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Differential effects of three group treatments on self-actualization and attitudes toward the sex roles of women

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Differential effects of three group treatments on self-actualization and attitudes toward the sex roles of women

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Content DIFFERENTIAL EFFECTS OF THREE GROUP TREATMENTS ON SELF-ACTUALIZATION AND ATTITUDES TOWARD THE SEX ROLES OF WOMEN by Stephen Robert Wysocki A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Counselor Education) June 1975 UMI Number: DP24103 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publ shmg UMI DP24103 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA 90007 PVk D. t_<A '75 W 9 ^ H This dissertation, •written by .STEPHEN..ROBERT. .WYSQCKX............. 333 /J under the direction of Z l j L s . . . Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of the degree of D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y Dean Date...II[Q^Jcr.J.Uy..l533. DIS SEifcTATI QIK7 CmkMb ITTEE Chairman ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The investigator owes so much to so many that it would be impossible to name everyone who has been helpful from the inception of the idea to the conclusion of this study. i.The author, however, would like to recognize Dr. Earl Carnes, whose dedication to the field of counseling served i as a source of inspiration throughout the writer's graduate study. Special acknowledgment, and the dedication of the study go to the writer's wife and son, whose love and caring were the prime ingredients towards its successful completion. TABLE OF CONTENTS ' LIST OF TABLES...................................... v Chapter I. INTRODUCTION TO THE S T U D Y ................... 1 Statement of the Problem Significance of the Study General Research Questions Null Hypotheses Procedure Assumptions Limitations of the Study Definition of Terms Organization of the Study II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ..................... 13 Self-Actualizing Effects of Groups Consciousness Raising Groups Assertion Training Groups Encounter Groups Summary III. PROCEDURES.......................................34 Group Format and Leadership Styles Instruments Statistical Treatment of Data IV. FINDINGS.............................. 49 Pre-Test Differences Hypothesis 1 Hypothesis 2 Hypothesis 3 Hypothesis 4 Discussion iii Chapter V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . 86 APPENDICES............ 95 BIBLIOGRAPHY................................... 108 LIST OF TABLES Table I. Demographic Data for All Groups . . . . q . . . 38 II. Levels of Significance for Pre-Test Means for All Groups on the P O I .......................... 52 III. Levels of Significance for Pre-Test Means for All Groups on the TSCS and the A T W S ........... 53 IV. F Test Result on 1 Way Analysis of Variance Between Pre- and Post-Measures on the POI for All Subjects................................ 54 V. F Test Result on 1 Way Analysis of Variance Between Pre- and Post-Measures on the TSCS and the ATWS for All Subjects..................55 VI. Pre- and Post-Test Means, Standard Deviations, and Change Scores for the Encounter Group on the P O I ...................................... 57 VII. Pre- and Post-Test Means, Standard Deviations, and Change Scores for the Encounter Group on the TSCS and ATWS ............................ 58 VIII. Pre- and Post-Test Means, Standard Deviations, and Change Scores for the Assertion Group on the P O I ......................................... 59 IX. Pre- and Post-Test Means, Standard Deviations, and Change Scores for the Assertion Group on the TSCS and the A T W S .......................... 60 X. Pre- and Post-Test Means, Standard Deviations, and Change Scores for the C-R Group on the P O I ............................................. 61 v Table XI. Pre- and Post-Test Means, Standard Deviations, and Change Scores for the C-R Group on the TSCS and the ATWS.............. 62 XII. Pre- and Post-Test Means, Standard Deviations, and Change Scores for the Control Group on the POI ........................................... 63 XIII. Pre- and Post-Test Means, Standard Deviations, and Change Scores for the Control Group on the TSCS and* the ATWS ....................... 64 XIV. Levels of Significance on Tukey's HSD Procedure for Pair-Wise Comparisons Among Means on the POI Scales.................................. 74 XV. Levels of Significance on Tukey's HSD Procedure for Pair-Wise Comparisons Among Means on the TSCS and the ATWS Scales................... 75 vi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY Many women and men are becoming aware that society treats the two sexes differently. Stereotypical attitudes toward the sex roles of men and women continue to prevail amidst increasing sex identity awareness. The cultural criteria for proper sex role behavior are initiated in early childhood and continue through old age. For men, ag gressive behaviors are rewarded; for women, dependent be haviors are socially approved. Behaviors toward the oppo site sex become rigid as men and women habitualize their responses to their sexual roles. One author lists common adjectives reflecting our cultural bias towards sex roles: In our culture we find women described as weak, anxious, childish, helpless, timid, stupid, silly, kind, grateful, loving, generous, moral, tender, irrational, snobbish, talkative, gentle, and neat (Me Clellend, 1965; Bennet and Cohen, 1959; McKee and Sheriff, 1957; Rosenkrantz, et. al., 1968). Men in contrast are described as frank, intellectual, independent, dominant, competitive, direct, objective, self confident. Now it doesn't take much keen clinical intuition to speculate that the masculine stereotypes might be more effective styles of living. (Van De Reit, p. 2) 1 Institutions of higher learning have begun to respond to this sex role stereotyping by offering courses dealing with sex role bias. Many university and college counseling centers extend the realization of how our culture handicaps women via awareness through special programs. Women's con sciousness raising groups, assertion training groups, per sonal growth or encounter groups are becoming common vehi cles b^ Lch awareness of women's roles may be achieved. It is the purpose of this study to investigate three modes of group treatment for self-actualization and atti tude change toward the sex roles of women, and to deter mine which of the treatments seems to be-most effective in facilitating change, if any. Assertion Training Women have discovered that their culture has not pro vided them with many of the interpersonal skills by which they may achieve success in a male-dominated society. One major limitation for many women is the inability to be as sertive. Assertive behavior is defined by Alberti and o o Statement of the Problem 2 Emmons (1970) as personal behavior that is appropriately direct, emotionally honest, and self-enhancing. Expression of "assertive behavior" communicates respect for others and respect for one’s self. The non-assertive person lacks directness, is often emotionally dishonest, and self-effac ing. Much non-assertive behavior is situationally specif-; ic; in other words, it may be difficult to express or be assertive in some social, business, etc., situations but not in other situations. The non-assertive person charac teristically does not wish to ’rock the boat’ or ’upset’ others in his or her social and professional milieu. He is constantly giving in to any request made of him or feels guilty for turning someone down. He has always done what his parents wanted of him. He feels he has no ideas of his own and is cowed by others. Whereas, most persons will at least protest a little when their rights are badly abused, the general non-assertive will say nothing at all. (Alberti and Emmons, 1970, p. 38) Alberti and Emmons (1970) discriminate between aggres sive and assertive behavior in several ways. Aggressive behavior is self-enhancing or direct at the expense of an other person. Humiliation and domination of others become the project of a person whose behavior is aggressive. Con cern, understanding, and empathetic responses are often 3 absent from the aggressive person's repertoire of responses. The goals of assertion training for women as described by Jakubowski-Spector (1973) are as follows: 1) "...To educate the woman to her interpersonal rights. 2) To overcome whatever blocks exist to acting as sertively; and 3) To develop and refine assertive behaviors through active practice methods..." (p. 79). Techniques used to achieve these goals include behav ioral rehearsal, role playing, group interaction, discus sion, and modeling behaviors. Consciousness Raising Group The function of consciousness raising groups for women is to heighten personal awareness of female roles in our society. Much of the material dealt with in such a group relates to coping within a sexist society framework. There is a tendency for these groups to be moving toward therapy and personal growth. The move towards therapy as an extension of consciousness raising is a move from definition and analysis of the problem in class terms to actions by individual women in the context of that definition. Thus, the purpose of therapy is no 4 longer helping the woman understand, accept, and properly adjust to her 1 1 femininity" which is tradi tionally viewed as rooted in her biology and defined in terms of passivity, serving, submissiveness, and dependence. Instead such groups are helping women to examine the consequences for them person ally of the conditioning of the culture, to dis cover their own individuality rather than depend ing on their relationships with a man and children for their own identity, to experience and nurture their own power as a person.... (Whiteley, 1973, p. 28) Encounter Groups The function of the encounter group is to promote per sonal growth via intimacy and self-disclosure within a group context. In terms of this study, the group format to be utilized will be that of a contract group (Egan, 1970). The role of the leader and expectations for the group are discussed in the contract. Significance of the Study Conclusions based on data obtained from this study could affect the techniques currently used in college and university settings to facilitate personal growth experi ences of women. If it can be demonstrated that one kind of feminine group experience is superior to others, than em phasis may be placed on the most effective modality. General Research Questions What effect does a woman's consciousness raising group have on the individual's level of self- actualization as measured by the Personal Orien tation Inventory and Tennessee Self Concept Scale? What effect does a woman's consciousness raising group have on the individual's attitude towards her sex role? What effect does an assertion training group have on the individual's level of self-actualization as measured by the Personal Orientation Inventory and the Tennessee Self Concept Scale? What effect does an assertion training group have on the individual's attitude towards her sex role? What effect does an encounter group have on an individual's bevel of self-actualization as measur ed by the Personal Orientation Inventory and the Tennessee Self Concept Scale? What effect does an encounter group have on an in dividual's attitude towards her sex role? Is any one group more effective than the other two in facilitating change towards self-actualization? Null Hypotheses On pre- and post-measures of self-actualization as measured by the Personal Orientation Inventory, the Tennessee Self Concept Scale, and the Attitudes Toward Women Scale, there will be no significant difference in the mean change score for women par ticipating in consciousness raising groups and those in a control group. On pre- and post-measures of self-actualization as measured by the Personal Orientation Inventory, ^the Tennessee Self Concept Scale, and the Atti tudes Toward Women Scale, there will be no signif icant difference in the mean change score for wom en participating in assertion training and those in a control group. On pre— and post-measures of self-actualization as measured by the Personal Orientation Inventory, the Tennessee Self Concept Scale, and the Atti tudes Toward Women Scale, there will be no signif icant difference in the mean change score for wom en participating in encounter groups and those in a control group. 4) On pre- and post-measures of self-actualization as measured by the Personal Orientation Inventory, C\ the Tennessee Self Concept Scale, and the Atti tudes Toward Women Scale, there will be no signif icant differences among the three approaches when each is compared to the other two. Procedure Volunteer female subjects were randomly assigned to one of the three treatment groups. All subjects were drawn from the student population at Cal State College Dominguez Hills. The subjects responded to advertisements in the form of posters and class announcements, which described the opportunity of participating in a meaningful experience for women. Each of the three treatment groups as well as the control group contained twelve randomly assigned sub jects. All subjects were taken from the population re sponding to the advertisements. All group leaders were females who had prior group leadership experience. The age range of leaders was 30-35. All group leaders were trained in the Carkhuff (1969) mod el, utilizing effective listening and communication skills. 8 The three experimental groups were tested prior to the beginning of the group experience, using the Personal Ori entation Inventory, the Tennessee Self Concept Scale, and ♦ the Attitudes Toward Women Scale. After ten weeks of treat ment, two hours per week, the experimental and the control groups were post-tested using the same measures. After the post-testing, an analysis of variance was conducted for each of the scales on the pre- and post measures on the Personal Orientation Inventory and the At titudes Toward Women Scale in order to determine if there were differences in the shift of scores in the three exper imental and control groups. Assumptions 1) The Personal Orientation Inventory constitutes a valid measure of self-actualization. 