University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Quality of supervision and effectiveness of interns as a function of supervisor-intern psychotherapeutic orientations

(USC Thesis Other)

Quality of supervision and effectiveness of interns as a function of supervisor-intern psychotherapeutic orientations

PDF

Download

Open document

Flip pages

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content QUALITY OF SUPERVISION AND EFFECTIVENESS OF INTERNS
AS A FUNCTION OF SUPERVISOR-INTERN
PSYCHOTHERAPEUTIC ORIENTATIONS
by
A m e l l e S p a in
A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n t e d t o t h e
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
I n P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e
R e q u ir e m e n ts f o r t h e D eg ree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
( E d u c a t io n )
J u n e 1977
C o p y r ig h t by A rm e lle Spain^ 1977
UMI Number: DP24247
All rights reserved
INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed,
a note will indicate the deletion.
Dissertation Rubl'ishing
UMI DP24247
Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author.
Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC.
All rights reserved. This work is protected against
unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code
ProQuest LLC.
789 East Eisenhower Parkway
P.O. Box 1346
Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346
U N IV E R S IT Y O F S O U T H E R N C A L IF O R N IA
THE GRADUATE SC H O O L
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS A N G ELE S, C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, w ritten by
A rm e lle S p a in
under the direction of /z .e r _ ._ Dissertation C o m
mittee, and a p p r o v e d by all its mem bers, has
been presented to and accepted by T he G raduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of
the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
DISSERTATION MMITTEE
trm a ;
CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES .................................. . . . .
i
C h a p te r
I
i I . THE PROBLEM AND ITS THEORETICAL BACKGROUND. .
B ackground o f t h e P roblem
P ro b lem S i t u a t i o n
R e s e a r c h Q u e s t io n s
R e s e a r c h H y p o th e s e s
P u rp o s e o f t h e S tu d y
D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms
D e l i m i t a t i o n o f t h i s S tu d y
O u t l i n e . o f R em ain d er o f D i s s e r t a t i o n
IX. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
T h e r a p e u t i c O r i e n t a t i o n s
Q u a l i t y o f S u p e r v i s i o n
E f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e I n t e r n
Summary
I I I . METHODOLOGY
R e s e a r c h D e s ig n
I n s t r u m e n t s
P r o c e d u r e s
D a ta A n a l y s i s
L i m i t a t i o n s
Summary
IV. FINDINGS
R e s u l t s
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n
D i s c u s s i o n
Summary
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
C o n c lu s io n s
R ecom m endations
Page
i v
1
13
I
i
I
I
34
48
68
i i
Page
REFERENCES........................................................................................................... 76
APPENDICES............................................................................................................ 84
A. T h e r a p i s t O r i e n t a t i o n Q u e s t i o n n a i r e
(Form 1972) (D. M. S u n d l a n d ) ..................................... 86
i
B. R e l a t i o n s h i p I n v e n t o r y (Form OS-M-64)
j (Or. T. B a r r e t t - L e n n a r d ) ...................................................... 93
i
C. I n t e r n E v a l u a t i o n Form
(A rm e lle S p a in ) ........................................................................... 98
1
! D. L e t t e r s t o S u p e r v i s o r s and t o I n t e r n s
(A rm e lle S p a in ) ........................................................................... 100
E. P e r s o n a l I n f o r m a t i o n S h e e t
(A rm e lle S p a in ) ........................................................................... 103
i i i
LIST OF TABLES
T a b le Page
1. P r e d i c t i o n R e s u l t s o f H igh and Low Q u a l i t i e s
o f S u p e r v i s i o n fro m t h e D i f f e r e n c e s
i n T h e r a p e u t i c O r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n
S u p e r v i s o r s and I n t e r n s ...................................................... 50
2. Means on t h e T h e r a p i s t O r i e n t a t i o n Q u e s
t i o n n a i r e F a c t o r s f o r H igh and Low
Q u a l i t i e s o f S u p e r v i s i o n ................................................. 51
3. S t a n d a r d i z e d D i s c r i m i n a n t F u n c t i o n C o e f
f i c i e n t s o f t h e T h e r a p i s t O r i e n t a t i o n
Q u e s t i o n n a i r e F a c t o r s f o r P r e d i c t
i n g Q u a l i t y o f S u p e r v i s i o n ........................................... 52
4. P r e d i c t i o n R e s u l t s o f More and L e ss E f f e c
t i v e I n t e r n s from t h e D i f f e r e n c e s i n
T h e r a p e u t i c O r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n
S u p e r v i s o r s and I n t e r n s ...................................................... 54
5. Means on t h e T h e r a p i s t O r i e n t a t i o n Q u e s t i o n -
m a ire F a c t o r s f o r More an d L ess
E f f e c t i v e I n t e r n s ...................................................................... 55
6 . S t a n d a r d i z e d D i s c r i m i n a n t F u n c t i o n C o e f f i
c i e n t s o f t h e T h e r a p i s t O r i e n t a t i o n
Q u e s t i o n n a i r e F a c t o r s f o r P r e d i c t
i n g t h e E f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e I n t e r n s . . . . 56
CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM AND ITS THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
S u p e r v i s i o n i n c o u n s e l i n g and p s y c h o t h e r a p y , p a r
t i c u l a r l y I n com m unity a g e n c i e s , h a s r e c e i v e d l i m i t e d
a t t e n t i o n from r e s e a r c h e r s . The p r o c e s s o f s u p e r v i s i o n
i n v o l v e s th e s u p e r v i s o r , t h e I n t e r n ( s t u d e n t - t h e r a p i s t ),
and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n them . T h is s tu d y c o n s i d e r s
t h e f o l l o w i n g a s p e c t s o f s u p e r v i s i o n : th e q u a l i t y o f s u p e r
v i s i o n and th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e i n t e r n a s a f u n c t i o n o f
th e t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s h e l d by b o t h s u p e r v i s o r and
i n t e r n .
B ack g ro u n d o f th e P roblem
S u p e r v i s i o n and P r a c tic u m
S u p e r v i s i o n i s no l o n g e r c o n s i d e r e d a s a mere
a d j u n c t to u n d e r g r a d u a t e and g r a d u a t e p ro g ra m s I n c o u n s e l
in g and p s y c h o t h e r a p y (B la n e , 1 9 6 8 ). M ost c o u n s e l o r e d u
c a t o r s now a g r e e t h a t s u p e r v i s i o n i s a m a jo r com ponent o f
any c o u n s e l o r e d u c a t i o n p ro g ra m (A m erican P s y c h o l o g i c a l
A s s o c i a t i o n , 1952; Munger 8 c Gash, 19^3; Munger 8 c J o h n s o n ,
I9 6 0 ; P a t t e r s o n , 1964; P e t e r s 8 c H ansen, 19^3; S o re n s o n ,
1966; Walz 8 c R o e b e r, 1 9 6 2 ) . In a r e c e n t ACES ( A s s o c i a t i o n
1
2
f o r C o u n s e lo r E d u c a t io n and S u p e r v i s i o n ) s u r v e y , J o n e s
(1976) c o n f irm e d t h a t 9 5 -9 p e r c e n t o f t h e p a r t i c i p a t i n g
i n s t i t u t i o n s now r e q u i r e a p r a c t i c u m from t h e i r m a s t e r ' s
l e v e l s t u d e n t s . In 1961 th e A m erican P e r s o n n e l and G uidance
A s s o c i a t i o n i s s u e d a p o l i c y s t a t e m e n t s t i p u l a t i n g t h a t o n e -
f o u r t h o f t h e c o u n s e l o r e d u c a t i o n p ro g ra m s h o u ld be s p e n t
on s u p e r v i s e d p r a c t i c e . S i m i l a r l y , s u p e r v i s e d p r a c t i c u m
e x p e r i e n c e h a s a l s o become more i m p o r t a n t i n th e t r a i n i n g
o f p s y c h o l o g i s t s (T ru a x , 1 9 7 0 ).
The n e c e s s i t y to p r o v i d e s t u d e n t s w i t h f e e d b a c k
( A rb u c k le , 1 9 6 5b; B ia s c o & R e d f e r i n g , 1976) and ,T t h e r e s p o n
s i b i l i t y o f c o u n s e l o r e d u c a t o r s to m a i n t a i n h i g h l e v e l s o f
p r o f e s s i o n a l s t a n d a r d s [ w h ile p r o t e c t i n g ] t h e p u b l i c from
i n a d e q u a t e l y p r e p a r e d p r a c t i t i o n e r s 1 ' ( B a n i k i o t e s , 1975* P«
1 5 0 ) h av e c o n t r i b u t e d to th e i n c r e a s i n g i n c l u s i o n o f p r a c
tic u m c o u r s e s i n p s y c h o lo g y and c o u n s e l i n g g r a d u a t e p r o
gram s .
S u p e r v i s i o n and I n t e r n s h i p
W hile t h e l i t e r a t u r e p o i n t s o u t t h e g ro w in g im p o r
t a n c e o f s u p e r v i s i o n w i t h i n a c a d e m ic p r o g ra m s , an i m p o r t a n t
p a r t o f th e s t u d e n t ' s t r a i n i n g a l s o t a k e s p l a c e i n c l i n i c a l
s e t t i n g s .
The t r a i n i n g o f s t u d e n t s i n th e e m e rg in g f i e l d o f
com m unity p s y c h o lo g y (Hoch, R o ss, & W in d er, 1 9 6 6 ) and th e
h i g h r a t i o o f f a c u l t y to s t u d e n t s i n a c a d e m ic i n s t i t u t i o n s
3
(Jo n e s „ 1973) h av e c o n t r i b u t e d to a g r e a t e r s t r e s s on th e
i m p o r ta n c e o f i n t e r n s h i p s and f i e l d p l a c e m e n t s . F u r t h e r
more,, i n t e r n s h i p s p r o v id e t h e s t u d e n t w i t h e x p e r i e n c e o f
th e r e a l w o rld w h ich c a n n o t be e x a c t l y d u p l i c a t e d i n p r a c
tic u m s i t u a t i o n s o r c la s s r o o m s i m u l a t i o n ( Kennedyj 1 9 7 6 )•
/'E x p e r ie n c e i n th e p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n and i n t e g r a t i o n o f
th e p r i n c i p l e s and m e th o d s" (H an sen , 19^5^ P* 75) now a d d s
to th e t r a d i t i o n a l c o r e -k n o w le d g e c l a s s e s o b j e c t i v e s .
In th e l a t e 1 9 6 0 's,, th e r a p i d g ro w th o f c o u n s e l i n g
c e n t e r s i n c r e a s e d th e n e e d f o r t r a i n e d c o u n s e l o r s , w h ich
made i t more i m p o r t a n t to exam ine th e p r o c e s s o f s u p e r v i
s i o n (A ltu c h e r,, 1 9 6 7 ) . A lth o u g h many r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r
s t a t e l i c e n s i n g a r e m e a s u re d i n te rm s o f num ber o f h o u r s
s p e n t d o in g c o u n s e l i n g and g e t t i n g s u p e r v i s i o n , t h i s
a c c o u n t a b i l i t y i s n o t th e e s s e n t i a l com p o n en t. The q u a l i t y
o f t h e s u p e r v i s i o n and t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e i n t e r n
s h o u ld p l a y a g r e a t e r r o l e .
S u p e r v i s i o n and S u p e r v i s o r
P i e r c e and S c h a u b le (1970) h a v e p o i n t e d o u t th e
i m p o r ta n c e o f th e i n d i v i d u a l s u p e r v i s o r a s a " h i g h l y c r i t
i c a l and s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a b l e " (p . 2 1 4 ) . "The e f f e c t i v e
s u p e r v i s o r i s one who i s a b l e to e s t a b l i s h a o n e - t o - o n e
r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t i s c o n d u c iv e to s e l f - d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e
t r a i n e e " (H an sen , 1965* P- 7 6 ) . H ence, th e s u p e r v i s o r i s
th e m a jo r f a c t o r i n p r o m o tin g th e im p ro v em en t o f th e i n t e r n .
4
As P i e r c e an d S c h a u b le (1970) showed, o n l y s t u d e n t s o f
h i g h l y f a c i l i t a t i v e s u p e r v i s o r s r e g i s t e r e d p o s i t i v e c h a n g e .
S u p e r v i s i o n and S u p e r v i s o r y
R e l a t i o n s h i p
The s u p e r v i s o r y r e l a t i o n s h i p s h o u ld a l s o be g iv e n
c o n s i d e r a t i o n . In 1953j> G a rd n e r p o i n t e d o u t t h a t th e f i r s t
c o n c e r n f o r th e s u p e r v i s o r o f t h e r a p y s h o u ld be " t h e e s t a b
l i s h m e n t o f a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw e e n th e s u p e r v i s o r
and t h e s t u d e n t w h ic h w i l l e n a b l e t h e l e a r n i n g to ta k e
p l a c e 1 1 (p . 295)* M a ta ra z z o (1971) s t r e s s e d o t h e r f a c e t s o f
t h e s u p e r v i s o r y r e l a t i o n s h i p a s f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g l e a r n
i n g : ,rA warm and a c c e p t i n g s u p e r v i s o r r e l a t i o n s h i p i s a l s o
a p p a r e n t l y a v e r y i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f l e a r n i n g - - b o t h f r e e i n g
t h e s t u d e n t to e x p e r i m e n t w i t h new b e h a v i o r s , and s e r v i n g
a s a m odel f o r a p p r o p r i a t e , t h e r a p e u t i c b e h a v i o r ” (p . 9 2 0 ).
T h is p o s i t i v e y e t com plex r e l a t i o n s h i p a c c o u n t s f o r t r u s t
and s e c u r i t y e n h a n c e m e n t w h ich a r e n e c e s s a r y to l e a r n i n g ,
g ro w th , and c h an g e ( K e ll & M u e ll e r , 1 9 6 6 ) .
S u p e r v i s i o n and P s y c h o th e r a p y
S t u d i e s h a v e shown t h a t c l i e n t s who d e m o n s t r a t e
g r e a t e r ch a n g e i n p s y c h o t h e r a p y p e r c e i v e a g r e a t e r d e g r e e
o f q u a l i t i e s su ch a s em pathy, c o n g r u e n c e , and u n c o n d i t i o n a l
p o s i t i v e r e g a r d i n r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e i r t h e r a p i s t
( B a r r e t t - L e n n a r d , 1962; G ro ss & D e R id d e r, 1 9 6 6 ; Kamin &
C a u g h lin , 1 9 6 3 ) e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g th e e a r l y s t a g e s o f
5
c o u n s e l i n g ( B a r r e t t - L e n n a r d , 1962; H o u n tra s & A n d e rso n ,
1 9 6 9 ; T ru a x & C a r k h u f f , 1 9 6 3 ).
The q u a l i t y o f t h e t h e r a p e u t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p , m e a s
u r e d by t h e l e v e l of f a c i l i t a t i v e c o n d i t i o n s o f f e r e d by
j p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s to t h e i r c l i e n t s (T ru a x & C a r k h u f f , 1967)
|a n d by t h e c l i e n t s ' p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e to w a rd t h e i r p s y c h o
t h e r a p i s t s ( S t r u p p , Fox, & L e s s l e r , 1 9 6 9 )^ h a s been, l i n k e d
t o t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e r a p y .
Some a u t h o r s a g r e e t h a t s u p e r v i s i o n c o n t a i n s many
o f t h e same e le m e n ts a s p s y c h o t h e r a p y ( A l t u c h e r , 1967;
A r b u c k le , 1963; K e l l & M u e l l e r , 1 9 6 6 ; L a n n in g , 1971; P a t
te r s o n ., 1 9 6 4 ). "The m ost o b v io u s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c common t o
b o th s u p e r v i s i o n and p s y c h o t h e r a p y i n v o l v e s a s i g n i f i c a n t
i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p in. w hich c h a n g e s i n t h e c l i e n t
and t r a i n e r can. be f a c i l i t a t e d " (L a n n in g , 1971j P« 4 0 1 ) .
R e c e n t s t u d i e s on c o u n s e l o r t r a i n i n g (B e r e n s o n , C a r k h u f f ,
& M yrus, 1 9 6 6 ; C a r k h u f f & T ru a x , 1965; M a r tin & C a r k h u f f ,
1 9 6 8 ) l e n d s u p p o r t t o t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s between, c o u n s e l i n g
and s u p e r v i s i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p s . S u n d b la d and F e i n b e r g
i ( 1 9 7 2 ) w r o t e ,
i
I T h is see m in g l i k e n e s s b e tw e e n t h e s u p e r v i s o r y and
| c o u n s e l i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s u g g e s t s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y
j t h a t many o f t h e c o u n s e l i n g p r o c e s s v a r i a b l e s t h a t
j h a v e b een shown t o c o n t r i b u t e t o p o s i t i v e g a i n s i n
I c o u n s e l i n g and p s y c h o t h e r a p y may h a v e a s i m i l a r
I im p a c t on t h e p r o c e s s o f c o u n s e l i n g s u p e r v i s i o n .
(p . 1 8 8 )
6
P ro b lem S i t u a t i o n
A lth o u g h L i s t e r (19 6 6 ) c h a l l e n g e d r e s e a r c h e r s to
r i g o r o u s l y i n v e s t i g a t e t h e a r e a o f s u p e r v i s i o n , th e s t u d i e s
a r e s t i l l m o s t l y d e s c r i p t i v e and e x p l o r a t o r y . They l a c k
a d e q u a t e d e s i g n s and t h e i r f i n d i n g s a r e q u e s t i o n a b l e
(H ansen & W arn er, 1 9 7 1 ). A p p le to n and H ansen ( 1 9 6 8 ) , B la n e
( 1 9 6 8 ) , and Gash and Munger ( 1 9 6 6 ) r e p o r t e d t h e s c a r c i t y o f
e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h i n th e a r e a o f s u p e r v i s i o n . Even a s
l a t e a s th e 1974 APGA a n n u a l c o n f e r e n c e i n New O r le a n s ,
t h e r e w ere no p ro g ra m s o r p a p e r s on c o u n s e l o r s u p e r v i s i o n
( B ia s c o & R e d f e r i n g , 1 9 7 6 ).
D e s p i t e t h e a c k n o w le d g e d i m p o r ta n c e o f s u p e r v i s e d
e x p e r i e n c e s , m o st o f t h e a r t i c l e s w r i t t e n on c o u n s e l i n g
s u p e r v i s i o n a r e t h e o r e t i c a l ( A l le n , 1970,* A l t u c h e r , 1967;
A r b u c k le , 1 9 6 3 , 1 9 6 5a , b ; P a t t e r s o n , 1 9 6 4 ). I n f o r m a t i o n
a b o u t th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s p e c i f i c s u p e r v i s o r b e h a v i o r s to
t r a i n e e b e h a v i o r s i s l a c k i n g (H ansen & W arn er, 1971)•
W edeking and S c o t t (1976) n o t e d t h a t
t h i s f a c t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g s i n c e s u p e r v i s i o n i s a
com plex p r o c e s s t h a t i n v o l v e s e l e m e n t s o f m o d e lin g ,
c o u n s e l i n g , t e a c h i n g , r e i n f o r c e m e n t , c o a c h in g , and
e m p ath y . When t r y i n g to a n a l y z e t h i s c o m p l e x i t y ,
th e p ro b le m i m m e d ia te ly becom es one o f d e c i d i n g
w h ich o f t h e s e many b e h a v i o r s w i l l be s t u d i e d .
(p . 2 5 9 )
A u th o r s h av e n e v e r t h e l e s s i d e n t i f i e d d i f f e r e n t
a r e a s i n v e s t i g a t o r s s h o u ld s tu d y . H ansen and B a r k e r (1964)
s u g g e s t e d t h a t th e r e s e a r c h e r s s p e c i f y t h e v a r i o u s " ty p e s
o f s u p e r v i s o r b e h a v i o r and e v a l u a t e t h e i r r e l e v a n c e to
7
c o u n s e l o r e d u c a t i o n " (p . I l l ) . M a c G u ffie , J a n z e n , and
McPhee ( 1 9 7 0 ), w h i l e a c k n o w le d g in g t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f th e
s u p e r v i s i o n p r o c e s s , i d e n t i f i e d two q u e s t i o n s a r e s e a r c h e r
s h o u ld a s k : "Does th e s t u d e n t l e a r n th r o u g h a m o d e lin g o f
t e c h n i q u e s he s e e s t h e s u p e r v i s o r u s e ? What e f f e c t d o es
th e i n t e r a c t i o n b e tw e e n t h e s t u d e n t and th e s u p e r v i s o r h av e
on th e outcom e o f t h i s e x p e r i e n c e ? " ( p . 2 6 3 ) .
T h is l a s t q u e s t i o n seemed to th e a u t h o r o f s p e c i a l
i m p o r t a n c e . I t e m p h a siz e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n th e
i n t e r n and th e s u p e r v i s o r a s p o s s i b l y h a v in g an e f f e c t on
th e f o r m e r 's l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e . "The e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f
s u p e r v i s i o n d e p e n d s i n l a r g e p a r t upon th e a tm o s p h e r e
w i t h i n w h ic h t h e s u p e r v i s i o n o c c u r s " (H ansen, 1965.5 P* 7 6 ) .
M acG u ffie and h i s c o l l e a g u e s (1970) g a v e some p r e
c i s i o n to th e d i r e c t i o n o f th e s u p e r v i s o r - i n t e r n r e l a t i o n
s h i p : " I f c o u n s e l o r f i e l d i n s t r u c t i o n i s to be an e f f e c
t i v e l e a r n i n g s i t u a t i o n , i t w ould seem t h a t th e i n t e r a c t i o n
b e tw e e n th e s u p e r v i s o r and t h e s t u d e n t w ould h av e to be
p o s i t i v e " (p . 2 6 4 ) . The c o u n s e l o r ' s a w a r e n e s s o f th e
n a t u r e and t h e q u a l i t y o f h i s s u p e r v i s i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p i s
b e l i e v e d to f o s t e r th e c o u n s e l o r - c l i e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p
(L a n n in g , 1 9 7 1 ).
L a n n in g (1971) i d e n t i f i e d "a num ber o f s u p e r v i s o r
f a c t o r s [w h ich ] c o u ld be r e l a t e d to some m e a n in g f u l o u t
com es" (p . 405)* t h e o r e t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n , com m itm ent to
a
ty p e o f s u p e r v i s i o n , s e x , e x p e r i e n c e , t r a i n i n g , and g e n e r a l
c h a r is m a o f th e s u p e r v i s o r .
The e f f e c t o f th e t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n o f s u p e r
v i s o r s on t h e i r c o u n s e l o r t r a i n e e s was c o n s i d e r e d by Demos
and Z u w a y lif ( 1 9 6 2 ) a s a p r o v o c a t i v e q u e s t i o n . " I t w ould
be e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t f o r one to ta k e su ch a c o m p l e t e l y
o b j e c t i v e p o s i t i o n i n s u p e r v i s i n g c o u n s e l o r s t h a t h i s own
p e r s o n a l b i a s e s w ould n o t come th r o u g h to some d e g r e e - -
even i f a t an u n c o n s c i o u s l e v e l (G re e n sp o o n e f f e c t ) " (p .
8 ) . The t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n o f t h e s u p e r v i s o r was c o n
s i d e r e d a s a m a jo r a s p e c t o f h i s p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
(L a n n in g , 1 9 7 1 ). T h e o r e t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n was a l s o fo u n d
to be a s i g n i f i c a n t d im e n s io n o f th e b e h a v i o r o f c o u n s e l o r s
(Zimmer & P ep y n e, 1 9 7 1 ). B u t, P i e r c e and S c h a u b le (1970)
d i s m i s s e d th e s u p e r v i s o r s ’ o r i e n t a t i o n s a s an i m p o r t a n t
f a c t o r i n t h e i r o f f e r i n g l e v e l o f f a c i l i t a t i v e c o n d i t i o n s .
Thus, t h e i m p o r ta n c e o f t h e t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s o f th e
s u p e r v i s o r i n th e p r o c e s s o f s u p e r v i s i o n h a s b e e n m e n tio n e d ;
b u t th e i s s u e r e m a in s u n c l e a r .
R e s e a r c h Q u e s t io n s
S u p e r v i s i o n seemed to a f f e c t th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f
i n t e r n e f f e c t i v e n e s s ( G a rd n e r , 1953i M a ta ra z z o , 1 9 7 1 )• The
i n f l u e n c e o f th e t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s o f b o t h s u p e r
v i s o r and i n t e r n on th e s u p e r v i s o r y r e l a t i o n s h i p an d , s u b
s e q u e n t l y , on i n t e r n e f f e c t i v e n e s s h a s n o t y e t b een
9
e x p l o r e d . C ould t h e t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s o f th e s u p e r
v i s o r and o f th e i n t e r n be r e l a t e d t o t h e q u a l i t y o f s u p e r
v i s i o n a n d / o r th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f th e i n t e r n ? T h is q u e s
t i o n f o l l o w s W edeking and S c o t t Ts (1976) s u g g e s t i o n :
S in c e th e p r im a r y i n t e n t o f p r a c t i c u m t r a i n i n g i s to
i n c r e a s e t r a i n e e c o m p e t e n c i e s , o b s e r v i n g and r e l a t i n g
p r o c e s s b e h a v i o r s o f t r a i n e e s and t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r s
become r e l e v a n t o n ly i f th e t r a i n e e s a c t u a l l y i n c r e a s e
t h e i r c o m p e t e n c i e s . H ence, any s tu d y t h a t a t t e m p t s to
e s t a b l i s h th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s p e c i f i c s u p e r v i s o r
b e h a v i o r s to t r a i n e e b e h a v i o r s a l s o n e e d s to i n c l u d e
m e a s u re s o f t r a i n e e c o m p e te n c e . (p . 2 6 0 )
I n o r d e r to c l a r i f y th e i s s u e on t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n
t a t i o n s , t h i s s tu d y was aim ed a t a n s w e r in g th e f o l l o w i n g
s p e c i f i c q u e s t i o n s :
1 .1 Does th e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s
b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s c o r r e l a t e s i g n i f
i c a n t l y w i t h th e q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n ?
1 .2 I s i t p o s s i b l e to p r e d i c t h i g h and low q u a l i t i e s o f
s u p e r v i s i o n from t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i
e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s ?
2 .1 Does th e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s
b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s an d i n t e r n s c o r r e l a t e s i g n i f i
c a n t l y w i t h th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f th e i n t e r n s ?
2 . 2 I s i t p o s s i b l e to p r e d i c t more and l e s s e f f e c t i v e
i n t e r n s from th e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n
t a t i o n s b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s ?
10
I n d e p e n d e n t V a r i a b l e
The d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n
s u p e r v i s o r s and I n t e r n s was th e I n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e .
D e p en d en t V a r i a b l e s
The d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s w ere (a) th e q u a l i t y o f th e
s u p e r v i s i o n and (b) th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e i n t e r n .
R e s e a r c h H y p o th e s e s
The r e s e a r c h h y p o t h e s e s w ere p r e s e n t e d i n a n u l l
fo rm .
1 .1 The d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s b etw e e n
s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r
r e l a t e d w i t h th e q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n .
1 .2 I t i s n o t p o s s i b l e to p r e d i c t h i g h and low q u a l i t i e s
o f s u p e r v i s i o n from th e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c
o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s .
2 .1 The d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n
s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r
r e l a t e d w i t h th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f i n t e r n s .
2 . 2 I t i s n o t p o s s i b l e to p r e d i c t more and l e s s e f f e c
t i v e i n t e r n s from t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c
o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s .
P u rp o se o f th e S tu d y
I n f o r m a t i o n g e n e r a t e d from e x p l o r i n g t h e s e q u e s
t i o n s s h o u ld i n c r e a s e o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f how, i f a t a l l ,
11
t h e t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s o f s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s
a f f e c t th e q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n and t h e - e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f
t h e i n t e r n s .
D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms
T h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s : a t t i t u d e s u n d e r l y i n g
p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t ' s b e h a v i o r i n t h e r a p y ; b e l i e f s a t h e r a p i s t
h a s c h o s e n to u s e a s r e l i a b l e g u i d e s to e f f e c t i v e c o u n s e l
in g and p s y c h o t h e r a p y .
Q u a l i f y o f s u p e r v i s i o n : l e v e l o f th e f a c i l i t a t i v e
c o n d i t i o n s o f f e r e d by th e s u p e r v i s o r and p e r c e i v e d by th e
i n t e r n . The c o n d i t i o n s i n c l u d e : e m p a th ic u n d e r s t a n d i n g s
c o n g ru e n c e s l e v e l and u n c o n d i t i o n a l i t y o f r e g a r d .
E f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e i n t e r n : e v a l u a t i o n by th e
s u p e r v i s o r o f th e t h e r a p e u t i c s k i l l s and o v e r a l l c o u n s e l i n g
co m p e te n c e d i s p l a y e d by th e i n t e r n .
D e l i m i t a t i o n o f t h i s S tu d y
The t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s o f th e s u p e r v i s o r s and
t h e i r i n t e r n s , th e q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n , and th e e f f e c
t i v e n e s s o f t h e i n t e r n s i n two com m unity a g e n c i e s w ere th e
f o c u s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h . The sam p le was d e l i m i t e d to s u p e r
v i s o r s and i n t e r n s o f two com m unity a g e n c i e s .
12
O u t l i n e o f R em ain d er o f D i s s e r t a t i o n
C h a p te r I I c o n t a i n s a r e v ie w o f t h e r e s e a r c h l i t
e r a t u r e r e l e v a n t to th e v a r i a b l e s o f t h i s s tu d y i n th e c o n
t e x t o f s u p e r v i s i o n i n c o u n s e l i n g and p s y c h o t h e r a p y .
In C h a p te r I I I th e r e s e a r c h desig n ,, th e p r o c e d u r e s ,
th e i n s t r u m e n t s , and th e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s u s e d a r e
d e s c r i b e d .
A n a l y s i s o f th e data,, i n t e r p r e t a t i o n „ and d i s c u s
s io n o f th e r e s u l t s a r e fo u n d i n C h a p te r IV.
F i n a l l y „ C h a p te r V c o n c l u d e s w i t h a summary o f t h i s
s tu d y and t h e re c o m m e n d a tio n s d e r i v e d from i t .
CHAPTER I I
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
T h is r e v ie w f i r s t c o v e r s s t u d i e s on t h e r a p e u t i c
o r i e n t a t i o n s . R e s e a r c h l i t e r a t u r e on t h e f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g
q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n and e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f th e i n t e r n a r e
th e n s u r v e y e d .
T h e r a p e u t i c O r i e n t a t i o n s
The f i r s t s tu d y to exam ine th e t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a
t i o n o f th e p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t was F i e d l e r ’ s ( 1 9 5 0 a ) . F i e d l e r
d i s c o v e r e d t h a t e x p e r t t h e r a p i s t s ( e n j o y i n g n a t i o n a l r e p u
t a t i o n ) o f v a r i o u s s c h o o l s o r o r i e n t a t i o n s a g r e e d more w i t h
e x p e r t s o f o t h e r s c h o o l s th a n w i t h t h e n o n - e x p e r t s o f t h e i r
own s c h o o l when t h e y d e s c r i b e d t h e i r c o n c e p t o f th e i d e a l
t h e r a p e u t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p .
The t h e r a p e u t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p c r e a t e d b e tw e e n
p a t i e n t and t h e r a p i s t a s a f u n c t i o n o f th e t h e r a p i s t ’ s
t h e o r e t i c a l s c h o o l and e x p e r t n e s s i n s p i r e d F i e d l e r (1950b)
to h y p o t h e s i z e t h a t : (a) th e r e l a t i o n s h i p c r e a t e d by e x p e r t s
a p p r o x i m a te s th e c o n c e p t o f th e " I d e a l T h e r a p e u t i c R e l a
t i o n s h i p " more c l o s e l y th a n th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s c r e a t e d by
th e n o n - e x p e r t s ; '(b) e x p e r t s o f v a r i o u s s c h o o l s c r e a t e
13
14
r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r p a t i e n t s t h a t a r e more s i m i l a r to
e a c h o t h e r th a n to r e l a t i o n s h i p s c r e a t e d by n o n - e x p e r t s o f
t h e i r own s c h o o l; and (c) e x p e r t s d i f f e r from n o n - e x p e r t s
i n t h e f o l l o w i n g d i m e n s i o n s : g r e a t e r a b i l i t y to com m unicate
w i t h and u n d e r s t a n d t h e i r p a t i e n t s * g r e a t e r a b i l i t y to m a in
t a i n an e m o t i o n a l l y p r o p e r d i s t a n c e w i t h th e p a t i e n t * and
g r e a t e r a b i l i t y to t r e a t t h e i r p a t i e n t s a s e q u a l .
Ten t h e r a p i s t s (tw o e x p e r t s and two n o n - e x p e r t s from
e a c h o f th e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c and th e n o n d i r e c t i v e s c h o o ls *
one e x p e r t and one n o n - e x p e r t from th e A d l e r i a n s c h o o l) s u b
m i t t e d a ta p e r e c o r d i n g o f 1 t h e r a p y h o u r w i t h a p a t i e n t .
Ju d g es* u s i n g th e Q te c h n iq u e * r a t e d th e i n t e r v i e w s on a
n o rm a l c u rv e a c c o r d i n g to 75 s t a t e m e n t s g ro u p e d i n t h r e e
c a t e g o r i e s : com m unication* e m o tio n a l d i s t a n c e * and s t a t u s .
H y p o th e s is (a) was s u p p o r t e d (p < . 0 5 ) . The r e l a t i o n s h i p
c r e a t e d by th e e x p e r t t h e r a p i s t s was r a t e d c l o s e r to th e
c o n c e p t o f th e " I d e a l T h e r a p e u t i c R e l a t i o n s h i p " th a n th e
t h e r a p e u t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p c r e a t e d by th e n o n - e x p e r t s .
A lth o u g h th e u s e o f c h i - s q u a r e showed o n l y a t r e n d (p > . 0 l )
to w a rd th e s u p p o r t o f h y p o t h e s i s (b)* F i e d l e r c o n c lu d e d
t h a t th e n a t u r e o f th e t h e r a p e u t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p was a f u n c
t i o n o f e x p e r t n e s s r a t h e r th a n t h e o r y . M oreover* th e
r e s u l t s o f h y p o t h e s i s (c) showed t h a t e x p e r t s o f th e t h r e e
s c h o o l s d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from n o n - e x p e r t s on th e com
m u n i c a t i o n d im e n s io n o n l y ; s t a t u s and e m o t i o n a l d i s t a n c e
-seemed to d i f f e r e n t i a t e ' b e tw e e n s c h o o ls r a t h e r th a n e x p e r t -
15
n e s s . T h e r e f o r e „ th e above c o n c l u s i o n s s h o u ld be s e r i
o u s l y q u e s t i o n e d .
Many s t u d i e s h av e s i n c e c h a l l e n g e d F i e d l e r ' s (1950a,,
b) f i n d i n g s (M cNair & L o r r , 1964; Raskin,, 19^5^ 1974; R ic e ,
Gurman, & R a z in , 1974; S t r u p p , 1 9 5 5 j 1958; S u n d lan d &
B arker,, 1962; W a lla c h & S t r u p p , 1 9 6 4 ). S tr u p p (1955) j f o r
e x a m p le , e x p l o r e d th e q u e s t i o n o f c o m m o n a litie s v s . d i f f e r
e n c e s i n t h e o r e t i c a l s c h o o l s . T w e n ty -se v e n p a t i e n t s t a t e
m e n ts w ere a n sw e re d by e i g h t R o g e r i a n s and se v e n n o n -
R o g e r i a n s . The r e s p o n s e s c a t e g o r i z e d on th e B a le s sy ste m
showed s h a r p d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n th e two g r o u p s .
In a l a t e r study,, u s i n g a f i l m o f an i n i t i a l i n t e r
view,, S t r u p p (1958) a s k e d l 4 R o g e r i a n s and 64 p s y c h o a n a -
l y t i c a l l y o r i e n t e d t h e r a p i s t s to r e s p o n d to th e c l i e n t a t
s p e c i f i c p o i n t s . S tr u p p fo u n d c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s
p r i m a r i l y i n a t t i t u d e s and t h e r a p e u t i c a p p r o a c h e s ( r e f l e c
t i o n o f f e e l i n g s . , w i l l i n g n e s s to s e t t h e r a p e u t i c g o a l s ,
s e l e c t i o n o f t o p i c s , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , r e a s s u r a n c e , and
a f f e c t i v e e x p e r i e n c e ) .
R a s k in ( 1 9 6 5 ) a s k e d 52 e x p e r i e n c e d and 26 i n e x p e r i
e n c e d t h e r a p i s t s to a s s e s s ta p e r e c o r d e d i n t e r v i e w s made by
s i x e x p e r t s on 12 v a r i a b l e s ( e . g . , c o g n i t i v e , e x p e r i e n t i a l ,
e m p a th ic , e q u a l ! t a r i a n , s e l f - c o n f i d e n t , e t c . ) and two dimen
s i o n s ( p r e s e n t b e h a v i o r a s a t h e r a p i s t and c o n c e p t o f th e
i d e a l t h e r a p i s t ) . A lth o u g h t h e r e was h i g h a g re e m e n t on th e
16
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e i d e a l t h e r a p i s t , s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r
e n c e s w ere fo u n d i n a c t u a l b e h a v i o r s o f th e t h e r a p i s t s .
S u n d la n d and B a r k e r (1962) d e v i s e d a q u e s t i o n n a i r e
to a s s e s s e x p l i c i t d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s on
t h e i r t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s . Prom c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s
fo u n d i n th e p s y c h o t h e r a p e u t i c l i t e r a t u r e , 133 it e m s
g ro u p e d i n t o 16 s c a l e s w ere d e r i v e d . The q u e s t i o n n a i r e s
w ere m a ile d to a random sam ple o f A m erican P s y c h o l o g i c a l
A s s o c i a t i o n members who l i s t e d p s y c h o th e r a p y a s t h e i r m a jo r
i n t e r e s t . The f a c t o r a n a l y s i s y i e l d e d s i x f a c t o r s and a
g e n e r a l f a c t o r l a b e l e d " a n a l y t i c v s . e x p e r i e n t i a l . " The
r e s u l t s showed a g a i n t h a t , c o n t r a r y to F i e d l e r ' s f i n d i n g s ,
e x p e r i e n c e d t h e r a p i s t s a r e more s i m i l a r to i n e x p e r i e n c e d
t h e r a p i s t s o f t h e i r own s c h o o l th a n to o t h e r e x p e r i e n c e d
t h e r a p i s t s . A lth o u g h t h e i r q u e s t i o n n a i r e was b u i l t a ro u n d
c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s , s e v e n o f th e 16 s c a l e s d i d n o t d i s
c r i m i n a t e th e R o g e r ia n s from th e S u l l i v a n i a n s and th e
F r e u d i a n s .
I n 1972, S u n d la n d r e v i s e d th e T h e r a p i s t O r i e n t a t i o n
Q u e s t i o n n a i r e (TOQ) and g a t h e r e d more d a t a w i t h a m u l t i
p r o f e s s i o n a l sa m p le . H is r e s u l t s showed t h a t e x p e r i e n t i a l -
i s t s do d i f f e r from p s y c h o a n a l y s t s .
M cNair and L o r r (1964) d e v e lo p e d an i n v e n t o r y ,
p a r t l y from th e S u n d la n d and B a r k e r ( 1 9 6 2 ) TOQ, to m ea su re
t h r e e t e c h n i c a l d i m e n s i o n s : p s y c h o a n a l y t i c , i m p e r s o n a l v s .
p e r s o n a l , and d i r e c t i v e . They fo u n d t h a t p s y c h i a t r i s t s ,
17
p s y c h o l o g i s t s * and s o c i a l w o r k e rs d i f f e r e d i n t h e i r p r e f
e r e n c e on t h o s e t h r e e d im e n s io n s .
W a lla c h and S tr u p p (1-964) com pared o r th o d o x F r e u d
ian* p s y c h o a n a l y t i c - g e n e r a l * S u l l i v a n i a n * and c l i e n t -
c e n t e r e d a p p r o a c h e s on a 1 7 - i t e m s c a l e o f w h ic h f o u r f a c
t o r s w ere d e r i v e d . F t e s t s showed s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s
(p < . 0 5 ) on t h r e e f a c t o r s : p r e f e r e n c e f o r i n t e n s i v e p s y c h o
th e ra p y * p r e f e r e n c e f o r k e e p in g v e r b a l i n t e r a c t i o n s to a
minimum* and v iew o f t h e r a p y a s a f l e x i b l e and a r t f u l
a c t i v i t y . F a c t o r One* m a in te n a n c e o f p e r s o n a l d i s t a n c e *
d i d n o t d i s c r i m i n a t e .
S i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s among a n a l y t i c * phenom e
n o l o g i c a l * and r a t i o n a l - b e h a v i o r a l t h e r a p i s t s w ere a l s o
fo u n d by R ic e e t a l . ( 1 9 7 4 ).
Two o t h e r s t u d i e s had l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t f i n d i n g s :
Fey (1958) and Wrenn ( i 9 6 0 ) . Fey ( 1 9 5 8 ) i n v e s t i g a t e d th e
i n f l u e n c e o f d o c t r i n e and e x p e r i e n c e on t h e r a p e u t i c p r a c
t i c e s . T h i r t y - s i x t h e r a p i s t s o f v a r i o u s o r i e n t a t i o n s * p r a c
t i c i n g i n a m id w e s te rn u n i v e r s i t y c i t y * r e s p o n d e d to a 3 0 -
ite m q u e s t i o n n a i r e on th e t h e r a p i s t l s b e h a v i o r w i t h h i s
p a t i e n t s . The r e s u l t s showed t h a t more and l e s s e x p e r i
e n c e d e c l e c t i c s d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y on two o u t o f th e f o u r
f a c t o r s . Fey a l s o e s t a b l i s h e d th e v a l i d i t y o f q u e s t i o n
n a i r e s a s a means o f a s s e s s i n g b e h a v i o r a l and a t t i t u d i n a l
d i f f e r e n c e s among d i v e r s e o r i e n t a t i o n s .
R e f l e c t i o n o f f e e l i n g s was fo u n d a s th e o n l y c a t e -
18
g o ry t h a t d i s c r i m i n a t e d among t h e r a p i s t s o f v a r i o u s o r i e n
t a t i o n s (Wrenn, i 9 6 0 ) . In g e n e r a l , th e r e s p o n s e s g iv e n by
54 t h e r a p i s t s f o l l o w i n g w r i t t e n c l i e n t s ' s t a t e m e n t s w ere
h i g h l y s im i l a r ,, f o c u s i n g on th e c o r e o f th e c l i e n t ' s s t a t e
m ent and on th e f e e l i n g s .
I n summary,, th e l i t e r a t u r e p o i n t s o u t t h a t p s y c h o
t h e r a p i s t s o f v a r i o u s t h e o r e t i c a l a p p r o a c h e s s h a r e some
v a l u e s b u t d i f f e r i n t h e r a p e u t i c a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v i o r s
( M e l t z o f f & K o r n r e i c h , 1 9 7 0 ). High a g re e m e n t was fo u n d
among e x p e r t t h e r a p i s t s o f v a r i o u s o r i e n t a t i o n s on th e c o n
c e p t o f th e i d e a l t h e r a p e u t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p ( F ie d l e r ,, 1950a).
H igh a g r e e m e n t was a l s o fo u n d among e x p e r i e n c e d and i n e x
p e r i e n c e d t h e r a p i s t s on t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e i d e a l
t h e r a p i s t (Raskin., 1 9 6 5 ). B e s i d e s F i e d l e r (1950b)., who
fo u n d t h a t e x p e r t t h e r a p i s t s o f v a r i o u s o r i e n t a t i o n s c r e a t e c
a s i m i l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e i r p a t i e n t s . , o t h e r r e s e a r c h
e r s te n d e d to f i n d m a jo r d i f f e r e n c e s i n th e b e h a v i o r s and
a t t i t u d e s o f t h e r a p i s t s r e p r e s e n t i n g d i v e r s e o r i e n t a t i o n s
( S tr u p p * 1955j> 1958; R a s k in , 19^5; S u n d la n d & B a r k e r , 1 9 6 2 ;
S u n d la n d , 1972; W a lla c h & S t r u p p , 1964; R ic e e t a l . , 1 9 7 4 ).
Q u a l i t y o f S u p e r v i s i o n
Only two s t u d i e s t r e a t e d q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n a s a
d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e . L a n n in g (1971) i n v e s t i g a t e d m ethod o f
s u p e r v i s i o n , w h i l e S u n d b la d and F e in b e r g (1972) s t u d i e d
i n t e r p e r s o n a l a t t r a c t i o n and e x p e r i e n c e a s f a c t o r s w hich
19
c o u ld p o s s i b l y be r e l a t e d to t h e q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n .
In an e x p e r i m e n t a l study,, L a n n in g (1971) exam ined
t h e r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n g ro u p and I n d i v i d u a l c o u n s e l i n g s u p e r
v i s i o n and t h r e e I n t e r r e l a t e d d e p e n d e n t m e a s u r e s : t r a i n e e
p e r c e p t i o n s o f th e s u p e r v i s o r y r e l a t i o n s h i p , t r a i n e e e x p e c
t a t i o n s o f t h e i r own c o u n s e l i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s , and c l i e n t
p e r c e p t i o n s o f th e t r a i n e e ’ s c o u n s e l i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
T w e n ty -n in e t r a i n e e s i n t h r e e b e g i n n i n g p r a c t i c u m c l a s s e s
a t W e ste rn M ic h ig a n U n i v e r s i t y , t h r e e s u p e r v i s o r s , and 58
c l i e n t s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n th e s t u d y . The s t u d e n t s w ere a r b i
t r a r i l y a s s i g n e d to th e c l a s s e s and ra n d o m ly a s s i g n e d to
t h e t r e a t m e n t g r o u p s . P r e c a u t i o n s w ere t a k e n to c o n t r o l
i n t e r v e n i n g v a r i a b l e s . The I n s t r u m e n t u s e d was th e B a r r e t t -
L e n n a rd R e l a t i o n s h i p I n v e n t o r y ( R l ) . In a l l t h r e e i n s t a n
c e s ( t r a i n e e p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e s u p e r v i s o r y r e l a t i o n s h i p ,
t r a i n e e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f t h e i r own c o u n s e l i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s ,
and c l i e n t p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e t r a i n e e ' s c o u n s e l i n g r e l a
t i o n s h i p s ) , th e r e s u l t s d i d n o t d i f f e r e n t i a t e b e tw e e n
t r a i n e e s who r e c e i v e d g ro u p s u p e r v i s i o n and t h o s e who
r e c e i v e d I n d i v i d u a l s u p e r v i s i o n . However, th e r e s u l t s
i n d i c a t e d d i f f e r e n c e s among s u p e r v i s o r s . More th a n h a l f
t h e v a r i a n c e i n how a t r a i n e e e x p e c t e d to be . p e r c e i v e d by
h i s c l i e n t s was a c c o u n t e d f o r by know ing how he p e r c e i v e d
h i s s u p e r v i s o r . A lth o u g h t h e m ethod o f s u p e r v i s i o n d i d n o t
seem to m a t t e r , t h e a u t h o r d i s c u s s e d t h e i m p o r ta n c e o f th e
s u p e r v i s o r i n th e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h th e t r a i n e e and th e
20
i n f l u e n c e s u p e r v i s o r s h av e on th e b e h a v i o r s o f t h e i r t r a i n
e e s .
S u n d b la d and F e in b e r g (1972) s t u d i e d th e e f f e c t o f
i n t e r p e r s o n a l a t t r a c t i o n and e x p e r i e n c e on th e f a c i l i t a t i v e
d im e n s io n s o f empathy^ w arm th, and g e n u i n e n e s s o f f e r e d by
s u p e r v i s o r s to t r a i n e e s . Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s w ere s e n t to
f a c u l t y and d o c t o r a l s t u d e n t s i n v o l v e d i n s u p e r v i s i o n o f
r e h a b i l i t a t i o n c o u n s e l i n g s t u d e n t s a c r o s s th e c o u n t r y .
S e v e n ty - o n e p a r t i c i p a t i n g s u p e r v i s o r s w ere ra n d o m ly a s s i g n e d
to one o f th e t h r e e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s ( p o s i t i v e ,, n e u t r a l ,,
o r n e g a t i v e a t t r a c t i o n ) . The S u p e r v i s e e I n t r o d u c t o r y S t a t e
m ent (S IS ) was d e s ig n e d and t e s t e d (Sundblad., 1971) to p r o
duce e i t h e r a p o s i t i v e , , a n e u t r a l , o r a n e g a t i v e s e t o f
e x p e c t a t i o n s a b o u t an a n a lo g u e s u p e r v i s e e . F o llo w in g th e
S IS , t h e s u p e r v i s o r r e a d 15 v i g n e t t e s d e s c r i b i n g v a r i o u s
i n c i d e n t s o f s u p e r v i s e e b e h a v i o r s u p p o s e d ly o r i g i n a t i n g from
th e s t u d e n t p r e s e n t e d i n th e S IS . Then th e s u p e r v i s o r
a n s w e re d t h e S u p e r v i s i o n R e sp o n se Q u e s t i o n n a i r e and th e
S u p e r v i s i o n P e r s o n a l R e a c t io n Q u e s t i o n n a i r e . S u p e r v i s o r s '
a n s w e rs w ere r a t e d on t h e m o d i f i e d C a r k h u f f s c a l e s (1 9 6 9 ).
R e s p o n s e s r e v e a l e d t h a t i n t e r p e r s o n a l a t t r a c t i o n d i f f e r
e n t l y a f f e c t e d th e t h r e e f a c i l i t a t i v e d im e n s io n s and t h a t
e x p e r i e n c e m e d ia te d a t t r a c t i o n d i f f e r e n t l y d e p e n d in g on th e
ty p e r a t h e r th a n th e am ount o f e x p e r i e n c e th e s u p e r v i s o r
h a s h a d .
Thus., g ro u p o r i n d i v i d u a l s u p e r v i s i o n d id n o t
21
r e l a t e to q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n . However,, th e r e l a t i o n
s h i p b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r and s t u d e n t made a d i f f e r e n c e i n
how s t u d e n t s e x p e c t e d t h e i r c l i e n t s to r a t e t h e q u a l i t y o f
t h e i r c o u n s e l i n g s e s s i o n s . M o reo v er, s u p e r v i s o r s o f f e r e d
d i f f e r e n t q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n to f i c t i v e s u p e r v i s e e s
p r e s e n t i n g d i f f e r e n t a t t r a c t i o n s e t s .
I n f l u e n c e o f T h e r a p e u t i c
O r i e n t a t i o n s on Q u a l i t y
o f S u p e r v i s i o n
What a b o u t t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s a s a p o s s i b l e
i n f l u e n c e on th e q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n o f f e r e d by th e
s u p e r v i s o r and p e r c e i v e d by th e i n t e r n ? To t h i s d a y , no
r e s e a r c h e r h a s s p e c i f i c a l l y i n v e s t i g a t e d t h i s q u e s t i o n .
Q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n h a s more o f t e n b e e n c o n s i d e r e d a s an
i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e .
E f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e I n t e r n
The f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e
i n t e r n h a v e , h o w ev er, b e e n s t u d i e d e x t e n s i v e l y . The imme
d i a t e e f f e c t s o f d i f f e r e n t m eth o d s o f s u p e r v i s i o n ( B la n e ,
1968; D a v id so n 8 c Emmer, 1966) and t h e q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n
o f f e r e d by th e s u p e r v i s o r (H ansen 8 c B a r k e r , 1 9 6 4 ; Payne 8 c
G r a l i n s k i , 1 9 6 8 ; P i e r c e 8 c S c h a u b le , 1 9 7 0, 1 9 7 1 ; W edeking 8 c
S c o t t , 1 9 7 6 ) w ere i n v e s t i g a t e d . The e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f th e
i n t e r n s h a s b e e n m e a s u re d by t h e i r f o c u s o f c o n c e r n , t h e i r
l e v e l o f e x p e r i e n c i n g , o r t h e i r a b i l i t y to o f f e r t h e f a c i l
i t a t i v e c o n d i t i o n s to t h e i r c l i e n t s .
22
D av id so n and Emmer ( 1 9 6 6 ) i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e im m edi
a t e e f f e c t o f s u p p o r t i v e v s . n o n s u p p o r t i v e s u p e r v i s o r
b e h a v i o r on th e c o u n s e l o r t r a i n e e ' s f o c u s o f c o n c e r n . They
h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t t h e t r a i n e e ' s f o c u s o f c o n c e r n w ould
become more f o c u s e d on h i m s e l f and l e s s on th e c l i e n t i f
t h e s u p e r v i s o r b e h a v e d m a in ly n o n s u p p o r t i v e l y r a t h e r th a n
s u p p o r t ! v e l y . T w e n t y - e i g h t members o f th e NDEA I n s t i t u t e ,
e n r o l l e d a t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f M ic h ig a n , w ere d i v i d e d i n two
g r o u p s . A l l c o u n s e l o r s s e l e c t e d a 5 - m in u te ta p e d segm ent
o f an i n t e r v i e w w i t h one o f t h e i r c l i e n t s . One g ro u p p r e
s e n t e d t h e segm ent to a s u p p o r t i v e s u p e r v i s o r and th e o t h e r
g ro u p to a n o n s u p p o r t i v e s u p e r v i s o r f o r a 1 5 -m in u te s u p e r
v i s i o n s e s s i o n . Two-way a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e r e s u l t s s u p
p o r t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y (p < . 0 5 ) th e a u t h o r s ' h y p o t h e s i s .
W ith no c o n t r o l g r o u p , no m e a s u re o f l o n g - t e r m e f f e c t s o f
th e t r e a t m e n t , and no c l e a r - c u t c o n c e p t o f s u p p o r t i v e v s .
n o n s u p p o r t i v e b e h a v i o r , t h e s e d a t a m ust be i n t e r p r e t e d w i t h
c a u t i o n .
B la n e ( 1 9 6 8 ) s t u d i e d a l s o th e im m e d ia te e f f e c t s o f
p o s i t i v e , n e g a t i v e , and no s u p e r v i s i o n on c o u n s e l o r s '
e m p a th ic u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h i r t y m a s t e r ' s l e v e l members o f
t h e NDEA I n s t i t u t e , e n r o l l e d a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a ,
w ere e q u a l l y d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e g r o u p s . The t r e a t m e n t
( p o s i t i v e , n e g a t i v e , o r no s u p e r v i s i o n ) was ra n d o m ly
a s s i g n e d to th e g r o u p s . C o u n s e l o r s ' e m p a th ic u n d e r s t a n d i n g
was m e a su re d by t h e C a r k h u f f ( 1 9 6 6b) E m p a th ic U n d e r s ta n d in g
23
i n I n t e r p e r s o n a l P r o c e s s e s I I S c a l e . A lth o u g h e q u a l on th e
p r e t e s t , , th e l e v e l o f em pathy was s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r (p <
.0 1 ) on t h e p o s t t e s t o n ly f o r t h o s e t r a i n e e s who p a r t i c i
p a t e d i n t h e p o s i t i v e s u p e r v i s i o n g r o u p . A lth o u g h a l l
g r o u p s ch an g e d i n a p o s i t i v e d i r e c t i o n , t h e r e w ere no s i g
n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s f o r th e g r o u p s w hich had r e c e i v e d
n e g a t i v e o r no s u p e r v i s i o n .
In a p r e t e s t - p o s t t e s t c o n t r o l g ro u p e x p e r i m e n t a l
d e s i g n , Payne and G r a l i n s k i ( 1 9 6 8 ) i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e e f f e c t s
o f s u p e r v i s o r s t y l e and em pathy on c o u n s e l o r l e a r n i n g o f
em pathy i n a s u p e r v i s i o n a n a l o g u e . F o u r te e n g r a d u a t e s t u
d e n t s i n c l i n i c a l and c o u n s e l i n g p s y c h o lo g y a c t e d a s s u p e r
v i s o r s . F o r ty - tw o m ale u n d e r g r a d u a t e s i n p s y c h o lo g y w ere
d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e e q u a l g r o u p s . S t u d e n t s i n a l l t h r e e
g r o u p s r e s p o n d e d to se v e n ta p e d c l i e n t s t a t e m e n t s a s i f
t h e y w ere c o u n s e l o r s . I m m e d ia te ly , e a c h c o u n s e l o r i n b o t h
e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s r e c e i v e d a 2 0 - m in u te s u p e r v i s i o n s e s
s i o n . The s u p e r v i s o r y m e th o d s w ere e i t h e r c o u n s e l i n g o r i
e n t e d o r t e c h n i q u e o r i e n t e d . The t h i r d g ro u p ( c o n t r o l )
f o ll o w e d t h e same s t e p s e x c e p t th e c o u n s e l o r s d i d n o t
r e c e i v e s u p e r v i s i o n . Then th e c o u n s e l o r s r e s p o n d e d to
a n o t h e r s e t o f c l i e n t s t a t e m e n t s . B o th c o u n s e l o r s and
s u p e r v i s o r s w ere r a t e d on a 7 - p o i n t em pathy r a t i n g s c a l e
b a s e d upon T ruax ( 1 9 6 1 ) and B a r r e t t - L e n n a r d ( 1 9 6 2 ) . Coun
s e l o r s i n t h e t e c h n i q u e and c o n t r o l g r o u p s r a t e d h i g h e r i n
th e l e a r n i n g o f em pathy th a n c o u n s e l o r s r e c e i v i n g c o u n s e lin g -
24
o r i e n t e d s u p e r v i s i o n . S u p e r v i s o r em pathy was n o t r e l a t e d to
c o u n s e l o r l e a r n i n g o f em p ath y .
Payne an d G r a l i n s k i ' s f i n d i n g t h a t th e s u p e r v i s o r ’ s
em pathy was n o t r e l a t e d to t h e c o u n s e l o r ' s l e a r n i n g o f
em pathy h a s b e e n q u e s t i o n e d .
P i e r c e and S c h a u b le ( 1 9 7 0 ), u s i n g a m odel d e v e lo p e d
b y C a r k h u f f ( 1 9 6 7 ) f o r p r e d i c t i n g g ro w th i n t h e r a p e u t i c
f u n c t i o n i n g o f c o u n s e l o r s i n t r a i n i n g , exam in ed t h e e x t e n t
to w h ich th e s u p e r v i s o r ' s l e v e l o f f u n c t i o n i n g on th e
d im e n s io n s o f em p ath y , r e g a r d , g e n u i n e n e s s , and c o n c r e t e
n e s s i n f l u e n c e d th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f h i s s u p e r v i s e e s i n t h e s e
same d im e n s io n s . F i f t e e n c o u n s e l o r s i n t r a i n i n g and 12
Ph.D . s u p e r v i s o r s whose t h e o r e t i c a l b a c k g ro u n d i n c l u d e d fo u r
R o g e r i a n , f o u r a n a l y t i c , t h r e e e c l e c t i c , and one e x i s t e n
t i a l , a g r e e d to p a r t i c i p a t e i n th e r e s e a r c h . S u p e r v i s e e s
s u b m i t t e d a t o t a l o f s i x t a p e - r e c o r d e d i n t e r v i e w s w i t h c l i
e n t s , one a t th e b e g i n n i n g and th e o t h e r s a t 6 -w e e k i n t e r
v a l s . D u rin g t h e s e i n t e r v a l s th e t r a i n e e s r e c e i v e d 12
h o u r s o f i n d i v i d u a l s u p e r v i s i o n . The s u p e r v i s o r s a l s o s u b
m i t t e d a t a p e d i n t e r v i e w to be r a t e d on th e c o r e d im e n s io n s
by two t r a i n e d j u d g e s . S u p e r v i s o r s w ere d i v i d e d on th e
b a s i s o f t h e r a p e u t i c f u n c t i o n i n g i n t o h i g h - and l o w - l e v e l
g r o u p s u s i n g l e v e l 3 .0 a s c u t o f f p o i n t . Seven t r a i n e e s were
a s s i g n e d to t h e f o u r h i g h - l e v e l s u p e r v i s o r s and th e r e m a i n
i n g e i g h t t r a i n e e s to th e e i g h t l o w - l e v e l s u p e r v i s o r s . The
u s e o f n o n - p a r a m e t r i e s t a t i s t i c s c o n f irm e d t h e h y p o t h e s i s
25
t h a t th e t r a i n e e s o f h i g h - l e v e l s u p e r v i s o r s im p ro v e d s i g n i f
i c a n t l y on t h e i r r a t e d l e v e l s o f f u n c t i o n i n g , and a s a
r e s u l t w ere f u n c t i o n i n g s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r th a n t h e s u p e r
v i s e e s i n t h e l o w - l e v e l s u p e r v i s o r g ro u p . H ow ever, t h e s e
s u p e r v i s e e s ( l o w - l e v e l g ro u p ) f u n c t i o n e d s l i g h t l y b u t n o n -
s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r on t h e p r e m e a s u r e s th a n t h o s e a s s i g n e d
to h i g h - l e v e l s u p e r v i s o r s . The i n t e r n s who w orked w i t h low-
l e v e l s u p e r v i s o r s d i d n o t ch an g e and i n f a c t te n d e d to
d e c l i n e s l i g h t l y . F u r th e r m o r e , th e end o f t h e 6 -w e e k p e r i o d
seemed to h av e b e e n t h e c r i t i c a l p o i n t b e f o r e w h ich s i g n i f i
c a n t c h a n g e s o c c u r r e d , i f c h a n g e s h ad to o c c u r . The a u t h o r s
a r g u e t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l s u p e r v i s o r i s a h i g h l y c r i t i c a l
and s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a b l e b e c a u s e o n l y s u p e r v i s e e s o f h i g h -
l e v e l s u p e r v i s o r s showed p o s i t i v e and s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s .
They a l s o d i s c u s s e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f p a i r i n g s u p e r v i s o r
and i n t e r n s and t h e am ount o f tim e r e q u i r e d to r e a c h and
m a i n t a i n f a c i l i t a t i v e l e v e l s o f f u n c t i o n i n g .
In an a t t e m p t to i d e n t i f y t h e m a jo r s o u r c e s o f
i n f l u e n c e on t h e c o u n s e l o r t r a i n e e s , P i e r c e and S c h a u b le
(1971) s t u d i e d th e i n d e p e n d e n t and com bined e f f e c t s o f i n d i
v i d u a l s u p e r v i s o r s 1 and p r a c t i c u m i n s t r u c t o r s ' l e v e l o f
f u n c t i o n i n g on t h e i r 22 e d u c a t i o n o r p s y c h o lo g y g r a d u a t e
s t u d e n t s . They f o ll o w e d a l m o s t th e same p r o c e d u r e a s i n
t h e i r p r e v i o u s s tu d y w i t h sev en p r a c t i c u m t e a c h e r s and 17
i n d i v i d u a l s u p e r v i s o r s . The r e s u l t s showed t h a t th e s t u -
26
d e n t s i n th e h i g h - h i g h c o n d i t i o n im p ro v e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y
a f t e r b o t h 10-w eek p e r i o d s (p < . 0 5 ) . The h i g h - l o w c o n d i
t i o n s t u d e n t s showed s i g n i f i c a n t im p ro v e m e n t o n l y a t th e
end o f t h e s e c o n d p e r i o d (p < . 0 5 ). F i n a l l y , th e lo w -lo w
c o n d i t i o n s t u d e n t s showed no im p ro v e m e n t a t e i t h e r m e a s u re .
The a u t h o r s a d m i t t e d th e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e t e r m i n i n g
w h e t h e r t h e c h a n g e s i n s t u d e n t s w ere t h e r e s u l t o f t h e i r
i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h t h e i r p r o f e s s o r s o r from o t h e r e n v i r o n
m e n ta l v a r i a b l e s . B u t C a r k h u f f , K r a t o c h v i l , and F r i e l
( 1 9 6 8 ) had fo u n d p r e v i o u s l y t h a t c o u n s e l o r t r a i n e e s te n d e d
to move i n th e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e i r i n s t r u c t o r s on th e
r e s p e c t d im e n s io n .
W edeking and S c o t t (1976) s t u d i e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
o f t r a i n e e and s u p e r v i s o r b e h a v i o r s d u r i n g a o n e - s e m e s t e r
c o u n s e l i n g p r a c t i c u m a t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth D a k o ta .
They o b s e r v e d (a) t r a i n e e em pathy d u r in g c o u n s e l i n g and
s u p e r v i s o r em pathy d u r i n g s u p e r v i s i o n , (b) v a r i o u s t r a i n e e
and s u p e r v i s o r v e r b a l b e h a v i o r s , and (c) f i v e t r a i n e e com
p e t e n c i e s . Em pathy was m e a su re d f o r t h e 19 m a s t e r ' s l e v e l
s t u d e n t s and t h e i r f i v e s u p e r v i s o r s on C a r k h u f f 's ( 1 9 6 9 )
s c a l e . W i t t m e r 's (1971) C o u n s e lo r A c t i v i t y P r o f i l e was
u s e d to m e a su re t h e v e r b a l c o n t e n t o f b o t h t h e c o u n s e l i n g
and th e s u p e r v i s i n g s e s s i o n s . T r a i n e e c o m p e te n c ie s w ere
r a t e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g and end o f p r a c t i c u m on B l o c k e r ' s
( 1 9 6 8 ) s c a l e . A lth o u g h s u p e r v i s o r s w ere r a t e d c o n s i s t e n t l y
27
h i g h e r th a n t r a i n e e s on empathy,, t h e a u t h o r s fo u n d no s i g
n i f i c a n t .changes on c o u n s e l o r ' s em pathy r a t i n g s . T h e re was
a l s o no ch an g e on t h e i r v e r b a l b e h a v i o r p a t t e r n s . The
j u d g e s ' r a t i n g s o f t r a i n e e s ’ c o m p e te n c ie s showed a s i g n i f i
c a n t im p ro v em en t on two o u t o f f i v e c o m p e t e n c i e s : r o l e
a d a p t a t i o n and c o g n i t i v e f l e x i b i l i t y .
V i c k e r s ' (1974) s t u d y , r e v ie w e d b e lo w , g av e p a r t i a l
s u p p o r t to th e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t s t u d e n t - t h e r a p i s t s who p e r
c e i v e d t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r s a s o f f e r i n g h i g h f a c i l i t a t i v e c o n
d i t i o n s w i l l be r a t e d h i g h e r on t h e i r o f f e r i n g o f t h e same
c o n d i t i o n s by t h e i r p a t i e n t s , com pared to t h e s t u d e n t -
t h e r a p i s t s who p e r c e i v e d t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r a s o f f e r i n g a low
l e v e l o f c o n d i t i o n s .
H ansen and B a r k e r (1964) m e a s u re d t h e i n f l u e n c e o f
t h e s u p e r v i s o r - t r a i n e e r e l a t i o n s h i p on t h e t r a i n e e ' s l e v e l
o f e x p e r i e n c i n g . They h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t t h e t r a i n e e s who
r e c e i v e d em pathy, a c c e p t a n c e , and g e n u i n e n e s s from t h e i r
s u p e r v i s o r s w ould h a v e h i g h e r l e v e l s o f e x p e r i e n c i n g a s
m e a s u re d by G e n d lin and T o m l i n s o n 's E x p e r i e n c i n g S c a le
w h ic h was b a s e d on G e n d l i n 's ( 1 9 6 2 ) t h e o r y o f e x p e r i e n c i n g .
T h ree s u p e r v i s o r s and 28 g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s i n a NDEA Coun
s e l i n g and G u id a n c e I n s t i t u t e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n th e s tu d y .
At t h e end o f a y e a r - l o n g p r a c t i c u m , th e t r a i n e e s r a t e d th e
s u p e r v i s o r y r e l a t i o n s h i p on th e B a r r e t t - L e n n a r d RI ( 1 9 6 2 ) .
The t r a i n e e s th e n h ad a r e c o r d e d i n t e r v i e w w i t h t h e i r i n d i
v i d u a l s u p e r v i s o r s , from w h ich e x c e r p t s w ere s c o r e d by two
28
j u d g e s . T h e re was a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n th e
t r a i n e e s 1 r a t i n g o f th e s u p e r v i s o r y r e l a t i o n s h i p and t h e i r
l e v e l o f e x p e r i e n c i n g . The t r a i n e e s who f e l t t h e y had a
good s u p e r v i s o r y r e l a t i o n s h i p w ere l e s s d e f e n s i v e and more
s e n s i t i v e to t h e m s e l v e s th a n th e t r a i n e e s who g av e l e s s
f a v o r a b l e r a t i n g s to t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h e re was a l s o a
s i g n i f i c a n t n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n (p < .01) b e tw e e n th e two
v a r i a b l e s , , w h ich th e a u t h o r s i n t e r p r e t e d to mean t h a t s t u
d e n t s h a v in g th e p o o r e s t r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r
w ere more rem oved from t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e i n s u p e r v i s i o n .
V i c k e r s (1974) i n v e s t i g a t e d th e e f f e c t s o f s u p e r
v i s i o n on th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e p t u a l i z a
t i o n s and s k i l l s o f t r a i n e e s . T w enty-tw o s u p e r v i s o r s , 3^
d o c t o r a l l e v e l c l i n i c a l p s y c h o lo g y s t u d e n t s * and 45 p a t i e n t s
v o l u n t a r i l y p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a s tu d y a t A d e lp h i U n i v e r s i t y .
V i c k e r s h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t t r a i n e e s who p e r c e i v e d t h e i r
s u p e r v i s o r s a s o f f e r i n g h i g h f a c i l i t a t i v e c o n d i t i o n s , com
p a r e d to t h o s e who p e r c e i v e d them a s o f f e r i n g low f a c i l i
t a t i v e c o n d i t i o n s , w i l l : (a) be r a t e d h i g h e r on t h e f a c i l i
t a t i v e c o n d i t i o n s by t h e i r p a t i e n t s ; (b) ch an g e t h e i r
t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n more r e a d i l y i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f
t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r ' s t h e o r e t i c a l m o d el; and (c) h av e p a t i e n t s
who w i l l show more im p ro v e m e n t i n o u tco m e. The i n s t r u m e n t s
u s e d w ere S u n d la n d and B a r k e r ' s TOQ, B a r r e t t - L e n n a r d ' s R I,
and R o g e rs and Dymond' s Case R a t i n g S c a l e . The r e s u l t s f o r
29
th e f i r s t h y p o t h e s i s w ere m ixed d e p e n d in g on how th e s p l i t
b e tw e e n th e s u p e r v i s o r ' s o f f e r i n g o f h i g h and low c o n d i
t i o n s was d e t e r m in e d . The se c o n d h y p o t h e s i s was n o t s u p
p o r t e d . T h e re d i d n o t seem to be an y s u p e r v i s o r y i n f l u e n c e
on t h e s t u d e n t ' s t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n . In a d d i t i o n ,,
h o w e v e r, V i c k e r s fo u n d one s i g n i f i c a n t n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n .
The s t u d e n t - t h e r a p i s t s o f t h e " h ig h " s u p e r v i s o r s became
i n c r e a s i n g l y l e s s l i k e t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r s i n t h e i r t h e r a
p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s . The t h i r d h y p o t h e s i s was n o t c o n
f ir m e d . The p a t i e n t s o f th e s t u d e n t - t h e r a p i s t s w o rk in g
w ith " h ig h " s u p e r v i s o r s d i d n o t show more im p ro v em en t th a n
th e p a t i e n t s o f t h e s t u d e n t - t h e r a p i s t s w o rk in g w i t h "low "
s u p e r v i s o r s .
To sum m arize t h e abo v e s t u d i e s , many a s p e c t s o f
s u p e r v i s o r ' s s t y l e and l e v e l o f f u n c t i o n i n g h av e b e e n shown
to a f f e c t th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f th e i n t e r n s . I n t e r n s o f
s u p p o r t i v e s u p e r v i s o r s s h i f t e d t h e i r f o c u s o f c o n c e r n to w a rd
t h e c l i e n t and away from t h e m s e l v e s (D a v id so n & Emmer,
1 9 6 6 ) . P o s i t i v e s u p e r v i s i o n ( B la n e , 1 9 6 8 ), t e c h n i q u e -
o r i e n t e d s u p e r v i s i o n , and even no s u p e r v i s i o n (P ayne &
I r a l i n s k i , 1 9 6 8 ) h e l p e d t h e t r a i n e e to r e a c h h i g h e r l e v e l s
o f em p ath y . A b e t t e r s u p e r v i s o r y r e l a t i o n s h i p was r e l a t e d
to a h i g h e r l e v e l o f e x p e r i e n c i n g (H ansen & B a r k e r , 1964)
and to th e i n t e r n ' s own o f f e r i n g o f t h e r a p e u t i c c o n d i t i o n s
( V i c k e r s , 1 9 7 4 ). The t r a i n e e s o f s u p e r v i s o r s f u n c t i o n i n g
a t h i g h l e v e l s o f f a c i l i t a t i v e c o n d i t i o n s im p ro v e d t h e i r
30
own o f f e r i n g o f t h e same c o n d i t i o n s , w h i l e t r a i n e e s o f
s u p e r v i s o r s f u n c t i o n i n g a t low l e v e l s d i d n o t c h a n g e o r
d e c l i n e d s l i g h t l y ( P i e r c e & S c h a u b le , 1 9 7 0 ). The r e c e n t
r e s u l t s fo u n d by W edeking and S c o t t (1976) c o n f l i c t e d w i t h
t h e above s t u d y . The s u p e r v i s o r ' s em pathy was r e l a t e d o n ly
to two o u t o f f i v e t r a i n e e c o m p e te n c ie s ( r o l e a d a p t a t i o n
and c o g n i t i v e f l e x i b i l i t y ) .
In sh o rt., th e l i t e r a t u r e p o i n t e d o u t n o t o n l y t h e
i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s u p e r v i s o r s i n t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h
t h e i n t e r n s b u t a l s o t h e i r ■ i n f l u e n c e on th e i n t e r n s ' t h e r a
p e u t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r own c l i e n t s .
I n f l u e n c e o f T h e r a p e u t i c
O r i e n t a t i o n s on I n t e r n
E f f e c t i v e n e s s
What a b o u t th e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a
t i o n s on t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e i n t e r n ? No s tu d y t r i e d
to i n v e s t i g a t e t h e t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s o f s u p e r v i s o r s
i n r e l a t i o n to th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f th e i n t e r n , b u t a few
s t u d i e s h a v e t r i e d to r e l a t e th e t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s
o f s u p e r v i s o r s to t r a i n e e ch a n g e (Demos & Z u w a y lif , 1962;
S u n d la n d & G a r f i e l d , 197^; V i c k e r s , 197^; W ile , B ro n , &
P o l l a c k , 1 9 7 0 ).
Demos and Z u w a y lif ( 1 9 6 2 ) i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e c h a n g e s
i n c o u n s e l o r a t t i t u d e s a f t e r a 6 -w eek t r a i n i n g s e s s i o n a s a
f u n c t i o n o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n o f t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r s .
F o r t y c o u n s e l o r s e n r o l l e d i n a c o u n s e l i n g and g u id a n c e
31
i n s t i t u t e w i t h t h r e e f u l l - t i m e s t a f f members o v e r t l y r e p r e
s e n t i n g t h r e e d i v e r s e t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n s : namely., c l i e n t -
c e n t e r e d , e c l e c t i c , and a more d i r e c t i v e c l i n i c a l o r i e n t a
t i o n . The c o u n s e l o r c h a n g e s were m e a s u re d by th e P o r t e r
p r e - and p o s t t e s t s . A n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e r e s u l t s showed
t h a t th e c o u n s e l o r s becam e s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s e v a l u a t i v e ,
l e s s s u p p o r t i v e , and more u n d e r s t a n d i n g (p < . 0 0 l ) , more
i n t e r p r e t i v e (p < . 0 l ) , and l e s s p r o b in g (p < . 0 5 ) . The
a n a l y s i s o f d a t a by ty p e o f s u p e r v i s o r showed t h a t th e m ost
s i g n i f i c a n t a r e a o f c h an g e was i n th e u n d e r s t a n d i n g and
p r o b in g c a t e g o r i e s : th e c o u n s e l o r s o f t h e c l i e n t - c e n t e r e d
s u p e r v i s o r r e g i s t e r e d t h e g r e a t e s t movement to w a rd more
u n d e r s t a n d i n g (p < . 0 5 ) and l e s s p r o b in g (p < . 0 5 ) . F u r t h e r ,
a l l th e c o u n s e l o r s showed a movement i n th e same d i r e c t i o n
b u t n o t to t h e same d e g r e e . How ever, th e r e s e a r c h d e s ig n
d i d n o t a l l o w f o r th e c o n t r o l o f c o n c o m i t a n t v a r i a b l e s , f o r
a f o l l o w - u p m e a s u re , an d f o r a c t u a l c o u n s e l i n g v e r i f i c a t i o n
(H ansen & W arn er, 1 9 7 1 )•
W ile e t a l . (1970) i n a p r e l i m i n a r y s tu d y fo u n d
t h a t t r a i n e e s seem ed to be i n f l u e n c e d by t h e g ro u p l e a d e r ' s
s t y l e b e c a u s e t h e i r s c o r e s f o r n o n d i r e c t i v e n e s s and s i l e n c e
on t h e Group T h e ra p y Q u e s t i o n n a i r e (GTQ) w ere i n c r e a s e d a t
t h e end o f a 3 -d a y se m in a r.. W ile e t a l . (1970) th e n e x p e r i
m e n t a l l y f u r t h e r s t u d i e d t h e s e f i n d i n g s . They d i v i d e d 46
i n t r o d u c t o r y p s y c h o lo g y s t u d e n t s i n t o two g r o u p s . The
32
e x p e r i m e n t a l g ro u p (n= 2 5 ) p a r t i c i p a t e d i n two s e n s i t i v i t y
t r a i n i n g e x e r c i s e s w i t h an a l m o s t e n t i r e l y s i l e n t l e a d e r .
The c o n t r o l g ro u p (n = 2 l) h ad two s e s s i o n s w i t h a d i r e c t i v e
l e a d e r . P r e - , p o s t- ., and f o l l o w - u p GTQ w ere a d m i n i s t e r e d .
The c o n t r o l g ro u p showed no s i g n i f i c a n t changes,, w h i l e th e
e x p e r i m e n t a l g ro u p s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e d i t s u s e o f
s i l e n c e and o f n o n d i r e c t i v e r e s p o n s e s . These f i n d i n g s w ere
r e p o r t e d by S u n d la n d (1975) to show th e i n f l u e n c e o f th e
s u p e r v i s o r ’ s t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n on th e t r a i n e e .
S u n d la n d and G a r f i e l d (197^) m e a su re d t h e c h a n g e s
i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s o f t h e s t u d e n t s a s a f u n c t i o n of
th e t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s o f t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r s . They
a d m i n i s t e r e d th e TOQ, ( S u n d la n d & B ark er., 1 9 6 2 ) to 10 s u p e r
v i s o r s and to 31 p r a c t i c u m s t u d e n t s . C o m p u ta tio n s o f th e
two c l u s t e r s showed n o n s i g n i f i c a n t t r e n d s . On one c l u s t e r
( p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h ) th e t r a i n e e s moved away from
t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r s and on th e o t h e r c l u s t e r ( s o c i a l g o a l s
and c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s ) t r a i n e e s becam e more s i m i l a r to
t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r s . The a u t h o r s c o n c lu d e d t h a t s u p e r v i s o r s
do n o t a f f e c t t h e i r t r a i n e e s on t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n , ,
w h ic h c o n t r a d i c t s t h e f i n d i n g s o f Demos and Z u w a y lif ( 1 9 6 2 )
and o f W ile and h i s c o l l e a g u e s ( 1 9 7 0 ).
V i c k e r s (197^) s t u d i e d th e movement o f th e t h e r a
p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s o f t h e s t u d e n t - t h e r a p i s t s com pared to
t h o s e o f t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r s . She m a in ly fo u n d an a b s e n c e o f
33
s u p e r v i s o r s 1 i n f l u e n c e on s t u d e n t t h e r a p i s t s ' t h e r a p e u t i c
o r i e n t a t i o n s .
Summary
I n summary, th e r e v i e w o f l i t e r a t u r e i n d i c a t e d t h a t
r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e n o t e x p l o r e d th e e f f e c t s o f t h e r a p e u t i c
o r i e n t a t i o n s upon q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n . S in c e s u p e r v i s i o n
i s one o f th e m ain p r o c e s s e s by w h ic h i n t e r n s l e a r n c o u n
s e l i n g s k i l l s , I t seemed i m p e r a t i v e to a s k t h e q u e s t i o n
w h e th e r t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s o f b o t h s u p e r v i s o r s and
i n t e r n s w ere r e l a t e d to q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n . A n o th e r
q u e s t i o n was w h e th e r h i g h and low q u a l i t i e s o f s u p e r v i s i o n
c o u ld be p r e d i c t e d from t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s . F u r t h e r ,
t h e t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s h av e r e c e i v e d o n l y l i m i t e d
a t t e n t i o n w i t h r e g a r d to t h e i r e f f e c t on t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s
o f th e i n t e r n . A r e l e v a n t q u e s t i o n to i n v e s t i g a t e was
w h e th e r t h e t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s o f b o t h s u p e r v i s o r s
and i n t e r n s w ere r e l a t e d to th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f th e i n t e r n s
i n c o u n s e l i n g . A p a r a l l e l q u e s t i o n was w h e th e r more and
l e s s e f f e c t i v e i n t e r n s c o u ld be p r e d i c t e d from t h e r a p e u t i c
o r i e n t a t i o n s .
CHAPTER I I I
| METHODOLOGY
i
| The a r e a o f s u p e r v i s i o n i n c o u n s e l i n g and p s y c h o -
i
t h e r a p y n e e d s t o he e x p l o r e d and i n v e s t i g a t e d s y s t e m a t i
c a l l y (H an sen & W arn er, 1 9 7 1 )- T h is s tu d y was an e x p l o r a
t i o n o f t h e t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s h e l d hy t h e s u p e r v i s o r -
i n t e r n dyad and t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o t h e q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i
s i o n and t o t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e i n t e r n s .
I T h is s t u d y a t t e m p t e d a l s o t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e p o s -
i
I s i b i l i t y o f p r e d i c t i n g t h e q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n and t h e
1
I I
; e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e i n t e r n s from t h e t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a - j
i <
i
!t i o n s o f b o t h s u p e r v i s o r s an d i n t e r n s .
t
R e s e a r c h Design.
I T h is s t u d y was an ex p o s t f a c t o c o r r e l a t i o n a l t y p e .
I n d e p e n d e n t V a r i a b l e
The d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s
o f s u p e r v i s o r s and t h e o r i e n t a t i o n s o f t h e i r i n t e r n s , as
m e a s u re d by t h e T h e r a p i s t O r i e n t a t i o n . Q u e s t i o n n a i r e (S u n d
l a n d , 1 9 7 2 ), c o n s t i t u t e d t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e . The
; i t e m s t h a t l e a d t o t h e g e n e r a l f a c t o r i n t h e 1962 v e r s i o n
j o f t h e TOQ (S u n d la n d & B a r k e r , 1 9 6 2 ) w ere i s o l a t e d from t h e
i
34
35
1972 v e r s i o n and u s e d t o o b t a i n a c o m p o s ite s c o r e ( p e r s o n a l
c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h Sundland., M arch 1 9 7 6 ). The r a n g e b e tw e e n
t h e o b t a i n e d s c o r e s f o r t h e s u p e r v i s o r s and t h e i r i n t e r n s
;was t h e n com puted and u s e d a s t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e .
jD ependent V a r i a b l e s
r ... ...
t
j F o r h y p o t h e s e s 1 .1 an d 1.2., t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e
i
jwas t h e t o t a l s c o r e o b t a i n e d fro m t h e R e l a t i o n s h i p I n v e n -
i
i t o r y ( B a r r e t t - L e n n a r d j 1 9 6 2 ). I t was d e c i d e d t o u s e t h e
t o t a l s c o r e b e c a u s e o f t h e h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s
fo u n d b etw e e n a l l o f t h e f o u r s c a l e s ( p < . 0 0 l ) .
F o r h y p o t h e s e s 2 .1 and 2.2., t h e c o m p o s ite s c o r e
o b t a i n e d on t h e e i g h t i t e m s o f t h e I n t e r n E v a l u a t i o n Form
jwas c o n s i d e r e d a s t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e .
| Sample
i The s u b j e c t s w ere s e l e c t e d fro m t h e i n t e r n s and
i
t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r s a t H e l p l i n e Y o u th C o u n s e lin g and a t M id-
V a l l e y M e n ta l H e a l t h C ouncil., two com m unity c l i n i c s o f
Los A n g e le s C o u n ty . T h e se com m unity m e n ta l h e a l t h a g e n c i e s
w ere s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e o f t h e i r s i m i l a r program s., c l i e n t e l e . ,
1 and i n t e r n s h i p t r a i n i n g .
H e l p l i n e Y o uth C o u n s e lin g i s a m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l
j
;c o u n s e l i n g and o u t r e a c h s e r v i c e f o r young p e o p l e and t h e i r
. f a m i l i e s i n S o u t h e a s t Los A n g e le s C ounty (HYC* A F a c t
1 S h e e t j 1 9 7 6 ). HYC i s n o t a " h o t l i n e " b u t a c o u n s e l i n g
i
|a g e n c y m a in ly f o r t e e n a g e r s . H e l p l i n e ' s s p e c i a l com ponents
36
i n c l u d e t h e a r e a s o f p r e - d e l i n q u e n c y d i v e r s i o n ., f a m i l y
th e ra p y ., c r i s i s i n t e r v e n t i o n , o u t r e a c h t o c o m m u n itie s and
s c h o o l s * a d v o c a c y w ork f o r young p eo p le., and com m unity p s y
c h o lo g y s e r v i c e s . The m a j o r i t y o f t h e c l i e n t s a t HYC p r e
s e n t p ro b le m s t h a t a r e r e l a t e d t o d r u g s , f a m i l y s c h o o l , o r
i
ie m o tio n a l d i s t u r b a n c e s . The s e r v i c e s a r e f r e e .
| M id - V a lle y Community M e n ta l H e a l t h C o u n c il i s a l s o
ia n o n p r o f i t o r g a n i z a t i o n o f f e r i n g i n e x p e n s i v e p s y c h o l o g i c a l
s e r v i c e s t o t h e r e s i d e n t s o f N o r t h e a s t Los A n g e le s C o u n ty .
M id - V a lle y i s i n v o l v e d i n p ro g ra m s r e l a t e d t o y o u th and
f a m i l y p ro b le m s s u c h a s j u v e n i l e d e l i n q u e n c y p r e v e n t i o n *
t r e a t m e n t and p r e v e n t i o n o f d ru g abuse* and j u v e n i l e and
f a m i l y i n t e r v e n t i o n . ( M id - V a lle y Community M e n ta l H e a l t h >
j c o u n c i l j 1 9 7 5 ). 1
I
i The i n t e r n s w o rk ed a t t h e s e c l i n i c s a s f i e l d p l a c e -
i
m e n ts . They w ere s u p e r v i s e d by a member o f t h e s e n i o r
s t a f f . At HYC* t h e i n t e r n s w ere f i r s t a s s i g n e d t o t h e i r
s u p e r v i s o r a c c o r d i n g t o t h e ty p e o f s t a t e l i c e n s e t h e y
i
n e e d e d (M a rria g e * F a m ily and C h ild C o u n s e lo r* o r P s y c h o l o
g i s t ) . A f t e r t h a t f i r s t a s s ig n m e n t* t h e i n t e r n s w ere
a s s i g n e d t o s u p e r v i s o r s on a r o t a t i o n b a s is * i n a q u a s i -
random f a s h i o n . At M id - V a lle y Community M e n ta l H e a l t h
I
I C o u n c il* t h e i n t e r n - s u p e r v i s o r m a tc h in g was done on a r o t a -
|
[ t i o n b a s i s .
i
A l l o f t h e 34 i n t e r n s who h ad b e e n u n d e r t h e s u p e r
v i s i o n o f t h e same s u p e r v i s o r f o r a p e r i o d o f 6 t o 8 m onths
37
and t h e i r 12 s u p e r v i s o r s w ere a s k e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h i s
r e s e a r c h .
Of. t h e 3^- i n t e r n s , two d i d n o t r e t u r n t h e i r q u e s
t i o n n a i r e s and one i n t e r n ' s r e s p o n s e s w ere r e j e c t e d b e c a u s e
;of an u n o f f i c i a l ch an g e o f s u p e r v i s o r . The d a t a w ere
a n a l y z e d f o r 43 p a r t i c i p a n t s : 31 i n t e r n s and 12 s u p e r v i s o r s .
S u p e r v i s o r s
From t h e e i g h t m ale an d f o u r f e m a le s u p e r v i s o r s ,
s e v e n w ere b e tw e e n t h e a g e s 26 and 30, two b e tw e e n 31 and
35, and t h e o t h e r s b e tw e e n 30 and 5 0 . One h e l d a B a c h e l o r 's
d e g r e e , e i g h t a M a s t e r ' s , an d t h r e e a d o c t o r a t e . T h re e
i
iwere w o rk in g to w a rd a d o c t o r a t e . They h a d p r a c t i c e d p s y -
!
i c h o t h e r a p y from 2 t o 15 y e a r s , w i t h a mean o f 4 y e a r s . j
I S even h e l d a M a r r i a g e , F a m ily and C h i l d C o u n s e lo r L i c e n s e , j
and among them , one had a l s o a P s y c h o l o g i s t L i c e n s e . The
:s u p e r v i s o r s h a d b e e n s u p e r v i s i n g i n t e r n s fro m 1 t o 10
y e a r s , w i t h a mean o f 3 - 5 y e a r s . Seven, d e s c r i b e d t h e i r !
I
j p s y c h o t h e r a p e u t i c a p p r o a c h a s e c l e c t i c , two a s S u l l i v a n i a n ,
one a s p s y c h o a n a l y t i c , on e a s e x i s t e n t i a l , an d o n e a s
J u n g i a n and p s y c h o s y n t h e s i s o r i e n t e d .
I n t e r n s
The i n t e r n s w e re 13 m a le s a n d 18 f e m a le s o f w h ic h
| 10 w ere b e tw e e n 20 and 25 y e a r s o l d ; 11 b e tw e e n 26 an d 30 ;
i
3 b e tw e e n 31 and 35; 2 b e tw e e n 36 and 4 0 ; 3 b e tw e e n 4 l and
4 5 ; and 2 b e tw e e n 51 and 55 w i t h 68 p e r c e n t o f t h e i n t e r n s
30 y e a r s o l d o r l e s s . Two w ere s t u d y i n g f o r a B a c h e l o r 's
degree,, 13 f o r a M a s t e r 's degree., and e i g h t f o r t h e d o c
t o r a t e . They h a d b e e n d o in g c o u n s e l i n g from l e s s t h a n a
jy e a r t o l e s s t h a n 10 y e a rs., w i t h a mean a t y e a r s . F o u r
t e e n d e s c r i b e d t h e m s e l v e s a s e c l e c t i c . , s i x a s ! e x i s t e n t i a l . ,
i 1
; t h r e e a s b e h a v i o r a l ,, two a s S u l l i v a n i a n ., two a s c l i e n t -
c .e n te re d „ one a s p s y c h o a n a l y t i c „ an d t h e t h r e e o t h e r s a s
t e n a n t s o f e i t h e r g e s t a l t . , r a t i o n a l - e m o t i v e ., o r com m unity
i
p s y c h o lo g y .
I n s t r u m e n t s
T h e r a p i s t O r i e n t a t i o n
[Q u e s t i o n n a i r e (TOQj
( Sundland., 1 9 7 2 )
The TOQ o r i g i n a t e d from a s c a l e - t y p e q u e s t i o n n a i r e
i
d e v i s e d by B arker,, w h ic h y i e l d e d s c a l e s c l u s t e r e d i n t o two
'd im e n s io n s : e m o t i o n a l t o n e o f t h e t h e r a p e u t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p
E
and d e g r e e o f p a s s i v i t y o f t h e t h e r a p i s t . The f i r s t p u b
l i s h e d v e r s i o n ( S u n d la n d * 1 9 7 2 ) c o n t a i n e d 133 ite m s d e r i v e d
from an e x t e n s i v e r e v ie w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e on p s y c h o th e r a p y .
The it e m s w e re f i r s t g r o u p e d on an a p r i o r i b a s i s . I n t e r
c o r r e l a t i o n s and f a c t o r a n a l y s i s w ere c a l c u l a t e d f o r s u b
t e s t p u r i f i c a t i o n an d v a l i d a t i o n . A g e n e r a l f a c t o r l a b e l e d
" a n a l y t i c v s . e x p e r i e n t i a l " was d i s c o v e r e d and c o n s i d e r e d
|" t h e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t s i n g l e c o n tin u u m upon w h ic h t o com-
i
'p a r e t h e r a p i s t s " (S u n d la n d & B arker., 1962., p . 2 0 5 ). The
m eaning o f " a n a l y t i c " was n o t a n a b b r e v i a t i o n o f " p s y c h o -
39
'a n a l y t i c " b u t was t a k e n i n t h e b r o a d e r s e n s e o f a t t e n d i n g
Lnd r e s p o n d i n g . The " a n a l y t i c " p o l e s t r e s s e d c o n c e p t u a l i z
i n g , t r a i n i n g o f t h e t h e r a p i s t , p l a n n i n g o f t h e r a p y , u n c o n
s c i o u s p r o c e s s e s , and r e s t r i c t i o n o f t h e r a p i s t s p o n t a n e i t y .
The " e x p e r i e n t i a l " p o l e s t r e s s e d n o n r a t i o n a l i z e d an d n o n -
j
jv e rb a l e x p e r i e n c i n g , d e e m p h a s iz e d u n c o n s c i o u s p r o c e s s e s ,
i
land a c c e p t e d t h e r a p i s t s p o n t a n e i t y ( S u n d la n d & B a r k e r ,
i
i
!l962, p . 2 0 5 ) . T h e * 1 a u t h o r s fo u n d t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e
d i f f e r e n t i a t e d b e tw e e n t h e r a p i s t s o f d i f f e r e n t o r i e n t a t i o n s .
The TOQ h a s b e e n r e v i s e d . I n t h i s s t u d y , t h e 1972
v e r s i o n was u s e d . I t c o n t a i n s 104 i t e m s ( 6 l fro m t h e 1962
TOQ and 43 new i t e m s ) s c o r e d on a 5 - p o i n t L i k e r t s c a l e .
At t h e tim e o f t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h i s a u t h o r ’s d a t a ,
no f a c t o r a n a l y s i s h a d y e t b e e n c o m p le te d on t h e 1 0 4 - it e m
q u e s t i o n n a i r e ( p e r s o n a l c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h S u n d la n d , J u l y
1 9 7 6 ). The a n a l y s i s d one on t h e 6 l i t e m s , w h ic h w e re t h e
• r e s u l t o f t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n done on t h e p r e v i o u s v e r s i o n ,
jwas u s e d . F a c t o r a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e s t h e n y i e l d e d 10
1
jf a c t o r s :
l
1 . s o c i a l c r i t e r i a f o r s u c c e s s an d d e l i b e r a t e
d i r e c t i v e n e s s
J 2 . a f f e c t i v e g a i n s
i 3 * t r a i n i n g , p l a n n i n g , an d c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g
1 .
I 4 . v e r b a l l e a r n i n g a n d c o g n i t i v e g a i n s
1
5 . c h i l d h o o d e x p e r i e n c e s and p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t e c h
n i q u e s
6 . a c t i v e and i n v o l v e d t h e r a p i s t
40
7. t h e r a p i s t ' s s e c u r i t y
8. i n f o r m a l b e h a v i o r
9. i n h e r e n t g ro w th
j 10. i n t e r r u p t i v e a c t i v i t y
; Two o r t h o g o n a l c l u s t e r s w ere d e r i v e d fro m t h e c o r -
|
; r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n t h e s e 10 f a c t o r s . C l u s t e r A i n c l u d e d
i f a c t o r s 1, 4 , and 7 j C l u s t e r B i n c l u d e d f a c t o r s 5 3 8, and
i
i ,
I10. F a c t o r s 3 and 6 w ere c o r r e l a t e d w i t h e a c h o t h e r and
w i t h b o th o f t h e c l u s t e r s . , and f a c t o r s 2 and 9 w ere n o t
s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h e i t h e r o f t h e c l u s t e r s (S u n d
l a n d , 1 9 7 2 ).
B e c a u se S u n d la n d and B a r k e r ( 1 9 6 2 ) f o u n d t h a t p s y
c h o t h e r a p i s t s o f d i f f e r e n t o r i e n t a t i o n s do d i f f e r on t h e
TOQ w h ic h a s s e s s e s k e y t h e r a p e u t i c a t t i t u d e s and m e th o d s,
t h e TOQ was ju d g e d a s a r e l e v a n t i n s t r u m e n t f o r t h e p u r
p o s e s o f t h i s s t u d y .
The TOQ i s p r e s e n t e d i n A p p en d ix A.
!
1
1 R e l a t i o n s h i p I n v e n t o r y ( R I )
!( B a r r e t t - L e n n a r d , 1964)
The RI i s b a s e d on C a r l R o g e r s ' f o r m u l a t i o n o f " th e
n e c e s s a r y and s u f f i c i e n t c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e r a p e u t i c p e r s o n
a l i t y c h a n g e " ( R o g e r s , 1 9 5 7 )- B a r r e t t - L e n n a r d p o s t u l a t e d
i
! t h a t t h e c l i e n t s ' e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e i r t h e r a p i s t s ' r e s p o n s e
!was t h e p r i m a r y l o c u s o f t h e r a p e u t i c i n f l u e n c e i n t h e i r
1 r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
I I n i t s f i r s t p u b l i c a t i o n i n 1962., t h e RI h a d J2
Lterns an d y i e l d e d a m e a su re on. f i v e v a r i a b l e s p l u s a t o t a l
s c o r e . The v a r i a b l e s w e re : e m p a th ic u n d e r s t a n d i n g s c o n
gruence., u n c o n d i t i o n a l ! t y „ w i l l i n g n e s s t o be known, and
I
'l e v e l o f r e g a r d . A r e v i s i o n o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t b a s e d m a in ly
i
on. i t e m - a n a l y s i s r e s u l t s g av e o u t a s h o r t e n e d fo rm o f 64
i
'ite m s . The s c a l e " w i l l i n g n e s s t o be known" was d ro p p e d
( B a r r e t t - L e n n a r d ., 1 9 6 9a-). The i t e m s w ere s c o r e d on a 6 -
Ipoint s c a l e fro m -3 t o +3 a,nd g r o u p e d on t h e f o u r f o l l o w i n g
v a r i a b l e s :
1. E m p ath ic u n d e r s t a n d i n g : e x p e r i e n c i n g t h e
p r o c e s s and c o n t e n t o f a n o t h e r ' s a w a r e n e s s i n a l l i t s
^ a s p e c ts ; s e n s i n g t h e im m e d ia te a f f e c t i v e q u a l i t y and i n t e n -
i
j s i t y o f t h e o t h e r ' s e x p e r i e n c e , a s w e l l a s r e c o g n i z i n g i t s ;
p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t .
I
! 2. L e v e l o f r e g a r d : v a r i o u s a f f e c t i v e r e a c t i o n s
I
1
!(b o th p o s i t i v e an d n e g a t i v e ) o f o n e p e r s o n i n r e l a t i o n t o
jan.oth.er.
3. U n c o n d i t i o n a l i t y o f r e g a r d : t h e d e g r e e o f v a r i a
b i l i t y i n one p e r s o n ' s a f f e c t i v e r e s p o n s e t o a n o t h e r .
4. C o n g ru e n c e : c o n s i s t e n c y b e tw e e n o n e p e r s o n ' s
t o t a l e x p e r i e n c e , aw aren ess,, and o v e r t com m unication., i n
ithe c o n t e x t o f h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a n o t h e r .
1
1
I The t o t a l s c o r e h a s b e e n i n t e r p r e t e d a s t h e " l e v e l
'of o f f e r e d f a c i l i t a t i v e c o n d i t i o n s " (V i c k e r s „ 1974) and as
42
t h e " q u a l i t y o f t h e t o t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p " (H ansen & B a r k e r ,
1 9 6 4 ).
R e l i a b i l i t y h a s b e e n s t u d i e d by t h e t e s t - r e t e s t and
!by t h e s p l i t - h a l f m e th o d s. The r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s
^are shown t o a v e r a g e a ro u n d .8 5 and .8 6 w i t h a r a n g e from
|.7 5 t o .9 5 ( B a r r e t t - L e n n a r d , 1 9 6 9b ) . S t a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s
f o r t h e t o t a l s c o r e s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d t o be .93 and .9 5
( B a r r e t t - L e n n a r d , 1962; R o g e rs , G e n d lin , K i e s l e r , & T ru a x ,
1 9 6 7 ).
B a r r e t t - L e n n a r d ( 1 9 6 9a) r e p o r t e d t h a t e x t e n s i v e
leviden.ee h a s a c c u m u la te d s u p p o r t i n g t h e c o n s t r u c t v a l i d i t y
1
o f t h e m e a su re d i n t e r p e r s o n a l d i m e n s i o n s . C o n te n t v a l i d i t y
r e g a r d i n g t h e p r o c e d u r e u s e d i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e
|i n s t r u m e n t was d i s c u s s e d a t l e n g t h i n t h e m onograph ;
1 ( B a r r e t t - L e n n a r d , 1962, p p . 6-7* 1 1 - 1 3 ) .
i B a r r e t t - L e n n a r d ( 1 9 6 9 a ) r e p o r t e d a l s o t h a t t h e r e
jwere s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n t h e RI
1
s c a l e s . E m p ath ic u n d e r s t a n d i n g and c o n g r u e n c e w ere t h e most
s t r o n g l y i n t e r c o r r e l a t e d s c a l e s . U n c o n d i t i o n a l i t y was t h e
m ost i n d e p e n d e n t m e a s u re . L e v e l and u n c o n d i t i o n a l i t y o f
r e g a r d h a d a v e r y low c o r r e l a t i o n (W alk er & L i t t l e , 1 9 6 9 ).
The mean i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n o f t h e s c a l e s was .4 5 ( B a r r e t t -
L e n n a rd , 1962; T o s i , F ru m k in , & W ils o n , 1 9 6 8 ).
T h e re was a g ro w in g body o f e v id e n c e t h a t s u p p o r t e d
t h e RI a s a v a l i d i n s t r u m e n t ( V i c k e r s , 1974) whose " d i s -
43
c r i m i n a t e d r e l a t i o n s h i p v a r i a b l e s r e p r e s e n t o r r e f l e c t
d im e n s io n s o f f u n d a m e n ta l i m p o r t a n c e i n human i n t e r a c t i o n ,
and i t s e f f e c t s " ( B a r r e t t - L e n n a r d , 1 9 6 9 ^ 3 p . 5 ) . t h i s
r e a s o n , t h e RI was c h o s e n a s a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h i s r e s e a r c h .
The RI Form OS-M-64 was g i v e n t o i n t e r n s who
1
| t r a i n e d w i t h a m ale s u p e r v i s o r (A p p en d ix B ) . The RI Form
O S-F-64 i s t h e f e m in i n e v e r s io n , and was given, t o i n t e r n s
who w orked w i t h f e m a le s u p e r v i s o r s .
I
|
I n t e r n E v a l u a t i o n Form (IE F )
( S p a in , 1 9 7 6)
The IEF was d e v e lo p e d by t h i s a u t h o r , a s a means o f
e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e i n t e r n s by t h e i r
s u p e r v i s o r s . The i t e m s w ere b u i l t from c r i t e r i a r e l e v a n t j
t o e v a l u a t i o n i n s u p e r v i s i o n c h o s e n fro m t h e l i t e r a t u r e 1
[ ( B lo c h e r , 1 9 6 8 ; E b e r l e i n & P a r k , 1 9 7 1 )- They w ere p r e -
j
t e s t e d f o r c l a r i t y an d v a l i d i t y on a g ro u p o f d o c t o r a l
s t u d e n t s i n v o l v e d I n s u p e r v i s i n g i n t e r n s . The IEF c o n t a i n s
e i g h t ite m s s c o r e d on a 5 - p o i n t L i k e r t s c a l e . I n a d d i t i o n
!to t h e e i g h t i t e m s , one d i r e c t q u e s tio n , was i n c l u d e d t o
j a s s e s s t h e s u p e r v i s o r s ' p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e s i m i l a r i t y o f
1
!t h e i r own. p s y c h o t h e r a p e u t i c a p p r o a c h w i t h t h a t o f t h e i r
I
j i n t e r n s . The p u r p o s e o f t h i s q u e s t i o n was t o v e r i f y i f i t s
'a n s w e r w ould c o r r o b o r a t e w i t h t h e s o p h i s t i c a t e d c o m p u te r
i
1
' a n a l y s i s on t h e TOQ f o r b o t h s u p e r v i s o r s a n d i n t e r n s . The
i
'IEF c an be fo u n d i n A p p en d ix C.
44
P r o c e d u r e s
The s t u d y was c o n d u c te d d u r i n g M arch and A p r i l
1 9 7 6 . Each s u p e r v i s o r an d i n t e r n was g i v e n an e n v e lo p e
w h ic h i n c l u d e d ( a ) a l e t t e r fro m t h i s r e s e a r c h e r e x p l a i n i n g
:t h e g e n e r a l p u r p o s e o f t h e s t u d y an d a s k i n g f o r h i s c o l -
I
i l a b o r a t i o n (A p p en d ix D ); (b ) a memo from t h e d i r e c t o r s o f
t h e c l i n i c s s t a t i n g t h a t t h e y h ad a p p r o v e d o f t h e s t u d y and
u r g i n g h i s p a r t i c i p a t i o n ; (c ) a d e m o g ra p h ic d a t a q u e s t i o n
n a i r e (A p p en d ix E ) ; and (d ) t h e i n s t r u m e n t s s e l e c t e d f o r
t h i s r e s e a r c h . The i n t e r n s r e c e i v e d t h e TOQ and t h e RI
(Form OS-M-1964 o r Form O S -F -1 9 6 4 ). The s u p e r v i s o r s fo u n d
I i n t h e i r e n v e lo p e t h e TOQ and one IEF f o r e a c h one o f t h e i r
1
j i n t e r n s who was s e l e c t e d f o r t h i s s t u d y . They w e re a s k e d
I
ito c o m p le te t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s an d t o r e t u r n t h e e n v e lo p e
s e a l e d w i t h i n 2 w eek s.
I n o r d e r t o i n s u r e c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y . , a l l t h e q u e s
t i o n n a i r e s w ere c o d e d . To a v o i d an y e r r o r o r c o n fu sio n ., a
name was a t t a c h e d t o t h e RI ( t o i d e n t i f y t h e s u p e r v i s o r )
and t o t h e IEF ( t o I d e n t i f y t h e i n t e r n whom t h e s u p e r v i s o r
was a s k e d t o e v a l u a t e ) . I n b o t h c a s e s , t h e p a r t i c i p a n t
was I n s t r u c t e d t o t e a r t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s l i p o f f and t o
r e t u r n o n l y t h e anonymous c o m p le te d fo rm s . The raw d a t a
w ere t h e n p u t on s t a n d a r d c o m p u te r c a r d s .
D a ta A n a l y s i s
B e c a u se t h e r e s e a r c h h y p o t h e s e s p r e d i c t an a b s e n c e
o f r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e v a r i a b l e s . , t h e y a r e i d e n t i c a l
t o t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s e s .
(H y p o th e sis 1 .1
I
j The d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n
i s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r
r e l a t e d w i t h t h e q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n .
A c o m p o s ite s c o r e f o r e a c h p a r t i c i p a n t on t h e TOQ
was o b t a i n e d by c o m b in in g t h e s c o r e s o f t h e two c l u s t e r s
(A and B ) . The d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e i n t e r n s ' an d t h e i r
s u p e r v i s o r s ' c o m p o s ite s c o r e s was co m p u ted . A P e a r s o n
c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t ( G la s s & S ta n le y ,, 1970) was t h e n
( c a l c u l a t e d b e tw e e n t h e s u p e r v i s o r - i n t e r n d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e
I
;on t h e TOQ and t h e t o t a l s c o r e on t h e R I .
I
I
H y p o t h e s is 1 .2
I t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o p r e d i c t h i g h and low q u a l i
t i e s o f s u p e r v i s io n , from t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a
p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s between, s u p e r v i s o r s an d i n t e r n s ,
i A d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e t o t a l s c o r e s on t h e RI was
o b t a i n e d . Two g ro u p s w e re fo rm e d : t h e h i g h q u a l i t y o f
[ s u p e r v i s i o n g ro u p (a b o v e +.25 s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n ) and t h e
I
i
jlow q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n g ro u p (b e lo w - .2 5 s t a n d a r d
d e v i a t i o n ) . A d i s c r i m i n a n t a n a l y s i s ( K e r l i n g e r & P ed h azu r„
1973) on t h e 10 p r i m a r y f a c t o r s o f t h e TOQ was t h e n p e r
fo rm ed t o p r e d i c t g ro u p m em b e rsh ip .
H y p o t h e s is 2 .1
I
I The d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n
i s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r -
i
r e l a t e d w i t h t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e i n t e r n s .
A P e a r s o n c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t was c a l c u l a t e d
b e tw e e n t h e s u p e r v i s o r - i n t e r n c o m p o s ite s c o r e on t h e TOQ
and t h e c o m p o s ite s c o r e on t h e IE F.
H y p o t h e s is 2 . 2
I t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o p r e d i c t more and l e s s
! e f f e c t i v e i n t e r n s fro m t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a
p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and
i n t e r n s .
From t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e c o m p o s ite s c o r e s o f
t h e IEF; two g r o u p s w e re fo rm e d : t h e more e f f e c t i v e and
t h e l e s s e f f e c t i v e i n t e r n s . A d i s c r i m i n a n t a n a l y s i s on t h e
!10 p r im a r y f a c t o r s o f t h e TOQ was t h e n p e r f o r m e d t o p r e d i c t
I
jg ro u p m em b ersh ip .
i
| L i m i t a t i o n s
i
| As g ro u p m em bership c o u l d n o t be c l e a r l y d e f i n e d
i
j and d i c h o t o m i z e d ; e r r o r s o f p r e d i c t i o n c o u l d a r i s e . G-en-
I
e r a l i z a t i o n o f t h e r e s u l t s i s l i m i t e d b e c a u s e o f t h e
s e l e c t i o n p r o c e d u r e .
47
Summary
Tw elve s u p e r v i s o r s and t h e i r 31 i n t e r n s w ere g i v e n
t h e T h e r a p i s t O r i e n t a t i o n Q u e s t i o n n a i r e . A l l i n t e r n s com-
i
. p l e t e d t h e R e l a t i o n s h i p I n v e n t o r y a n d t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e
i
s u p e r v i s o r s c o m p le te d t h e I n t e r n E v a l u a t i o n Form. P e a r s o n
r_'s w ere u s e d t o f i n d i f t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c
o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s c o r r e l a t e d
w i t h ( a ) t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e s u p e r v i s i o n and (b) t h e e f f e c
t i v e n e s s o f t h e i n t e r n s . D i s c r i m i n a n t a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e s
w ere u s e d t o p r e d i c t g ro u p m em bership ( h ig h v s . low q u a l i t y
o f s u p e r v i s i o n and more v s . l e s s e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e
i n t e r n s ) from t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s
jbetw een s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s .
i
CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS
In t h i s c h a p te r ,, th e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d by t e s t i n g
th e f o u r h y p o t h e s e s o f t h i s s tu d y a r e p r e s e n t e d . An i n t e r
p r e t a t i o n and a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s e r e s u l t s f o l l o w .
R e s u l t s
H y p o t h e s i s 1 .1
The d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n
s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r
r e l a t e d w i t h th e q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n .
The P e a r s o n c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t f o r t h e d i f f e r
e n c e b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s on th e TOQ c o m p o s ite
s c o r e and th e t o t a l s c o r e on th e RI was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t
(0.1984., p > .0 5 ) . T h e re fo re ., h y p o t h e s i s 1 .1 was s u p p o r t e d .
H y p o t h e s is 1 .2
0
I t i s n o t p o s s i b l e to p r e d i c t h ig h and low q u a l i
t i e s o f s u p e r v i s i o n from th e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e r a
p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and
i n t e r n s .
A d i s c r i m i n a n t a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e was p e r fo r m e d to
48
49
p r e d i c t g ro u p m em b ersh ip ( h ig h o r low q u a l i t i e s o f s u p e r
v i s i o n ) from th e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s
b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s . The r e s u l t s o f t h i s p r e
d i c t i o n a r e shown i n T a b le 1. The means on t h e TOQ f a c t o r s
f o r b o t h g r o u p s ( h ig h and low q u a l i t i e s o f s u p e r v i s i o n ) a r e
fo u n d i n T a b le 2. The c a n o n i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n th e
two s e t s o f v a r i a b l e s ( d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a
t i o n s and q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n ) was 0 . 6 2 6 . T h e re fo re .,
h y p o t h e s i s 1 .2 was r e j e c t e d .
A s t e p w i s e d i s c r i m i n a n t a n a l y s i s c o m p u te r p ro g ra m
(N ie , Hull,, J e n k i n s , S t e i n b r e n n e r , & B e n t, 1975) was u s e d
t o com pute t h e d a t a . T h is p ro g ra m com puted a s e q u e n c e o f
r e g r e s s i o n e q u a t i o n s by a d d in g f a c t o r s o f th e TOQ i n a
s t e p w i s e m an n e r. The p ro g ra m f i r s t s e l e c t e d t h e p r e d i c t o r
v a r i a b l e w i t h th e h i g h e s t v a l i d i t y c o e f f i c i e n t . At e a c h
s u c c e s s i v e s t e p , th e v a r i a b l e w i t h th e n e x t h i g h e s t v a l i d
i t y c o e f f i c i e n t was ad d ed to t h e e q u a t i o n .
The s t e p w i s e d i s c r i m i n a n t a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e
a llo w e d f o r th e s e l e c t i o n o f th e TOQ f a c t o r s w h ic h b e s t
d i s c r i m i n a t e d among t h e g r o u p s ( h ig h and low q u a l i t i e s o f
s u p e r v i s i o n ) . Those f a c t o r s and t h e s t a n d a r d i z e d d i s c r i m
i n a n t f u n c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e fo u n d i n T a b le 3*
H y p o t h e s is 2 .1
The d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n
s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r -
50
'T able 1
P r e d ic tio n R e s u lts o f High and Low Q u a litie s o f S u p e rv is io n
from th e D iff e re n c e s in T h e ra p e u tic O r ie n ta tio n s
betw een S u p e rv is o rs and I n te r n s
P r e d ic te d Group M embership
A c tu a l Group
Number
o f C ases
Group I
Low Q u a lity o f
S u p e rv is io n
Group I I
High Q u a lity o f
S u p e rv is io n
Group I
Low Q u a lity
o f S u p e rv is io n
10
9
( 9 0 .056)
1
(IO.O56)
Group I I
High Q u a lity
o f S u p e rv is io n
15 5
(2 0 .0 56)
12
(8O.O56)
N o te. P e rc e n t o f "g ro u p ed ” c a s e s c o r r e c t l y c l a s s i f i e d : 8hfy.
51
T able 2
Means on th e T h e ra p is t O r ie n ta tio n Q u e s tio n n a ire F a c to r s
f o r High and Low Q u a litie s o f S u p e rv is io n
TOQ F a c to r s
Group I
Low Q u a lity
o f S u p e rv is io n
Group I I
H igh Q u a lity
o f S u p e rv is io n
1 o . 4722 0.5224
2 1.0^25
1.1275
3 1.6675 - 0.6575
4 -O .8658 -0 .1 9 5 1
5
0 .0205 1.0145
e
6 -1 .5 6 0 8 -1 .5 6 8 2
7 0.7953
0.2170
8 -1 .2 5 0 8
-0 .5 8 9 9
9
-1 .7 7 2 1
-0 .1 7 5 7
10 - 1.1429 -0 .5 4 8 1
T able 3
S ta n d a rd iz e d D is c rim in a n t F u n c tio n C o e f f ic ie n ts o f th e
T h e r a p is t O r ie n ta tio n Q u e s tio n n a ire F a c to r s f o r
P r e d ic tin g Q u a lity o f S u p e rv is io n
TOQ F a c to rs F u n c tio n
3 - T r a in in g , P la n n in g , and
C o n c e p tu a li z in g
0.81071
4 . V e rb al L e a rn in g and
C o g n itiv e G ains
-0 .5 0 9 ^ 1
5 . C hildhood E x p e rie n c e s and
P s y c h o a n a ly tic T ech niques
-0 .6 5 3 1 8
9 . In h e re n t Growth - 0.37252
53
r e l a t e d w i t h t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f i n t e r n s .
The P e a r s o n c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t f o r t h e d i f f e r
e n c e b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s on th e TOQ c o m p o s ite
s c o r e and th e c o m p o s ite s c o r e on th e I n t e r n E v a l u a t i o n Form
was 0 .0 0 3 0 . I t was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t ( p > . 0 5 ) . T h e r e f o r e ,
h y p o t h e s i s 2 . 1 was s u p p o r t e d .
When e a c h q u e s t i o n on t h e I n t e r n E v a l u a t i o n Form
was c o n s i d e r e d ( i n s t e a d o f t h e c o m p o s ite s c o r e ) i n r e l a t i o n
to th e same TOQ c o m p o s ite score,, none o f th e c o r r e l a t i o n s
r e a c h e d s i g n i f i c a n c e (p > . 0 5 ) .
H y p o t h e s is 2 .2
I t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o p r e d i c t more and l e s s e f f e c
t i v e i n t e r n s from t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c
o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s .
The p r e d i c t i o n r e s u l t s a r e shown i n T a b le 4 . The
m eans on th e TOQ f a c t o r s f o r b o t h g r o u p s (more and l e s s
e f f e c t i v e i n t e r n s ) a r e fo u n d i n T a b le 5* The c a n o n i c a l
c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n t h e two s e t s o f v a r i a b l e s ( d i f f e r e n c e
i n s u p e r v i s o r - i n t e r n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s and i n t e r n
e f f e c t i v e n e s s ) was 0 . 8 4 1 . T h e re fo re ., h y p o t h e s i s 2 . 2 was
r e j e c t e d .
The r e l a t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e TOQ f a c t o r s w h ich
b e s t c o n t r i b u t e to t h e c r i t e r i o n v a r i a b l e ( i n t e r n e f f e c
t i v e n e s s ) i s p r e s e n t e d i n T a b le 6 .
54
T able 4
P r e d ic tio n R e s u lts o f More and L ess E f f e c tiv e I n te r n s
from th e D iff e re n c e s in T h e ra p e u tic O r ie n ta tio n s
betw een S u p e rv is o rs and I n te r n s
P r e d ic te d Group M embership
A c tu a l Group
Number
o f C ases
Group I Group I I
L ess E f f e c tiv e More E f f e c tiv e
I n te r n s I n te r n s
Group I
L ess E f f e c tiv e
I n te r n s
15
l 4
( 9 3 -3$)
( 6 .7 $ )
Group I I
More E f f e c tiv e
I n te r n s
10
o o
10
(1 0 0 .0 $ )
N ote. P e rc e n t o f "grouped" c a s e s c o r r e c t l y c l a s s i f i e d : 96$.
!
55
T ab le 5
Means on th e T h e ra p is t O r ie n ta tio n Q u e stio n n a ire F a c to rs
f o r More and L ess E f f e c tiv e I n te r n s
TOQ F a c to rs
Group I
L ess E f f e c tiv e
/
I n te r n s
Group I I
More E f f e c tiv e
I n te r n s
1 -O .6276 I.OO55
2 0 .8 7 9 1 -0 .2 0 6 1
5 - 0.6329
0.2816
k -0 .8 1 9 0
- 1.1331
5 0.3537
1.1056
6 - 1 . 7192
- 1.8539
7
-O .2589 I.569O
8 - 0 . 1 4 - 8 1 5 - 1 . 65214 -
9
-1 .0 6 1 8
-O .2565
10 -O .5568 -1 .7 1 4 5
i
T ab le 6
S t a n d a r d iz e d D is c r im in a n t F u n c t io n C o e f f i c i e n t s o f t h e
T h e r a p is t O r i e n t a t i o n Q u e s t io n n a ir e F a c t o r s f o r
P r e d i c t i n g t h e E f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e I n t e r n s
TOQ F a c to r s F u nct io n
1 . S o c ia l C r i t e r i a f o r S u ccess and
D e lib e r a te D ir e c tiv e n e s s
0 .59474
4 . V e rb al L e a rn in g and C o g n itiv e
G ains
-O .36865
5 - C hildhood E x p e rie n c e s and
P sy c h o a n a ly t ic Te ch n ique s
0.46989
6 . A c tiv e and In v o lv e d T h e r a p is t 0.73350
9 • In h e re n t Growth 0.63738
57
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n
H y p o t h e s is 1 .1 was s u p p o r t e d . The d i f f e r e n c e i n
t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s
was n o t r e l a t e d i n an y way to q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n . The
i n t e r n s p e r c e i v e d t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r s a s o f f e r i n g them th e
same l e v e l o f f a c i l i t a t i v e c o n d i t i o n s w h e th e r t h e y i n f a c t
s h a r e d th e same t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s o r n o t . In o t h e r
w o rd sj a s m a l l e r o r a l a r g e r d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i
e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s was n o t r e l a t e d
to q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n .
H y p o t h e s is 1 .2 was r e j e c t e d . I t was p o s s i b l e to
p r e d i c t w i t h 84 p e r c e n t a c c u r a c y th e h ig h and low q u a l i t i e s
o f s u p e r v i s i o n from th e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a
t i o n s b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s . The c a n o n i c a l c o r
r e l a t i o n showed t h a t a b o u t 40 p e r c e n t o f th e c r i t e r i o n
v a r i a n c e ( q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n ) was e x p l a i n e d th r o u g h th e
u s e o f th e p r e d i c t o r s ( d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a
t i o n s b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s ) .
Thus., t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s
b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s an d i n t e r n s d i s c r i m i n a t e d among th e two
g r o u p s : th e i n t e r n s who e x p e r i e n c e d a h i g h e r q u a l i t y o f
s u p e r v i s i o n and t h o s e who e x p e r i e n c e d a lo w e r q u a l i t y o f
s u p e r v i s i o n .
Knowing th e d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e on f o u r f a c t o r s o f t h e
TOQ ( 3 , 5, 4* and 9) b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s , , i t was
58
p o s s i b l e to f o r m u l a t e a p r e d i c t i o n e q u a t i o n w h ich d e t e r
m ined t h e i n t e r n s who e x p e r i e n c e d a h i g h e r q u a l i t y o f s u p e r
v i s i o n and t h o s e who e x p e r i e n c e d a lo w e r q u a l i t y o f s u p e r
v i s i o n .
The r e l a t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e TOQ f a c t o r s to t h e
p r e d i c t i o n e q u a t i o n was i n t e r p r e t e d a s f o l l o w s :
F a c t o r 3 . S u p e r v i s o r s who b e l i e v e d more th a n t h e i r
i n t e r n s i n th e i m p o r t a n c e o f p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g in
p s y c h o t h e r a p y j o f p r e p a r i n g a t r e a t m e n t p lan * and o f c o n
c e p t u a l i z i n g th e t h e r a p e u t i c p r o c e s s ,, w ere more l i k e l y to
o f f e r t h e i r i n t e r n s a lo w e r q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n .
I n v e r s e l y * s u p e r v i s o r s who b e l i e v e d more th a n t h e i r i n t e r n s
t h a t t h e p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e t h e r a p i s t i s more i m p o r t a n t
t h a n t h e t r a i n i n g o f th e t h e r a p i s t and t h a t a s p o n ta n e o u s
a p p r o a c h to t h e r a p y i s p r e f e r a b l e to a p la n n e d a p p ro a c h *
w ere more l i k e l y to o f f e r t h e i r i n t e r n s a h i g h e r q u a l i t y o f
s u p e r v i s i o n .
F a c t o r 4 . S u p e r v i s o r s who b e l i e v e d much more t h a n
t h e i r i n t e r n s i n v e r b a l and c o g n i t i v e modes o f l e a r n i n g i n
p s y c h o t h e r a p y w ere more l i k e l y to o f f e r t h e i r i n t e r n s a
lo w e r q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n . A s m a l l e r d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n
s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s on t h i s i s s u e i n c r e a s e d t h e l i k e
l i h o o d o f s u p e r v i s o r s o f f e r i n g a h i g h e r q u a l i t y o f s u p e r
v i s i o n .
59
F a c t o r 5 » S u p e r v i s o r s who w ere much l e s s i n t e r e s t e c
th a n t h e i r i n t e r n s i n c h i l d h o o d e x p e r i e n c e s and p s y c h o a n
a l y t i c t e c h n i q u e s ( f r e e a s s o c i a t i o n , , dream i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , ,
and t r a n s f e r e n c e r e l a t i o n s h i p ) w ere more l i k e l y to o f f e r
t h e i r i n t e r n s a h i g h e r q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n . A s m a l l e r
d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s on t h i s f a c t o r
i n c r e a s e d th e l i k e l i h o o d o f s u p e r v i s o r s o f f e r i n g a lo w e r
q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n .
F a c t o r 9 • S u p e r v i s o r s who b e l i e v e d much l e s s th a n
t h e i r i n t e r n s i n an i n n a t e te n d e n c y to w a rd h e a l t h and
g ro w th i n human b e in g s., w ere more l i k e l y to o f f e r t h e i r
i n t e r n s a lo w e r q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n . A s m a l l e r d i f f e r
en c e b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s on t h i s f a c t o r
i n c r e a s e d t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f s u p e r v i s o r s o f f e r i n g a h i g h e r
q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n .
In summary 9 s u p e r v i s o r s who w ere c o n s i d e r a b l y more
a n a l y t i c th a n t h e i r i n t e r n s on th e TOQ f a c t o r s 3„ 4„ and
9, and s l i g h t l y more e x p e r i e n t i a l on f a c t o r 5 .> o f f e r e d a
lo w e r q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n to t h e i r i n t e r n s . In c o n
t r a s t , , s u p e r v i s o r s who w ere c o n s i d e r a b l y more e x p e r i e n t i a l
th a n t h e i r i n t e r n s on th e TOQ f a c t o r s 3 a n ^ 5 and o n ly
s l i g h t l y more a n a l y t i c a l on f a c t o r s 4 and 9, o f f e r e d a
h i g h e r q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n .
H y p o t h e s is 2 .1 was s u p p o r t e d . The d i f f e r e n c e i n
60
t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s was
n o t i n an y way r e l a t e d to t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f th e i n t e r n s .
The s u p e r v i s o r s r a t e d s i m i l a r l y t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e i r
i n t e r n s w h e th e r t h e y - b o t h s h a r e d t h e same t h e r a p e u t i c o r i
e n t a t i o n s o r n o t . In o t h e r words., a s m a l l e r o r a l a r g e r
d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s
and i n t e r n s was n o t r e l a t e d to i n t e r n e f f e c t i v e n e s s .
H y p o t h e s is 2 .2 was r e j e c t e d . I t was p o s s i b l e to
p r e d i c t w i t h 9 6 .0 p e r c e n t a c c u r a c y t h e i n t e r n s who w ere
more e f f e c t i v e and th e o n e s who w ere l e s s e f f e c t i v e from
th e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n s u p e r
v i s o r s and i n t e r n s . The c a n o n i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n o f 0 .8 4 1
m e a n t t h a t 71 p e r c e n t o f th e v a r i a n c e i n th e d i s c r i m i n a n t
f u n c t i o n was e x p l a i n e d by th e two g r o u p s : more o r l e s s
e f f e c t i v e i n t e r n s . The d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e on f i v e TOQ f a c
t o r s ( l , 4, 5* 6 , a n ^ 9) b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s
was fo u n d s u f f i c i e n t to a t t a i n t h i s l e v e l o f a c c u r a c y . A
p r e d i c t i o n e q u a t i o n was g e n e r a t e d u s i n g th e d i f f e r e n c e
s c o r e s on th e f i v e f a c t o r s , t h e i r d i r e c t i o n , and t h e i r
r e l a t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n to th e p r e d i c t i o n (T a b le 4 ) . T h is
p r e d i c t i o n e q u a t i o n a l l o w e d a p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e i n t e r n s who
w ere more e f f e c t i v e and t h o s e who w ere l e s s e f f e c t i v e .
The r e l a t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f th e TOQ f a c t o r s to t h e
p r e d i c t i o n e q u a t i o n was i n t e r p r e t e d a s f o l l o w s :
F a c t o r 1. S u p e r v i s o r s who r a t e d t h e i r i n t e r n s a s
l e s s e f f e c t i v e w ere l e s s I n t e r e s t e d th a n t h e i r I n t e r n s In
b o t h s o c i a l g o a l s a s c r i t e r i a f o r s u c c e s s I n t h e r a p y and
d e l i b e r a t e d i r e c t i v e n e s s a s a h e l p f u l m ethod I n t h e r a p y .
I n v e r s e l y , s u p e r v i s o r s who r a t e d t h e i r I n t e r n s a s more
e f f e c t i v e w ere more I n t e r e s t e d th a n t h e i r I n t e r n s I n b o t h
s o c i a l c r i t e r i a f o r s u c c e s s I n t h e r a p y and d e l i b e r a t e
d i r e c t i v e n e s s .
F a c t o r 4 . S u p e r v i s o r s who w ere much more I n t e r e s t e d
t h a n t h e i r I n t e r n s i n v e r b a l and c o g n i t i v e l e a r n i n g i n
p s y c h o t h e r a p y ( a s o p p o se d to n o n v e r b a l and a f f e c t i v e l e a r n
in g ) w ere more l i k e l y to r a t e t h e i r i n t e r n s a s more e f f e c
t i v e . A s m a l l e r d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s
on t h i s f a c t o r i n c r e a s e d t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f s u p e r v i s o r s
r a t i n g t h e i r i n t e r n s a s l e s s e f f e c t i v e .
F a c t o r 5 » S u p e r v i s o r s who w ere much more i n t e r
e s t e d th a n t h e i r i n t e r n s i n c h i l d h o o d e x p e r i e n c e s and
p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t e c h n i q u e s w ere more l i k e l y to r a t e t h e i r
i n t e r n s a s more e f f e c t i v e . A s m a l l e r d i f f e r e n c e b etw e e n
s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s on t h i s f a c t o r i n c r e a s e d t h e l i k e
l i h o o d o f i n t e r n s b e i n g r a t e d a s l e s s e f f e c t i v e .
F a c t o r 6 . S u p e r v i s o r s who b e l i e v e d much more th a n
t h e i r i n t e r n s i n th e d e s i r a b i l i t y f o r t h e t h e r a p i s t to be
a c t i v e and i n v o l v e d i n th e t h e r a p y s e s s i o n w ere more l i k e l y
to r a t e t h e i r i n t e r n s a s more e f f e c t i v e . A s m a l l e r d i f f e r
62
e n c e b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s on t h i s f a c t o r
i n c r e a s e d th e l i k e l i h o o d o f i n t e r n s b e i n g r a t e d a s l e s s
e f f e c t i v e .
F a c t o r 9 « S u p e r v i s o r s who b e l i e v e d much more i n an
i n n a t e te n d e n c y to w a rd p h y s i c a l h e a l t h and e m o t i o n a l g ro w th
w ere more l i k e l y to r a t e t h e i r i n t e r n s a s l e s s e f f e c t i v e .
A s m a l l e r d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s on
t h i s i s s u e i n c r e a s e d t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f i n t e r n s b e i n g r a t e d
a s more e f f e c t i v e .
In summary,, s u p e r v i s o r s who w ere c o n s i d e r a b l y more
a n a l y t i c on TOQ f a c t o r s 1, 4 , and 5* more e x p e r i e n t i a l on
f a c t o r 6 , and o n l y s l i g h t l y more e x p e r i e n t i a l on f a c t o r 9
th a n t h e i r i n t e r n s r a t e d t h e i r i n t e r n s a s more e f f e c t i v e .
In c o n t r a s t , s u p e r v i s o r s who w ere c o n s i d e r a b l y more e x p e r i
e n t i a l on f a c t o r s 1 and 9 , s l i g h t l y more e x p e r i e n t i a l on
f a c t o r 6 , and s l i g h t l y more a n a l y t i c on f a c t o r s 4 and 5
th a n t h e i r i n t e r n s , r a t e d t h e i r i n t e r n s a s l e s s e f f e c t i v e .
D isc u s s i o n
W hile t h e r e w ere no s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s b etw eer
t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s and th e q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n and
b e tw e e n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s and t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f
t h e i n t e r n s , why was i t p o s s i b l e to p r e d i c t from th e t h e r a
p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e s , th e f o l l o w i n g
g r o u p s : (a) th e i n t e r n s who e x p e r i e n c e d a h i g h e r q u a l i t y o f
s u p e r v i s i o n v s . t h e o n e s who e x p e r i e n c e d a lo w e r q u a l i t y o f
63
s u p e r v i s i o n and (b) th e i n t e r n s who w ere more e f f e c t i v e v s .
t h e o n e s who w ere l e s s e f f e c t i v e ? One a n s w e r was fo u n d i n
t h e p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e two s t a t i s t i c a l
t r e a t m e n t s u s e d . The P e a r s o n c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t
r e f l e c t e d t h e p o s s i b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e tw e e n i n d i v i d u a l
sc o re s,, w h e re a s t h e d i s c r i m i n a n t a n a l y s i s s t u d i e d p a t t e r n s
o f v a r i a n c e b e tw e e n p r e d i c t o r and c r i t e r i o n v a r i a b l e s . In
t h i s s e n s e j t h e d i s c r i m i n a n t a n a l y s i s was a more p o w e r f u l
t e s t .
A n o th e r a n s w e r was fo u n d i n t h e s c o r e s u s e d to
r e p r e s e n t t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s i n b o t h s i t u a t i o n s . In
t h e c o r r e l a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n . , a c o m p o s ite s c o r e was o b t a i n e d
from t h e s c o r e s on t h e two c l u s t e r s o n l y . F a c t o r s 1* 4*
and 7 o f one c l u s t e r and f a c t o r s and 10 o f t h e o t h e r
one w ere u s e d i n t h e c o m p u t a t i o n . F a c t o r s 2j 3 * 6 * and 9
w ere n o t i n c l u d e d on th e b a s i s o f t h e i r i n s u f f i c i e n t c o n
t r i b u t i o n to t h e g e n e r a l f a c t o r on w h ic h t h e d i f f e r e n c e
b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s was b a s e d . In th e d i s c r i m
i n a n t a n a l y s i s s i t u a t i o n * t h r e e o f t h e s e f o u r o m i t t e d f a c
t o r s a p p e a r e d a s i m p o r t a n t p r e d i c t o r s * w h e re a s one o f t h e s e
( f a c t o r 9) a p p e a r e d i n b o t h p r e d i c t i o n e q u a t i o n s . M ore
over* f a c t o r 3 was fo u n d to b e th e m o st i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b
u t o r to t h e g ro u p p r e d i c t i o n on q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n *
w h e re a s f a c t o r s 6 and 9 w ere t h e m ost i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t o r s
to th e g ro u p p r e d i c t i o n on i n t e r n e f f e c t i v e n e s s . I n s h o rt*
t h e d i s c r i m i n a n t a n a l y s i s was p e r f o r m e d u s i n g a l l t h e 10
64
f a c t o r s o f th e TOQ. H y p o th e s e s 1 .2 and 2 .2 ( d i s c r i m i n a n t
a n a l y s i s s i t u a t i o n ) w ere t e s t e d u s i n g a c o m p r e h e n s iv e s e t
o f d a t a , - w h i l e h y p o t h e s e s 1 .1 and 2., 1 ( c o r r e l a t i o n a l s i t u
a t i o n ) w ere t e s t e d u s i n g a l i m i t e d s e t o f d a t a . A g a in , t h e
r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d th r o u g h th e d i s c r i m i n a n t a n a l y s i s s i t u a
t i o n h a v e m ore c r e d i b i l i t y th a n t h o s e o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h th e
c o r r e l a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n .
A n o th e r way to d i s c u s s t h e s e r e s u l t s was to c o n
s i d e r t h e p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l m eaning o f t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i
a b l e s . In t h e c o r r e l a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n s o f h y p o t h e s e s 1 .1
and 2 . 1 , t h e r e was no r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e d i f f e r e n c e
i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s
an d b o t h (a) th e p e r c e p t i o n th e i n t e r n s had o f t h e f a c i l i -
t a t i v e c o n d i t i o n s o f f e r e d by t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r s and (b) th e
way t h e s u p e r v i s o r ’ s r a t e d t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e i r i n t e r n s .
The f a c t t h a t s u p e r v i s o r s an d i n t e r n s d i f f e r e d i n t h e i r
t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s d i d n o t r e l a t e to t h e l e v e l o f
e m p a th ic u n d e r s t a n d i n g , r e g a r d , c o n g r u e n c e , and u n c o n d i
t i o n a l i t y th e I n t e r n s f e l t from t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r s . F u r th e r ,
t h i s was n o t r e l a t e d to t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l e v a l u a t i o n s u p e r
v i s o r s g av e o f t h e i r i n t e r n s . S i m i l a r i t y o r d i f f e r e n c e i n
t h e i r t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s was n o t r e l a t e d to q u a l i t y
o f s u p e r v i s i o n a s p e r c e i v e d by i n t e r n s and to i n t e r n e f f e c
t i v e n e s s a s e v a l u a t e d by s u p e r v i s o r s . C a u tio n s h o u ld be
u s e d w i t h t h i s I n t e r p r e t a t i o n I n l i g h t o f th e abo v e d i s
c u s s i o n .
65
The r e v e r s e was t r u e i n t h e d i s c r i m i n a n t a n a l y s i s
s i t u a t i o n o f h y p o t h e s e s 1 . 2 and 2.2. D i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e r a
p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s c o u ld
d i s c r i m i n a t e among th e i n t e r n s who p e r c e i v e d t h e i r s u p e r
v i s o r a s o f f e r i n g a h i g h e r q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n and t h e
i n t e r n s who p e r c e i v e d t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r a s o f f e r i n g a lo w e r
q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n . D i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n
t a t i o n s c o u ld a l s o d i s c r i m i n a t e among th e s u p e r v i s o r s who
r a t e d t h e i r i n t e r n s a s m ore e f f e c t i v e and t h o s e who r a t e d
t h e i r i n t e r n s a s l e s s e f f e c t i v e .
I t a p p e a r e d t h a t t h e TOQ f a c t o r s w h ic h p r e d i c t e d
q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n w ere i n d e p e n d e n t from t h o s e w hich
p r e d i c t e d e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f i n t e r n s . Q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n
and e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f i n t e r n s w ere p r e d i c t e d by d i f f e r e n t
f a c t o r s o r by t h e same f a c t o r s b u t i n an o p p o s i t e d i r e c
t i o n . F o r example,, on f a c t o r 5^ when s u p e r v i s o r s w ere l e s s
i n t e r e s t e d t h a n t h e i r i n t e r n s i n c h i l d h o o d e x p e r i e n c e s and
i n p s y c h o a n a l y t i c te c h n i q u e s * t h e y o f f e r e d a h i g h e r q u a l i t y
o f s u p e r v i s i o n b u t th e y r a t e d t h e i r i n t e r n s a s l e s s e f f e c
t i v e . One e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e s e r e s u l t s i s t h a t th e d e p e n d
e n t v a r i a b l e s w ere g e n e r a t e d from d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s : q u a l i t y
o f s u p e r v i s i o n was e v a l u a t e d by th e i n t e r n s * w h e re a s i n t e r n
e f f e c t i v e n e s s was r a t e d by t h e s u p e r v i s o r s .
C o n c e rn in g th e v a l i d i t y o f t h e TOQ a s a p r e d i c t o r
v a r i a b l e * t h e f o l l o w i n g f a c t was o f i n t e r e s t . The r e a d e r
6 6
may r e c a l l th e q u e s t i o n i n c l u d e d i n th e I n t e r n E v a l u a t i o n
Form; "How s i m i l a r do you p e r c e i v e t h i s i n t e r n ’ s t h e r a
p e u t i c a p p r o a c h to y o u r own?" The a n s w e rs g i v e n by th e
s u p e r v i s o r s c o r r e l a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y ( r = 0.3275.? P < *05)
w i t h th e com puted TOQ d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e . T h is r e s u l t c o r
r o b o r a t e d th e v a l i d i t y o f th e TOQ to m e a su re d i f f e r e n c e s i n
t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n t h e s e s u p e r v i s o r s and
t h e i r i n t e r n s . Where a s i m i l a r i t y o r a d i f f e r e n c e was
p o i n t e d o u t by t h e TOQ., th e s u p e r v i s o r s w ere a b l e to p e r
c e i v e a c c u r a t e l y t h i s s i m i l a r i t y o r d i f f e r e n c e .
Thus,, th e r e s u l t s o f t h i s s tu d y te n d e d to c o n f ir m
L a n n i n g ’ s (1971) i n t u i t i o n t h a t t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s
w ere an i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r I n t h e p r o c e s s o f s u p e r v i s i o n .
The t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s o f b o t h s u p e r v i s o r s and
I n t e r n s p r e d i c t e d I n t h i s s tu d y th e q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n
and th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f i n t e r n s .
These f i n d i n g s s u p p o r t e d Demos and Z u w a y l i f ’ s
r e s u l t s ( 1 9 6 2 ) a s f a r a s e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e im p o r ta n c e o f
t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s i n s u p e r v i s i o n and c o n t r a d i c t e d
P i e r c e and S c h a u b l e 's (1970) c o n t e n t i o n t h a t th e t h e r a p e u
t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s o f s u p e r v i s o r s d i d n o t seem to a f f e c t th e
e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e i r t r a i n e e s .
Summary
H y p o th e s e s 1 .1 and 2 .1 w ere s u p p o r t e d . T h e re was
no s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s
67
and b o t h (a) q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n and (b) e f f e c t i v e n e s s
o f i n t e r n s . C a u tio n was s u g g e s t e d i n i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e s e
r e s u l t s b e c a u s e o f t h e l i m i t e d pow er o f t h i s s t a t i s t i c a l
t r e a t m e n t and th e l i m i t e d s e t o f d a t a u s e d i n th e c o m p u ta
t i o n . H y p o th e s e s 1 .2 and 2 . 2 w ere r e j e c t e d . The d i f f e r
e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n t h e s u p e r v i s o r s
and t h e i r i n t e r n s was fo u n d to be a s i g n i f i c a n t p r e d i c t o r
i n d i s c r i m i n a t i n g (a) t h e i n t e r n s who e x p e r i e n c e d a h i g h e r
q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n and t h o s e who e x p e r i e n c e d a lo w e r
q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n and (b) th e i n t e r n s who w ere more
e f f e c t i v e and t h o s e who w ere l e s s e f f e c t i v e . The f a c t o r s
w h ic h p r e d i c t e d q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n w ere fo u n d to be
i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h o s e w h ic h p r e d i c t e d e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f
i n t e r n s .
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
As p r a c t i c u m and I n t e r n s h i p i n p s y c h o t h e r a p y a r e
i n t e g r a t e d w i t h g r a d u a t e a c a d e m ic p ro g ra m s a s a r e s u l t o f
"both a n e e d f o r b e t t e r t r a i n e d c o u n s e l o r s and a n e e d f o r
more com m unity p s y c h o l o g i s t s , th e p r o c e s s o f s u p e r v i s i o n
comes I n t o l i g h t . Tine d e c i s i v e r o l e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l
s u p e r v i s o r s i n th e im p ro v e m e n t o f i n t e r n s h a s b e e n empha
s i z e d b o t h t h e o r e t i c a l l y ( G a rd n e r , 1953) and e x p e r i m e n t a l l y
( P i e r c e & S c h a u b le , 1 9 7 0 ). Among t h e com plex v a r i a b l e s
i n v o l v e d i n th e p r o c e s s o f s u p e r v i s i o n , t h e t h e r a p e u t i c
o r i e n t a t i o n s o f s u p e r v i s o r s h a v e b e e n p o i n t e d o u t a s a p o s
s i b l y s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n (L a n n in g , 1 9 7 1 ) . The t h e r a
p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s o f b o t h s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s w ere
i n v e s t i g a t e d i n r e l a t i o n to th e q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n and
to th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f i n t e r n s . A lso i n v e s t i g a t e d was th e
p o s s i b i l i t y o f p r e d i c t i n g from th e t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s
o f b o t h . s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s : (a) t h o s e i n t e r n s who
e x p e r i e n c e d h i g h e r and lo w e r q u a l i t i e s o f s u p e r v i s i o n and
(b) t h o s e i n t e r n s who w ere more and l e s s e f f e c t i v e . The
i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s i n s u p e r v i s i o n
68
6 9
p r o c e s s e s was s t u d i e d to c l a r i f y t h e d e b a t e fo u n d i n t h e
1 1 t e r a t u r e .
T h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s h a v e m a in ly b e e n s t u d i e d
i n t h e c o n t e x t o f p s y c h o t h e r a p y . P s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s r e p r e
s e n t i n g v a r i o u s a p p r o a c h e s g e n e r a l l y s h a r e d some v a l u e s b u t
d i f f e r e d i n a t t i t u d e s an d b e h a v i o r s ( M e l t z o f f & K o rn re ic h .,
1 9 7 0 ).
Demos and Z u w a y lif ( 1 9 6 2 ) s t u d i e d t h e e f f e c t o f
s u p e r v i s o r s ' d i f f e r e n t t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n s . They fo u n d
t h a t o n ly th e s t u d e n t s o f t h e c l i e n t - c e n t e r e d s u p e r v i s o r
a c h i e v e d s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f more u n d e r
s t a n d i n g and l e s s p r o b i n g . T h e i r r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d a d i f
f e r e n t i a l i n f l u e n c e o f s u p e r v i s o r s ' t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n s
on th e d e g r e e o f c o u n s e l o r c h a n g e . On th e o t h e r hand,,
P i e r c e an d S c h a u b le (1970) d i s m i s s e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f
s u p e r v i s o r s ' t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s on th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s
o f t h e t r a i n e e s . The i n f l u e n c e o f th e t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a
t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l s u p e r v i s o r s on th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e
t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s o f t h e i r i n t e r n s was fo u n d to be
v e r y m in im a l (S u n d la n d & G a r f ie ld ., 197^; V ic k e rs., 197^)*
L a n n in g (1971) had s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e r a p e u t i c o r i
e n t a t i o n be i n v e s t i g a t e d a s p o s s i b l y b e i n g a s i g n i f i c a n t
f a c t o r i n t h e p r o c e s s o f s u p e r v i s i o n . No s tu d y had
e x p l o r e d th e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n
s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s i n r e l a t i o n to t h e q u a l i t y o f s u p e r -
70
v i s i o n and th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f i n t e r n s . The f o l l o w i n g
h y p o t h e s e s w ere d e v e l o p e d :
H y p o t h e s is 1 .1
The d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n
s u p e r v i s o r s an d i n t e r n s i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r
r e l a t e d w i t h t h e q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n .
H y p o t h e s is 1 .2
I t i s n o t p o s s i b l e to p r e d i c t h i g h and low q u a l i
t i e s o f s u p e r v i s i o n from th e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a
p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and
i n t e r n s .
H y p o t h e s is 2 .1
The d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n
s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r
r e l a t e d w i t h t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f i n t e r n s .
H y p o t h e s is 2 .2
I t I s n o t p o s s i b l e to p r e d i c t m ore an d l e s s e f f e c
t i v e I n t e r n s from th e d i f f e r e n c e I n t h e r a p e u t i c
o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and I n t e r n s .
The t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s w ere m e a su re d by th e
T h e r a p i s t O r i e n t a t i o n Q u e s t i o n n a i r e (S u n d la n d & B a rk e r^
1 9 6 2 ). The q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n was m e a s u re d by th e
B a r r e t t - L e n n a r d R e l a t i o n s h i p I n v e n t o r y (1964) . F in a lly ,,
71
th e s u p e r v i s o r s e v a l u a t e d th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e i r I n t e r n s
on th e I n t e r n E v a l u a t i o n Form (Spain,, 1 9 7 6 ).
An ex p o s t f a c t o c o r r e l a t i o n a l d e s i g n was u s e d .
Twelve s u p e r v i s o r s and t h e i r 31 s e l e c t e d i n t e r n s from two
com m unity p s y c h o lo g y a g e n c i e s o f th e Los A n g e le s a r e a w ere
g i v e n t h e T h e r a p i s t O r i e n t a t i o n Q u e s t i o n n a i r e (S u n d la n d ,
1 9 7 2 ) . The i n t e r n s c o m p le te d th e R e l a t i o n s h i p I n v e n t o r y
(Form s OS-M o r F -6 4 , B a r r e t t - L e n n a r d , 1964) and t h e i r
r e s p e c t i v e s u p e r v i s o r s c o m p le te d th e I n t e r n E v a l u a t i o n
Form. P e a r s o n c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s w ere u s e d to e s t i
m ate th e c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r th e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c
o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s , and (a) th e
q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n and (b) th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f i n t e r n s .
D i s c r i m i n a n t a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e s w ere u s e d to p r e d i c t from
t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n s u p e r
v i s o r s and i n t e r n s : (a) t h e i n t e r n s who w i l l e x p e r i e n c e
h i g h and low q u a l i t i e s o f s u p e r v i s i o n and (b) th e i n t e r n s
who w i l l be r a t e d a s more and l e s s e f f e c t i v e . The c u t t i n g
p o i n t s to d i s t i n g u i s h b e tw e e n th e two g r o u p s on t h e d i s
t r i b u t i o n w ere e s t a b l i s h e d a t p l u s and m in u s .2 5 s t a n d a r d
d e v i a t i o n i n b o t h c a s e s .
H y p o th e s e s 1 .1 and 2 . 1 w ere s u p p o r t e d . The d i f
f e r e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and
i n t e r n s d i d n o t c o r r e l a t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h (a) th e q u a l
i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n and (b) th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f i n t e r n s .
H y p o th e s e s 1 .2 and 2 . 2 w ere r e j e c t e d . I t was fo u n d
72
p o s s i b l e to p r e d i c t (a) th e q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n and (b)
th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f i n t e r n s from th e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a
p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s . Where
th e q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n was t h e c r i t e r i o n v a r i a b l e ., th e
c o m b in a tio n o f t h e TOQ f a c t o r s 3* 5> ^ > and 9 ( d e c r e a s i n g
o r d e r o f t h e i r r e l a t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n ) g av e an 84 p e r c e n t
c h a n c e o f c o r r e c t p r e d i c t i o n . When t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f
i n t e r n s was c o n s i d e r e d a s c r i t e r i o n v a r i a b l e ., TOQ f a c t o r s
9> l j and 4 com bined ( d e c r e a s i n g o r d e r o f t h e i r r e l a
t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n ) g av e a 9 6 p e r c e n t c h a n c e o f c o r r e c t p r e
d i c t i o n . The f a c t o r s w h ich p r e d i c t e d t h e q u a l i t y o f s u p e r
v i s i o n w ere fo u n d to be somewhat i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h o s e w hich
p r e d i c t e d t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f i n t e r n s .
C onclu s io n s
The d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n
s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s d i d n o t c o r r e l a t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y
w i t h e i t h e r one o f t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s : t h e q u a l i t y o f
s u p e r v i s i o n an d th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f i n t e r n s . I m p r e c i s e
i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d from t h e c o m p o s ite s c o r e on th e TOQ
and t h e l e s s p o w e r f u l n a t u r e o f th e s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t w ere
b e l i e v e d to e x p l a i n t h e s e r e s u l t s . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , th e
h i g h a c c u r a c y o f p r e d i c t i o n showed t h a t i t was p o s s i b l e to
p r e d i c t from t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s
b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s an d i n t e r n s : (a ) t h e i n t e r n s who w ould
e x p e r i e n c e a h i g h q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n and t h o s e who
73
w ould e x p e r i e n c e a low q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n an d (b) th e
i n t e r n s who w ould be r a t e d a s more e f f e c t i v e and t h o s e who
w ould be r a t e d a s l e s s e f f e c t i v e .
The t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s , when s t u d i e d from th e
p o i n t o f view o f b o t h s u p e r v i s o r s an d i n t e r n s f o r t h i s
sample,, w ere fo u n d i m p o r t a n t i n t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e q u a l
i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n and t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f i n t e r n s .
R eco m m en d atio n s
The f o l l o w i n g re c o m m e n d a tio n s a r e p r o p o s e d :
1. S t u d i e s on t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s i n th e
p r o c e s s o f s u p e r v i s i o n s h o u ld a c k n o w le d g e t h e
t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s o f th e i n t e r n s a s w e l l
a s th e t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s o f th e s u p e r -
v i s o r .
2. When t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s a r e i n c l u d e d i n
a s tu d y a s a r e s e a r c h v a r i a b l e o r a s a c o n
t r o l l e d v a r i a b l e ,, t h e t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s
s h o u ld a lw a y s be m e a s u re d .
3. I f one s h o u ld do a s i m i l a r s t u d y , one s h o u ld u s e
a f a c t o r a n a l y s i s o f t h e 104 i t e m s o f th e TOQ
( form 1 9 7 2 ).
4 . T h is s tu d y s h o u ld a l s o be r e p l i c a t e d w i t h a
random an d d i v e r s i f i e d sam p le o f s u p e r v i s o r -
i n t e r n d y a d s , draw n from a l a r g e r p o p u l a t i o n
i n o r d e r to f o r m u l a t e a p r e d i c t i o n e q u a t i o n
g e n e r a l i z a b l e f o r u s e i n s e l e c t i o n and m a tc h in g
o f s u p e r v i s o r s and i n t e r n s i n v a r i o u s s e t t i n g s .
5. F u r t h e r s tu d y i s n e e d e d to d e t e r m i n e i f :
(a) S u p e r v i s o r s who o f f e r a h i g h e r q u a l i t y o f
s u p e r v i s i o n a r e d i f f e r e n t i n t h e i r t h e r a
p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s from s u p e r v i s o r s who
o f f e r a lo w e r q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n .
(b) S u p e r v i s o r s who r a t e t h e i r i n t e r n s a s more
e f f e c t i v e a r e d i f f e r e n t i n t h e i r t h e r a
p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s from t h o s e who r a t e
t h e i r i n t e r n s a s l e s s e f f e c t i v e .
(c) I n t e r n s who p e r c e i v e t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r s a s
o f f e r i n g a h i g h e r q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n
a r e d i f f e r e n t i n t h e i r t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n
t a t i o n s from i n t e r n s who p e r c e i v e t h e i r
s u p e r v i s o r s a s o f f e r i n g a lo w e r q u a l i t y o f
s u p e r v i s i o n .
(d) I n t e r n s who a r e r a t e d a s m ore e f f e c t i v e
a r e d i f f e r e n t i n t h e i r t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a
t i o n s from i n t e r n s who a r e r a t e d a s l e s s
e f f e c t i v e by t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r s .
REFERENCES
75
REFERENCES
A lle n * T. K. The a r t o f s u p e r v i s i n g c o u n s e l o r s . R a t i o n a l
L i v i n g * 1970* 4 (2 )* 9 - 1 0 .
!A ltu c h e r * N. C o n s t r u c t i v e u s e o f t h e s u p e r v i s o r y r e l a t i o n -
! s h i p . J o u r n a l o f C o u n s e lin g P sy c h o lo g y * 1 9 6 7 , 14*
; 165- 170.
!A m e ric a n P e r s o n n e l and G u id a n c e A s s o c i a t i o n . A s t a t e m e n t
o f p o l i c y : S t a n d a r d s f o r t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f s c h o o l
c o u n s e l o r s . P e r s o n n e l and G u id a n c e J o u r n a l * 1 9 6 1 * 40*
4 0 2 -4 0 7 .
A m e ric a n P s y c h o l o g i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n * C om m ittee on C o u n s e lo r
T r a in in g * D i v i s i o n o f C o u n s e lin g an d G u id a n c e . The
p r a c t i c u m t r a i n i n g o f c o u n s e l i n g p s y c h o l o g i s t s .
A m e ric a n P s y c h o l o g i s t * 1952* 7.(6)* 1 8 2 - 1 8 7 .
1
|A p p le to n * G.* & Hansen* J . C o n t i n u i n g s u p e r v i s i o n i n t h e
| s c h o o l . C o u n s e lo r E d u c a t io n and S u p e r v is i o n * 1 9 6 8 *
I 7 ( 3 ) , 2 7 3 -3 2 1 .
j
;A rb u c k le * D. S. The l e a r n i n g o f c o u n s e l i n g : P r o c e s s n o t
p r o d u c t . J o u r n a l o f C o u n s e lin g P sy c h o lo g y * 1 9 6 3 , 10,
: 1 6 3 - 1 6 8 .
lA rb u ck le* D. S. C o u n s e l i n g : P h ilo s o p h y * t h e o r y an d p r a c -
1 t i c e . B o sto n ! A l l y n & Bacon* 1965. (a )
1 —
A rb u c k le * D. S. S u p e r v i s i o n : L e a rn in g * n o t c o u n s e l i n g .
J o u r n a l o f C o u n s e lin g P s y c h o lo g y * 1 9 6 5 , 1 2 * 9 0 -9 4 . (b)
B a n i k i o t e s * P. G. P e r s o n a l g ro w th and p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n
i n g . C o u n s e lo r E d u c a t i o n and S u p e r v is i o n * 1975, 1 5(2)*
1 4 9 -1 5 2 .
B a r r e t t - L e n n a r d * G. T. D im e n sio n s o f t h e r a p i s t s ’ r e s p o n s e s
a s c a u s a l f a c t o r s i n t h e r a p e u t i c c h a n g e . P s y c h o l o g i c a l
| M o n o g rap h s* 1 9 6 2 * 7 6 * 2 1 -4 4 .
I B a r r e t t - L e n n a r d * G. T. The R e l a t i o n s h i p I n v e n t o r y * fo rm s
I 0S-M-64* OS-F-64* M0-M-64* an d M 0 -F -6 4 . L i t h o g r a p h e d
and r e l e a s e d i n 1964 a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f New E ngland*
A u s t r a l i a .
76
77
B a r r e t t - L e n n a r d j G. T. The R e l a t i o n s h i p I n v e n t o r y :
R a t i o n a l e and a p p l i c a t i o n i n t h e s t u d y o f h e l p i n g r e l a
t i o n s h i p s . P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e C a n a d ia n U n i v e r s i t y
C o u n s e lin g A s s o c i a t i o n C o n f e r e n c e , J u n e 1 9 6 9 . ( a )
B a r r e t t - L e n n a r d , G r. T. T e c h n i c a l n o te on t h e 6 4 - i t e m
r e v i s i o n o f t h e R e l a t i o n s h i p I n v e n t o r y . U n p u b lis h e d
p a p e r , U n i v e r s i t y o f W a te r lo o , O n t a r i o , C an a d a,
! D ecem ber 1 9 6 9 . (b )
I
'B e r e n s o n , B. G. , C a r k h u f f , R. R . , & M yrus, P. The i n t e r -
j p e r s o n a l f u n c t i o n i n g and t r a i n i n g o f c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s .
! J o u r n a l o f C o u n s e lin g P s y c h o lo g y , 1 9 6 6 , 13., 4 4 1 -4 4 6 .
B i a s c o , P . , & R e d f e r i n g , D. L. E f f e c t s o f c o u n s e l o r s u p e r
v i s i o n on g ro u p c o u n s e l i n g : C l i e n t ' s p e r c e i v e d o u t
com es. C o u n s e lo r E d u c a t i o n and S u p e r v i s i o n , 1976,
15.(3), 2 1 6 -2 2 0 .
B la n e , S. M. Im m e d ia te e f f e c t o f s u p e r v i s o r y e x p e r i e n c e
; on c o u n s e l o r c a n d i d a t e s . C o u n s e lo r E d u c a t i o n and
I S u p e r v i s i o n , 1 9 6 8 , 8 , 39-44"!
B l o c h e r , D. H. A s t u d y o f two t y p e s o f i n t e r n s h i p s f o r
c o u n s e l o r t r a i n i n g (V P r o j e c t 3 - 3 8 7 j C o n t r a c t N o.
! 0E5 1 0 - 4 2 4 ) . M i n n e a p o l i s : U n i v e r s i t y o f M in n e s o ta ,
| 1 9 6 8 . (ERIC Document R e p r o d u c t i o n S e r v i c e No.
I ED 012 488)
I C a r k h u f f , R. R. E m p a th ic u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n i n t e r p e r s o n a l
■ p r o c e s s e s . U n p u b lis h e d m a t e r i a l s , 1 9 6 6 .
C a r k h u f f , R. R. Tow ard a c o m p r e h e n s iv e m odel o f f a c i l i t a -
t i v e p r o c e s s e s . J o u r n a l o f C o u n s e l i n g P s y c h o lo g y ,
1967, 14, 6 7 - 7 2 .
C a r k h u f f , R. R. ' H e lp in g and human r e l a t i o n s (V o l. 2 ) .
New Y o r k : H o lt^ R i n e h a r t & W in s to n , 1 9 6 9 .
C a r k h u f f , R. R . , K r a t o c h v i l , D. , & E r i e l , T. The e f f e c t s
{ o f t r a i n i n g : C o m m u n icatio n and d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o f f a c i l -
1 i t a t i v e c o n d i t i o n s . J o u r n a l o f C o u n s e lin g P s y c h o lo g y ,
J 1 9 6 8 , 1 5 , 6 8 - 7 4 .
C a r k h u f f , R. R ., & T r u a x , C. B. Lay m e n ta l h e a l t h c o u n s e l -
; i n g : The e f f e c t s o f l a y g ro u p c o u n s e l i n g . J o u r n a l o f
> C o n s u l t i n g P s y c h o lo g y , 1965.? 29, 4 2 6 -4 3 1 .
i
i
jC a s h , W. L . , & M unger, P. -P. C o u n s e lo r s an d t h e i r p r e p a r a
t i o n . R eview o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , 1 96 6 , 3 6 , 2 5 6 -
263.
78
D a v id s o n , T. N ., & Emmer, E. T. Im m e d ia te e f f e c t o f s u p
p o r t i v e and n o n s u p p o r t i v e s u p e r v i s o r b e h a v i o r on
c o u n s e l o r c a n d i d a t e s 1 f o c u s o f c o n c e r n . C o u n s e lo r
E d u c a t i o n and S u p e r v i s i o n , 1 9 6 6 , 6 , 27-31*
Demos, G. D . , & Z u w a y l if , P. H. C o u n s e lo r a t t i t u d e s i n
J r e l a t i o n t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n s o f t h e i r s u p e r -
! v i s o r s . C o u n s e lo r E d u c a t i o n and S u p e r v i s i o n , 1 9 6 2 ,
11, 8- 11.
j
:E b e r l i n , L . , & P a r k , J . S e l f - c o n c e p t / i d e a l - s e l f - c o n c e p t
j c o n g r u e n c e an d r a t e d e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f c o u n s e l o r
! t r a i n e e s . C o u n s e lo r E d u c a t i o n and S u p e r v i s i o n , 1971*
10( 2), 126- 132.
F ey , W. F. D o c t r i n e and e x p e r i e n c e : T h e i r i n f l u e n c e upon
t h e p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t . J o u r n a l o f C o n s u l t i n g P s y c h o lo g y ,
1958, 2 2 , 4 0 3 -4 0 9 .
F i e d l e r , F. E. The c o n c e p t o f t h e i d e a l t h e r a p e u t i c r e l a
t i o n s h i p . J o u r n a l o f C o n s u l t i n g P s y c h o lo g y , 1950, 14,
2 3 9 -2 4 5 . (aTJ
F i e d l e r , F. E. A c o m p a r is o n o f t h e r a p e u t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s
i n p s y c h o a n a l y t i c , n o n d i r e c t i v e , and A d l e r i a n t h e r a p y . ]
J o u r n a l o f C o n s u l t i n g P s y c h o lo g y , 1950, 14, 4 3 6 -4 4 5 . !
IV) — —
G a r d n e r, G. E. P ro b le m s o f s u p e r v i s i o n and t r a i n i n g i n
c l i n i c a l p s y c h o lo g y . Round T a b le 1952. The s u p e r v i
s i o n o f p s y c h o t h e r a p y . American. J o u r n a l o f O r t h o p s y
c h i a t r y , 1 9 5 3 * 23* 2 9 3 -3 0 0 .
G e n d lin , E. E x p e r i e n c i n g and t h e c r e a t i o n , o f m e a n in g .
New Y ork: The F r e e P r e s s o f G le n c o e , 1 9 6 2.
G l a s s , G. V ., & S t a n l e y , J . C. S t a t i s t i c a l m eth o d s i n
e d u c a t i o n and p s y c h o l o g y . Englew ood C l i f f s , N . J . :
P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1970.
G r o s s , W. F . , & D e R id d e r, L. M. S i g n i f i c a n t movement i n
c o m p a r a t i v e l y s h o r t - t e r m c o u n s e l i n g . J o u r n a l o f
C o u n s e lin g P s y c h o lo g y , 1 9 6 6 , 1 3 * 98-99*
H a n se n , S. C. T r a i n e e s ' e x p e c t a t i o n s o f s u p e r v i s o r s i n t h e
c o u n s e l i n g p r a c t i c u m . C o u n s e lo r E d u c a t io n and S u p e r -
j v i s i o n , 1 9 8 5 * 4:* 7 5 - 8 0 .
H an se n , J . , & B a r k e r , E. E x p e r i e n c i n g and t h e s u p e r v i s o r y
r e l a t i o n s h i p . J o u r n a l o f C o u n s e lin g P s y c h o lo g y , 1964,
1 1 , 1 0 7 -1 1 1 .
79 !
i
H an sen , J . C ., & W a rn e r, R. W. J r . Review o f r e s e a r c h on
p r a c t i c u m s u p e r v i s i o n . C o u n s e lo r E d u c a t io n and S u p e r -
v i s i o n , 1971, 1 0 ( 3 ) , 2 6 1 -2 7 2 .
H e l p l i n e Y outh C o u n s e l i n g . A f a c t s h e e t , B e l l f l o w e r , C a l i
f o r n i a , 1976.
Hoch, E. L . , R o ss, A. 0 . , & W in d e r, C. L. C o n f e r e n c e on
t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l p r e p a r a t i o n o f c l i n i c a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s :
j A summary. A m erican P s y c h o l o g i s t , 1 9 6 6 , 2 1 , 4 2 - 5 7 .
i
jH o u n tra s , P. T . , & A n d e rso n , D. L. C o u n s e lo r c o n d i t i o n s
f o r s e l f - e x p l o r a t i o n o f c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s . P e r s o n n e l
and G u id a n c e J o u r n a l , 19&9j 4 8 , 4 5 -4 8 .
J o n e s , L. K. A n a t i o n a l s u r v e y o f t h e p ro g ra m an d e n r o l l
ment c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c o u n s e l o r e d u c a tio n , p r o g ra m s .
C o u n s e lo r E d u c a t i o n and S u p e r v i s i o n , 1976, 1 5 ( 3 ) j 1 6 6 -
1763
1
jKamin, I . , & C a u g h lin , J . S u b j e c t i v e e x p e r i e n c e o f o u t -
! p a t i e n t p s y c h o t h e r a p y . American. J o u r n a l o f P s y c h o
t h e r a p y , 1 9 6 3 1 7 j 6 6 0 - 6 6 8 .
K e l l , B. L ., & M u e l l e r , W. Im p a c t and c h a n g e . A s t u d y o f
I c o u n s e l i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s . New Y ork: A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y -
| C r o f t s , 1966.
I
I
iK ennedy, D. A. Some i m p r e s s i o n s o f c o m p e te n c y - b a s e d t r a i n -
' i n g p r o g ra m s . C o u n s e lo r E d u c a tio n , and S u p e r v i s i o n ,
| 1976, 1 5 ( 4 ) , 2 4 4 -2 5 0 .
K e r l i n g e r , P. N ., & P e d h a z u r , E. J . M u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n i n
b e h a v i o r a l r e s e a r c h . San F r a n c i s c o : H o l t , R i n e h a r t &
W in sto n , 1973.
L a n n in g , W. L. A s t u d y o f t h e r e l a t i o n , b e tw e e n g ro u p and
i n d i v i d u a l c o u n s e l i n g s u p e r v i s io n , an d t h r e e r e l a t i o n
s h i p m e a s u r e s . J o u r n a l o f C o u n s e lin g P s y c h o lo g y , 1 9 7 1 9
1 8 ( 5 ) , 4 0 1 - 4-0 6 .
L i s t e r , J . L. S u p e r v i s e d c o u n s e l i n g e x p e r i e n c e : Some com
m e n ts . C o u n s e lo r E d u c a tio n , and S u p e r v i s i o n , F a l l 1 9 6 6 ,
6 , 6 9 - 7 2 .
M a c G u ffie , R. A ., J a n z e n , F. V ., & McPhee, W. M. The
e x p r e s s io n , and p e r c e p t i o n o f f e e l i n g s between, s t u d e n t s
and s u p e r v i s o r s i n a p r a c t i c u m s e t t i n g . C o u n s e lo r
E d u c a tio n , and S u p e r v i s i o n , 1970, 9.(4), 2 6 3 -2 7 1 .
8 0
M a r t i n , J . C ., & C a r k h u f f , R. R. The e f f e c t s upon t r a i n e e
p e r s o n a l i t y and i n t e r p e r s o n a l f u n c t i o n i n g in c o u n s e l
i n g t r a i n i n g . J o u r n a l o f C l i n i c a l P s y c h o lo g y , 1 9 6 8 ,
2 4 , 1 0 9 - 1 1 0 .
M a ta r a z z o , R. G -. R e s e a r c h on. t h e t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g of
p s y c h o t h e r a p e u t i c s k i l l s . In. A. E. B e rg in 8 c S. L.
G a r f i e l d ( E d s . ) , Handbook o f p s y c h o t h e r a p y and b e h a v i o r
j c h a n g e : An e m p i r i c a l a n a l y s i s . New Y ork: W ile y , 1971.
I M cN air, D. M., 8 c L o r r , M. An. a n a l y s i s o f p r o f e s s e d p s y c h o -
| t h e r a p e u t i c t e c h n i q u e s . J o u r n a l o f C o n s u l t i n g P s y -
] c h o l o g y , 1964, 2 8 , 2 6 5 -2 7 1 .
1
M e l t z o f f , J . , & K o r n r e i c h , M. R e s e a r c h in. p s y c h o t h e r a p y .
New Y ork: A th e rto n . P r e s s , 1970.
M id - V a lle y Community M e n ta l H e a l t h C o u n c i l , D u a r t e , C a l i
f o r n i a , A u g u st 1975.
J
M unger, P. P . , & C ash , W. L. S u p e r v i s e d c o u n s e l i n g p r a c
t i c e in. t h e f i r s t s e m e s t e r o f g r a d u a t e t r a i n i n g .
C o u n s e lo r E d u c atio n , and S u p e r v i s i o n , 1 9 6 3 * 2 _ .> 1 9 7 -2 0 0 .
M unger, P. P . , 8 c J o h n s o n , C. H. Changes i n a t t i t u d e s a s s o -
| e l a t e d w i t h an. NDEA C o u n s e lin g an d G u id a n c e I n s t i t u t e , j
P e r s o n n e l and G u id a n c e J o u r n a l , i 9 6 0 , p p . 7 5 1 -7 5 3 .
1
,N ie , H. H ., H u l l , C. H ., J e n k i n s , J . G ., S t e i n b r e n n e r , K .,
1 8 c B e n t, D. H. S t a t i s t i c a l p a c k a g e f o r t h e s o c i a l s c i -
| e n c e s (2nd e d . ) . New Y o rk : M c G ra w -H ill, 1975.
!P a t t e r s o n , C. H. S u p e r v i s i n g s t u d e n t s i n t h e c o u n s e l i n g
j p r a c t i c u m . J o u r n a l o f C o u n s e lin g P s y c h o lo g y , 1964, 11,
! 4 7 - 5 3 .
P ay n e, P. A ., 8 c G r a l i n s k i , D. M. E f f e c t s o f s u p e r v i s o r
I s t y l e and em pathy upon c o u n s e l o r l e a r n i n g . J o u r n a l o f
| C o u n s e lin g P s y c h o lo g y , 1 9 6 8 , 15,(6), 5 1 7 -5 2 1 .
| P e t e r s , H. J . , 8 c H an sen , J . C. C o u n s e lin g p r a c t i c u m :
1 B a se s f o r s u p e r v i s i o n . C o u n s e lo r E d u c atio n , and S u p e r -
; v i s i o n . , 1 9 6 3 ^ 2, 8 2 - 8 5 .
1
' P i e r c e , R. M., 8 c S c h a u b le , P. G. G r a d u a te t r a i n i n g o f
! f a c i l i t a t i v e c o u n s e l o r s : The e f f e c t s o f i n d i v i d u a l
> s u p e r v i s i o n . J o u r n a l o f C o u n s e l i n g P s y c h o lo g y , 1970,
i 1 7 ( 3 ) , 2 1 0 - 2 1 5 .
81
P ie rc e ,, R. M.* & S c h a u b le * P. G -. Toward t h e d e v e lo p m e n t
o f f a c i l i t a t i v e c o u n s e l o r s : The e f f e c t s , o f p r a c t i c u m
i n s t r u c t i o n , and i n d i v i d u a l s u p e r v i s i o n . C o u n s e lo r
E d u c a tio n , an d S u p e r v i s i o n , 1971* 1 ^ (2 )* 83-89*
R askin* N. J . The p s y c h o t h e r a p y r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t o f A m e ri
can. Academy o f P s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s . P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e
: 73^6 A nnual C onvention, o f t h e A m erican P s y c h o l o g i c a l
A s s o c i a t i o n * 1965* p p . 2 5 3 -2 5 4 .
! ----------------------
tRaskin* N. J . S t u d i e s o f p s y c h o t h e r a p e u t i c o r i e n t a t i o n s :
I d e o l o g y and p r a c t i c e . R e s e a r c h M onograph No. 1*
A m erican Academy o f P s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s * O rlando* F l o r i d a *
1974.
R ice* D. G.* Gurman* A. S.* & Razin* A. M. T h e r a p i s t sex*
" s t y l e * " and t h e o r e t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n . J o u r n a l o f
N erv o u s and M e n ta l D is e a s e s * 1974* 159.? 4 1 3 -4 2 1 .
R ogers* C. R. The n e c e s s a r y and s u f f i c i e n t c o n d i t i o n s o f
t h e r a p e u t i c p e r s o n a l i t y c h a n g e . J o u r n a l o f C o n s u l t i n g
P s y c h o lo g y * 1957* 21, 95-103*
Rogers* C. R.* G e n d lin * E. T.* K i e s l e r * D. J .* & Truax*
C. B. (Eds.) . The t h e r a p e u t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p and i t s
i i m p a c t : A s tu d y o f p s y c h o t h e r a p y w i t h s c h i z o p h r e n i c s .
j M a d iso n : U n i v e r s i t y o f W is c o n s in P re ss * 1967*
'S o ren so n * G. L a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i e n c e s : C o u n s e lin g c l a s s e s .
| C o u n s e lo r E d u c atio n , and S u p e r v i s i o n * 1 9 6 6 * 5_* 148-153*
1 S pain* A. I n t e r n e v a l u a t i o n f o r m . U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u t h e r n
C a l i f o r n i a * S c h o o l o f E d u c a tio n * 1976.
S tru p p * H. H. A n o o b j e c t i v e com parison, o f R o g e r i a n and p s y
c h o a n a l y t i c t e c h n i q u e s . J o u r n a l o f C o n s u l t i n g P s y c h o l
ogy, 1955, 19, 1-7*
S tru p p * H. H. P e r fo r m a n c e o f p s y c h o a n a l y t i c and c l i e n t -
c e n t e r e d t h e r a p i s t s i n an i n i t i a l i n t e r v i e w . J o u r n a l
j o f C o n s u l t i n g P s y c h o lo g y * 1958* 2 2 * 2 6 5 -2 7 4 .
I
jS tru p p * H. H.* Fox* R. E.* & L e s s l e r * K. P a t i e n t s view
! t h e i r p s y c h o t h e r a p y . B a l t i m o r e : J o h n s H op k in s U n i v e r -
! s i t y P re s s * 1969*
I
iS undblad* L. M. The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l a t t r a c -
1 t i o n * e x p e r ie n c e * and s u p e r v i s o r ' s l e v e l o f f u n c t i o n -
i in g i n d y a d ic r e h a b i l i t a t i o n , c o u n s e l i n g s u p e r v i s i o n .
U n p u b lis h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n * S y r a c u s e U n i v e r s i t y *
1971.
82
S u n d b la d , L. M ., & F e i n b e r g , L. B. The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f
i n t e r p e r s o n a l a t t r a c t i o n , e x p e r i e n c e , an d s u p e r v i s o r ’s
l e v e l o f f u n c t i o n i n g i n d y a d ic c o u n s e l i n g s u p e r v i s i o n .
C o u n s e lo r E d u c a t i o n an d S u p e r v i s i o n , 1972, 1 1 (3 )* 1 8 7 -
193.
iS u n d la n d , D. M. T h e r a p i s t o r i e n t a t i o n q u e s t i o n n a i r e ,
I u p - t o - d a t e . P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e T h i r d A n n u al M e e t-
i i n g o f t h e S o c i e t y f o r P s y c h o th e r a p y R e s e a r c h , N a sh -
i v i l l e , J u n e 1972.
I -
jS u n d la n d , D. M. O r i e n t a t i o n s o f p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s . Unpub-
j l i s h e d m a n u s c r i p t , 1 9 7 5 .
S u n d la n d , D. M. P e r s o n a l c o m m u n ic a tio n , M arch, J u l y 1978.
S u n d la n d , D. M ., Sc B a r k e r , E. N. The o r i e n t a t i o n s o f p s y
c h o t h e r a p i s t s . J o u r n a l o f C o n s u l t i n g P s y c h o lo g y , 1962,
2 6 , 2 0 1 -2 1 2 .
S u n d la n d , D. M., Sc G a r f i e l d , S. L. T h e ra p y s u p e r v i s o r s and
t h e t h e o r e t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n s o f t h e i r s t u d e n t s . Unpub-
l i s h e d m a n u s c r i p t , 1974.
T o s i , D. J . , F ru m k in , R. M., Sc W ils o n , M. E. I n t e r c o r r e l a - !
t i o n s o f f o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p co m p o n en ts o f t h e B a r r e t t - j
| L e n n a rd R e l a t i o n s h i p I n v e n t o r y . P s y c h o l o g i c a l R e p o r t s , 1
! 1 9 6 8 , 2 3 , 6 4 1 -6 4 2 .
;T ru ax , C. B. An a p p r o a c h t o c o u n s e l o r e d u c a t i o n . Coun-
i s e l o r E d u c a t i o n and S u p e r v i s i o n , 1970, 10.(1), 4 - 1 5 .
i
T ru a x , C. B. A s c a l e f o r t h e m e asu rem en t o f a c c u r a t e
em p ath y (W is c o n s in P s y c h i a t r i c I n s t i t u t e , U n i v e r s i t y
o f W i s c o n s i n ) . P s y c h i a t r i c I n s t i t u t e B u l l e t i n , 1 9 6 1 ,
1, 12.
T r u a x , C. B . , & C a r k h u f f , R. R. F o r b e t t e r and f o r w o r s e :
i The p r o c e s s o f p s y c h o t h e r a p e u t i c c h a n g e . P a p e r p r e -
| s e n t e d a t t h e A cadem ic A ssem b ly on C l i n i c a l P s y c h o lo g y ,
M c G ill U n i v e r s i t y , M o n tr e a l , C anada, J u n e 1 9 6 3 .
1
jT ru a x , C. B . , Sc C a r k h u f f , R. R. Tow ard e f f e c t i v e c o u n s e l -
i i n g an d p s y c h o t h e r a p y : T r a i n i n g and p r a c t i c e . C h ic a g o :
! A l d i n e , 1 9 6 7 .
V i c k e r s , K. H. S u p e r v i s o r y e f f e c t s on n o v i c e t h e r a p i s t s '
t h e r a p e u t i c s t y l e an d o r i e n t a t i o n ( D o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a
t i o n , A d e lp h i U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 7 4 ). D i s s e r t a t i o n A b s t r a c t s
I n t e r n a t i o n a l , 1974, 3 5 ( 5 - B ) , 24 5 2 -2 4 5 3 -
83
Walker., B. S . , & L i t t l e * D. F. F a c t o r a n a l y s i s o f t h e
B a r r e t t - L e n n a r d R e l a t i o n s h i p I n v e n t o r y . J o u r n a l o f
C o u n s e lin g P s y c h o lo g y * 1969* 1 8 (6 )* 5 1 6 -5 2 1 .
W allach* M. S.* & S tru p p * H. H. D im e n sio n s o f p s y c h o
t h e r a p i s t ' s a c t i v i t y . J o u r n a l o f C o n s u l t i n g P s y c h o l
ogy* 1964* 28* 1 2 0 -1 2 5 .
jWalz* G. W.* & Roeber* E. C. S u p e r v i s o r s ' r e a c t i o n t o a
I c o u n s e l i n g i n t e r v i e w . C o u n s e lo r E d u c a t io n and S u p e r -
i v i s i o n * 1 9 6 2 * 1 1 * 2 - 7 .
I
Iw edeking* D. F.* & S c o tt* T. B. A s t u d y o f t h e r e l a t i o n -
| s h i p b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r s and t r a i n e e b e h a v i o r s i n
: c o u n s e l i n g p r a c t i c u m . C o u n s e lo r E d u c a t i o n and S u p e r
v i s i o n * 1 9 7 6 * 1 5 (4 )* 2 5 9 - 2 6 6 .
Wile* D. B. * Bron* G -. D. * & P o lla c k * H. B. P r e l i m i n a r y
v a l i d a t i o n a l e v i d e n c e f o r g ro u p t h e r a p y q u e s t i o n n a i r e .
J o u r n a l o f C o n s u l t i n g and C l i n i c a l P sy c h o lo g y * 1970*
3 1 , 3 6 7 -3 7 4 . !
W ittm er* J . An o b j e c t i v e s c a l e f o r c o n t e n t - a n a l y s i s o f
t h e c o u n s e l o r ' s i n t e r v i e w b e h a v i o r . C o u n s e lo r E d u c a -
l t i o n an d S u p e r v i s i o n * 1971* 1 0 (3 )* 2 8 3 -2 9 0 .
!Wrenn* R. L. C o u n s e lo r o r i e n t a t i o n : T h e o r e t i c a l o r s i t u a
t i o n a l ? J o u r n a l o f C o u n s e lin g P sy c h o lo g y * i 9 6 0 * 7*
4 0 - 4 5 .
Zimmer* J . M.* & Pepyne* E. W. A d e s c r i p t i o n and c o m p a ra
t i v e s t u d y o f d im e n s io n s o f c o u n s e l o r r e s p o n s e .
Journal of Counseling Psychology* 1971* l o (5) * 441-447.
APPENDICES
8 4
APPENDIX A
THERAPIST ORIENTATION QUESTIONNAIRE (Form 1972)
(D. M. S u n d la n d )
85
THERAPIST'S ORIENTATION QUESTIONNAIRE, Form 1972
1 .
CIRCLE one o f th e fo llo w in g :
In d ic a te your AG REEM EN T o r DISAGREEMENT
5 S tr o n g ly a gree
w ith th e fo llo w in g s ta te m e n ts . 4 A gree
3 U ndecided
2 D isa g r e e
1 S tr o n g ly d is a g r e e
1 . The t h e r a p i s t ' s p e r s o n a lit y i s more im p ortan t to th e outcom e o f th erapy
than h i s p r o f e s s io n a l t r a in in g . 5 4 3 2 1
2 . A good th e r a p is t w i l l h e lp h i s p a t ie n t s become aware o f t h e i r b o d ily
movements and p o s t u r e s , and h e lp them e x p lo r e t h e ir p o s s ib le m ean in gs. 5 4 3 2 1
3 . I t i s som etim es a l l r ig h t to v i s i t a p a t ie n t s o c i a l l y in h i s heme. 5 4 3 2 1
4 . U nderstanding why one does th in g s i s n o t th e m ajor fa c t o r in c o r r e c tin g
o n e 's b e h a v io r . 5 4 3 2 1
5 . E f f e c t iv e th e r a p is ts vary t h e ir tech n iq u e from p a t ie n t to p a t ie n t . 5 4 3 2 1
6 . A t h e r a p is t sh ou ld n ev er in t e r r u p t a p a t ie n t w h ile h e i s t a lk in g . 5 4 3 2 1
7 . I t i s u n n ecessa ry fo r a p a tie n t to le a r n how e a r ly ch ild h o o d e x p e r ie n c e s
have, l e f t t h e i r mark on him . 5 4 3 2 1
8 . A m atu re, m en ta lly h e a lth y p erso n w i l l n e c e s s a r ily move in th e d ir e c t io n
o f s o c i e t y ' s g o a ls . 5 4 3 2 1
9 . A good th e r a p is t e x p r e s s e s to h is p a t ie n t s a se n s e o f p e r so n a l
in volvem en t and con cern . 5 4 3 2 1
1 0 . Good p s y c h o th e r a p ists en courage t h e ir p a tie n ts to u se m e d ita tiv e
te c h n iq u e s. 5 4 3 2 1
1 1 . Primary em p h a sis.sh o u ld b e p la c e d on th e p a t i e n t 's m a n ife st b e h a v io r . 5 4 3 2 1
12. I t i s v ery b e n e f i c i a l to u se th e "guided-daydream " te c h n iq u e . 5 4 3 2 1
1 3 . P sy c h o th e r a p ists sh o u ld j o i n o rg a n ized groups and attem p t to in f lu e n c e
s t a t e and fe d e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n p e r tin e n t to p sych oth erap y. 5 4 3 2 1
14. P eo p le can b e u n d erstood w ith o u t rec o u r se to th e co n cep t " u n con sciou s
d eterm in an ts o f b e h a v io r" . 5 4 3 2 1
1 5 . A p a t ie n t can be v ery c r i t i c a l o f me o r v ery a p p r e c ia tiv e o f me w ith o u t
any r e s u lt in g change in my f e e l i n g toward him . 5 4 3 2 1
16 . The p a t i e n t 's coming to e x p e r ie n c e h is f e e lin g s more f u l l y i s n o t th e
m ost im p ortan t th e r a p e u tic r e s u l t . 5 4 3 2 1
1 7 . I t i s im p ortan t th a t a t h e r a p is t show c a r in g and con cern f o r h is
p a t i e n t s . 5 4 3 2 1
18. I d e a l ly , p sych oth erap y w ould b e a v a ila b le fr e e - o f-c h a r g e fo r a l l who
w anted i t , j u s t l i k e p u b lic e d u c a tio n . 5 4 3 2 1
86
i n m n h
87
CXRCI.E one o f th e fo llo w in g :
I n d ic a te your A G REEM EN T o r DISAGREEMENT
w ith th e fo llo w in g sta te m e n ts .
5 S tr o n g ly agree 5
4 A gree 4
3 U ndecided 3
2 D isa g r e e 2
1 S tr o n g ly d is a g r e e 1
1 9 . D e s e n s it iz a t io n and r e -c o n d itio n in g a re e f f e c t i v e p sy c h o th e r a p e u tic
te c h n iq u e s. 5 4 3 2 1
20. I w ould n o t in te r r u p t a p a t ie n t d u rin g a therapy s e s s io n as I m ight i f
we w ere h a v in g m erely a s o c i a l c o n v e r sa tio n . 5 4 3 2 1
21. I t i s v ery im p ortan t fo r a th e r a p is t to c o n c e p tu a liz e , th in k th rou gh ,
how a p a t ie n t i s r e la t in g to him . 5 4 3 2 1
22. A th e r a p is t sh o u ld have em pathic u n d ersta n d in g o f h is p a t i e n t s . 5 4 3 2 1
23. R ather than t a lk about an oth er p e r so n , good t h e r a p is t s have t h e ir
p a t ie n t s t a lk to an empty c h a ir as i f th e p erson was s i t t i n g th e r e . 5 4 3 2 1
2 4 . The most b e n e f i c i a l outcom e o f th erap y i s f o r th e p a t ie n t to know th e
rea so n s fo r h is b e h a v io r . 5 4 3 2 1
25 . The s o c i a l c la s s o f a p a t ie n t sh o u ld n o t a f f e c t th e p sych oth erap y
h e r e c e i v e s . 5 4 3 2 1
26. I t i s a u s e f u l th e r a p e u tic te ch n iq u e fo r p a t ie n t s to s h o u t, o r b ea t
p illo w s to e x p r e ss b lo ck ed f e e l i n g s . 5 4 3 2 1
2 7 . I t i s p r e fe r a b le fo r th e t h e r a p is t to f e e l im p erso n a l in th e th erapy
r e la t io n s h ip . 5 4 3 2 1
28 . I t i s n ev er a l l r ig h t fo r a t h e r a p is t to have p h y s ic a l c o n ta c t w ith
p a t ie n t s (e x c e p t perhaps fo r o c c a s io n a l h a n d sh a k es). 5 4 3 2 1
29. No m a tter how e m o tio n a lly m ature and s e n s i t i v e a p erson i s , he cannot
b e a good th e r a p is t w ith o u t t r a in in g in p sy ch o p a th o lo g y . 5 4 3 2 1
30 . With m ost p a tie n ts I do a n a ly t ic dream in t e r p r e t a t io n . 5 4 3 2 1
31 . Most th e r a p is ts are more e f f e c t i v e w ith some p a t ie n t s than w ith
o th e r s . 5 4 3 2 1
3 2 . I t i s im p ortan t fo r th e th e r a p is t to co n fro n t th e p a t ie n t w ith h is
(t h e t h e r a p i s t ' s ) f e e l in g s and th o u g h ts. 5 4 3 2 1
33.- Good t h e r a p is t s keep a l l a sp e c ts o f t h e i r p r iv a t e l i f e o u t o f th e
th erap y s e s s io n . 5 4 3 2 1
3 4 . Even a good th e r a p is t may fin d i t d i f f i c u l t to cope w ith a p a t i e n t 's
h o s t i l i t y . 5 4 3 2 1
3 5 . A s u c c e s s f u l adjustm en t to th e s o c i a l environm ent i s n ot an im portant
g o a l o f th era p y . 5 4 3 2 1
36. The t h e r a p is t sh o u ld n o t a c t as though he w ere p e r s o n a lly or
e m o tio n a lly in v o lv e d w ith th e p a t i e n t . 5 4 3 2 1
8 8
CIRCLE one o f th e fo llo w in g s
I n d ic a te your AG REEM ENT or DISAGREEMENT
5 S tr o n g ly a g ree
w ith th e fo llo w in g sta te m e n ts . 4 A gree
3 U ndecided
2 D isa g r e e
1 S tr o n g ly d is a g r e e
3 7 . I in s t r u c t m ost p a t ie n t s to fr e e a s s o c ia t e . 5 4 3 2 1
38. I t I s d e s ir a b le fo r th e th e r a p is t to r e in f o r c e th e p a t i e n t ’s e x p r e s s io n s
o f p o s i t iv e f e e l in g s about h im s e lf . 5 4 3 2 1
3 9 . H o p efu lly th e c u rren t fa d o f s e n s i t i v i t y t r a in in g w i l l soon d isa p p e a r . 5 4 3 2 1
4 0 . A good th e r a p is t c o n s ta n tly and d e lib e r a t e ly u se s h is thorough
know ledge o f p sych op ath ology and h is tr a in in g in p s y c h e th e r a p e u tic
te c h n iq u e s. 5 4 3 2 1
4 1 . I am a f a i r l y a c t i v e , t a lk a t iv e t h e r a p is t , compared to m ost
t h e r a p is t s . 5 4 3 2 1
4 2 . In h eren t in human b e in g s i s a n a tu r a l p r o p e n sity toward h e a lt h , p h y s ic a l,
m e n ta l, and em o tio n a l. 5 4 3 2 1
4 3 . W hatever th e i n t e n s i t y or n a tu re o f th e p a t i e n t 's em o tio n a l e x p r e s s io n ,
th e th e r a p is t i s most e f f e c t i v e when he f e e l s d e ta ch ed , o b j e c t iv e , and
im p erso n a l. 5 4 3 2 1
I 4 4 . S ta te lic e n s in g or c e r t i f i c a t i o n o f p sy c h o th e r a p ists i s n e c e ss a r y to
p r o t e c t th e p u b lic . 5 4 3 2 1
4 5 . For e f f e c t i v e th e r a p y , i t i s o n ly n e c e ssa r y to c o n c e n tr a te on th e
here-and -now e x p e r ie n c in g o f th e p a t ie n t . 5 4 3 2 1
4 6 . The m ost im p ortan t r e s u l t s o f th erap y are th e new f e e l in g s and em otion s
t h a t th e p a t ie n t comes to e x p e r ie n c e . 5 4 3 2 1
4 7 . In e f f e c t i v e th era p y , th e p a t ie n t le a r n s m ostly through th e v e r b a l and
c o n c e p tu a l in te r c h a n g e b etw een h im s e lf and th e t h e r a p is t . 5 4 3 2 1
4 8 . I t i s unw ise fo r a t h e r a p i s t ' s remarks and r e a c tio n s to a p a t ie n t to be
J u np lan n ed , sp o n ta n eo u s, n o t th o u g h t-th ro u g h . 5 4 3 2 1
j 4 9 . P sych oth erap y sh o u ld be conducted by or su p e r v ise d by a p s y c h i a t r is t . 5 4 3 2 1
5 0 . I t I s n ev er a l l r ig h t to a c c e p t a fr ie n d or r e la t iv e fo r
j p sy ch o th era p y . 5 4 3 2 1
{ 5 1 . The m ost b e n e f i c i a l outcom e o f th erap y i s th e p a t i e n t 's becom ing
] more open to h is f e e l i n g s . 5 4 3 2 1
5 2 . The p a t ie n t sh ou ld b e d ir e c t ly co n fro n ted w ith e v id e n c e o f h is I r r a t io n a l
, th o u g h ts and b e h a v io r . 5 4 3 2 1
! 5 3 . I t i s p o s s ib le to make s e n s e o f a p a t i e n t 's b e h a v io r w ith o u t assum ing
| m otives, o f w hich h e i s unaware. 5 4 3 2 1
I
! 5 4 . A good th e r a p is t i s a b le to g e t th e f e e l in g and m eaning o f h is
p a t i e n t 's com m unication. 5 4 3 2 1
89
4.
CIRCLE one o f th e fo llo w in g :.
I n d ic a te your AG REEM EN T or DISAGREEMENT
w ith th e fo llo w in g s ta te m e n ts .
5 S tr o n g ly agree. 5
4 A gree 4
3 U ndecided 3
2 D isa g ree 2
1 S tr o n g ly d is a g r e e 1
55. D e lib e r a t e ly e x p r e s s in g ap p roval o f d e s ir a b le p a t ie n t b e h a v io r I s not
a good th e r a p e u tic p o lic y . 5 4 3 2 1
5 6 . A warm, g iv in g a t t it u d e i s th e most im p ortan t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a
good t h e r a p is t . 5 4 3 2 1
57. I in te r r u p t a p a t ie n t w h ile h e i s ta lk in g . 5 4 3 2 1
5 8 . A good th e r a p is t t r e a t s th e p a t ie n t as an e q u a l. 5 4 3 2 1
5 9 . P a tie n t s g e t b e t t e r more b eca u se t h e ir th e r a p is ts a re th e k in d s o f
p erso n s th ey a r e , than b eca u se o f t h e i r t h e r a p i s t ' s p r o f e s s io n a l
t r a in in g . 5 4 3 2 1
6 0 . R e le a se o f p en t-u p b o d ily e n e r g ie s i s im p ortan t as p a r t o f p sy ch o th era p y . 5 4 3 2 1
6 1 . For a p a tie n t to im prove h is cu rren t way o f l i f e , h e must come to
u n d erstan d h is e a r ly ch ild h o o d r e la t io n s h ip s . 5 4 3 2 1
6 2 . P eo p le do n ot have any in h e r e n t " d riv e toward h e a lth " . 5 4 3 2 1
6 3 . M y own a t t it u d e s toward some o f th e th in g s my p a t ie n t s sa y or do sto p j
me from r e a lly u n d erstan d in g them. 5 4 3 2 1
6 4 . An a f f e c t i v e change in th e p a t ie n t i s n o t th e m ajor g a in from j
th era p y . 5 4 3 2 1
6 5 . A good th e r a p is t w i l l alm ost n ever l e t s i le n c e s b u ild up d u ring th e
th erapy h ou r. 5 4 3 2 1
6 6 . The c r u c ia l le a r n in g p r o c e ss in th era p y i s a v e r b a l and co n cep tu a l
p r o c e s s . 5 4 3 2 1
67 . I t i s som etim es a l l r ig h t to tak e a w alk w ith a p a t ie n t d u rin g th e
th erap y hou r. 5 4 3 2 1
68 . I t i s im p ortan t to a n a ly ze th e tr a n s fe r e n c e r e a c tio n s o f th e
p a t ie n t . 5 4 3 2 1
6 9 . A treatm en t p la n i s n o t im portant fo r s u c c e s s f u l th era p y . 5 4 3 2 1
70. Marathon psych oth erap y groups are u s e f u l in h e lp in g a p a t ie n t p ro g ress
i n tr e a tm e n t. 5 4 3 2 1
71. I am a f a i r l y p a s s iv e , s i l e n t t h e r a p is t , compared to most
t h e r a p is t s . 5 4 3 2 1
7 2 . The p a t i e n t 's coming to a c c e p t and e x p e r ie n c e h i s f e e l in g s I s n o t th e
prim ary g a in he d e r iv e s from th era p y . 5 4 3 2 1
73. I t i s im p ortan t f o r a p a t ie n t to be h e lp e d to make a s o c i a l
a d ju stm en t. 5 4 3 2 1
90
.5 .
CIRCLE one o f th e fo llo w in g :
I n d ic a te your AG REEM ENT o r DISAGREEMENT
5 S tr o n g ly a g ree 5
w ith th e fo llo w in g s ta te m e n ts . 4 A gree 4
3 U ndecided 3
2 D isa g r e e 2
1 S tz o n g ly d is a g r e e 1
74. In w orking w ith dream s, e f f e c t i v e t h e r a p is t s h ave t h e ir p a t ie n t s r o le - p la y
th e c h a r a c te r s and o th e r elem en ts o f t h e ir dream s. 5 4 3 2 1
7 5 . I t i s im portan t th a t th e th e r a p is t m odel s e l f - d i s c l o s i n g b e h a v io r by
t a lk in g about h is own th ou gh ts and f e e l i n g s . 5 4 3 2 1
76 . I t I s Im portant fo r th e t h e r a p is t to f e e l a deep p e r so n a l and em o tio n a l
in volvem en t w ith h is p a t i e n t s . 5 4 3 2 1
77. E ncounter groups are a u s e f u l a d d itio n to th e approaches to m ental h e a lt h . 5 4 3 2 1
78. The more e f f e c t i v e th e r a p is t s do th in g s du rin g th e therap y hour fo r w hich
th ey have no reasoned b a s i s , m erely a f e e l in g th a t I t i s r ig h t . 5 4 3 2 1
7 9 . I t I s d e s ir a b le fo r t h e r a p is t s to encourage ex p erim en ta l b e h a v io r on th e
p a r t o f p a t ie n t s In t h e i r a ttem p ts to overcom e t h e ir p rob lem s. 5 4 3 2 1
8 0 . For a p a t ie n t to Improve h is cu rren t way o f l i f e , h e does n o t n e c e s s a r ily
have to come to understand h is e a r ly ch ild h o o d r e la t io n s h ip s . 5 4 3 2 1
8 1 . I t I s Im portant fo r th e th e r a p is t to c le a r ly s t r u c tu r e th e th e r a p e u tic
r e la t io n s h ip . 5 4 3 2 1
8 2 . A t tim e s , I f e e l contem pt fo r a p a t ie n t . 5 4 3 2 1
8 3 . Body movements and p o stu r e s t e l l us a l o t about th e p a t i e n t 's
p sy ch o p a th o lo g y . 5 4 3 2 1
8 4 . I t I s I r r e le v a n t w h ether a t h e r a p is t " cares" fo r th e p e o p le who come
to him fo r h e lp . 5 4 3 2 1
8 5 . I t i s q u it e a c c e p ta b le to in t e r r u p t a p a t ie n t w h ile he i s t a lk in g . 5 4 3 2 1
8 6 . In e f f e c t i v e th era p y , th e p a t ie n t le a r n s m o stly through th e a f f e c t i v e
and u n v e r b a liz e d r e la t io n s h ip betw een h im s e lf and th e t h e r a p is t . 5 4 3 2 1
8 7 . P sychotherapy I s much more an a r t than a s c ie n c e . 5 4 3 2 1
8 8 . The p a t ie n t sh o u ld b e g iv e n u s e f u l In fo rm a tio n to h e lp him a c h ie v e h i s
l i f e g o a ls . 5 4 3 2 1
8 9 . There i s n ot an in n a te ten d en cy in human b e in g s toward em o tio n a l
h e a lt h . 5 4 3 2 1
9 0 . I t I s n ev er a l l r ig h t to o f f e r th e p a t ie n t a r id e , o r ask him fo r
o n e. 5 4 3 2 1
9 1 . E f f e c t iv e th e r a p is ts alm ost alw ays know what th ey are d o in g , and why,
- and w here th ey a r e h ea d in g . 5 4 3 2 1
9 2 . An e f f e c t i v e th e r a p is t adheres c lo s e ly to one m ajor s c h o o l o f th ou gh t
i n co n d u ctin g h is th erap y s e s s io n s .
5 4 3 2
91
6 .
CIRCLE one of the followings
I n d ic a te you r AG REEM ENT or DISAGREEMENT
1
5 S tro n g ly a gree 5
1 w ith th e fo llo w in g sta te m e n ts . 4 A gree 4
j 3 U ndecided 3
2 D isa g r e e 2
i
J
1 S tr o n g ly d is a g r e e 1
9 3 . To make se n s e o f a p a t i e n t ' s b e h a v io r , one must assume m o tiv es o f w hich
h e i s unaw are. 5 4 3 2 1
9 4 . Having th e p a t ie n t move i n th e d ir e c t io n o f th e g o a ls o f s o c i e t y i s n ot
an im p ortan t th e r a p e u tic aim . 5 4 3 2 1
9 5 . A good th e r a p is t a c ts p e r s o n a lly and e m o tio n a lly in v o lv e d and concerned
w ith h is p a t i e n t . 5 4 3 2 1
9 6 . I am v ery s e c u r e and co m fo rta b le in my r e la t io n s h ip s w ith ray
p a t i e n t s . 5 4 3 2 1
9 7 . In a l l human b e in g s th e r e i s a s o r t o f " l i f e fo r c e " , a s t r iv in g
f o r p e r f e c t io n . 5 4 3 2 1
9 8 . A th e r a p is t sh o u ld r e a li z e th a t h is e f f o r t s may prove harm ful to p a t i e n t s . 5 4 3 2 1
9 9 . A good th e r a p is t must gu id e th e p a tie n t tow ards ta k in g r e s p o n s ib il it y i
1 f o r h i s own b e h a v io r and l i f e s i t u a t i o n . 5 4 3 2 I j
i 1
10 0 . I p r e fe r to conduct in t e n s iv e r a th e r than g o a l- lim it e d th era p y . 5 4 3 2 1
I 101.. I t i s som etim es a l l r ig h t fo r a p a tie n t and a t h e r a p is t to
| em brace. - 5 4 3 2 1
I
| 102. A good t h e r a p is t o c c a s io n a lly makes a p a t ie n t an gry. 5 4 3 2 1
i
103. Good th e r a p is ts do a l o t o f t a lk in g d u rin g th e th e r a p e u tic h ou r. 5 4 3 2 1
10 4 . The m ost im p ortan t r e s u l t s o f th erapy are th e new id e a and new ways o f
th in k in g about h im s e lf th a t th e p a t ie n t a c h ie v e s . 5 4 3 2 1
APPENDIX B
RELATIONSHIP INVENTORY (Form OS-M-64)
(G-. T. Barrett-Lennard)
* s -
92
C ode: D a te :
RELATIONSHIP INVENTORY--FORM OS-M-64
Below are l i s t e d a v a r ie t y o f ways th a t one p erson may f e e l or behave
in r e la t io n to an o th er p erson .
P le a s e c o n sid e r each sta tem en t w ith r e fe r e n c e to your p r e se n t
r e la t io n s h ip w ith your
Mark each sta tem en t in th e l e f t m argin, a cco rd in g to how str o n g ly you
f e e l th a t i t i s tr u e , or n ot tr u e , in t h i s r e la t io n s h ip . P le a s e mark every o n e.
W rite in + 3, + 2 , + 1, or - 1 , -2 , - 3 , to stand fo r the fo llo w in g answ ers:
+3: Y es, I s tr o n g ly f e e l th a t i t i s tr u e . -1 : No, I f e e l th a t i t i s probably
u n tr u e , or more untrue than tr u e .
+ 2: Y es, I f e e l i t i s tr u e .
-2 : No, I f e e l i t i s n ot tr u e .
+1: Y es, I f e e l th a t i t i s p robably tr u e ,
or more tru e than u n tru e. -3 : No, I s tr o n g ly f e e l th a t i t i s
n o t tr u e .
1. He r e s p e c t s me a s a person .
2. He w an ts to understand how I see th in g s .
3 . H is in t e r e s t in me depends on th e th in g s I say or do.
4 . He i s co m fo rta b le and a t e a se in our r e la t io n s h ip .
5 . He f e e l s a tru e lik in g fo r me.
6. He may understand my words b ut he d oes n ot see the way I f e e l .
7. W hether I am f e e lin g happy or unhappy w ith m y se lf makes no r e a l d if fe r e n c e
to th e way he f e e l s about me.
8. I f e e l th a t he p u ts on a r o le or fr o n t w ith me.
9. He i s im p a tien t w ith me.
10. He n e a r ly alw ays knows e x a c tly w hat I mean.
11. D epending on my b eh a v io u r, he h as a b e t t e r o p in io n o f me som etim es than he
has a t o th er tim es.
.12. I f e e l th a t he i s r e a l and gen u in e w ith me.
13. I f e e l a p p r e c ia te d by him.
,14. He lo o k s a t what I do from h is own p o in t o f v iew .
15. H is f e e l in g toward me d o e s n 't depend on how I f e e l toward him.
16. I t makes him uneasy when I ask or ta lk about c e r t a in th in g s .
93
9^1
!
-2-
_17. He i s in d if f e r e n t to me.
_18. He u s u a lly se n s e s or r e a l i s e s what I am f e e l in g .
_19. He w ants me to be a p a r tic u la r kind o f person .
_20. I n e a r ly alw ays f e e l th a t what he sa y s e x p r e s s e s e x a c t ly what he i s
f e e l in g and th in k in g a s he sa y s i t .
_ 2 l. He fin d s me r a th e r d u ll and u n in t e r e s tin g .
_22. H is own a t t it u d e s toward some o f the th in g s I do or say p rev en t him
from u n d erstan d in g me.
_23. I can (or co u ld ) be o p en ly c r i t i c a l or a p p r e c ia tiv e o f him w ith o u t
r e a ll y making him f e e l any d if f e r e n t l y about me.
_24. He w ants me to th in k th a t he l i k e s me or u n d erstan d s me more than he r e a lly
d o e s.
_25. He c a r e s fo r me.
_26. Sometimes he th in k s th a t _ I f e e l a c e r t a in way, becau se t h a t 's th e way
he f e e l s .
_27. He li k e s c e r t a in th in g s ab ou t me, and th ere are o th e r th in g s he d oes n o t
l i k e .
_28. He d o es n o t a void a n yth in g th a t i s im portant fo r our r e la t io n s h ip .
J29. I f e e l th a t he d isa p p ro v es o f me.
_30. He r e a l i s e s what I mean even when I have d i f f i c u l t y in sa y in g i.t.
_31. H is a t t it u d e toward me s t a y s th e same: he i s n ot p le a s e d w ith me
som etim es and c r i t i c a l or d isa p p o in te d a t o th e r s tim e s.
_32. Sometimes he i s n o t a t a l l co m fo rta b le but we go on, ou tw ard ly
ig n o r in g i t .
_33. He j u s t t o le r a t e s me.
_34. He u su a lly u n d erstan d s the w hole o f what I mean.
_35. I f I show th a t I am angry w ith him he becomes h u rt or angry w ith me, too.
_36. He e x p r e s s e s h is true im p ressio n s and f e e l in g s w ith me.
_37. He i s fr ie n d ly and warm w ith me.
_38. He j u s t ta k e s no n o tic e o f some th in g s th a t I th in k or f e e l .
_39. How much he l i k e s or d i s l i k e s me i s n o t a lt e r e d by a n y th in g th a t I t e l l
him about m y se lf.
40. At tim es I sen se th a t he i s n o t aware o f what he i s r e a ll y f e e l in g w ith me.
95
-3-
41. I f e e l th a t he r e a ll y v a lu e s me.
42. He a p p r e c ia te s e x a c tly how th e th in g s I e x p e r ie n c e f e e l to me.
43. He app roves o f some th in g s I do, and p la in ly d isa p p r o v e s o f o th e r s .
44. He i s w i l l i n g to e x p r e ss w hatever i s a c t u a lly in h is mind w ith me,
in c lu d in g any f e e l in g s about h im s e lf or about me.
45. He d o e s n 't li k e me fo r m y s e lf.
46. At tim es he th in k s th a t I f e e l a l o t more str o n g ly about a p a i'tic u la r
th in g than I r e a ll y do.
47. Whether I am in good s p i r i t s or f e e lin g u p set d oes n ot make him f e e l any
more or l e s s a p p r e c ia tiv e o f me.
48. He i s op en ly h im s e lf in our r e la t io n s h ip .
4S. I seem to i r r i t a t e and b o th er him.
5 0 . He d oes n ot r e a l i s e how s e n s it i v e I am about some o f th e th in g s we d is c u s s .
51. Whether th e id e a s and f e e l in g s I e x p r e ss are "good" or "bad" seems to
make no d if fe r e n c e to h is f e e l in g toward me.
52 . There a re tim es when I f e e l th a t h is outward resp o n se to me i s q u ite
d if f e r e n t from th e way he f e e l s u nderneath.
53. A t tim es he f e e l s contem pt fo r me.
5 4 . He u n d erstan d s me.
_______ 5 5 . Sometimes I am more w orth w h ile in h is e y e s than I am a t o th e r tim es.
_______ 56. I have n o t f e l t th a t he t r i e s to h id e a n y th in g from h im s e lf th a t he f e e l s
w ith me.
_______ 5 7 . He i s tr u ly in t e r e s t e d in me.
5 8. H is resp o n se to me i s u s u a lly so fix e d and au to m a tic th a t I d o n 't r e a ll y
| g e t through to him.
5 9. I d o n 't th in k th a t a n y th in g I say or do r e a ll y ch an ges the way he f e e l s
i toward me.
I
_______ 60. What he sa y s to me o ft e n g iv e s a wrong im p ressio n o f h is w hole thought or
f e e l in g a t the tim e.
t
i
I
96
-4-
61. He f e e l s deep a f f e c t io n fo r me.
62. When I am h urt or u p set he can r e c o g n is e my f e e l in g s e x a c t ly , w ith o u t
becom ing u p set h im s e lf.
63. What o th er p eop le th in k o f me d oes (or w ould, i f he knew) a f f e c t the
way he f e e l s toward me.
64. I b e lie v e th a t he has f e e l in g s he d oes n ot t e l l me about th a t are
c a u sin g d i f f i c u l t y in our r e la t io n s h ip .
APPENDIX C
INTERN EVALUATION FORM
(A rm e lle S p a in )
97
Do not write
in th is space
Intern Evaluation Form
Identification
Y ou have been supervising the intern whose name is attached to this form ..
A t this point, how would you compare his/her performance with all the other
interns you have supervised, on the following criteria:
Please check:
Ability to establish
effective counseling
relationships with
clients c
Seriously dedicated and
committed to clients
(willingness to reach
out).
Ability to define
reasonable goals
with clients.
Sufficient flexibility to
adapt self and techniques
to diverse client situations.
Ability to assume
professional responsibilities.
Interpersonal relationships
with other staff members.
Openness to learning
psychotherapeutic skills.
Overall competence as a
clinic counselor.
lowest
1 0 %
1
1
below
average
2
average
3
above
average
4
highest
1 0 %
5
D o not write
in this space
Card III
26
How would you describe this intern's therapeutic approach in comparison to you:
own ? Circle one:
V ery dissimilar 1 2 3 4 5 Very similar
In order to insure confidentiality, please destroy the intern's name attached
to this form.
2 7
28
29
30
3 1
3 2
APPENDIX D
LETTERS TO SUPERVISORS AND TO INTERNS
( A rm e lle S p a in )
99
Dear Supervisor:
Although many professionals, like you, spend a considerable amount of
time and effort in supervision, the area of supervision in counseling and
psychotherapy has not been broadly explored scientifically. The variables
involved in the actual process of supervision are still a mystery. There
fore, I am requesting your participation in a study which focuses on some
specific characteristics involved in the training of psychotherapists in a
clinical setting.
This project is important both because it deals with supervision and it
takes place at a community agency (in contrast to a university setting
where research is usually done). If you agree to help me, you will
contribute to the clarification of certain critical factors in the supervision
process, as well as increasing the effectiveness of supervisor-intern
selection.
Y our participation will consist of completing the enclosed materials at
your earliest convenience:
a) a brief personal information form
b) a questionnaire to assess your psychotherapeutic orientation
c) one rating scale for each of the interns you are supervising.
The validity of the study depends upon your responding to all items.
Please be sure to complete both sides of the Therapist Orientation Ques
tionnaire. ' W hen they have been completed, please, put them in the
envelope, seal it and return them to the secretary before April 16, 197 6.
Y our promptness is greatly appreciated.
Full confidentiality will be maintained. If you have any questions, feel
free to contact m e at Helpline Youth Counseling, Norwalk (864-37 22).
A t the completion of the study, I will be quite happy to provide you with
a profile of your therapeutic orientation and with the results obtained.
Knowing that your time is very precious, I deeply appreciate your effort.
Sincerely,
(j L -C L . U.A ■
Armelle Spain
The project has been approved by Dr. Patrick D. O'Connor, Ph.D. from
Kelpling Youth Counseling, and by Mr. Douglas J. Parker, M.A. and
Dr. Saif R . Ullah, Ph.D. from Mid-Valley Community Mental Health
Council.
1 0 0
1 0 1
Dear Intern:
Although m any, professionals, like you, spend a considerable amount of
time and effort in supervision, the area of supervision in counseling and
psychotherapy has not been broadly explored scientifically. The variables
involved in the actual process of supervision are still a mystery. There
fore, I am requesting your participation in a study which focuses on some
specific characteristics involved in the training of psychotherapists in a
clinical setting.
This project is important both because it deals with supervision and it
takes place at a community agency (in contrast to a university setting
where research is usually done). If you agree to help me, you will
contribute to the clarification of certain critical factors in the supervision
process, as well as increasing the effectiveness of supervisor-intern
selection.
Y our participation will consist of completing the enclosed materials at
your earliest convenience:
a) a brief personal information form
b) a questionnaire to assess your psychotherapeutic orientation
c) a questionnaire to assess your perception of your relationship with
your clinic supervisor.
The validity of the study depends upon your responding to all items.
Please be sure to complete both sides of the questionnaires. W hen they have
been completed, please, put them in the envelope, seal it and return them to
the secretary before April 16, 1 9 7 6. Y our promptness is greatly appreciated.
Full confidentiality will be maintained. If you have any questions, feel
free to contact m e at Helpline Y outh Counseling, Norwalk (864-37 22).
A t the completion of the study, I will be quite happy to provide you with
a profile of your therapeutic orientation and with the results obtained.
Knowing that your time is very precious, I deeply appreciate your effort.
Sincerely,
r- *
( / A , •■'<•- t - L U L a - c
Armelle Spain
The project has been approved by Dr. Patrick D. O'Connor, Ph.D. from
Helpline Youth Counseling, and by Mr. Douglas J. Parker, M.A. and
Dr. Saif R . Ullah, Ph.D. from Mid-Valley Community Mental Health
Council.
APPENDIX E
PERSONAL INFORMATION SHEET
(A rrn elle S p a in )
1 0 2
Personal Information Sheet
Supervisors
Identification
Please answer all the questions by checking the appropriate spaces.
1.
Sex: M (1) F (2)
3
2. A ge: Under 20
(1) 31-35 (4) 46-50
_(7)
20-25 (2) 36-40 (5) 51-55 _(8) 4
26-30 (3) 41-45 (6) over 56
(9)
3. Highest academic degree: Bachelors
(1)
Doctorate (3)
Masters (2 ) None (4)
5
Presently working toward a degree? Y es
If yes, Bachelors (1) Masters___
(1) No (2)
_ (2 ) Doctorate (3)
Number of years practicing psychotherapy?
less than one year
1 but less than 2 years
2 but less than 3 years
3 but less than 4 years
_ (1 ) 4 but less than 5 years
_ (2 ) 5 but less than 1 0 years
(3) 10 but less than 1 5 years
(4) more than 1 5 years
.(5)
.(6 )
.(7)
J8)
Which state license(s) do you have?
Other (specify) (3)________ _
M FC
.(1)
Psychology _ _
None (4)
.(2)
How would you describe your current approach to psychotherapy
(knowing that these classifications are crude) ?
psychoanalytic _ _ (1) existential__(5)
behavioral (2) eclectic____ (6)
relationship (Sullivanian)_ (3) other (specify) (7)
client-centered (4) _______ _____________
Number of years supervising counselors in training?
less than one year
1 but less than 2 years
2 but less than 3 years
3 but less than 4 years
(1) 4 but less than 5 years _
_ (2 ) 5-but less than 10 years
_ (3 ) 10 but less than 1 5 years
J4) m ore than 15 years
..(5 )
(6)
(7 )
(8)
Do not write
n th is space
10
11
103
104
Persona], Information. Sheet
Interns
Identification
Please answer all the questions by checking the'appropriate spaces. .
1. Sex: M F ____
S.
A ge: Under 2 0 _
20-25
26-30
31-35
36-40
41-45
46-50
51-55
over 56
Highest academic degree: Bachelors
Masters
4, Presently working toward a degree ? Yes
Doctorate
None
N o
If yes: Bachelors Masters
1 2
Doctorate
Number of years practicing psychotherapy?
less than one year 4 but less than 5__
~ 1 S
1 but less than 2 _ __ 5 but less than 1 0__
2 '6
2 but less than 3 ___ 10 but less than 1 5
3 but less than 4 m ore than 1 5 years
6. "W hich state license(s) do you have? MFC Psychology
1
Other (specify) _____ _______ _______ __ None___
How would you describe your current approach to psychotherapy
(knowing that these classifications are crude) ?
psychoanalytic existential____
behavioral eclectic
relationship (Sullivanian)
client-centered
6
other (specify)
Do not write-
in th is sp ace
10

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Change in sex-role orientation as a function of brief marital therapy

PDF

An analysis and evaluation of clinical and psychometric characteristics of the Personal Orientation Inventory

PDF

Attentiveness and awareness as a variable in psychopathology and therapy: The relationship between neurosis, anxiety and the ability to attend

PDF

Family-of-origin intervention as a therapeutic resource in enhancing marital adjustment: An intergenerational approach

PDF

The philosophy and psychology of Paramahansa Yogananda as the basis for a unified psychology: A first look

PDF

Selected attitude scales versus a behavioral measure in predicting effectiveness of a parental modeling program

PDF

The effects of wife abuse on the children

PDF

The effect of humanistic-existential therapy on locus of control

PDF

A modified marathon with voluntarily institutionalized substance abusers: Effects on psychopathology, self-actualization and ward behavior

PDF

Effects of bioenergetic psychotherapy on poly-drug addicts, viewed from measures in body image and self-concept

PDF

Parallel processes in therapy and supervision: Empirical evidence

PDF

The effect of empathy training on physicians' 'perceived' empathy utilizing audiovisual feedback and modeling

PDF

Preference for gender stereotypic job applicants as a function of ethnicity and sex

PDF

The relationship of psychological androgyny to self-esteem and life satisfaction in career-oriented and home-oriented women

PDF

Intravenous drug use among women and men addicts and psychosocial and health belief correlates of AIDS risk reduction

PDF

The distribution of marital power in dual-career couples as measured by decision-making patterns

PDF

The acceptability of the stereotypic and non-stereotypic male and female

PDF

Self-efficacy, job/home attitudes and career concept relationships in pairs of mothers and undergraduate daughters

PDF

A correlation study leading to the development of a scale useful in the prediction of potential juvenile fire setters

PDF

The lonely profession: A study of the psychological rewards and negative aspects of the practice of psychotherapy

Asset Metadata

Creator Spain, Armelle (author)

Core Title Quality of supervision and effectiveness of interns as a function of supervisor-intern psychotherapeutic orientations

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Psychology, clinical

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-461721

Unique identifier UC11245109

Identifier usctheses-c26-461721 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP24247.pdf

Dmrecord 461721

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Spain, Armelle

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA