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The philosophy and psychology of Paramahansa Yogananda as the basis for a unified psychology: A first look

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Content THE PHILOSOPHY AND PSYCHOLOGY
OF PARAMAHANSA YOGANANDA
AS, THE BASIS FOR A UNIFIED PSYCHOLOGY:
A FIRST LOOK
by
John Edward Roberts
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Education)
May 1986
Copyright © John Edward Roberts 1986
UMl Number: DP25122
All rights reserved
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a note will indicate the deletion.
Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author.
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This dissertation, written by
J o h n .. E d w a rd . R o b e r ts ...................................
under the direction of hX$ Dissertation
Committee, and approved by all its members,
has been presented to and accepted by The
Graduate School, in partial fulfillm ent of re
quirements for the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H ILO S O P H Y
M / f ( //?
Dean of Graduate Studies
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ............................................ vii
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION .................................................
1
BACKGROUND
Western Psychology: an Historical Perspective
The Meaning of "Psychology"
Contemporary Western Psychology: A
Reductionistic Movement
Influence of Indian Philosophy on Western
Philosophy and Psychology
Early Greek Philosophy
19th Century German Philosophy
and. Psychology
THE PROBLEM
The Current World Problem in Capsule View
The Central Problem in Western Psychology
The Inability of Western Philosophy to
Respond to Psychologyfs Problems
The Displaced Essential: The Spiritual
Aspect of Man
Summary
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
RESEARCH DESIGN AND PROCEDURES, ASSUMPTIONS, SCOPE
AND DELIMITATIONS
DEFINITIONS
ii
ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY
Chapter I. Introduction
Chapter II. Parmahansa Yogananda and Self-
Realization Fellowship: An Introduction
Chapter III. Vedic Foundations in the Philosophy
of Paramahansa Yogananda
Chapter IV. The Basic Philosophy of Paramahansa
Yogananda
Chapter V. The Psychology of Paramahansa Yogananda
and Western Psychotherapy
Chapter VI. Summary and Conclusions
II. PARAMAHANSA YOGANANDA AND SELF-REALIZATION
FELLOWSHIP: AN INTRODUCTION 45
WHO IS PARAMAHANSA YOGANANDA?
The First Years
First Organizational Efforts in India
Early Activities in America
Return to India
The Last Years
WHAT IS SELF-REALIZATION FELLOWSHIP?
Mission
Organization
Developments
SUMMARY
III. VEDIC FOUNDATIONS IN THE PHILOSOPHY AND TEACHINGS
OF PARAMAHANSA YOGANANDA ............................. 73
A SYNOPSIS OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
Historical Evolution
An Important Epistemological Consideration
THE VEDAS
Codification of The Vedic Canons
and Shastras
iii
An Introduction to the Vedas
Samhitas
Brahmanas and Aranyakas
Upanishads
SUMMARY
IV. THE BASIC PHILOSOPHY OF PARAMAHANSA YOGANANDA ...... 113
THE SIX SYSTEMS OF HINDU PHILOSOPHY
Sankhya Philosophy
Vedanta Philosophy
Yoga Philosophy
Historical Development and Evolution
THEOLOGY
COSMOGONY AND COSMOLOGY
Historical Background
The Task of Sankhya
Key Concepts in Sankhya Doctrine
Purusha
Prakriti
Sankhya Expression in the Teachings of
Paramahansa Yogananda
Existence as a Paradox
ESCHATOLOGY
Re incarnat ion
Karma
The Two Primary Modes
Ignorance: the Root Cause of Human
Affliction
The Five Primal Troubles of Man
An Interim Review
How Karma Manifests
How Karma Conditions Free Will
Three Kinds of Human Karma
EPISTEMOLOGY
Perception
Inference
Intuition
Summary
iv
CONCLUSION
V. THE PSYCHOLOGY OF PARAMAHANSA YOGANANDA
AND WESTERN PSYCHOTHERAPY ........................
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF PARAMAHANSA YOGANANDA
Principal Philosophical Doctrines Reviewed
Metaphysics
Spirit-Nature Duality
Epistemology
Karma
Conclusion
Core Psychological Principles in the Philosophy
and Teachings of Paramahansa Yogananda
The Vedic Existential Triumvirate
The Proposition of Existential Universality
The Concept of a Unified Psychology
PATANJALI1S EIGHT-FOLD PATH: THE SPIRITUALLY-
BASED PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESS
Moral Conduct and Religious Observances
Kriya Yoga
Concentration
Conclusion
WESTERN PSYCHOTHERAPY
An Overview
Historical Background
Principal Philosophical Positions Which Have
Shaped Dominant Western Psychological Belief
and Systems Development
Psychophysical Parallelism
Logical Positivism
Operationalism
Psychophysical Dualism
Four Major Psychological Systems
Dynamic Psychology
Behaviorism
Phenomenological-Existential
Cognitive-Behaviorist
Psychotherapy Today
Psychotherapy: the Social and Philosophical
Implications
161
v
VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 232
The True Nature of Man: Objective One
Man as a Physical, Mental, and Spiritual Being:
Objective Two
Psychotherapeutic System Development
Possibilities: Objective Three
Is a New Form of Psychotherapy Indicated?
Objective Four
Unified Psychology Defined: Objective Five
Is a Unified Psychology a Possibility?
Objective Six
REFERENCE NOTES 243
REFERENCES 244
vi
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Title Page
1. Growth of SRF-YSS from 1925 to 1970. 65
2. The Hindu Classification of Knowledge and the Five 77
Channels by Which it is Accessed.
3. Classification Schema of the Hindu Scriptures or 79
Shastras (Sheet 1 of 4) .
Classification Schema of the Hindu Scriptures or 80
Shastras (Sheet 2 of 4) .
Classification Schema of the Hindu Scriptures or 81
Shastras (Sheet 3 of 4) .
Classification Schema of the Hindu Scriptures or 82
Shastras (Sheet 4 of 4) .
4. Summary of the Sankhya Teachings Relative to the 133
Three Causative Gunas of Nature and Their Five Bhutas,
Representing Final Expression in the Physical World.
5. Wolberg's Four-Approach Treatment Classification for 2i8
Mental Disorders.
6. Wolbergfs Three-Group Classification of Varieties of 222
Psychotherapy.
vii
I. INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND
Western Psychology: an Historical Perspective
In its broadest parameters the discipline of psychology, as it is
currently known and practiced in the Western world, has undergone
immense changes since the days of its traditionally accorded beginnings
with the Pre-Socratics in early Greece. Since that time the West has
seen the rise and fall of psychological schools, philosophies,
theories, and practices which have progressed through the periods of
the ancient Greek and Latin psychologists (Anaxagoras, Empedocles,
Leucippus, Plato, Aristotle, etc.); through the Patristic and Medieval
Scholastics (Saints Augustine and Aquinas); to the Renaissance
Continental Psychology of Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz from which in
many respects the Cartesian artifact remains dynamically operative.
Psychology continued to proceed through the annals of British
Empericism shepherded by the great empericists Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley,
and Hume; through the German philosophical tradition of Kant, Lotze,
Schopenhauer, and Neitzsche; the German Experimental Psychology of
Fechner, Helmholtz, Wundt, and Ebbinghaus; and then through British and
American Evolutionary and Structural Psychology, Functional Psychology,
1
Dynamic Psychology, Analytic Psychology, Neurophysiological
Psychotherapy, Gestalt, Behaviorism, Phenomenological and Existential
Psychology, etc.
The advancement of Western psychology from the fifth century B.C.
to the present has been a complex and multi-faceted saga. This advance
has traditionally been viewed as a linear evolutional event proceeding
from a time of a presupposed dim intelligence of the nature of man to
the present period of presumed scientific illumination.
According to this view, the development of Western psychology is
seen as having its genesis within the philosophical precincts of early
Greek thought. And its temporal advance, especially within the last
century, has been distinguished by a progressively diminishing
philosophical emphasis and an increasingly evident scientific
character.
The Meaning of "Psychology"
It is of particular interest to this work to note that the word
"psychology" means: "science of the soul" (Eysenck, Arnold, & Meile,
1979, p.854). In 1866 Lange, in his book, History of Materialism,
describes the beginnings of scientific psychology and in so doing
introduces the phrase: "psychology without a soul." This negation of
soul was introduced by Lange to convey the fact that "as a science it
[scienfitic psychology] ignored the soul as an explanatory principle,
and attempted to describe 'mental facts’ on the basis of their
elements" (cited in Eysenck et al., 1979, p.854); The "elements" Lange
refers to denote those identified by Wundt in his hypothesis which
2
asserts that the contents of consciousness are split up into two kinds
of elements; namely, sensation and feeling. This notion of scientific
psychology represented a radical and conceptually revolutionary
departure from antecedant periods wherein man was held to be the
measure of all things. And his "yardstick” ^as God and the cosmos.
Contemporary Western Psychology: A Reductionistic Movement
Historically and conceptually, dominant Western psychology
eventually divorced itself from religion, from philosophy, and
finally--intent on claiming legitimacy and autonomy--adopted the
materialistic-scientific thesis of 19th century physics. Western
psychology may, in some sense, be consequently viewed as having taken a
highly reductionistic course in its temporal journey from the early
Greeks viewing man in his relation to God and the universe, to Wundt’s
hypothesis of two elements constituting the contents of consciousness.
This is not to imply that Western psychology has remained bound to
Wundt's thesis of Elementarism. It has, nevertheless, retained in
substantive measure its reductionistic structure especially when
viewing empirical (scientific) psychology against the background of
early Greek thought. The Phenomenological and Existential
philosophical schools of thought have relatively served in some
relative degree to influence psychology (mainly in the context of
psychotherapy) to move in a somewhat less reductionistic direction.
Man is viewed by them as more a social-psychical interpersonally-active
being as opposed to a strictly biologically-based entity.
But these traditions have also, for the most part, left man as an
island unto himself insofar as they are predicated on the notion of,
and are primarily concerned with, man as a discrete entity- that is, as
a temporally-finite psychical-organic entity existing for a briefs
period in a state of mortal consciousness attempting to derive a
modicum of meaning from a- world postulated as inherently meaningless.
While some minimal efforts have been advanced to expand man's
perception and conception of himself, he is still far from restoring to
psychology its inherent meaning--"the science of the soul.'V
Influence of Indian Philosophy on Western Philosophy and Psychology
Early Greek Philosophy
While the Western version of the history of psychology essentially
begins with the Pre-Socratics around 500 B.C., there is a history of
psychology in India which antedates the Pre-Socratics by untold
millenia. And there is rather compelling evidence that the early
Greeks obtained in substantial measure many of their fundamental
philosophical-psychological concepts from the Indians (Hindus) through
direct cultural intercourse either on the borders of Greece or on the
commonground of Persia. Garbe (1899), for example, in an absorbing
chapter titled "Indian and Greek Philosophy" posits with avowed
certitude that the ideas of Pythagoras and the Pythagorians are
straight from the Sankhya philosophy of India as explicated thousands
of years prior by Kapila, the principal formulator of that Hindu
philosophical system. And unambiguous elements of Sankhya are likewise
4
said to be evidenced with significant frequency and scope in the
doctrines of the Gnostics, the Neo-Platonists, and in the writings and
teachings of Plotinus (chief of the Neo-Platonists), Prophyry
(Plotinus' most distinguished disciple), and their predecessors Thales,
Empedocles, Anaxagoras, Democritus, theEleatics, and others.
19th Century German Philosophy and Psychology
In a more contemporary (19th Century) context particular Western
philosophers whose philosophical formulations are said to be clearly
influenced by the Hindus came to have a recognized impact on the course
of Western psychology. Principal among these were Arthur Schopenhauer
and Edward von Hartmann. Schopenhauer was so inspired by the deep,
original, and sublime thoughts of the Indian Upanishads that he was
moved to affirm: "Access to the Vedas [through Western translations of
the Upanishads] is, in my eyes, the greatest privilege this century may
claim over all previous centuries" (cited in Yogananda, 1985, p.151).
Davies presents a clear and forceful discussion revealing the
profound similarities in the philosophical writings of Schopenhauer and
von Hartmann to those of Kapila. The principal focus of Davies'
comparison centers on Schopenhauer's concept of "Will" and von
Hartmann's "Unconscious." Relative to these respective concepts Davies
affirms: "The nature of the kosmos [sic] is explained in different
terms, but in each the sum of existent things has been developed from a
primary unconscious substance or force, which Schopenhauer describes as
Will, of which the world is an objective manifestation, and which von
5
Hartmann calls the Unconscious. . . . Schopenhauer and Von Harmann
teach the same doctrine" (1894, p.28).
What is of particular interest here are the facts that: (a) Indian
philosophy is known to have had a definite and major impact on the
philosophical formulations of Schopenhauer and von Hartmann, (b) the
common doctrine set down by both can be said to be that of the
unconscious, and (c) there is no doubt that Freud studied them both
well. Loemker convincingly establishes this last point and further
demonstrates that von Hartmann was "hailed as a psychologist who
introduced the unconscious as a decisive mental factor" (1972, p.64).
And there is little question that Schopenhauer, von Hartmann, and
Vaihinger represented those philosophers of a whole movement out of
which later emerged the forces of Phenomenology and Existentialism (the
Anti-Substantialists and Anti-Realists) (Willard, Note 1).
The following points of significant interest to this work
evidenced in the foregoing discussion are: (a) there was a profound
Hindu influence on early Western (Greek) philosophy which appears to be
little known and seldom, if “fever, acknowledged in any history of
Western psychology, (b) the concept of the "unconscious" which came to
be a dominant thematic and doctrinal element in Western psychology is
known to have had its genesis in Indian Vedic philosophy, and (c) the
less reductionistic philosophies of Phenomenology and Existentialism
can be said to trace their roots to antecedent philosophical
expressions which were clearly grounded in the Vedic philosophical
tradition.
6
THE PROBLEM
The problem addressed by this effort is broad in scope and complex
in nature and is represented in innumerable public and private
manifestations. It concerns the incredibly complex and dynamic array
of individual and collective problems extant in Western Culture in
general and American society in particular. Appropriately, however,
the problems of all mankind are, in a general sense, subsumable under
the thesis of the present work.
The central thesis of this work asserts that man is a triune
being--physical, mental, and spiritual--and the failure of science in
general and psychology in particular to develop a paradigm on this
predication constitutes the root problem of all the many problems
affecting all individuals and the societies they constellate to create.
Contemporary Western science and psychology are viewed as
formulated on a predominantly physicalist-mechanistic view of man and
his world which consequently either tacitly or avowedly rejects any
mental or spiritual attributions to the universe or its inhabitants.
Within its limited conceptual scope, what Western science and
scientific psychology have done, they have done remarkably well. In
fact, it is mainly because of their many stellar successes and related
accomplishments that they are able to generate tacit promises which
forcefully hint that all answers to all questions and all solutions to
all problems are latent and immanent within the parameters of the
dominant paradigm.
7
While the achievements of Western science and psychology are many
and notable, there exists an ever-present ever-mounting plethora of
problems manifesting. Mankind appears unable to effectively stem the
tide and many conditions are now at crisis proportion. The
psychological bases of these problems, their postulated primal cause,
and the investigation of an essential expression of Vedic philosophy to
provide answers to these problems in the context of a unified
psychology is the task of this work.
The following four subsections briefly look at the particularly
salient problematic issues. A fifth reviews the central problem thesis
mainly through a set of descriptive review statements.
The Current World Problem in Capsule View
In the global context, pur psychologically-rooted problems are at
or exceeding epidemic proportions. As Capra notes:
Industrialized countries are plagued by the chronic and
degenerative diseases appropriately called "diseases of
civilization," the principal killers being heart disease,
cancer, and strokes. On the psychological side, severe
depression, schizophrenia, and other psychiatric disorders
appear to spring from a . . . deterioration of our social
environment. There are numerous signs of social
disintegration, including a rise in violent crimes,
accidents, and suicides; increased alcoholism and drug
abuse; and growing numbers of children with learning
disabilities and behavioral disorders. The rise in violent
crimes and suicides by young people is so dramatic that it
has been called an epidemic of violent deaths. At the same
time, the loss of young lives from accidents, especially
motor accidents, is twenty times higher than the death rate
from polio when it was at its worst. According to health
economist Victor Fuchs, "epidemic" is almost too weak a word
to describe this situation. (1982, pp.23-24)
Problems are not new to man's existence; they are endemic to it.
But what is of paramount consideration at this time in world history is
the magnitude, pervasiveness, and multifariousness of the problems. In
the past, Western culture has typically relied with confidence on its
specialist-experts to render solutions to its major problems.
Circumstances have changed and now experts are often unable to
effectively solve problems as they once did. Capra writes:
It is a striking sign of our time that the people who
are supposed to be experts in various fields can no longer
deal with the urgent problems that have arisen in their
areas of expertise. Economists are unable to understand
inflation, oncologists are totally confused about the causes
of cancer, psychiatrists are mystified by schizophrenia,
police are helpless in the force of rising crime, and the
list goes on. . . . In 1979 the Washington Post ran a story
under the heading "The Cupboard of Ideas is Bare,” in which
prominent thinkers admitted they were unable to solve the
nation's most urgent policy problems. According to the
Post, "Talks with noted intellectuals in Cambridge, Mass.,
and New York, in fact, not only confirm that the mainstream
of ideas has split into dozens of rivulets, but that in some
areas it has dried up altogether." One of the academics
interviewed was Irving Kristol, Henry R. Luce professor of
urban values at New. York University, who said that he was
resigning his chair because "I don't have anything to say
anymore. I don’t think anybody does. When a problem
becomes too difficult, you lose interest." (1982, p. 25)
The principal observation to be made here is that we are all in
significant trouble and there do not appear to be any readily available
answers to the mounting dilemma. And of even greater significance is
the apparent fact that our traditional experts, concepts, and methods
are ineffectual and impotent to provide workable answers to the
problems at hand.
The Central Problem in Western Psychology
As just stated, our traditional, hence current, mainstream
concepts and contingent methods are ineffectual and impotent to provide
solutions to ever-mounting present-day problems. The thesis this work
advances is that the central problem of Western psychology is rooted in
its subscription to an incomplete, hence basically incorrect model .of
man. As stated in the introduction to this section, the dominant
Western psychological view of man is formulated on a physicalist
foundation. The central thesis of this effort affirms that position to
a point, but goes on to assert man is also a mental and spiritual
being. Thus the true nature of man can be correctly apprehended only
when these three aspects and their interdependent relationships are
sufficiently understood and under no other conditions.
Physics has traditionally been the "mother science" in that its
paradigms--with their attendant theories and resultant empirical
findings--have served to define the nature of matter, energy, and force
in the known physical universe. From these theories and findings a
"nature of man" concept inevitably, in time, emerges--for as the
universe is, so must man be; for he, by virtue of his own perceptions,,
is deemed by his conceived nature to necessarily be of it. But more
and more physics renders matter, energy, and force to be other than
what they seem or were traditionally seen to be. As stated earlier,
the dominant physics paradigm employed by mainstream Western psychology
is asserted to be 19th century Newtonian; a position since abandoned by
physicists themselves as being fundamentally incorrect and insufficient
to explain what is already known let alone that which is theoretically
10
envisioned. Thus viewed, a comparative look at what "cutting-edge"
physicists are saying about the nature of the universe should provide
early clues for a new Western psychological paradigm. Further
discussion serves to illustrate this important point.
Historically there has been perennial confusion and argumentation
as pertains to the mind-body relationship problem and, in particular,
the relationship between mind and brain. This is easily evidenced, for
example, in the basic parallel approaches followed by the
structuralists and the behaviorists. Capra reviews these points and
discusses the role of Freud's work in this process:
The current confusion about the role and nature of the
mind, as distinct from that of the brain, is a manifest
consequence of the Cartesian division.
Descartes not only made a sharp distinction between the
impermanent human body and the indestructible soul, but also
suggested different methods for studying them. The soul, or
mind, should be studied by introspection, the body by. the
methods of natural science. However, psychologists in the
subsequent centuries did not follow Descartes* suggestion
but adopted both methods for the study of the human psyche,
thus creating two major schools of psychology. The
structuralists studied the mind through introspection and
tried to analyze consciousness into its basic elements,
while behaviorists concentrated exclusively on the study of
behavior and so were led to ignore or deny the existence of
mind altogether. Both these schools emerged at a time when
scientific thought was dominated by the Newtonian model of
reality. Accordingly, they both modeled themselves after
classical physics, incorporating the basic concepts of
Newtonian mechanics into their theoretical frameworks.
Meanwhile, working in the clinic and consulting room
rather than the laboratory, Sigmund Freud used the method of
free association to develop psychoanalysis. Although this
was a very different, even revolutionary, theory of the
human mind, its basic concepts were again Newtonian in
nature. Thus the three main currents of psychological
thinking in the first decades of the twentieth century--two
in the academy and one in the clinic--were based not only on
the Cartesian paradigm but also on specifically Newtonian
concepts of reality. (1982, pp.164-165)
11
A brief examination of the consequences attendant to Newtonian
model subscription discloses the restricted formulation of man which
derives. Valle summarizes:
Newtonian physics has provided us with nothing less
than a "way to think," an implicitly enculturated view of
reality, a prereflective assumption of what the universe
really is. The remarkable, advances that technology has made
(a technology rooted in this experimental paradigm)
reinforce this implicit way of conceptualizing. It is
difficult for anyone to doubt the impact of the myriad
displays of electronic, time-and-labor-saving devices which
surround us.
Yet within the field of psychology, there has always
been a stream of discontent with this natural scientific
grounding. The humanistic growth psychologists . . . the
existential-phenomenological psychologists, and, most
recently, the transpersonal psychologists . . . are a few of
the many who have cried out something akin to: "Stop! There
is more to being human! A different ground is needed, a
different look at the nature of what is, what was, and what
could be!" It is from this cry that the application of
existentialism and the Eastern philosophies and doctrines
has, for example, provided new insights and understanding to
the multifaceted nature of human behavior, human experience,
and the world situations that a person finds him- or herself
thrown into.
The cry, however, continues. It continues because the'
very ground that natural scientific psychology stands on
(i.e., the Newtonian worldview) has been discarded and left
behind by the physicists themselves as too narrow and too
limited in its conceptual scope. This model at first
faltered and then fell hard as it failed to embrace the
majority of findings that came out of the subatomic world
and the brilliant work that the high-energy particle
physicists continue to do there. What has come of this?
What has come is the beginning of a whole new way of
examining some very old but still equally crucial questions:
"What is the nature of human consciousness?", "What role
does mystical and religious experience play in human
evolution?", and perhaps most importantly, "What is the
place of the human being in the known universe?" (1981,
pp.419-420)
Valle, in addition to citing the limitations and inherent
untenability of the Newtonian model, mentions, the work of the
high-energy particle physicists and alludes to their throwing new light
12
on old problems. Let us move next to examine some of the ideas the new
physics is advancing and attempt to determine whereon new light may be
thrown for Western psychology.
To begin, it is important to understand that scientific psychology
has always set as its goal, an objective understanding of human
behavior. (This point is elaborated in Chapter V in the discussion on
Western psychotherapy.) This objective has yielded important
information to be sure, but it has also imposed severe conceptual
limitations and yielded an incorrect concept of man. Capra discloses
the impact of the new physics on the concept of objective descriptions
of nature:
Two separate developments--that of relativity theory
and of atomic physics--shattered all the principal concepts
of the Newtonian world view: the notion of absolute space
and time, the elementary solid particles, the strictly
causal nature of physical phenomena, and the ideal of an
objective description of nature. None of these concepts
could be extended to the new domains into which physics was
now penetrating. (1975, p.50)
He goes on to disclose how quantum theory changes the view of the
structural basis of the universe:
Quantum theory has . . . demolished the classical
concepts of solid objects and of strictly deterministic laws
of nature. At the subatomic level, the solid material
objects of classical physics dissolve into wavelike patterns
of probabilities, and these patterns, ultimately, do not
represent probabilities of things, but rather probabilities
of interconnections. A careful analysis of the process of
observation in atomic physics has shown that the subatomic
particles have no meaning as isolated entities, but can be
only understood as interconnections between the preparation
of an experiment and the subsequent measurement. Quantum
theory thus reveals a basic oneness of the universe. It
shows that we cannot decompose the world into independently
existing smallest units. As we penetrate into matter,
nature does not show as any isolated "basic building
blocks," but rather appears as a complicated web of
13
relations between the various parts of the whole. (1975,
pp.56-57)
Sir Arthur Eddington takes the new physicist’s ideas one important
step further by concluding that what we take to be that solid,
objective, physical stuff--matter--is in reality ’’ mind stuff.” He
explains:
The frank realization that physical science is
concerned with a world of shadows is one of the most
significant advances. In the world of physics we watch a
shadowgraph performance of the drama of familiar life. The
shadow of my elbow rests on the shadow table as the shadow
ink flows over the shadow paper. It is all symbolic, and as
a symbol the physicist leaves it. Then comes the alchemist
Mind who transmutes the symbols. . . . To put the conclusion
crudely, the stuff of the world is mind-stuff. (cited in
Yogananda, 1985, p.313)
Viewed in this light, the implications for a new mode of
psychological thinking begin to become apparent and to disclose
significance. Jung makes what is perhaps one of the first insightful
statements in this connection as he affirms:
Sooner or later, nuclear physics and the psychology of
the unconscious will draw closer together as both of them,
independently of one another and from opposite directions,
push forward into transcendental territory. . . . Psyche
cannot be totally different from matter, for how otherwise
could it move matter? And matter cannot be alien to psyche,
for how else could matter produce psyche? Psyche and matter
exist in the same world and each partakes of the other,
otherwise any reciprocal action would be impossible. If
research could only advance far enough, therefore, we should
arrive at an ultimate agreement between physical and
psychological concepts. Our present attempts may be bold,
but I believe they are on the right lines. (cited in Capra,
1982, pp.359-360)
The consequences for psychology are no doubt beyond our ability to
accurately and in detail predict. What does seem most certain is that
14
___
many of the old ideas are going to fall. Valle suggests this and
identifies certain of the endangered concepts:
Psychologists will experience a dramatic change in
their worldview, including drastic alteration in concepts
like the strictly causal nature of behavioral (and
experiential) phenomena, the notion of person as "object" to
be reduced in order to be understood, and the ideal of an
objective description of human nature. (1981, p.436)
Capra brings the matter full circle and speculates on the global
significance the new physics heralds:
I believe that the world-view implied by modem physics
is inconsistent with our present society, which does not
reflect that harmonious interrelatedness we observe in
nature. To achieve such a state of dynamic balance, a
radically different social and economic structure will be
needed: a cultural revolution in the true sense of the
word. The survival of our whole civilization may depend on
whether we can bring about such a change. (1975, p.215)
To conclude this discussion it is necessary to point out that this
work is not intended to be based on the findings of new-age physics.
The purpose in engaging in an introduction to certain basic ideas
advanced by this physics is summarized in the following four
paragraphs.
1. Physics as been termed the "mother science." The importance
in this ascription is the idea that as physics makes a paradigm shift,
it initiates an "innoculation" process in the other sciences which, in
time, produces respective paradigmatic shifts within them as well. To
the extent modern Western psychology perceives itself as a science, to
that extent is it subject to changes as may be foretold by
modifications made in the notions held by physics. Modern atomic
physics and relativity theorists have advanced quantum leaps from 19th
century Newtonian mechanics--a position they have abandoned as
15
out-moded. Contemporary Western scientific psychology is said to
remain essentially predicated on the basic concepts of Newtonian
physics. Indications are, therefore, that Western scientific
psychology is destined to experience a radical paradigm shift. And
hints of what new ideas will probably be embodied in the new paradigm
are already being suggested.
2. The basic ideas advanced by the new physics bear remarkable
correspondence to certain doctrines articulated by Vedic philosophy; in
particular, those set down in the Sankhya system as exposited by the
sage Kapila. Such correspondence will no doubt continue throughout the
discoveries of atomic physics and the refinements of relativity theory.
And this activity will unquestionably effect revolutionary impact and
be of profound significance to Western psychology. Considered in this
context, the new physics is viewed as serving respectively as: (a) the
vital theoretical-conceptual-empirical Western scientific eutectic
force enabling a viable fusional interface between progressive Western
science and truth-bearing Vedic philosophy, and (b) a scientific
cornerstone of essential importance in the foundation for the
development of a. new Western psychological paradigm.
3. The importance of the theory and empirical verifications of
the new physics is of profound scientific magnitude and gravity to be
sure. And while it bears remarkable correspondence to Vedic
philosophical expression, albeit in a limited sense, it is not
sufficient for the development of a true and unified psychology as
these two concepts are considered in this work. The basic task of
physics is--as it has always been--to treat of the phenomenal
16
(material) world and, in particular, "those phenomena of inanimate
matter involving no changes in chemical composition; more specifically
. . .of matter and motion" (Webster, 1961, p.636). Psychology deals
with the highest expression of animate form--man. And, pursuant to the
ideas advanced in this effort, man is not only a physical being, but
more importantly, he is a mental and spiritual being as well.
Consequently, a complete understanding of the true nature of the
phenomenal human expression--the mortal body and mind--must necessarily
be gained not only from a study of the physical aspect (through
physical science) but must be derived from other sources as well. The
importance in recognizing this critical notion cannot be overstated for
unless it is duly recognized and upheld, any new paradigm psychology
may erect predicated on the precepts of the new physics alone, stands
the imminent risk of being little more than a sophisticated restatement
of its present formulations of psychophysical interactionism. This
possibility is already profoundly manifest as demonstrated in the
earlier statement by Jung for his statement is decidedly
interactionistic in the strictly psychophysical context.
To restate the matter again, man, though he does express as a
physical mode of existence on the phenomenal plane (world), is
essentially not of phenomenal genesis. Man, as stated earlier,
according to the thesis of this work is held to be physical, mental,
and spiritual. And these three aspects do dynamically interact; but,
there is also a hierarchy in the relationship. And it is this
essential factor of the heirarchial relationship and the added
spiritual element of man which are missing in JungTs interactional
17
statement cited earlier. Therefore, for a complete understanding of
the true nature of man--as will be necessary for the development of any
true and valid psychology— all three aspects must necessarily be known
and taken into full account. As- said earlier, information-on—the -other
two aspects of man (i.e., the mental and spiritual), must be derived
from a source or sources other than those physically-based.
4. The new physics has served and will continue to serve in
important ways to theoretically and empirically validate certain
doctrinal elements inherent in Vedic philosophy. This is attested to,
for example, in Yogananda’s statement regarding Einstein’s Theory of
Relativity and Unified Field Theory which together scientifically
validate an important foundational cornerstone in the Vedic doctrines
of cosmology and ontology relative to the phenomenal aspect of
creation. Yogananda affirms:
In the gigantic conceptions of Einstein, the velocity
of light--186,300 miles per second--dominates the whole
Theory of Relativity. He proves mathematically that the
velocity of light is, so far as man’s finite mind is
concerned, the only constant of a universe in flux. On the
sole "absolute” of light velocity depend all human standards
of time and space. Not abstractly eternal as hitherto
considered, time and space are relative and finite factors.
They derive their conditional measurement-validities only in
reference to the yardstick of light velocity.
In joining space as a dimensional relativity, time is
now stripped to its rightful nature: a simple essence of
ambiguity. With a few equational strokes of his pen,
Einstein banished from the universe every fixed reality
except that of light.
In a later development, his Unified Field Theory, the
great physicist embodies in one mathematical formula the
laws of gravitation and of electromagnetism. Reducing the
cosmical structure to variations on a single law, Einstein
has reached across the ages to the rishis [Vedic seers] who
proclaimed a sole fabric of creation: a protean maya.
(1985, pp.312-313)
18
___
And as physicists themselves have appropriately pointed out, Vedic
philosophy serves to guide their insight into otherwise anomalous or
obscure theory, observation, and experimental data. This reciprocal
harmonious relationship is viewed as a very important occurrence taken
herein to underscore the validity of an effort of this nature which
seeks to investigate an essential expression of Vedic philosophy as the
basis for a unified Western psychology. The "essential expression" is
the philosophy and teachings of Paramahansa Yogananda.
The Inability of Western Philosophy to
Respond to Psychology's Problems
Historically philosophy has been the wellspring of thought,
concept, and process for the directed efforts of man to know his world
and his self. And through this process, together with its derived
knowledge, he works to effect resolution of his many life-attendant
problems. But Western psychology, it must be remembered, intentionally
disassociated itself from philosophy in the 19th century to enable it
to become "scientific." Philosophy suffered the greater casualty of
the two as a result of this separation.
The current state of Western philosophy as it relates to the
problems of psychology is avowed by many to be essentially impotent.
Numerous reasons have been argued in the endeavor to explain this
state. The intent here is not to explore these reasons in any detail
but simply to point out the problem. For it is logical and sensible
for anyone to ask: Why doesn't Western philosophy address the problems
of Western psychology? Why resort to Eastern philosophy to answer
19
Western psychology’s problems? The answer to the first question is
because it is unable to do so for reasons yet to be stated. And the
answer to the second is the subject of this entire effort.
For the present, let us examine several reasons, why. Western
philosophy is deemed unable to respond to psychology's problems as
offered by two important philosophers. First, Armstrong states his
position:
When we consider modern philosophers who write about
the mind, it is often difficult to determine just how their
view of mind fits into the classification offered. This
might be taken to be a criticism of the classification, but
in fact I do not think that it should be so taken. I
believe there are two other reasons why it is so hard to
place their views. In the first place, there is no doubt
that the question of the nature of the mind is one of the
utmost difficulty. When we add this to the tentative and
piecemeal character of a great deal of modern
philosophizing, it is not surprising that many philosophers
have simply not come to a clear decision about their view of
the mind.
There is, however, what I think is a much darker and
less intellectually honorable reason for the difficulty that
there often is in discovering their view. Since the work of
Wittgenstein, it has been fashionable to maintain that
philosophy does not issue in any theories at all about the
nature of reality. Hence it is not the bus iness of the
philosopher to maintain any theory of the mind. I think
that this doctrine has proved intellectually corrupting, for
in fact it is quite impossible to be in such a theory-free
state if you think at all extensively on philosophical
topics. Those philosophers who believe that they are in
such a theory-free state are really being moved by obscure
and ill-formulated theories which escape any criticism or
correction because they are never brought out into the open
where they can be clearly considered. (1968, p. 62)
Campbell addresses the problem from a different yet provocative
perspective and highlights the problem of historical distortion:
The Mind-Body problem . . . illustrates the relation
ship between philosophy and other intellectual pursuits,
notably in natural science. Philosophy has sometimes fallen
into disrepute among sensible men because this relationship
20
has been distorted or misunderstood. The old bad image of
philosophy is of an arrogant and foolish armchair dogmatism.
Philosophers are seen as proclaiming doctrines as "proven by
pure reason" in wanton disregard of what hard experimental
and theoretical work might discover. Such a harsh view of
philosophy is not dissipated by the spectacle of Aristotle
"proving" that the planets move in circles; Descartes - -
rejecting even the possibility of empty space, and Kant
arguing that there can be no indeterminancy in physics.
Philosophy’s new bad image-^miniphilosophy--is one of
pedantic triviality. The new distortion affirms that
philosophy’s concern is solely with bringing into light the
content of the concepts men use in their thought about the
world. Philosophy is a modest inquiry into the meanings of
words and the implications of sentences, and cannot
determine truth or falsehood. This view of philosophy as
impotent, as no more significant than butterfly collecting,
has complex causes in the dispair of twentieth-century
intellectuals. It was given its most characteristic
expression in the thought of Wittgenstein, who said, for
example, "Philosophy leaves everything as it is." (1970,
pp.39-40)
It was stated in the beginning of this subsection that the current
state of Wester philosophy, relative to the problems of psychology, is
held to be essentially impotent. In summary, four basic reasons were
advanced in discussions by Armstrong and Campbell. These are, to
paraphrase them:
1. The subject of mind is one of intense difficulty. This
complex subject has been characteristically approached in a tentative
and piecemeal manner which results in the production of unclear and
indecisive views of mind.
2. A corollary problem to the preceding one entails the fact that
the position of contemporary Western philosophy is that it is not its
business to develop or propose any theories of reality; hence of mind.
Insofar as a theory-free state is an impossibility, modern
philosophical statements about mind tend to be obscure and
21
ill-formulated which, in turn, result in such statements escaping
correction or criticism.
3. The relationship between philosophy and the natural sciences
has fallen into a state of disrepute due to the numerous- and potent
distortions and misunderstandings perpetrated mainly by scientists.
This activity has occurred in spite of the many valuable contributions
historically made by prominent Western philosophers to science.
4. As a result of the problem just stated, psychology divorced
itself from philosophy and went on to become objectively scientific.
As a consequence, philosophy became reduced to engaging in modest
inquiries into the contents of concepts about the world (in this case
the mind) through investigating the meanings of words and the
implications of sentences. This produces what Campbell terms
miniphilosophy— engagements in pedantic trivialities.
As a concluding note of significant interest, historically the
developmental bases and subsequent evolution of Western philosophy
occurred in a manner very different than that of Indian philosophy.
This differential genesis and development may in itself be a
substantial contributing factor to the present state of Western
philosophy. This subject is discussed in greater detail in Chapter
III.
The Displaced Essential; The Spiritual Aspect of Man
Webster defines "displace" as: "To remove from the usual or
proper place; [or] to crowd out; to take the place of" (1961, p.240).
From the time of the early Greeks until the time of Descartes, the
22
spiritual aspect of man was generally accorded recognition. Then, the
spiritual side of man became rapidly "displaced." This displacement
occurred primarily in response to the rising sentiments of the
scientific fervor which was rapidly gaining momentum at this time. -The
principal reason for this displacement was undoubtedly twofold. First,
science is basically concerned With objective empirically verifiable
data. Spiritual concepts and doctrines frequently entail statements
and propositions about nonempirical objects, events, and relations
which necessarily result in an absence of objective quantifiable data.
Thus spiritual concepts were eliminated early in the scientific
enterprise. Second, the Western intellectual world was still
reverberating from the traumas induced by the repressive activities of
organized Christian religion. As Budhananda notes:
Today the Zeitgeist is dominated powerfully by the
scientific temper. The scientific temper of today is not an
incumbent which could be wished away or frowned out of the
contemporary, scene.
Science came to this position the hard way, fighting
every inch of ground in a long battle of nearly four hundred
years, against religious dogmas and superstitions. One
scholar, Dr. Andrew D. White, describing this warfare
. . . reveals appalling obscurantism of ignorance doggedly
fighting at every step the advancement of knowledge, and the
dedicated tenacity of the hunger for knowledge--both
simultaneously manifest in homo sapiens. (1973, pp.2-3)
It is interesting to note that Whitehead (1949) assigns the date
of 1600 as the time marking the start of the first century of modern
science in the strict sense of the term. This starting date was
selected as it was the year Giordano Bruno was put to death by the
Inquisition for openly defending Copernicus* heliocentric theory. It
was only 50 years later (1650) that the recognized starting point of
23
modern psychology became established. This event was marked by the
introduction of psychophysical interactionism by Descartes and the
publication of his work: The Passions of the Soul (Sahakian, 1968,
p.510).
With this understanding in mind, it is not too difficult to
speculate on what political temperament probably motivated Descartes to
reduce the soul to the level of the mind. All of this is not to excuse
modern psychology for holding so dogmatically to its fundamentally
empirical-behavioristic thesis; it is a matter of bringing to light the
understanding of certain important historical occurrences so that
certain modern scientific attitudes may be understood in historical
context. The end result is, of course, that psychology essentially
continues to exist without a soul.
Several centuries following Descartes, Freud was experiencing his
difficulties with religion. Capra summarizes and notes particularly
significant consequences:
The strictly rational and mechanistic approach made it
especially difficult for Freud to deal with religious, or
mystical, experiences. Although he showed a deep interest
in religion and spirituality throughout his life, he never
acknowledged mystical experience as their source. Instead
he equated religion with ritual, seeing it as "an
obsessive-compulsive neurosis of mankind" that reflected
Unresolved conflicts from infantile stages of psychosexual
development. This limitation of Freudian thought has had a
strong influence on subsequent psychoanalytic practice. In
the Freudian model there is no room for experiences of
altered states of consciousness that challenge all the basic
concepts of classical science. Consequently, experiences of
this nature, which occur spontaneously much more frequently
than is commonly believed, have often been labeled as
psychotic symptoms by psychiatrists who could not
incorporate them into their conceptual framework. (1982,
p.187)
24
Considered in Freud's own words, his position with respect to the
religious feeling is clearly expressed in his statement:
Thus we are perfectly willing to acknowledge that the
"oceanic" feeling exists in many people, and we are inclined
to trace it back to an early phase of ego-feeling. The
further question then arises, what claim this feeling has to
be regarded as the source of religious needs.
To me the claim does not seem compelling. After all, a
feeling can only be a source of energy if it is itself the
expression of a strong need. The derivation of religious
needs from the infant's helplessness and the longing for the
father aroused by it seems to me incontrovertible,
especially since the feeling is not simply prolonged from
childhood days, but is permanently sustained by fear of the
superior power of Fate. I cannot think of any need in
childhood as strong as the need for a father's protection.
Thus the part played by the oceanic feeling, which might
seek something like the restoration of limitless narcissism,
is ousted from a place in the foreground. The origin of the
religious attitude can be traced back in clear outlines as
far as the feeling of infantile helplessness. There may be
something further behind that, but for the present it is
wrapped in obscurity.
I can imagine that the oceanic feeling became connected
with religion later on. The 'oneness with the universe'
which constitutes its ideational content sounds like a first
attempt at a religious consolation, as though it were
another way of disclaiming the danger which the ego
recognizes as threatening it from the external world. Let
me admit once more that is is very difficult for me to work
with these almost intangible quantities. (1964, p.19)
Freud, in another place, discusses the results of a friend's
practice of Yoga and concludes with a most curious and revealing
disclosure:
Another friend of mine, whose insatiable craving for
knowledge has led him to make the most unusual experiments
and has ended by giving him encyclopaedic knowledge, has
assured me that through the practices of Yoga, by
withdrawing' from the world, by fixing the attention on
bodily functions and by peculiar methods of breathing, one
can in fact evoke new sensations and coenaesthesias in
oneself, which he regards as regressions to primordial
states of mind which have long ago been overlaid. He sees
in them a physiological basis, as it were, of much of the
wisdom of mysticism. It would not be hard to find
connections here with a number of obscure modifications of
mental life, such as trances and ecstasies. But I am moved
to exclaim in the words of Schiller's diver:--
". . . Es freue sich,
Wer da atmet im rosigen Licht."
["Let him rejoice who breathes up here in the roseate
light."] (1964, pp.19-20) " '
Carl Jung, Freud's one-time student, broke from Freud as a result
of irreconcilable differences over theoretical formulations. Jung held
a substantially different attitude toward religion which was reflected
in his work. Capra contrasts the religious views of Jung with those of
Freud:
Both Freud and Jung had a deep interest in religion and
spirituality, but whereas Freud seemed to be obsessed with
the need to find rational and scientific explanations for
religious beliefs and behavior, Jung's approach was much
more direct. His many personal religious experiences
convinced him of the reality of the spiritual dimension in
life. Jung considered comparative religion and mythology
unique sources of information about the collective
unconscious, and saw genuine spirituality as an integral
part of the human psyche.
Jung's spiritual orientation gave him a broad
perspective on science and rational knowledge. He saw the
rational approach as merely one of several approaches which
all resulted in different but equally valid descriptions of
reality. . . . Scientists operate predominantly from the
thinking function, but Jung was well aware that his own
explorations of the human psyche sometimes made it necessary
to go beyond rational understanding. (1982, p.362)
To conclude this discussion, Tart provides a succinct insight as
to the effect the displacement of the spiritual aspect of man has
wrought on Western society at large:
Orthodox, Western psychology has dealt very poorly with
the spiritual side of man’s nature, choosing either to
ignore its existence or to label it pathological. Yet much
of the agony of our time stems from a spiritual vacuum. Our
culture, our psychology, has ruled out man's spiritual
nature, but the cost of this attempted suppression is
enormous. (1975, p.5)
26
It is of interest to note the strong echo heard in Tart’s
conclusion of Capra's statements which opened this section. It
poignantly serves to highlight one of the issues central to this
effort; namely, the spiritual aspect of man cannot be ignored in any
true and complete psychological concept of man without generating
profound repercussions.
Summary
The Problem as just stated for this work is somewhat lengthy,
complex, and multifaceted. This subsection reviews the salient points
discussed with the intention of helping to formulate an integrated
perspective of the issues and topics this effort addresses. This
review summary is presented as a set of statements which basically
follows the order in which they were presented with some adjustment
made to impart a sense of developmental progression.
1. The psychological bases of mankind's problems, their
postulated primal cause, and the investigation of an essential
expression of Vedic philosophy to provide answers to these problems in
the context of a unified psychology is the task of this work.
2. Western philosophy is considered unable to effectively respond
to psychology's problems.
3. Scientific psychology has always set as its goal, an objective
understanding of human behavior and attendant processes (i.e., human
nature). This objective has yielded Important information but has also
imposed severe conceptual limitations and produced an incorrect concept
of man.
27
4. The central thesis of this work asserts that man is a triune
being--physical, mental, and spiritual.
5. The failure of science in general and psychology in particular
to develop paradigms on the triune-nature-of-man 'predication’
constitutes the root problem of all of mankind's afflictions. The true
nature of man can be correctly apprehended only when his three
intrinsic aspects and their interdependent relationships are
sufficiently understood and under no other conditions.
6. Any psychological paradigm which neglects to duly incorporate
all three essential aspects of man will necessarily fail in its mission
to provide the necessary and sufficient research directions and
operational systems to effectively resolve man's individual and
collective psychologically-based problems.
7. Contemporary Western science and scientific psychology are
formulated on a physicalist-mechanistic view of man and his world and
consequently rejects any mental or spiritual attributions to either.
8. The central thesis of this work affirms the physical aspect of
man hence, it accepts as valid many of the findings of scientific
psychology. But, it asserts man is more than just a physical being; he
is also a mental and spiritual being.
9. Many elements of the physical aspect may be derived from
physics but information on the mental and spiritual aspects will have
to be derived from another source or sources. The source for this
effort is the philosophy and teachings of Paramahansa Yogananda.
10. Physics is affirmed the "mother science" in Western thought
in that it inevitably leads the way in new theory developments and
28
discoveries which inevitably, in time, "innoculate" other sciences with
new thinking. Out of these events and activities, new paradigms
eventually emerge.
11. The basic task of physics has always been to treat of -the -
phenomenal (material) world and, in particular, those phenomena of
inanimate matter involving no changes in chemical composition; more
specifically, matter and motion. Accordingly, any paradigm evolved by
physics useful in the development of a unified psychology will likely
contain transmissible elements limited to conceptualizing efforts
pertaining to the physical aspect--possibly certain notions of the
mental. The spiritual aspect, as will eventually be seen, will be
beyond the limits of physics to ever address directly. But,
importantly, the Vedic concepts regarding the mental and spiritual
aspects will not be found to be in opposition to or in violation of the
basic concepts embodied in the new physics.
12. The emergent paradigm of atomic physics and relativity theory
bodes enormous changes for Western psychology which remains dominantly
attached to the pardigm of 19th century Newtonian physics.
13. This work is not intentionally based on the findings of
new-age physics. This physics bears remarkable correspondence to the
doctrines of Sankhya philosophy, one of the six systems of orthodox
Vedic philosophy which is also found in the philosophy and teachings of
Paramahansa Yogananda. New-age physics and Sankhya philosophy come
together to create a fusional interface between Western science and
Eastern philosophy. In this capacity and role the new physics is held
to scientifically confirm certain postulates of Vedic philosophy and
29
thereby serves to help establish its viability and credibility for
application in the development of a unified psychology.
14. Numerous and potent historical instances exist to clearly
indicate that Vedic philosophy is not foreign to or incompatible with
Western thought, philosophy, or psychology. This historical fact is
viewed as further evidence (along with new-age physics findings) to
suggest the present effort is appropriate and is soundly based
philosophically and scientifically.
15. Early speculations on the changes psychology may experience
are embedded in some very old but still equally crucial questions:
What is the nature of human consciousness? What role does mystical and
religious experience play in human evolution? and, What is the place of
the human being in the known universe? Other predictions include
drastic alterations in concepts like the strictly causal nature of
behavioral (and experiential) phenomena, the notion of person as
"object" to be reduced in order to be understood, and the ideal of an
objective description of human nature.
16. The spiritual aspect of man has been intentionally and
vigorously renounced and removed from mainstream Western psychology for
a long time. This is currently viewed by a growing number as a major
source of the problems confronting contemporary man. It may, because
of a potent adversarial history and present prevailing scientific
majority sentiments, be even more of a problem to reintroduce this
aspect. If any effort achieves any success with attendant scientific
respect accorded, it will undoubtedly be one embodying scientific
plausibility and a sense of logical fitness at minimum.
30
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to examine the philosophy and
teachings of Paramahansa Yogananda as the basis for a unified
psychology.
This effort is conceived as an important attempt to address the
manifold problems of contemporary humanity at a causal level. As
pointed out in the preceding section, our problems are at or beyond
epidemic dimensions and our traditional "experts" are no longer able to
provide meaningful answers or promote viable solutions.
The thesis of this effort entails the assumption that there is a
plausible fundamental reason for this dilemma. And that assumption is
that an insufficient--hence incorrect--concept of man is embraced by
dominant Western psychology. This belief system which naturally shapes
and drives all legitimate conceptualizing, investigative, experimental,
and descriptive activities yields authoritative resultants. These
resultants become "official reality" threads woven into the fabric of
society's belief systems regarding who and what man is and, by
extension, his purpose in the world and the means whereby it may be
effectively and efficiently realized. Properly understood, these
"means" when duly employed will produce consequences of a variant
nature; some actualizing discrete, others collective, some immediate,
others at differential points in time. Frequently--perhaps most
often--the manner, complexity, and duration of the consequential
outcomes obscures the implicit causal factors. Thus we are generally
impelled to "fix" the problem rather than correct it at its causal root
31
as that genesis locus is either no longer known, recognized, or
accepted as such.
When viewing psychology from the psychotherapeutic perspective it
is consequently easy to see that the prevailing dominance of the
medical model affirms our predominate penchant to "fix" rather than
"cure" mankindrs psychologically-rooted problems.
Psychotherapy in contemporary America is in a profound state of
disarray. This is attested to by the unbelievable number of extant
psychotherapeutic systems each overtly or covertly advancing its
personal theories about the person, the nature of psychic maladies, and
its unique means to remediate or ameliorate them. Behind each of these
systems stands the background of its nature-of-man belief system. And
onto this belief-system background it projects its publicly avowed
diagnostic and prescriptive pronouncements.
Given the validity of the assertion that the true nature of man
can be scientifically defined and explained, it stands apparent that
all the claims of all the extant systems of psychotherapy cannot be in
uniform accord. Because if this be true--and it is held to be--then
what must necessarily result is some curious admixture of fact and
fiction; truth and falsity. And by extension, when these true-false
states are operational--and they are asserted to be--a monumental
confusion must also necessarily result from the sea of differential
I
outcomes; that is, from differentially-based therapeutic prescriptives
and their attendant consequences.
The qualifier "true1 1 attached to "nature of man" may be
troublesome for some. If this be so, it may be a result of tacit
32
acceptance of the prevailing confusion in that the confusion itself is
sufficiently powerful as to compel the avowal that there is neither
such a fixed and incontrovertable state nor is one in fact even
possible.
This study affirms there is a scientific answer to the true-
nature-of-man issue. True, "scientific” in this context will of
necessity extend beyond the definitional and operational limits of
phenomenally-based science; but, it will be seen to do so with non
violation and fidelity to known and accepted scientific principles.
Taking the preceding statements into consideration, the principal
purpose of this study is conceived as manifold in objective. The
purported purpose is to examine the philosophy and teachings of
Paramahansa Yogananda with the following objectives:
1. Extract, derive, and synthesize a set of meaningful, relevant,
and appropriate statements regarding the true nature of man sufficient
to formulate a basic comprehensive working definition.
2. It has been several times stated that man, in Yogananda's
context, will be seen to be conceived as a physical, mental, and
spiritual being. This work explores the implications for Western
psychology in general and psychotherapy in particular that such a
definition may portend.
3. Considering the implications this definition may signify, this
work focuses on those of psychotherapy and identifies specific
theory-building elements and related operational characteristics and
possibilities which could serve to aid in subsequent systems
development work.
33
4. This effort seeks to determine if inherent elements--either
explicit or derived--suggest a form of, or a practice of, psychotherapy
which is presently not ‘ encompassed or envisioned by Western systems.
The implications such a possible form may portend for Western
psychotherapeutic practice are also explored.
5. A definition of "unified psychology" is rendered in the
context of this work.
6. This effort endeavors to determine if a unified psychology is
a distinct possibility, and if so if it would be feasible for
consideration at this time in a Western societal context.
RESEARCH DESIGN AND PROCEDURES, ASSUMPTIONS,
SCOPE AND DELIMITATIONS
This work is considered to be a philosophical-theoretical
exploration with emphasis placed on certain aspects of the philosophy
and teachings of Paramahansa Yogananda for the purpose of reviewing
their potential to constitute the basis for a unified psychology with
particular application in the psychotherapeutic domain. Accordingly,
the publicly accessible writings of Yogananda were read and analyzed
and materials appropriate to the present effort were identified. Every
reasonable attempt possible was made to ensure that materials used were
incorporated with an eye to accuracy and faithfulness relative to the
context in which they first appeared.
It is perhaps appropriate to mention at this point a word about
gender usage. It is progressively the style in these times to write in
34
the neutral (e.g., person, humankind, etc.) or in the collective-dual
(e.g., she and he, men and women, etc.) to conote a presumed absence of
sexist intentionality or orientation on the part of either the material
or the author. This work basically uses the masculine gender, not for
either of the aforementioned reasons, but for the reason that Yogananda
wrote in that gender as have all the other writers cited in this work.
Therefore, in the interest of continuity of style and to promote an
ease of reading material possibly already difficult for some, the
masculine gender is used, approved, and considered appropriate.
The philosophy of Yogananda, as mentioned earlier, is rooted in
the Vedic philosophy of ancient India. This philosophy is very
complicated and much of it is devoid of its essential meaning for
various reasons. For this reason and to keep the research effort
within reasonable temporal and developmental boundaries, knowledgeable
persons were sought out and consulted with to attempt to narrow the
focus to works and authors considered to be reliable in translation and
faithful in spirit to the subject they presented.
Vedic philosophy covers a very large spectrum of subject material
and disciplines. The design of this study required that only key
essential elements be selected for discussion. The elements selected
were those believed to be most critical for the establishment of a
sound basis to unequivocally demonstrate the Vedic foundation of
Yogananda’s philosophy. This was considered an important part of the
overall development effort for basically two reasons. First, Vedic
philosophy is considered by many scholars to be of the highest caliber
ever set to word by man. For example, Schlegel said of it: ’ ’Even the
35
loftiest philosophy of the Europeans, the idealism of reason as set
forth by the Greek philosophers, appears--in comparison with the
abundant life and vigor of Oriental idealism— like a feeble Promethean
spark against the full flood of sunlight" (cited in Yogananda, 1985,
p.86). And its relevancy for addressing the contemporary problems of
mankind was asserted five decades ago by the great Vedic scholar
Dasgupta when he pointed out that: "Most of the problems that are
still debated in modern philosophical thought occurred in more or less
divergent forms to the philosophers of India. Their discussions,
difficulties, and solutions properly grasped in connection with the
problems of our times may throw light on the course of the process of
the future reconstruction of modern thought" (1932, p.viii).
Considering the two statements of Schlegel and Dasgupta, the
enormous potential to be realized in bringing Vedic philosophy to bear
on the problems of contemporary man stands as self-evident and hence,
appropriate for serious investigation. But this great potential has,
for the most part, remained latent. This brings us to the second
reason.
It has been the traditional way of scholars to talk about various
subject matter in great historical, descriptive, and analytic detail.
Analysis can be tantamount to dissection and thereby the whole of any
subject may become rendered a series of parts. And the parts then
frequently become the important topics of interest. This enterprise
may be of intellectual interest to many and of practical use to some.
But the essence, potency, and meaning of the whole can be quickly and
effectively lost through this process. And it is not uncommon that
36
when attempts are made to synthesize the analyzed pieces back into a
whole, the reconstructed whole is found to be quite different from the
original. There are many reasons for this but the basic cause is the
variant meanings--consequently purpose--ascribed to the parts when they
are discretely analyzed. Thus when synthesis is attempted, the
resultant is more a hetergeneous assortment of "parts" rather than the
initial state of homogeneous integration which characterized the former
"whole." The primary element often lost in this process is the
"essentialness" of the original "whole," thus its pragmatic utility is
often severely eroded or actually precluded.
Vedic philosophers have always maintained that mere knowledge
about philosophy is patently insufficient for mastery of it. Knowledge
is seen as but one necessary precondition to right action. And there
are not only other preconditions to any right action, there are
necessarily many "right actions" which must be consistently and
consecutively initiated and maintained throughout one's life to realize
the results promised by these great philosophers.
Two problems have generally always precluded the true practice of
Vedic philosophy on any public scale. First, the true philosophers--
the ones worthy of that title in the Vedic context--have historically
hardly ever, if indeed ever, allowed the esoteric elements of the
philosophy to become public knowledge. It is the exoteric knowledge
that has been allowed public dissemination and it is this form of
"Vedic philosophy" which has become the province of intellectual
scholars. In a very real and crucial sense then, intellectual scholars
and intellectually-based philosophers have busied themselves with the
37
superficial aspects of Vedic philosophy--not that this isn t important
for it is; but it is not the true, the essential, philosophy.
Two questions naturally inhere. First, how can the original,
homogenous, integrated, essential Vedic philosophy be known and thereby
implemented? Only from a true Vedic philosopher, a true Vedic
philosopher would answer. And second, given what has been stated about
the historical injunctions, is this even a possibility? The answer is
that under certain conditions it is held to be possible.
The second reason, then, for demonstrating the Vedic foundation of
Yogananda*s philosophy is that Yogananda is affirmed by both others and
himself to be a true Vedic philosopher and the first one to come to the
United States to live and teach here for an extended period of
time-over 30 years. Given the truth of this affirmation, Yogananda is
considered to be an authentic representative of Vedic philosophy--a
true Vedic philosopher--whose teachings can be readily accessed and
studied for the purpose of this work. And his philosophy and teachings
are viewed as embodying the essentially important homogeneous
"wholeness1* previously discussed. Additionally significant is the fact
that Yogananda declared his work basically psychological in operational
terms and he was acclaimed a psychologist in his many world-wide
lectures. Appropriately, part of the design of this work is to become
familiar with Yogananda as man and "Vedic philosopher1'; and with his
organizational work.
Collectively considering the points discussed, the research design
to this point is to unambiguously establish the Vedic philosophical
foundations of Paramahansa Yogananda*s philosophy and teachings. The
38
next task is to enucleate certain philosophical aspects of his
teachings to develop the background for the presentation of his
psychology which is, then, the follow-up task. This development is
undertaken with the intention of identifying principal elements which
can be synthesized into a general model of, or a set of prescriptives
for, a psychotherapeutic construct.
A general overview of Western psychotherapy is next conducted.
General principles of psychotherapy are identified to suggest a general
model. An actual model is not attempted insofar as the variance
observable in philosophical underpinnings, goals, and procedures are of
such a magnitude as to preclude such an effort in this work. In spite
of the variance, however, general principles are observable and
identifiable.
The final task is to engage in a very general compare-and-contrast
effort relative to the psychotherapeutic implications in the psychology
of Yogananda and the general principles of Western psychotherapy.
Additional considerations such as cultural adaptability, philosophical
compatibility, and so on, are reviewed to attempt to further examine
Yogananda's philosophy and teachings as the basis for a unified
psychology.
DEFINITIONS
Due to the philosophical-theoretical nature of this effort, many
terms and concepts of a variant nature appear throughout the work. An
additional factor to be encountered is the sizeable number of Vedic
39
philosophical terms which perhaps to some will appear as unfamiliar.
Every effort is made to clarify and define terms or expressions which
the reader may experience for the first time or be otherwise unfamiliar
with.
ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY
Six chapters comprise this study. A brief description of the
contents of each of the chapters provides a summary of the
developmental direction this effort takes.
Chapter I. Introduction
Chapter I introduces the background and problem which this work
seeks to address. Due to the unusual nature of this effort, extensive
discussion is offered to introduce the intent and purpose of the study
and to begin development of the basic theses and principal task
descriptions.
Additional sections discuss Research Design and Procedures,
Assumptions, Scope and Delimitations, Definitions, and organization of
the Study.
Chapter II. Paramahansa Yogananda and
Self-Realization Fellowship: An Introduction
Chapter II introduces and discusses the historical background of
the contemporary spiritual leader Paramahansa Yogananda and the
organization he founded.
4.0
The first section of Chapter II begins to develop the linkage
between the nature-of-man concept introduced earlier in this chapter
and the developmental culmination of the person within that conceptual
framework--the "ideal man." The development of an understanding of
this culminative outcome is essential to a correct comprehension of the
core element within Vedic philosophy, Yoganandars teachings, and this
work. And that understanding is predicated on the affirmation that not
only is such an evolution humanly possible, but it is in fact the
primal motivating impetus behind every action of every person; although
it is typically delusively perceived and behaviorally perverted. This
notion is discussed in detail in Chapters IV and V.
The first section, then, begins the development of this theme by
introducing Yogananda as the man and as an exemplar of the true Vedic
philosopher--the "ideal man."
The second section discusses his organization Self-Realization
Fellowship/Yogoda Satsanga Society (SRF-YSS). Discussion here
demonstrates aspects of the practical social applications of his
teachings, the universal acceptance of his philosophy and work, and the
rapid worldwide expansion of interest in his teachings which are taken
in the context of this work to simultaneously suggest a perceived
universal need for such a teaching and the intrinsic efficacy of it.
Chapter III. Vedic Foundations in
the Philosophy of Paramahansa Yogananda
Chapter III introduces the vast corpus of Vedic literature which
is known as orthodox Hindu philosophy. Emphases throughout the chapter
41
is on the Vedas as these works actually constitute the canons of this
philosophy. Particular doctrinal elements which are readily
identifiable in the philosophy of Yogananda are drawn out and summarily
discussed. This discussion is intended to demonstrate the Vedic core
and content of Yogananda’s philosophy and to build the foundation for a
more general understanding of it based on the contents of Chapter IV.
In addition to the philosophical development in Chapter III, the "seed”
ideas for the later development of Yogananda!s psychology are brought
into awareness.
Chapter IV. The Basic Philosophy
of Paramahansa Yogananda
Chapter IV builds on the work of Chapter III and develops the
fundamental tenets and doctrines set forth in that Chapter. It then
proceeds to introduce and summarize key concepts in certain of the six
formal systems of Hindu philosophy. The three systems emphasized are
those which predominate in Yogananda’s teachings. From these, the
essential concepts in the philosophy of Yogananda which are
particularly relevant to this work are developed.
Chapter V. The Psychology of
Paramahansa Yogananda and Western Psychology
Chapter V has as its mission, the presentation of two vital
subjects--the Psychology of Paramahansa Yogananda and an overview of
Western Psychotherapy. As might be expected, this chapter is the
largest of the six which comprise this work.
42
The first major section--the Psychology of Paramahansa Yogananda--
is composed of three principal subsections. These constitute a review
of his principal philosophical doctrines selected for analyses in the
context of this work, a presentation of his explicit and derived core
psychological principles along with a definition and discussion of the
concept of a unified psychology, and a brief presentation of
Patanjali’s Eight-fold Path of Yoga as the core element of his
teachings including an introduction to Kriya Yoga— the principal
pragmatic element said to constitute the essence of Yogananda’s unique
offering to the West; and the East.
The second section of Ghapter V address the important discipline
of Western psychotherapy. Five subsections are devoted to explicating
this topic area. These subsections look at: (a) the current state of
the art from a systems perspective, (b) an historical overview to
identify the "roots" of dominant present-day psychotherapy systems, (c)
a cursory examination of major philosophical positions which shaped
Western psychological belief systems, (d) a summary of four major
psychological systems believed to have a dominant influence on American
psychotherapy, (e) an attempt to answer the question, What is
psychotherapy? and, finally, (f) a brief look at the social
implications and responsibilities attendant to the practice of
psychotherapy.
Chapter VI. Summary and Conclusions
Chapter VI, the final chapter of this work, reviews the six
statements of purpose set down in this chapter. Pertinent discussion
43
is provided to indicate the extent to which objectives are fulfilled or
for which additional research effort is indicated.
44
II. PARAMAHANSA YOGANANDA AND SELF-REALIZATION
FELLOWSHIP: AN INTRODUCTION
This chapter introduces and discusses the contemporary spiritual
leader Paramahansa Yogananda and the organization he founded, Self-
Realization Fellowship/Yogoda Satsanga Society (SRF-YSS).. This chapter
also briefly introduces the philosophy and teachings of Paramahansa
Yogananda.
Chapter II is divided into two sections; each addresses two
essential topics. The1 first, Who is Paramahansa Yogananda? presents a
succinct introduction to Paramahansa Yogananda as both a leading
international spiritual figure and an exemplar of the "ideal man" as
this concept is postulated in the orthodox philosophies of ancient
Vedic India.
The concepts of divine personages, the "ideal man," and the claim
of immanency of these attributes within all human beings (albeit
typically latent), constitute a radical shift from the conventional
Western philosophical and psychological foundations of man. It is this
alternative philosophical and psychological conceptualization which is
analyzed, in part, in this work. It is important to note that one of
the primary reasons for selecting the teachings and writings of
Paramahansa Yogananda for this work is because Yogananda is widely
45
viewed by his Western and Eastern followers and his Indian countrymen
as both a divine personage and a manifest example of the "ideal man."
This is an important consideration explored in this chapter for one of
the critical assumptions of this work is the validity of Vedic
philosophy’s avowal that it is not speculative in nature; rather, it is
universal truth which is affirmed pragmatically realizable. This
assertion tersely translates into the affirmation that the goal of life
for every human being is to attain to one’s true and inherent capacity
which is, when manifest,, divinity itself exemplified as, what is
sometimes called, the "ideal man." This is the unalloyed--the
pure--state of attained Truth. This achievement by its very nature
entails the supersession of all human psycho-maladies including fears,
sufferings, ignorance, unhappiness, and so forth. This position is one
uncommon to mainstream Western thought. Ainslie summarized .this point
by confirming that:
The Hindus, alone of mankind, have penetrated behind
the veil, and possess the knowledge, which is really not
philosophical, i.e., wisdom-loving, but wisdom itself. . . .
Truth is not an eternal discussion; it is Truth. It follows
that only by actual personal realization, by practice or
method such as Paramahansa Yogananda offers, can Truth ever
be known beyond doubt, (cited in Yogananda, 1982, p.viii)
A second primary reason for selecting the work of Yogananda for
this effort is that he brought to the Western world the science of a
psychologically-based creedless religion. The scientific psychological
method he brought to America is properly referred to as "Kriya Yoga"
which in India is known to be an ancient spiritual science that, in
part, embraces particular techniques of yoga meditation with a unique
emphasis on intrapsychic control of intraorganismic energies.
46
Yogananda personally affirms it to be both a "process" and a "true
scientific theory" (1982, p.61). He attests that: "I set it down. . .
from my own experience. I may say it will be found to be universally
true. . . . I do not wish to give anyone any other proof of its truth
than is afforded by his own experience" (1982, p.61). He further avows
the practicality of his scientific method in stating that: "This is no
theory, but realized truth. I am trying to give you an idea of what
can be really experienced" (1982, p.63).
What is essentially seen here is a psychological system
appropriately claiming both a scientific theory and an applied body of
processes (with a presumed logical interrelationship obtaining between
the two) which, when applied, is self- (i.e., intrapsychically)
verifiable. , Further there is a longitudinal development, information,
and experience base which is confirmed to be milleniums in duration.
And if Ainslie is correct in his statement that the "Hindus alone" have
this quintessential knowledge which he asserts to be the "Truth"; and
if as Yogananda testifies it is "universal truth," and it yields the
claims he advances, then certainly this a subject in need of serious
exploration. For if the assertions are all correct, then it stands
that there is a universally practical way to achieve solutions to
global problems and to individual problems. And with these, the
potential for the supercedure of much mental pathology and limitation.
The second topic, What is Self-Realization Fellowship? presents a
summary of the aims, ideals, and principles which guide the continuing
work of Yogananda and reviews the organizations, principals, and
vehicles by and through which the goals he set down are actualized and
47
maintained. This summary serves to expand the perspective of his unique
psychological formulation by demonstrating aspects of practical
applications, the universal acceptance of his teachings, and the rapid
expansion of the work which is taken to denote the need for and the
efficacy of the teachings of Kriya Yoga.
WHO IS PARAMAHANSA YOGANANDA?
Any attempt to answer this question must necessarily be viewed as
complex for Paramahansa Yogananda is many things to many people. This
work addresses the question from two different perspectives; one
historical, the other religious.
The Historical Perspective presents the essential activities and
events in the life of Paramahansa Yogananda in chronological sequence
and portrays their relevance as they serve to illuminate this well-
known international religious-philosophical figure. This perspective
touches on his mission, philosophy, teachings, and his international
organization, SRF-YSS.
The Religious Perspective sketches an insight into the religious
background of Paramahansa Yogananda. In this perspective, a general
overview of the nature of man as it is propounded in Vedic philosophy
begins to emerge. This discussion begins with Yogananda’s unique
definition of religion wherein he professes its universality, and
proceeds by discussing the inherent possibilities said to exist within
every human being. The fundamental concepts of Vedic philosophy are
also identified to some introductory degree.
48
The First Years
Paramahansa Yogananda was born Mukunda Lai Ghosh on January 5,
1893, in Gorakhpur in northeastern India. He was the fourth in a line
of eight children; there being four boys and four girls. He describes
his parents as Bengalis of the Kshatriya caste, both of whom "were
blessed with a saintly nature. Their mutual love, tranquil and
dignified, never expressed itself frivolously. A perfect parental
harmony was the calm center for the revolving tumult of eight young
lives" (Yogananda, 1985, p.4).
Yogananda's parents were both religious adherents of Lahiri
Mahasaya; a man recognized to be a great spiritual master. While
Yogananda was yet a babe in arms, his mother took him to the home of
Lahiri Mahasaya who foretold of his imminent spiritual and
philosophical stature. Yogananda*s life from early childhood on is
said to have been marked by many outstanding spiritual feates, many of
which were publicly witnessed.
At the age of 17, his lengthy self-imposed search for a
Self-realized spiritual teacher (guru) saw fulfillment when he met
Swami Sri Yukteswar Giri (Sri Yukteswar). This meeting occurred in 1910
just after he had graduated from secondary (high) school. For the next
four years he spent considerable time with Sri Yukteswar and somewhat
less with his studies at Scottish Church College in Calcutta (for the
Intermediate Arts diploma) and subsequently at Serampore College where
he received his A.B. degree in 1915. A few weeks after his graduation
he was initiated into the ancient monastic Swami Order by his guru. At
that time his family name, Mukunda Lai Ghosh, was renounced and he
49
selected the name "Yogananda” which means bliss (ananda) through divine
union (yoga). (He did not receive the title "Paramahansa" until 1935.)
First Organizational Efforts in India
In 1908 he began his organizational work at the behest of Sri
Yukteswar. His major organizational activity was the founding of
Yogoda Satsanga Society of India and the establishment of the first
Yogoda ashram in Calcutta.
Another of his activities was the founding of a school for young
boys in Dihika, a small county site in Bengal. The school opened with
seven boys. It is reasonable that Yogananda should have started his
organizational work in this manner, for there was a particular
closeness he always felt for "right education." This is clearly
communicated when he states:
The ideal of right education for youth had always been
very close to my heart. I saw clearly the arid results of
ordinary instruction, aimed at the development of the body
and intellect only. Moral and spiritual values, without
whose appreciation no man can approach happiness, were yet
lacking in the formal curriculum. I determined to found a
school where young boys could develop to the full stature of
manhood. (1985, p.288)
The following year, 1918, the Maharaja of Kasimbazar, who was
interested in YoganandaTs work, donated his summer palace and 25 acres
of land to him for the expansion and development of his educational
organization. He then moved his boys school to the new site located in
the town of Ranchi in the state of Bihar; a location about 200 miles
from Calcutta. Yogananda describes the organization of his school as
follows:
50
I organized a program for both grammar- and high-school
grades. It includes agricultural, industrial, commercial,
and academic subjects. Following the ideal of the ancient
rishis (whose forest ashrams had been the ancient seats of
learning, both secular and divine, for the youth of India),
I arranged that most class instruction be given outdoors.
The Ranchi students are taught yoga meditation and a unique
system of health and physical development, "Yogoda", whose
principles I discovered in 1916. (1985, pp.288-289)
The school, which Yogananda called "Yogoda Satsanga Brahmacharya
Vidyalaya," became immensely popular and by the end of the first year
over 2,000 applications for admission had been received.
Early Activities in America
In 1920 Yogananda received an invitation to serve as the delegate
from India to the International Congress of Religious Liberals in
America who were to meet in Boston that same year. In August he sailed
for America and arrived on October 6, 1920. His speech before the
Congress was titled: "The Science of Religion." Later, the secretary
of the American Unitarian Association, sponsor of the Congress, wrote
in a published account:
Swami Yogananda, delegate from the Brahamacharya Ashram
of Ranchi, brought the greetings of his Association to the
Congress. In fluent English and with a forceful delivery he
gave an address of a philosophical character on "The Science
of Religion," which has been printed in pamphlet form for
wider distribution. Religion, he maintained, is universal
and it is one. We cannot possibly universalize particular
customs and conventions; but the common element in religion
can be universalized, and we may ask all alike to follow and
to obey it. (cited in Yogananda, 1985, p.407)
SRF summarizes his delivery and its effect:
The young swami!s lecture to the conference presented
an entirely new concept of religion--a science of religion.
That science, he declared, is not based on tenets of
dogmatic belief but on direct insight into Reality, gained
51
through the practice of specific techniques of meditation.
His talk emphasized that the basic principles of truth,
which can be perceived by anyone who actually communes with
God, are the common foundation of all true religions. This
approach was enthusiastically received by the Congress.
Here was a profoundly simple, pragmatic approach to
philosophy and religion, based on an irrefutable logic whose
truth became immediately apparent.
Paramahansa Yogananda*s discourse was soon made
available in book form under the lecture*s title, The
Science of Religion. Expanding on this theme, he dedicated
the next thirty-two years to helping men and women of East
and West to realize the limitless potential of their inner
being. (Yogananda, 1982, Dust-Jacket)
The content of his "Science of Religion*' speech was later expanded
and printed in book form under the same title. This book is today
considered by Self-Realizationists as a central statement of
Yogananda*s religious-philosophical-psychological position. Douglas
Grant Duff Ainslie, delegate to the International Congress of
Philosophy at Harvard University, wrote in the Preface to the book:
This small book offers the clue to the universe. Its
value is beyond estimation in words . . . between these
narrow covers is to be found the flower of the Vedas and
Upanishads, the essence of Patanjali, and the thought of
Shankara. . . . This is the deliberate statement of one who
has at last found . . . after many wanderings, the solution
to the riddles of the world. . . . The essential point to
be remarked about Paramahansa Yogananda*s teaching, in
contradistinction to that of philosophers such as Bergson,
Hegel, and others, is that it is not speculative, but
practical, even when dealing with the utmost reaches of
metaphysics. . . . For, when expressed in terms of verbal
dialectic, this knowledge must perforce lay itself open to
the criticism of philosophers whose life it is, as Plato
said, to be constantly engaged in discussion. The truth
cannot be expressed in words, and when words are used . . .
acute minds can always find a loophole for attack. The
finite, in fact, cannot contain the infinite. Truth is not
an eternal discussion; it is Truth. It follows that only by
actual personal realization, by practice or method such as
Paramahansa Yogananda offers can Truth ever be known beyond
doubt. (Yogananda, 1982, pp. vii-viii)
52
The significance of Ainslie*s words is underscored by the fact
that he was accorded special recognition by Dr. Surendranath Dasgupta
for his work in revising the proofs of Dasgupta*s classic work, A
History of Indian Philosophy (Dasgupta, 1932, p.xi). This is to
suggest that the potency of Ainslie*s words can be better appreciated
when the scope of his familiarity and understanding of traditional
Indian philosophy stands more clearly revealed.
Yogananda remained in America and for the next three years he
lived in Boston delivering lectures, teaching classes, and writing.
His principal writing of that period was a book of poems, Songs of the
Soul, with the Preface written by Dr. Frederick B. Robinson, President
of the College of the City of New York. During this period (1922)
Yogananda established the first Self-Realization ashram in America at
Waltham, near Boston. Yogananda stated that he chose the name "Self-
Realization Fellowship" as a suitable equivalent to his Indian organi
zation- -"Yogoda Satsanga Society"--as he wished to avoid the use of
Sanskrit words in the West to the extent possible (1985, p.438).
In 1924, Yogananda began a transcontinental tour that took him to
many major cities in the United States and to Alaska. It was also
around 1924 that Yogananda met the famous American horticulturist
Luther Burbank. Burbank and Yogananda became close friends and
Yogananda, in his autobiography, devoted a complete chapter to Burbank
and, further, dedicated the entire book to him with the inscription:
"Dedicated to the memory of LUTHER BURBANK 'An American Saint'" (1985,
p.v). It is clear that Yogananda and Burbank shared many ideals on
Eastern philosophy, religion, and education. (See Yogananda, 1985,
53
p.415 for a facsimile of a letter from Burbank to Yogananda on this
subject.) Burbank was also a spiritual initiate of Yogananda for
Yogananda writes:
The great scientist had received Kriya [Yoga]
initiation during one of my earlier visits. "I practice the
technique devoutly, Swamiji," he said. After many
thoughtful questions to me about various aspects of yoga,
Luther remarked slowly: "The East indeed possesses immense
hoards of knowledge that the West has scarcely begun to
explore." (1985, p.414) ’
In January 1925, Yogananda lectured in Los Angeles. Exemplary of
the many stories carried by the press is one which appeared in the Los
Angeles Times, January 28, 1925:
The Philharmonic Auditorium presents the extraordinary
spectacle of thousands . . . being turned away an hour
before the advertised opening of a lecture with the 3000
seat hall filled to its utmost capacity. Swami Yogananda is
the attraction. A Hindu invading the United States to bring
God in the midst of a Christian community, preaching the
essence of Christian doctrine, (cited in SRF, 1980, p. 10)
By the end of 1925 Yogananda had established his American head
quarters for Self-Realization Fellowship on the Mount Washington
Estates in Los Angeles. This location continues to be the site of the
SRF-YSS international headquarters.
From 1925 to 1935 Yogananda continued to speak throughout the
country, but he also began to dedicate more time to mounting organi
zational duties and to writing. On January 24, 1927 Yogananda was
officially introduced to President Calvin Coolidge. The Washington
Herald, January 25, 1927, reported:
Swami Yogananda was . . . greeted with evident pleasure
by Mr. Coolidge, who told him he had been reading a great
deal about him. This is the first time in the history of
India that a Swami has been received officially by the
President, (cited in Yogananda, 1985, p.410)
54
In 1929 Yogananda visited Mexico where Mr. Emilio-Portes Gil,
President of Mexico, hosted him while he was in Mexico City. In 1931 a
Miss Faye Wright met him in Salt Lake City while he was there on a
lecture series. Shortly after she met Yogananda, she entered the Mount
Washington headquarters and with her arrival Yogananda began to
develop, in America, a monastic Self-Realization Order (SRF, 1970,
p.20). She soon became a renunciant and eventually became known as Sri
Daya Mata. She is the third (and current) president of SRF-YSS. After
becoming a renunciant, she transcribed virtually all of Yogananda's
subsequent lectures which eventually became the principal basis of
printed studies for students world-wide. In 1932 the second student
referred to, Mr. James J. Lynn, met Yogananda in Kansas City, Missouri.
Mr. Lynn later became known as Rajarsi Janakananda and was the second
president of SRF-YSS. He was one of the principal figures responsible
for establishing the financial integrity of SRF.
It appears that about this point in time Yogananda essentially
stopped lecturing and conducting classes on a city-to-city basis and
began concentrating on developing SRF as an organization designed to
ensure the perpetuation of his teachings. His strategy appears to have
been based on four principal factors: (a) to establish SRF on firm
financial, administrative., and legal foundations; (b) to establish,
develop, and maintain a monastic order of men and women who would
dedicate their lives to maintaining, disseminating, and perpetuating
his teachings; (c) to develop temples and centers for his devotees to
come together for instruction and to participate in spiritual practices
55
(principally meditation); and (d) to expand the scope of his teachings
by engaging in extensive writing efforts.
In 1935 Yogananda incorporated SRF as a nonsectarian, nonprofit
organization under the laws of California. Regarding this act, he
avowed: MTo Self-Realization Fellowship I donated all my possessions,
including the rights of my writings. Like most other religions and
educational institutions, Self-Realization Fellowship is supported by
endowments and donations vfrom its members and the public" (1985,
pp.418-419). That same year Yogananda had the contents of his
principal lectures compiled and arranged into a series of printed
studies. These studies became what SRF now calls the Self-Realization
Fellowship Lessons and they contain the yoga techniques taught by
Yogananda as well as related instructional and philosophical materials
developed by him. They are available to interested students throughout
the world on a subscription basis.
Return to India
Early in 1935 Yogananda returned to India at the request of his
guru, Sri, Yukteswar, who felt the end of his life was close at hand.
In June of that year Yogananda sailed from New York to India stopping
off in England, Europe, Greece, Palestine, and Egypt. He lectured at
Caxton Hall in London and met numerous prominent and outstanding people
in the countries visited. Yogananda arrived in India on August 22 and
remained there for the next 13 months.
While in India Yogananda met many outstanding religious
personages, the details of which he recounts in his autobiography
56
(1985, Chptrs.40-46). He also had his school in Ranchi legally incor
porated. As a consequence of this act, he reflected: "My lifelong
dream of a permanently endowed yoga educational center was fulfilled.
That aspiration had guided me in the humble beginnings in 1917 with a
group of seven boys" (1985, p.436).
During the month of August, 1935, Yogananda- visited Mahatma
Gandhi, at Gandhi's request, in Wardha for three days. Gandhi was very
aware of Yogananda's religious, philosophical and educational work as
he had visited Yogananda's Ranchi school in 1925. While at Wardha,
Gandhi requested Yogananda to initiate him in Kriya Yoga (the highest
meditation technique in Yoganandars teachings), and Yogananda
consented. According to traditional Vedic injunction, Gandhi thereby
became a disciple of Yogananda. This fact was never publicly emphasized
because of Gandhi's own role as a political-spiritual leader.
At the end of December 1935 in Sri Yukteswar's Serampore
hermitage, Yogananda was given the further monastic title of
Paramahansa meaning highest (parama) swan (hansa); a religious title
denoting spiritual discrimination. Shortly thereafter, Sri Yukteswar's
premonition of his impending death proved accurate for he died on
March 9, 1936 leaving Yogananda deeply grieved. Yogananda left India,
never to return, about September 1936.
On his return to America, Yogananda stopped again in London to
lecture and conduct classes in yoga as he had been requested to do when
in England on his way to India. The British National Council of the
World Fellowship of Faiths had organized the event. One of the outcomes
of this activity was the formation of an SRF center in London.
57
The Last Years
In late 1936 Yogananda returned to his international headquarters
on Mount Washington in Los Angeles.
While Yogananda was in India, Mr. Lynn (Rajarsi Janakananda)
purchased a 23-acre seaside estate in Encinitas, California and had an
ashram built. Mr. Lynn presented his gift of the estate and the ashram
to Yogananda shortly after his return.
In 1938 Yogananda built his first actual temple on the bluff of
the Encinitas Colony. In 1941 severe soil erosion caused the temple to
be destroyed. As a direct consequent of that event he built and
dedicated a temple in Hollywood, California in 1942 and another in San
Diego in 1943. In 1943 another temple was dedicated in Long Beach,
California. In 1949 yet another was dedicated in Phoenix, Arizona and
the SRF Lake Shrine property- in Pacific Palisades, California was
obtained. The following year (1950) was another active year as two
principal events occurred. The first was the dedication of the SRF
Lake Shrine by Yogananda assisted by the late Goodwin J. Knight, then
Lieutenant-Governor of California. Yogananda, voicing a facet of his
philosophy, said to the 1500 persons present:
We must recognize the unity of mankind, remembering
that we are all made in the image of God. There must be
world brotherhood if we are to be able to practice the true
art of living. This shrine has been created for all
religions, that all may feel the unity of a common faith.
It doesn’t make any difference what outward creed you
follow; the real question is, do you know God? Self-
Realization teachings show how anyone of any faith can
follow the spiritual highway to the Infinite and have
God-communion, (cited in SRF, 1970, p.55)
58
During the dedication ceremonies a portion of Mahatma Gandhifs
ashes was enshrined in an ancient Chinese sarcophagus. This became
known as the "Mahatma Gandhi World Peace Memorial"; a central feature
at the SRF Lake Shrine.
The second principal event was the 30th anniversary of Self-
Realization Fellowship. The celebration of this occurrence marked the
advent of the first SRF World Convocation; an annual event which
continues to the present. At the end of the Convocation Yogananda
confided to a few of his disciples: "With the beginning of these
convocations, my life work is almost finished" (SRF, 1970, p.58).
In 1951 the construction of the SRF Hollywood (California) "India
Center" and the golden lotus gateway to the Hollywood temple were
completed. The center was dedicated by Yogananda the same year. On
August 25, 1951, Paramahansa Yogananda initiated his disciple Mr. James
J. Lynn into the Swami Order and conferred on him the title of "Rajarsi
Janankananda." At that time he placed in Mr. Lynn's hands the
responsibility for the SRF-YSS work. From some time in 1950 until 1952
(particularly after August 1951) Yogananda spent considerable time
writing and in meditation at his personal retreat near the Mojave
desert.
On March 1, 1952 Yogananda returned from his desert retreat to the
Mount Washington headquarters. The occasion was the arrival that day
of the Ambassador from India to the United States, His Excellency Binay
Ranjan Sen, and his party, at Mount Washington. Consul General Ahuja,
who had come to know Yogananda well during the previous 18 months, said
to him that day: "Ambassadors may come and go, and consuls general may
59
come and go; but you, Paramahansaji, are a true ambassador of Indiarr
(SRF, 1976, p.28). The following day Ambassador Sen wrote a letter to
Yogananda stating in part.: "On behalf of my whole party may I thank you
and wish you all that is best in your very fine work in interpreting
India and Indian philosophy to the people of this country" (Gitod in
SRF, 1976, p .30).
Yogananda was the invited guest speaker at a banquet to be given
in honor of the Ambassador at the Biltmore Hotel on March 7th. SRF
gave the following account of that event:
After the dinner Paramahansaji was introduced. He
spoke of God, concluding with the words from his poem, "My
India": "Where Ganges, woods, Himalayan caves, and men dream
God--I am hallowed; my body touched that sod!" As he
finished speaking, a beatific smile on his face, he entered
mahasamadhi, a yogi's final conscious exit from- the body.
(1970, p.58)
Thirty minutes after Yogananda's passing, Ambassador Sen gave a
brief talk in which he said:
If we had a man like Paramahansa Yogananda in the
United Nations today, probably the world would be a better
place than it is. To my knowledge, no one has worked more,
has given more of himself, to bind the peoples of India and
America together.
I feel a great personal loss; it is not a personal loss
only, but a loss to our country and to this country. He was
born in India, he lived for India, and he died with the name
of India on his lips, (cited in SRF, 1976, p.64)
The funeral services for Yogananda were held on March 11th at the
SRF headquarters on Mount Washington. Many tributes were paid that day
and many more were received from friends, officials, dignitaries, and
others from around the world.
One tribute of especial interest was that of Swami Sivananda (of
the Divine Life Society in Rishikesh Himalayas, India), for it reveals
60
the spiritual stature of Yogananda as proclaimed by one of India's
towering spiritual figures:
He is eternal, all-pervading, stable, immovable and
ancient. A rare gem of inestimable value, the like of whom
the world is yet to witness, H.H. Sri Paramahansa Yogananda
has been an ideal representative of the ancient sages and
seers, the glory of India.
He has rendered yoeman service in the field of
spirituality. He has greatly contributed towards the
spiritual progress of all by setting in action the spiritual
dynamo that is latent in men. Sri Yogananda has made it
possible for all God's children to taste the nectar that
flows in abundance from the eternal source, the Vedas and
the Upanishads.
Today the world centers of Self-Realization Fellowship
represent Paramahansa Yogananda in action. They will
multiply themselves, making a closely woven magnetic net of
spirituality that will shower peace and bliss on the
world. . . . May Self-Realization Fellowship prosper well,
shedding divine light all over the world! (cited in SRF,
1976, p.51)
Many additional tributes were received. The Religion section of
the August 4, 1952 issue of Time magazine, for example, contained an
extensive report on Yogananda's death and interesting subsequent
attendant events. One of the events referred to, and it is without a
doubt the most outstanding, concerns the immutability of Yogananda's
body as attested to in sworn testimony by officials of the Forest Lawn
Mortuary in Glendale, California. (Details of this phenomenon are
cited in SRF, 1976, pp.121-123.)
To conclude this section, it is interesting to review the extent
of Yogananda's activities in America, and abroad. SRF provides a
succinct overview:
His teachings were received with unparalleled
enthusiasm. Millions of Americans attended his free
lectures in the largest available auditoriums in Boston, New
York, Buffalo, Rochester, Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Miami,
Washington, Chicago, Detroit, Indianapolis, Cleveland,
61
Cincinnati, Minneapolis, St. Paul, St. Louis, Denver, Salt
Lake City, Seattle, Portland, San Francisco, Los Angeles,
San Diego, and many other cities. . . . He also spoke
frequently before audiences in churches, societies, clubs,
and universities.
Paramahansa Yogananda was a world teacher, a universal
guru. His difficult mission on earth was to awaken the
nations to the soul-revealing possibilities of yoga.
During his ministry of more than thirty years in America and
abroad, he himself bestowed Kriya Yoga initiation on more
than 100,000 students, and gave certain preliminary yoga
techniques to hundreds of thousands of others--those who
attended, in one large American city or another, his yoga
classes. (1976, pp.79;105)
WHAT IS SELF-REALIZATION FELLOWSHIP?
This section provides an overview of the mission of SRF-YSS and
surveys the organizational and physical structure through which the
activities are performed.
Mission
The principal mission of SRF-YSS is to perpetuate the philosophy
and teachings of Paramahansa Yogananda. What this, in part, means is
rendered, in one of the organization’s statements:
The aim of Self-Realization Fellowship is to
disseminate among the nations a knowledge of definite
scientific techniques for attaining direct personal
experience of God.
The techniques of the science of Yoga have been used
for millenniums, with exact and known results, by saints and
great masters of India. Paramahansa Yogananda, an illumined
master of modern India, established Self-Realization
Fellowship to spread the practice of the ancient yoga
science throughout the world.
Self-Realization Fellowship shows a balanced way to
attune body, mind, and soul to cosmic laws of life, and thus
to overcome the threefold suffering of man: physical
disease, mental inharmonies, and spiritual ignorance. (SRF,
Note 2, p.5)
The full dimension of the SRF-YSS mission is articulated in the
organization’s official Aims and Ideals statement. (See Yogananda,
1982, pp.88-89.)
Organization
SRF-YSS is administratively and spiritually guided by a president
and a board of directors. The President of SRF-YSS is presently a
woman who is known as the Reverend Mother Daya Mata; her Sanskrit
monastic name meaning "Mother of Compassion.1 1 As was mentioned
earlier, she met Yogananda in Salt Lake City when he was lecturing
there in 1931. The Reverend Mother Daya Mata became the third
president of SRF-YSS in 1955 at the time of the death of Rajarsi
Janankananda; the second president. Paramahansa Yogananda was, of
course, the organization’s first president.
Assisting the President in guiding the spiritual and admini
strative activities of SRF-YSS is an appointed Board of Directors. At
the present time it is understood that the Board is eight in number all
of whom are monastics; all of whom were chosen and trained by Yogananda
to carry on his work. Evidently, based on occasional references, there
is also a Board of Directors in India which governs the work of YSS.
Ostensibly the YSS Board serves to ensure the enactment of directives
issued from the international headquarters in Los Angeles and to enact
other empowered functions. The number and composition of the YSS Board
is unknown.
63
All international activities of the SRF-YSS organization are
directed from the international headquarters, known as the "Mother
Center," on Mount Washington in Los Angeles. The scope of the organi
zation's international activities appears to be broad. SRF states
they have "prayer and meditation centers in thirty-five countries
located on six continents" (1980, p.3).
The number of followers is unknown as SRF-YSS does not publish
membership figures. Apparently the organization is not focusing its
activities on developing a large membership for in an article appearing
in the Los Angeles Times on Sunday, July 5, 1970 the President is
quoted as saying: "Our goal is not quantity, not many members, but to
best serve our members in their development of a real personal
relationship with God" (cited in SRF, 1980, p.33). Nevertheless,
membership does appear to be growing quite dramatically as evidenced in
certain of the organization's publications and as depicted in Figure 1.
Under the direction of the President and the Board of Directors,
renuniciant disciples conduct the primary and essential duties of the
organization. SRF provides a brief sketch of renunciant discipleship
in the following:
Those who serve the world-wide work of SRF-YSS at the
Mount Washington international headquarters and branch
ashrams in Encinitas, Hollywood (India Center), and Pacific
Palisades (Lake Shrine) are renunciant disciples who have
dedicated their lives to God and the SRF-YSS cause. They
serve without salary and their lives are guided by rules and
ideals of spiritual discipline formulated by Paramahansa
Yogananda. The discipline of the monastic Self-Realization
Order includes various stages of religious training and
corresponding vows which are embraced by these renunciant
disciples. All who are resident in SRF ashrams have pledged
themselves to a life of selfless service and dedication.
Senior ministers . . . serve in SRF Temples and travel
64
•10
SRF-YSS 1925
(Key to above map of India and the U.S.)
1. C a lc u tta - Yogoda Satsanga S o cie ty of In d ia founded
by Param ahansa Yogananda; fir s t Yogoda ashram
2 . D ih ik a - F irs t Yogoda school
3. R anchi • Yogoda Satsanga V idya la ya
4 . Boston - m aiden speech o f Param ahansa Yogananda in U.S.,
a t in te rn a tio n a l C ongress o f R eligio u s L ib e ra ls
5 . W altham - f ir s t S e lf-R e a liz a tio n ashram in U.S.
6. N ew Y o rk , le c tu re s and classes
7 . P h ila d e lp h ia , le c tu re s and classes
3. D enver, le c tu re s and classes
9 . S e a ttle , le c tu re s and classes
10. P o rtla n d , le c tu re s and classes
11. San F ra n cisco , le c tu re s and classes
12. Los A ngeles, le c tu re s and classes; in te rn a tio n a l hea d q ua rte rs
o f S e lf-R e a liz a tio n F e llo w sh ip (Y ogoda Satsanga S o cie ty o f
In d ia ),e s ta b lis h e d o n M t. W ashington
a 'a»'-
Dots indicate locations
of SRF-YSS members
SRF-YSS 1970
NOTE: This illustration has been developed from SRF-YSS literature by
permission of the publisher, Self-Realization Fellowship. Copyright © I970 Self-
Realization Fellowship. All rights reserved.
Figure !• Growth of SRF-YSS From 1925 to 1970
throughout the world to teach the SRF techniques of
meditation. (1970, p.64)
Developments
There is no doubt that the work of Paramahansa Yogananda has
continued to expand at a spectacular rate since his demise in 1952.
Time magazine in 1962, for example, reported the following in its
Religion section:
History is sprinkled with the relics of religious sects
that flamed and flickered--brief candles of faith that were
lighted by. a charismatic leader and died within a short time
after he died. . . . The Self-Realization Fellowship, too,
seemed likely to sputter out after the death of Founder
Paramahansa Yogananda in 1952, but instead it has thrived.
Membership has doubled over the past ten years, (cited in
SRF, 1980, p.22)
SRF discloses the focus of activities the organization has engaged
in from essentially the time of Yogananda’s passing until 1970 in the
following:
Concentration on building and strengthening the organi
zational structure [has been the principal focus of
activity] so that after the first generation of disciples
trained by Paramahansa Yogananda the SRF-YSS work will be
assured of continuing growth according to the Guru’s wishes
and ideals. Efforts have been focused particularly on
outlining and implementation of organizational policies;
creation of master plans for future expansion of Mount
Washington and other centers founded by Paramahansa
Yogananda; rules for worldwide establishment and growth of
SRF churches, center, and meditation groups; a concentrated
training program for monastics, including ministers;
development of a Lay Disciple Order (currently in formative
trial stage); retreat programs for SRF lay members and
friends; lecture tours by the SRF president and ministers to
spread the teachings and serve students and members
worldwide; improvement of office facilities and procedures
for efficient administration of the international activities
of SRF-YSS; publication and distribution of SRF teachings--
through lessons, books, periodicals, and literature--to all
countries and in various languages. During this period the
66
development of Yogoda Satsanga Society of India was also a
focal point. Sri Daya Mata made four trips to India to
guide and stimulate YSS activities. Today YSS has members,
meditation groups and centers throughout India, and
twenty-one educational institutions, including two
colleges.(1970, p.21)
The Los Angeles Times edition of Sunday, July 5, 1970 carried an
interview between the Reverend Mother Daya Mata and Mr. Dan L. Thrapp,
The Times' Religion Editor. Mr. Thrapp asked the President: "SRF has
come far in its first half-century; where will it go in its second?”
Sri Daya Mata countered: "Where is religion going in the coming half-
century?" She then continued:
Paramahansa Yogananda believed that boundaries that
divide religions would be destroyed as man evolved toward a
universal consciousness.
Today great efforts are being make to bring the
churches and religions together. SRF is intensely
interested in the eucumenical movement. . . . Paramahansa
Yogananda said: "I have just one prejudice, and that is a
prejudice against prejudice." That is our ambition too.
Here we blend, because our goal is God. (cited in SRF, 1980,
pp.32-33)
The article continued by stating: "She said that 30 years ago
Yogananda predicted a marked increase in Western interest in teachings
of the East, Tbut that does not mean we are divisive.' She said SRF
teaches the Bhagavad-Gita and the New Testament 'side-by-side.' The
former is an important expression of Hinduism."
During this same period, the evolution of the organization's work
in India was also occurring in an accelerating mode. This is suggested
in an article appearing in the Los Angeles Times on August 25, 1968:
Yogananda is known to scores of thousands as the author
of the perennial good seller, "Autobiography of a Yogi," and
to thousands of others through the flourishing SRF centers
his movement today operates in all corners of the nation.
67
Thus, although it began in India, it flourished in the
United States, and, flourishing here, it has returned much
of the vitality and vibrant health it found in this country
to his native India once more, (cited in SRF, 1980, p. 26)
Presumably much of the implied infusion of "vitality and vibrant
health" was the result of the president’s five trips to India between
1958 and 1973. Based on another Los Angeles Times article of June 30,
1973 the infusion was obviously robust for it affirmed:
Daya Mata, third president of the fellowship, known in
India as the Yogoda Satsanga Society, recently returned from
a seven-month tour of the Far East, where she went to meet
the burgeoning membership.
She spoke to thousands and conferred with India’s Prime
Minister Indira Gandhi and Vice President Sri Pathok.
"Both were interested in learning of the movement's
rapid development of educational facilities," said a
spokesman. These facilities offer a spiritually oriented
curriculum.
Daya Mata said the increasing popularity of the ancient
science and philosophy of Yoga is due to man’s growing
realization that happiness comes not from external, material
success, but from "one's inner environment."
"The ancient yoga message teaches methods of
controlling and directing man’s inner life which lead to his
overall well-being." (cited in SRF, 1980, pp.26-27).
A summary insight into the directions SRF may be expected to
pursue in the next half-century is disclosed in the following:
The next fifty years should prove as challenging as the
last, judging by the present widespread surge of spiritual
interest.
The beginning of this decade [1970-1980] has already
brought incorporation in Germany, expansion of medical
facilities and other charitable activities for the poor in
India, and the founding of new buildings in the United
States, such as the SRF Temple in Phoenix, Arizona,
dedicated February 1973 . . . the Pasadena and Richmond SRF
Temples in 1974, [and a new Temple in Encinitas in 1977].
In future years Self-Realization Fellowship will continue to
advance the guiding principle expressed in the words of
Paramahansa Yogananda: "The church is the hive but God is
the honey." (SRF, 1980, p.38)
68
SUMMARY
This chapter introduced Paramahansa Yogananda and his organization
(SRF-YSS) from primarily an historical perspective. The principal
intent of this introduction is to familiarize the reader with the
activities and the main focus of both Yogananda and his organization
and to begin to draw out the basic elements in his teachings and
philosophy.
The teachings of Yogananda may appear initially as principally
religious in nature (and it is true that in the ultimate sense they
are), yet, it is essential to this work that the philosophical
foundations of his work be viewed as what they are; namely,
fundamentally psychological in nature. Yogananda affirms this point
for he avows that he is advancing a "psychological definition of
religion, not an objective definition based on dogmas or tenets" (1982,
pp. 7-8). His inherent emphasis on psychology is further attested to
by the fact that throughout his public lecturing years he was also
billed as a "psychologist."
Six basic elements of the teachings of Paramahansa Yogananda
essential to the present effort are now briefly summarized to promote
objective understanding; for much of what is said in the chapters to
follow is based on them. These points are, in effect, the foundational
theses upon which the psychology and philosophy of Paramahansa
Yogananda are based. The principal focus of the present work promotes
this intention and is fundamentally predicated on it.
69
1. The concept of the "ideal man" is embodied in Vedic
philosophy. It is affirmed that every human being embodies those
necessary and sufficient attributes (albeit principally latent) which,
when actualized, effect the ideal person. The implication is that
optimal human traits and qualities are inherent in every person; what
is required is the conscious realization of them. And the conscious
realization of them requires explicit guidance and a sustained,
conscious, self-directed effort.
2. Axiology is an important factor on which considerable emphasis
is placed. Yogananda affirms that no man can approach true happiness
unless he has an appreciation for moral, ethical, and spiritual values.
3. Man is conceived of as a triune being--physical, mental,
spiritual— subject to the effects of cosmic laws. It is essential to
man’s well being that he conduct his life in a prescribed proper and
balanced way to attune his body, mind, and soul to these cosmic laws to
effect health, happiness, and wisdom. The subject prescriptions are
most often stated as principles rather than as discrete commandments
thereby permitting each person to follow the prescriptives in a manner
consistent with individual traits and characterological aspects.
Transgression of these laws is said to inexorably result in three forms
of suffering; physical disease, mental inharmonies, and spiritual
ignorance.
4. Happiness is not to be realized by material success or by any
other external factor. Happiness is viewed solely as a consequent of
the state of one's "inner environment." The principal message of the
ancient teachings of yoga concerns the transmission of methods for
70
enabling man to control and direct his inner life; the results of which
ultimately lead to his overall well-being. Happiness in its final and
ultimate expression will be seen to be f,Bliss-consciousnessTr; one
manifest aspect of Self-realization.
5. "Soul," the "Self" in Yogananda*s teachings, will later be
seen to be an individualized manifestation of God, thus the true nature
of every human being is said to be inherently God-like. True, it may
be difficult to discern this from mortal behaviors at times, or,
considered the other way around, we may derive a very non-traditional
concept of God if we are to infer the same from human behavior. The
problem, of course, is that mortal behaviors are typically ego-based
expressions and the ego is but the soul functioning in a state of
"i-ness" occasioned by the compelling influence of Maya or
delusion--the cosmic principle of duality and diversity. All this is
yet to be discussed in meaningful detail but it is introduced here to
denote the central fact of all existence and the common origin of all
being. A resultant position affirmed in Yogananda's message is that
his teachings are universal because they are concerned with Self-(soul)
realization, and every being is deemed a soul. All humans learn in
essentially the same manner and encounter (at one time or another)
basically similar learning opportunities and experiences and
eventually, in part through them, come to the same intuitive insight as
to the possibilities regarding their intrinsic nature. At such a point
in their life they may then begin to consciously set about to realize
their true nature by progressively living their lives in accordance
with universal cosmic laws and by holding to right thought and action.
71
6 . Following all the physical, mental, and spiritual laws
governing human existence, embracing and exercising moral and spiritual
values, introspecting, studying great philosophical truths, selflessly
doing good works, concentrating, meditating--all these good actions
with their contingent thoughts--are important and necessary; but they
are not considered typically very efficient in substantially quickening,
the latent attributes or soul qualities. These means certainly can be
instrumental in enabling Self-realization and, in fact, to a
significant degree they are a part of Yogananda*s teachings. But, the
unique addition to these means, the special dispensation brought by
Yogananda, is the technique of Kriya Yoga which is said to measurably
accelerate the process and thus hasten the attainment of the final
goal— Self-realization.
The scientific technique of Kriya Yoga is said to be subtle, easy,
and natural; but, at least in the initial stages of practice, it may be
4
found to be neither easy nor natural (SRF, Note 3). The supporting
philosophy and science is simultaneously subjective and objective, and
it can become quite complex. Chapters III and IV are primarily
intended to help prepare the way to understanding the subtlety,
simplicity, naturalness, subjectivity, objectivity, and complexity of
this scientific method when it is finally discussed in Chapter V.
72
III. VEDIC FOUNDATIONS IN THE PHILOSOPHY
OF PARAMAHANSA YOGANANDA
This chapter introduces the vast corpus of Vedic literature
correctly referred to as orthodox Hindu philosophy and discusses the
principal philosophical doctrines found in the teachings and philosophy
of Paramahansa Yogananda. Emphasis in this chapter is on the Vedas as
they comprise the canonical foundation of orthodox Hindu philosophy.
The subject of orthodox Indian (Hindu) philosophy has historically
been generally misunderstood and imperfectly known. Surendranath
Dasgupta, considered by contemporary scholars as one of the foremost
exponents on the history of Indian philosophy, states: "The
achievements of the ancient Indians in the field of philosophy are but
very imperfectly known to the world at large, and it is unfortunate
that the condition is no better even in India" (1932, p.l). This
chapter presents a terse introduction to the subject of Indian
philosophy and, in so doing, places the foundation of the philosophy
and teachings of Paramahansa Yogananda in its correct traditional
perspective.
22
A SYNOPSIS OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
Historical Evolution
It has been adduced that the sphere of knowledge encompassed by
the oldest known writings of the Indo-European race--the Vedas--has
immense potential relevance and retains vast untapped potentials for
contemporary humanity. An appreciation of this potential, can be
gleaned from the observations of Dasgupta:
The most important achievement of Indian thought was
philosophy. It was regarded as the goal of all the highest
practical and theoretical activities, and it indicated the
point of unity amidst all the apparent diversities which the
complex growth of culture over a vast area inhabited by
different peoples produced. It is not in the history of
foreign invasions, in the rise of independent kingdoms at
different times, in the empires of this or that great
monarch that the unity of India is to be sought. It is
essentially one of spiritual aspirations and obedience to
the law of the spirit, which were regarded as superior to
everything else, and it has outlived all the political
changes through which India passed. . . . Indian philo
sophical thought . . . is the nucleus round which all that
is best and highest in India has grown. Much harm has
already been done by the circulation of opinions that the
culture and philosophy of India was dreamy and abstract. It
is therefore very necessary that Indians as well as other
peoples should become more and more acquainted with the true
characteristics of the past history of Indian thought and
form a correct estimate of its special features.
But it is not only for the sake of the right
understanding of India that Indian philosophy should be
read, or only as a record of the past thoughts of India. For
most of the problems that are still debated in modern
philosophical thought occurred in more or less divergent
forms to the philosophers of India. Their discussions,
difficulties and solutions when properly grasped in
connection with the problems of our own times may throw
light on the course of the process of the future
reconstruction of modern thought. The discovery of the
important features of Indian philosophical thought, and a
due appreciation of their full significance, may turn out
to be as important to modern philosophy as the discovery of
Sanskrit has been to the investigation of modern philo
logical researches. It is unfortunate that the task of
re-interpretation and re-evaluation of Indian thought has
not yet been undertaken on a comprehensive scale. (1932,
pp.vii-viii)
It is important to remember that contemporary Western
mainstream psychology intentionally cleaved itself from philosophy
in the 19th century and philosophy from religion some time before that.
But never has this trifurcation occurred in traditional Indian thought
and practice nor is it conceivable for it to ever do so. For religion,
philosophy, and psychology in Indian thought have together formed the
pattern, warp, and woof of the fabric of Indian civilization in its
most exhalted state for untold millenia. Synergistically, as Hindu
philosophy, they have consistently demonstrated the profound heights to
which man is capable of evolving by virtue of the knowledge inherent
and through application of the attendant scientific procedures. It is
with specific reference to the possibility of "throwing light" on the
reconstruction of modern Western psychological thinking that this work
is undertaken.
An Important Epistemological Consideration
♦
The Hindu scriptures assert that all knowledge reaches man fron
higher sources; that is, no knowledge originates within man. Tara
Mata elucidates this point:
The ancient Hindus, recognizing that no knowledge
originates with man but reaches him from higher sources,
classified the medium that conveys knowledge as Bhasha,
language, in a fivefold aspect. All knowledge flows from
the divine trinity, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, lords of the
Brahmanda (solar system) and the fourteen planes or worlds
of being. This knowledge is accessible to man through five
channels or states of consciousness. These are known in
75
Sanskrit as Brahmanda, Nada, Bindu, Pinda, and Akshara.
(Spring 1973, p.34)
Figure 2 illustrates this dissemination of knowledge and outlines
its five manifest forms through the five corresponding channels. This
epistemological point is important to bear in mind for upon this much
is predicated. For example, all of the Vedas are considered sruti,
that is, "revealed" (hence sacred) scriptures. And, it is upon these
revelations that the six systems of orthodox Indian philosophy base
their authority.
Another important point relates to the fact that a person with an
evolved .state of consciousness is considered capable of accessing the
higher knowledge to ascertain, for example, the correctness of any
printed form of knowledge. There are numerous references throughout
Yogananda's writings testifying to this feat. One such example
concerns Lahiri Mahasaya, the spiritual preceptor of both Yogananda's
parents and his spiritual instructor, Swami Sri Yukteswar. Swami
Kebalananda, a noted authority on the shastras (Hindu scriptures) and
at one time Yogananda's Sanskrit tutor, recounted to Yogananda the
following:
Lahiri Mahasaya was no bookish interpreter of the
scriptures. Effortlessly he dipped into the "divine
library." Foam of words and spray of thoughts gushed from
the fountain of his omniscience. He had the wonderous
clavis that unlocked the profound philosophical science
hidden ages ago in the Vedas. If asked to explain the
different planes of consciousness mentioned in the ancient
texts, he would smilingly assent.
"I will undergo those states, and presently tell you
what I perceive." He was thus diametrically unlike the
teachers who commit scripture to memory and then give forth
unrealized abstractions, (cited in Yogananda, 1985, p.45)
76
LORDS OF THE BRAHM ANDA (SOLAR SYSTEM) AND THE FOURTEEN PLANES OR WORLDS OF BEING
BRAHMA VISHNU SHIVA
7 a" Y
I knowledge I
I
I
BHASHA
i.e., language, the medium
that conveys knowledge, in
a fivefold aspect
FOUR IN D E S T R U C T A B L E FORMS OF KNOW LEDG E
NADA BRAHMANDA
• the universal
nature'
"book of
• unattainable except by true
muktis or emancipated
souls; e.g., the Guru
NOTE:
This diagram is based on
information contained in
'The Hindu Scriptures or
Shastras [Part 2]" by Tara
Mata (Self-Realization,
Spring 1973, pp.34-35).
• same as Om
knowledge
or Pranava
• yogis absorbed in their
meditation who hear the
direct voice of God are in
Nada consciousness
• shabda, sound, character
izes this form
• examples are the Vedas or
"revealed" scriptures
PERISHABLE FORM
OF KNOW L EDGE ■
BINDU
- • without sound
• only abstract idea of divine
knowledge is conveyed to
devotee
• examples of elaborations of
Bindu inspiration are
Smritis and Puranas
PINDA
• the enlightenment
secular genius
of
• includes bhava or abstract
ideas of great worth and
originality in art or
science; e.g., Einstein
AKSHARA
• knowledge committed to
material form or print
- • available to all
w ritten Hindu
(Aksharas) are
number.
1. Vedas
2. Vedangas
3. Darshanas
4. Smritis
5. Puranas
6. Tantras
7. Upa-Vedas
sc riptures
seven in
Figure 2. The Hindu Classification of Knowledge and the Five Channels by Which it is Accessed
It is by way of this epistemological principle that a true guru is
said to correctly comprehend the scriptures. ("Guru,” as that title is
used throughout this dissertation, denotes a spiritual teacher who has
attained illumination; that is, Self-realization.) This comprehension
is said to occur when the identical state of consciousness from which
the scriptures were first revealed is manifested. It is through these
principles that the immutable nondestructable forms of knowledge (viz.,
Brahmanda, Nada, Bindu, and Pinda) are able to be accessed at any time
by anyone manifesting the requisite state of consciousness.
The essential point to understand is that the Hindus believe all
knowledge already exists and is knowable at any time. True knowledge
is able to be distilled from mortally corrupted knowledge by the guru
and the resultant "purified" knowledge can be given back to man in a
manner consistent with the prevailing consciousness at any point in
time and in any given cultural setting. It is upon this Hindu epistemo
logical doctrine that true gurus are said to be able to ascertain true
knowledge (i.e., Truth) and impart it to mankind to aid in their
ultimate Self-realization.
THE VEDAS
Codification of the Vedic Canons and Shastras
This section presents a basic introduction to the codification of
the Vedic canons, namely, the Vedas, and the dominant scriptures
(shastras) which derive from them. The basic taxonomic structure of
the Vedas and shastras is presented in Figure 3 (Sheets 1-4). This
__________78
K A R M A - M A R G A (PATH OF A C T IO N /W O R K S ) SCRIPTURES JNANA (WISDOM) SCRIPTURES
explain the divine signifi
cance of sacrificial rites
composed by sages who had
retired from the world
literally, ’ end of Vedic
texts"
deal with science of
meditation and symbolic
worship
employ an elaborate mysti
cism
— • contain the essence
Veda's meaning
108
Upanishads
little stressed
concerned only with one
quest - What is Brahman?
How can one penetrate His
masks and become one with
Him?
establish the superiority of
phil osophical meditation,
self-knowledge, and self-
sacrifice
VEDAS
(NOTE 1)
AKSHARAS
forest treatises
ARANYAKAS
prose theological treatises
BRAHMANAS
literally, "collections" of
verses
SAMHITAS
end of the Vedas
UPANISHADS
or VEDANTA
SAMA-VEDA
• the shastra of peace
sacrifice
• connected with mysteries
of sound
• book of sacrifical prayers
YA JUR-VEDA
ATHARVA-VEDA
• literally magical incan-
t ations
• aphorisms and formulas on
magic and incantation
• hymns of praises of im
personal forces of Nature
• oldest book of Aryan race
RIG-VEDA
Figure 3. Classification Schema of the Hindu Scriptures or Shastras (Sheet I of 4)
VEDANGAS
(Note 2)
AKSHARAS
Jyotish and Kalpa are
connected with the field
of action (karma-kanda)
Knowledge of Nirukta and
Vyakarana works is
necessary for development
of wisdom (jnana)
Knowledge of Shikshas
and Chhandas works is
necessary for development
of devotion (bhakti)
• science of practical app
lication of Vedic mantras
to specific occasions
KALPA
• prose Vedic works
• expositions of the Sama-
Veda
CHHANDAS
• explains grammatical cons
truction of Vedas
• Sanskrit - the perfect lang
uage
VYAKARANA
• vedic accent
• music
• recitation
* power of sound
SHIKSHAS
• each sentence has a
spiritual, superphysical and
physical meaning
• correct understanding of
Vedic word-meanings
NIRUKTA
• Vedic astronomy and astro
logy
• served to determine auspi
cious times and seasons for
optimal performance of
works or actions
JYOTISH
Figure 3. Classification Schema of the Hindu Scriptures or Shastras (Sheet 2 of 4)
(Note 3)
SHAD-DARSHANAS
the six systems of Hindu
philosophy
NYAYA
(Aksapada)*
VAISESIKA
( Kanada)*
YOGA
( Paianjali)1
SANKHYA
( Kapila)*
KARMA MIMAMSA
(Jaimini)*
VEDANTA
(Badarayana)*
AKSHARAS
SMRITIS
1 memory'
(Note 2)
• not considered as revealed
or sacred (sruti) knowledge
• traditional accounts of
ancient laws
• regulate all the secular
affairs of Hindu life
• principle codes are those of
Manu and Vajnavalkya
• number extant is 20
U PA-SM RITIS
partial smritis
number extant is 18
(Note 2)
PURANAS
"ancient*
• literature is of immense
antiquity
• are commentaries on
various parts of the Vedas
• contain symbolical and
allegorical writings of the
deepest spiritual meaning
• number extant is 18
UPA-PURANAS
MAHA-PURANAS
ITIHASAS
RAMAYANA
YOGA-VASISHTHA
MAHABHARATA
BH AGAVAD-GIT A
* System originator
Figure 3. Classification Schema of the Hindu Scriptures or Shastras (Sheet 3 of 4)
81
AKSHARAS
' f
> f____________
(Note 2)
TANTRA
'rule or ritual’
• comprises magical and my
stical works relating to the
universal energy.
• deal particularly with yogic
sadhana or discipline
• advocate many forms of
systematic yoga practice
• philosophies are considered
largely as modifications of
Vedanta and Sankhya
systems.
• were originally 49,000;
many hundreds still extant.
____________
(Note 2)
UPA-VEDAS
• treatises on every depart
ment of science and art —
all with a religious basis.
• subjects addressed included
mus ic,logic,biology, mat he
matics, medicine, psycho
logy, and physics, etc.
very few of an originally
vast number extant.
NOTES:
(.Classification information
based on contents of: 'The
Hindu Scriptures or Shastras
[Part 1] by Tara Mata,
(Sel f-Realization, Winter,
1972, pp.19-22)
2.C lassification informa
tion based on contents of:
"The Hindu Scriptures or
Shastras [Part 2]* by Tara
Mata (Self-Realization,
Spring 1973, pp.34-39)
3. C lassification informa
tion based on contents of:
'The Systems of Hindu
Philosophy [Part I]’ by Tara
Mata (Self-Realization,
Summer 1973, pp.22-25; 55-
5 6)
4 .Permission to use refer
enced works for this classi
fication schema has been
granted by the publisher,
Self-Realization Fellowship.
Figure 3. Classification Schema of the Hindu Scriptures or Shastras (Sheet 4 of 4)
schema is based on that advanced by one of Yogananda's principal
disciples, Tara Mata. Of her, Yogananda is quoted as saying: "Her
deep wisdom and understanding remind me of my great guru, Sri
Yukteswar. Excepting him, there is no one with whom I have more
enjoyed talking of wisdom and philosophy. . . . Only so illumined a
chela as [Tara Mata] could raise such fine knot-points of scriptural
controversy" ("Tara Mata: A Loving Tribute," Summer 1971, pp.24;49).
Because of the high regard that Yogananda held for her philosophical
astuteness and her formal training in philosophy, her classification
system has been adopted for this work. It should be understood that
her system is not necessarily different from others; it is simply a
matter that few have ever addressed the task with an eye equally set on
accuracy, simplicity, and elegance. The schema presented is not
complete; for as Tara Mata declares: "to cover the subject in its
entirety would be to cover the widest field of human knowledge"
(Winter 1972, p.19).
With reference to Figure 3, it will be noted that seven classes of
shastras, including the Vedas, are identified. They are, in the order
presented:
* Vedas
* Vedangas
* Darshanas
* Smritis
* Puranas
* Tantras
* Upa-Vedas
_____________________________________________________ 83
It will also be noted that these seven classes are, in effect,
subsets of the group identified as Aksharas meaning those scriptures
which have been committed to the material form; namely, the printed
word.
An Introduction to the Vedas
This section traces the development of Vedic philosophy starting
with the oldest canons--the Samhitas--and ending with the Upanishads.
The central thrust of this section is to demonstrate the Vedic
foundations in the teachings of Paramahansa Yogananda. This task could
be approached by focusing discussion on the six systems of orthodox
Indian philosophy, all of which derive from the Vedas. The approach
elected is taken because it is believed that to show that the
philosophy of Paramahansa Yogananda is demonstrably rooted in the Vedas
is a potentially more important task than to show correlations with the
six derivative systems.
When one hears reference to the Vedas, there is a tendency on the
part of those unfamiliar with Hindu literature to think reference is
made to discrete books. Dasgupta clarifies this common misconception:
Veda in its wider sense is not the name of any
particular book, but of the literature of a particular epoch
extending over a long period, say two thousand years or so.
As this literature represents the total achievements of the
Indian people in different directions for such a long
period, it must of necessity be of a diversified character.
If we roughly classify this huge literature from the points
of view of age, language, and subject matter, we can point
out four different types, namely the Samhita or collection
of verses (sam together, hita put), Brahmanas, Aranyakas
(“forest treatises”) and the Upanishads. All these
literatures, both prose and Verse, were looked upon as so
holy that in early times it was thought almost a sacrilege
_______ 84
to write them; they were therefore learnt by heart by the
Brahmins from the mouth of their preceptors and were hence
called sruti (literally anything heard). (1932, pp.11-12)
There is considerable speculation as to the antiquity of the
oldest Vedas; they are generally regarded as the earliest literary
record of the Indo-European race. Dasgupta cites various speculations
as to their age and provides an interesting historical thesis:
It is indeed difficult to say when the earliest
portions of these compositions came into existence. Many
shrewd guesses have been offered, but none of them can be
proved to be incontestably true. Max Muller supposed the
date to be 1200 B.C., Haug 2400 B.C., and Bal Gangadhar
Tilak 4000 B.CT. The ancient Hindus seldom kept any
historical record of their literary religious or political
achievements. The Vedas were handed down from mouth to
mouth from a period of unknown antiquity; and the Hindus
generally believed that they were never composed by men. It
was therefore generally supposed that either they were
taught by God to the sages, or that they were of themselves
revealed to the sages who were the "seers" (mantradrasta) of
the hymns. Thus we find that when some time had elapsed
after composition of the Vedas, people had come to look upon
them not only as very old, but so old that they had,
theoretically at least, no beginning in time, though they
were believed to have been revealed at some unknown remote
period at the beginning of each creation [Day of Brahma] .
(1932, p.10)
Others contend the Vedas are substantially older. Tara Mata
declares that "Krishna Shastri Godbole has proven from astronomical
references to the equinoctial position as mentioned in certain of the
Vedas, that these shastras were being taught some 25,000 years
ago. . . . The Brahmin1 s assign the date of 3100 B.C. to Veda-Vyasa,
who compiled the Vedas in their final form" (Winter 1972, p.20).
A question naturally arises regarding the subject of the
transmission of knowledge; viz., how was the vast amount of
85
information represented by the Vedas completely and accurately retained
and transmitted from one generation to the next? Dasgupta comments:
When the Vedas were composed, there was probably no
system of writing prevalent in India. But such was the
scrupulous zeal of the Brahmins, who got the whole Vedic
literature by heart by hearing it from their preceptors,
that it has been transmitted most faithfully to us through
the course of the last 3000 years or more with little or no
interpolations at all. The religious history of India had
suffered considerable changes in the latter periods, since
the time of the Vedic civilization, but such was the
reverence paid to the Vedas that they had ever remained as
the highest religious authority for all sections of Hindus
at all times. (1932, p.10)
Suffice to say, the Vedas are of enormous antiquity and their
accepted sacred origin has invested them with uncontestable authority
and power; a force which has persisted since time immemorable--even to
this day. As Tara Mata sets it down: "The immense vitality of their
[the Veda's] teachings is attested to by the fact that the orthodox
Hindu life of today is ordered by the same religious, social, domestic,
and legal rites and obligations as prevailed in the far days of Vedic
civilization,r (Winter 1972, p.20).
A brief discussion of the four classes of Vedas follows. This
presentation is offered to facilitate understanding of the nature and
development of these essential elements of Vedic literature.
Samhitas
Of the four Vedas which constitute the Samhitas, the Rig-Veda is
universally accorded paramount importance, and it is the only one
discussed in the present work. It is considered the oldest book of the
Aryan race and contains many germinal ideas which find progressive
86
determinate expression throughout the evolution of the later Vedas.
One outstanding example is the concept of theism. Tara Mata provides a
succinct statement regarding evolutional theistic expression in the
Rig- Veda;
The plurality of Gods mentioned in the Rig-Veda did not
indicate polytheism but was a form of what Max Muller called
.Henotheism, rta belief in single gods, each in turn standing
out as the highest., T Later parts of the Rig-Veda tended
toward monotheism, and the idea of Prajapati or Brahman as
the Supreme Lord was elucidated. (Winter 1972, p. 21)
Dasgupta further states:
During the closing, period of the Samhita there were
people who had risen to the conception of a single creator
and controller of the universe, variously called
Prajapati . . . and Brahman. But this divine controller was
yet only a diety. The search as to the nature of the diety
began in the Upanishads. (1932, p.43)
Other important doctrines find germinal expression in the Rig-Veda
also; namely, karma, soul, and the inviolable order of things; that
is, law in creation. With respect to the doctrine of karma, Dasgupta
states:
There is . . . the notion prevalent in the Samhitas
. ■ . . that he who commits wicked deeds suffers in another
world, whereas he who performs good deeds enjoys the highest
material pleasures. These were probably associated with the
concept of rita, the inviolable order of things. Thus these
are probably the elements which built up the karma theory
which we find pretty well established but not emphasized in
the Upanishads, where it is said that according to good or
bad actions men will have good or bad births. (1932, p. 72)
The doctrine of the soul (Atman) is presented in the Rig-Veda as the
.supreme essence in both man and the universe; an important concept
which is dramatically developed later in the Upanishads.
As stated earlier the Sama, Yajur, and Atharva Vedas are generally
viewed as being of lesser historical import and are not discussed in
' _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ az.
this work. Brief notes indicating the essential focus and content of
these Vedas are presented in Figure 3.
Brahmanas and Aranyakas
The Brahmanas and Aranyakas, the second and third main
classifications respectively of the Vedas, are briefly discussed
together. The Brahmanas are considered to have followed the Samhitas
in development. Dasgupta states they are "written in prose, and
explain the sacred significance of the different rituals to those who
are not already familiar with them" (1932, p.13). Tara Mata further
clarifies:
The ritual of numerous sacrifices was given that men
might rise, from dependence on the grace of the gods, to
personal mastery. Ceremonial sacrifices were described as
duty (kriya) and each had its own unalterable efficacy and
result. Even the Supreme Being, it was stated, created the
world only after sacrifice. (Winter 1972, p.21)
It is appropriate to understand that just as the holy communion in
the Christian church is a ritual symbolizing an esoteric inner
communion, so the mantras, incantations, etc. of the Brahmanas' were
part of the scientific meditation techniques. It must be remembered
that the Vedas came from the higher ages, therefore, the subject
rituals were not just outward rituals; but rather were mainly
formulations for the attainment of inner enlightenment. As Shankara
wrote: "Outward ritual cannot destroy ignorance, because they are not
mutually contradictory" (cited in Yogananda, 1985, p.284). And
destruction of ignorance (i.e., the attainment of enlightenment) may be
said to be the sole intent and import of the Vedas .
88
The Aranyakas (forest treatises), represent a more overt shift to
the science of meditation and symbolic worship. This shift is
historically considered an important one for it serves to prepare the
way for the Upanishads. Dasgupta articulates this transition process:
It is here that we find that amongst a certain section
of intelligent people the ritualistic ideas began to give
way, and philosophic speculations about the nature of truth
became gradually substituted in their place. . . . The
growth of the subjective speculation, as being capable of
bringing the highest good, gradually resulted in
supersession of Vedic ritualism and the establishment of the
claims of philosophic meditation and self-knowledge as the
highest goal of life. Thus we find that the Aranyaka age
was a period during which free thinking, tried gradually to
shake off the shackles of ritualism which had fettered it
for a long time. It was thus that the Aranyakas could pave
the way for the Upanishads, revive the gems of philosophic
speculation in the Vedas, and develop them in a manner which
made the Upanishads the source of all philosophy that arose
in the world of Hindu thought. (1932, p.14)
Prabhavananda provides a somewhat more focused view of the directed
philosophical activity of the period mainly through his citation of
Vivekananda:
They [the Aranyakas] lay far greater stress upon
retiring into one's own self than upon the intrinsic value
of external acts. Swami Vivekananda explains the change in
these words:
"Thus we find that the minds of these ancient Aryan
thinkers had begun a new theme. They found out that in the
external world no search would give an answer to their
question. So they fell back upon this other method, and
according to this they were taught that these desires.of the
senses, desire for ceremonials and externalities, have
caused a veil to come between themselves and the truth, and
that this cannot be removed by any ceremonial. . . . They
seemed to declare--look not for the truth in any religion;
it is here in the human soul, the miracle of all
miracles--in the human soul, the emporium of all knowledge,
the mine of all existence . . . and they found out step by
step that, that which is external is but a dull reflection
at best of that which is inside. . . . Just as at first it
was a search after the Devas, the bright ones, and then it
was the origin of the universe, and the very same search is
___________________________________________________________________________________89
getting another name more philosophical, clearer,--the unity
of all things, 'knowing which everything else becomes
known'." (1974, pp.40-41)
This concludes the discussion of the Brahmanas and the Aranyakas.
The next section addresses what is generally considered the most
important group of shastras; the Upanishads.
Upanishads
The Upanishads form the fourth and final category of the Vedas.
Variant definitions exist for the word "Upanishad." Dasgupta contends:
"The word Upanishad is derived from the root sad with the prefix nd. to
sit, and Max Muller says that the word originally meant the act of
sitting down near a teacher and of submissively listening to him "
(1932, p.38). Duessen takes another position and posits: "The word
Upanishad occurs with three distinct meanings as (1) Secret word, (2)
Secret text, (3) Secret import" (1966, p.16). Dasgupta states that
Max Muller also agreed with Duessen on the basic definition of
"secret." Hiriyanna follows this position and contends:
The word Upanishad literally means "secret teaching"
(rahasya) or the teaching which was jealously guarded from
the unworthy and was imparted, in private, only to pupils of
tried character. It has since come to be applied also to
the treatises which embody such teaching. (1973, p. 18)
Hiriyanna's interpretation is interesting to note for Lahiri
Mahasaya, Yogananda's paramguru, is quoted as saying: "The operation
of subtle laws that are unknown to people in general should not be
publicly discussed or published without due discrimination" (cited in
Yogananda, 1985, p.385).
90
A third definition is that rendered by Shankara, the great
Vedantist. Dasgupta cites Shankara as deriving "the word from the root
shad to destroy and supposes that it is so called because it destroys
inborn ignorance and leads to salvation by revealing the right
knowledge" (1932, p.38). Since this is the only definition Tara Mata
cites (Winter 1972, p.50), it is reasonable to assume that she also
accepts Shankara1s definition.
No records apparently exist to indicate how many Upanishads in
fact originally existed. Shastri provides an indication of the
possible original number in his analysis of the structure of the Vedas:
The Sanatana-dharma, comprising the religious tradition
and conduct in life of the Indo-Aryans, is based on the four
Vedas, Rig, Yajus, Saman and Atharvan, the treasure-mines of
knowledge, handed down to posterity from time immemorial by
the ancient Rsis. The Yajur-veda is made up of two parts,
Sukla-yajus and Krsna-yajus. To these Vedas are ascribed
several branches (Sakhas) and their number is as follows:
Rig-veda— 21; Yajur-veda--109; Sama-veda--1000; and
Atharva-veda--50. These Sakhas are said to contain one
Upanisad each. The aggregate number of the Upanisads thus
comes to 1180, of which only 108 are extant at the present
day. (1938, p.iii)
Of these 108, Shankara recognized 16 as authentic. He wrote
elaborate commentaries on 10 of these in which he included quotations
from the other six. Prabhavananda and Manchester submit:
It is these ten which have come to be regarded as the
principal Upanishads. . . . Their names [are]: Isha, Kena,
Katha, Prasna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Taittiriya, Aitareya,
Chandogya, Brihadaranyaka. Together they constitute, and
will probably always constitute, the primary object of
attention for all who would know the Hindu religion. (1974,
pp.xviii-xix)
Seven subsections follow which present certain essentia]
doctrines, theories, and philosophical points relative to the
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Upanishads in particular and, in certain instances, to the Vedas in
general.
Systemic structure. Given the relatively large body of literature
classified as the Upanishads and the unprecedented impact the teachings
of this literature have had upon untold millions of people for an
indeterminate period of time, it would not seem unreasonable to assume
an extant elaborate system. This assumption proves to be invalid.
Duessen contends that in a strict sense of the concept of "system,”
there does not exist a system of the Upanishads. However, he does
state:
While it is true that we have before us in the
Upanishads no defined system, we are able nevertheless to
trace the gradual development of a system. This latter
consists in the increasingly thorough interweaving of a
fundamental thought originally idealistic with the
materialistic requirements of the empirical consciousness,
which make their influence more and more felt. . . . These
tendencies reached their climax first in post-Vedic times in
the general system at once theological and philosophical,
which was shaped by the hands of Badarayana and his
commentator Shankara, and in which full account was taken of
the demand both of the idealism and the realism (by
distinguishing between a higher and lower knowledge).
(1966, p.52)
Prabhavananda and Manchester explain precisely why the Upanishads
lack systemic structure:
A more important characteristic arises from the fact
that the Upanishads are the work of saints and seers. Their
authors were concerned with reporting insights which came to
them in thought or vision, not with making these insights
superficially coherent. They were not builders of systems
but recorders of experience. We must be prepared,
therefore, for apparent inconsistency, for obliviousness to
one conception through temporary absorption in another.
Nowhere must we expect to find the whole truth gathered
together once for all in easy, triumphant, conscious
formulation.
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Still another characteristic of the Upanishads has to
do with their form. Never were ideas set down--an expositor
might suspect--with less regard for his convenience.
Nowhere is there a logical beginning, nowhere a logical end.
Furthermore, attention at all points is not upon parts,
clearly recognized as parts, but upon wholes--upon brief,
comprehensive, unanalyzed statement, it may be, or upon such
particular elements as round out, when taken together, a
momentary conception. (1947, pp.xix-xx)
Duessen's avowed task in his work, The Philosophy of the
Upanishads, is to articulate the system of the Vedanta (Upanishads)
which ultimately coalesced. In doing so, he postulates four divisions:
I. Theology; the doctrine of Brahman as the first
principle of all things.
II. Cosmology; the doctrine of the evolution of this
principle to form the universe.
III. Psychology; the doctrine of the entrance of Brahman as
soul into the universe evolved from Him.
IV. Eschatology and Ethics; the doctrine of the fate of
the soul after death, and the manner of life which is
therefore required. (1966, p.52)
Other writers such as Dasgupta (1932), Ranade (1968), Chatterji
(1973), and Radhakrishna (1966) did not formulate an Upanishadic system
as did Dues sen, but they appear to basically agree on the same
essential points. A summary discussion of these points is next
presented in broad perspective.
The doctrines of Brahman, Atman, and unity. The fundamental
thrust of the Upanishads is to ask and attempt to answer one
fundamental question: What is that, knowing which, everything else is
known? This alternate asking and answering may be likened to the
thread of a stitch, part seen, part unseen: God immanent is termed the
Self (Atman) and God transcendent Brahman; Atman and Brahman are
identical. Duessen reiterates this thesis and provides an analytical
discussion regarding Atman and Brahman:
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All the thoughts of the Upanishads move around two
fundamental ideas. These are (1) the Brahman, and (2) the
Atman. As a rule these terms are employed synonymously.
Where a difference reveals itself, Brahman appears as the
older and less intelligible expression, Atman as the later
and more significant; Brahman as the unknown that needs to
be explained, Atman as the known through which the other
unknown finds its explanation; Brahman as the first
principle as far as it is comprehended in the universe,
Atman so far as it is known in the inner self of man.
If we hold fast to this distinction of the
Brahman as the cosmical principle of the universe, the Atman
as the psychical, the fundamental thought of the entire
Upanishad philosophy may be expressed by the simple
equation:
Brahman = Atman
That is to say--the Brahman, the power which presents itself
to us materialized in all existing things, which creates,
sustains, preserves, and receives back into itself again all
worlds, this eternal infinite divine power is identical
with the Atman, with that which, after stripping off
everything external, we discover in ourselves as our real
most essential being, our individual self, the soul. This
identity of the Brahman and the Atman, of God and the soul,
is the fundamental thought of the entire doctrine of the
Upanishads. It is briefly expressed by the "great saying"
tat twam asi "that art thou" . . . and aham brahma asmi "I
am Brahman." And in the compound word brahma-atma-aikyam,
"unity of the Brahman and the Atman," is described the
fundamental dogma of the Vedanta system.
If we strip this thought of the various forms .
under which it appears in the Vedanta texts, and fix our
attention upon it solely in its philosophical simplicity as
the identity of God and the soul, the Brahman and the Atman,
it will be found to possess a significance reaching far
beyond the Upanishads, their time and country; nay, we claim
for it an inestimable value for the whole race of mankind.
(1966, pp.38-39)
The doctrine of unity appears widely viewed as the predominant
teaching of the Upanishads. The essential character of the unitary
Reality--Brahman--is perhaps best described by the composite
designation of sat-cit-ananda. Hiriyanna provides a lucid explanation
of this designation:
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The spiritual and unitary character of this absolute
reality is very well expressed by the classical phrase
satcitananda. As a single term defining its nature, it is
met with only in the later Upanishads; but its three
elements— sat, cit, and ananda--are used of Brahman, singly
and in pairs, even in the earliest of them. Sat, which
means "being," points to the positive character of Brahman
distinguishing it from all non-being. But positive
entities, to judge from our experience, may be spiritual or
not. The next epithet Git, which means "sentience," shows
that it is spiritual. The last epithet ananda, which stands
for "peace," indicates its unitary and all-embracing
character, inasmuch as variety is the source of all trouble
and restlessness. "Fear arises from the other," as a
famous Upanishadic saying has it. Thus the three epithets
together signify that Brahman is the sole spiritual reality
or the Absolute, which comprehends not only all being (sat)
but also all thought (cit) so that whatever partakes of the
character of either must eventually be traced to it. In
other words, it is the source of the whole universe, while
it itself is self-existent and self-revealing, there being
no other entity from which it could be derived or by which
it might be made known. (1973, pp.22-23)
It is important to understand, however, that a clear understanding
of the monistic doctrine of the Upanishads is not primarily predicated
on the cosmic principle--Brahman--the source of the world as a whole,
rather the central quest was for the psychic principle--Atman--the
inner essence of man. Hiriyanna provides an interesting premise
regarding this quest and sketches out the attendant dilemma:
Its [the psychic principle's] origin should be ascribed
to the belief that the proper study of mankind is man.
Man's conception of himself, however, is notoriously vague;
and anything from the gross body to the subtlest principle
underlying individual existence may be signified by it. We
have almost all the possible alternatives represented in
Vedic literature, such as breath or life (prana) and the
senses (indriya). The culmination of this inquiry is
represented by atman or the self which is sometimes
described negatively by denying that it is breath, the
senses, etc., which are all the not-self (anatman), and
sometimes as the true subject which knows but can never be
known--"the unseen seer, the unheard hearer and the
unthought thinker." The idea, in either case, is that it is
unknowable in the ordinary sense of the term. One Upanishad
brings out this uniqueness of the self by stating
paradoxically that it is known only to those that do not
know it, meaning that, though intuitively realizable, it
cannot be made the ob ject of thought. (1973, pp.20-21)
To sum up the essential consequent of the identification of these
two conceptions--of Brahman and Atman--Hiriyanna states:
It is this happy identification of them that
constitutes the essential teaching of the Upanishads. Tt is
represented by the well-known sayings "That thou art" (Tat
tvam asi) and "I am Brahman" (Aham Brahma asmi). They mean
that the principle underlying the world as a whole, and that
which forms the essence of man, are ultimately the same.
Here ended the long Indian quest for the pervasive cause of
all things--the search, as the Upanishads express it, for
"that by knowing which all will be known."
The outcome of the identification therefore is that the
ultimate reality, which may indifferently be termed either
Brahman or Atman, is spiritual and that it accounts for not
only all the selves but also the whole of the physical
universe. That is the meaning of monism or the doctrine of
unity as taught in the Upanishads. (1973, pp.21-22)
The process whereby, the Atman--the essence of man--is to be known
is interesting to consider for it has been suggested that It cannot be
exclusively known through the medium of the rational-cognitive faculty.
Three questions naturally emerge at this point: (a) By what
process did the Vedic philosophers achieve their act of unification?
(b) Who, if any, were the necessary mediaries in the process? and (c)
For whom was their transmitted knowledge intended?
Immanent processes. An insight into the process of unification is
facilitated when an understanding of the "philosopher" is correctly
comprehended in the Vedic context. Recalling the Indian position of
equal superiority of experience and intellect is vital to an
understanding of the subject. Hiriyanna addresses the issue:
Enlightenment . . . does not mean only an intellectual
apprehension of the view that all is one, but also an actual
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realization of that unity in our own experience. In other
words, the aim of studying philosophy is not merely to
gratify theoretical curiosity, however disinterested that
curiosity may be; it is also to live the right kind of
life, consciously adjusting one’s conduct to one’s
intellectual convictions. It is in this sense of devotion
to worthier living and not in the sense of dogma or
superstition, that religion is blended with philosophy in
India. (1973, pp.25-26)
Prabhavananda provides additional insight regarding the nature of
Indian philosophy and philosophers and in doing so illuminates the
value the culture places on philosophic activity by virtue of the high
esteem accorded the true philosopher. His concluding point is essential
to a core understanding of Hindu philosophy, especially for the purpose
intended in the present work; that is, that this philosophy works to
effect a positive lasting psychological change of the highest possible
order within the individual.
To tread the path of philosophy is to seek after truth
and follow a way of life. . . . ’’ The people of India,” says
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, ’’have such an immense respect for
these philosophers who glory in the might of knowledge and
the power of intellect, that they worship them. The
prophetic souls who, with a noble passion for truth, strive
hard to understand the mystery of the world and give
utterance to it, spending laborious days and sleepless
nights, are philosophers in a vital sense of the term."
Indian philosophy is thus not a mere way of thinking
but a way of life, a way of light, and a way of truth. To
become a philosopher is to become transformed in life,
renewed in mind, and baptized in spirit. (1974,
pp.12-13;16)
A more in-depth, albeit brief, look at the actual philosophic
endeavor may help to expand understanding of the scope of the Vedic
process. As a point of clarification, references to different states
of consciousness, for example, "higher,” which occasionally appear in
this work, are common in Indian philosophy. When such references
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appear it is important to not interpret these as simply signifying
variants of normative consciousness. More will be said of this later.
Concerning the process proper, it is useful to recall that the
supreme goal of life is liberation (from the bonds of mortal ignorance)
and unification of the soul with God. Prabhavananda elaborates the
Vedic process relative to the attainment of this goal.
The methods of attaining [a] higher state of
consciousness are hearing, reasoning, and meditating upon
the ultimate reality. One must first hear of it from the
Sruti or the Vedas. Then one must reason upon it. Finally
comes meditation upon it in order to realize the truth for
oneself. Different schools offer different methods of
attaining the same goal, and the practice of Yoga, or the
exercises prescribed in the art of concentration and
meditation, constitutes a salient part of Indian religious
life. (1974, p.12)
Hiriyanna expands on method and process by making the important
distinction between reason, reflection, and meditation. The
ever-present role of the guru in the Vedic philosophic process is also
recounted.
In the first place, the truth, as taught in the
Upanishads, needs to be learnt from a proper preceptor
(guru). This stage of the training is called srayana or
"formal study." But merely to accept the teaching, although
it may be quite true, would constitute blind faith; and it
does not become philosophy until its rational support is
sought out. The beliefs of others are, no doubt, often of
immense use to us, for we cannot know everything for
ourselves. Man’s advance is mostly due to his capacity for
receiving and profiting by the thought and experience of
others. But the matter is altogether different in the case
of a subject like philosophy, whose relation to life is so
peculiarly intimate. Others may teach us here the truths
which they have reached as well as the method by which they
did so; but, unless we successfully repeat that process and
rediscover those truths for ourselves, we cannot get that
depth of conviction which alone can be called "philosophy"
in the complete sense of the term. If there are facts which
are beyond the reach of reason and cannot therefore be
absolutely demonstrated, philosophy should at least point to
98
the likelihood of their being true. This is recognized in
the Upanishads, for they prescribe what is called manana or
"reflection" in addition to study (sravana) in the sense of
learning the truth from a preceptor. It means that
philosophy, though it may begin as faith, does not end here.
The training prescribed in.the Upanishads does not stop
here. It includes also what is called dhyana or
"meditation," which means constant dwelling upon the truth
of which one has become intellectually convinced. This
meditation is otherwise known as yoga. . . . A number of
sections in the Upanishads are taken up .with describing
modes of exercise, or upas anas as they are called, which
prepare the disciple for contemplating the ultimate truth,
by accustoming him to draw away his mind from all disturbing
thoughts and fix it on one object only. The aim of the
final contemplation is to enable him to grasp the unity of
existence directly--as directly as he has grasped its
diversity. Thus, if reflection (manana) is for getting
intellectual conviction, meditation (dhyana) is for gaining
direct experience. Without the acquisition of such
immediate or intuitive experience, philosophy, even if it
represents a logical certainty, will be of purely academic
interest. Such theoretical knowledge may be a mental
accomplishment; but, being mediate, it cannot dispel the
immediate conviction in the ultimacy of diversity and will
not therefore become a permanent influence on life. The
Upanishads base this part of their teaching on a fact of
experience, viz., that a mediate knowledge of truth cannot
overcome an immediate illusion--that seeing alone is
believing. (1973, pp.26-27)
Ethics. A number of references to ethics have already been made.
At this point some elaboration is appropriate to ensure understanding
of the subject within the context intended. One point which should
first be clarified centers on what might be perceived as a somewhat
exclusive focus on the negative process of self-abnegation. Hiriyanna
provides the clarification:
It is not merely a spirit of self-abnegation that is
presupposed by Upanishadic teaching; equal emphasis is laid
in it on what is described as social morality. Thus in
another Upanishad, Prajapati, who is an ethical authority
. . . enjoins the practice not only of self-denial but also
of generosity and compassion. The Upanishads describe
Brahman itself as without evil— a description whose
implication is that he who desires to attain Brahma-hood
should strive to free himself from all forms of evil. As
Max Muller says, goodness and virtue are "a sine qua non for
the attainment of the highest knowledge which brings the
soul back to its source and to its home and restores it to
its true nature." The culmination of this ethical training
is symbolized in formal renunciation or samnyasa, which
finds a prominent place in the Upanishads. (1973, pp.27-28)
The unique place and function of ethics in Hindu philosophy is
succinctly summarized by Prabhavananda:
Ethics is the formulation of the science of conduct in
relation to society as man faces his multifarious activities
as a social being. . . . The problem of ethics is also a
problem of Indian philosophy. Though not actually
identified with Hindu philosophy, ethics is its very
foundation. Philosophy seeks to transcend the mere life of
conduct so that ethics remains the means for its own
supererogation. Moreover, Hindu ethics concerns itself not
only with outer human activity, but extends to inner life as
well. Every teaching is conditioned by the phrase, "in
thought, word, and deed." Ways and methods of conduct are
explicity revealed, which, if followed, will enable one
naturally to live the ethical life. The emphasis is laid
upon the ultimate transformation of the whole being when one
rises above the injunctions of moral codes. He is not
troubled, we read in the Upanishads, by thoughts like these:
Have I not done the • right? Have I done the wrong?
Bhavabhuti, a Sanskrit poet, says appropriately: "An
ordinary man is truthful when the words follow the fact.
But the saint's words are followed by facts." Such is the
relation between saintliness and truthfulness. (1974,
pp.14-15)
The important consideration to call attention to here is, again,
the emphasis on action (outer and inner) with Self-realization as the
ultimate objective. Hindu philosophy does not simply seek to establish
ethical behavior for the sake of social conformity or as an end ir
itself, rather, it invokes ethics as necessary knowledge and practice
to enable psychological movement to the highest goal of
self-transcendence (liberation). It must be also seen that on anothei
level the same holds true for philosophy itself.
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Idealism versus Realism. There has been, at times, some degree of
confusion over the question: What is the prevailing philosophical
position advanced by the Upanishads? It seems the preponderance of
misunderstanding stems from the contention that the Sankhya system (one
of the six Hindu philosophical systems) articulates a Realistic
position. And since the Sankhya school explicates Upanishadic
cosmology as its principal task, it must logically be the case that the
principal philosophical position forwarded by the Upanishads is that of
Realism. This is not strictly the case and this misunderstanding,
relative to Sankhya, is discussed later.
There is little doubt that the teachings of the Upanishads are
open to interpretation due to their scope and complexity, but certain
conclusions relative to their philosophical position have been arrived
at by scholars. Hiriyanna summarizes the problem and discusses the
relative positions of Idealism and Realism.
There are great, almost insurmountable, difficulties in
deciding what exactly is the teaching of the Upanishads in
certain important respects. This accounts for the emergence
in later times of diverse schools of Vedanta, all of which
claim to propound the Upanishadic teaching. It is clear,
however, that the prevailing view in them is monistic and
absolntistic. That is to say, they teach the ultimate
reality is one and only one. . . . The teaching is also
idealistic in the sense that this single reality is
conceived of as spiritual in its nature and that everything
else is explained as existing in and through it. . . . This
is not to say that either pluralism or the belief that the
ultimate entities are many, and realism or the belief that
matter is as real as spirit or mind, are unknown to the
Upanishads, taken as a whole. It only means that . . . they
are not conspicuous in them. (1973, p.19)
There are basically two predominating Idealistic philosophical
positions regarding the relation of Brahman to creation and to the
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individual self. It appears that, of the two, Shankara's is the
principally accepted one. Shankara asserts that the individual self is
actually Brahman Itself appearing as a finite phenomenal manifestation;
and, any sense of finiteness is to be necessarily viewed as not real in
the strict sense of the term.
The second position is one posited anterior to Shankara by
Bharataprapanca who, as Hiriyanna contends, "maintained that the self
and the physical universe, though they may be finite and imperfect, are
real, but . . . they are not altogether different from Brahman" (1973,
p. 23). He explains this position:
They are both identical with and different from it, the
three together constituting a unity in diversity. As
Brahman, the ultimate reality is one; but, as souls and the
world, it is many. The whole universe, on this view,
actually emerges from Brahman and therefore necessarily
partakes of its character of reality. The richness of its
content indicates that Brahman, its source, is complex; only
the complexity is sometimes manifest, and at other times
latent. The former is the period of creation (sristi); and
the latter is that of dissolution (pralaya) which, according
to immemorial Indian belief, succeed each other endlessly.
(1973, pp.23-24)
In the context of the Upanishadic contrast of Idealism and Realism
there is an interesting and related contrast regarding Eastern and
Western expression of the spiritual experience. This discussion serves
to help develop the point of how philosophical underpinnings serve to
direct the course of man's activities and events based on his
perceptions and beliefs about his Self. Prabhavananda discusses this
contrast:
The nature of the Self is Sat or Existence, Chit or
Knowledge, and Ananda or Bliss and Love. Some philosophers
of the West, having caught a glimpse of the true Self of
man, have concluded that we realize the ideal of life by
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perfectly expressing the infinite through the finite. So in
the West there is a universal tendency to find and express
God in the finite universe, to revel in a creative
appreciation of His joy through the body, the senses, the
mind and all external material forms. This romantic ideal
would, no doubt, be pleasing and comforting to those who
know of no other bliss. But such a realization of life has
all the limitations of a purely sensational and sense-bound
philosophy; it offers nothing to heal the sores and
sufferings of the inner man. It is, in effect, an effort to
idealize the real, to compromise our weaknesses and our
failures, and not an attempt to realize the real nature of
the Self. The sages of the Upanishads, on the other hand,
point out that man is in reality the Infinite Self, and that
his attempt to express his real nature through the finite is
necessarily a misdirected effort prompted by ignorance. For
the Infinite, declare these sages, can never be expressed
through the finite, and the aim of all the struggles of life
is to learn just this.
The vanity of earthy life is brought home to the mind
of man when the experience of repeated failures teaches him
that within the limits of life itself no solution of its
riddle can be discovered, and that it is folly to hope for
infinite happiness, infinite knowledge and immortality in
the life of the body and the senses. It is then that he
turns to the Source of all light, happiness, and
existence--his own true Self. And by knowing the Self
through the process of "being" and "becoming" It, he attains
the supreme goal of life. For he realizes the
transcendental Self, which is Sat, Existence; Chit,
Knowledge; and Ananda, Bliss or Love. (1974, pp.77-78)
Psychology. It was earlier stated that one of Duessen's four
postulated Upanishadic system elements was Psychology. He defined this
element as "the doctrine of the entrance of Brahman as soul into the
universe evolved from him" (1966, p.52). Duessen’s definition serves
to bring to light a basic and profound difference in the Indian and
Western conceptualizations of psychology. Duessen tightly enucleated
the Indian concept in his definition. Basically what is said is that
the soul is pure consciousness--in essence the same as the creative
aspect of God (Brahman)--but this consciousness is of a very different
nature than any variant of the wakeful state of normal human
103
consciousness. Indian philosophy holds that this state of
consciousness (viz., superconsciousness) is immanent in all living
things but can only be realized in the human form. The volitional
intentional actualization of this state is affirmed to be the
fundamental purpose and goal of life and its attainment is called
Self-realization (liberation). Indian philosophy recognizes the states
of consciousness traditionally acknowledged by Western psychology but
reciprocal recognition is not typically accorded.
It is important to remember at this point that the basic notions
of "mind” and "consciousness” have been unpopular--to the point of
actual rejection— in dominant Western psychological belief systems
throughout most of the 20th century. It is, therefore, risking
criticism to talk of any notion of mind or consciousness as being
acknowledged by Western psychology. This point is elaborated in the
second half of Chapter V. For present discussion purposes, it will be
provisionally assumed that some may (and probably do) accept these
notions. Mind and consciousness are, therefore, tentatively discussed
here for broad comparison purposes only.
In the West one could, within some framework of accepted belief,
think of psychology as the study of the mind, its modifications, and
its activities. Mind might then generally be construed as the ability
to be aware of objects, events, entities, feelings, etc., and to think
and reason about that which one is aware of. This ability would likely
be perceived as originating in and remaining totally operative withir
the brain. Consciousness is intimately associated with awareness anc
typically denotes the normative wakeful state. In addition to this
104
state, namely, normal wakeful consciousness, some schools of Western
psychology could allow recognition of two other consciousness modes;
the subconscious and sleep states.
Other differences inhere which are touched on briefly.
Prabhavananda offers a penetrating comparative summary and introduces
yet another differentiating characteristic:
The science of psychology, as Westerner's know it, is
, man's attempt to explain the behaviour and the operations of
his mind with reference to his body and the stimuli received
through his senses. [Does this formulation] of man's
material life enter into the consideration of the
philosophies of India?
[It does] in a very definite way. As a matter of fact,
Indian philosophy and Indian psychology are not merely
allied subjects, but the latter is actually an integral part
of the former. To the Hindu mind, psychology has its
inception in the thinking self and not in the objects of
thought. It is. not content with merely stating the working
of the mind in the normal planes of consciousness as is the
case with our modern system of behaviourism, but it points
out how the mind ranges beyond the ordinary conscious plane
of psychic activity, and how the resulting experiences are
even more real than the experiences of the objective world.
It also differs from the psycho-analysis of Freud in that,
though it accepts the subconscious mind, it claims that man
is capable of controlling his subconscious impressions as
well as his conscious mind, and of attaining to the
superconscious state, which no school of Western psychology
has yet taken into consideration. By teaching the normal
mind methods of restraining its own vagaries, with the aim
of. gaining supreme mastery over itself, and of ultimately
rising above it, Indian philosophy distinguishes itself from
all other known systems of philosophy or psychology. The
Yoga system of Patanjali deals specifically with this
process of mind control. (1974, pp.14-15)
In the psychology of the Upanishads a four-state classification of
consciousness is set down. The four states are: waking, dream,
deep-sleep, and superconsciousness. It is noted here that an exception
occurs in that Prabhavananda's inclusive subconscious state is excluded
and dream-consciousness is included. This constitutes conformance with
105
the traditional Upanishadic classification. Ranade offers an
interesting summary of these four states in the following description
in which he quotes from the Svetasvatara Upanishad:
The soul, then, according to the Upanishad, experiences
four chief states, namely, those of wakefulness, dream, deep
sleep, and pure self-consciousness [viz., super
consciousness]: "The soul is four-footed [i.e., has four
conditions]. The first condition is that of wakefulness,
when the soul is conscious only of external objects and
enjoys the gross things, and then it is to be called
Vaisvanara. The second condition is that of dreaming, when
the soul is conscious of internal objects and enjoys the
subtle things, and then it is called Taijasa. When the
person in sleep desires no desires, and dreams no dreams,
that state is to be called the state of sound sleep. Thus
the third condition of the soul is that of sound sleep, when
being centered in itself and being full of knowledge and
bliss, it feeds on bliss: it is then called Prajna. The
fourth state of the soul is that of pure self-consciousness,
when there is no knowledge of internal objects nor external
ones, nor of the two together; when the soul is not a mass
of intelligence, transcending as it does both consciousness
and unconsciousness; when it is invisible, uncommunicable,
incomprehensible, indefinable; when it is beyond thought and
beyond the possibility of any indication, being virtually
the quintessence of self-intuition, in which all the five
kinds of sensation are finally resolved; when it is tranquil
and full of auspiciousness and without a second; it is then
called Atman." (1968, pp.100-101)
Dasgupta offers a slightly different rendition of the fourth state:
They [the Upanishadic philosophers] sought such a
constant and unchangeable essence in man as was beyond the
limits of any change. This inmost essence has sometimes
been described as pure subject-object-less consciousness,
the reality, and the bliss. He is the seer of all seeing,
the hearer of all hearing and the knower of all knowledge.
He sees but is not seen, hears but is not heard, knows but
is not known. He is the light of all lights. He is like a
lump of salt, with no inner or outer, which consists through
and through entirely of savour; as in truth this Atman has
no inner or outer, but consists through and through entirely
of knowledge. Bliss is not an attribute of it but it is
bliss itself. The state of Brahman is thus likened unto the
state of dreamless sleep. And he who has reached this bliss
is beyond any fear. It is dearer to us than son, brother,
wife, or husband, wealth, or prosperity. It is for it and by
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it that things appear dear to us. It is the dearest par
excellence, our inmost Atman. All limitation is fraught
with pain; it is the Infinite alone that is the highest
bliss. When a man receives this rapture, then is he full of
bliss; for who could breathe, who could live, if that bliss
had not filled this void (akasa)? It is he who behaves as
bliss. For when a man finds his peace, his fearless support
in that invisible, supportless, inexpressible, unspeakable
one, then has he attained peace. (1932, pp.47-48)
The Upanishads also discuss different manifestations of the Atman
(soul) which one intuitively feels are correlated with states of
consciousness insofar as the attainment of the superconscious state is
consistently put forth as the goal for Self-realization and it is set
down as synonymous with the Atman. These different manisfestations of
Atman are termed: annamay a, prananmaya, manomaya, vi.jnanamaya, and
anandamaya and are said to manifest in man and in nature as a whole.
Duessen introduces this concept:
The first four of these, like sheaths or husks (termed
later kosas), surround the fifth as the true kernel.
Stripping off these sheaths one by one, and gradually
penetrating deeper, we finally reach the inmost essential
being of man and of nature. (1966, p. 97)
Dasgupta offers a more penetrating summary of these various
manifestations in response to a critical question he initially poses:
What is the inmost essence of man? The self of man
involves an ambiguity, as it is used in a variety of senses.
Thus so far as man consists of the essence of food (i.e.,
the physical parts of man) he is called annamay a . But
behind the sheath of this body there is the other self
consisting of the vital breath which is called the self as
vital breath (pranamaya atman). Behind this again there is
the other self "consisting of will" called the (manomaya
atman). This again contains within it the self "consisting
of consciousness" called the vijnanamaya atman. But behind
it we come to the final essence; the self as pure bliss
(the anandamaya atman). The [Taittiriya Upanishadl says:
"Truly he is the rapture; for whoever gets this rapture
becomes blissful. For who could live, who could breathe if
this space (akasa) was not bliss? For it is he who behaves
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as bliss. For whoever in that Invisible, Self-surpassing,
Unspeakable, Supportless finds fearless support, he really
becomes fearless. But whoever finds even a slight
difference between himself and this Atman, there is fear for
him." (1932, p.46)
The breadth and depth to which the Upanishadic seer-philosophers
explored, tested, refined, and employed psychology to attain to
exhalted states of consciousness is enormous in scope and complexity
and should be able to be somewhat understood and better appreciated at
this point. It is important to understand that in the Vedic framework
the realization of such states of consciousness does not come easily
and quickly. In fact, it is held that it takes a very long
time--incarnations--before the goal of life begins to dawn with any
substantial clarity upon the consciousness of any individual. And
after that, it again, generally speaking, takes a long time before the
actual goal is realized. This leads to discussion on the final topic
of this chapter which addresses the issue of "existential continuity."
Eschatology. It has been stated that the ultimate goal of life is
liberation (moksha) . It has also been pointed out that to achieve this
goal it is necessary to follow a set of prescribed
practices--principally study, reflection., and meditation; to conduct
one’s day-to-day affairs in accord with dedicated ethical standards;
and to follow the guidance and discipline of a true guru. Logically
speaking, the end of life will find the ultimate goal either achieved
or not. The one who achieves the goal is termed a j i vanmukt i
(liberated while still in the body). Prabhavananda describes this
state of existence:
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For the man who has reached Self-knowledge through
transcendental consciousness, the vision of the world has
changed into the vision of Reality or Brahman. He is called
the "living free." For such a man delusion has vanished
forever. He is free from selfish desires, for the sense of
want is annihilated in him once for all by the ineffable
experience of Self-realization. His only delight is now in
God or the Self, for he is truly conscious of "living,
moving and having his being in God." And the transcendental
intuition which has brought him the realization of his
oneness with God, gives him also the realization of the same
God in all beings. His life, therefore, becomes one of
service in the light of the knowledge of the one Self and
one God in all. (1974, p.84)
But what about those who do not attain this exhalted state?
Before an answer to that question can be given it is important to
emphasize that "the question is not whether the soul continues its
existence after death or not; for, as it is affirmed by the Upanishads,
the Self is neither born, nor does It die. That which has birth must
also have death" (Prabhavananda, 1974, pp.85-86). With this under
standing in mind, Hiriyanna discusses the fate of those not realizing
the goal:
Of the others, who form the large majority [viz., those
not having attained the state of jivanmukti], the Upanishads
may be said to make two broad divisions--those that pursue
the right path of life, though they are not able to acquire
full enlightenment in this life, and those that yield to
natural impulses, because they lack self-control. The
former, the second best, progress from one state of
existence to a higher without returning to the world of
mortals, until at last they find release from the cycle of
births and deaths. This progressive realization
(krama-mukti) of the ideal of life is what some Vedantins
consider to be the sole form of release taught in the
Upanishads. It corresponds to the eschatological view of
the goal of man, as it was understood in the earlier stages
of the Vedic period. Only the result is conceived here as
absolute liberation from the conditions of worldly
existence, and not as a sublimated life of joy in the world
of gods. The latter class of people, on the other hand,
viz., the self-indulgent who fail to bridle their desires,
are born again and again, their condition in any particular
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life being determined by "the nature of their deeds and the
nature of their thoughts” in the past. The belief in the
karma doctrine implied here forms a characteristic feature
of Upanishadic teaching. (1973, p. 29)
The doctrine of karma and the attendant theory of reincarnation is
central to Indian philosophy and is clearly borne out in the
Upanishads. As Prabhavananda affirms:
The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad furnishes a clear
explanation of the problem of death and reincarnation. We
read in it "When the body grows weak either through sickness
or old age, the departing soul separates itself from the
body, as a mango or a fig is separated from its stalk, and
hastens to begin another life. When that soul, having sunk
into weakness, is about to make its journey to another
world, and appears to be no longer conscious, then it
gathers its senses around it and lives for a while within
the heart. No more does it see any external form or colour.
Then the point of the heart is lighted by the light of soul,
and by that light it departs . . . the body. When it thus
departs, life departs with it, and when life departs, the
rest of the senses and vital spirits also depart. The soul
is conscious, and with consciousness it goes to the next
world. And the impressions of its knowledge and the deeds
of this life follow it. As a caterpillar, having reached
the end of a blade of grass, takes hold of another blade of
grass and then draws itself together towards it, so does the
soul, after having given up this present body, take hold of
another body, and draw itself together towards it.
"This Self is indeed Brahman. But because of Its
association and identification with limiting adjuncts, It
appears to consist of intellect, mind, sight, and hearing;
of different elements such as earth, water, air, ether, and
fire; of desire and no desire; of anger and no anger; of
right and wrong; and of all other things. As his deeds and
thought in fact are, so does he appear to become. A man of
good deeds becomes good; a man of bad deeds bad. He becomes
pure by pure deeds, impure by evil deeds.
"As is a person's desire, so is his will; as is his
will, so is his deed; as is his deed, so will he reap. To
whatever object a-man's mind is attached to that he goes
with the impressions of his deeds. And after having enjoyed
the results of his deeds in the other world, he returns from
that world to this world of action. Such is the case with
the man who desires and has not yet attained the knowledge
of Self."
Our future life is thus guided by our deeds and our
desires in the present life. The law of Karma essentially
means that our actions produce results in two ways--in the
first place as effects in the shape of happiness and sorrow
we reap, and in the next place as actions producing
impressions on our minds, the sum total of which forms our
character. And our next life is determined by our character
formed in the present. In the words of the Chandogya
Upanishad: "Those whose conduct has been good will attain
good birth; but those whose conduct is evil will verily
attain evil birth." . . . This earth is Karmabhumi or the
region of action where we make our future through our deeds;
and it is also the place where we finally realize our
freedom. We are bound to reincarnate again and again until,
through knowledge, we ultimately become free. According to
the Upanishads no soul will be lost. (1974, pp.87-89)
SUMMARY
As stated in the beginning of this chapter, the material covered
herein is intended to introduce the immense corpus of Vedic
philosophical literature together with the inclusive teachings for the
basic purpose- of introducing the subject matter to those possibly not
familiar with it or having it serve as review material for those
already familiar with it. The avowed reason for this is, of course, to
establish the unambiguous extant historical philosophical foundation of
the philosophy and teachings of Paramahansa Yogananda.
Emphasis was placed on the Upanishads insofar as they are
essentially held to be the final and authoritative statement of Vedic
doctrine. And, in this sense, they are held to be the clarifiers and
refiners of the subject matter of the antecedant Vedas. This position
will be later validated when it will be shown that this is precisely
how Vedic philosophy progressed; that is, always working to become more
and more coherent, determinate, and differentiated. In a vital sense,
111
then, focus of discussion on the Upanishads has served to greatly
simplify the task of this chapter.
Further, as a result of taking the aforementioned approach, it is
believed that a substantial measure of reduction and synthesis has
already occurred and to summarize the essential subject matter further,
at this point, may risk the loss of certain important contextual
substantiveness. Bearing this concern in mind, discussion proceeds
directly to that of the basic philosophy of Paramahansa Yogananda.
112
IV. THE BASIC PHILOSOPHY OF PARAMAHANSA YOGANANDA
Chapter III introduced the Vedic foundations in the philosophy and
teachings of Paramahansa Yogananda. And this chapter fundamentally
builds on the principal tenets set down in that chapter. This
developmental process starts by introducing and summarizing certain key
concepts in three of the six formal systems of Hindu philosophy found
to be in particular evidence in the philosophy and teachings of
Paramahansa Yogananda. The work then proceeds to articulate doctrines
in Yogananda’s philosophy determined to be especially germane to this
effort; namely, a brief section on Theology followed by three rather
extensive and very important sections--Cosmogony and Cosmology,
Eschatology, and Epistemology.
This chapter appropriately begins with a very brief introduction
to the six formal systems of Hindu philosophy. This introduction
identifies the three principal systems in evidence in Yogananda’s
teachings and outlines the principal focus of each.
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THE SIX SYSTEMS OF HINDU PHILOSOPHY
The Vedas, to briefly recapitulate, were essentially verbatim
recordings of the revelatory occurrences of the ancient saint-seers
and, as such, were considered grossly lacking in systemic structure and
coherence. As a consequence of this obfuscating characteristic,
subsequent generations of philosophers began to evolve philosophical
systems to introduce structure and coherence, to the all important
revelational content. This activity gradually produced what came to be
known as the six orthodox systems of Indian (Hindu) philosophy. It is
important to note that the principal philosophers responsible for the
evolution of these systems were not "scholars” in the strictly
intellectual sense as typically conceived; they were succeeding
generations of philosopher-seers who perceived the need to render lucid
the obscure Vedic wisdom of their predecessors for the advantage of all
mankind.
The six resultant systems are Nyaya, Vaisesika, Mimamsa, Yoga,
Sankhya, and Vedanta. These systems are collectively referred to as
either Hindu philosophy,. Vedic philosophy, or orthodox Indian
philosophy insofar as they all appeal to what is held to be the
incontestable scriptural authority of the Vedas. Three of the six
systems are in principal evidence in the philosophy and teachings of
Paramahansa Yogananda; namely, Sankhya, Vedanta, and Yoga. A brief
summary of each of these three systems serves to facilitate
presentation of Yogananda's philosophy and to render objective the
114
important historical-evolutional linkage obtaining between the Vedas
themselves and Yogananda’s teachings.
This last point is important to amplify on for unless this
relationship is properly understood, it is possible to overlook an
essential factor.which can do service to publicly validate Yogananda's
philosophical position and heritage. No doubt to some the need and
ability to establish such validity and lineage is important for to not
be able to do so triggers the risk of dismissing both the person and
his expressions as irrelevant or inconsequential. Current Western
skepticism (much of which is appropriate) regarding Indian philosophy
in general and gurus in particular, render conditions difficult at best
for prima facie acceptance of one’s teachings in this view. From an
academic scholar's perspective, as one example, Yogananda’s writings
might experience initial difficulty with acceptance insofar as there is
an obvious paucity of Sanskrit terms and phrases; the virtual sine
quanon for initial acceptance of Indian philosophy as ’’ philosophy.” And
yet Yogananda clearly states, as pointed out in Chapter II, that he
intentionally chose to avoid the use of Sanskrit words to the extent
possible.
Second, Yogananda does not typically write in scholarly form,
hence, his teachings do not often fit the scholar’s traditional
expository template. His avowed purpose, instead, was to teach: (a)
all interested persons the universal precepts of right living (this
will later be seen to be essentially Patanjali’s Eight-Fold Path of
Yoga) to foster their three-fold— physical, mental, spiritual--well-
being, and (b) the Kriya Yoga technique to accelerate their highest
115
attainment-“Self-realization. But these instructional objectives of
his are, in fact, precisely what Indian philosophy has always been
about. According to his claims, he sets down exactly how to achieve
what scholars have busied themselves with for centuries; namely,
attempting to understand and define exactly what is achieved by the
true Vedic philosopher in the meditative state and interpreting what
others have said or have done in service to that end. As he said of
his mission: ,!I came not to preach a doctrine but to teach the living
truth" (SRF, Note 3). And this truth is verified not publicly but, as
stated in Chapter II, intrapsychically; that is, it is a purely
private, internally-based, volitional, and experiential process.
Looked at contextually, it would appear that Yogananda not only
had as his mission the transmission of the ages-old knowledge and
processes of the highest philosophy, but also, through his own
existence, the living example of the true philosopher-seer; the
consumate example that the life rightly lived can and does result in
the avowed culmination--the "ideal man"--the consumate realization of
the Self as soul. Given the absence of the personal validation, and
without the living example that this end is real and possible, the
philosophy would remain what most philosophy essentially is, a merely
speculative, analytic, and descriptive academic enterprise.
Sankhya Philosophy
The province of Sankhya philosophy is the explication of Vedic
cosmogonic, cosmological, and ontological doctrines; historically, very
complicated and difficult doctrines to understand. All systems
116
fundamentally rely on Sankhya doctrine to elucidate the origin and
nature of creation and human existence. This chapter focuses
substantially on this philosophy in the section on Cosmogony and
Cosmology.
Vedanta Philosophy
The Vedanta doctrine revealed in the philosophy and teachings of
Paramahansa Yogananda is that advanced by Sri Shankara and is properly
referred to as Advaita Vedanta; the qualifier "Advaita" denoting a
strictly monistic philosophical position. The quintessential teaching
is that God alone exists, all souls are a part of God and are therefore
the same in essence as God, and that-God is knowable.
Vedanta posits the central problem of existence as individual
ignorance; specifically, man's ignorance of his true nature. It is
held that if man were consciously aware of his true nature he would
naturally and compellingly act in harmony with it. Since man is
basically ignorant of it he is unable to freely choose and act wisely.
His predominate experience of existence is consequently typified by
suffering.
The central epistemological thrust of Advaita Vedanta consequently
addresses the need for the attainment of right knowing and asserts that
the highest knowledge is that which dispels individual ignorance. This
raises such questions (which Vedanta addresses) as: What is the
highest knowledge? How is it known? What is the need for it? and,
What is the process by which it is individually actualized? The
consummate attainment of ultimate knowledge is referred to as
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Self-realization . where "Self" (capitalized) denotes the soul
manifesting full consciousness of itself in contradistinction to "self"
(not capitalized) which signifies the soul exhibiting a delusive state
referred to as "ego" consciousness. This latter state is held by
Vedanta to represent the soul in the state of wrongly believing itself
to be the limited mortal body and mind with which it is temporarily
identified.
Sri Shankara set down a dual epistemological position
characterized by a higher and lower knowledge. In his formulation the
lower knowledge is viewed as relative in that it concerns phenomenal
creation which is postulated as dualistic in nature. This knowledge
thereby constitutes the Vedantic elucidations of philosophical realism.
The higher knowledge addresses the Self as soul, which being in essence
the same as God, is held to be immutable and intransient. The higher
knowledge is consequently absolutistic, monistic, and idealistic in
philosophical context.
The philosophy of Vedanta certainly addresses more (as has been '
previously indicated) than the epistemological doctrine of Vedic
philosophy but a focus on this facet serves to lay a foundation for
understanding the central ideas inherent. The important Vedantic
position of the lower and higher knowledge will also be seen in
Chapters V and VI as a principal discriminating concept serving to
render apparent the possibilities available in the philosophy and
teachings of Paramahansa Yogananda toward a unified psychology; the
central thesis of this work.
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Yoga Philosophy
The principal role of Yoga philosophy is to identify and prescribe
the various means by which the individual soul is able to achieve union
with God and the manner in which life is accordingly to be conducted.
Yogananda indicates that the word "Yoga" is from the Sanskrit Yuj
meaning "union.” He states: "The highest connotation of the word yoga
in Hindu philosophy is union of the individual soul with Spirit through
scientific methods of meditation" (1976, p.483).
.There are seven major yoga methods. The method taught by
Paramhansa Yogananda is known as Raja Yoga. "Raja" means the "royal"
(complete) yoga. Speaking of it’s virtues, he writes:
It teaches scientific meditation as the ultimate means
for realizing God, and includes the highest essentials from
all other forms of Yoga. The Self-Realization Fellowship
Raja Yoga teachings outline a way of life leading to perfect
unfoldment in body, mind, and soul, based on the foundation
of Kriya Yoga meditation. (1976, p.478)
Yogananda defines Kriya Yoga: "The Sanskrit root of kriya is kri
to do, to act and react; the same root is found in the word karma, the
natural principle of cause and effect. Kriya Yoga is thus union (yoga)
with the Infinite through a certain action or rite (kriya)" (1976,
p.474). Kriya Yoga is discussed in greater detail in Chapter V.
Yogananda confirms that Patanjali was the foremost exponent of
Yoga. Patanjali outlined in his Yoga Sutras the principles of the
yogic path, and presented them as eight steps. Yogananda identifies
and briefly describes the eight steps:
The first steps are (1) yama (moral conduct), and (2)
niyama (religious observances). Yama is fulfilled by
noninjury to others, truthfulness, nonstealing, continence,
and noncovetousness. The niyama prescripts are purity of
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body and mind, contentment in all circumstances, self-
discipline, self-study (contemplation), and devotion to God
and guru.
The next steps are (3) asana (right posture); the
spinal column must be held straight, and the body firm in a
comfortable position for meditation; (4) pranayama (control
of prana, subtle life currents); and (5) pratyahara
(withdrawal of the senses from external objects).
The last steps are forms of yoga proper: (6) dharana
(concentration), holding the mind to one thought; (7)
dhyana (meditation); and (8) samadhi (superconscious
experience). This Eightfold Path of Yoga leads to the final
goal of Kaivalya (Absoluteness), in which the yogi realizes
the Truth beyond all intellectual apprehension. (1985,
pp.262-263)
A review of Yoganandafs statements, (1) identifies the conjoint
requirement in Yoga for right thought and right action; (2) illuminates
the distinction between the higher and the lower knowledge; (3)
acknowledges the restatement of the goal of all life (for the soul to
reestablish its divine identity); (4) reveals an implied ethical
system; and (5) points out the primary importance of scientific
meditation.
If there is one point which cannot ' be over-emphasized in
Yogananda's teachings, it is that Yoga is definite and scientific.
This point is repeatedly asserted throughout his writings. He
admonishes anyone interested in Yoga to practice it and thereby prove
its claims and thus validate his assertion of its scientific nature.
Yogananda goes on to discuss the scientific nature of Yoga, elaborating
its practicality, and revealing its role in the attainment of ultimate
wholeness.
In the physical sciences everything is systematized
into definite conceptions: combine two particular
substances, or two substances in a particular way, for a
certain result. The great masters of Self-Realization
Fellowship are telling you why you should seek God
120
scientifically, and the scientific way to get to Him. Every
effort you make to follow these instructions will bring to
you a definite understanding. Some read a little about the
spiritual laws, and then put the book aside. That is not
the way to Self-knowledge. You must make these truths a
practical part of your life.
Most people don’t take religion seriously. They keep
it in the realm of imagination and fancy. In India we are
taught the practical use of religion. . . . Science and
religion should go hand in hand. All the results of
scientific investigation are definite and are connected by
reason, whereas religion is often dogmatic. . . . Those who
want to seek Him earnestly should learn to do so
scientifically.
Yoga is definite and scientific. Yoga means union of
soul and God, through step-by-step methods with specific and
known results. It raises the practice of religion above the
differences of dogma. My guru,. Sri Yukteswar, extolled
Yoga; he did not, however, indicate that realization of God
thereby would be immediate. "You have to work hard for it,"
he told me. I did, and when the promised results came, I
saw that Yoga was marvelous. (1976, pp.47-48)
In summary, three Vedic philosophical systems are identified as
immanent in the philosophy and teachings of Paramahansa Yogananda. The
Sankhya system postulates the cosmogonic and cosmological doctrines;
Yoga the ethics and scientific applicational principles necessary to
achieve Self-realization. The Vedanta system, in a sense, is the
"foundation" philosophy in that it embodies and synthesizes all the
doctrines into a unified whole, yet, it basically leaves articulation
of certain discrete elements to each respective system.
In conclusion it is important to again note that Yogananda
intended his teachings to emphasize the applicational ("how-to")
approach. But the knowledge of the "what" and the "why" must always be
present in support of the "how-to." It is in this context that the
balancing of right knowledge with right action, as exemplified by the
Vedic philosophers, is deemed important and is thus evidenced.
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Historical Development and Evolution
There is one final historical feature of Hindu philosophy which is
of interest to note. The evolution and development of Indian
philosophy occurred in a way very different from European philosophy in
that the Indian systems are said to have developed side by side.
Dasgupta.summarizes this important developmental feature:
As most of the systems developed side by side through
many centuries their mutual relations also developed, and
these could be well observed. . . . Most of these systems
had very early beginnings and a continuous course of
development through the succeeding centuries, and it is not
possible to take the state of the philosophy of a particular
system at a particular time and contrast it with the state
of that system at a later time for the later state did not
supercede the previous state, but only showed a more
coherent form of it, which was generally true to the
original system but was more determinate. Evolution through
history has in Western countries often brought forth the
development of more coherent types of philosophic thought,
but in India, though the types remained the same, their
development through history made them more and more coherent
and determinate. Most of the parts were probably existent
in the earlier stages, but they were in an undifferentiated
state; through the criticism and conflict of the different
schools existing side by side the parts of each of the
systems of thought became more and more differentiated,
determinate, and coherent. (1932, pp.5-6)
From Dasgupta's statements it is clear that whatever work is
legitimately put forth today as accurate Indian philosophy must, be
essentially no different than that expounded centuries ago by the
central historical exponents. Differences, if any, should simply be
resultants of efforts to render the philosophy more differentiated,
coherent, and determinate. This is an important factor to bear in mind
in the endeavor to demonstrate that the philosophy of Paramahansa
Yogananda is a major contemporary statement of traditional Vedic
philosophy. His work therefore should not be viewed as either a new
*
122
philosophical construct or .a "watered-down" Westernized version of
Hindu philosophy. It is taken to stand on its own as a legitimate
expression of traditional Hindu philosophy rendered more determinate
and coherent and, simultaneously, equally comprehensible to both the
Western and Eastern mind.
This should not be taken as any form of contradiction or variance
of what has been stated earlier regarding Yogananda*s principal
intention of advancing a practical "how-to-live" system predicated on
Vedic principles. It is simply the case that first, of necessity, the
philosophical principles and structure must be set down and then the
applicational elements can be explicated and systematized; it is, so to
speak, a "hand-in-glove" relationship. The importance of taking this
approach was elucidated in Chapter III in the subsection "immanent
processes." It is also reflected, in part, in Hiriyana*s statement
that "the aim of studying philosophy is not merely to gratify
theoretical curiosity . . . it is also to live the right kind of life,
continuously adjusting one's conduct to one’s intellectual convictions"
(1973, p.26).
THEOLOGY
In Duessen's schema, Theology is.the first division postulated and
is defined as the doctrine of Brahman (God) as the first principle of
all things. It is earlier stated that the Vedic philosophers did not
attempt to prove the existence of God because for them no proof was
necessary; their direct experience superceded any need for such
123
activity. Further, they had little to say about God; so complete was
their conviction and so impossible--they declared--was it to describe
Him. In Upanishadic discussion the essential description of God is
found in the statement: "neti netiM--!,He is not this, nor that."
Vedic Idealism, as earlier pointed out, extended the inherent
monistic, absolutistic doctrine (i.e., the ultimate reality is one and
only one) of earliest Vedic expression to encompass the principle of
idealism. This it accomplished by asserting that the single reality is
spiritual in nature and that everything else is explained as existing
in and through it.
The immanency of this position in Yoganandars teachings is
rendered apodictic by Sri Yukteswar as he declares: "The Eternal
Father, God . . . is the only Real Substance (Sat) and is all in all in
the universe" (1972, p.1). This message is consistently woven
throughout Yogananda's teachings and little more can be said about it
in discrete context.
COSMOGONY AND COSMOLOGY
Historical Background
The cosmogony of the Upanishads embodies the doctrine of the
evolution of all things to form the universe from the first principle
Brahman. The Upanishadic cosmogony, cosmology, and ontology
subsequently came to be the cardinal province of the Sankhya system of
Hindu Philosophy. (See also Figure 3, (Sheet 3 of 4).) Discussion in
this section focuses on the Sankhya expositions to elucidate the
124
doctrine of Vedic cosmogony and cosmology as it finds expression in the
teachings of Paramahansa Yogananda.
Regarding the antiquity of Sankhya expression, Tara Mata states
that "the oldest treatise of this system is the Sankhya Karika by the
sage Kapila, whose date is pre-Mahabharatan and thus many thousands of
years old. A we 11-developed Sankhya cosmology is also to be found in
the Svetasvatara, Maitrayani, and other of the earliest Upanishads"
(Fall 1974, p.29).
The Task of Sankhya
As stated, the Sankhya doctrine primarily elucidates the origin
and nature of creation and existence. This elucidation is of critical
importance in Hindu philosophy and its import is predicated on the
notion that if the true nature of man and creation can be known and
correctly apprehended, then, man’s relationship to creation and his
Creator, his purpose in creation, and his means of achieving it can
likewise be known. In Vedic Idealism one begins with God (Brahman) for
God is all that is held to actually exist; all other so-called
existence being either apparent or relative. This is precisely where
Sankhya begins and it ends, true to its task, with a detailed
exposition on the nature of man and creation, the relationship
obtaining between the two, and the goal of man.
Key Concepts in Sankhya Doctrine
The formal teaching of Sankhya is characterized as dualistic
realism. This teaching admits of two realities; purusha and prakriti.
125
Purusha is synonomous with Atman; the soul. It is beyond the effects
of creation, consequently is forever unchanged and is intrinsically
unchangeable. Prakriti subsumes all of creation and is in a state of
perpetual flux. These two realities--purusha and prakriti--are totally
independent of each other relative to their existence. Chatterji and
Datta elaborate:
The purusa is an intelligent principle, of which
consciousness (caitanya) is not an attribute, but the very
essence. It is the self which is quite distinct from the
body, the senses and the mind (manas). It is beyond the
whole world of objects, and is the eternal ' consciousness
which witnesses the changes and activities going on in the
world, but does not itself act and change in any way.
Physical things like chairs, beds, etc., exist for the
enjoyment of beings other than themselves. Therefore, there
must be the purusa or the self . which is distinct from
prakriti or primary matter, but is the enjoyer (bhokta) of
the products of prakriti. There are many different selves
related to different bodies, for when some men are happy,
others are unhappy, some die but others live.
Prakriti is the ultimate cause of the world. It is an
eternal unconscious principle (j ada) ' which is always
changing and has no other end than the satisfaction of the
selves. (1968, pp.39-40)
Given that the principal domain of Sankhya is cosmogony and
cosmology, its essential focus is necessarily on prakriti. But, as can
be easily deduced, to understand and meaningfully discuss prakriti,
purusha must be considered. This concept serves to essentially place
the human form, (body and mind) in a hierarchial position grossly
subordinate to the soul and in a philosophical category distinctly
apart from, yet interactive with it. Stated another way, the body and
mind of man are considered in Hindu philosophy as simply--albeit
absolutely essential--instruments of mortal expression (i.e., prakritic
constructs) for the soul (purusha itself) to employ in its quest for
126
Self-realization. Seen in this light, this position clearly represents
a radical alternative to the dominate Western scientific concept of man
wherein the body-mind complex constitutes the totality of his
existential reality. Stated in the Vedic vernacular, contemporary
9
Western science admits only the existence of prakriti; and not of
purusha.
Purusha
The acceptance of purusha as the extended reality of Brahman is
universal among all orthodox Hindu philosophical systems. This can be
simply illustrated in simile, a mode of expression familiar to Indian
philosophy. The relationship of purusha to Brahman is frequently
likened to that of the wave to the ocean. The wave is an
individualized, totally dependent, expression of the ocean yet, in
essence, is no different from it. The ocean can exist without the wave
but to claim existence for the wave and simultaneously deny existence
to the ocean would be meaningless. As Yogananda puts it, the soul is
"individualized Spirit." The nature of Spirit--thus that of the
soul--he characterizes as "ever-existing, ever-conscious, ever-new Joy
[sat, chit, ananda]" (1976, p.481).
Prakriti
As evidenced in earlier discussion, purusha when expressing as
individual souls, constitutes the subtly varied expressions of Reality
and is perennially immutable and intransient. Prakriti, ir
contradistinction, is singular in nature though manifold in expression,
127
is perennially mutable and transient, and constitutes objective
(phenomenal) reality. It is the one universal substance out of which
the entire phenomenal universe-physical and psychical— has evolved.
The nature of prakriti and the processes through which it continuously
expresses its manifoldness is held by Sankhya to be knowledge essential
to the development of discriminative knowledge (vivekajnana) which is
asserted to be necessary for liberation within Sankhya doctrine. The
discussion following is limited to a brief overview of the two most
important teachings of Sankhya (relative to prakriti); the three gunas
and the 25 tattwas. A third teaching--time--is also briefly addressed
due to the uniqueness accorded it.
The three gunas. Tara Mata asseverates: "The chief teaching in
Sankhya is the nature of the three gunas, the eternal qualities or
principles of nature or prakriti, forever opposed to the purusha or
soul of man who, to be free, must realize that no action proceeds from
him but from the gunas of nature alone" (Fall 1974, p.34).
The word "guna" in Sanskrit has at least three meanings: (a)
quality, (b) rope, and (c) secondary. It is important to note, as
Dasgupta does, that "these entities . . . are substances and not mere
qualities. But it may be mentioned in this connection that in Sankhya
philosophy there is no separate existence of qualities; it holds that
each and every unit of quality is but a unit of substance" (1932,
p.243). Dasgupta continues his discussion on qualities as substance
and offers additional insight as to other meanings of the word "guna":
What we call a quality is but a particular
manifestation or appearance of a subtle entity. Things do
not possess quality, but quality signifies merely the manner
128
in which a substance reacts; any object we see seems to
possess many qualities, but the Sankhya holds that
corresponding to each and every new unit of quality, however
fine and subtle it may be, there is a corresponding subtle
entity, the reaction of which is interpreted by us as a
quality. This is true not only of qualities of external
objects but also of mental qualities as well. These
ultimate entities were thus called gunas probably to suggest
that they are the entities which by their various
modifications manifest themselves as gunas or qualities.
These subtle entities may also be called gunas in the sense
of ropes because they are like ropes by which the soul is
chained down as if it were to thought and matter. These may
also be called gunas as things of secondary importance, .
because though permanent and indestructable, they
continually suffer modifications and changes by their mutual
groupings and re-groupings, and thus not primarily and
. unalterably constant like the souls (purusa). Moreover the
object of the world process being the enjoyment and
salvation of the purusas, the matter-principle could not
naturally be regarded as being of primary importance. But
in whatever senses we may be inclined to justify the name
guna as applied to these subtle entities, it should be borne
in mind that they are substantive entities, or subtle
substances and not abstract qualities. (1932, p.244)
The more precise nature of the three gunas and the manner in which
they interact to constellate the phenomenal universe is included in the
following discussion of the 25 tattwas.
The 25 tattwas. Sankhya philosophy postulates in addition to the
soul (purusa)--the first tattwa, , 24 working principles of nature
(tattwas) . "The word tattwa.," according to Tara Mata, "is derived from
the roots Tat, That (the Ultimate Substance), and twain, thou, and thus
has the the meaning, thou art That.- Nature is the shadow of Reality,
and at the root of the phenomenal world the Noumenon shines" (Fall
1974, pp.29-30). The orthodox (Kapila) school of Sankhya enumerates
the tattwas as 25, considering the soul to be the first. The Patanjali
Sankhya counts the tattwas as 26 with Brahman elucidated as the first
cause or first tattwa.
129
The second tattwa, in the Kapila Sankhya, is prakriti, or inert
Nature; undifferentiated cosmic substance. It is this, the second,
tattwa wherein the gunas enter into and remain in prominence. The role
these gunas play in creation by constituting the remaining 23 tattwas
and a description of their respective qualities is offered by Tara
Mata:
Prakriti is merely the name given to a state of
equilibrium of three eternal opposing and diverse forces,
sattwa (illuminating), rajas (activating) and tamas
(obstructing) gunas (qualities, literally "that which guides
imperceptibly," ultimate subtle entities whose groupings and
regroupings in varying proportions make up all the created
worlds of thought and matter).
These three gunas can never reach a state of
equilibrium or undifferentiated prakriti except during
pralaya (unmanifestation of creation, the Night of Brahma
when creation sleeps; "and the earth was without form and
void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep"). The law
of karma, following prakriti or the three equilibrated gunas
because of their activities in past creations, introduces a
disturbance in prakriti. The perfect balance of the gunas
is thus broken up and Mahat Tattwa or Intelligence comes
into being as the first-born of the mysterious union of the
purusha, soul, and its fertile or productive female
principle or shakti, which is prakriti or root-nature.
Thus cosmic creation begins. Mahat (literally,
"greatest"), the third tattwa, and the first.comprehensible
working principle of nature, is composed predominantly of
the sattwa guna or illuminating quality of the three
creative principles. Rajo guna, the active force whose
function is to make manifest the other two principles or
polarities (sattwa and tamo gunas) continues its activity
and hurls the quiescent tamas or obstructing force into
manifestation to produce the fourth tattwa, that of aham,
the principle of consciousness and individuality. Aham
means "I," and is derived from the root aha, to occupy
separately.
The fifth tattwa has a preponderance of rajo guna and
is known as manas, mind. It comes from the root mana, from
which the word manush or man, a rational being, is also
derived.
Mahat, intelligence, aham, egoism, and manas, mind--as
these first evolve from the interactivity and manifestation
of the three eternal gunas of nature--are universal and
unlimited in their scope, and are only very imperfectly
130
reflected in the human world among individuals.
Nevertheless, man is in potential touch through his own
channels of intelligence,'consciousness, and mind with the
perfect source of these attributes, and great men
occasionally contact these cosmic sources directly.
Rajo guna, continuing its activities on manas, produces
the ten abstract senses--jnana-indriya, the five abstract
cognitive or knowing senses, and karma-indriya, the five
abstract conative or working senses. These are the mental
or subtle root-essences of' the later physical senses of
sound, touch, sight, taste, and smell, and of the executive
senses that enable man to speak, handle, move about,
procreate, and excrete.
Tamo guna, the principle of mass and resistance in
nature, is by now very much stirred up by rajo guna and
produces the five tanmatras, subtle form of actual matter.
This word is derived from the roots tat, that, and matra,
merely, and signifies Only That, or Merely That, the
inconceivably subtle vibratory structure of matter. The
five tanmatras, which determine all the varieties of matter
in creation or shabda (vibratory sound), sparsha (touch or
texture), rupa (form and color), rasa (taste and fluidity),
and gandha (odor).
An increase in tamo guna activity results in the
creation of the five bhutas, the elements or gross matter in
its strictly ultimate or atomic form. Bhuta means past;
their true nature has been left behind in time, i.e., they
are only effects of far subtler causes, such as the
tanmatras and so on back to prakriti.
The first of the five bhutas is akash, the ethereal
fluid that interpenetrates the universe and is the vehicle
of light and sound, and of magnetic, electrical, and cosmic
ray vibrations. The root meaning of akash is "the shining*
all-pervading."
The second bhuta is vayu, "that which flows." It is
the root-material of air and all gaseous substances, and its
function is to exert pressure.
Te j is the third bhuta. Its derivative meaning is
"light," heat, magnetism. Fire is its element, expansion
its work, and form and color its expression.
The fourth bhuta is jyD, "the nourishing." It is the
liquid element or water atom, that which contracts,
preserves, and cleanses.
The last bhuta is prithivi, "the sustaining and fixed."
It gives solidarity, compactness, and the gravitational
forces of the earth.
Each of the five bhutas has a qualitative vibration or
rhythm, caused by the resistance of tamo guna on the
expansion- of rajo guna. These vibrations and their
combinations are the typal pattern on which are based all
the movements of the universe, whether of nature or of man.
131
The twenty-five tattwas enumerated by Sankhya have now
been very briefly (and insufficiently) described, with the
following order:
(1) Purusha, the soul.
(2) Prakriti, the three gunas in equilibrium.
(3) Mahat tattwa, intelligence.
(4) Aham tattwa, consciousness, individuality
(5) Manas, mind.
(6-10) Jnana-indriyas, the five knowing sense-concepts.
(11-15) Karma-indgiyas, the five working sense-concepts.
.(16-20) Tanmatras, five vibratory structures of matter.
(21-25) Bhutas, five atomic forms or elements of matter.
All creation, of thought on the one hand, and of
matter on the other, is seen to be produced by varying
combinations and preponderances of the three creative or
causative gunas. All conscious manifestation and
purposeful growth in the phenomenal world are due solely to
the quality or guna of sattwa; all activity, energy and
movement to rajas alone; all mass, resistance, and
stability to tamas. (Fall 1974, pp.30-32)
A tabular summary of the Sankhya teachings relative to the three
causative gunas and their five bhutas, expressing the physical world as
gross matter, is presented in Figure 4. More information is contained
in this figure than has been discussed such as that of alimentatives,
biological types, and so forth; all topics inherent in Sankhya
philosophical exposition. This information may actually be considered
supplemental although its intended purpose is to depict certain
correspondences to the three gunas.
Time. Time is uniquely considered in the Sankhya teaching. Its
uniqueness resides in the fact that time (kala), per se, is recognized
but is not admitted of having substantial existence. Dasgupta
explains:
The Sankhya [does]. . . not admit the existence of any
real time; to them the unit of kala [time] is regarded as the
time taken by an atom [bhuta] to traverse its own unit of
space. It has no existence separate from the atoms and their
movements. The appearance of kala [time] as a separate
132
THE THREE GUNAS AND THEIR CORRESPONDENCES
Sattwa
Rajas
Tamas
Expansion
A ctivity
Obstruction
Intelligence
Energy
Mass
Creation
Prese rvation
Oestruct ion
Thought
Will
Feeling
Visions
Waking State
Sleep
Future
Present
Past
Potential
Manifest
Sub-Latent
Blood Constituents
White corpuscles
Red corpuscles
Carbon
Examples in Food
M ilk, wheat, rice
Red peppers, onions, liquors
M eat, poisons
THE FIVE BHUTAS AND THEIR CORRESPONDENCES
Five Bhutas
Primary Atoms
Akash
Vayu
Tej
Ap
Prithivi
Five
Elements
Ether
Air
Fire
W ater
Earth
Their
Vibration
Atom ic
Circular
T riangular
Sem i-Circular
Angular
Illustrative
Vibration
Space
Whirlwind
Flame of Fire
Ocean Waves
Earthly Particles
Property
Pervasiveness
Pressure
Light and Heat
Fluidity
Cohesion
Cognitive Senses
S o u n d
Touch
Sight
Taste
Smell
Their Organs
Ears
Skin
Eyes
Tongue
Nose
Conative Senses
Speech
Execution
Movement
Procreation
Excret ion
Their Organs
Mouth
Hands
Feet
Procreative Organs
Rectum
Biological
Types
Cerebral
Thoracic
Muscular
N u tritive
Osseous
Distinctive
Qualities
Idealistic
Assimilative
Active
Preservative
Practical
Astrological
Correspondences
Pisces-Neptune
Libra-Venus
Aries-M ars
Cancer-Moon
C a pr i cor n-Sa t urn
NOTE: This inform ation has been reproduced from ’ Systems of Hindu Philosophy
[Part 6]* by Tara M ata (S elf-R ealization, Fall 1974, pp.35-36), by permission of the
publisher, Self-R ealization Fellowship. Copyright © 1974 S elf-Realization
Fellowship. All rights reserved.
Figure 4 . Sum m ary o f the Sankhya Teachings R e la tiv e to
th e T h ree C ausative Gunas o f N a tu re and T h e ir F ive Bhutas,
Representing Final Expression in th e Physical W orld
133
entity is a creation of our buddhi (buddhinirmana) as it
represents the order or mode in which the buddhi records its
perceptions. . . . Sankhya [regards] . . . past, present,
and future, as being the modes of the constitution of the
things in its different manifesting stages of evolution
(adhvan). (1932, p.311)
Sankhya Expression in the Teachings
of Paramahansa Yogananda
Sankhya philosophy is in clear and abundant evidence in the
teachings of Yogananda although seldom is it articulated by him in the
metaphysical vernacular common to formal Sankhya expression. Two
examples of his expression embodying the Sankhya metaphysics are
offered for illustrative purposes.
In* the following discussion Yogananda discloses how creation
evolves from the mind of God. This discussion also reveals the
presence of the basis of Sri Shankara's postulate of the higher and
lower knowledge as discussed earlier.
Matter can be considered as not existing; but matter
does have relative existence. Matter exists in relation to
our mind and as an expression of invisible electronic forces
that do exist, being unchangeable and immortal.
Both water and ice are manifestations of invisible
gases and have only formal transitory existence. Similarly,
both mortal mind and matter are fleeting manifestations of
Divine Consciousness, and possess merely formal existence;
in reality only Cosmic Mind exists.
Just as a child is born through the instrumentality of
parents, so matter is dependent on mind for its existence.
Matter is born from Divine Mind and is perceptible to mortal
mind; in itself and of itself, matter has no reality, no
intrinsic existence.
The blind or nonintellectual electronic forces of
creation are nevertheless creative teleological agents
because they contain within themselves the vibrations of the
universal, conscious-of-itself life force or prana, which in
turn issued from the fiat of Divinity.
134
"God said let there be light: and there was light,"
[Genesis 1:3] that is, the projection of Divine Thought and
Will became light or vibratory energy, the flowing forth of
life current and electrons, which further vibrated more
strongly and became the diverse subtle or unseen forces of
nature, which in turn externalized themselves as the
ninety-two principal elements of matter that constitute the
universe. (1976, p.57)
Yogananda, at another time, outlined the process in a similar mode
yet with interesting subtle differences. In this description he
includes a statement on the creation of the human being.
The only difference between consciousness and matter,
mind and body, is rate of vibration. Vibration is the
motion of energy. How did this motion originate from the
Cosmic Intelligence? All the vibrations in the ether are
manifestations of the Intelligence-guided cosmic energy.
Spirit as the unmanifested Absolute is without vibration or
motion. Spirit manifested as the Creator is God the Father.
The Creator first stirred His still Spirit with the motion
of thoughts; thus God the Father’s first projection of
Creation was cosmic intelligent motion or vibration of
thought. This motion became stronger and grosser until it
changed outwardly and manifested as cosmic light and cosmic
sound (registered in the human body as the visible spiritual
eye and the audible cosmic sound of Aum or Amen) . The
vibration of the conscious cosmic energy became
progressively more gross, until it began to manifest as
divine, semi-intelligent, instinctively guided electronic
energy, and finally as the still grosser forms of gaseous,
liquid, and solid energy.
Likewise, the microcosom, or body of man, came into
being first as a vibratory thought-form, the causal body.
This in turn produced the grosser vibrations that make up
the astral or energy body of man, which produces the still
grosser vibrations that structure the solid physical body.
Just as man uses electrically projected light and shadows on
a movie screen, so the Cosmic Operator combines various
thought-frozen vibrations of cosmic light and energy to
produce in man’s consciousness the "picture" of a solid
physical body. (1976, pp.366-367)
135
Existence as a Paradox
Taking into consideration the distinctions made between prakriti
and purusha, a central question emerges: Which of the two is "man"?
The answer, paradoxically, is he is both. Man as essential principle--
the eternal, illimitable, unchangeable Self--is purusha; man as
ego--the ever-changing, limited human self--is prakriti.
This paradox and its ultimate resolution may be said to constitute
the nuclear problem of human existence and to represent the central
focus of Vedic philosophy.
Human existence may in one sense be said to represent the "grand
delusion" wherein the soul (purusha) mistakenly assumes itself to be of
creation (prakriti) through a compellingly convincing intimacy, which
consumates a completely false identity through association and
identification. The resultant is the soul’s delusive experience and
identification of itself as ego; that is, as the subject-object of
prakriti culminating as mortal man. Falsely perceiving itself as the
human form and mind, it wrongly believes the perennially transforming
dualistic experiences to which all humans are heir (e.g., life and
death, happiness and sorrow, sickness and health, love and hate, wealth
and poverty,. heat and cold, light and dark, etc.), to denote its true
nature.
In this delusive and totally engaging identification--of purusha
with prakriti--lies the genesis of all human suffering and affliction.
Suffering, thus perceived, is the primary human condition born of the
paradoxical event. And the complete eradication of it can be achieved
only by the restoration of the soul’s true identity of itself, by
136
itself, in itself, and for itself--yet, only through the agency of the
(mortal) self. This restoration of the soul’s true identity with the
simultaneous occurrence of the permanent eradication of all suffering
is what Sankhya--and all of Vedic philosophy--terms liberation. Thus
conceived, liberation becomes the goal of all humanity; and ultimately
of all living things. And when attained, consciously confirms the
Vedic dictum: ”Tat Twam asi’’--MThat art thou.”
ESCHATOLOGY
The eschatological doctrines in Yoganandars philosophy and
teachings center around the course of and the conditions for the soul's
various relocations between rounds of existence on earth and other
locales. This topic thus constitutes the doctrine of reincarnation
with principal emphases placed on man's rounds of earthly sojurns and
the conditions necessitating them. These conditions serve to introduce
the second eschatological doctrine; karma. Principal emphasis in this
section is placed on the doctrine of karma insofar as it enters
substantially into the psychological formulations of Yogananda and is a
principal determinant effecting the conditions of reincarnation.
Re incarnat ion
Yogananda states that reincarnation is "the doctrine, set forth in
Hindu scriptures, that human beings, entangled in a web of unfulfilled
material desires, are found to return again and again to earth until
they consciously regain their true status as sons of God” (1982,
137
p.478). With regard to this study four derived factors stand out in
importance in this statement:
1. Reincarnation being a doctrine set forth in Hindu scriptures
will, therefore, naturally be a doctrine in Yogananda1s philosophy and
teachings -
2. Unfulfilled material desires are viewed as the principal
element which forces human beings to return again and again to earth
(i.e., to reincarnate).
3. The process of reincarnation continues endlessly for every
human being until such time as there is individual resolve and
requisite- effort sufficient to effect: (a) a conscious volitional
extinguishment of the ongoing mental-fueling of material desire, (b)
the extirpation of unresolved desires and, (c) the resolution of
particular consequences as many have been derived from the fulfillment
of past desires. This constitutes the "best effort" requirements of
each person. But it is also said that human effort alone is
insufficient for the task— so great is the karmic backlog which in
substantial measure is generated by desire-motivated activities.
Therefore, in the terminal phase, the intercession of God and the Guru
is said to be necessary to enable the goal of Self-realization.
4. The terminus ad quem for the recurrent reincarnational cycle
is realization of the Self as soul. And with that attainment comes the
complete supersession of the law itself and the consequent achievement
of total freedom.
Assuming the facticity of the preceding statements, discussior.
moves next to the corollary subject of karma which basically deals with
138
the topic of desire in all of its ramifications. Before moving on,
however, it may prove of interest to some to point out that the
doctrine of reincarnation has not always been exclusively Eastern
domain.
At times some Westerners try to assert the Eastern doctrines are
"theirs" and consequently are at such variance with "ours" as to
represent unimportant, curiously quaint, hence insignificant
propositions. However, relative to this work, it must be asserted that
if there is a science to, or a scientific basis of, existence, then all
of mankind must necessarily be subject to it. The a priori proposition
of existential universality is, it must be remembered, one of the basic
positions this work embraces and endeavors to elucidate. Conclusion of
discussion on reincarnation is made with a disclosure by Yogananda
regarding the history of this doctrine in Western belief:
The early Christian church accepted the doctrine of
reincarnation, which was expounded by the Gnostics and by
numerous church fathers, including Clement of Alexandria,
the celebrated Origen (both 3rd century), and St. Jerome
(5th century). The doctrine was first declared a heresy in
A.D. 553 by the Second Council of Constantinople. At that
time many Christians thought the doctrine of reincarnation
afforded man too ample a .stage of time and space to
encourage him to strive for immediate salvation. But truths
suppressed lead disconcertingly to a host of errors. The
millions have not utilized their "one lifetime" to seek God,
but to enjoy this world--so uniquely won, and so shortly to
be forever lost! The truth is that man reincarnates on
earth until he has consciously regained his status as a son
of God. (1985, p.199)
Karma
Earlier in this chapter, in the presentation of the 25 tattwas, it
was noted that karma was the law which introduced the initial
139
disturbance in prakriti effecting disequilibration of the otherwise
equilibrated three gunas; sattwa, rajas, and tamas. The consequent
disturbance was said to have effected "the mysterious union of the
purusha (soul), and its fertile or productive female principle or
shakti, which is prakriti or root-nature." And of this union was
conceived Mahat Tattwa or Intelligence; the first tattwa. Thus
reviewed, karma is seen as the primal force (law) which effected the
primigenial illusion-producing delusion-inducing bond between the soul
and Nature (prakriti); that is, in its most cosmic conceptualization,
karma may be conceived as the lawful catalyst which precipitated the
veil of delusion over the soul thus rendering it falsely believing
itself to be the mortal mind and body--the construct of Nature.
The Two Primary Modes
In its grandest mode karma is referred to as sahaja karma. As it
relates to individual human expression it is called jiva karma. Swami
Anandamoy Giri explains these two modes:
The law of karma . . . is based on the principle of
duality--cosmic action--and governs all actions in creation.
The word karma comes from the Sanskrit root word kri, "to
do." This cosmic law of karma is called sahaja karma;
nature’s action. Sri Sri Paramahansa Yogananda defined it
thus: "Karma is organized movement in space, related to
animate and inanimate things."
Sahaja karma is the law of harmony, of balance. In the
cosmos, it governs the motion of the stars and planets. It
governs also the evolution of life--from mineral to plant to
animal to man. In man, sahaja karma governs the involuntary
functions, such as circulation, digestion, etc.
Man alone has freedom of choice and the power to
reason. Therefore, he sets into motion, through his actions
and thoughts, the human karma, or jiva karma. It is, of
course, the same universal law of cause and effect, but man
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applies it directly through his free choice of action and
thought. (March 1974, p. 45)
Subsequent discussion of the doctrine of karma in this work will refer
only to jiva karma unless otherwise indicated.
The doctrine of karma is a very important one to understand for in
the context of it the subjects of free will, responsibility, destiny,
justice, freedom, and being are found to have their explanation.
Yogananda defines karma as:
Effects of past actions, from this or previous
lifetimes; from the Sanskrit kri, to do. The equilibriating
law of karma, as expounded in the Hindu scriptures, is that
of action and reaction, cause and effect, sowing and
reaping. In the course of natural righteousness [rita],
each man by his thoughts and actions becomes the molder of
his destiny. Whatever energies he himself, wisely or
unwisely, has set in motion must return to him as their
starting point, like a circle inexorably completing itself.
An understanding of karma as the law of justice serves to
free the human mind from resentment against God and man. A
man's karma follows him from incarnation to incarnation
until fulfilled or spiritually transcended. (1976, p. 474)
Karma thus perceived can rightfully be considered the lawful
equilibriator, the cosmic jurisprudence, by which the results of every
man's actions are inexorably rendered in the course of variant
temporality. Through this cosmic agency then, as Yogananda asserts,
"each man by his thoughts and actions becomes the moulder of his
destiny." If this be true, then we must ask for what reasons do we
observe and experience so much pain, misery, avarice, and affliction
about and within us? Surely, we must reason, no one of sound mind
would by design and intention choose to create such negative states
purposely. And yet it seems, by the dictates of this doctrine, that we
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indeed do; although obviously seldom (if ever) with direct conscious
intent.
Ignorance: the Root-Cause of Human Affliction
The basic cause for this core problem of existence is viewed by
the Hindu mind as ignorance; but ignorance as conceived in a unique
mode. Swami Sri Yukteswar, Yogananda's spiritual teacher, explains
this mode of ignorance:
Ignorance, Avidya, is misconception, or is the
erroneous conception of the existence of that which does not
exist. Through Avidya man believes that this material
creation is the only thing that substantially exists, there
being nothing beyond, forgetting that this material creation
is substantially nothing and is a mere play of ideas on the
Eternal Spirit, the only Real Substance, beyond the
comprehension of the material creation. This Ignorance is
not only a trouble in itself but is also the source of all
the other troubles of man. (1977, p.27)
Sri Yukteswar’s concluding statement clearly denotes this
Ignorance to be the genesis of all "other troubles” of man.
The Five Primal Troubles of Man
In Vedic philosophy and, therefore, the philosophy of Yogananda,
these ’’other troubles” referred to are four in number, being: Egoism,
Tenacity, Attachment, and Aversion. Together with Ignorance they are
referred to as the five kiesas--afflictions or troubles--of every
mortal being. Sri Yukteswar defines these five problems and briefly
comments on their action:
Avidya, Ignorance, having the twofold power of
polarity, manifests as egoism, attachment, aversion, and
(blind) tenacity.
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The darkening power of Maya produces egoism and (blind)
tenacity; the polarity power of Maya produces attachment
(attraction) and aversion (repulsion).
Egoism results from a lack of discrimination between
the physical body and the real Self.
Tenacity is a result of natural conditioning (belief in
Nature and her laws as final, instead of belief in the all
causative powers of the Soul).
Attachment means thirst for the objects of happiness.
Aversion means desire for the removal of the objects of
unhappiness.
By the influence of these five troubles--Ignorance,
Egoism, Attachment, Aversion, and Tenacity to the material
creation--man is induced to involve himself in egoistic
works and in consequence he suffers. (19 77, pp.28;29)
The consequence of the influence of the five afflictions--
involvement in egoistic works--causes man to erroneously believe his
body is his being; that is, his exclusive existential reality which
together with Nature constitutes reality in toto. Yogananda explains
the process and the truth behind it:
Identifying himself with a shallow ego, man takes for
granted that it is he who thinks^ wills, feels, digests
meals, and keeps himself alive, never admitting through
reflection (only a little would suffice) that in his
ordinary life he is naught but a puppet of past actions
(karma) and of Nature or environment. Each man’s
intellectual reactions, feelings, moods, and habits are
merely effects of past causes, whether of this or a prior
life. (1985, p.284)
Sri Yukteswar just prior asserted that because man involves
himself in egoistic works he suffers. And he also stated that the
polarity power of Maya produces in man attachment and aversion, that
is, "thirst for objects of happiness” and "desire for the removal of
the objects of unhappiness" respectively. Further, in the beginning of
this discussion on karma, two types--sahaja (cosmic law or Nature's
action) and jiva (human) --were identified and both were said to be the
same universal law of cause and effect; but, the second (jiva) man
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applied directly through his free choice of action and thought. It is
at this very nexus that the genesis of all human suffering is observed
to be spawned. Yogananda confirms that "the cosmic order (rita) that
upholds the universe is not different from the moral order that rules
man's destiny. He who is unwilling to observe the universal moral
precepts is not seriously determined to pursue truth"(1985, p.266).
An Interim Review
The essential significance of the doctrine of karma in Yogananda's
philosophy, as it has been presented to this point, is in consideration
of the following: (a) the prime motivating force in mortal existence
is desire, (b) desire is uniquely expressed within each person
positively and negatively--as attachment and aversion respectively, (c)
the blind (ignorant) pursuit of desire, that is, without awareness of
or regard for moral--cosmic--order, invariantly leads to violation of
the law, (d) violation of the law produces all existential misery and
suffering, and (e) the mere incurrence of misery and suffering in and
of itself neither effects complete expiation of past-generated
consequences (I.e., results of improper thought and action), nor does
it inhibit the possibility of future recurrences.
Statement (e), in the preceding, requires further clarification
hence serves to introduce the final discussion segment of this
crucially important topic. Subsequent discussion briefly introduces
the notions of how karma manifests, how karma conditions free will, and
the three kinds of human karma. Discussion of the primary
system--Patanjali's Eight-fold Path of Yoga--and the principal method
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of the system--Kriya Yoga--responsible for its (karma’s) supersession,
according to Yogananda's teachings, are discussed in the next chapter.
How Karma Manifests
The manner and mode in which personal karma manifests for each
individual is a complex and often misunderstood process. A brief
discussion on this important topic clarifies the process as it is
generally understood and accepted in the Vedic tradition and certainly
as Yogananda intends it to be understood within the context of his
philosophy.
A common misconception equating karma with fate is first
addressed. The importance in clarifying this erroneous belief lies in
the fact that if karma is understood as fatalism, then the concepts of
free will and responsibility are necessarily invalidated. The
principal psychological consequence of this false notion is that the
person holding it can be left to feel the victim of what he believes to
be uncontrollable external forces and thereby becomes inclined to
capitulate to them. Yogananda explains:
The law of action, or karma, is not fatalism. The
effects of whatever you have done may be changed. Many
people confuse karma with what they call fate. The effect
of an action for which a person is responsible may not come
to him until a long time afterward, when he has forgotten
about the action. Not being able to account for the effect
because he has forgotten its cause, he decides that he must
be a victim of fate.
The idea of fate springs from ignorance of the real
causes that operate to produce a particular event. The
seed-effects of our actions do not always immediately
sprout; and if we happen to think of the possible
consequences, we quickly forget if the results are not
immediately forthcoming. But the seed effects born of those
actions remain hidden, ready to germinate into the seemingly
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-----------------------------------
sudden and unexpected events of life. Then we mistakenly
think them to be caused by an external fate. But there
really is no such force as fate. Our lives are governed by
our past actions.
Different habits are controlling our different lives.
Everything we are now, and everything that is happening to
us now, comes from the past. . . . You should not be a
fatalist, going through life feeling beaten and thinking
that everything disagreeable that happens to you is caused
by an unjust fate. Nothing rules you. You are the
architect of your destiny. (SRF, Note 4')
As Yogananda points out here, "the effect'of an action for which a
person is responsible may not come to him until a long time afterward,
when he has forgotten about the action." Considering this notion in
the context of reincarnation, what seems apparent is that karma accrued
in one lifetime will not all be compensated for in that same period.
Accordingly, one’s "karmic account," so to speak, must in some way
carry forth into subsequent incarnations for compulsory resolution.
This notion is seemingly close to the doctrine of necessitarianism--
results follow by invariable sequence from causes and, therefore, the
will is not free--but is, in fact, very different from it. In
necessitarianism there is no interventional possibility and no exit
from the cause-effect sequence. In the doctrine of karma both are
possible and ultimately inevitable. But until one is prompted tc
intervene and pursue exiting, the order of "natural righteousness”
naturally prevails. Thus a reservoir of unresolved consequences (i.e.,
karmas) is added to and drawn from in each lifetime. Those drawn fron
the reservoir work to determine conditions of existence in ways very
often consciously indeterminable for, it must be remembered, effects
often result from actions long since forgotten (e.g., past lifetimes)
Patanjali asserts these karmas, when they are brought forth for
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expression, produce lives of different class, length, and experience.
Swami Anandamoy Giri comments on these three manifestations:
"Class” means the type of family and environment into
which one is born (worldly, spiritual, commercial, artistic,
urban, agrarian, etc.). "Length" means the number of
experiences one must undergo in this school of life on
earth. "Experience" is basically of two kinds: pleasant or
unpleasant. Persons who enjoy the experience of culture and
wealth may also know much suffering; and simple, poor people
may nevertheless have a pleasant, happy life. (March 1974,
p.47)
Thus we can readily determine from these comments the basic manner
in which karma is said to manifest and we also observe that karma
rightly conceived as consequences is experienced in both pleasant and
unpleasant ways.
How Karma Conditions Free Will
Subscription to the belief that his body and mind collectively
constitute the summation of his existential reality, man precipitates a
compulsory interaction between the agencies of karma and free will
which inevitably leads to the former restricting expression of the
latter. This dynamic is affirmed by Yogananda when he states that
"man's forgetfulness of his divine resources (the result of his misuse
of free will) is the root cause of all other forms of suffering" (1985,
p.560). Swami Anandamoy Giri explains this point in more detail:
We are taught by the scriptures that man has been
created in the image of God, in the sense that the soul is
God within man. The soul has all the divine potential of
omnipresent Spirit. As soul, man has the omnipotent free
will of Spirit, even to the extent that he can change cosmic
law . But because of maya and the klesas, under whose
influence he has broken the law of karma in past
incarnations, man's free will is obscured and limited by the
results of his wrong actions and thoughts.
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Tendencies resulting from past actions and thoughts are
called samskaras. Actions that are not influenced by the
past, but are guided solely by the dictates of free will,
are called purushakaras. However, as we have seen, this
free will is limited by the wrong actions and thoughts of
the past, until their effects are worked out. Thus,
physical illness, moods, lack of mental peace, birth into a
class that suffers persecution, and other unhappy results of
past wrong actions, inhibit our free will until we have
worked out the lessons inherent in these experiences. (March
1974, pp.47-48)
This explanation renders explicit the Vedic notion of absolute
freedom as an inherent quality or aspect of the soul. Considered in
this light, it is clear how the process of Self-realization totally
frees one from all pain and suffering. For it is unambiguously
affirmed that it is not only possible but of eventual absolute
necessity that cosmic law be superceded by each and every soul. In
other words, the totality of karma— its free will restricting power,
its pain and pleasure inducing power, nay the very law itself — is, due
to its very nature, origin, and relationship, transcended. Stated
another way, with the cleaving of the ages-old identificational bond of
soul with Nature (purusha with prakriti), the soul becomes forever
freed of the compulsory inductions of Nature's law. But until this end
is realized, we are, each and every one, conditioned by and limited to
the relentless operation of this powerful and totally impartial law.
And to the degree we are cognizant of it and willing to live in concert
with it, to that degree will we experience and understand freedom and
bondage, pain and pleasure in mortally-transforming spiritually-
transcending ways.
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The Three Kinds of Human Karma
The last statement by Swami Anandamoy Giri introduced the terms
samskaras and purushakaras. Samskaras together with two other notions
identify the three kinds of human karma. Samskaras, it was said, are
tendencies resulting from past actions and thoughts. But there is more
to be said about them. Many of these tendencies while immanent are
also latent; that is, they, are inoperable in a person’s life pending
the presence of conditions necessary and sufficient for their
activation and expression. And when it is said that they are
tendencies from past actions and thoughts this means from past
lifetimes. Given that the reservoir of karma retains the results of
innumerable thoughts and actions from an untold number of lifetimes, it
is perfectly understandable why it is impossible for the greater number
of them to ever express in anyone lifetime. Those samskaras which
remain totally latent throughout life constitute one kind of human
karma.
The samskaras which do become activated and consequently condition
human thought, action, and feeling are the second kind of human karma.
This is our karma which is said to be active and thus accessible for
resolution in this lifetime; often in the present. Swami Anandamoy
Giri explains its workings and the proper attitude with which it should
be received to make it f acilitative; that is, contributive to our
highest personal good:
We should not bemoan the fact that we meet with all
kinds of adverse conditions and circumstances. These bad
karmic results are not merely obstacles in our lives; rather
they should serve as an incentive to bring out our will
power and determination to overcome all obstacles. It has
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been rightly said that adversity causes some men to break;
others, to break records. Often adversity and suffering are
necessary to drive us out of the rut of an ordinary
materialistic existence. Many who have become
. . . [Self^realized] attained their . . . [realization] as
a result of the goadings of severe suffering and great
misfortune. (March 1974, p.48)
The third type of human karma is that karma which we are presently
creating and developing. Our ceaseless thoughts and neverending
behaviors of our every conscious moment are inexorably working to this
very end. To the extent these thoughts and behaviors are negatively
conditioned or persuaded by the truth-obfuscating influence of
activating samskaras, to that extent are our interim goals--happiness
and freedom from want, fear, and suffering--and our ultimate
goal--Self-realization--eclipsed. And to the extent present thought
and action is eclipsed by the conditioning presence of active
samskaras, again, to that extent we generate new contributions to our
already seemingly inexhaustable reservoir of karmic reserves. Only
when thought and action is initiated as a response to purushakar--free
will-determined action--can positive karma or sans karma outcomes be
realized.
To conclude, in the following presentation Yogananda submits a
succinct overview of karma and also describes where the "seed"
tendencies of one's past actions and those of current actions are
stored:
Karma is the law of action. Mind or body in a specific
.form of movement is termed "action.” Every action mentally
or physically performed, consciously or unconsciously, has a
specific effect on the life of man. These good and bad
effects of actions in this present life remain in the
subconsciousness, and those seed effects brought over from
past existences are hidden in the superconsciousness. The
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seed effects of actions--good or bad--are stored in the
subconsciousness or superconsciousness until one develops
spiritually to the point where his actions are no longer
identified with feeling or personal attachment. The ideal
is- not total • inaction or inertia; rather, to cognize
experiences without desire for the fruit (outcome) of
action. Action is necessary to life on this plane, but it
should be performed with unselfish ambition if one is to
avoid imprisoning karmic chains.
Action that is performed in this life by free will and
intelligence is called free action, or Purushakar; actions
performed under the influence of habits established by
actions in past lives are called Samskar. Purushakar means
action performed by free will. Samskar means action
performed by influence. Actions that come under the
classification of Samskar are those past habits, or actions
of past lives, which come as the instincts and habits of
this life. This inner environment governs your life. (SRF,
Note 4)
This concludes discussion on a very vital doctrine in the
philosophy and teachings of Paramahansa Yogananda. The essential
importance of the doctrine of karma and the next to be
discussed--epistemology--is that these two establish the essential loca
for: (a) understanding the pragmatic necessity of a spiritually-based
unified psychology and (b) the requisite insight into the indispensable
means by which the highest psychological achievement--Self-
realization--is to be attained.
EPISTEMOLOGY
By way of review, a section in Chapter III addressed an important
epistemological consideration related to the development of the Vedas.
The essential point made in that presentation which is important to
bring to this discussion is that Hindu thought has since a time of dim
antiquity held that all knowledge reaches man from higher sources; that
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is, no knowledge originates within man. Yogananda confirms this Vedic
assertion as he adduces: "Thoughts are universally and not
individually rooted; a truth cannot be created, but only perceived"
(1985, p. 178). It is the referenced act of "perceiving" that is
central to this discussion. For what is important here is Yogananda* s
confirmation that truth can be perceived. What this is taken to mean
is that the truth he refers to is pure--unalloyed--Truth; that is, it
contains no falsity, no fiction whatsoever. The question naturally
arises as to how and through what medium of knowledge this state of
certitude can be actualized. The answer, as will be shown, is the
medium of intuition.
The importance for this chapter in pursuing this topic is that
Yogananda also affirms that "it is through intuition that humanity
reaches Divinity" (1982, p.83). Since, as repeatedly pointed out,
Divinity (Brahman) is the same in essence as the soul (Atman), it
follows that intuition is the method of knowledge whereby the Self may
be truly (fully) apprehended. And this complete apprehension of the
Self (Self-realization) will subsequently be shown to be the attainment
of the ultimate psychological state and its unqualified expression..
A brief discussion of intuition as an instrument of knowledge is
presented to facilitate understanding of the form of knowledge
essential to the Self-realization process. To clarify its categorical
position as an instrument of knowledge, it is helpful to precede
discussion with a few comments on the other two instruments of
knowledge--perception and inference--in Yogananda*s epistemological
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taxonomy. The importance in taking this developmental approach is
underscored by Yogananda’s averment:
How and how far can we know the ideal, the truth? To
show how we know the ideal we must consider how we know the
actual world. We must deal with the process of knowing the
world. Then we shall see whether the process of knowing the
world is the same as the process of knowing the ideal, and
whether the acutal world is separate from tho ideal or
whether the latter pervades the former--only the process of
knowing the two being different. (1982, pp.74-75)
Several comments on Yogananda’s statement are necessary to clarify
two points. First, the "ideal” and the ’’truth” he refers to is
synonymous with the realization of the Self as soul. Second, the
’’knowing of the ideal" will be seen to denote a mode of knowledge
(knowing) substantially different from the more traditionally accepted
sense of that process. The outstanding difference this other mode of
knowing will bring to our awareness is perhaps most easily charac
terized as the experiential consciousness of being in concurrent
at-onement-with in contradistinction to our more normal dualistic state
of "me” in here and "it” out there. The former is affirmed a real and
necessary mode.
Perception
Perception is the fundamental method by which we sensually cognize
the tangible phenomenal world (reality). Our five so-called physical
senses are the intervening elements between all that is ’’out there" and
what we individually perceive the out there "stuff" to be; which we in
turn and throughout time store data on, integrate, analyze, synthesize,
act on, react to, and so forth. Cognizance of and interpretation of
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the products of perception and the associated mental operations are the
province of the mind and the grist of the intellect. Yogananda
explains the normative perceptual process within the Vedic context:
Our senses are, as it were, windows, through which
stimuli from the outside come and strike the mind, which
passively receives these impressions. Unless the mind
operates, no impression can he. made on it by the stimuli
coming from the outside through the sense-windows.
Mind not only furnishes the connections to the stimuli
received through the different senses, but stores their
influences in the form of impressions. However, these
impressions remain a confused, disconnected mass until the
discriminative faculty (buddhi) operates on them. A
relevant connection is then established and the details of
the outer world are recognized as such. They are projected,
so to speak, and known in the forms of time and space,
having distinct associations--quantity, quality, measure,
and meaning. A house is then known as a house, and not as a
post. This is the result of the operation of the intellect
(buddhi).
We may see an object, feel it, and then hear the sound
of it when struck, our mind receiving these impressions and
storing them. (Buddhi) interpets them and seems to project
them in the form of a house with its various parts--size,
shape, color, form, fashion, and its relation to others in
the present, past, or future--in time and space. This is
the way that knowledge of the world arises. (1982,
pp.75-76)
From Yoganandafs description it is evident that perception is not
the necessary knowledge instrument to achieve the desired goal of
unity--transcendent diversity. This is so as it involves time and
space and thus, by nature, is necessarily of diversity. Yogananda
confirms this in his statement:
We know that the intellect can work only upon the
materials supplied by the senses. It is certain that the
senses give us only the stimuli of qualities and variety.
Not only do the senses give variety, but intellect itself
deals with variety and remains in the region of variety.
Though it can think of Trunity in diversity," it cannot be
one with it. This is its drawback. Intellectual perception
cannot really give the true nature of the one Universal
Substance underlying diverse manifestations.
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This is the verdict of reason itself. When buddhi
turns back upon itself to judge how far it is capable of
knowing Reality by interpreting the sense-impressions, it
finds itself hopelessly confined within the domain of the
sense-world. There is no loophole through which it can peep
into the supersensuous world. (1982, pp.76-77)
Given that the first instrument of knowledge--perception--is
insufficient to directly apprehend Reality (the* truth behind reality)
we shall move next to consider the power of inference; the second
instrument of knowledge.
Inference
Inference is, as Yogananda states, ,fanother way of deriving
knowledge of the world . . . based on experience--on perception--be it
deductive or inductive'1 (1982, p. 78). Thus viewed, inference as a
knowledge instrument is incapable of providing any new information. It
is only capable of manipulating the sensually-derived perceptual data
to enable broader use of it but, again, does not in any way contribute
to the fund of it.
Consequently, inference too is unable to serve to effect direct
apprehension of Reality. In fact, both perception and inference in a
rather compelling way serve to actually militate against this very
goal. Yogananda reviews the process and points out the inherent
problem:
No matter what forms of thought, reasoning, inference,
or imagination we employ, we are still not face to face with
Reality. Reason or thought may arrange and systematize
facts of experience; it can endeavor to see things as a
whole; it may try to penetrate into the mystery of the
world. But its effort is hampered by the materials on which
it works--facts of experience, sense impressions. They are
bald, hard facts, disconnected, limited by our powers of
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perception. The materials disturb rather than help the
thought process, which itsielf has a restless continuity.
(1982, pp.79-80)
The problem Yogananda identifies is the fact that the cognitive
process is by its very nature a restlessness-inducing activity in that
it operates on the subject matter of the plurality of people, places,
things, events, conditions, processes, and so on; all happening "out
there" in the endless stream of time. This diversity-invested
enterprise thus precludes the induction of the concentrated, that is,
single-object-identified mind advanced by Yogananda as the state
necessary for the experiential perception of the supersensuous
world--Reality.
Before leaving discussion on perception and inference on the basis
they are incapable of yielding Self-knowledge, that is, proof of one’s
existence, there is another though perhaps less critical question to
ask. Are perception and inference able to provide us with all the
knowledge we need to completely know even the sensual (phenomenal)
world? For if the answer is that they cannot, then assurely they will
be unable to provide the more critical answer regarding proof of
existence; the answer to which will be seen to exist in the
supersensuous only. Yogananda responds:
Assuredly not. There is an infinite number of facts,
things, laws, and connections in nature and even in our own
organism that are still a sealed book to mankind. Far less,
then, shall we be able to know the supersensuous realm by
perception and thoughts. (1982, pp.81-82)
On this same theme, Nobel prizeman in physiology Charles Robert
Richet comments:
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Very strange, very wonderful, seemingly very improbable
phenomena may yet appear which, when once established, will
not astonish us more than we are now astonished at all that
science has taught us during the last century. . . . It is
assumed that the phenomena which we now accept without
surprise, do not excite our astonishment because they are
understood. But this is not the case. If they do not
surprise us, it is not because they are understood, it is
because they are familiar; for if that which is not
understood ought to surprise us, we should be surprised at
everything--the fall of a stone thrown into the air, the
acorn which becomes in oak, mercury with expands when it is
heated, iron attracted by a magnet.
The science of today is a light matter. . . . Those
ariiazing truths that our descendants will discover are even
now all around us, staring us in the eyes, so to speak; and
yet we do not see them. But it is not enough to say that we
do not see them; we do not wish to see them--for as soon as
an unexpected and unfamiliar fact appears, we try to fit it
into the framework of the commonplaces of accepted
knowledge, and are indignant that anyone should dare to
experiment further, (cited in Yogananda, 1979, pp.178-179)
On this note, of having demonstrated the inability of perception
and thought to yield all knowledge of the sensual world (reality),
discussion proceeds to intuition.
Intuition
Intuition is the third and last instrument of knowledge in
Yogananda's instrumental epistemology. Intuition is less easy to
define as Yogananda attests:
It is very difficult to define intuition, for it is too
near to every one of us; every one of us feels it. Do we
not know what the consciousness of existence is? Every one
knows it. It is too familiar to admit of definition. Ask
one how he knows he exists; he will remain dumb. He knows
it, but he cannot define it. He may try to explain, but his
explanation does not reveal what he inwardly feels.
Intuition of every form has this peculiar character. (1982,
p.83)
157
Clearly, from what Yogananda has just said, he is implying there
is a hierarchy in his instrumental taxonomy. This is indicated when he
essentiaTly" confirms'* thatr* intuition^ is** the" vehicle' enabling' proof * - af
one's existence. He reviews the ineffectualness of sense-perception
and thought to provide this proof:
How do we know that we exist? Through sense-percep-
tion? Do the senses first tell us that we exist--whence the
consciousness of existence comes? That can never be, for
the consciousness of existence is presupposed in the attempt
of the senses to let us know of our existence. Sense cannot
consciously be aware of anything without our first knowing
that we exist in the very act of sensing.
Does inference, the thought process, tell us that we
exist? Assuredly not. For the materials of thought must be
sense-impressions, which, as we have just found, cannot tell
us of our existence, as that feeling is already presupposed
in them. Nor can the process of thought give us the
consciousness of existence, for the latter is already
implied in the former. When, by comparing ourselves with
the outer world, we endeavor to think or infer that we exist
therein, the consciousness of existence is already present
in the very act of thinking and inferring. (1982, pp. 82-83)
Yogananda continues by affirming the ability of the intuitive
faculty to confirm our existence and notes that in fact sense and
thought are both made possible by it thereby confirming its
superiority:
Then, if sense or thought fails, how do we know that we
exist? It is only by intuition that we can know this. Such
knowing is one form of intuition. It is beyond sense and
thought--they are made possible by it. (1982, p. 83)
The superiority of intuition is further amplified as Yogananda
declares that full knowledge of the sensuous world can only by
accomplished through knowledge of the supersensuous. Two related
points previously discussed should be remembered here: (a) full
knowledge of the sensuous world can never be achieved through the
158
instruments of perception and inference, and (b) the supersensuous
world can be known only through the instrument of intuition.
Therefore, as Yogananda declares:
Intuition .... is the process by which we know the
supersensuous world--the world that is beyond senses and
thoughts. It is true that the supersensuous expresses
itself in and through the sensuous, and to know the latter
in completeness is to know the former; but the process of
knowing the two must be different. (1982, p. 81)
Summary
To conclude this discussion on Yogananda1s doctrine of
epistemology let us consider his summarization:
Intuition comes form within; thought form without.
Intuition gives a face-to-face view of Reality; thought
gives an indirect view of it. Intuition, by a strange
sympathy, sees Reality in its totality, while thought chops
it up into parts. (1982, p. 82)
An interesting speculation naturally derives from an understanding
of the discussion in this section. It has long been the belief of many
academic scholars that Vedic philosophy has laid the claim to higher
consciousness states through the attainment of profound states of
knowledge. Fundamentally, of course, from Yogananda's confirmation
this is a true statement when and only when it is predicated on the
epistemological stance herein presented. In other words, it
necessarily entails the pragmatic validity of intuition as the
exclusive instrument of knowledge enabling the direct apprehension of
the supersensual world (Reality) and the complete comprehension of the
sensual world (reality). This achievement occurs, however, as will be
pointed out in Chapter V, as a direct evolutional consequent of guided
159
self-development activities on the part of the individual and not, as
is commonly supposed by many intellectuals, as a more or less
spontaneous occurrence resulting at an appropriate moment where the
attainment of a "critical mass" of perceptual-inferential knowledge
eventuates. The importance in understanding this critical distinction
can scarcely be overstated. For it is the essential pragmatic
factor--the sine qua non--in the psychology of Paramahansa Yogananda.
CONCLUSION
This chapter has identified which of the six systems of orthodox
Hindu philosophy are in particular evidence in the philosophy and
teachings Paramahansa Yogananda and has drawn out of these identified
systems key elements important to this effort.
Major emphasis were placed on three important doctrines; Cosmogony
and Cosmology, Eschatology, and Epistemology. These doctrines were
rather extensively discussed for reasons, which at this point, should
be readily apparent. Specifically, they constitute the essential bases
for the development of the psychology of Paramahansa Yogananda, the
subject, in part, of the next chapter.
Insofar as the concepts developed in this chapter for the most
part enter intimately into the development of Yogananda's psychology, a
review of these concepts with essential points distilled out
constitutes the first section of the next chapter. Appropriately,
then, no further summarization or analysis is considered necessary for
this chapter and discussion proceeds directly to Chapter V.
160
V. THE PSYCHOLOGY OF PARAMAHANSA YOGANANDA
AND WESTERN PSYCHOTHERAPY
This chapter has two principal tasks to achieve. The first is to
briefly discuss the psychology in the philosophy and teachings of
Paramahansa Yogananda. This effort is accomplished through discussion
in three sections. The first section reviews certain principal
philosophical doctrines for the purpose of developing a foundation on
which to derive and build his psychology.
The second addresses certain core psychological principles found
in his teachings. In this section is also discussed the concept of a
unified psychology, the task the title of this work suggests. The
third section presents the Eight-fold Path of Yoga as advanced by the
sage Patanjali, the ancient exponent of Yoga. Its intrinsic relevance
to Yogananda's philosophy and teachings is elucidated as is that of
Kriya Yoga; the technique of central importance which is said to
constitute the essence of the teachings of Yogananda.
The second principal task of this chapter is to provide an
overview of Western psychotherapy. The subject of psychotherapy is
quite complex and diffuse. Therefore, the main effort in this section
is to first summarize the current operational state of the discipline.
This task explores the variant extant systems and examines the growth
161
and proliferation of these systems over the past several decades. An
historical background review is also presented to familiarize the
reader with the principal historical ,frootsM of contemporary Western
psychotherapy.
An examination of the major philosophical positions responsible
for shaping dominant Western psychological belief systems is conducted
through a summary discussion in a section devoted to that purpose. It
is believed that this task is essential in this effort insofar as this
work is basically philosophical and theoretical in nature. Therefore,
to enable any type of parallel discussion, the subject matter has to
have a reasonable degree of compatible content and context. Four
philosophical positions are consequently reviewed.
A third section summarizes four major psychological systems which
have made a substantial imprint on the face of the American psyche.
The fourth section endeavors to answer the question: What is
psychotherapy? This is found not to be an easy question to answer,
yet, it does force out, so to speak, shared items of focus within the
many different systems.
The fifth and final section speaks to the matter of the social
implications and implied responsibilities of both the therapist and the
society which he typically represents.
162
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF PARAMAHANSA YOGANANDA
Principal Philosophical Doctrines Reviewed
This section reviews certain principal doctrines in the philosophy
of Yogananda with the intention of developing a cohesive foundation
upon which to subsequently discuss his principal psychological
doctrines. Specifically, four topic areas are reviewed for the purpose
of distilling out certain core concepts and precepts which have been
designated as salient for use in the development of basic statements of
principles found to be inherent in the psychological formulations of
Paramahansa Yogananda.
Metaphysics
This topic is briefly discussed at the start because it has not
been addressed in specific terms prior. It is important to address the
subject of metaphysics in this work for the simple and obvious reason
that much of what has been said and is yet to be said falls within the
purvue of this topic. And for reasons presumed apparent, it is not a
subject most scientifically-minded persons feel great comfort with.
The prefix "meta" means either "after" or "beyond." Thus it is
generally taken to mean that branch of knowledge which is beyond the
theoretical-empirical limits of scientific--phenomenally-based--physics
and is usually considered the realm of the philosopher. Webster
defines it as "that division of philosophy which includes ontology, or
the science of being, and cosmology, or the science of the fundamental
f
causes and processes in things; in a looser sense, all of the more
163
abstruse philosophical disciplines; in a narrower sense, ontology
alone" (1961, p.528). For purposes of this work we shall consider the
basic and the "looser sense" definitions appropriate.
The importance in discussing this topic is to demonstrate that
metaphysics is considered a legitimate discipline in the context of
Yogananda's philosophy and that it is not a speculative enterprise as
it is traditionally regarded in Western philosophy or as occult prattle
as may be thought by some limited-thinking scientists.
Two illustrative examples from the field of physiology--one
Eastern, one Western--are extended to help clarify this important
point. Yogananda recounts that his spiritual teacher, Swami Sri
Yukteswar, numbered many doctors among his disciples and he is said to
have told them: "Those who have studied physiology should go further
and investigate the science of the soul. A subtle spiritual structure
is hidden just behind the bodily mechanism" (1985, p.139). The second
example is offered in a statement by Charles Robert Richet, a nobel
prize recipient in physiology. Richet affirms:
Metaphysics is not yet officially a science, recognized
as such. But it is going to be. . . . At Edinburgh, I was
able to affirm before 100 physiologists that our five senses
are not our only means of knowledge and that a fragment of
reality sometimes reaches the intelligence in other
ways. . . . Because a fact is rare is no reason that it does
not exist. Because a study is difficult, is that a reason
for not understanding it? . . . Those who have railed at
metaphysics as an occult science will be as ashamed of
themselves as those who railed at chemistry on the ground
that pursuit of the philosophersT stone was illusory. . . .
In the matter of principles there are only those of
Lavoisier, Claude Bernard, and Pasteur--the experimental
everywhere and always. Greetings, then, to the new science
which is going to change the orientation of human thought.
(cited in Yogananda, 1985, p.140)
164
The points supporting metaphysics as a valid science are important
to bear in mind in subsequent discussion. Of equal importance to note
are the conditions and states Yogananda confirms as necessary to render
this discipline a science. In a very real sense, effective psycho
logical development in Yogananda*s context could correctly be said to
render a person a true scientific metaphysician.
Spirit-Nature Duality
The Upanishadic dictum: Brahman=Atman, as discussed in Chapter
III, established the spiritual basis of man insofar as Atman was
declared denotative of universal Soul. And atma (or jiva) was
identified as an individualized manifest part of Atman (i.e., Divinity
particulately manifest) more commonly known as the soul; the spiritual,
hence, true nature of man. Brahma was also noted to be the manifest
aspect--God the Creator--of the unified trinitarian nature of God;
namely, Brahman.
Further discussion elaborated the duality of purusha (soul) and
prakriti (Nature). The soul, here again, was declared to be an
essential expression of Brahma (unitary Reality)--ultimately
Brahman--thus imbued with identical qualities and attributes. The
essential character of unitary Reality--Brahma, consequently atma— is
identified and described by the composite designation Satchidananda
(the ever-present, ever-conscious, ever-blissful God).
Yogananda aptly points out the significance of this relationship
and relates it to the central Vedic thrust: **The conscious fusion of
atma with Brahma, soul with Spirit, may be said to be the whole import
165
of the Vedas" (1985, p.86). Insofar as a significant part of this work
demonstrates the Vedic foundations of Yogananda’s philosophy, it
follows that this is also the "whole import" of his teachings as well.
Consequently, it is this endeavor of man to consciously fuse his soul
with the Godhead (i.e., to consciously, perenially--intuitively--know
his true nature as ever-present ever-conscious Bliss), which is seen in
Yogananda's philosophy and teachings to be the primal psychological
drive or expression operative in each and every human being; albeit
typically perverted in expression and unconscious in awareness.
Yogananda explains:
A little analysis of the motives and ends of men’s
actions in the world shows that, though there are a thousand
and one proximate or immediate ends of men in regard to the
particular calling or profession that they take up, the
ultimate end— which all other ends merely subserve— is the
avoidance of pain and want, and the attainment of permanent
Bliss. Whether we can permanently avoid pain and want, and
obtain Bliss, is a separate question; but as a matter of
fact, in all our actions we obviously try to avoid pain and
to gain pleasure.
Happiness and Bliss are not the same thing. We all aim
at Bliss, but through a great blunder we imagine pleasure
and happiness to be Bliss. . . . The ultimate motive is
really Bliss, which we feel inwardly; but happiness--or
pleasure--has taken its place, through our misunderstanding,
and pleasure has come to be regarded as the ultimate motive.
Thus we see that the fulfillment of some want; removal
of some pain, physical or mental, from the slightest to the
acutest; and the attainment of Bliss form our ultimate end.
We may not question further why Bliss is to be gained, for
no answer can be given. That is our ultimate end, no matter
what we do--enter a business, earn money, seek friends,
write books, acquire knowledge, rule kingdoms, donate
millions, explore countries, look for fame, help the needy,
become philanthropists, or embrace martyrdom. (1982, pp.7-8)
It is here that we see for the first time in this work the
ultimate psychological goal of every person most palpably articulated.
The Bliss state of consciousness is herein seen to be the manifest
166
pure-feeling state of the soul which is, to some relatively minor
degree, negatively describable as the complete abrogation of all
mortally derived and experienced mental and physical pain, suffering,
fear, and want.
The complete psychological expression of the soul as based on the
designation "Satchidananda” is consequently the eternally existing Self
(soul) forever conscious of itself as unitary, inexhaustable,
immutable, unalloyed Bliss. Thus viewed, all the variant beliefs,
attitudes, feelings, acts, and utterances of mankind can be perceived
as consciously or unconsciously, wisely or ignorantly, effectively or
ineffectively directed in pursuit of this "terminus ad quem." It is in
this context that the intrinsic desire of the soul--the true nature of
every living thing— to reestablish its consciousness of itself in
itself is seen to manifest as the primal drive or expression operative
in each and every human being.
And at the same time, it has been equally pointed out that the
drive for happiness--pleasure--in the world is in actuality a
misbegotten effort intended to achieve Bliss consciousness. This
activity and its consequences is basically the domain of the doctrine
of karma which is next reviewed.
Karma
The doctrine of karma was stated to be of special importance
because the subjects of free will, responsibility, destiny, justice^
freedom, and being were found to have their explanation in it. This
doctrine also entails the cognate doctrine of reincarnation insofar as
i
167
one's reservoir of karma is never sufficiently resolved in any one
incarnation (except the very last one); plus, in every incarnation new
karma is always being accrued. Thus as Yogananda states: rra man's
karma follows him from incarnation to incarnation until fulfilled or
spiritually transcended.1'
The importance of karma as a core concept in Yogananda's
psychology resides in the fact that karma is said to govern all actions
in creation and man having discrete human karma thereby has the power
through his use of free will, in regard to thought and action, to
control his personal destiny. In this regard it may rightfully be said
that each man creates, precludes, or resolves his own problems; or
successes.
The law, however, works in sometimes subtle and seemingly strange
ways (e.g., effects of actions performed may not be experienced until
some other incarnation) which results in the loss of evident
cause-effect connections. The primary result is that an apparent lack
of, such continuity deludes us into believing such laws to be
nonexistent, hence, we bear no regard for or belief in them.
Consequently we conduct our lives believing them to be nonexistent and,
of course, in so doing we wind up living the "lawless" life (cosmically
speaking). Ignorance, we learned, is no respecter of the law and we
likewise learned the law is no respecter of the ignorant. In such a
way each person so believing continues to accrue the results of
ignorance by blindly interacting with the seemingly absent yet ever
relentless law. Of such interaction is pain and suffering born.
168
Ignorance, we were told by Sri Yukteswar, is the root-cause of all
human affliction. But this was noted to be a special mode of ignorance
signifying our belief that the unreal (the material world) is all that
substantially exists; there being essentially naught else. This
root-problem--Ignorance--was also identified as the parent-problem of
the four primal afflictions of man; Egoism, Tenacity, Attachment, and
Aversion. Sri Yukteswar concluded his commentary on these five
afflictions by stating that "by the influence of these five
troubles . . . man is induced to involve himself in egoistic works and
in consequence he suffers.'^
These four elemental problems born of Ignorance, we found, caused
the falsely-identified soul (ego) to delusively believe itself to be
the human body-mind complex together with the belief that the laws of
Nature are final (i.e., they are all that exist; hence, all that exists
is the physical universe and the forces within it). This we found to
be the essential meaning of the problem called Tenacity. The soul now
well enmeshed by the compelling composite delusion resulting--and ever
reinforced in this false conviction by the darkening (i.e.,
delusion-inducing) power of maya--blindly sets about to experience its
intrinsic nature--Bliss consciousness--but due to the force of maya,
mistakenly pursues happiness (pleasure) as its goal and thereby becomes
further reinforced in Ignorance through the engrossing power of
Attachment. Attachment in an inherently dualistic environment quite
naturally leads to encounters with unfavorable circumstances with the
inevitable resulting experiences being those of unhappiness (pain anc
sorrow). And therein arises the affliction of Aversion. Together,
169
Attraction and Aversion constitute the respective positive and negative
polarities of desire--the prime motivating psychological force in all
mortal existence.
As a result of all of the aforementioned review points, we come to
see that the soul thus sorely afflicted by the five troubles, hence now
masquerading as the ego, blindly pursues desire ever intent on
connecting with the positive aspects and equally intent on evading the
negative. And given the prevailing absence of any belief that lawful
compulsory cause-effect relational operations govern all such pursuits,
the soul as ego quite naturally plunges head-long into the abyss of
existential sorrow and pain (viz., physical and mental). The most
effective mitigation of this negative consequence we found to be the
willful effort to know and understand the law and to live in harmony
with it. Importantly, complete supersession of the law was stated to
be both a possibility and an absolute eventuality; but not while the
soul yet remains locked in ego identification. This end of all ends
(i.e., unqualified freedom) arrives only with the ultimate realization
f t
of the soul as Self--Satchidananda.
Epistemology
Yogananda*s epistemology was discussed at length in Chapter IV and
was found to center on three instruments of knowing; perception,
inference, and intuition. While not mentioned in that discussion, it
may be of interest to some to note here that this structure is the same
as that advanced by the sage Patanjali whose Yoga Sutra*s constitute
the yogic basis of Yogananda*s teachings.
170
It was concluded in the Chapter IV discussion that perception and
inference were instruments of knowledge relegated to and limited by the
knowing of the phenomenal (sensual) world. And they were further shown
to sense and think about the sensual world with varying degrees of
accuracy and completeness; but never total in either case. Intuition
was seen to be the only instrument of knowledge capable of perceiving
the supersensual (Reality) and also the only instrument capable of
complete and accurate awareness of the phenomenal world. This latter
capacity was seen to be enabled by the fact that the sensual world was
shown to be a projected manifestation of the supersensual thus able to
be known in and through it. And the reverse process was found to be
not possible; that is, the supersensual cannot be known in or through
the sensual. The significance of this last assertion is, of course,
that the senses and mortal mind are incapable of experiencing Reality
thus precluding the universally sought, primal psychological experience
of Self as ever-existing, ever-conscious, Bliss; the consumate
supersession of all mortally expressed pain, want, and suffering. Only
the instrumentality of intuition can enable this goal of all existence.
From the perspective of Western psychology, Jung was well aware of
this yogic doctrine and commented on it wisely. He writes:
Yoga practice . . . would be ineffectual without the
concepts' on which Yoga is based. It combines the bodily and
the spiritual in an extraordinarily complete way.
In the East, where these ideas and practices have
developed, and where for several thousand years an unbroken
tradition has created the necessary spiritual foundations,
Yoga is, as I can readily ‘believe, the perfect and
appropriate method of fusing body and mind together so that
they form a unity which is scarcely to be questioned. This
unity creates a psychological disposition which makes
________________________________________ 171
possible intuitions that transcend consciousness, (cited in
Yogananda, 1985, p.265)
Jung, while he can readily perceive and acknowledge the
psychological profundities implicit in Yoga practice, does not seem to
infer its universality; a critical point sorely overlooked or
intentionally avoided. The universal pragmatic necessity and process
attendant to Yogananda1s epistemological averments is discussed in more
detail later in this chapter in the section, "Patanjali's Eight-fold
Path: the Spiritual Psychological Process.1'
Conclusion
This concludes a most terse introduction to Metaphysics and review
of Spirit-Nature Duality (i.e., the cosmography in Yogananda’s
philosophy), Karma, and Epistemology; together the four philosophical
doctrines elected by this work to focus on for the avowed purpose of
exploring core concepts and precepts for subsequent use in the
development of basic statements of principles in the psychology of
Paramahansa Yogananda.
It was earlier stated that reductionism can be a detrimental
process if one does not maintain cautious awareness throughout the
distilling activity. On the other hand, this process is oftentimes
helpful or even actually necessary at times to enable the intellectual
grasp of a topic which is either too voluminous, complicated,
multifaceted, or sufficiently unfamiliar to otherwise effectively
comprehend or assimilate. Our human minds are, after all, quite
limited in their normative (mortal) consciousness state. Reductionist!]
172
thus cautiously employed can be a valuable procedure as long as one
does not, in the end, carelessly take the reduced elements to be the
subject matter itself; that is, as the full context and import of the
original "whole."
With this imperative disclaimer again duly noted, discussion next
proceeds to the all-important central focus of this work.
Core Psychological Principles in the Philosophy
and Teachings of Paramahansa Yogananda
Before proceeding, it is perhaps appropriate to very briefly
review the "map" this work originally laid out for itself to facilitate
seeing where we started, where we have been, and where we are yet to
go. The declared overall task of this work is to provide "a first
look" at the philosophy and teachings of Paramahansa Yogananda as the
basis for the development of a unified psychology. The principal focus
of effort, then, has been to proceed to derive from his philosophy and
teachings (which is necessarily inclusive of the antecedant
foundational Vedic) those elements which might appropriately be termed
the "core psychological principles.”
The Vedic Existential Triumvirate
At this evolutional nexus it is essential to recall the statement
made in Chapter III that psychology, philosophy, and religion
constitute the Vedic existential triumvirate. What this means relative
to this work is that one can talk with some degree of discrete emphasis
about any one of the three (e.g., psychology) but never in a context
■ r
____________________________________________________________________________________173
devoid of the other two for they by essential necessity stand each in
support of the other. This indispensible understanding may be
difficult for some Westerners to accept and perhaps even aversive to a
few.
This last point is an important one and perhaps this is an
appropriate location to address it. It is, after all, wisdom to remind
ourselves that we as humans collectively hold to a broad spectrum of
beliefs and attitudes. And given the avowed dualistic nature of our
\
earthly environment, when certain differentially held beliefs
approximate polar opposition great psychic tension can develop. This
existential precept is important to bring up for it is reasonable that
it should be encountered, expected that it will, and appropriate when
it is.
It is important to restate here, again, that this work is in fact
what it purports to be, that is, a psychological effort and not a
philosophical or religious one as it may appear to some. But, as
earlier alluded, this effort seeks only to identify the psychological
bases which essentially reside "nested,” so to speak, in the body of
the aforementioned triumvirate. And due to both the nature of this
activity (i.e., "a first look") and that of the subject in global
context (i.e., its intrinsic tripartiteness), discussion has
necessarily entailed all three subjects. At this point that
t
indispensable necessity should stand as self-evident. It is due to the
very nature of the primary subject (psychology) and the context in
which it is presented which leaves it reasonable to conclude that the
subject conjoinery will always exist in any discussion involving any
174
extension of this work or in any parallel undertakings dealing with the
same philosophy and teachings; at least, that is, in any
theoretical-philosophical discussion and activity.
The Proposition of Existential Universality
The importance in surfacing the central issue of the preceding
subsection rests on the claim made in Chapter IV that: "this work
affirms that if there is a science to, or a scientific basis of,
existence, then all of mankind must necessarily be subject to it. The
proposition of existential universality is one of the basic positions
this work embraces a priori and endeavors to elucidate." The point
here is that whether or not one agrees with YoganandaTs position is not
so much the issue as is whether or not one believes there is a true
scientific basis to reality; and, of equal or greater importance, to
Reality. Stated another way, we may all hold very different beliefs
and opinions regarding reality (or Reality) but our beliefs and
opinions are of essential consequence only to our individual selves.
What this means is that whether or not our beliefs and attendant
attitudes square with the truth of reality (this of course presumes a
true scientific basis of reality) is generally of small consequence to
the world but it is unquestionably of absolute paramount importance to
each of us as the experiencing recipient of actions wisely or
ignorantly initiated; whether remembered or forgotten. Swami Anandamoy
Giri illustrates this point using, as an example, what Yogananda
affirms to be the "law" (i.e., the "science") of karma. He states:
______________ 175
The law of karma operates with impartiality toward all
beings. It is no respecter of wealth or social position.
To illustrate: if we place our hand in a flame, the cosmic
law will cause our hand to be burnt. It matters not whether
we are a successful, world-recognized person, or a nameless
pauper, whether our action is intentional or accidental,
whether we are aware or ignorant of the working of cosmic
law; still that law operates, and the hand is burnt. Though
it be the hand of a child who doesn't know that fire burns,
or that of a man who knows his hand will be blistered, the
law works equally, just the same. Therefore, it is man who
must control the law by taking control of his actions, so
that they are in harmony with the universal order, and hence
produce the beneficial results he desires. Ignorance is no
excuse before the cosmic law. (March 1974, p.46)
Perhaps the most poignant deduction that can be advanced to close
this point of discussion is: (a) there is a scientific basis to
reality (i.e., Nature, mortal existence), (b) each and every individual
has control over it through the dual-agency of his actions and
thoughts, and (c) his very control or lack of it, knowingly or
unknowingly, is directly responsible for his personal happiness, peace,
security, health, prosperity, and so on. Given awareness of the
preceding, simple common sense should consequently be sufficient to
impel the wise man to engage in intelligent, purposive, willful action
and thought.
Much has been stated up to this point regarding the philosophy and
teachings of Yogananda and the historical basis of them--the Vedic
philosophical elucidations. And there has also been a substantial
measure of discussion interspersed throughout relating to his evident
immanent psychology. This section appropriately, then, gleans from the
preceding material of this work the numerous direct and implied
statements of psychological principles and constellates them into one
unified and coherent body.
176
Accordingly, the following are offered as the principal statements
of core psychological principles identified by this work in the
philosophy and teachings of Paramahansa Yogananda:
1. The absolute essential nature of every living being is
identified as the soul.
2. "Man is a soul and has a body" CYogananda, 1985, p. 189).
3. The soul is identified as a part of God (Spirit); as God in
man.
4. The essential nature of God immanent in creation--Brahma;
hence, Atman--is said to be Satchidananda; ever-existing,
ever-conscious, ever-Blissful.
5. The essential nature of each soul--atma-- since it is a part
of God, is ipso facto Satchidananda. This is to say, the inherent
nature of the soul is its eternal awareness of its eternal existence in
the perennial and immutable Bliss-consciousness state.
6 . The soul at some point in the creational process became fused
to Nature manifesting in the guise of a mortal body and mind
functioning in an apparently likewise physical environment. The soul
thus became totally identified with the body-mind. complex (hence with
all of its limitations) while resident in it and it simultaneously lost
its awareness of its inherent nature-- Satchidananada. The soul in its
identificationally-fused-to-the-body state produces (is) the
ego-consciousness state which has as its principal representational
expression, the awareness of "I-ness."
7. This primogenial loss of the soul’s awareness of its true
nature--atma as an inherent aspect of Atman (Brahma)--and its
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simultaneous false identification with Nature (prakriti, the human body
and mind, as ego) is the genesis of existential loneliness.
8 . The ego state, that is, mortal consciousness, compellingly
convinces the soul of its apparent separateness which results in
identification with gross physical matter and forces and the limited
and fallible human senses and mind.
9. The identification of soul with body is the root cause of all
human problems.
10. The dissolution of the soul-Nature (body) bond and the
conscious fusion of the soul with Spirit is simultaneously the goal of
all life and the extirpation, cessation, and ultimate supersession of
all affliction.
11. On some operational level— consciously or unconsciously,
intentionally or perverted, effectively or ineffectively--the soul
perennially strives for this end which is termed, Self-realization.
The pursuit of this ultimate goal--the terminus ad quem of mortal
identification, limitation, and suffering--is the primal psychological
drive operative in some form, to some degree, in every being.
12. While ultimately the soul is not responsible for the
seemingly unfortunate event precipitating ego-identification, it is
responsible for the restoration of its true status. This restoration
is possible on this plane only through the agency of the human body and
mind. Thus perceived, the body-mind complex is simultaneously the
agent of one's delusion-bound existence and of one's total emancipation
from it.
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13. The most effective and expeditious method to employ for the
severance of the aforementioned delusion-inducing bond, according to
Yogananda teachings, is-PatanjaTi1s- Eight-fold Path*- of- Yoga-with the
Kriya Yoga technique. Yogananda affirms this to be a scienfitic
process which entails both the physical and metaphysical sciences.
14. Yogananda declares the true nature of man to be physical,
mental, and spiritual in that ascending heirarchal order.
Consequently, physical science correctly predicated is well-based to
elucidate the physical aspect. Metaphysics, also correctly predicated,
is necessary to elucidate the mental and spiritual aspects and,
ultimately, the physical as well.
15. The field of metaphysics may correctly be said to address
those subject areas not accessible to study by the emperieal sciences
yet are of supreme importance to the many who believe there is more to
existence than the mere physical bases.
16. True metaphysics is scientific in a manner parallel to, yet
different from, the physical sciences. The findings of metaphysical
investigation and experimentation and those of the physical sciences
should prove to be in concert. This is to say, they should both be
able to elucidate the same existential material from their respective
yet approximal perspectives and yield congruent truths.. The foregoing
is asserted valid given the essential understanding that metaphysics
can affirm the truths of science but science may not always be able to
access the truths of metaphysics; insofar as the latter is superior
(epistemologically speaking) to the former.
179
17. The physical sciences rely on two human instruments of
knowledge--perception and inference. True metaphysics is based on the
third instrument of human knowledge— intuition. Thus understood, the
domain of the physical sciences may be said to be "public" (external);
the domain of metaphysics, "private" (internal). Physical science
endeavors to elucide reality; metaphysics, Reality.
18. Intuition is the instrumental faculty by which unitary
Reality (the supersensual, Spirit) is apprehended. Insofar as the goal
of each and every life is the conscious experience (realization) of the
Self as soul which is an aspect of Reality, the intuitional state is a
necessary condition for such realization.
19. Every person has intuition, albeit typically latent, and is
at some point capable of developing it. Ultimately, development of
intuition is both a possibility and a pragmatic necessity.
20. Development of intuition can be contravened by numerous
factors. All such factors are fundamentally attributable to manifest
negative karma and insufficiently developed and/or applied will.
21. Karma governs all actions in creation and man having discrete
human (jiva) karma has the power through his use of free will--relative
to thought and action--to control his personal destiny. "Destiny" is
here taken to mean the alteratable constellating mental and physical
resultants of all efforts expended in the entire conduct of life--of
every life lived in the long chain of recurrent earthly appearances.
22. The predominate accrual of negative karma which is
responsible for all existential pain and suffering and the inhibition
180
of intuition has its genesis in Ignorance and the four derivative
primal afflictions of man--Egoisim, Tenacity, Attachment, and Aversion.
23. The most effective mitigation of pain and suffering born of
the multitudinous violations of the intrinsically inviolable law rests
in the willful effort to know and understand the law and to live in
harmony with it. Cosmic law knows not impunity for those heir to it.
24. Supersession of the law together with complete extirpation of
the residual reservoir of thought and action resultants is possible and
eventual. But only as a consequent of the uninterrupted realization of
the Self as soul--nirbikalpa samadhi.
25. The "pathway" from ignorance to wisdom, bondage to freedom,
loneliness to divine kinship, suffering to Bliss-consciousness leads
through the complex extreme maze of Nature and maya. So complex is it
and so extreme, that safe and certain passage can only be enabled by
one who has traveled and thus knows the route--the divine "pathfinder,"
the Sat Guru.
26. The proposition of existential universality is asserted
valid. All preceding 25 statements of core psychological principles
are deemed universally incontrovertible, indispensible, infallible, and
inexorable. There is a science of existence and every man is heir to
it; unequivocally, equally, impartially. All humans are governed by
the same law and principles and derive conseqences in kind with respect
to thoughts and actions performed. Pain, pleasure, sorrow, happiness,
sickness, health, poverty, riches, loneliness--all derive from the one
universal divine expression; each in its own time and in its own way.
Of such is the quality of one's life determined and measured.
181
This concludes enumeration of the principal statements of core
psychological principles identified by this work in the philosophy and
teachings of Paramahansa Yogananda.
The Concept of a Unified Psychology
The title of this work suggests the possible development of a
unified psychology. What is a unified psychology? And for what reason
or reasons is a unified psychology considered necessary or important?
These questions are rather difficult to respond to because no matter
what the answer formulated, there is always the subsequent feeling of
insufficiency or inadequacy. Therefore, it is appropriate to state
that the answers proposed at this time may prove in the long run to be
provisional.
The first’ question, What is a unified psychology? is the most
difficult. The answer proposed is that a unified psychology represents
that metaphysical-physical science which engages in the unification of
an aggregate of true scientific knowledge--metaphysical and
physical--regarding the origin and naturei of consciousness including
but not limited to: (a) the levels or states in which consciousness
manifests; (b) the conditions affecting development, manifestation, and
maintenance of the different states (levels); (c) the relationship
between the different states; (d) the interactional relationships
between the different states and the body, mind, intellect, emotions,
feelings, environment, other beings, and God; and (e) the physical,
mental, and spiritual therapeutic knowledge and procedures necessary
and sufficient for the restoration of pathologic states and conditions
__________________________________________________________________________ia2_
to a salutary status and for advancing salutary states to higher and
finer levels of expression.
The second question, for what reason or reasons is a unified
psychology considered necessary or important? has potentially many
answers not the least of which involve significant utilitarian
considerations. For this work, however, the answer is limited to that
of responsible "responsive compassion."
Considering what has been said up to this time in this work one
point which has to have been made (for it has been stated over and
over), is that according to Yogananda's philosophy and teachings there
is a true, knowable, workable, controllable, and experiencial science
of existence. And, there are inviolable laws which govern it. True,
it has been pointed out that these laws can be superceded; but not
while one is yet in this world and subject to its manifold constraints.
Therefore, a unified psychology which at minimum conforms to the prior
definition will by necessity and design acknowledge the presence of and
the operation of these laws together with the existential consequences
deriving from either conformance with or violation of them.
PATANJALI’S EIGHT-FOLD PATH:
THE SPIRITUALLY-BASED PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESS
As stated early in Chapter IV, Yogananda confirms that Patanjali
was the foremost exponent of Yoga. The eight steps of Patanjali's
Eight-fold Path of Yoga, essentially the applied principles of the
183
yogic life, are here repeated for convenience in discussion. Yogananda .
identifies them as follows:
The first steps are (1) yam a (moral conduct), and (2)
niyama (religious observances). Yama is fulfilled by
noninjury to others, truthfulness, nonstealing, continence,
and noncovetousness. The niyama prescripts are purity of
body and mind, contentment in all circumstances, self-
discipline, self-study (contemplation), and devotion to God
and guru.
The next steps are (3) asana (right posture); the
spinal column must be held straight, and the body firm in a
comfortable position for meditation; (4) pranayama (control
of prana, subtle life currents); and (5) pratyahara
(withdrawal of the senses from external objects).
The last steps are forms of yoga proper: (6) dharana
(concentration), holding the mind to one thought; (7)
dhyana (meditation); and (8) samadhi (superconscious exper
ience) . This Eightfold Path of Yoga leads to the final goal
of Kaivalya (Absoluteness), in which the yogi realizes the
Truth beyond all intellectual apprehension.
(1985,pp.262-263)
The essential teaching of Yogananda may correctly be identified
as: nHow to live." What this basically means is how to live life in
harmony with the universal laws governing creation and thereby work to
resolve past karma, preclude development of new karma, and consequently
maximize the positive experiences of life, and ultimately to
expeditiously transcend it completely.
Discussion in this section will, in an extremely summary manner,
discuss certain elements of Patanjali's Eight-fold Path in a pragmatic
context and thereby at least suggest certain basic
philosophical-applicational correlations and relationships. It cannot
be overly stressed that both knowledge and responsible action and
thought are conjoint requisites to the life rightly lived in
Yogananda’s yogic context. It is in this very context that we may also
aptly recall Hiriyanna’s comment of Chapter III wherein he stated,
184
that: Mthe aim of studying philosophy is not merely to gratify
theoretical curiosity, however disinterested that curiosity may be; it
is also to live the right kind of life, consciously adjusting one's
conduct to one's intellectual convictions” (1973, pp.25-26).
And again, in the words of Prabhavananda: "Indian philosophy is
thus not a mere way of thinking but a way of life, a way of light, and
a way of truth. To become a philosopher is to become transformed in
life, renewed in mind, and baptized in spirit" (1974, p.16).
The goal in this conjoint (philosophical-applicational) process is
in Yoganandafs context, the apprehension of truth; the truth which
leads to and eventuates the final goal of Self-realization. This truth
is elaborated in his words: "Truth is no theory, no speculative system
of philosophy, no intellectual insight. Truth is exact correspondence
with reality. For man, truth is unshakable knowledge of his real
nature, his Self as soul" (1985, p.570).
Discussion in this section is limited to brief comments regarding
steps one and two (yama and niyama), a more detailed investigation of
step four (pranayama) wherein Kriya Yoga is introduced, and a general
discussion of step six (dharana) to demonstrate by way of one example
particular practical aspects inherent throughout the entire system.
Steps three, five, seven, and eight are mentioned albeit mainly in
discussions of the previously identified ones.
Moral Conduct and Religious Observances
Yama (moral conduct) and niyama (religious observances), the first
two steps, signify the initial requisites to the life rightly lived to
185
be those requiring observance of the laws of Nature (karma). For until
these steps are properly enacted, one is simply not able to engage in
effective performance of the subsequent steps. Failure to uphold
steadfast observance of these dual requirements simply.produces mental
and physical disturbances or afflictions which by their very nature
inhibit or preclude execution of subsequent processes.
To summarize this discussion on Patanjalirs first two steps, let
us consider Yogananda!s observation:
Like the other five orthodox (Vedas-based)
philosophical systems, Yoga Sutras considers the "magic" of
moral purity (the "ten commandments" of yama and niyama) to
be the indispensible preliminary for sound philosophical
investigation. This personal demand, not insisted on in the
West, has bestowed lasting vitality on the six Indian
disciplines. The .cosmic order (rita) that upholds the
universe is not different from the moral order that rules
man’s destiny. He who is unwilling to observe the universal
moral precepts is not seriously determined to pursue truth.
(1985, pp.265-266)
Kriya Yoga
In Yogananda's philosophical formulation of Patanjali!s Eight-fold
Path of Yoga, step four (pranayama--control of prana, subtle life
currents) is fulfilled by Kriya Yoga. It is at this juncture in this
work that we finally reach the key teaching of Yogananda. The
importance of this technique can scarcely be over-emphasized for it is
held to be a special dispensation to mankind-at-large designed to be
instrumental in the acceleration of life’s avowed goal. This last
point is affirmed by Swami Sri Yukteswar when he says "Kriya Yoga is an
instrument through which human evolution can be quickened" (cited in
186
Yogananda, 1985, p.278). And Brother Anandamoy of SRF-YSS comments on
the special dispensation aspect:
Even though we usually talk . . . about the various
aspects of philosophy . . . of God . . . of creation . . .
about man and his relationship with creation and with
God . . . about he different laws of karma and reincarnation
and about the gunas . . . about the various facets of the
spiritual life, spiritual striving . , . about devo
tion . . . about introspection and right attitudes. . . .
They’re all good, but . . . the very core, the very essence
of this teaching is Kriya Yoga.
This is the main mission of Self-Realization Fellow
ship- -to teach and to practice Kriya Yoga. The other
things, the other aspects . . . these are important
too . . . but all these things people knew before . . .
[Paramahansa Yogananda] came, more or less. But they did
not know Kriya Yoga, the highest science of man, the highest
science of religion, the highest technique of God realiza
tion. So . . . never forget . . . the essence of this
teaching is Kriya Yoga. (SRF, Note 3)
Yoga proper, it must be understood, "is a method for restraining
the natural turbulence of thoughts, which otherwise impartially
prevents all men, of all lands, from glimpsing their true nature of
Spirit” (Yogananda, 1985, p.261). And Kriya Yoga is the all important
technique brought, by Yogananda from India to facilitate this goal. The
question, What is the relationship between pranayama--control of prana,
subtle life currents--and mind control? is a natural one and is
appropriate to raise here. First Yogananda defines ’’kriya.” He
states:
The Sanskrit root of kriya is kri, to do, to act and
react; the same root is found in the word karma, the natural
principle of cause and effect. Kriya Yoga is thus "union
(yoga) with the Infinite through a certain action or rite
(kriya)." A yogi who faithfully practices the technique is
gradually freed from karma or the lawful chain of
cause-effeet equilibriums. (1985, p.275)
187
He then indicates that "Kriya Yoga is a simple, psychophysio-
logical method by which human blood is decarbonated and recharged with
oxygen. The atoms of this extra oxygen are transmitted into life
current to rejuvinate the brain and spinal centers" (1985, p.275). It
is inferred here that breath (the vehicle of oxygen) is involved in the
Kriya Yoga practice. Yogananda later confirms this by asserting: "The
ancient yogic technique converts the breath into mind-stuff" (1985,
p. 280). What we come to see is an apparent connection or functional
association of some nature existing between the breath and the subtle
life currents. This relationship is validated and, in addition, the
relationship of the life currents to consciousness is introduced by
Brother Anandamoy when he says:
Pranayama does not mean breathing exercise even though
many of the Yoga books interpret it as breathing exercise.
Prana means energy, yama means control. There is as we
breathe a corresponding flow of energy with each breath but
that energy does not flow in, shall I say, the right place,
in the right channel, it flows only in superficial channels.
Kriya Yoga means to bring that energy into the innermost
channel.
The guru teaches the process of channelizing this
prana, or life energy, through the sushemna, that is, the
innermost channel in the spine, the very delicate passage
through the spinal cord, where the spiritual centers are and
where the seat is of our divine consciousness of God within.
I have said that where the energy is there is our
consciousness. And usually in - our ordinary waking
consciousness that energy flows automatically into our
muscles, into our senses and to give us the outer perception
of this material world. Our consciousness is attuned to the
gross vibrations of matter. (SRF, Note 3)
. Yogananda amplifies this last point regarding the correlation of
energy and consciousness:
In men under maya or natural law, the flow of life
energy is toward the outward world; the currents are wasted
and abused in the senses. The practice of Kriya reverses
188
the flow; life force is mentally guided to the inner cosmos
and becomes reunited with subtle spinal energies. By such
reinforcement of life force, the yogi’s body and brain cells
are renewed by a spiritual elixir. (1985, p.281)
Brother Anandamoy next explains the developmental activity
associated with Kriya practice which as Yogananda has just stated,
"reverses the flow of the life force” to cause it to "become united
with subtle spinal energies.”
Kriya Yoga . . . means to rechannel that energy and to
gradually build up a magnet in the spine, in the innermost
spine where the seat, particularly in the higher centers,
where the seat of the divine consciousness is and that's a
slow process. . . . It is a gradual building up of that
magnet which leads the energy and meets with the
consciousness within to gradually make dynamic to our
consciousness what we are; and that is this body is just a
shell, this mind is only a superficial instrument. We are
not this body, we are not this mind, we are not the ordinary
outer human emotions; we are the divine consciousness of
God. (SRF, Note 3)
In the end, through sustained and devoted practice, Kriya Yoga
fulfills the task for which it was created--the accelerated fructifi
cation of the end to which every man eventually aspires; the realiza
tion of his Self as soul. Yogananda explains the final process:
Untying the cord of breath that binds the soul to the
body, Kriya serves to prolong life and to enlarge the
consciousness to infinity. The yoga technique overcomes the
tug of war between the mind and the matter-entangled senses,
and frees the devotee to reinherit his eternal kingdom. He
knows then that his real being is bound neither by physical
encasement nor by breath--symbol of mortal man's enslavement
to air, to Nature's elemental compulsions. (1985,
pp.281-282)
This, then, concludes discussion of Patanjali's fourth step,
pranayama; the control of the subtle life currents. Patanjali's fifth
step, pratyahara (withdrawal of the senses from external objects) is
189
also seen to be intimately associated with the technique and process
just described.
As a final note, it should be made clear that the foregoing
discussion presents, at best, a superficial understanding of the
technique of Kriya Yoga. (For a more complete and adequate description
the reader is advised to consult: Yogananda, 1985, Chptr.26.)
Concentration
The last step in Patanjali's Eight-fold Path of Yoga to be covered
in any measure by this effort is his sixth--dharana (concentration).
This discussion takes a substantially different approach than that of
the preceding steps. The purpose here is to approach this topic in a
manner intended to more succinctly disclose the inherent pragmatism in
every aspect of Yoga. The discussion begins with "calmness.”
It was earlier alluded in Chapter IV that the mind to apprehend
the supersensual must be calm. There are numerous physiological
correlates to mental calmness such as heart rate, breath rate, EEG
patterns, and so on. But, and this is important to understand, this
situation does not directly, as forcefully, work in the alternate
direction. For example, self-imposed forced control of the breath,
that is, unnatural attempts to physiologically control the breath rate
will not--for it cannot--induce calmness. Yogananda appropriately
notes this point when he states that "attempts to hold breath forcibly
in the lungs is unnatural and decidedly unpleasant” (1985, p.280).
There are various clinical data, however, which, while directly
involving physiological control, do serve to point out that clinical
________________ 190
control of the breath rate does produce compelling evidence of
calmness. For example, clinical findings convincingly demonstrate the
effects on the nervous system and the accompanying modification of the
general psychological state which result from mechanical displacement
of the breathing reflex. Yogananda cites the work of Dr. Alvan Barach:
Modern science is beginning to discover the truly
extraordinary curative and rejuvenating effects, on body and
mind, of non-breathing. Dr. Alvan L. Barach of the College
of Physicians and Surgeons in New York has originated a
local lung-rest therapy that is restoring to health many
tuberculosis sufferers. The use of an equalizing pressure
chamber enables the patient to stop breathing. The New York
Times of Feb. 1, 1947, quoted Dr. Barach as follows: "The
effect of cessation of breathing on the central nervous
system is of considerable interest. The impulse for
movement of the voluntary muscles in the extremities is
strikingly diminished. The patient may lie in the chamber
for hours without moving his hands or changing position.
The desire to smoke disappears when voluntary respiration
stops, even in patients who have been accustomed to smoke
two packages of cigarettes daily. In many instances the
relaxation is of such a nature that the patient does not
require amusement." In 1951 Dr. Barach publicly confirmed
the value of the treatment, which, he said, "not only rests
the lungs but also the entire body, and, seemingly, the
mind. The heart, for example, has its work decreased by a
third. Our subjects stop worrying. None feel bored."
(1985, p.285)
This process is noted that it may be made clear that the
calmness-inducing process— itself so absolutely necessary to Reality
apprehension--is primarily a mentally-initiated and controlled state
and is not a physically-induced process. Admittedly there is ar
interactive process occurring to some degree and it is true that
certain physiological conditions can either facilitate, militate
against, or outright inhibit the requisite mental activities necessary
to effect the intuitional state.
191
A second point helpful to be aware of relative to calmness
induction concerns the actual mental process itself. It is a known
fact that mental calmness is intimately— causally--associated with the
act or process of concentration. To be more precise, the calm state is
a necessary prerequisite to the act of concentration (dharana). And
the greater the degree of calmness manifest, the greater the degree of
concentration possible. The preceding steps of pranayama (control of
prana, subtle life currents) and pratyahara (withdrawal of the senses
from external objects) in Patanajalirs Eight-fold Path, specifically
serve to calm the physiological system and the conscious mind for the
achievement of dharana by interiorizing the energy (prana).
Again, respiratory and cardiac rate reduction and EEG
modifications monitored in the concentrating person empirically verify
these occurrences and thus compellingly suggest validation of the
declared causal relationship. To take this point one step further,
logically there could be a degree of calmness and concentration
achieved during which no respiratory or heart rates could be monitored.
As unusual as this may appear, practically speaking this is indeed a
possibility; and., ultimately, a proven, requisite, and necessary
reality.
Yogananda defines-concentration as "that power which one can apply
negatively to free the attention from objects of distraction, anc
positively to place the attention on a single idea or object at a time1
(SRF, Note 5). Considered in the context of this discussion and that
on epistemology in Chapter IV, this can be taken as a prescription tc
apply the power of concentration to disengage from all perceiving anc.
192
inferencing (sensing and thinking) activities attendant to reality (the
chopped up parts of Reality) and to redirect that power to focus
exclusively on unitary Reality. As might be expected, this is not so
easily done.
Let us consider the subject of concentration from two different
perspectives; the traditional Western and the Yogic, in that order.
First, we must remember that the mortal mind is habituated to sensing
and thinking activities and has been for a very long time as was
pointed out in the discussion on Kriya Yoga. Consider, as an example,
the absurdity one rightfully feels (at least initially), if asked to
not think of any thing. After all, we may reason, how is it even
possible not to think of any thing--or to think of no thing--for, as
pointed out in Chapter IV, things are the very grist of the conscious
mind. And then to complicate and confuse the matter all the more,
consider the impact of being asked to concentrate--to think
exclusively--on something (Reality) that your senses have never
experienced and furthermore, never will; for they cannot. And since
one’s senses have never experienced the supersensual, there are no date
for inference to work on,, hence the mind is totally devoid of content
regarding this matter and is consequently at a total loss to respond tc
the subject request. This raises an interesting paradox: How does one
think about that which one cannot think about?
The solution to the paradox results from yet another
concentration-related cause-effect relationship. Summarily, the
cause-effect relationship may be said to be essentially as follows
Initially the mind is given an "object” of concentration. Eventually,
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through continued (daily) diligent practice the mind gradually begins
to "interiorize,1 1 that is, become less and less fixed on the
external— the "out there," in-the-world people, places, things, events,
and so on. In time, for the most part, this very process of practiced
concentration through the act of calming the mind gradually enables the
experience of the intuitive expression. Continued experience is said
to naturally yield progressive results. Eventually, the concentrative
endeavor becomes so developed that it yields longer and longer periods
of deeper and deeper concentration. This deeper and deeper
concentration progressively produces lower and lower metabolic rates
with lower and lower heart and respitory rates, and so on. In time,
when the consciousness becomes purified of the "dross" of extraneous
sensory perception and attendant thought, regardless of duration, and
when the object of concentration is of a particular nature, one could
be said to have reached a state of meditation. But this culmination of
concentration, within the context of the Western mode and belief
system, actually reduces to the concentrator and the object of his
concentration; still, essentially a dualistic relationship. And the
typical nature of this relationship further entails the thinker
generally thinking about different facets or modes of the solitary
object of his concentrative thought which thereby quite naturally
involves some degree of movement— no matter how subtle— in his
consciousness. This dualistic relationship with its associated
movement in the consciousness is what will be seen to differentiate the
Western concept of concentration and, hence, meditation from the Yogic
concept which is discussed right after the following point.
194
Once more on the topic of clinical data, it may be of interest to
some to review findings relative to certain psychological and
physiological changes found to occur during the meditative state.
Those interested may wish to consult bibliographies by Timmons and
Kamiya (1970) and Timmons and Kanellakos (1974). One word of caution
is advised! The Western penchant for making things scientific tends to
want to interpret and define meditation by way of emperical testimony.
There will be emperical data derivable from the meditational state
because man is (as has been said over and over), in part, physical.
But, and this is the key, he is also mental and spiritual and so
results in these realms will not necessarily be emperically detectable
and monitorable. Thus considered, the physical presents but one
relatively small and insignificant "public” aspect of the
transformative process of the true act of meditation.
The importance in underscoring this point derives from the fact
that abundant "clinical criteria" associated with the meditative state
have been obtained by numerous experimenters (clinicians) from
individuals in the state of bonafide meditations. It has been, and
remains, rather common clinical belief that mere duplication of these
data equate to replication of the true meditative state. They do not!
Clinical methods employed to attempt to render meditation more
expedient have included psychopharmacological, hypnosis,
electrophysical (e.g., biofeedback devices), and other means. Such
efforts have been promoted to both attempt to render the process
expedient and to work to scientifically "sanctify" meditation to enable
its legitimate entry into the annals of some schools of Western
1 9 5
psychological thinking. All of these activities stem from totally
erroneous understanding and falacious reasoning. To reemphasize the
matter, the mere presence of any stipulatable emperical conditions no
matter how many of them, in what combination(s), or to what degree,
does not by any necessity whatsoever denote the presence of the true
meditative state.
In the context of Yoga proper, concentration (dharana) means the
holding of the mind to one thought so that there are no longer any
thought processes or movement of thought occurring. The full power of
the mind is fixed on one object, or one thought, or a superconscious
perception like the Om sound. This is not a passive thought process or
is it the oblivion of thoughtlessness; rather, it is the full
concentrative power of the mind directed on that unitary object of
concentration until it then naturally leads to the next step, dhyana
(meditation).
Dhyana is the actual merging of the mind with the object of
concentration; that is, the mind and the object unite to become one.
Stated another way, the ordinary mind actually becomes superconscious
perception or superconsciousness itself. This end then constitutes
PatanajaliTs eighth and final step, samadhi (superconscious
experience).
Conclusion
This concludes an all too brief attempt at suggesting the
psychology inherent in the teachings of Yogananda. There has been a
great amount of material alluded to but not covered to any degree at
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all. And that is unfortunate insofar as it may be of critical import
to others and to have not addressed it, may result in their erroneously
believing it to be nonexistent in these teachings. All that can be
said by way of a poor apology is that to explore all facets in detail
will require volumes. Hopefully what has been said may be found
accurate and sufficiently suggestive as to promote greater
%
investigative work and possibly see the start of basic systems
development efforts to formulate a unified psychology even if of a
theoretical nature. More will be said of this in the next chapter.
WESTERN PSYCHOTHERAPY
An Overview
The subject of psychotherapy is complex and diffuse. Numerous
schools of psychotherapy have progressively emerged over the years
subsequent to the teaching of the early fathers of modern Western
psychology--Wundt, Charcot, Bruer, Freud, Pavlov, etc. This point is
compellingly illustrated in the contemporary literature of
psychotherapy.
Harper (1959) succinctly describes 36 systems of psychotherapy and
appropriately notes that he is not able to describe all systems known
to be in use at the time. ("System,’1 in its simplest conceptual sense,
is herein taken to denote the presence of an explicated theory and a
set of therapeutic procedures both of which demonstrate a logically
coordinated relationship.)
19 7
Twenty-two years later Corsini (1981) identifies over 250 systems
of psychotherapy and details, 66 of them. And Corsini, like Harper, is
constrained to also admit that his list too is only partial even though
it represents a 700 percent growth over Harper’s.
It is appropriate to note that Corsini edited an earlier work
— Current Psychotherapies (1973)-- in which he details the essentials
of what he considers the 12 major standard systems. His latter work
addresses 66 additional systems he considers particularly substantive
and innovative selected from his comprehensive list of over 250. In
introducing his latter work, Corsini discusses his concept of
"innovative” as it applies to his writing:
As I employ it, the term innovative need not mean "new”
in the sense of being recently developed but rather "new" in
the sense of being relatively unknown to people like myself.
Consequently, included are systems that are quite old--such
as Meditation, which has been in existence as a therapeutic
method for well over 3000 years. . . . My standards for
calling a system innovative were subjective. If the system
seemed trivial, I rejected it on the grounds of not being
"major"; if the theory or the procedures seemed too similar
to other systems, I did not consider the approach truly
"innovative." Although other editors might have made
different choices, but it appears to me at this time that
every single chapter has at the very least one major
innovative element. (1981, p.x)
It is particularly interesting to observe that Corsini considers
12 extant standard systems to essentially embody the conventional
wisdom of Western psychotherapy, yet, implies that these 12 different
major systems do not encompass all that is knowable and relevant
regarding the human mind; its states, contents, operations, and
modifications. Presumably Corsini’s later work can be viewed as one
professional’s statement attempting to either point out perceived
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deficiencies in the 12 major systems or suggesting the need to explore
and consider additional dimensions of the human psyche or both. From a
speculative dimension, it is interesting to consider whether or not
future perspectives of psychotherapy will be viewed as logical
evolutionary extensions of current wisdom or whether a new paradigm
will have evolved.
For the present, each extant psychotherapeutic school or system
may be said to espouse its own unique philosophy (or philosophical
interpretation) and therapeutic process which together, as a system,
yields its successes and occasional failures. Yet, despite the
numerous and, at times, vociferous claims to uniqueness and originality
advanced, it occurs to some minds to ask reasonable questions as to the
actual— versus perceived— extent of systemic difference.
Considering factors explored so far it would seem legitimate to
avow that Western psychotherapy is in a state of profound evolution.
And part of this evolution is expressing itself as a need to push out
the horizons of human understanding as it relates to our mental life.
It appears apodictic that we have learned much about man's mental
domain in the first 100 years of modern psychology; and we are learning
more and more at an exponential rate. But how much more needs to be 01
can be known remains the great mystery. One fact seems clear; we are
irrevocably committed to the quest. And we are beginning to wake up tc
the realization that if we are going to be truly scientific in oui
pursuit and catholic in our attendant understandings, we must move out
of and beyond our provincial Western "scientific" boundaries which
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delimit our concept of man and proceed to consider the philosophies and
psychological paradigms of other cultures.
In our haste to make psychology scientific, perhaps we have been
too busy and too circumscribed in our endeavors to understand the mind
of man in its more global context. This may be attributable, in no
small measure, to our penchant for attempting to understand human
behavior and subjective states by making limited extrapolations from
stimulus-response experiments; from attempts to explain behaviors (both
normal and pathological) within specific social and cultural contexts;
through our efforts to understand the mechanics of human behavior so we
can then more effectively control it to facilitate conformance to the
criteria of imposing others; and through the derived correlates and
inferences of lower animal behavior studies and experiments.
Regardless of the motivations of the past, the present is rife with
speculation and hypotheses prompted by the urge to know and understand
more. The future dawns rich with visions of undreamed of
possibilities; at least to some.
This section addresses Western psychotherapy in its more familiar
and traditional mode; a mode which fundamentally embraces the
alleviation of psychic distress through the medium of therapist-client
interaction principally in the verbal mode. Discussion addresses the
principal issues inhering in six subsequent sections.
Historical Background
The history of psychotherapy according to Frank has its roots in
"two historical traditions of healing--the religiomagical and the
2 0 0
naturalistic or scientific" (1963, p.1728). Commenting on these two
traditions he states:
The former, originating before recorded history,
regards certain forms of suffering or of alienation from
one's fellows as caused by supernatural forces or magical
powers of sorcerers. Participation of the victim and his
group in suitable rites under the leadership of a
priest-physician might successfully combat these forces,
restoring the sufferer to health and overcoming his
alienation from family and friends. The tradition o£
supernatural healing has always been strong and finds its
modern expression in healing shrines such as Lourdes,
religious movements such as Christian Science, and
numberless cults led by healers whose claims are accepted
only by their devotees.
The naturalistic view regards illness as caused by
natural forces. Treatment consists in combating these
destructive influences by general methods for promoting
bodily well-being and mental tranquility, as well as by
specific remedies. The same natural laws underlying bodily
illness are believed to account for mental illness, and the
same general principles of treatment are believed to account
for mental illness, and the same general principles of
treatment are believed to apply to both. The earliest
surviving expression of this approach to mental illness is
found in the writings attributed to the Greek physician
Hippocrates, in the fifth century B.C. It was largely
eclipsed by the religiomagical approach during the Middle
Ages in Europe, but re-emerged and became dominant with the
rise of science. (1963, pp.1728-1729)
Historians generally agree that the first contemporary person of
recognized importance to reinstitute the naturalistic view of the cause
and cure of mental illness was the French psychiatrist Philippe Pinel.
Eysenck, in support of this view, avows:
In the late nineteenth century scientific systems of
intervention were devised, based in part upon the pioneering
efforts of psychiatrists such as Philippe Pinel in France,
who argued that insanity resulted from social and
psychological stresses. Early systems focused upon the
importance of a therapeutic social influence created by the
physician, and upon various forms of persuasion and
suggestion, including hypnosis, which was applied as a
therapeutic technique by eminent physicians such as Jean
Charcot in France and Josef Breuer in Austria. (1979, p.886)
2 0 1
It is interesting to note that Sigmund Freud worked with both
Charcot and Breuer. Freud and Breuer through the use of hypnosis
arrived at the conclusion that their patient's pathologies were in fact
resultants of unsuccessful efforts to resolve chronic conflicts
developing out of traumatic early-life experiences. As Millon phrases
it: "it has always been the contention of intrapsychic theorists that
the emotional disorders of individuals are a direct product of a
continued and insidious operation of past events” (1967, p.139).
Principal Philosophical Positions Which Have Shaped
Dominant Western Psychological Belief and Systems Development
An accurate understanding of the developmental trends of Western
psychology— from which all psychotherapeutic systems have evolved from
to one degree or another--is facilitated by an understanding of the
principal underlying philosophical beliefs. The major philosophical
positions instrumental in these shaping processes are seen as
psychophysical dualism, psychophysical parallelism, logical positivisa
and operationalism. To understand the rational forces precipitating
this developmental trend it is helpful to first see that the temper of
the Enlightenment is currently alive and active. Deese compellingly
demonstrates this notion:
In the Anglo-American academic tradition, psychology belongs
to that branch of philosophy closest to ethics and theology.
When, in the nineteenth century, those bold enough first
announced themselves as psychological scientists at Oxford,
Harvard, and Cambridge, they were in revolt against the
quasi-theological position that psychology occupied in the
traditional spectrum of learning in England, Scotland, and
the United States. When early American psychologists
attacked theologically based views of man, psychology, with
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some justification, became identified with the position of
skepticism. The result is that by tradition psychologists
feel it necessary to clear out of the house of the mind all
the controversies that rage in the name of faith rather than
in that of science and reason. Thus, psychologists have
come to avoid questions of free will versus determinism, the
nature of the soul, and the inextensibility of mind. They
quite rightly regard these as questions for which the
methods of science are no more powerful than the methods of
rhetoric and disputation. (1972, p. 13)
Experimental psychology rapidly came to be the rallying concept
for the plurality of resultant skeptics. Experimental psychology is
seen as the invention of Wilhelm Wundt of 19th Century Germany and has
as its ancestory both German philosophy and physiology. This emergent
discipline had (and has) as its central interest, the study of
organismic reaction to stimuli; or, perhaps more correctly phrased,
stimulus attributes. As is well known, the experimental method as it
is employed by psychology depends on the experimenter to manipulate
events (stimuli) independently (viz., the "independent variable"), of
the animal or person who is the object (responder) of the study (viz. ,
the "dependent variable"). This scientific approach principally
embodies the philosophical notions espoused by psychophysical
parallelism, logical positivism, and operationalism. And it finds its
principal human applications executed under the banner of behaviorism.
Psychophysical Parallelism
During the 17th and 18th centuries, German philosophers were
arguing against Descarte’s psychophysical interactionism on the grounds
it was illogical. In their move to establish a logical position, they
came to embrace the notion of psychophysical parallelism. This
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position essentially acknowledges the existence of both mind and matter
but asserts that they do not interact or influence each other. Deese
comments on the probable attractiveness of this position and its
logical consequences:
This is a more fastidious view because it permits the
absolute separation of the physical sciences from the
psychological sciences. Physics in this view is the science
of matter and energy while psychology is the science of mind
and will. That dichotomy grants a certain grand stature to
psychology. Psychology becomes the equal of physics in the
partitioning of the domain of knowledge, if not in
methodological sophistication and degree of abstractness.
When Darwinian theory, the growth of biology, and the rise
of behaviorism began to discredit the notion of
psychophysical dualism, psychology lost its royal status.
Behavior, like everything else, is basically physical in
nature. If there is no special mode of existence called
mind, then psychology has no unique and inviolable subject
matter. It is simply a branch of biology, and in the view
of the logical positivists, biology is simply a branch of
physics. (1972, p.98)
What is of additional importance, to again restate a major point,
is that the philosophy of psychophysical parallelism is in substantial
measure responsible for the near-demise of the notion of "mind" in
psychology and, by extension, that of "soul" in religion. Deese again
comments:
The behavioristic revolution robbed psychology of its
special intellectual domain. Psychology has since become
more practical and of more interest to thinkers as well as
ordinary folk, but in the grand view of things it was no
longer the guardian of a unique entity--mind. As the notion
of mind began to disappear in the intellectual-scientific
world, the parallel notion of soul in religion and
philosophies that have their origin in religion likewise
began to disappear, or at least to undergo drastic
transformation. The immortality of the soul is no longer
central in the writings of contemporary Christian
theologians, and Jewish theologians can remind them that it
never was an essential part of Judaism. In a sense, the
soul became behavioristic too. (1972, p.98)
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While the aformentioned consequences of subscription to
psychophysical parallelism cannot be viewed (in the context of this
work) from the most positive posture, it must be said that,
philosophical premises aside, the contributions of experimental
psychology and the applied principles of behaviorism are substantial.
Many in fact who oppose it on psychological and philosophical grounds
argue that their rejection is not predicated on its ineffectiveness;
rather on the fact that it works with such impeccable and potentially
frightening effectiveness.
Logical Positivism
The philosophy of logical positivism is considered a development
of Central Europe and came to the United States in the 1920s and 1930s
mainly with refugees from that area. This philosophy is especially
noted for its staunch position that science as "science" can only be
concerned with empirical knowledge. Deese defines it operationally:
Logical positivism is the view that science is a
coherent series of statements and arguments concerned only
with empirical knowledge, that which is obtained by
observation. It is logical because it attempts to be
coherent and free from internal contradiction. It is
positivistic in that it rejects any metaphysical
explanation. (1972, p.4)
One of the principal effects of the introduction of this
philosophy was the strong impact it produced on the development of
American psychology. This impact was mainly felt in the domain of
scientific psychology and it was considered to be a largely negative
one in that it imposed conditions and notions intended to discourage
scientists from pursuing what it considered useless enterprises. As
2 0 5
might be expected, the notion that consciousness was an appropriate
subject of psychology was quickly eradicated.
The antimetaphysical views advanced together with an idolatrous
attitude toward the physical sciences made logical positivism a strong
ally of behaviorism in American psychology. These positions wove
themselves together in such a manner as to create what many believed to
be an ideal experimental psychology. Consequently we see psychology
being concerned mainly with overt behavior, animal experiments,
stimulus-response notions, and emphasis on the concept reflex actions.
Logical positivism insists that only statements capable of empirical
verification are meaningful.
The residual effects of logical positivism are still felt in
contemporary psychology. Deese explains: "in no small measure, the
persistence of the point of view associated with . . . [logical
positivism] is responsible for today's crisis, for the sense of
futility and panic that now assails some psychologists" (1972, p.4).
Operationalism
Operationalism is quite similar to logical positivism and came
into existence in American psychology at about the same time. The
basic difference in operationalism is that it is more concerned with
the importance of immediate observable events and the limiting of
scientific statements to what can be said about them. As such3
operationalism is known for its inordinate concern with measurement and
the mathematical and logical apparatus associated with it.
2 0 6
Operationalism and logical positivism, while they did promote some
important rigor, are today considered to have made their contributions.
And now, due to their aggressive excesses, much unfortunate residual of
a negative or pessimistic nature remains.
Psychophysical Dualism
The long-standing Western philosophical tradition generally known
as psychophysical dualism is often known through references to the
body-mind or nature-soul dichotomy. This fundamental line of Western
thought is speculated as existing for at least 2000 years and probably
since the start of Greek speculative philosophy.
It is of particular importance to this work to further note that
Kantor (1963) maintains that this dualism emerged from a resulting
synthesis of Greek objectivity with oriental philosophies as a
consequent of the spread of Christianity. Kantor contends the
principal oriental philosophies were Persian but, as stated in an
earlier chapter, Garbe (1899) asserts the oriental infusion into Greek
thought is attributable to the Indians; Persia being the Greek-Indiar
commonground.
The central tenet of psychophysical dualism is that the universe
is constituted of two entirely separate modes of being; namely, mine
and matter. From the perspective of Western psychology we - find the
principal expression of this position in the French philosopher Rene
Descarte's Cartesianism which avows that mind and matter, while;
different, can (and do) participate in reciprocal influencing
processes. As will be seen, this position clearly finds its principal
2 0 7
expression in the precepts of dynamic psychology and the attendant
psychoanalytic formulations of Freud and his followers.
Four Major Psychological Systems
Dynamic Psychology
As stated earlier, Freud working with Breuer was involved in the
use of hypnosis to attempt to help their patient's resolve chronic
conflicts developing out of childhood traumas.
Freud went on to abandon the use of hypnosis and "turned to the
key techniques of free association by the patient, interpretation by
the therapist, and formation of a transference relationship between
patient, and therapist" (Eysenck, 1979, p. 886). Freud's psychoanalysis
today stands in most minds as the first and most elaborate contemporary
psychotherapeutic system. While there are numerous variants, dynamic
psychologists must all be said to fundamentally embrace the
intrapsychic theory. Gutsch, Sisemore, and Williams enucleate the
dynamic psychologists' stance:
Their primary search has been to discover why people
act as they do. Their discovery has been that people
develop defense strategies in an attempt to avoid anxieties
experienced as children. Thus, the essence of the model of
intrapsychic theory suggests that with the advent of
childhood anxiety there is a progressive sequential
application of defense manueuvers designed to combat that
anxiety. In practice, these two determinants of behavior,
i.e., childhood anxiety and defense maneuvers, are
unconscious. Therefore, it is the unique purpose of
intrapsychic therapy to discover the repressed, obscure, and
elusive phenomena that cause anxiety and the specific
defense maneuvers incorporated by the person to prevent a
resurgence of anxiety. (1984, p.4)
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Freud's psychoanalysis, taken as the first major modern system,
may also be seen as the apex of the pyramidal plethora of systems which
has exponentiated in the seven-plus decades of this century. As
Eysenck points out:
Freud's method gradually gave way to numerous variants
of his technique espoused by his pupils, such as Carl Jung,
Otto Rank, and Alfred Adler. Other approaches, such as
those devised by Karen Horney, Harry Stack Sullivan, Franz
Alexander, and so on, were greatly influenced by his
writings. Even those who depart considerably from Freud's
assumptions regarding the unconscious, psychic structure,
free association, and so on, such as Carl Rogers, Albert
Ellis, and Viktor Frankl, still employ as their chief mode
of intervention the verbal self-exploration interview format
which Freud invented. (1979, p.886)
Behaviorism
Freud had another contemporary who gadned much popularity in his
own right. Ivan P. Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, held a
substantially different view from Freud as to the causes of neurosis.
Pavlov working with dogs discovered that by using conditioned reflex
techniques he could induce "neurotic” behavior by exposing them to
insoluble conflicts. Perhaps the most important element in his
discoveries was that he could also cure them of the problem he created
within them through applied condition reflex procedures.
Pavlov's followers worked diligently to extend his ideas, to
extrapolate the findings, and to extend their procedures to human
subjects. We find these efforts having their principal expression in
variant systems under the rubric of Behaviorism with exponents such as
E. L. Thorndike, John Watson, Mary Cover Jones, B. F. Skinner, Joseph
Wolpe, Albert Bandura and others expressing the basic principles. It
2 0 9
is Watson who coined the term "Behaviorism.” And Mary Cover Jones
along with Watson is credited with extending the principles to human
application.
The behaviorists embrace a quite different causal concept of human
behavior. As Gutsch (et al.) state:
It is the contention of behaviorists that pathological
behavior is learned and that it develops according to the
same laws as those governing normal behavior. They contend
that reinforcements shape the behavior of the person and
that differences between adjustment and maladjustment are
the result of differential reinforcement. (1984, p.107)
Phenomenological-Existential
Phenomenology and Existentialism are reviewed together because of
their close philosophical relationship. Their position asserts the
primacy of one’s conscious experience; that is, one’s intrapsychic
reality. These positions both hold that this inner reality we each
differentially and discretely experience should be the primary concern
of psychotherapy. This iniier reality is, of course, always a more
substantially compelling reality to the acting, sensing, feeling,
thinking, believing individual than are the observable behavioral data
as may be noted by an observing other.
Phenomenology is defined by Campbell as:
The study of events and happenings in their own right,
rather than from the point of view of inferred causes;
specifically, the theory that behavior is determined by the
way in which the subject perceives reality at any moment and
not by reality as it can be described in physical objective
terms. (1981, p.466)
The development of the phenomenological position is typically
attributed to Edmund Husserl, a contemporary of both Freud and Pavlov.
2 1 0
Both Husserl and Freud were students of Franz Brentano albeit at
different times. Specifically, according to Misiak and Sexton, Husserl
studied with Brentano during a period in 1884 when Brentano was more
phenomenological than deterministic (1973,p.3). The concept of
intentionality, a cornerstone belief in the philosophy and psychology
of Phenomenology, was one very important notion Husserl learned from
Brentano.
The concept of intentionality basically implies that behavior has
something to do with the behaving person’s purpose or intentionality
which is believed to be the primary occassioning impetus. This concept
has been given considerable attention by two contemporary
phenomenologists, Adrian Van Kaam and Rollo May. Gutsch (et al.) seem
to indicate that Van Kaam has postulated a very unique position for
this important concept. They assert:
Van Kaam seems to recognize intent ionality as a major
determinant of behavior and therefore as the essence of the
emperical science of psychology. This would mean that in
psychotherapy the patient’s interests, personality, and
values are perhaps of less importance than his or her
intentionality; that is, what the person actually intends to
do with the personality characteristics assumed, the
interest areas pursued, or the values established.
(1984, p. 192.)
This important concept and implicit others have also been the
instrumental bases from which the work of other modern day
phenomenologists such as Carl Rogers and Arthur Combs have evolved.
And, to a very substantial degree, this philosophy has also served to
form the basis for the important work of the Gesraltists such as Fritz
Peris, Ralph Goodman, and Paul Hefferline. The basic therapeutic goal
2 1 1
of these Gestaltists is to facilitate patients V experience
(intrapsychic awareness) of themselves.
Existentialism is, according to Campbell, rra reaction to the
realization that technology and a belief in pure rationalism, logical
positivism, or similar philosophies have only alienated man from
society and from himself" (1981, p.235). He goes on to cite important
early Western belief systems which served to shape much of our
collective thought and the subsequent impact Existential thought
offered:
Existentialism rejects the Hellenic view of man as a
man of detached, logical reason and instead emphasizes the
Hebraic view of man as a man of faith and a concrete,
individual doer.
Philosophy in the Western world before the time of
Kierkegaard tacitly accepted Parmenide’s belief that if a
thing cannot be thought, it cannot be real. Yet existence
cannot be thought, it can only be lived; thus reason must
ignore existence completely or reduce it to nothingness.
For Kierkegaard, existence was not a matter of speculation
but a reality in which the individual is personally and
passionately involved; the decisive encounter with the Self
is in the Either/Or of choice. (1981, pp.235-236)
As may be inferred from the preceding, Soren Kierkegaard is
considered the first major formulaton of the Existential concept.
Other prominent persons associated with the development of Existential
thought include Martin Heidegger, Karl Jaspers, Jean-Paul Sartre,
Viktor Frankl, Rollo May, and Adrian Van Kaam.
The basic belief advanced by Existential philosophy and its
implication for psychotherapy is that existence precedes essence.
Sartre was quite instrumental in clarifying this central notion.
Gutsch (et al.) suggest that:
2 1 2
It was Sartrers contention that once you have something
firmly in mind, you have essence; what precedes essence is
existence. Thus, he suggested that before you are (before
you can exist in my mind), I AM (I must exist to define
you). Another way to put this would be to say that essence
makes things what they are. For example, a chair is what it
is because people have agreed that it is a chair. Yet
before a chair can exist as a chair, someone must exist who
can define it as a chair. (1984, p.205)
This core Existential concept of existence preceding essence comes
to bear in the psychotherapeutic context in that to help a patient who
is in search of identity, the therapist must engage the patient in
authentic human encounter. This means the patient must first be moved
to discover his own identity. And this important yet tenuous process
must be carefully implemented by the therapist by permitting the
patient to assume responsibility for their identity through the taking
of graduated steps of understanding commensurate with their strength to
risk movement beyond where they are at. An important corollary point
here is that experience precedes theory; that is, the patient’s
experience assumes primacy over any clinical interpretation of any act.
The importance of this point resides in the notion that perception is a
function of the being in which it occurs and it both affects the being
and is affected by the perceiving being.
As can be easily deduced from this discussion, both Phenomenology
and Existentialism avow very high regard for the person and their
therapeutic practices reflect this concern.
Cognitive-Behaviorist
This psychological system is, as its name implies, a combination
of the cognitivist and behaviorist approaches. Briefly, the cognitive
2 1 3
position affirms that psychopathology is a consequent of thought
disturbances. More specifically, primary disturbances in thinking
result in the development of a disturbed mood state; that is, if a
person perceives a situation or other person as unpleasant, they will
correspondingly experience an unpleasant affective response.
The behaviorist position is that if a disturbed mood state exists,
it does so' because it was learned; that is, it is a product of
differential reinforcement.
Considering these two positions together, the theory posits that a
primary disturbance in thinking causes the production of a disturbed
mood state and subsequent affective responses are determined by the
differential reinforcement of the primary thought disturbance
(cognitive experience). Consequently when a person envisions an
experience as unpleasant, he will experience a contingent unpleasant
affective response. This unpleasant response then becomes converted
into an associated discrete behavior pattern. As a result of this
process, Gutsch (et al.) explain the clinical consequences and the
emergent behavioral patterns:
Each person has a unique mediational process by which
his or her thought patterns can be identified and a unique
behavioral process by which his or her emotional disorders
can be defined. If a person experiences depression, for
example, it can be identified by his or her expressed
feelings of dispair, futility, rejection, hopelessness, and
remorse. It can also, however, be defined by behavioral
patterns indicating a general loss of interest in normal
activities, a sleep disorder, an appetite disorder, exces
sive nervousness, excessive fatigue, withdrawal from respon
sibility, and/or attempts at suicide. (1984, pp.221-222)
2 1 4
The basic position of the cognitive-behaviorist is that thought
processes are not reality based. Consequently, their therapeutic
emphasis is to get their patients to "draw appropriate and realistic
conclusions from arbitrary inferences, overgeneralizations, and grossly
magnified distortions. The method by which they do this may involve
such techniques as modeling, shaping covert rehersal, and/or counter--
conditioning" (Gutsch et al., 1984, p.222).
Principal systems developers of the Cognitive-Behaviorist approach
to psychopathology include Albert Ellis, Michael Mahoney, William
Glasser, Aaron Beck, Kenneth Gutsch, and Donald Meichenbaum.
What is Psychotherapy?
The question--What is Psychotherapy?— is necessarily a complex one
to attempt to responsibly answer for principally two reasons: (1)
psychotherapy as it is currently presented and practiced discloses
itself to be an amorphous admixture of science and art, and (2)
psychotherapists themselves do not (or can not) agree on any precise
definition. The most classic example of this position involves the
official statement of the "Conference on Graduate Education in Clinical
Psychology, 1949." The Conference statement avows, in part, that
psychotherapy is an "undefined technique applied to unspecified
problems with unpredictable outcome; for this technique we recommend
rigorous training" (cited in Campbell, 1981, p.519). Campbell comments
on this statement:
While such a definition may seem so pessimistic as to
approach nihilism, it emphasizes what would seem to be an
irrefragable fact; viz., that despite centuries of its use,
215
and despite decades of study of its various forms,
psychotherapy and the means by which it achieves its results
are but poorly understood. (1981, pp.519)
Wolberg elaborates this theme in another manner:
Few words in the lexicon of the mental health field are
as ambiguous as the term "psychotherapy.” It is loosely
employed to connote, among other meanings, helping,
treating, advising, guiding, educating, and even
influencing. Definitions of psychotherapy are often bridled
to fields of disciplinary operation, e.g., psychiatry,
psychology, casework, etc., sanctuaries for such
characterizations being sought in the respective societies.
This diffuseness has converted the arena of psychotherapy
into a swamp of murky ideas, fostering many divergent
theories and techniques. (1977, p.3)
Such an initial attempt to define the subject would not seem to
portend of meaningful possibilities to understand what psychotherapy
< L
actually is. And yet it is important to strive to attempt to define
the topic for as Wolberg asserts: "A brief* and* precise description of
therapy is important if no more than to circumscribe boundaries of
operation and for purposes of hypothetical construction and empirical
study" (1977, p.3). More precise definitions are, of course, available
in the literature; in fact, they somewhat abound. The problem with
most definitions is that they tend to be system-specific; that is, they
proceed to narrowly define psychotherapy within the parameters of the
particular system within which the definition is located. Stated
another way, most definitions tend to describe what the particular
system offering the definition holds the purpose of psychotherapy to
be, what the system purports to do, and how it operationalizes itself
to achieve its objectives. A few more or less generic definitions do
exist, however, and these are explored.
216
Psychotherapy Today
Looking at the broad horizon of mental illness as we perceive it
today, it is appropriate to consider just where psychotherapy fits into
the picture. Clearly psychotherapy has its limitations and its
relative range of effectiveness--it can be the preferred method of
treatment in only certain cases. Wolberg (1966) postulates four basic
approaches to the mental disorder treatment spectrum; biological,
psychological, sociological, and philosophical. In his ''four-approach1 1
schema as depicted in Figure 5, he identifies psychotherapy as the
dominate treatment modality of the psychological approach.
As a hrief side note, it is of interest to note here that, as
shown in his schema, Wolberg considers Existentialism, Zen Buddhism,
and Yoga as philosophical approaches and designates clergymen and
philosophers as the principal administering professionals. This seems
to imply that he views these important positions as devoid of
psychotherapeutic content presumably due to an absence of formal
therapeutic procedures. To many, this point (if it is indeed
Wolberg's) is subject to legitimate disputation.
The terms "mental illness," "patient," "cure," "treatment^"
"disorder," "pathology," and so forth, all tend to denote the presence
of a "sickness" of sorts. These terms are troubling to many people
today for they tend to still bear stigmatizing connotations of the most
pernicious sort. Naturally they stem from the medical model for that
is the arena wherein "scientific" psychotherapy had its most recent
reincarnation. But like all things organic, it -has grown. It has
extended its domain of involvement beyond the boundaries which
2 1 7
Approach Principal Fields Involved
Affiliated Professionals
and Workers Treatment Method
Biological Neuroanatomy, Neurophysiology,
Neurology, Biochemistry, Ethology,
Genetics, Behavioral Genetics
Neuroanatomists, Neurophysiolo
gists, Neurologists, Geneticists, Phys
iologists, Biologists, Biochemists,
Ethologists, Physicians, Nurses
Somatic Therapies (Drug Therapy,
Sleep Therapy, Electroconvulsive
Therapy, Insulin Coma, Psychosur
gery)
Psychological Conditioning and Learning Theory,
Developmental Theory, Personality
Theory, Psychoanalytic Theory
Psychiatrists, Psychologists (experi
mental, educational, developmental,
clinical), Educators, Psychiatric
Social Workers
Psychotherapy (Psychoanalysis, Be
havioral Therapy, Therapeutic Coun
seling, Gestalt Therapy, Hypnother
apy, etc.)
Sociological Social Theory, Role Theory, Field
Theory, Ecology, Cultural Anthro
pology, Group Dynamics
Sociologists, Social Workers, Social
Psychologists, Anthropologists, Men
tal Health Aids, Paraprofessionals
Casework, Environmental (Milieu)
Therapy, Group Therapy, Psycho
drama, Sociodrama, Family Therapy,
Social Therapy. Transactional
Therapy
Philosophic Religion, Philosophy Clergymen, Philosophers Religious Therapy, Transcendental
Meditation, Existentialism, Zen Bud
dhism, Yoga
From: Wolberg, L. R. Psychotherapy and the Behavioral Sciences.
New York: Grune & Stratton, 1966.
Figure 5. Wolberg1s Four-Approach Treatment Classification for Mental Disorders
I— •
00
demarcate "health" and "illness"; at least in the pedestrian sense of
these terms. "Third force" psychology, as it is called, has been the
most responsible force at work here. This movement has repeatedly sent
shock waves bolting through the strata of variant psychotherapeutic
disciplines by challenging many previous assumptions. But, possibly
because it is yet in its adolescence and thus lacks some of the
seasoned wisdom and operational maturity of its predecessors, its
challenge is not forcefully compelling enough to topple the bastions of
the "old ones." What is effectively happening as a consequent of the
struggle is the presence of a dialectic tensioning between concepts
such as "mental health" vs. "mental illness," "client" vs. "patient,"
"growth" vs. "cure," "facilitation" vs. "treatment," etc. What is
important to see here is that quite possibly both approaches own a
legitimate position in the field of mental modification facilitation.
Wolberg renders this point apodictic and, at the same time, serves to
illustrate yet another one of the difficulties encountered in the
attempt to define psychotherapy--that created by its rapid
field-of-involvement expansion.
Any therapist who ventures into rendering essential
human services in the mental health area will find that he
or she must penetrate into zones alien to the medical model.
Of necessity, the - therapist will have to adapt to concepts
and interventions that are more related to the social than
to the biological sciences. . . . Unless the therapist is
willing to restrict operations to the handling of a narrow
band of problems, models of helping will have to be employed
that go beyond traditional psychotherapeutic education.
Whether we need to call such types of helping
"psychotherapy" is a moot question. Shall we restrict the
word to the treatment of outright emotional illness, or
shall we extend it to dealing with behavioral and adjustment
problems that are not particularly pathological? A good
deal of the confusion about psychotherapy stems from the
2 1 9
fact that over the years psychological help has been
extended to larger and larger groups of people with
increasingly diverse complaints. These range from
physiological disruptions of anxiety involving almost any
organ, to depressive manifestations, to symptomatic upsets
such as phobias and compulsions, to psychotic dislocations,
to habit disorders, to behavioral aberrations, to
interpersonal difficulties, to marital and family
disturbances, to educational and work blockages, to sexual
malfunctions, to addictions, and to a host of other
vexations that can plague human beings. The models most
appropriate for the understanding of and the dealing with
this plethora of troubles must spread themselves over a
number of fields. Indeed, in the course of helping the same
individual we may have to apply information from medical,
sociological, educational, and rehabilitative sources.
In a way, the term "psychotherapy" is a limiting one
because literally it means treatment of mental or nervous
disorders. This suggests a restrictive medical model. To
encompass all the troubles for which psychological help is
sought under the term "psychotherapy" will necessitate a
borrowing from theories and stratagems more appropriate to
structures other than medical ones, such as sociological or
rehabilitative and learning models. Functionally, this is
what has happened over the years, often with protests from
professionals in disciplines of sociology, anthropology,
psychology, and education, who resent encroachment of their
domains. Actually, psychotherapy should not be regarded as
a cormorant intent on swallowing diverse disciplines. It is
a body of procedures that overlap techniques used in
counseling, social casework, education, and rehabilitation,
even though its goals may be different. (1977, p.5)
It is important that one not mistake Wolberg1s preceding comments
as in anyway supportive of abolishing the medical model. These
statements taken together with the following should serve tc
communicate his fundamentally centrist position; one that essentially
seems to be suggesting an expanded conceptual arrangement which
continues to embrace the medical model:
Merely because our present nosological systems are in
disarray does not sanction the abandonment of diagnosis that
is an essential aspect of the medical model. A proper
diagnosis can be helpful to the institution of a rational
therapeutic program. For example, violence may appear as a
symptom of a variety of causes. It may be a simple behavior
2 2 0
problem nurtured by situational dislocations. It may be a
habitual ego-syntonic display in a psychopathic personality.
It may .be a manifestation of failing repressive control in a
borderline patient. It may be the expression of a
delusional system in a schizophrenic. Or it may be a
symptom of the manic phrase of manic depressive disorder.
Unless a correct diagnosis is established, we may fail
miserably in providing effective help. Thus, elimination of
violence due to environmental difficulties can be useful in
simple behavioral difficulties, but it will usually be
ineffective in the other conditions cited. Anyone who has
witnessed the ameliorating effect of phenothiazine
medication in schizophrenia and of lithium in manic
disorders will attest to the value of a diagnostic survey.
Violence in a borderline case will require special
psychotherapeutic management that might not be applicable to
other conditions. Diagnosis can be as important in
psychological as in physical problems.
On the other hand, a disadvantage fostered by the
medical model is that it concerns itself with techniques of
therapeutic intervention that are sometimes dissociated from
the daily life of the individual. Diagnosis and pathology,
legitimate as they may be in disease areas, are not
practically applicable to some behavioral zones. To
classify these as "normal1 1 and "abnormal" or as "symptoms"
and "defenses" neglects considerations of background,
culture, and life style, which require a different
perspective. Moreover, the medical model has in the past
limited the training of professionals; it has rarely
equipped them to deal with many behavioral difficulties that
are disruptive to the individual and the community. (1977,
p.6)
As an interim summary it may be facilitative to consider Wolberg’s
classification of the current varieties of psychotherapy. He asserts
that of the many extant varieties, all basically can be reduced to
three major groupings— supportive, reeducative, and reconstructive.
His grouping schema is based on the variables of objectives and
approaches. These three groupings, as shown in Figure 6, are
considered to be relatively fixed in basic operational parameters but
with a considerable degree of dynamic variation occurring within each
group; basically due to the constant introduction of new innovations.
2 2 1
Type of Treatment Objectives Approaches
Supportive Therapy Strengthening of existing defenses.
Elaboration of new and better mechanisms of main
taining control.
Restoration to an adaptive equilibrium.
Guidance, Environmental Manipulation, Externali-
zation of Interests, Reassurance, Pressure and
Coercion, Persuasion, Emotional Catharsis and
Desensitization, Prestige Suggestion, Suggestive
Hypnosis, Inspirational Group Therapy, Supportive
Adjuncts (Somatic Therapy, Muscular Relaxation,
Hydrotherapy)
Reeducative Therapy Deliberate efforts at readjustment, goal modification,
and the living up to existing creative potentialities,
with or without insight into conscious conflicts.
Behavior and Conditioning Therapy, “ Relationship
Therapy,” “ Attitude Therapy,” Interview Psycho
therapy, Client-centered Therapy, Directive Therapy,
Distributive Analysis and Synthesis (Psychobiologic
Therapy), Therapeutic Counseling, Casework Ther
apy, “ Rational Therapy,” Reeducative Group Ther
apy, Marital Therapy, Family Therapy, Psychodrama,
Semantic Therapy, Philosophic Approaches (Exis
tential, Zen Buddhist)
Reconstructive Therapy Insight into unconscious conflicts, with efforts to
achieve extensive alterations of character structure.
Expansion of personality growth with development
of new adaptive potentialities.
Freudian Psychoanalysis, Ego Analysis, Kleinian
Analysis, neo-Freudian Psychoanalysis (Adler, Jung,
Stekel, Rank, Ferenczi, Reich, Fromm, Sullivan,
Horney, Rado), Psychoanalyticaily Oriented Psycho
therapy, Transactional Approaches, Existential An
alysis, Analytic Group Therapy, Adjunctive Ther
apies (Hypnoanalysis, Narcotherapy, Play Therapy,
Art Therapy)
r. W o lb e rg , L . R. The T e c h n iq u e o f P s y c h o th e ra p y ( 3 r d e d.) New Y o r k :
Grune & Stratton, 1977.
Figure 6. Wolberg1s Three-Group Classification of Varieties of Psychotherapy
to
to
to
What, after this discussion, can psychotherapy confidently be said
to be? Difficult to say--exactly. Yet, as stated earlier, several
reasonably acceptable generic definitions do exist. This section will
appropriately conclude with the presentation of four. One should be
able to identify both conceptual continuity and elements of discrete
differential position within this offering based on past discussion *
To begin, Frank offers what he considers the "broadest" interpretation:
In its broadest sense "psychotherapy" is the systematic
attempt of a trained professional person to relieve certain
types of suffering by psychological means. The suffering is
believed always to involve disturbances in the sufferer's
feelings, thoughts, behavior, and relationships with persons
important to him. All forms of psychotherapy attempt to
give the sufferer an experience that will help him to
overcome his fears, bolster his morale, and find more
successful ways of coping with his problems. This
experience includes a special type of relationship between
the patient, or group of patients, and the therapist, and
certain activities carried on jointly by them. These
methods are believed to be therapeutically effective by them
and the society in which they live. (1963, p. 1728)
Eysenck next offers his definition:
Psychotherapy, literally "treatment of the mind",
■ refers to any of a variety of psychological means used to
modify mental, emotional and behavior disorders. This may
occur in individual interviews where therapist and patient
verbally explore the patient’s conflicts, feelings, memories
and fantasies in order to attain insight into the causes of
the presenting problems, or it may be conducted in small
groups of six to twelve patients, or, in the case of
children, may take the form of play between child and
therapist during which the child expresses feelings and
learns new behavior patterns through his relationship with
the therapist.
Psychotherapy is distinguished from medical techniques
such as chemotherapy or electroconvulsive therapy, which are
often employed in treating mental disorders, particularly in
the more severe forms found among patients in mental
hospitals. (1979, p.886)
Campbell defines psychotherapy as:
2 2 3
Any form of treatment for mental illnesses, behavioral
maladaptions, and/or other problems that are assumed to be
of an emotional nature, in which a trained person
deliberately establishes a professional relationship with a
patient for the purpose of removing, modifying, or retarding
existing symptoms, of attenuating or reversing disturbed
patterns of behavior, and of promoting positive personality
growth and development.
There are numerous forms of psychotherapy--ranging from
guidance, counseling, persuasion, and hypnosis to
reeducation and psychoanalytic reconstructive therapy--and
many possible applications of each form--including disabling
psychosomatic symptoms, interpersonal conflicts and
pathologic attitudes secondary to recognizable (organic)
disturbance of central nervous system functions, the
so-called functional psychoses, character and behavior
disorders, psychoneuroses, and marital conflict, to name a
few; but in general it may be said that all forms of
psychotherapy in all their applications employ the
relationship established between patient and therapist to
influence the patient to unlearn old and/or maladaptive
response patterns and to learn better ones. (1981, p.519)
To conclude, Wolberg offers what he identifies as a comprehensive
working definition:
Psychotherapy is the treatment, by psychological means,
of problems of an emotional nature in which a trained person
deliberately establishes a professional relationship with
the patient with the object of (1) removing, modifying, or
retarding existing symptoms, (2) mediating disturbed
patterns of behavior, and (3) promoting positive personality
growth and development. (1977, p.3)
Wolberg considers this definition too tightly packed to adequately
convey his intended message and consequently supplies what he terms the
required additional elaboration. In the following rather lengthy but
definitive discussion, emphasized phrases correlate to those in
Wolberg*s original definition statement.
Psychotherapy is the treatment. No matter how much we
attempt to dilute what we do in psychotherapy, it
constitutes a form of treatment. Such terms as
"reeducation,' * "helping process,*' and "guidance" are merely
descriptive of what happens in the course of treatment and
do not really disguise the therapeutic nature of the
224
process. Forms of intervention other than therapy do exist
in the mental health field. . . .
Psychological means. Psychotherapy is a generic term
covering the entire spectrum of psychological treatment
methods. These range from designed maneuvers of the
therapist-patient relationship, to indoctrinations fashioned
to change value systems, to tactics aimed at intrapsychic
processes, to conditioning techniques that attempt to alter
neural mechanisms. The repertoire of strategies is thus
legion, and formats are varied, e.g., individuals, couples,
and groups. They are all, nevertheless, dependent upon the
establishment of adequate communication, verbal and
nonverbal. Excluded are such modalities as somatic
therapies (drugs, convulsive therapy, surgery, etc.) that,
though psychotherapeutic in effect, are not strictly
speaking forms of psychotherapy.
Problems of an emotional nature. Emotional problems
are diverse, influencing every, facet of human functioning.
They manifest themselves in distortions in the individual's
psychic, somatic, interpersonal, and community life.
Manifestations of emotional illness are thus multiple,
involving the total human being. In view of this totality
of disturbance, it is arbitrary and unsound to separate
social and interpersonal difficulties from psychic and
psychophysiological disorders which are usually concurrent,
though not at all times obvious.
A trained person. In his search for relief, the
individual is apt to involve himself in a relationship with
a friend or authority. The motivations that prompt such a
relationship are disabling symptoms or a realization that
one’s happiness and productivity are being sabotaged by
inner forces that he is neither able to understand nor to
control. Sometimes the consequences of this relationship
are registered in a restoration of homeostasis, a product of
healing forces liberated-by "the "’’ helping'process.?>s A't" other
times, particularly when attempts are made to handle the
sufferer's emotional turmoil in depth, the relationship may
become disastrous to both participants. Dealing most
adequately with an emotional problem requires a high degree
of skill that may best be acquired through extensive
postgraduate training and experience.
Deliberately establishing a professional relationship.
The relationship, the core of the therapeutic process, is
deliberately planned and nurtured by the therapist. Unlike
nonprofessional relationships, which are part of the social
nature of man, the therapeutic relationship is a
collaborative undertaking, started and maintained on a
professional level toward specific therapeutic objectives.
More than one therapist (cotherapist, multiple therapists)
may work together.
225
The patient. Since the individual in psychotherapy is
receiving treatment, he is best called a "patient" rather
than some other designation such as a "client." The
therapist may relate himself to more than one patient, as in
marital or group therapy.
The object is removing existing symptoms. A prime
goal in therapy is to eliminate the patient’s suffering as
well as to remove the handicaps imposed on him by his
symptoms.
Modifying existing symptoms. Despite our wish for
complete relief, certain circumstances may militate against
this, objective. Chief deterrents are inadequate motivation,
diminutive ego strength (The term "ego strength" is somewhat
ambiguous, but in the sense it is employed here it connotes
the positive personality assets that will enable the
individual to overcome his anxieties, to yield secondary
gains of his illness, and to acquire new, more adequate
defenses.), and limitations in the patient’s available time
or finances. These will impose restrictions on the extent
of help that can be rendered and make for modification
rather than cure of the patient’s symptoms.
Retarding existing symptoms. There are some malignant
forms of emotional illness, such as fulminating
schizophrenic disorders, in which psychotherapy, no matter
how adroitly applied, serves merely to delay an inevitable
deteriorative process. This palliative effect is eminently
worthwhile, however, often helping to preserve the patient's
contact with reality.
Mediating disturbed patterns of behavior. The
recognition in recent years that many occupational,
educational, marital, interpersonal, and social problems are
emotionally inspired has extended the use of psychotherapy
into fields hitherto considered provinces of the
psychologist, teacher, sociologist, religious leader, and
lawmaker. Realization that the character structure is
involved in all emotional illness has broadened the
objectives of psychotherapy from mere symptom relief or
removal to correction of disturbed interpersonal patterns
and relationships.
Promoting positive personality growth and development.
The final use of psychotherapy is as a vehicle* for
personality maturation. This has introduced a new dimension
into the field of psychotherapy--a dimension that deals, on
the one hand, with problems of immaturity of the so-called
"normal" person and, on the other, with characterologic
difficulties associated with inhibited growth previously
considered inaccessible to treatment. Here psychotherapy
aims at a resolution of blocks in psychosocial development
in order that the individual may aspire to more complete
creative self-fulfillment, more productive attitudes toward
life, and more gratifying relationships with people. The
226
goals of psychotherapy thus extend from the limited
objective of helping to control symptoms to the liberation
of the rich resources of the human mind from neurotic
obstructions that thwart its.purpose and stunt its growth.
(1977, pp.3-5)
Psychotherapy: the Social and Philosophical Implications
All theoretical and practical differences aside, one thing does-
seem quite certain and that is that each and every psychotherapeutic
system seeks to make a statement about the natural or so-called normal
state of the human mind (homeostasis), sees departure from it as
virtually endemic to human existence, and tacitly avows that stasis
reestablishment is volitionally possible albeit it may (and probably
does) require facilitation through the agency of another human being--
typically a trained and competent therapist--via the medium of a
therapeutic relationship and applied therapeutic procedures. And, in
some cases, supplemental facilitation afforded by a human support
system may be found to be necessary or advantageous.
It must, of course, be emphatically understood that psychic
homeostasis- - is - a—completely., relative- term;* specifica-l-ly* individually
relative. What is intrapsychically experienced by one person as
stasis--together with the processes employed to establish and/or
maintain it--may be interpsychically perceived as patently pathologic.
A principal assumption thus rendered operative is that certain persons
have, through some sort of concensus process, assumed the authority to
define (or prescribe) for the dominant culture what the acceptable
states and ranges of manifest salutary behavioral activities (overt
acts and utterances) for any individual are. By extension, behaviors
227
falling outside the prescribed limits are determined abnormal
(pathologic) and are accordingly labled neurotic or psychotic depending
on the degree of variance determined. "Appropriate" prescriptives-
naturally accompany any "official" diagnosis.
This general concept if operationally valid, and it is herein held
to be, must then admit to subordination to alternative sociological
viewpoints. For illustration purposes let us consider two cases
characterized by polar philosophical divergence. In the first case,
for example in a true democracy, the operative value system typically
deems the individual superior and the state subordinate in that it (the
state) exists primarily for the optimization of the intrinsic salutary
status of each individual. In such a sociological context, the search
for what this means will have high priority and the means will be
instituted to promote the proliferation and development of that which
is held to be in concert with this end.
In colloquial terms, it is said that "cream always rises to the
top." From a psychological prospective this implies that given time
and opportunity, certain persons will emerge from the societal matrix
with the capacity (at least in their more lucid moments) to know and
understand what such an optimal existential state entails, how it is
experienced, how psychic disequilibration is effected, and how stasis
is restored together with the insight and awareness to know when it is
and to what degree. Certain of the resulting "fortunates" subsequently
serve to become the definers of "normalacy" to the extent societally
enabled.
228
NormaLacy in this case is characterized in terms of principles
with discrete possibilities and opportunities of a highly divergent
nature yielding to individual selection and incorporation. The
intrinsic danger here is the potential for individual expression to
coalesce into concensus prescriptives. Assuming this to happen, as it
inevitably does, a key question becomes: Is a human concensus position
the optimal standard to invoke to define salutary human mental and
contingent behavioral functioning? The answer will be determined in
large measure by how "salutary" is defined. Specifically, does it mean
premium effort is directed toward development and evolution of the
intrinsic positive states and potentials within each individual? Does
it mean subordination and conformance to established behavioral norms
for the general good of all citizens? Does it mean some combination of
both? Or does it mean something else?
The second polar philosophical position is that which holds the
state as supreme and individuals subordinate as exemplified by a
totalitarian regime guided by, for example, the dictates of dialectical
materialism as seen in contemporary Soviet Russia. Normalacy in this
context is circumscribed by the dictums of conformance and willful
subordination of individual human aspirations (even by violent means)
to those deemed to be of direct benefit to the state.
These polar philosophical positions are of extreme importance tc
bear in mind for reasons which should be most apparent. Singer (1^65,
pp. 4-10) also makes this point compellingly clear from a different yet
analagous perspective. He views it from a human evolution perspective
in an historical social-philosophical context. He cites particular
229
episodes and key figures which serve to recast the progress of Western
civilization from the Enlightenment forward in a philosophical-
psychological context. Using the references he does, he makes a
convincing case for the fact that progressive concern for the rights
and well-being of the individual have typified this temporal
advancement.
Of principal concern here is the absolute fact that in whatever
nature-of-man context humans view themselves, in that context their
societal structures spring forth. And in those structures are clearly
and forcibly stamped the inherent human values espoused and advanced
--the imprint of which may be unambiguously read in the the text of its
dominant psychological belief systems and, in particular, its principal
psychotherapeutic metastructures and accompanying treatment modalities.
Psychology and its offspring, psychotherapy, is a two-edged sword; it
has within itself the power and process to either annihilate or
liberate the human psyche. The empowerment to do either is
fundamentally in the hands of the ruling sector. But the
responsibility together with the power of choice to act or not to act
in either case is the sole province of the responsible individual— the
psychotherapist.
The polar perspectives discussed are especially interesting and of
paramount importance when pursued to logical extension. In the context
of the present work, these perspectives cannot be said to represent an
inclusive set of systemic conditions regulating human possibilities.
Both perspectives discussed must be said to be operative within the
sphere of mortal consciousness. Earlier discussions in this work point
230
out that in Vedic philosophy a superior state of consciousness is held
to be inherent and actualizable within each and every human being.
Further, it is maintained that the attainment of this state is said to
be both the goal of life and the end of all human suffering and mental
aberration. If this position is true, and it is held to be true in the
philosophy and teachings of Paramahansa Yogananda, then what are the
implications for Western psychotherapy? Does, or can, Western
psychotherapy have a valid therapeutic position within the Vedic
structure? Looked at the other way around, does Vedic philosophy have
a niche in the framework of Western psychotherapy? Or is it possibly
the case they are mutually incompatible--both logically and
functionally? If there is compatibility in either or both directions,
then it seems reasonable to assume that systems development is a
distinct possibility.
231
VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
This chapter, the final one of this work, has in a way the
briefest task to accomplish. Perhaps to some this comes as a
refreshing note.
The work this chapter endeavors to accomplish is to respond to the
six statements set down in Chapter I indicating what the purpose of
this study is. This work was initially undertaken for the purpose of
examining the philosophy and teachings of Paramahansa Yogananda with
the following objectives:
1. Extract, derive, and synthesize a set of meaningful, relevant,
and appropriate statements regarding the true nature of man sufficient
to formulate a basic comprehensive working definition.
2. It has been several times stated that man, in Yogananda*s
context, is seen to be conceived as a physical, mental, and spiritual
being. This work explores the implications for Western psychology in
general and psychotherapy in particular that such a definition may
portend.
- 3. Considering the implications this definition may signify, this
work focuses on those of psychotherapy and identifies specific
theory-building elements and related operational characteristics and
232
possibilities which could serve to aid in subsequent systems
development work.
4. This effort seeks to determine if inherent elements--either
explicit or derived--suggest a form of, or a practice of, psychotherapy
which is presently not encompassed or envisioned by Western systems.
The implications such a possible form may portend for Western
psychotherapeutic practice are also explored.
5. A definition of "unified psychology" is rendered in the
context" of this work.
6 . This effort endeavors to determine if a unified psychology is
a distinct possibility, and if so, if it would be feasible for
consideration at this time and in a Western societal context.
The balance of this chapter addresses these six objectives in a
review, summary, or discussion response depending primarily on the
extent to which they were presented in one or more preceding chapters.
THE TRUE NATURE OF HAN: OBJECTIVE ONE
This subject, has been the focus of predominant discussion
throughout this entire work. The task, however, was to derive a set of
statements sufficient to formulate a basic working definition. A basic
working definition is here taken to mean a definition which will enable
its use in a pragmatic psychological context.
To begin, it has been repeatedly stated that man is a physical,
mental, and spiritual being in that ascending hierarchical ordering.
And in another location it was pointed out that Yogananda stated "man
233
is a soul and has a body"; a clear confirmation of the primacy of the
soul.
This work affirms the proposition of existential universality
which fundamentally avows there is a science to existence and each and
every man is heir to it and necessarily lives by its principles, either
willingly or unwillingly, wisely or ignorantly. These principles
(laws) operate impartially and with impunity.
MAN AS A PHYSICAL, MENTAL, AND SPIRITUAL BEING:
OBJECTIVE TWO
To begin, we asserted man was a physical, mental, and spiritual
being. The importance in this ascription was pointed out in Chapter I
as indicating that while physical science can responsibly address the
physical aspect, some other means must be employed to explain and
ultimately treat the mental and spiritual aspects. And treatment here
is not taken to be limited to pathological conditions but may apply to
the promotion of inherent salutary states as well.
It was also pointed out that while the new physics is advancing in
a spectacular manner and many of its paradigmatic elements signify a
decided trend away from the physicalist*s notions, there still emerges
the inherent danger of subscription to an advanced form of
psychophysical interactionism.
In light of this "early-warning," it may behove psychology to take
the lead in new paradigm development work. This is not an unreasonable
or absurd proposal for if we recall the soul-Nature (purusha-prakriti)
234
relationship discussion, it should be amply evident that man is far
more than a Nature construct. Given the facticity of this claim, it
likewise should be deducible that if man can know himself as Self, he
must by his very transformative nature thereby be privy to all of
Nature's workings and secrets. This possibility was rendered apodictic
in the discussion of intuition in the doctrine of epistemology.
All of this may prove to be a reflection of blind optimism,
however, given what was said in Chapters I and V regarding the present
state of Western psychology. It was said in Chapter I that psychology
predominantly holds fast to the 19th century views of Newtonian-
mechanistic physics and in Chapter V that psychology still reverberates
to the negativistic, strictly empirical, and antimetaphysical notions
of logical positivism and operationalism.
The consequences of failing to attend to all three aspects of man
were rather completely discussed in Chapter. I where it was asserted
that the failure of science in general and psychology in particular to
develop paradigms on the triune-nature-of-man predication constitutes
the root problem of all of man’s problems. The true nature of man can
be correctly apprehended only when his three intrinsic aspects and
their interdependent relationships are sufficiently understood and
under no other conditions.
With regard to psychotherapy in particular, more needs to be said.
As consistently pointed out throughout this work, the cosmogonic and
cosmological elements together with eschatological elements (especially
karma) figure heavily into the ethical and moral prescriptions and
proscriptions attendant to Yogananda’s teachings. Given these
235
conditions it is unambiguously the case that any psychotherapy
constituting a philosophical "iit" will of necessity not be .found in
violation of these elements. A basic example serves to illustrate the
point.
By way of an applied example, the practicing psychotherapist
employing, the principles of this unified psychology would integrale, as
appropriate, this knowledge with what he knows concerning his client's
(patient's) circumstances, conditions, resources, and so on.
Exercising his own therapeutic skills and wisdom, this integrated
knowledge would be effectively introduced into the therapeutic melieu,
facilitatively communicated to the client, and thereby (hopefully) both
would be found to have responsibly, cooperatively, successfully
participated in efforts to preclude unnecessary exacerbation of or
introduction of possible pain or suffering into that person's
existence. Bearing in mind the emphasis placed on free will and its
responsible use as discussed earlier, the therapist would never attempt
to tell the client what to do; or threaten, or intimidate him in any
intentional way by pronouncing dire immiment consequences if such and
such is either done or not done, and so on. This simple yet potent
example serves to also demonstrate a polar case wherein the client is
unabashedly admonished to: "go ahead, do your own thing," or "if it
feels good do it," or "you can do anything you want, there are nc
rules, no constraints--just don't get caught if its illegal." In the
context of the unified psychology described, these "therapeutic1
admonitions would be found reprehensible for they bear no mark of
responsibility on the part of the therapist for either himself or his
2 3 6
client. As a consequent, the client may now, having received not only
permission, but, the much-prized professional sanction, rush headlong
into a profoundly misery-producing situation. And its not clear that
the therapist comes out of such a process "unscathed" either. The
polar examples illustrated may appear overly simplistic because they
are stripped of the rich contextual fabric of the therapeutic process.
But they nevertheless serve to communicate the intended message and
they do in fact represent, in part, the essential grist of such actual
polar therapeutic approaches.
It is appropriate to note in this discussion that SRF-YSS is. an
active proponent of psychotherapy and, as appropriate, refers people
for professional psychotherapeutic attention. This, of course, is
perfectly understandable when one remembers that a requisite to
concentration and meditation is calmness. And calmness is not a
possibility when one is experiencing psychic conflict, tension, guilt,
or other distress. The followers of the teachings of Yogananda are as
heir to psychological problems as anyone. While it is true that the
conscientious following of such teachings in time leads to
self-determined successes in the psychological realm, professional
intervention may, in the interim, be indicated and, in fact, be found
facilitative to the pursuit of the teachings proper.
And it should not . be forgotten that there is nothing in
Yogananda*s teachings which takes issue with physical science except
its limited perception which asserts that only the phenomenal world
exists.
237
PSYCHOTHERAPEUTIC SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
POSSIBILITIES: OBJECTIVE THREE
This objective is basically an extension of number two but looks
at what the implications are for new development work as opposed to
existing systems.
The basic expositions offered by this work clearly suggest the
potential for theory-building elements for subsequent work in systems
development. Due to the extreme breadth and depth of the global
subject addressed and the enormous amount of knowledge which Indians
(Hindus) have gathered, refined, proven, and systematized over the
unnumbered milleniums, all that can be said to have occurred with this
effort is a mere "scratching of the surface.” But, this is as the
title states, "a first look" and little more than that was expected in
the way of accomplishment. What has been done is important work; it
establishes the basic foundation and points the way. And the
"scratching" has served to reveal the next layer for investigation.
Numerous psychological elements were exposed by this effort which,
unfortunately, have not even been mentioned to this point. For
example, one subject this work did not get into in any depth at all
(actually it was scarcely mentioned) is that of consciousness;
specifically, the different levels or states and their relative
significance to psychotherapy. Using this subject area to illuminate
this contention, Vedic philosophy postulates four levels (states) of
consciousness and has studied the workings of each in great detail.
Yogananda duly notes this when he talks about three of them:
238
Man's conscious state is an awareness of body and
breath. His subconscious state, active in sleep, is
associated with his mental, and temporary, separation from
body and breath. His superconscious state is a freedom from
the delusion that "existence" depends on body and breath.
(1985, p.565)
The implications of different levels of consciousness for
psychology are evidenced in the following statement by Yogananda:
Studies in consciousness by Western psychologists are
largely confined to investigations of the subconscious mind
and of mental diseases that are treated through psychiatry
and psychoanalysis. There is little research into the
origin and fundamental formation of normal mental states and
their emotional and volitional expressions--a truly basic
subject not neglected in Indian philosophy. Precise
classifications are made, in Sankhya and Yoga systems, of
the various links in normal mental modifications and of the
characteristic functions of buddhi (discriminative
intellect), ahankara (egoistic principle), and manas (mind
or sense-consciousness). (1985, p.57)
And he goes on to cite a lecture by Rabbi Levinthal (who, in turn,
quotes F. W. H. Meyers) which even more suggestively points the
direction to important research possibilities in this area:
"Our conscious and subconscious being is crowned by a
superconsciousness,rr Rabbi Israel H. Levinthal pointed out
in a lecture in New York. "Many years ago the English
psychologist, F. W. H. Myers, suggested that 'hidden in the
deep of our being is a rubbish heap as well as a treasure
house.' In contrast to the psychology that centers all its
researches on the subconscious in man's nature, the new
psychology of the superconscious focuses its attention upon
the treasure house--the region that alone can explain the
great, unselfish, heroic deeds of men." (1985, pp.144-145)
Additional theory building elements identified for further
exploration but not covered include the "details" of the important
existential material of pain, suffering, guilt, loneliness, desires,
habits, and so on.
239
IS A NEW SUGGESTED FORM OF PSYCHOTHERAPY
INDICATED? OBJECTIVE FOUR
No new form of psychotherapy is indicated as a result of this
study. Suggestions which clearly hint at future possibilities have
been discussed in the review of Objective Three. But much work is in
need of doing before any detailed possibilities can be identified.
For the present, it appears that extant systems will continue to
have to try to meet societies needs.
UNIFIED PSYCHOLOGY DEFINED:
OBJECTIVE FIVE
The definition of a unified psychology as it is rendered in this
work was presented in Chapter V. That definition is here repeated.
A unified psychology represents that metaphysical-physical science
which engages in the unification of an aggregate of true scientific
knowledge--metaphysical and physical--regarding the origin and nature
of consciousness including but not limited to: (a) the levels or
states in which consciousness manifests; (b) the conditions affecting
development, manifestation, and maintenance of the different states
(levels); (c) the relationship between the different states; (d) the
interactional relationships between the different states and the body3
mind, intellect, emotions, feelings, environment, other beings, anc
God; and (e) the physical, mental, and spiritual therapeutic knowledge
and procedures necessary and sufficient for the restoration of
240
pathologic states and conditions to a salutary status and for advancing
salutary states to higher and finer levels of expression.
IS A UNIFIED PSYCHOLOGY A POSSIBILITY?
OBJECTIVE SIX
This objective not only asks if a unified psychology is a
possibility, it also asks if it is, would it be feasible for
consideration at this time? And, in a Western societal context?
Based on present efforts and results, it is reasonable to assert
that a unified psychology is considered a theoretical possibility; the
actual possibility will have to be determined subsequent to additional
work in virtually all areas.
A unified psychology will be a psychology which necessarily (as
stated in Objective Five) addresses all four states of consciousness.
And as earlier mentioned, these states themselves have not been
explored. We appropriately claim knowledge about everyday ordinary
wakeful (mortal) consciousness but even here, as Chapter V aptly
pointed out, there is far from any concensus position let alone any
claims of inherent truthfulness. It would be a sizeable task in itself
just to establish a set of meaningful criteria to evaluate extant
systems of psychotherapy for candidacy as the preferred modality foi
dealing with just the ordinary wakeful state in a unified psychology.
Other variables such as therapist traits, therapist-client relational
compatibility, client characteristics, and so on make such selectior.
even more difficult.
241
The issue of feasibility and compatibility are moot issues given
the overall status. But given the proposition of existential
universality advanced by this work, it is reasonable to speculate that
acceptance by the general public will be in accord with general
procedure; that is, the client will naturally seek out that therapist
he or she feels to be competent and is comfortable with regardless of
their avowed orientation. Acceptance by the professional community
will probably be less easy to predict. Much will depend on the form,
style, and content of the product.
242
REFERENCE NOTES
1. Willard, D. Personal Communication, November 21, 1980.
2. Self-Realization Fellowship. Highway to the Infinite. Pamphlet,
An Introduction to Self-Realization Fellowship, Author, Los
Angeles, 1981.
3. Anandamoy, Bro. Kriya Yoga: Portal to the Infinite. Audio
cassette No. 2502, Self-Realization Fellowship, Los Angeles, 1979.
4. Self-Realization Fellowship. The Law of Karma. Self-Realization
Fellowship Lesson No. S-6P-136, Los Angeles, 1956.
5. Self-Realization Fellowship. Definitions of Concentration.
Self-Realization Fellowship Lesson No. S-l P-18, Los Angeles,
1956.
243
REFERENCES
Anandamoy, Swami. Overcoming Karma Through Kriya Yoga. Research
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Armstrong, D. M. A Materialist Theory of Mind. London: Routledge &
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Budhananda, Swami. Can One be Scientific and Yet Spiritual? Calcutta,
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Campbell, K. Body and Mind. New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc.,
1970.
Campbell, R. J. Psychiatric Dictionary (5th ed.). New York: Oxford
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Capra, F. The Tao of Physics. New York: Bantam Books, 1975.
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Chatterjee, S. and Datta, D. An Introduction of Indian Philosophy.
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Chatterji, J. C. The Wisdom of the Vedas. Wheaton, Illinois:
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Corsini, R. J. (Ed.), Current Psychotherapies. Itasca, IL: F. E.
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Dasgupta, S. A*' History of Indian Philosophy (Vol. 1). London:
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Deese, J. Psychology as Science and Art. New York: Harcourt Brace
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Eysenck, H. J., Arnold, W. & Meile, R. (Eds.) Encyclopedia of
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Frank, J. D. In Deutsch, A. and Fishman, H. (Eds.), The Encyclopedia
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_____________ In Usdin, G. (Ed.), Overview of the Psychotherapies. New
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Freud, S. Civilization and Its Discontents. New York: Bantom Books,
1964.
G. f i t C. Merriam Company. Webster1s New Collegiate Dictionary (2nd ed.)
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Garbe, R. The Essentials of Indian Philosophy. Bombay, India:
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Kantor, J. R. The Evolution of Scientific Psychology, (Vol. 1) .
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Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Vol. 3). New York: Macmillan
Publishing Co. , Inc. f i t The Free Press, 1972.
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Humanistic Psychologies. New York: Grune f i t Stratton, 1973.
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Rama Krishna Math, 1974.
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Eternal. Hollywood: Vedanta Press, 1947.
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Universe Ltd. 1966.
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_______________ Self-Realization Fellowship Highlights. Los Angeles:
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_______ The Systems of Hindu Philosophy [Part 3] . Self-
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247

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Asset Metadata

Creator Roberts, John Edward (author)

Core Title The philosophy and psychology of Paramahansa Yogananda as the basis for a unified psychology: A first look

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,philosophy,psychology, clinical

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-522536

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