University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Selected historical photoplays and scenarios as extra-curricular aids in eleventh grade social studies: A comparative study

(USC Thesis Other)

Selected historical photoplays and scenarios as extra-curricular aids in eleventh grade social studies: A comparative study

PDF

Download

Open document

Flip pages

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content SELECTED HISTORICAL PHOTOPLAYS AID SCEMARIOS
AS EXTRA-CURRICULAR AIDS IN ELEVENTH GRADE
SOCIAL STUDIES: A COMPARATIVE STUDY
A Dissertation
Presented to
the Faculty of the School of Education
University of Southern California
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy in Education
by
Arthur Lawrence Marble
May 1938
UMI Number: DP23450
All rights reserved
INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed,
a note will indicate the deletion.
UMI
D t a s e r t M t o n P „ b „ » h . r t g
UMI DP23450
Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author.
Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC.
All rights reserved. This work is protected against
unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code
ProQuest LLC.
789 East Eisenhower Parkway
P.O. Box 1346
Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346
This dissertation, w ritten by
.ART HUB.. . LAWRJ3& . .M AEB. LE
under the guidance of h_±S_ Faculty Committee
on Studies, and approved by a ll its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Council
on Graduate Study and Research, in p a rtia l fu l
fillm ent of requirements fo r the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H IL O S O P H Y
Secretary
Dean
Date.
May,, ...1938
Committee on Studies
'man
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Among those who offered invaluable cooperation in this
study, the investigator is especially grateful to: Dr. Edwin
D. Starbuck, Director of the Institute of Character Research,
under whose auspices the study was made; the Committee on
Studies, with Dr. D. Welty Lefever as chairman; the Los
Angeles Board of Education; Mr. George Bomrighausen, Head of
the Department of Social Studies at George Washington High
School, and his teaching staff; and Elizabeth B. Marble, the
experimenterfs wife, whose encouragement and clerical assist
ance facilitated the study.
Others making definite contributions were: Mrs. Frances
C. Ver Bryck, who aided in compiling the statistical tables;
Mr. Courtney S. Overin, Head of the Department of Social Stud
ies at Venice High School, and his teaching staff.
Grateful acknowledgment likewise is given the Associa
tion of Motion Picture Producers, and to Paramount Pictures,
Reliance Pictures Corporation, and United .Artists Corporation
for giving permission to mimeograph the film scenarios used
in this investigation.
Arthur Lawrence Marble
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. THE PROBLEM.......... 1
Introduction ........ . . . . . 1
Purpose .............................. 1
Definition of terms .................. 3
Importance of the problem.............. 4
Evolution of photoplay scenarios ............. 7
Organization of this report............ 9
II. PHOTOPLAYS IN RELATION TO SOCIAL STUDIES .... 11
Objectives of Social Studies ... .......... 15
Role of the photoplay in achieving
objectives ............................ 16
III. THE INFLUENCE OF NON-THEATRICAL FILMS ON
YOUTH.................................. 24
Films compared with other methods of
learning ................. 24
Influence in history learning ........ 26
Limitations of the studies ................ 29
Influence in geography and general science . . 50
Geography and nature study experimentation . . 55
Amsterdam geography studies............ 34
Evaluation of the geography studies.... 35
Influence of the non-theatrical sound film . . 36
Sound films compared with silent photoplays . 37
V
CHAPTER PAGE
Summary . . ......................... 58
IV, THE INFLUENCE OF THEATRICAL MOTION PICTURES . . 40
Children* s silent photoplay habits........ 40
Effects on conduct....................... 43
Effects on juvenile delinquency ....... 45
Effects on emotions...................... 45
Effects on sleep......................... 46
Effects on social attitudes .......... ... 47
The Clark University study ................ 48
Effects on appreciation of films ........ 49
Summary .................................. 50
V. PLAN OF THE STUDY .......................... 52
Selection of photoplays ............ 56
Construction and analysis of the tests ... 58
Relative difficulty of the tests .......... 62
Reliability of the test forms ........ 62
Experimental organization 68
Method of testing . .................... 69
The scenario reading ...................... 72
Photoplay presentations .................... 73
Scoring of test papers............... 74
Recording of data ........................ 75
Statistical treatment of data......... 75
Questionnaire follow-up............... 76
vi
CHAPTER PAGE
Role of the teachers.................... 79
VI. THE LAST OF THE MOHICANS EXPERIMENT .... 82
Plot of The Last of the Mohicans........ 82
Critical estimate of the photoplay .... 83
The scenario............ 86
Classroom reading of the scenario ..... 88
Showing of the photoplay ........ 89
The test results........................ 90
Retention test results.............. 90
Intelligence and test performance........ 91
Summary of the experiment .......... 93
VII. THE PLAINSMAN EXPERIMENT............ 96
Plot of The Plainsman .................. 96
Critical estimate of the photoplay .... 98
Presentation of the photoplay .......... 99
The test results .................... 101
Retention test results .................. 101
Intelligence and test performance ..... 102
Summary of the experiment ............ . 102
VIII. THE MAID OF SALEM EXPERIMENT.............. 106
Plot of Maid of Salem . .............. 106
Critical estimate of the photoplay .... 108
The scenario ................ 108
Maid of Salem classroom reading.......... 108
vii
CHAPTER PAGE
Showing of the photoplay • * . ............ 109
The test results . . . . . ................ Ill
Retention test results . . ................ 112
Intelligence and test performance.......... 114
Summary ..................... . ......... 114
IX* REPORT OF THE STUDEHTS.............. 117
Ranking of school subjects................ 118
Rating of the photoplays.................. 123
Reaction toward photoplay scenarios . . • . 126
Response to scenario reading • ••••••• 126
Time preference for scenario reading .... 132
Scenario influence on photoplay enjoyment . . 133
Photoplay contribution to history ..... 136
Preferred types of photoplays ........... 140
Frequency of film attendance ........ 146
Validity of student reports . . . ........ 148
Summary of student reports................ 150
X. REPORT OF THE TEACHERS . . ................ 153
Rating of the photoplays.................. 154
Script reading and intelligence............. 155
Possible value of the scripts............... 157
Class interest in script reading .......... 157
Reaction to the study . . . ............ 158
Summary ..... ........................ 160
viii
CHAPTER PAGE
XI. CONCLUSIONS AID IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATION . . 165
Parallel story forms .................... 165
Retention of narrative . ............. . . . 164
Motion picture habits of students ........ 165
Rating of history as a subject and drama . . 166
Attitude of teachers . 168
Script reading values................ 169
Implications for education • •.••••.. 170
XII. PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH.............. 172
Curriculum studies ...................... 172
Allied studies . ....... 172
Improvement of testing .......... 173
Photoplay appreciation •••••••••• 174
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . ............................ 175
APPENDIX A. Sample tests used in the experiments . 186
APPENDIX B. Supplementary Tables . 192
APPENDIX C. Credits and Casts of Characters . . . 199
APPENDIX D. Sample pages from a typical scenario
used in the study: The Last of the
Mohicans .............*.......... 207
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
I. General Objectives Listed in Sixty Social
Studies Courses Rearranged from Swindler*s
Study .................................. 17
II. Population by Sex, Mean Chronological Ages,
and Mean Intelligence Quotients for Class
Groups in the Experiment . . ............ 59
III. Reliability of Equivalent Test Forms .... 63
IV. Population by Sex, Mean Chronological Ages,
and Mean Intelligence Quotients for Class
Groups at Venice........................ 65
V. Relative Difficulty of Equivalent Test Forms. 67
VI. Schedule of Experimental Procedure........ 70
VII. Data Regarding the Scenario Version of The
Last of the Mohicans.................... 87
VIII. Summary of Experimental Data for The Last of
the Mohicans ................ 92
IX. Relation Between I. Q., Test Scores, and
Gains for The Last of the Mohicans .... 94
X. Data Regarding the Scenario Version of
The Plainsman .................. 100
XI. Summary of Experimental Data for The
Plainsman .......... 103
X
tm s pags
XIX* Relation Between X* Q*, Test Scores, and.
Gains .for the Plainsman * * * . . * * « * * * 104
XXIX* .Data Regarding the Scenario Version of
Maid of. Salem * * * * »«..*•*»--» * 110
XX?* Summary of Experimental Data for Maid
of. Salem *«*«.»****»****•'• 115
XV* Eolation Between 1 . * Q*, fast Scores, and
Gains for Maid, of ■ Salem ***..**♦* 115
XVI* Beaming of School Subjects by Girls . * * . 120
XVII* Banking of School Objects by Boys * * * * . 121
XVXX1* Banking of School Subjects by Both Saxes * * 123
XXX* Reported Photoplay Attendance. by Both Sexes* 124
XX* Bating of Photoplays by Both Saxes * * * * . 125
XXI* Scenario Beading by Both Sexes *,*.*♦, * 12?
XXII* Reaction toward Scenario Beading. .♦•*.. 128
XXIII* negative Reactions toward Photoplay
Scenarios * * * * * * ********** ISO
XXXV* Reaction, toward library Use of Scenarios * * 151
XXV* Reaction toward Sequence of Scenario Reading 154
XXVI* Estimate of Reading Influence on Film Enjoy
ment * ♦ * * ************** 135
XXVII* React ion toward film Influence on History
Appreciation * * • • * * ■ * **,.*«*«« IS?
t m m
XXtfXIX*
XXIX.
XXX.
XXXI.
m u .
XXXIII*
XXXIT*
x m .
30cm«.
XXXfll*.
xxxvxxx*
XXXIX*
xl
PAGS
Bessons for Film. Influence on History
Appreciation ♦ ***••.**•••« 139
Reaction toward Historical. Movies. .... 141
Types of Movies. Preferred by Girls .... 145
Types of Movies' Preferred by Boys . . „ . . 144
Types of Movies Preferred by Both Sexes • 145
Frequency of' Film Attendance • ...... 147
Sating of .Experimental, Photoplays by Mine
7oh. chers «»***«*»• * * » * . * 153
Distribution -of feat Scores and Gains by
Sex and total Group.for Pupils Reading
the Script • of The last of the Mohicans « its
Distribution of fast Scores and Gains by
Sex and total Group for Pupils Seeing
the film, the hast of ' the Mohicans . ... 194
Distribution of test Scores and Gains by
Sex and Total Group for pupils Seeing
the Film#, the- Plainsman ......... 195
Distribution of Test Scores and Gains' by
Sex- and fetal Group, for Pupils .Reading
the Script#. The Plainsman » • . * ■ * ■* . * . 196
Distribution of Test .Scores and Gains by
Sex and Total Group for Pupils leading ■
the Script of .Maid of Salem * ■ * * * * * 197
xii
fABLI PAGE
XX*. Distribution of fast Scores and Gains by
Sox and fetal Group for .Pupils Seeing the
Film, laid of Salem * *.■♦.*■ * ■ + ■ * * * * * * 190
'•»" '.inM i'i.nwmiin ^ ii p n imm»nh|»i
u m of Fiomss
FIGURE PAGE
1. Student Bepoft* Foot 3 »*»«•• ••«<•*«* * 77
E* fe&efter Report * 'Foot f. * * * ■ * * , * * * * * * 80
$* Scene from ftoe &a$t of the Monlcmis ****** 86
4# Scene from. The Plainsman * * # * * ******* 202
6*. Scene from- laid, of Salem • * * * • * • ♦ * * * * ♦ # 808
CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM
Introduction. Motion pictures of todayfs technical
perfection have been in existence less than a decade* Like
many universally popular machines, the cinema has brought in
its train many perplexing problems as well as opportunities
for the service of mankind* Furthermore, the development of
sound pictures has resulted in the creation of what may be
termed ”a new literary form.”
One of the basic tools used in the production of most
talking pictures is the scenario or script, which is nothing
more or less than a written record of the proposed action and
dialogue. The scenario is incomplete in the same sense that
a stage play script is unfinished until it is given life by
actors and technicians. Yet many printed stage plays are
read with pleasure and social value to the peruser. If se
lected photoplay scenarios are found profitably readable by
students* there is good reason to believe that the best of
the photoplay scenarios may be made available to a wider au
dience than merely the few actors who deliver the lines be
fore the sound cameras.
Purpose. It is the purpose of this study to observe,
with experimental techniques, the reactions of high school
students to three selected historical narratives presented
in two different forms: (1) the original script or scenario
version, to be read in the classroom by individual pupils,
and (2) the photoplay itself , to be shown in the high school
auditorium.
A comparative experimental study was designed to seek
answers to the following questions:
1. Which one of two parallel story forms, an original
photoplay scenario or the motion picture, tends to give ado
lescent pupils greater understanding of the verbal elements
of the story?
2. Do students remember more of a narrative when they
read both the scenario and see the film than they do when
they see only the film?
3. In general, what are the motion picture habits of
a representative group of high school students?
4. What is the attitude of high school pupils toward
history as a subject and history in the form of film scena-
rios and photoplays?
5. What is the attitude of history teachers toward
historical films and scenarios as aids in high school so
cial studies?
6* What conclusions may be made regarding the pos
sible educational and recreational reading values of se
lected historical photoplay scenarios?
3
Definition of terms • An explanation of the title
(Selected Historical Photoplays and Scenarios as Extra-
Curricular Aids in Eleventh Grade Social Studies) of this
investigation will assist in clarifying the problem. Social
science in the broad sense includes among other subjects
history, political science, economics and sociology.How
ever, the term social studies, in the specific sense in
tended for this experiment, refers to the integrated course
in American history and civics as taught in the eleventh
grade at the George Washington High School of Los Angeles.
f , Extra-Curricular Aids" refer to those student activ-
ities^ not required by the usual curricular demands of the
school, which increasingly satisfy the pupil »s need for self-
expression, thereby leading the pupil to more complete social
living.3 In explaining the underlying principles of such
outside enterprises, Briggs writes?
First, they offer the school its best opportunity to
help pupils do certain,desirable things they will do any
way— viz., take their places as members of social units,
and exercise, each according to his ability, those quali
ties of leadership, initiative, cooperation and intelli-
•kjharles A. Beard, The Nature of the Social Sciences
(Part VII: Report of the .Commission on the Social Studies,
American Historical Association, New York: Charles Scribner’s
Sons, 1934), 236 pp; .
^Paul W. Terry, Supervising Ext ra-Curricular Activ
ities (New York; McGraw Hill Book Company, 1930), p,3l
^Joseph Roemer and Charles F. Allen, Extra-Curricular
Activities (New York: D. C. Heath and Company, 1926), p. 1.
4
gent obedience, all fundamental to society. Second,
they offer a ready channel through which the school may
utilize the spontaneous interest and activities of the
adolescent and through these lead to higher types of
activities and make them both desired and possible of
attainment A
"Photoplays” is used in this study interchangeably
with talking motion pictures and dramatic films. The term
"scenario" referring to the written version of a dialogue
film, is sometimes known as a "script" or "shooting script."
The words "selected historical photoplays" refer to
costume photoplays* utilizing American history backgrounds,
chosen on the basis of: (1) general usefulness to the pur
poses and objectives of George Washington High School; (2)
quality of the motion pictures; (3) availability of the
scenario versions of the motion pictures. The final selec
tion of photoplays was made by the principal and the depart
ment of social studies at Washington High School, with the
advice of the investigator.
Importance of the problem. When motion pictures
first appeared, it was thought by many that films would
sound the death knell of the teacher and the text-book in
education. Yet today, while life and education are en
riched with many good pictures, the time when films will
supplant books and teachers seems remote indeed.
4Ibid.« pp. 1-2, citing Briggs.
5
W. W. Charters in presenting the Payne Fund Studies
writes:
Motion pictures are not understood by the present
generation of adults. They are new; they make an enor
mous appeal to children, and they present ideas and sit
uations which their parents may not like. Consequently,
when parents think of the welfare of their children who
are exposed to these compelling situations, they wonder
about the effect of the pictures upon the ideals and be
havior of the children!5
If little is known regarding the psychological in
fluence of motion pictures on youth, still less is known re
garding methods of using selected photoplays in correlation
with such subjects as history and social studies. Does the
dialogue of a historical photoplay make as much of an im
pression on youth as the printed dialogue of the same story?
The answer to this question is important for at least two
reasons.
The dialogue of selected historical motion pictures,
if it is found to be an intelligible story medium comparable
to the film, may become a useful literary form, such as
stage plays and historical novels.
If pupils gain greater understanding of dialogue and
plot from a written version of a photoplay than they do from
the finished pictorial version of the story, there may be
indications that the motion picture is not superior to the
5W. W. Charters, Motion Pictures and Youth. A
Summary (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1933), p. v.
printed word as a conveyor of verbal images, chiefly in the
form of dialogue.
It is not disputed that the human eye receives more
sense impressions than any other single sense organ. Weber6
has estimated that visual experience accounts for about 40
per cent of human concepts; 25 per cent are auditory, 17 per
cent are tactile, 15 per cent are based on miscellaneous or
ganic sensations, and 3 per cent derive from taste and smell.
As the auditory sense apparently rivals the visual
sense in the number of impressions conducted, it is of im
portance to know how student reading of dialogue compares as
an educational experience with hearing the same dialogue in
the form of a motion picture.
New educational programs are constantly requiring more
materials to stimulate the interest and imagination of indi
vidual pupils. It is part of the responsibility of the edu
cator to seek out and evaluate new materials which may serve
to enrich the life of the pupil. May selected historical
photoplays be useful to the student if they are incorporated
into the daily school experience? Are selected photoplay
scenarios of sufficient interest and social value to the
student that they may be seriously considered as a potential
6Edgar B. Wesley, leaching the Social Studies (New
York: D. C. Heath and Company, 1937J7 P. 540, citing Joseph
J. Weber, Comparative Effectiveness of Some Visual Aids in
Seventh Grade Instruction, p. 15.
7
aid in the field of education? The present study is planned
to seek answers to these important problems*
Evolution of photoplay scenarios* The earliest photo
plays made little use of language in their conception or re
alization. The narrative frequently was developed without
.even a written outline and the details of the plot were some
times worked out by the inspiration of the actors in relation
to their environment. Such was the story of the making of
many early pictures as "The Great Train Robbery” and even
"The Birth of a Hat ion.” The actors had no fixed speeches
to deliver but improvised whatever dialogue seemed appropri
ate to the meaning and the spirit of the scene.
As the silent pictures advanced there developed a
need for screen writers to supply in advance a more detailed
description of the actipn required for each scene. It was
found that a well-prepared written scenario meant not only
a saving of time for the production staff, but it became a
necessity to insure the accuracy of technical details, re
quired by the increasing discrimination of the audience.
With the advent of sound pictures, the scenario
writer assumed still greater importance, for in many cases
he was responsible for preparing the dialogue, which is an
essential part of talking pictures. It is apparent, then,
that the talking picture scenario bears a greater relation
ship to the finished product than does the silent film script.
8
Indeed, the present-day scenario bears practically the same
relationship to the completed photoplay as the written stage
play has to the final stage performance. .
For many years printed stage plays have been enjoyed
as a form of literature, and published versions of all im
portant stage plays are available in every book store and
library. As a popular art form, the cinema is probably now
far more influential than the stage, yet a student of the
screen has difficulty in obtaining authentic copies of the
original scenario versions of photoplays. This may seem
strange considering the fact that the scripts of exceptional
photoplays are social documents more vital and interesting
than many published stage plays. There are several ex
planations why there have been so few published editions of
scenario versions even of the exceptional motion pictures.
Some of these reasons are:
1. The photoplay producers are not eager to have the
public critically examine the dialogue of many motion pic
tures. Certain producers are averse to having the audience
learn the techniques of films.
2. The growing demand for scripts on the part of
schools has not yet made itself sufficiently vocal to gain
recognition from publishers.
3. Book and play publishers in many instances are
fearful of the growing power of the cinema, and do not wish
9
to invite possible literary competition from studio sources.
The distinctive qualities of the photoplay as a medi
um of expression places particular stress upon the possibil
ities of the written scenario versions. In view of the
growing importance of the photoplay as a popular art form it
would seem that the day is not far distant when printed edi
tions of outstanding scenarios would be as plentiful as pub
lished editions of successful stage plays.
Mr. William Lewin, a worker in the field of photo
play appreciation, writes:
With the inevitable increase in the publication of
materials for the teacher of photoplay composition, our
schools will ultimately standardize some of the more
useful procedures in this type of composition work. The
greatest need is for actual shooting scripts. . . . That
the publication of scripts will increase rather then de
crease public interest has been made clear by the publi
cation of several shooting scripts in recent years. Most
important of these is the Random House edition of Romeo
and Juliet, containing in one volume both the original
stage play and the modernized screen play, with notable
articles by those who contributed to the work of trans
ferring the play to the screen.
To the extent that it provides work for the creative
writer the photoplay is literary art. ... If the few
that are really well written, like the scripts of Mutiny
on the Bounty and The Good Earth could be made available
to older students, we should have more photoplay compo
sitions, of an amateur as well as professional nature. '
Organization of this re port. The next three chapters
^William Lewin, ”Amateur Photoplay Composition,”
Education. 57;30, September, 1936,
10
will serve to present the philosophical and historical back
ground essential to a consideration of motion pictures in re
lation to social studies* Chapter two is designed to outline
some of the main objectives of social studies as well as to
describe the role of the photoplay in reaching these objec
tives. Chapters three and four will summarize some of the
studies relating to the present problem.
Chapter five, in setting forth the plan of the in
vestigation, will describe the experimental schools and sub
jects as well as the general motion picture and reading pro
gram of the student's. It will also describe the instruments
of measurement and the testing programs.
Chapters six, seven and eight will explain in detail
the results of the experiments with the photoplays, The Last
of the Mohicans, The Plainsman and Maid of Salem. Consider
ation is also given to the findings of the recall tests.
Reports of the students and teachers appear in two
separate divisions, followed by a summary and conclusions in
chapter eleven. Suggestions of problems for further re
search appear in the final chapter of this study.
CHAPTER II
PHOTOPLAYS IN RELATION TO SOCIAL STUDIES
To discuss the relationship between historical photo
plays and social studies is the principal purpose of this
chapter• A summary of major objectives of social studies in
the high school will be followed by an examination of the
role of the photoplay in achieving these objectives • A con
sideration of primary importance, however, is the relation
ship between motion pictures and the general field of edu
cation.
The machine age brought with it such powerful instru
ments of mass communication as the radio and the talking mo
tion'picture. As instruments, like the printing press, they
are neither good nor bad, but are the servants of the mind
that seeks to control them. The world of entertainment,
sensing the money-making possibilities of these new tools,
was quick to utilize among other devices the cinema, whose
great distinction lies in the fact that it is the one form
of recorded human communication that most nearly resembles
the realism of direct experience. As the cinema is pri
marily a record, it is fundamentally a history contrivance,
in the sense that whatever is photographed, regardless of
the subject matter, becomes a record that may be re-expe
rienced many times in the future.
1 2
Just as the early printing press could not he monop
olized by people with an educational message alone, so the
film cannot be the exclusive implement of those who would use
it for entertainment alone. Because of the fact that system
atic education is a more difficult process than simple diver
sion, it is evident that educators will study and experiment
a long time before they discover the most economical ways of
utilizing the cinema as an educational tool*
Dramatic art as a means of mass education is as old
as history itself. But dramatic motion pictures are scarcely
more than a generation old, and their most realistic form,
the talking motion picture, is barely ten years old. That
truth is often stranger than fiction is recognized by the
general public and hence by the motion picture producers.
So it is to be expected that historical events should form
the background and basis of many theatrical motion pictures.
Because of the fact that many photoplays based on such
literary and historical themes as David Copperfield, The
Barretts of Wimpole Street. and Tom Sawyer have greatly
stimulated among old and young the reading of the original
books, there have arisen two popular educational currents in
American life. Public libraries, particularly the large city
institutions of Cleveland and Los Angeles, actively cooperate
in the advertising of exceptional commercial photoplays be
cause of their knowledge that seeing or anticipating these
13
photoplays has a marked increase on the circulation of the
original books and therefore upon the general influence of
the library itself. In the second place, many high schools
of the country have initiated a new subject known as photo
play appreciation, having as its chief aim the instilling of
more critical discrimination among the students who form a
high percentage of the national theatre audience. In most
cases photoplay appreciation is not taught as a separate
course, but as an integrated part of such subjects as
English, social studies and general science.
II. OBJECTIVES OF SOCIAL STUDIES
John Dewey made the statement, "The learning in school
should be continuous with that out of school. There should
be free interplay between the two.nl This view, which ap
pears to have the stamp of sound philosophy, gives new force
and direction to objectives in history teaching. While his
tory once meant little more to a student than the drab mem
orization of names, dates and battles, it has become, in
many enlightened areas, an exciting process of living in the
present and in the past. To*achieve this purpose in the
secondary school, what was once called history has in some
instances been changed to-"social studies" or "social liv-
ljohn Dewey, Democracy and Education (Hew York: The
Macmillan Company, 1932), p. 4l6.
14
ing,n to Indicate the increased meaning and scope of the
field*
To accomplish the objectives of modern social studies,
formal classroom work is regarded as just one important
phase* Extra-curricular activities, such as athletics, pub
lic speaking, dramatics, music, school councils, home room
activities, assemblies, dances, and parties,— all should
contribute to the real goals of social living.
' The theory has been advanced that history and com
plete social living can be achieved by practically abolish
ing the use of facts as frames of reference in the develop
ment of the student# When properly understood, the progress
ive change of students who are truly at home in the world re
quires not the abolition of subject matter or the ignorance
of facts, but the acquisition of more facts and subject
matter that are truly integrated with their meanings* The
leaders in the interpretation of social studies today re
alize the importance of this when they report:2
The program of social science instruction should
provide for a yet more detailed study of the American
people with particular reference to the material con
quest of the continent, the development of the demo
cratic heritage, the popular struggle for freedom and
opportunity, the spread of individualistic economy, the
American Historical Association, Conclusions and
Reeommendations of the Commission (Hew York: Charles
Scribnerfs Sons,“T93&7, p* 54.
15
increase of productivity, the emergence of an integrated
economy, the growth of local, regional and national
planning and the extension of economic, political and
cultural relationships with other nations and peoples
of the world.
It the present time, there is considerable stressing
of the importance of character building through the creation
of attitudes in social studies. It is true that attitudes
and habits of thought and action may live long after par
ticular facts are forgotten, but it is likewise true that
there can be no sensible attitudes toward any propositions
without a sufficient body of facts upon which logical con
clusions may be based. It is altogether too common for
people to form attitudes from half-truths or even simple
lack of information.
Part of the present study consists of a testing pro
gram that is based on the factual content of scenarios and
motion pictures. The writer uses such tests with the full
knowledge that whatever they do measure may be a small por
tion of the tangible outcomes of the student body, yet these
tests have the advantage of:
1. Measuring a phase of student growth that may be
determined with a reasonable degree of accuracy.
2. Recognizing that the facts, as they are determined,
are an important element in the total learning of the indi
vidual.
It seems logical that to achieve the true objectives
16
of sobial studies it is necessary to go beyond the classroom
and aid the individual in the creation of a socialized life
situation* The place for the school to begin, of course, is
in the selection of modern methods of presenting life ex
periences* What are some of these techniques?
As summarized by Elmer H.~ Wilds,
The new socialized school is much less dependent
upon books than were the older schools* Visual materials,
in the form of photographs, lantern slides, and moving
pictures, are giving the child a vicarious contact with
life that is almost as satisfactory as actual partic
ipation. Talking pictures and radio programs are bring
ing the child very close to the activities of life and
giving him a clearer picture of social institutions.
School excursions and trips are giving him actual con
tacts with different phases of community endeavor* The
curriculum, especially at the elementary level, is grow
ing less and less ^bookish.f Life is now the book from
which the pupil reads.3 .
The objectives of sixty different courses in social
studies are listed in Table I, page 17. It shows that the
great trend of many general aims is the preparation of the
next generation for effective citizenship in a dynamic soci
ety. What part may the,photoplay take in achieving these
vital objectives? The ’ next section will attempt to answer
this question.
III. ROLE OF THE PHOTOPLAY IN ACHIEVING OBJECTIVES
Although the photoplay is a new dramatic form, the,.
3Elmer H. Wilds, The Foundations of Modern Education.
(New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1936), p. 565.
17
TABLE I
GENERAL OBJECTIVES LISTED IN SIXTY
SOCIAL STUDIES COURSES REARRANGED
FROM SWINDLER»S STUDY1
Objectives Number
1* Socio-civic efficiency ............. 176
2* Participation in civic activities ........ 127
3. Information as a basis for participation . . . . 116
4. Making the world intelligible for pupils . . . . 114
5* Knowledge of civic rights, duties and re
sponsibilities 112
6. Ability to think, discriminate, judge ...... 104
7. Knowledge of social, economic, and political
principles • ••••••, ........ ..... 93
8. Knowledge of the past in order to interpret
the present . . . . 87
9. Intelligent patriotism ••••••••••••• 85
10. Service and co-operation in society • «.•••• 83
11. Respect for law and institutions ........ 74
12. Knowledge of moral, ethical, and religious
principles • ••••••••»•••••••• 71
13. Appreciation of the interdependence of nations . 63
%. G. Kimmel, Instruction in the Social Studies.
(Office of Education Bulletin No. 17, 1932, National Survey
of Secondary Education Monograph, No. 21. Washington, D. C.:
United States Government Printing Office, 1933), pp. 6-7,
citing R. E. Swindler, "Objectives in the Social Studies,"
an unpublished study.
18
TABLE I (continued)
GENERAL OBJECTIVES LISTED IN SIXTY
SOCIAL STUDIES COURSES REARRANGED
FROM SWINDLER*S STUDY
Objectives Number
14. Understanding of the principles of the
Constitution and democracy ........ 61
15. Proper attitudes and interests • ••••••. 60
16. Worthy use of leisure ••••••••.••.. 53
17. Tolerance and open-mindedness • •••••••• 44
18. Broadening interests and sympathies ...... 44
19. Orderly development for a static world .... 41
SO. Vocational efficiency ••••••••••«•• 40
21. Mastery of tools and skills .......... 34
22. Understanding of the influences of environment. 28
23. Awareness of the meaning of living together
in organized society ...••• ........ • 28
24. General culture •••••••.••••...• 27
25. Cultivation of an interest in reading the
social studies for pleasure .......... 25
26. Health and efficiency 25
27. Appreciation of historical and scientific
methods ••••••••«••••*••«•• 13
28. Worthy home membership «•«•••••.*•• 13
19
basic materials of drama have long been appreciated as an
educational device. Part of the essential schooling of
Greek youths consisted of their attendance at the great
plays of the leading dramatists. The cost of this activity
was paid for by the state. Recognizing the value of this
training in dramatic appreciation* the Romans later adopted
the same methods* During the classic revival at the time of
the Renaissance, dramatics were restored to importance as an
instrument of education. For example, the plays of Plautus
and Terence were performed to aid in the teaching of Latin.
Religious dramas, known as miracle and mystery plays, were
regarded not only as highly entertaining to the public, but
highly instructional to the more illiterate masses. Drama
was fostered in some of the early English schools, too.
Hubbard in her valuable book dealing with education-
v
al dramatics writes:
We have been discussing the main aims in the teach
ing of history: appreciations, understandings and atti
tudes or behavior tendencies. We have advanced the the
ory that the history play helps all three. It makes
history alive (appreciations). It gives the pupils an
opportunity to learn by doing (behaviors). So it leads
to retention of facts (understandings). Because the
play form is vivid, graphic and actual, it supplies a
strong emotional stimulus, which underlies the ’prin
ciple of effective intensity,/ as was recognized two
thousand years ago by Horace when he said, ’Things heard
make a feebler impression than things seen.f4
4Eleanor Hubbard, The Teaching of History Through
Dramatic Presentation (Hew York: Beni* H. Sanborn and Co.,
1935), p. 42.
2 0
Historical novels* plays and photoplays are frequents
ly criticized because they distort the facts of history. It
is not necessary to say that a novel or play that attempted
to utilize only the raw facts of history would not have wide
dramatic appeal and would fail to achieve the entertaining
qualities expected of a novel or a play. The critics of
historical narrative often forget that there is something
more important than the dry facts of history— the spirit of
history. There are many people who observe the ^Letter of
the law who are still questionable citizens. For instance,
the law of this country does not require an individual to
take an active part in politics, or to vote, yet the spirit
of democracy requires both of every public-minded citizen.
It is not surprising that Paul wrote, ”The letter killeth,
but the spirit giveth life.”
4&n experience is related by Hubbard which bears wit
ness to the fallacy of the critics of historical narrative.
In a magazine whose name is not given there appeared two
articles giving opposing points of view regarding the value
of the historical novel. One of the writers was a promi
nent novelist, while the other was a noted historian. The
startling conclusions follow:
The novelist condemned the historical novel as utter
ly valueless, claiming that the novelist?s mission was
to mirror the life of his own times and that consequent
ly the inaccuracies inevitable to historical fiction
gave the reader a false estimate of the period about
21
which the author wrote. The historian, on the other
hand, upheld it as having a distinct value in the convey
ing of the understanding of history. For, aside from the
inaccuracies, which he readily granted, he declared that
these were more than offset by the truthfulness of the
atmosphere imparted. . . . It is this vital sense of
truth which is essential.5
The photoplay is the modern dramatic form that appeals
to the masses. It is stimulating to think of the educational
possibilities of such historical photoplays as ”The Birth of
a Nation,” of which Woodrow Wilson said, ’It is like writing
history with lightning.’6
True recreation and true education, rather than being
enemies, are the warmest of friends. L« P. Jacks sees great
er need for a union of the two. Quoting:
The education which is not also recreation is a
maimed, incomplete, half-done thing. The recreation
which is not also education has no recreative value.
. • .We want to make the recreation of people, both
children and grown-ups, more educational than they
now are; and we want to give education some of the
interest and joy that belong to recreation.?
Briefly, then, the photoplay promised to be an im
portant aid in reaching desirable objectives in social stud
ies in the following ways:
Slbid.. p. 50.
%oodrow Wilson, cited by Milton MacKaye, "The Birth
of a Nation,” Scribners, (November, 1937) p. 69.
7l. P. Jacks, Education Through Recreation (New York:
Harper and Brothers, 1932), p. 14?.
22
1. It shows the true spirit of history which many im
mature readers have difficulty in obtaining from the printed
page.
2. History is presented in a life-like integrated
form, with people living in a definite geographical environ
ment.
3. By its forceful presentation of reality, fre
quently more powerful than any stage exhibition, the film
may endow the periods and characters of history with a viv
idness impossible to re-create on the printed page.
4. The photoplay is regarded by most people as enter
tainment, and owing to the fact that impressions are re
ceived by individuals under »emotional possession1 spell of
the film, interest in a cinematic production is usually high
on the part of the spectator. The movie goer is frequently
in a more receptive mood for suggestions than is the pupil
who sometimes comes to the classroom with an nI dare you to
teach me« attitude.
5. The film may take an important role in stimulating
interest in social living. This is the view of William G.
Kimmel,^ who calls attention to examples where the use of
visual aids, including slides, talking pictures and car
toons, have aroused a concern for others. Edwin C. Hill in
^William G. Kimmel, o£. cit., 105 pp.
23
1934 sent out a film dealing with the burden of automobile
taxation. This was shown in a forceful, dramatic manner
that served as an extremely attractive introduction to a
more extensive study of the problem.
6* The American Historical Society, recognizing the
learning potentialities of the motion pictures and radio,
recommends that,
The competent teacher, in an effort to keep his in
struction in touch with living reality, will make full
use of the class group— its diverse personalities, its
conflicts of interest, its collective life; will relate
his work as far as possible, to the organized life of
the school as manifested in social activities, student
groupings, and school government; and will regard the
surrounding community as his social laboratory, utiliz
ing its life and happenings and moving out through the
normal avenues of communication— the press, the movie
and the radio— to observe and appraise the more im
portant events in the nation and in the world
Motion pictures are generally classified into two
different types: (1) those films primarily designed for
private or classroom showings. These are called non-
theatrical films; (2) those films produced chiefly for
audiences in public theatres. These latter are known as
theatrical motion pictures.
Chapter three deals with the influence of non
theatrical motion pictures on youth, while chapter four
will discuss the effect of theatrical motion pictures.
%merican Historical Association, op, cit., p. 80,
CHAPTER III
THE INFLUENCE OF NON-THEATRICAL FILMS ON YOUTH
In this chapter the major objective is to summarize
briefly some of the most important research studies dealing
with the psychological influence of films that were designed
chiefly for classroom instruction.
Most of the scientific studies relating to the in
fluence of classroom or non-theatrical films have, naturally,
attempted to discover the value of the film as a supplemen
tary device for teaching, rather than as a substitute for
the teacher. Thus films have been regarded much in the
same light as textbooks, as aids to more complete under
standing on the part of the pupil. Let the reader consider
some of the more important studies.
Films compared with other methods of learning. Joseph
J. Weber made two pioneer investigations in the use of visual
aids. The first of these compared the use of motion pictures
with oral instruction.*** So that the two types of material
would be parallel, the oral material described in words the
lFrank N. Freeman, ”Ten Investigations on Visual-
Sensory Aids in Teaching,” International Review^of Education
al Cinematography (December, 1933), p. 796, citing Joseph
J. Weber, Comparative Effectiveness of Some Visual Aids in
Seventh Grade Instruction (Chicago, 1922}.
25
pictorial content of the films* It was found that far great
er gains were made through the use of pictures than through
the use of words* While this study tends to emphasize the
value of the motion picture, there is a distinct weakness in
the fact that the motion picture received the focus of atten
tion, inasmuch as the written descriptions were derived from
subject matter inherently pictorial rather than verbal in
nature*
Another pioneer investigation was directed by Frank
Freeman of the University of Chicago. These studies,2 com
pleted by leading educators, had a three-fold purpose: (1) To
attempt to show what methods of instruction are most effec
tive; (2) to discover when these methods are most effective;
and (5) to learn what elements in visual aids make them use
ful in teaching. Among the methods compared were motion pic
tures, slides, stereographs, teacher-demonstrations, and
teacher lectures illustrated by blackboard drawings. It was
found that no one method of instruction was best for all
subjects and all conditions. The teaching value of a motion
picture depends on its adaptation to the proper subject
matter, its quality and the right method of use. These in-
SFrank Freeman, editor, Visual Education: A Compara
tive Study of Motion Pictures and Other Methods of Instruc
tion. (Chicago: The University of 'Chicago Press, 1924;,
391 pp.
26
vestigations were all made over fourteen years ago, when very
few good motion pictures were available for experimentation*
The investigators were greatly handicapped by the fact that
many of the pictures were of poor photographic quality com
pared with those of today.
Another investigation designed to show the distinc
tive contribution of the motion picture was conducted in
England by Sir James Merchant .3 Entitled ”The Cinema in
Education,” the study tends to show that the motion picture
is superior to still pictures or oral instruction in that it
lends ”concrete particularity” to experience far better than
other media. The study might have gone further to discover
what elements in still pictures and oral instructions are
superior to films, or at least under what conditions- they may
be preferred.
Influence in history learning. Daniel C. Knowlton,
J. Warren Tilton and Frances Consitt have made the best known
studies concerning the role of motion pictures in the history
learning process. Knowlton and Tilton made a study of the
”Chronicles of America Photoplays” as an aid in seventh grade
instruct ion
^Freeman, loc. cit.
^Knowlton and Tilton, Motion Pictures in History
Teaching (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1929), 183 pp.
27
Professor Knowlton of Yale University conducted a
series of experiments in the seventh grade of a junior high
school in Hew Haven, Connecticut, among children whose median
mental age was twelve years and eleven months. During one
semester, from February to June, 1988, seventh grade pupils
were given identical classroom instruction, except for the
fact that the experimental groups were shown ten historical
films from the Yale Chronicles of America Photoplays series
whenever the films were appropriate to the subject matter at
hand, The pupils were divided into sections on the basis of
ability, and each teacher taught at least one class in each
section so that teacher-differences were equalized over both
experimental and control groups. At the beginning and at
the end of each unit of instruction, objective tests were
administered. These tests were planned to measure the con
tribution of the history films to enrichment, creation of
interest and retention.
Important findings of these investigators were:
(1) that the photoplays contributed materially to
the gaining and retention of worth-while knowledge, par
ticularly of knowledge of interrelationships other than
time;
(2) that they produced more pupil participation in
classroom discussion, and
(3) that they caused the pupils who saw them to read
voluntarily more supplementary history material under
controlled classroom conditions.5
5Ibid., pp. 90-93.
28
In reporting their research, Knowlton and Tilton ex
plain that "for all comparisons the experimental (film)
group was so selected as to be slightly less able than the
control group.”6 They believed that in so doing whatever
gains might be made by the experimental group would be safe
guarded on the conservative side by the lower intelligence
of the group. But Gibbs^ has produced good evidence to
point out that the film technique shows greater superiority
with duller children than with the more intelligent. There
fore, it appears logical that comparisons involving the film
should be made between groups of students with about the
same intelligence level.
Frances Consitt conducted a series of studies in
English grade schools in which silent historical motion pic
tures and oral instruction were compared with oral instruc
tion in the same subject matter. The film was regarded as
an aid rather than a substitute for present methods. These
experiments were conducted under the auspices of the His
torical 4ssociation with the aid of the Carnegie United
Kingdom Trustees. Fifty-two schools in London and surround
ing towns were included in a rather extensive program.
6Gp* cit•) p. 3d.
^Philip J. Bulon, The Sound Motion Pictures in Sci
ence Teaching (Cambridge; Harvard University Press,~I953),
p. 14, citing Gibbs.
29
According to the investigator, the experiments show definite
ly that historical motion pictures:
1. Bring nearer the accomplishment of all the aims in
history teaching.
2. Helps the child to learn, understand and to re
member.
3. Stimulates the imagination.
4. Helps to develop a capacity to think clearly.
5. Creates an interest in history.
6. Gives special help to the student usually weakest
in history.
7. Stimulates greater class participation, particular
ly among the more backward children.®
Limitations of the studies. Some of the shortcomings
of these experiments are:
1. The portable film projectors and screens were
crude, compared with standards of today. This proved a
special handicap to the experimenters.
2. None of the schoolrooms had been constructed with
proper darkening and ventilating facilities for film show
ings. This was a disadvantage to the students who saw the
films.
®Frances Consitt, The Value of Films in History
Teaching (London: G. Bell and Sons, Ltd., 1931), p. 203.
3. The historical films used were, in several cases,
only portions of complete films. In some exercises, the
films were amateur productions of rather mediocre quality.
These and other pioneer studies were no doubt moti
vated by the desire to bring the teaching values of motion
pictures to the attention of the educational world. This
may account for the emphasis on the comparisons between
motion pictures and other means of instruction. It seems to
the writer that these experimenters might have used certain
groups of learners who employed both or several means of in
struction. After all, the fundamental problem lies deeper
than the selection of one best method of teaching, for it is
doubtful if there is such a method. To study the various
combinations of teaching methods was an opportunity over
looked by many of these early experimenters.
Influence in geography and general science. Perhaps
the best-known study dealing with the instructional value of
sub-standard classroom films was the nation-wide experiment
directed by Ben D. Wood and Frank Freeman,9 and financed by
Eastman Teaching Films, Inc. The immediate purpose of the
study was to discover the value of specially prepared geog
raphy and general science films. These integrated films
9Ben D. Wood and Frank L. Freeman, Motion Pictures
in the Classroom (Cambridge: Houghton, Mifflin Co., 1929),
392 pp."’
31
were shown in many schools in twelve key cities throughout
the nation as part of the regular instruction in geography
and social science. As a means of control there were
measured similar classes taught by instructors of ability
comparable to those using the films« These teachers taught
the same subject matter as the parallel classes; the dif
ference was that they used books instead of films. The
statistical findings of the Eastman study indicate that the
students in Geography gained 33 per cent of one standard de
viation more, and those in General Science gained 15 per cent
of one standard deviation more, than an equal number of pu
pils taught by the usual method unaided by films. The gains
were:
In Geography • 33 per cent
In General Science • •••••• 15 per cent
Average gain for both subjects • 24 per cent10
Frequently in the interpretation of these findings the
phrase, "one standard deviation" has been ignored, E, R,
Enlow, Director of Visual Education in the Atlanta Public
Schools gives an explanation as follows: "An average gain of
24 per cent of one standard deviation actually means in
terms of school marks a gain of approximately 1§ points."H
He believes that the average pupil who is able to make a
3 - Qlbid.
13*E. R* Enlow, The Educational Screen, October, 1929,
pp. 228-229.
32
school mark of 66J points or a grade of 68\ per cent with
out films could be raised lj points to the passing mark of
70 by the use of films* This amounts to an actual gain of
2.2 per cent.
If one were to judge solely by the statistical record
one might be led to say that the gains were slight. But if
one regards the subjective side of the story as told by
teachers1 composite opinions, the view is more revealing.
A summary of teacher expression is presented in the
Eastman brochure as follows:
1. An increased interest in school work and a sus
tained interest in the topics studied.
2. A quicker originality and a larger participation
in project work and other self-activities.
3. A greater desire and ability to discuss subjects
and to write about them.
4. An increase in the quantity and an improvement
in the quality of the material which they read.
5. A clearer appreciation of the richness, accuracy,
and meaningfulness of personal experiences.
6. A greater facility in correlating features of
their lessons with community conditions.
7. A contribution to life experiences difficult and
often impossible to secure by any other method.
8. A marked improvement in range and accuracy of
vocabulary.
9. An ability to concentrate mental activities, to
think more accurately, and to reason more soundly.12
This study was conducted on such a large scale and so
many thousands of students participated that it was almost
ideal in its set-up. However, the novelty of the film may
lg?The Educational Screen. November, 1928, p. 220,
citing the Eastman brochure.
35
have had a measurable influence on the added interest of
students, which undoubtedly is responsible for great gains in
learning. Furthermore, both the teachers who used the films
and those who did not, directed their energies toward having
the pupils make as good a showing as possible on the tests.
In that respect the experimental procedure could have been
greatly improved. The fact that the study was financed by a
commercial concern interested in selling motion picture films
to the schools would not increase the objective nature of the
study.
Geography and nature study experiment at i on. S. T# J.
Philpott at University College, London, in 1925, published
the results of an interesting English experiment which he
conducted with groups of students who were taught geography
and nature study by each of five different methods: the film
alone, slides alone, a purely oral lesson, a film talk, and
a slide talk. 12 measuring the quality of the descriptive
essays, written by the children immediately after seeing the
film, Mr. Philpott concentrated on the factor of "vividness.”
His theory was that the essays would clearly reveal which
type of experience was more impressive than the others. It
was discovered that when the child wrote about an oral les-
i^consitt, op* cit., p. 5, citing S* T. J. Philpott
34
son he tended to generalize; when he wrote about film expe
rience he was more specific# The conclusion was that in the
sense that particularity is an indication of concrete ex
perience or vividness, the written reports on the film ad
venture were more vivid than those based on the slide or
oral experiences.
This experiment rests upon an assumption which is
open to question. Is it not possible that the students wrote
better essays after the film event partially to show appre-
elation for the novelty, and to invite further film show
ings? The subjective nature of Philpott Ts judgment of the
children’s essays do not lend strength to his conclusions.
Amsterdam geography studies. Geography teaching ex
periments, involving the comparative use of instruction with
motion pictures, were made in 1924 by G. Revesz and J. F.
Hazevinkel of the Psychological and Paedogogical Laboratory
of Amsterdam. Boys and girls between thirteen and sixteen
years of age in the Amsterdam Lyceum participated in the ex
periments. In the first study, children averaging thirteen
years were divided into two groups, one of which was taught
geography with lantern slides, the other with a film.^ A
week following the experience, all groups contributed free
14rhe British Journal of Psychology, 15:184 et sqq.,
October, 1924.
35
descriptive essays on what they had seen. The number of pri
mary facts remembered was the basis for estimating the value
of the essays. The investigators selected such facts as were
essential to the story and made for the right understanding
of the whole, disregarding all facts of little or no im
portance, The data showed that the lantern-slide group
wrote essays of far greater length than the film group and
had a higher percentage of accuracy in using the facts. A
second experiment with pupils aged thirteen to fourteen com
pared three groups each taught by one of these methods; an
interrupted film, a continuous film, and lantern slides.
This experiment had results similar to the first: regardless
of whether an interrupted or continuous film was used, it
was inferior to the slide. After ten months a retention
test had equal results for both the slide and film group.
In another comparative study, the teacher helped the pre
sentations with oral explanations. The results of film and
slide lessons were equal.
Evaluation of the geography studies. At least two
factors tend to weaken the value of these experiments.
First, the students were accustomed to the use of lantern
slides but not to the films. Second, there was difficulty
in securing films and slides that were based on identical
subject matter. Moreover, the crude classroom motion pic-
36
ture projectors and inflamnable film of 1924 would suffer in
almost any kind of comparison*
Influence of the non-theatrical sound films. Because
the appearance of the 16 mm. sound picture is very recent,
the experiments concerning these are few in number. One of
the most significant is by Varney C. Arnspiger. The purpose
of this study was to compare the result of teaching a number
of units in music and in natural science by two different
methods— -the use of motion pictures and the verbal method.
It was found that in music and in natural science the
students of below average intelligence and those of above
average intelligence who were aided by the films made scores
that were considerably higher than those taught by the tradi
tional methods.
The experimental groups with film experience showed a
superiority of 22 per cent in music and 26 per cent in natu
ral science. In the later recall tests, the average loss of
information was far less for the experimental groups in every
unit of the study. In music, the per cent of film group su
periority ranged from 14 to 32; in natural science, from 9
to 18. A weakness in this study lies in the fact that the
15Varney Arnspiger, Measuring the Effectiveness of
Sound Pictures as Teaching Aids (Mew York: Bureau of Publi
cations, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1933),
156 pp.
37
experimenter failed to measure a group of students who had
the benefit of both the oral method instruction and the
film. It is not unlikely that such a combination would be
most effective.
Sound films compared with silent photoplays. Are
talking motion pictures superior to silent motion pictures
which are supplemented by printed titles or the oral comments
of the teacher? Clark and Einbecker sought an answer to this
question. Leaving out of consideration the dialogue talking
picture, they used films with a lecture accompaniment. These
investigators found that the film with printed captions or
that accompanied by the teacher, is practically as effective
as the lecture presented in the film. It is important to re
member in connection with this study that all speakers are
not equally proficient in the lecture method, and a teacher
with a poor voice or speaking ability would suffer in com
parison with a pleasantly trained voice, even though it may
be recorded. Surely this subject deserves further investiga
tion.
The sound film in science teaching. An investigation
in science teaching was carried on by Phillip Rulon of the
16Freeman, o£. cit., p. 796, citing Clark and
Einbecker.
Graduate School of Education at Harvard University.^ Eight
units in physical geography, botany and physiology were the
basis for a study which compared the effectiveness of motion
pictures and textbook material dealing with the same subject
matter* Three thousand pupils from three Massachusetts
cities participated. Mr. Rulon found that the film groups
made immediate gains of SO.5 per cent and a retention of
38.5 per cent more than the text-book groups. Also, he con
cludes that the gains are not made ”at the expense of more
important but less definable educational values, such as
good habits of thinking.”18
Summary. Briefly, there have been surveyed some of
the outstanding experiments dealing with the psychological
influence of non-theatrical films on youth. Concerning the
results of these studies, it seems established that:
1. Motion pictures, when adapted to the subject
matter, have been demonstrated superior to plain oral in
struction.
2. The relative effectiveness of motion pictures,
still pictures, slides and stereographs depends upon the
17p. j# Rulon, The Sound Motion Picture in Science
Teaching (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, X933J,
pp7'“
IQlbid., p. 106.
39
type of subject matter to be taught,
3. Abstractions and generalizations are more effec
tively presented in language unless they are presented
imaginatively in pictorial form,
4. Supplementary oral comment by the teacher tends
to render most types of visual aids more effective.
5. There is no evidence that visual aids in the
classroom may displace the teacher.
6. The greatest value of the motion picture as an
instructional aid is that it makes possible greater clarity
of perception,
7. Films apparently make important learning contribu
tions > particularly in developing interests and attitudes
which are not readily revealed by objective tests and
measures.
8. Most of the research studies overlook the opportu
nity of measuring the values of combined methods of instruc
tion.
9. Many of the older experiments dealing with silent
motion pictures might be repeated profitably with sound
pictures.
CHAPTER IV
THE INFLUENCE OF THEATRICAL MOTION PICTURES
This chapter will be limited to a brief analysis of
the principal research studies relating to the psychological
influence of theatrical motion pictures on youth.
The theatrical cinema looms very large and important
in the eyes of the public— young and old. It may be thought
that these films, being shown chiefly for entertainment,
have little social or educational significance. Research
studies emphasize the psychological importance of the theat
rical motion picture, particularly in view of the fact that
a high percentage of the national movie audience consists of
children under the age of eighteen. On the basis of a sys
tematic survey conducted by the Motion Picture Research
Council with the aid of the Payne Fund, it is estimated
that 11,000,000 children attend motion pictures once a week,
that 17 per cent of the audiences consist of children under
14 years of age, and 57 per cent are minors.1
Children*s silent photoplay habits. Most thorough of
all the studies dealing with the motion picture habits of
children, before the advent of the talking picture, was an
lw. W. Charters, Motion Pictures and Youth: A
Summary. (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1933), 102 pp.
41
investigation conducted by Alice Miller Mitchell in Chicago,
and reported in 1929.^ The purpose of the study was to in
quire, through the questionnaire method, into the movie ex
periences of the city child. Chosen as subjects were 10,052
Chicago children representing three groups: average public
school children, juvenile delinquents, and organized youth as
found in the Boy and Girl Scouts. Among the main results of
this study were the following:
1. Juvenile delinquents reported the highest frequency
of movie attendance, while the scouts have the lowest rate of
attendance. The scouts, however, attend regularly. Among
the three groups of students, 90.6 per cent reported movie
attendance at regular intervals; 7.7 per cent did not record
their attendance, and 1.7 per cent stated they do not go to
movies.
2. The majority of the children prefer outdoor sports
and auto-riding to attendance at the movies.
3. The majority of the 10,052 children studied prefer
attendance at the movies to reading for pleasure. Two
groups, the Girl Scouts and the high school girls, reported
preference of books to movies.
4. Among the boys the most popular type of movies are
western, comedy and adventure. Among the girls, romance,
^Alice M. Mitchell, Children and Movies (Chicago:
The University of Chicago Press, 1929), 181 pp.
42
comedy and western are preferred. Children see and enjoy all
types of movies. They state that the most enjoyable feature
of the movies is the thrills found in them.
Some of the commendable qualities of this study are:
1. It included large numbers, an advantage in a
questionnaire study.
2. The experimenters confined themselves to questions
which probably could be answered honestly by most of the
children.
3. Recognizing great differences in habits between
such groups as average school children, Boy and Girl Scouts,
and Juvenile delinquents, the investigators made careful
comparisons between the stated motion picture habits of these
groups.
While many of the conclusions would apply in all prob
ability to present day sound motion picture habits of chil
dren, it would be worth while to discover what differences
really do exist. For that reason, the entire study, modified
in organization, might profitably be repeated today with
talking pictures instead of silent films.
A most important series of twelve studies dealing with
the social-psychological influence of motion pictures on
youth was directed by W. W. Charters of Ohio State University
and financed by the Payne Fund of New York. Some of these
studies will be briefly summarized and evaluated.
43
Effects on conduct. Herbert Blumer of the University
of Chicago is responsible for a study which used the bio
graphical method of discovering to what extent the conduct of
youth is patterned after the movies they see.s Mr. Blumer
prints many quotations from children who emphasize the im
portant part that movies have played in causing them to play
games, choose styles in dress, and develop habits of behavior
good and bad— but mostly bad.
Blumer essayed a difficult task when he set out to
discover the relationship between movies and conduct. The
greatest difficulty is that science perhaps may never measure
the positive good that movies can accomplish, because the
normal things are undramatic, therefore are quickly for
gotten. But the evil of movies lives after them— in the
memories of people who must have something to blame besides
themselves for their aberrations. Moreover, the autobio
graphical method which was used in this work is scarcely
sufficient in itself, for the person questioned is usually
only too accommodating in supplying the point of view he
thinks is desired by his interviewer.
Effects on .juvenile delinquency. Edgar Dale made a
^Herbert Blumer, Movies and Conduct (Hew York: The
Macmillan Company, 1933), 257 pp.
statistical study dealing with the relationship of the film
to juvenile delinquency.4 He finds that children and youth
are regular patrons of the films. According to Dale, the in
fluence of motion pictures is universal and there are very
few children who never attend the cinema. The statistical
method of his study and the conclusions drawn help to make
it one of the most valid of the Payne Studies.
Now what is the relationship between this widespread
movie attendance of youth and juvenile delinquency? This is
the question asked by the experimenters Blumer and Hauser.5
They collected the autobiographical accounts of hundreds of
juvenile delinquents from various reformatories and penal
institutions. Both young men and women who had become in
volved in difficulties with the law gave the movies a large
share of the blame for starting them down the primrose path.
In many instances these biographies may be convincing, but
in general their validity is seriously open to question. -
Psychologists believe it is very difficult, if not impos
sible, for an individual to give specific reasons for his
behavior, be it good or bad. Furthermore, if the autobio
graphical accounts of so-called nnormalw people are occa
4Edgar Dale, Attendance at Motion Pictures (New
York: The Macmillan Company, 1935), 80 pp.
^Blumer and Hauser, Movies, Delinquency, and Crime
(New York: The Macmillan Company, 1953), 233 pp.
sionally open to challenge, it does not seem to lend cre
dence to the autobiographical accounts of those whose lack
of integrity is no doubt partly responsible for their mis
fortunes.
Effects on emotions. Two professors from the Psy
chology Department of the University of Iowa, Wendell S.
Dysinger and Christian A. Ruckmick, set out to discover new
facts regarding emotional responses to films.® They employed
mechanical means (the psycho-galvonometer) to discover what
emotional changes take place in children under the influence
of various types of motion pictures. From tests of hundreds
of children seeing many different types of films they con
clude that the emotional influence of particular films upon
particular individuals is tremendous. One of their most
interesting conclusions is that,
The most extreme stimulation by the motion picture
seems to center near the age of 16 years, where scenes
of conflict often give the maximal response and where
love scenes and suggestive incidents quite consistently
gave the maximal reaction.”
It appears from the objective methods employed by
Dysinger and Ruckmick that their study is an excellent con
tribution and points the way to an extremely valuable
^Dysinger and Ruckmick, The Emotional Responses of
Children to the Motion Picture Situation (New York: The
Macmillan Company, 1935), 122 pp.
7Ibid., p. 110.
46
scientific procedure: the objective study of subjective
elements of personality.
Effects on sleep. It is generally conceded that
sufficient and proper sleep is very necessary for children.
That motion pictures have a harmful effect on children*s
sleep has been contended so long that one of the projects of
the Payne Studies was to attempt to solve the question. The
experiment was headed by Samuel Henshaw, Professor of Ex
perimental Psychology at Ohio State University.® One hundred
and seventy boys and girls were studied during sleep by
means of recording devices which measured the amount of
movement made by the individuals while in bed. The experi
menters found that, while many children were more restless
after seeing a movie, many, on the other hand, seemed to
sleep more soundly. The general conclusion was that the in
fluence of motion pictures is specific for different films
and for different subjects.9
This study is to be lauded for its use of objective
measurements. However, it could have been strengthened by a
good questionnaire.
8Renshaw, Miller and Marquis, Children*s Sleep (New
York: The Macmillan Company, 1933), 242 pp.
9Ibid.
Effects on social attitudes. L. L. Thurstone, of the
University of Chicago and Ruth C. Peterson were collabora
tors in a study dealing with motion pictures and the social
attitudes of children.10 The method of the study was to
measure, by the use of social attitude scales devised by the
authors, the changes in the opinions of students after see
ing a motion picture dealing with a social problem— such as
gambling, or the punishment of criminals, or war.
It was learned that the film "The Birth of a Nation”
made a rather profound change in attitudes toward the negro.
Three crime pictures, "The Criminal Code," "Big House," and
"Numbered Men" served to make the students less severe in
their attitude toward the punishment of criminals. "Four
Sons" made them more friendly toward the Germans, while
"Sons of the Gods," created a very positive change in atti
tude favorable to the Chinese. The investigators concluded
that motion pictures have positive enduring effects on the
social attitudes of children. Also, a number of films with
a similar theme tend to have a cumulative effect on atti
tudes.11
The success or failure of this experimental study was
10Peterson and Thurstone, Motion Pictures and the
Social Attitudes of Children.(New York: The Macmillan Co.,
1935)7 75 PP*
l:LIbld.. pp. 64-65.
48
dependent upon the validity of the tests • Inasmuch as
Thurstone’s tests are of somewhat questionable validity and
reliability, this study of attitudes should be repeated at a
later date with other instruments of measurement.
The Clark University study. In attempt at a con
trolled experiment dealing with the photoplay and students’
social attitudes was made in three seventh grade classes
under the direction of Vernon Jones at Clark University.-^
Near the end of a school year one-half of three
classes, or about seventy pupils in the seventh grade were
shown four sound photoplays. The other half of the classes
were used as a control group and were not allowed to see the
films. For each motion picture, one or more attitude tests
were constructed and administered to both groups. Eleven
days before the film showings, three tests were given both
groups, who were retested four days after seeing the pic
tures. The main conclusions were;!3
1. That definite changes in students’ attitudes were
made by the films;
2. The children in the picture group had their atti
tudes changed in the direction which one might expect from
12Vernon Jones, Character and Citizenship Training
in the Public School (Chicago; The University of Chicago
Press, 1936)7 405 pp.
13Ibid., p. 359.
the nature of the films .
3. Motion pictures have great potentialities for
changing attitudes in desirable directions as well as in un
desirable ones*
The chief weakness of this study by Jones is that the
numbers of students involved in the experiment were too few
to give conclusive results. The attitude tests, also, like
all others so far devised are of doubtful validity.
Effects on appreciation of films. An interesting
angle on the influence of the motion picture on youth is that
dealing with the change in attitudes toward films themselves.
In other words, can motion picture appreciation be taught so
that the subjects will develop discrimination to the point
of seeking and demanding better films? To answer this ques
tion was the purpose of a study made by William Lewin, who
developed a plan of teaching motion picture appreciation in
connection with high school English classes.Nation-wide
in scope, the experiment included 36 teachers, 1851 pupils,
and 31 schools in 28 cities. Control groups were utilized
in this research. Among other things, Lewin concluded that:
14W. Lewin, Photoplay Appreciation in American High
Schools (English Monograph, No. 2, NationalT'Council of
Teachers of English, 1934), 122 pp.
50
1* The habits of high school students can be sig
nificantly improved through the guidance of English
teachers.
3. Pupils can learn standards for evaluating current
films and can readily follow criteria acceptable to
English teachers.15
Mr. Lewin*s conclusions were based largely on the
opinions of teachers. These are valuable, but should not be
depended on as the sole basis of a study. As the status of
measuring artistic and literary appreciation is still very
much in the developmental stage, too much weight should not
be attached to this single study. As facts and understand
ings are closely related to appreciation, Lewin might well
have used objective tests as an effective support to his
inve st i gat ion•
Summary. Research studies dealing with non-theatri
cal motion pictures have clearly demonstrated that classroom
motion pictures may be an extremely valuable aid in edu
cation, provided that they are properly made and used.
A survey of some of the outstanding research studies
dealing with the social-psychological influences of theatri
cal motion pictures indicates that the influence of the
commercial cinema, positively and negatively, may be even
greater because of the fact that the films are seen for en-
ISxbld.. p. 94.
51
joyment and the spectator usually is in a receptive frame of
mind. The studies also tend to show that:
1. Motion pictures do have a measurable effect on the
conduct of youth, but the measurements so far applied, of
doubtful reliability, have tended to emphasize the negative
influences of the cinema*
2. The influence of the film on the emotions, health
and social attitudes of youth is not general, but specific
for films and for individuals.
3. Studies tend to show that critical appreciation of
motion pictures may be taught, but no study has attempted to
discover the later transfer values of such study.
4. The photoplay is a method of presenting infor
mation and situations that most nearly approaches genuine
life experience, the greatest teacher of all.
5. There are very few research studies dealing with
the important problem of how to use exceptional photoplays
as aids in education.
CHAPTER V
PLAN OF THE STUDY
This chapter will be devoted to a discussion of the
general background and organization of the experiments, and
will be treated under four divisions: preliminary prepara
tions, construction and analysis of the tests, experimental
organization, and questionnaire follow-up.
Preliminary preparations. In attempting to measure
the comparative influence of the photoplays and photoplay
scenarios it was first of all necessary to make certain that
the tools of instruction, that is to say, the historical
photoplays and the scenarios, were available. The investi
gator made a preliminary survey of all the ma^or film pro
ducing companies in Southern California to discover what
scenarios might be available for a series of classroom ex
periments. With introductions given by the Association of
Motion Picture Producers, the investigator personally visit
ed in January, 1937, the Publicity Departments of the follow
ing film studios in Southern California:
Columbia Pictures Corporation, Hollywood
Samuel Goldwyn, Inc., Hollywood
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Culver City
Paramount Pictures Corporation, Hollywood
RKO Studios, Inc., Hollywood
Reliance Pictures Corporation, Hollywood
Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation* Beverly Hills
53
United Artists Studio Corporation, Hollywood
Universal Pictures Corporation, Universal City
Warner Brothers and First National West Coast Studios
Burbank, California
More than half of the studios visited were unfavor
ably inclined toward the idea of reproducing any of their
photoplay scenarios for educational or experimental use.
The chief reason given was that the scenarios were confi
dential in nature and it was against the policy of the
studio to permit their use by anyone not employed by the
producers. Four of the studios proved friendly to the idea
and promised cooperation to an educational project. These
included:
Columbia Pictures Corporation
Paramount Pictures Corporation
RKO Studios, Incorporated
Reliance Pictures Corporation
Among the film productions of these studios there
were several recent historical photoplays which might prove
valuable in an experiment in social studies. These films
were:
Mary of Scotland. an RKO production
Cimarron, an RKO production
The Plainsman, a Paramount production
Maid of Salem, a Paramount production
The Last of the Mohicans. a Reliance Picture
Since the scenarios, The Story of Louis Pasteur, a
Warner Brothers production, and Romeo and Juliet. a Metro-
54
n
Goldwyn-Mayer picture, had been published in book form,
those films appeared as good possibilities for experimental
purposes*
The next step was to secure permission for an experi
mental study in the Los Angeles City Schools, which were
conveniently located. When it was under stood by the Curric
ulum Division of the Board of Education that the motion pic
ture experiment would tend to supplement the usual course of
instruction without interfering excessively with regular
plans of the teachers, sanction was readily granted for the
study. Names of high schools particularly suited to such an
experiment were given by Mrs. Sarah McLean Mullen of Lincoln
High School, the late outstanding authority in the use of
photoplays in education. Among the institutions recommended
highly was the George Washington High School, located in the
southwestern edge of the Los Angeles City limits.
A visit to George Washington High School and inter
views with the principal, Mr. Hughes, and other members of
the faculty, revealed the following facts concerning the
school and its population:
^Lorraine Noble, eBitor, Four Star Scripts (Garden
City, New York: Doubleday, Doran and Company, 1936), pp.
320-392.
Borneo and Juliet by William Shakespeare (New York:
Random House, inc., Publishers, 1936), 290 pp.
55
1. The present attendance is about 3,000, with 119
teachers in charge.
2 k The pupils are over 95 per cent American native
born whites, with approximately 2 per cent Japanese and about
3 per cent foreign born.
3. Most of the pupils come from upper middle class
American homes, and there are few extremes of wealth or
poverty.
These and other factors would justify the conclusion
that Washington High School might be classified as a large
city high school with a fairly homogeneous student popu
lation.
When these circumstances had been learned by the ex
perimenter, further inquiry at the school was carried on to
ascertain the possibilities for experimental work. Among
the conditions favoring a study were these:
1. The school had no extensive experimental program
under way that would influence the results of an independent
study.
2. The principal and the social studies department
promised complete cooperation in such a study.
3. It was the custom to show photoplays as an extra
curricular activity in the school auditorium.
4. Plans for the year 1937-38 permitted the inclusion
of the experiments without jeopardizing the regular curricu-
56
lar or extra-curricular program.
It was considered advisable to place the photoplay-
scenario experimental study in the department of social
science rather than English for the reason that most of the
teaching of motion picture appreciation in the secondary
schools in Southern California has been in connection with
English classes. In order to build a sound experimental
procedure it was best to employ a new setting, where the
teachers would have less opportunity to influence the study
by frequent discussion of current motion pictures, as is the
custom in many English courses.
Selection of photoplays. Inasmuch as American History
is included in the 11B program of studies, Sir. George
Homrighausen, head of the department of Social Studies, re
quested that films be used in the experiment that would re
late to the classwork of the fall semester. The final
choice of films was given to Mr. Homrighausen*s department,
who selected for use The Last of the Mohicans, which was
adapted from the novel by J. Fenimore Cooper; The Plainsman
a story of the western frontier men; and Maid of Salem,
dealing with the witchcraft superstitions of seventeenth -
century Hew England. 4s the extra-curricular program late
in the semester was full, it was necessary to schedule the
showing of films on October 6, October 20, and November 10.
57
With this basic schedule, it was possible to frame a program
of testing and administering of classroom reading of photo
play scenarios.
During the spring and summer months of 1957, one
hundred copies of the scenario of The Last of the Mohicans
were prepared through the cooperation of Miss Lois Dwyerfs
typewriting class at Metropolitan High School, where Prin
cipal Albert E. Bullock had given permission for the work as
an educational project. Part of the test papers were mimeo
graphed at Manual Arts High School in the Commercial depart
ment under the direction of Mrs, Monica Ecklund Kernberger.
The student copies of The Plainsman and Maid of Salem were
prepared at the beginning of the fall semester, just prior
to the experiments.
Mr, Homrighausen, head of the department of social
studies at George Washington High School, examined a copy of
The Last of the Mohicans script in August, 1957, and decided
that the typing of the stencils for the mimeographed copies
of The Plainsman and Maid of Salem would be a worth while
project for the high school students. Mr. Ralph Bauer, head
of the Commerce Department, concurred in this opinion, and
the advanced class in typewriting was given the task of
typing 408 stencils. Mr. Bauer stated that this work pro
vided an excellent practical student project which was com
58
pleted on schedule and in a very satisfactory manner.
Heterogeneous grouping of students was the classroom
organization in the eleventh grade social stiidies at Washing
ton High School. One exception to this, however, was a supe
rior group, consisting of pupils intending to major in social
studies. While this class, knoy/n as Humber One or the High
Group* participated as the others in the experiment, their
test records were not used in the main experimental compar
isons. The intelligent quotient ratings of the Thorndike
Revised Intelligence Test were obtained for all the classes,
and the ratings were used to insure matching of Script and
Film groups. This information will be found in Table II.
The rotation plan of experimentation provided a method
which would tend to equalize possible differences other than
intelligence. Under this arrangement, every class would have
an opportunity to read at least one scenario, as well as
attend all three films in the series if they wished to do so.
Construction and analysis of the tests. For each of
the photoplay stories used, two equivalent objective tests
were prepared, known as Form A and Form B. The Last of the
Mohicans and The Plainsman tests each consisted of forty
questions, fifteen true-false and twenty-five completion.
The two forma of the Maid of Salem test each consisted of
thirty questions, eighteen true-false, and twelve multiple-
choice .
code
numb
1
2
5
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
15
14
15
16
17
Tirvha
59
TABLE II
POPULATION BX SEX, MEAN CHRONOLOGICAL
AGES, .AND MEAN INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENTS
FOR CLASS GROUPS IN THE EXPERIMENT
Boys Girls Total Mean Mean
number C. A. in I. Q.
years
16 20 36 16 116.9
22 15 37 16 107.6
22 13 35 16 106.0
15 21 36 16 101.0
14 20 34 16 104.9
8 20 28 16 101.6
15 14 29 16 106.0
13 22 35 16 104.6
15 14 29 16 103.9
8 30 38 16 104.0
8 26 34 16 105.0
16 17 33 16 107.6
26 8 34 16 107.9
19 13 32 16 102.6
16 5 21 16 104.4
9. 21 30 16 107.0
20 10 30 16 103.0
262 289 551 16 ioSTT
60
In an initial test for one of tiie experiments, half
the classes were to be given Form A while the other half were
to take Form B. In the following test, which would be the
scenario test for those who had read the script, and the film
test for those who had seen the motion picture, the opposite
form of the test would be given* For example, a class in the
scenario group might follow this schedule:
The test questions were based on the subject matter
common to both the scenario and the photoplay* In order to
include only those questions which could be answered by a
reading of the scenario, naturally the verbal elements of
the motion picture would be favored* It is evident that
many of the possible teaching values of the sound pictures,
such as backgrounds and scenery, would not be included in
these tests unless the description appeared in the script.
Many of the vital teaching values of films have thus been
ommitted because they could not fairly be included in a pro
gram designed chiefly to compare two methods of presenting
the verbal elements of a sound picture.
It was only after a careful analysis of both the sce
nario and the screen version that the tests were prepared.
The items were written on cards, and when a sufficient number
of questions was secured to provide the two forms required,
Pretest • • •
Scenario test
Retention test
Form A
Form B
Form A
61
the questions were alternately sorted into two stacks, each
pile forming the basis of one of the two equivalent forms of
a test.
There was constructed, for each of the experimental
photoplays, an objective test which was divided into two
parts, each intended to be equivalent to the other. This
was essential because of the fact that it would be necessary
to give a series of tests dealing ?/ith each photoplay in or
der to measure relative gains on the two types of experience
given the pupils. The labels Form A and Form B were applied
to the alternate parts of each test.
Items and concepts of character, background, and plot
essential to a complete understanding of the story formed the
basis of the test questions. The selection of test items, of
course, was limited to those found in both the scenario and
the photoplay. Only one exception to this is found in the
six test forms. Form B of The Plainsman test, question num
ber twelve reads: ”Hiekok realizes that the is a
. from the size of the boot prints in the sand.”
This statement did appear in the scenario version, but the.
scene was not shown in the film presentation at the school.
In this instance, the pupil*s answers to this question were
not permitted to alter his ranking in the group. After a
careful check of test items with the final scenario versions
and the complete photoplays shown in the school, no other
62
cases could be found where the test particulars were not
clearly presented in both the scenario and the film.
Reliability of the test forms. Reliability of the two
equivalent test forms was calculated for each of the three
examinations prepared for the experimental photoplays. The
method was as follows; The film test papers completed by the
students were divided into two sets-— those who had used Form
A and those who had Form B, From each set was taken fifty
papers at random. The hundred papers were then checked to
determine the number of odd and even correct answers on each
paper. A calculation of the correlation between the odd and
even scores in these papers produced a coefficient of reli
ability between Form A and Form B of each test. These corre
lations were corrected by means of the Spearman-Brown formula.
The resulting coefficient of reliability as shown in Table
III were: for The Last of the Mohicans, .866; for The Plains
man, .915; and for Maid of Salem, .898. These are considered
satisfactory relationships between the equivalent forms of
each test.
Relative difficulty of the tests. In order to pro
vide a further check on the reliability of the tests, as well
as a measure of the relative difficulty of Form A and Form B,
the tests were given to five classes, consisting of 142 pu
pils in eleventh grade social studies at Venice High School.
63
TABLE III
RELIABILITY OF EQUIVALENT TEST FORMS
Title of test Corrected reliability
The Last of the Mohicans • 866
The Plainsman • 913
Maid of Salem • 898
NOTE: This table may be read as follows: In the
test The Last of the Mohicans the corrected coefficient of
reliability between Form A and Form B of the test is ,866.
64
These students were comparable in social background,£ and
according to Table IV, page 65, their average ages were the
same, 16, and their mean I. Q. ratings of 105 were practi
cally identical to the mean ratings of the Washington High
School experimental classes.
Arrangements were made for the five Venice classes to
take, in two different class periods a week apart, ail the
tests used in this experiment. During the first testing pe
riod approximately half the students took Form A of the
tests, while the other half took Form B of the same test.
Seven days later, each student had the test forms reversed.
This provided an excellent opportunity to solve the amount
of similarity existing between the alternate forms of each
test. If marked differences were found to exist they might
be attributed to any or all of the following factors:
1. Increased student experience, during the week in
tervening between the first and second testing, with respect
to the experimental films. It was learned, however, that
none of the students saw the pictures during this interval.
2. The greater ease or difficulty of one form of a
test as compared with the other.
3. Marked gains on both forms the second week might
^The testimony of Mr. Homrighausen, a teacher who had
spent several years teaching at both Washington and Venice
high schools.
65
TABLE IV
POPULATION BY SEX, MEAN CHRONOLOGICAL
AGES, AND MEAN INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENTS
FOR CLASS GROUPS AT VENICE
Class
code
number
Boys Girls Total
number
Mean
C• A• in
years
Mean
I • Q •
18 9 9 18 16 100,3
19 16 10 26 16 105,2
20 11 17 28 16 108,0
21 50 8 38 16 103.4
22 19 15 32 16 108.3
Total 85 57 142 16 105.4
Total of
Washington 262 289 551 16 105.7
Grand
total 347 346 693 16 105.0
66
be due to increased skill because of practice in answering
the same type of questions.
Among the Venice students who were tested* 28 per
cent had seen The Last of the Mohicans prior to taking the
tests. In comparing the scores made by the entire group of
students, as they appear in Table V, it was found that be
tween the two test periods a week apart, there was an aver
age raw score difference of .7 of a point in favor of Form
A. This does not necessarily mean that Form A was easier
than Form B; the exceptionally slight difference may have
been caused by any of the factors listed above, or it may be
attributed to chance. In any event, the average raw scores
of the two test forms of The Last of the Mohicans were sur
prisingly alike.
Prior to the testing, 31 per cent of the Venice group
had seen The Plainsman. Again, the average raw scores were
very similar, with a difference of .6 of a point in favor of
Form A.
Maid of Salem had been seen by 30 per cent of the
Venice group before they took the tests. When the average
gains made on Form A were compared with the average gains
made on Form B, a difference of 1 raw score unit was found,
favoring Form B.
Therefore, the testing program at Venice High School
tends to show that the equivalent forms of each of the three
67
TABLE V
RELATIVE DIFFICULTY OF EQUIVALENT TEST FORMS
Title of test Average Venice gains
Form A
Average Venice gains
Form B
The Last of the
Mohicans .7 0
The Plainsman • 6 0
Maid of Salem 0. 1
NOTE: This table may be read as follows: In the Venice
High School testing on the two forms of the Last of the
Mohicans, the average difference in Form A and Form B was .7
of one raw score point in favor of Form A.
68
tests are almost alike in difficulty, and that the practice
effect in these tests are virtually negligible. The excess
ively small variation in average gains from one form to a-
nother substantially strengthens the evidence that the al
ternate forms are equivalent and consistent measuring in
struments.
Experimental organization. The general plan for each
of the three photoplay-scenario experiments comprised the
following:
1. A pretest to determine the amount of story infor
mation initially possessed by the students.
2. One-third of the experimental classes read a scena
rio in class. Thus, in the course of the experiments, all
the classes had an opportunity to read one scenario.
3. The script reading group received a test to de
termine their increase in understanding of the narrative due
to the reading experience.
4. A showing of the photoplay was made in the school
auditorium, to which were invited all the students, in agree
ment with the regular plan followed by the school.
5. A film test was given to the film group to measure
the increase of understanding over the pretest.
6. A retention test administered near the end of the
semester was to discover the relative losses of the story in
69
formation previously measured. The recollection test was to
determine the comparative retentiveness of story information
between the pupils who had seen the photoplay, and those who
had seen the film, possibly, in addition to reading the sce
nario.
Table VI presents the chronological sequence of the
various learning experiences and the testing program.
Method of testing. For each test scheduled in the
experiment, the investigator prepared for the separate
classes a folder containing the correct form and number of
the test suitable for the occasion. Attached to each folder
was a typewritten label, giving the name of the teacher, the
class period, the room number and the date of the testing
program. These folders were distributed from the office of
Mr. Homrighausen on each morning of the scheduled days. The
teachers had previously been notified concerning the dates
of testing, script reading and photoplay showings, and they
had revised their teaching programs to suit the experimental
calendar.
The tests in most cases were distributed at the be
ginning of the class period. A fifteen-minute period proved
sufficient for nearly every student to consider each question
•on a single form of the test. Ihile guessing of answers was
not prohibited, neither was it encouraged, and even though a
70
TABLE VI
SCHEDULE OF EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Experiment One
Sept. 27, 1957 1.
Sept. 27 to Oct. 5 2.
Oct ^5 2 a.
Oct. 6 3.
Oct. 7 4.
Jan. 17, 1938 5.
Jan. 17 6.
Experiment Two
Oct. 11, 1937 1.
Oct. 12 to Oct. 18 2.
Oct. 19 2a.
Oct. 20 3.
Oct. 21 4.
Jan. 17, 1938 5.
The Last of the Mohicans
Pretest
Classroom reading of the scenario
Scenario test
School showing of the photoplay
Photoplay test
Retention test and Student Report
on all three experiments
Teachers report on all experiments
The Plainsman
Pretest
Classroom reading of the scenario
Scenario test
School showing of the photoplay
Photoplay test
Retention test
71
TABLE VI (continued)
SCHEDULE' OF EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Experiment Three Maid of Salem
Nov, 1, 1937 1. Pretest
Nov. 2 to Nov. 9 2. Classroom reading of the scenario
Nov. 9 2a. Scenario test
Nov. 10 3. School showing of the photoplay
Nov. 12 4. Photoplay test
Jan. 17, 1938 5. Retention test
Testing Program at Venice High School
Dec. 2, 1937 Administration of tests dealing with all
experiments
Dec, 9 Administration of alternate forms of all
tests
72
student was unable to answer the questions he was requested
to sign his name and return the test paper.
When the retention tests were given toward the end of
the semester, the special instructions were attached to each
of the test folders, and read as follows;
DIRECTIONS FOR RETESTS AND STUDENT REPORTS. Only
those students who Have taSen enough tests to make a
complete record will take the retests. The names of
those students appear on the blank copies. Kindly
give those who have no retests, a copy of the student
report. Please collect these separately from the re
tests.
Those who have four forms to complete, will re
quire nearly a full period. Some students will have
time for study or regular work AFTER they complete the
student reports. Please read the following;
TO THE STUDENT; These final tests deal with the
motion picture experiment we had last fall. The main
purpose of these tests is to discover what eleventh
grade classes remember best the historical movies they
saw earlier in the semester. Different students will
get different tests, depending on the number needed to
complete the individual record. The last sheet, called
the Student Report, need not be signed, and will be
handed in separately. If you have all four forms, try
to gauge your speed so that you can finish before the
end of the class period.
The scenario reading. For those students who were
scheduled to read scenarios in class, sufficient copies were
provided so that each individual student might use a personal
copy. In this way a pupil was encouraged to read at his own
pace, regardless of the speed of his neighbors. Because the
three experimental scenarios varied in length, and the cir
cumstances around each reading were quite different, more de
73
tails of these differences will be given in the chapters re
lating to the individual experiments.
Photoplay presentations, All three films used in the
experiments were shown in the Washington High School audi
torium under conditions similar to those existing in the
average motion picture theatre, Mr, Harry Messermith, head
engineer at Washington High School, states that in his opin
ion the acoustical qualities are equal to the Balboa Theatre,
a neighborhood theatre with a seating capacity of 1400. The
acoustics of the Balboa Theatre are regarded as satisfactory
to the patronage of the theatre, which consists chiefly of
upper middle class Americans. Some of the history teachers
and several of the students were asked regarding the acous
tics of the high school auditorium and the general opinion
was that it is not quite up to the standard of the best
theatres. The Washington High School auditorium is somewhat
larger than the neighborhood theatre, seating 1832. The
most noticeable sound defect is in the balcony and underneath
the balcony where talking pictures are heard at some disad
vantage .
For several years the students at Washington have
been shown an average of one photoplay a month, as an extra-
curricular activity to foster appreciation of selected film
programs. Since the auditorium has a standard enclosed pro
jection booth in the balcony, but no standard machines, it
74
has been the custom to engage a commercial operator, who uses
two portable projectors allowing a continuous showing of a
film program. On the days selected for film showings, ten-
cent tickets are sold to students desiring to attend the
film. These students are excused from class to attend the
program. Because of the popularity of the pictures, it is
necessary to schedule a morning and afternoon showing to
accommodate all the students. As a rule, the auditorium is
nearly filled for both performances. The 11B social studies
classes who participated in the experiments, attended volun
tarily and paid their own admissions.
It was under these conditions that the three photo
plays, The Last of the Mohicans, The Plainsman, and Maid of
Salem, were shown.
Scoring of test papers. Most of the test papers were
scored by the investigator himself. Those that were correct
ed by a trained assistant were evaluated by means of the
identical keys and upon the same objective basis. All papers
were checked over by the investigator to make sure of accura
cy and consistency of marking. The method employed was to
use a card with the correct answers and compare these answers
with those given on the test paper. Whenever a student*s
reply agreed with the master key, a check mark was placed by
the number of the question. The total raw score was deter
mined by adding the check marks on each paper.
75
Recording of data, A complete individual record of
each student in the experiment was kept on a 6 x 9 inch card.
Each card was divided into sections providing for the pupil's
name, age, I, Q., sex, and scores on each of the tests. Space
was also supplied for a record of the raw score gains between
the pretest, the film or script test, and the retention test.
Other data, secured from later Student Reports, was recorded
on the reverse side of the cards. The individual card system
made it possible to utilize the data in varied ways for com
plete statistical treatment.
Statistical treatment of data. In addition to the raw
scores on each of the individual pupil tests, the score gains
or losses between testings were all tabulated on separate
mimeographed statistical form sheets, which were provided
with a three-point interval frequency scale, ranging from
0-2.for the lowest score, and 39-41 for the highest possible
score.
In each, separate photoplay experiment the data for
the script reading group and the film group were treated in
these units, as well as by sexes within the units. The only
class to be ommitted from the experimental set-up was Humber
One, the High Group, whose average I. Q. was 116, as com
pared with 105 average for all the others. In the calcula
tion of correlations between intelligence and test scores,
however, the High Group was included.
76
Questionnaire follow-up. Immediately after the re
tention tests, the students replied to a list of mimeographed
questions, known as the Student Report. These queries were
for the purpose of securing information that was vital to the
interpretation of the experimental data. This Student Report
known as Form S, requested the following information:^
1. Ranking of school subjects.
2. Titles of experimental movies seen.
3. Titles of experimental scenarios read.
4. Reaction to reading of photoplay scenarios.
5. Reaction to historical photoplays.
6. Ranking of eight major types of photoplays, in
cluding historical films.
7. Frequency of photoplay attendance.
The pupils were told that these reports were not to
be signed, and as the reports were to be collected separately
from the tests, the teachers would not know the authorship of
the individual replies. In order to combine the Student Re
ports with the individual card records, it was necessary to
assign each student a number. This number was placed on the
reverse of the reports, so In this manner the responses were
3See detailed questions on Form S, Student Report,
p. 77.
77
STUDENT REPORT
Form S
Sex _______ Date_______________
Please answer the following questions as completely as you
can. You need not sign your name as this paper will be col
lected separately from the other test questions. Your
teacher will not know how you answer.
(1) On the following blanks list the subjects you are taking
this semester, in the order of your preference. Thus, if
you like English best, place that first, followed by your
other selections.
.........
4. 5. 6.
(2) Three historical movies have been shown in school this
semester: ”The Last of the Mohicans,” ”The Plainsman” and
”Maid of Salem.”
Underline the names of those you have seen. Underline twice
the one you liked the best.
(3) You have had an opportunity to read at least one scenario
version of these three movies: ”The Last of the Mohicans,”
”The Plainsman” and ”Maid of Salem.”
Underline the names of the scripts you have read.
(4) Do you enjoy reading scenarios of historical motion pic
tures like these? ______. If you could get more of these
from the library, would you read them? ______. If you don't
like to read scenarios of motion pictures, tell why. ______
Which would you rather do, read the script before seeing the
movie see the movie first, then read the script?
______. (Place a cross X after the statement above, giving
your preference.)
(5) Have historical movies like these increased your under
standing and enjoyment of history? ______. Why?
78
SIUDEMT REPORT (continued)
Form S
(6) How does the reading of the scenario affect your enjoy
ment of the movie? Mark an X by the statement that gives
your answer. lakes no difference ; Adds to my enjoy
ment ______; Detracts from my enjoyment .
(7) Do you like to see historical movies? ______• Underline
twice the type of movie you like best: comedy ” gangster
history newsreels romance war western musicals
Underline once your second choice.
(8) How often do you go to the movies? Underline the nearest
correct answer.
Nearly every night Twice a week Once a week
Twice a month Once a month Seldom go to the movies
79
compiled on the proper record card for each student.
In addition to the Student Reports, each of the nine
teachers whose classes were involved in the experiments were
asked to give written reports. These were essential to in
terpret properly the instructional viewpoint toward the ma
terials and methods of the experiments. The Teacher Report
requested information that would indicate:4
1. The amount of experience the teacher had with the
experimental materials.
2. The observed student reaction to those same ma
terials.
5. Their general criticisms and remarks.
The study, as a whole, was designed to fuse into a
unit the findings of objective tests, interpreted in the
light of information regarding the motion picture habits of
the students, supplemented by the recorded observations of
their teachers. For it is well in an experimental situation
to have objective data and so-called subjective findings.
They are of mutual aid, just as line and colors are combined
in painting a portrait.
Role of the teachers. The important role of the
teacher in any classroom educative process is fully appre
ciated by the experimenter, and these studies do not min-
4See copy of Teacher Report, Form T, p. 80.
80
TEACHER REPORT
Form T
In summarizing these reports, names of individual
teachers will not be identified with the particular replies
given,
(1) Please underline the titles of any of the following pho
toplays you have seen:
The Last of the Mohicans The Plainsman Maid of Salem
(2) Kindly underline the titles of any of the following pho
toplay scenarios you may have read:
The Last of the Mohicans The Plainsman Maid of Salem
(3) What is your opinion of the dramatic quality of the
same photoplays? (Underline correct answer)
The Last of the Mohicans excellent good fair poor
The Plainsman excellent good fair poor
Maid of Salem excellent good fair poor
(4) To what type of student do you think selected photoplay
scenarios might prove most helpful? (Check one or two)
the bright student __ the average student the retarded
student (who has difficulty in reading) .
(5) Do you think that selected photoplay scenarios might be
an important aid to the study of social science? Yes ____
Perhaps ____ No ____.
(6) How does the class interest in photoplay scenarios com
pare with their usual interest in study periods? Interest in
the scripts is superior ____ little better about the
same ingerior to regular study ___
(7) How do you explain whatever degree of interest your
students found in reading a photoplay scenario? (Check one
or more, OR if preferred, give another theory) novelty of
material ____ intrinsic student interest in stories __ _
interest in movies . easier than regular classwork
Any other ........... _ _...........
(8) What is your strongest criticism of the photoplay ex
periment?
81
imize the vital influence of personal classroom instruction
on the development of the child.
For the purposes of these experiments it was necessary
that the teachers withhold the instructional function as it
applies to the subject matter of the studies, because the
variables of teaching ability and methods might have served
to increase the difficulty of proper experimental control.
Guidance and direction by the teachers played an im
portant part in generally facilitating the learning experi
ences included in the studies, itoong the influential
functions performed by the teachers were:
1. They provided a properly supervised situation for
the reading of the scenarios.
2. Students were encouraged to see the experimental
photoplays•
3. They provided a favorable situation for the class
room testing program.
4. Observations were recorded of the pupils* reactions
to the experimental materials.
CHAPTER VI
THE LAST OF THE MOHICANS EXPERIMENT
In reviewing the experiment dealing with the photoplay
and the scenario of The Last of the Mohicans» the purpose of
of this chapter will be to outline the narrative, offer some
estimate of its educational value, describe the motion pic
ture and script experiences in the school, and report the
findings of the related tests.
The Last of the Mohicans. the story. General Montcalm
lays siege to Fort William Henry on Lake George in the year
1757.
Setting out from Albany to join their besieged father,
Colonel Munro, attractive Alice and Cora Munro are accom
panied by an admirer of Alice, Major Duncan Heyward of the
British Army. The party is guided by a renegade Huron Indian
named Magua, who plans to lead them into the hands of a Huron
war party. The Burons are foiled in their attempt to carry
off the whites when Hawkeye, a Colonial scout, rescues them
and conducts the group safely to Fort William Henry. The
bosom friends of Hawkeye are two Mohican braves, Chingach-
gook and his son, Uncas. Gradually, through his sports
manship and courage, Hawkeye becomes a serious rival to
Heyward for the favor of Alice Munro.
83
Unable to offer further resistance to the French and
Indians, Munro surrenders on honorable terms to General
Montcalm, who permits the Anglo-American soldiers to leave
the fort with their arms and colors. As this occurs, the
Indian allies of the French become uncontrollable, and in the
ensuing massacre of the English, Colonel Munro is mortally
wounded by the renegade Magua, who kidnaps Cora and Alice in
the general confusion of the fighting.
Personal rivalries between Heyward and Hawkeye are
temporarily forgotten as they join in a search for the girls.
Chingachgook and Uncas make skilful use of woodcraft wisdom
as they aid in the pursuit. When Alice is finally rescued
the rivalry for her favor is intensified between Hawkeye and
Heyward.
To avoid becoming the squaw of Magua, the youthful
Cora jumps to her death from a cliff, while her ardent wor
shipper Uncas also dies in her defense. Chingachgook, who is
now nThe Last of the Mohicans ^.avenges the murder of his son
Uncas by conquering Magua in a death duel.
Rivalries subside and lasting friendships are estab
lished as Alice promises to wait for Hawkeye. He then joins
the British forces and with Heyward and his friends, marches
into Canada.
Critical estimate of the photoplay. The Family Movie
Guide of Parents Magazine offers appraisals of films which
are the ^composite judgement of a number of leading women * s
organizations which preview films and of certain other well-
qualified reviewers.Concerning the photoplay, The last
of the Mohicans.. the Guide says:
The James Fenimore Cooper * s tale of pre—Revolutionary
days transcribed for the screen makes a melodrama full
of thrills. It is in reality a glorified Western with
Indians, romance, tragedy and exciting adventure holding
the audience in suspense throughout. For Adults and
Youth— Yes— Vigorous drama of early American frontier
warfare. For Children— 'Possibly too strong for young
children. s
Perhaps the greatest social value of an historical
film such as The Last of the Mohicans is that by presenting
interesting people in a setting of by-gone days the student
receives an impression that history is alive and real, rath
er than dead and buried in books that are lifeless save to
the skillful and imaginative reader.
Although the characters and the setting of the photo
play are identical to J. Fenimore Cooper *s novel which in
spired it, the film retained few of the incidents found in
the book. There are, of course, several reasons for this.
To dramatize in motion pictures the entire action of the
book could not be done within the time limits of a standard
^Parents Magazine. 11:42, October, 1936.
H ARRY M. CO ETZ p re.en t. the JAMES FENIMORE COOPER Cl«wic
KBMISSISS IS SEN EBY CMSTCD TO IUW3AAHSS. BAfiAZINES “THE LAST OF THE MOHICANS”
■ E S O L D . L E A S E S M S IV E 1 t
Relented! thru U nited Artists
photoplay. Nor could the lengthy description and conversa
tions be transferred into another medium. So it is that the
novel and the photoplay have little in common except the
title, characters and setting.
The photoplay, therefore, should be judged on its own
merits as an historical drama. From the standpoint of realism
the film succeeded fairly well, although a spectator who
viewed the motion picture more than once might penetrate the
disguise of some of the Indians and be distracted by the
awareness of their Celtic or Hebraic origin.
Among three photoplays used in this experimental study,
The Last of the Mohicans is given the lowest rating by review
ers as well as the students3 and teacher s4 who took part in
the study.
The scenario* The dramatization of The Last of the
Mohicans was based on the characters of the James Fenimore
Cooper novel of the same title. John Balderson, Paul Perez
and Daniel Moore made the adaptation and the screen play was
written by Philip Dunne. In mimeographed form the scenario
consists of 137 pages, or approximately 26,000 words. Accord
ing to Table ¥11, 70 per cent of the work consists of descrip-
87
TABLE VII
DATA REGARDING THE SCENARIO VERSION
OF m LAST OF THE MOHICANS
Number of typewritten pages ................ 137
Approximate number of words . • ............ 26,000
Approximate amount of space devoted to des
cription 70 per cent
Approximate amount of space devoted to dia
logue 30 per cent
Reading time for most rapid readers . . • . • 90 minutes
Reading time for slowest readers . 135 minutes
Reading time for average readers 112 minutes
Screen showing time of the photoplay • • • . • 90 minutes
88
tion of characters, settings and action, while about 30 per
cent is dialogue•
Classroom reading of the scenario. Five sections of
students known as numbers 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, read the script
in class. The procedure followed in reading this scenario
was essentially the same for all three of the experiments.
Introducing each copy of a scenario was a one page
preface and glossary, explaining the meaning of the scenario,
written by the investigator.^ A script was given to each of
the students at the beginning of the class period, with the
invitation to read it. The copies were collected at the end
of each period without any comment or explanation of the
subject matter by the teacher. This plan was repeated each
day until all the students had finished. In reading the
scenario, the most rapid readers finished in two 45 minute
class periods, so that the 90 minutes in rapid reading by
the students was the same as the normal showing time of the
motion picture. The slowest readers required three class
periods, or a total of 135 minutes, which was a third long
er reading period than the rapid readers, and the average
showing time of the film. The average time taken by the
students to read the scenario was 112 minutes. In other
words, it required the average student about 22 minutes
^Infra, Appendix D, p. 207.
89
longer to read the scenario than it required to see the film
through once.6
Class Humber One, the superior group with the rating
of 116 average I. Q., read the scenario after they had seen
the motion picture. As this reading was done at home, no
record was made of the reading time of this experience.
Showing of the photoplay. On Wednesday, October 6,
1937, the motion picture. The Last of the Mohicans, was shown
at Washington High School. The eleventh grade students, in
cluded in the experiment, saw the film in the morning, al
though a second showing was made in the afternoon. At both
presentations, the auditorium was practically filled, and the
students appeared absorbed in the story. As is to be ex
pected in a student audience, they expressed themselves with
enthusiastic cheers and handclapping at highly dramatic
points in the story. During the morning performance the
showing was interrupted twice by projector difficulties.
These pauses were very brief, however, and the students did
not become impatient with the delays. In the opinion of the
investigator, the projection and sound quality appeared sat
isfactory to the students, but were not equal to the first-
run showing at the Warner Brothers Hiilstreet Theatre in
^Figures based on estimates made by the teachers who
observed the reading.
90
Los Angeles.*^
The test results. The Script Group, consisting of the
students who were tested after reading the scenario, numbered
85, with a mean I. Q. of 105,5. The Film Group, who experi
enced only the film, consisted of 152 students with a mean
I. Q. identically the same as the Script Group,
Concerning the pretest results, Table VIII, page 92
shows that the Script Group made a raw score mean of 6,4,
compared with 5.1 for the Film Group, displaying slight dif
ference in their initial knowledge of the narrative. After
their respective experiences, the Script Group scored 21
points (14.6 points gain) as compared with 26.1 points (18.5
points gain) for the Film Group. The critical ratio between
the relative gains was 4.14, a significant difference in
favor of the Film Group. There was but a slight variation
in the comparative standard deviations of the two groups.
One hundred and three days after the script reading
and motion picture experiences, a retention test was given,
using alternate forms of the test. Because of the fact that
the Script Group was allowed to see the film (if they so de
sired) after their Script test, it was impossible to get a
comparative measure of the retention of the scenario reading
^Where the film had been seen previously by the in
vestigator.
91
experience and the film experience. What actually is meas
ured in the retention test is difference between the Script
plus Film experiences and those of seeing only the film. On
the memory test the Script plus Film Group scored 19*1, a
small loss of 1,9 points over their previous examination
score of 21 points, as compared with 18.8 points for the
Film Group, a loss of 7.3 points over the previous test of
26.1 points. It appears that while the Film Group made a
considerably higher initial score than the Script plus Film
Group, the combined experience of reading the story, taking
the test, seeing the film, made a more lasting impression
on the Script Group.
Intelligence and test performance. The question of
relationship between pupils * intelligence and their test per
formance was answered by calculating the correlations of the
I. Q. scores of the individual students in the Script and
Film Groups with their respective test scores as well as with
the gains made between tests. There is evidence in Table IX,
page 94, that the correlations between intelligence and the
Script Test, the Script Gain and the Film Test are all sta
tistically significant. The Film Gain, however, shows a
negligible correlation with intelligence. The data tends to
show, therefore, that pupils of high intelligence are in
clined to learn more from both the script and the film than
92
TABLE VIII
SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA FOR
THE LAST OF THE MOHICANS -
SCRIPT GROUP FILM GROUP
Num
ber
85
Mean
I. Q.
105.5
Num
ber
152
Mean
I. Q.
105.5
Test Mean Standard Mean
devi
ation
Standard
devi
ation
Critical
ratio be
tween
gains
Pretest 6.4 5.1 7.6 6.5 4.14
Script 21.0 7.1
Gain 14.6 6.9
Film test 26.1 5.6
Gain 18.5 7.1
Retest 19.1 8.3 18.8 6.8
Loss • 1.9: 4.6 - 7.3 6.5
NOTE; This table may be read as follows: the Script
Group numbering 85, with a mean I. Q. of 105.5, made a mean
score of 6.4 on the pretest, and a standard deviation of 5.1,
and the Film Group numbering 152, with a mean I. Q. of 105.5,
made a mean score of 7.6 on the pretest, and a standard devi
ation of 6.5. The other columns are read in a similar man
ner.
93
do the pupils of low intelligence* The amount of correlation
between I. Q* and scores on both the film test and the script
test were remarkably similar, with a correlation of .42 on
the Script Test and *45 on the Film Test. The differences
between the Script Gains, on one hand, and the Film Gains, on
the other, appear to be much greater. The fact that the
Script Gain is .33 as compared with only .08 for the Film
Gain seems to indicate clearly that X* Q. is more definitely
correlated with the amount of gain made on the script experi
ence than on the film experience.
Summary of the experiment. When the various test
scores of 85 pupils who had read the script of The Last of
the Mohicans were compared statistically with the scores of
152 students of equal ability who had seen the photoplay, it
was found that:
1. The initial test, or pretest, showed little dif
ference in the story information possessed by the two groups
before the learning period.
2. JLfter the learning period, the Film Group made sig
nificantly higher scores than the Script Group.
3. Tested for retention 14 weeks and 5 days after the
learning period, the pupils who had read the script and had
seen the photoplay remembered the plot and the characters of
the narrative considerably better than the pupils who had the
94
TABLE IX
RELATION BETWEEN I. Q., TEST SCORES, AND
GAINS FOR THE LAST OF THE- MOHICANS
Score Correlation
PEr
I. Q. end Script Test • 42 .06
I, Q. and Script Gain .35 .07
I* Q. and Film Test .45 .04
I. Q. and Film Gain
00
o
•
.05
95
single experience of seeing the film.
4. A statistical comparison of intelligence and test
performance shows that there are positive and similar corre
lations between intelligence and scores on both the film and
script tests. There is, however, a higher degree of correla
tion between intelligence and the Script Gain than there is
between intelligence and the Film Gain. Apparently the
brighter students gain more from the script reading experi
ence than the less bright pupils. This is not astonishing,
since intelligence, as measured by the Thorndike Revised
Scale, bids fair to favor the student who is a rapid, compre
hensive reader.
CHAPTER VII
THE PLAINS!AH EXPERIMENT
This chapter will be devoted to an account of the
photoplay narrative, present an appraisal of its suitability
for youth, describe the experimental use of the film and the
scenario in the school, and summarize the results of the ob
jective tests dealing with the verbal subject matter common
to both the film and the scenario.
Plot of The Plainsman. With the rising tide of west
ward emigration following the Civil War, are included "Wild
Bill" Hickok and "Buffalo Bill" Cody, who is accompanied by
his bride. The travelers are met in Kansas City by "Calamity
Jane," who renews her acquaintance with two old friends.
Cody receives orders to guide an ammunition train
through dangerous country to a government outpost. Active
as a man in dangerous frontier work, "Calamity" is captured
by the Indians, and in an attempted rescue, Hickok likewise
is made prisoner. The pair are condemned to death by burn
ing unless they will reveal the location of the ammunition
train. Hickok steadfastly refuses to do this, but Calamity
decides to give the information in order to save Hickok from
death. Knowing that this revelation will mean the death of
many people on the wagon train, Hickok refuses to have any
97
thing to do with Calamity for giving away the fatal informa
tion* Deadly it proves to be, for when the redmen locate the
wagon train, a fierce battle ensues* Despite her justifiable
weakness in yielding information to the enemy, Jane is still
loyal to the government and is not afraid of the justice she
expects will be meted out to her by Custer* So "Calamity"
rides to Custer with news of the battle, which has now de
veloped into a siege by the Indians*
Having learned that the guns were supplied to the
Indians by John Lattimer in the guise of a hide dealer,
Hickok goes to him for a showdown* Lattimer succeeds in
getting Hickok engaged in a fight with three soldiers, all
of whom Hickok is forced to kill in self-defense. This act
makes Hickok a fugitive from martial law.
"Buffalo Bill" is sent into the wilds to bring back
his best friend, "dead or alive." After the massacre of
Custer*s command at the Little Big Horn, "Buffalo Bill"
finds Hickok, who convinced his friend that Lattimer must be
proved guilty of gun-running to the Indians. Hickok is
parolled by Cody, who goes back to get the army authorities.
In the meantime, Hickok finds Lattimer and in a pistol duel
gains a fatal victory.
Hickok holds Lattimer * s gang prisoners pending the
arrival of government troops. The barkeeper in a saloon
where they are waiting is none other than Jack McCall, who
98
is LattimerTs chief henchman. When Hickok turns his back to
him, McCall fires a shot that takes the life of the aggres
sive plainsman. Soon afterward, the government troops with
"Buffalo Bill" arrive and take affairs in charge.
Critical estimate of the photoplay. The following is
a review of The Plainsman which appeared in the Family Movie
Guide of Parents Magazine;
Wild Bill Hickok, Buffalo Bill and Calamity Jane,
played by Gary Cooper, James Ellison and Jean Arthur,
come to life in this stirring tale of the West in
frontier days. For adults, youth and children— Good.i
Scenario. Historical data collected by Frank J.
Wilstach provided the basic material for the scenario of The
Plainsman, which was written by Lynn Riggs, Waldemar Young
and Harold Lamb. Complete in typewritten form, the scenario
is 238 pages in length, or about 45,000 words. Approximately
65 per cent of the space is devoted to a description of char
acters, settings, and action, while about 35 per cent is dia
logue. Data in full will be found in Table X, page 100.
Classroom reading. Six classes of students partic
ipated in the classroom reading of the scenario. Those who
took part were known as numbers 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11. Each
student was given a copy of the scenario with no other com-
- ^Parents Magazine. 12:40, February, 1937.
ment by the teacher than a suggestion to read it in class.
The Plainsman is the most lengthy film in the series of ex
periments with a screen showing time of 115 minutes. The
most rapid readers finished the scenario in 2j class periods
or 112 minutes, in slightly less time than it takes to view
the film. The slowest readers required 4| class periods or
about 203 minutes, while the average reading time was 157
minutes or 45 minutes longer than the showing of the film.
Presentation of the photoplay. The showing of The
Plainsman was made in the Washington High School auditori
um on Wednesday, October 20, 1937. The eleventh grade ex
perimental group did not attend the morning performance, but
were present in the afternoon. At that time, the only in
cident to mar the dramatic continuity was the ringing of the
school bell which apparently failed to break the absorbed
interest of the audience. About three-fourths of the seats
in the auditorium were filled, and the story was followed
with enthusiasm by the students. The pictures were clear
and the dialogue was crisp and distinct, although the in
vestigator is certain that the first-run showing at the
Paramount Theatre in Los Angeles was superior in every re
spect, except that no audience of which he has ever been a
part displayed greater concentration than did the student
assembly at this film showing.
DATA REGARDING THE SCENARIO
VERSION OF THE PLAINSMAN
Number of typewritten pages • •••*••»•• 238
Approximate number of words ........... . . . 45,000
Approximate amount of space devoted to des
cription • •••••••••••.••••• @5 per cent
Approximate amount of space devoted to dia
logue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 per cent
Reading time for most rapid readers ...... 112 minutes
Reading time for slowest readers ........ 203 minutes
Reading time for average readers • ••••••• 157 minutes
Screen showing time of the photoplay . . .... 115 minutes
101
The test results. The Script Group consisted of 67
pupils with a mean I. Q. of 104,4 compared with the Film
Group numbering 102 pupils, who had a mean I, Q. rating of
105,1. The I. Q. ratings of the two groups were so nearly
alike that, for experimental purposes, they may be consider
ed as of equal intelligence.
The mean scores on the pretest for the two groups, as
shown in Table XI on page 103, were very similar, with 7.7
for the Script Group and 7.3 for the Film Group. On the next
test, however, the Script Group made a slightly higher score
of 31.1 (23.4 gain) as compared with 29.1 (21.8 gain) for the
Film Group. The critical ratio between the two gains was 1.6
in favor of the Script Group. While 1.6 does not represent a
significant difference, there are 94 chances in 100 that the
difference between the true measures is greater than zero.g
The standard deviations of the two groups show a variation
of from 4.1 on the Script Group Test to 7.7 on the Film Group
Retention Test. A standard deviation of 7.7 shows a con
siderable scattering of test scores above and below the true
mean.
Retention test results. Tested for retention 88 days
2H, E. Garrett, Statistics in Psychology and Educa
tion (New York: Longman’s Green and Company, 1937), p. 214.
102
after their narrative experiences with The Plainsman* the
students in the Script plus Film Group appear to have re
membered better than the Film Group, according to the data*
Table XI shows that the Script Group scored on the retention
test, a mean of 29*6 (a loss of 1*5), as compared with 20*5
for the Film Group (a loss of 8.6). The results in this case
are closely similar to those for the retention test on The
Last of the Mohicans.
Intelligence and test performance* What relationship,
if any, exists between the intelligence of individual pupils
and the test scores made respectively by the group measured
after the script reading and the group measured after at
tending the photoplay? To answer this question, a correla
tion coefficient was calculated having for its purpose the
statistical comparison of the student I. Q. ratings in each
of the two groups with their respective test scores and
gains. Table XII on page 104 indicates that, on both the
Script Test and the Film Test, there is a significant re
lationship between intelligence and scores. There is a
lower correlation, however, on the Script Gains and the Film
Gains. It is interesting to note that these correlations
are strikingly similar to those found in the experiments
dealing with The Last of the Mohicans and Maid of Salem*
Summary of the experiment * Sixty-seven pupils in the
105
TABLE XI
SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA
FOR THE PLAINSMAN . .
SCRIPT1 GROUP FILM GROUP
Num
ber
67
Mean
I. Q.
104.4
Num
ber
102
Mean
I. Q.
105.1
Test Mean Standard
devi
ation
Mean Standard
devi
ation
Critical
ratio be
tween
gains
Pretest 7.7 5.7 7.3 6.2 1.6
Script 31.1 4.1
Gain 23.4 6.0
Film Test 29.1 5.6
Gain
21.8 7,2
Retest 29.6 5.2 20.5 7.7
Loss - 1.5 5.2 - 8.6 7.1
NOTE: This table may be read as follows: the Script
Group numbering 67, with a mean I* Q. of 104,4, made a mean
score of 7,7 on the pretest, and a standard deviation of 5.7.
The Film Group numbering 102, with a mean I. Q. of 105.1,
made a mean score of 7.3 on the pretest, and a standard devi
ation of 6.2. The other columns are read in a similar man
ner.
104
TABLE XII
RELATION BETWEEN I. Q., TEST SCORES,
AND GAINS FOR THE PLAINSMAN
Score Correlation PBr
I*
Q.
and Script Test .50 .07
I.
Q.
and Script Gain .04 .09
I.
Q.
and Film Test .41 .05
I.
Q.
and Film Gain .10
CO
o
•
105
Script Group and 102 pupils in the Film Group were given a
series of tests before and after their respective experi
ences* The test scores of these two groups, computed accu
rately, indicate that:
1. The pretest scores for the Film Group and the
Script Group showed a small difference of *7 in favor of the
latter*
2* On the tests given after the experiences, the
Script Group made a score 2 points higher than the Film
Group. A critical ratio of 1.6 favoring the Script Group
is not statistically, significant.
3. On the retention tests, given 12 weeks and 4 days
after the learning experiences, the Script Group (who later
saw the film) remembered the story considerably better than
did the Film Group.
4. There is evidence to show in these tests that among
the pupils high intelligence is correlated with high test
scores, and conversely, low intelligence is correlated with
low test scores.
CHAPTER VIII
THE MAID OF SALEM EXPERIMENT
In plan and organization, this chapter will be similar
to those dealing with.the previous experiments. In sequence,
there will be a synopsis of the narrative, an estimate of the
photoplay *s suitability for youth, and a description of the
school use of the scenario and the photoplay. The chapter
will be completed with a report of results of the testing
program.
Plot of Maid of Salem. A young lady of distinctive
personality, Barbara Clarke, orphaned from early childhood,
lives with her sympathetic, Puritan aunt in Salem Village in
the year 1692. Barbara is fascinated by the promise from
the slave Tituba, a negress fortune-teller, that she will
shortly meet a handsome stranger. The same day Barbara meets
Roger Coverman, a fugitive Virginian cavalier, who is seeking
refuge in the home of an uncle living near Salem. As Roger
is being hunted for political treason, his friendly meetings
with Barbara take place secretly in the forest. Unknown to
the pair, they are observed.
Salem Village is alarmed with the news that Satan is
personally haunting the neighborhood. Adding to the excite
ment, the pre-adolescent Anne Goode, imaginative and egotis-
107
tical, is afflicted with "spells of bewitchment." She ac
cuses Tituba of overcoming her with black magic, so the
panic-stricken slave woman is seized by fanatics as a witch.
At his first opportunity, Coverman returns to Virgin
ia to clear his name of seditious charges. As he secretly
bids farewell to Barbara, they are observed by Barbaras
young and mischievous cousin, Timothy. Accompanied by his
uncle, Coverman travels by ship to Virginia. Bn route,
Coverman is recognized as a fugitive by the ship’s mate, who
has him seized and held for imprisonment. In the struggle,
Coverman’s uncle is thrown overboard to his death by drown
ing.
Witchcraft hysteria now dominates Salem Village. Re
gardless of personal danger, Barbara rises to defend one of
the victims. As a result, Barbara herself is accused as a
witch. At the trial, the children report having seen her
with a young stranger of unusual appearance, thought to be
Satan. Her cousin Timothy is persuaded to admit that he saw
her mysteriously dancing by herself. The excitement of the
occasion magnifies the slender evidence into a death sen
tence. Barbara is condemned to hang.
As the crowd congregates on "gallow’s hill" for the
spectacle, Barbara is urged to confess witchcraft to save her
life. When she refuses, the noose is placed around her neck.
Coverman, returned from Virginia with a clear name, hears of
her danger, and arrives at the gallows in time to establish
her innocence. The explanation that he was the mysterious
stranger reported with Barbara throws a hush over the mob,
and his sudden dramatic appearance serves to break the hys
terical spell of the hanging.
When Barbara gains her freedom, many come to the re
alization that they have been the victims of the mass ter
rorism of witchcraft.
Critical estimate of photoplay. The composite rating
of Maid of Salem appearing in Parents Magazine is as follows
Salem in 1692 in the throes of the witchcraft scare
is the historical basis of the love story between a
Puritan girl who longs for gaiety (Claudette Colbert)
and a political refugee from Virginia (Fred MacMurray).
For Adults and Youth— Good. For Children— Possibly too
emotional for sensitive children.
Scenario. Bradley King wrote a story which served as
the basis for the scenario, constructed by the author with
the aid of Walter Ferris and Durward Grinstead. The scena
rio consists of about 13,000 words covering 170 typewritten
pages. Slightly over half, or 55 per cent of the space is
dialogue with the remaining space, or 45 per cent, a des
cription of characters, settings and action.
Maid of Salem classroom reading. The scenario was
^Parents Magazine» 12:68, April, 1937.
109
read by six elasses with the following code numbers; 1 (the
Superior Group whose test scores were not included with the
other classes), 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17* Just as in the
other two experiments, the pupils were allowed to read the
scenarios individually in class, without any special in
struction from the teachers. J.ccording to Table XIII, the
screen showing time of Maid of Salem is 85 minutes compared
with 90 minutes for The Last of the Mohicans and 115 minutes
for The Plainsman. Due to the fact that Maid of Salem has a
higher ratio of dialogue to straight description than either
of the other two films,^ it was the fastest reading scenario
of the series. Hot surprising, therefore, is the discovery
that the most rapid readers in these classes finished the
reading in slightly over one class period or about 49 min
utes, which is little more than half the showing time of the
film. The slowest readers finished in 2.7 class periods
which is equivalent to about 121 minutes. The average read
ing time of all the students was about 85 minutes, the same
length of time as was spent by all the students in seeing
the motion picture.
Showing of the photoplay. Wednesday, November 10,
^Compare the dialogue-description ratio of 55:45 for
the Maid of Salem with 30:70 for The Last of the Mohicans,
and 35:65 for The Plainsman.
110
TABLE XIII
DATA REGARDING THE SCENARIO
VERSION OF MAID OF SALEM
Number of typewritten pages . . ♦ ........... 170
Approximate number of words • •••••.... 15,000
Approximate amount of space devoted to des
cription .............. 45 per cent
Approximate amount of space devoted to dia
logue ............ . . ........ .. . . . 55 per cent
Reading time for most rapid readers ...... 49 minutes
Reading time for slowest readers •**•••• 121 minutes
Reading time for average readers ....... 85 minutes
Screen showing time of the photoplay . . * . . 85 minutes
Ill
was the date of the school showing of Maid of Salem. The
experimental group of eleventh grade pupils attended in the
morning. For smoothness of showing and clarity of sound and
scenes* the presentation might have been taken for an ordi
nary showing in a neighborhood theatre. The occasional
cheers of the students, however, and the twice-repeated ring
ing of the bells at the end of the regular class period,
might have dispelled this illusion on the part of a casual
visitor. Apparently the distractions had little effect on
the general enjoyment of the picture. From the standpoint
of technique of presentation, the same may be said of this
as was stated regarding the other two experimental showings:
while there were no complaints on the part of the students
and their interest seemed undivided, yet the dialogue and
the pictures lacked the technical quality of a first-rate
theatrical showing.
The test results. In the Maid of Salem experiment
there were 48 pupils with a mean I. Q. of 104.9 in the
Script Group, and 134 pupils with a mean I. Q. of 105.1 in
the Film Group. The High Group, with a mean I. Q. of 116,
was originally included in the Maid of Salem Script Group,
but it was withdrawn because its inclusion into the major
part of the experiment would have tended to disturb the
equality of the groupings. If it had been counted in the
112
Maid of Salem Script Group, the number of cases would have
compared more favorably with the Script Groups in the other
two experiments.
A summary of the data, presented in Table XIV, shows
that on the Maid of Salem pretest, the Script Group scored
7.4 as compared with 11.5 for the Film Group, with only .5
difference in the standard deviation* The Script test
yielded a score of 23.8 (gain of 16.4) as compared with
23.1 (gain of 11.8) for the Film test. The critical ratio
between the gains shows only a single point variation. A
critical ratio of 3.6 represents a statistically significant
difference, favoring the Script Group.
Retention test results. Retention tests for the Maid
of Salem were given the experimental pupils 66 days after
they had seen the photoplay in school. The data shows that
Script Group made a mean score of 23.1 (loss of .7) as com
pared with 21.1 (loss of 2.) for the Film Group. That these
differences are not as great as those found in the two pre
vious experiments may be partly explained by the fact that
the alternate forms of the Maid of Salem test contained 30
questions as compared with 40 questions for the tests on
The Last of the Mohicans and The Plainsman. The shorter
test made it possible fo$ a pupil to achieve a score near
the ceiling of the test. Naturally,, a longer examination
TABLE XIV
SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA
FOR MAID OF-SALEM
SCRIPT' GROUP FILM GROUP
Num
ber
48
Mean
I* Q.
104.9
Num
ber
134
Mean
I. Q.
105.1
Test Mean Standard
devi
ation
Mean Standard
devi
ation
Critical
ratio be
tween
gains
Pretest 7*4 7.7 11.3 7.2 3.6
Seript 23.8 3.3
Gain 16.4 7.9
Film test 23.1 2.9
Gain 11.8 6.9
Retest 23.1 4.4 21.1 3.8
Loss - .7 3.1 - 2.0 3.4
114
is capable of showing wider variations in response than a
shorter one. Restrictions upon class time available for the
experiments required the use of the comparatively brief tests
used in this study.
Intelligence and test performance. Ik comparison of
the pupils1 I. Q. ratings and their test scores, summarized
in Table XY, demonstrates that as in both the other studies,
there was consistently a significant positive correlation
between intelligence and test scores for both the Script
and Film Groups. 4s was found in The Last of the Mohicans
and The Plainsman experiments, the amount of correlation was
higher for the Script test than for the Film test. That
there is a negative correlation in one instance may be due
in part to the fact that the proportionately shorter tests
used in the Maid of Salem study resulted in a comparatively
low ceiling for the tests. Therefore, the more gifted
student who made a relatively high score on the pretest
would have little opportunity to make a great gain on the
following tests.
Summary. Forty-eight pupils in the Script Group and
154 pupils in the Film Group were tested before and after
their particular experiences and the statistical data were
compared. 4 review of the evidence verifies that:
1. On the initial test the Film Group led the Script
115
TABLE XV
RELATION BETWEEN I. Q., TEST SCORES,
.AND GAINS FOR MAID OF SALEM
Score Correlation Plr
I.
Q.
and Script test •41 .07
I.
Q*
and Script gain — .29 .08
I.
Q.
and Film test .38 .05
I.
Q.
and Film gain .038 .05
116
Group by 3.9 points.
2. After the script reading and film experiences, the
Script Group were shown to have made greater gains by the
statistically significant critical ratio of 3.6.
3. Nine weeks and 3 days after the preliminary learn
ing experiences, a retention test was given. Although the
retention of the Script plus Film Group was greater than the
Film Group as in the previous two experiments, yet the dif
ferences were not as great. This may be attributed in part
to the proportionately short period of time (9 weeks and 3
days) since the Maid of Salem showing, as compared with 12
weeks and 4 days for The Plainsman, and 14 weeks and 5 days
for The hast of the Mohicans.
4. Excluding the Script gain, there was a positive
correlation between I. Q. scores and test grades for both
the Script and Film Groups.
CHAPTER IX
REPORT OF THE STUDENTS
The administration of the retention tests was followed
immediately by the questions to the students, which were pre
sented in the form of a one page mimeographed questionnaire.^*
This report asked for brief replies giving reactions of the
students to their school subjects, photoplays and the mate
rial of the experiments they were then concluding. It is the
object of this chapter to summarize the written reports of
the students.
To increase the possibility of getting replies that
would not cater to the interests of the teacher or the
school, the questions were submitted anonymously. A small
number corresponding to the student’s record number was
written on the back of each report form before the question
naires were given to the students. This made it possible
to record the student reports on the individual file cards
without violating the confidence of the pupil.
The purpose of the student reports was to assemble
information concerning:
1. their preferences of subjects taken during the
current semester. The ranking of history would be especial-
1Supra. Figure I, pp. 77-78.
118
ly valuable as an aid in interpreting, their reactions to the
experiment;
2. the student ratings of the historical photoplays
shown in the school;
3. the titles of photoplay scenarios read as part of
the experiment;
4. personal reactions to the reading of historical
photoplay scenarios, based on the experience in the classroom
study;
5. opinions in regard to the influence of historical
motion pictures on their understanding and enjoyment of his
tory;
6. opinions in regard to the influence of the scenario
reading on the enjoyment of the movie;
7. reaction toward historical photoplays;
8. ranging of eight types of photoplays: comedy,
gangster, history, newsreels, romance, war, western and
musicals;
9. the frequency of photoplay attendance.
Hanking of school subjects. The first request was
stated as follows: n0n the following blanks list the subjects
you are taking this semester, in the order of your prefer
ence.1 1 Six numbered blanks were provided for the ranking of
subjects.
119
In reporting the estimates, thirty-one school subjects
were mentioned. These were tabulated first according to
classes and sex, then the grand totals were prepared for all
the classes according to sex, and finally the combined esti
mates of both subjects. It is evident that in a composite
scale measuring the six-place ranking of subjects, the minor
special interests, such as aeronautics for the boys and nurs
ing for the girls, would be too specialized to gain mention
in a composite selection, which was desired in this instance.
In order to determine the relative ranking of each subject it
was necessary to use a weighted score of two for each vote
for first place and a weighted score of one for each second
vote. In this way the first and second place votes for each
subject could be combined into a final score which would in
dicate the relative assignment of each subject in a six-place
scale.
Among the girls, history won first place as shown in
Table XVI, followed by these subjects: English, clothing,
music, shorthand, and typing.
According to Table XVII, page 121, the boys gave first
choice to physical education. History gained a close second
place followed by: chemistry, mathematics, .English, and mu
sic.
A composite ranking of the preferences of both sexes,
as presented in Table XVIII, page 122, gives history first
120
TABLE XVI
RANKING OF SCHOOL SUBJECTS BY GIRLS
Subject Ranking First
choice
votes
Second
choice
votes
Weighted
score
History 1 16 60 92
English 2 14 42 70
Clothing 5 30 4 64
Music 4.5 24 10 58
Shorthand 4.5 24 10 58
Typing 6.5 19 13 51
Phys* Ed* 6.5 14 23 51
Business 8 19 9 47
Art 9 12 10 34
NOTE; This table may be read as follows: history was
ranked first by the girls with 16 votes for first choice and
60 votes for second choice of subjects* The weighted score
is the result^of multiplying the first choice votes by 2 and
adding the ^second choice votes*
121
TABLE XVII
RANKING OF SCHOOL SUBJECTS BY BOYS
Subject Ranking First
choice
votes
Second
choice
votes
Weighted
score
Phys. Ed. 1 39 34 112
History 2 21 68 110
Chemistry 3 30 12 72
Math. 4 16 21 53
English 5 7 29 43
Music 6 10 11 31
Art 8 12 4 28
Electricity 8 14 0 28
Aeronautics 8 13 2 28
NOTE: This table may be read in the same manner as
the one preceding.
122
TABLE XVIII
RANKING OF SCHOOL SUBJECTS BY BOTH SEXES
Subject Ranking First
choice
votes
Second
choice
votes
Weighted
score
History 1 37 128 202
Phys. Ed. 2 53 57 163
English 3 21 71 113
Music 4 34 21 89
Art 5 24 14 62
NOTE: This table may be read in the same manner as
the one preceding.
123
place followed by: Physical education, .English, music, and
art. It is possible that, because the student reports were
made in a social studies class, many of the students were un
consciously influenced to list a preference for history over
other subjects.
Rating of the photoplays. The second item in the
student report form reads: "Three historical movies have been
shown in school this semester: The Last of the Mohicans, The
Plainsman, and Maid of Salem. Underline the names of those
you have seen. Underline twice the one you liked best."
Attendance at the three films was about equal with a
total of 441 reporting The Last of the Mohicans. 439 saw The
Plainsman, and 455, Maid of Salem, according to Table XIX.
The Plainsman was the best-liked picture, as demonstrated in
Table XX, page 125, with 49.9 per cent of those who saw the
film marking it as their favorite. Maid of Salem was voted
first choice by 15.9 per cent, while 10.7 per cent preferred
The Last of the Mohicans to the other pictures. The sexes are
quite evenly divided in this opinion, except in the case of
Maid of Salem, which was awarded first place by 24.4 per cent
of the girls and only by 7.3 per cent of the boys. The sub
ject matter of Maid of Salem, with its romantic emphasis, ap
pealed more to the girls than to the boys who, in early ado
lescence, do not share the interest of the earlier maturing
124
TABLE XIX
REPORTED PHOTOPLAY ATTEND
ANCE BY BOTH SEXES
Photoplay Total num
ber of
pupils
Number re
porting
attendance
Number
not
reporting
Per cent
reporting
attendance
The Last of
the Mohicans 551 441 110 80
The Plainsman 551 439 112 80
Maid of Salem 551 455 96 83
125
TABLE XX
RATING OF PHOTOPLAYS BY BOTH SEXES
Photoplay Sex Number
report
ing film
First
choice
Per cent
of number
reporting
The Plains
Boys 215 119 55.3
man Girls 224 100 44.6
Total 439 219 49.9
Maid of
Boys 234 17 7.3
Salem Girls 221 54 24.4
Total 455 71 15.9
The Last of
Boys 221 24 10.9
the Mohicans Girls 220 23 10.5
Total 441 47 10.7
Grand Total 1335 337 25.3
NOTE: This table may be read as follows: reporting
attendance at The Plainsman were 215 beys, among whom 119
designated it as their first choice of the three photoplays.
The 119 boys constitute 55.3 per cent of those reporting
attendance at The Plainsman. The other columns may be read in
a similar fashion.
126
girls, The difference in sex interests is explained by
Harold H. Punke as follows:
Some of the most important differences between
pupils in reading interest are reflections of dif
ferences in sex. Typical sex differences are re
vealed in the interest in romance, society and
fashion (appealing largely to girls) and in adven
ture. sports and mechanics (of more interest to
boys;.2
Ho doubt the varying dramatic quality of the several films
decidedly influenced the choice of the students.
Reaction toward photoplay scenarios. Items three,
four, and six inquired concerning student reaction toward
photoplay scenarios. According to Table XXI, there was
little difference in the number of students reading the
three photoplay scenarios included in the experiment.
Response to scenario reading. The question, nDo
you enjoy reading scenarios of historical motion pictures?”
was part of item four. Four hundred and sixty-eight pupils
replied to this question as indicated In Table XXII, page
128. That the positive opinions of the pupils were in the
great majority is shown by the fact that 70.9 per cent of
the boys and 91.7 per cent of the girls who replied to the
question said yes, while the others reported that they did
not enjoy scenarios of historical photoplays. Judging by
^Harold H. Punke, ”The Home and Adolescent Reading
Interests,” The School Review. 45:618, October, 1957.
127
TABLE XXI
SCENARIO READING OF BOTH SEXES
Scenario Sex Number Per cent
of total
replies
Boys 88 44.4
The Last of
the Mohicans Girls 110 55.6
Total 198 100.0
Boys 75 42.7
The Plains
man Girls 98 57.3
Total 171 100.0
Boys 101 54.3
Maid of
Salem Girls 85 45*7
Total 186 100.0
188
TABLE XXII
REACTION TOWARD SCENARIO READING
POSITIVE NEGATIVE NO REPLY
Sex Total
no. of
pupils
Num
ber
Per
cent
of re
plies
Num
ber
Per
cent
of re
plies
Total
re
plies
Num
ber
- Per
cent of
total
group
Boys 262 189 70.9 48 29.1 237 25 9.3
Girls 289 212 91.7 29 8.3 231 58 20.0
Total 551 401 77 468 83
Average per cent 81.3 18.7 14.7
NOTE: This table may be read as follows: In the boys*
column, 189 pupils reported that they do enjoy reading scena
rios of historical motion pictures. This is 70.9 per cent of
the boys replying to the question. Answering no to the ques
tion were 48 boys, or 89.1 per cent of those replying. A to
tal of 237 boys answered the question, while 25 made no re
ply. Those not replying constituted 9.3 per cent of the 262
boys in the experiment. The other columns may be read in a
similar manner.
129
the percentages, It appears that a composite average of only
18.7 per cent of the pupils who answered this question said
they do not enjoy script reading. It might have been pos
sible to understand more fully the significance of this re
action if it were known how many of the students do not like
to read books of any kind.
Fifty-one students wrote reasons why they do not en
joy reading photoplay scenarios. The most frequently cited
reasons are presented in Table XXIII. The chief criticism
was that they contain ”too many directions.” It was some
what surprising to find that only ten students reported that
reading scenarios "spoils the picture.” Six stated frankly
that they ”do not like to read.”
”If you could get more of these (photoplay scripts)
from the library, would you read them?” was a question in
tended to measure a certain degree of interest in the scena
rio* To read a script in class requires less effort than to
make a trip to the library for reading material and if a
student would take scenarios home to read, it would indicate
a definite interest. This question had 452 replies, as re
corded in Table XXIV, page 151. Because of the fact that
among the pupils answering, 60.5 per cent of the boys and
90.6 per cent of the girls said yes, while the remainder said
no, it may be seen that the girls express much greater in
terest in script reading than do the boys. A composite per-
130
TABLE XXIII
NEGATIVE EMOTIONS TOWARD
PHOTOPLAY SCENARIOS
Answer Boys Girls Total
"Too many directions1 1 23 12 35
"Spoils the picture1 1 5 5 10
"Do not like to read" 5 1 6
Totals 33 18 51
131
TABLE XXIV
REACTION TOWARD LIBRARY
USE OF SCENARIOS
POSITIVE NEGATIVE NO REPLY
Sex Total Num Per Num Per Total Num Per
no. of ber cent ber cent re ber cent of
pupils of re of re plies total
plies plies group
Boys 262 158 60.5 70 39.5 228 34 13.0
Girls 289 203 90.6 21 9.4 224 65 22.4
Total 551 361 91 452 99
Average per cent 75.6 24.4 17.7
NOTE: This table summarizes the pupils* answers to
the question, "If you could get more scenarios of historical
motion pictures from the library, would you read them?”
The table may be read as follows: among the 262 boys,
158 or 60.5 per cent of 228 total replies said yes. Seventy
boys, or 39.5 per cent said no. Thirty-four boys, or 13 per
cent of the total number of 262, gave no reply to the ques
tion.
132
centage for both sexes reveals that about three-fourths of
the pupils reporting say that they would be interested in
getting library copies of scenarios.
& more definite measure of student interest in reading
scenarios would be to give them an opportunity to read
scripts of their own volition outside of class. Such an
opportunity was afforded class number one, (the High Group),
which consisted of history majors with an average class in
telligence quotient of 116. After seeing the photoplay, The
Last of the Mohicans, the scenarios were placed at the dis
posal of these students for free reading. Out of the class
of 36 students, 33 read the scenario voluntarily at home.
This experience indicated that superior students, who are
good readers, enjoy the scenarios of historical motion pic
tures, although the novelty of the material undoubtedly con
tributed to their interest.
It would have been highly desirable for other classes
to have been permitted to read the scripts after seeing the
photoplay, but the control factor required for a valid re
tention test would have been influenced to a marked degree.
And, unfortunately, other class groups were not at the dis
posal of the experimenter.
Time preference for scenario reading. It is well
known that many people enjoy reading stories that have been
135
made into photoplays• No studies are available to show
whether such people have a genuine desire to read either be
fore or after the film. To throw some light on the reading
interest of the students, this question was included in the
report: "Which would you rather do, read the script before
seeing the movie, OR see the movie first, then read the
script?" Table XXV shows that 50.8 per cent of the boys and
51.3 per cent of the girls said they preferred reading the '
script first, while the others said they would rather see the
movie first. Inasmuch as only 16 more students stated a
preference for reading the script first than stated the op
posite, it is not at all unlikely that because most of the
experimental script reading was done before the picture was
seen, it may have produced a bias in that direction.
Scenario influence on photoplay en.ioyment. The final
inquiry dealing with the scenario reads:
How does the reading of the scenario affect your en
joyment of the movie? Mark an X by the statement that
gives your answer. Makes no difference ; Adds to my
enjoyment ; Detracts from my enjoyment .
As verified in Table XXVI, page 135, over half, or 55.5 per
cent of 418 students replying to this question stated that
the scenario contributed to the enjoyment of the photoplay;
22.9 per cent said that it made no difference, and 21.6 per
cent reported that the scenario detracted from their enjoy
ment of the photoplay. The data appears to show that the
134
TABLE XXV
REACTION TOWARD SEQUENCE
OF SCENARIO READING
READ SCRIPT SEE MOVIE NO REPLY
FIRST FIRST
Sex Total Num Per Num Per Total Num Per
no. of ber cent ber cent re ber cent of
pupils of re of re plies total
plies plies group
Boys 262 114 50.8 110 49.2 224 38 14.5
Girls 289 122 51.3 110 48.7 232 57 19.3
Total 551 236 220 456 95
Average per cent 51.1 48.9 17.0
NOTE: This table summarizes the pupilst answers to
the question, "Which would you rather do, read the script be
fore seeing the movie, OR see the movie first, then read the
script?"
The table may be read as follows: Among 262 boys, 114
or 50.8 per cent of 224 total replies said they would rather
read the script first, while 110 or 49.2 of the total replies
said they would rather see the movie first. Thirty-eight
boys, or 14.5 per cent of the total group of boys, did not
reply to the question.
155
TABLE XXVI
ESTIMATE OF BEADING INFLUENCE
ON FILM ENJOYMENT
MAKES NO
DIFFERENCE
ADDS TO EN
JOYMENT
DETRACTS FROM
ENJOYMENT
NO REPLY
Sex Num
ber
Per
cent
of re
plies
Num
ber
Per
cent
of re
plies
Num
ber
Per
cent
of re
plies
Total
re
plies
Num
ber
Per
cent of
total
group
Boys 53 29.6 84 46.9 42 23.5 179 93 35.5
Girls 49 16.3 153 64.0 37 19.7 239 52 18.0
Total 102 237 79 418 145
Average
per cent 22.9 55.5 21.6 26.3
NOTE: This table summarizes the pupils1 answers to
the question, ”Row does the reading of the scenario affect
your enjoyment of the movie?”
It may be read as follows: among 262 boys, 53, or
29.6 per cent of 179 replying, said that it ”makes no dif
ference”; 84 boys or 46.9 per cent said that the reading
”adds to enjoyment”; while 42 boys or 23.5 per cent stated
that the scenario "detracts from enjoyment.” Ninety-three,
or 35.5 per cent,x did not reply to this question.
136
girls find their enjoyment of photoplays enhanced by scenario
reading more than do the boys* This is shown by 64 per cent
of the girls reporting additional film enjoyment contributed
by the scripts compared with 46.9 per cent of the boys making
a similar declaration.
Those motion picture producers who assert that the
reading of photoplay scenarios destroys interest in the pho
toplays may not, in the light of these findings, be surprised
if further research should reveal that scenarios, like filmed
novels, actually stimulate intelligent interest and apprecia
tion of the photoplays.
The last part of the inquiry submitted to the students
related more definitely to their reactions toward historical
movies. Question number five inquired: "Have historical
movies like these increased your understanding and enjoyment
of history? ____ Why? "
Photoplay contribution to history. The fifth question
was answered by 465 students. Table XXYII points out that
the great majority of replies, 91.5 per cent, were affirma
tive, while 8.5 per cent indicated that historical photoplays
do not increase the pupils * understanding or enjoyment of
history. There was little significant difference between
boys and girls in their reaction to this question.
&bout a third of the 465 replying to this question
137
TABLE XXVII
REACTION TOWARD FILM INFLUENCE
ON HISTORY APPRECIATION
POSITIVE NEGATIVE NO REPLY
Sex Total
no. of
pupils
Num
ber
Per
cent
of re
plies
Num
ber
Per
cent
of re
plies
Total
re
plies
Num
ber
Per
cent of
total
group
Boys 262 205 89.5 24 10.5 229 33 12.9
Girls 289 221 93.6 15 6.4 236 53 18.3
Total 551 426 39 465 86
Average per cent 91.5 8.5 15.6
NOTE: This table summarizes the pupils * answers to
the question, wHave historical movies like these increased
your understanding and enjoyment of history?”
It may be read as follows: among 262 boys, 205 or 89.5
per cent of the replies were positive; while 24 or 10 per
cent were negative. The total number of boys replying was
229. Thirty-three boys gave no reply, or 13 per cent of the
group of boys numbering 262. The other columns may be read
in a similar manner.
138
gave written reasons why motion pictures increased their un
derstanding and enjoyment of history. Most of these reasons
could he classified into two typical statements made by the
students themselves. Among the answers so classified in
Table XXVIII, 91 are summarized in a frequent pupil expres
sion, "Movies make history clear and real,” while 64 are
paraphrased in the remark, "Movies make history more in
teresting,1 1
That historical photoplays such as these used in the
experiment increased their enjoyment and understanding of
history was the belief of many students. Among the typical
reasons are quoted the following statements from girls:
"Historical movies have increased my understanding
and enjoyment of history because I really see the things I
study.”
”1 find emphasis through vision.”
”1 get more details.”
”When you see something, it remains clear in your
mind. ”
”1 find the history books too boring.”
"Pictures are better than reading.”
”The action helps me understand the books.”
Some of the boysf reasons are likewise quoted:
"It (the photoplay) helps to recall the history that
might be forgotten.”
159
TABLE XXVIII
REASONS FOR FILM INFLUENCE
ON HISTORY APPRECIATION
Reply Boys Girls Total
"Movies make history
clear and real” 57 34 91
"Movies make history
more interesting” 39 25 64
No reply 166 230 396
Totals 262 289 551
140
"Photoplays are not as dry as history."
"Films give history a human touch."
"Films make it enjoyable to study and learn."
"&n illustration is much better than just reading
about it."
"The story lives before you on the screen."
"Movies tell the history in story form."
"The photoplay gives you something to think about."
"If I had not seen the pictures I would not have
understood that part of history."
It appears very clear in the minds of most of the
students who took part in this experiment that historical
photoplays make a definite contribution to their understand
ing and appreciation of history. That nearly all these
students really enjoy historical photoplays is shown by
Table XXIX, which records the fact that over 95 per cent of
those replying made such a declaration. It is not amazing
that this enjoyment of historical films should favorably
change their attitude toward history as a subject.
Preferred types of photoplays. To gain specific in
formation concerning the photoplay habits of this group of
students, they were given a list of the most common types of
theatrical motion pictures and asked to underline twice
their first choice and once their second choice. The types
141
TABLE XXIX
REACTION TOWARD HISTORICAL MOVIES
POSITIVE NEGATIVE NO REPLY
Sex Total
no. of
pupils
Num
ber
Per
cent
of re
plies
Num
ber
Per
cent
of re
plies
Total
re
plies
Num
ber
Per
cent of
total
group
Boys 262 197 97.0 6 3.0 203 59 22.5
Girls 289 203 94.0 13 6.0 216 73 25.5
Total 551 400 19 419 132
Average per cent 95.5 4.5 24.0
NOTE: This table summarizes the pupils’ answers to
the question, "Do you like to see historical movies?"
It may be read as follows: among 262 boys, 197 or 97
per cent of those replying gave a positive answer; while 6
boys or 3 per cent of the 203 replying gave a negative an
swer* Fifty-nine, or 22*5 per cent of the 262 boys, gave no
reply to the question* The other columns may be read in a
similar manner.
142
mentioned in the student report sheet, appeared in the fol
lowing order: comedy, gangster, history, newsreels, romance,
war, western, and musical* In order to obtain a composite
ranking it was necessary to give a comparative weighting of
first and second choices. Accordingly, all first choice
votes were multiplied by two, while second place votes count
ed one each* The weighted score for each type of film was
secured by adding the first and second place weighted scores
together.
As reported in Table XXX and Table XXXI, page 144,
there are interesting differences between the sexes in their
ranking of films. The girls seem to prefer musicals and
newsreels, while the boys prefer comedy and historical sub
jects. The composite ranking of types of films by both
sexes, as seen in Table XXXII, page 145, is as follows:
(1) musicals, (2) newsreels, (5) comedy, (4) history, (5)
romance, (6) war, (7) gangster, and (8) western. In addition
to this vote, 52 boys and 12 girls indicated clearly that
"they like all kinds of movies."
Those who are inclined to believe that most high
school students favor gangster films will be astonished to
find these films near the bottom of the list given by both
sexes. Squally surprising, to many, will be the high rating
given history and newsreels as pictorial themes.
If newsreels are classified as current history and
145
TABLE XXX
TYPES OF MOVIES PREFERRED BY GIRLS
Rank Type
of film
First
choice
Second
choice
Weighted
score
1 Musical 94 58 246
2 Newsreels 81 82 244
3 History 44 38 126
4 Comedy 36 47 109
5 Romance 35 28 98
6 Western 7 3 17
7 Gangster -5 5 15
8 War 4 3 11
NOTE: This table may be read as follows: The girls
gave first place to musicals with 94 votes, and 58 votes for
second choice, and a weighted score of 246, To obtain the
weighted score, the first choice votes were multiplied by 2
and the second choice votes were added.
144
TABLE XXXI
TYPES OF MOVIES PREFERRED BY BOYS
Rank Type First Second Weighted
of film choice choice score
1 Comedy 60 44 164
2 History 49 34 132
3 Musicals 55 33 103
4 War 19 8 46
5 Newsreels 15 9 39
6 Gangster 10 15 35
7 Western 10 7 27
8 Romance 3 6 12
NOTE: This table may be read in the same manner as the
one preceding.
145
TABLE XXXII
TYPES OP MOVIES PREFERRED BY BOTH SEXES
Rank Type
of film
First
choice
Second
choice
Weighted
score
1 Musical 129 91 349
2 Hewsreels 96 101 293
3 Comedy 96 91 283
4 History 93 92 258
5 Romance 38 34 110
6 War 23 11 57
7 Gangster 15 20 50
8 Western 17 10 44
NOTEi This table may be read in the same manner as
the one preceding.
146
the weighted score of 293 accorded them by the students is
combined with the score of 258 given historical films, it
produces a total score of 551, which would put this type of
film ahead of its nearest rival, musicals, by 212 points*
It appears, then, that history and actuality films are very
popular with the eleventh B students who report history as
their most popular subject*
’ Frequency of film attendance* The final question in
the student inquiry was, "How often do you go to the movies?"
In order to facilitate reporting and later recording of data,
the pupils were requested to underline the nearest correct
answer among the following: "nearly every night, twice a
week, once a week, twice a month, once a month, and seldom
go to the movies*"
toong the 471 students replying to this question,
Table XXXIII shows that nearly half of the number, or 49*0
per cent stated they attend the films on an average of once
a week. Next in order of popularity are: "twice a month,
twice a week, once a month, seldom attend, and nearly every
night.” Four of the six students reporting nightly attend
ance explained that they usher or do other work in film the
atres. These findings seem to be in general agreement with
Mitchellfs investigation relative to adolescent reports of
film attendance. In her Chicago survey, Mrs* Mitchell found
that a majority of the children attend the movies on an aver-
147
TABLE XXXIII
FREQUENCY OF FILM ATTENDANCE
Frequency Boys Per
cent of
replies
Girls Per
cent of
replies
Total
re
plies
Per cent
of total
replies
Cnee a week 138 60 93 40 231 49.0
Twice a month 30 33 61 67 91 19.3
Twice a week 53 67 26 33 79 16.8
Once a month 12 38 20 63 32 6.8
Seldom attend 18 56 14 44 32 6.8
Nearly every night 4 67 2 34 6 1.3
Total replies 255 216 471
No reply 7 73 80
Total number pupils 2 62 289 551
NOTE: This table summarizes the pupils1 answers to
the question, "How often do you go to the movies?”
The table may be read as follows: One hundred and
thirty-eight reported an average attandance of once a week,
which is 60 per cent of both sexes reporting once a week
attendance. Ninety-three girls are 40 per cent of the group
of 231, which is 49 per cent of the total replies.
148
age of once or twice a week.^
Validity of student reports. The questionnaire method
of obtaining information from the pupils is sometimes criti
cized from two main standpoints: it is subjective, and it is
not a valid measure of fact. The best answer that can be
given to these criticisms is that first of all, subjective
information is absolutely essential in social science to
give meaning and interpretation to objective data. Emo
tional experiences, which so color and enrich life, cannot
be adequately described in objective terms. In the second
place, questionnaires are unreliable measures only when the
individuals lack the requisite knowledge or experience to
render an opinion, or if the answers are designed to please
the teacher, or if the questions are so phrased that they
hint strongly at the answer expected or hoped for by the
questioner.
To avoid these difficulties, the questions were care
fully designed to ask only for information that could be
supplied by the experience of the students; the experimenter
remained anonymous to most of the students during the study,
and the pupils submitting the reports were unknown as such
to their teachers, inasmuch as the number code written on the
%lice M. Mitchell, Children and Movies (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1929), p. 20.
149
back of each paper could be decoded only by the experimenter.
Since the students were told in advance that their responses
would not influence their grades in social studies, they were
free to express their own opinions. That the students of
Washington High School are very frank in answering question
naires is the stated belief of Mr. Homrighausen, head of the
Department of Social Studies.
The fact that students gave a wide variety of opinions
in the report is indicative that if they detected any special
premise in the questions, they did not cater to it. None of
the questions were so personal in nature that they would be
evaded, and seeing that most of them asked for statements of
personal photoplay habits, likes and dislikes, it is possible
that a majority of the students answered as frankly and accu
rately as possible.
The students were given sufficient time to fill out
the one page inquiry blank without haste. Only one exception
to this was found in a class, where approximately one-fourth
of the pupils were unable to complete the report before the
end of the period.
Another point should be discussed under the general
question of validity. In item four, the first part read:
"If you could get more of these (photoplay scenarios) from
the library, would you read them?" This was a hypothetical
question, intended as a measure of interest. Only one class,
150
the High Group, class number one, were permitted actually to
take scenarios home from the school library. The fact that
all but three students of this superior class did take them
home shows genuine interest. Since this class was the only
one to read The Last of the Mohicans scenario after seeing
the film, as well as being of the classes to read the Maid
of Salem scenario before seeing the film, they were the only
group to have a real experiential basis for replying to the
second part of item four: "Which would you rather do, read
the script before seeing the movie, OR see the movie first,
then read the script?"
Summary of student reports. At the George Washington
High School in Los Angeles, 551 eleventh grade students who
had participated in the photoplay and scenario reading ex
periment, reported on their motion picture habits,. reactions
toward school subjects and movies, and attitudes toward the
materials of the experiment. Some of the major findings of
their tabulated replies are as follows:
1. A composite ranking of their high school subjects
gave history first choice, with others in this order: (2)
physical education; (3) English; (4) music; and (5) art.
The girls gave first choice to history and second to English,
while the boys gave first place to physical education and
second to history.
151
2. An average of 445 students in the experimental
groups saw each of the three photoplaysj The Plainsman, Maid
of Salem, and The Last of the Mohicans, Both sexes ranked
the films in the order given above. Maid of Salem was en
joyed more by the girls than the boys, while The Plainsman
was preferred by the boys, but The Last of the Mohicans
appealed equally to both sexes,
3. An average of 185 students reported reading a pho
toplay scenario for each of the experiments involving the
three movies. Altogether 555 students reported reading the
scripts in the series of three experiments. Among these,
468 gave their reactions concerning the influence of the
reading on the enjoyment of the movie. Heading increased
the pleasure of the film for 70.9 per cent of the boys and
91.7 per cent of the girls. The most frequent reason given
for not enjoying scenarios was that they contain "too many
directions•w
4. When the pupils were asked if they would read pho
toplay scenarios if they could get them from the library,
60.5 per cent of the boys and 90.6 per cent of the girls gave
an affirmative answer.
5. Both sexes are about equally divided on the ques
tion of whether reading the scenario is more enjoyable before
or after seeing the film.
6. Nearly two-thirds of the girls, or 64 per cent, re-
152
port that scenario reading contributes to the enjoyment of
the photoplay, while 46.9 per cent of the boys report their
enjoyment of the film enhanced by the reading.
7. to average of 91.5 per cent of the pupils expressed
the opinion that historical photoplays, such as those shown
in the school, increased their understanding and enjoyment of
history. The principal reasons given for this belief were
that motion pictures lend clarity, realism and interest to
the subject.
8. Imong eight types of films named, musicals were
given preference by the girls, and comedies by the boys.
Historical pictures gained third place on the girlst list
and second on the boys'. Newsreels were voted second choice
by the girls and fifth choice by the boys.
9. Nearly one-half the pupils reported on the average
one weekly attendance at the motion pictures, with 19 per
cent reporting attendance twice a month, and 16 per cent
twice a week. &bout 7 per cent stated that they go on an
average of once a month, while, similarly, 7 per cent re
ported that they seldom go to the movies.
CHAPTER X
REPORT OF THE TEACHERS
While the students in the seventeen social studies
classes were completing this experiment by taking the re
tention tests and answering written questions regarding their
film-scenario experiences, each of the nine teachers in
charge of the designated groups were answering a series of
questions relating to the investigation. This teacher re
port was based on several questions or requests for opinions
dealing with the observed reaction of the students to the
experiment, as well as the teacher*s evaluations of the ma
terials used in the study. 1
The main purpose of this report was to gain subjective
data that would assist in the interpretation of the objective
data and the personal reports of the pupils. The written
method for the teachers was preferred to an oral interview
because it was possible to gain less biased answers by prom
ising them greater anonymity through writing. Each report
form submitted to the teachers was introduced by the state
ment: ! , In summarizing these reports, names of individual
teachers will not be identified with the particular replies
given.1 1 From the frank nature of the answers given by the
iSupra, Figure II,.p. 80.
154
teachers, there is every reason to believe that their answers
were not influenced by a desire to respond to any particular
interest, and that they gave their honest opinions of what is
best from the standpoint of the school.
The individual teacher reports, presented by five male
and four female teachers, reveal that all had seen the three
films used in the separate experiments, while five had read
the scenario of The Last of the Mohicans: five had read The
Plainsman: and three, Maid of Salem, Viewing these films and
reading the scenarios had been entirely voluntary on the part
of the teachers, since no one had required or even suggested
these experiences, Hor had the teachers had any previous
idea that a special report would be requested later.
Eating of the photoplays, Individual estimates of the
dramatic quality of each of the three photoplays were given
by the teachers as follows: Six of the teachers, representing
two-thirds of the total, evaluated The Last of the Mohicans
as "good.” The other three instructors each gave one vote
to the adjectives, "poor,""fair," and "excellent."
Five teachers called The Plainsman "good,” four
called it "excellent." That this film was thought the best
in the series is shown by comparison with Maid of Salem,
which received six votes as "good," two as "excellent,” and
one as "fair," Therefore, the three films in order of dra-
155
matic quality, as fudged by weighting the evaluations of the
nine teachers is, first, The Plainsman with a score of 31;
second, Maid of Salem, score 28; and third, The Last of the
Mohicans, with its score of 25. Table XXXIV gives the com
plete data on the rating of the films# The teachers1 rating
agrees in general with the investigator *s estimate which is
based on several viewings of each film compared with a read
ing of reviews which appeared in current newspapers and mag
azines, including Parents Magazine. quoted in the chapters
describing the individual experiments#
Script reading and intelligence# Question number four
appearing in the teachers * report read as follows: "To what
type of student do you think photoplay scenarios might prove
most helpful? (Check one or two) "the bright student," checked
by five teachers; "the average student," checked by five in
structors; and "the retarded student who has difficulty in
reading," checked by three teachers. The instructors believe
that the photoplay scenarios would be slightly less useful to
the retarded student than to the superior or average pupil.
The simplicity of the vocabulary in scenario versions would
lend credence to the presumption that the retarded student
who has difficulty in reading might gain useful practice in
reading dialogue to which he has previously been introduced
to by the talking picture. This problem awaits further re
search.
156
TABLE XXXIV
RATING OF EXPERIMENTAL PHOTO
PLAYS BY NINE TEACHERS .
Rank Title of pho
toplay
Excel
lent
Good Fair Poor Weighted
score
1 The Plainsman 4 5 0 0 31
2 Maid of Salem 2 6 1 0 28
3
The Last of
the Mohicans 1 6 1 1 25
NOTE: The weightings assigned to the ratings are as
follows: excellent, 4; good, 5; fair, 2; poor, !• The
Plainsman received 4 votes for "excellent," which were mul
tiplied by 4, producing 16; and 5 votes for "good," which
were multiplied by 3, producing 15* The two products, 16
and 15, together total 31, which is the weighted score. The
other columns may be read in a similar manner.
157
Possible value of the scripts* 1 1 Do you think that
selected photoplay scenarios might be an important aid to
the study of social science?1 1 This time it is a five to
four decision by the instructors, since five said "perhaps”
and four said "yes." Because none of the nine said "no,”
the general opinion is a conditional affirmative to the
question*
Class interest in script reading, T ! How does the
class interest in photoplay scenarios compare with their
usual interest in study periods?” Five replied that interest
in scripts is "superior,” one said script interest was
"little better,” while one felt that class interest in pho
toplay scenarios was "inferior” to regular study. Two of the
teachers gave no answer to this question. Two-thirds of the
teachers, as a result, feel definitely that the students
showed greater study interest in scripts than in regular
classroom study, while two teachers were either undecided or
preferred not to offer an opinion.
”How do you explain whatever degree of interest your
students found in reading a photoplay scenario?” Five said
that it was due to "interest in movies;” three that it was
because of "novelty of material and intrinsic interest in
stories,” while three felt that the unusual student interest
in scenarios was partly because such reading was "easier
158
than regular classwork.” One instructor offered the sugges
tion that the students found exceptional interest in the
scenarios because in this reading they gained a more inti
mate knowledge of plot and detail.
React ions to the study. Finally, the teachers were
requested to state their strongest criticism of the photo
play experiment and to offer general comments, either favor
able or adverse.
The most frequent criticism of the experiment was
that the scenario reading and testing program consumed class
time that was needed for other purposes. Five teachers men
tioned this in the report. This criticism is to be expected
of any investigation which disrupts the regular plans of a
classroom. The only direct criticism of the experiment as
such was that it was too comprehensive in nature, offered
by a teacher who felt that it made excessive demands on
class time.
Following are further comments offered by the nine
teachers:
Itm for the experiment^ but I understand many
students went to the pictures, just to get out of
class, having seen the pictures in a neighborhood
theater. I still think the experiment was worth
while, and I hope to see a wider use of the movies
for social studies in the future.
I do feel that these motion pictures enrich the
course considerably as they portray the life of the
particular period in a vivid manner.
159
Adds to intelligent interest of students.
Idea good if we could get students to read scenario
outside of school and could have pictures and scenario
at the same time that we have built up the background
in regular work.
It has value if subordinated properly,
I am inclined to look upon the experiment with con
siderable favor.
Auditorium not too suitable for movies. Idea excel
lent, however,— should add stimulus to our classes.
This particular experiment would have been more suc
cessful if the pictures could have been shown in direct
correlation with class work.
Created greater interest in the pictures and greater
appreciation of them. Helped individuals to visualize
historical conditions, costumes, customs, etc.
My criticism of films generally is a tendency to over
look historical details, which although seemingly small
and unimportant, often are quite noticeable. Research
departments will check on costumes and other points, but
often err on animals, and other details. One of my boys
noticed a variety of chickens which were unknown at the
time.
Many uncomprehensive readers and laborious readers
find surcease from ennui.
The nine teachers who supervised the testing program
in the seventeen classes at Washington High School range in
teaching experience from 6 years for the youngest to 50 years
for the oldest in point of service. All the others range be
tween these two points. The opinions of these teachers may
be said to represent a group who are thoroughly experienced
in the teaching field.
160
Summary. A brief review of the written reports of the
nine teachers participating in the experiment reveals that,
1. All saw the three photoplays shown in school.
2. Voluntarily, two teachers read all scenarios; one
read two scenarios; six read one each, while one teacher did
not read any of the scenarios.
5. From the standpoint of dramatic quality, the teach
ers rated the photoplays in the following order: (1) The
Plainsman; (2) Maid of Salem; (3) The Last of the Mohicans.
4. Five teachers believe that selected photoplay sce
narios might prove most helpful to the bright student; five
believe that the average student might be aided most, while
three teachers are of the opinion that the retarded student
might benefit most.
5. The nine teachers are inclined to feel that se
lected photoplay scenarios may be an important aid to the
study of social science in the high school.
6. Compared with student interest in regular study
periods, five teachers felt that class interest in scripts
is”superior”; one reported, ’ ’ little better”; one, ’ ’inferior
to regular study”; and two gave no answers.
7. Five stated that student interest in scenarios was
chiefly due to their interest in movies, while three votes
were given to each of the following reasons: (1) novelty of
material; (2) intrinsic student interest in stories; (3) eas-
161
ier than regular classwork*
8. The most frequent teacher criticism of the experi
ment is that it consumed too much time needed for regular
classwork*
9. Most of the teachers agreed that the experiment
was worth while and that for the student it stimulated in
telligent interest and appreciation of the photoplays used
in the school, as well as increased understanding of history
and social studies*
CHAPTER XI
CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATION
Conclusions of this investigation will be presented in
the sequence of the initial questions appearing in Chapter I.
Following each question will be a summary of whatever valid
explanation appears justifiable from the data found in the
study. After the summary will be listed some of the impli
cations which these findings have for the field of education.
Parallel story forms. Which one of two parallel story
forms, an original photoplay scenario or a motion picture,
tends to give adolescent pupils greater understanding of the
verbal elements of the story?
In two of the three story experiments, The Plainsman
and Maid of Salem, the pupils who had read the scenario ver
sion made higher test scores than the pupils who saw the
motion picture. The differences in gains in knowledge of
plot and characters were statistically significant in favor
of the script reading group in the Maid of Salem experiment,
but in the relative test gains on The Plainsman experiment
the critical ratio of 1.6 favoring the Script Group is not
statistically significant.
In The Last of the Mohicans experiment the Film Group
made a score of 5.1 points higher than the Script Group after
164
their respective experiences. The critical ratio of 4.14 is
statistically significant in favor of the Film Group.
From the evidence found in these studies, under con
ditions similar to those in the present experiments, it may
be concluded that,
1. Adolescent pupils may gain as much understanding of
the verbal elements of dramatic plot and dialogue from the
photoplay scenario as from the photoplay itself.
2. Many students gain more of this understanding from
the reading of the script than they do from seeing the photo
play.
Possible reasons for this may be: (1) since students
most frequently attend photoplays for relaxation, they may
have concentrated more on the details of the scenario. The
latter was experienced in the classroom where the attitude of
study is likely to be habitual. The film was shown in the
school auditorium, which is associated more with recreation;
(2) the photoplay contains so many details of action and scen
ery not mentioned in the scenario, that for many students, at
least, the dialogue may not be as impressive on the screen,
comparatively, as it is in a book.
Retention of narrative. Do students remember more of
a narrative when they read the scenario and see the film, too,
than they do when they see only the film?
165
In all three experiments, the pupils who had experi
enced the scenario reading and later the film remembered the
verbal content of the narrative better than the pupils who
had seen only the photoplay. This result is what might be
predicted from the laws of learning. It is recognized by psy
chologists that frequency of impression is an important con
tributory factor to memory.The discovery that the combined
experience of reading a scenario and seeing its film counter
part results in greater retention than the single impression
of seeing the photoplay is to be expected, toother psycho
logical factor may be vividness.8 produced in part by the
novelty of script reading, which most of the students had
never before experienced.
Motion picture habits of students. In general, what
are the motion picture habits of a representative group of
high school students?
Nearly 50 per cent of the students report weekly at
tendance at the movies, with 19 per cent reporting twice a
month, and 16 per cent twice a week. About 7 per cent go
once a month, while the same number state that they seldom
attend the movies.
^Peter Sandiford, Educational Psychology (Hew York:
Longmans, Green and Company, 1936), p. 238.
%Loc. cit.
These data indicate that the motion picture attend
ance habits of the experimental students are similar to
those reported in former studies of similar groups of stu
dents .3
The boys expressed a preference for comedy and his
torical photoplays, while the girls were interested mostly
in musicals and newsreels* In the composite ranking of both
sexes, musicals appear as first choice; newsreels, second;
comedy, third; and history, fourth. War and gangster films
are near the bottom of the list. This is not more surpris
ing than the fact that newsreels, or current history films,
are the composite second choice expressed by the pupils.
Sixty-four pupils report that they ”like all kinds of movies.1 1
Hating of history as a subject and dramas. What is
the attitude of high school students toward history as a
subject and history in the form of film scenarios and photo
plays?
Among the school subjects mentioned as favorites by
the experimental pupils, history was given preference by the
girls and physical education by the boys. A combined rank
ing of both sexes gives history first choice and physical
.u^Edgar Dale, Children* s Attendance at Motion Pictures.
(New York: The Macmillan Company, 1933), p. 42.
167
education second place.
An average of 445 pupils in the experimental group
reported attendance at each of the three photoplays. Prefer
ences of the films were cited by the students in the follow
ing order: The Plainsman. Maid of Salem, and The Last of the
Mohicans.
In average of 185 pupils reported reading photoplay
scenarios in each of the three experiments. More than 70
per cent of the hoys and 91 per cent of the girls stated
that they enjoyed the experience. About 18 per cent of the
students regard reading film scenarios as a task. The chief
objection to scripts, according to the reports, is that
nthey contain too many directions.n Three-fourths of the
students stated that if they could get more scenarios from
the library they would read them.
That the superior students probably enjoy scenario
reading as shown by the fact that when the 36 students in
class number one, the High Group, were allowed to take The
Last of the Mohicans scenario home, all but three responded
voluntarily, and reported reading all of the script at home.
On the question of whether scenario reading before
seeing the film is more enjoyable than script reading after
the film, the students are almost equally divided.
About 55 per cent of the pupils concluded that the
scenario reading contributed to their subsequent seeing of
168
the motion picture, about 23 per cent were indifferent, while
nearly 22 per cent of the group feel that the reading experi
ence detracted from their enjoyment of the photoplay. It
appears from this evidence that the reading of scenario ver
sions increases photoplay appreciation for more than half the
pupils. The data show that the girls find script reading
considerably more conducive to film appreciation than do the
boys.
Over 90 per cent of the pupils noted the fact that
selected historical movies increase their understanding and
enjoyment of history. The two mkln reasons given by the
students were that films lend increased clarity and realism
to history; and the subject is thereby made more interesting.
Attitude of teachers. What is the attitude of history
teachers toward historical films and scenarios as aids in
high school social studies?
Nine experienced teachers participated in these ex
periments, and since all of them saw the three photoplays and
all but one had read at least one scenario, they had suffi
cient basis for evaluating the experimental material from a
teacherfs point of view. In general, the teachers’ ratings
of the photoplays were in agreement ?d.th those of the stu
dents.
All are inclined to believe that selected photoplay
169
scenarios may be an important aid to the study of social
science in the high school. They are divided in the opinion
whether the bright, the average or the retarded student
would be aided most by a use of selected historical photo
play scenarios.
A majority report that the pupil»s study interest in
scenarios is superior to regular study. Likewise, a major
ity attribute this exceptional interest to the pupils1 in
terest in movies. Other reasons given are: (1) novelty of
material; (2) intrinsic student interest in stories; and
(3) the belief that scenario reading is easier than regular
classwork.
A majority of the teachers emphasized the opinion
that the experiment was worth while and that the materials
definitely served to: (1) stimulate intelligent interest and
appreciation of the historical photoplays used in the
school; (2) develop increased interest in history, the gen
eral field of social studies.
Script reading values. What conclusions may be made
regarding the possible educational and recreational reading
values of selected historical photoplay scenarios?
From the reports of the students, girls apparently
enjoy reading scenarios more than the boys. As the script
has demonstrated its reading value in comparison with the
170
photoplay, and because the scenario provides for the pupil an
authentic, usable outline of film narrative, the script is
worthy of consideration as a handbook for group discussion
of selected photoplays.
For many students, photoplay scenario reading either
before or after a film showing makes a positive contribution
to appreciation of the selected photoplay and enrichment of
history. High school students show a definite interest in
the reading of photoplay scenarios. This interest, according
to a majority of the teachers, is better than regular class
room study.
Implications for education. From the conclusions of
this study, there appear a number of implications for the
field of education. Some of these are:
1. The teaching possibilities of selected photoplay
scripts compare favorably with motion pictures, particularly
in common verbal elements of plot and dialogue. Because of
the demonstrated script values, educators should select-the^
best photoplay scenarios and these should be made available
to pupils in the schools, to be used as supplementary reading
aids in the field of social studies, and perhaps other
fields, such as English and dramatics.
2. As these studies tend to show that the photoplay,
in comparison with reading, does not produce superior res>-
171
suits in conveying verbal dialogue and plot essentials, it
appears that when verbal details are vital, the printed ver
sion should not be abandoned in favor of filmic reproduction.
Printing and pictures should go hand in hand for the benefit
of education. There are instances when the printing press
and the cinema may be mutually superior to the film as a
means of conveying information. But in imparting verbal con
cepts, the printed page vies with the cinema, particularly
for certain people.
3. As shown by the results at George Washington High
School, the school showing of selected photoplays may be a
worth while, self-supporting, extra-curricular activity.
CHAPTER XII
PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
The present investigation has aimed to evaluate photo
plays in comparison with photoplay scenarios as learning in
struments in classroom situations, where, for the purpose of
controlled experimentation, teacher instruction and class
discussion were omitted. The educational use of motion pic
tures is a rapidly expanding field, a field whose importance
justifies less argumentation and more scientific research.
During the course of this series of experiments, the
investigator has found interesting bypaths, which appear
promising leads for further investigations into the psycho
logical aspects of motion pictures in education.
Curriculum studies. There is a vital need for con
tinued studies of the curriculum in relationship to the most
suitable photoplays available. Another cardinal necessity
is to discover a method to coordinate the use of the selected
photoplays with the curriculum in such a way that the pupils
will get the film experience at the psychological moment con
ducive to the optimum learning for each individual.
Allied studies. The study just completed is only a
beginning in the exploration of the sociological significance
of photoplays in relationship ta scenarios and parallel read
173
ings. Examples of valuable surveys would be:
1. Investigations into the relationship between photo
plays, scripts and other subject fields such as English and
dramatics,
2. A study of the contributions made to foreign lan
guage learning by photoplays in combination with the original
dialogue scenarios.
3. An investigation of the teaching values, with the
film, of parallel readings such as are prepared for class use
in connection with the monthly news feature, "The March of
Time.! !
Improvement of testing. There is great need for a
refinement of the testing tools to be used in experiments
dealing with the influence of the motion pictures. The study
just completed was limited to the verbal elements of the pho
toplay, partly because the measuring tools at the command of
the investigator were adapted to such materials. Yet in the
photoplays used in these experiments there is, in the ex
perimenter 1s opinion, a wealth of learning possibilities that
were untouched by the study. Perhaps the greatest resource
of the film is in its non-language character, and to discover
the true essence of this value, there must be specially con
structed non-language tests. When this is done, it may be
possible to measure the reaction of very young children and
illiterates to the motion picture situation.
174
Photoplay appreciation. A vital issue is: "Should
photoplay appreciation be taught as a separate subject or in
connection with other subjects?" In either case, what is the
most effective procedure or combination of methods for de
veloping the photoplay tastes of individuals to the point
where a significantly large population will make continual
and persistent demands for socially worth while pictures?
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS
Arnspiger, Varney C., Measuring the Effectiveness of Sound
Pictures as leaching Aids, New York: Bureau of Publi
cations, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1953.
156 pp.
A published doctoral dissertation reporting an authentic
research.
Beard, Charles A., The Nat tire of the Social Sciences. Vol.
VII, 236 pp. A. C. Krey, Chairman, Report of the Commis
sion on Social Studies in the Schools, 16 vols.• , New York
Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1934.
Discusses the nature of social science and its relation
to objectives of instruction.
Betts, Ernest, editor, The Private Life of Henry VIII. London
Menthuen and Co. Ltd.V 193^.' . 103 pp.
The first complete script of a British film to be pub
lished in book form.
Charters, W. W., Chairman, The Payne Fund Studies, Motion
Pictures and Youth. New York: The Macmillan Company,
I933-i935~
Charters, W. W., Motion Pictures and Youth: A Summary.
66 pp.
combined with
Boladay, P. W., and Stoddard, George D., Getting Ideas
From the Movies. 102 pp.
Peterson, Ruth C., and T hurst one, L. L., Motion Pictures
and the Social Attitudes of Children. 75 pp.
combined with
Shuttleworth, Frank K., and May,. Mark A., The Social
Conduct and Attitudes of Movie Fans. 142 pp.
177
Dysinger, W. S., and Ruckmiek, Christian A., The
Emotional Responses of Children to the MotTon
Picture Situation. IS2 pp.
combined with
Peters, Charles C., Motion Pictures and Standards of
Morality. -.285 pp.
Renshaw, S., Miller, Vernon L., and Marquis, Dorothy,
Children*s Sleep. 242 pp.
Blumer, Herbert, Movies and Conduct. 257 pp.
Dale, Edgar, The Content of Motion Pictures. 234 pp.
combined with
______ChildrenTs Attendance at Motion Pictures. 81 pp.
Blumer, Herbert, and Hauser, Philip M., Movies. Delin-
quency and Crime. 233 pp.
Dale, Edgar, How to Appreciate Motion Pictures. 243 pp.
Various techniques are used in the individual in
vestigations, including experimental, biographical
and analytical.
Consitt, Frances, The Value of Films in History Teaching.
London: G. Bell and Sons, Ltd., 1931. 431 pp.
The report of an inquiry conducted under the auspices
of the Historical Association with the aid of the
Carnegie United Kingdom Trustees.
Dewey, John, Democracy and Education. Hew York: The Macmillan
Company, 1932. 434 pp.
Although the subtitle of this book is simply, ”An Intro
duction to the Philosophy of Education,” it is perhaps a
classic in the field.
Ellis, Robert Sidney, The Psychology of Individual Differences.
New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1932. 533 pp.
Gives an introduction to problem techniques, some find
ings and practical applications in the field of psychology
of individual differences.
178
Forman, Henry J., Our Movie Made Children, New York: The
Macmillan Company, 1933. 287 pp.
A popularized version of some of the findings of the
Payne Fund Studies. !
Frederick, Robert W., and Sheets, Paul H., Citizenship Edu
cation Through the Social, Studies. Evanston, Illinois:
Row, Peterson and Company, 1936. 312 pp.
Gives a thorough philosophical basis for a program of
socio-civic education in the public schools.
Freeman, Frank M., editor, Visual Education: A Comparative
Study of Motion Pictures and Other Methods of Instruction.
Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, T924^ 391 pp.
A pioneer investigation tending to show the superiority
of the film in the teaching of subject matter adapted to
the film.
Garrett, Henry S., Statistics in Psychology and Education.
Revised edition; New York: Longmans, Green and Company,
1937. 492 pp.
A valuable interpretative work in statistical methods
in psychology and education.
Hubbard, Eleanor, The Teaching of History Through Dramatic
Presentation. New York: Benjamin H. Sanborn and Co.,
1935. 447 pp.
Describes how modern progressive objectives of history
teaching may be aided by the wise use of dramatics in
the classroom.
Jacks, L. Pearsall, Education Through Recreation. New York:
Harper and Brothers, 1932. 155 pp.
A philosophical treatise on the relationship between
education and recreation.
Jones, Vernon, Character and Citizenship Training in the Public
School. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1936.
404 pp.
Includes one chapter reporting an experiment wherein the
film i^used as a positive factor in building social
attitudes.
179
Knowlton, D. C., and Tilton, J. W., Motion Pictures in His
tory Teaching. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1929.
183 pp.
Reports the profitable use of the Chronicles of America
Photoplays in teaching American history.
Lewin, William, Photoplay Appreciation in American High
Schools. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1934.
122 pp.
One of the pioneer studies whose findings stimulated the
photoplay appreciation movement in American high schools.
Marchant, Sir James, editor, The Cinema in Education. London,
1925.
A comprehensive English report on attainments and pos
sibilities of the cinema in education.
Miller, Harry Graves, and Chaffee, Newton, The Auditorium
Social Arts. New York: D. C. Heath and Company, 1932.
4l3 pp.
Discusses the relation of the auditorium to the social
arts and describes methods of making this relationship
more effective.
Mitchell, Alice M., Children and Movies. Chicago: The Uni
versity of Chicago Press, 1929T 181 pp.
Through the questionnaire method, the writer discovers
the film habits and preferences of several thousand
school children.
Mumford, Lewis, Technics and Civilization. New York:
Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1934. 495 pp.
Traces some of the profound changes that have come about
in western civilization as a result of the machine.
Noble, Lorraine, Four-Star Scripts. Garden City: Doubleday,
Doran and Company, Inc., 1936. 392 pp.
Contains the ”shooting scripts” of several of the best
films of recent years, and as such, the first of its
kind to be published.
181
Wilds, Elmer Harrison, The Foundations of Modern Education.
New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1936. 634 pp.
Gives an excellent summary of "historical and philo
sophical backgrounds for the interpretation of present
day educational issues."
Wood, Ben D., and Freeman, Frank N., Motion Pictures in the
Classroom. Cambridge, Mass.: Houghton, Mifflin Company,
1929. 392 pp.
A detailed report of a comprehensive experiment to meas
ure the value of motion pictures as supplementary aids
in regular classroom instruction.
BULLETIN
Barnes, Walter, The Photoplay as Literary Art. Newark,
New Jerseys Educational and Recreational Guides, Inc.,
1936. 57 pp.
Considers the particular narrative characteristics and
possibilities of the photoplay.
PUBLICATIONS OF LEARNED ORGANIZATIONS
American Historical Association, Conclusions and Recommenda
tions of the Commission. New York: Charles Scribner*s
Sons, 1934. Vol. XVI, 165 pp.
A summary of a number of important studies that have been
in progress for several years.
Commission on Educational and Cultural Films, The Film in
National Life. London: Allen and Unwin, 1932.
Presents a well-balanced philosophical view of the
opportunities and responsibilities of the motion pic
ture as a cultural medium.
Kimmel, William G., Instruction in the Social Studies.
Office of Education Bulletin No. 17, T932, National
Survey of Secondary Education Monograph No. 21.
Washington, D. C.: United States Government Printing
Office, 1933. 105 pp.
182
A summary of an analysis of courses of study in the recent
social studies programs for certain American secondary
schools*
PERIODICALS
l 1 ■
The British Journal of Psychology* London: Cambridge
Universi£y Press. Edited by F* C. Bartlett.
One of the best known international magazines of a
thoroughly scientific nature.
Lewin, William, wAmateur Photoplay Composition,V Education*
57:27-30, September, 1936.
Explains the importance of a new activity in the school
in connection with the photoplay appreciation movement.
Educational and Recreational Guides. Published in Newark,
New Jersey, as a monthly project, William Lewin,
managing editor.
Analyzes one outstanding film, making comparisons with
the book from which it comes, with pertinent questions
and suggestions for its use in classes.
Educational Screen. Chicago: Educational Screen, Inc.,
64 East Lake Street. Monthly, during the school year.
The official organ of the Department of Visual Education
of the National Educational Association. Contains
critical reviews of theatrical films.
International Review of Educational Cinematography. Editions
in French, German, Italian, Spanish, English. Boston:
World Peace Foundation, 40 Mt. Vernon Street.
An official organ of the League of Nations. New title:
Intercine.
The Journal of Educational Sociology. New York: 32 Washing
ton Place, New York University.
November, 1937, issue is devoted to articles dealing with
educational aspects of the motion pictures.
183
Modern Language Journal, Washington, D. C.: The George Wash
ington University. Published by the National Federation
of Modern Language Teachers.
November, 1937, issue contains an annotated bibliography
of the use of motion pictures in foreign language in
struction.
Motion Picture Review Digest. New York: H. W. Wilson Co.,
950-972 University Avenue.
A weekly publication devoted to reprinted revieY/s of
current motion pictures. December 28, 1936, and March
29, 1937, issues especially helpful for the three photo
plays used in the experimenter's study.
Parents' Magazine. New York City: The Parents Institute, Inc.
A monthly devoted to child growth and development. Pub
lished with the official cooperation of leading educators
and the following institutions: Teachers College, Colum
bia University; University of Minnesota; the State Uni
versity of Iowa; and Yale University. Volumes 11 and 12
contain the reviews of the three photoplays in the ex
perimental study.
Punke, Harold H., ”The Home and Adolescent Reading Interests,”
The School Review. 45:612-620, October, 1937.
Reports a most interesting research dealing with the sub
ject of the title.
Mackaye, Milton, ”The Birth of a Nation,” Scribners. 102:69
November, 1937.
Relates the historical background of a motion picture
classic.
Year Book of Motion Pictures. Film Daily. New York: Film
Daily. Issued since 19l8.
A complete statistical and historical summary of the
theatrical film production activities for each year.
NEWSPAPER
Shallert, Edwin, *”Films Can Teach Schools History,” Says
De Mille,' The Los Angeles Times. 57:1. (Part III)
January 30, 1938.
1 8 4
Explains how huge sums are expended in research to enable
period photoplays to present the true spirit of history.
UNPUBLISHED MANUSCRIPTS
Dunne, Philip, The Last of the Mohicans. An unpublished
photoplay scenario. Hollywood, California; United Artists
Studio, 1937.
Based on characters and incidents in the novel of the
same name by J. Fenimore Cooper. The first in the series
used in the present comparative experiment.
King, Bradley, and Grinstead, Durward, Maid of Salem. An
unpublished photoplay scenario. Hollywood, California:
Paramount Pictures Corporation, 1937.
The third of a series of photoplay scenarios used in
the present comparative experiment.
Young, Waldemar, Lamb, Harold, and Riggs, Lynn, The Plains
man. An unpublished photoplay scenario. Hollywood,
California: Paramount Pictures Corporation, 1937.
Based on data from a book by Frank J. Wilstach. The
second in the series of a comparative group of scenarios
used in the present experiment.
APPENDIX
APPENDIX A
THE LAST OP THE MOHICANS ■ FORM A
Name_ __________________________ _ Age Date ___
Have you seeiT the movie? ' If sc, how many'times? ~
How long age? Eave "you read the novel? the scenario
Note: These questions are "based on the film scenario and the
photoplay, not the original novel.
True-Fa1se Questions
If the statement is true, mark-^ before the question. If false, 0
1. The colonial soldiers were not as strictly disciplined as
regular Britishers.
8, In the beginning, Hawkeye and Indian friends did not sus
pect Magus of treachery.*
3. The Eurons had a code of honor.
4. Heyward was in love with Cora.
5. Chingachgook was glad that Uncas became interested in Cora.
6. The French and Indians under Montcalm took over Ft. William
Eenry peacefully.
7. UA.cas died too soon to be the last of the Mohicans.
8. Alice fell in love with Eawkeye at first sight.
9. Alice jumped over a cliff in order to avoid Magua.
10. The Mohicans used a wolf-call as a means of getting in touch
with one another.
11. Eawkeye is the .hero of the story.
12. The wampum was the red man’s flag ef truce,
13. The time of the story can be set as the year 1789.
14. The fort was surrendered on account 'of a letter.
15. Most of the action took place near Ft. William Eenry.
Completion Questions
Fill in each of-the blanks with the'most appropriate word.
1. This stor^r was based on a novel by ' .
8. ' __________________ ___ and -ire put in prison
bVcause they helped colonial deserters.
3. Cora, Alice and party have to________ __with a _____ __f®r
protection from the French, in order to reach the fort.
4. led Keyword and the girls into a trap.
5 . ___________and _________ were both in love ^ith Alice.
6. The greatest villial? of the stor^g is_______ ___ __
7. Scalps to the Indians meant the s me as _to the
•
8. is "the most famous historical character in the
story.
9. Tengeese was the name given to the _ by the__ _ •
10. The Indians thought of the beavers as ____ • who warned them
when canoes passed by,
11. The__ Indians discovered the real (name of
characterT~by his marksmanship.
12._____ ___ w^ . lS the frontier outpost of Bn- land at the time of
the story "in the year •
1J. conducted a funeral service in the woods for two
v i ct ims"of the __ (tribe of Ind. i an s).
14. _______ shot ,__to avenge a whipping he had received
for insubordination,
15. The King of England at the time of this story was________
Name
APPENDIX A (continued)
THE LAST OF THE MOHICANS FORM B
SEX AGE PATE
187
Have you seen the movie? If so, how many times?_____________
How long ago? ________ ____Have you read the novel?___________
the scenario?__________
Note: These questions are based on the film scenario and the photo
play, not the original novel*
TRUE-FALSE QUESTIONS
If the statement is true, nark • + before the question. If false, 0
.1. Huron 'women took pleasure in torture,
2. All the Indians were governed by tribal laws,
3. Hawkeye finally succeeded in killing Magua,
4. In dueling the Indians used tomahawks.
5. The Last of the Mohicans was Chingachgook.
6. Colonel Munro was killed at his post, while beseiged by Montcalm.
7. Uncas became interested in Cora at first sight.
8. Alice Munro1s first fiance was lost at sea in naval warfare,
9. The colonials were glad to cooperate with the British..
10.Magua reported to Munro that Montcalm was near Ft, William Henry.
11.Alice, a true Britisher, resented Hawkeye’s independent attitude
toward the army,
12. ”Scout1 1 was a name applied .to the hero of this story,
13.The action took place near Lake Michigan.
14.The story is centered around the events of the Seven Years’ War.
15.The Last of the Mohicans was produced by Paramount, a company
noteworthy for its historical films.
COMPLETION QUESTIONS
Fill in each of the blanks with the m..>st appropriate word.
1* Near the end of the film story, all returned to ___where
Heyward had Hawkeye tried for__________ ,
2 . was a better shot than ________ ,
3. Back among his tribesmen, Magua. decided to marry ________
and have g killed by_________________
4. At.a __________, Montcalm asked Munro to surrender,
5 . ____ . _________is the chaplain for the colonials,
6 . ______________was the name of the trusty rifle owned by Hawkeye,
7 . _______ and__________each' wanted 1 °e kis squaw,
8 . _____ and__________ both died after th&r second escape from
the hostile Indians.
9. _ tried to substitute for ___________in rescuing Alice,
10. The__________ and____________Indian tribes were among those
fighting with the French, both quite savage,
11 . _____________ and _______joined the regular British army at
the end of the film,
12. Magua was killed by ____________in a fierce combat.
13. Hawkeye was reared by the_______k _after his parents were killed.,
14. t ! Cemper Valor” inscribed on a helped lead rescuers to find
Alice and Cora.
15. Uncas left an _ ______ ^ ____mark on a tree for his father and Hawkeye
to follow him,
APPENDIX A (continued)
THE PLAINSMAN Form A
188
Name_________ Sex_________Age_______Date______ , ' •
Have you seen the movie?_________If so how many times?____________
How long ago? "Have you read the scenario?____
True-False Questions
IfT the statement is true, mark-)— before the question If false, 0
1. Louisa tells Hickok that Co'dy has promised to reform.
' 2 , . No automobiles appear in the story.
• 3 . . Since Hickok cannot speak Indian dialects, he converses with
the red men in the sign language.
4. The captain doesn’t think Calamity will get word to Custer.
5. Lincoln is the most famous real person in the story.
6. Cody traces Hickok to give him more food supplies.
,7. The U. S. army provided the chief frontier police force.
Q. Hickok tells Calamity to use her best judgment in talking to
Yellow Hand.
9. More women than men appear in the story.
10. The plainsman was a frontiersman who helped win the west,
11. Jane doesn’t arrive at the Cody cabin in time to warn Bill.
12. Bill will never confess in so many words that he loves Jane.
n '5. Because Hickok helps Louisa ashore, Jane thinks they’re married.
14. Treachery characterized the outstanding villains..
15. The plainsmen .took great care to build:highways.
Completion Questions
Fill in each of the blanks with the most appropriate word.
1. tried, to blackmail Lattimer into outfitting them.fo
Calamity knows that she will have to face a _____ if
finds out what she did.
3. 1 1 You told Lattimer Bill was lookin’ for him— back there in Hays
City," said
4. Yellow Hand and the Indians referred to rifles as ______________ .
5. _________proposes to______■ suggesting that he settled down
like his best friend did.
6. Jake says that whoever kills________will be a big man in the west
7. The townspeople get after , suspecting________of telling
Yellow Hand.
8. "Hickok will not'tell. But Yellow Hand will know’ ." was said by
9. ____' ____ Insisted that Hickok give up his__________belts and
10. _______________and_____. _______see the ammunition train ambushed.
11. The first glimpse of Yellow Hand’s teepee shows the________bought
from^____________ .
12.. hopes to keep__________from selling rifles to Indian
13. A new rifle was introduced at the close of the Civil VN
14. "Custer said I was the only man you wouldn’t kill", was spoken
by_____________ .
15. Hickok sees the weapons in Yellow Hand’s hut and realizes they a
better than those belonging to_______________men.
APPENDIX A (continued)
THE) PLAINSMAN FO'RK B 189
Name _______________Sex________Age_______Date________________
— — ■■■ll&ve you seen the movie?_____so > h°w many times? _____
How long ago?_______________ Have you read the scenario?__
True-False Questions
If the statement is true, mark - > ■ before the question* If false, 0.
1. This story is taken from a great American novel,
2. Hickok is seen first in the uniform of a Cavalry private,
3. Indians in this story were better sportsmen than certain
whites,
4. The hero of this story is practically faultless,
5. Custer says he hasn’t the authority to shoot Clamity lane.
6. Hicko-k bets Breezy he will die.
7. Plainsmen were chiefly engaged in searching for gold.
6. In unfair gunplay, Hickok was only slightly wounded.
9, One trooper said he saw nothing to shoot at. but smoke,
10.! Bill never forgives Calamity for the trouble she caused him,
11. This story aims to present the spirit rather than the'facts
of history.
12. The Indians and whites both desire the same thing in this
story.
13. The story is chiefly concerned with doing justice to the
life of Buffalo Bill Cody.
14. It was criminal In the eyes of the army for a person to
shoot at an officer in uniform.
15. The story takes place in the Pacific Northwest.
COMPLETION QUESTIONS
Fill in each of the blanks" with the most "appropriate vr ord.
1. scarcely senses what the West is like, bringing many
hats with her,
2 . ________________ with his_________Indians plans to join Sitting
Bull" in an attempt to drive out the white men,
3. Hickok is shot in the back by___ .
4. lane was surprised to see in city clothes.
5. The boy is much more thrilled to meet_______than he is_______.
6. Calamity, tortured by seeing_______ at the stake, tells_______
the truth about the white soldiers,
7. ' _____ is an expert with a whip lash.
8. Though the jnight be right, they couldn’t drive the
__________________ away.
9e ’ ’ I'*m your prisoner, Bill. I’ll wait for you In Deadwood, ’ ’ was
spoken by __________.
10. Me Call warns lattimer that________ is on his way to see him.
11. _____ reminds Yellow Hand of their last meeting.
12. Hickok realizes that the______is a________from the size of the
boot prints in the sand.
13. Cody and Bill learn from an Indian that_________ was wiped out
with his whole batallion.
14. Under the label of the rifles were shipped to
_________ at Hays dity.
15. Custer is a _________ _in charge of forces at Hays City.
APPENDIX A (continued)
A MAID OF SALEM FORM A
190
Name_______________________
Have you seen the movie?^
How long ag^?____________'
Sex Age. Date
If so, how many times?
"Have you read the scenario?
True-False Questions
If the statement is true", mark, 4 before the question* If false,- 0,
1. Laughter and gayety were generally frowned upon in early Ameri
2. The Pacific was considered the western frontier in the story,
3. Roger was labled "fugitive", "rebel" and "traiter" to England.
4. Bilge was a humorous, good-natured, sober character.
5. The marshal was the chief of police in colonial times.
6. Barbara never learned the truth about her mother’s death.
7. Miles said, "What you have need of, is a man of character to
restrain you."
8. Witchcraft was prevalent in the colonies in the 17th century.
9. Everyone was terrified by Morse’s report of witchcraft.
10. The men sat with their own families in church.
11. The action of the story centers in Boston.
12. Barbara said, "Tituba’s only an ignorant slave trying to save
herself."
13. Fear of the unknown is characteristic of superstitious people,
14. There were no habitual drunkards in the young colonies.
15. Old grudges were paid back by the charge of "witchcraft".
16. Martha was a true friend to Barbara.
17. The colonials believed in "Spare the rod, spoil the child."
18.' People tended to live in towns with the farms outside the limits
Multiple-Choice Questions
Underline the word or words needed to complete the statement.
1. Two outstanding trouble-makers were: Magistrate, Rebecca Nurse,
Timothy, Jeremiah, Ellen, John, Town Crier, Milesj Martha, Nabby.
2. "God shall judge whefoer I have sinned" was spoken by (Martha,
Cheeves, Goody Higgins, Barbara, Rebecca Nurse)..
3. "I shall be aboye everyone else and everyone shall listen to me",
was spoken by (Abigail Goode, Nabby, Barbara, Ann, Martha).
4. Witchcraft is a product of (history, persecution, black magic,
rebellion, imagination),
5. "A saintly woman of seventy whose carriage has dignity and grace"
describes (Ellen, Martha, Rebecca Nurse, Mercy, Ann).
6. A "fortune Teller" in the story was (Mrs. Cheeves, Tituba, Mercy,
Mary Watkins, Abigail Goode),
7. Barbara’s mothor died by (earthquake, pneumonia, grief, burning,
drowning).
8. Martha suffers from (hynoptism, dropsy, paralysis, jealousy,
insanity).
9. Community fear is called (persecution, witchcraft, hysteria,
delusions, misunderstandings).
10. Part of the action takes place among (mountains, cities,
villages, deserts, factories).
1.1. The , story p.laoe about QfWO-, 177A, 1912, 1620, 1898).
APPENDIX A (continued)
A MAID OF SaEEM FORM B
191 ;
Name __________________ Sex. Age________Date , 1
Have you seen the movie? If so, how many times? ______
How long ago?___________________Have you read the scenario? .
True-False Questions
If the statement is true, mark F before the question. If false, 0.
1* Candle-making was a trade with some women in colonial times.
2* Women were hit by a hard knob if they fidgeted in church.
3. Jeremiah and Roger fear for Barbara's safety after she
helped to protect the first, "witch”.
4* Massachusetts Bay might well be called the doorway to the
New World.
5. Barbara became engaged to Miles to please her aunt*
6., Tituba was an Indian servant of the Goode family.
7. Bilge reported that he saw the devil in person,
8. Witchcraft is based on scientific data.
9. In spite of intolerance and undue fear of sinning* the
Puritans were courageous land conquerors,.
10. Barbara denied there was such a thing as witchcraft.
11. The early laws of Massachusetts gave freedom to the
individual.
12. Circumstantial evidence was mainly responsible for Barbara's
conviction,
13. The minister complimented Barbara on hejr stylish bonnet.
14. It was considered Christian-like to proitect or defend a
witch, I
15* "Faith, it's not my head is in danger riow 1" said Roger.
16. John secured a pardon for Barbara from the governor*
17. The town crier was a necessary figure in early times.
18. Products were exchanged more often than money.
Multiple-Choice Questions
Underline the word or words needed to complete the statement.
1* Two most superstitous characters were: (John, Tituba, Barbara,
Roger, Ellen, Ann^ Jeremiah, Abigail, Rebecca, Captain Edwards).
2. Witchcraft should be classed as a (mystery,, religion, super
stition, secret organization, sorority).
3. (Timothy*. Nabby, Mercy, Goody Higgins, Bilge) was threatened
with punishment in the stocks.
4. The English King at the time of this story was; (George, Albert,
Edward VII, William, Henry VIII).
5. An author who wrote a book on witchcraft was (Jonathon Edwards,
Cotton Mather, John Alden, Miles Standish, Elder Goode).
6. Ann's illness was (betwitchment, real convulsions, genuine
torture, planned deception, witchcraft persecution).
7. The gavotte is the name of a (dessert, coat, game, dance, wild
animal).
8. Jeremiah died by (hanging, paralytic stroke, drowning, shooting,
alcoholism).
9. (Miles, John;, Roger, Ezra, Morse) escaped from prison.
10, Above all, the people in this story needed more (soldiers,
judges, prisons, discipline, education).
11, A word that best describes the characters is (progressive,
humorous, Puritanical, European, frivolous) ,
APPEIDIX B
TABLES XXXV - XL
Supplementary
TABLE XXXV
DISTRIBUTION OF TEST SCORES AND GAINS
BY SEX AND TOTAL GROUP FOR PUPILS READING
THE SCRIPT. OF THE LAST OF THE MOHICANS
Initial Script Script Recall Loss
test test gain test
BOYS (H 38)
High score 20 35 26 35 20
Low score 0 3 3 3 -24
Mean 8.2 21.5 13.3 19.8 -1.7
Standard deviation 5.3 8.0 6.9 8.6 8.2
GIRLS (N 47)
High score 20
Low score 0
Mean 5.0
Standard deviation 4.4
TOTAL GROUP (N 85)
High score 20
Low score 0
Mean 6.4
Standard deviation 5.1
35 35 55 14
6 3 3 -18
20.6 15.6 18.5 -2.1
6.3 6.7 7.9 6.4
35 35 35 20
3 3 3 -24
21.0 14.6 19.1 -1.9
7.1 6.9 8.3 4.6
NOTE: This table should be read as follows: In the
study based on the film, The Last of the Mohicans, 58 boys and
47 girls formed the Script Group. In the Initial test the boys’
range was from 0 to 20, with a mean of 8.2 and a standard de
viation of 5.5; their range on the Script test was from 3 to
35 with a mean of 21.5 and a standard deviation of 8.0; their
gains ranged from 3 to 26 with a mean of 13.3 and a standard
deviation of 6.9. When tested for retention, their range was
from 3 to 35 with a mean of 19.8 and a standard deviation of
8.6, making a range of loss from -24 to 20 with a mean of -1.7
and a standard deviation of 8.2. The results for the girls
and for the total group are read in the same way.
194
TABLE XXXVI
DISTRIBUTION OF TEST SCORES AND GAINS
BY SEX.AND.TOTAL GROUP FOR PUPILS SEEING
THE FILM, THE LAST OF THE MOHICANS■
Initial
test
Film
test
Film
gain
Recall
test
Loss
BOYS ' (N 65)
High score 23 38 35 35 11
Low score 0 6 3 3 -27
Mean 7.3 27.0 19.7 20.0 -7.0
Standard deviation 3.2 5.7 7.2 6.5 6.0 .
GIRLS (N 87)
High score 20 38 35 32 8
Low score 0 9 6 0 -24
Mean
7.0 25.5 18.5 17.5 -8.0
Standard deviation 5.9 5.5 7.0 6.7 6.5
TOTAL GROUP (N 152)
High score 23 38 35 35 11
Low score 0 6 3 0 -27
Mean 7.6 26.1 18.5 18.8 -7.3
Standard deviation 6.5 5.6 7.1 6.8 6.3
NOTE: This table should be read in the same way as
the preceding table.
195
TABLE XXXVII
DISTRIBUTION OF TEST SCORES AND GAINS
BY SEX AND TOTAL GROUP FOR PUPILS
SEEING THE FILM, THE PLAINSMAN
Initial Film Film Recall Loss
test test gain test
BOYS (N 44)
High score 23 58 38 35 2
Low score 0 12 3 3 -21
Mean 7.6 29.5 21.9 21.9 -7.6
Standard deviation 5.9 6.3 7.9 8.1 5.3
GIRLS (N 58)
High score 20 38 35 35 14
Low score 0 15 9 3 -24
Mean 6.0 28.8 22.8 19.4 -9.4
Standard deviation 5.6 4.9 6.6 7.1 7.1
23 38 38 35 14
0 12 3 3 -24
7.3 29.1 21.8 20.5 -8.6
6.2 5.6 7.2 7.7 6.5
NOTE: This table should be read in the same way as
the preceding table.
TOTAL GROUP (N 102)
High score
low score
Mean
Standard deviation
196
TABLE XXXVIII
DISTRIBUTION OF TEST SCORES AND GAINS
BY SEX AND TOTAL GROUP FOR PUPILS
READING THE SCRIPT OF THE PLAINSMAN
Initial Script Script Recall Loss
test test gain gain
BOYS (N 28)
High score 29 40 35 38 14
Low score . 0 21 6 12 -18
Mean 7.8 32.0 24.2 30.3 -1.7
Standard deviation 6.7 4.4 6.8 6.2 5.8
GIRLS (N 39)
High score 23
Low score 0
Mean 7 • 6
Standard deviation 4,7
TOTAL GROUP (N 67)
High score 29
Low score 0
Mean 7,7
Standard deviation 5.7
NOTE: This table should be read in the same way as
the preceding table.
38 38
21 9
30.5 22.9
3.8 5.3
40 38
,~21 6
31.1 23.4
4.1 6.0
38 8
21 -12
29.2 -1.3
4 . < £ ) 3.9
38 14
12 -18
29.6 -1.5
5.2 5.2
197
TABLE XXXIX
DISTRIBUTION OF TEST SCORES AND GAINS
BY SEX AND TOTAL GROUP FOR PUPILS READING
TEE SCRIPT OF THE MAID OF SALEM
Initial
test
Script
test
Script
gain
Recall
test
Loss
BOYS (N 32)
High score 23 29 29 29 14
Low score 0 12 0 6 -12
Mean 7.9 23.7 15.8 22.7 -1.0
Standard deviation 7.9 3.4 8.1 4.8 4.5
GIRLS (N 16)
High score 20 29 29 29 8
Low score 0 15 6 15 -9
Mean 6.3 23.9 17.6 24 ;i .2
Standard deviation 7.1 3.2 7.7 3.1 3.9
TOTAL GROUP (N 48)
High score 23 29 29 29 14
Low score 0 12 0 6 -12
Mean 7.4 23.8 16.4 23.1 -.7
Standard deviation 7.7 3.3 7.9 4.4 3.1
NOTE: This-table should be read in the same way as
the preceding table*
198
TABLE XL
DISTRIBUTION OF TEST SCORES AND GAINS
BY SEX AND TOTAL GROUP FOR PUPILS
SEEING THE FILM, THE MAID OF SALEM
Initial Film Film Recall Loss
test test gain test
BOYS (N 60)
High score 23 29 29 29 8
Low score 0 15 0 9 -15
Mean 11,6 23,3 11.7 21.0 -2.3
Standard deviation 6.9 3.2 6.9 4.0 3.9
GIRLS (N 74)
High score 23 29 26 29 5
Lo?/ score 0 15 0 6 -12
Mean 11.1 23.0 11.9 21.2 -1.8
Standard deviation 7.3 2.6 7.3 3.7 3.4
TOTAL GROUP (N 134)
High score 23 29 29 29 8
Low score 0 15 0 6 -15
Mean 11.3 23.1 11.8 21.1 -2.0
Standard deviation 7.2 2.9 6.9 3.8 3.7
NOTE: This table should be read in the same way as
the preceding table.
APPENDIX C
CREDITS
Barry i« Goetz
Presents
The JAMES FENIMORE COOPER Classic
THE LAST OF THE MOHICANS
with
RANDOLPH SCOTT BINNIE BARNES
HENRY WILCOXON
and
Bruce Cabot Heather Angel
Phillip Reed Robert Barrat
Hugh Buckler Willard Robertson
Directed by
George B. Seitz
Screen Play by Philip Dunne
From an Adaptation by
John Balderston, Paul Perez and Daniel Moore
.A Reliance Picture
Produced by EDWARD SMALL
Released through United Artists
2 0 0
THE LAST OF THE MOHICANS
Cast of Characters
Hawkeye (Colonial Scout) ............ . Randolph Scott
Alice Munro .............. Binnie Barnes
Cora Munro • ••••.•••••• . , • Heather Angel
Col* Munro (British father of girls) • . Hugh Buckler
Ma^ Duncan Heyward (British) * * * . . Henry Wilcoxon
Magua (treacherous spy) •••••••• Bruce Cahot
Chingachgook (Mohican chief)..........Robert Barrat
Uncas (his son) ,••••••••••• Phillip Reed
Capt. Winthrop (Colonial) • •••••• Willard Robertson
David Gamut (Colonial) ......... Frank Me Glynn, Sr.
Jenkins (Heywardls orderly) *...*. Will Stanton
THE STAFF
Photography ............... • Robert Planck, A. S. C,
Musical Director •••••••••• Nathaniel Shilkret
Research Director ••*•••••• Edward P. Lambert
Gowns • •••••••••»,.•• Franc Smith
Film Editor ..... .......... . Jack Dennis
Art Director • •...••••••• John Dueasse Schulze
Assistant Director ••••••••• Clem Beauchamp
Recording ........ ........ John L. Case
CREDITS
Adolph Zukor
Presents
GARY COOPER JEAN ARTHUR
in
THE PLAINSMAN
with
James Ellison Helen Burgess
Charles Bickford Porter Hall
Directed and Produced by
Cecil B, DeMille
Screen Play by Lynn Riggs,
Waldemar Young, Harold Lamb
Based on Data from Book by
Frank J* Wilstach
A Paramount Picture
/
i
7
i*JL - r
L V ”-^ ' - '
I ^
Z V ^ T ^ ' - * ' '4y&ttS3?»» * W h * j 2 t ' ■ ' A T
- * T>’ . **'^ - $- 'W f. . ^ !> '■'xwr ht/Tz' * ( . 0 , Z
***'• ~*‘ / - -‘
^ ^ ^ ' • *. y*'- ; - ^ ♦
Gary C ooper and Jean Arthur in the C ecil B. DeM ille production. " T h e Plainsman, w ith
C harles Bickford, Jam es Ellison. Porter Hall, V ictor V arconi,
H elen Burgess and John Miljan. A Paramount Picture.
j
• K ^ S
Copyright 1936. Paramount Pictures Inc.
Permission granted for Newspaper and
Magazine reproduction. (Made in U.S.A.)
205
THE PLAINSMAN
Cast of Characters
Wild Bill Hickok • ••••••••... Gary Cooper
Calamity Jane • • • ••• ••• ••••• Jean Arthur
Buffalo Bill Cody • ••••••••«•• James Ellison
John Lattimer.............. . . . . . . Charles Bickford
Louisa Cody . . . . .............. . . • Helen Burgess
Jack McCall • ••.•••. . Porter Hall
Yellow Hand . . . . . . . . ............. Paul Harvey
Painted Horse ............. . ........... Victor Vareoni
Gen. George A. Custer................... John Miljan
Young Trooper • ••..•• ••• ••• . Frank Albertson
Abraham Lincoln ............. Frank Me Glynn
Van Ellyn ........... Granville Bates
Capt. Wood ........................Purnell Pratt
J a k e ................. ..................Fred Kohler
Breezy « •• • •• • •• • • •• • •. . George Hayes
Sgt. McGinnis............................Pat Moriarty
Tony, the Barber ........... Charles Judels
THE STAFF
Photography Victor Milner, A* S. C.
and George Robinson, A. S. C.
Art Direction ••••••.•.. Hans Dreier and Roland
Anderson
Musical Director «••••••• Boris Morros
204
CREDITS
Adolph Zukor
Presents
CLAUDETTE COLBERT FRED MACMURRAY
in
MAID OF S^LEM
with
Harvey Stephens Gale Sondergaard
Louise Dresser Edward Ellis
Virginia Weidler Bonita Granville
Directed and Produced by
Frank Lloyd
Screen Play
by
Walter Ferris, Bradley King and
Durward Grinstead
From a Story by Bradley King
4 Paramount Picture
I
\
Claudette Colbert and Fred MacMurray in the Frank Lloyd Production, "Maid O f Salem," with Harvey Stephens,
copynght 19 36 , Paramount picture* inc. Louise Dresser, Gale Sondergaard, Edward Ellis, E. E. Clive, Mary T reen, Bonita Granville,
Magazine reproduction. (Made in U &A .) Virginia W eidler and Bennie Bartlett. Directed by Frank Lloyd. A Paramount Picture.
MAID OF SALEM
Cast of Characters
Barbara Clarke , . ,
• Claudette Colbert
Boger Coverman • • , • Fred MacMurray
Dr. John Harding • , • Harvey Stephens
Martha Harding . . . Gale Sondergaard
Ellen Clarke . . . , • Louise Dresser
Nathaniel Goode • « , • Edward Ellis
Nabby Goode « * . . , Virginia Weidler
Thomas Ezekial Bilge
Ann Goode . • « . , Bonita Granville
Timothy Clarke • . «
THE STAFF
. Bennie Bartlett
Photography . . • ♦ , . Leo Tover, A* S*C.
Musical Director • , • Boris Morros
Original Music • • , • Victor Young
Costume Designer . , . Travis Benton
Art Directors . ♦ « • Hans Dreier and
Bernard Herzbrun
Interior Decoration , . A. E. Freudeman
Film Editor • . • • , • Hugh Bennett
Assistant Director , • William Tummel
Recording ........ • Gene Merritt and
Louis Masenkop
APPENDIX D
INTRODUCTION TO A SCENARIO VERSION OF A PHOTOPLAY
Arthur L. Marble
University of Southern California
Folks in the film studios have given this book such names as
"screen play", "scenario", and "shooting script ;, but alter all it
is just a plan, told in words, of a story that is to be made into
sound pictures. It is written to make it easier for producers,
directors, actors, cameramen, soundmen and many others to cooperate
in the making of a photoplay.
In a way, a moving picture is only partly created when it
issues from the studio. The other half of creation takes place whe
you join the audience and find pleasure in the story. So a success
ful photoplay is a product of a partnership of workers in the film
studio and intelligent audiences in the theatre.
It seems, then, that the studio workers are not the only ones
who need this story. Perhaps you can gain greater enjoyment of the
film through an acquaintance with the word-plan that provides a
foundation for the narrative told on the screen. It is very likely
that just as this book helped the studio-artists create their share
of an interesting picture, it can also help the audience make of
this creation a more perfect partnership.
COMMON TERMS IN A SCENARIO
CLOSE-UP— A scene photographed with the action or subjects near th
camera,
CUT-BACK— An abrupt stop to show a previous action, indicating a
lapse of time.
DISSOLVE— Dimming a figure or scene, quickly replacing with some
thing new, thus unifying it with the previous scene.
DOLLY-SHOT— A scene made while moving the camera on a carriage,
called "dolly", to follow the action on the set.
FADE-IN— A figure or scene gradually appears on a dark screen.
FADE-OUT— A character or scene disappears gradually, making the
screen dark.
LAP-DISSOLVE— A shot in which the scene fades-, blending with the
next, one which gradually becomes more brilliant.
LONG-SHOT— The camera is made to use the entire angle of view in
order to take scenes at a distance, or perhaps an entire room
full of characters.
PANORAMA or PAN— The camera is rotated while photographing the
scene, still without changing the position of the tripod. Thus
the effect is similar to that seen when viewing objects from a
car in motion.
SHOT— A scene taken from a single camera position,
"A play ought to be an image of
human nature conceived for the
delight and instruction of mankind."
INSTITUTE OF CHARACTER RESEARCH
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
I
“THE LAST OF THE MOHICANS”
A RELIANCE PICTURE
SCENARIO VERSION
FADE INTO:
1. STOCK SHOT * EXT. COURTYARD - ST. JAMES’ PALACE CEREMONY
OF CHANGING THE GUARD
Over this -
TITLE:
THE SEVEN YEARS* WAR SHAKES EUROPE FRANCE AND
ENGLAND FIGHT ON-THREE CONTINENTS . WITH NORTH
AMERICA AT STAKE WILLIAM PITT, THE GREAT COMMONER
HAS REQUESTED AN AUDIENCE WITH BRITAIN’S MONARCH, ,
"GERMAN GEORGE"
2. MED. SHOT - KING GEORGE II, PITT, NEWCASTLE, MARLBOROUGH
AND HEYWARD *
175?f
George is seated at table, Pitt, half-turned from CAMERA
is standing. On the back of George’s chair is
the royal coat of arms, similar to that on the wall
above the mantel-piece. The King, wearing ribbon of
the Garter^, is a little old man. As he munches the
sausage he'studies the map spread before him. Newcastle
stands at one side, Marlborough"next to Pitt and Heyward.
NEWCASTLE
( cLS we come in)
Your Majesty - North America isn’t worth the
trouble. Let fSontcalin invade it - withdraw our
forces there - and concentrate our armies here
in Europe, - the main theatre of war.
KING
(munching)
Newcastle wants to give the country back to the
Indians. What do you propose, Mr. Pitt?
PITT
(quietly)
To reinforce Colonel Munro at Albany, Sire, move
General Webb up in support - and sweep the French
from North America - as We're doing in India!
NEWCASTLE
(disgusted)
For a wilderness!
(continued)
PITT
(quietly)
For the raw material of an Empire, Sire.
The King nods, impressed.
KING
And what does the Duke of Marlborough
think?
MARLBOROUGH
I agree with Mr. Pitt entirely, Sire.
KING
Is the War Office prepared?
MARLBOROUGH
Major Heyward -
(indicates Heyward )
is ready to take the next packet to the
Americas, He will carry our dispatches
and remain as second-in-command to Colonel
Munro.
KING
(to Heyward)
Do you think you’ll find any difficulty
adapting yourself to a new country, Major?
HSYVAiRD
The British army has always; adapted a new
country to England, Sire,
King nods and smiles.
- KING
Proceed, Mr. Pitt. You have .carte. blanche
PITT
Thank you, Sire.
They exit.
NEWCASTLE .
(after they have gone)
Your Majesty! Pitt's mad as a hatter.
KING
Mad, is he? Well, I wish he’d bite some
of my other ministers. '
He picks up magnifying glass, holds it over map,
CLOSE SHOT - GLASS ON MAP
We see Royal Province of New York. Then as focus
narrows down, one words
2 1 0
FADE INTO:..
4. MINIATURE FULL SHOT ALBANY - NIGHT
Showing the town as it appeared at that time.
Superimposed ..is a title:
ALBANY
FRONTIER OUTPOST OF
HIS MAJESTY’S ROYAL
PROVINCE.OF NEW YORK
The title disappears.
DISSOLVE TO:
5. EXT. ALBANY TOWN SQUARE - NIGHT - MED. SHOT
(MUSIC offscene)
Showing facades of several solidly Dutch-built-houses,
a small church and a tavern. From the lighted windows
of the largest house issue the strains of a string trio
playing a Gluck minuet. In foreground are several neat
army tents patrolled by sentries in mitre-shaped helmets.
A small park of cannon and round shot. British and
Colonial soldiers in scene as well as a sprinkling of
civilians of both sexes.
6. pLASH MED. SHOT - NEAR OPEN WINDOW OF PATROON’S HOUSE
A. number of British soldiers and their girls are grouped
here. They are watching---
/
7. CLOSE SHOT OF THE PATROON’S WINDOW
Inside, a number of officers and ladies are dancing a
minuet.
8. CLOSE SHOT - TWO SOLDIERS •
Gazing the opposite direction - they grin.
9. FLASH CLOSE SHOT-TWO BRITISH SOLDIERS
Dancing. They exaggerate grotesquely the stately
movements of the minuet.. Colonial and British soldiers
in scene laugh at the two men’s antics.
10. FLASH CLOSE SHOT - SEVERAL COLONIAL MILITIA MEN
One of them seated, plays a flute, while ano*ther
Colonial does a how-down to the measured hand-clapping
heard above music of offscene stringed trio.
2 1 1
11.
12.
13.
MED.
FLASH CLOSE SHOT - GROUP OF BRITISH SOLDIERS
Gathered about a beerkeg as one of the troopers fills
their eagerly extended tankards.
CLOSE SHOT - AT CAMPFIRE
Several British soldiers are shooting dice. Lolling be
side them a couple of blowsy women - camp-followers. One
of the soldiers finishes raking some coppers, his
girl helping him. He hugs the tipsy girl.
SOLDIER
You’ve brought me ruddy good luck.’
’ ere —
He extends a tankard, holds it to her lips.
CAMERA TILTS TO %
CLOSE SHOT - Gamut
a lank, Puritan chaplain, stern and grim-visaged; however,
beneath his auster facade one senses that he has a twinkle
of huiiior, and a deal of sincerity. He eyes the embracing'
couple and the dice game with disdain.
GAMUT
A pretty picture — with victory and
death in the offing, you dice for gold.
The woman regards him scornfully, as the men continue
their game.
COCKNEY WOMAN
And what can’t you buy with gold, mv
’Oliness?
GAMUT
You can misspend gold and make more --
but you can’t misspend a life and buy
back your soul.
SOLDIER
table)
starts to pick up money)
GAMUT
(to soldier)
Your point, my good man, was eight,
not nine.
(at
Made it.
(he
13. (Cont.)
2 1 2
Gamut walks out of scene as the--other player regards the
.soldier who has tried to cheat, and the cheater, who
slowly puts down the money. .
CUT TO:
14. MED. LONG SHOT- EXT. ALBANY SQUARE
Gamut comes out, and walks out of scSne, passing two
loafers; First and Second Colonial Soldiers. As Gamut
' -passes out of scene, the sounds of horses hoofs are heard
approaching, and in a moment Heyward, and his orderly,
Jenkins ride up in a four-horse coach, heavily laden with
haggage.
HEYWARD
You there! 'Direct me to Colonel Munro!
He starts to leave the coach.
15, CLOSE SHOT- TWO COLONIALS ,
as seen by Heyward and Jenkins.
Without taking his pipe from"his mouth, the second
Colonial thumbs over his shoulder in direction of Patroon’s
residence offscene.
2ND COLONIAL
In there.
16. CLOSE SHOT- HEYWARD AND JENKINS
Heyward makes his way toward the patroon’s house. Jenkins
addresses the Colonial.
JENKINS
(officiously)
Are you in the habit of addressing an
officer with a pipe in your mouth?
The second Colonial eyes Jenkins coolly, replies with
disarming gravity as he momentarily removes his pipe.
2ND COLONIAL
(thoughtfully)
No-o-o. Sometimes I chew snuff.
Jenkins glares at the Colonial then stalks to Heyward's
baggage.
213
6.
17. MED*. ^ SHOT - JENKINS
Having difficulty removing Heyward’s two trunks
from the carriage The first Colonial strolls in
to scene, gives him a hand.
JENKINS
Thanks, matey.
1ST COLONIAL
The Major travels light, don’t he?
His irony is wasted on Jenkins.
JENKINS
Oh, ’ e don’t mind roughing it.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

A study of teacher expectancy induction as related to expectancy information, teacher dogmatism, and student sex

PDF

The role of person similarity in the social influence process: A reexamination of attribution theory predictions

PDF

A study of certain aspects of the junior college curriculum

PDF

Curricular preferences and transfer decisions as related to selected respondent information characteristics

PDF

Parental satisfaction with evaluation and planning team conferences: Effects of role expectations and participation

PDF

A study of the effects of temporal integration of intersubject variability in backward masking

PDF

The effects of phenothiazine on rote learning and on concept formation in human adults with schizophrenia

PDF

Outer-directedness as a function of qualitative social deprivation as exhibted by nonretarded and retarded children

PDF

An exploratory investigation of women's studies in selected institutions of higher education with emphasis upon the historical background of the status of women and the special needs of women in ...

PDF

A comparative study of the self-esteem and behavioral adjustment of geographically mobile and non-mobile fifth- and sixth-grade school children

PDF

Locus of control and effort vs. ability attribution: Relevance to institutionalized delinquents

PDF

The middle class educator and minority-poverty youth: An analysis of the reactions of educators to selected experiences in the cultural milieu of disadvantaged youth

PDF

Adverse reactions to medications prescribed for hyperkinesis

PDF

The role of emotions in the theory and the practice of psychotherapy

PDF

Evaluation of an alternative school program: Affective change and cognitive achievements of eleventh and twelfth grade students

PDF

A comparative study of a book-centered course versus a machine-centered course in adult reading improvement

PDF

A comparative study of the personality of only and non-only males of seventeen and eighteen years

PDF

Teacher training programs in art education in the United States

PDF

Teacher selections of emotionally handicapped pupils in grades four, five, and six compared with selections of A Process for in-school screening of children with emotional handicaps

PDF

Mental health factors associated with social acceptance and social rejection

Asset Metadata

Creator Marble, Arthur Lawrence (author)

Core Title Selected historical photoplays and scenarios as extra-curricular aids in eleventh grade social studies: A comparative study

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, Social Sciences,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-398427

Unique identifier UC11244098

Identifier usctheses-c26-398427 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP23450.pdf

Dmrecord 398427

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Marble, Arthur Lawrence

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA