularly sig nificant when the totals are considered. Since 19^3 the two Bible Institutes have developed to a place itiere they employ 26 teachers, enroll l J -60 students, spend over $200,000 a year to operate, and list nearly one-half a million dolllars in assets. In fact, they have grown much more rapidly than some of the Mennonite colleges* Q-raoe Bible Institute, Omaha, Nebraska*— The factors that led to the establishment of Grace Bible Institute are best expressed in the following quotation: For many years the need of a Bible Institute for the training of Christian workers in the Mennonite de nomination had been keenly felt by some of its ministers and laymen. It was their hope and prayer that such a school with a central location might some day be estab lished. A number of small denominational Bible Schools and academies were in existence in various districts of our country and Canada, but each served only a limited area and the emphasis was usually largely on secondary or collegiate education.3^9 At first the Oklahoma Bible Academy at Meno, Oklahoma, was considered as a possible school to develop into a Bible 31^phe G.raQe Bible Institute Catalog, 19^ - 19^9, p. 22. Pacific Bible Ins111ute Catalo'g,"T 9^6-194-7» P* 15* ^^The Grace Bible Institute Catalog. 19*|g-19^9» 7* TABLE 3 T V T II STAFF, STUDENT, AND FINANCIAL QUANTA OF MENNONITE BIBLE INSTITUTES Name of School C Q U M § Q ) EH O o 23 C Q P ) 6 0 P c f i d4- < D ( D <D <J\ r& H d P 3 H ON P ^ O W Q > m 04* C Q J C , O < J \ . 0 ) a H , d H (DP P , d o t ° o d d * H d CQTSO • P H ® d d - 4 * 0 o dH cr d<*H ON 25 O <4 OH School Paper G-race Bible Institute 17 3^5 Pacific Bible Institute 9 1^5 $2^3, S59 $135,000 G-race Tidings ' 220,000 6S,000 PBI Messenger Totals 26 *±6o #463, ^59 #203,000 356 Institute. Since Meno and the surrounding farming community were too small for students to find employment or do any ex tensive practical Christian work, the promotors^ 0 realized that if an active Bible Institute was to develop, a more sid.table location would have to be found. In June, 19^3* a group of interested ministers and representatives from the Oklahoma Bible Academy met at Omaha to consider the establishment of an Institute, possibly in that city. While the group was in Omaha the Presbyterian Theological Seminary, which had just closed its doors, was offering 1 1 building, furniture, kitchen, and dining-room equip ment, and the library of about 20,000 volumes,1 1 3^* free for one year ^22 ^ board was created to complete all the nec essary arrangements and proceed with other plans. In September, 19^3, 0-race Bible Institute was form ally opened in the Seminary building with an enrollment of IS students and 5 teachers. By the end of that year the student bo^dy had grown to ko and the faculty to 6 teachers. Since the Seminary building could be used for one year only, the board began to plan for the following year. 3^J. H. Barkman, Henderson, Nebraska; Paul Kuhlman, Meno, Oklahoma; C. H. Suckau, Berne, Indiana. 321C. h. Suckau, A Miracle of God1 s Grace (The Marve lous Story of the Beginning of Grace Bible Institute), a pamphlet published by Grace Bible Instltute, Omaham, Nebraska, P. 15. 322Loc. cit. 357 Of the buildings for sale in Omaha 1 1 Stuntz Hall” was most suitable. Stuntz Hall had originally been an Episcopalian G-irls School operating under the name, Brownell Hall. After the girls school had moved into another building, the Metho dists had bought the building and converted it into a Busi ness Women's Home, named it Stuntz Hall, and operated it under that name for some time. Having been used originally as a school it was well-adapted to the needs of Grace Bible Institute. The price of the building and equipment was fixed at f25,000. The purchase order was signed and on March 25, 19*f4, the Institute moved into Its own building. G-race Bible Institute offers seven courses.These seven courses may be divided into three groups as follows: 1. Three-year Standard Courses, for high school graduates leading to a diploma. There are four— the three-year general Bible course, the three-year missionary course, the three-year Christian education course, and the three-year Bible music course. 2. Pour-year Collegiate Courses, for high school graduates, leading to a degree and requiring more exten sive and more thorough work than is, possible in any of the four standard courses. There are two— the four-year theological (degree) course and the four-year Christian Education (degree) course. 3. Four-year Certificate Course, for non-high school graduates, leading to a certificate. That G-race Bible Institute has met a certain educa tional need among the Mennonites evidenced by its rapid 323ihe G-race Bible Institute Catalog, 19^-19il-9, PP* 25-26. growth is apparent. In September, 19^3, began operation with IS students. In November, 194-S, it had 315 students. The teaching staff, too, had grown from 5 to 17. The Insti tute is not controlled by any one of the Mennonite Conferen ces. Its policy is to seek an inter-Mennonite constituency. Its "aim is to unite the fundamental groups in the various Mennonite churches. G-race Bible Institute is sensitive to the "Doctrinal Statements," composed of twelve specific statements, which were adopted by the board at the organiza tion of the School. "The faculty as well as members of the organization are required to sign annually the Unabridged Doctrinal Statement Pacific Bible Instltute, Fresno, California.— For the last thirty years hundreds of young people from the Mennonite churches on the West Coast had been attending the Bible Institute at Los Angeles. This apparent interest in Bible Institute training had awakened a desire among some of the ministers to establish such a school for Mennonites. There were some active factors that stirred the de sire for a Mennonite Bible Institute into action. When the United States Congress passed the Selective Service Law in 194-0 and, especially after the outbreak of hostilities between the United States and Japan, the Bible Institute of Los Armeies 3*0. H. Suckau, o£. cit., p* 6. 325loo. oit. 359 Pacific Bible Institute PLATE XII BIBLE INSTITUTES 360 took a decided non-pacifist position, which many Mennonites did not appreciate. Another factor was the attitude that the Mennonite liberal arts colleges were spiritually unsafe for young people. The following paragraph taken from the catalog of Pacific Bible Institute lists the factors that promoted the establishment of the Institute: The reasons for this urge for a school here in the West were many. Three stand out predominantly. The first, of course, was the realization for the great need of Christian workers in our churches who would be able to meet the intellectual progress of our time. Secondly, the horror on the part of parents and church es for the hazards that students confront today in some theological schools, end thirdly, the unmistakable but simple fact that a church-body can not long continue in its true channel unless its doctrinal principles and church policy are definitely and squarely Implanted in its coming generation. These are concerns to which G-od-f earing and Church-loving people cannot be indiffer ent without incurring harm.326 The Pacific Bible Institute was founded by the Pacific District Converence of the Mennonite Brethren at Fresno, Cal ifornia. In September, 19^, the school was formally opened in a la.rge residence which the Conference had purchased. Twenty-six students and ^ full-time teachers were present on the first day. In the spring of 19^5 board purchased a commercial building adjoining the business district of Fresno and, after all necessary preparations had been made, the In stitute moved into its permanent building. ■^Pacific Bible Institute Catalog, 19^-19^7. p. %x Requirements for admission into Pacific Bible Insti tute are as follows: Students seeking admission to the Pacific Bible Institute of Fresno must give evidence of a New Birth experience and have good recommendations from their pastors. All applicants IS years of age and under must hold a high school diploma * as a prerequisite for ad mission. Applicants who do not hold a high school di ploma, but are 21 years of age and over, may be ad mitted upon evaluation of their practical experience and other qualifications. 327 Although Pacific Bible Institute is only one year younger than Grace Bible Institute, it has not developed as rapidly in such measurable aspects as size of faculty, stu dent body, and annual budget. Being located far away from the center of Mennonite population in the United States and being owned and controlled by a specific church gromp, its constituency is restricted. They are in agreement in their basic educational and spiritual objectives and curricular programs.J THEOLQglGAL SgMXHAHy EDUCATION AMQNg- THE jHBKNQNITBS The establishment of many Bible schools, colleges, and Bible institutes indicates the emphasis Mennonites place on religious education. One of the most significant changes in the area of education during the last several decades has ^27ibia., p. 15. 328ibia., p. 10, pp. 16 ff., and The Grace Bible In stitute Catalog, 19^S-19^91 P 15 an^- PP 25-26T 362 been the increasing interest in Biblical training on the graduate level. This growing interest, however, has been felt only among the more progressive branches of the Church. In 191^ a Mennonite Seminary was launched as a depart ment of Bluff ton College. In an effort to invite the graduates from the other Mennonite colleges to come for their seminary training to the Mennonite Seminary it was made an in dependent school in 1921 and named Witmarsum Seminary. 1 1 Due to the depression of the early thirties and other circum stances the doors of the school were not opened again in the fall of that year (1931)."^° The Mennonite Biblical Seminary and the Mennonite Bible School.— When the G-eneral Conference of the Mennonite Church of North America was in session at Upland, California, in 1935 it passed a resolution (No. which instructed the Conference Board of Education to study the possibilities of again providing seminary training under Mennonite auspices. After considering the problem, the board began to work “toward the reorganization of the former Witmarsum Theological Seminary ?29cf. pp.-33l 4 .-33g. 33°i>he Mennonite Biblical Seminary Catalog, August, 19^, p. 3. ■ ^ Official Minutes and Reports of the Twenty-Seventh Session of the General Con fere nee of the~Ifennonite Church of Nortli America, held at Upland, on a basis of direct conference representation. »^32 At the next G-eneral Conference, which met at Saska toon, Saskatchewan, in the Board of Education presented a plan for the organization of a new Seminary board which should reorganize Witmarsum Seminary, closed since 1931* The plan^^^ provided that smaller branches of the Mennonite church participating be entitled to three representatives each and the larger bodies, such as the General Conference, have six representatives. The plan also gave the Witmarsum Alumni Association the right to have two representatives and each participating Mennonite college one representative* The latter twp, however, were to serve in an advisory capacity only. This proposed plan, called HThe Witmarsum Plan,” re sulted in the following resolution (No. 5$): RESOLVED, That the Board of Education together with the Executive Committee of the Conference be authorized to work with the Witmarsum Board toward the organization and the opening of a Bible School and Seminary with such modification of the proposed Witmarsum plan as may seem desirable in the lig£it of a continued, careful study of evangelical Bible school and seminary needs of our people*33^ As provided in the Witmarsum Plan the representatives 332fhe Mennonite Biblical Seminary Catalog, August, 19*W, P- 3- -^Official Minutes and Reports of the Twenty-Eighth Session of the Genera! Conference of the Mennonite Church of North America, held in Saskatoon, "Canada, duly "to AugusTT- 7TT93^r~pr"i22-i23e ^Ibid., p. 32. to the new Seminary board were elected. In February, 19*1-0, at a meeting held at Bluff ton, Ohio, the Witmarsum Seminary Board turned over to the new Seminary Board a library of 2,000 volumes, endowment funds of about $11,000, a charter, records, and an Alumni Association of ^5 members. With determination and hope the Seminary board sought ways and means for the establishment of a Mennonite Seminary. By July, 19^5> a-t a meeting in Chicago, the following de cisions could be made: 1. To open the Seminary and Bible School in September, 19^5. 2. To affiliate with the Bethany Biblical Seminary of the Brethren in Chicago. 3. To change the name of the school from Witmarsum Theological Seminary to the Mennonite Biblical Seminary and the Mennonite Bible School.33© The second decision was the most significant. The Mennonite Biblical Seminary Board had entered into an affili ation agreement with the Bethany Biblical Seminary at Chica go, a school owned and operated by the Church of the Brethren. According to the arrangement all the facilities of this Seminary were at the disposal of the Mennonite Biblical Semin ary. Bethany Biblical Seminary was founded in 1905 and had, 335^0 Mennonite Biblical Seminary Catalog, August, 19te, pp. 3:r£f7 3^Ibid. # p# i j . . 365 since that time, developed into a well-equipped Biblical Seminary. Its classrooms, faculty, and library were adequate enough to include the Mennonite students enrolled in the Mennonite Biblical Seminary. In order to build a spirit of unity among the teachers and students and their respective families and, at the same time, to solve the housing problem for all, the Mennonite Seminary Board purchased seven residences and apartment houses, which house the personnel of the Mennonite Biblical Seminary. These seven buildings are near to each other and form a c arapu s-1ike envi ronmen t. Both, Bethany Biblical Seminary and the Mennonite Biblical Seminary, are committed to continue the dual ar rangement of a seminary course for college graduates and a Bible school at a somewhat lower level for the high school graduates. The Bible school aims to reach men and women who are desirous of performing the type of church service where graduate training is not required, such as church music, re ligious education, Sunday school work, part-time pastoral duties in smaller churches. The Institution recognizes no difference between the two groups except the academic require ments. There is one fellowship and one ideal of consecra tion and service and doctrine. Tables XIX and XX . describe Mennonite Biblical Sem inary graphically. Although the number of teachers and stu dents is not large, greatest progress has come in the finan- TABLE XIX MENNONITE THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY Name of Seminary Location Year Pounded Mennonite Branch Method of Control The Mennonite Biblical Seminary and Bible School Chicago, 111. 19^5 General Conference Board of 9 of Mennonites of elected by North America Conference VjJ ON On I 367 t&BIM XX STAFF, STUDENT, AND FINANCIAL QUANTA OF THE MENNONITE BIBLICAL SEMINARY AND BIBLE SCHOOL Number of teachers............................... 3 On Staff, not teaching........................... 3 Number of students in Seminary as of November 1, 19^8................................. . . Number of Students in Bible School as of Novem ber 1, 19^8 ................................. Value of plant and equipment.................... Endowment Fund ................ Annual Budget, 19^0-19^9 ........................ School paper; The Mennonite Biblical Seminary and the Mennonite Bible School Bulletin #163,565 #10,000 #36,000 366 cial area. Since 19^5 " t^le Seminary has accumulated property valued at $163,565. The favorable financial growth of the Seminary indicates the interest the constituency has in its Biblical Seminary. The three teachers listed in Table X X are also on the regular teaching staff at the Bethany Bibli cal Seminary, but are paid by the Mennonite Seminary Board. The establishment of Christian Day Schools, common ly called elementary parochial schools, has reached the pro portions of an educational movement, particularly among the (Old) Mennonite Church communities. In the Promotional Man ual , published by the Lancaster Mennonite Conference, it is reported: Many public school districts have become centralized and many Mennonite parents are objecting to the moral and social influences that result. Modernized education al theories and practices have awakened parents and church leaders to the consequent results to their chil dren religiously. The Lord has sent His Spirit to bur den brethren in the Christian Day School movement. So rapid has been the spread of this conviction and the opening of schools in various areas of the church that it is evident that it is the work of God among us for the welfare of our youth. The movement is on to return to the practice of our forefathers, the church educating its own rather than turning them over to the state,337 Mennonite history in Pennsylvania began with the ar- ^^^Chrlstlan Day Schools for Mennonite Youth, quot- i ng from * the Forward, ^wEich was~wrft'ten by J. Paul Gray hi 11 rival of thirteen families from Germany in l6£>3*^^ As more Mennonites immigrated in the following years, there were es tablished, in time, many communities in Pennsylvania. After the Revolutionary War, they became a part of the Westward Movement and built new settlements in Virginia, Ohio, and other states westward. They began each new community by building homes and then the school, which usually served as a place for worship on Sunday. 1 1 They had imbibed the good old German custom, vi.z., *from house to school, from school to church, from church to heaven. »«339 In later years, however, as free schools were es tablished, and became more numerous, in many cases re taining the same teachers and the same textbooks, and operating under local organizations, we as a church gradually lost sight of our responsibility to our chil dren in the day school and went the way of the world— we went with the big crowd for public educaTIon and gave up what" Menno Simons, Conrad Grebel, and pilgrim Marpeck stood for in the old country. The Mennonite Church lost her conviction for her own schooXs. f3^0 In 1915 Bishop Jacob F. Swartzentruber, of the Old Order Amish Mennonite Church near Kalona, Iowa, in an edi torial urged the establishment of Church-controlled schools: Our greatest need Is well-established church schools, staffed with talented teachers of our own members who are sound in faith and able to teach others also. It* is possible for us to have such schools if we want them. The first step needful is for us to become awakened to the ne ed. 3^*3- 3^Gf., pp. 137-139. ^^Christian Day Schools for Mennonite Youth, p. 9 ^ : --------------------------------- Ibid., p. IS. 3^Edltorials, Herold der Wahrheit, Oct. 1, 15, 1915* Although there were a few scattered church-controlled elementary schools*^2 operating before 1925, the Christian Day School Movement among the Mennonites did not show much life until 193$. Table XXI shows that out of 36 Day Schools maintained in 19^7-19^, only 33 were organized since 193^* When the Mennonite elementary parochial school sys tem is compared with that conducted by the Lutherans or the Catholics, it is small and Insignifleant. If its rapid growth, however, should continue at the present rate of in crease, its extent would approach the significance of school systems maintained by other religious bodies. It must be recognized, too, that as yet the Christian Day School move ment has been promoted by more conservative branches of the Mennonite Church, Thus, the possibilities for its growth are many. AMQhjr igBSmQMlftBS v , m JgE TOITE® St&flM To understand the true nature of education among the Mennonites in the United States requires the recognition of many varied factors. Mennonites are not a uniform people to be described by a few selected words. American freedom to *^2About 191g a church-controlled school was organ ized at West Liberty, Ohio, by the brotherhood at that place. In 1923 a school was opened at Knoxville, Tennessee. Both schools were discontinued after a short period of operation. In I92S a Christian Day School was organized by the Conserva tive Amish Mennonite congregation at Greenwood, Delaware. TARLE X X I CHRISTIAN DAY SCHOOLS OPERATING IN 19*6-19^7 AND l^-l^g Name of School Location Founded Enrollment h- T 5 0 it* . s t * t t VO h- ir it* ON ON H H Arthur Christian Day School Arthur, Illinois 19^1 9 • 21 Bethel Springs School Culp, Arkansas 19W 2? 26 Cross Road Amlsh Mennonite Parochial School Salisbury, Pa. 19^0 34 3^ Crown Hill Mennonite School Marshalville, Ohio i m 4i 26 Deep Creek Mennonite School Portsmouth, Virginia 19^5 ks 25 Ephrata Mennonite Christian Day School Ephrata, Pa. 71 92 Fountain Nook School Apple Creek, Ohio 19W 39 Franconia Mennonite Day School Souderton, Pa. 19^5 133 157 Green Hill Mennonite School Cheswold, Del, 193s 21 19 Greenwood Mennonite School Greenwood, Del. 192s 51 52 Hilside Amish Mennonite Parochial School Meyersdale, Pa. 19^ 27 99 Zk Johnson Mennonite School Hollsopple, Pa. 19 W- 99, Kempsville Amish Mennonite School Norfolk, Va. 19^ 69 105 K. V. Christian Day School Belleville, Pa. 19^5 100 Lebanon County Mennonite Christian Day School Lebanon, Pa. 19^7 • • 29 Lake Center Christian Day School Hartville, Ohio • • 167 Linville Hill Mennonite School Paradise, Pa, ko 67 Locust Grove Mennonite School Smoketown, Pa. 1939 110 101 Manor Mennonite School Millersville, Pa. i f S kz ^5 Maple Grove School Apple Creek, Ohio 31 33 Mennonite Christian Day School Mennonite Private School Elida, Ohio Mountain Lake, Minn. 19^5 55 57 Mt. Carmel Parochial School Harrisonburg, Va. 19^3 26 2g Mt. Pleasant Mennonite School Fentress, Va, 19IW 26 29 15 Nampa Mennonite Parochial School Nampa, Idaho 19^5 16 TABLE XXI CONT* CHRISTIAN DAY SCHOOLS OPERATING IN I9I + 6-I9V AND Enrollment Name of School Location •d *d h, h~ ^* I £ C T\ H ri- - = J " ON H New Danville Mennonite School Plainview Christian,Day School Pleasant View School pleasant View Mennonite School Sonnenberg Mennonite School Southern Lancaster County Mennonite School Springdale Parochial School Warwick River Church School West Fallowfield Mennonite School Zook School Total enrollment Lancaster, Pa. Plain City, Ohio Apple Creek, Ohio Ronks, Pa. Apple Creek, Ohio Quarryville, Pa. Waynesboro, Va. Denbigh, Va. Parkesburg, Pa. Lancaster, Pa. 1940 19^7 19^7 19^7 1911-2 194-1 193S 76 • * 35 • • • • 45 A 16 49 4l 35 58 29 52 58 40 Material for the above table was taken, for the most part, from the Mennonite Yearbook, 1942, P. 35- 373 think, believe, and act according to the dictates of conscience has resulted in many differences within the group. There are those in the group who adhere to a very conservative philoso phy of life, while others seek to keep abreast of the times. Between the two extremes, various shades of philosophy are expressed. Yet there are a body of fundamental principles which tie the diversity of attitudes and values into the Mennonite Church. It is this church with which this study has been concerned. A thorough study of the educational philosophies and practices among the Mennonites in the United States permits the summarization of the following specific character!sties: 1. Mennonites are in agreement that all education must be Christian. Schools, teachers, textbooks, and extra curricular activities must emphasize Christian principles. For them, all knowledge achieves its true meaning and worth when reflected against a background of the teachings of Jesus Christ. Briefly stated, education must be Christ-centered. 2. The Mennonite Church, as such, has not established a school system. Each of the individual branches within the Church upholds its own educational philosophy, and, the schools, when established, are organized according to that % particular philosophy. 3. Mennonites interested in an education beyond the elementary school level are divided more or less into two two schools of thought. The one holds to an active, evangel 37* ical, religious education that prepares for some type of Christian service. This group favors the Bible schools and Bible institutes. The other school of thought emphasizes a thorough:.training in the arts and sciences obtained in a Christian environment. This group sponsors church-controlled high schools and colleges. * 1 * . Mennonites express a deep and abiding fear of the secularization processes that have been affecting all the social institutions in American life. They fear these processes even more as they affect the Mennonite way of life. Mennonites attempt to arrest these secularization processes by setting up their own educational institutions. At pre sent they are equipped to educate their own children only on the college level. On the secondary and, particularly, on the elementary level, only a limited number can be accom modated. There is an increasing interest in the extension of educational facilities at all educational levels. 5. In the development of collegiate institutions the story is exciting. During the last fifty years a conflict has been waged between the progressive leaders who saw the need for collegiate education and those who posed as “guards of the faith® and opposed all higher education. Mennonites have established a considerable number of schools of higher learning. At present eight colleges are functioning. These colleges are all striving to become firm ly rooted as adequate, accredited collegiate institutions. CHAPTER VI EDUCATION AMONG THE MENNONITES IN CANADA Following the loss of the thirteen American colonies, the slow growth of more liberal policies and democratic ideals in England inspired British statesmen to administer the colonial dependencies more tactfully* In Canada, which had been conquered from France (1763), the settlers, pre dominantly Catholic and French, had been reconciled by the assurance that they might retain their language and reli gion undisturbed (Quebec Act, 1774)• Canadafs vast unsettled prairies and liberal atti tudes towards cultural differences and religious practices in vited large numbers of ethnic groups, Doukhobors, Mormons, German Catholics, and Mennonites, to settle upon her virgin soil* The various movements of Mennonites into the provin ces of Canada and their educational experiences is the subject matter of this chapter* PENNSYLVANIA MENNONITES INTO ONTARIO As described in Chapter V, at least five thousand Mennonite immigrants came from Germany and Switzerland to Pennsylvania from 1683 to 1750* In their new home, the forests were subdued, land was tilled, and generous harvests were gathered* They enjoyed religious liberty first under the rule of WIlDJLam Penn and later under the British Crown* 376 When the thirteen colonies declared their indepen dence from England, the Mennonites found themselves confront ed by a difficult situation. The Mennonites, consistent with their non-resistant principles, did not participate in the Revolutionary war on either side* Most of them undoubtedly sympathized with the colonists, but there were some who rather favored the opposite side. To the usual opposition to all war these found in this particular war another objection, namely, that it was a rebellion against constituted au thority, and their religion bade them to pray for their rulers, not to rise up against them.l The question of paying a special war tax became so controversial among the Mennonites that the issue led to a division in the church. The faction loyal to England wwere classed fNon-Associatorsf because they did not lend active aid to the Revolution.During and after the war the Non- Associators or Loyalists were considered as outcasts and evidences of severe persecutions are available. Such treat ment caused a large number to decide to move to Canada. .... there are many individuals, descendants of these early immigrants, who agree that the fathers came to Canada chiefly because of their confidence that under the British rule they would be able to follow their re ligious convictions and enjoy exemption from military service. This, then, is taken as primary reason for the migration. Among the secondary reasons should be noted the increased density of population in the better farming **"C. Henry Smitjr, The Mennonites (Berne, Indianai Mennonite Book Concern, 192077 P• > 226. 2 L. J, Burkholder, A Brief History of the Mennonites in Ontario (Published by the Mennonite Conference""of Ontario, 1935), p. 22. gIbld.. p. 22. 377 areas in Pennsylvania, high prices of farms, and the severe depression and crop failures. The first group of Mennonite immigrants to settle in Ontario arrived in 1786. They located in Lincoln County, Ontario,' about twenty miles from Niagara Falls. Later a number of other settlers moved into the community which came to he known as MThe Twenty.1 1 There are, seemingly, no re cords of the number of families migrating from Pennsylvania 5 to Ontario, but Burkholder lists the number of persons be tween 800 and 1,000. As the first settlement grew and land became scarce, other communities were established nearby. In 1891 a migration to the prairie provinces was begun. In 1824 a colony of European Amish immigrants also founded a settlement in Ontario. During the first century, internal dissension brought schisms in the group. Doctrinal differences could not be dis solved. To trace the history of the divisions into new church conferences would be outside the limits set for this study. Elementary education in -pioneer Ontario.— When the Pennsylvania Mennonites established their own pioneer communi ties in Ontario, they were required to provide their own 6 schools. Burkholder states that in many settlements a 4Ibld.. p. 24. 6Ibia.. p. 152. 5Ibia.. p. 25 378 schoolhouse was built before a church. In several deeds for church property it is expressly stated that the land shall be used for the location of a church, a school, and for burial purposes* Before the public school system was established in Ontario, the Mennonite families in each community built a schoolhouse and engaged a teacher. The sal©„ry was deter mined on the basis of a certain sum to be paid for each pupil, and the teacher received free board and room in the various homes in the community. In 1832 Henry W. Peterson, a non-Mennonite, promoted the establishment of a printing press in Berlin (now Kitchener), Ontario. Receiving the support of Bishop Benjamin Eby, the Mennonites supplied the largest part of the necessary capi tal. A number of textbooks for elementary education were printed by Peterson. In 1839 the noted A B C Buch, prepared by Bishop Eby appeared. The Gemuths Gesprilch ( ”A Spiritual Dialogue11) with Questions and Answers for the Young, includ ing the Dortrecht Confession, was printed in 1841, and in 1843 Eby published his second edition of Fibel zu den ersten n Lese-Ubungen. These German textbooks were used in the ele mentary schools until the Province of Ontario established a public school system and prescribed her own texts. In time, too, the English language replaced the German in the homes, churches, and schools. HIn later years occasional German language schools have been conducted for short periods in the 379 7 winter in some of the meeting places•'* Bible- and secondary schools in Ontario,— Several of the Mennonite branches have established their own Bible- and 8 secondary schools in the years since 1900. Two factors seemed to have encor.ra.ged such schoolsi (1) The sincere emphasis on the importance of s. thorough knowledge of the Bible; (2) the realization that public high schools were strong secularizing influences upon their young people. 1. The Ontario Mennonite Bible School. In the closing decades of the nineteenth century the growing chur ches in the Mennonite Conference of Ontario recognized the need for trained ministers and Sunday school teachers* To facilitate their training the Conference instituted three-day Bible-study conferences In various churches of that denomina tion. After several years, a popular demand arose for a more 7Ibid., p. 152. Q Any reader of Mennonite history must necessarily be come very confused with the various Mennonite branches that have formed through schisms. The original Mennonites who migrated from Pennsyl vania in the closing decades of the eighteenth century or ganized what is now known as The Mennonite Conference of On tario. They are also spoken of as H01d Mennonites.M At dif ferent tiles internal dissentions occurred over doctrinal con cepts. Small groups, splitting away, organized their own con ferences. The Mennonite Brethren in Christ and the Old Order Mennonites (Wisler group) are such groups. The members of the mentioned conferences are the descendants, more or less, of the emigrants from Pennsylvania. In 1826 a small grbup of Amish Mennonites came to On tario direct from Germany. This group was orgsn ized into the Ontario A mish Mennonite Conference. It, too, has suffered several dissensions and small groups have split away. 380 exhaustive course in Bible study. The time was extended to several weeks.. In 1906 the Conference voted to organize the Ontario Mennonite Bible School to be located in the church at Kitchener. The first class was taught in 1907. The instructors were S. F. Coffman and L. J. Burkholder. The earlier courses were conducted for a period from two to four weeks. In 1918 a six-year cycle of study of six weeks each year was organized. In 1929 the course was extended to a three-year cycle of twelve weeks each year. The school has been administered by a board consisting of nine members appointed by the Conference. In 1947 it enrolled 201 students, taught by six tes.chers* 2. Emmanuel Bible School. For many years a convic tion of the need of a church Bible school in Ontario had been held and expressed by certain members of the Ontario Conference of the Mennonite Brethren in Christ. In 1936, the Annual Conference appointed a committee to investigate the subject, with the result that in 1938 a Bible school board was appointed with power to launch a school project. Through activities of this board, Emmanuel Bible School was opened on January 2, 1940, with a thirteen-week term, offering a three-yea.r course of study. Since 1943 the school term has consisted of seven months. The school is located in Kitchener, the heart of Western Ontario. The main building is a large, white brick structure in which are located the classrooms, the dining- 381 room and kitchen, and ladies dormitory. The men*s dormitory is a smaller building which has afforded very adequate quar ters for the men. In the F a.ll of 194? there were 48 students enrolled, g who were taught by four teachers. The school is accredited. High school graduation is desired before entrance into the school but not required. Three courses of study are offered. The regular Bible course, the Christian Workers course, and the preparatory course.^ “RUSSIAN* * MENNONITES IN MANITOBA When the Russian government began to implement her planned program of the Russ ianizat ion of all her people, the Mennonites in that land realized the eventual loss of all the privileges granted them by Catherine the Great and later mon- archs. The first century in the land of the czars had been blessed with much prosperity. Their population had grown to 45,000. Population pressure had forced the purchase of “daughter colonies** in the various parts of South Russia, to which the young landless might migrate. Q Evangelical Teacher Training Association, Chicago, Illi nois, is an accrediting agency for Bible schools both in Canada and the United States. "^For those young people who may not be able to quali fy for admission in the Regular Bible Course. It covers a period of two years, and is a combination of the first year of the Regular Bible Course and such preparatory work as English grammar, composition, literature, and history. 382 The sp^jial privileges enjoyed by the Mennonites and the other German colonists of South Russia set them apart, as we have already observed, as a distinct group.within the Empire, really a state within a state, separated from the native Russians by social andpolitical as well as religious barriers; but at the same time held together firmly as a group by ties of language, religion, racial pride, and a sense of superior culture* It can readily be seen that this was an anomolous situation, that could not last forever. It was only under the dominion of an autocratic Czar that discriminations such as these in favor of a foreign population was at all possible, tin der the growing democracy of the time it was becoming increasingly difficult to grant favors to a minority above those enjoyed by the citizenry in general. In 1870 the imperial government at St. P etersburg announced that the day of special privileges had ended. A thorough process of Russianization of all foreign peoples in the land was to be pursued. Among the changes to be in troduced were the following: (1) The Guardians Committee at Odeissa was to be abolished, and the colonists were to be governed directly from S t. Petersburg; (2) Russian was to be the official language in the loca.1 colonial governments; (3) In the schools, Russian should be studies and eventually become the language of instruction, and the schools were to be super vised directly by the imperial educational authorities; (4) The Mennonite military exemptions were to be abolished; (5) Ten years were allowed in which to become adjusted to the new governmental policy. To the Mennonites the regulations, particularly those . which concerned education and military exemptions, were a direct ■**^C. Henry S mlth , The gtory- of the Mennonites- (Berne, Indiana: Mennonite Book Concern, 1941), pp. 438-439. 383 assault upon their religious convictions. At a meeting held at Alexanderwohl, in 1871,- delegates from the Molotchna, Ghortitz, and Bergthal colonies elected a delegation which was sent to St. Petersburg with a petition in which they pled for continued recognition of the privileges which had induced them to settle the steppes of South Russia. From 1871 to 1873 delegations after delegation waited on the Gzar and his ministers in the hope of obtaining some modification of the new governmental orders. In the end, some significant concessions were obtained. Some German language Instruction was to be permitted in the schools and the young men of military age were to perform forestry service- in .lieu of military service. The concessions granted by the government to the Mennonites resulted in A cleavage in the group. A majority of them were willing to accept the concessions offered, but a minority were unable, for conscience sake, to make any compro mise. This latter group, about 15,000, comprising, probably, the more conservative, orthodox members of the sect, began to seek some escape from a difficult situation. In 1873 a selegation was sent to North America to seek a location for a new settlement. They were instructed: (1) to secure fertile land at a reasonable price; (2) the land selected must be sufficiently isolated to make a group settlement possible; (3) to secure from the respective governments promises con cerning liberty of language, education, and religion, and 384 exemption from military service. The delegates examined land along the then existing frontier from Kansas to Winnipeg. The land in Canada did not impress them as favorably as that in the United States, but the Canadian government was willing to concede all their demands for sectarian freedom. A petition introduced in the 12 United States Senate requesting the withdrawal of public lands sufficiently large in 'amount to permit the establishing of large compact communities was rejected after lengthy de bate. Since Canada and the United States differed in their attitudes toward the requests of the Mennonite delegation, this difference served later as a selective factor, determin ing who should move to Canada and who should settle in the United States. Those who placed fertile land above complete sectarian freedom went to the United States, and those who insisted upon religious liberty at any price went to Canada. During the years 1874-1875 more than 1,400 families migrated, largely from the daughter colonies of Bergthal, Borsenko, and Furstenland in South Russia, to southern Mani toba. Since these daughter colonies belonged to the Chortitza Colony, which was the oldest colony in South Russia, these families came to be called Altkolonier (l t 01d Colonists” or H01d Colony Mennonites11). They settled upon two large, 12 Congressional Record, 43d Congress, 1st Session, Vol. II, U. S. Senate Proceedings, January 12, 1874, p. 570. 385 compact land areas, the East Reserve located about thirty- five miles southeast of Winnipeg, and the West Reserve which was situated west of the Red River along the international boundary.- They had been promised complete autonomy concern ing religion, education, and local government. Par removed from non-Mennonite neighbors, they began life in a new world. So rapid was the growth of population that by 1893 all the land originally set aside for Mennonite settlement was occupied. Tracts of land were purchased in Saskatchewan to which the young folks willing to migrate were assisted. By 1900 these Old Colony Mennonites were organized into differ- 13 ent Mennonite branches or church conferences. Some of these branches are extremely conservative and resist social changes. To them “worldliness1 1 is a terrible threat. This attitude has been a significant factor in the origin and development of their schools, as will be pointed out in this chapter. Conflicting ideas disturb Mennonite education in Manitoba.— After the Mennonite emigrants had established their colony in southern M anitoba, schools under the general super vision of the ministers, were organized in almost every vil lage. Until each village was able to build a sehoolhouse, 13 Altkolonier Gemeinde, Rudnerweide Gemeinde, Chortit- za G-emeinde, Mennonite Brethren Church, Kleine Gemeinde, Som- merfelder Gemeinde, Evangelical Mennonite Brethren, Kriramer Mennonite Brethren, Church of God in Christ, and the General Conference Mennonites. 386 the school met in a private home. Furniture and equipment were extremely simple and primitive. Maps and other teach ing aids were not considered necessary. Some of the teachers, having received their education in the Mennonite schools in South Russia, were, more or less, equipped for their simple tasks. However, when these teachers were replaced by a second generation of teachers who had received no training except that which was offered in their own elementary schools, the quality of teaching degenerated very much. Tuition and contributions determined the salary which had to be supple mented by engaging in some other occupation. The teacher, being usually a married man, lived at one end of the school- building or in a “teacherage.H He held no teaching creden tials, nor would he have been eligible for any. HThe primary purpose of these schools was to perpe- 14 tuate the German language and the Mennonite religion.” The curriculum designed to achieve these two objectives con sisted of reading, writing, Bible study, the catechism, sing ing of hymns, and simple processes in arithmetic. Dawson describes the attitude of the orthodox Mennonite 14 C. A. Dawson, Group Settlement. Ethnic Communities in Western Canada, Vol. VII, 1 1 Canadian Frontiers of Settlement, W. A. Mackintosh and W. L. G. Joerg, editors, 9 vols. , (Toron to: The Macmillan Company of Canada Limited, at St. Martinis House, 1936, p. 113. 387 toward his school thus: There were two main considerations • . * • In the first place, he considered that a short period of formal education and a longer period of practical farm work served best to prepare the child for rural life. Back of this theory was the fear that too long a school per iod would weaken the child1s attachment to the farm and the Mennonite religion. Secondly, he insisted that this formal education should be permeated with religious ideas, so that the school, as well as the church, would foster the sectrs ideals,^ Since the Order in Council of 1873 guaranteed the Mennonites complete control over their own schools, they maintained a school system according to their own educa tional objectives. That such a school situation was in great 16 need of reform was evident. The Manitoba Department of Education suggested the advantages of regular organized school districts, the employ ment of certified teachers, a,nd the improvement of the cur riculum* Such reforms would have made these schools eligible to state aid, which these people were very anxious to avoid for fear that such financial assistance would obligate them to the state. Provincial school inspectors were unable to impress upon the conservative Mennonites the importance of Ibid.. p. 113. 16 H, H, Ewert, "Entwicklung des Schulwesens der Men- noniten,1 ' Mitarbeiter (Nos. 9, 10, and 11, 1934), Oretna, Manitoba; C. Henry Smith, The Coming: of the Russian Mennon ites (Berne, Indiana: Mennonite Book Concern, 1927), p. 231; Novokampus (Dietrich Neufeld), “Kanadische Mennoniten,H Rund schau (Winnipeg: Rundschau Publishing House, 1925), pp. 38 ff. 388 good schools. The “Russian1 1 Mennonites who came to Manitoba were, in the beginning, organized into three separate church de- 17 nominations. During the second decade after 1874 about one- half of the families in the Chortitza Church' moved from the East Reserve to the West Reserve, where they organized, their own church, affiliated with the mother church on the East Re serve. Soon a dissension developed concerning educational policies in their schools. A small group, led by their own leader, Elder Johann Funk, stressed the need for better schools. In 1888 this more progressive wing organized a Schulvereln (“Educational Association”), which proceeded to establish a teacher-training institution in the village of Gretna. The agitation for educational reforms and the promotion of a new type of school led to a schism. The conservative faction with drew and organized an independent church, which it named the Sommerfelder Gemeinde (“Church*1). The remaining members who had encouraged a more progressive educational policy reorganized their church and named it the Bergthaler Gemeinde. From this 17" The three organized Mennonite church denominations were: (1) the Chortitza Church; (2) the Kleine Gemeinde (“Small1 1 or “Little Church“); and (3) the Altkolonier Church. In 1890 the Chortitza Church on the West Reserve split, resulting in two independent branches— the Sommerfelder Church and the Berg thaler Church. In 1937 the Sommerfelders split. The withdraw ing faction organized the Rudnerweide branch. The Altkolonier, one of the three original mother churches, suffered a schism about 1882. Elder Peter Toews led a group out of that church and organized a new church, affiliated with the Church of God in Christ (Holdeman) Mennonites in Kansas. 389 point the history of education of the Soramerfelders and the Bergthalers must he pursued separately. The conservative Old Colonists in conflict with the state.— The sending of school inspectors who were not in har mony with the ideals of the Mennonites into the various vil lage schools was greatly resented and produced no improvements desired by the provincial government. 1 1 It was, hov/ever, considered desirable to bring about reform, not by force IS*' but by supporting the progressive faction that had emerged*w Unwilling to see stern measures applied to the vexa tious school problem, the Manitoba Department of Education resolved'to appoint a Mennonite as a school inspector, hop ing thereby to win the group1s co-operation and goodwill. It consulted with the newly formed Educational Association at Gretna with a plan whereby the two could appoint an eligible educator who should serve both as inspector for the Depart ment and as teacher in the Gretna Normal School, which had a vacancy at the end of its first year of operation. Since such a person could not be found in Manitoba, Dr. George Gryce, representing the M anitoba Department of Education, went to Kansas to interview H. H. Ewert, principal of the Mennonite Seminary (now Bethel Gollege) at Halstead, Kansas* After presenting the difficult situation existing among the 18 Paul J. Schaefer, Heinrich H . Ewert. Lehrer. Er- zleher und Prediger der Mennoniten~~TGretna, Manitoba: Ver- lag der Manitoba Jugendorganization der Mennoniten-Konferenz von Kanada, 1945), p. 47. 390 Mennonites in Manitoba, Bryce offered the dual position to Ewert. Ewert spent weeks weighing the merits of the invita tion. He was enjoying the growth of a new school which had had its beginning largely through his efforts. But the great need of building an educational system among his people in 19 Canada he considered a call from God. On 3 eptember 1, 1891, Ewert began his twofold work- 20 training teachers in the Gretna Normal School and inspect ing, periodically, the village schools in the Mennonite set tlements of Manitoba. Since he received no information or instructions from the Department of Education, Ewert had to feel his way against suspicion, fear, and criticism. In or der to get thoroughly acquainted with the situation, he made a trip through the two reserves, intervlevying teachers and 21 parents. According to his first report to the Department of Education, he found eight organized school districts. A number of villages and surrounding areas had made no efforts toward the formation of school districts. These areas either supported private schools or no schools at all. The teachers were uncertified, poorly trained, and Underpaid. School terms were irregular, and., in most cases, very short. 19 Ibid.. p. 51. 20 The xvork of H, H. Ewert as principal and teacher in the Gretna. Bible School will be described in a later part of this chapter. Pi Paul J. Schaefer, op. cit., pp. 61-63. 391 In 1898, seven years later, Ewert reported thirty public schools, six of which employed two teachers each* Ten schools were open and offering instruction twelve months of the year while the others were open from six to nine months. Seventeen districts had built living quarters for their tea chers. Eight teachers were fully certified and the other teachers held permits. In this same report, Ewert commented upon the lack of interest in the teaching profession. Th©> average monthly salary of $40 could not compare with the greater income derived from farming. The opportunities to homestead land were much more enticing than the opportunities to teach school. Of particular significance is the following notation: "Very se-tisfactory progress has been made in the teaching of the English language, such progress having been 22 achieved because coercion and force were not applied." By 1903 Ewert, as the official school inspector, had succeeded in changing almost one-third of the private schools to public schools. The number of certified teachers had grown to sixteen. English had become the language of instruc tion in the upper grades. In his report for 1903 he indicated that the course of study in the elementary schools did not include geography or history, but that considerable progress 23 had been made in the field of arithmetic. 2gIbld.. p. 64. 0*Z 0. Henry Smith, The Coming of the Russian Mennonites (Berne, Indiana: Mennonite Book Concern, 192?), p. 233. 392 Opposition to improvements suggested by the Department of Education remained strong in certain areas* Opposition came particularly from the Sommerfelders, the Kleingemeinders, and the Altkoloniers, the last two of which even disciplined such members as aided in the formation of new school districts 24 or sent their children to public schools. The other Mennon ite branches— the Mennonite Brethren, the Ohurch of God in Christ Mennonite, and the General Conference Mennonite— fav ored the public school system as promoted by the province. Ewert*s persistent, aggredsive efforts to develop a v good school system among the Mennonites had built up consider able ill feeling among the ultra-conservative Old Colonists against him. Capitalizing this opposition at a time when it ran high in 1903, one of the local political parties, hoping to poll a large vote among Mr. Ewert*s opponents, secured his dismissal from the post of inspector. These short sighted politicians did not reckon with the fact, however, that the conservatives who would not support the public school system would not take part in political affairs either. The only result of their interference was the dismissal of an efficient public servant, and irreparable damage to the cause of educational progress among the Mennonites.25 The Gretna Educational Association and the Manitoba Department of Education had shared the responsibility of Ewert*s salary. The opposition hoped that through Ewert*s dismissal pA Ibid. . pp. 233-2-34; also C. A. Dawson, op. cit., p. 155. 25 C. Henry Smith, The Coming of the Russian Mennonites op. cit. , p. 233. * " 393 it would "be free from state interference and that the Gretna Normal School would have to close its doors for lack of fin ancial support. The Gretna Normal School, however, continued to function, and Ewert carried on his work of training teachers. The steady growth and development of Mennonite educa tion, especially among the conservative communities, was stopped. There was even a decrease in the number of public schools, for a number of them reverted back to private schools. wBy 1916 less than one-third were under governmental super- 2 S’ vision in Manitoba.H World War I generated a great deal of opposition against “all things German, and military organizations and the press brought pressure to bear on the provincial government 27 to suppress the teaching of the German language.H Thereupon provincial legislatures passed laws forbidding the use of German in all private and public schools. Both, the progressive and conservative Mennonites op posed the laws. To them German was an integral part of their religion. They had always worshipped God in that language, and to change to another language meant, for many, the loss of their faith. When petitions to the government brought no re call or modification of the laws, the more progressive groups ncould conceive of a separation between the German language g6Ibia p. 233. 27 G. A. Dawson, op, cit., pp. 103-104. 394 and the Mennonite religion and the perpetuation of the lat- 2B ter without the former.1 1 The conservative wing determined to make no compromise and expressed a willingness to suffer persecutions. For some time the government pursued a policy of watchful waiting. When the trend toward private schools and the continuation of G-errnan instruction became clear ly evident, however, more stringent laws were enacted. The establishment of a public school in every district was made compulsory. Where the residents of the district would not assume the function of school trusteeship, the department of Education was empowered to act as an offi cial trustee, erect a school, hire a teacher, and levy taxes upon the residents.^ Under the pressure of a determined state, the liberal Mennonites made the necessary adjustments. Rather than bear the double cost of public and private schools, they complied with the new educational requirements. The conservative Som- merfelders, Kleingemeinders, and Altkoloniers refused to cor- 30 operate. The provincial governments of Saskatchewan and Manitoba assumed complete control of the schools. They es tablished public schools where such were not already in ex istence, appointed trustees,.hired teachers, and even erected school houses in some places. Mennonite teachers were ap pointed when such were avaliable, but a number of Canadian teachers had to be hired to fill all the vacancies. Since some of the appointed teachers had been soldiers in the war, 28 . 29 Ibid. , p. 104. Loc. cit. As described on p. 385, when population pressure had made land on the two reserves too costly for young people de siring to set up housekeeping, a movement to the western provinces began in 1893. the war, the tension merely became greater. The arbitrary building of schoolhouses, the unwanted control of the schools by strange board members, and the em ployment of unknown teachers convinced the Mennonites that some of the privileges granted them at the time of their emi gration in 1874 were doomed. The following significant quotation defines rather clearly the philosophy of education underlying their stand. Their stubborn resistance to imposed changes was based on certain fundamental beliefs. T o u r children^ get in our schools just the schooling which is required by them in the rural life we lead . . . . . We have the duty laid on our conscience to teach them both religious and secular truth as part of one whole, that they may be holy and good and loyal and dili gent and unselfish and co-operative in all their relations to God and their fellowman........... Our schools are designed to fit the children to be good rural community citizens........... The result is that our people from generation to generation continue to lead the simple life on the farm and do not tend to go to the town or cities. They are taught to be content with the country and we can truthfully say that they are.31 It cannot be denied that the attitudes and behavior of these people was the overt expression of beliefs they held fundamental. Sincerity of purpose and consistency of atti tudes were Itwo qualities manifested in this conflict. The principles upon which the conservative Mennonites based their case were the following: ^Memorandum re Mennonite Schools, presented to the members of the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba by the Rein land Colony, February, 1918 (unprinted), cited by C. A. Dawson, op. pit., p. 113. 396 1. The German language, their raother-tongue, and re ligion are essential to each other. The loss of the language constituted a direct blow at their faith. 2. The occupation of farming and the simple life are best served by a short religious education. Any exten sive secular education tends to break loyalty and at tachment to the farm and to their church. 3. The supervision of the school must be in the hdnds of the church. 4. A qualified teacher is one who is thoroughly in tune with the conservative philosophy of life. Being a devout sectarian is far more important and necessary than being versed in subject matter. 5. All extracurricular activities have no place in an educational program. They are secular and~wof the world.1 1 6. The ideal education is one that shuts the world out. An isolationist education prepares for the desired nseparation from the world1 * aim of life. 7. The Bible, the catechism, A.B C book, and sacred hymns contain all the knowledge that the school must per petuate. An intolerable situation existed in many villages where the government established schools, employed certified teachers, and purchased the necessary equipment. The schools operated without pupils ! The parents sent their children to the private schools which they maintained. The situation is dramatized by Mr. N., a Mennonite, who became teacher in the public school at Altbergthal in the first year after the passing of the new School Act: When I hoisted the flag on the first of September, there wasn*t a child in school. The old people got to gether, fixed up a log cabin, and hired a private teacher for the forty-five children of the district. They paid him the same salary I was getting— #80 a month. But I 397 stuck to it and hoisted that flag every one of the 202 days, but I did not have one pupil.32 To remedy the described condition, legislation was passed making attendance at public schools mandatory. To enforce attendance, the government fined and jailed the par ents* , f There was an epidemic of fining in Manitoba during 1920 and 1921, and a half-dozen Mennonite preachers were 33 34 jailed for a time in Winnipeg,1 1 Smith reports that on March 31, 1921, sixty Mennonites had paid a fine of $1,000, and that one had just been given a thirty-day jail sentence in Prince Albert. Such experiences kindled a migration spirit. Their forefathers had migrated to escape intolerable situations; they, too, could migrate. Delegates weire sent to the United States, Mexico, and South America. Everywhere they received promises of religious and educational freedom. Upon their return they recommended Mexico as a new ‘ 'promised land." Between 1922 and 1925 about 4,000 Mennonites left the West Reserve in Madtoba. About 1,000 from daughter colonies in Saskatchewan joined the •*o ° Field Notes, taken by the investigators of the Canadian Pioneer Problems Committee that visited these commu nities in the summer of 1932, cited by 0. A. Dawson, op. cit., p. 105. ^\»oc. cit. •54 C. Henry Smith, The Coming of the Russian Mennonites. op. cit., pp. 235-236. 398 migration. “The sectarian •core* of the Mennonite communi ties was removed and large tracts of the very centre of the 35 old Reserves were left vacant.*1 Several years later about two thousand from both Manitoba and Saskatchewan migrated to Paraguay. In the two countries, Mexico and Paraguay, they determined to build an eeducational system consistent with 36 their own religious and educational philosophies. Before the group moving to Paraguay in 1926 left Canada, it addressed a letter to the Minister of Agriculture at Ottawa in which the school controversy was pointed out as the primary cause of emigration. Worthy Gentlemen: In appreciation and recognition of the kindness and peace which we have enjoyed nearly half a century, we feel led, before we leave Canada for our new home in Paraguay, to express our gratitude to the government on this land and Great Britain, and we would like to thank you, in the name of those who have already left this coun try and those who still want to leave, for your good will in tiies of great need, and, particularly, the highly esteemed hospitality which we have enjoyed here for such a long period of time.' Since our warm llve-filled hearts will look back to this land, we shall have our prayers ascend to the Throne of God for you and also those who didn*t hesitate to impugn the sacred promises of 1873 so far as they pertained to education. We are leaving because we believe that no Christian church can endure without the teaching of God*s word in the schools. We believe that such instruction must not be reduced to a minimum, but must receive the greatest, primary emphasis for our Lord said. “But seek ye first C. A. Dawson, op. cit., p. 106. The history of education of those Mennonites mi grating t© Mexico and Paraguay will be continued in Chapter VII> “Mennonite Education in Latin America.1 1 399 the kingdom of God . . . .M It is hoped that our emigra tion will awaken and encourage in the government and among the people all the defenders of the faith in Jesus Christ and His Holy Word to the recognition that the Bible, which is the most effective and best weapon against the inros,ds of atheism, will become, more and more, the main subject of instruction in all schools of the land; and it is hoped that the government will resolve to regard Christian church schools with greater toleration and thereby promote Christ ianity throughout the world. Remembering the best out of the past years of peace, we the undersigned in the name of a departing church sign our names in a spirit of enduring love and gratitude. Your well-wishers, Martin C. Friesen Johann Schroeder Abram Giesbrecht Johann W. Sawatzky Abram A . Braun Abram B. Toews Wilhelm L. Giesbrecht Johann Schroeder With the migration of the conservative Mennonites to Mexico and Paraguay, Mennonitism experienced its third migra- 38 tion in a period of one hundred and fifty years. In each 37 Dr. Walter 0, firing, Ruszlanddeutsche suchen elne Heimat— Die deutsche Einwanderung in den Paraguayischen Chaco. (Karlsruhe, Germany: Verlag von Heinrich Schneider, 1923)1 pp. 65-66* 38 First migration.— When the Prussian ruling class, during and after the reign of Frederick the Great, began to fear that the growth of the Mennonite population might threa ten the security of the institutions of the state, the Men nonites in Prussia were subjected to a stern Germanizatlon process. In order to escape the acceptance of the imposed German culture, they accepted the invitation of Cathering the Great and settled on her vast plains. See Chapter IV. Second Migration.— After a century of complete reli gious freedom, the Russian Czar decided on a thorough Russian- ization of all his people. Those Mennonites whose conscienc§s would not permit any compromises migrated to America. See Chapter V. .Third migration.— About fifty years of life in America, and the Mennonites who had settled in Manitoba were asked to 400 case they left their homes and fields to escape the t t peace- 39 ful penetration of the sect by the •world1 .........M Refusing: to accept the secularization of the functions of their church, they sought to solve their perplexing: problem by establishing: new hones in a foreign country. A small minority of the orthodox Mennonites remained on the two Reserves in Manitoba, and on their settlements: in Saskatchewan. Remaining: behind could, however, not be inter preted as a willingness to conform. Since 1926 small and large groups have followed their brethren into Mexico and 40 Paraguay. Rather than emigrate to a foreign country and risk the promised toleration of a strange government, about sixty- five families opened a new colony in 1937 near Ft. Veraiilion, which is located in the extreme northern section of Alberta. In a region of spruce, poplar trees, Indians, and squatters, they are attempting to build a community shut off from the outside influences. submit to a 1 1 Canadian ization1 1 of their schools. Their determined resistance and emigration have been described in the foregoing pagesof this chanter. Also, see Chapter VII. 39 C. A. DAWSON, op. cit., p. 103. 40 Just at the time this part of the study was written the Mennonite Weekly Review (Newton, Kansas), for May 20, 1948, reports that 1512 Mennonites from Manitoba and Saskatchewan have arrived in Quebec City from which they will leave for Paraguay. 401 Since there are no state schools as far north as Ft. Vermilion, the Mennonites are. free to conduct their own schools. The three schools operated by the Mennonites have 25-40.pupils each. The teachers are selected from the interested members of the church who, are inclined to teach; they receive no specia.1 training. Subjects taught are reading, arithmetic, Bible stories, and the catechism. The language used in the schools is, of course, German and Plattdeutsch.^1 Accommodation paved the way for educational progress. After the emigration of those most unwilling to accept the educational standards of the state, the conflict was largely dissolved. Public schools replaced private schools. The curriculum with its sectarian emphasis became, more and more, secular. The number of trained teachers increased greatly. Although secularization of education has proceeded rapidly among the Old Colony Mennonites in Manitoba and Sas katchewan ? since 1918, religious instruction is still a part of the regular school program. Religious instruction between 3;30 and 4:00 p.m. every day is permitted by law. The laws also permit school boards to arrange for the instruction of German after four o’clock on school days or on Saturdays. In such schools where the constituency is entirely Mennonite, both religion and German are taught to the children. Schools enrolling children from non-Mennonite families usually do not provide such instruction. Before bringing this part of the study to a close, it 41 John A. Hostetler, ’ ’Pioneering in the Land of the Midnight Sun,1 1 Mennonite Life, III (April, 1948), 5. 402 might be well to summarize the changes that the development of the public school system has achieved in such areas where any educational supervision by the state was ling viewed with resentment: 1. The supervision of the schools has been trans ferred from the church or private hands to the provincial educational authorities. Manitoba provides a Mennonite as school inspector. 2. The curriculum is prescribed by the department of education. 3. The English has replaced the German as the language of instruction. 4. In most of the elementary schools, all eight grades are now offered. In a few, even the ninth grade is taught where the teacher has the necessary qualifica tions and a high school or private secondary school is not convenient. 5. The teaching personnel has changed considerably. As college-trained men tools: over the teaching positions, they brought into the classroom a better comprehension of subject matter and more efficient methods of teaching it. Particularly noticeable are the more liberal atti tudes toward education in particular and the world in general. They possess an appreciation in Canadian cul ture which they attempt to teach to the children. 6. The schools are often the center of community ac tivities, some of which are sponsored by the school. Parent Teachers Associations have been formed.in several school districts. Agricultural clufea and literary, drama tic, and choral societies have been organized. BUILDING A MENNONITE SCHOOL SYSTEM IN CANADA The remaining part of this chapter traces the history of education among the various Canadian Mennonite groups that have developed an increasing interest in education. These groups are principally three} (1) Those Mennonites who in 403 1890 formed a small minority under the leadership of Johann Funk (see page ) and encouraged a more progressive educa tional philosophy. The Bergthalers.are now distributed in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta; (2) Those Mennonites that migrated from the United States into Canada in search of cheaper land. They are found in all the prairie provinces. Many of these became very successful and desirable leaders in those Mennonite settlements into which they moved; (3) Some 21,000 Mennonites emigrated into Canada between 1923 and 1929, driven out of Russia by the 1917 Revolution and the threat of Communism. These latest immigrants were strong advocates of well-trained teachers, general knowledge, and the best teaching procedures available. Since many in the group were former teachers from elementary and secondary schools in Russia, they furnished a new impetus to educational activities among the Mennonites in Canada. The Mennonite Collegiate Institute at G-retna. Mani- toba. — The first Mennonite secondary school in Canada had its origin in the conservative Mennonite center of Manitoba. Twelve years after the founding of the first colony in 1874, a small group, supported by Elder Johann Punk, minister of the church on the West Reserve, became convinced of the need of better schools in the colony. The consciousness of such a need and the discussions held in the church resulted in the formation of a 8chu.lv ere in (“Educational Association*1) , for the purpose of establishing a school for the training of 404 elementary teachers* The :S ehulverein selected Gretna, Mani toba, as a convenient location, constructed a small building, and enrolled its first students in September, 1889. This new school, The Gretna Normal School, was the work of a small group of men who, being more progressive and less conservative than their fellow colonists, worked hard to promote the cause of education among their people. For their unselfish efforts they were rewarded with much criticism from those who were much afraid of advanced education. Wilhelm Remple, one of t he leading Mennonite teachers in Manitoba, was asked to asarme the leadership and give the instruction to the young people who desired to become teachers. During the course of the year, about sixty students ranging in scholastic ability from those who could not even read, to a few who were ready to do high school work. Rempel found the task too great and resigned the position at the end of the first year. The Schulverein, being unable to fill the vacancy, was forced to close the school at the end of its first year of operation. 42 The Manitoba Department of Education having suc- 43 ceeded in getting H. H. Ewert, a successful Mennonite teacher 42 For the complete story of the difficulties faced by the Department of Education with the Mennonite colonists and its plan to find and appoint a Mennonite school inspector, see page 43 H. H. Ewert was born April 12, 1855, in the village of Ober-Nassau, West Prussian, the oldest of twelve children. 405 at Halstead. Kansas , to 136001116 the provincial school inspec tor among the Mennonite colonists in South Manitoba, the Schulverein employed Ewert to assume the leadership of the Normal School. Since the Department of Education agreed to pay one-half of Ewertfs salary, the Schulverein enjoyed a considerable financial assistance. In September, 1891, Ewert reopened the School. He found the work very difficult, for the students were so retarded that several years of instruction were required before any were qualified to pass even a third-class teachers examina tion. Hoping to get the political support of the Conserva tive Mennonites who hated Ewert for his- promotion of public schools among their villages, a political party succeeded in getting Ewert dismissed from the position of school inspector. This dismissal doubled the financial burden of the Schulverein. Because of the lack of interest and support, the School had experienced considerable difficulty in raising even half of Ewert* s salary a.s per the agreement of 1891. The enemies of the school were hoping that the financial problem now faced by When his parents, Wilhelm and Anna Ewert, decided to emigrate to the United States in 1874 to escape the new military ser vice law, the Prussian government had passed November 9, 1867, young Henry, then a lad of 19 years, was brought to America. He attended high school at Hillsboro, Kansas;' State Teachers College at Emporia, Kansas; Des Heines (Iowa) Institute, and Evangelical Theological Seminary, Marthasville, Missouri. From September 13, 1882 to A ugust, 1891, he was principal and teacher in the Halstead Seminary (now Bethel College), Hal stead, Kansas. 406 the Schulverein would prove too great and that the School . 44 would he forced to close. The crisis faced by the Gretna Normal School served to awaken dormant interest among its friends. Erdmann Penner, a successful merchant in Gretna, presented a challenge to the Schulverein; He offered to construct a #5,000 dormitory if the constituency would, raise an endowment fund for #25,000. Through the untiring efforts of Ewert the fund was collected within a year. During the financial campaign a new problem developed which received increasingly greater consideration. Should the school at Gretna be continued or should a new school be estab lished? If a new school were to be organized, where should the school be located? To decide this question and other mat ters pertaining to the Gretna school, a meeting was held by the Schulverein on May 5, 1905, at Altona, Manitoba. A conflict arose among the members over the method of voting on the issue of location. According to the constitu tion of the Schulverein, adopted in 1888, a two-thirds majority of the members present at an official meeting of the Schulverein was necessary to move the school to a new location. Disregard- ^Paul J. Schaefer, Heinrich H. Ewert, p. 59; also G. H. Peters, HDer Werdegang der Mennonitischen Lehranstalt zu Gretna, Manitoba,H Warte-Jahrbuch fuer die Mennonitische Ge- meinschaft in Canada, 1945, Arnold Dyck, editor, Steinbach, Manitoba, pp. 22; also C. Henry Smith, The Coming of the Rus sian Mennonites, p. 233. ing the constitutional procedure, the meeting argued two al ternative plans. One faction suggested that every member present should vote for whatever location he deemed most suit able for the school. If no location should receive a reason able majority, the two locations receiving the highest number of votes should then be submitted to another vote. The othe r faction contended that one vote was siifficient; the location receiving the largest number of votes should tie the final de cision. Agreeing upon the latter plan, the Schulverein in session proceeded to vote upon the crucial issue. A count of the votes resulted in the following totals* Winkler, 117; Gretna, 151; Altona, 179. Altona had become the location for the school. The' defeated faction contended that the two towns receiving the highest votes bhould be submitted to another vote before a final decision could be announced. The Board of Directors, feeling somewhat uncertain, began cautiously to plan a building. The old building at Gretna was dismantled and carted to Altona. The funds available in the treasury of the Schulverein were utilized in the construction of the new building. The ill feeling increased between the two factions that had formed at the*Altona meeting until the defeated group, at a special meeting, organized a new Bchulverein and elected a Board of Directors. Collecting funds and drawing plans, the Board of Directors launched out on a building project in Gretna, the location of the original Verein school. In 1908 408 the school was formally dedicated and named Mennonite Colle giate Institute. The schism among the Mennonites interested in higher education.weakened measurably the interest and 45 support after such was divided between two institutions. HAnd so, for.a few years, two institutions tried to administer to the educational needs of a field that was hardly large 46 enough for one." The school at Altona, which its constituency named The Mennonite Educational. Institute, enrolled its first stu dents in the Fall of 1908. Like its sister school at Gretna, it experienced financial difficulties through its history. The lack of sufficient funds even necessitated the closing of the school from 1921 to 1924. The Board’s inability” to find suitable teachers for such a school often added to the school’s problems. After another period of operation, the 4*7 building was destroyed by fire in 1926. Interest a,nd funds were insufficient to rebuilt the school, and the Mennonite Educational Institute at Altona ceased to exist. 45Paul J. Schaefer, Heinrich H. Ewert, p. 68; also G. H. Peters, 0£>. cit., p. 22. 4^C. Henry Smith, The Coming of the Russian Mennonites. p• 238. 47 It was of Interest to the writer to discover, in an Interview with a certain Mennonite who knew the controversy that had existed between the two schools, that there were such who considered the destruction of the Altona school as a pun ishment of God: for. as they contended, the school had never been built with God’s blessings. The interview also revealed that there were those friends of the Altona school who felt that some friend of the Gretna school was responsible for the fire. 409 The re-established school at Gretna, which received■ ’ the name, The Mennonite Collegiate Institute, experienced many discouraging years of opposition, especially from the friends of the A l.tona school, inadequate financial support, 48 and an unstable enrollment. In order to build greater security in financial sup port, the Schulverein of the Gretna school tried several times to shift the burden of administering and financing the school to a more secure organization. In 1931 the Schulverein decided to present the school to the various Mennonite churches of Manitoba, irrespective of Mennonite denomination. A number of churches agreed to share in the responsibility. When, after a reasonable length of time, a number of the lar ger churches failed to accept the school, the participating churches found the task of supporting the school too great, and they, too, withdrew. In 1936 the Manitoba General Con ference of Mennonites assumed the school as a Conference pro ject. This organization soon found the financial burden too heavy. In 1939 a new organization was built under the name Verein der Mennonitengemeinden Manitobas ("Association of Mennonite Churches of Manitoba"). According to its consti- 4®G. H. Peters, op. cit., p. 22: "The attendance de creased, after ten years of operation, to 17, 16, and one year even to 13 students........ However, there were years, like 1916, when the enrollment rose to 88......... In 1932 It fell back to 22 students.1 1 410 tution, both churches and individuals possess the right to vote at the annual meeting of the Verein. Mennonite churches which contribute an average of thirty cents per member annual ly may send one voting delegate for every twenty members. Such churches that did not average thirty cents per member may send delegates to the annual meeting of the Vet*ein where they are granted votes proportional to the amount contribu ted by their respective church. All parents sending children to the school have the right to vote at the annual meetings held in those years when their children are enrolled in the school. Individuals who have given $2 toward the financial support of the school are members of the Verein, too, in those years when such gifts are made. The underlying objectives which were formulated by Ewert, the first principal of the Mennonite Collegiate In stitute, and the Schulverein, have given direction to the school throughout its history. Ewert, who served the school for 43 l/2 years, was the kind of schoolman that endeavored to achieve the objectives of the school faithfully and con- 49 scientiously. They were stated thus: All training and instruction must be based upon a fundamental, Christian foundation. All modernism must be sharply opposed. The old, tried, Mennonite principles of our forefathers are to be regarded highly after the following maxim: “Strive to possess that which you have inherited from your fathers*1 1 Our religion and our mother tongue are to have first place in the curriculum. Sub- 4^Paul J. Schaefer, Heinrich H. Ewert, p. 133. 411 ject matter prescribed by the state is to be taught so thoroughly that our students will in no wise be infer ior to the students from state schools* The conduct of the students is to be carefully directed by means of reasonable and somewhat strict rules in order to protect them from going astray and to help them develop a proper mode of life.5” The Mennonite Collegiate Institute, as it functions today, is a private high school offering the standard four- year curriculum prescribed by the Manitoba State D epartment of Education. The thoroughness of its instruction is revealed in the low percentage of failures among its students who, to gether with graduates from all public high schools, must pass a provincial high school examination. MWhereas the num ber of failures among the graduates of most public high schools is between 22 and 25 per cent, in the Mennonite Collegiate 51 Institute only between 8 and 14 per cent have failed.H Such a record is even more significant when it is remembered that extra courses in Cerman and Bible are studies by the stu dents in addition to the. regular high school courses. The Rosthern Junior College.— This school has been known by this name only since 1946. Prom the origin of the school in 1903 to 1946 it ws.s called the G-erraan-English Academy. The change of name was an expression of an asoiration to include 52 the second year of the Arts and Sciences in the curriculum. 50 G-. H. Peters, op. pit., p. 24. 51Ibld.. p. 26. ^According to the Saskatchewan educational system, the fourth year in high school is equivalent to the first 412 Lack of adequate room, equipment, and other requirements have prevented the realization of the School becoming what its new name implies. In the year 1900 a small group of school-minded Men nonite s in Saskatchewan began to discuss the need of a sec ondary school similar to the one at Gretna* The need for teachers was felt more and more as new elementary schools were being organized among the growing settlements* Hence a meeting was called of such people who were interested in a secondary school* They met in the Eigenheimer Church, near Kosthern, Saskatchewan, on March 7» 1903* The meeting, which was well attended, discussed the following issues: (1) Should a Mennonite secondary school be established? (2) What should be the aims and objectives of such an institution? (3) Can a constituency be fozmed which would be adequate to fin ance such a project? (4) Should such a school be located in a town or in the country? Since the meeting was composed largely of farmers, the majority vote decided to locate the school in the coun- tryc The second meeting held June 10, 1903» reversed the de cision reached at the first meeting and voted to locate the school in a town* At a third meeting, Kosthern, Saskatche wan was chosen as a desirable place for the school* The de year in a college in the United States* For this school to be a junior college it would have to add one more year of work* 413 cision to locate the school at Bosthem resulted in consider able ill feeling among Mennonites who lived some distance south of Bosthem and were not able to be present at the 53 meeting because of extremely cold weather. The Schulverein. which had been formed to establish and administer the new school, succeeded in getting David 54 Toews to become the principal of the school. Toews served in the school from 1905 until 1920. He was to the Bosthern sshool what Ewert was to the school at Gretna. The lack of adequate financial support, has been a 55 serious hindrance to the School from its very beginning. ^ArnoM Dyck, "Die deutsch-englisehe Eortbildungs- sehule in Bosthern, Saskatchewan," Warte-Jahrbach fuer die Mennonitische Gemeinschaft in Canada. 1943 (Steinbach. Mani- toba: Arnold Dyck, HerausgeEer) , p. 28. ^4i>avid Toews was bom February 9, 1B70, at lysander- hoehe, Saratov, Bussia. His parents, Jacob and Marie Toews had moved from West Prussia into Bussia the preceding year in order to escape the new military-service law which the Prussian government had passed in 186?• In 1884 the Toews family moved to America. At Newton, Kansas, young David, now a lad of 14, continued his education which had been well begun in a Men nonite school in South Bussia* From 188? to 1390 he attended the Halstead (Kansas) Seminary, where H. H. Ewert was then principal. He attended the same school another year, 1892- 1893* His education was continued in the Winnipeg Coll.egiate Institute 1896-1897, and at the Normal School in Winnipeg, 1897-1898. After teaching at the Mennonite Collegiate Insti tute at Gretna and a number of public schools in Manitoba and Saskatchewan, Toews accepted the principalship of the German- English Academy where he remained until 1920. He held many positions of responsibility in his church Conference. His greatest contribution to his people was probably made as chair man of the Canadian Mennonite Board of Colonisation which was made responsible for the difficult task of helping 21,000 Men nonites to escape Soviet oppression between the years 1923 and 1929* _ -^Arnold Dyck, op. cit.. p. 29; also Paul Schaefer, Woher? Wohin? MennonitenI p. 84* 414 Often the salaries of the teachers were in arrears* Bat inspite of unpaid salaries and deficits, the Bosthem school has operated continuously from its origin in 1 9 0 3. At the annual meeting of the Schulverein held Febru ary 1 9, 1 9 1 5, the question whether the school should be sold to the town of Bosthern was considered seriously* Those vho favored such action were willing, however, to sell only on the condition that a German Department be maintained in the curriculum. When the Schulverein voted upon the issue, the count of the ballots showed that the majority opposed the sale of the school. According to the 1946-1947 catalog, the aim of the Bosthem Junior College was given as follows: "For other foundation can no man lay than that is laid, which is Jesus Christ." The aim of the insti tution is to serve its constituency by preserving the best traditions and ideals of the Mennonite people and by providing young people with an opportunity to acquire a well-balanced Christian high school education. To achieve this aim the prescribed course of the Department of Education has been enriched by the addition of cour ses in religion, church history, Mennonite history, Christian ethics and language. Every student is expected to avail himself of these opportunities to the fullest extent. 56 In 1932 the Schulverein organized a separate Bible School, in response to an expressed demand which has been coming from individuals in the constituency for a school offer ing only a Bible course. The Bosthern Bible School, as the ^^Bosthem Junior College Bulletin. 1946-1947, Bos thern, Saskatchewan. 415 new school was named, Is housed In a separate building a few miles from Bosthern, where it offers a four-year Bible course; each school-year is composed of five months each* The Rostbern Junior College and the Bosthern Bible School are two separate institutions although administered end supported by the same Schulverein, The Mennonites in Canada have voiced the desire to establish a school on the junior-college level, and, if possible, into a standard liberal arts college* Mennonite youth inter ested in an education beyond the high school level have been required to enroll either in one of the Canadian non-Mennonite colleges or one of the Mennonite colleges in the United States* Both the Mennonite Educational Institute at Gretna and the Bosthern Junior College have been considered as possible in stitutions that might be rebuilt into a junior college* In 1946 the Bosthern Schulverein began to plan the extension of the curriculum into a junior college* The old name, the German- English Academy, was changed to the Bosthern Junior College* Lack of the necessary facilities has prevented the Schulverein from achieving its plans except changing the name of the school* In October, 1947, the president and dean of Bethel College met with the Board of the Bosthern Junior College to plan a co-ordinated curriculum so that graduates from the junior college could transfer without loss of credits to Bethel College, at Newton, Kansas, As a result of that conference the following memorandum appeared in the Bethel College Catalog 416 for the year 1948-1949: Recognizing the common heritage of the supporters of Bethel College and the Junior College at Rosthern, and looking forward to a continued fellowship of the General Conference Mennonltes in Canada scad the United States of America, we realize the need for a closer mutual co operation between the Rosthern School and Bethel College* In an effort to promote this co-operation surveys have been made and plans are under way by which it will be possible for Bethel College to admit as juniors the stu dents who have satisfactorily completed the curriculum at the Rosthern Junior College* Whenever these plans, which are now under considera tion, are completed, it will be possible for the Rosthern graduates to q.ualify for their Baccalaureate degree 'at BetttfelMQollege with two additional full years of acceptable work*57 The Rosthern School and the Gretna school as well have operated about fifty years. During that period they have been confronted with problems that were quite similar* lack of adequate financial support, failure to elicit an enthus iastic interest on the part of many members of the constituen cy, and the pioneer conditions of the Mennonite settlements during a large part of the history of the two schools have been difficult to overcome* During the last two decades a new situation has developed which is beginning to affect the enrollment of both schools* In many towns among the Mennon- ites hlgi schools have been established to which many parents find it more convenient to send their children. Thus, unless the two schools extend their offerings beyond those of the standard high school, the enrollments are bound to be almost always limited* 5?Bethel College Bulletin for 1948-1949* North Newton, Kansas, pp. 19-20. 417 The New Mennonite high sohool movement. — A recent ed- ucat ional trend among the Mennonites in Canada is represented by the establishment of private high schools. Table 2X11 shows the names of twelve such schools of which nine organized since 1944. Such a trend has resulted from a definite conviction that the public high schools did not educate Mennonite youth in harmony with the "Mennonite Way of Life*" Schaefer has sta ted the essence of that conviction very well wh«n he states: The schools of our land are without religion. Our children obtain good training in many worthwhile subjects in our [public^ elementary and high schools, but the religious instruction is avoided* Undoubtedly, the gov ernment does not approve the religious training of any established confession, and a general, religious course of study that would satisfy all church groups has not yet been found* Thus, our Mennonite churches deemed it necessary to assume the responsibility and give to their youth such a religious education. 5 When it is realized that a double financial burden is assumed by these people when they set up their own secondary schools and, at the same time, support with their taxes the public higx schools found usually in their communities* very specific aims or objectives must underlie the movement* An analysis of the aims set forth by these various schools shows a considerable agreement. I. I. Dyck, principal of the Mennonite Educational Institute at Abbotsford, British Col umbia, probably speaks pretty well for all the schools when he states the aim of his school as follows: ^Paul J. Schaefer, Woher? Wohln? MennonitenI. p. 86* TABLE XXII MENNONITE SECONDARY SCHOOLS Name and Location of School Year Founded Years in Curricu lum Enrollment in 1947- 194S — t -------------------------- t Number S of Teachers ■ j Supporting Organization Mennonite Collegiate Institute Gretna, Manitoba 1889 IX- XII 147 T : 5 ■ * Schulverein Rosthern Junior College Rosthern, Saskatchewan 1903 IX- XII 171 5 Schulverein Mennonite Educational Institute* Altona, Manitoba 1908 IX- XII i - Schulverein Mennonite Educational Institute Abbotsford, British Columbia 1944 IX- XII 220 ; 7 Mennonite Brethren Churches Mennonite Brethren Hi# School Winnipeg, Manitoba 1945 IX- XII 86 i k Schulverein of Mennonite Brethren Sharon Mennonite Collegiate Institute Yarrow, British Columbia 1945 VII-XIII 332 12 ■ t Three Mennonite Brethren Churches Rockaway Mennonite School Kitchener, Ontario 1945 IX- XII * 50 3 (Old) Mennonite Conference of Ontario United Mennonite Bible School Leamington, Ontario 1945 IX- XII 61 3 General Conference of Ontario Alberta Mennonite High School Coaldale, Alberta 1946 IX- XII 44 2 l Mennonite Brethren Churches of Al berta Eden (Bible and) High School Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario 1945 IX- XII 85 6 Schulverein of Mennonite Brethren Mennonite Educational Institute Sardis, British Columbia 1946 VII- X 36 \ General Conference of British Col umbia Steinbach Bible Academy Steinbach, Manitoba 1947 IX- XI . ( Mennonite Brethren Church (Local) *The school at Altona, Manitoba has not been operating since 1926* 419 1* To give the students a high school education in a Christian atmosphere* 2. To preserve and foster the Mennonite principles* 3. To train leaders f or our churches, Sunday school teachers, etc.59 Henry Thiessen, principal of the Alberta Mennonite Higji School at Coaldale, Alberta, stated the purppse of that school thus: The aim of our school is to give our Mennonite youth a high school education in a Christian environment where the courses may be tau^Lt in the light of truth, the Bible. Not only is it the knowledge that we hope to teach, but also awaken in the youth a recognition of their high responsibilities to their family, church, country, and God.60 Among a list of aims found in the 1946-1947 catalog of the United Mennonite Bible School, Leamington, Ontario, the following defined purpose is of interest: , . ^ ^ , > v v Through her efforts, the school aims to develop in the students not only the mind but also to help the stu dents to come into possession of an education "heart,"— a character that is Christian and a faith.in God grounded upon the eternal principles of the Bible. G. C. Peters, an experienced teacher from South Russia, and one of the active supporters of the Sharon Mennonite Col legiate Institute at Yarrow, British Columbia, in a personal letter assigned to that school the task of securing three Mennonite positions: ^^The three aims listed are taken from the question naire sent to I. J. Dyck, principal of the Mennonite Educa tional Institute at Abbotsford, British Columbia. 6 o Answer on the questionnaire returned by Henry Thies sen, principal of the Alberta Mennonite High School, Coal dale, Alberta. ^igatalog der Mennonitische Bibel u. Fortbildungs- schule zu Leamington. Ontario. 1946-1^47. ~p. 2. 420 We want to substantiate among ourselves again the three positions no true Mennonite cares to surrender, namely: the German language, the doctrine of gsp- resistance, and the separation from the world*0* When all the aims as set forth by the new Mennonite higi schools are reduced to a common denominator, they ex press one basic purpose, namely, the priority of religion in the total educative process* To the extent that public schools had become secularized, to that extent they were inadequate* On the secondary level the Men nonit as in Canada have moved far toward the establishment of their own schools* However, the interest in Mennonite high schools has been stimulated by other factors, even though of minor import ance: (1) Mennonltes in Canada have finally realized and ad mitted the importance of education for ministers, Sunday school teachers, youth leaders, choir directors, missionar ies, deacons, and other forms of service the church demands* Such leaders cannot be recruited from an uneducated laity nor can other non-Mennonite church schools be expected to train them* Since the Mennonite Church aslcs for leadership trained for its own peculiar needs, it recognizes its responsibility to train them* (2) it must be recognized that the economic conditions have been very prosperous during the last decade 62 C* C* Peters, a leader in the Yarrow Bible School in a letter to Prof. J. P. Rogalsky, Tabor College, Hillsboro, Kansas, dated October 15» 1947. Letter in Mennonite Histori cal Library, Bethel College, North Newton, Kansas* / 421 in which these schools were organized* The necessary money Tor educational purposes has heen available* At Yarrow and Abbotsford, British Columbia, and at Leamington, Ontario, new buildings to house the schools have been constructed; the tot al cost of which involved a large sum of money* The prosper ity brought on by World War II has aided the movement* (3) The Mennonites in Canada as well as Mennonites elsewhere have never sought to dominate over the political or educa tional activities of their communities when such sections contained an appreciable number of non-Mennonites* Since they have held a minority status through their history of four hundred years, they have developed a passive type of behavior in community affairs except when left alone to them selves* Private schools offer their only opportunity for com plete control* (4) The coming of twenty-one thousand immi grants into Canada from South Bussia after the close of World War I introduced new life into the more or less static Mennon- 63 ite culture of that country* In this group were many former teachers from the Mennonite school system in Russia* All their training and experience had been gained there* Soon after becoming established in Canada, they began to express a great interest in the education of their children* All the Mennonite higi schools established since 1944, except the Rockaway Mennonite School, are located in communities settled 63 ''This thought has been expressed by ministers and teachers in Canada that the writer was ready to state it as a fact* 422 chiefly by the newcomers* Accustomed to their Zentralschulen in Bussia, they transplanted an educational pattern to the vast plains of Canada* The nine newly established Mennonite high schools differ very little in their curricular offerings* As accred ited secondary schools, they must necessarily teach the same courses* To the prescribed high school curriculum are added courses in Bible, German composition and literature* The daily schedules are usually so arranged that about one-fourth of a student*s time is devoted to the latter courses* Except in a few cases, most of the Bible courses are taught in the German and are required of all students enrolled* Table 2QCIUshows courses of study in three selected Mennonite high schools* All three courses of study list but one Bible course for each year* In order to meet the stand ard high school requirements, a student cannot devote but a part of his time to religious education* Even when the Sharon Mennonite Collegiate Institute adds a fifth year, it, too, is filled with secular subjects* The malceup of the supporting organizations of these schools present interesting differences* Three Mennonite Brethren Churches near Yarrow, British Columbia, for instance, operate the school at that place* Two others are administered and supported by organized Schulvereins* and three are educa tional projects of provincial Mennonite conferences. A very brief record of each school follows as an- ) ' 423 TABLE XXIII COURSES OF STUDY IN SELECTED MENNONITE HIGH SCHOOLS Rockaway Mennonite School United Mennonite Bible School Sharon Mennonite Collegiate Institute Ninth G r a d <> English Social Studies Health, Phys. Ed. Mathematics Agricultural Sci. French Music Art Bible English Social Studies Health, Phys. Ed. Mathematics General Science French German and Religi ous Training Shopwork, Home Ec. Guidance Music and Art English Social Studies Mathematics German Religion Health Physical Training Mus ic Guidance Activity Tenth Grade English Social Studies Health, Phys. Ed. Agricultural Sci. Mathematics French Music Art Bible English Social Studies Health, Phys. Ed. Mathematics General Science German, Religious Training Rudiments of Com mercial course (if time permits ) Guidance (Occupa tions } Music and Art English Science Mathematics German Religion Physical Training Geography Latin Music Guidance Activity E 1 e v e n t h G r a d e English History French Latin Mathematics Science Geography Music Bible Health & Phys. Ed* English History— Anc.& Med. Geography Mathematics Science German & Rel.Trfg Rudiments of Com mercial course Music and Art Health & Phys. Ed. English Social Studies Science Mathematics German Religion Health Physical Training Music Geography, Latin, Guidance, Activity 424 TABLE XXIII (Continued) COURSE OE STUDY IN SELECTED MENNONITE HIGH SCHOOLS Rockaway Mennonite School United Mennonite Bible School Sharon Mennonite Collegiate Institute Twelfth Gra d e English Social Studies Mathematics Physics Chemistry German Religion Music Guidance Activity Phys* Training T h i r teenth Gr a d e English History Mathematics German Physics Religion Singing Guidance Activity y 425 swers in the questionnaires returned and the catalogs sent by these schools tell their history. - 1* Mennonite Educational Institute at Abbotsford, British Columbia.— Prior to 1944 the young people attended the local state high schools* Since the Mennonites in that area considered the spillt and practices of those schools un christian, they began to discuss the possibility of a priTate high school. Throughout the summer of 1944 meetings were held to plan its organization. The Mennonite Brethren churches of British Columbia aided by a few churches in the General Conference of Mennonites opened up a high school at South Abbotsford# During the first year of operation it shared classrooms with the Abbotsford Bible School. Its first student bo<$r, composed of forty-three students, were in structed by a faculty of three teachers. The second school- year, 1945-1946, began with an enrollment of 104 and one addi tional teacher. The enrollment in the third year of operation *>• , - ■ € rose to 172 students# Because of the phenomenal growth of interest and en rollment, three Mennonite Brethren Churches located in the Abbotsford area decided to assume complete responsibility for the administration and support of the school. The board of education elected by the three churches was authorized to construct a building adequate for the needs of the school# Just before Christmas in 1946 the new building located near the Trans-Canada Highway in Abbotsford was completed suffi- United Mennonite Bible School Leamington, Ontario Mennonite Educational Institute Abbotsford, British Columbia PLATE XIII CANADIAN MENNONITE HIGH SCHOOLS 42? Eden Bible and High School PLATE XIIII CANADIAN MENNONITE HIGH SCHOOLS (Continued) 428 ciently for the students and faculty to move in. The school teim of 1947-1948 closed with an enrollment of 220. 2. The Mennonite Brethren Hi$i School at Winnipeg, Manitoba .--Some members in each of the three Mennonite Breth ren churches in Winnipeg began to promote a private high school in Winnipeg# In September, 1945> H. Wall was asked to assume the leadership and maks the necessary plans for it. Forty- five students enrolled and classwork was begun in two rooms with which the Mennonite Brethren College had provided the 64 school for that purpose# At the end of the first year of operation the sponsors of the school were convinced that the school had a future and should be continued. In the Summer of 1946 a Schulverein was organized to make further plans. It bought a roomy duplex which was located near the Mennonite Brethren Bible College, and remodelled the first floor into classrooms and the second floor into a dormitory for girls. The 1947-1948 school-year increased the enrollment to 86 stu dents and the teaching staff to four members# 3. Sharon Mennonite Collegiate Institute at Yarrow, British Columbia.— The Mennonite Brethren churches at East Chilliwack, Chilliwack, Sardis, and Yarrow, British Columbia united in sponsoring this secondary school. These four churches elected a board composed of nine members# The first Mennonite Brethren Bible College is a school which was founded in 1944 by the Canadian Mennonite Brethren Conference for advanced Bible training. The school will be described in a later part of the chapter. 429 school term opemed im September, 1945, with 153 students en rolled, and in the school term of 1947 -19 48 the enrollment had risen to 300 students* The board purchased an eleven-acre site in Yarrow upon which it constructed a building costing $175,000. It was planned to accommodate 350 students* It is the largest secondary school building among the Mennonites in either Canada or the United States* Its curriculum includes both junior- and senior high school courses# The senior high school includes Grade 13; thus the curriculum of the school contains a seven-year program. Religion, music, Church and Mennonite history courses, and German are obligatory subjects in all the grades* The state accepts promotions up to grade 11, but the British Columbia State University requires students to write examina tions for university entrance* The examinations are given by the provincial department of education* 4. Roekaway Mennonite Bible School, at Kitchener, Ontario.— The (Old) Mennonite Conference of Ontario opened this school in 1945. The first school year was conducted in a large dwelling house, located on a 14-acre plot near the town of Kitchener* During the Summer of 1946 a large barn was remodelled into a dormitory. Its first enrollment in September, 1945, was 39 students; the 1947-1948 enrollment had increased to 76 students* 5. United Mennonite Bible School at Leamington, On- tario.--In 1944 Bible courses were taught in the General 430 Conference Mennonite churches at Vineland, Virgil, and Leam ington, Ontario. Since the enrollment at each center was rather low, the three churches decided to combine their ef forts and offer a more extended course in Bible study. The work was to be continued at Leamington under the direction of Reverend J. A. Dyck. In planning for the Bible school it was decided to add secular courses in the curriculum. These added courses necessitated the appointment of another teacher— one to instruct the high school subjects. Classes were conducted in the basement of the Leamington Mennonite Church. During the Summer of 1946 the three churches formed a Schulverein, elected a board, and voted to begin the con struction of a school building. The great sacrifices in money and free labor made it possible for the school to move out of the basement of the Leamington church into the newly completed building January 6, 1947. In its first three years of operation the enrollment grew from 24 to S3 students* 6. The Alberta Mennonite High School at Coaldale, Alberta.--A small number of Mennonites among the various Mennonite settlements and churches had been interested in establishing a secondary school for their children. During World War II the matter was temporarily dropped for fear such a project would arouse antagonism among the non-Mennonites in the different communities. In 1946 the Alberta Mennonite Educational Society (Schulverein) was formed. It is composed 431 of individuals from various Mennonite branches in Alberta. After certain difficulties usually met in such educa tional projects, the school was formally opened September 9, 1946, with an enrollment of 44 students and two teachers. 7. The Eden Bible and Hi^i School at Niagara-on-the- LaJce, Ontario. This school which had its beginning in 1945 was organized by the Mennonite Brethren churches of Ontario. Erom 1942 to 1945 it was merely a Bible school, but the need for a secondary school resulted in the addition of an accred ited high school department. The two departments have been functioning as separate schools* Length of school terms and opening and closing dates are different for each department* The Schulverein has been planning the construction of a building to house both departments* Scarcity of building materials and hi$i cost of labor have prevented the realiza tion of the plans* The school has operated in a temporary building which served originally as a private residence. 8. The Mennonite Educational Institute at Sardis, British Columbia. The newest Mennonite high school to be established was an educational project of the General Confer ence of Mennonites of British Columbia. The school began to operate in September, 1946, and during the first year offered courses in Grades 7-10, inclusive. Although the enrollment was only 36 during the school term 1947-1948 the churches supporting the school are planning for its future. A build ing project is under construction* 432 9* The Steinbach BihLe Academy at Steinbach, Manitoba. — In 1936 some of the ministers in the Steinbach community promoted the establishment of a Bible School. Only nine stu dents enrolled for the first school year. The next year 27 attended. In 1939 a new building to house the Bible School was constructed. As the school developed the Schulverein supporting the school began to plan the introduction of the higi school course into the curriculum. During the 1947-1948 school term the first three grades— 9, 10, and 11— were offered. Mennonite Bible Schools in Canada.— Among the Mennon ites in Canada the Bible school has been a very important educational institution. The traditional Bible school is even incorporated into the ten Mennonite high schools dis cussed earlier in this chapter. A Bible-centered education is, for most Mennonites, the Icind that prepares their children best for life. A Bible school promises that kind of educa tion; its curriculum is not crowded with secular subject matter that consumes time and interest. Table XXIV presents a list of the twenty-two Bible schools that operated during the 1947-1948 school year. It is significant that 14 out of the 22 Bible schools were or ganized since 1930. The Bible school movement has been stea dily growing. As yet it is showing no decline in the face of public and private secondary schools which are developing in the provinces of Canada. TABLE XXIV MENNONITE BIBLE SCHOOLS IN CANADA Name of School Location Year Founded En roll ment 1947- 1948 Supporting Organization Teachers Ontario Mennonite Breth. Church # • 3 Emmanuel Bible School Kitchener, Ontario 1940 58 (Old) Mennonite • ♦ 3 Ontario Mennonite Bible School Kitchener, Ontario 1907 • * Mennonite Brethren Schulverein 3 • • Eden Bible (and High) School Niagara-on-the-Lake 1942 33 General Conference Menn. of Ont. 3 • • United Mennonite Bible School Le amin gt on, Ont ar io 1945 61 Mennonite Brethren Conf. of Man. 8 5 Winkler Bible School Winkler, Manitoba 1925 98 All-Mennonite Schulverein 5 3 Steinbach Bible Academy Steinbach, Manitoba 1937 50 General Conference Church (Local) 4 • ♦ Elim Bible School Altona, Manitoba 1929 65 General Conference Church (Local) 1 • ♦ Mennonitische Religionsschule Winnipeg, Manitoba 1932 35 General Conference Schulverein 6 • • Rosthern Bible School Rosthern, Saskatchewan 1932 42 General Conference Church (Local) 2 3 Swift Current Bible School Swift Current, Sask. 1936 33 Mennonite Brethren Church (Local) 5 • • Herbert Bible School Herbert, Saskatchewan 1913 46 Evangelical Menn. Breth. Ch. M • • • • Tabor Bible School Dalmeny, Saskatchewan . • • • • • • Mennonite Brethren Church (Local) 5 • • Bethany Bible School Hepburn, Saskatchewan : • • • * • ♦ Mennonite Brethren Church (Local) 3 • • Coaldale Bible School Coaldale, Alberta 1 1929 81 General Conference Church (Local) 2 ♦ # Menno Bible Institute Didsbury, Alberta 1937 52 Mennonite Brethren Church (Local) Morning Star Bible School Coaldale, Alberta 1937 • • Mennonite Brethren Church (Local) 1 • # Bethesda Bible School Gem, Alberta 1933 8 Mennonite Brethren Church (Local) Mountain View Bible School Didsbury, Alberty 1926 • • i Mennonite Brethren Church (Local) 4 • • Yarrow Bible School Yarrow, British Columbia j 1934 80 General Conference Church (Local) 3 • • Abbotsford Bible School Abbotsford, British Col. 1 • • • • 32 Three Mennonite Brethren Churches 4 • * Bethany Bible School Abbotsford, British Col. 1943 32 Mennonite Brethren Church (Local) 4 • ♦ East Chilliwack Bible School East Chilliwack, B. C. j 1947 56 434 To understand the Mennonite Bible school it is neces sary to consider the expressed purposes and aims of these schools* Only as these schools set up distinct objectives can they be justified* The Steinbach Bible School aims to train and send forth men and women who have: 1* Accepted the Lord Jesus Christ as their own per sonal Savior through the grace of God* 2. Acquired a thorough knowledge of the Word of God to enable them to lead others to Christ and instruct them to grow spiritually* 3* Become Spirit-filled with a passion to win the lost* 4* Become willing and zealous to serve the Lord in their home church or wherever called by Him*65 The-objectives of the Swift Current Bible School point to other values: 1* To give our Mennonite young people a general, ef fective knowledge of Godvs Word in accordance with the fundamental doctrine of the Mennonite Church for the past four centuries, believing that the sinfulness of our age can only be resisted by the Sword of the Spirit* 2* To train young people for Christian service in Foreign Mission Fields, our.Sunday schools, Summer Bible schools, and the ministry The Emmanuel Bible School, which is maintained by the Ontario Conference of the Mennonite Brethren in Christ, one of the strongly evangelical branches, defined its purpose thus: ^Steinbach Bible School Catalog, Steinbach, Manito ba, 1946-1947, p. 4* 66 Swift Current Bible School Catalog for 1946-1947, Swift Current, Saskatchewan, p* 2* 435 Resizing, in this day of advanced education with specialization in almost every branch of learning and service, the need for thoroughly trained Christian work ers who can speak with authority in the highest realm of manfs need— his spiritual need— it is the purpose of the Emmanuel Bible School to provide a complete course of Biblical and theological studies that will adequately equip young people for Christian service in both the home and foreign fields* The further aim of the school is $o give such instruction in a spiritual and evangelical atmosphere that feet only the mind of the student may be enlightened,, but that the heart may be drawn into a deep er fellowship with the Saviour, and be moved with a burn ing passion for the souls of men* The student is encouraged in a devotional life that will establish helpful habits of Bible study and prayer* The family life of the school is designed to help young people learn the Christian graces of adaptability, cour tesy, helpfulness, geniality, and thoughtfulness of others* Family worship is conducted each day* During each semes ter one full day is set aside as a day of prayer. °7 A comparison of aims and objectives set up by the Mennonite Bible Schools in Canada revealed a marked consisten cy of purpose* All aimed to teach the Bible in order that young people might learn the great spiritual principles de scribed in it* All desired to prepare their students for some type of Christian service, such as Sunday school teach ers, ministers, youth leaders, or missionaries* Next in fre quency came the aim to develop a fim, Christian character. Listed three times was the objective to arouse a passion for "lost souls*" Two schools expressed the hope that such stu dents who had not "accepted Christ as their personal Savior" would be led to do so* Facility in the German language was ^Emmanuel Bible School Catalog, Kitchener, Ontario, 1946-1947, p. 8* 436 twich mentioned. One school hoped to teach its students*to 66 stand against all the false teachings in these days,* The curricula of the Bible schools is divided, in most cases, into several courses. All schools offer either a two-, three-, or four-year General Bible Course, All but four offer practical training in Christian work either as a part of the general Bible course or in their specially planned Christian Education Course, Only the Winkler Bible School lists in addi tion to the two-named courses a "music course" and a "home and fdrei@i missionary course*" The general Bible course is the basic part of the curriculum in each Bible school* It offers to the students systematic instruction in the whole Bible, Most of the sub ject are introductory in nature and are considered as termin al and as prerequisites for advanced study in a Biblical semin ary or Bible college* Table XXV shows courses of study in selected Cana dian Mennonite Bible School divided into a three-year program, and Table XXVI shows the course on the four-year basis* There is little unifoxmity either in the number of listed subjects or in the titles given to them. There has been no attempt made to build an All-Mennonite Bible School system in Canada in order to create a uniform, standard Mennonite Bible School* 6%erman Voth, teacher in the Eden Bible School, Niagara on-the-Lake, Ontario, wrote the sentence in answer to question No, 11 in the questionnaire submitted to him. 437 TABUS EX? COURSES OF STUDY IN SELECTED BIBLE SCHOOLS HAVING THREE-YEAR PROGRAMS Swift Current Bible School Ontario Mennonite Bible School First Year Bible I Personal Work I Ancient History in Bible Light I Bible Geography Department Specialization I Child Study Sunday School Administration I Missions I Public Speaking Voice I Theory I Engl ish Old Testament (Gen. to Deut.) New Testament (Matthew) Epistles and Method Doctrine (Christian Ev., Doctrine of Salvation) Biblical Introduction (Old Testament History, Geo graphy) Sunday School Normal (Insti tution and Purpose) Christian Work (Personal) Church History (Apostolic to Reformation) Missions (Development) English (Reading, Diction, and Construction) Music (Elementary, Interpre- tat ion) Second Year Bible II Personal Work II Ancient History in Li^it of Bible II Department Specializa tion II Pedagogy Sunday School Adm. II Bible Doctrine I Church History I Mennonite History I Christian Evidences (Alter nate with False Cults) Homiletics I Prophecy I Voice II Theory II Missions II Old Testament (Joshua to Esther, Isaiah to Dan.) New Testament (Mark, Luke) Epistles and Methods Doctrines (God, Christ, Holy Spirit and Man) Biblical Introduction (New Testament history, Geo graphy; Life of Christ Sunday School Normal (Teach er and Pupil) Christian Work (Y. P. Meet ings) Church History (European Mennonites) Missions (World Wide) English (Language, Composi tion) Music (Elementary, Interpre tation) 438 TABLE XXV (Continued) COURSES OF STUDY IN SELECTED BIBLE SCHOOLS HAVING THREE-YEAR PROGRAMS Swift Current Bible School Ontario Mennonite Bible School Third Year Bible III Bible Introduction Bible Doctrine II Missions III Church History II False Cults (Alternated with Christian Evi dences) Homiletics II Prophecy II Voice II Theory III Department Specialization Old Testament {Job to Songs of Solomon, Hosea to Malachi) New Testament (John) Epistles and Methods Doctrines (Church, Angels, Devils, Future State) Biblical Introduction (Acts life of Paul) Sunday School Normal (Wes son Study and Presen tation) Christian Work (Fields, Mo- derm Missions) Church. History (American Mennonites) Missions (Mennonite Missions) EngLish (Essay and Oration) Music (Elementary, Interpre tation) 439 TABLE XXVI COURSES OF STUDY IN SELECTED BIBLE SCHOOLS OFFERING FOUR-YEAR PROGRAMS Mountain View Bible School Rosthern Bible School Menno Bible Institute First Year Bible Introduction Preparatory Course Bible Geography Pentateuch Gospels Evangelism History I: English I Das Leben Jesu Bibellesen Bibeljunde Studies in Old Tes tament (First 5 boohs) Katechismus Personal Work Kirchenlied Mennonitengeschichbe Kirchengeschichte Bible Geography Missions German Language English Sonntagschule SommerbibeIschule Bible I Bible Manners and Customs Bible Geography Catechism Choral Directing Church History Humnology Language Literature Notation Public Speaking Scripture Memori zing Second Year Theology I Acts Historical Boohs Expression Doctrinal Epistles Teacher Tr*nfg I Missions History II English II Geschichte des Rei ches Gottes im Neuen Bunde Bibellesen Bibel junde Das Evangelium Mar- hus Der Philipperbrief Studies in the Old Testament Personal Work Missions Mennonite History Kirchengeschichte Alt er t umskunde Deutsche Sprache Sonntagsschule Acts Bible II Bible Introduction Child. Study Choral Directing Deptfl Specializa tion Doctrine Ethics Language Literature Mennonite History Pedagogy Personal Work Prayer Sermon on the Mft Sunday School in Action 440 TABLE XXVI (Continued) COURSES OF STUDY IN SELECTED BIBLE SCHOOLS OFFERING FOUR-YEAR PROGRAMS Mountain View Bible School Rosthern Bible School Menho Bible Institute I U r d Year Theology II Prophecy X Experience Epistles Poetical Books Bible Evidence Homiletics I Teacher Training II Church History English III Alt-Test ament 11 che Exegese . Neu-Testamentliche Exegese Studies in Old Tes tament Glaubenslehre Sittenlehre (Ethics) Theology Psychology Missions Mennonite History Evangelism Spiritual life Sonntagss ohule German language Bible Introduction Child Study Dept*1 Spec*l*n Doctrine Ethics Heresies Exposed Homeletics 1 anguage Literature Mennonite History Missions Personal Work Prayer Psalms Revelation Sunday school Adm. P ourth Year Christian Evidences Prophecy II General Epi3tles Advent and Pastoral Epistle s - Daniel and Revel*n Di spensat ional Bi ble Hebrews and Psalms Comparative Reli gions Ethics and Miracles Holiletics English IV Alt-TestamentlieUe Exegese He u-Testament1i oh e Exegese Die Petrusbriefe Studies in Old Tes tament Glaubenslehre Sittenlehre Theology Mi ss ions Psychology Mennonite History Homiletics Bible Introduction Dept#l Spee*l*n Doctrine Ethics Evangelism Heresies Exposed Homeletics Language Literature Mennonite History Missions Pastoral Theology Prayer Psalms Revelation 441 Such standardization would have facilitated the transfer of credits and the improvement of course content through shared experiences# The Christian education course, which is included in the curriculum of fourteen Bible schools, is designed to prepare students to become directors of the educational pro gram of the Church. This course is vocational in its basic purpose# All the Bible schools giving this course are members 69 of the Evangelical Teacher Training Association which pre scribes the course for the member schools. Because the course is prescribed, there is, necessarily, great uniformity 70 among the schools in the curricular subjects required by the Association. 69in 1930 a movement was started among the Bible schools of Canada and the United States for the promotion of a more adequate course of training for Sunday school teachers# Out of this movement came the Evangelical Teacher Training Association with its main office in Chicago, Illinois# After a student has received 432 hours of instruction in prescribed subjects, they are entitled to the Standard Teacherfe Diploma* To hold this diploma means: (1) That the holder has received training as a religious teacher in his field; (2) That they may be considered as approved instructors of the preliminary Training Course and are entitled to buy at cost manuals provided for this work; (3) That all pu;ils receiving their instruction in the Sunday school or Daily Vacation Bible School are entitled to a Pupil*s Diploma of the Association when graduating from the Primary, Junior, Intermediate, cm Senior Department. 7°Sunday school administratioh, child study, daily vacation Bible school, department specialization, pedagogy, Bible doctrines, missions, personal work, evangelism, and homiletics. 442 At most of the Bible schools the Christian Education Course Is included in the regular Bible curriculum, and a student receives, generally, two diplomas when he completes it— one from the Evangelical Teacher Training Association and one from the school offering the course* The catalogs of the Winkler Bible School and the Steinbach Bible School show the Christian Education Course separately and students can be enrolled in it, more or less, exclusively* Table XXVII shows the Christian Education curriculum as offered at Stein bach* Mennonite Bible Colleges*— A new educational institu tion to emerge in the Mennonite school system of Canada is the Bible college* The two schools shown on Table XXXVIII have been established* The Mennonite Brethren Bible College was founded in 1944 and the Canadian Mennonite Bible College in 1947# Al though they do not rate the status of a standard Biblical sem inary, they aim to offer to Mennonite youth an advanced Bible training leading t® the Bachelor of Theology degree* The underlying motive for establishing the two Bible colleges was well described by Schaeffer: Although our Bible schools have succeeded in giving their students a good religious education and in prepar- -ing them to teach Bible lessons in Sunday schools, yet they have been inadequate for training ministers* The educatlcmal level of our ministers should not lag behind that of the church members* Our leading men have become convinced of that fact, for that reason they are working toward the development of schools for the training of ministers*71 ^Paul Schaeffer, Woher? Wohin? Memnoniten 1, p* 90* TABLE XXVTI THE TOO-YEAR CHRISTIAN EDUCATION COURSE (STEINBACH BIBIE SCHOOL 1946-1947) E i r s t Year Coarse Hr s. per Coarse I ts* per Week Week Theology 3 Missions 2 Synthesis 4 Bible Geography 1 Bible Introduction 1 Child Stady 1 Exegesis 1 Electives 3 Second Year Theology 3 Sunday School Admin- 1 Synthesis 1 istration Exegesis 1 Department Speciali- 1 Missions 2 zation Pedagogy 1 Personal Work 2 Electives 1 TABLE m i l l CANADIAN MENNONITE BIBLE COLLEGES Nam© of school Location Year Efnd Enr. ♦47^48 No. Tea chers Supporting organization Mennonite Brethren Bible College Winnipeg 1944 130 14 The Mennonite Brethren Conference in Canada Canadian Mennonite Bible College Winnipeg 1947 37 10 The General Conference of the Mennonite Church in Canada 445 One of tbe most significant change that has come into the ♦ ’ Mennonite Way of Life” during the past several de cades has been the shift from elected ministers to career ministers* Throughout most of Mennonite history, ministers were chosen by nomination from out of the "benches.* Such necessary qualifications as training, feeling a "call," or suitable personality traits have often been consciously or unconsciously ignored* When Mennonites were still largely a rural people, an untrained ministry was quite adequate to meet the spiritual needs of the people. The surprising thing was not that the system succeeded, but rather it is surprising that it succeeded so well. Times changed. A considerable number of Mennonites left the farm and moved into villages, towns, and cities. They became "doctors, lawyers, merchants, chief." To quali fy for these occupations, they obtained the necessary educa tion. As these more educated Mennonites became more numer ous in the churches, the untrained ministers ceased to be satisfactory. The problem became even more disturbing after Mennonite youth began to attend high schools in great numbers. Once Mennonite leaders recognized the nature of the problem, the Bible colleges were a natural development. (1) The Mennonite Brethren Bible College was founded in 1944 at Winnipeg, Manitoba, by the Canadian Mennonite Brethren Conference. The need for a school to train ministers for the churches in that denomination was given recognition and 446 presented to the annual Canadian Conference which met in July, 1939, at Coaldale, Alberta. In the course of the report Toews said: Advanced theological training and a broad general secular education must be required of our Bible school teachers if the schools are to survive and to progress* The young men of our churches, who are called to the teaching ministry, should be offered an opportunity to attend an advanced Bible college or seminary. From those out of our midst, who have gone to schools of other denominations to receive this type of preparation, some have returned to us with ideals and interpretations for eign to our Mennonite Brethren principles of Spirit and doctrine. "Watch and pray" lest Satan should succeed in undeiming the foundation of faith on which our churches and Bible schools are based.72 At the 1943 Conference of the Mennonite Brethren churches in Canada, a recommendation was offered to the Con vention that a centrally located Bible college be established and administered by the Canadian Conference. After the re commendation was accepted, the Conference voted to extend a request to the Winlder BibLe School that the first year of a Bible College curriculum be offered at that institution for the coming year, 1943-1944* and the Committee on Bible Schools was to explore the possibilities for a more permanent arrange ment* The 1944 Conference instructed the Committee on Bible Schools to purchase a suitable building in Winnipeg and elected an educational board to proceed with the organization of the Book of the Canadian Mennonite Brethren Confer ence for the year 193^, printed by the Mennonite Brethren Publishing House, Hillsboro, Kansas, p. 60. 447 Bible college. Dr, A, H. TJnroJi, principal of the Winkler Bible School since 1925, was appointed by the Conference to the first presidency of the school. An undercurrent of criticism and bad feeling with the Bible School project became audible as the plans for the new institution formed. Members in some of the churches in the western provinces contended that Winnipeg was not centrally located and therefore, the school should be located farther west, A strong feeling among some of the younger men in the Conference voiced the need for a liberal arts college instead of a Bible College, Knowing Dr. Unruh1 s tendency to empha size only Bible knowledge in education, they were certain that the Bible College would become only a glorified Bible school of which there were enough. As the opposition became more personal, he was accused of political maneuvering in the Conference business sessions in the promotion of such an institution at Winnipeg. At a joint session of the Board for the Canada Inland Mission, the newly elected Educational Board and the repre sentatives from Bible schools operated by the Mennonite-Bre- 73 thren held at Herbert, Saskatchewan, August, 1944, it was decided to purchase an available building which the Winnipeg Board of Education had placed on sale. After some remodel ing and redecorating by members of the three Mennonite Brethren 73see Table XXIV 448 Churches in Winnipeg, the building was dedicated on October 1, 1944, "to the cause of training workers, teachers, and 73 ministers*** The Conference ^xich convened in Yarrow, British Columbia, in June, 1945» reviewed the entire work done by the Educational Board and **accepted the institution as a gra- 74 cious gift from God*** Dr* Unruh submitted his resignation as president after having served in that office for one year* Upon the recommendation of the Board, the Conference voted to extend a chll to Rev, J, B, Toews, pastor of the Mennonite Brethren Church at Buhler, Kansas, Reverend Toews administered the school for three years, and then asked to be relieved of his duties at the close of the 1947-194$ school term. Although a denominational school, designed to train church leadership for the denomination, the Mennonite Breth ren Bible College invites non-Mennonltes to enroll provided they share its aims. Quoting again from the 1947-194$ Catalog, the administration states: The Mennonite Brethren Bible College is a Mennonite institution, frankly conservative, holding to those dis tinctive principles for which real evangelical Mennonites . have always stood. Although a Mennonite institution, its facilities are open to Christian young men and women of all evangelical denominations, and we trust that many will avail themselves of the opportunities afforded,75 7%ennonite Brethren Bible College Third Annual Cata log* 1946-1947. p, 6. 74Ibid., p. 7. 75Ibid., p. 7. 449 The phrase, "frankly conservative," found in the above-quoted paragraph, is manifested in the rules of conduct to be observed by the student-body: All students are obligated to maintain a high stand ard of Christian conduct as is becoming of Christian men and women* Questionable amusements, card playing, danc ing, theaters of any kind, use of tobacco and intoxicants are prohibited* The student is further expected to sub mit to spiritual admonition, exhortation, and correction. The College reserves the rigrt to dismiss any students who will not conform to the spiritual and ethical stand ards of Christian conduct acceptable by the College*'® For the purpose of maintaining the hipest social and ethical standards of Christian principles, the College re quires all women students to wear a uniform appropriate to meet the needs of college life* The daily wear is a two- piece garment consisting of a jumper and blouse* For dress wear and practical Christian work, a good dark suit consist ing of a skirt, jacket, and blouse is recommended* Five different diplomas may be earned by students at tending the College: (1) Certificates showing completion of studies at the Bible College are awarded to all students who have done satisfactory work but are not eligible for any de gree for lack of academic prerequisites; (2) a diploma for g sacred music course is awarded upon satisfactory completion of the course prescribed by the College; (3) the degree of Bachelor of Theology (Th. B) is granted to students who have completed 144 hours of credit and the writing of a 76Ibid.. p. 11. 450 thesis of fiteen- to twenty-thousand words; (4) a graduate of theology diploma is awarded to students who hare completed the three years of theological study prescribed by the College, but vfao are not eligible for the Th. B. degree; (5) the de gree of Bachelor of Religious Education is given to sueh who complete a three-year course with a major in religious educa tion* The enrollment has been indicative of considerable confidence in the constituency* Beginning with only eigit students in its first year of operation, it increased to 74, followed by 130 in the third year* The school year, 1947- 1948, saw the student body decrease to 125. The 1947-1948 teaching staff was composed of 16 teach ers of whom 6 had received their education in Mennonite schools in Russia* Assisting in the faculty were three medical doctors for the training of missionaries* The missionary medical department in the curriculum is <^uite complete* (2) The Canadian Mennonite Bible College was organized and established by the General Conference of Mennonites in Canada, and the school is therefore a Conference institution* The real need for a Bible college offering a more advanced Bible training than could be obtained in one of the Bible schools had been expressed repeatedly at Conference sessions. Even though the Mennonite Brethren Conference of Canada had established a Bible College at Winnipeg in 1944» the General Conference Mennonites voted, at their 1945 Con ference session, to establish their own Bible College* A committee of twelve men was elected and instructed to prooede with the organisation of a school* During the following months, the committee became more and more aware of the fact that to build up a new school "required 77 teachers, students, school buildings, and funds*" Since the Conference had voted to furnish the necessary funds, the com mittee was able to concentrate on the selection of qualified teachers, suitable location, and adequate buildings* Finding the necessary teachers proved to be the most difficult problem The committee contacted Bethel College at North Newton, Kansas, and obtained from its administrative staff^ much information and advice as to the best procedures in the establishment of the Bible College* A curriculum Thiessen, "Bericht uber das zu eroffnend© Bibelcoliege." gahrbuoh der Konferenz der Mennonlten in Canada, 1946. (Rosthern, sashetchewan: Druclc von D. H* Epp) p. 125. 78i t > i a . . p . 1 2 6 . '^Bethel College, North Newton, Kansas, Is sponsored by the same Mennonite denomination as that promoting the Bible College* The Bethel College personnel consulted were President Edmund G. Kaufman; Dean of the College, P. S* Goertz; and H. A. Fast, Dean of the Bible Department. 452 College was set up in order that Canadian students could transfer readily to Bethel College either to complete their Biblical training or continue their education in the liberal arts* To enter the Canadian Mennonite Bible College, stu dents must be at least eighteen years old* It is expected that all students will have completed at least Grade XI before applying for admission. The College offers the degree Bachelor of Theology upon completion of a three- year course* Twenty-six students enrolled for the first term in 1947. One year later, September, 194#r the student body increased to thirty-seven. With its teaching staff of ten instructors, Canadian Mennonite Bible College en deavors to train the needed ministry for the churches in the Conference which organized it* The two Mennonite Bible colleges that have been organized in Canada are located in Winnipeg, and both are of recent origin* The enrollment of neither school is very large. If Mennonites would only learn to work together, combining their resources, talens, and facilities, the cause of Mennonite education in Canada would certainly be im proved* SDMMARY 453 Education among the Mennonites in Canad has become very active during the past two decades* During the school- year 1947-1948, they operated twenty-two Bible schools, eleven high schools, and two Bible colleges. Of particular significance is the decided trend towards the establishment and operation of Mennonite private high schools. Since 1943 nine high schools have been organized* All of these schools had to have suitable building, equipment, and teachers* The dual financial burden carried by these Canadian Mennonites in supporting their om secondary schools in addition to the eaxes paid to support the public high schools located in most of the communities is considerable* The financial propserity generated by World War II has, undoubtedly, fa cilitated the expansion of private high schools. Although the typical Mennonite Bible school was operated among the Mennonites in Canada since the founding of their settlements there, this type of school has also experienced considerable development* Since 1930 fourteen new Bible schools were organized. However, as secondary education becomes more popular in Canada, the Bible schools will either be converted into high schools or they will experience less support* Undoubtedly the fiercest conflict between Mennonites 454 and the State throughout Mennonite History to ole place in Manitoba a few years before the outbreak of World War I and ending with wholesale emigration of the opposing groups to Mexico and Paraguay* The attempt of the State to secular ize and standardize the schools operated by these conservative churches was the chief factor in the conflict* Educational opportunities for Mennonite youth on the collegiate level is still in its infancy* The Rosthern Junior College began to offer a two-year college course in September, 194#* In the future the constituency of this school plans to extend the organization of the school into a four-year liberal arts college* CHAPTER VII MENNONITE EDUCATION IN LATIN AMERICA TWo previous chapters have dealt with the great exodus of Mennonites from Russia to America. Conservatism being the selective factor, about eight thousand settled In the Canad ian province of Manitoba, because it promised them the great est measure of religious freedom. They came mainly from the old mother colony of Chortita In Russia and from the two daughter colonies of Bergthal and F&rstenland. Though all were conservative, some were more so than others. The most extreme attitudes of conservatism were held by those from Furstenland, who came to be known by the name, "Old Colon ists.B Those coming from Bergthal, the "Bergthalers® were less tenacious in their adherence to some of the traditional concepts. Among the eight thousand Mennonites settling in Manitoba, there was a small band from the Kleine Gemeinde ("Small Church") in Russia. These Klein Gemeinders were the same kind of poeple who differed only doctrinally with their Mennonite brethren— the Bergthalers and Old Colonists — but shared their ultra-conservatism. In the early nineties a small number of the Berg thal ers began to show Interest in better schools. This in terest soon led to a schism in the church. Those, too con servative to accept educational improvements withdrew and ^56 they organized a separate church which received the name, Sommerf elder Church. Later other schisms resulted from the conflict between conservatism and less conservatism. 1 1 All were determined to preserve the German language exclusively, their own schools, their village life, and all the other traditional customs and practices without the slightest changes. " * * * Their conception of an ideal learning situation was a private village school, in session for five or six months each year, and taught by anyone willing to "keep school." Of religious affiliation with other Mennonite bod ies, of course, there was none whatever. Participation in the civil and political life that centered in the towns on the outskirts of the settlement was unknown. Church members were even forbidden to take up their re sidence in these towns, much less engage in business. All such religious and social affiliation was regarded as being unequally yoked with the world, and hence to be strictly avoided. Public schools, too, as we saw, were tabooed and the German language insisted upon as a means of instruction. All these regulations were enforced by a strict application of the ban, to which was added the practice of avoidance. Civil office, mod ern clothing, modern houses, ' the EJnglish language, Sun day schools, public schools, higher schools of any sort, prayer meetings, salaried ministers, telephones, automo biles ("hell-wagons") , and numerous other institutions which are usually regarded as symptoms of progress— all these were considered as of the "world," and to be given a wide berth by the true Christian. 2 Such conservatism was rigorously adhered to, particu larly by the Old Colonists and Somerfelders. However, it must ^C. Henry Smith, The Story of the Mennonites (Berne, Indiana: Mennonite Book Concern, l^TlT7~P. 6^3. 2ibia.. p. 650. * * ■ 5 7 be kept in mind that the conservatism described in the quot ed paragraph above did not apply to many who were becoming increasingly more progressive. Deluded and foolish they were, so we say according to our modern notions; but they were, nevertheless, an honest, devout, and sincere people, sturdy of character, and in many respects useful and worthy citizens; no more addicted to religious formality than were our boasted puritan forefathers at the time of their search for a haven of refuge and the same religious liberty some centuries ago. 3 > About IS90 the Canadian government began to encour age the replacing of the private schools with public schools in all the villages. Stubborn resistance opposed every change. Reluctant to apply undue pressure, the government followed a policy of great tolerance and patience. The out break of World War I, however, brought into existence opposi tion to the German language, German schools, and the privi leges generally enjoyed by the Mennonites. Public opinion forced legislative acts forbidding the conservative Mennonites to maintain their own independent school system. Conflict ensued. Parents refusing to send their children to public school were fined. An Intolerable situation developed. t t The Old Colonists could not be reconciled to the 1 4 - loss of their school privileges.8 A determination to migrate to another land that would promise freedom of religion, educa- 3Ibid., p. 650. ^Ibld., p. 655. tion, and manner of living was soon evident. After visiting most of the Latin American countries, Mexico and Paraguay became the object of large migration movements. MEXICO The first group of Mennonites arrived in Mexico March 9, 1922, followed by other groups until about five thousand had left their Canadian farms to till the soil, on the semi-arid plains of Mexico. Two colonies were organized — one on the province of Chihuahua and the other in the State of Durango. Having received the assurance of official recogni tion of all the desired privileges from Obregon, the presi dent of the Republic of Mexico, they came to reproduce as nearly as possible the hind of life they had left in Canada. They organized themselves into about forty village groups of from twenty to forty families, each as their forefathers had done on the steppes of South Russia and on the prairies of Manitoba* That the Mexican government was anxious to encourage the immigration of Mennonites to their vast plains is seen in the exceptionally generous granting of concessions guaran teeing far-reaching privileges. In an official letter addressed to the delegation sent by the Canadian Mennonites to negoti ate with the Mexican authorities, Obregon stated in regard to education: "You shall have the privilege to establish your 1*59 own schools and appoint your own teachers without any inter ference from the government in any way.1 *^ ^Walter Schmiedehaus, wDie Altkolonier, deutsche Mennoniten, in Mexico und aur ihrem Wege dureh die Welt.” An unpublished manuscript in the Mennonite Historical Library, North Newton, Kansas, p. 117. The letter is here reproduced (translated) to show the nature of the privileges as well as the friendly attitude of the Mexican government toward the Old Colonist Mennonites: »February 2 5, 1921 1 1 To the Representatives of the t t 01d Colony Reinland Mennonite Church "Julius Loewen, Johann Loepke "Benjamin Goertzen, Cornelius Rerapel "Klaas Heide, and David Rerapel, "In answer to your Inquiry of January 2 9, of the present year, in which you express the desire to settle in our land as agricultural colonists, I have the honor to answer your individual questions: nl. You will not be required to render military service. *2. Under no condition will you be asked to swear an oath. **3. You shall possess the full freedom to live and practice your religious principles as taught by your Church, without anyone annoying or restrict ing them. uik You shall have the privilege to establish your own schools and appoint your own teachers without any interference from the government in any way. «5. Regarding the next point, our laws are very generous and liberal . You are granted the right to administer your property in such a way as you deem expedient, and this government will in no way protest against it. The members of your sect are free to establish and develop their own economic system. MIt is the expressed wish of this government to pro mote colonization with people who are peaceable, moral, and thrifty. Since the Mennonites possess these qualities, they are welcomed with pleasure if the contents of this letter shall satisfy them. It is hereby declared that the enumerated privileges are guaranteed by our laws and that they are in- ^6o With educational freedom assured by the government, the Old Colonists re-established their own traditional ele mentary schools* One point in the educational philosophy of the Old Colonists was clear and simple: . . . the schools shall remain as they have always been* 1 1 But Schmiedehaus, who is well-informed on the Mennonites in Mex ico, questions seriously whether their schools have remained the same during the past fifty years* He feels that a com parison of their present quality with that once possessed in Russia would reveal great deterioration. A typical Mennonite school in Mexico* After the vil lages were laid out and the homes built, each village con structed a schoolhouse* It is located facing the village street in line with the houses. Architecturally it cannot be distinguished from them. It contains a classroom at one end and living quarters for the teacher at the other* The schoolroom with its white bare walls is light, roomy, and not unpleasant* No pictures adorn the walls ex cept, perhaps, a modest calendar. The rather heavy, home- tended for your enjoyment forever. “Sufragio Efectvo, No* Reeleecion. "Mexico City, February 25, 1921 ”The Constitutional President "The United States of Mexico 1 1 (Signed) A. Obregon "(Countersigned) A. I. Villareal, Minister of Agriculture” £ Schmldehaus, op* clt*, p. 297* 461 made benches and tables seat four children each. The six-months school term begins in November and ends in March. After a period from four to six weeks, in which the children help with the farmwork, another short session in May completes the school year. Instruction begins at 7 :3 0 o’clock and continues to 1 0:3 0, five days each week. The afternoon sessions begin at 3:00 and end at 6:00 o*clock in the evening. The teacher— and he is always a man— has received no training except the elementary education received as a boy. A high-school or normal-school training would be viewed with much suspicion, for such training would indoctrinate the teacher with “strange1 * ideas detrimental to their way of life. His very small salary is collected from two sources. A tax is imposed on each acre of land and each child pays a tuition fee.^ Since his teaching income is inadequate, he is forced to be a farmer or .... a day-laborer such as f f j C a carpenter or a smith1s helper. The school day begins with singing a hymn which is followed by a prayer, usually the Lord*s Prayer. Much stress is laid upon rote memory work. Selections from the Bible, ^Walter Schmiedehaus, og. cit., p. 301* Schmiede- haus reports that in the village of Burwalde the tax Imposed on each acre was 1-2 centavo. The monthly tuition fee per child was JO centavo. ^J. Winfield Fret2, “Mennonites in Mexico,n Mennonite Life. II (April, 19^7), p. 27. H6Z the catechism, and the multiplication tables are memorized. Reading lessons are taken either from the Flbel (a short ABC book) and the Bible. About twice during the week pen manship, letter writing, and letter reading are taught. All pupils, regardless of age, are taught together. Grade divi sions are unknown. The freedom to maintain a school system independent of all governmental regulations and supervision was for the Mennonites in Mexico a precarious privilege. To gain this privilege these Mennonites had migrated from Russia to Cana da. To regain this privilege they had moved to Mexico. Al ready in 1927, Just six years after the establishment of their colonies, the privileges granted to them by the Mexican govern ment were threatened. On January 3 1, 1927, Mexico adopted a new constitu tion. It made some significant changes^ concerning the presi dent, foreign exploitation of Mexico’s natural resources, and the nature and supervision of education. HInstruction in primary schools or in public institutions should be secu lar. No cleric or religious corporation could establish or direct elementary schools.The large landed estates were gradually broken up and the Catholic Church, which had con- ^Willlam Spence Robertson, History of the Latln- American Nations (New York; D. Appleton-Cenfury Company, T5vjr; j>vrvT5=*7*. 10. Ibid., p. ^76. stituted itself as a power superior to that of the State, was slowly restricted to the sphere of religion. Such reforms stirred up, among the Mexican people, a spirit of restless ness and fear. The Mexicans living near the Mennonite settlements began to show considerable unfriendliness toward the Mennon ites, because they were seemingly exempt from the new reforms 11 which the new constitution had instituted. As local gov ernmental officials attempted to enforce some of the new measures, conflicts arose. The Mennonites defended the privileges granted them by Obregon in*1921. Governmental officials were consulted— first by letter, then by delegation. The Mennonites succeeded in getting the Government to drop $ its program as far as the Mennonites were concerned. The first battle was won by the Mennonites, but the conflict between the Government and the colonists concerning the gen erous privileges granted them was, by no means, ended by one battle. "Only a few of the colonists were really aware of the seriousness of the threat embodied in the new govern- 12 mental policy." ^Walter Schmiedenaus, ojd. clt., pp. 259*26 5* The author lists many difficulties Taced by the Mennonites. There were to be license plates on all vehicles, only one cemetery for the whole colony, etc. The government was also planning to establish a public school in the center of the Mennonite colony and to require attendance. 12ibia., p. 291. The Curriculum in a Mennonite Mexican School The Schoolroom PLATE XV MENNONITE EDUCATION IN MEXICO 1+65 ”In May, 1935, there came from the Mexican Govern ment, like lightning from a clear sky, the unexpected order to close all Mennonite s c h o o l s . A Government inspector went from school to school, examined schoolrooms, observed the manner of instruction, and then declared them unlawful and locked their doors. The Mennonites were now confronted by a serious situation. Delegations from the settlements in the states of Chihuahua and Durango spent weeks in Mexico City trying to get the Government to recall its orders. The Mexican officials contended that the Mennonite schools were being conducted in an unlawful manner and that they would have to conform to the school laws of the land. When the colon ists were not making any progress apparently, they began to consider emigration. In December, 1935, they filed with the Chamber of Commerce in Chihuahua a petition in which they defined once more their position in the educational controversy. The petition requested a definite and final answer. If the Government should find it impossible to restore the privilege granted by Obregon, the Mennonites asked for one more thing— to be given sufficient time and permission ill to break up the settlements and leave the country. Two days later, December 20, the following notice was 1^IbldL. , p. 293. 1 Ibid.. . p. 293. b66 received by the colonists: Order No. 6-33°, December 19, 1935# issued by the President of the Republic of Mexico to the school authorities of the States of Chihuahua and Durangoi Be it ordered that the schools organized by the Mennon ites in those provinces be permitted to resume their educational activity in order that the promises made by the administration of Obregon be respected. 3*5 Some time elapsed before the local school officials could be persuaded to carry out the order from Mexico City. The Mennonites had won their second school battle. Schmiede haus expresses this personal conclusion concerning the fu ture of the colonists in Mexico: Everything is fine and good. I am fully convinced that the Mennonites will have nothing to fear for a long time as far as the granted privileges are concerned. Even the Universal Military Training program which Mexi co has introduced will not affect the Mennonites any. But there is one point which will not endure, and that is the right to maintain their own school system. The Mennonites in Mexico have presented a very stub born resistance to any attempt on the paj?t of the Government to improve their educational system. If the Mennonite schools could be rated as of superior quality, such resistance might be Justifiable. In their determination to maintain a school system as was done by their forefathers only deterioration has resulted. The Mennonites in Mexico express attitudes of which Mennonites, in general, are not very proud. They offer a very fertile field to the study of educational soci ology. 15IMd., p. 29^. l6Ibld., p. 296. h67 PARAGUAY Before entering Into a study of education among the Mennonites in Paraguay, it is necessary to point out and de fine two distinct groups of Mennonites that live In adjoin ing settlements in the Gran Chaco of Paraguay. These two groups differ from each other in their philosophies of life. First, there is the Menno Colony. Not all the con servative, dissatisfied Mennonites, desiring to leave Canada after World War I favored Mexico as a future home. There was a group who considered the political and social condi tions in Mexico too unstable to build a new colony there. It sent a delegation to study conditions in Paraguay. Upon its return, the favorable report caused one group to migrate to Paraguay and one other group, considerably larger, to set tle in Mexico. Land was plentiful and cheap in Paraguay. EUt there were other inducements: religious toleration, local politi cal rule, entrance into Paraguay of farm implements and house hold utensils free of charge for a limited time, entrance of immigrants without medical examination, and, of major impor- 17 tance, control of their own schools in their own language. 1 In December, 1 9 2 6, the first transport with 309 immi grants arrived at Asuncion, the capital of Paraguay. Within ^C. Henry Smith, The Story of the Mennonites, p. 722. ' 46g a few months more than seventeen hundred had arrived. ° Their new home was an uninhabited and an unimproved tropical wilderness. Roving bands of Indians and wild animals of all kinds roamed about. It is not strange that . . . .with lack of ordinary sanitary arrangements and proper food, and under radical climatic changes, and no medical advice, disease epidem ics should claim their toll of human life. Like all pioneer American colonial ventures, this one, too, had its dying time. First, the children took sick and died; then adults, until by the end of the first year 14-7 of the colonists had succumbed to their hardships. Before the land was surveyed and the' first village established two hundred lonely graves marked the ox-cart trail from the river harbor to the later settlements in the Chaco.*9 In the heart of a great wilderness the homesick and disillusioned colonists established the Menno Colony, com posed of villages— a traditional arrangement brought from Russia to Canada and from Canada to Paraguay. They were not prepared to make all the necessary adjustments. They had moved, as It were, into a strange world which did not wel come them. What a price they paid for the preservation of the German heritage. 1 Second, there is the Fernheim Colony. This colony was established in the Gran Chaco, adjoining the Menno Col ony, by Mennonites who fled from Russia after the communists began their ruthless program of religious, educational, and economic reforms and restrictions. After suffering inde- lgibia., p. 725. ■ 1 ’ ^Loc. clt. 469 scribable hardships, they became stranded refugees in Germany, China, and even in Moscow itself* Their appeal to the Amer ican Mennonites for help was heard, and financial aid was sent* Many of the republics on the western hemisphere were consulted to see if they would receive the refugees as immigrants. During the late twenties more than twenty thousand entered 20 21 Canada, thirty-five to forty families went to Mexico, 22 about fifteen hundred chose Brazil, and in 1930 over two 23 thousand entered Paraguay. After establishing the Fernheim Colony, about one- third of the colonists became dissatisfied with that loca tion and in 1937 sought a more suitable place. Several hundred miles to the southeast they founded the Friesland Colony. This new place is, however, a part of the Fernheim group and will be considered so in this study. The Mennonites in the Fernheim Colony experienced hardships of many kinds from the beginning. They came prac tically empty-handed. nTheir first homes, tools, farms, and farm equipment and all the essential elements of their 24 economic life they had to create from nothing.M The 200f. p. 403. ^■Walter Schmiedehaus, op. c_it., p. 123. 22C. Henry Smith, The Story of the Mennonites, p. 741 and p. 703. 23Ibid., p. 729. 24Xbid., p. 730. ^4-70 tropical sun and myriads of insects made life almost un bearable. In fact, it is extremely doubtful whether any other people than these pious and industrious Mennonites, over joyed at their escape from a living death in Red Russia, and no other prospect for a future home than the Chaco wilderness, would have been able or willing to endure these hardships. They were willing to face any trial and undergo any distress if only their religious faith and 2t- the spiritual welfare of their children could be spared. Before entering into a discussion of education among the Mennonites in Paraguay, it is necessary to keep in mind that there are these two distinct groups. Except for a com mon language, similar family names, and a common historical origin, the two groups differ greatly In their philosophies of life. The Menno Colonists are ultra-conservative and unprogressive. They oppose change and venerate tradition. The newcomers from Europe, in contrast, are education-minded and ambitious to secure all that modern progress has achieved. Among their number were some educated leaders and teachers with training and experience. Education in the Menno Colony.— The educational phil osophy and the organization of the schools among the Mennon ites who settled in this colony is the same as that found In Manitoba^ and in Mexico.^ ’ ’These colonists have changed none of their ways for sixty years; everything remains as 25rbid., p. 732. 26Cf. pp. 27Cf. pp. k5&-k66. ^71 pG< their great-grandfathers had it.M ° Smith draws the following word-picture of the educational system of this group in the follow ing paragraph: The Canadian brethren, though they too stress the need of perpetuating their religious and social ideals through their school system, yet their educational ideals are not of a high order* They perhaps have learned nothing of educational methods or ideas since their forefathers left their Prussian homes for South Russia more than a century ago. The whole objective of the school system in their minds is to teach their children to remain in the church, and to be good Germans. These two goals achieved, there is little further need for schooling. In fact, these two goals are interdepen dent and inseparable, and nothing dares in the least to inter fere with the pursuit of these objectives. Every suggestion of a worldly influence is tabooed— worldly textbooks on science, history, and even mathematics. The only books permitted in the classroom are the primer, catechism, and the Bible. The direct purpose of the school is to teach the child to read, write, to cipher a bit, but not too much, and to sing. School attendance is compulsory, and there is no illiteracy among the folks in Menno. Teachers, ill-prepared for their work, usually, divide their time between farming, serving with little pay.29 More than two decades have passed since the first group of Canadian Mennonites arrived on Paraguayan soil. As yet, no significant changes in their educational philosophy is observable. They still adhere to the German language even though it has become very imperfect. If the Paraguayan Gov ernment should undertake to demand the use of Spanish as a medium of instruction, the Menno Colony would probably seek PS Walter Quiring, Deutsche erschlieszen den Chaco (Karlsruhe, Germany: V e rlags dr u ck e re i Heinrich Schneider, 1926), p. 177. 29C. Henry Smith, The Story of the Mennonites, p. 738, ^72 to migrate again. Elementary education In the Fernheim Colony. The first task of the colonists was the construction of homes. The lack of tools and building materials, except the sur rounding primeval forest, made the task extremely laborious. After the homes were completed, almost every village built a small schoolhouse, usually out of adobe bricks and a thatch roof.^ At first some schools were even conducted under trees until a building was provided.^ The story of the rise and growth of Fernheim1s ed ucational system reads like a novel. Under very adverse circumstances, In the midst of great poverty, emerged a thorough and fairly well-organized school system. Al though Paraguay offered these Russian Mennonites no fin ancial aid, it gave them perfect liberty to establish their own schools and employ their own teachers. In the early years some aid was received from Germany and, more recently, from North America. Still, this work of cre ation was that of their own minds and hands.32 Among the members of the Fernheim Colony there were a number of teachers who had received their training and ex perience in Europe. It was largely due to their efficient Instruction that this Colony did not lag educationally. As some of these teachers began to retire, because of age, and as more teachers were needed, new teachers were recruited out of the generation which had grown up in the Chaco. ^Walter Quirlng, op. pit., p. 17*4-. -^Waldo Hiebert, “Mennonite Education in the Gran Chaco,w Mennonite Life, II (October, 19*1-7), p. 2H>. ^Loc. cit. ^73 Waldesruh, Fernheim PLATE XIII ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN PARAGUAY ^7^ Some of these new teachers had received six years of elementary school, four years of high school, and two years of pedagogy. Others assumed their teaching re sponsibilities with only eight or ten years of educa tion. By 19^6, seven out of the total seventeen elemen tary teachers had been educated in Fernheim. Ten of these are European-trained.33 In order to be able to teach Spanish in the Mennonite schools, it was necessary for the teachers to learn the lan guage first themselves. In January, 1931* ‘ t*ie Paraguayan Government brought nine teachers from the Colony, at govern ment expense, to Asuncion for a brief course in Spanish. Spanish has become an integral part, of the elementary school curriculum from the third grade on. Paraguayan geography and history have been added to the course of study and both are taught in the Spanish language. To obtain a Paraguayan teaching certificate has been almost impossible for Mennonite teachers. The Government requires that those wishing a teachers credential must take all their academic training above the sixth grade in a Para guayan school. 1 1 Since the Fernheim schools are not incorpor ated into the Paraguayan system, it is exceedingly difficult for a Fernhelmer to get credit for schoolwork done in the Colony. 1 1 ^ The Fernheim Colony is growing, both from natural Increase and by the addition of new immigrants, displaced 33lbid., P. 30. ^ibia., p. 30. ^75 persons whom the Mennonite Central Committee is helping. During 19^g, a total of 2,^5 Mennonites were brought to Paraguay,^ most of whom settled in new villages near the Fernheim Colony. Secondary education in the Fernheim Colony. That these colonists were determined to provide educational oppor tunities in the face of the most trying pioneer circumstances was also shown by the organization of a Zentralschule (See also Chapters I and IV) In the second year of the Colony.^ The preparation of teachers for the village schools was to be the main function of the institution. Three villages— Schfinbrunn, Schonwiese, and Friedens- ruh— organized and established an elementary school to serve the three communities. Wilhelm Klassen, one of the exper ienced teachers among the Immigrants and the promoter of the consolidated-school idea, convinced the three villages that one school could offer more effective instruction than three separate schools, but that a Zentralschule be developed in such an arrangement. In March, 1931, the three villages began the construction of a school-building, which was dedi- cated in August of that year. ^ 1 During the first school year, which began In 193 1, -^Article in The Mennonite, January 19^9- ^Walter Quiring, og. clt. , p. 179* ^Loc. clt. kj6 the Zentralschule operated with three teachers and an enroll ment of 9 students.^ jn the second year, 1932-1933, another teacher was added and the student body Increased to 27. In the fall of 1933 Zentralschule began its third year with a staff of 5 t e a c h e r s ^ and H-J students. Although it was planned to extend the curriculum into a four-year program, the Zentralschule began with a three-year course. The courses offered in the freshman year were similar to those taught in the seventh or last year of the elementary school. The sophomore year substituted physics kn and geometry for German. From 1931 to 193^ school was operated by the three villages which had founded it. The other villages had no secondary school provisions. At a meeting of the whole Colony in 193^ it was agreed that the Zentralschule should become a colony project. Because the village of Philadelphia was the colony capital, it was also agreed that the school should be moved there. In August, 193^, the Fernheim Colony encouraged Friedrich Kliewer to return to Germany and obtain a univer sity training and, at the same time, get first-hand information ^Ibid., p. 12>0. All enrollment statistics are taken from this source. ^Wilhelm Klassen, Julius Leghien, Johann Vogt, Anna Kathler, and Friedrich Kliewer. ^Walter Qulring, o£. cit. , p. 179- ^77 of the German school system, particularly a Landerzlehungs- helm (a type of rural, secondary boarding school). The Ger man Foreign Institute offered to subsidize Kliewer*s education k - 1 for three years. Into the objectives of the Zentralschule there crept some new and strange ideals. The leadership of the school was not content to reproduce in the Gran Chaco a prototype of the Mennonite Zentralschulen in Russia. Quring, who undoubtedly encouraged these new ideals, describes the new philosophy and objectives toward which the Zentralschule in Paraguay was going to move: C In dem Jahr] 193^ entschlossen sich die Zentral- schullehrer zu einer p&dagoglschen Neugestaltung ihrer Schule von wahrhaft geschichtlichem Ausmasze; sie gr&ndeten die auslanddeutsche Schule der Zukunft, das erste auslanddeutsche Landerziehungshe1m. Diese Lehrer erkannten richtlg, dasz ihre Schulen in Ruszland lediglich Lernschulen waren, die zwar Kenntnisse und Fertigkeiten vermlttelten, die eigentliche Erzlehung aber der Familie, der in ihren Gemeinden sehr starken offentllchen Mein- ung, der Strasze und dem Zufall ftberlieszen. Wohl nie- mals bot sich in ihrer Tagesschulen Gelegenheit, den Charakter eines Kindes ffiirs Leben entscheidend zu be- einfldssen; auch war in ihren Schulen bis dahin nie die Rede gewesen von kiirperlicher Erzlehung. Zwar gab es auf den deutschen Ansiedlungen in Ruszland einige Mit- telschulen mit Internaten, die aber welter gar nichts waren als Kosth&user und mit einem Landerziehungshelm nur einige Jiuszere Einrichtungen gemein hatten. Leiter Oder Hausvater jener Verpflegungsanstalten war in der Regel aln alter Prediger, dessen erzieherische Bef&hig- ung fttr seine Berufung oder Anstellung nicht ins Gewlcht fiel, der die Schuler nach auszen zwar in Zucht halten, auf ihre charakterliche Formung aber kaum einen entscheid- enden Einflusz zu gewinnen vermochte. I lt Ibid.„ p. 1S1. See also C. Henry Smith, The Story of the Mennonites, p. 737* ^73 Das alles soil in Fernheim anders werden. Leiter des Internats im Landerziehungshelm wird das beste ihrer Erzieher, der mit einigen |tnderen Lehrern unter den Kin- dern wohnt, mit ihnen tagsuber arbeitet und auoh an einem Tische iszt* Zum erstenmgil in der Geschichte ihrer Schulen soil hier allergrosztes Gewicht gelegt werden auf die Entwicklung des Characters, auf Ausmerzung der L&ge, der feigen Flucht vor der Verantwortung, auf Er- ziehung zur Rltterlichkeit Schw§,cheren gegenuber, auf Ueberwindung der Ichsucht, usw. Auch der1 t kfirperlichen Ert&chtigung soil zum erstenmal gr&s^te korperlicher SauJ>erkeit, die im. Chaco noch viel no tiger ist als im gemaszigten Kllma.^3 According to the above quotation, the traditional Zentralschule had been inadequate in certain respects. It had imparted knowledge, but it had failed to provide disci pline, character, and physical training. The training of character had been left to the home, to the good intentions of the church, to the street, and to chance. Physical well being had been ignored* With the German Lander zi ehung she im as a model, the Paraguayan Zentralschule was to be converted into a school not unlike an American military academy. According to the plan indoctrination was to be the method, and regimentation the form of control. However, the need for new techniques for dealing with the youth had become necessary. The youth problem had been a source of concern for the leaders find parents at various iik times. Smith feels that Hthe ten years of Bolshevist in- ^Walter Quiring, 0£. clt. , p. ISO ^Ibld. , pp. 181-185. H-79 fluence in Russia were not without influence even on Mennon ite y o u t h * jn May, 1933, a meeting of those interested in working out some kind of youth program was held. The meeting elected a youth committee to organize a Jugenbund and to plan and supervise various activities. At another meeting in August the name, German-Mennonite Youth Society of the Fernheim Colony, was adopted. The Society set up four objectives: (1) to foster the appreciation of German cul ture; (2) to train the youth to become worthy members of society; (3) to improve the educational standards; and (*4-) to improve the physical well-being of the young people. It sponsored music festivals, Bible study, and dramatic perform- *1 - 6 ances. In 19*4-0 Friedrich Kliewer returned from Germany and took over the principal ship of the Ze nt ral schul e. He organ ized a teacher-training department and began to prepare teachers for the village schools. Being well-educated and an efficient teacher himself, his training program was both *4-7 thorough and effective. ' While studying in Germany, Kliewer had become im bued with the Nazi philosophy. Determined to spread the Nazi *50. Henry Smith, The Story of the Mennonites, p. 7*K). “ * 4 - 6 Loo. Clt. ^Interview with Waldo Hiebert who spent two years as a teacher in the Zentralschule. i j - s o doctrines among the Mennonites in Paraguay, he utilized every opportunity to influence the people. At first the colonists somewhat favored the movement, but when some of them became aware of the irreligious emphasis of the Nazi program, they withdrew and refused to register any interest. Kliewer re sorted to intimidation by threatening them that their lot lig would be precarious when Hitler won control of everything. A feverish tension developed in the Golony which finally divided the Mennonites into two factions. When vio lence threatened to break out in the Colony, the Paraguay an Government forced Kliewer to leave the Colony, and forth with the Zentralschule closed its doors. After World War II had ended and the ill feelings in the Colony had subsided a little, the Mennonite Central Com mittee borrowed Waldo Hiebert from Tabor College (Hillsboro, Kansas) and sent him to the Fernheim Colony to assist in the reorganization of the Zentralschule. The school was reopened in the fall of 19^*5 without the teacher-training department. In the school-year of 19^6- 19^7, there were 5 teachers on the staff and a student body of 6l. A new building is nearing completion and the Zentral schule promises to grow into the foremost educational insti- tuion In the Fernheim Colony. ^luch of the Information of the Colony conflict con cerning Nazism was obtained from Mennonite Central Committee workers who were sent on various missions to Paraguay and from students who have come from the Colony to Mennonite colleges in the United States to study. In a certain way the Zentral schule Is a boarding- school, for "out of the 6l students, live on the c a m p u s . " ^ Even though some of the students live in nearby villages, they "stay in school-dormitories to enable them to give their undivided attention to schoolwork. Since the Fernheim Colony is located in the subtropics, the school day is organized to suit the climate. All class- work is done in the forenoon. The dayfs program is as fol lows: a.m. Gymnastics 5:30 a.m. Breakfast 7:00 a.m. Morning Devotions 7:10 a.m. Classes 12:00 noon Dinner 12:30 p.m. Rest period 2:30 p.m. Study period 5:00 p.m. Free period 5:00 p.m. Supper 7:00 p.m. Study 9:00 p.m. Evening Devotions-^ The course of study is rather rigidly prescribed. Un like the American elective system it follows the European classical pattern. "Thoroughness takes precedence over quan tity of material covered.Hiebert^ writes that when a ^Waldo Hiebert, "Mennonite Education in the Gran Chaco,” Mennonite Life, II (October, 19^7), 32* 5^Lo c. cit. 51Xbld., p. 31. ^^Loo. clt. ^Loc. cit. K&Z teacher in history covered 150 pages during the year, he was doing well. Courtesy and discipline are highly treasured virtues. The student is taught to greet every older person respect fully. The boy with a little bow of his head and f lGuten Tag,1 1 and the girl with a curtsy. When he stands in front of a teacher, he stands at attention; to hold his hands in his pockets shows poor training. When the teacher enters the classroom, the students rise, and rise again when he leaves. Pupils always rise when they are asked to speak or when spoken to; they rise when they po, are sitting on the lawn and when the teacher passes them.^ Shortages of qualified teachers, books, and supplies together with the poverty of the people have been hindrances to a maximum measure of progress. Completion of the new educational plant will be a great Improvement over the pres ent crowded conditions. In the near future a two-year teacher- training department and a Bible school are to become a part of the curricular offerings. wUpon this school the colony depends for its trained leadership. Its responsibilities are heavy and its possibilities boundless. Education in the Frlesland Colony. This colony was established in August, 1937> in the eastern part of Paraguay by a group of men from the Fernheim settlement who were dis satisfied with the primitive and difficult conditions in the Gran Chaco. Thus, Friesland, which might be considered a daughter colony, Is composed of the same kind of Mennonites ^ Ibid., p. 32. ^^Loc. cit. as described in the Fernheim Colony, Soon after the Friesland Colony had been laid out, two elementary schools were organized— one in the village of G-rosswelde, and the other in the village of Central. "The centralization of the colony into two school districts was necessitated by the shortage of teachers and the la.ck of sufficient textbooks. To prevent the transporting of children over long distances in times of unfavorable weather three more elementary schools were organized as the Colony became better established. The elementary schools in the Friesland Colony offer six years of instruction. The young graduates are given a public hearing or examination, after which they are awarded a diploma. According to a unique custom which has developed in the Colony the graduates are taken on an educational tour to Asuncion to see a large city and to observe "how the other half lives." A two-year Zentralschule has been operating in connec tion with the elementary school in the village of Central. The lack of trained teachers and funds has prevented the ex tension of the curriculum into the desired four-year program. The curriculum permits, however, students to transfer to the ^ A. A. Harder, "Unsere Schulen in Friesland," Men- nonitische Lehrerzeitung, I (December, 19^6), 12. This study has leaned heavily on this particular source-material for in formation on the schools in Friesland. T *44- S*»rnh©lm Fra.ROland PLATE 35T1I iSMtfUUUSOHW.ES IK PABAQ-UA3T 485 Fernheim Zentralschule for the remainder of their secondary c o u r s e . ^ During the last few years it has been gradually reorganized to harmonize more with the regular Paraguayan secondary schools. The following subjects are being added to the Zentralschule curriculum: geology, biology, and govern ment (Paraguayan), all to be taught in the Spanish language.5^ BRAZIL The Mennonites who settled in Brazil #ere a small part of the large group of refugees who had"fled from their homes in South Russia when communism became so oppressive. The physical-health conditions of the refugees, certain im migration restrictions of various American nations, and personal choice divided the Mennonites stranded in their flight. Some went to Canada, some to Paraguay, a few to Mexico, and a small group to Brazil. The first group of 33 families arrived in Brazil in February, 1930.59 other groups followed until, by the end 60 of the year about one thousand had arrived. 57Xbld., p. 12. 58Ibld., pp. 12-13. ^°Peter Klassen, "Mennonites In Brazil," Mennonlte Life. II (January, 19^7), 37. C. Henry Smith, The Story of the Mennonites, p. 7^2. ------------------------------------ i | - g 6 Two settlements were established. The first group that arrived founded the mother-eolony of Witmarsum. The groups that arrived later, after some wandering about on the Plateau Stdtz, established the colony of Curitiba. HUnlike the Russian Mennonites elsewhere, these Brazilians did not congregate in villages, but each family located on its own 6l farm tract of one hundred acres, more or less.1 1 Since the founding of the two colonies a number of families and individ uals have drifted into the cities of Brazil where they have found work. Thus the Mennonites in Brazil are not living in isolated communities as in Paraguay and Mexico. Unlike the Paraguayan and Mexican colonies, the Brazilian Mennonites . . . . were not offered any special concessions by the Brazilian Government as an inducement to their settlement here— no military exemption, no local political control, and no pro mises of a free school system.62 In the beginning of the colonies in Brazil their 6*3 “schools sprang up rapidly, one after another." In 1933 a Zentralschule was established in Witmarsum, the Mennonite center in Brazil. The school was organized much like the traditional Zentralschulen in South Russia. Its well-trained teachers had received their education in Europe. Courses were taught in two languages— German and Portuguese. ^Loc. clt. 62ibia.. p. 7^5. ^Peter Klassen, op. clt., p. ^2. The Brazilian Government passed a law in 193$ that all schools were required to employ only native-born teachers and that all Instruction must be in the Portuguese or Brazil ian language. This Act closed all Mennonite schools, because the Mennonite teachers were Europeans by birth. Before 193$ the Mennonite teachers were registered with the Government, having passed the teacher examinations given by the Govern- ment.61* ' The Brazilian Government has taken over all the Men nonite schools. It rents the school-houses belonging to the Mennonites and conducts standard elementary schools, taught by Brazilian teachers. ^ In the Curitiba Colony the Mennonite children attend the regular public schools that were estab lished there before the colonists came. A number of children are attending a nearby Catholic parochial school. Whether the Mennonites in Brazil can maintain their religious solidarity indefinitely, only time can reveal. The problem of losing their identity is promoted by the small ness cf their number, their living in scattered places, and the inability to maintain their own schools. i j - g g ARGENTINA AND URUGUAY World War II was particularly cruel to the Mennonites living in South Russia and East Prussia (the Danzig area)* The cruelties of war made thousands homeless and swept more thousands Into the classification of displaced persons* When the German army began to retreat out of Russia after the Battle of Stalingrad, it swept about thirty thousand Mennonites along Into Germany. When the Russian army in vaded Germany, It regained about twenty thousand of the re fugees, who were taken back into Russian territory and have been lost t t behind the iron curtain*1 1 About ten thousand suc ceeded in escaping into the French, American, and British zones in Germany. The American Mennonites, through their organization, The Mennonite Central Committee, assumed the responsibility to care for them. These displaced persons were collected into camps and supplied with the necessities of life. The problem of finding new homes for these refugees was undertaken by the Mennonite Central Committee almost immediately. After much delay, Canada, Paraguay, Brazil, and Argentina opened their doors to Mennonite displaced per sons with certain conditions* These conditions have been the selective factors that have decided not only how many could enter each country but who might enter it. Transportation of the refugees to the countries 4^9 listed began in 19^7 and has been continuing throughout 19^8. By January 1, 19^*9> some 900 had been brought to the Latin Americas, mostly to Paraguay. Those who entered Paraguay were absorbed by the colony there. Both Uruguay and Argen tina offered to aecept some of the immigrants* Although the groups in these two countries are small, they represent new Mennonite settlements. When they will have provided homes for themselves and when normal life will have been restored for them, schools will be organized* The origin and the development of education in both Uruguay and Argen tina is still in the future and cannot be recorded in this study* SUMMARY Students of education must keep in mind the fact that the history of Mennonitism in the Latin Americas is, as yet, very brief. The history began in 1922 when the first colony was founded in Mexico. It promises to be interesting as the various colonies develop economicially, socially, and educationally. Education among the Mennonites in the Latin Americas can be characterized by the following points: 1. The Mennonites in Mexico and the Menno colony in Paraguay represent an ultra-conservative wing of the Mennonite Church. They have migrated twice to escape the nationaliza tion of their schools. Their educational philosophy is rather 1 4 - 9 0 simple. Every child must learn to read the Bible in the German language. His education is completed with a few sacred hymns and the catechism. Such traditional courses as science, history, geography, and government are not includ ed in the curriculum. This philosophy has resulted in serious conflicts between these Mennonites and the governments under whose flag they lived. 2. The Mennonites in Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina, and Paraguay came as refugees from Europe. Among their number are some well-trained teachers, ministers, and craftsmen. They escaped the clutches of Russian communism. Poor and homeless they are beginning a new life in some of the South American republics. Their schools are, in many respeets, still primitive and crude, but not because of any ultra conservative philosophy. They ash only for time and opportun ity to develop schools that will be unequalled by the state schools around them. CHAPTER VIII A SUMMARY OF MENNONITE EDUCATION This study attempted to reveal the origin, define the philosophy, and trace the development of education among the Mennonites throughout their history of over four hundred years* During these four centuries, Mennonites established and expanded their settlements in Holland, Germany, Switzerland, France, Austria, Russia, Canada, United States, Mexico Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Argentina. The s ource material, predominantly in the German lang uage, was obtained from The Mennonite Historical library at Bethel College, Newtbn, ^ansas* The Mennonite Historical Library at Goshen College, Goshen, Indiana; and The Tabor College Library at Hillsboro, Kansad. These libraries have striven for years to collect all books, periodicals, and other documents dealing with Mennonite life, and this rich, historical material was invaluable in the pursuit of this study. Interviews, letters and questionnaires were utilized to obtain information not available in the libraries. The Mennonites represent one of the definable Pro testant denominations. However, the Mennonites possess more than a set of religious tenets or a creed. During their history of f cur hundred years, they have created their own social institutions and folkways, which have given rise to the phrase, Mthe Mennonite way of life11. The spiritual 492 emphasis which, has permeated the many exigencies of life has been a directive force in shaping their course of history. Like the Greeks, the Mennonites have failed to submit to a unifying factor. During their history of four hundred years, they have become victims of numerous schisms. The Mennonite Church is composed of many branches that differ from each other in creed and practice, both real and imagin ary. The factors that led to the origin of e ach branch and the traditions that accumulated in the development of each constitute the most difficult and complicated chapter in Mennonite history. The origin, philosophy, and development of Mennonite education in a Church that functions only through its heterogeneous divisions becomes an involved study. Mennonitism grew out of Anabaptism, an earlier relig ious movement w hie h had its origin in various sections of Europe during the early part of the sixteenth century. Hence the Mennonite Church has. in its membership Dutch Men nonites, German Mennonites, and Swiss Mennonites. Certain cultural differences have played a part in t he development of their history. At the last Mennonite World Conference, which was held at Newton, Kansas, in 1948, it was necessary to print all the addresses in four different languages. The political, economic, social, and educational arrangements of the various countries, in which Mennonites have organized 493 churches, ha ve necessarily helped to determine the kind and extent of educational activities of each group* Lest the reader become too impressed with the intri cate pattern of divisionswithin the Mennonite Church, one must become more impressed w ith the cohesive factors that hold all the divergent groups together. Mennonites behave like quarreling brothers who express undesirable attitudes towards each other until one of their number gets hurt or abused and then all rush in to render every possible kind of assistance. Mennonites are 1 1 their brothers1 keepersu. Probably the strongest cohesive agency tba t has held them together for four centuries is the body of tacit, underlying presuppositions which gave rise to Mennonitism. These pre suppositions have remained largely unclarified, but they are nevertheless real and potent. Traciitions and sentiments tie up loose ends in the preservation and perpetuation of the Mennonite heritage. 494 Characteristics of Mennonite education* After the nature, extent, aims, and peculiarities ofeducation among the Mennonites were described, certain characteristics became distinct* 1* Since Mennonites are not a homogeneous and united group, with a single ecclesiastical organization, and since they are subjected to the political, economical and social conditions of thirteen different countries, they have not developed an educational system which is characteristic of the whole body. In Russia where the Mennonites were sur rounded by a retarded national life, they developed an educational system a cc or ding to their own designing* In the United States where the t t Four IreedamsM dominated the national life, the Mennonites found a separate school system less necessary. In Russia the Mennonites developed a strong system of elementary and secondary schools, in the United States they have particularly emphasized the collegiate* 2* Mennonites everywhere have been consistently striving to achieve one general educational aim— a Christian religious education that seeks to foster in boys and girls the development of ^hristlike character. Mennonite educa tion seeks to develop in each child the ability and dis position to participate in t he organized society of Chris tians— the church. It seeks to develop the ability to see in all of lifefs experiences God’s purposes and plans* As 495 yet, It has not assumed any positive responsibility for the building of a new social order throughout the world. To the extent that Mennonites possess an educational system it is planned by Mennonites and designed for Mennonites. It is sect conscious. 3* Such Mennonite educational philosophers as Peter Walpot, Johann Cornies, and 'Christopher Dock have made sig nificant contributions to educational theory. Even though their works have been nhidden under the bushel11, they deserve to be ranked wilh the great thinkers and reformers of education familiar to students of education. 4. A nunfoer of educational practices now considered modern and progressive have been in use by certain Mennonite groups for a long time. (a) Over three hundred years before Froebel originated his Kindergarten, the Hutterian Brethren maintained this type of education In their educational system* (b) When the Mennonites in Russia organized their teacher training institutions, in the middle of the nineteenth century, they required teachers in training to observe and practice teach under supervision in schools set up for that purpose. Courses in methods and psychology appeared in their cur riculum. Recognition of individual differences, learning readiness and the importance of health as a necessary phase of education were emphasized. 5. In all countires, except Holland and Germany, Men- 496 nonites lave experienced considerable difficulties when they insisted on the preservation of the German language. The most disturbing conflicts between Mennonites and the state have resulted when the state insisted that its language should be'used and taught in Mennonite schools. It has been impossible for some of the Mennonite denominations to see that education can be Christian in any other language except German. 6. Even though Mennonites may send their children to the public schools when they have no schools of their own near-by, they do not relinquish, psychologically at least, the responsibility of educating their children to the state. They attempt in one way or another to counteract the un desirable influences of the state schools. 7. The teaching profession has always been considered, by the Mennonites, equal to the ministry. George Bernard Shawfs commentary that **those who know— do, and those who do not— teach’ * is not true among the Mennonites. 8. In the field of higher education there seemed little of interest among any of die Mennonites until well into the middle of the last century. It was only natural that the progressive wing of the church in the United States should be the first to awaken to the need of better training for its young people. At present eight church-related col leges are offering instruction. 497 Trends in Mennonite education, Mennonite life is not free of social changes. Even such 'ways of life as are pur sued by the Amish and Hutterians must respond to the in fluences of a changing world. Mennonites would do well to spend more efforts determining discoverable trends than they do resisting the acceptance of modern ways. Mennonite education is not static; certain trends are definable. 1. The oncoming generation of Mennonites is exper iencing greater and greater difficulty in withstanding effectually the onslaughts of modern humanism and secular** ism. This trend is becoming increasingly more observable. 2. Two schools of thought continue to divide Men nonites concerning the kind of education most warth-while. The one holds that a thorough training in the Bible and related subjects is the only education necessary. The other viewpoint seeks to emphasize the importance of the liberal arts and sciences, both theoretical and applied, when given in a Christian setting. The former establishes Bible schools, Bible institutes, and Bible colleges. The latter establishes accredited high schools and liberal arts colleges. Progress in Mennonite education is hindered from the ©bhflict that has resulted from the two different educational aims.. 3 ' . An active trend toward thee stablishment of parochial elementary schools is evident among the (Old) 498 Mennonite churches which are well represented in a tier of states from Iowa eastward to Delaware and New Jersey. In Canada a trend towards the establishment of church-related high schools is strong. At present eleven schools are in operation; of these eleven, nine were organized since 1940. 4. An increasing awareness is growing in the minds of the leaders that an educational system at all levels will have to be operated if Mennonitism is to be preserved and perpetuated. As a result the last decade has witnessed a great growth in Mennonite educational activities. New schools have been established, expansion programs are in process, and increasing financial budgets are being voted. Recommendations for further research in Mennonite education. During the past four centuries, the Mennonites have accumulated a mass of experiences. If Mennonitism is to profit by its past experiences, they need to be told, analyzed, and interpreted. Current problems need to be reflected against the background of the past experiences. Research is an important activity in any group life. Harold Bender stated in the Men non it e Quarterly Review (January, 1942, p. 31) the following: The dereliction of duty on the part of Mennonite scholars capable of research has been great. It is time that it be remedied. Mennonite scholars and educators must awaken from their slumber to produce creatively for the ongoing life and values of the group from which they draw their life and sustenance, and which needs them so badly. 499 The problem pursued in this study ias too extensive to permit any exhaustive analysis of any phase of Mennonite education* The following areas for further research are recommended. 1. what were the underlying, contributing factors that resulted either in a discontinuance or reorganization of eight educational institutions of higher learning founded by the Mennonites in the United ^tates? 2* What contributions are the eight functioning Mennonite colleges in the United °tates making to their res£>ective constituencies and to American life in general? 3. What contributions did some of the leading educators make-to Mennonitism? Their lives, contributions, and influences need to be rediscovered and interpreted* Here are just a few suggested Mennonite educators who would be worthy of such special consideration* In Holland: Samuel Mueller (1827-1857), S. Horkstra (1857-1892), J. de HoopScheffer (1860-1890), S. ^ramer (1890-1912). In Russia: Tobias Voth (1791-?), Heinrich H©ese (1787-1868), Heinrich Franz I (1812-1889), Kornelius Unruh (1849-1910), Abr* A. Neufeld (1862-1909). In Canada: Heinrich H. Ewert (1855- 1934), David Toews (1870-1946). In the United States: David Goerz (1849-1915), David Harder (1872-1930), Henry W. Lohrenz (1878-1945), C* Henry Smith (1875-1948). 4. A thorough analysis needs to be made of the fac- 500 tors that promoted conflicts between the Mennonite educational philosophy and the educational programs, of tbe various States in which Mennonites had settled# 5# The nature and the effectiveness of the different methods of control Mennonites use in maintaining their educa tional institutions would be significant to administrators. 6. What educational objectives do the different Men nonite denominations seek to achieve? Upon what fundamental principles do they agree and what possible procedures could result in a unified, all-Mennonite school system. A final w ord to the Reader. This study on Mennonite education has been completed. The .task of obtaining, translating, and interpreting the source material was complex. The time and place of the writerfs birth, his Mennonite upbringing and loyalties, have perhaps affected the interpretation. In so admitting the possibility of error, the writer is irresistibly reminded of the words written over 400 years ago by Poulkes Robartes: Who faulteth not, liveth not: who mendeth faults is commended: The Printer (typist) hath faulted a little: it may be the author oversighted more. Thy pain is the least; then err not thou most by misconstruing or sharp censuring; lest thou be more uncharitable, than either of them hath been heedless: God amend and guide us all. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Abdruck der Gesamt-protokolle der Kansas und Westllchen Pis- &ftlkt^£ohf'erenz der Mennonlten von Nord Amerika, 1S77- T9Q9' . Hero Id Druck, Newton, Kansas, I91U! 491 pp. Andrews. Charles M. The Colonial Period of American History, 4 vols. New Haven! Yale University Press. 1935 (Ea.ch volume has its own date.) 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Weierhof (Pfalz): Iin Selbstverlag der Herausgeber, Frankfurt a. Main, I913. Monroe, Paul G. Founding of the American Public School Sys- tem. New York: fhe Macmil 1 an Company," 19^0. pp. 506 Parker, Samuel Chester. A. Textbook in the History of Modern Elementary Education. Chicago: ( £l"nn— and Company, w r - 5 5 5 pp:-------- Pennypacker, Samuel W., Historical and Biographical Sketches. Philadelphia: Robert" A. Tripple, pp. Peters, H. P. ‘ 'History and Development of Education among the Mennonites in Kansas," an unpublished master's thesis submitted to the Faculty of the College of Liberal Arts in candidacy for the degree of Master of Arts, Department of Religious Education, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, 1925. 221 pp. Proceedings of the Annual Conference on Mennonite Cultural Problems, published under the auspices of the Commit- t ee of Mennonite and Affiliated College Administrators, 191+2, 19^3, 1944, 1945, 1946, 1947. Quiring, Walter. Ru s zl andde u t s che suchen eine He ini at— Die deutsche Einwanderung in den paraguayis che n Cfhaco. Karl sruhe, C-ermany: Verlag Heinrich Schne Ider, Karl- str. 26, 1936. 192 pp. _________. Die Deutsche erschllesz den Chaco. Karlsruhe: Uruck und Verlag: Verlagsdruckerei Reinrich Schnei der, Karlstr. 26, 193^. 207 pp• Reimer, David Philip. "The Mennonites of Britisch Columbia," an unpublished thesis submitted in partial fulfill ment of requirements of the degree of Bachelor of Arts, to the department of history of the University of British Columbia, 19*4-6. 92 pp. Rempel, David. "The Mennonite Colonies in New Russia— A Study of Their Settlements and Economic Development from 1769-191^ H an unpublished doctoral disserta tion (microfilmed) Leland Stanford University, Palo Alto, California, 1933* 333 PP- Robertson, William Spence. History of the Latin American Nations. New York: D. Apple’ torf-Century Company, T943: 560 pP. Schae'fer, Paul J. Heinrich H. Ewert— Lehrer, Srzleher und Prediger der Mennonlten— Zuege aus Seinem Leben und Wirken. " ~ " Verlag der Manitoba Jugendorgani zation der Mennoniten Konferenz von Canada. _______ . Wo her? Wohin? Mennoniten. 3- Teil "Die Mennoni- ““ £en in Canada, " Altona, Manitoba: Verlag: Mennonite Agricultural Advisory Committee, 19^7- 1&7 PP- 507 Schmiedehaus, Walter. ”Ein Feste Burg 1st Unaer Gott— Die Altkolonier, eutsche Mennoniten, in Mexico und auf ihren Wege durch die Welt,” manuscript, pp. Schroeder, Heinrich H. Ruszlanddeutsche Friesen. Doell- staedt-Langensalzsu SeXbstverlag des Verfassers. Druck von Julius Beltz, 193&* 120 pp. Schultz, Ferdinand P. A History of the Settlement of German Mennonites from Russia at Mountain Lake, Minnes "o’ ta. University Park, Iowa; John'"Fletcher College Press, 193S. 119 pp. Smith, C. Henry. The Mennonites— Brief History of Their Ori gin and Later Development in Both Europe and America. Berne, Indiana" Merino ni t eHSook Concern, i$20" 3^0 pp. The Mennonites of America. Goshen, Indiana; n. p. , -------T 909:-------------------------------- The Coming of the Russian Mennonites—-An Episode Settling of the Last Frontier, Berne, Tndiaria: Mennonite Book Concern, 1927. 296 pp. _______ . The Mennonite Immigration to Pennsylvania in the Eighteenth dentury~ Part XXXlII of a Narrative arid"' dritical history Prepared at the Request of the Penn sylvania German Society. Norristown, Pennsylvania: The Norristown Press, 1929. ^*12 pp. ________ . The Story of the Mennonites. Berne, Indiana: M enrich!te Book'TJoncern, 19^1. pp. and E. J. Hirschler, eds. The Story of Bluff ton ~Uollege. Published by Bluffton College, Bluffton, Ohio, dune, I925, in commemoration of the Twenty-Fifth Anniversary of its founding. 296 pp. Stine, Clyde S. ”The Pennsylvania Germans and the School,1 1 The Pennsylvania Germans edited by Ralph Wood, Princeton; PrXnceton University Press, 19^4-2. pp. 105-127. Wedel, C. H. Abrisz der Geschichte der Mennoniten. Band I (I90M-), II (1902T, III and IV"Tl90tnr Newton, Kansas: Schulverlag von Bethel College. 190 pp. Wedel, P. J. ”The History of Bethel College,” unpublished manuscript, 19^$. 1,010 pp. Weigle, Luther A. American Idealism. ”The Pageant of Amer- 50 8 ica, H Ralph Henry G-abriel, editor. 1^ vols. New Haven: Yale University Press, 192S. Wenger, John C. Hi story of the Mennonites of the Franconia Conference"! Telford, Pennsylvania: “Franconia Menrion- ite Historical Society, 1937- 5^3 PP* Who * s Who among the Mennonites. A. Warkentin, ed., Melvin nerich, ~A~s sistant edit or. North Newton, Kansas: Bethel College Press, 19^3* A-2S pp. Wilbur, Earl Morse. A History;of Unitarlanlsra, Socinianism and Its Antecedents. 5amSridge, Massachusetts: Har- vard'TJniversity Press, 19^6. 617 PP* * ■ i * - - * / f f 509 Periodicals Catalogs of the various institutions referred to. Christian *Century, Ootober 22, 19^7* Per Bote, Rosthern, Saskatchewan, Canada, D. H. Epp, edi- ^Tor; issues of September 18, 25, October 2, 9, and 23, all in 1929* Gospel Herald, July 19, 1928: H. S. Bender, MMennonite Schools and Mennonlte History.u H&ndlges, C. MZum funfzigjahrigen Jubilaum der Real und Erziehungs-Anstalt auf den Weierhof am Donnersberg,1 1 ' Mennonitischen Jugendwarte, No. 3. Herausgegeben in rbersheim b. Worms.' 16 pp. Herold der Wahrheit, October 1, 15, 1915. Herald of Truth, August 1, I897. Mannhardt, G., nDie Mennoniten unter den Preussischen Koen- igen, 1935.” Mennonitische Volkswarte (Yearbook), 1935, 193b, ancTT937- * ” . Mennonlte Life, North Newton, Kansas: July and October, WT; January, April, July, and October, 19^7; Jan uary, 19^, and October', 19h8. Mennonlte Quarterly Review, Goshen College, Goshen, Indiana: July and April, 1935; July, 1929; April, 1932; October, 1932; January, 1933; October, 1935; January, 1937. Mennonlte Weekly Review, May 22, June 19, and December 11, --------------- Mennonlte Yearbook and Directory, Scottdale Pennsylvania; Uennonite Publishing house, 19^*5, 19^, 19^7, and 19^8. Pennsylvania Magazine of History, January, 1907. Mennonitlsche Geschichtsbl&tter. Herausgegeben von Mennoniti-' sc hen GescHi cht sverein, Nos. 1 and 2, November, 193&* Mennonitische Lehrerze1tung. Winnipeg, Manitoba, I (Decem- herV 1 9 m . f t 510 Unger Blatt; March, 1926, p. 135; June, 1926, p. 221; Au gust, 1926, p. 2650, Chrlstllche Monatschrlft, Moscow. Weigle, Luther, A. Federal Council Bulletin, November- Dee ember, 1925: Zur Helmath, July 15, 1576; September 1, 1576; November 15, 1576; December 1, 1577* APPENDICES APPENDIX A "THE EDUCATION OF CHILDREN" "by Menno Simons Unto all Elders and joint-heirs in the faith of Christ, grace he unto you and peace from G-od, our heavenly Father, through his beloved Son, Christ Jesus, our Lord and Savior, by the power and co-operation of His Holy Spirit, to his ever lasting praise and glory, and to our edification and salva tion, Amen. You are aware, beloved brethren and sisters in Christ Jesus, that we all, without exception, inherit from Adam an ill-disposed, evil and sinful flesh; nay, that all our desires from our youth are evil continually, as Moses writes; also, that we find nothing in ourselves, as the treasure of our first birth, but perfect blindness, unrighteousness, sin and death. If now the power of this innate disposition is to be diminished, suppressed and. destroyed, it must be accomplished by the pure fear of the Lord, which proceeds from a true faith through the word of the Lord, and from a clear perception of the righteous judgment and terrible wrath of G-od, which will burn forever against all impenitent sinners. For the fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom; it drives out sin and makes upright, pious children, as we learn from Jesus Sirach, Eccl. 12; Prov. 9. Since, then the merciful Father of our Lord, Jesus 513 Christ, the great, Almighty Lord, has encompassed us with the light of his grace, and through faith in Jesus Christ, has awakened us from iniquity and ungodliness to a life of righteousness; therefore, let us diligently follow the glor ious example of the true love of Matthew, the publican, who was not satisfied with enjoying the heavenly calling and grace himself, but went and invited other publicans and. sinners, that they might also be saved and obtain the like spirit, grace and. mercy from the Lord, for such is the nature and disposition of Christ, Matt. 9. Trade, therefore, among yourselves with the talent given you from on high, and. sincerely compassionately your unbelieving, blind parents, brothers, sisters, husbands, wives, servants and. neighbors; do not conceal from them the gift, grace, word and will of G-od; for their feet are in the way of death; perhaps they may, at some time or other, extri cate themselves from the snares of unrighteousness in which they are bound and entangled, and turn themselves to the Lord with all their hearts. My dear brethren, understand this as \ regards men of sense and discretion. Brethren in Christ, if we should see any such in danger of being drowned or burned, or in any danger that threatened their lives, and there was a prospect that we could render them assistance, would not our inmost souls, be moved with compassion towards them, if haply we might afford them relief? Undoubtedly. And now we see with our own eyes, if we but believe the Lord's word, 514 that they are walking in the shadow of eternal death, are al ready committed to the grave of hell, and liable to be devour ed forever by the eternal, unquenchable fire, unless from their hearts they turn unto Christ and his word, repent, and become regenerated, as the Scriptures teach. Therefore, con sider seriously the heartrending misery and wretchedness of their poor ^ouls which must live forever, either in heaven or in hell, and strive diligently and faithfully whether they may not yet, in somd way, by your faithful ministry of pure love, and by the direction ahd instruction of the divine word, be rescued and delivered from everlasting destruction, and be made partakers of eternal salvation. For genuine charity is of such a nature that it is constantly hungering and thirst ing after the glory of G-od and the salvation, of men, even of those who are strangers to us according to the flesh. Beloved brethren and sisters in Christ Jesus, foras much as we are now constrained, by saving charity, with bene volence and sympathy, and know through the unction of the Spirit and word of G-od, that the nature of man is completely corrupted in Adam, and is opposed from youth, to the word of the Lord, as aforesaid; therefore, let us particularly vigi lant and solicitous with regard to our own children, display ing unto them a greater degree of spiritual love than towards others; for they are the na,tural offspring of our flesh and blood, a serious and precious charge committed by God to our special care. Be, therefore, particularly mindful, that you 515 instruct them from their youth in the way of the Lord, that they fear and love G-od, walk in all modesty and submissions; that they he genteel, well-disposed, discreet, honor and ohey their father and mother, using reasonable language, not lying, nor clamorous, not stubborn, nor self-willed; for such is not becoming the children of the saints, Etut. 6; Eph. 6. The world desire for their children that which is earthly and perishable, such as money, honor, fame and wealth. From in fancy they train them up to vice, pride, haughtiness and idolatry. But with you, who are born of God, this is not the case; for it behooves you to seeking something else for your children; namely, that which is heavenly and eternal, and hence it is your duty to bring them up in the nurture and admonition of the Lord, as Paul teaches, Eph. 6:1-4. Moses commanded Israel to teach their children the law and commandments of the Lord, to talk Of them as they sat down in their houses, and when they walked by the way, and when they lay down, and when thejr rose up. Now, since we are a chosen generation, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a peculiar people, that we should show forth the praises of him who hath called us out of dark ness into his marvellous light, Deut. 6:7; 1 Pet. 2:9; there fore it behooves us to show ourselves patterns and examples in all righteousness and blamelessness, and to appear unto the whole world as we are thereunto called; for if we do not keep a strict eye upon our own children, but permit them to follow their evil inclination, corrupt nature, and disposition, 516 not correcting and chastising them according to the word of the Lord, we may with the greatest propriety lay our hands • upon our mouths, and remain silent. For why should we te^ch those not of our household, when we take no pains to preserve our own families in the love and 'fear of God? Paul says, 1 1 If , any provide not for his own, and specially for those of his own house, he hath denied the faith, and is worse than an infidel,” 1 Tim. 5:8. My dearly beloved brethren and sisters in Christ Je sus, take heed that you do not ruin your children and train them in vice, through carnal love, and thus give offence; lest in the day of judgment, their souls be required at your hands, and it happen unto you, on account of your children, as it did unto Eli, the high priest, who was chastened by the hand of the Almighty, on account of his sons, 1 Sam. 3:11-18; but diligently imitate the testimony declared by the angel of the Lord respecting pious Abraham, ”1 know him,” says he, "that he will command his children and his household after him, and they shall keep the way of the Lord,, to do justice and judgment, ” Gen. 18:19. This is the chief and most im portant care of the godly, that their children may fear God, do good, and be saved; even as the God-fearing Tobias admon ished his son’s children, saying, My son hearken unto thy father; serve the Lord in truth, and cleave unto him in equity; be mindful of him, and let not thy will be set to sin or to transgress his commandments; teach this to thy 517 children that they give alms, fear G-od all their days, and trust in him with their whole hearts. My beloved brethren and sisters in Christ, who sin cerely love the word of the Lord, thus instruct your children from youth up, and daily admonish them with the word of the Lord, setting a good example. Teach and admonish them, I say, in proportion to the development of their understanding; constrain and correct them with discretion and moderation, without anger or bitterness, Col. 3; lest they be discouraged; spare not the rod, if reason and necessity require it, and reflect upon what is written. He that loveth his son causeth him oft to feel the rod that he may have joy of him in the end. He that cha,stiseth his son shall have joy in him; . “He that maketh too much of his son shall bind up his wounds; and his bowels will be troubled at every cry.” A horse unbrok en becometh headstrong: and a child left to himself will be wilful. “Give him no liberty in his youth, and wink not at his follies,1 1 Eccl. 30:7, 11. Bow down his neck while he is young, lest he wax stubborn, and be disobedient to thee, and so bring.sorrow to thine heart. Correct thy son, and keep him from idleness, lest thou be made ashamed on his account, Prov. 29. Dearly beloved brethren and sisters in the Lord, if all parents, who glory in the name of the Lord would deeply impress the words of Sirach upon their hearts and inscribe them on the tablet of their souls, 0 how virtuous, pious and devout 518 would many children be raised, who now, alas! run wild and unrestrained, honoring neither their parents, nor the church and gospel of Christ. , f An evil-nurtured son," says Sirach, "is the dishonor of his father;1 1 again, says he, "Though they multiply, rejoice not in them, except the fear of G-od be with them; for one that is just, is better than a thousand; and better it is to die without children, than to have them that are ungodly," Sir. 22:5; 15:2, 3. Beloved brethren, consider these words well, and resolve them in your minds. Necessity impels me to write; for some, alas! live such lives with their children, that one is constrained to write and reprove. I write and admonish you again: Take heed, lest the blood and condemnation of your children come upon you. If you love your children with a godly love, teach, admonish and instruct them in God, lest the word, blood and. death of the Lord be made unto them of no effect, and his name and church be blasphemed by the unwise, through them. Beloved Brethren in Christ, if you rightly know G-od and his word, and believe that the end of the righteous is everlasting life, and the end of the wicked eternal death, endeavor to the utmost of your power, to conduct your children in the way of life, and divert them from the way of death, as far as in you lies. Pray to Almighty God for the gift of his grace, that in his great mercy, he may guide and preserve them in the right path, through the directing influence of 519 Holy Spirit. Watch over their salvation as for your own souls. Teach, instruct, admonish, threaten, correct and chastise them, as circumstances require. Keep them away from naughty, wicked children,'among whom they hear and learn nothing but lying, cursing, swearing, fighting and knavery. Have them instructed in reading and writing, bring them up to habits of industry, and let them learn such trades as are suitable, expedient and adapted to their age and constitution. If you do this, 3 rou shall live to see much honor and joy of your children. But if you do it not, heavi ness of heart shall-consume you at last. For a child left to himself, without reproof, is not only the shame of his father, but he bringeth his mother to shame, Prov. 29. This brief admonition I have written to my beloved, from motives of sincere love, and not without a reason; for in the course of my ministry, I have too frequently observed, how disorderly, imoroperly, nay, heathenlike, many persons conduct themselves toward their children. The absurd, sense less love of the flesh, has such a.n influence over some, and they are so blinded by the natural affection for their chil dren, that they can neither perceive nor observe any evil, error or defect in them, notwithstanding they frequently abound in idle tricks and wantonness, are disobedient to father and mother, murmur at them, collect and carry abroad lies, quarrel and fight with other children, and mock people as they pass by, crying and calling after them. 520 Brethren In Christ, to connive, by reason of a blind, carnal love, at these and similar disgraceful tricks of chil dren, is a love not to be applauded, but much rather to be shunned and avoided; for it is earthly, sensual, devilish. And forasmuch, as we ought to be the salt of the earth, the light of the world, the holy nation, the chosen generation, yea, the bride of Christ, it by no means becomes us, to have, or to bear such sensual love or preposterous affection, in any circumstances, towards our children; but it is our duty, as far as in us lies, diligently and earnestly to instruct and govern our children and household, as well as ourselves, in conformity to the sincerity of godliness, a life of vir tue, and the \?ord of God. With this, I will have delivered and preserve my soul in the presence of the Lord and his church, and I do desire, for the Lord’s sake, that this epistle may be taken in good part, and read by the elders, in the hearing of all the breth ren, to the end that the innocent may take heed, and be cir cumspect, and those who are guilty of these mis-steps, errors and failings, may reform, and that without considering me as being officlous, in regulating the concerns of their house hold. Ah noj in the presence of God, I desire nothing in this, but that in all things, you conform yourselves to the Scriptures, and to Christian gravity, and that all the con cerns of the Lord’s church, may be conducted according to the divine will and ordinance. The Search of hearts and reins 521 knows that I lie not* I would, therefore, that you also ac cept and receive it in love; for in sincerity have I written it. And now, beloved brethren and sisters, I commend you to God, and to the word of his grace, which is able to build you up, and to give you an inheritance among all them which are sanctified. The very God of peace sanctify you wholly, that your whole spirit, soul, and body be preserved without spot, and blameless, unto the coming 0f our Lord Jesus Christ. Faith ful is he who called you. May the merciful Father, through his beloved Son, Jesus Christ, our Lord, strengthen you all with the precious gift of his Holy Spirit, Amen. APPENDIX B A HUTTERITE SCHOOL DISCIPLINE OF 1578 AND PETER SCHERER1S ADDRESS OF 1568 TO THE SCHOOLMASTERS Schul-Qrdnung, Year 1578 Herein are recorded several necessary points which the brethren and sisters who are appointed to supervise the schools, together with their assistants, are to observe in the care and discipline of the youth. In the first place they must constantly keep in mind that they are appointed over the children by the Lord and by His people. Further, the school masters and school mothers, since they are the ones who are responsible for the good character of the discipline of the school, are to be peaceful and trust ful in their relations one to another. There should be a willingness to assist each other \*/ith good advice and to maintain a strict and regular order in all phases of the care of the youth, for to be dutiful and peaceful is conducive to good discipline, while discord and Indolence are conducive to disorder. These two educational documents were published in Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft fdr deutsche Erzlehungs - und SchuIgeschichte, Jahrgang XI, Heft 2, pp. 112-127; Berlin, 1901. Translated by Harold S. Bender, Goshen College, Goshen, Indiana. 523 They shall also take proper care in directing and supervising their assistants according to the adopted disci pline. They shall take care that no disunity, strife, or boisterous speaking is heard by the chi3.dren, but rather by a peaceful, cheerful, good-natured, and sober life and quiet walk they shall inspire the youth likewise to quiet and sober living and give them a good example. They should avoid vain and idle words so that the children shall not have occasion to gossip. The school masters and sisters shall admonish and ask the boys and girls in their later teens to be diligent in prayer. And it would be well if when the school masters speak with the children once or twice a week, the sisters be pre sent if possible, and thus testify by their example and pattern to their desire to inspire the youth x^ith ideals of piety; the disters should not absent themselves to go to other places but should give due consideration to the honor of the Lord and the welfare of the youth. Yet the school master should not occupy the time of the children with long preaching and with too much reading of many quotations because the children can understand and grasp but little. When one or more children are guilty of something, either of unbecoming conversation or other foolishness,— like wise the girls when they spin,— it is ordered that not every 524 sister should at once step in and punish but should take care in the fear of God so that the youth should not be hastily disciplined. For this reason, in order to be better able to give account before God and man, it is believed best that the sis ters should report the matted to the brethren in the school or to the school mother and should not be too severe, seeing that the Lord does not deal with us elder ones always accord ing to our deserts, but according to grace. The larger boys are to be punished by a school master and not by a sister, but the middle-sized boys may be punished with the rod by a school mother if the school master is absent and the boy is stubborn and will not submit to the sister's words. But if it is a larger boy, it should be noted and re ported to the school master when he comes home. Likewise the larger girls are to be disciplined by a school mother and not by a brother. Stealing, lying and other gross sins, whether done by boys or girls, shall not be dealt with by a sister alonpb but shall be disciplined with the approval and advice of a brother. If punishment with the rod is necessary in the case of a larger boy or girl, it shall be done in the fear of God and with discernment. In case of knavishness, lying, thieving, and unchaste conduct, severity shall be used according to dessert. This shall not be done secretly or in a corner, but in the presence of all the children, so that they may learn 525 thereby to have fear of wrong doing. The children shall be trained not to resist the rod, but willingly accept punishment. In this way it will be possible to always deal with them in a free manner, more than if they resist, which one shall not and cannot permit them. A school master shall permit the boys to go out once to the lavatory mornings and evenings, together, and shall himself watch, but shall not refuse the children permission to go out in between times, for the natural processes cannot be controlled by law and it is harmful to obstruct nature too long. The same applies to the girls. It should also not be difficult for a pious school mother and her assistants to counsel with a brother in the school and to inquire when one wishes to take the children out and let them go home. Likewise a school master shall have sympathy and co operation for the sisters and shall yield in matters which do not interfere with the honor of G-od and good discipline. The bread and meat (sandwiches) may and shall be handed out to the larger children by the school master, except if he does not have time or lacks the food. In that case the school moth ers may do this or appoint another sister to do it. If something special is to be given to the children, such as apples, pears and other fruit, it shall not be done on the individual decision of anyone, but shall be done on the counsel of several at a proper time. The children's cloth- 526 ing shall not be had in excess; what is necessary shall be kept on hand and be kept clean. The boys1 clothing shall be handed out by a brother himself. The linen cloths shall be in the hands of a school mother and shall be given out by her, but as far as the table cloths for the children are concerned, she shall give it to the table sisters and not to the girls. The sisters shall exercise diligence that they lift the little children out and into their beds mornings and even ings, and not leave this to the girls so that they themselves may know how the children get in and out of bed. However the girls may help them in carrying the children to and from the beds. They shall likewise clean and wash those who are dirty; In the mornings the girls shall be called at five ofclock in winter time to spin. Then at six o'clock the boys are to be awakened and during the time that the latter are clothing, combing and. washing themselves, the smaller children are to be taken out, dressed, and washed, so that they will be quite ready for prayer and be able to sit at the table. Then the babies are to be taken out, dressed, washed, and after they have had a bit of exercise and been walking about they may be taken to their meals, so that they are not fed at once after awakening from sleep, which is unnatural. At evenings one should take particular care not to put the children to bed too soon after eating, which is unnatural for them, but to lead them about for a time after the meal or 527 let them run around, small and large, in the winter time until six o’ clock, and in summer time until sunset. And since it is often warm- and moist in bed in summer, they shall be allowed to stay up longer at such warm times, but when it is cool they should for this reason be put to bed a little earlier. During the night the nurse (W&ohterin) shall take care that the children, both small and great, sleep well and are well covered, so that they may not become cold. Also one of the sisters should help the nurse to watch for a while when the children are going to sleep until the children are all asleep, and the children shall not be given anything to eat in bed or anj^thing to such except that a sick child may be given something to drink for his sickness. The children that are well shall be allowed to sleep withoi.it interruption for it is unwholesome to be feeding the children night and day. Like wise the sleeping children shall not be forced to arise during the night but shall be allowed to sleep, for if anyone has need, nature will of itself awaken them. But if a boy or a girl has some particular unclean habits, such a one shall be awakened in order to be cured of such unclean habits, accord ing to good discipline. If it happens once or twice that some one wets the bed, possibly in a dream, It shall be overlooked, with the hope of improvement, but if it occurs frequently the child shall be punished for the same. The nurse shall likewise not at once begin to strike the child with the rod if a child begins to cry at night, but 528 shall use other methods to quiet it. When the innocent little children make the bed un clean, they shall be diligently dried and one shall not economize with bed clothing and layettes. They shall not be left lie because they cannot ask for help or cannot understand. The mxrse shall also take good care to notice when a child cries or screams to hold it for a while over the vessel and cover it well so that it should not get cold from being with out cover. But when the little children who have begun to talk, still make a bed unclean, it may be overlooked two or three times and the children instructed with words, but if this does not help, finally they shall be punished lightly so that they shall learn to keep clean. But the sisters shall take especial care with the lit tle children, that they be not harsh with them but rather be sympathetic and long-suffering with them on account of their innocence and lack of understanding, just like mothers do with their owh children. They shall be concerned in so training the children that they shall not be allowed to become self-willed but shall be grad.ua.lly trained to love the Lord and as soon as they begin to talk they shall be taught to pray at the proper time. Further, the brethren and sisters in the school shall take especial car4 to avoid, giving offense by discipline and punishment in the presence of brothers and. sisters from other 529 places who come to visit and observe the children. They shall be careful in this matter. The boys and girls shall.not be depended upon to take care of the little children either by day or by night, nor to take them up or lay them down, but the sisters shall be care ful to be present, especially when the children get up, so that no one shall be injured. The brethren in the schools have already been instruct ed by the elders that they shall not manifest wrath toward the children and shall not strike the children on the head with the fist nor the rod, nor shall they strike on the bare limb, but moderately on the proper place. It is necessary to exercise great discretion and discernment in disciplining chil dren, for often a child can be better trained and corrected and taught by kind words when harshness would be altogether in vain, while another can be overcome by gifts. A third how ever cannot be disciplined without severity, and does not accept correction. Therefore the exercise of discipline of children requires the fear of God. One should show sympathy to the little folk who have just started attending school and should not undertake all at once to break the selfwill, lest injury come therefrom. For the children who are a bit larger one must also exercise very diligent care so that one can always have a good consci ence. The bed clothing shall be kept clean and shall be 530 regularly changed, and when the little children arise in the morning a sister, or two or three girls, must always be at hand to take care on the stairways that no one falls. When the children are brought to the school they should be carefully examined and. if any one 'is found to have a con tagious disease such as scurvy or French disease (syphilis) or lem, the same should be instantly separated from the rest in sleeping and drinking and in particular in washing. Also special brushes and combs shall be used in taking care of the hair of those having skin erruptions. Those who have such erruptions shall be pdt together and not kept with those who are clean. Likewise those who have head diseases* If a child suffers or received an injury on account of carelessness of whatever sort it may be, the injury shall not be concealed, but help and counsel shall be sought as soon as possible be fore greater injury comes of it. And when the school mothers examine the children for bad mouths and reach into a bad mouth with the fingers, they shall be careful that they do not at once with unwashed fin gers reach into a healthy mouth and thereb2 / contaminate it, but shall always beforehand cleanse the fingers with a clean cloth and water before they examine and cleanse mouths. They shall likewalse demonstrate to the sisters with them how to heal scurvy of the mouth, and not withhold this from them that others also may be able to attend to such things If they are appointed for it. 531 Brushing shall not be turned over to the girls to do. In the case of diseased heads and bad mouths the school mother shall take especial care, in particular about contagious disea ses, and shall arrange for a separation in all matters, as in part already stated, as for instance in the matter of beds, washing, eating, drinking, using spoons and cups, also in the matter of examining the mouth and sitting on stools. Once a week the cloths of the children shall be examin ed for lice, likewise the clothes of the children when they come to school. The new children shall have their heads and clothing examined for lice. When boys and girls are used outside of school for help in tending the cattle or driving the horses, care shall be taken that they do not go astray since they often like to absent themselves or hide. Therefore they shall appear twice weekly on brushing day. One should not let the shoes of the children become too hard so that they cause blisters and the parents may have occasion for complaint. Therefore care should also be taken that the clothing and everything else is regularly repaired. The new children whose parents are still on probation shall not at once be clothed in new clothing, but shall for a time be given the old clothing until their parents have proved themselves worthy members. The nurses (for sickness) shall diligently stay with the sick children, faithfully care for them,so that no one 552 climbs over the bed or falls on the stairs, and it shall be earnestly impressed upon the mind of the girl in charge that she shall take good care of the children, but shall not be away from them long in case they must leave the bedside. The food which is to be given to the children they shall not be forced to eat. Drinking shall also be attended to so that drinking is not postponed too long or refused so that thirst does not become so great that they drink to ex cess, which is harmful. And for the sick children especially one should be free to ask the cook for that which they tfay need; yet this should be done orderly and not each sister run to the cook on her own account, but the request should be made on advice of, the school mother. When children are- sick one should, not be too severe with them if they ask for this or -that, but should in true faithfulness as unto G-od be diligent in waiting upon them, in lifting and laying downs, in cleaning and. washing. And when there are two schools, the small and the large, the two shall be conducted as though they were one, and not separately. The sisters in the two schools in which ever they may be shall be in the proper attitude and love to ward each other and shall faithfully assist one another in combing and brushing; in bathing and washing, as is necessary. That is, in everything the children of the two schools, whether sick or well, shall form a unit, and fellowship shall be exer- 533 cised with the open heart, without vanity or selfishness. If the parents who are visiting a school desire to take their children home to themselves for a visit, permis sion may be given for a definite time by a school master or school mother but such permission shall be given with caution in the fear of G-od as the circumstances dictate, and those in authority - shall have a definite understanding as to whither the children have been taken. They shall also take care in supervising the larger children who serve as bread cutter, water carrier, bedroom maid, sweeper, dish washer, children's maid., sick nurse, etc., since they have often been found to be inconsiderate, mis chievous, thieving and frivolous. .Wherefore, those who are older shall take diligent care to supervise and watch over them so that no one shall be found guilty of permitting such conduct and. have to be disciplined. Neither brethren nor sisters shall of themselves under take to order something new without the counsels, knowledge, or will of the elders. Even though someone knows a better method, It shall hot be followed without good counsel. When the sisters go out into the field or into the garden with the children, they shall be careful, as many of them as find it possible, to stay with the children so that the children do not get Into trouble. The school master shall also be along as much as possible. 534 The larger boj's or girls should not by any means be allowed to bump or pull or hit the children. The sisters shall take special care of the small chil dren that they be kept clean. The sisters shall also not go away to their rooms on their own business too much but the one shall tell the other. They shall not carry hot water into the rooms so that no one may be injured. They shall not bathe the children in too hot water for that is harmful. They shall not let them sit too long on the stools lest they take' cold or do themselves harm. The wash woman shall be careful in making the fire and in heating water and shall not depend too much upon the girl who is helping her. The night nurse (W&chterin) shall take good care of the light at night and shall frequently go about among the chil dren to look a,t them and cover them. The school mother shall not arrange matters for the sisters or for the girls without the counsel of "the school master. ,If a child will not keep quiet during the admonition it shall be taken out so that the other children may not be come restless, for sometimes one child is itchy, another one thirsty, a third has some need which one does not know. For 535 this reason it is not possible to bring everything in order by using the rod* During the day in school one should not attempt to settle everything with blows., but with moderation. Also, no sister shall show disfavor to a child under her care or another child, nor show partiality against one that would prefer not to stay with her. Neither brothers nor sisters shall show favoritism to particular boys or girls or send them to special places for they soon are overcome by the flattery and become.proud. Likewise the school masters shall not for any reason of their own or on account of business, without the counsel and consent of the elders, seek occasion to be absent or leave the school. They shall not engage in work outside the school, such as planting or building or working on trifling things and thus neglect their work in the school. They must not by any means go to the markets here and there and buy according to their pleasure but rather they shall ask for the things they need at the place where these things are provided. They shall not occupy themselves with writing and reading and shall not let others take their place who often deal wrongly with the children out of favor or disfavor but they shall themselves supervise the children. The sisters likewise shall not look after their own interests whether in sewing and mending or such work and shall not depend too much upon the girls and shall not go about too much outside the building and then when they come into the school accept a complaint from a boy or girl and then with out proper consideration proceed to deal out punishment. Therefore we instruct them, faithfully to remain in the school and take care of the children since by such diligence discipline frequently becomes unnecessary and can be avoided. No one shall unwillingly with complaint or inroatience serve the needy ones of the Lord in the schools, for there would be no blessing in such work- and the children would in consequence have to suffer from violence and rudeness in discipline. For where good will is lacking, there are often unkind words. Such expressions as these may then be heard: 1 1 You bad children; one must be continually occupied with you, one cannot do anything for himself,t f or similar improper thing By such conduct all who hear it would be grieved'and the Lord, who hears all things, will take notice and He will punish it in His time. Therefore each one should willingly and gladly do his part to please the Lord. It is therefore the appeal of us as elders to all of you who have the youth in charge, brethren and sisters and especially you who are appointed as school masters and school mothers, that you perform your duties faithfully with all diligence as far as is possible by the grace of God, so that this and similar rules of order shall be observed by you and your assistants faithfully and harmoniously so that in these and other necessary points which would be too long to write 537 and possibly also not necessary, a peaceful discipline may be kept in all your care and supervision of the youth>: since you must give an account for the same. Biay you do it with joy as to the Lord in Heaven who will also be a faithful re warder of your diligence. In conclusion, let each one deal with the children by day and by night as if they were his own, whether in the matter of giving them to eat and drink or taking up or laying down, or leading about or carrying, or cleaning and washing, what ever is necessary, so that each one may be able to give an account before G-od and may have a conscience void of offense before the godly and the ungodly. ; All this which has been here written and told at some length is a pattern of how counsel should be given to those who are concerned with the schools. At times more should be said and at times less, just as is necessary at each place according to the circumstances. By this each one will know how to conduct himself so that the honor of the Lord may be promoted. The kitchen help and the waiters shall be told that they shall prepare and distribute with good will the food and drink which has been ordered for the children according to their need whether sick or well, young or ol$, and they shall not make many words about it. And if it is necessary to ask for some particular food for a sick child, out of the usual order, they shall avoid 538 using rough words. If what is asked for cannot be given, there should be a clear explanation so that no one give occa sion for complaint to another. PETER SCHERERfS ADDRESS Dear Brethren: We have thought it good to call you together and dis cuss with you the work of the office which has been assigned to you in the schools, so that you might exercise more dili gence to care for the children who have been entrusted to your care by the Lord and by us and that you may direct their minds to honour and fear God, so that they may be brought up in the nurture of the Lord and mey receive from their youth the very best at your hands. We desire that you should not engage in other activities which would occupy your time and thus lose your eagerness to be with the children in the school room. You should not waste your time in doing many little things which are not required of you, neither should you per mit the manager (Haushalter) to send you to some other place unless it should be but an hour or two distant and the task could soon be performed. If the latter should happen, each one should hasten to return at the earliest possible moment and not leave the sisters alone with the children. You should not depend upon the sisters and the overseers, for they at times show favoritism and then there is occasion for diffi culty, especially with the boys, since they are likely to 1 539 begin to scold them. But if a school master is in the school room among the children and frequently observes them and quiets them, they will become more circumspect and will be saved from mis chief, This is not bo be done with severe punishment, that is the rod is not to be applied hard and long, although often teachers have, and desire to have, a reputation of this sort, I do not mean, of course, my brethren, that the children can take care of themselves, that there is enough of the fear of G-od in them to keep them from eveil, for if this were the case a school master would not need to be present. However, the school master is not only to be present in the school room for the children’s sake, but also in order to be helpful and kind to the sisters, for they need your oversight just as much as the children, since women are women and the weaker vessel. Have a care that they may not be aroused in their anger and in their complaints against the children and go about among them with rods, as one does among cattle, and permit the flesh to get the upper hand, so that they quickly become angry, as we have ourselves already experienced. A school master who is diligent can prevent such occurrences if he takes his responsibility toward the children seriously and deals with them as if they were his own? By so doing he will pre vent ungodly or excessive punishment. Further, dear brethren, when you are at table together with the sisters, quietness should obtain. You should not 1 540 be boisterous and converse about matters which are not for the good or edifying, as commonly is the case if one does not take proper care, and thereby, one does not give a good example to the children who hear and see such things. For the children quickly observe this and say: What they forbid us they them selves do. The same care should be taken by the sisters in their work when the children are standing near. If the sis ters are not of one mind*'/ if they show dissonance in an aburi- dance of words, if one is self-willed against another and the young girls notice it, they will repeat it to one another and consequently will not have proper regard for -tho^ who have i&iled in this way. And not only that, but they Will talk about it. It sometimes happens, and not seldom, that a school master for good reasons enquires: Dear sisters, how about this matter? and gives his counsel and although his counsel is the better, it does not suit the sister's mind. Then she says: "How dare you enquire of this or that; it is not your business to do so," ahd treats him contemptuously. Such conduct should not be passed by lightly, for the children see and hear such things, especially the girls, but the sisters apparently do not care if only the boys do not know it. For this reason the school master can accomplish nothing with them. But nevertheless complaints come both small and great in matters of food and drink, in regard to clothing, in regard to lying down, going to bed, bathing, washing, or in regard to the waiting which one child has to do for another. But whatever form the com- 541 plaints take, £he school master is ultimately held responsible. If he is able to give a good account of himself, all is well, and this is the reason that we are pointing this out to you, since there are some of your number who have not been in the school work very long and are not acquainted with our customs. There are also some cases where school mothers, especially the older ones, are not willing to give up their old ways nor surrender the authority which they have acquired, and a brother (school master) lacks courage to assert his authority. It has indeed often been the case, for the parent of the children come to us and say: "My brethren, I have given over myself and my children to the Lord and to the school," and then complain that one of the children has gotten a skin eruption in the school or another ailment, be it on the eyes or the hands or the feet. And then if we speak to the school master in the school about the'matter and call him to account because of one or more children, then the school master after much discussion shifts responsibility to the school mother, the school mother to the sisters, bedroom maids, or the nurse maids, although they know that the school master was responsi ble. Perhaps the school mother has at her disposal a nurse maid whom she sends to the sick children on their beds with food and drink and takes it for granted that she will perform her duty faithfully. But alas, often the children are badly tended and possibly if orte is so sick that it does not care for what is sent it, it suffers. For such reasons, we say to 542 you, school "brethren, that you yourselves are responsible to care for such matters, and we also say to the sisters that they themselves must also look after the sick ones and ask (in the kitchen) for the food which they need. Also, you, together with the sisters, must pay atten tion to the shoes of the children,,so that they do not have hard shoes on which make the feet sore. Where shoemakers are at hand you should have the shoes frequently repaired and greased so that they will be nice and soft and so that not too many shoes are bought, as has happened in some cases and after ward. they become too small or are spoiled. And do not depend upon the sisters to do this, and the sisters shall not order things to be made without your knowledge and consent either in regard to shoes or other things. Further, in regard to bed clothing, if a bed has two bed covers, one that is good and one that is not so good, and a child has two night shirts, that is quite sufficient. But if something more is necessary, you should report it to the manager (Hausha.lter) ; likewise in regard to woolen clothing, whether for boys or girls, for the sisters are inclined to dress up the girls for church festivals with dresses and jackets and bodi ees and then after the festi val lay them away and then they become too small in time and much loss is occasioned. For this reason you yourselves should look after the matter, whether for girls1 or boy*s clothing, and if new clothing is made for the children, you should turn in the old clothing to be used for lining, since it is probably 543 still worth at least a little. Furthermore, in regard to feather beds or comforts which are given to the school to be used for the children when they go to sleep, when these beds become too small, you should take care that the sisters do not without your knowledge re-cut them and empty out or make larger. You should not permit this, but should have this done with the counsel of the manager wherever it seems necessary; You should not be careless in this matter like some are. You should always reserve a supply and not have the school alto gether without such materials. Further, you should yourself sleep with the children and should be present when they get up and should yourselves look after putting the children to bed and not rely altogether upon the bedroom maid. You should make sure that the chil dren who are well are kept together and those who are not well are kept together. The same caution should be taken to . keep those together who have eruption and make sure the bed clothing for such is washed separately by itself. Further, in regard to the children who are not well or where there is uncertainty, the bed c!3»thing and night shirts of such should not be mixed with the clothing of the children or washed together with it'. It should, be kept by it self. Likewise in the food and drink one cannot take too much care, for there is very much danger among so many children. The same thing is true in regard to washing and bathing, the two should not be mixed. You must take care and watch care- 544 fully to bathe and wash the unclean children by themselves. You must take care yourself that the sisters do ndt make the water for bathing too hot for the children. You should feel with your own hands whether it is not too hot, and if it is too hot you should forbid the sisters to use it, for it has often been the case that the skin of the children has be come red like a crab and yet they would say: "What that is not too hot; you are not to bother yourself about such things.*1 But you must not pay attention to such remarks. Further, if a child has eczema, you should not let it be bathed or washed so often. It often has happened that al though a child reported this ailment, nevertheless it has been compelled to bathe, and it was told: n0h, that will not hurt you, you bad boy, or bad girl.n Further, you should not bathe the children every fort night, for this is not necessary, but bathe them once in four weeks and wash them every fortnight, unless there is a special reason or on account of bad heads. APPENDIX C GENERAL RULES CONCERNING THE INSTRUCTION AND TREATMENT OF SCHOOL CHILDREN IN THE KOLOTCHNA COLONY* Johann Cornies 1. The early training given to a child is of great importance for his future. An educational procedure which is in harmony with the natural and undisturbed process of maturation is to be supported. (Purposive activity, mental discipline, and opportunity for expression!) 2* Early training should consist solely of sensory impressions; i. e., the child should be surrounded with opportunity for sensory experiences in order that the mind be developed. Care needs td be exercised that such sensory experiences do not precede a natural readiness for such im pressions. One must await, patiently, for the awakening of each human desire and interest until the mental machinery is set in motion. 3. When the various senses of a child are subjected to over-stimulation, the harmonious development of the child is hindered and his sensitivity to sense impressions dulled. 4. The formation of bad habits by the child must be sternly prevented. Laxity in this matter is very unfair to the child. If the will of the stubborn child is not broken, or if the tardy are not driven to renewed effort, or if the restless remain untamed, a degeneration of the soul is pro moted, an unsurmountable hindrance is erected, and a pyramid ing of sinful tendencies is encouraged. 5. Enforcement of mora.1 precepts before the sixth year is not only useless but also harmful. 6. Mistreated children develop adverse behavior and become unresponsive. They become lazy, cold, irritable, taci turn, malicious, tricky. The exercise of harshness is unneces sary in the training process. No beating is necessary where a child with self-respect responds to encouraging words. ?. Through prohibitions, not by punishment, the child is helped to overcome evils which he cannot master alone. 8. To gain understanding, appeal to the emotions in the younger children and to the intellect in the older. However, ^Translated from the German by M. S. Harder V . 546 both types of appeal should be utilized to bring about under standing. Remove such things out of the child's sphere of activity that subject the nervous system to unnatural and disturbing stimuli. 9. In the past, training of children has failed.be cause the, emphasis has been on censure and criticism. Such training encourages indifference. Only dishonest and foolish behavior seek to hinder and make impossible. 10. That which a mere nod can accomplish need not be said in words. That which can be said in a word or two must not be the subject of a lengthy admonishment. 11. The child's needs should be kept simple and limited as much as possible. IS. Children should become hardened gradually to changes of weather, and they should, be permitted to enjoy the open air lightly dressed. 13. The child.1 s physical and mental wellbeing must be the great concern of every teacher; hence, he must be con stantly on guard against the development of attitudes of fear and. dread. 14. Children are exercised, in anger if they are ridi culed, driven to resignation, or Intentionally aroused to fury. 15. Before the seventh year, children should not be overtaxed by Instructions with pictures and drawings so 'that the imagination may not be strained or unduly exercised or that the ability of discernment may not be dulled. 16. Subject matter must be presented so that all the senses are stimulated. Such a presentation promotes learning even in the most retarded child. 17. The power of perception must not be exercised too soon or too much. That which Is to be perceived ?frust be reasonable and true. Sentimentality is the death to the en joyment of life. 18. Children must gain in the exercise of independence and self-reliance and learn to overcome a natural tendency of indolence on the one hand and an unregulated drive for activi ty on the other. 19. When children attempt to test their own ability, neither criticism nor reproof is in place. This applies both to physical and mental efforts. 547 20. If a child shows a singleness of interest, do not force activities for which the child1s nature, disposition, and talents are not suited. The extent of instruction is limited by a child's native caoacity. Only that experience which "becomes a part of one's own innermost being has true meaning and value. Appreciate the contributions of a limited child. If one can't plant an oak, a shrub, too, has its place. 21. To guard and protect a child from the knowledge of the existence of human error and weakness is not wise. Par ents and teachers who are over-solicitious of the children's welfare become mere slaves and accomplish little. 22. Restriction of a child's freedom should follow only after extended and careful observation of his deportment. There is need for restriction of speech and judgment in viva cious children. 23. Association with each other should not be restrict ed too much among children. When necessary, such restrictions should be imposed only for the good of the child. Associa tion of children within their own age levels is highly import ant and necessary. 2 4 . . Habits of order and industry are the simple and successful means to educational development which, when ap plied at the right time, will not fail of their purpose. Through self-activity the child gains in character and there- * by saves time and effort. 25. Work habits must be developed early in life. Method, quantity, and time of work are to be determined by good work habits, not be arbitrary choice. If a child is forming the wrong habits or is dissipating his energies, he needs to be. curbed. 26. The habit of industry can be formed if the right methods are applied, and the child needs to learn to work conscientiously, enthusiastically, and joyfully at whatever must be done. 27. If children see by example order, cleanliness, industry, thrift, simplicity, and purity of habits; if they hear only just, right, reasonable, wise conclusions and words of peace and love; then purity and good behavior will follow. 28. Children will be led to express orderliness^when their wild impetuosity is subjected to rules and if their evil tendencies are checked. Only then can spiritual freedom find room for expression. 548 29. Do not exoect children to comprehend the full meaning of abstract ideas and concents immediately, and do not urge the use of abstract ideas and concepts in their full clarity and meaning until they have had time to grow in the minds of the children. 30. In order to build general concents up clearly, the elements which compose the concepts must be observed and re cognized. 31. Mental powers of perception become dull and shal low when the vocabulary is limited or when the comprehension of abstract concepts is not developed. 32. It is advantageous to use advanced pupils to help retarded ones or to permit advanced pupils to instruct under the teacher’s strict supervision in general class work. 33. It is the responsibility of the teacher to know childhood, what it shall become, and how that goal shall be realized. 34. The more one succeeds in Instilling joy and love for learning, the more the relationship between teacher and pupil will be improved, and the teacher’s attitude will be more charitable toward the disposition and emotions of the child. 35. All acquired knowledge and all to-be-acquired knowledge should serve to increase the intelligent under standing and nourish ethical desires and aesthetic feelings. 36. A halt or retrogression in the educational de velopment results ?/hen the educational processes are too hurried or too rigid. fjhis refers to daily schedules, edu cational principles, and the likej 32. Religious instructions and religious impressions must furnish strength and meaning to all other instructions and impressions. Never will a person achieve a true charac ter if he doesn’t express respect, love, faith, in a Supreme Being whom he accepts as master of his destiny. All educa- tiona.1 procedures must be religious in their emohasis. 38. The first religious impressions should begin by making the children receptive through love and sincerity to religious impressions, but instilling into sensitive and re ceptive souls the wonders of nature and their awe-inspiring manifestations, and thus making them aware of th4 existence of God and the importance of things sacred. 549 39. Show the children rather vividly the blessings of being virtuous and the destructive effects of wickedness and then permit them to make thier own application. 40. Present to the children at all opportune moments Jesus, the friend of children, and all phases of His love in order that the children might become friends of Jesus Christ. Such a , friendship is the best preparation for this and the next world. 41. If a teacher wants to awaken in the children a love for learning, he must prove that teaching is a joy. 42. Heading sha?Ll not be merely mechanical, but ac companied by emotional responses that will stimulate and ele vate the soul. Writing should be a means to the development of a sense of beauty. Mathematics shall train the mind in exactness, order, and indstry. Music shall nourish spiritual attitudes. 43. The purpose and direction of true education is not only for this life— vocation and place in society— but mainly for a higher purpose--Identity with God and loyalty to reli gion. To accomplish this purpose, Mennonites do not stress earl3> - religious instructions in their schools. That is given to the youth before baptism. The schools shall instill into the hearts of the children Bible verses which the teacher shall explain briefly and intelligibly at the time of memori zation. 44. Since it is impossible to keep a child free from all evil influences, the training of the child shall be of such a nature that the child will not yield to temptation or immoral perversion. 45. No despotism should reign in the training process. It chokes the most noble impulses; it takes away confidence and love, and it causes the development of perverse tendencies. 46. All that prospers d.oes so by degrees and without noise. If the teacher wants his efforts to prosper, let his children trained by a step-like process, performed in quiet ness and with caution and with all his powers. 47. It is essential that girls in their early life learn to know the customs and language of contemporary soci ety. The development of aolomb early in life will prevent the emergence of childish timidity later in life. 48. The mein reason why young people In society feel _ strange, timid, and embarrassed is to be seen in .their con- ^ 550 sciousness of ignorance, lack of thoughts and knowledge. Ed ucation should, therefore, have provided opportunity for their participation in social discourses. 49. All slavish obedience is.banned in order that the child may become aware of the dignity of human nature. Obed ience and studies should at no time be felt as laborious tasks, but as the only means to an end. 50. To emphasize, in the immature, the development of independent thinking and judgment, and. the memorization of words, is like sleeping during the daytime and working at night, or sowing in winter and reaping in spring. 51. Children will brcome agreeable if the quarrelsome ones are separated and denied the pleasure of social life as much as possible. Those who willfully hurt the feelings of others must not remain unpunished. 52. If the children are accustomed to loving treat ment; if they come used to judging all their undertakings in the light of the principle of love; if no maltreatment is suffered; if the children’s requests get consideration; if the very first germs of jealousy and mischievousness are be ing exterminated and in their place benevolent undertakings encouraged, the children will gain the love of their fellow- men. 53. A love for truthfulness will be encouraged if the openly confessed mistakes of children are judged, mildly. When disciplining children, one should be a physician, not one who exercises vengea.nce. In order to build children into men, the teacher himself must become a child. Was not Jesus hiime self a child with children? 54. The physical body need.s as much and the same care as the mind. This care does not call for two separate educa tional institutions, for the two constitute man. A human body perpetually at rest is like a lake without an outlet which produces only stagnant water. 55. The understanding teacher must treat his children in the same manner as a prudent nobleman would his court. He must know how to give a . silk banner, a friendly look or word, to all with such graciousness that each one believes himself to be the recipient of it all. 56. Loving and friendly treatment must prevail in training children. At the same time there should be no lack of strictness and punishment when they are necessary. The 551 young mind needs the former to appreciate the latter. He who will not listen must suffer the consequences. 57. Expressions of love are better than expressions of praise; expressions of dissatisfaction and remorse are better than reprimands and punishment. 58. The relation between success and failure should be keenly discerned. If a child distinguishes himself by his ability to memorize or if his conduct consists in inactive, slothful, quiet, and obedient behavior, no reward has been earned. If a child because of limited capacity cannot make progress, no punishment is deserved. 59. Penalty as well as reward ask for careful and ju dicious distribution. They should serve only as spices to training in order to prevent on the one hand selfishness and egotism, and on the other hand fear. Thus, a .pupil may be led to love the unrewarded good and to abhor the unpunished evil. 60. The more a teacher wavers or shifts from feminine goodness to severest penalty; the more he permits sensuality and tolerates moodiness; the harder it will be for him to keep his pupils in order to elevate them to self-discipline. 61. When a natural feeling of shame is manifested in the reaction of pupil towards his failure, it would be unwise to intensify such a feeling. If a reprimand as a punishment and stimulus is necessary, the most possible care and thought fulness must be exercised. Love endeavors to avoid punish ment and punishes that, it may be able to rewa,rd. 62. The child that Is to be pimished must never become the object of ridicule by others, and it nmst never be em barrassed by being called "names". 63. Where instruction and counsel are in vain, where the obstinate will ignores, disrespects, and mistreats the rights and authority others, there the school must exercise authority. 64. A weak disposition on the part of the teacher will develop spoilt-child behavior that will disregard order, dis cipline and regulations. A discipline too stern will create stubborn reactions which will not be guided by principles, but must be subjected to force. 65. The prevention of punishment is better than to punish. The teacher’s rod is no magic wand, and it does not possess the quality to bring forth fruits of good behavior. It can only stem evil when wisely used in time of need. 552 66. Punishment s.t the proper time and in the right mariner will soon make all punishments dispensible and unnec essary. Tokens of love should not follow punishment too clos&ly. A rod which must later be substituted by a club has been poorly used. 67. Every teacher should strive toward the goal where rewards and punishments are superfluous. He should direct not by authority of his office, but by the power of his per sonality. Rewards should bring out the fine feeling of worth; punishments should produce the feeling of unworthiness. 68. Reproof must at no time be unfounded, exaggerated, ' spiteful, or insulting. Reproof as well as reward, should be interpreted by the child as evidence of loving concern. (Con ceited children require, preferably, the medicine of reproof.) 69. Milder forms of reproof and punishment are the fol lowing: withdrawing some comfort, stern facial expression, threats and reprimands. If such means produce no results, even though repeated and intensified, more severe forms of punishment should follow. If humor is skillfully used, it will show the foolishness of- unwise behavior and will encour age greater efforts and willingness to learn the things needed. 70. False indulgence can do more harm than punishment; therefore, false indulgence should be guarded against. One should be generous with his patience toward children of deli cate and sensitive dispositions. 71. It is desirable to guard against making promises that later on are not kept (especially promises of rewards). Unkept promises rob the teacher of the child's confidence and love. 72. Rewards which nourish, vanity, love of pleasure, or give prominence to selfishness and evoke mistrust and jea lousy in these unrewarded are questionable. 73. One sees results in a method that is true to na tural principles. Much depends upon the mental diet. A true method does not depart from nature and its effort is to avoid giving the illusion of the advantages of great stress on much and fast learning. Such a precocity is disastrous to the inner development of a child. Whatever blossoms too soon, bears little fruit. He who forces a bud sins against the flower. 74. All instruction must follow the sequence listed below if It is to be successful. The mind begets all Its children through contemplating the creation. The creation is 553 the mother,, the mind the father, and the act of contemplating is the act of procreation. The mother bears no offspring if she isnft fertilized by the father, the mind. The creation is lifeless. The human intellect introduces life in her. She creates a new life. The result of contemplating is the con ception, the conception develops into opinions, opinions gather and constitute judgment. All knowledge starts with contemplation, goes on and become^ conception, analyses these into opinions, and then gathers all again and builds judgment, 75. In the process of teaching, one must never forget to alternate the seious with the trivial, vacation with work, the easy with the difficult, listening with reading, reading with writing, writing with memorizing, memorizing with such assignments that demand independent thinking, with evaluation. It remains ever true that variation is the spice of teaching,. 76. Only then will a teacher gain a correction appre ciation, of the service he is to render, if his attitude and his relationship to his pupils is critically viewed and above all,' if he has himself absorbed the spirit that must permeate the whole school. 77. Religiosity is the scope to which 3,11 true train ing must lead and in which all educational branches must unite. It is the sacred root out of which all life emerges; it con centrates true training with its germinating and unfolding power. 78. Only a true, religious character Is able to furnish enthusiasm for the work of teaching and training, and only • such a character can fan the sacred flame of spirituality in to the innermost of the child's soul. If, therefore, education and training is to constitute the foundation of happiness for the individual as well as for the family and society, it ought to be (to the teacher) of greatest interest to the teacher to let the fear of God and the love of His Holy Word, as revealed unto man, influence the children. 79. Our age, in the Mennonite circles, is an age of elaboration. It is in vogue to draw the circle of knowledge and ability so wide that the pupil finds it impossible to be come stabilized, and all tendencies toward stability are being quenched under the mass of material presented. 80. When an. overly severe and harsh discipline forces the naturally happy children into a state of dejection, every noble tendency is bound to languish. Where a mild punishment suffices, a. severer one should not be used* Every fault-im proving act which disturbs the child's happiness is a hindrance to the training process. 554 81. If a need for severe and emphasized criticism arises, it is to be exercised only after the period of in struction or lecture has ended— never during a class session. 82. The development of the potentialities of children will become broad and the things learned will come into their mental possession if the emotions .are stirred and the inde pendent manipulation and digestion of the materials is en couraged. As the habits of children are formed during the first school years, so will they be in years to follow. 83. It is not permissive for the teacher of young people in or out of school to display weaknesses. Let him be a model of the religious and moral aspects of life. The heart of the child must wind itself around the'personality of the teacher as the vine winds itself around an elm tree, if the child is to grow up to be free from the danger of be wilderment. The teacher must care for the protection of the innocent minds in order that the children may know how to find their way to the teacher' s''heart at all times. Since there is nothing so fascinating to a child as vigorous action, the teacher should endeavor to acquire a lively way of in struction . 84. The primary objective which is to be obtained in a school is to bring about a sacred soberness into the child society and to demand an established order for the entire relationship into which the children are set for the whole purpose of nurture. Every order is insufficient in which the child suffers discipline only with no opportunity for self- expression. 85. It cannot be denied that the more gifted children can well be employed to assist in the mechanical part of in struction by which they themselves will profit. 86. If the teacher will be the first one in school, the children, too, will come in proper time. If he will be gin the classes promptly at the stroke of the bell and close them promptly at the end of the period, the children will practice punctuality in all their activities. If the teacher's clothes are clean and heat, the children will be led to do the same. If the teacher avoids all expressions of disagree ableness, but manifests preciseness and orderliness, dedicat ing himself completely to the task of teaching, then his pupils will absorb these same qualities. If the teacher by his in struction proves his sincerity and the sacredness of his office, then his school will be dominated by a spirit of sincerity and his dignity as a teacher will be respected. 87. Before making out marks the teacher should become 555 equipped to evaluate the attitudes of the children with a mini mum loss of time and to influence gradually the children to the extent that they will desire to he consistently good with out artificial rewards* 88* If the schools of our constituencies will follow the above-mentioned rules, the schools will become fit to train body, heart, and spirit— true training institutions of the people, a blessing for our present-day brethren and a security for the future generations* SCHOOL MANAGEMENT* by Christopher Dock August 8, 1750 In acceding to Friend Dielman’s request to me I could at once commence without preliminary remarks, but since Friend Christopher Saur requests Dxelman to get information of every thing, even of the letter-writing among the scholars, I must give Friend Saur a prefactory account hy way of explanation'of the sub j ect. After I had given up the school on the Skippack, which I had kept for ten years, I lived upon the land for ten years, and according to my little ability did farm work. Many oppor tunities offered themselves during this time for keeping school, and I was solicited in the matter until, finally, it came about again that I kept school in these two townships of Skippack and Salford, three days a week in each township. It was be fore known to me that school teaching in this country was far different from in Germany, since there the school stands upon such pillars that the common people cannot well overthrow it. I thought of the duties which this call imposed and formed the earnest resolution to truly live up to these duties, but I saw the depraved cond.ition of the young, and the many difficulties of this world by which they are depraved and injured by those older. I considered my own unworthiness, and the unequal in fluence of parents in the training of children, since some seek the welfare and happiness of their children in teaching and live with their whole hearts, and turn all their energies to advance the honor* of God, and the welfare of their children, but, on the other hand, others are just the opposite in life and teaching, and set evil examples before their children. Through this it happens that not only between the schoolmaster and the children comes this unequa.1 training, though he other wise follows his calling truly and uprightly before God and man, but he is compelled to use unequal zeal and discipline; whereupon the schoolmaster at once gets the name of having favorites, and of treating one child harder than another, which, as a matter-of-fact, he must do for conscience sake, in order that the children of good breeding be not injured by those of bad breeding. In other respects it is undoubtedly the school master^ duty to be impartial, and to determine nothing by favoritism or appearance. The poor begar child, scabby, rag ged and lousy, if its conduct is good, or it is willing to be ■^Translated from the German by Samuel W. Pennypacker. 557 instructed, must be as dear to him, though he should never receive a penny for it, as that of the rich, from whom he may expect a great reward in this life. The great reward for the poor child follows in the life to come. In brief, it would take too much time to describe all the duties which fall up on a schoolmaster to perform faithfully toward the young, but still longer would it take to describe all the difficulties which encompass him at home if he is willing to economize as his duties require. As I tool: all this into consideration, I foresaw that if I would and should do something valuable to the young it was necessary for me, daily and hourly, with David, to raise my eyes to the mountains for help. Ps. 121. Inasmuch as I, amid these circumstances was willing to erect something to the honor of G-od, and the benefit of the young, I again placed myself in the work, and have hitherto conti nued at it. I indeed wish that I had been able to do more, still I have come to thank the great God heartily that He has helped me to do as much as I have done. Concerning Friend Saur1s first question, viz.: How I Receive the Children in School? It is done in the following manner. The child is first welcomed by the other scholars, who extend their hands to it. It is then asked by me whether It will learn indus triously and be obedient. If it promises me this I explain to it how it must behave, and if it can say the A, B, C's In order, one after the other, and also by way of proof can point out with the forefinger all the designated letters, it is put into the AB Abs. When it gets this far it's father must give it a penny and its mother must cook for it two eggs, be- . cause of its industry; and a similar reward is due to it when it goes further into v/ords, and so forth. But when It begins to read I owe it a token, if it has learned industriously and in the time fixed, and on the next day when this child comes to school it received a ticket, on which is written the line "Industrious— one penny." This ticket it received to show that it Is taken into the school as a scholar. But it is told that from those scholars who are Idle at study, or are otherwise disobedient, this token is taken away again, and that If they are not willing to be taught in any way, and remain idle and stubborn they will be declared,- before all the students, lazy and unfit, and that they belong in another harsh correction school. Then I ask the child again whether it will be obedient and industrious. If It answers "yes", then I show it the place where it will sit down. If it is a boy I ask among the boys, if a girl, among the girls, which among them all will receive this new school child and teach and instruct it. Accordingly as the child is strange or known, 558 or is agreeable in appearance or otherwise, there are gener ally many or few who are ready to offer to instruct it. If there are none willing, then I ask, who, for a Cript or a Bird, will instruct the child for a certain time, and this rarely fails* So much as to how I receive the children in school. Further Information Concerning the Assembllng of the Children at the School The assembling takes place in this way: Since some here in the country have a long way to come but others live near to the school, so that the scholars can not all be together at a fixed time and at the stroke of the clock, as in those places where men live together in a city or village, the rule and arrangements are that all of those who come first who can read in the Testament sit down on a bench, the boys together on one bench and the girls on another by themselves. A chapter is then given them out of the Testa ment to read and, without having studied it, they read in turn. Meanwhile I am writing before them. Those who read their verse without mistakes sit down at the table and write, but those who fail must go down to the foot on the bench. In the mean time all who come in take their places at the foot on the bench. Those who are freed as above sit down at the table and this is continued until they are all together. He who remains last on the bench is a Lazy Scholar. When they are all togeth er, and are examined to see whether they are washed and combed, a morning hymn or psalm is given them to sing and I sing and pray with them. Whatever can be intelligibly implanted in their minds concerning the Lordfs Prayer and the ten command ments, according to those gifts which G-od has imparted, for remembrance, and instruction, is done. To the very little ones short prayers and quotations are recited. So much for informa tion concerning the assembling of the scholars. This explana tion, however, is necessary concerning prayers. Since many children say the prayers they have learned at home with half words and swiftly, especially the Father or Our Father, which form of prayer the Lord Jesus taught his disciples and contains everything necessary to ask of G-od for our bodies and souls, I am accustomed to say this prayer kneeling with them and they all kneeling repeat it after me. After the singing and prayer those who write go a,gain to this exercise. But those who did not read in the Testament at the opening of school, have had the time during the delay to learn their reading. These, after prayers are finished, are called up to do their reading. Those who know their reading will have a 0 marked with chalk on their hands. This is a sign that they have failed in noth ing. But those who'do not know their reading well, and whose 559 failures are not more than three, are sent hack to learn their reading better until the little ones have all recited. If any one comes up again and fails as many as three times it is shown with a word to the scholars that he has fa.iled three times, and all shout out at him "Lazy’ 1 and then his name is written down. Now whether a child naturally fears the rod or does not fear it, this I know from.experience that this shaming cry of the children gives them more pain and drives them more to study than if I should hold the rod before them and use it all the time. If such a child under these circum stances has friends in the school who can and will teach it, it will try more earnestly than before. The reason is that if its name is not rubbed out the same day, before school closes, the scholars are at liberty to write down the idle scholar1s name and take it home with them. But if it is found in the future that the child knows well its lesson its name is again made known to the scholars and they are told that it has known its lessons perfectly and failed in nothing. Then they all call out , f Industrious.1 1 When this happens its name is rubbed out of the list of idle scholars and the former middoing is forgotten. Concerning Those Children Who Are in Spelling These are every day also put to the proof in regard to pronunciation. At the recitation in spelling where the word has more than one syllable, they must all seek for the pronun ciation and then it is soon found by the test, though they know how to spell properly, whether through mispronunciation they are unfit to be so soon put at reading. Before reaching this point the child must go over his task repeatedly and it is done in this way. The child gives me its book. I spell, and it must pronounce, If it cannot do it quickly another In the same way gives the pronunciation. In this way It learns to distinguish how it must be governed in pronunciation by the spelling and not by its own notions.- Concerning the A, B, C Scholars To make these scholars familiar with the letters at first the easiest way, if I had but one child in the school, would be to give them in the beginning only a line to learn and prove forward and backwards in order for them to learn to know and call the letters better, so that they would not get their A, B, C, by rote. But having many of this kind I let them repeat the A, B, Cs, after one another, but when the child has recited, I ask it whether it cannot show to me the letter with its finger? If I find that the child doesn’t know, or is backward, I ask another in the same way or as many as there are. Whichever finger shows the letter first I take in my hand and hold it until I have made for that child a mark with chalk. 560 Then I ask again for the other letters and so on. The child who during the day has received the most marks has shown the most letters and to this one I owe something', sometimes a flower painted upon paper or a bird. But if there are several alike it is decided by lot. This gives the least discontent. This plan takes away from the backward something of their back wardness, which is a great hinderance to learning, and also increases their wish to go to school and love for it. So much as to his request to know how I receive the children in school, and how I arrange the assembling of the children in school, and how I assemble them before prayer and continue the exercises after prayer, through what means the in attentive and careless are induced to give thought and atten tion to learning their lessons well, and how the too shy are, as much as possible, assisted. Further Continuation of the Information After the little ones have recited I give the Testa ment scholars a chapter to learn. .Those who read letters and news sit together, and those who cipher sit together. When I find among the little ones any who have progressed so far in reading that they will soon be ready to read in the Testament, I point them out to the Testament scholars to try whether a good ready one among the Testament scholars will receive them for instruction. Whoever is willing walks out, takes the said scholar by the hand., and they sit down near each other. When this is done a chapter is selected in which each has two verses to learn, but if it is found that further exercises are neces sary, as to seek a quotation or chapter, or to learn a quota tion by heart, in-'which exercise also each must read a verse, only a single verse is selected, so that it do not fall too hard on those trying to read in the Testament. If it is found that these scholars upon the trial are good and industrious in learning the selected verses, a week is given then for proof, in which week they learn and recite their lesson in A, B, C book, with the little ones, and must learn and recite their verse with the Testament scholars. If they stand the proof well, the next week they come out of the A, B, C book into the Testament, and then they are permitted to commence writing. But those who do not bear the test must remain a stated time with the A, B, C scholars before they again have a trial. After the Testament scholars have recited, the little ones are again taken up. When this is done they are reminded of the chapter before they read, and for my and their instruc tion are required to think over the teachings contained in it. Since it usually occurs that such teachings are also written in other places of the Holy Scriotures these latter are also hunted up and read. Afterward a hymn is given out which also contains these teachings. If afterward time remains a short 561 quotation is given to them all together to learn by heart. After this is done they are required to show their writing, and after these are looked over and numbered, a hard word is given to the one, who has the first number, to spell. If he cannot spell it it goes to the second, and so on. Who ever spells it receives his writing. Then another hard word is given to the first and is continued until all, through spelling, have received their writings. Since the children bring their dinners with them there is an hour’s intermission after dinner, but as they generally misuse this intermission if they are left along, it is required that one or tv/o of them, while I write, read out of the Old Testament, a useful history, or out of Moses and the Prophets or Solomon or Ecclesiastes, until school calls. There is Also This Information Children have occasion togo out of school, and permis sion must be given to them or there will be filth and vile smells in the school. But the cry for permission to go might continue the whole day, and it be'asked without occasion, so that two or three could be out at a time to play. To guard against this, upon a nail driven into the post of the door hangs a wooden strip. Whoever has occasion to go out looks for the strip to see whether it hangs at the door. If the strip is there the pass is there also, he may go without ask ing, and he takes the strip with him and goes out. If another has occasion to go he need not ask, but placing himself by the door, as soon as the one comes in who has the strip, he takes it from him and goes out. If the strip remains out too long so that necessity compels him who waits at the door to call attention to it, then it is asked who went out last. He from whom the pass was taken knows, so that no one can delay too long. How to Teach Figures and Ciphering; to Thos e Who Are Ignorant I write upon the Note-Board which hangs where all can see it these figures 1 2 34 5 6 7 8 9 0 far enough apart that other figures may be placed before and after each of them. Then I place a 0 before the 1 and explain to them that though the 0 stands before the 1 still the number is not increased. Then I rub the 0 before the 1 out, and Place it after the 1, which makes 10, if two naughts 100, if three 1000 and so on. In like manner I show them with all the fig ures. When this is done, to the first figure 1 another 1 is added which makes 11, but if a 0 is placed between the two it 562 makes 101, but if after them 110; and in like manner I go through all the figures with them. After this is finished I give them something to search for in the Testament or the Hymn Book. Those who are the readiest have something to expect either from me or at home. Since in reading, in order to read with understanding, it is necessary to give attention to the comma:-,, but this is difficult for those who have not had much experience in read ing, I have made this regulation. Whoever among the Testament scholar does not read along, but stops before he comes to where the little point or mark stands, fails 1/4, who reads over it without stopping in like manner fails 1/4, and who repeats a word 1/2. All the failures and especially what each one has failed are marked down. When all have recited, all who have failed are marked down, and must stop out and stand in a row according to their failures. Those who have not failed go to gether behind the table. The others sit down at the foot of the table. Concerning the Le11er-writing to Each Other It may be mentioned that I attended to two schools as already said for twelve years, and also four summers (that is three months which I had free from harvest) kept school in Germantown. The scholars in Skippack, when I went to the school in Salford, gave me letters to take with me. When I came back again the Salford scholars did likewise. It was so arranged that those appointed to write to each other were of equal advancement. But if it happened that one was superior to the other, he then wrote to another to whom he thought him self equal. The superscription was only this, "My friendly greeting to N.N." The contents of the letter were a short rhyme, or a selection from the Bible; to which was added some thing concerning their school exercises, what they had for a motto during the week, and where it was written and the like. He also gave a question in his letter which the other should answer with a quotation from the Holy Scriptures. I do not doubt but that two schoolmasters, whether they lived in the same place or not, if they had such regard for each other and were willing to inculcate affection in the young, and were in spired in this work by a heartfelt love of G-od and the common good of youth, could inspire love in this way. So much is circumstantially given as to the guiding and leading the young to learn spelling, and how they, step by step must progress before they can be brought to the point which is kept in view for the honor of G-od and their welfare, and which at last follows. 563 What now "belongs to his second question or request, viz. : How with Different Children of Different Training And According to the Measure of Transgression. Punishment Is Increased or Lessened I would very willingly and heartily explain this in all ooints to the friend hut, sin oe it covers a wide scope, I hardly know from its extent where I should "begin or end. The reason is because the depraved condition of the young is apparent in so many things, and the provocations by which the young are influenced, by those who are older, are manifold, and since G-od himself says, 1 Book Moses 8, 21. 1 1 For the imagina tion of man's heart is evil from his youth,f l so that out of this unclean source, if daily efforts are not made to keep down and overcome the evil, there appears little prospect for improve ment. The depravity is so great, and so increases at this time daily in all ways, that I see very clearly there is no longer any hope through one's own strength to make things any better. Where the Lord does not help to build the house, whoso who build thereat will all work in vain. The slap with the hand, the hazel switch, and. birch rod are all means to prevent the breaking forth of the evil, but they are no means to change the depraved heart, which, since the fall, naturally holds us all in such control that we are more inclined to evil than to good, so long as it remains in this condition unchanged, and it is not cleansed through the spirit of God. Still though the seed from youth up in man is such that he is inclined to evil, it could not so mature in him if our old injury was re cognized and felt. We would then earnestly work that it might be rooted out and destroyed not only in ourselves but in our fellow men and our youth. While this old injury and serpent's bite is the same, we should all seek earnestly for the right cure for this wound, and also the means which he has ordered for us to use for such injury, and turh to the remedy for our selves and our youth, since without this remedy we cannot have true peace, but must feel to our everlasting destruction the gnawing worm which, through this bite of the snake, at all times gnaws our conscience. May God in his mercy support us all that we do not negLsct to receive the promise for our peace, and no one of us remain behind! Amen. Though, as before said, to give all of the details would carry me too far, I will show some of them to the friend, and also the means I have adopted to use against the trouble, but which means cannot cure. To the Lord o.f all Lords who has all in his hand, and for whose help and support we must in such circumstances pray with all our hearts, belongs the honor when we see that there is some improvement. Among many children cursing and swearing are very eom- mon, and they appear in shameful words of all sorts and kinds* 564 If the evil and bad habit is not earnestly opposed, this leaven will leaven the whole loaf. Those children who are guilty of it, are first asked whether they understand what they say; and it often appears as clear as day that they do not understand the meaning. I then ask them whether they formed the words themselves, or heard others use them. Many children say that "he" or 1 1 she1 1 said so. I ask them further why they also use them, Gener- ally the answer is again, because ‘ ’ he'1 or. "she” said so. So I find a want of knowledge in many of them that they know not why they do it. I then explain to them that they consider well, and speak no more such words, and that it is against God's word and will; also if they should hear him or her from whom they heard, these curses again make use of them, they should say to him that he doubly sinned since they had been punished in school, for learning such curses from him. If these chil dren promise that they will use such words no more, they go free for the first time; but if it is found that after being warned they become hardened in this evil custom, and the fact is certainly established that they have again used such words, they are placed alone for a long time upon the punishment bench> and as a sign that they are in punishment they wear a yoke around the neck. If they then promise that they will be more careful in the future, they go free with a few blows from the hand. If they come again upon the punishment bench for cursing, the punishment is increased, and they are not let free without bail, and. the more guilty they are the more bail they must give. JThe bail have this to consider, that they re mind them of their promise, and warn them with all earnestness to be careful and keep themselves from punishment. This is the bridle and bit to be put in the mouth, for such bad habits, but a change of the heart must come from a higher hand, and must be sought with earnest supplication from Him who proves the heart and loins. It must aAso be shown to them, and all scholars, out of God's wdrd for a warning what a heavy burden this is, if persisted in willfully unto the end, and that men must give a reckoning at the last day of every idle word they have spoken. These and similar injunctions they rfiust search for and read, and for further instruction a hymn or psalm expressing the same thought is given them to sing. Up to this time Pennsylvania has not been so much in fected with this evil and poisonous contagion as those lands which have been overrun and harrassed with bloody wars. Among the rough and uncouth soldiery neither culture nor decency is considered, but, without fear of God or man, evil habits are practiced with words, demeanor and works, through which means the poor innocent youth are depraved, and cursing and swearing are so common that they are by many no longer considered a sin— that Is, by older persons. The poor innocent youth learn 565 to repeat these things. They are, as we all know, horn into the world amid had surroundings. They have nothing to say about it, so that we cannot hlame them for it, when they bring such uses of shameful words into the world with them.- Ah, no! when they learn to speak they learn to repeat the words they hear. The understanding is not there. They do not know wheth er they repeat good or evil.' Since, as has been said, this land, under G-od’s protection, has been kept free from the ravages of war, and many of the first settlers and beginners here were men who had G-od before their eyes, and walked in the fear of Him, up to this time there has been little heard of such words among young or old. But the more men come to this land the more of such wares co$e along, and if they are not yet recognized as valid and merchantable wares, there is so much of a mixture that the more time passes the more of them there are used, to the great injury of the youth coming along. Secondly. The great depravity of the young shows it self in this, that when they have done something wrong and are spoken to about it, they usually try to hide and conceal it with lies. If this is not earnestly punished in children and such snake poison removed, they will be by it betrayed into destruction, through time and eternity. Therefore par ents and schoolmasters, so far as they seek to further the welfare and happiness of the poor children, will be earnestly solicitous to guard against it early. This wvil habit is very old and appeared just after the fall in Adam’s first-born son Cain, when he was asked by God concerning the great sin he had committed toward his pious brother Abel, "Where is thy brother Abel?" He answered, against his knowledge and con science, "I know not. Am I my brother's keeper?" 1 Hoses 4,9. So it can be seen that the seed of the snake appeared soon after the fall, and still daily brings fruit to death and de struction. It will go hard with parents and schoolmasters to answer, if they do not earnestly strive to keep the young en trusted to them from it. How hard this often lies upon my heart no one knows better than n^self. The scholar's hymn added hereto will to some extent show it. The Lord Jesus Him self says, John viii, 44, that the Devil is the father of lies. The Scribes and the Pharisees outwardly ha.d the appearance of piety, but what they did was not done in truth, to the honor of God, but they sought their own honor, and so they adorned their cause with Lies against the truth. Wherefore Christ, as is to be seen in the said verse, addressed them with the following words: "Ye are of your father, the devil, and the lusts of your father ye will do. He was a murderer from the beginning, and abode not in the truth because there was no truth in him. When he speaketh a lie he speaketh of his own; for he is a liar and the father of it." So run the Lord Jesus' own words. John the Baptist calls them, for such evil work, a generation of vipers, a,s is to be seen in Matthew 3, 7. Read 566 further and consider earnestly and with thought the 23rd chapter of Matthew, and you will find what woe, lying and credit-seeking works bring upon themselves. The last judg ment of woe is given in the 33rd verse in the following words: 1 1 Ye serpents! ye generation of vipers! how can ye escape the damnation of hell?” When these evil roots and branches have been destroyed in the young, and instead thereof something good is imolanted, and God is earnestly besought mercifully to give success to the planting and watering, there is hope that with His help something good for the young may be accomplished. The young are themselves at all times most to be excused, since they are like wax which may be moulded in any form. But if such evil roots are permitted to grow up and increase unhindered, there will be evil fruits upon the grown-up trees, and such men will be produced as are given up to woe and hell-fire, since the axe is already laid at the root of the tree, and the tree which produces not good fruit is cut down and thrown into the fire. How a lie is such fruit as belongs in the fire, it is the den in which other sins are concealed, so that they can not be seen or found. In order that a deceiver may continue his deception and still be an honorable man, or be so conside red, he covers his doings with lies. That a whore may have the honor of a maiden she uses lies. A thief, murderer and adul terer does the same, and if witnesses enough do not appear, may so defend and cover up the affair with lies that he still appears before the world an honorable man. But where, during the time for repentance, such sins are not admitted and re pented before G-od, this cover cannot conceal them. In the end the burden must be borne. He who denies his sins shall not proper, but he who confesses and forsakes them shall re ceive forgiveness. Proverbs 2, 13; 1 Ep. John, 189. Concerning the means to orevent these evil growths from getting the upper-hand, I see clearly that it is not in the power of man to destroy the root in the ground. God alone through the strength of his Holy Spirit must give us this blessing. Still it is the duty of preachers and elders, parents and schoolmasters, first to themselves and their neighbors and fellow men, and. then to the young to work as much as they are able through God’s mercy, not only to make this stained coat hateful, but that it may be taken off. And in my opinion the first and most necessary means is a heart-felt and fervent prayer to God, and since there is a want of knowledge and under standing among the young so that they do not perceive the great injury, it is necessary first to remind them in heart-felt love, what actions lead us to God, and what drive us from him; what have in themselves an odor of life to life, and what an odor of death to death; how good deeds flow from good, and again to good and lead again to their good source, and how on the other hand evil comes in the beginning from evil, and 567 leads again to evil, and travels back to its evil source; and that good is rewarded with good, and evil with evil; that God is the highest good and the origin of all good, and that Satan is the evil enemy through whom- all evil is founded; and how God is a God of truth, and on the other hand Satan is the father of lies; and that man must therefore love the truth, and must exert himself for it with words and works if he would come to God in Heaven and be happy forever, since liars have their part in hell and the fiery pool. When these and similar explanations have been made to them, the evidences of the Holy Scriptures which show these things ought to be made known to them. It is further necessary to place before them that in so far in the future, as they do not take care to protect them selves from such evil conduct, but do such things either heed lessly or designedly, one would be in danger of his own soul if he let them go unpunished. If after this warning a. like transgression occurs and is apparent, and afterward the scholar lies purposely, the punishment for the transgress ion is divided into two parts, and the lie is punished first and hardest. For the lie no bail will be received, for the trans gression itself the punishment may be lessened through bail, or without bail upon a promise to be careful in the future. After the infliction of the punishment, the punishment threate ned for such misdeeds in the Scriptures is repeated to them. The disposition to steal shows itself early in some Children, and when they are caught at it they generally make use of lies and say that this or that person gave the thing to them, or traded with them for it, or that they found it, and these things are often so confused and twisted together that one has trouble to get them straightened out. To protect against it I have made an order that no child at school, or on the road, or at home without my knowledge, and that of their parents, shall give away or trade anything; also that whenever they find anything in school, or on the road, or wherever it may be, they must show it to me. What they find belongs not to them for themselves, but to him who lost it; but if after it has been made known a long time he cannot be discovered, it belongs to him who found it. Through these means it has been brought about, praise God! that there is little neces sity for punishment on this account* Ambition appears among children, but not at all in proportion to that which shows itself among the mature and the old, who often, for a bare seat of honor and title, bring about much war and shedding of blood.. Not only among persons of high position but among men of little standing it appears. Yes, even the little word ’thou’ ofttimes causes contention and fighting. But among children this evil is much more easy to overcome. If a child is found who will have the upper seat, and abandons his own place, and forces himself to the upper most without any right to it in reading, writing, &c. , he is put at the bottom for a warning until, by industry, he again reaches the place that belongs to him. When the children once see this the difficulty is already cured. But who will bring down the old like the children, if they will not humble themselves according to the teaching of Christ? Matthew 20, 26, 27; ch. 23, 12. Luke 14, 11; ch. 18, 14. Children are much easier to bring together after their quarrels than are grown persons. When children quarrel with each other, either in school or on the road, and it is found on examination that there was wrong on both sides and each is blams.ble, the transgression and the deserved punishment are put before, and adjudged to each, if they do not agree together It is said to them that if they are not inclined to come into accord, they shall be separated at once from the other s’ cholars and shall sit together upon the punishment bench until they do agree, and if not the merited punishment will follow. But it rarely goes so far that they separate and go upon the punish ment bench; rather they stretch their hands to each other and the whole thing is over and the process has an end. If this happened so easily among the old and were so soon forgotten and forgiven as among children, then would “Durch Processen der Beutel nicht leer Dem Advoeaten der Beutel nich schwer. Das nagend Dewissen kam auch zu Huh, Liebe und Pried kam auch dazu; Es brachte nicht so viel G-equal Vor Leib un Seel.t f It is further asked of me in his letter to givp informa tion Through What Means I Keep the Children From Talking and Bring Them into Quiet Hereupon I answer that this is the hardest lesson for children and one which they do not learn willingly. It is a good while before they learn to speak and when they once can do it they are not easily kept from it. But in order that something orderly may be constructed and for improvement be implanted among children in school, it is necessary that speaking have its time and- quiet also have its time, although it is so have for-children to accustom themselves to this rule. And it appears that we older ones have ouselves not properly learned this lesson that speaking and silence have each its time, which we ought to take more into thought in speaking and silence. That little member the tongue is not so easily tamed. It cannot be corrected with rods like the other mem bers of the body. And the misdeeds which happen in words are performed by the tongue according to the state and inner conditions of the heart. Matthew 12, 25. Although the 569 talking and speaking, which children use among each other, is not regarded by many as very wrong, nevertheless nothing fruit ful can be*done unless, as has been said, speaking and silence have each its time. In order to bring them to it, many means and ways have been heretofore tried which have done well for a time, but when they became accustomed to them some change became necessary to bring them into quiet. F.y rule and way, which I hitherto have used to bring them to silence, is this: First when their lesson is given to them, according to the use and accustom here as well as in England* they learn it aloud. In order to keep them together in learning I go about the school here and there until I think they have had time enough to learn their lesson. Then I make a stroke with the rod on the bench or table. It is at once still. Then the first one begins to repeat. Then one who has been selected must stand as a watcher upon a bench or other raised place so that he can look over them all. He must call out the first and last names, a,nd after he has called them out write them up, of all who chatter, or learn loud, or do anything else \Yhich is for bidden. But since it has been found when they are used one after the other for watches, some point out according to their likes or dislikes, those who have been found untrue are re moved, and in the future are not put any more in this place, even if they announce and promise in the future to make a true report. In like manner if any one is put upon the punishment bench for lying he is not chosen for watching, although he has conducted himself well for a considerable time and nothing similar has been seen. When then the school is provided with a true Y/atcher it is still, so that one can go on with the recitation and resume something instructive with them. If it remain so, after the recitation is finished any delinquency is let go and forgotten, but if, as sometimes happens and is perceived, they pay little attention, those whom the watcher points out must walk out and sit in a row on the punishment bench. Then the choice is given to these whether they would rather one after the other have the yoke upon their necks or receive a biow upon their hands. They very seldom choose the yoke and generally stretch out their hands for the rod. This is at his request the information now I can bring them from talking to silence, but it is entirely foreign to my wish here with to prescribe a rule for another, according to which he should regulate himself. Oh no, each one must in this matter regulate and conduct his householding as he thinks it best to answer before G-od and man. But should my hitherto explained school exercise which I have here written at request, and not for my own inclination, be taken for irregular because it in many things is contrary to the usual method in G-ermany and other places, I give this much in explanation. In this Province, among the free inhabi tants of Pennsylvania, it is different in many things which 570 concern a school. Him to whom a control of schools is given in Germany, by the high authorities, and who is fixed fast upon his school seat, the common people cannot easily remove. Therefore there is not so much danger to him from them, if he has been too hard upon the youth. Still I readily confess, if I were established in that high position, it would be in fact upon the condition that if power were given by God or the high authorities to use severity, it would only be given for improvement and. not for injury. Experience in beeping school shows that a child, which is timid, if it is punished severely either with words or with the rod, is thereby more injured than benefitted. If such a child is to be improved it must be by other means. In the same way a child that is dumb is more injured by blows than improved. A child which at home is treated with blows and is accustomed to them will not at school be made right by blows, but still worse. If such children are to be made better it must be in some other way. Obstinate children, who have no hesitation in doing wrong, must be punished sharply with the rod, and. at the same time addressed with earnest exhortation from the Word, of God, to see whether the heart can be reached. But the diffident and dumb in'learning must be advanced by other means, so that as much as possible it may be done willingly and they may be inspired with a love of learning. When the children have reached this point it is no longer so hard with them or the schoolmaster/ When all who stand with me In this calling con sider. rightly how dear such young souls are in the eyes of God, and that we must give an account of our housekeeping, although they may have the power to punish, they will much rather work with me to bring the young into such a state that they will do willingly our of love what before they had to be driven to with the rod. Then the words 'Thou shalt and must', and the words .'I follow with pleasure' will have a different tone. At the sound of the last the schoolmaster will use no rods and they will be more pleasant to hear and easier to answer. It is said, Ps. cx, 3, "Thy people shall be willing in the day of Thy power, in the beauties of holihess." What is done willingly, in bodily and spiritual work, needs no force and driving. It is further said, Ps. xxxii, 8, 9, "I will instruct thee and. teach thee in the way which thou shalt go; I will guide thee with mine eye. Be ye not as the horse or as the tftule which have no understanding, whose mouth must be held in with bit and bridle." From this it can be seen that those who will be instructed and guided by the eye have no need of bit and bridle. This difference can. be seen in unreasoning beasts. One wagoner does not use half as hard shouts, scourges and blows as another, and $ret drives as hard or even harder over mountain and valley, and. when the work is done the willing horses and the wagoner have had it the easier. The horses have felt less blows and it has not been necessary for the 571 wagoner to drive by punishment. They have done willingly what-others must have done through severity. 3 - What further the friend desires me to inform him. How I treat the Children With Love That They h»ove and Fear Me I answer that concerning this point I have nothing to claim for myself in the slightest. I consider it an entirely undeserved mercy of G-od, if there is anything herein fruitful 3-All of this is the more admirable because in such strong contrast with the ordinary methods of that period, both among English and Germans. About the same time the father of Nathaniel G-reene, who was a Quaker preacher, felt that duty required him to flog his son with a horsewhip. " Students" hie said "like horses on the road, Must be well lashed before they take the load; They may be willing for a time to run, But you must whip them, ere the work be done.1 ’ CRABBE1S SCHOOLMASTER. Cooper’s History of the Rod, op. 429-457, says "Shrews bury school, about the beginning of the present century, was presided over by a great flogger in the person of Dr. Butler." "Dr 3 Parr * * had a firm belief in the utility of the birch. At his school in Norwich, there was a flogging levee before the classes were dismissed usually. His rod maker was a man who had been sentenced to be hanged." "Flogging went on briskly at Rugby in Dr. James* time, about 1780, and there was in addition plenty of caning on hand./* Charles Lamb says "E have been called out of my bed and waked for the purpose in the coldest winter nights, and this not once but night after night, in my shirt, to receive the discipline of a leathern thong-. " In Scotland we are told, "The dull boys were birched for their own demerits and the bright lads suffered for the deficiencies of their fellows. The same authority, Cooper, says that in England at the close of the last century, "I have seen marriageable girls flogged for breaches of discipline, before all their school fellows, the necessary portions of their dress being removed." 572 accomplished between myself and the young, whether in learn ing or the exercises of piety. In the first place 1^ have to thank the dear Lord heartily that after I * have been dedicated by Him to this calling, he has also given me the mercy that I have an especial love for the young. Were it not for this love it would be an unbearable burden, but love bears and is not weary. If a natural mother had no love for her children, the raising of children, what a mother must do through all the circumstances of childhood, would be an unbearable burden, but the love which she feels for her children makes the burden light. When the apostle Paul wishes to rightly exoress his love to the community at Thessaly, he uses these words, 1 Thess. ii, 1st to the end of the 13th verse. In the 7th and 8th verses he compares this love to that of a mother when he says: “But we were gentle among you, even as a nurse cherisheth her children: So being affectionately desirous of you we were will ing to have Imparted unto you, not the Gospel of God only., but also our own souls, because ye were dear unto us.1 1 v My worthy friend, the words of the apostle express such a love that he was willing to impart not only the gospel but his own life. Well would it have been if all the preachers in the so-called Christianity, from the apostles' time down to the present, had remained in such a state of heartfelt love. In these words of the apostle all have had an excellent exam ple. He calls upon us all and says: “Brethren, be followers together of me, and mark them which walk so, as ye love us for an ensample.“ Phil, iii, 17. But how it stood in the apostles1 time, and how it at'present stands in the so-called Christianity, those can see best to whom the eyes of the spirit are opened. \ I will let it go and explain my opinion to the friend at his request. I doubt not the friend has good views for the help of the young. Suppose now it was a natural mother who entertained such views as to the training she had adopted in love for her children, and she should be inclined to put in writing how she trained them, so that after her death the scales might be balanced the same way; but the children after her death should receive another mother, who should lightly say to them; “Your former mother has trained you according to her views, but I will train ahd govern you according to my views." Then what the former mother has done out of the full ness of love, for the good of her children, could help but little. Still the mother has done her duty as the apostle did his, with the words, “Brethren, be followers together of me, and mark them1 which walk so, as ye have us for an en sample. " Those, now, who according to the contents of the said 17th verse, will not follow, but rather do the opposite, as the 18th and 19th verses show, the apostle said, with 1 573 weeping, follow their own course. Still the apostle did his duty and cleared his soul, I have explained to the friend, at his request, as has been said, how I treat the children with love, that they both love and fear me, and that I claim no honor for myself in it. Love is a gift of G-od., and according as a man desires it and strives for it, from his heart, he can, through G-od1 s mercy, be a participator in it, and according as he proves and uses it, can it be lessened or increased.. Still this much information may be given— through what furthering or hindering attributes a man can have part or loss in love. The footsteps of God, when we look after the right love, point out that His love is common and given to all His crea tures, He lets the sun rise over the evil and the good, and lets the rain fall on the just and the unjust. So far now as a man will be a participator in the love of God, and increase and grow therein, must he follow these footsteps. They will lead and conduct him in love, from love to love, through consideration of the creatures and their preservation. The great work of love in the redemption of the human race is also general. If it were generally received by us children of men and. believed, and. we should follow the foot steps of Christ in love, we would, through the love of Christ, be fast grounded, so that we, with all the holy, could grasp the breadth and length, the depth and height, of such ever lasting love, and would also recognize and understand that it would be better to have the love of Christ than all knowledge. All Christians are called upon to follow the, footsteps of Christ, and to follow them in the love of which he has left us an example, 1 Peter, ii, 21; John xiii, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and other places more. If, on the other hand, we recognize it all, but follow the footsteps of the world in the lusts of the eye and the flesh, and lead a proud life, we can hope for little growth in the love of God, let him be who he will, and entitled as he will, even if he have before the world the most Christian title. Since, if any man love the world, the love of the Father is not in him. 1 John ii, 15. Diese Weltliebe 1st nicht rein Sie fuehrt auch nicht in's Allgemein, Sie fuehret nur in's Hein und Dein. So lang das Hein und Dein geehrt, So lang bleibt diese Lieb bewaehrt, Kommt's Eigenlieb und Ehr zu hah, So ist gleich Krieg und Aufruhr da. The natural sparks of love which, after the fall, God has not permitted to be entirely quenched, but has allowed, to appear and be seen in reasoning and unreasoning creatures 4 574 according to their natures and attributes, will also, through improper worldly love in many respects be weakened and over come* I will only cite the natural love among natural men. They are impelled through these sparks of love in their hearts to unite with each other in marriage. As long as these natural sparks of love between two married people have the upper hand, this love will not be lessened, but increased, so that the longer they are in such union the closer they are bound together, live together, beget children, and draw nearer to each other, since this is implanted in them in this natural love even among heathens and similar nations. Without this the human race could not be increased in a lawful way. There is also a natural love implanted in unreasoning creatures, which leads them to take care of their young. Christians have not only the natural impulse to take care of their chil dren, but they also obey God's will in training and instruc tion, according to God's earnest command, in the Old and New Testament. And where such training of children is conducted by parents and schoolmasters through heart-felt love, accord ing to the Christian* s duty to further the honor of G-od, and the ctamon good of the young, it will not remain without blessing. Love, training and instruction in the Lord form together a tripple'cord, which is not easily torn. If parents and schoolmasters show an upright and fatherly love to the children, it is to be hoped that it will produce an upright, filial love on the part of the children. When such a love on . the part of the children comes to the front it is to be hoped that if this seed is not choked off, but continues to increase, it will produce a blessed harvest in the end. But if freedom overpowers this love, and lights and kindles a wild fire, there must, as has been said, be brought together, love, training and instruction in the Lord, and they must be used for a continual scourge or rod of love, in the hope that thereout love, fear and obedience will arise, but all through God's merciful blessing, help and support, since he must be besought to give aid in the planting and watering. An Gottes Gnad und mildem Segen, 1st alles ganz und gar gelegen; Und ohne seine Hilf* und.Gunst, 1st aller Menschen Thun umsonst. The murderer of souls all the time seeks to combat the true upright love with his false Delilah, the worldly love, which with its burden of lust is dead to the good, so that he may crush out the natural sparks of love which were remaining after the fall. Already by many have they been crushed out, shereupon all ungodly ways followed, through which the wrath of God has been and will be heaped up upon the day of wrath, as has been seen in the early world, and also in Sodom and Gomorrah, and Dathan and Abiram, as also in the destruction of Jerusalem and. other places more. What works of darkness 575 have for a long ‘ time been done, the Holy Scriptures show in many places. I will only cite them shortly. Rom. . i, to the end; 2 Peter ii, verses 4, 5, 6; Jude i, 7. And what simi lar works in our times are done daily, daily experience teaches us. If the state and duty of a Christian are placed in the right be?lance in the marriage relations, it results that love must, in all things, give the outcome, and where this is wanting there will be also much wanting as to train ing and good order, and Instruction in the Lord, in the care of children by oarents and schoolmasters. It has its author ity in Holy Scripture that the husband is the head of the wife, but it is also well upon the part of the husband to consider what the apostle Paul makes known to married Chris tians when he says, 1 Cor. xi, verse 3: 1 1 But I would have you know that the head of every man is Christ, and the head of the woman is the man.1 1 It is indeed not to be doubted if the man follows his head in the teaching and life of Christ, and the woman the man, the children will follow their parents and schoolmasters and be obedient. In this way upright love produces a sure outcome through Christian duty, and still has nothing more been done in the whole than what ought to be done, and happiness is and still remains an undeserved gift of mercy. Still all Christian duties are steps upon which we must place our feet, and tread from step to step. If we wish to be participators the Lord Jesus has left behind for us many teachings and warnings. Although no man can deny Gcnd's mercy to another since the one as well as the other cannot live without God’s mercy, there is still found in the teaching of Christ an express difference between the foolish man and foolish maid, and the wise nan and wise maid, between the true and untrue knights. Between these two is found unequal v/ork and also unequal reward of mercy and condemnation. It is far better that a man here in the time of mercy go upon the way in which God has promised and offered his mercy, than that man should come to sin against God's mercy and become hardened in sin so that by this the^ mercy will be the greater. See Rom. vi, verses 1, 2. It is, as has been said, the duty of a Christian to bring it about, as I confess and believe, that Christ is the head of His community and also the head of each man. It follows from this that it is a rfi&n’s bounden duty that what his head lord and master teaches him he also should teach his wife, to whom he is given for a head. If then both Christian married people seek from their hearts the happiness and wel- fare of their children, they will teach their children the commandos of God which he has left behind'for us in writing. 1 Hos. xviii, 19; 5 Lfos. vi, verses 6, 7; Ps. Ixxviii, verses 1, 2, 3, 4; Eph. vi, 4; Coloss, iii, 21 and other places more. Concerning the duty of parents to their children, even 576 this may he furthered by a schoolmaster to whom the young aie handed over and entrusted. And although we are placed so much at the head over these youths, Christ is also our head and according to his command we must govern and conduct our householding with the young. The Lord Jesus when he came to this world to seek and to make happy what was lost, called the children, especially out of love, to himself, blessed them, embraced them and promised them the kingdom of heaven, as can be seen.Mark ix, verses 36, 37. Therefore it cannot turn out well with ourselves if we act tyranically with them althought they must be subjected to training and instruction in the Lord. We should weigh further earnestly and with thought what instruction the Lord Jesus V gave to his Disciples, which was left behind in writing as instruction for us all who call ourselves Christians, which can be read in the Cos pel of St. Matthew, xviii, from the -1st- to the 6th verse. "At the same time came the disciples unto Jesus, saying. Who is the greatest in the kin.gdom of heaven? And Jesus called a little child, to him and set him in the midst of them. And said, Verily I say unto you, Except ye be converted, and be cone as little children, ye shall not enter into the kingdom of heaven. And*, whoso shall receive one such little child in my name, receiveth me. But, whoso shall offend one of these' little ones which believe in me, it were better for him that a mill stone were hanged about his neck and. that he were drowned in the depth of the sea." From these words of the Lord Jesus we all have enough to learn. If we wish to come into the kingdom of heaven and to be eternally happy, we must not picture to ourselves that the way there is to show enmity to children, or to reprove and punish them, because they have not in words and gestures given us enough honor or made for us enough compli ments. Oh, no. This is not the way to heaven. But if we turn away from our own amibiton according to the instruction of Christ, and become as humble as children, It not only aids us to the kingdom of G-od, but it brings about a child-like union which can be much more useful than all the holding up of ourselves, since, he who raises himself here will be humbled, and. he who humbles himself will be raised up. * There are, beside, very many other duties to be per formed, which are useful and beneficial in implanting love, through which the honor of God may be increased and the com mon good be furthered. There are also many things to be added, which implant just the opposite, through which the honor of God is lessened, and one’s own depraved honor increased, to the harm and injury of the common good. But I will turn .away from this point and proceed to the explanation of others. Now follow some other school exercises to which I am impelled, not for myself, but for the honor of the one God 577 and His word, in the performance. of my duty, and in order to bring the young entrusted to me into instruction and prac tice* In the first pla.ce you may be informed during the time I have kept school here in this country, I have received, in the school, children of different religious opinions and practice so that I have not been able to instruct them in one form of the Catechism. This I have not been compelled to do, but when they were sufficiently advanced in reading, writing and similar school exercises, the parents at home have them selves been Reaching the children the Catechism. But the freedom has been given to me, in singing, to sing hymns, and psalms* So I have then sung with them both hymns and psalms, since of both kinds, viz.: of spiritual hymns and psalms, the Holy Ghost is the master builder. Together with this exercise, I have labored to bring it about that the New Testament might be well known to them . by searching and looking through the chapters, and it has been very successfully accomplsihed, so that when I use a quotation for their instruction and information, they them selves, without being shown, can read this quotation. Tnen this door has been opened for them I have endeavored to bring them further, so that they might collect richly the little flowers in this noble garden of paradise, the Holy Scriptures, not only because of their beauty, but also because of their lovely odor, and I have shown to them so much as I, according to my little ability, have been able, what an odor of life to life they have in themselves, if we so use them as they are offered to us, according to their strength and value. Also, what an odor of death to death the opposite has in itself, and that they may see and. have a knowledge of both facts from the Holy Scriotures; since, just as the truth has life in itself, and there is an odor of life to life when we follow the truth, so, on the other hand., falsehood has death in it self, and is an odor of death to death, and leads to death when we follow falsehood. The part and reward of the liar is the fiery pool, which is the other death. Rev. xxi, 8. But the truth makes him who follows it free therefrom. See hereupon in the Gospel of St. John, ch. viii, verses 31, 32, 33, 34, 35. Just as these acts are contrary to each other, so that the one has life in itself, and leads to life, and the other has death in itself, so also is it of love and its acts which is in like manner an odor of life to life, for him who follows. But hatred, envy and hostility have an odor of death to death in themselves, and lead him who follows to death and destruction, since they are the opposite and contrary to love. This is also the case with belief and unbelief, with mercy and inclemency, with righteousness and unrighteousness, with chastity and impurity, with humility 578 and pride. Upon the ^r hole all godly acts have life in them selves, and bean0 an odor of everlasting life with them. Ke who will labor and let himself be governed by their strength and operation comes through them to be born again, our of death into life. On the other hand, ail ungodly ways, together with their acts, give out an odor of death, a deathly odor of death to death, and damnation to him who follows them in death. When all this is explained to the children, they are required to search for the quotations concerning this or that fact as it is desired of them. He then who has the first quotation, concerning such fact so put before them, walks out and holds up his hand, and as they find the quotations con- • cerning this fact, they walk to the front one after the otther and put themselves in a row, the one behind the other, the boys together and the girls together. This continues until they have found all the quotations. Then the first reads his quotation. But if it is found that any one in the row also has the same quotation which has been read, he walks out of the row and seeks for another, and then goes again to the bottom of the row. In this way therefore it happens that the beautiful honey-flowers are all sought out. It is also found from this exercise that the more quotations there are found, concerning: such fact requested of them, the more the truth comes plainly before them, so that one quotation not only fixes others but is itself explained and. made clear. But after the reading of the quotations has been finished, some questions are put to them which they themselves answer. Then they again point out these quotations and recapitulate them. Then usually many remarks are suggested and clear explanations given of these quotations, partly for their instruction, partly for their faith and strengthening of their belief, and partly as to punishment and for a warning. When they have been well exercised, in seeking they are pre sently brought to the proof, and reminded that the outer seeking out not to be rejected, but still that they should prove themselves in another way. They are then told, to all sit still and pay attention to their thoughts, and dismiss all idle thoughts, but the first qu.ots.tion which comes into their minds they must search for and read. In the course of this exercise I have often been compelled to wonder how God has prepared for himself praise, out of the mouths of babes and sucklings, in order to overpower the enemy in his pursuits. It is God's earnest command that we should impress upon children the commands which he has given us, and should bring them up in the way and instruction of the Lord, and there are found in the Holy Scriptures many beautiful and valuable witnesses of the one G-od and his godly works; how 579 G-od has shown himself in his omnipotence and through the creation of all things; and has created and made all things through the word of his strength and through the spirit of his mouth, through his unsearchable omnipotence and wisdom. The Holy Scriptures give further witness how, through the envy of the devil, death and temporal and everlasting des truction came into the world, and how the human race, through the coming of Satan, fell into sin and transgression and that through this transgression sin came into the world, and through sin, death, and that death has become the lot of all men because they have sinned. The Holy Scriptures instruct us further that G-od in his great mercy has given the promise to the fallen human race, that the seed of the woman should bruise the head of the serpent, through which they again should be redeemed from the curse and damnation, through an everlasting redemption. Of all this there are found in the Holy Scriptures many consoling promises, which were written and made to our fathers, from time to time, through Moses and the prophets, partly through figures and pictures, partly through visions and prophecies, of which in the Holy Scripture of the Old Testament very many witnesses are at hand. Further, how through Christ as the promised seed of the woman, in the fullness of time, by the working of the Holy Ghost, this, according to human understanding, un fathomable, godly, secret work of the redemption, through the birth, teaching and life, suffering, death, resurrection, and entrance into heaven of Christ, wa.s performed a.nd com pleted. Of all this the Holy Scripture of the New Testament gives us complete information. There is also found therein express instruction how we. can participate in such redemp tion, and how a Christian must follow his calling to which he has been called, through the exercise of piety in Christ ian virtue, and must place his feet and steps on the daily increase and growth in tea.ching and life, after the example of Him who has created and redeemed him. I repeat that of all this the teaching of Christ and His apostles, in the New Testament informs and instructs us. Now if it should be put down in writing with particu larity concerning each exercise, according to the above out line, how it is made useful for the teaching and instruction of the youth, that they search for the quotation of this or that fact,.as they are requested, and afterward how each reads his quotation, and questions are put to them, and each question is answered \^ith a quotation, since one quotation partly strengthens, partly clears and explains another; to give in writing information of all this, as I have been requested to do, would require a great deal of space. But since the Holy Scriptures hold and contain in themselves all, it is all 'there, to be searched for and to be found, and. since in Christ Jesus 8.11 treasures of wisdom' and knowledge lie hidden, of which the Holy Scriptures give us information, 580 I know well that if I and other men seek therein with hope, and we seek from our whole hearts, we shall also find what we need Jer. xxix, 13; Matt, vii, 7. The world seeks earnestly and eagerly after honor and goods, after gold, silver, pre cious stones, and similar treasures, which by the world are held in great estimation and value, but which still are per ishable, and with the imperishable treasures ^hich G-od offers to us in His word, are not to be compared. The discovery will be like the search. If a man seeks the world in the lusts of the eye and of the flesh, and a proud life, he will so find it. He will also take part with the world, in the end having part and reward for it with the world. But he who seeks the everlasting life, and follows truly the foot steps of Christ will also find and not seek in vain. His search will not be useless and not remain unrewarded. John xii, 26; ch. xiv, 3; ch. xvii, 24. In order to avoid prolixity, as has been said, there are many useful and val uable exercises and instructions in piety, which I cannot particularly describe, of belief, love, hope and patience. In fact all the exercises of'virtue, which in the Holy Scriptures point the way to piety, and have been left behind and marked out as useful for instruction for us, should at certain times be placed before the youth, but to give specific information here of all would take too long. The true saving belief must contain all which serves for life and a godly walk, and nothing is deemed more worthy, by and in Jesus Christ, than the belief which, through love, shows itself active. He to whom the true belief in the Lord ' Jesus is given by the Lord Jesus himself for a shield, Is a weapon-bearer of Christ, not only to overcome the world, as is to be seen, 1 John v. verses 5, 6, but also to put out all the fiery arrows of evil, a§ we may read, Eph. vi, 16. There fore, for my encouragement and strengthening would I here do something in the way of belief, so much as I, according to the measure of my little gift, through the Lord’s mercy may doI Without His mercy and pleasure all our doing Is In vain, but while this is my purpose I find myself impelled to do it simply and along to the praise of G-od, and to the honor of His holy name. We haye to thank no one but the dear God that He, in this dark world, has left hitherto His holy word stand, as a light upon a candlestick, which directs our feet to the way of peace. We can also say with David, Psalms cxix, 105, 1 1 Thy word is a lamp unto my feet and a light unto my path. " But may God, Who is a light, in Whom there is no darkness, send us His light and His truth, that they -may lead and conduct us through this dark valley and shadow of death to His holy mount and to His dwelling, that we also, in truth, may say v/ith David, Psalms xxxvi, In Thy light see we the light. OhI that we not only may look upon this light, and through it may finally conquer and. overcome the power of darkness. From my heart I wish and pray for help and strength of belief from the Most High. Amen. A HUNDRED NECESSARY RULES OF CONDUCT FOR CHILDREN!. By Christopher Dock I. Rules for the Behavior of a Child in the House of its Parents. A. At and after getting up in the mornings. 1. Dear child, accustom yourself to awaken at the right time in the morning without being called, and as soon as you are awake get out of bed without delay. 2. On leaving the bed fix the cover in a nice, orderly way. 3. Let your first thoughts be directed To G-od, according to the example of David, who says, Psalms cxxxix, 18, "Whan I am awake I am still with Thee, " and Psamls Ixiii, 7, "When I am awake I speak of Thee. 4. Offer to those who first meet you, and your par ents, brothers and sisters, a good-morning, not from habit simply, but from true love. 5. Learn to dress yourself quickly but neatly. 6. Instead of idle talk with your brothers and sis ters or others, seek also, while dressing, to have good thoughts. Remember the clothing of righteousness which was earned for you through Jesus, and form the resolution not to soil it on this day by intentional sin. 7. When you wash your face and hands do not scatter the water about in the room. iThese Rules of Conduct were published about 1764, In Saur!s Geistliches Magazien. Translated from the German by Samuel W. Pennypacker. 582 8. To wash out the mouth every morning with water, and to rub off the teeth with the finger, tends to preserve the teeth. 9. When you comb your hair do not go out into the middle of the room, but to one side in a corner. 10. Offer up the morning prayer, not coldly from cus tom, but from a heart-felt thankfulness to G-od, who has protected you during the night, and call upon Him feelingly to bless your doings throxigh the day. Forget not the singing and the reading in the Bible. 11. Do not eat your morning bread upon the road or in school, but ask your parents to give it to you at home. 12. Then get your books together and come to school at the right time. £D the evenings at bed-time 13. After the evening meal do not sit down in a corner to sleep, but perform your evening devotions with singing, prayer and reading, before going to bed. 14. Undress yourself in a private place, or if you must do it in the presence of others, be retiring and modest. 15. Look over your clothes to see whether they are torn, so that they may be mended in time. 16. Do not throw your clothes about in the room, but lay them together in a certain place, so that in the morning early you can easily find them again. 17. Lie down straight in the bed modestly, and cover yourself up well. 18. Before going to sleep consider how you have spent the day, thank G-od for His blessings, pray to Him for the forgiveness of your sins, and commend ■ yourself to His merciful protection. 19. Should you wake in the night, think of God and His omnipresence, and entertain no idle thoughts. 583 C* At meal-time 20. Before going to the table where there are strangebs comb and wash yourself very carefully. 21. During the grade do not let -your hands hang toward the earth, or keep moving them about, but let them, with your eyes, be directed to God. 22. During the prayer do not lean or stare about, but be devout and reverent before the majesty of God. 23. After the prayer, wait until the others who are older have taken their places, and then sit down at the table quietly and modestly. 24. At the table sit very straight and still, do not wabble with your stool, and do not lay your arms on the table. Put your knife and fork upon the right and your bread on the left side. 25. Avoid everything which has the appearance of eager and ravenous hunger, such as to look at the victuals anxiously, to be the first in the dish, to tear off the bread all at once in noisj^ bites,, to eat quickly and eagerly, to take another piece of bread before the last is swallowed down, to take too large bites, to take the spoon too full, to stuff the mouth too full, &c. 26. Stay at your place in the dish, be satisfied with what is given to you, and do not seek to have of • everything. 27. Do not look upon another1s plate to see whether he has received something more than you, but eat what you have with thankfulness. 28. Do not eat more meat and butter than bread, do not bite the bread off with the teeth, cut regular pieces with the knife, but do not cut them off before the mouth. 29. Take hold of your knife and spoon in an orderly way and be careful that you do not soil your clothes or the table cloth. 30. Do not lick off your greasy fingers, wipe them on a clbth, but as much as oossible use a fork instead of your fingers. 584 31. Chew your food with closed lips and make no noise hy scraping on the plate, 32. Do not wipe the plate off either with the finger or the tongue, and do not thrust your tongue about out of your mouth. Do not lean your elbows on the table when you carry the spoon to the mouth. 33. Do not take salt out of the salt-box with your fingers, but with the point of your knife. 34. The bones, or what remains over, do not throw under the table, do not put them on the table cloth, but let them lie on the edge of the plate. 35. Picking the teeth with the knife or fork does not look well and is injurious to the gums. 36. As much as possible abstain from blowing your nose at the table, but if necessity compels, turn your face away or hold your hand or napkin before it; also when you sneeze or cough. 37. Learn not to be delicate and over-nice or to imagine that you cannot eat this or that thing. Many must learn to eat among strangers what they could not at home. 38. To look or smell at the dish holding the provi sions too closely is not well. Should you find a hair or something of the kind in the food, out it quietly and unnoticed to one side so that others be not moved to disgust. 39. As often as you receive anything on your plate, give thanks i s r ith an inclination of the head. 40. Do not gnaw the bones off with your teeth or make a noise in breaking out the marrow. 41. It is not well to put back on the dish what you have once had on your plate. 42. If you want something across the table be careful not to let your sleeve hang in the dish or to throw a glass over. 43. At table do not speak before you are asked, but if you have noticed anything good at church or school, or a suitable thought occurs to you 585 relating to the subject of discourse, you may properly bring it forward, but listen attentively to the good things said by others. 44. When you drink you must have no food in your mouth, and must incline forward courteously. 45. It has a very bad look to take such strong draughts while dripking that one has to blow or breathe heavily; while drinking to let the eyes wander around upon others; to commence drinking at table before parents or more important oersons have drunk; to raise the glass to the mouth at the same time with one of more importance; to drink while others are speaking to us; and to raise the glass many times after one another. 46. Before and after drinking, the mouth ought to be wiped off, not with the hand but with a handker chief or napkin. 47. At‘the table be ready to help others if there is something to be brought into the room of other thing to be done that you can do. 48. When you have had enough, get up quietly, take your stool with you, wish a pleasant meal-time, and go to one side and wait what will be com manded you. Still should one in this respect fol low what is customary. 49. Do not stick the remaining bread in your pocket but let it lie on the table. 50. After leaving the table, before you do anything else, give thanks to your Creator vdio has fed and satisfied you.. II. Rules for the Behavior of a Child in School 51. Dear child, when you come into school, incline reyerently, sit down quietly in your place, and think of the presence of God. 52. During prayers think that you are speaking with God, and wh^n the word of God is being read, think that God is speaking with you. Be also devout and reverential. 586 53. When you pray aloud, speak s-lowly and deliber ately; and when you sing, do not try to drown the voices of others, or to have- the first word. 54. Be at all times obedient to your teacher/ and do not let him remind you many times of the same thing. 55. Should you be punished for bad behavior, do not, either by words or gestures, show yourself impatient or obstinate, but receive it for your improvement. 56. Abstain in school from useless talking, by which you make the work of the schoolmaster harder, vex your fellow pupils, and prevent yourself and others from paying attention. 57. Listen to all that is said to you, sit very straight and look at your teacher. 58. When you recite your lesson, turn up your book without noise, read loudly, carefully and slowly, so that every word and syllable may be understood. 59. G-ive more attention to yourself then to others, unless you are placed as a monitor over them. . 60. If you are not questioned, be still; and do not help others when they.say their lessons, but let them speak and answer for themselves. 61. To your fellow-scholars show yourself kind and peaceable, do not quarrel with them, do not kick them, do not soil their clothes with your shoes or with ink, give them no nick-names, and behave yourself in every.respect toward them as you would that they should behave toward you. .62. Abstain from all coarse, indecent habits or ges tures in school, such as to stretch with the. hands or the whole body from laziness; to eat fruit or other things in school; to lay your hand or arm upon your neighbor1 s shoulder, or under your head, or to lean your head forwards upon the table; to put your feet on the bench, or let them dangle or scrape; or to cross your legs over one another, or stretch them apart, or to spread.them too wide in sitting or standing; to scratch your head;:to play or pick with the fingers; to twist and turn 1 587 the head forwards, backwards and sideways; to sit and sleep; to creep -under the table or bench; to turn your back to your teacher; to change your clothes In school, and to show yourself restless in school. 63. Keep your books, inside and outside, very clean and neat, do not write or paint in them, do not tear them, and lose none of them. 64. When you write, do not soil your hands and face with ink, do not scatter it over the table or bench,.or over your clothes or those of others. 65. When school is out, make no great noise; in going down stairs, do not jump over two or three steps at a time, by which you may be hurt, and go quietly home. III. How a Child Should Behave on the Street 66. Dear child, although, after school, you are out of sight of your teacher, G-od is present in all places and you therefore have cause upon the street to be circumsoect before Him and his Holy Angels. 67. Do not run wildly upon the street, do not shout, but go quietly and decently. 68. Show yourself modest, and do not openly, before other people, what ought to be done in a private place. 69. To eat upon the street is unbecoming. 70. Do not stare aloft with your eyes, do not run against people, do not tread purposely where the mud is thickest, or in the puddles* 71. When you. see a horse or wagon coming, step to one side, and take care that you dL o not get hurt, and never hang behind upon a wagon. 7g. In winter do not go upon the Ice or throw snow balls at others, or ride upon sleds with disorderly boys. 73. In summer do not bathe in the water or go too near it. Take no pleasure in mischievous or indecent games. 588 74. Do not stand in the way where people quarrel or fight, or do other evil things; associate not with evil companions who lead you astray; do not run about at the annual fair; do not stand before mountebanks or look upon the wanton dance, since there you learn nothing but evil. 75. Do not take hold of other children so as to occupy the street, or lay your arm upon the shoulders of others. 76. If any known or respectable person meets you, make way for him, bow courteously, do not wait until he is already near or opposite to you, but show to him this respect while you are still some steps from him. IV. Rules for the Behavior of a Child in Meeting or Church. 77. Dear child, in meeting or church think upon the holy presence of God, and that you will be judged according to the word you hear upon this day. 78. Bring your Bible and hymn book with, you, and sing and pray very devoutly, since out of the mouths of young children will God be praised. 79. During the sermon be attentive to all that is said, mark what is represented by the text, and how the discourse is divided; which also you can write on your slate. Refer to other beautiful passages in your Bible, but without noise or much turning of the leaves, and mark them by laying in long narrow bits of paper, of which you must always have some lying in your Bible. 80. Do not talk in church, and if others want to talk with you do not answer. During the sermon, if you are overcome with sleep, stand up a while and try to keep it off, 81. When the name of Jesus is mentioned or used in prayer uncover or incline your head, and show yourself devout. 82. Do not stare about the church at other people, and keep your eyes under good discipline and control. / 589 83. All indecent habits which, under Rule No. 62, you ought to avoid in school, much more ought you to avoid in church. • 84. If you, with others, should go in couples into, or out of, the church you should never, ‘ from mis chief, shove, tease or bespatter, but go forth decently and quietly. V. Rules for the Behavior of a Child under Various Circum stances • 85. Dear child, live in peace and unity with everyone, and be entirely courteous from humility and true love of your neighbor. 36. Accustom yourself to be orderly in everything, lay your books and other things in a certain place and do not let them lie scattered about in a disorderly way. 87. When your parents send you on an errand, mark well the purpose for which you are sent, so that you make no mistake. When you have performed your task come quickly home again and give an answer. 88. Be never idle, but either go to assist your par ents, or repeat your lessons, and learn by heart what was given you. But take care that you do not read in indecent or trifling books, or pervert the time, for which you .must give an account to G-od, with cards or dice. 89. If you get any money, give it to some one to keep for you, so that you do not lose it, or -spend it for dainties. From what you have, willingly give alms. 90. If anything Is presented to you, take it with the right hand and give thanks courteously. 91. Should you happen to be where some one has left money or other things lying on the table, do not go too near or remain alone in the room. 92. Never listen at the door, Sirach 21, 24. Do not run quickly in, but kno'sk modestly, wait until you are called, incline as you walk in, and do not slam the door. t / f 590 93. Do not distort your face, in the presence of people, with frowns or sour looks; be not sulky if you are asked anything, let the question be finished without your interrupting, *and do not answer with nodding or shaking the head, but with distinct and modest words. 94. Make your reverence at all times ddeoly and lowly with raised face. Do not thrust your feet too far out behind.. Do not turn your back to people, but your face. 95. Whether a stranger or good, friend comes to the' house, be courteous to him, bid him welcome, offer him a chair and wait upon him. 96. In sneezing, blowing the nose, spitting, and yawn ing be careful to use all possible decency. Turn your face to one side, hold the hand before it, put your uncleanliness of the nose in a handkerchief and do not look at it long, let the spittal fall upon the earth and tread upon it with your foot. Do not accustom yourself to continual hawking, grubbing at the nose, violent panting, and other disagreeable and indecent ways. 97. Never go about nasty and dirty. Cut your nails at the right time and keep your clothes, shoes and stockings, neat and clean. 98. In laughing, be moderate and mod_est. Do not laugh at everything, and especially at the evil or mis fortune of other people. 99. If you have promised anything try to hold to it, and keep yourself from all lies and untruths. 100. Let what you see of good and decent in other Christian people serve as an example for your self. , ! If there be any virtue, and if there be any praise, think on these things.1 1 Phillipians iv, 8. O n lv ira ity of Southern C alifo rn ia

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Creator Harder, Menno Simon (author)

Core Title The origin, philosophy, and development of education among the Mennonites

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, philosophy of,OAI-PMH Harvest,Religion, History of

Language English

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-410042

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Rights Harder, Menno Simon

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Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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