2) The Attitudes Toward Women Scale constitutes an accurate assessment of the sex role of women. 3) The Tennessee Self Concept Scale constitutes a valid measurement of self-concept. Limitations of the Study 9 1) The scope of the study was confined to one college population. 2) There was no control for the impact of classroom experiences on the subjects. 3) The size of the population sample was small. 4) Group leadership styles and charisma may vary and cannot be controlled, regardless of the type of group. Definition of Terms Aggressive Behavior: Behavior which achieves its desired end at the expense of others. The result is often depre cation to the other. Assertion Training: A method of developing shills that enable the subjects to achieve desired goals, and to en hance the self by the achievement of the goals. Assertive Behavior: Behavior which is self-enhancing and an honest expression of feeling. Attitudes Toward Women Scale: (ATWS) The ATWS consists of 55 items, each with four response alternatives, bearing 10 on vocational, educational, and intellectual roles of wom en, freedom and independence, dating courtship and eti quette, sexual behavior, and marital relationships. Consciousness Raising Group; (C-R) An attempt to develop a heightened awareness of self and society's expectations for social and sexual roles. Encounter Group; A group whose function is to promote per sonal growth in areas identified by its leader and partic ipants. Authentic self-disclosure, feedback, and group interaction are important components of the group. *Non-Assertive Behavior; Behavior which is self-denying, and appears not to achieve goals. Others seem to choose goals for the subject. Personal Orientation Inventory: (POI) The POI consists of 150 two choice comparative value and behavior judgments inventory for the measurement of self-actualization. Self-Actualization; The process of growth, self-develop ment, productiveness, self-realization and autonomy (Maslow, 1962). 11 Tennessee Self Concept Scale: (TSCS) An instrument which purports to measure positive self-concept and self-esteem. Organization of the Study Chapter II reviews the pertinent literature on the sex roles of women and self-image, counseling and psychotherapy with women in groups, and attitude change. Chapter III describes the methodology of the study, including the research design and statistical analysis, the research sample, the instrumentation, the data collection procedures and recording, the methodological assumptions, and the limitations. Chapter IV contains the findings of the investigation and a discussion of the results. Chapter V consists of a summary of the findings, con clusions, and recommendations. 12 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Like the Jews waiting for their Messiah, women await for their man - each for her own 'savior'. Somewhere, deep in their hearts, women expect, hope against hope, for happiness with the 'right' man, whose love will give meaning to their lives. This expectancy - passive and yet demanding, patient and yet angry - is perhaps a character istic expression of the oppressed person's basic life experience. . . (Szasz, p. 12) Women have existed as long as men yet by comparison history accords little significance to the role of women. One has only to try to remember more than four or five great women from American history to realize this deficit. The deficiency may exist, in part, because historically wom en have not been permitted the degree of freedom allotted to men. Their roles were restricted to the nurturant and custodial functions of childbearing, childrearing, and other domestic tasks. With the advent of the pill, and the lib eralizing of social mores concerning the roles of women, movement in previously unrealized directions became possi ble . Man has chosen not to attend to the accomplishments of 13 his feminine counterparts, for to do so would jeopardize his religious, socio-economic, political and familial posi tion of power. Institutions, long male-dominated, would be threatened by such an equalitarian turnabout. Institution al sexism is defined here as a biased and/or discriminatory attitude towards women because they are female. It is this bias that has been described as the vehicle by which sexual inequality is maintained and propagated. Discrimination against women is evidenced by data such as that given by the College Placement Council (1974), which shows that in almost every curricular area for bach- elor-degree candidates, women receive far fewer job offers and less money than their male counterparts. In 1968, the median annual income for full time work was as follows: white males, $7,800; non-white males, $5,500; white females, $4,500; non-white females, $3,500. A white female with four years of college earned on the average the same amount as a male with an eighth grade education. In addition to salary discrimination, women are often "type cast" in em ployment. Women are primarily viewed as clerical and of fice help, while men are seen as administrative assistants, management trainees, or other titled positions. In the pro- 14 fessional realm, women account for only 1 percent of the nation's engineers, 7 percent of its physicians, 9 percent of its scientists, and 19 percent of its college and uni versity professors. During World War II and thereafter, a labor shortage created an unprecedented peacetime demand for women workers. Hartley (1960) reported that the relative salary range of both men and women remained unchanged as well as the oppor tunities for women's advancement. After a series of inter views with 89 working mothers and 89 non-working mothers, Smuts (1959) observed that most working mothers consider their'work primarily a^nurturant function, that is, working is a supplemental function for the family. Working mothers tend not to see themselves as moving toward "career goalsj" or as involved in a career. Hoffman (1960) found that working mothers compared to non-working mothers are warm, supportive, mild in their discipline, and tend to be more relaxed and satisfied when matched on pertinent variables. The male role as provider and thus in a position of dominance and control appears to be uninfluenced by women's "freedom to work." Hoffman (1960) concluded that there was 15 no difference between working women and matched non-working women in terms of women having any more "control" within the family structure. Hoffman does indicate that in homes in which the wife is working, the husband appropriates a greater number of household tasks which have subsequent ef fects on children. Blood and Hamblin (1958) describe the children's response towards male participation in household tasks. ...Our own data, coming from children's percep tions rather than adult reports, suggest that the class variable is more significant in rela tion to male participation in traditionally female household tasks than the work status of the wife. Boys with working mothers assign domestic tasks to men more frequently than do boys with non-working mothers, (p. 11) This finding might suggest that assumptions of the work role by women of lower economic strata might have more impact on traditional male roles than the same phenomenon at higher economic levels, where outside persons substitute for the wife in domestic tasks more frequently. Further, Blood and Hamblin (1958) note that there appears to be a gradual incorporation of what was once traditionally fem inine oriented tasks into male self-concept as male partic ipation in these household tasks increases. Consequently, we may expect a diminution of our rigid adherence to tradi 16 tionally masculine or feminine roles. Data collected by Blood and Hamblin (1958) suggest that the work status of the mother is an important differentiating variable. Their study concluded that significantly more daughters of non working mothers mentioned "housewife" as their first choice of future occupation than did daughters of working mothers (p^.05) . A significant number of daughters of working mothers stated that they, too, would work after having children. This group also indicated a tendency to choose non-traditional vocations more often than did daughters of working mothers (Blood and Hamblin, 1958). Blood and Hamblin conclude that current sex roles are moving toward greater equality, with the greatest change in families of higher educational levels. As mass education is extended to more people, women will experience greater freedom of action and choice. Possibly, this freedom will eventually extend to women of all socio-economic classes. In addition to this sex role related research, notable contributions to the philosophy of women's liberation in the 20th century include, among many others, Simone de Beauvoir's The Second Sex, and Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique. The thesis of de Beauvoir's work is that since 17 patriarchal times women have been forced into a secondary role in relation to man. Therefore, society is responsible for the social injustices perpetrated toward women, and it must endeavor to become conscious of these biases. From this consciousness of existing social roles, society may move toward new definitions of sex roles and in so doing release the potentialities of half the human race. Betty Friedan (1963) focused her attention on the sub urban housewife and the pressure women must overcome if they wish to be anything else. Friedan attacked the Freud ian notion that women are closely tied to their biological functions of reproduction and that they are destined toward a life of passivity and, subordination. Women have been ed ucated to believe they are inferior, less important than men, and that a life of simple domesticity is the ultimate reward. The 1960's were an era of increased social conscious ness, and within th-is context Betty Friedan, and subsequent ly other writers, stimulated further interests in the plight of women. Self-Actualizing Effects of Groups 18 The literature relating to the self-actualizing effects of group approaches is both descriptive and experimental in nature. Most experimental studies relating to encounter and assertion training groups deal with both sexes. Liter ature relating to consciousness raising groups is only de scriptive in nature. In general, it relates to the struc ture of the groups and personal accounts of consciousness raising group experiences. Consciousness Raising Groups The consciousness raising group, also referred to as C-R, is an innovation of the contemporary feminist move ment, and focuses on facilitating an awareness of social conditioning in an attempt to show that conditioning has defined sexual roles. Whiteley (1973) states that another goal of C-R is to "...overcome the psychological isolation of women produced by the cultures treatment of male-female relationships" (p. 27). Whiteley (1973) further charac terizes traditional female interaction as competitive and self-rejecting. Both of these factors contribute to feel ings of isolation. Therefore, if women could be brought together to discuss feelings about their femininity, iso lation, and social roles, the potentiality for discovering 19 other behavioral modalities is increased. One goal of consciousness raising is to facilitate an awareness of societal conditioning of women, and from that awareness demand and accept sexual equality as a social norm. This heightened awareness occurs in an atmosphere of openness and support, where new data are given to the par ticipants to relate to personally and to discuss. Other goals include learning to relate with other women in an open non-competitive way; and to more fully understand what being a woman is all about. In an article published by the editors of Ms. maga zine, the following general procedures are recommended: the optimum group size is from six to ten with a suggested maximum of twelve; the groups are for women only, men are not permitted to participate; meetings are held weekly and last two to four hours; each woman is given a chance to talk freely and is supported by the group; there is no for mal training required to sponsor a C-R group or rap session (1972). As a rule, leaderless groups are the preferred format to groups with a leader. This is to minimize the possibility of an authoritarian leader as well as to place each member of the group on equal ground. Formats may vary 20 from group to group; each person in the group may discuss their views regarding a particular topic; and a sponsoring agency may provide a topical format from which participants may use as a discussion outline. The consciousness raising experience has received mix ed reviews from participants. Women report a peak experi ence, a greater willingness to express feelings of both a positive and negative nature, and a reevaluation of atti tudes toward their marriage, work, and education. As in other kinds of groups, one might expect that the quality of the experience would be contingent upon the qual ity of leadership. However, since formal leaders are frowned upon in C-R groups, there is no research to support this contention. Sarkissian (1973) described some of the reasons why men may not be permitted to participate in women's C-R groups. Women have been conditioned to respond to men as leaders and authorities, therefore-the presence of men in the group might tend to elicit "socially approved" responses which are the very thing the group is trying to move be yond. Male participants may become defensive and argumen tative concerning varied issues, and this position can alter 21 the positive direction of the group. Subjective reporting from the women's movement sug gests that C-R groups seem to meet their behavioral objec tives which include a subjective growth experience, con sciousness of social roles, social issues, social needs, and social rewards (Whiteley, 1973). It is believed that as a result of that awareness or "consciousness" freedom of choice is expanded and move ment in previously unrealized and unknown directions be comes possible. However, there is no empirical data to substantiate these assumptions, therefore, they are spec ulative in nature. Whiteley (1973) revealed that criticisms of the C-R experience included reports that listening to others com plain and talk about their problems is boring, and further more, feelings are frustrated when consciousness, is raised but society does not provide an outlet. A search of the literature was made, but no objective research related to C-R groups was found. Assertion Training Groups Assertion training has been recommended for persons who experience anxiety responses in interpersonal contexts. 2 2 : These persons often inhibit disclosure of true feelings. As a consequence, they experience anxiety, various somatic symptoms, and in some cases even pathological changes in predisposed organs (Wolpe, 1958). Alberti and Emmons (1970) defined assertion training as behavior which enables a person to act in behalf of her best self interest with minimal anxiety. In group training, whenever an appropriate assertive response is emitted, the response inhibits the anxiety nor mally experienced, which permits the new desired behavior to occur. Each time the assertive response inhibits the anxiety, a weakening of the non-assertive or aggressive responses occur (Wolpe, 1958, 1961, 1969, 1970). Wolpe (1958) called this process reciprocal inhibition. Non-assertive or aggressive behaviors are generally manifestations of anxiety (Wolpe, 1958, 1969; Salter, 1961). This anxiety or failure to assert one's rights is usually the result of a lack of training, whereby assertive behav iors were left out of childhood training and where non-as sertive or weak role models emerged (Alberti and Emmons’ , 1970). Alberti and Emmons (1970) describe children as having 23 been reinforced for quiet, submissive, often zombie-like behavior. However, within our social framework, boys are permitted more aggressive responses than girls. Girls are required to be passive, non-assertive, and socially compli ant. Failure to meet these sex role expectations results in social disapproval. According to Bandura (1969), par ents or significant others in the child's life provide the sex role models which may be the genesis of non-assertive or aggressive behaviors. Assertion training as a therapeutic technique may be utilized in individual or group training (Alberti and Emmons, 1970; Edwards, 1972; Katz, 1971; Lazarus, 1966; McFall and Marston, 1970; MacPherson, 1972; Serber, 1971; Wolpe, 1958, 1969). Assertion training generally consists of behavioral rehearsal, role playing, and modeling (Wolpe, 1958, 1969; Katz, 1971; Yalom, Peters, Sheldon, and Rand, 1967; Gei- singer, 1969; McFall and Lillesand, 1971; Bandura, 1969). Behavioral rehearsal includes role playing techniques and role rehearsal, a process whereby the therapist plays the client and the client plays the antagonist. Behavioral rehearsal is based on the principle of successive approx 24 imations in which the client begins with small increments of assertive behavior. As these assertions are positively reinforced, the client moves to more difficult situations. Prior to training, the client is asked to create a hierar chy of threatening situations from low to high. Role play ing and modeling are then utilized to approximate succes sively more threatening situations (Wolpe, 1969; Alberti .and Emmons, 1970). If the client experiences failure at any level, she may move back a step until confidence and mastery at that level are gained. Modeling is a process whereby, the 1 1 appropriate" behav ioral responses are exhibited prior to the client trying out the behavior. The model is structured from situations that the client or group has defined as anxiety producing situations (Bandura, 1969). The group is often the most economical as well as ther apeutically most appropriate approach to assertion training. Often non-assertive or aggressive persons share similar concerns. These similarities aid the facilitators rein forcing the appropriate assertive behavior. The group is comprised of one or more facilitators and six to ten persons. Modeling and behavioral rehearsal .tech- 25 niques are generally used. Video-tape may be used as a i feedback device to facilitators and participants. Other techniques commonly used in assertion training include relaxation training and performance contracting (Wolpe and Lazarus, 1966). Relaxation training is based on the principle of reciprocal inhibition whereby one cannot be anxious and relaxed at the same time. In performance contracting (Homme, 1970), the client chooses behavioral assignments which he feels he can accomplish before the next group meeting. The client then contracts to complete the assignment or "homework" by the next session. Physical structure requires a room able to accommodate chairs arranged in a circle with sufficient room for move ment. Tokens may be used for rewarding appropriate behav iors. Props of various sorts may be provided for certain role playing episodes. A number of studies have investigated various aspects of assertion training. Lazarus (1966) compared behavioral rehearsal with non-directive therapy and advice in affect ing behavioral change. Behavioral rehearsal exercises were shown to be two times as effective as direct advice, while non-directive reflective-interpretation fared worst of all. 26 However, results may have been affected by experimental bias, as Lazarus was both therapist and experimenter. McFall and Marston (1970) investigated a standardized semi-automated behavioral rehearsal treatment procedure with two variations - one with performance feedback and the other without. The two control procedures included placebo therapy and a no-treatment group (N=42). The two behavior al rehearsal procedures resulted in significantly greater improvements in assertive behavior than did the control con ditions. Although results were not significant, behavioral rehearsal paired with performances showed the strongest treatment effects. Lomont (1969) compared group assertion therapy and group insight therapy. The two types of therapy were con ducted on groups of five and seven hospitalized patients free from psychotic thought disorder. The two therapies were conducted concurrently over a six week period. The assertion group showed a significantly greater total im provement on the clinical scales than did the insight group. The assertion group showed significant negative shifts on the Depression scales of the MMPI. The insight group showed no test change that approached significance. 27 McFall and Lillesand (1971) compared three types of behavior rehearsal therapy: (1) overt or covert response practice; (2) synthetic verbal modeling; and (3) therapist coaching. The behavioral rehearsal subjects improved sig nificantly in their tested assertive behavior (refusing un reasonable requests) as compared to control subjects. Co vert rehearsal tended to produce the greatest improvement. The purpose of assertion training is to help the per son extend her repertoire of responses, to reduce anxiety, and to stand-up for her rights without encroaching on the rights of others((Alberti and Emmons, 1970; Wolpe, 1958, 1969). Jakubowski-Spector (1973) stated that a major goal of assertion training is to build a personal belief system which will help the client to support and justify her act ing assertively; This is important so that the client can: 1) continue to believe in her right to act assert ively even when she is unjustly criticized for her assertive behavior; 2) counteract her own irrational guilt that later occurs as a result of having asserted herself; 3) be proud of her assertion even if no one else is pleased with her* behavior; and 4) be more likely to assert herself. (Jakubowski-Spector, p. 80) Encounter Groups 28 The literature related to encounter groups is focused primarily on three areas: 1) therapist variables; 2) pro cess variables; and 3) client variables. These variables were examined in the context of varied client populations including college students, psychiatric populations, and various school populations. The following section is an * attempt to provide an overview of this literature that re lates to the self-actualizing effects of encounter groups. Extensive research indicated that group counseling was a viable therapeutic modality for constructive personality change (Fairweather, 1963; Truax and Carkhuff, 1964; Persons, 1966; Me Ginnis, 1963). This research indicated that significant changes did occur with psychiatric in-and out-patients, delinquents, alcoholics, normals, sex offend ers, psychotics, underachievers and college students (Ber- gin and Garfield, 1971). Evaluation of group experiences in terms of identification of the curative factors operat ing are complex and problematic. In the view of some prac titioners, group cohesion is the primary curative factor. Yalom and Rand (1966) conclude that cohesive groups 1) are'more productive; 2) are more open to influence by other group members; 3) experience more security; 4) are more 29 able to express hostility and adhere more closely to group norms; 5) attempt to influence others more frequently; and 6) continue memberships in groups longer. The Lewin, Lippit, and White (1939) experiment demon strated that democratic groups are more successful than authoritarian groups in creating a cohesive atmosphere. Singer and Goldman's (1954) study contrasting authoritarian and democratic leadership styles with schizophrenics sup ported this conclusion. This investigation indicated that the authoritarian group initially had a higher frequency of relevant comments by patients. The frequency of relevant comments declined sharply in the authoritarian group while the frequency of relevant comments in the democratic group increased. The democratic group, in general, indicated higher morale and cohesiveness than the authoritarian group. The composition of the group is an important factor contributing to group cohesion. Johnson (1963) and Yalom (1966) concluded that the brighter, more capable, nonpsy- chotic patient tends to be more responsive to group therapy treatment procedures than are other patients. Powdermaker and Frank (1953) suggest that matching patients to groups 30 on the basis of compatible needs is important. Yalom's (1966) study clarified the relationship between interper sonal compatibility in groups and group cohesiveness. The primary conclusion of the study was that interpersonal com patibility of the group members was more significant than the influence of the therapist in establishing a cohesive group. Goldstein, Heller, and Sechrest (1966) validated the Yalom study in finding a close relationship between inter personal attraction and attitudinal similarity. A general conclusion from these data would be that there are identi fiable behavioral and emotional prerequisites for effective involvement in group counseling. Included in these factors .would be the severity of the disturbance, intellectual and emotional resources, group compatibility, cohesiveness, leadership styles and format. Rogers (1957) described what he termed the necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic personality change: 1) two persons in psychological contact; 2) the client is in a state of incongruence; 3) the therapist is integrated; 4) the therapist is empathetic towards the client and is able to convey that empathy; and 5) the empathetic commun- 31 ication is received and experienced to some degree by the .client. If these conditions remain constant over a period of time, whether in group or individual counseling, then change will occur. ( L - " - " Studies by Truax and Carkhuff (1967) point to the therapist as the single most important variable in group or individual counseling. The researchers have identified accurate empathy, nonpossessive warmth, genuineness, and concreteness as variables that cut across a wide variety of therapeutic approaches. Carkhuff (1969) concludes that the group approach of fers many advantages over the individual counseling format. The advantages are as follows: 1) the group leader has a chance to directly observe the behaviors of participants; 2) the group leader has an opportunity to facilitate com munication between participants; 3) the group leader has an opportunity to create a facilitative atmosphere; 4) partic ipants have the opportunity to communicate directly with one another; and 5) each participant has an opportunity to be valued and offered support by more than one person. The literature surveyed and reported in this chapter were analyzed with respect to their impact on changing roles 32 and attitudes toward women, the self-actualizing effects of consciousness raising groups, assertion training for women, and encounter groups. 33 CHAPTER III PROCEDURES The sample consisted of forty-two female students at tending California State College at Dominguez Hills during the fall and winter quarters of 1973. Volunteers were ob tained from announcements to students in classrooms. The volunteers were told that they would be randomly assigned to one of three groups: assertion training; consciousness raising (C-R); or encounter. Those students who volunteer ed but who could not meet at the times their assigned group met were assigned to the control group. The control group members were pre-tested and post-tested and received no experimental treatment. Volunteers assigned to the three experimental groups were told the groups would continue for ten weeks, two hours per week, at comparable times. The number of members in each group ranged from nine to eleven. To control for any violations of the assumptions un derlying analysis of variance and Tukey's HSD procedure, subjects were randomly discarded to achieve equal N's of nine subjects for each of the four groups. 34 Carkhuff (1969) has cited the group leader as the sinQ gle most important variable in client change. Therefore, three leaders were selected who had been exposed to Carkt) huff training and who had equivalent graduate training in counseling and psychology. The facilitators were all fe male, ranging in age from 30 to 35, and had a minimum of two years of group leadership experience. The leaders had been employed on the California State College af’Dominguez Hills campus in a counseling capacity for at least one year. None of the leaders was aware of the nature of this study, nor did they know the manner in which the subjects were selected for the various treatment groups. This precaution was taken to minimize the effect of experimenter bias. Group Format and Leadership Styles Philosophically, all three of the group leaders pro claimed a humanistic orientation toward counseling psychol ogy. They viewed people as capable of assuming full reP sponsibility for their life choices. The leaders saw the group as a vehicle by which participants may explore, with others, both known and unknown aspects of themselves, using various methodologies and techniques. The backgrounds of the leaders were matched according to age, education, and 35 years of counseling experience. The group formats varied according to the goals of each of the groups. The assertion training group was high ly structured. Specific exercises were provided in each session and directed by the leader. All sessions for all groups were held on campus in rooms designed for group meetings. All meetings were held at comparable times during the day. The C-R group followed a topic outline, which is pre sented in Appendix B. The leader encouraged the partici pants to relate personally to the topics presented. Par ticipants were encouraged to deal with and define certain aspects of their own femininity. The format for the encounter group meetings was rela tively .unstructured. However, the leader suggested specif ic exercises when appropriate to the needs of the group. The group itself determined the content for each session. At the beginning of the quarter, all the subjects were asked to complete the Personal Orientation Inventory (POI), the Tennessee Self Concept Scale (TSCS), and the Attitudes Toward Women Scale (ATWS). . This provided the pre-test data and determined each subject's beginning level of func 36 tioning as related to the standardized measures being em ployed. At the end of the quarter, which included ten group meetings lasting two hours each, the same standard ized tests were administered to the subjects. This pro vided the post-test data in relation to the measures used, as well as the data necessary to evaluate the changes in scores that may have occurred as a result of the three varied treatment approaches. The mean age of subjects in the study was 29.4. The mean age of the student population at California State Col- leget ;at Dominguez Hills is 28.7. This older student popu lation is not atypical at state colleges and universities. The majority of the subjects were married and seniors. These demographic data are provided in Table i:. Minority persons were present in each group, however, specific data concerning ethnic background of subjects were not requested by the experimenter. Subjects assigned to the assertion training group par ticipated in discussion, role playing, and behavioral re hearsal exercises. Subjects were asked to list areas of non-assertive or aggressive personal behaviors. Once the non-assertive and aggressive behaviors could be identified, TABLE I Demographic Data for All Groups N Mean Age Married Divorced Single Educational Level Graduate Senior Junior ; i Assertion 9 29.3 6 1 2 0 7 2 Encounter 9 31.2 5 3 1 (1 6 2 C-R 9 28.6 4 2 3 0 6 3 Control 9 28.7 5 3 1 0 6 3 Total 36 X I I KJ UO • 4^ 20 9 7 1 25 10 u> 00 the subjects practiced the appropriate assertive behaviors. Frequently, the leaders role played problematic situations permitting the appropriate assertive behavior to be exhibit ed to the participants. In individual instances, the leaders might make "home work" assignments. For example, if a person had difficulty in returning purchased items to a store or poorly prepared food to the kitchen of a restaurant, the assignment con sisted of practicing these behaviors. Subjects assigned to the encounter group were asked to form a verbal contract with the leader defining their per sonal goals for the group experience. Once the contract was determined, the subjects were free to interact with the leader and among themselves. Role playing, confrontation, and sensory exercises were a part of the experience. Spon taneity, verbal, and non-verbal expression of feelings were encouraged. During the final meeting, the subjects were asked to evaluate their experience in terms of goals they had set for themselves. The subjects assigned to the consciousness raising group participated in topically related discussions. Top ics included: 1) psychological oppression of women and what 39 to do about it; 2) sex stereotypes; 3) women in the work world; and 4) the housewife. Additional topics are pre sented in Appendix B. Other topics which arose during sessions were discuss ed. Subjects were encouraged to relate personally to the topics. Criticism of one another was discouraged, while supportive statements were encouraged by the leader. Par ticipants were asked to share their feelings of oppression and frustration. Instruments In keeping with the general goals of encounter groups, C-R groups, and assertion training groups, instruments were chosen which purported to measure the positive aspects of mental health rather than degrees and varieties of psycho pathology. Personal Orientation Inventory Shostrom (1965, 1966) developed the Personal Orienta tion Inventory (POI) as a comprehensive measure of values and behavior believed to be of importance in the develop ment of self-actualization, or the healthy personality. The inventory identifies characteristics of the self- 40 actualizing person. The purpose for using the Personal Orientation Inven tory in the present study was C&> provide a differentiating description of change as a result of assertion training, encounter groups, and consciousness raising groups. The POI consists of 150 two-choice, paired-opposite statements of values and behavior judgments. The subjects were asked to select one of the two paired statements that most consis tently applied to themselves. The items were scored first for two basic scales: Support (12 7 items), and Time Compe tence (23 items). A second scoring yielded measures on ten minor scales which purport to assess particular personality characteristics thought to be related to self-actualization. A brief description of each scale is provided in Appendix A. Reliability and Validity Early studies relating to the POI were concerned with the demonstration of the validity and reliability of the instrument. Shostrom (1965) demonstrated test - retest reliability in a study with forty-eight college undergrad uates. Coefficients for the major scales of Time Competence and Inner Direction were .71 and .84, respectively. Co efficients for the subscales ranged from .55 to .85, re 41 spectively. The author stated in support of these reli ability measures, that they were "well within ranges of somewhat comparable test - retest studies with inventories such as the MMPI and the EPPS" (p. 32). Validity data reported in the manual (Shostrom, 1966) rest primarily on the successful discrimination by the POI scales between several clinically nominated self-actualiz ing and non-self-actualizing groups. In other studies re ported in the manual, POI scales successfully discriminated between a group of hospitalized psychiatric patients, a normal adult sample, and the nominated self-actualized sam ple . Shostrom and Knapp (1966) found that all the POI scales significantly differentiated a sample of outpatients who were beginning therapy from patients who were in the advanced stages of psychotherapy. Shostrom (1965) con cluded "the POI is measuring attributes important in the development of harmonious interpersonal relationships with in 'normal' populations" f(p. 29). Intercorrelation and Item Overlap The POI is scored twice: first for the two major scales; and second for the ten minor scales. All items in 42 the minor scales may be found in the major scales. There fore, some overlapping content is evident despite the dif ferent verbal labels attached to each scale. The Tennessee Self Concept Scale A person's self-concept has been shown to be related to behavior (Ashcraft and Fitts, 1964; Wayne, 1963). Per sons who possess positive or negative self-concepts act in ways to confirm their belief systems. The Tennessee Self Concept Scale (TSCS) aids the counselor's task of facili tating personal exploration with the client by providing a portrayal of this personal belief system. ■ The Tennessee Self Concept Scale consists of one hun dred descriptive statements that reflect components of the persons' perceptions of themselves. The subjects responded * to each item by rating a five point scale ranging from com pletely false to completely true. Ten of the items are used solely for the Self Criticism Score (SC). High scores reflect healthy non-defensiveness whereas low scores indi cate defensiveness. The remaining ninety items are equally divided between forty-five positive and forty-five negative statements in 43 order to minimize the bias of a positive or negative re sponse set. The total positive score is described by the author as ...the most important single score on the coun seling form. It reflects the overall level of self esteem. Persons with high scores tend to like themselves, and to feel that they are persons of value and worth, have confidence in them selves, and act accordingly. People with low scores are doubtful about their own worth; see themselves as undesirable; or feel anxious, depressed and unhappy; and have little faith or confidence in themselves. (Fitts, p. 2) Norms The norms for the Tennessee Self Concept Scale were obtained from a sample of 626 individuals representing males and females with various ethnic minorities included. The sample population ranged from twelve to sixty-eight years in age, and educational background varied from sixth grade to the Ph.D degree. Fitts (1965) reported that ex pansion of the norm group is unnecessary because data from other populations did not differ significantly from the es tablished norms. Reliability and Validity The author's reliability data are based largely on a sample of sixty college students over a two week period. Eight of the test - retest coefficients are in the .90's, 44 twelve in the .80's# seven in the .70's, with only two in the .60's. The author reported that other evidences of re liability are found in the similarity of profile patterns through repeated measures of the same individuals over long periods of time. Fitts (1965) described in the manual for the TSCS four kinds of validity procedures: 1) content validity; 2) dis crimination between groups; 3) correlation with other per sonality measures; and 4) personality changes under partic ular conditions. In a comparison between 369 psychiatric patients and 626 non-patients, Fitts (1965) reported dif ferences (mostly at the p^ .001 level) for almost every score on the scale. Studies by Congdon, 1958; Piety, 1958; Havener, 1962; and Wayne, 1963 demonstrated similar patient vs. non-patient differences. Strong correlations with ^.he j MMPI and EPPS as well as about a dozen other personality measures are reported by Fitts (1965) in the manual. The Attitudes Toward Women Scale At the time the research was conducted, the Attitudes Toward Women Scale was the only validated instrument avail able which purported to measure attitudes toward women's 45 roles. The purpose for using the Attitudes Toward Women Scale was to obtain a gross score of attitude change tor ± Z , wards women's roles. The Attitudes Toward Women Scale (ATWS) contains fifty-five items. Each item consists of a declarative statement for which there are four response al ternatives from Agree Strongly to Disagree Strongly. Items are scored from 0 to 3, with 0 representing the most tra ditional viewpoint and 3 representing the most pro-feminist attitude. Total scores are obtained by summing the values for the individual items, the range of possible scores thus going from 0 to 165. Spence and Helmreich (1972) categorized the fifty-five items into six groups according to their content. The cat egories and the number of items in each are as follows: 1) Vocational, Education, and Intellectual Roles (N=17); 2) Freedom and Independence (N=4); 3) Dating, Courtship, and Etiquette (N=7); 4) Marital Relationships and Obliga tions (N=17) ; arid u 5 ) . - Sexual Behavior (N=10) . Norms The ATWS was given to introductory psychology classes at a southwestern university in both fall and spring semes ters. The questionaires were given to 713 men and 768 wom- 46 en. The similarity of distributions for the two semesters supports the reliability of the instrument. These data are shown in Appendix B. The authors reported a highly signif icant (p < .001).mean score for men, which is lower or more traditional than for women. The means of both sexes on in dividual items were compared by use of t-tests. The au- ' thors reported significant differences (p <.05) between the sexes on forty-seven of the fifty-five items. On eight items relating tp sexual behavior, dating and courtship and women's rights to alimony, women's views were found to be more traditional than men. In order to obtain comparative data from an older pop ulation, the authors sampled fathers and mothers of students in the study. Data were obtained on 232 fathers and 292 mothers. As in the male-female comparison of the student samples, the mean scores were higher for mothers than for fathers. The authors reported: Of the thirty significant differences, the sample of mothers was more conservative on seven items. They agreed more than men that intoxication and off-color jokes were less acceptable in women, that the initiative in dating and in proposing should come from men, that unmarried women should be circumspect in their sexual behavior (2 items), and that most 47 women need the protection and support that men have traditionally given them. (Spence and Helm- ^reich, p. 9) Spence and Helmreich (1972) reported that the mean scores for women (daughters and mothers in the study) were higher or more liberal than for men, and that differences between the sexes were more marked in the student popula tion. Statistical Treatment of Data Data were analyzed by a one-way analysis of variance. The dependent variable was the change scores between pre- and post-testing periods. There were four levels of the independent variable: assertion training group; encounter group; consciousness raising group; and the control group. Following a significant F, Tukey's HSD procedure was used to make pair-wise comparisons. The level of significance was set at p<.05. In order to control for any possible violations of the assumptions underlying analysis of variance, subjects were randomly discarded to achieve equal N's among the groups. CHAPTER IV FINDINGS The purpose of this chapter is to present the results of the statistical analysis used in this investigation, and to determine the comparable effect of assertion training, C-R, and encounter groups on self-actualization and self- concept with a college female population. One measure of change in the groups was performed by examining the dif ferences in scores between pre- and post-testing on the two major scales and ten subscales of the POI between the ex perimental and the control groups. Another criterion of change in the groups was performed by measuring the differ ences in scores between pre- and post-evaluations on the two major scales and the twelve subscales of the TSCS. A third criterion of change in all four groups was performed by measuring the differences in scores between pre- and post-testing using the Attitudes Toward Women Scale (ATWS). A single gross score was obtained for purposes of compari son . 49 Pre-Test Differences No significant pre-test differences were found on the major scales of the POI, TSCS, and ATWS. Significant dif ferences at the p^.05 level did occur on the Existential- ity, Self Regard, and Capacity for Intimate Contact scales of the POI. On the Existentiality scale, the differences occurred between the encounter and the control groups. The encounter group yielded a significantly higher mean score. Pre-test means and standard deviations are presented in Tables II and III. Pre-test differences (p <.02) were found between the encounter and assertion groups on the Self Regard scale. The encounter group subjects were found to score signifi cantly higher than assertion group subjects. Inspection of the pre-test group means revealed deviation below the POI norms for this scale. However, no other significant dif ferences were found with the other experimental and control groups in the pre-test analysis. Pre-test differences (p<.05) were found on the Capac ity for Intimate Contact scale. These differences occurred between the encounter and control group subjects; the en counter subjects scored significantly higher than control subjects. Inspection of the data indicated that pre-test differ ences between the groups were not strong enough to signif icantly affect the major scales on the instruments used in the study. On a combined total of twenty-seven scales, it would be reasonable to assume that several of these pre test differences could be attributed to chance. Prior to examining the differences in change scores in the treatment groups, an analysis of variance was performed to test for differences between pre- and post-measures of the POI, TSCS, and the ATWS. The results of this analysis are presented in Tables IV and V. The findings indicated that for the total population there were significant differ ences between pre- and post-measures of Other Directedness; Self Regard; Acceptance of Aggression; and the Support Ratio scales of the POI. The majority of all the other changes were in a positive direction, but were not statistically significant. Change scores for all subjects are presented in Tables IV and V. Differences between pre- and post measures of the TSCS were statistically significant on the following scales; Self Criticism, Total P, Identity, Self Satisfaction, Physical Self, Personal Self, and the Family 51 TABLE II Levels of Significance for Pre-Test Means ! for All Groups on the POI 1 ! POI _Encounter X SD _Assertion X SD X C-R SD _ Control X SD p Value TR 7.02 8.35 5.24 2.84 5.63 3.93 5.37 . 3.82 .59 SR 2.83 1.37 2.32 1.18 1.77 .10 1.66 .27 .39 Sav 21.00 3.38 20.22 3.38 18.77 2.72 18.22 1.71 .18 Ex 23.77 5.33 23.22 3.93 19.66 2.78 . 19.22 4.02 .05* FR 17.44 3.43 17.44 2.40 16.00 1.73 16.41 3.92 .20 S 14.00 2.91 12.22 3.73 10.88 1.90 10.22 3.19 .06 SR 12.77 1.78 9.55 2.78 10.88 .92 10.77 2.16 .02* SA 17.22 4.17 13.66 4.00 15.55 2.24 14.66 2.73 .17 Nc 12.66 2.06 12.55 1.66 11.55 1.42 10.88 1.83 .12 A 18.55 2.45 14.88 2.71 15.33 2.59 14.33 2.34 .06 C 20.77 3.99 19.33 3.87 17.22 . 1.71 16.66 3.50 .05* Sy 7.11 1.36 6.77 1.71 7.11 .60 6.77 .66 .60 * p C .05 Level of Significance VI tv TABLE III Levels of Significance for Pre-Test Means for All Groups on the TSCS and ATWS Encounter __Assertion C-R __ Control TSCS X SD X SD X SD X SD p Value SC (227333 1.32 29.44 3.20 27.,44 1.94 28.55 1.50 .13 P 268.44 25.26 275.33 12.00 270.,22 20.96 263.77 11.95 .61 Row 1 89.33 10.95 93.55 6.96 91.,77 10.32 84.55 5.17 .16 Row 2 85.33 6.44 86.00 6.55 85.,44 8.14 85.88 6.33 .11 Row 3 91.44 6.89 92.66 7.07 85.,11 3.88 84.88 10.85 .07 Col. A 60.44 3.08 60.11 5.37 58..11 2.69 57.77 5.40 .51 Col. B • 43.11 8.60 51.77 12.50 59..77 4.65 52.33 9.61 .07 Col. C 54.55 7.81 56.66 5.43 59..55 4.12 58.22 6.09 .35 Col. D 53.33 5.65 59.66 3.27 51..22 5.91 53.44 7.03 .20 Col. E 55.44 7.65 59.66 3.80 61..00 4.33 59.11 4.75 .17 Total V 55.66 4.41 53.55 7.16 54..77 4.52 53.00 2.87 .65 Col. V 28.22 2.91 25.66 5.61 29..11 4.42 27.55 1.92 .32 Row V 27.33 1.80 27.88 2.71 28..44 8.33 25.44 1.81 .54 D 122.22 13.51 126.11 15.06 125..55 8.04 125.22 7.37 .55 ATWS 135.66 24.33 126.66 25.24 128..33 20.00 125.44 22.22 .69 un ( jO TABLE IV F Test Result on 1 Way Analysis of Variance Between Pre- and Post-Measures on the POI for All Subjects Variable df between / within groups - F value p value Time Ratio 3 32 0.81 0.495 Support Ratio Time 3 32 4.06 0.015* Competency Inner 3 32 1.07 0.374 Directedness Self Actualizing 3 32 3.52 0.262 Value 3 32 2.27 • 0.098 Existentiality Feeling 3 32 1.94 0.141 Reactivity 3 32 0.65 0. 586 Spontaneity 3 32 0.28 0.650 Self Regard 3 32 3.30 0.032* Self Acceptance 3 32 1. 50 0.232 Nature of Man 3 32 0.74 0. 536 Synergy Acceptance of 3 32 1.85 0.157 Aggression Capacity for 3 32 2. 79 0.055* Intimate Contact 3 32 0.36 0.687 * = p < .05 54 TABLE V F Test Result on 1 Way Analysis of Variance Between Pre- and Post-Measures on the TSCS and the ATWS for All Subjects Variable df between / within groups F value p value Self Criticism 3 32 5.44 0.003* Total P 3 32 5.75 0.003* Identity 3 32 9.44 0.001* Self Satisfaction 3 32 3.31 0.032* Behavior 3 32 1.91 0.145 Physical Self 3 32 3.48 0.026* Moral-Ethical Self 3 32 1.61 0.204 Personal Self 3 32 3.24 0.034 Family Self 3 32 19.11 0.001* Social Self 3 32 0.73 0.541 Total Variability 3 32 1.04 0.389 Distribution 3 32 1.12 0.354 Attitudes Toward Women Scale 3 32 2.93 0.048* * = p < . 05 55 Self. Differences on the remaining TSCS scales were in a positive direction, but were not statistically significant. The results of the analysis of variance for the treatment groups indicated that the subjects generally improved their level of self-actualization and self-concept as measured by the POI and the TSCS. Pre- and post-test means, standard deviations, and change scores are presented in Tables VI through XIII. In order to test Hypotheses 1 through 4 presented in Chapter I, the change scores on each of the twelve scales of the POI and TSCS, as well as a single gross score on the ATWS, were compared among the control and treatment groups. Following a significant F, Tukey's HSD procedure was em ployed to make pair-wise comparisons. Hypothesis 1 The first hypothesis was drafted in order to examine the differences in change scores of C-R and control group subjects between pre- and post-measures on the POI, TSCS, and ATWS. Results indicated that for the C-R group sub jects, there were statistically significant differences on the Acceptance of Aggression and the Self Regard scales on the POI. TABLE VI Pre- and Post-Test Means, Standard Deviations, and Change Scores for the Encounter Group on the POI _ Pre-■Test _ Post-•Test Change Scores POI X SD X SD X SD Time/Ratio 7.02 8.35 5.24 1.46 -1.77 8.35 Support/Ratio 2.83 1.37 4.04 1.58 1.20 1.53 Self Actualizing Values 21.00 3.53 23.44 1.74 2.44 2.78 Existentiality 23.77 5.33 26.44 3.50 2.60 3.80 Feeling Reactivity 17.44 3.43 17.88 2.02 .44 3.24 Spontaneity 14.00 2.91 14.11 2.36 e .11 2.36 Self Regard 12.77 1.78 13.66 1.00 .88 1.69 Self Acceptance 17.22 4.17 18.66 3.00 1.44 2.00 Nature of Man 12.66 2.06 12.22 2.04 -.44 1.23 Synergy 7.11 1.36 8.00 1.41 .88 1.05 Acceptance of Aggression 18.55 2.45 18.33 2.59 -.22 1.98 Capacity for Intimate Contact 20.77 3.99 22.66 2.00 1.88 2.31 TABLE VII Pre- and Post-Test Means, Standard Deviations, and Change on Scores for the Encounter Group the TSCS and the ATWS i 1 1 i Pre-Test _ Post-Test _Change Scores TSCS X SD X SD X SD ! 1 Self Criticism 27.33 1.32 28.00 3.50 .66 2.39 Total P 268.44 25.26 274.33 37.81 5.88 20.76 Identity- 89.33 10.95 87.88 13.06 -1.44 7.29 Self Satisfaction 85.33 6.44 87.44 10.05 2.11 8.13 Behavior 91.44 6.89 95.22 8.39 3.77 7.18 Physical Self 60.44 3.08 61.11 2.97 .66 4.38 Moral & Ethical Self 43.11 8.60 44.11 lli 54 1.00 4.69 Personal Self 54.55 7.81 57.44 8.30 2.88 5.30 Family Self 53.33 5.65 54.33 7.44 1.00 7.12 Social Self 55.44 7.65 58.22 10.47 2.77 8.64 Total Variability 55.66 4.41 56.88 7.65 1.22 7.56 1 Column Variability 28.22 2.94 29.00 5.29 .77 3.89 j Row Variability 27.33 1.80 27.88 4.37 .55 4.97 i Distribution i 122.22 13.51 135.44 22.68 13.22 31.05 ’ ATWS 135.66 24.33 136.88 18.62 1.22 11.05 U 1 oo 0 TABLE VIII Pre- and Post-Test Means, Standard Deviations, and Change Scores for the Assertion Group on the POI POI _Pre-Test X SD _ Post- X •Test SD Change X Scores SD Time/Ratio 3.64 2.84 3.35 1.68 -.29 1.72 Support/Ratio Self Actualizing 2.32 1.18 2.30 .81 -.02 .81 Values 20.22 3.38 21.11 3.82 .88 2.80 Existentiality 23.22 3.93 22.55 4.95 -. 66 3.53 Feeling Reactivity 17.44 2.40 17.33 3.67 -.11 3.83 Spontaneity 12.22 3.73 12.33 3.50 .11 1.61 Self Regard 9.55 2.78 11.11 2.52 1.55 1.74 Self Acceptance 13.66 4.00 15.66 4.69 2.00 3.27 Nature of Man 12.55 1.66 13.00 2.23 .44 1.87 Synergy Acceptance of 6.77 1.71 6.88 1.16 .11 1.16 Aggression Capacity for 14.88 2.71 15.55 1.74 . 66 2.29 Intimate Contact Ln 19.33 3.87 20.77 2.04 1.44 3.20 TABLE IX I Pre- and Post-Test Means, Standard Deviations. i ' and Change Scores for the Assertion Group | on the TSCS and the ATWS i i TSCS _ Pre- X Test SD __ Post- X Test SD Change X Scores SD Self Criticism 29.44 3.20 32.77 3.34 3.33 1.87 Total P 275.33 12.00 301.22 16.15 25.88 15.93 Identity 93.55 6.96 100.77 8.70 7.22 5.51 Self Satisfaction 86.00 6.55 95.11 5.98 9.11 6.60 Behavior 92.66 7.07 97.00 6.53 4.33 6.98 Physical Self 60.11 5.37 64.44 4.21 4.33 5.04 Moral & Ethical Self 51.77 12.50 58.88 10.04 7.11 3.75 Personal Self 56.66 5.43 61.44 5.10 4.77 4.29 Family Self 59.66 3.27 67.66 5.54 8.00 6.30 Social Self 5 9.66 3.80 62.66 6.26 3.00 3.93 Total Variability 53.55 7.16 52.33 4.58 -1.22 9.36 Column Variability 25.66 5.61 28.55 3.12 2.88 7.33 Row Variability 27.88 2.71 23.77 2.72 -4.11 3.29 Distribution I 126.11 15.06 128.00 10.71 1.88 21.20 ' ATWS 126.66 25.24 133.22 20.95 6.55 10.18 O TABLE X Pre- and Post-Test Means, Standard Deviations, and Change Scores for the C-R Group on the POI ............ ..... POI _ Pre-Test X SD _ Post- X ■Test SD Change X Scores j SD Time/Ratio 5.63 3.93 4.23 .95 -1.40 3.38 1 Support/Ratio Self Actualizing 1.77 .10 1.87' .17 .10 .20 ! Values 18.77 2.72 21.88 2.31 .11 2.36 Existentiality 19.66 2.78 19.88 2.14 .22 2.33 Feeling Reactivity 16.00 1.73 15.55 1.81 -.44 1.58 Spontaneity 10.88 1.90 11.66 1.65 .77 2.16 Self Regard 10.88 .92 13.33 1.50 2.40 1.94 Self Acceptance 15.55 2.24 17.66 2.06 2.11 3.10 Nature of Man 11.55 1.42 11.44 1.50 -.11 .92 Synergy Acceptance of 7.11 .60 7.44 .52 .33 .86 Aggression 1 Capacity for 15.33 2.59 17.88 1.90 2.55 2.12 , Intimate Contact 17.22 1.74 18.77 2.48 1.55 2.06 TABLE XI Pre- and and Post-Test Means, Standard Change Scores for the C-R on the TSCS and the ATWS Deviations, Group i 1 _ Pre-•Test _ Post-Test Change Scores TSCS X SD X SD X SD I Self Criticism 27.44 1.94 28.44 2.06 1.00 ' 1.22 Total P 270.22 20.96 299.77 24.56 29.55 15.66 Identity 91.77 10.32 108.33 14.14 16.55 10.84 Self Satisfaction 85.44 8.14 91.22 4.90 5.44 8.32 Behavior 85.11 3.88 92.22 3.23 7.11 5.03 Physical Self 58.44 2.69 65.00 3.53 6.55 3.32 Moral & Ethical Self 59.77 4.65 65.66 4.09 5.88 5.75 Personal Self 59.55 4.12 67.55 4.44 8.00 6.87 Family Self 51.22 5.91 71.77 2.22 20.00 6.59 Social Self 61.00 4.33 65.11 7.92 4.11 5.27 Total Variability 54.77 4.52 57.22 2.53 2.44 4.15 Column Variability 29.11 4.42 28.55 2.55 -.55 4.15 i Row Variability 28.44 8.33 28.11 2.02 -.33 9.47 Distribution 125.55 8.04 129.77 6.16 4.22 7.87 ATWS. C T i D O 125.44 22.22 126.77 19.55 1.33 5.31 TABLE XII Pre- and Post-Test Means, Standard Deviations, and Change Scores for the Control Group on the POI i i POI _ Pre-Test X SD _ Post- X Test SD £hange X Scores i SD : i Time/Ratio 5.37 3.82 3.76 .91 -1.61 3.28 Support/Ratio 1.66 .27 1.67 .24 .00 .23 Self Actualizing Values 18.22 1.71 18.77 1.78 .55 1.58 Existentiality 19.22 4.02 19.11 2.97 -.11 2.75 Feeling Reactivity 16.41 3.92 13.33 2.29 -1.44 2.65 Spontaneity 10.22 3.19 10.77 2.48 .55 1.13 Self Regard 10.77 2.16 10.77 2.10 .00 1.41 Self Acceptance 14.66 2.73 14.44 2.06 -.22 1.85 j Nature of Man 10.88 1.83 11.22 .97 .33 1.50 ; Synergy 6.77 . 66 6.66 .50 -.11 .60 | Acceptance of Aggression 14.33 2.34 15.11 1.83 .77 1.92 ■ Capacity for Intimate Contact 16.66 3.50 17.33 3.39 .66 2.59 CJ TABLE XIII I I Pre- and Post-Test Means, Standard Deviations, and Change Scores for the Control Group on the TSCS and the ATWS TSCS _ Pre- X Test SD _ Post- X Test SD _Change X Scores SD Self Criticism 28.55 1.50 28.44 1.53 .33 1.22 Total P 263.77 11.95 257.55 30.08 -6.22 29.29 Identity- 84.55 5.17 88.88 6.43 4.33 3.74 Self Satisfaction 85.88 6.33 85.44 7.60 -1.00 5.14 Behavior 84.88 10.85 84.55 8.38 -0.33 7.15 Physical Self 57.77 5.40 62.00 4.38 2.22 3.45 Moral & Ethical Self 52.33 9.61 57.44 10.48 5.11 9.33 Personal Self 58.22 6.09 58.55 4.47 .33 4.66 Family Self 53.44 7.03 54.88 3.55 1.44 4.74 Social Self 59.11 4.75 58.88 5.48 -0.22 7.10 Total Variability 53.00 2.87 50.00 4.71 -3.00 6.63 Column Variability 27.55 1.92 25.55 2.92 -2.00 3.46 Row Variability 25.44. 1.81 24.44 2.35 -1.00 3.50 Distribution 125.22 7.37 121.44 8.12 -3.77 11.09 j ATWS \ \ G > 125.44 22.22 126.77 19.55 1.33 5.31 Results from the statistical analysis on the Accep tance of Aggression scale of the POI indicated a statisti cally significant difference between the C-R group and the assertion group at the p { .05 level. The findings indicat ed a greater'acceptance of aggression by C-R group sub jects . Findings on the Self Regard scale of the POI show a statistically significant difference between the C-R and control group at the p^ .03 level. The Self Regard scale reflects the personas feelings about herself. High scores indicateta positive self-regard, low scores indicate low self-value. The results indicated an increase in the sub ject's level of self-regard. On other pre- and post-measures of the POI scales, there were no significant differences between the C-R group and control group subjects. Statistically significant results were obtained be tween the C-R group treatment and the control group on the following TSCS scales; Identity, Personal Self, Family Self, and the Total P. Differences on pre- and post-scores on the Identity scale were highly significant at the p< .001 level. The Identity scale contained the "what am I" items 65 which describe how the person sees herself. Results on the Personal Self scale were statistically significant at the .03 level. This score reflects a person's self-evalua tion and feelings of personal adequacy. Pre- and post measures on the Family Self scale of the TSCS indicated statistically significant results at the p<-.001 level be tween the C-R and the control group. The Family Self score reflects feelings of value and worth in terms of close as sociates and as a family member. Findings on the Total P scale between C-R and the con trol group indicated significance at the p^*003 level. The Total P score represents the internal and external frame of reference within which the person is describing herself. This item pool reflects the statements; (1) This is what I am; (2) This is how I feel about myself; and (3) This is what I do. This score reflects the person's gener al level of self-esteem. A person scoring high on this scale would be considered to possess high self-regard, values of self-worth, and self-confidence. Persons scoring low tend to lack self-confidence, to possess low self-re gard, and are often anxious and depressed. Significant results at the p<.05 level were obtained 66 by the C-R group on the ATWS. This change score indicated a liberalizing of attitudes toward women's roles. However, the C-R group did not differ significantly from the control group or the other treatment"groups on the ATWS scale. Hypothesis 1 predicted nonsignificant score changes on the twelve scales of self-actualization on the POI for both the C-R and control groups. With two exceptions, these predictions proved true for the C-R group treatment. Also, Hypothesis 1 predicted nonsignificant score changes on fourteen scales of the TSCS, and on the ATWS. This predic tion proved true in nine out of fourteen scales of the TSCS, and on the ATWS. Therefore, the null hypothesis would be considered tenable on ten of twelve scales of the POI and on nine of fourteen scales of the TSCS. For the ATWS scale, the null hypothesis would be considered tenable in that no significant shift from pre- to post-testing oc curred between the C-R and control group. Hypothesis 2 Hypothesis 2 was drafted in order to examine the dif ferences in change scores for assertion training and control group subjects on pre- and post-measures of the POI, TSCS, and the ATWS. Findings indicated that for the assertion 67 .group subjects, there were statistically significant dif ferences among the experimental groups on the POI, but not with the control group. Results indicated statistically significant differences at the p<.01 level between asser tion and encounter group subjects on the Support Ratio scales. The Support Ratio scale purports to measure wheth er a person is basically self-directed, thereby requiring minimal environmental support, or Other Directed, where conformity towards external authorities and opinions is a predominant waybof being. It must be noted that the mean shift for the two groups occurred most radically with the encounter group treatment. A slightly negative group mean shift occurred for the assertion group treatment. Results on the Tennessee Self Concept Scale indicated statistical significance between the assertion and control groups on the following scales; Self Criticism, Total P, and Self Satisfaction. High'iscores on the Self Criticism scale indicate a "healthy openness and ability to use self-criti cism constructively, whereas, low scores suggest defensive ness" (Fitts, p. 2). Findings revealed a significant dif ference at the p< .003 level between the assertion and con trol groups on the Self Criticism scale. 68 Results on the Total P scale between the assertion and control groups were statistically significant at the p < ^ .003 level. All of the subscales of the TSCS are contained in the two major scales; the Self Criticism and Total P scale. Therefore, these are the two most significant scales contained in the instrument. Results indicated that the assertion group treatment had an overall positive effect as related to self-concept measures. Findings revealed significant differences at the p <.03 level between assertion and control group subjects on the Self Satisfaction scale. The Self Satisfaction scale de scribes how a person feels and accepts herself. Results indicated that the assertion group treatment had a signifi cant positive effect as compared with control group subjects (p <; .03) . Differences on other scales on the TSCS were, with one exception, in a positive direction. The statistical analy sis revealed that assertion subjects generally improved their level of self-actualization and concept as measured by the POI and TSCS. Significant results from pre- to post-testing were ob tained on the ATWS at the p<.05 level. However, mean 69 scores for all three treatment groups and the control group shifted in a positive direction. Comparisons between as sertion and control group scores on the ATWS revealed no significant differences. Hypothesis 2 predicted nonsignificant score changes on the twelve scales of self-actualization on the POI for both the assertion and control groups. with no exception, this prediction proved true for the assertion group. Thus, the assertion training treatment was not a significant enough variable to affect changes in scores on the POI. In addi tion, Hypothesis 2 predicted nonsignificant score changes on the fourteen scales of the TSCS and on the ATWS. This prediction proved true on eleven of twelve subscales of the TSCS, and untenable on the two major scales. Therefore, the null hypothesis would be considered tenable on twelve scales of the POI and on eleven of fourteen scales on the TSCS. No significant differences occurred between the as sertion and control groups on the ATWS. Therefore, the null hypothesis would be considered tenable. Hypothesis 3 The third null hypothesis declared that on pre- and post-measures of self-actualization as determined by the 70 POI/ TSCS, and ATWS scales, there would be no significant difference in the mean change score for women participating in encounter groups than with those in a control group. To test the third hypothesis, a one way analysis of variance was conducted for each of the scales on the pre- and post-measures of the POI, TSCS, and ATWS in order to determine if there were differences in the shift of scores in the three experimental and control groups. Following a significant F, Tukey's HSD procedure was used to make pair wise comparisons. Results indicated that for encounter, group subjects, there were statistically significant differences on the POI Support Ratio scale (p*C.01) when compared with the control group subjects. Encounter group subjects tended to score higher from pre- to post-testing on most scales of the POI, however, further significance at the p< .05 level was not obtained with control group subjects. Findings indicated significant differences between encounter, assertion, and C-R group subjects on the Other Directed and Acceptance of Aggression scales. Differences between pre- and post-testing on the Other Directed scale revealed a significant change score (p<*.02) in a negative 71 direction for encounter participants. This negative score may reflect increased independence and less conforming at titudes for the encounter group subjects. Results on the POI Acceptance of Aggression scale re vealed significant differences between encounter group sub jects and C-R group subjects at the p<.05 level. This difference occurred, in part, as a result of the encounter group's slightly negative shift, and the C-R group's strong positive movement towards accepting aggressiveness. TSCS scores for the two major scales and the twelve subscales were all in a positive direction. However, no significant differences occurred between encounter and con trol group subjects on pre- and post-testing. Findings on the ATWS indicated a significant difference from pre- to post-testing at the p <.05 level. However, significance was not obtained with the control or other treatment groups. Hypothesis 4 The fourth null hypothesis declared that on pre- and post-measures of self-actualization, there will be no sig nificant differences among the three approaches when each is compared with the other two. Results indicated that 72 statistically significant differences were obtained for the C-R group on the following POI, TSCS, and ATWS scales: Acceptance of Aggression; Self Criticism; Identity; Physical Self; and Family Self. Comparisons among the four groups are presented in Tables XIV and XV. The findings revealed significant differences between encounter and C-R group subjects at the p<.05 level on the Acceptance of Aggression scale. As previously stated, these differences occurred as a result of the C-R group's strong positive shift towards acceptance of aggressive behaviors. Results on the Support Ratio scale indicated significant differences (p^.,02) between the encounter and assertion groups. The Support Ratio scale for the encounter group subjects increased towards the self-actualized range. A very slight negative shift occurred for the assertion group. Change scores on the Self Criticism scale indicated a significant difference (p< .004) between the assertion, en counter, and C-R groups. High scores on this scale indi cate a normal and healthy openness for self-criticism, whereas low scores indicate defensiveness. All three of the treatment groups shifted in a positive direction with the assertion group means significantly higher when compared TABLE XIV Levels of Significance on Tukey's HSD Procedure for Pair-Wise Comparisons Among Means on the POI Scales 1 Encounter Encounter Encounter Assertion Assertion C-R 1 and and and and and and 1 1 Assertion C-R Control C-R Control Control Time Ratio NS NS NS NS NS NS Support Ratio ** NS ** NS NS NS Self Actualizing Values NS NS NS NS NS NS Existentiality NS NS NS NS NS ' NS Feeling Reactivity NS NS NS NS NS NS Spontaneity NS NS NS NS NS NS Self Regard NS NS NS NS NS * Self Acceptance NS NS NS NS NS NS Nature of Man NS NS NS NS NS NS Synergy NS NS NS NS NS NS Acceptance of Aggression NS * NS NS NS NS i Capacity for : Intimate Contact NS NS NS NS NS NS NS No Significance | * Significance at p<.05 level ** Significance at p<.02 level TABLE XV | Levels of Significance on Tukey's HSD Procedure for Pair-Wise Comparisons Among Means on the TSCS and the ATWS i Encounter and Assertion Encounter and C-R Encounter and Control Assertion and C-R Assertion and Control C-R and Control Self Criticism ** * NS NS * * * * * * NS Total P NS NS NS NS k k k •k ic k Identity- NS k k k k NS NS NS NS Self Satisfaction NS NS NS NS * NS Behavior NS NS NS NS NS NS Physical Self NS * NS NS NS NS Moral & Ethical Self NS NS NS NS NS NS Personal Self NS NS NS NS NS * Family Self NS **** NS * * * * NS k k k k Social Self NS NS NS NS NS NS Total Variability NS NS NS NS NS NS Column Variability NS NS NS NS NS NS Row Variability NS NS NS NS NS NS Distribution NS NS NS NS NS NS ATWS NS NS NS NS NS NS * Significance at p<.05 level ** Significance at p<.02 level *** Significance at p <.01 level significance at p<.001 level with the other two treatments. Results on the Identity scale revealed significant differences (p<.001) between the C-R group and the asser tion group. Change scores revealed assertion group subjects mean score for this scale moved in a negative direction, whereas the C-R group subjects moved in a positive direc tion. Scores for all groups were below the twenty-fifth percentile on the pre-test for this scale with no signifi cant differences among the groups. The post-test results indicated a positive shift for the assertion and encounter groups, whose mean scores were above the thirtieth percen tile for group norms on this scale. Change scores for this scale indicated significant differences, with the C-R group mean score at the fifty-fifth percentile on the Identity scale. Results on the Physical Self scale indicated signifi cant differences (p<*.03) between encounter and C-R group subjects. A slight positive shift occurred for all four groups. The results indicated that C-R group subjects im proved their view of themselves significantly when compared to the other treatment and control groups. The Physical Self scale evaluates a person's feelings of worth and value 76 as a family member. The encounter and control group means shifted very little for this scale, indicating little change in the person's sense of worth or belonging with the family. DISCUSSION General;,Research Questions Essentially two questions were being asked for each of the first three null hypotheses, and one question for the fourth null hypothesis. These questions will be discussed in this section and related to the findings. Hypothesis 1 First, what effect does a women's consciousness rais ing group have on self-actualization as measured by the POI and TSCS? Second, what effect does a woman's C-R group have on the individual's attitude towards her sex role? Although significance was obtained between C-R and the control .group on only one scale of the POI, the data showed nonsignificant change in a positive direction on nine of the twelve scales. A significance level of p<.05 on the Acceptance of Aggression scale between C-R and the asser tion group points to important possible effects of this 77 treatment. Women are culturally conditioned not to accept aggres sive behaviors in themselves. Aggressive behaviors are not considered feminine or ladylike, and therefore, are likely to be discouraged. It is encouraging to note that a C-R group may have a positive effect in equalizing male and female responses toward aggression. The findings indicated a slightly negative shift in the assertion group mean scores on the Acceptance of Aggres sion scale. This response was predictable in that with as sertion training, "aggressive” behaviors are considered in appropriate as a matter of definition. Assertive behaviors are appropriate in that the subjects achieve the desired goals without denying others their rights, whereas aggres siveness may deny others rights in order to achieve the desired goals. On the Self Regard scale of the POI, significant dif ferences were achieved (p<.03) between the control and C-R groups. An important goal of the women's rights movement and C-R groups is the strengthening of self-concept and the raising of self-esteem in women. Self-regard and self-worth are issues commonly dealt with in the C-R group experience. 78 However, a significant pre-test difference (p< .02) between C-R and the control groups on this scale indicated that this difference cannot be attributed to treatment effects. On scales where significance was not achieved between the control and C-R groups, positive movement should be noted. Comparisons between C-R and control group subjects on the Self Actualizing Value scale yielded results in a positive direction (p<.09), indicating an affirmation of values held by self-actualizing people. Findings on the Self Satisfaction and Behavior scales of the TSCS showed significant positive movement. For those four scales on the TSCS where significance was obtained, very strong correlations resulted. Scores for Identity (p^ .001), Personal Self (p< .03), Family Self (p < .001) , and the Total P (p<.003) substantiated the no tion that the C-R group approach can significantly affect important components of self-concept. A primary function of the C-R group was to explore and affirm aspects of fem inine identity and womanhood. It would appear that these objectives were met in the experimental group. Feelings of adequacy and self-worth are common threads tying the Per sonal Self, Family Self, and Total P scales. Significant 79 increases on these scales reflect increased self-confidence and self-worth. Frankly, the investigator was quite surprised at the extremely high significance levels on these four scales. A comparison of means for the fourteen TSGS scales with the normative data in the manual revealed lower mean scores for both the experimental and control groups on all but three of the scales. Another possible explanation may be found in the non significant but high variability scores found for all four groups. High scores may be interpreted to mean that the person tends to compartmentalize certain areas of their self-concept, whereas the well integrated person would tend to score below the mean but above the one percentile. Total variability scores were the lowest for the control group and the highest for the C-R group. Variability scores for all four 'groups remained within one standard deviation of the mean. The effects of the C-R group on women's attitudes to ward their sex role was measured by the ATWS. A single gross score ranging from a very conservative and convention al viewpoint to the ardent feminist position was obtained. 80 As might be predicted, the C-R group produced the greatest range of change scores from pre- to post-testing. A com parison of the mean scores for both the experimental and control groups revealed the population for all groups in the study held a strong pro-feminist position. The differ ences from pre- to post-testing for all four groups were significant at the p<*.05 level. However, no significance was obtained when comparing the experimental groups with the control subjects. This high consciousness of women's roles may be, in part, due to the highly diverse student and faculty population from which the sample was taken. At least a half dozen courses related to feminine identity have been offered in as many departments. Also, there is a thirty-five percent minority population attending Califor nia State College Dominguez Hills, which may not be atypi cal when compared with other urban campus environments. Hypothesis 2 First, what effect does an assertion training group have on the individual's level of self-actualization as measured by the POI and TSCS? Secondly, what effect does an assertion training group have on the individual's atti tude towards her sex role? Assertion training is primarily designed to deal with situationally specific dysfunctional behaviors, whereas the concept of self-actualization is quite broad and therefore encompasses a wide range of behaviors and attitudes. Find-" ings indicated nonsignificant positive changes on most scales of the POi in this study. The TSCS may have been a more sensitive instrument to the kinds of changes assertion training can produce. Comparisons between control subjects and assertion subjects revealed significant differences on the Self Criticism, Total P, and Self Satisfaction scales. These results indicate general improvement in self-concept, which would support the notion that the subjects' overall level of self-actualization would also be improved. In response to the second question, what effect does assertion training have on attitudes toward women's sex roles, the data do not substantiate any significant effects among the groups. However, significant changes from pre- to post-testing (p<.05) did occur on the ATWS for all four groups. Hypothesis 3 First, what effect does an encounter group have on an individual's level of self-actualization as measured by the 82 POI and TSCS? Second, what effect does an encounter group have on an individual's attitude towards her sex role? Significant results (p^.Ol) were obtained between the encounter and control group subjects on the Support Ratio scale of the POI. The Support Ratio scale was one of the two major scales which contrasted the relationship between subjects tending toward inner-directedness or other-direct- edness. Inner-Directed referred to guidance by inner moti vation rather than external stimuli, while Other-Directed- ness referred to the need to look to external sources of authority for direction and validation. Shostrom (1966) indicated that the self-actualized person is somewhat lib erated from conventional social pressures and expectations. Other scales on the POI and TSCS indicated movement in a positive direction, however, did not achieve signifi cance . In terms of the second question as to what effect an encounter group had on a woman's attitude towards her sex role, the data did not substantiate any significant effects. Hypothesis 4 Is any one group more effective than the other two in facilitating change towards self-actualization? 83 The evidence produced by this study supported the C-R group format as preferred towards facilitating positive self-concept change in college women. Significant positive differences were found for C-R groups when compared with assertion, encounter, and control groups on a total of seven of twenty-seven scales on the POI, TSCS, and ATWS. The re sults indicated that C-R group participants experienced a greater acceptance of aggression, increased self-regard, an increased capacity for self-criticism, and a more positive view of their physical, personal, and family self when com pared with assertion and encounter subjects. The findings indicated that the C-R group subjects more effectively changed their self-concepts in a positive direction when compared with the encounter and assertion groups. The findings revealed significant differences between C-R and encounter groups (p<.05) on the Acceptance of Ag gression scale of the POI. The C-R group subjects indicat ed a greater acceptance of aggressive behaviors. No other significant differences occurred for the C-R group and other treatment groups on POI or ATWS measures. It must be concluded that the C-R approach did positively affect self- concept, as measured by the TSCS, but did not significantly 84 affect self-actualization as measured by the POI scales. Although significant differences on the ATWS did not occur among the treatment groups, change scores indicated significant differences (p<.05) were obtained from pre- to post-testing. However, the group mean shifted in a posi tive direction for all groups in the study. The encounter group was significantly (p<.02) more in dependent and self-supportive when compared to the asser tion group on the Support Ratio scale of the POI. Other change scores for the encounter group on the POI, TSCS, and ATWS were generally in a positive direction, but signifi cance was not achieved. Although the research design did not make it possible to rule out the effects of leadership style on the outcomes, it is notable that most of the changes occurred in predict ed and understandable directions. 85 CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE STUDIES SUMMARY The purpose of this study was to investigate three modes of group treatment for self-actualization and atti tude change towards the sex roles of women, and to deter mine which of the treatments seems to be most effective in facilitating change in women with a college population. Four null hypotheses were tested: 1) Hypothesis 1: This hypothesis stated that change scores on the POI; TSCS, major and subscales; and on the ATWS would yield no significant differences as a result of the C-R group experience when compared with con trol group subjects. This, in fact, proved to be the case for eleven of the twelve sub scales of the POI, and for the two ratio scales. Findings indicated that on eight 86 of the twelve subscales, and for one of the two major scales of the TSCS, no significant differences occurred. Significance was not obtained on the ATWS. Hypothesis 2; This hypothesis stated that change scores on the POI; TSCS, major and subscales; and on the ATWS would yield no significant differences when compared with control group subjects as a result of the assertion training group experience. This proved to be the case for all scales of the POI and on eleven of the twelve subscales of the TSCS. This proved not to be true on the two major scales of the TSCS. No sig nificant differences occurred on the ATWS. Hypothesis 3: This hypothesis stated that change scores on the POI; TSCS, major and subscales; and on the ATWS would yield no significant differences when compared with control group subjects as a result of the encounter group experience. Findings indi- cated that this proved to be the case for all scales on the POI, TSCS, and the ATWS. 4) Hypothesis 4; This hypothesis stated that change scores on the POI; TSCS, major and subscales; and on the ATWS would yield no significant differences among the three approaches when each is compared to the other two. Findings revealed that this proved to be the case for eight of the twelve subscales of the POI, and for one of the major scales. Findings indicated that on four of the twelve subscales, and for one of the two major scales of the TSCS, no significant differences occurred. Signif icance was not obtained among the treatment groups on the ATWS. In order to test these hypotheses, it was necessary to select measurement instruments for self-actualization, self- concept, and attitudes toward the sex roles of women. After the post-testing, an analysis of variance was used to test for differences in change scores among the treatment and control groups. Following a significant F, 88 Tukey's HSD procedure was conducted to make pair-wise com parisons . Selection of Measurement Instrument for Self-Actualization Shostrom's Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) was found to be the only instrument available that purported to measure self-actualization. The inventory contained twelve scales measuring traits characteristic of self-actualizing persons. The primary weakness of the instrument was that it attempted to evaluate personality traits that were ex tremely difficult to quantify. Though the Inventory had weaknesses, it is the only personality test designed to measure self-actualization that has been extensively used in research. The POI was also recommended for use by crit ical writers in the Mental Measurements Yearbook. The POI was therefore chosen as the measurement instrument for self- actualization. The first two scales of Time Ratio and Sup- port Ratio were used as gross measures of self-actualiza tion, as well as the ten subscales. 89 Selection of Measurement Instrument for Self-Concept No test exists which attempts to measure all the per sonality characteristics of a self-actualizing person. The Tennessee Self Concept Scale (TSCS) developed by Fitts (1965) purports to measure self-concept, which is an impor-. tant component of self-actualization. Therefore, changes in self-concept may indicate movement towards or away from self-actualization. The first two scales of Self Criticism (SC) and Positive Scores (P) were used as gross measures of self-concept as well as the twelve subscales. Selection of Measurement Instrument for Attitudes Toward Women Spence and Helmreich's (1972) Attitudes Toward Women Scale was the only contemporary instrument that could be found which purported to measure aspects of the differential treatment of men and women. The instrument was chosen be cause it provided a gross score indicating liberal or con servative views as related to attitudes toward women. The experimenter was primarily interested in gross score shifts, 90 therefore, subscales of the instrument were not tabulated. * Implications Significance was achieved on seven of twenty-seven scales. The investigator considered the likelihood that several of these significant differences may have occurred by chance and/or as a result of leadership effects/ There fore, caution was exercised in attributing the significant results to the treatment effects alone. The findings of this study revealed that the variables of assertion, encounter, and C-R groups may have differen tially affected change scores on the POI and TSCS, while these variables did not significantly affect change scores on the ATWS. Conclusions drawn from the findings of this study in dicated that differential group approaches, with leaders from similar philosophical and methodological backgrounds, may facilitate growth in women as measured by the POI and TSCS. The most impressive results occurred for the C-R group. Findings indicated significant differences between the control and C-R group on the Self Regard scale of the POI (p<.03), and on the Identity (p<..001), Personal Self 91 (p<..03), Family Self (p<.001), and the Total P (p*.003) scales. When compared with the other two treatment groups, these findings suggest that the C-R group modality appears to be a viable context in which personal growth may occur in women. These results, although not conclusive, would imply that counseling centers offering varied group approaches toward personal growth should consider the applicability of this group format to their services. Findings for the assertion group indicated little change on the POI measures of self-actualization. However, significant changes on the TSCS occurred on the two major scales; Self Criticism (p<.004), and the Total P (p<.003). Significance also occurred on the Self Satisfaction (p<.03) scale. These significant scores indicated that gross self- concept changes may occur as a result of treating specific areas of dysfunction. Findings for the encounter group revealed significant differences on the Support Ratio scale (p<.03) when com pared with the control group. The implications of these results indicated some tendency towards independence and self-validation as measured by the POI. 92 Limitations of the study which may have had an effect on its outcome are the small sample size; the lack of con trol for the effects of classroom experience; variation in leadership style; and limiting the study to one college population. Recommendations for Future Studies On the basis of the results of this study, the follow ing recommendations for future studies are offered: The first recommendation of this study is directed towards counseling centers which offer varied personal growth ex periences as a part of their services. The findings of this study, although inconclusive, indicated that the C-R group experience may be a viable source of personal growth in women. Therefore, this group modality should be investi gated further as to its therapeutic utility on other campus environments. Another recommendation supported by a literature search is that more extensive group research be conducted with men only and women only populations. Such studies would provide information as to the effects of sexual seg regation on personal growth and group behavior. 93 A further recommendation is that a follow-up study be performed with a larger N in order to increase the confi dence in the findings. In addition, it is recommended that future studies be conducted on the effects of leadership styles as related to varied group formats. Finally, it is recommended that future research be conducted to develop additional instruments measuring atti tudes toward the sex roles of women. 94 APPENDICES APPENDIX A 96 Personal Orientation Inventory A Brief Description of Major Scales and Sub-Scales* Symbol De sc r i p t i o n I. Ratio Scores T /T TIME RATIO — Time Incompetence/Time I C Competence - measures degree to which one is "present" oriented 0/1 SUPPORT RATIO — Other/Inner - measures whether reactivity orientation is basically toward others or self II. Sub-Scales SAV SELF-ACTUALIZING VALUE -- Measures affirma tion of a primary value of self actualizing people Ex EXISTENTIALITY — Measures ability to situa- tionally or existentially react without rigid adherence to principles Fr FEELING REACTIVITY — Measures sensitivity of responsiveness to one1s own needs and feelings S SPONTANEITY -- Measures freedom to react spontaneously or to be oneself Sr SELF REGARD — Measures affirmation of self because of worth or strength Sa SELF ACCEPTANCE — Measures affirmation or acceptance of self in spite of weaknesses or deficiencies * From Shostrom (19 66) , p. 6 __________________________________________97J Symbol Nc Sy A C Description NATURE OF MAN — Measures degree of the con structive view of the nature of man, masculinity, femininity SYNERGY — Measures ability to be syner gistic, to transdend dichotomies ACCEPTANCE OF AGGRESSION — Measures ability to accept one's natural aggres siveness as opposed to de fensiveness, denial, and repression of aggression CAPACITY FOR INTIMATE CONTACT — Measures ability to develop contactful intimate relationships with other human beings, unencum bered by expectations and obligations 98 The Attitudes Toward Women Scale (ATWS) and Its Scoring Key * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ATTITUDES TOWARD WOMEN The statements listed below describe attitudes toward the role of women in society which different people have. There are no right or wrong answers, only opinions. You are ask ed to express your feelings about each statement by indi cating whether you (A) Agree strongly, (B) Agree mildly, (C) Disagree mildly, or (D) Disagree strongly. Please in dicate your opinion by marking the column on the answer sheet which corresponds to the alternative which best de scribes your personal attitude. Please respond to every item. (A) Agree strongly (B) Agree mildly (C) Disagree mildly (D) Disagree strongly 1. Women have an obligation to be faithful to their hus bands . 2. Swearing and obscenity is more repulsive in the speech of a woman than a man. 3. The satisfaction of her husband's sexual desires is a fundamental obligation of every wife. 4. Divorced men should help support their children, but should not be required to pay alimony if their wives are capable of working. 5. Under ordinary circumstances, men should be expected to pay all the expenses while they're out on a date. 6. Women should take increasing responsibility for leader ship in solving the intellectual and social problems of the day. 7. It is all right for wives to have an occasional, casual, 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. extramarital affair. Special attentions like standing up for a woman »who comes into a room or giving her a seat on a crowded bus are outmoded and should be discontinued. Vocational and professional schools should admit the best qualified students, independent of sex. Both husband and wife should be allowed the same grounds for divorce. Telling dirty jokes should be mostly a masculine pre rogative . Husbands and wives should be equal partners in planning the family budget. Men should continue to show courtesies to women such as holding open the door or helping them on with their coats. Women should claim alimony not as persons incapable of self-support but only when there are children to pro vide for or when the burden of starting life anew after the divorce is obviously heavier for the wife. Intoxication among women is worse than intoxication among men. The initiative in dating should come from the man. Under modern economic conditions with women being ac tive outside the home, men should share in household tasks such as washing dishes and doing the laundry. It is insulting to women to have the "obey1 ' clause remain in the marriage service. There should be a strict merit system in job appoint ment and promotion without regard to sex. A woman should be as free as a man to propose marriage. 100 21. Parental authority and responsibility for discipline of the children should be equally divided between hus band and wife. 22. Women should worry less about their rights and more about becoming good wives and mothers. 23. Women earning as much as their dates should bear equally the expense when they go out together. 24. Women should assume their rightful place in business and all the professions along with men. 25. A woman should not expect to go to exactly the same places or to have quite the same freedom of action as a man. 26. Sons in a family should be given more encouragement to go to college than daughters. 27. It is ridiculous for a woman to run a locomotive and for a man to darn socks. 28. It is childish for a woman to assert herself by retain ing her maiden name after marriage. 29. Society should regard the services rendered by the women workers as valuable as those of men. 30. It is only fair that male workers should receive more pay than women even for identical work. 31. In general, the father should have greater authority than the mother in the bringing up of children. 32. Women should be encouraged not to become sexually in timate with anyone before marriage, even their fiances. 33. Women should demand money for household and personal expenses as a right rather than as a gift. 34. The husband should not be favored by law over the wife in the disposal of family property or income. 101 35. Wifely submission is an outworn virtue. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. There are some professions and types of businesses that are more suitable for men than women. Women should be concerned with their duties of child- rearing and housetending, rather than with desires for professional and business careers. The intellectual leadership of a community should be largely in the hands of men. A wife should make every effort to minimize irritation and inconvenience to the male head of the family. There should be no' greater barrier to an unmarried woman having sex with a casual acquaintance than hav ing dinner with him. Economic and social freedom is worth far more to women than acceptance of the ideal of femininity which has been set by men. Women should take the passive role in courtship. On the average, women should be regarded as less capa ble of contribution to economic production than are men. The intellectual equality of woman with man is per fectly obvious. Women should have full control of their persons and give or withhold sex intimacy as they choose. The husband has in general no obligation to inform his wife of his financial plans. There are many jobs in which men should be given pref erence over women in being hired or promoted. Women withcchildren should not work outside the home if they don't have to financially. 102 49. Women should be given equal opportunity with men for apprenticeship in the various trades. 50. The relative amounts of time and energy to be devoted to household duties on the one hand and to a career on the other should be determined by personal desires and interests rather than by sex. 51. As head of the household, the husband should have more responsibility for the family's financial plans than his wife. 52. If both husband and wife agree that sexual fidelity isn't important, there's no reason why both shouldn't have extramarital affairs if they want to. 53. The husband should be regarded as the legal represen tative of the family group in all matters of law. 54. The modern girl is entitled to the same freedom from regulation and control that is given to the modern boy. 55. Most women need and want the kind of protection and support that men have traditionally given them. 103 APPENDIX B Means, Standard Deviations , and Reliability Coefficients Tennessee Self Concept Scale** Standard Score Mean Deviation Reliability Self-Criticism 35.54 6.70 .75 T/F 1.03 .29 .82 Net Conflict -4.91 13v01 .74 Total Conflict 30.10 8.21 .74 Total Positive 345.57 30.70 .92 Row 1 127.10 9.96 .91 Row 2 103.67 13.79 .88 Row 3 115.01 11.22 .88 Col. A 71. 78 7.67 .87 Col. B 70.33 8.70 .80 Col. C 64.55 7.41 .85 Col. D 70. 83 8.43 .89 Col. E 68.14 7.86 .90 Total Variability 48.53 12.42 .67 Col. Total V 29.03 9.12 .73 Row Total V 19.40 5.76 .60 * Reliability data based on test - retest with 60 college students over a two-week period ** From Fitts (1965) p. 14 105 GUIDELINES FOR A C-R GROUP Most groups find that starting at the beginning works best: childhood and feelings about self and parents raise fewer problems of guilt and defensiveness since we were less responsible for our lives in those years. Move slow ly from topic to topic, and try to keep a common focus. For instance, a group might explore questions like these: What was our earliest childhood awareness of being trained to behave like a girl? How were brothers or boys in the heighbor- hood raised, treated, or educated differ ently? What was our feeling about that? What was our first experience of sexual fantasies? Sexual realities? What was our reaction to bodily changes in adolescence? 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Asset Metadata

Creator Wysocki, Stephen Robert (author)

Core Title Differential effects of three group treatments on self-actualization and attitudes toward the sex roles of women

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Counselor Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Psychology, clinical

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-438861

Unique identifier UC11245114

Identifier usctheses-c26-438861 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP24103.pdf

Dmrecord 438861

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Wysocki, Stephen Robert

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA