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The evolution of business education in the United States and its implications for the preparation of secondary teachers of business subjects

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The evolution of business education in the United States and its implications for the preparation of secondary teachers of business subjects

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Content THE EVOLUTION OF BUSINESS EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOE THE PREPARATION OF SECONDARY TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School and of the School of Education University of Southern California. In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy By Jessie Graham June, 1933 UMI Number: DP23434 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI DP23434 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 This thesis, written under the direction of the candidate's Faculty Committee and approved by all its members, has been presented to and ac cepted by the Council on Graduate Study and Research in partial fulfillm ent of the require ments for the degree of .................... Date Junsj»..19§3 Faculty Committee . . P . r . 9 f e s . s . Q r . . . W e . e r . s x 3 a g . .... Chairman ...En&£a£AQr...£Qrd........ Professor Lefever Professor Haynes Professor Mc^lung Professor Leonard ec-r-e.tary Dean ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author of this study desires to express appre ciation especially to Dr. Frederick J. Weersing, Chairman of the Guidance Committee on Studies, and to the members of the Committee for advice and help during the progress of the investigation. The cooperation of more than six hundred adminis trators and teachers in business-teacher-training insti tutions, junior colleges, senior high schools, and junior high schools who answered inquiry blanks, sent catalogs and curricula,' and gave helpful information is deeply appreciated. Gratitude is due to the students of San Jose State Teachers College who aided in the work for the excellence of the secretarial service rendered by them. The cooperation of the staff of the library of the University of Southern California; Miss Joyce Backus, Librarian of the San Jose State Teachers College; and Miss Rosemary Livesey of the Los Angeles Public Library, in making available from other libraries several un published research studies, is very much appreciated. Jessie Graham. ADVISERS Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Rockwell D. Hunt Dean of the Graduate School Lester B. Rogers Dean of the School of Education GUIDANCE COMMITTEE ON STUDIES Frederick J. ?sfeersing, Chairman, Professor of Education Willard S. Ford Professor of Education and Assistant to the Dean of the School of Education Benjamin R. Haynes Associate Professor of Commerce and Education D. Welty Lefever Associate Professor of Education Reid L. McClung Professor of Economics and Dean of the College of Commerce and Business Administration Dr. Joy Luther Leonard Professor of Economics PLAN OF THE STUDY The study is divided into four parts. Part I, consisting of Chapters I, II, and III, is introductory, being devoted to the orientation of the problem in its educational setting. Chapter I deals with the delimitation and validation of the problem a,nd its analysis into eleven subsidiary problems form ing the titles of the chapters which make up the body of the report; Chapter II presents a detailed history of the problem as revealed by previous investigations and the related litera ture; and Chapter III sets forth the sources of data and general procedure adopted for the investigation. Part II, beginning the main body of the report, consists of five chapters analyzing past and current aims and curricula of secondary business education in an effort to set up practical and realistic criteria for the evaluation and improvement of business-teacher education. Part III, consisting also of five chapters, is devoted to a study of present practices and current trends in the training of secondary teachers of business as revealed by the National Survey of the Education of Teachers, by an analysis of curricula devised for this purpose in higher institutions of learning, and by a study of the requirements set up by administrators who employ such teachers. Part IV, the final portion of the study, consists of two chapters embodying, first, an evaluation of current practices in business-teacher education; and, secondly, a summary of findings, conclusions, and recommendations growing out of the study. TABLE OF CONTENTS PART I THE PROBLEM Chapter I - DELIMITATION, VALIDATION, AND ANALYSIS OF THE PROBLEM........................... . . . 1 A. DELIMITATION OF THE PROBLEM 1 The problem limited to a study of business educa tion in the United States; the problem limited to secondary business education; the problem limited to phases upon which objective data may be secured. Education is a social force; in an economic age, business education plays an important role in mak ing effective this social force; the teacher has a vital part in carrying out the educational pro gram; teachers of business subjects carry a heavy share of the responsibility of administering educa tion as a social force; the preparation of teach ers of business subjects has an effect upon present and future business education. C. ANALYSIS OF THE PROBLEM........................ 8 History of secondary business education and of business-teacher preparation in the United States; past aims and curricula; sources of aims and cur ricula; present aims and curricula; trends in the aims and curricula; the preparation of secondary business teachers as revealed by the National Survey of the Education of Teachers; curricula devised for the preparation of secondary business teachers as revealed by previous studies; present curricula; trends in curricula; requirements in employing institutions; an evaluation of present curricula devised for the preparation of teachers of business subjects in terms of the present aims and curricula of secondary business education. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER........................... 13 B. VALIDATION OF THE PROBLEM 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS ii Chapter Page II - HISTORY AND PRESENT STATUS OF THE PROBLEM ... 15 A. HISTORY OF BUSINESS EDUCATION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS.................................... 16 Gordon’s study of the development of commercial curricula in high schools; Young’s study of the development of business education in public high schools. B. AIMS AND CURRICULA OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCA TION ..................................... 17 Investigation of social studies made by the Association of Collegiate Schools of Business. C. PRESENT STATUS OF BUSINESS EDUCATION AS REVEALED BY STATE-WIDE STUDIES ............. 18 Burden’s study of business education in Indiana; Sollars’ study of business education in Indiana in 1928; Blackstone’s study of business educa tion in Iowa; O’Brien’s study of' business educa tion Kansas; Lawrence’s investigation of busi ness education in Kentucky; Weersing’s study of business education in Minnesota; Della Young’s survey of commercial education in Montana; Helmstadter*s study of trends in business educa- in Nebraska; Rice’s comparison of business education in New Jersey in 1916 and 1928; Lehmann’s investigation of the status of busi ness education in New Mexico; Frost’s study of business education in Oklahoma in 1924; Clevenger’s study of business education in Oklahoma; Helen Reynold’s investigation of busi ness education in Ohio; Daring’s survey of busi ness education in Ohio; Katherine Killgallon’s study of business education in Pennsylvania; Phillips’ study of business education in Tennessee. D. JUNIOR-HIGH-SCHOOL BUSINESS EDUCATION ....... 30 Summary of studies in the "junior commerce curric ulum" made previous to 1927; Glass’ study of the business curriculum in the junior high school; Haynes’ survey of elementary business training in the public junior high schools of the United States. TABLE OF CONTENTS iii Chapter Page II - (Continued) E. BUSINESS EDUCATION IN THE JUNIOR COLLEGE .... 32 La Dow’s survey of commercial education in the junior college; Koos* report of the present status of business education in the junior college; Virginia Moses* study of the articula tion between business education in the junior colleges and in higher institutions; Fullenwider’s survey of junior-college business education. F. UNIVERSITY EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS............. 34 Survey by Bossard and Dewhurst of university education for business. G. TRAINING"FOR LEADERSHIP IN BUSINESS EDUCATION . . 35 Atkinson’s survey of commercial education in secondary schools. H. CURRICULA SET UP FOR THE EDUCATION OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS . ........................ 36 Ida D. Henton’s collection of data on commercial curricula in teacher training institutions of the United States, made in 1927; study made by P.O. Selby in 1927 on the status of shorthand and type writing in the colleges of the North Central Association; Ruth Hoadley’s investigation of the present status of commercial teacher training in public institutions; Tonne’s study of commercial teacher training. I. PRESENT EDUCATIONAL AND PROFESSIONAL STATUS OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS ............... 39 Runkle’s survey of the training received by the teachers of business subjects in Ohio; investiga tion by Frances Effinger-Raymond and Elizabeth S. Adams into the "educational equipment and needs of the commercial teachers of California; Walters* investigation of the specialization of commercial, teachers in Pennsylvania; Kuykendall’s study of commercial,English, mathematics, and science teachers in Pennsylvania; Pinkel’s study of the TABLE OF CONTENTS iv Chapter Page II - (Continued) changing status of commercial teachers in Penn sylvania; Lomax* comparative study of commercial, English, mathematics, and science teachers in the state of New Jersey; Riee’s 1932 study of New Jersey commercial teachers; Elizabeth Baker’s report of comparative qualifications of commercial teachers and other teacher groups; Noble’s study of the status of teachers of business subjects in North Carolina; File’s study of Illinois teachers of business subjects; Lawrence’s study of the com parative status of teachers of business and of academic subjects. J. ANALYSIS OF THE DIFFICULTIES AND DUTIES OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS........................... 47 Frances Mathews’ analysis of the duties and dif ficulties of teachers of shorthand, bookkeeping and typewriting; Luvicy Hill’s study of the prob lems met by teachers of business subjects. K. SUPPLY AND DEMAND OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS 49 Neuner’s study of supply and demand of teachers of business subjects in New York City; Neuner’s study of supply and demand of teachers of business sub jects in New York state exclusive of New York City; study of teacher supply and demand made by California State Department of Education; study of supply and demand made by National Education Association; Overn’s study of supply and demand; Malott’s report of the inadequacy of commercial teacher-training facilities. L. STATE CERTIFICATION REQUIREMENTS ................. 51 Reed’s investigation of state certification require ments; Kelley’s study of trends in business educa tion certification. M. TEACHER-TRAINING STUDIES IN OTHER FIELDS .......... 52 Y.M.C.A. survey of the viewpoints of three hun dred instructors and administrators; Charters and Waples’ teacher-training study; study by Hughes and Melby of the "training of the staff; summary of ten teacher-training investigations. TABLE OF CONTENTS v Chapter II - {Continued) SUMMARY OF CHAPTER gage 55 III - SOURCES OF DATA AND PROCEDURES USED IN INVESTIGA- A. PAST AND CURRENT AIMS AND CURRICULA OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES AS A CRITERION FOR THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. ... 58 The history of secondary business education and of business-teacher preparation in the United States; past aims and curricula; sources of aims and curricula; present aims and curricula; trends in the aims and curricula of secondary business education. B. THE PREPARATION OF BUSINESS TEACHERS IN THE UNITED STATES AND STANDARDS SET UP IN EMPLOYING INSTI^ TUT IONS............................. 59 The present preparation of secondary business teachers; curricula devised for the preparation of secondary business teachers as revealed by previous studies; present curricula; trends in curricula; standards set up in employing insti tutions. C. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS............. 62 IV - A BRIEF HISTORY OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION AND OF BUSINESS-TEACHER PREPARATION IN THE UNITED TION 58 PART II PAST AND CURRENT AIMS AND CURRICULA OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES AS CRITERIA FOR THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS. STATES 64 TABLE OF CONTENTS vi Chapter Page IV - (Continued) A. COLONIAL PERIOD............................... 65 Private teachers; business courses in grammar schools; apprenticeship; colonial evening schools; textbooks; business-teacher education. B. PERIOD OF STRUGGLE FOR NATIONAL COMMERCIAL AND ECONOMIC INDEPENDENCE.......................... 69 Business training In the academy; business-teacher education. C. PERIOD OF ECONOMIC INTEGRATION AND INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATION................................... 78 The public high school and the separate high school of commerce; the junior college; the junior high school; corporation schools and certain other sub-collegiate institutions for business training; the university school of business; business- teacher education. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER................ 95 V - SOURCES OF AIMS AND CURRICULA IN SECONDARY BUSI NESS EDUCATION . . .......................... 99 A. EDUCATIONAL SOURCES OF AIMS AND CURRICULA IN SEC ONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION .................... 99 Tradition; procedures in other institutions; local and state school administration and financial sta tus; teacher preparation and interests; enrollment trends; reorganization in general secondary educa tion. B. SOCIOLOGICAL— OTHER THAN EDUCATIONAL— SOURCES OF AIMS AND CURRICULA IN BUSINESS EDUCATION..........107 Informal study of social and economic changes in the United States; formal sociological research. C. PSYCHOLOGICAL SOURCES OF THE AIMS AND CURRICULA OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION.................114 TABLE OF CONTENTS vii Chapter V - (Continued) Page D. PHILOSOPHICAL SOURCES OF THE AIMS AND CURRICULA OF BUSINESS EDUCATION ...................... 115 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 118 VI - PAST AIMS AND CURRICULA OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION ............................... 121 A. PAST AIMS OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION . . . . 123 Past aims of business education as expressed in forty-seven published statements; past aims as stated by seventy-four teachers; quotations from typical early writings on business education. B. PAST CURRICULA OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION . . 131 The results of a detailed analysis of twenty-nine business curricula; the findings of other curric ulum studies in business education. C. THE INFLUENCE OF THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION UPON AIMS AND CURRICULA. ... 140 The emphasis placed upon the aim of training for clerkships and the importance of bookkeeping, shorthand, and typewriting in the curriculum; the infrequency of the expression of the social aim of business education; the expression of the aim of mental discipline; the requirement of tradi tional college-preparatory subjects in business curricula. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER............................ 143 VII - PRESENT AIMS AND CURRICULA OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION........... 145 A. AIMS OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION, 1919 to 1933 145 A summary of 125 statements of aims made by forty- six writers; the findings of other objective studies of the aims of. secondary business educa tion; a comparative study of findings. TABLE OF CONTENTS viii Chapter VII - (Continued) B. CURRICULA OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION, 1919 TO 1933 ..................................... Analysis of fifty-two curricula in business educa tion, 1919 to 1928; analysis of forty-four curricula in business education, 1929 to 1933. C. AIMS AND CURRICULA OF JUNIOR-HIGH SCHOOL BUSINESS EDUCATION................................... Evolution of aims and curricula of business educa tion in the junior high school; present aims of junior-high-school business education; curricula of junior-high-school business education. D. AIMS AND CURRICULA OF JUNIOR-COLLEGE BUSINESS EDUCATION ................................. Aims of junior-college business education; curric ula of junior college business education. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER............................ VIII - TRENDS IN THE AIMS AND CURRICULA OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION. . . ...................... A. TRENDS IN TOPICS DISCUSSED BY LEADERS IN THE FIELD B. TRENDS IN AIMS OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION . C. TRENDS IN CURRICULA OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCA TION...................................... D. TRENDS IN JUNIOR-HIGH-SCHOOL BUSINESS EDUCATION . E. TRENDS IN JUNIOR-COLLEGE-BUSINESS EDUCATION . . . F. SUMMARY WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION............................... IX - THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF THE UNITED STATES AS REVEALED BY THE NATIONAL.SURVEY OF THE EDUCATION Page 155 166 169 172 175 175 178 179 182 183 183 OF TEACHERS 187 TABLE OF CONTENTS ix Chapter Page IX - (Continued) A. DEGREES EARNED............ 188 B. HIGHEST LEVEL OF TRAINING.............. 191 C. CREDITS EARNED IN BUSINESS SUBJECTS ........... 195 D. CREDITS EARNED IN PRACTICE TEACHING........... 196 E. CREDITS EARNED IN "EDUCATION” COURSES ......... 196 F. NUMBER OF DIFFERENT FIELDS IN WHICH TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS OFFER INSTRUCTION . .:........ 198 G. NEXT MAIN FIELD OF TEACHING FOR INSTRUCTORS WHOSE MAJOR FIELD IS BUSINESS ............. 200 H. TEACHING LOAD................. 200 I. TEARS OF TEACHING EXPERIENCE................... 202 J. NUMBER OF DIFFERENT SCHOOL SYSTEMS IN WHICH TEACHING EXPERIENCE WAS GAINED.......... 204 K. SALARIES RECEIVED ....................... . . 207 L. SUMMARY OF DATA SEGREGATED AS TO SIZE OF COMMUNITY . 209 Degrees earned; highest level of training; credits earned in business subjects; number of different fields in which teachers offer instruction; teach ing load; years of teaching experience; number of different school systems in which teaching was done; salaries received; sex and age. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER............................ 227 2 - CURRICULA DEVISED FOR THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS AS REVEALED BY PREVIOUS STUDIES......... 232 A. SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS STUDIES.................. 233 B. THE INSTITUTIONS INVESTIGATED................ 234 C. TOTAL OFFERINGS IN BUSINESS EDUCATION .......... 234 TABLE.OF CONTENTS X Chapter Page X - (Continued) D. DETAILED ANALYSIS OF FOUR-YEAR CURRICULA DEVISED FOR THE EDUCATION OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS 235 E. SUMMARY OF PRESENT PRACTICE . ............. 237 F. CURRICULUM RECOMMENDED UPON THE BASIS OF THE FIND INGS..................................... 245 G. COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CURRICULA SUGGESTED BY SIX INVESTIGATORS ............................... 248 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER........................ 250 XI - PRESENT PRACTICES IN INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION......... 251 A. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSTITUTIONS FOR WHICH DATA ARE AVAILABLE.............* . . . . 252 B. PRESENT CURRICULAR REQUIREMENTS IN FORTY-FIVE IN STITUTIONS ENGAGED IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION 253 C. DIFFERENTIATED CURRICULA OFFERED IN SEVENTY INSTI TUTIONS ENGAGED IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION . . 254 D. STANDARDS OF TECHNICAL SKILL REQUIRED IN SIXTY- ONE INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED .IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCA TION..................................... 255 E. DATA RELATIVE TO BUSINESS EXPERIENCE REQUIRED IN SEVENTY-ONE INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED IN BUSINESS- TEACHER EDUCATION............................ 257 F. PROVISIONS MADE FOR SOLVING FOUR PROBLEMS IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION............* ....... 260 Provisions made for acquainting student-teachers with the progressive quality of aims, curricula, and procedures in secondary business education; provisions made for promoting familiarity with research findings and the habit of constant search for new developments; provisions made for person ality and character development of students-teachers; provisions made for giving the teacher a basis for presenting to secondary school pupils an adequate picture of present social and economic life. TABLE OF CONTENTS xi Chapter Page XI - (Continued) G. PROBLEMS SUGGESTED BY ADMINISTRATORS IN THIRTY-NINE INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED IN BUSINESS TEACHER EDUCATION 267 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER. ...................... 269 XII - TRENDS IN CURRICULA DEVISED FOR THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS.................. 274 A. CHANGES MADE IN SEMESTER UNITS REQUIRED IN BUSINESS- TEACHER CURRICULA SINCE 1928-1929 ............... 274 B. COURSES ADDED TO AND DROPPED FROM BUSINESS-TEACHER CURRICULA SINCE 1928-1929 ...................... 278 Business content subjects, general "academic” sub jects, social sciences, general "education" courses, business "education" courses, and practice teaching. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER...........................280 XIII - STANDARDS SET UP BY ADMINISTRATORS OF EMPLOYING INSTITUTIONS'RELATIVE TO THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS ............... 285 A. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSTITUTIONS REPRE SENTED IN THE RETURNS FROM THE QUESTIONNAIRES. ... 286 B. STANDARDS SET UP BY ADMINISTRATORS OF JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS RELATIVE TO TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS . -289 Degrees required; composite ranking of subject groups in education as to their relative importance in teacher preparation; specialization for teachers of business subjects; requirements relative to busi ness experience; standards of technical skill; practices relative to employment of teachers with out previous teaching experience; ranking of prob lems in business-teacher education; other problems suggested by administrators. C. STANDARDS SET UP BY ADMINISTRATORS OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS RELATIVE TO TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS . 306 Degrees required; composite ranking of subject groups in education as to their relative impor tance in teacher preparation; specialization for teachers of business subjects; requirements rel ative to business experience; standards of tech nical skill; practices relative to employment of teachers without previous teaching experience; ranking of problems in business-teacher education; other problems suggested by administrators. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter XIII - (Continued) D. STANDARDS SET UP. BY ADMINISTRATORS OF JUNIOR COLLEGES RELATIVE TO TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS Degrees required; composite ranking of subject groups in education as to their relative impor tance in teacher preparation; specialization for teachers of business subjects; requirements rel ative to business experience; standards of tech nical skill; practices relative to employment of teachers without previous teaching experience; ranking of problems in business-teacher education; other problems suggested by administrators. E. SUMMARY OF STANDARDS SET UP BY ADMINISTRATORS OF EMPLOYING INSTITUTIONS RELATIVE TO TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS ........................ . . . Degrees required; composite ranking of subject , groups in education as to their relative impor tance in teacher preparation; specialization for teachers of business subjects; requirements rel ative to business experience; standards of tech nical skill; practices relative to employment of teachers without previous teaching experience; ranking of problems in business-teacher education; other problems suggested by administrators. PART IV EVALUATION AND SUMMARY XIV - AN EVALUATION OF PRACTICES IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION IN TERMS OF THE AIMS AND CURRICULA OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION AND REQUIREMENTS IN EMPLOYING INSTITUTIONS.......................... A. HISTORY OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION......... Close relationship between business education and social and economic development; the influence of tradition; effect of the reorganization movement in education. B. SOURCES OF AIMS AND CURRICULA IN SECONDARY BUS INESS EDUCATION ............................... Educational sources; sociological— other than edu- cational^-sources; psychological sources; philo sophical sources. TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii Chapter XIV - (Cont inued) C. AIMS OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION......... To prepare pupils for simple office positions; to adapt business education to the needs of social and civic life; to give that form of general edu cation which will prepare young people to enter business pursuits; to give necessary business in formation and skills to all pupils for use in per sonal, social, and civic life; to fulfill the general objectives of all secondary education; to prepare pupils for later promotion; to prepare for university work in commerce. D. CURRICULA OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION . . . Mathematics, English, physical and biological sciences, social sciences, foreign languages, fine and practical arts, physical education, social-business subjects, technical-business sub jects, restricted electives, and free electives. E. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE OCCUPATION OF TEACHING BUS INESS SUBJECTS.............................. Highest level of training; credits earned in bus iness subjects; number of different fields in which teachers of business subjects offer instruc tion; next main field of teaching for instructors whose major field is business; teaching load; years of teaching experience; salaries received; and data segregated as to size of community. F. REQUIREMENTS OF ADMINISTRATORS IN EMPLOYING INSTI TUTIONS .......................... Comparison of ranking of subject groups by admin istrators with requirements in business-teacher curricula; comparison of opinions of administrators in employing institutions and practices relative to teacher specialization; comparison of require ments of administrators of employing institutions and of institutions engaged in business-teacher education relative to actual business experience; comparison of standards of technical skill required of teachers in employing institutions and in insti tutions engaged in business-teacher education; comparison of ranking. Page 361 366 369 381 TABLE OF CONTENTS xiv Chapter Page XIV - (Continued) of problems in business-teacher education by admin istrators in employing institutions and provisions made for solving these problems in institutions en gaged in business-teacher education; comparison of problems suggested by administrators in employing institutions and in institutions engaged in busi ness-teacher education. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER................................381 XV - SUMMARY OF FINDINGS. CONCLUSIONS. AND RECOMMENDA TIONS. . . . ..................................... 387 A. HISTORY OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION AND OF BUSINESS TEACHER PREPARATION IN THE UNITED STATES . 388 B. Findings, conclusions, and recommendations. B. SOURCES OF AIMS AND CURRICULA IN SECONDARY BUSI NESS EDUCATION................................... 392 Findings, conclusions, and recommendations. C. TRENDS IN THE AIMS AND CURRICULA OF SECONDARY BUSI NESS EDUCATION................................. 394. Findings, conclusions, and recommendations. D. THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF THE UNITED STATES AS REVEALED BY THE NATIONAL SURVEY OF THE EDUCATION OF TEACHERS..................................... 401 Findings, conclusions, and recommendations. E. TRENDS IN CURRICULA DEVISED FOR THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS.................... 405 Findings, conclusions, and recommendations. F. STANDARDS SET UP BY ADMINISTRATORS OF EMPLOYING INSTITUTIONS RELATIVE TO THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS ................... 408 Findings, conclusions, and recommendations. TABLE OP CONTENTS Chapter XV - (Continued) G. EVALUATION OF PRACTICES IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDU CATION IN TERMS OP THE AIMS AND CURRICULA OP SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION AND REQUIREMENTS IN EMPLOYING INSTITUTIONS...................... Findings, conclusions, and recommendations. SUMMARY OP CHAPTER.......................... PART V APPENDICES AND ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDICES Appendix A Letter Accompanying Questionnaire to Bus- iness-Teacher Training Institutions B Inquiry Addressed to Institutions En gaged in Business-Teacher Education C Letter Accompanying Questionnaire to Em ployers of Business Teachers D Inquiry Addressed to Junior Colleges E Inquiry Addressed to Senior High Schools P Inquiry Addressed to Junior High Schools G Copy of Second Letter Sent with Question naires H References for Table I, "Purposes of Bus iness Education as Expressed in Forty- Seven Published Statements from 1825-1918.” I Early Curricula in Business Education, 1889-1918 APPENDICES (Cont *d) xvi Appendix Page J References for Table V, "Present Aims of Business Education Expressed in Forty- Six Published Statements." 457 K Curricula in Business Education, 1919- 1929 462 L Curricula in Business Education, 1929- 1933. 496 M Degree-Granting Institutions, 1928-1929 Catalogs of Which Were Used in an Analysis of Forty-Five Curricula in Business- Teacher Education 521 N Degree-Granting Institutions, 1932-1933 Catalogs of Which Were Used in An Analysis of Forty-Five Curricula in Business- Teacher Education 523 BIBLIOGRAPHY................................. 525 GENERAL REFERENCES........................ 525 BUSINESS EDUCATION ON FOUR LEVELS......... 531 University Education for Business, Junior College, Senior High Schools, and Junior High School. BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION................. 535 HISTORY OF BUSINESS EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES........... 542 PRESENT EDUCATIONAL STATUS OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS ........................ 545 SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF BUSINESS EDUCATION . . 546 STATE SURVEYS............................ 549 SUPPLY AND DEMAND OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS................................. 554 TEACHER TRAINING STUDIES IN OTHER FIELDS . . 555 LIST OF TABLES xvii Table Page I Purpose of Business Education as Expressed in Forty-Seven Published Statements from 1825 to 1918......................................... 125 II Aims of Business Education Concurred in by Seventy-Four Teachers . 128 III Total Number of Recitations per Week for One Year Required— in Twenty-Nine Business Curricula— 1889-1918 ................................. 133 IV Percentage of Time Required for Each Subject in Twenty-Nine Business Curricula— 1889-1918 . . . 135 V Present Aims of Business Education Expressed in Forty-Six Published Statements.......... 148 VI Aims of Commercial Education Stated by Twenty- Five Writers and Ranks Assigned to These Aims by One Hundred Forty-Five Administrators ...... 151 VII Opinions of One Hundred Twenty-One Administrators and Teachers with Reference to the Aims of Busi ness Education............................ . 153 VIII Total Number of Recitations per Week per Year Required in Fifty-Two Business Curricula, 1919- 1928....................................... 157 IX Percentage of Total Time Required for Each Sub ject by Years in Fifty-Two Business Curricula, 1919-1928 ................................. 159 X Total Number of Recitations per Week for One Year Required in Forty-Four Business Curricula— 1929-1933 ................................. 162 XI Percentage of Total Time Required for Each Sub ject by Years in Forty-Four Business Curricula— 1929-1933 ................................. 164 XII Topics Discussed in Meetings of the Department of Business Education of the National Education Association, 1892 to 1931 inclusive........... 177 XIII Degrees Earned by Teachers of Business Subjects as Revealed in National Survey................. 190 LIST OF TABLES (Continued) xviii Table Page XIV Degrees Earned by Teachers of Business Subjects as Revealed by State Surveys................ 192 XV Highest Level of Training Received by Teachers of Business Subjects .......................... 194 XVI Credits Earned in Business Subjects by Teachers of Business Subjects........................ 197 XVII Number of Different Fields in ?/hich Teachers of Business Subjects Offer Instruction ......... 199 XVIII Next Main Field of Teaching of Teachers with Busi ness Subjects as Major Field of Teaching. . . . 201 XIX Teaching Load of Teachers of Business Subjects. 205 XX Years of Teaching Experience of Teachers of Business Subjects............ 205 XXI Number of Different School Systems in Which Teaching Experience was Gained............... 200 XXII Salaries Received by Teachers of Business Subjects 208 XXIII Salaries of Teachers of Business Subjects as Re vealed by State Surveys.................... 210 XXIV Data Relative to Degrees Earned by Teachers of Business Subjects Segregated as to Size of Community................................. 212 XXV Data Relative to Highest Level of Training Re ceived by Teachers of Business Subjects Segre gated as to Size of Community........... 214 XXVI Data Relative to Credits Earned in Business Sub jects by Teachers of Business Subjects Segregated as to Size of Community.................... 217 XXVII Data Relative to Number of Different Fields in Which Teachers of Business Subjects Offer Instruc tion Segregated by Size of Community........ B219 XXVIII Data Relative to Teaching Load Segregated as to Size of Community......................... 221 LIST OF TABLES (Continued) xix Table Page XXIX Data Relative to Years of Teaching Experience of Teachers of Business Subjects Segregated as to Size of Community........................ 223 XXX Data Relative to Number of Different School Systems in Which Teaching Was Done— Segregated as to Size of Community.......................: : 224 XXXI Data Relative to Salaries Received by Teachers of Business Subjects— Segregated as to Size of Com munity................................. 226 XXXII Summary of Data Relative to Sex and Age of Teachers of Business Subjects— Segregated as to Size of Community.............................. 228 XXXIII Business Courses and Business-Teacher Education Offered in 685 Degree-Granting Institutions . . 236 XXXIV XXXV XXXVI XXXVII XXXVIII Semester Units Required in the Business-Teacher Education Curricula in Forty-Five Degree Granting Institutions ...................... 238 Total Units Required in Each Subject in Forty-Five Degree-Granting Institutions in Which Curricula are Provided for the Preparation of Teachers of Business Subjects .......................... 240 Comparative Study of Curricula in Business-Teach er Education Suggested by Six Investigators . . Differentiated Curricula Offered in Seventy Insti tutions Engaged in Business-Teacher Education 256; Standards of Technical Skill Required in Fifty- Five Institutions Engaged in Business-Teacher Education ................................. 258 XXXIX Data Relative to Business Experience Required in Seventy-One Institutions Engaged in Business- Teacher Education .......................... 259 XL Provisions Made in Institutions Engaged in Business- Teacher Education for Acquainting Student-Teachers with the Progressive Quality of Aims, Curricula, and Procedures in Secondary Business Education. 262 LIST OF TABLES (Continued) xx Table Page XLI Provisions Made in Institutions Engaged in Busi ness-Teacher Education for Promoting Familiarity with Research Findings and the Habit of Constant Search for Hew Developments on the Part of Student Teachers............................. 264 XLII Provisions Made In Institutions Engaged in Busi ness-Teacher Education for Personality and Char acter Development of Student-Teachers......... 266 XLIII Provisions Made in Institutions Engaged in Busi ness-Teacher Education for Giving the Teacher a Basis for Presenting to Secondary-School Pupils an Adequate Picture of Present Social and Econ omic Life................................. 268 XLIY Problems Suggested by Administrators in Thirty- Nine Institutions Engaged in Business-Teacher Education................................. 270 XLV Changes Made in Business-Teacher Curricula from 1928-1929 to 1952-1933 as Shown in Forty-Five Catalogs of Institutions Engaged in Business- Teacher Education................ 277 XLYI Net Courses Added and Dropped in Business-Teacher Curricula since 1928-1929 .................. 281 XLYII Geographical Distribution of Institutions Repre sented in Returns from Questionnaires . . . . . 287 XLFIII Degrees Required for Teachers of Business Subjects in Ninety-Six Junior High Schools ........... 291 XLIX Composite Ranking by Administrators in Ninety-Four Junior High Schools of Undergraduate and Graduate Education as to Their Relative Importance in Teacher Preparation ........................ 293 L Opinions of Eighty-Seven Administrators in Junior High Schools Relative to Specialization for Teachers of Business Subjects ............... 296 LI Requirements of Administrators in Ninety-One Junior High Schools Relative to Business Experience for Teachers of Business Subjects ............... 298 LII Standards of Technical Skill Required of Teachers in Fifty-Six Junior High Schools ........... 300 LIST OF TABLES (Continued) xxi Table Page LlTi Practices in Ninety-Three Junior High Schools Rel ative to Employment of Teachers of Business Sub jects without Previous Teaching Experience.........301 LIT Banking of Problems in Business-Teacher Education by Ninety-Two Junior-High-School Administrators . 303 LV Degrees Required for Teaehers of Business Subjects in One Hundred Eighty Senior High Schools .... 309 LYI Composite Banking by Administrators in One Hundred Seventy-Two Senior High Schools of Subject Groups in Undergraduate and Graduate Education as to Their Belative Importance in Teacher Preparation. 311 LYII Opinions of One Hundred Sixty-Eight Administrators in Senior High Schools Relative to Specialization of Teachers of Business Subjects................ 313 LVIII Requirements of Administrators in One Hundred Seventy-Three Senior High Schools Relative to Busi ness Experience for Teachers of Business Subjects 314 LIX Standards of Technical Skill Bequired of Teachers in One Hundred Fifteen Senior High Schools. . . . 316 LX Ranking of Problems in Business-Teacher Education by One Hundred Seventy-Two Senior High School Administrators............................... 318 LXI Practices in One Hundred Seventy-Five Senior High Schools Relative to Employment of Teachers of Business Subjects without Previous Teaching Experience................................... 320 LXII Degrees Required for Teachers of Business Subjects in One Hundred Ten Junior Colleges. ......... 324 LXIII Composite Ranking by Administrators in One Hundred Thirteen Junior Colleges of Subject Groups in Undergraduate and Graduate Education as to Their Relative Importance in Teacher Preparation. . . . 326 LXIV Opinions of One Hundred Eight Administrators in Junior Colleges Relative to Specialization for Teachers of Business Subjects ................. 327 LXV Requirements of Administrators in One Hundred Eight Junior Colleges Relative to Business Experi ence for Teachers of Business Subjects......... 329 LIST OF TABLES (Continued) xxii Table Page LXVI Standards of Technical Skill Required of Teachers in Forty-Five Junior Colleges ..... 331 LXVII Practices in One Hundred Six Junior Colleges Rel ative to Employment of Inexperienced Teachers of Business Subjects........................ 332 LXVIII Ranking of Problems in Business-Teacher Education by One Hundred Seven Junior-College Administrators 334 LXIX Degrees Required for Teachers of Business Subjects in Three Hundred Eighty-Six Employing Institutions 338 LXX Composite Ranking by Administrators in Three Hun dred Seventy-Nine Employing Institutions of Sub ject Groups in Undergraduate and Graduate Educa tion as to Their Relative Importance in Teacher Preparation ................... 341 LXXI Opinions of Three Hundred Sixty-Two Administrators in Employing Institutions Relative to Specializa tion of Teachers of Business Subjects ...... 343 LXXII Requirements of Administrators in Three Hundred Seventy-Two Employing Institutions Relative to Business Experience for Teachers of Business Subjects. ............ 345 LXXIII Standards of Technical Skill Required of Teachers in Two Hundred Sixteen Employing Institutions . . 348 LX2IV Practices in Three Hundred Seventy-Four Employing Institutions Relative to Employment of Teachers of Business Subjects without Previous Teaching Experience. ...................... 350 LXXV Ranking of Problems in Business-Teacher Education by Three Hundred Seventy Administrators in Employ ing Institutions. ............ 352 LXXVT Problems in Business-Teacher Education Suggested by Administrators in, One Hundred Five Employing Institutions........... 354 LXXVII Comparison of Ranking of Subject Groups by Admin istrators in Three Hundred Seventy-Nine Employing Institutions with Actual Requirements in Forty- Five Institutions Engaged in Business-Teacher Education ............... ........... 372 LIST OF TABLES {Continued) xxiii Table LXXVTII Comparison of Opinions of Three Hundred Sixty- Two Administrators in Employing Institutions and Practices in Seventy Institutions Engaged in Busi ness-Teacher Education Relative to Teacher Specialization............................... LXXIX Comparison of Requirements of Administrators in Three Hundred Seventy-Two Employing Institutions and in Seventy-One Institutions Engaged in Busi ness-Teacher Education Relative to Business Ex perience............................... . LXXX Comparison of Standards of Technical Skill Re quired of Teachers in Sixty-Six Employing Insti tutions and in Fifty-Five Institutions Engaged in Business-Teacher Education ................. LXXXI Comparison of Ranking of Problems in Business- Teacher Education by Three Hundred Seventy Admin istrators in Employing Institutions and Provisions Made for Solving These Problems in Seventy Insti tutions Engaged in Business-Teacher Education . . LXXXII Comparison of Problems Suggested by Administrators in One Hundred Five Employing Institutions and by Administrators in Thirty-Hine Institutions Engaged in Business-Teacher Education ................. Page 374 376 377 380 382 P ART I THE PROBLEM CHAPTER I. DELIMITATION, VALIDATION, AND ANALYSIS OP THE PROBLEM. CHAPTER II. HISTORY AND PRESENT STATUS OF THE- PROBLEM. CHAPTER III. SOURCES OF DATA AND PROCEDURE USED IN THE INVESTIGATION. CHAPTER I DELIMITATION, VALIDATION, AND ANALYSIS OF THE PROBLEM The purpose of this study is to make an investigation of the changing aims and curricula of secondary business educa tion in the United States in order to discover their implica tions for the academic and professional preparation of teachers of business subjects. An attempt will be made to trace the evolution of secondary business education in order to discover the relationships existing between the aims and curricula of secondary business education (i.e., the job of the teacher) on the one hand, and the preparation of business teachers and the curricula devised for their training, on the other. Rec ommendations, based upon the findings, will be made for the purpose of harmonizing the academic and professional programs set up for the preparation of teachers of business subjects with the present dynamic nature of business education as it is evolving in our secondary schools. The problem is dis cussed in this chapter under three headings: (A) Delimitation; (B) Validation; (C) Analysis. A. DELIMITATION OF THE PROBLEM The problem of discovering the implications of the evo lution of secondary business education for the academic and professional preparation of teachers of business subjects is so complex that its delimitation to definite phases which may be objectively studied is necessary. The preparation of 2 teachers for successful participation in the present changing program of secondary business education, with the emerging philosophy involving social emphasis, requires a consideration of many factors, among which may be mentioned: the socio logical foundations of modern secondary business education in business and national life; student personnel; the occupational destination of graduates; the basing of practices upon the findings of educational psychology; and the preparation, person ality, and character traits of successful teachers. From the point of view of institutions engaged in teacher education, a solution of the problem involves: a study of past and present curricula devised for the preparation of teachers of business subjects,, the selection of candidates for such education, the supply and demand of teachers of business subjects, and the tangible rewards and professional opportunities offered to such teachers. 1. The problem limited to a study of business education in the United States. Current magazine articles show that the reorganization of business education is evident in many coun- 1 tries. The annual international congresses on business educa- 2 tion indicate that this problem is a world-wide one. In this study, however, the investigation has been limited to the field of secondary business education in the United States 1 See recent articles in Journal of Business Education. Wilkesbarre, Pennsylvania: The Threthaway Publishing Company. 2 ’ Inter-national Review for Commercial Education. Zurich, Switzerland: International Society for Commercial Education, (Publications, Second Series No. 10, 1931.) 3 because of the obvious fact that the inclusion of data involv ing the peculiar problems of other countries would not aid materially in the solution of the problem of adequate prepara tion of teachers of business subjects in this country. 2. The problem limited to secondary business education. Education for business is a broad field in which many types of institutions are engaged, ranging from those in which em phasis is centered upon the noffice arts” to those in which executives and leaders are prepared for that important phase of our present economic life--business. Among the institu tions engaged in business education are: business colleges, correspondence schools, corporation schools, continuation schools, evening schools, junior high schools, senior high schools, junior colleges, and collegiate schools of business. There is for each institution the individual problem of secur ing teachers adequately prepared to participate in a specific program. The present study, however, has been limited to a consideration of the three levels of secondary education: junior high school, senior high school, and junior college. 3. The problem limited to phases upon which objective data may be secured. Among all the elements involved in the harmonization of the preparation of teachers with the present dynamic program of secondary business education, the follow ing have been selected for investigation because of the avail ability and objectivity of possible data: the evolution of the aims and curricula of the institutions engaged in secon dary business education, trends in curricula devised for the 4 preparation of secondary teachers of business subjects, the preparation of present teachers of business subjects, and requirements set up in secondary institutions for the academic and professional preparation of teachers. A program of teacher education should be based upon a consideration of the aims and curricula of the institutions in which the prospective teachers are to render service. Recom mendations for the harmonization of programs of teacher prepa ration with secondary business education must be based upon a knowledge of past and present curricula devised for the prepa ration of teachers and a consideration of trends evident in such curricula. Then, too, the pragmatic test may be applied to teacher preparation by a study of the preparation of teachers who are now rendering satisfactory service in secondary business education; the criterion of satisfactory service being retention in the position of teacher of business subjects. The problem, then, has been limited to a consideration of its implications for business education in the United States, to an investigation of the evolution of secondary business edu cation in terms of its aims and curricula, the academic and professional preparation of present teachers of business sub jects, standards set up in employing institutions for prospec tive teachers, and curricula devised for the preparation of teachers of business subjects. B. VALIDATION OP THE PROBLEM Five statements are here presented for consideration in the validating of this problem as one worthy of study: (1) education is a social force; (2) in an economic age, business education plays an important role in making effective this social force; (3) the teacher has a vital part in carrying out the educational program; (4) teachers of business subjects carry a heavy share of the responsibility of administering education as a social force; (5) the preparation of teachers of business subjects has an effect upon present and future business education. Each of these statements is discussed in the following paragraphs in its relation to the problem under consideration. 'Z 1. Education is a social force. The educational pro gram of a community is an embodiment of the desires of its adults, expressed through their leaders, for a rich and satis factory present and future life for its children. As such, it is a powerful social force with potentiailities for reach ing every phase of human life. The whole environment of men and things may be used in guiding the development of young people to the end that they enjoy complete living in the world as it is and are able to make changes which result in what, to them, is a better world. 2. In an economic age, business education plays an im portant role in making effective this social force. In our present age, in which economic organization plays a major part in the gratification of human wants, business is an 3 M. V. Marshall, "Education as a Social Force", Harvard Bulletins in Education, Humber 18. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1931. 6 integrating element. It has been defined as that factor of our economic life which takes care of the management and dis tribution of the products and services of industry, the pro- 4 fessions, and all other phases of the work of society. Ad ministrators in the field of business education, dealing with this important phase of modern life, carry a major share of the responsibility of making education effective as a social force. Business education is no longer looked upon as an isolated entity concerned with trade training alone but it is regarded as an integral part of all education, touching every phase of complete living and social endeavor. In an economic age, the influence of this social force— business education-- is far-reaching. Satisfactory economic contacts are a neces sary part of complete living and education for them,, an essen tial part of preparation for life. Sane, economically sound thinking and doing in the world of private affairs, politics, industry, banking, and finance would accomplish much in re lieving the intensity of recurrent business depressions and political upheavals. Instances could be multiplied in which universal understanding of this integrating element in our society— business— would result in happier individual and na tional life. 3. The teacher has a vital part in carrying out the edu cational program. The teacher, in his close personal contact with the pupils, is probably the most important agency in the process of making education effective as a social force. All 4 H. A. Tonne, and M. H. Tonne, Social-Business Education in Secondary Schools. New York: New York University Press Book Store, 1932, p. 9. 7 other elements in the educational program— administration, buildings, equipment, curricula, materials of instruction, extra-curriculum activities, financial policy, and super- vision--lose in effectiveness unless the teachers have a sound philosophy of education, recognize its social implications, are well prepared in the subjects they have to teach, have kept abreast of the times in being cognizant of the advances of pure and applied science with especial attention to edu cational psychology, and, above all, are themselves masters of the art of complete living. The teacher plays a vital part, indeed, in carrying out the educational program. 4. Teachers of business subjects carry a heavy share of the responsibility of administering education as a social force. The teachers of business subjects carry a particularly heavy share of the responsibility of administering education as a social force because of the especially vital part played by business education in this function of education. The teacher of business subjects has an especial need for under standing the potentialities of education in influencing the social and economic order because of the possibilities inher ent in his subjects for accomplishing this - end. The teacher of business subjects has an opportunity to influence a goodly proportion of- students--ranging from twenty per cent of all secondary school students in the entire United States to fifty per cent in some cities.^ Close personal contact with this 3 J. 0. Malott, "Commercial Education", Chapter y, Biennial Survey of Education in the United States, 1928-1950, Bulletin 1951, Ho. 20. Washington: United States Department of the Interior, Office of Education, 1951, page 4. 8 large number of pupils seeking business education places a tre mendous amount of potential influence into the hands of the teachers of business subjects. 5. The preparation of teachers of business subjects has an effect upon present and future business education. The preparation of teachers whose influence is vital in administer ing education as a social force is a valid field for investi gation. The preparation received by teachers of business sub jects has an effect upon the aims, curricula, and procedures of present and future business education. The amount and quality of academic and professional preparation given to teachers of business subjects will determine in large measure their philosophy of education, their recognition of its socio logical implications, and their ability to participate in the process of administering education as a social force with ben eficial effects upon individual, political, and economic life. The future progress of business education and the realization of its social potentialities is dependent upon the preparation given to prospective teachers. A study of such preparation and its harmonization with the secondary business education program constitutes, therefore, a problem worthy of careful study. C. ANALYSIS OF THE PROBLEM The problem of the harmonization of the programs of secondary business education and the preparation of teachers of business subjects has been delimited in the first section of this chapter to certain phases lending themselves to ob jective study. An analysis of the problem as thus delimited is here presented. 1. History of secondary business education and of busi ness teacher preparation in the United States. A study of the influence of business teacher preparation upon the function ing of education as a social force can best be approached by a resume7 of the history of these two parts of education-- secondary business education and business teacher preparation-- with emphasis upon their reflection of social phenomena. The history of business education in the United States parallels the history of American business. The history of business- teacher training, likewise, shows the effect of American econ omic and educational history. A study of such history is a necessary prerequisite to a consideration of any problem con cerned with business education. 2. Sources of aims and curricula of secondary business education in the United States. Any study involving the con ception of education as a social force will necessarily inquire into the sources of the specific aims and curricula of an edu cational program. Whether such aims represent the thought of philosophers as to the ngood life1 1 and the Hgreatest good! t , reflect the social environment, are derived from job analyses, or are based upon expediency, an investigation of their sources will aid in emphasizing the relationship, or lack of it, exist ing between education and contemporary social life; and will 10 indicate present plans for human betterment. 3. Past aims and curricula of secondary business educa tion in the United States# A study of the evolution of the aims and curricula of secondary business education in the United States is an essential element in the solution of a problem which involves the making of suggestions for the preparation of business teachers able to participate in an enriched program of business education in harmony with forward-looking educational thought# A study of the past aims and curricula of secondary business education will lead to their recognition as out-moded aims and curricula, to an understanding of the reasons for their former inclusion in programs of business education, and to an evaluation of them in terms of modern educational and social standards. The influence of the aims and curricula of secondary business education upon teacher preparation may be indicated by a study of the corresponding contemporary aims and curricula of programs devised for teacher preparation. Such study of aims and curricula is a necessary background for the consideration of a program of business teacher preparation in harmony with the dynamic character of secondary business educa tion# 4# Present aims and curricula of secondary business educa tion in the United States# A program for teacher preparation must involve a consideration of the present aims of the field of education for which the prospective teachers are preparing. A consideration and evaluation of present aims is an 11 essential prerequisite to the building of teacher-preparatory curricula which will include provision for making prospective teachers aware of the aims and for taking part in their real ization. 5. Trends in the aims and curricula of secondary business education. A valid program for business-teacher education will include not only a consideration of present aims of secondary business education but will seek to indicate trends in such aims. The highly dynamic quality of business education makes a consideration of trends necessary. Due to rapid changes in economic life and in education, the world in which present stu dents in business-teacher education curricula will perform their professional duties will not be identical with the present world. Students now receiving education preparatory to teaching must be cognizant of trends in the aims of secondary business educa tion, so that they may be helpful agencies in the onward pro gress of business education and not hindering static factors. A study of trends in the aims of secondary business education is, then, a valid part of a study of the preparation of business teachers. 6. The preparation of secondary business teachers in the United States as revealed in the National Survey of the Edu cation of Teachers. A study of the present preparation of teachers of business subjects indicates the amount and kind of education effective in holding positions as teachers of busi ness subjects. It is not intended that data from such an in vestigation will indicate the education which should be offered 12 to teachers of business subjects; but, rather, that they will constitute a point of departure from which to consider desir able changes in programs of teacher preparation. The prepara tion of present teachers of business subjects as revealed in the National Survey of the Education of Teachers shows the training which the teachers have been able to obtain. An evaluation of such training in terms of the analyses of aims and curricula, presented in previous paragraphs of this chapter, will reveal its adequacy or inadequacy in enabling teachers to participate in forward-looking programs of business education. 7. Curricula devised for the preparation of secondary business teachers as revealed in previous studies. A study of curricula devised for the preparation of secondary business teachers is a vital element in any investigation culminating in suggestions for the betterment of programs of teacher edu cation. 8. Present requirements set up for the preparation of secondary business teachers. A thorough investigation into the preparation of business teachers includes not only a com pilation of the results of previous studies but also an anal ysis of present requirements set up for the preparation of teachers of business subjects. 9. Trends in curricula devised for the preparation of business teachers. A comparison of the results of previous and present studies will result in a recognition of trends in business-teacher education which will serve as orientation to the problem of improving the preparation of business 15 teachers through its harmonization with dynamic secondary busi ness education* 10. Requirements in employing institutions as to the preparation of business teachers. As employing institutions represent the consumers of the product of schools engaged in business-teacher preparation, their administrators should be consulted when plans are being made for curricula for prospec tive business teachers. Through practical experience, the ad ministrators of the employing institutions have discovered the kind of education which fits a teacher to take an efficient part in the secondary business education program. 11. An evaluation of present curricula devised for the preparation of secondary business teachers in terms of. the present aims and curricula of secondary business education. Having traced the evolution of the aims and curricula of secon dary business education and the aims and curricula of business- teacher preparation, it will be necessary to evaluate the lat ter in terms of the former in order to determine the implica tions of secondary business education for business-teacher preparation. Such evaluation will serve as a basis for recom mendations for the education of teachers of business subjects. SUMMARY OP CHAPTER The broad problem of building curricula for business teacher education has been presented in this chapter by (1) de limiting it to preparation of business teachers for three 14 types of secondary schools in the United States--junior college, junior high school, and senior high school; (2) validating it by the consideration of five statements: education is a social force, business education plays an important r'ole in making education a social force, the teacher has a vital part in carry ing out the educational program, teachers of business subjects have an especially heavy share in this responsibility, the pre paration of business teachers affects present and future busi ness education; and (3) analyzing it into phases 'which can be studied objectively. Throughout this report, the words f f teacher education” and "teacher preparation” will be used in preference to "teacher training”. The latter term has a static connotation, indicat ing routine preparation for a definite job. A vital need in business education today is not teachers who feel that they have been trained but those whose education is an on-going pro cess in harmony with the highly dynamic program of secondary business education. The following chapter presents abstracts of previous studies in this field. CHAPTER II 15 HISTORY AND PRESENT STATUS OF THE PROBLEM The broad problem.of the relationship between business- teacher education and secondary business education has not, so far as is known after careful search, been studied. However, many phases of this problem have been investigated. It is the purpose of this chapter to present data relative to sixty-two such investigations covering the following phases of.the problem: (A) History of business education in secondary schools; (B) Aims and curricula of secondary business education; (C) Present status of business edu cation as revealed by state-wide studies; (D) Junior-high- school business education; (E) Junior-college business education; (F) University education for business; (G) Training for leadership in business education; (H) Cur ricula set up for the education of teachers of business subjects; (I) Present educational and professional status of teachers of business subjects; (J) Analyses of the difficulties and duties of commercial teachers; (K) Supply and demand of teachers of business subjects; (L) State certification requirements; and (M) Teacher- training studies in other fields. This report of in vestigations into various aspects of business education will serve to indicate the history and present status of 16 the problem of the harmonization of business-teacher edu cation and secondary business education. A. THE HISTORY OP BUSINESS EDUCATION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS Two studies of the history of business education in secondary schools have been reported. One was concerned with the development of commercial curricula; and the other, with the history of business education in the public high schools of the United States. 1. Gordon1s study of the development of commercial curricula in high schools.6 This was a library study of the history of business education and an evaluation of three curricula proposed by committees appointed by the National Education Association, reporting in 1903, 1915, and 1919 respectively. 2. Young *s study of the development of business 7 education in public high schools. The purpose of this study was to show the origin, growth, and development of commercial education in public high schools. The develop ment of commercial education from its early beginnings in Europe before the discovery of America; through its 6 David Gordon, f f The History of the Development of Commercial Curricula in the High Schools,” Master*a Thesis, (un published) , New York: College of the City of &ew York, 1926. 7 Harry S. Young, f , The Development of Commercial Education In the Public High Schools of the United States,1 1 Master*s Thesis, (unpublished), Urbana: University of Illinois, 19277" 17 introduction into colonial America by means of the apprentice ship system, evening schools, grammar schools, and private teachers; to its status as a part of high-school education in 1927 was traced# Other material relative to the history of business edu cation is found in brief references in scattered sources as will be seen from an Inspection of Chapter IV of the present study which treats of this subject. B. AIMS AND CURRICULA OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION While there are many published statements in which reference is made to the aims and curricula of secondary business education— as will be noted in Chapters VI and VII of this report— few objective studies of aims and curricula have been made. Such investigations, it is true, have been included in state-wide surveys of business education, sixteen of which are reported in section "G* of this chapter. A careful search through the literature of the field, however, has failed to disclose any nation-wide objective study of curricula such as is presented in Chapters VI and VII of this report. One related investigation is here mentioned because of its implications for business-teacher education. Investigation of social studies made by the 8 Association of Collegiate Schools of Business. This 8 Commission on Correlation of Secondary and Collegiate Edu cation, with Particular Reference to Business Education, Social Studies in Secondary Schools. Chicago: The JAssoeiation of Collegiate Schools of Business, University of.Chicago Press, 1922. 18 Investigation, concerned with the general aims of business education, resulted in a proposed curriculum in which social studies predominated. The statement was made that collegiate schools of business might assume responsibility, in co operation with schools of education, for the training of teachers competent to present the functional aspects of business education rather than the technical aspects. C. PRESENT STATUS OF BUSINESS EDUCATION AS BEYEALED BY STATE-WIDE STUDIES. Between the years 1924 and 1951, at least sixteen state wide investigations of business education were made in thirteen states— Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, New Jersey, New Mexico, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee. These investigations were concerned with the aims of business education, enrollments, business subjects offered and required, professional preparation of teachers, salaries, and teaching load. Compilations of data from the original studies are included in later chapters of the present report in connection with the individual topics investigated. A brief description of each study, its purpose, and general findings is given in the following paragraphs. 9 1. Burdens study of business education in Indiana. 9 C. 0. Burden, "The Status of Commercial Education in the Public Secondary Schools of Indiana," Masters Thesis, (unpublished), Bloomington, Indiana:.. University of Indiana, 1926. 19 This investigation was made for the purpose of ascertaining the commercial curriculum in various types of schools, training and experience of teachers, equipment used, and placement work attempted* By means of a questionnaire sent to eighty-five schools, the investigator found that approximately one-fourth of all students were enrolled in business courses. The median period of training for teachers of business subjects was thirty-six months beyond high school. The equipment found rarely exceeded bare necessities. Only eight schools reported an established placement bureau. The wide variety of curricula indicated that no generally accepted policy of curriculum construction had been formulated. The lack of requirements in social-, business subjects indicated apparent uncertainty as to the purposes of these subjects. 2. Sollars* study of business education in Indiana 10 in 1928. This investigation was made two years later than was the one by Burden reported in the preceding paragraph. Its purpose was to evaluate the aims and practices of business education in Indiana schools. It was found that 23.5 per cent of total school enrollment was in the business courses. A questionnaire relative to 10 Robert C. Sollars, "The Commercial Curriculum in Indiana,” Masterys Thesis, (unpublished), Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio State University, 1928. 20 the aims of business education revealed a wide divergence of opinion among 12X teachers and administrators answering it. For example, 49.6 per cent of them answered "yes1 *, and 50.4 per cent, "no" to this question, "Should the commercial curriculum have as its chief aim the securing of immediate jobs for pupils after completion of course?" The nearest approach to agreement was in the answer to the question, "Should the social phase of commercial education be emphasized?" To this question, 88.2 per cent of all replies were affirmative, and 11.8 per cent, negative. A study of the curriculum revealed that the largest percentage of time was devoted to typewriting, shorthand, and bookkeeping in the order named. Economics was the most frequently required social-business subjeet, followed by commercial geography and business English. As was true with the study of aims, little agreement as to policy of curriculum construction was found. S. Blaokstoneys study of business education in 11 Iowa. This investigation of various phases of business education in Iowa revealed that in the matter of preparation, the business teachers of that state ranked high— 62.8 per cent of them having baccalaureate degrees. Comparative II E. G. Blackstone, "Status of Commercial Education in Secondary Public Schools of Iowa," University of Iowa Ex tension Bulletin No. 144. Iowa City; University.of Iowa, 1926, p. 9. 21 percentages for the various states will be given in Chapter IX of this report. 12 4. Obrien*s study of business education in Kansas. This investigation of business education in 243 schools in Kansas revealed that nearly one-third of the total school enrollment was in business subjects. Seventy per cent of the 338 teachers in these schools held baccalaureate degrees; seventy-four of the teachers had had no formal training whatsoever for the work they were doing. Three recommend ations were made as a result of this study: a. A clearer definition of the objectives of busi ness courses is highly desirable# b. There is need for agreement as to content or types of content best suited to achieve the objectives of business education, c# Definite standards of achievement should be prescribed. 5. Lawrence’s investigation of business education in 13 Kentucky# This investigation into business education in 59 public high schools for white pupils in Kentucky re vealed that shorthand, typewriting, and bookkeeping were the predominating subjects in the commercial curriculum. Sixteen, or forty per cent, of the forty teachers for whom data were available, had had from four to five years of college edu cation. 12 F. P. O’Brien, "The Status of Business Courses in the High School," Bulletin of Education. Lawrence: University of Kansas, Vol. II, No. 1, (October, 1928). 13 Armon U. Lawrence, "A Study to Determine the Status of Commercial Education.in the Public White High Schools of Kentucky," Master’s Thesis, (unpublished), Lexington, Kentucky: University of Kentucky, 1930.- 22 6. Weegsingts study of business"education in Minnesota* While this study was concerned primarily with business education in Minnesota, its purpose was "to assist in the search for objective and trustworthy data which will serve as a basis for the reorganization and general improvement of commercial education in public secondary schools*" The findings and conclusions, there fore, have been made applicable to the broad field of secondary business education. It was found that twenty- six per cent of all high school pupils in Minnesota were enrolled in business courses* The largest enrollments were in typewriting I and II, shorthand I and II, and bookkeeping I and II in the order named. The aims of commercial edu cation stated by twenty-five writers were ranked by 145 ad ministrators. The results of this part of the investi gation are shown in Chapter Til of the present report. Some of the other phases of business education studied were; curricular organization, provisions for pupil guidance, placement of graduates, equipment, etc. Each of the busi ness subjects was examined in detail as to enrollments, aims, textbooks, supplementary materials, teaching procedures, and tests and measurements. The educational and professional status of teachers of business subjects was also investigated, A survey of commercial occupations, together with job 14 Frederick I. Weersing. The Heorganization of Business Edu cation in Public Secondary Schools* bineinnati: South- Western Publishing Company, 1929. . 25 analyses of various commercial and clerical occupations, was also included In this comprehensive survey. Finally, the non-vocational values of business education were made the subject of investigation. The suggestions made as a result of this study included the following: (1) that commercial education should provide both general and vocational training; (2) that courses be provided to meet the non-vocational aims of business education; (3) that training for "general business", and for salesmanship and advertising occupations be offered; (4 ) that a special curriculum should be provided for each type of training for which it is planned to give preparation; and (5) that a course similar to junior business training, but of a more ad vanced nature, be offered as a non-vocational course on the senior-high-school level. Recommendations as to each of the business subjects, its place in the curriculum and credit to be given, were made. Suggestions as to the solving of certain administrative problems were given. Attention was called to the fact that teacher-training facilities were inadequate. A curriculum for business- teacher education was then proposed. Finally, the need for continuous experimentation and research in the field of business education was pointed out. 7. Della Young1s survey of commercial education in 15 Montana. This investigation was concerned with the extent 15 Della A. Young, "A Survey of Commercial Education in Secondary Schools^of Montana.".Master*s_ Thesis, (unpublished), Greeley: Colorado State Teachers College, 1929. ~ 24 of commercial education in the public high schools of Montana, its administrative and curricular organization, and the qualifications of teachers of business subjects• Beplies from 109 teachers indicated that 36.9 per cent of Montana high-school pupils were enrolled in business courses. Twenty-four different commercial subjects were offered among the ninety-seven high schools offering one or more business subjects. Seventy-one and five-tenths of the teachers of business subjects held baccalaureate degrees. Seventy-nine and six-tenths of the teachers had had a median of 1.5 years of business experience. 8. Helmstadte^s study of trends in business education , . in Nebraska. The purpose of this investigation was to determine trends with respect to number of subjects being offered and enrollments in these subjects. Information was received from 124 schools, sixty-one per cent of which had organized commercial curricula. The subjects most frequently required were: typewriting, shorthand, and bookkeeping. An increase in enrollments in business administration, account ing, and secretarial training was noted. 9 • Bioe^ comparison of business education in Hew * ir. l? Jersey in 1916 and 1928. This comparison of certain aspects 16 Carl W. Helmstadter, "Some Trends in Commercial Education in Nebraska High Schools," Master*s Thesis, (unpublished), Lincoln: University of Nebraska, ~1929. 17 Louis A. Bice, "A Comparison of Commercial Education in the High Schools of New Jersey in 1916 and 1928." New York Uni versity Besearoh Bulletin in Commercial Education. New York: Vol. II, No. 1, (March, 1930) pp. 5-11. (discontinued). 25 of commercial education in the high schools of Hew Jersey in 1927-1928 with the same aspects manifested in 1915-1916 was made after an examination of state records for the two years# Some of the findings are: a. In 1916, 89.6 per cent of all high schools offered business courses; in 1928, 91 per cent. b. Eighteen and six-tenths per cent of all high- school teachers were full-time teachers of business subjects in 1916; 15.7 per cent, in 1927-1928. c. In 1916, 28.37 per cent of total high-school enrollment were enrolled in business courses; in 1928, 25.04 per cent. Between 1916 and 1928, there was a decrease in the proportion of boys enrolled in business courses. d. The increase in total high-school enrollment from 1916 to 1928 was 120 per cent; in commercial enrollment, 94.6 per cent. e. The subjects which showed the greatest increases in enrollments were business practice, office practice, and junior business training— these three subjects being considered together- commercial geography, and typewriting. f. Increased holding power of the business subjects was indicated by the larger proportion of pupils retained in school. g. In 1915-1916, twenty-three per cent of the teachers of business subjects had had four years or more of college work; in 1927-1928, thirty?-one per cent. These findings indicate a slight decrease in proportionate enrollments in business subjects but an increase in their holding power. 10. Lehmanns investigation of the status of busi- 18 ness education in Hew Mexico. This study of the prevailing practices in commercial education in the public senior high schools of Hew Mexico was concerned with thirty-nine 18 Harold T, Lehmann, "The Status of Some Phases of Commercial Education in Thirty-Hine Public Senior High Schools of Hew Mexico in 1929.* Master*s Thesis, (unpublished), Lawrence, Kansas: University of Kansas, 1929. 26 schools employing forty teachers# The median enrollment per school was thirty-seven which represented twenty-nine per cent of the total enrollment in the high schools investigated. Typewriting, bookkeeping, and shorthand were the business subjects most frequently offered. Seventy-eight per cent of the forty teachers held the baccalaureate degree. How ever, twenty per cent of them had had no business training. This study is especially interesting to teachers and ad ministrators in small schools. 11. Frost1s study of business education in Oklahoma 19 in 1924. This was a study of the extent to which the commercial work offered in the high schools of Oklahoma was meeting the demands of the business interests of the state. Questionnaires relative to business education were answered by 148 teachers and 100 business men. A comparison of the work offered in the schools and the requirements of business men resulted in the conclusion that the busi ness men were justified in criticizing the work of public high schools on the following grounds: (a) inefficiency, because state curriculum requirements were not met; (b) lack of related work— especially in salesmanship, adver tising, business law, insurance, and banking; (c) failure to train for actual positions; and (d) failure to train boys. 12. Clevenger*s study of business education in 19 Ellis M. Frost, "Commercial Education in the High Schools of Oklahoma,1 1 Master*s Thesis, (unpublished), Stillwater: Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College,. 1924. Oklahoma, This study was concerned with enrollments, occupations of graduates, and professional preparation of teachers in fifty^-three high schools in Oklahoma# It was found that in 1916, bookkeeping was offered in fifty-four schools; in 1924, in 146 schools; and in 1931, in 77 schools* The decrease since 1924 was explained by the fact that the smaller schools could not meet the newer state standards* Eighty-five per cent of the teachers of business subjects had baccalaureate degrees* Five recommendations were made as a result of this investigation: (a) that a state director be appointed; (b) that more courses in selling and general clerical work be offered; (c) that there be more uniformity as to years in which various business subjects are offered; (d) that local occupational surveys be made* 13* Helen Reynold^ investigation of business edu- 21 cation in Ohio* Data relative to the professional and educational status of 331 teachers of business subjects and 331 teachers of English were studied* In the sixty-seven high schools covered in this investigation, it was found that 29.78 per cent of all pupils were enrolled in business 2CP Earl Clevenger, "The Status of Commercial Education in Selected High Schools of Oklahoma, * a Thft«J-8L- (unpublished), Stillwater: Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College, 1931* 21 Helen Reynolds, "A Study of the Status of Commercial Teach ing in the Public.High Schools of Ohio Particularly as it Relates to the Training of Commercial Teachers for the High Schools of that State," Master*s Thesis* (unpublished), Hew York: New York University, 1929. courses and 94.33 per cent, in English courses. Bookkeep ing, shorthand, typewriting, commercial arithmetic and commercial geography were the subjects most frequently offered in the commercial curriculum. Of the teachers of business subjects, 63.74 per cent held baccalaureate degrees while 79.15 per cent of the teachers of English held degrees The teachers ranked courses in general education which had been most helpful as: (1) general psychology; (2) practice teaching; and (3) educational psychology. Courses indi cated as not helpful were: (1) history of education; (2) principles of secondary education; and (3) introduction to teaching* However, the courses indicated as "not helpful" by some teachers were ranked "helpful" by others. Courses in commercial education were rated helpful by eighty-one to ninety«one per cent of the teachers. Teachers ranked the elements of their preparation in the order of degree of helpfulness as follows: (1) commercial education; (2) general commerce courses; (3) arts and science; (4) general education courses; and (5) technical business subjects. Lacks in preparation were also expressed. 22 14. Darings survey of business education in Ohio. The purpose of this survey was "to enable the prospective commercial teacher to be informed concerning the opportuni- _ Z. La Yerne Baring, "A Survey of Commercial Education in the Public City High Schools of Ohio, "Master's Thesis, (unpublished), Columbus: Ohio State University, 1930• ties and demands of commercial education in the public city high schools of Ohio.” It was found that twenty-five different business subjects were offered; the most commonly taught being typewriting, shorthand, and bookkeeping# In 1928-1929, 67.5 per cent of the teachers of business subjects in city high schools of Ohio held baccalaureate degrees. 15. Katherine Killgallo^s study of business education 23 . in Pennsylvania. This investigation revealed that, in 1928-1929, 26.3 per cent of the total enrollment of Penn sylvania high schools was in business courses. In 517 high schools, there were offered: 100 one-year business curricula 168 two-year curricula; 124 three-year curricula; and 125 four-year curricula. Fourteen business subjects were offered in Pennsylvania high schools. Bookkeeping, typewriting, business arithmetic, and junior business training were the subjects most frequently offered. Forty-nine and nine- tenths per cent of the teachers of business subjects held baccalaureate degrees. 16. Phillips!, study of business education in 24 Tennessee. This investigation had a dual purpose: (a) to set forth the historical background of business education in the United States; and (b) to describe the present status 23 7“ Katherine Winifred Killgallon, Study of Certain Phases of Commercial Education in the Approved High Schools of Pennsylvania,* Masters Thesis, (unpublished), Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania:. University of Pittsburgh, 1930. 24 iames Paul Phillips, WA Study of Commercial Education With Special Reference to Tennessee,w Master*s Thesis, (un published), Knoxville: University of Tennessee, 1928. of commercial education in Tennessee County high schools* A library study of the history of business education was reported. Data relative to Tennessee revealed that nine per cent of the graduates of Tennessee county high schools entered business during the years 1923-1927— more boys than girls being included in this number. Fifteen teachers of the twenty-one whose records were studied held bacca laureate degrees. Detailed findings from the sixteen state-wide studies reported in this section will be included in Chapter VII and IX of t£e present report. D. JUNIOR-HIGH-SCHOOL BUSINESS EDUCATION At least three studies of business education in the junior high school have been made within recent years. They include a summary of the research in the field prior to 1927, a curriculum study made in 1929, and a comprehensive survey of elementary business training made in 1931. 1. Summary of studies in the ”junior commerce 25 curriculum” made previous to 1927. The evolution of business education in the junior high school from the early introduction of high-school technical subjects, through a stage of training for junior jobs and preparation for senior-high school business courses, to the present stage in which a fusion course in business training is offered _ Department of Superintendence,” The Junior High School Curriculum,” Fifth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1927, pp. 430-454. 31 to all pupils irrespective of future occupational destination, is described. Reports of curriculum studies and excerpts from junior courses in commerce published by various cities are included in this publication. 2. Glass1 study of the business curriculum in the 26 junior high school. This composite case study of the junior commerce curriculum in 1929 revealed the following trends: (1) a required course of interpretation of business practices in the eighth year, fulfilling the "interpretation of environment" function of the junior high school; and (2) a pre-vocational course in the eighth year plus a strictly vocational course in the ninth year. 3. Haynes1 survey of elementary business training 27 in the public junior high schools of the United States. As elementary business training, or "elements of business", is the fusion course mentioned in the above paragraph, a study of its aims, curricular organization, enrollments, and teaching procedures yields findings of significance to the entire field of junior-high-school business education. The aim of this course checked most frequently--by 317 out of a total of 386 administrators and teachers— was, "to 26 James M. Glass, "Composite Case Study of the Business Curriculum in the Junior High School, "Curriculum Making in Business Education," Second Yearbook. Philadelphia: Eastern Commercial Teachers' Association, 1929, pp. 115-121. 27 Benjamin R. Haynes, "Elementary Business Training in the Public Junior High Schools of the United States," The Journal of Business Education. June, 1932. (reprint). teach elementary business practices and principles• " It was found that commercial arithmetic and typewriting were the other business subjects offered most frequently in junior high school* Two widely divergent conceptions of elementary business training were indicated by admini strators and teachers: (1) that it should be a part of general education; and (2) that it should be a part of specific vocational education# Three hundred forty-five, or 60#53 per cent, of the 570 teachers considered held baccalaureate degrees. As a result of this study, the recommendation was made that this course should emphasize the "general activities participated in by all pupils as consumers of economic goods and services• " E. BUSINESS EDUCATION IN THE JUNIOR COLLEGE Four recent studies of business education on the junior college level are reported in the following para graphs # 1* La Pow^ survey of commercial education in the 28 .junior college# This survey was concerned with business education in 131 junior colleges# It was found that three groups of courses were offered: (1) the economics group, which is probably a duplication of work offered in senior 28 Robert La Dow, "A Survey of Commercial Education in the Junior College," "Research Studies in Commercial Education IV," University.of Iowa Monographs in Education# First Series No# 11, Iowa City: University of Iowa, (January.!, 1929) pp# 129-140. colleges of commerce; (2) the technieal-subjeets group, which, represents a duplication of high-school work; and (3) the group related to the semi*professions-~offiee training, selling, investments, business organization and management, and advert!sing--the group upon which the junior college should probably focus its attention. 2. Koos* report of the present status of business education in the junior college. This report is based on a survey made by H. G. Shields. The business subjects in which largest enrollments were found are economics, typewriting, and accounting. As a result of this survey two needs were indicated: (1) need for extended investi gations to identify the semi-professions and to develop courses aiming to prepare for them; and (2) need for liberalizing training in economics and business for those who cannot or should not continue to the senior-college level. 3. Virginia Moses* study of the articulation between business education in the junior colleges and in 30 higher institutions. This study of the catalogs of thirty-four public junior colleges and nine collegiate gg" ’ ' Leonard V. Koos, "Business Education: The Present Status," Junior College Journal. Stanford University: Vol. IX, No. 4, (January, 1932}, p. 197. 30 Virginia Holmes Moses, "Articulation in Business Education Between Junior Colleges and Higher Institutions in California, Master's Thesis, (unpublished), Los Angeles: University of Southern California, 1932. - 34 institutions in California resulted in the conclusions that: (1) there is a general lack of articulation between business subjects in junior colleges and higher insti tutions in California; and (2) there is need for scientific curriculum construction, standardization of courses, and elimination of the wastes of duplication# 4# ffullenwider^ survey of junior-college business 31 education# An analysis of the business curricula of thirty public junior colleges in California revealed that shorthand, accounting, typewriting, and business law were the business subjects most frequently offered# The conclusion was reached that while specialized training iH now the paramount aim of junior-college business edu cation, there is a growing tendency to offer broadly in formational courses in the field of business# F. UNIVERSITY EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS A comprehensive study of this field was made in 1931. Survey by Bossard and Dewhurst of university edu- 32 cation for business# This study was concerned with the facilities developed by representative American universities to meet the demands of business# An analysis 31 Francis C. Fullenwider, "The Aims and Curricular Organi zation of Commercial Education on the Junior College level,” Master*a Thesis# (unpublished), Los Angeles: University of Southern California, 1932# - 32 James H. Sf Bossard and J# Frederic Dewhurst, University Education for Business# Philadelphia: University of Penn sylvania Press, 1931• 35 was made of: (a) recent changes in business; (b) occu pational opportunities for college graduates; (c) train ing and qualifications necessary for success in business positions; (d) reading interests of business men; (e) occupational experiences of graduates of collegiate schools of business; (f) curricular organisation in collegiate schools of business; (g) problems of faculty and student personnel; and (h) teaching methods. Among other con clusions reached, the following may be quoted: ”business places a particular premium upon personality.” G. TRAINING FOR LEADERSHIP IN BUSINESS EDUCATION One study was found which had for its object the devising of a program for the training of leaders in business education. Atkinson*s survey of commercial education in secondary schools. The purpose of this study was the development of courses on the graduate level to meet the urgent demand for leadership in business education. To this end, the individual business subjects were examined. Material relative to each subject was assembled under ten headings covering objectives, place in curriculum, correlation, training and qualifications of teachers, etc* Such material was then segregated with reference to the _ Earl W. Atkinson, ”The Commercial Education Program in Secondary Schools,”-Ph.D. Dissertation, (unpublished), Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: Duquesne University, 1930.. (4 volumes). 36 four groups of courses usually taught on the high-school level: stenographic, bookkeeping, salesmanship, and general clerical. Thus, the result of this study was the compilation of content material to he used in training leaders in business education. H. CURRICULA. SET UP FOR THE EDUCATION OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS. At least eight curriculum studies in the field of business-teacher education were made during the decade from 1922 to 1932. A search through the literature of the subject has failed to disclose any investigations of business-teacher education made previous to 1922, It is the plan of this section to summarize briefly each of these studies by giving the purpose of the investigation, the method used, the findings, and the conclusion reached. They are discussed in chronological order. 1. Ida D. Hentonfs collection of data on commercial curricula in teacher training institutions of the United 34 States, made in 1927. This investigator examined the catalogs of 169 normal schools and teachers• colleges for courses in commercial teacher training. She found that six states had no schools giving such training. Sixty-five of the 169 institutions investigated made special provisions for the training of commercial teachers, 34 Ida D. Henton, Investigation made at State Normal School, Spearfish, S, D., (unpublished). 37 fifty of them offering four-year curricula* An examination of the courses offered by twenty institutions revealed that all of them required work in accounting, stenography, typewriting, practice teaching, psychology, and English composition. Seventy-five other subjects were required by one or more of the institutions^proving that no uni formity existed as to required courses. 2. Study made by P. 0. Selby in 1927 on the status of shorthand and typewriting in the colleges of the North 35 Central Association. The catalogs of the 251 accredited colleges, universities, teachers? colleges, and junior colleges of the North Central Association were analyzed. It was found that thirty-four and seven-tenths per cent of these institutions offered courses in shorthand and typewriting and that twenty-six and three-tenths per cent of them gave credit for such courses. Statistics for the teachers? colleges alone showed that two^thirds of them offered work in shorthand and typewriting and that all of them gave credit for such courses. 3. Ruth Hoadley<s investigation of the present status of commercial teacher training in public insti- 36 tutions. Questionnaires were sent to 470 institutions 3 5. P. 0. Selby, "The Status of Shorthand and Typewriting in the Colleges of the North Central Association,” The Journal of Commercial Education. Philadelphia: The Stenographic ’ ’ 1 World Publishing Company, Vol. LVI, No 2, (February, 1927), p. 39. 36 Ruth Hoadley, University of Iowa. "Present Status of Commercial Teacher Training in Public Institutions,” The Journal of Commercial Education. Philadelphia: The, Stenographic World Publishing Company, June, 1928. 58 asking for information as to entrance requirements, length of courses, required courses* methods courses, practice teaching, and percentage of calls for commercial teachers which the institutions were unable to fill. Sixty-six replies were received from institutions offering business- teacher education* Over one hundred different subjects were named as "required courses." Of the forty most commonly required subjects, four were professional; ten, cultural; and the remainder, content subjects. In the institutions offering four-year courses, colleges and universities were unable to fill forty-four per cent of the calls for commercial teachers and teachers colleges and normal schools were unable to fill sixty-eight per cent. "Insufficient number of graduates" was the most frequent reason given for this inability to fill calls. 4. Tonne*s study of commercial teacher training 37 curricula in 1928. Tonne investigated the curricula offered in preparation for the teaching of commercial subjects in ninety-seven institutions including; twenty- one business colleges, nineteen normal schools (two and three-year curricula); twenty-eight teachers* colleges; and twenty-nine universities. He studied the courses offered in the curriculum with respect to; (1) the 37 Herbert A. Tonne, Commercial Teacher Training Curricula, (unpublished). Ph.D Thesis, New York University, 1928. 39 schools in which offered; (2) the purposes of the courses; (3) the years in which given; (4) the number of credits given for each course; (5) terminology used for designating courses; (6) electives and curriculum variables. The data thus obtained were shown in sixty tables. The total number of courses offered by all the schools studied was as follows: Courses percentage r nmr nmmmmmmmmmmmmm mmmmmmmmmmmmrnmmmmmmmmmm General subjects 370 22.9 Commerce 441 27.2 Technical 383 25.7 Education 307 19.1 Commercial education 113 7.1 Total--------- 1614 From the data secured, together with a study of the works of authorities on curriculum, a list of seventeen principles for the construction of commercial teacher train ing curricula was evolved. 5. Erickson’s analysis of commercial teacher-training 38 curricula. This investigator found that 126, or 28.83 per cent, of a total of 437 schools had curricula for busi- ness-teacher education. Ninety-seven four-year curricula were analyzed. Requirements for each group of subjects in state teachers’ colleges, colleges, and universities were found. The findings were evaluated by means of a question?- ndtre which dealt with tentative standards. As a result of this study, a curriculum was proposed with four options in 38 Arthur E. Erickson, , f An Analysis of Commercial Teacher- Training Curricula,w Master*s Thesis, (unpublished), University of Minnesota, 1929. 40 the field of commerce— general business, accounting, secretarial, and merchandising. 6. Study of curriculum making in business-teacher 39 education by Lomax and Tonne. By means of a question naire, Lomax and Tonne secured information as to: (a) important factors to be considered in the construction of commercial teacher-training curricula; (b) time allotment which should be given to subject groups; (c) whether or not specialized curricula should be offered; (d) courses considered desirable. As a result of this study, a list of minimum essentials was suggested. 7. Bice^ investigation of course-of-study making 40 in business-teacher education. An investigation of the content of courses in Principles of Commercial Education in thirty-seven institutions was made. A list of eleven groups of topics treated in such courses was compiled. 8. Yoder*s study of curriculum making in business- 41 teacher education. A comparison of the teaching programs 39 Paul S. Lomax and Herbert A. Tonne, “Problems of Curric ulum Making in Business-Teacher Training,“ “Research Studies in Commercial Education 17,“ University of Iowa Monographs in Education. Iowa City: First Series No. 11, (January 1, 1929), pp.182-199. 40 Louis A. Rice, “Course-of-Study Making in Business-Teacher* Training Institutions,“ 1929 Yearbook. Philadelphia: Eastern Commercial Teachers Association, p. 289 ff. 41 C. M. Yoder, “Commercial-Teacher-Training Curricula for Teachers Colleges,w “Research Studies in Commercial Edu cation IY,“ University of Iowa Monographs in Education. Iowa City: First Series No. 11, (January 1, 1929), pp. 201-208. 41 of graduates of the Whitewater State Teachers Colleges for the years 1923 and 192S were made# A survey of business education in Wisconsin disclosed that in the year 1926, 33*6 of all high school pupils were enrolled in business courses. As a result of these investigations, a teacher- training curriculum was suggested. I. PRESENT EDUCATIONAL AND PROFESSIONAL STATUS OF TEACHERS OF- BUSINESS SUBJECTS Twelve investigators have collected data relative to the educational and professional status of teachers of busi ness subjects. The results of these studies are summarized in Chapter IX of the present report in connection with data secured from the National Survey of the Education of teachers. The twelve studies are briefly described in the following paragraphs. 1. Rankle*s survey of the training received by the 42 teachers of business subjects in Ohio. Data were received from 514 teachers, 238 of whom held baccalaureate degrees. A curriculum for the training of teachers of business subjects was prepared by utilizing existing courses at Ohio State University and by planning courses to provide for "missing elements" in the existing courses. 2. Investigation by Frances Effinger-Raymond and Elizabeth S. Adams into the "educational equipment and 4s ' 1 [ Jay D. Runkle, "A Commercial-Teacher-Training Program," The Vocational Education Magazine. Philadelphia: June, 1923, p. 745. 42 43 needs of the commercial teachers of California# Three- hundred and seven questionnaires were sent out to teachers of business subjects# More than fifty per cent of this special group working with juniors and seniors in the high school were not college graduates; 216 of a total of 292 teachers had learned their technique in business colleges# Two hundred thirty-eight of the teachers recommended courses on methods of particular subjects as well as courses in the subject matter of business English, ac countancy, and economics# 3. Walters* investigation of the specialization of 44 commercial teachers in Pennsylvania# This investigation revealed that in Pennsylvania, in 1926, 37#6 per cent of the high-school commercial teachers were the holders of baccalaureate degrees# Their teaching programs indicated that specialization is the trend in commercial education# 4# Kuykendall’s study of commercial, English# 45 mathematics, and science teachers in Pennsylvania# In- Raymond, frances-Effinger and Adams, Elizabeth S#, Uni versity Training of the Commercial Teachers in the High Schools of California♦ Hew York: The Gregg Publishing Company, (pamphlet), 1925 # 44 R# G. Walters, "Specialization of Commercial Teachers in Pennsylvania," "Research Studies in Commercial Education", University of Iowa Monographs in Education# Iowa City: first Series No. 7, (July, 1926)• See also article.by same author, "Commercial Education in Pennsylvania High Schools," Journal of Commercial Education# LV 11926) p. 301. , 1 1 45 “ * Benjamin Kuykendall, "A Study of the Commercial, English, Mathematics, and Scienqe Teachers in the State of Penn sylvania," Master’s Thesis, (unpublished), Hew York: Hew York UniveraTgy?"T W : -------. 43 formation relative to four groups of teachers was secured* There were fewer commerce teachers than those belonging to any other group* Commerce teachers ranked second in amount of salary received. Only 25.7 per cent of the commerce teachers held degrees, contrasted with 79.7 per cent of English teachers who held degrees* 5. Pinkeye study of the changing status of confer 46 mercial teachers in Pennsylvania* This investigator compared the status of commercial and non-commercial teachers in Pennsylvania in 1920 and 1928* He found that in 1928 the demand for commercial teachers was 45.1 per cent greater than in 1920; for non-commercial teachers, it was 23*0 per cent greater. In 1928, 38.8 per cent of commercial teachers had had four years or more of college education, in 1920, 19*3 per cent; in 1928, 87*3 per cent of non-commercial teachers had had four years of college education, in 1920, 65 per cent. In 1920, the median salary of commercial teachers was $185.00 higher than that of non-commercial teachers; in 1928, it was $145.00 lower. 6. Lomax* comparative study of commercial. English. 47 mathematics, and science teachers in the state of Hew Jersey. 46 Ray B. Pinkel, "Changing Status of Commercial Teachers in the State of Pennsylvania," Masterfs Thesis, (unpublished), New York: New York University, 1932. 47 Paul S. Lomax, "Comparative Study of Commercial, English, Mathematics, and Science Teachers in the State of New Jersey." Education Bulletin. State of New Jersey, Department of Edu cation^ (May, 1927), p. 359. 44 Lomax made a comparison of the degrees held by four groups of high school teachers (commerce, English, mathematics, science) in 1912 with those held by the same groups in 1927. He found that the commercial teachers had made only 6*4 per cent of their possible gain whereas the English teachers had made 59.5 per cent of their possible gain; the mathematics teachers, 76.1 per cent; and the science teachers, 63.8 per cent. $hus it would appear that either the commercial teachers had not taken advantages of oppor tunities or that suitable courses had not been provided for them. Only 29.3 per cent of the commercial teachers of Hew Jersey held baccalaureate degrees. It was further found that 22.6 per cent of the teaching schedules of New Jersey commercial teachers were single-subject cases while 77.4 per cent were combination-subject cases. 7• Rice^ 1929 study of New Jersey commercial teachersf^ This investigation was concerned with the problem of pro viding specialized training for teachers of business subjects. It was found that slightly more than forty per cent of 591 teachers taught two-subject combinations and that twenty- five per cent taught three-subject combinations. It was found also that 376 teachers were responsible for 480 extra-curriculum activities. The recommendation was made that prospective teachers be given as broad a training as possible. Louis A. Rice, f f Activities of NewJersey Commercial Teachers,1 1 "Research Studies in Commercial Education IV,” University of Iowa Monographs in Education.. Iowa City: First Series, No. 11, (January 1, 1929), pages 229-240. 45 8. Ricefs 1952 study of New Jersey commercial 49 . teachers. Of the 880 teachers of business subjects in New.'Jersey, 43.4 per cent are graduates of approved colleges. Eighty-one and five-tenths per cent of a total of 804 have had some business experience. Years of teaching experience, subjects taught, and salaries were also investigated. 9. Elizabeth Bakerfs report of comparative quali- 50 fications of commercial teachers and other teacher groups. This report was a general one, summarizing other studies. The fact that of the thirty-four teachers of business subjects in Maryland in 1916 only two had degrees was stated. 10. Noble1s study of the status of teachers of busi- 51 ness subjects in North Carolina, This study was con cerned with the amount and kind of training possessed by commercial teachers in the high schools for whites in North Carolina as well as with the supply of and demand for such teachers. It was found that the teachers of 49 Louis A. Rice, "New Jersey Commercial Teachers,” The Journal of Business Education. Wilkesbarre, Pennsylvania: Vol. Till, No. 2 (October, 1932) p. 25 ff. 50 Elizabeth Baker, "Studies of Comparative Qualifications of Commercial Teachers and Other Teacher Groups," 1938 Yearbook. Philadelphia: Eastern Commercial Teachers Association,pp. 301-306. 51 M. C. S. Noble, Commercial Teachers in the High Schools for Whites of North Carolina, 1939-30~ Raleigh, North Carolina: State Superintendent of Public Instruction (mimeographed) 1931. 46 business subjects had had an average of 20*04 semester hours instruction in business subjects; 70*58 semester hours in academic subjects; and 10*98 semester hours in the field of education* Eighteen out of a total of fifty- three superintendents of schools reported that it was difficult to secure an adequate supply of properly trained commercial teachers* 11* Filers study of Illinois teachers of business 52 , subjects* This investigation was concerned with the training received by 146 teachers of business subjects* The majority of these teachers had been trained in business colleges and normal schools* Teachers in large communis ties had had more college education than those in smaller communities* The median number of subjects taught was two* Teachers ashed to express opinions as to aims mentioned the vocational aim more frequently than any other; other wise, there was a general lack of agreement as to the aims of business education. The replies of a majority of the teachers did not reflect an understanding of the inter- relation between the student's adjustment to his social and to his physical environment* The recommendation was made, as a result of this study, that teacher-training programs provide a richer background of academic, business, and related subject matter* 52 Clinton M* File, HA Study of Illinois Business Teachers in High Schools with an Enrollment of Five Hundred or More," Research Bulletin in Commercial Education* New York: New York University, Vol. II, No* 3, (October, 1930) p. 3* 47 12. Lawrence1s study of the comparative status i i gg of teachers of business and of academic subjects. This investigator asked principals and superintendents to rank teachers of business subjects as to: (a) personal qualities; (b) preparation; and (c) teaching efficiency, using teachers of academic subjects for purposes of comparison. The teachers of business subjects ranked high in dependability, training in subjects taught, discipline, and cooperation; low, in social and cultural training, impression made in faculty meetings, academic degrees, and social and extra-curriculum activities. J. ANALYSES OF THE DIFFICULTIES AND DUTIES OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS . . A?; subject of investigation similar to that of the educational and professional status of teachers of busi ness subjects discussed in the preceding paragraphs is that of difficulty and duty analyses. Two such analyses have been made. 1. Frances Mathews* analysis of the duties and difficulties of teachers of shorthand, bookkeeping and 54 ! typewriting. This analysis was made for the purpose of organizing a curriculum for teacher training. A list 53 A. J. Lawrence, ”How Do We Compare with Others?” The Journal.of Business Education. Vol. VII, No. 5,..(April, 1933) pp. 12-13. 54 ' Frances Claire Mathews, "Analysis of the Duties and Difficulties of Commercial Teachers of Shorthand, Book keeping, and Typewriting,” Master1s Thesis, (unpublished), Greeley: Colorado State Teachers" College, 1926. 48 of 224 duties of commercial teachers was incorporated into the questionnaire used in the investigation. Returns were received from seventy teachers in six states and in twelve large cities. There was little agreement among teachers as to whether duties should be learned ”on the job” or during training. There was also lack of agreement as to which duties are easy and which dif ficult to perform. The conclusion was reached that duties ranking in the upper quartile as difficult to perform and as being best learned in school should be stressed in organizing teacher-training curricula. 2. Luvicy Hill^ study of the problems met by 55 teachers of business subjects. This study was con cerned with the problems met by commercial teachers and whether or not college training had given definite help in solving them. One hundred teachers reported a total of 520 problems. The conclusion was reached that ”perhaps professional training has not beem em phasizing sufficiently the technique and procedures whereby the teacher can learn to solve her own pro blems, or know where to seek information that will lead to their intelligent solution.” 55--- ” Luvicy Martha.. Hill, ”Some Problems of Commercial Teachers in Nebraska High Schools,” Masfeerts Thesis, (unpublished), Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 1930. K. SUPPLY AND DEMAND OP TEACHERS OP BUSINESS SUBJECTS 49 Three studies of the supply and demand of teachers of business subjects and three general studies which have im plications for business-teacher education are reported in the following paragraphs. 1. Neuner*s study of supply and demand of teachers of business subjects in New York City.^6 Some of the conclusions reached from this study were: (1) Seventeen and three-tenths per cent of the applicants for teaching positions in the commercial group passed the city exam ination in 1926-1927, while 25.8 per cent of academic group passed their examination; (2) fifty-six per cent of appointments in commercial group were for school expansion; twenty-per cent, in academic group, were for this purpose; (3) thirty-three per cent of commercial group appointed had had no previous experience. 2. Neuner*s study of supply and demand of teachers of business subjects in New York state exclusive of New 57 York City. It was found that two-thirds of the new teachers of business subjects in 1926-1927 were inexperi enced. One fourth of the supply of teachers of business subjects came from normal schools with two and three-year He ----* John J. W. Neuner, , f The Supply and Demand of Public High School Commercial Teachers in New York City,” 1928 Year book. Eastern Commercial Teachers1 Association, pp. 213-223. 57 John J. W. Neuner, 1 1 A Comparative Study of Supply and Demand of Commercial Teachers in the Public Day High Schools of New York State Exclusive of New York City for the Year 1926-1927,” Research Bulletin in Commercial Education. New York: New York University, Vol. II, No. 2 “, (May, 1930), pp. 2-7. 50 curricula. The general conclusion was reached that "the demand for better trained commercial teachers will probably increase as shown by certification requirements." 3. Study of teacher supply and demand made by 58 California State Department of Education. The study of the oversupply of teachers in California revealed that of a total of 2,514 unplaced teachers, thirty had majored in Commerce and twenty-seven had minored in this field. This number may be compared with the 246 who had majored in English and the 325 who had minored in that field. Reasons for non-placement were given; the most frequent reason being surplus." 4. Study of supply and demand made by National Edu- 59 cation Association. This report comprises a summary of previous studies of teacher demand and supply. Rata ob tained from questionnaires sent to state departments of education indicate an apparent surplus of persons with teaching licenses in 1929-30. The report contains a comprehensive annotated bibliography on teacher demand and supply. 60 5* Over^s study of indices of supply and demand. 58 California State Department of Education, A Survey of the Oversunnly. of Teachers as Reflected in the Placement Agencies of the California Teacher-Training Institutions, November 1. 1951. Sacramento: January 26, 1932. 59 National Education Association, "Teacher Supply and Demand," Research Bulletin. Washington, D. C.: Vol. IX, No. 5, (November, 1931). 60 A. V. Overn, Indices of Supply and Demand of Teachers in Minnesota. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1932. 51 While this study was not concerned primarily with teachers of business subjects, it is mentioned here because the author stresses the need for social control of the personnel in any occupation for the purpose of preserving professional status. 6. Malot^s report of the inadequacy of commercial 61 teacher-training facilities. Malott made a study of supply and demand of teachers of business subjects in the United States and came to the conclusion that a need exists for more and better-trained teachers. He gives two reasons for the shortage: (a) the academic prejudice against utilitarian education; and (2) slowness in applying research findings regarding supply and demand to the establishment of curricula. L. STATE CERTIFICATION REQUIREMENTS State certification requirements influence the type of training offered to and sought by teachers of business subjects. Two studies of state certification are reported in the following paragraphs. 1. Reed^s investigation of state certification 62 requirements. In 1928, Reed sent questionnaires to state departments of education relative to certification requirements for teachers of business subjects. He found 61 J. 0. Malott, "Present Commercial Teacher-Training Fa cilities Inadequate." American Shorthand Teacher. Vol. XII, No. 10, (June, 1932), p. 430. 62 Clinton A. Reed, "The Number of Years and Kind of Training That Should be Required of Commercial Teachers,?1 1928 Yearbook. Eastern Commercial Teachers Association, pp. 375-381. only fifteen states in which four years of college-grade work was required for teachers of business subjects. 2. Kelley^ study of trends in business education 63 certification. This investigator noted the following trends: (1) a trend toward abolition of the "general" certificate; (2) an upward trend in certification standards (3) and the dropping of the examination method of certifi cation. Eleven states, in 1932, required the baccalaureate degree of teachers of business subjects. M. TEACHER-TRAINING STUDIES IN OTHER FIELDS An investigation of teacher education in one field should not be undertaken without reasonable familiarity with research which has been done in the large field of teacher education# Three studies and one summary are here reported as examples of research in teacher education. 1. Y. M. C. A. survey of the viewpoints of three 64 dred instructors and administrators. This study was de for the purpose of identifying the points of view held instructors, supervisors, and administrators in Y. M. A. schools on seventy-one social issues, twenty-two bjeetives in terms of growth of persons, and forty-three 63 E. L. Kelley, "Trends in Business Education Certification, The American Shorthand Teacher. Vol. XIII, No. 1, (Sep- tember, 1932), p. 21 ff. 64 General Education Service, National Council of the Y. M. C. A., View Points on Social Issues, Educational Objectives and Educational Theories'! New York: May, 1932 (pamphlet) • 53 selected issues in educational theory* Teachers in the business schools were found to be the most traditionally minded on educational theory and to score more heavily for traditional individualism than they did for socialization* This study is quoted as an excellent example of an ob jective attach upon research into philosophy of education and points of view held on social issues. 65 2. Charters and Wanles* teacher-training study. A vast body of fact and opinion is available for the training of teachers. These investigators used the activi ties and traits of teachers as a basis for the selection of useful methods and principles, from the accumulation of race experience.,to be used in teacher training. Procedures to be used in the construction of new courses were outlined. 3. Study by Hughes and Melby of the “training of the 66 staff.” This study of supervision contains a chapter on the "training of the staff” because ”the teacher*s ability to profit from supervision depends upon her previous training.” A study of the training received by one hundred high-school teachers of social science revealed great divergence in types of training, five 65 Werrett W. Charters and Douglas Waples, The Commonwealth Teacher-Training Study. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1929. M. Hughes and E. 0. Melby, "Supervision of Instruction in High School," Northwestern University'Contributions to Education, School of Education Series No. 4. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1930. 54 types of graduate training programs were submitted to six groups of educators. The three variable elements in the types of training programs were the adviser, the thesis problem, and the course work. The conclusion was reached that the master*s degree in education was coming to be considered a "training for teaching" degree rather than a "training of specialists" degree. 67 4. Summary of ten teacher-training investigations. Ten specific studies in teacher training were started in 1951 in connection with the National Survey of the Edu cation of Teachers: (1) a fact-finding study; (2) curriculum studies; (3) reading interests of teachers; (4) library facilities of teacher-training institutions; (5) bibliography of the education of teachers; (6) a measurement program; (7) supply and demand of teachers; (8) development of a measuring instrument to discover the educational theory or theories whieh control the thinking of teachers; (9) a history of teacher training; and (10) the in-service preparation of teachers. The results of all of these studies will be of significance to workers in the field of business-teacher education. 67 E. S. Evenden, "Progress in Ten Teacher-Training Investi gations," School Life. Washington D. C.: Superintendent of Documents, Yol. XYII, No. 1, (September, 1931), p. 11. 55 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER The problem of the relation of business-teacher education to secondary business education has many phases. Therefore, research into the many aspects of business education and business-teacher education is of interest to the worker in this field. Sixty~two studies, each of which has some bearing upon the solution of the present problem, have been summarized in this chapter. A few general statements relative to the thirteen groups of studies reported are given in the following summary: 1. Two library studies of the history of business \ education, from early European backgrounds to present- status, have been made. 2. Few comprehensive studies of aims and curricula in business education are available. 3. Data secured in sixteen state-wide investigations reveal that from twenty-five per cent to forty per cent of all high-^school pupils are enrolled in business courses; that typewriting, shorthand, and bookkeeping have larger enrollments than other business subjects; and that there is little agreement as to the aims of business education and curriculum construction. 4. Recent Investigations of junior-high-school business education indicate that the present trend is Mto emphasize the general activities participated in by 56 all pupils as consumers of economic goods and services.M 5. Studies of business education on the junior- college level reveal that there is need for more re search for the purpose of: (a) identifying the semi- professions; and (b) providing liberalizing training in economics and business as part of a general education. 6. A comprehensive survey of university education for business resulted in conclusions relating to various aspects of business education. One significant conclusion was that personality development was a necessary element in business training. 7. Content material for a course in training for leadership in business education was collected on the assumption that leaders must be familiar with many different aspects of the individual business subjects. 8. Eight investigations of curricula set up for business-teacher education resulted in the presentation of suggested curricula which will be referred to in detail in Chapter X of the present report. 9. Twelve state-wide investigations of the present educational and professional status of teachers of busi ness subjects reveal that from 1915 to 1932, 19.3 per cent to eighty-five per cent of all teachers of business subjects held baccalaureate degrees and that median salaries ranged from $1100.00 to $2350.00. In degrees held and in salaries received, the teachers of business subjects ranked lower than other groups with whom they were 0/ compared. 10. Difficulty and duty analyses of the job of the teacher of business subjects reveal that teachers are asking for help on many problems. Methods of solving problems and sources of helpful material should be indicated in training programs. 11. A need for more and better-trained teachers of business subjects is indicated by recent studies of supply and demand. 12. An upward trend in certification requirements for teachers of business subjects has been noted. 13. The worker in the field of business-teacher education should be familiar with teacher-training studies in other fields. The forthcoming publications in connections with the Hational Survey of the Education of Teachers will contain extensive data covering this entire field. The following chapter sets forth the sources of data and the procedure used in the present investigation* 58 CHAPTER III SOURCES OP DATA AND PROCEDURE USED IN INVESTIGATION The problem of the evolution of business education in the United States and its implications for the preparation of secon dary teachers of business subjects is of wide scope, necessi tating several lines of inquiry. On the one hand, the subject is as broad as business education itself and involves all of the problems of that extensive field; on the other, it is in herently related to the entire field of teacher education. The present investigation is divided into three parts: (A) A study of past and current aims and curricula of secondary busi ness education in the United States as a guide to teacher edu cation; (B) The preparation of secondary business teachers and the requirements in employing institutions; and (C) Conclusions and recommendations. The following paragraphs give the sources of data and procedure used in the investigation. A. PAST AND CURRENT AIMS AND CURRICULA OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES AS A GUIDE FOR TEACHER EDUCATION. This section of the investigation is concerned with five lines of inquiry; (1) the history of secondary business edu cation and of business-teacher preparation in the United States; (2) sources of aims and curricula; (3) past aims and curricula; (4) present aims and curricula; and (5) trends in the aims and curricula of secondary business education. This portion of the investigation is a library study in 59 which all available published material on secondary business education has been examined and compiled under appropriate headings: history, sources of curricula, sources of aims, past aims, past curricula, present aims, present curricula, and trends. As a further step, curricula of various periods have been analyzed as to proportion of each group of subjects required The general picture of business education thus secured has been used as a basis for the major portion of the study which is con cerned with the preparation of secondary business teachers. B. THE PREPARATION OF BUSINESS TEACHERS IN THE UNITED STATES AND REQUIREMENTS IN EMPLOYING INSTITUTIONS This second portion of the investigation is divided into five parts: (1) the present preparation of secondary business teachers; (2) curricula devised for the preparation of secon dary business teachers as revealed by previous studies; (3) present requirements for prospective teachers of business sub jects; (4) trends in curricula; and (5) requirements and sug gestions of administrators in employing institutions. The fol lowing paragraphs describe in detail the procedure used* 1* The present preparation of secondary business teachers* In 1932, a national survey of the education of teachers was completed under the direction of the United States Office of Education. The questionnaire was answered by 15,000 teachers of business subjects which number represents approximately fifty 68 per cent of all the McommercialM teachers in the United States. These data relative to the present preparation 68 J. 0. Malott, Specialist in Commercial Education, United States Office of Education, letter dated August 10, 1932. 60 of business teachers have been summarized for the purpose of securing an adequate picture of the preparation of teachers who are now administering the secondary business-education program. 2. Curricula devised for the preparation of secondary business teachers as revealed in previous studies. In 1929, the author made a survey of 685 degree-granting institutions in the United States and analyzed the curricula set up for business-teacher education. A summary of this study is given. 3. Present curricula devised for the preparation of secon dary business teachers. A questionnaire based upon the find ings of the above investigations was sent to all members of the National Association of Commercial Teacher Training Insti tutions and to other institutions having curricula for the preparation of teachers of business subjects as revealed by previous studies--a total of 181 questionnaires being sent. The questionnaire inquired as to changes in curricula since 1928; the presence or absence of differentiated curricula in four fields--secretarial, accounting, salesmanship, and gen eral business--; business experience required; standards in technical skill subjects; provision made for acquainting the students with the changing aims, curricula, and procedures in secondary business education; provision made for acquisi tion of the habit of constantly searching for the new develop ments in business education and ability to interpret research findings; provision made for personality development; means used for giving teachers an adequate foundation for presenting 61 their students a picture of present social and economic life; and a list of problems encountered in "business-teacher educa- 69 tion* The results present a. picture of curricula in business- teacher education, ways of solving four of its vital problems, and a list of other problems considered important by workers in this field. 4. Requirements in employing: institutions as to the prep aration of teachers of business subjects and suggestions for such preparation. Three questionnaires were prepared, one for each of the following types of institution®; junior colleges, senior high schools, and junior high schools. The junior- college questionnaire was sent to all members of the: American Association of Junior Colleges— (459 in number)* The junior- high-school and senior-high-school questionnaires were sent to all of the ninety-three cities in the United States having a population of 100,000 or more; also to 191 of the 283 cities having a population of 25,000 to 99,999; and 279 of the 4,419 communities in the United States having a population of from 1,000 to 5,000. In each case, selection was made by states so that the sampling would be nation-wide. The question naires were identical, with the exception of the last question in which the peculiar problems of business-teacher education with reference to the type of community and institution involved were inquired into. The questionnaire covered; degrees required of teachers of business subjects, major emphasis in preparatory curricula, preferences as to teacher specialization, requirements as to 69 Appendices A and B— copies of letter and questionnaire* 62 actual business experience, standards for technical skill, a ranking of the problems in business-teacher education, a list of problems which should be studied by administrators of in stitutions engaged in business-teacher preparation, and sugges tions as to the teacher education desired for each type of 70 school. The results of this inquiry were used as a basis for the evaluation of curricula and procedures used in business-teacher education as revealed by the questionnaire described in section 1 1 three” above. C. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The investigations just outlined have resulted in (1) a summary of trends in aims and curricula in secondary business education; (2) a composite picture of curricula devised for the preparation of teachers of business subjects; (3) a summary of trends in such curricula; and (4) statements by administrators in employing institutions— those engaged in secondary business education— as to requirements and desirable education for teachers, in harmony with modern educational procedure. All of these findings have been used in an evaluation of present cur ricula and in the making of recommendations as to desirable changes in business-teacher education. The dynamic nature of our social and economic life and of those parts of it under investigation--business education and business-teacher preparation--preclude the final solution of 70 See Appendices C,D,E, and P for copies of letters and que st ionnaire s• 63 this problem. It is hoped, however, that the present study will aid in the harmonization of the programs of business edu cation and business-teacher education by indicating the rela tionships existing between them. The next chapter presents the necessary basis for such a study— a history of business education and business-teacher education in the United States. PART II PAST AND CURRENT AIMS AND CURRICULA OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION IN TBS UNITED STATES AS CRITERIA FOR THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS CHAPTER IV. A BRIEF HISTORY OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION AND OF BUSINESS- TEACHER PREPARATION IN THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER V. SOURCES OF AIMS AND CURRICULA OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER VI. PAST AIMS AND CURRICULA OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER VII. PRESENT AIMS AND CURRICULA OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER VIII. TRENDS IN THE AIMS AND CURRICULA OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER IV A BRIEF HISTORY OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION AND OF BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES Economic and social changes in the United States have vitally influenced education--especially that part of it which is concerned with business relationships. The mu tual interaction of organized society and “ business educa tion is portrayed by a study of the economic and social history of the United States and the corresponding evolu tion of business education. The close relationship exist ing between business-teacher education and other social phenomena is thus made evident. The periods of economic history here discussed are: (A) Colonial period; (B) Period of struggle for national commercial and economic independence; and (C) Period of economic integration and 71 industrial organization. Each of these periods is con sidered with reference to the business education given and facilities provided for the education of teachers of business subjects. The various institutions mentioned existed not only in the period under which they are dis cussed but extended into other periods. In each instance, beginning and evolution rather than present status are the features of the institution presented. 71 These periods have been arbitratily selected from those discussed in: E. L. Bogart, The Economic History of the United States. New York: Longmans, Green and Com- pany, 1§22. A. COLONIAL PERIOD The colonial period of our economic development was characterized by home industry, agriculture, and some trade with mother countries and with Indians* Homes were economically and educationally self-sufficient so far as vocational training was concerned. Formal educa tion was a class affair designed largely for prospective magistrates and clergymen. The simple, unorganized busi ness of the time required little in the nature of formal training. The business education of the period reflected, as is always the case, social and economic conditions. It, too, was simple and unorganized.. Private teachers administered the training in writing, commercial arith metic, and bookkeeping in lieu of or supplementary to the apprenticeship in counting houses. The forms taken by business education in the colonial period are here dis cussed under the following headings: (1) private teachers (2) business courses in grammar schools; (3) apprentice ship; (4) colonial evening schools; (5) textbooks; and (6) business-teacher education. (1) Private teachers. One record tells us that ”in 1635, Plymouth Colony, engaged one, Mr. Morton, to teach 72 the children to read, write, and cast accounts.” ”Cast- ing accounts” was not bookkeeping but included ”casting 72 Earl W. Barnhart, ”Early Beginnings of Commercial Educa tion” Vocational Education Magazine* Philadelphia, Penn.: J.’ B. Llppincott Company, October 1922, p. 101-102. 67 up the value of merchandise, tare and tret, interest, rule of barter, fellowship, equation of payments, exchange, and other subjects included in commercial arithmetic to- 73 day.1 1 We may think of Mr. Morton*s work as representa tive of the earliest beginnings of business education in the United States. A search made through newspaper ad vertisements of the eighteenth eentury disclosed the fact that all during the century, opportunities were available for the study of handwriting, arithmetic, bookkeeping, 74 and mer chant * s ac counts. (2) Business courses in grammar schools. In addition to the opportunities for business training given by the private teachers, there were a few business courses offered by the grammar schools of colonial times. The fact that the Latin grammar school was failing to meet the needs of "a society expanding in agriculture, industry, and commerce is seen in the inclusion of bookkeeping in the programs of the grammar schools of Alexander Malcolm in New York 75 in 1732 and of David James Dove in Philadelphia in 1759. 73 Ibid. p. 101 74 R. F. Seyboldt, "Source Studies in American Colonial Education; the Private School, "Bulletin Number 28. Urbana. Illinois: Bureau of Educational Research, College of Edu cation, University of Illinois, 1925. 75 I. L. Kandel, History of Secondary Education. Boston: Houghton Miff1in“Company, 1930, p. 169 (3) Apprenticeship. After their formal general educa tion was finished, some young men were apprenticed to "business men to learn the office routine. This system was possible only because the manager of the business was able to oversee all details and to take time to train the young apprentice. (4) Colonial evening schools. Another forerunner of the modern institutions engaged in business education was the colonial evening school. The demand for its services arose from the fact that the apprenticeship system proved inadequate in giving bookkeepers and accountants necessary training. The curriculum included writing, arithmetic, and bookkeeping. These schools, which were especially popular 76. in Hew Netherland, were kept as early as 1668. (5) Textbooks. Another evidence of the inadequacy of the apprenticeship system is found, in the publication of textbooks on business subjects. As young men were not able to secure the training they desired, the private teachers, sensing a need, expanded their activities by publishing textbooks treating of accounts. The following list of textbooks published by early business teachers will serve 77 to indicate the nature of the training given: 76 Robert Seyboldt, HThe Evening Schools in Colonial Amer ica”, University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 22, No. 51. Bureau of Education Research, Study No. 34. Urbana: Uni- versity of Illinois, 1925, p. 9, and p. 2T. 77 Charles G. Reigner, ’ ’ Beginnings of the Commercial School, Education. Vol, 43, No. 3, (November, 1921), pp. 133-144. 69 John Mair, Edinburgh, Bookkeeping Methodized; a Methodical Treatise on Merchants Accounts accord ing to the Italian Form775 17361Sixth edition, 1760. (contained chapter for young merchants in Virginia and Maryland; another, for merchants in the West Indies. (author not given), Modern Elements of Numeral Arithmetic— Theorv and Practice of the Several Branches of Commercial Arithmetic So DisposedTas to Suit the Convenience and Capacities of Child ren. 1759. William Webster, Essay on Bookkeeping in the Pure Italian Method of Debit and Credit.(contains ap- pendix Mon rendering the instruction of youth more easy and effectual with regard to the study in the writing-sehool.1 1 States that those who fail in Latin school are immediately transferred to the writing-school to be qualified for trade or other business.) 1772. Thomas Dilworth, The Young Bookkeeper^ Assis tant. 1789. Benjamin Workman. American Accountant: Containing Principles of Mercantile Arithmetic. 1796. William Mitchell, System of Bookkeeping. 1797. D. Dowling, Bookkeeping in the True Italian Form. 1801. James Maginness. The Student * s 'Assistant. Con taining a Concise Method of Bookkeeping. 1817. James Bennett, The American System of Bookkeep ing. and A Practical Arithmetic. 1820. Benjamin Foster, The Counting-House Assistant: The Merchants Manual: The Penman1 ^ Guide. 1835. Samuel Richardson, Complete Letter Writer. 1839. (Gives instruction on the duties of young men in the world, how to handle the demands of creditors for payment and the piteous entreaties of distres sed debtors.) Double-entry bookkeeping was first used in Florence, Italy in the Fifteenth Century. 70 (6) Business-teacher education. Little or nothing is known of the educational and practical qualifications of the teachers of business education, or of the writers of the textbooks in use during this period, beyond their own, often extravagant, claims. It is more than probable that they, like their pupils, depended on private instruction, crude and elementary textbooks, apprenticeship training, and actual experience for learning the relatively simple business procedures demanded by the times. Gradually, how ever, as facilities for the enlargement and exchange of knowledge improved, it is likely that the qualifications of teachers improved also, thus laying the foundations for a more systematic instruction in business knowledge during the next period of our national life. B, PERIOD OF STRUGGLE FOR RATIONAL COMMERCIAL AND ECONOMIC INDEPENDENCE The period of struggle for national commercial and economic independence, from the Revolutionary War to the Civil War, is characterized by an abundance of rich natur al resources, the westward movement, individualism in busi ness, and the laissez-faire policy of the government toward business. As a country endowed with rich natural resources, the United States dealt largely in raw products during this per iod. Agriculture, and not manufacturing, was the dominant industry. 71 The business education of the early stages of our nation al development is, like its business activity, characterized by individualism and little public control. It was suited to the business enterprise of the time. As has been pointed out by Nicholas Murray Butler; Spontaneity is the keynote of education in the United States. Its varied form, uneven progress, its lack of symmetry, its practical effectiveness are all due to the fact that it has sprung unbidden from the needs and aspirations of the people. ■ Joseph F. Johnson also emphasized the fact that indivi dual enterprise was responsible for the establishment of early business education; The beginning of business education in the United States was characteristically American. It was a growth, not an insti tution. It was a growth of private enter prise in response, to public need- —an an— swer to definite demand.80 The business training of the colonial period— private teachers, textbooks, and the apprenticeship system— continu ed into the period of our early national development. Through individual initiative, as in colonial times, two new agencies for business training were inaugurated. The first of these was the academy and the second, the business “college.“ A third topic to be considered in its relation to this period is business-teacher education. 7Q Nicholas Murray Butler, quoted by Charles G. Geigner, op. cit. p. 133. 80 Joseph F. Johnson, “Commercial Education11, in Cyclopedia of Education. New York;' The Macmillan Company, 1911. Vol. II, p. 143. 72 (1) Business training in the academy. Early in our national life it was found that the existing Latin grammar school, an outgrowth of the renaissance of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, was not meeting the needs of a society expanding in agriculture, industry, and commerce. As early as 1786, Benjamin Rush in Thoughts Upon the Mode of Education Proper in a Republic advocated a secondary school curriculum including, among other things, 1 1 principles of agriculture and manufactures, and in everything else that is necessary to qualify him (the pupil) for public usefulness and private happiness.” He decried the study of Latin and Greek as waste of time when ”the principal business of the people should be the opening up of the Q*J resources of the country. The American Philosophical Society for Promoting Use- 82 ful Knowledge was organized in 1769. After the Revolution ary War, the society offered a prize for the ”best system of liberal education and literary instruction, adapted to the genius of the government of the United States; compre hending also a plan for instituting and conducting public schools in this country, on principles of the most exten sive utility.” The first prize was awarded to Samuel Knox who specified that ”the course of education instituted in the public seminaries, should be adapted to youth in general, whether they be intended for civil or commercial life, or 81 I. L. Kandel, op. cit. p. 392. 82 1* L. Kandel, op. cit. p. 392. 0*7 for the learned professions. ^ He planned two curricula, one for college, and the other for immediate business. The establishment of academies was the answer to these proposals. Bookeeping was the first business subject included in the academy offerings. "Accounts" were mentioned in the original proposed curriculum of Franklin*s Academy in 1749. Bookkeeping was included in the programs of Woburn, Mass achusetts, Academy (1815); Wesleyan Seminary, Michigan (1856) Pittsfield, Massachusetts, Academy (1832); Erasmus Hall, and Clinton Academy in Hew York. The subject was called 84 "Accountantship" in the latter school. The following quotation from the writings of the Timothy Flint is an interesting comment upon the business training of the time: .These academies are not always exclusively classical schools; some are partly appro priated to education for the counter, and, as far as this object goes, there is no strik ing defect in them; it not being a very dif ficult matter to teach a lad to count his fingers and take oare of his dollars.8b Thus we see that bookkeeping was added to the academy curriculum as part of a general education and in recognition of the need for some training for the simple office work of the time. In the meantime, another institution, one spe cializing in business training, had arisen. 83 Ibid, p. 393. 84 Ibid, p. 173. 85 Ibid p. 419 (Quoted from the Illinois Intelligencer, 1819) 74 (2) The business college. The first institutions defi nitely established for the purpose of training for business were the private business "colleges.1 1 The "business-college" age in American education has been divided into four periods: (a) period of inoculation; (b) period of propagation; (c) per- Qg iod of organization; (d) period of expansion. This clas sification will be used as a basis for the discussion of "bus iness-college" history in the following paragraphs. (a) Period of inoculation. The activities of the early business educator— itinerant penmen and writers of book keeping textbooks— inoculated the minds of the public with the idea that preparation for office positions could be made as well in the schoolroom as under the apprenticeship system, which was found inadequate and was gradually superseded by "business-college" training. (b) Period of propagation. The period of propaga tion began with the organization of the first business "col leges. n James Arlington Bennett, A New York accountant, gave lectures in New York and Philadelphia on the subject of book keeping. He opened a school sometime between 1818 and 1836. James Gordon Bennett announced the opening of a school in 87 1824 but it is doubtful if it was actually established. 86 --------------i t £ Birdfs Eye View of 150 Years— Notes for a History of Commercial Education", Article XXXII, The Rowe Budget, Baltimore: (May, 1931) p. 4. 87 Joseph F. Johnson, "Commercial Education", Cyclopedia of Education The Macmillan Company, 1911, Vol. II, p. 143ff. 75 According to the announcement the "college1 1 was intended for the training of "young gentlemen intended for mercan tile pursuits." The curriculum included elocution, algebra, astronomy, moral philosophy, political economy, English grammar, French, Spanish, and bookkeeping. This ambitious* undertaking was soon followed by the opening of many other private business schools, one writer claiming that the first was "Benjamin F. Foster*s Commercial School" opened in 88 Boston in 1827, another naming "Dolbear’s Commercial Col- 89 lege" founded in Hew York in 1835 as the pioneer school; while others variously insist that to Peter Duff of Pitts burgh, G. N. Comer of Boston, or to R. M. Bartlett of Phil adelphia, belongs the honor of opening the first business college. (e) Period of organization. The period of organi zation of private business schools began in 1853 when Bryant and Stratton started their famous chain which by 1867 extended to several cities in the East and Middle West. In these were taught penmanship, bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, and business law— all with the object of train- 88 ----------«A Bird*s-Eye View of 150 Years", Article XX of Notes for a History of Commercial Education, The Rowe Budget. Baltimore, November 1929. p.4. 89 James S. Curry, "Past, Present, and Future of Commercial Education," Reports and Proceedings. National Educational Association, 1911, p. 835. 76 ing for clerkships in the shortest possible time. To the organized business "colleges", we owgthe idea of conven tions of business teachers, for Bryant and Stratton teach ers held the first such convention in 1866. Harpers1 Weekly ' of 1866 reported the meeting by saying, "the sphere and limits of business education have been as clearly de- QO fined as those of law, medical, and theological schools. u Until 1867, Bryant and Stratton were dominant in the "busi- 91 ness-college "field. Many independent and competing schools , however, were established during this period, some of which persist until the present time. (^) Period of expansion. Soon after the time of the Civil War, there began a very remarkable expansion of business training parallel with the enormous expansion of American industrial and economic life which characterized this period. Private business schools multiplied rapidly both in numbers and enrollments, reaping large rewards in supplying the growing demand for well trained office clerks. Before public education was ready to provide for this un precedented demand for business training, the owners of the private business schools thus performed a much-needed service. In them was given the simple training required by the offices of the period. The offerings ineluded such 90 Leverett S. Lyon, Education for Business. University of Chicago Press, 1922, Chap. £l. 91 -------- Bird1s-Eye View of 150. Years", Article XXXII op. cit., May, 1931, p. 4. 77 practical subjects as penmanship, commercial arithmetic, bookkeeping, business English, letter-writing, spelling, etc., followed later by commercial geography and commercial law. Shorthand became popular in the forties and fifties, 92 while typewriting gained wide vogue in the eighties and nineties. One writer characterized the private business school as being "peculiarly American, the product of a young, eager, and gradually maturing people. It was of spontaneous origin, roughly adapted to the satisfaction of immediate and pressing needs in utter disregard of all save a direct response to current demands. It nevertheless play ed an important part in the development of American busi- „93 ness.1 1 (3) Business-teacher education. As in the colonial per iod, so during the early-national period, there was probably no systematic instruction or any specially designed training course anywhere available for prospective teachers of the busi ness subjects either in the secondary schools of the period or in the privately established business schools. It is true that in some cases the academies provided training, probably of a very rudimentary nature, designed primarily for prospec tive elementary teachers. The early normal schools, likewise, of which about seventeen had been established by 1860, accord- 92 The tvoewriter was not made commercially useful until 1873. 93 Edmund J. James, Commercial Education. Monograph pre pared for St. Louis Exposition in 1904. 78 94 ing to Cubberley , served the primary purpose of supplying trained teachers in the rapidly multiplying elementary schools of the country. Academy and early high school teachers in this country, moreover, have been traditionally recruited from the colleges and universities, where little or no business 95 training was provided until the 1881, We are left to conclude, therefore, that during the middle and later decades of the nine teenth century, "commercial1 1 teachers were a miscellaneous lot, as was generally the case well into the present century, who had secured their training from the same type of institution to which they were called to teach, namely, the high schools and business colleges themselves, supplemented when possible by actual experience in the business world. While many of those who rose to the rank of teacher undoubtedly had some college training, or may even have graduated with a degree, yet their preparation in business was essentially of the cleri cal type. It was not until the next period, that of national economic integration and elaborate industrial organization, to be discussed in the section immediately following, that any thing like an adequate system of teacher training in business education began to be developed. 94 Elwood P. Cubberley, The History of Education. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Company, 1920. p. 753. 95 James H. S. Bossard and J. Frederic Dewhurst, University Education for Business. Philadelphia: University of Pen nsylvania Press, 1931, p. 251. 79 0. PERIOD OF ECONOMIC INTEGRATION AND INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATION This period, beginning after the Civil War and lasting until today, presents sharp contrasts to the preceding stages of our economic growth which may be seen by a series of parallel descriptions of the business of the United States 96 during the two periods. Prior to Civil War Small-scale production Private enterprise Personal supervision of employees by employers Small local trading compa nies Simple commercial organiz ation Small offices ‘ •General1 1 office workers “Hand1 1 work Present Day Large-scale production Public control Supervision of employees by employers Nationwide companies Complex corporations, hold ing companies within compa nies, etc. Enormous office buildings Highly specialised division of labor Mechanical devices tending to increase legibility, ac curacy, and speed in the de tail operations of commerce It was not until after the Civil War, that the effects of the Industrial Revolution were beginning to be seriously felt in the United States. In fact, with our problems of me chanical civilization today, the Industrial Revolution is not 96 Selected from David Gordon, “The History of the Development of Commercial Curricula in the High Schools,1 1 Master1 s Thesis, (unpublished), School of Education, College of the City of New York, 1926. yet a closed issue, each phase apparently leading to ever more complicated problems. After the Civil War, new indus trial and business activity made life more complex, business more highly organized and impersonal. This movement toward complex business organization with its accompanying potenti ality to create and satisfy human wants has been gaining mo mentum through the years. The tremendous results can be seen from statistics quoted in a recent publication.*^ Since 1900, there has been a sixty per cent increase in population in the United States; there is twenty-five times as much electricity used as at the beginning of the century; three times as great a quantity of manufactured goods; four times the amount of steel production; the output per worker has increased eighty per cent; family income has doubled; the scientist and research worker have displaced the explorer and prospector. Indeed it is impossible to present an adequate picture of our modern economic development within the compass of a few pages and to show the vivid contrast existing between it and the business life of our colonial period. Just as business has expanded during the last half cen tury from simple beginnings to the exceedingly complex struc- ture which it is today, so has our business education gone through a process of rapid evolution from the crude lessons of the early private teachers to the complex programs of the 97 James H. S. Bossard and J. Frederic Dewhurst, op. cit., Chapter I. 81 extensive institutions engaged in business education today. In the following paragraphs there are presented brief his tories of five types of institutions engaged in this field with comments upon their relationship to contemporaneous ec onomic life. The five institutions are: (1) the public high school and the separate high school.of commerce; (2) the junior college; (3) the junior high school; (4) corporation schools and certain other sub-collegiate institutions for business training; and (5) the university school of business. The history of a sixth institution performing a share of the business training of today— the private business college— was discussed in connection with the preceding period of our national life in which it had its genesis. (1) The public high school and the separate high school of commerce. The public high schools inherited some of their philosophy and procedures from each of their institutional forerunners--academies and business colleges. From the aca demy, they fell heir to the. idea that practical training could be made part of a general education; from the business college they adopted methods in skill training useful for the preparation of office clerks. Of the two, inheritance from the business college was the more potent. Significant comment regarding the influence of the business college upon the "commercial courses" introduced into the rapidly grow ing high schools has been made in a report published by the Association of Collegiate Schools of Business. 82 It is not surprising that the taxpayers who sup ported these secondary schools came to feel that the work of the private business college should be performed by the public schools. It is still less surprising that (1) in the absence of any effectively organized material in social studies outside the field of history, (2) in the lack of any very definite connection between historical study and the technique of business operations, (3) in the presence of what was apparently a remarkable success of the private business college, (4) in default of any effective leadership from any higher system of business education, our public-school system swallowed--bait, hook, sinker, and line— the program of the private business college. Even more. Through the necessities of the case, the secondary-school system borrowed its teachers from the private business college. The above quotation indicates the reasons for the in filtration of the practices of the private business school into the high school "commercial course." An understanding of this genesis of public high school commercial work is necessary for any tolerance of mind towards the present narrow clerical training still masquerading under the name of business education in a so-called modern high-school curriculum. Indeed, the present curriculum is subject to the just accusation repeated in 1930 by a man who has, for more than a decade, been pointing the way to business edu cation as a part of all liberal education: The commercial course has never clearly allied itself with the traditional purposes of American _ _ Commission on Correlation of Secondary and Collegiate Education with Particular Reference to Business Education. The Association of Collegiate Schools of .Business, Social Studies in Secondary Schools. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1922, p. 27. 83 high schools. There has been an attachment, hut not a coalescence. The traditional courses of the high school have been organized into various groups under various heads, but always— poor as the accomplishment may have been — the high-school function has been conceived as one of socialization. In this aim the high-school commercial course has not liberally participated. Bound by its traditions and encouraged by cir cumstances, it has adhered to its narrow utili tarian ends. 99 Keeping in mind the inheritance of the public high- school business education from the private business college and the slowness of administrators and teachers to adopt procedures to contemporaneous social and economic conditions by making it an integral part of the high school and not merely an attachment, we are ready to consider its histor ical development. In 1823, bookkeeping was added to the curriculum of the English Classical School for Boys in Boston, which in 1824 became the English High School. The Massachusetts high- school law of 1827 specifies single entry bookkeeping as a high-school subject. The Board of Regents of the State of Hew York in 1829 recognized bookkeeping as a subject appro priate to an English education. In 1851, the California state law specified bookkeeping as a subject for high-school instruction. While individual courses in business subjects were added 99 Leverett S. Lyon, Education for Bu^ineas. The University of Chicago~Press', Third Edition, 1931, p. 367. 100 I. L. Kandel, History of Secondary Education. Boston: Houghton-Miff 1 in Co., 1930. Chapter lie. 84 to the program of studies of the early high schools, com- cercial curricula did not appear until 1880. Between 1880 and 1885, "eommereial-English" curriculums were established. By the year, 1900, five commercial curriculums were offered in public high schools of the United States: business, com mercial, complete-commercial, shorter-commercial, and English- commercial. The first scattered courses in business subjects, and even the early commercial curricula did not result in wide spread acceptance of this phase of education. Before 1900, commercial education in high schools was not popular, as evi denced by the fact that in 1893, there were only 15,000 stu dents in public high school commercial courses,^** contrasted with approximately 1,000,000 in 1931.^® One manifestation of the fact that early business educa tion in public high schools was considered an attachment of units of clerical training to the high-school program and not the incorporation of business education as an integral part of high-school life was the introduction of the "short-course." These short courses, patterned upon business-college training, were one, two, or three years in length and were planned to 101 I. L. Kandel, op. cit., Chapter IX. 102 Leverett S. Lyon, Education for Business. Chicago: Univer- sity of Chicago Press, Third! Edition, l9$l, p. 353. 103 J. 0. Malott, "Commercial Education", Chapter V, "Biennial Survey of Education, 1928-1930". Bulletin 1931 No. 26. United States Office of Education, p. 1. 85 lead to office work for the student, immediately upon comple tion of the course. They served the purpose, however, of intorducing systematic business curricula into the high school and of paving the way for later four-year curricula. These short courses have practically disappeared, existing now as intensive post-graduate curricula in some parts of the country. The evolution of business education in public high schools since 1900 may be traced by s study of the curricula recom mended by three committees appointed by the National Education 104 105 106 Association and reporting in 1903 , 1915 , 1919 ? re spectively. The report of 1903 presented the traditional col lege-preparatory curriculum with electives in business courses added. The proposal of 1915 included two curricula— one for stenographers and one for bookkeepers— both predominantly technical. Electives could be made without regard to the building up of a field of major or minor interest. The program of 1919 added a third curriculum— for salesmen— and was also technical in its major emphasis. The committee sponsoring this curriculum recognized prevailing economic conditions by basing the program upon occupational surveys* These curricula are representative of the evolution of business education— an attempt 104 "Commercial Education in High Schools", University, of the State of New York, College Department, Bulletin 23, 1903, p. 5-7. 105 National Education Association, Addresses and Proceedings. Oakland, California,: 1915. p. 930-935. 106 United States Bureau of Education, "Business Education in Secondary Schools", Bulletin No. 55. 1919. 86 to meet present conditions while clinging to old traditions. The increasing interest in business education after 1890 is evidenced by the opening of separate high schools of 107 commerce as a part of the public school system. The first separate high school of commerce wholly supported by public funds was the Business High School of Washington, B.C. es tablished in 1890. The Brooklyn High School, also a separate commercial high school was opened in 1899. In 1900, Philsu- delphia established the Commercial High School and Boston opened its High School of Commerce. The High School of Com merce of the City of Hew York was opened in 1901 and had 410 pupils in 1903. Since the period of their inception, inter est in these institutions has spread,"until there are now in the United States about twenty such schools, many of which 108 have come into existence within the last decade. These schools have the advantage of offering intensive business training, of adapting all courses to business uses, and of efficient organization due to the large numbers of pupils en rolled in similar courses. The disadvantage of this type of school lies in the fact that the pupils are denied the valu able social and cultural contacts which are possible when stu dent of many interests are brought together in a large cos mopolitan high school. Also, there is danger that the "bus 107 The material for this paragraph has been selected from Le- verett S. Lyon, Education for Business. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1931. Chapter XVI. p. 385-399. 108 Leverett S. Lyon, op. cit. p.385. 87 iness" aspect of the work will dominate all activities and that the objective of "vocational efficiency" will receive a disproportionate amount of attention to the detriment of the realization of the other objectives of secondary educa tion. In its 1918 report, the Commission on the Reorganiza tion of Secondary Education recommended comprehensive rather than specialized high schools because the complete life of the individual demands many-sided development during the formative years of adolescence. (3) The junior college. As the junior college repre sents a comparatively new development, its history is brief and its business education program is still largely unformed and in a pioneer stage. While the first private junior col lege in the United States was established as early as 1835 at Godfrey, Illinois, the junior college movement is general ly conceded to have had its beginning in 1903 with the open ing of the first public junior college at Joliet, Illinois, 109 in connection with the Joliet Township High School. As no institution springs into being fully developed and complete, from forces generated within itself, but is rooted in and a partaker of the nature of its predecessors, so the junior college reveals its ancestry in its practices, especially in the field of business education. On the one hand, it is engaged in preparation for university education 109 Frederick L. Whitney, The Junior College in America. Gre eley: Colorado State Teachers1 College, 1938, p. 207. 88 for business; and on the other, in preparation for the busi ness semi-professions— secretaryship, junior accountancy, salesmanship, and business occupations of similar level. In the performance of the first function, university schools of business are imitated, while in achieving the directly voca tional objective, many practices have been borrowed from high- school business education. The phenomenal growth of this in stitution is revealed by statistics which indicate that, in 1918, there were 46 junior colleges with a total enrollment re * 111 110 of 4,504 students, and in 1932, there were 469 junior col leges enrolling a total of 97,631 students. Few comparable date showing separately the growth of business education in junior colleges are available. L, R. Hiatt compared the offerings of nineteen junior colleges for 112 1920 and 1930. The average semester hours offered in all subjects in 1920 was 180.4; while in 1930, the same institu tions offered 316.0 semester hours, the percentage of increase being 75 per cent. In 1920, these nineteen junior colleges offered an average of 14.3 semester hours in commercial sub jects; while, in 1930, they offered 20.7 semester hours, or an increase of 46 per cent. During the decade from 1920 to 110 Frederick L. Whitney, The Junior College in America. Gre- ely: Colorado State Teachers* (Sollege, 1928, p. 207. 111 American Association of Junior Colleges, A Directory of the Junior College. Hashville, Tennessee: Doak S. 6ampbell, Secretary, Peabody College, 1930 112 L. R. Hiatt, "Curricular Changes in Junior Colleges", Ju- nior College Journal. Stanford University: Vol, I, pp. ?Pll 6ctS613er, 1936. 89 1930, academic offerings increased fifty-eight per cent while non-academic offerings increased 157 per cent. Bus iness education in junior colleges, then, has increased forty-six per cent in the past decade, if increase may he measured by offerings) but not proportionally so fast as other fields of junior college work. The above data, which are based on only nineteen institutions are, however, not conclusive. Walter C. Bells has made a comparative study of the av erage offerings in semester hours by junior colleges as ro ll's ported in three investigations. ^ Boos* study of twenty- three public junior colleges in 1921 showed that the average total offering was 255 semester hours, of vdiich 26.7 were commercial) thirty-five private junior colleges offered an average of 191.9 semester hours, 0.5 of which were com mercial* Whitney1s study of fifteen public junior colleges in 1928 reported an average of 214.1 semester hours offered in all fields, 212.2 of which were commercial. A more com prehensive report made by Hollingsworth and Eells in 1930, comprising 129 public and 150 private junior colleges, in dicates that of 285.9 average semester hours offered by the public institutions, 18.2 were commercial, while of 223.5 average semester hours offered by private junior colleges were commercial. The results of these studies do not in dicate great growth in enrollments in business education in junior colleges. 113 “ Walter C. Bells, The Junior College. Boston: Houghton- Mifflin Company, 1931, p. 285* 90 (3) The junior high school, Perhaps our best example of a thoroughly modern institution with procedures adapted to social and economic conditions is the junior high school. During its short history its administrators have shown a progressive spirit, sensitive to educational and economic changes. The history of the junior high school may be trac ed back to its very inception in the reports of three influ ential committees in American secondary educations the Com mittee of Ten on Secondary School Studies, in 1893; the Com mittee on College Entrance Requirements, in 1899; and the Committee on Economy of Time in Education, in 1913, The report of 1893 suggested six instead of eight years for the elementary school period with an extension downward of high-school studies; the report of 1899 recommended a un ified six-year high-school course of study beginning with the seventh grade; the report of 1913 definitely suggested two^ three-year periods for high-school education. Since the opening of the first junior high schools in 114 1909 , in Berkeley, California, and Columbus, Ohio, business education has passed through three stages indicative of the efforts of administrators to adapt the work to contemporary educational and economic conditions. First, the high-school technical business subjects--shorthand, typewriting, bookke eping— were brought down to the junior high school with very 114 William A, Smith, T he Junior High School. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1925, p.98 91 little change; next, the training was considered largely pre- vocational; and now, the program includes provision for the education of three types of students— (a) preparation for minor clerical jobs for potential drop-outs; (b) foundational business education for those who are preparing for later vo cational service in business; and finally, (c) general bus iness information and skills for pupils, irrespective of future vocation, as participants in the complex economic life of today. Thus the history of the junior high school shows that its administrators are willing to adapt procedures to present-day needs as they see them. (4) Corporation schools,and certain other sub-collegiate institutions for business training. As business expanded in the United States, large corporations opened schools for the training of their own employees. In these schools specific job training was based upon the general education give in the publie schools. Correspondence schools, opening up a new era of advertising in education, also entered the field. The offerings of public and private evening schools, too, have generally included business subjects. The specialized train ing given in these schools may be regarded as supplementary to rather than eompetiting with public secondary education. (5) The university school of business. The school of business represents the adjustment of the university colle giate level of the educational system to the growing demands of the modern business world. Since 1880 the field of high 92 er education has “ been greatly broadened and now includes, among other specialized divisions, business education as a 115 legitimate part of university study. The first collegiate school of business in the United States was the Wharton School of Finance and Commerce esta blished by the University of Pennsylvania in the year 1881. Beginning with a small enrollment, it has grown to an insti tution of 3,360 students. The next was the College of Com merce and Politics at the University of Chicago, established eighteen years later. By 1911, twenty-one schools of bus iness had been established. From 1910 to 1920, there was a great wave of interest in collegiate business education. The Wharton School increased from an enrollment of 535 to 2,211; Northwestern, from 508 students to 3,708; New York University, from 1,079 to 6,3000 students— the six leading schools in creasing on an average of more than 640 per cent in enroll ment. It was believed that the "crest had been reached in 1930 and that the tendency would be toward more thoroughness in fundamentals and a conservation of the best features of nll6 the exploitive period. Recent figures show however, that the institutions referred to have surpassed the 1920 enrol lment. In 1926, there were 132 colleges and universities in the United States having departments or schools of commerce 115 James H. S. Bossard and J. Frederic Dewhurst, University Education for Business. Philadelphia: University of Penn- sylvania Press, 1931, p. 250. ^ Rockwell D. Hunt, "Growth and Aims of Business Training in the United States", Commerce Journal. University of Southern California Los Angeles: February, 1923. (discontinued) 95 and in all some 400 institutions were offering business cour- 117 ses. The place attained by university education for business as the result of its history has been succinctly portrayed in a recent publication: Enough has been said to make it clear that academic training for business is an in tegral part of modern educational plans. The collegiate school of business is nei ther an isolated incident nor an experimental fad. Laterally it takes its place in the lustily growing field of commercial educa tion, comprehending now a million students; historically it is but another evidence of that vocational bent of higher education which has resulted in specialized training for the ministry, for law, for medicine, for engineering, and for social service adminis tration; philosophically it represents a fru ition of the educational creed of modern civi lization— that it is the function of the versity to serve the need of the community,118 (dn)Business—teacher education. At the beginning of the per iod of economic integration and industrial organization, bus- iness-teacher education was as simple and unorganized as the American business of the time. Teachers were brought into the schools from offices and from business colleges. In many cases academically-trained teachers who were pressed into ser vice, acquired knowledge and skill in the business subjects as best they could, for there was no organized training available. 117 United States Office of Education, Bulletin. 1929 Ho. 36 "Commercial Education, 1926-1928". Page 3. 118 James H. S. Bossard and J. Frederic. Dewhurst, University Education for Business. Philadelphia: University of Penn sylvania Press, 1931, p. 571. 94 One writer describes the business teachers of the last decade of the nineteenth century as grouping themselves into gour classes: 1. The victims of circumstances who had the teach ing of business thrust upon them. They had no specific preparation for their work and often became acquainted with the subjects by keeping two chapters ahead of the classes. 2. The high-school graduate with a few months of business training in stenography and book keeping. 3. The product of the university school of busi ness who had excellent training in content but little pedagogy applicable to the secondary schools. 4. Graduates of normal schools who had taken a course or two in business subjects. "An otherwise reputable normal school once inserted in its catalog something like this, 1 Any student who desires to prepare for commercial teaching in the high schools may substitute one semester of either shorthand, typewriting, or bookkeeping in place of English literature*."119 The first course definitely established for the training of teachers of business subjects was given by Drexel Institute 120 of Philadelphia in 1898. During the next twenty-five years only thirty-seven schools started courses of "commercial” 121 teachers. In 1928, a Questionnaire sent to 470 institutions 119 G. Gardner Hill, "Qualifications of Commercial Teachers," in Conner T. JonesTeaching Business Subjects in the Second ary School. New YorU The Ronald Press Company, 1924, p. 25. 120 National Education Association, Reports and Proceedings. Washington, D. C.: 1901, p. 734. 121 Jay D. Runkle, "The Training Received by Commercial Teachers, The Vocational Education Magazine. April, 1923, p. 583. 95 revealed that sixty-six of them, or fourteen per cent, of fered courses for the training of teachers of business sub- 133 jects. in 1929, a search through 685 catalogues of degree- granting institutions revealed that 138 institutions, or 30.1 per cent of the total number, provided courses in business- 123 teacher education. These figures indicate that the develop ment of business-teacher preparation has been proportionately greater during the last decade than in all previous time. A search through the literature of the field fails to re veal any investigations of business-teacher education made prior to 1922. The published history of this field is, there fore, brief. The fragmentary sketch here given indicates the newness of organized business-teacher education. While pro cedures may be borrowed from other fields of teacher education there are problems peculiar to the field of business-teacher education itself. Indeed, its very youth makes study and in vestigation necessary for the solving of its problems, for lack of time has prevented the solution of many of them by "experience" and experimentation. The highly dynamic quality of this vital part of education makes continuous research es sential. Ruth Hoadley, ' ’ Present Status of Commercial Teacher Training in Public Institutions," The Journal of Commercial Bducation. 133 Jessie Graham, "The Present Status of Commercial Teacher Training in the Degree-Granting Institutions of the United States, "Master1s Thesis. University of Southern California, 1939. Abstract in Benjamin R. Haynes and Jessie Graham, Re search in Business Education. Los Angeles; C.C. Crawford, 1932. 96 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR BUSINESS EDUCATION AND BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION The following statements constitute a resume of the his tory of business education in the United States with implica tions for its present procedures: Business education in the colonial period: 1. Private teachers administered the simple bus iness training necessary for colonial times. In contrast, organization and cooperation are necessary to meet the complex demands of bus iness and of society in this present age. 2. A few business subjects were offered in gram mar schools as early as 1732. 3. The apprenticeship system for business training was possible only in a period when the owner or manager had sufficient time to devote to the training the young apprentice. Corpora tion schools today represent a formal outgrowth of this system— a change from haphazard to systematic training. 4. Colonial evening schools included bookkeeping, writing, and arithmetic as subjects of instruc tion. 5. Textbooks in bookkeeping were published in the United States as early as 1736. 6. It is probable that the teachers of business sub jects of colonial times depended upon the ex isting facilities— private instruction, ele mentary textbooks, apprenticeship, and evening schools— for their professional preparation. 7. Early business training was designed almost en tirely for “young gentlemen.“ While women have entered business in great numbers since colo nial times, they do not even now outnumber men, and yet, the pendulum has swung to the other extreme with the result that business education today meets the needs of girls rather than of boys, if we may judge from comparative numbers enrolled. Study and research are necessary that business education may again be adapted to the needs of ’ ’ young gentlemen. ” Business education in the period of struggle for nation al commercial and economic independence: 1. Business subjects were introduced into the aca demies because of the desire of their founders to adapt their work to the needs of contempor aneous social and economic life. 3. The private business school prospered because its offerings fulfilled a need at a time when public high schools were strictly college-pre paratory in nature. The aims of a privately supported school may legitimately be narrower and more individualistic than those of a pub lic school. 3. While the teachers of business subjects during this period did not receive systematic prepa ration for teaching in this field, they pro bably secured their technical training in the same type of institution as that in which they later taught and supplemented such training by actual business experience. Period of Economic Integration and Industrial Organization 1. This oeriod is characterized by large-scale pro duction, public control, complex corporations, highly specialized devision of labor, and a multiplicity of mechanical devices tending to facilitate office work:— all affecting business education. 3. Business subjects were added to the high-school program of studies as early as 1833. Since that time offerings in business subjects have greatly expanded and enrollments in the entire high school and in business courses have in creased rapidly. 3. The offerings in business subjects in the junior college increased 46 per cent during the past decade while other non-academic offerings in creased 15? per cent. There is need for re search into the field of the semi-professions so that the business education offered by the junior college may be adapted to contemporan eous life. 4. Since the opening of the first junior high school 98 in 1909, business education on this level has passed through three stages: first, the high-school, technical subjects were brought down and were found unsuited to the needs of pupils; second, the training was largely pre- vocational in preparation for the senior-high school business curriculum or for junior cler ical jobs;, and third, courses in general bus iness information and skills were adapted to the needs of all pupils. 5. The work of corporation and other specialized schools may be considered as supplementary to the general education offered in the public school. 6. Business education has been, since 1881, adapted to university education resulting in spec ialized training for executive business posi tions. 7. Since the first course established for the train ing of commercial teachers in 1898, many facil ities have been provided in this field— in 1929, 138 degree-granting institutions offered courses for prospective teachers of business subjects. This brief history of business education in the United States has shown that educational practices are influenced by social and economic conditions. Even though they lag behind the activities of other phases of social and economic life, they are affected by them. The implications of this study of the history of business education for business-teacher educa tion are that business-teacher education is a much more com plex undertaking today than it was in colonial times or in the early national period. To a study of the technical subjects and a knowledge of simple office procedure which constituted adequate preparation a century ago, must be added a study of complex economic and social life and a general education as rich as possible so that the teacher may be able to perform 99 service in carrying out the general objectives of education. Further evidence of the complexity and scope of the pro blem of business-teacher education today is given in the fol lowing chapter in which are discussed the sources of the aims and curricula of secondary business education. 100 CHAPTER V SOURCES OP AIMS AND CURRICULA IN SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION The preceding chapter is concerned with the history of Business education in the United States as a basis for a later consideration of business-teacher education. The remaining chapters of Part II present the results of an investigation into the aims and curricula of secondary business education which, too, constitute necessary foun dational materials for a study of business-teacher education. As an appropriate introduction to a study of past and present aims and curricula in secondary business education, this chap ter is concerned with the sources of such aims and curricula. These sources are presented under four main headings: (A) Educational sources; (B) Sociological— other than educational — sources; (C) Psychological sources; and (ID) Philosophical sources. A. EDUCATIONAL SOURCES OF AIMS AND CURRICULA IN SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION Probably the most fruitful sources of aims and cur ricula in secondary business education are found in the field of education itself. With rapidly increasing enrollments in business courses, administrators and teachers have been con tent to solve immediate and pressing problems and to find the sources of their aims and curricula close at hand. In the ' 101 field of education there are at least six sources of the aims and curricula of secondary business education: (1) tradition; (2) procedures in other institutions; (3) local ■ ' t ■ : and state school administration and financial status; (4) teacher preparation and interests; (5) enrollment trends; and (6) reorganization in general secondary education. tradition. A study of published statements rela tive to business education and an inspection of present curricula lead to the conclusion that tradition is,perhaps unconsciously, used as a source of aims and curricula. Book keeping and shorthand are in some cases still required of all 124 students in business curricula regardless of the findings of surveys which show that only 10.5 per cent of all business workers are bookkeepers and 10.49 per cent, stenographers and typists.^2* * A review of the history of business education given in Chapter IV presents convincing evidence that tra dition is not a legitimate source of aims and curricula for secondary business education because of the early narrow conception of this field. Procedures in other institutions. Procedures in other institutions may be used as the sources of aims and curricula with more Justification than is tradition as these T§i : ' See specific curricula in Appendix. 125 (Dhese percentages represent the medians found by compiling a frequency distribution of the results of fifteen investi gations. 102 procedures may be based upon philosophical and sociological foundations in harmony with present-day life. Among the in stitutions the procedures of which serve as sources for the aims and curricula of secondary business education are: (a) institutions of collegiate grade; (b) specialized schools and other institutions engaged in business education on various levels; and (c) institutions engaged in business education in other countries. Another source of aims and curricula is found in (d)~a study of aims and curricula in other insti tutions on the secondary level. (a) Institutions of collegiate grade. College en trance requirements have influenced both aims and curricula in secondary business education. As credits in business sub jects have not generally been accepted for college entrance, the pupils in business courses have had, necessarily, other goals. Pupils preparing for college have, in the past, been forced to take business subjects as electives, if at all. A study of trends in college entrance requirements reveals, how ever, that the number of colleges accepting the business sub- 12 jects for entrance has been increasing rapidly and steadily. The report of a more recent investigation states that of the 150 schools included in the study, 99 allowed commercial cred its to be presented for admission— a majority of them allowing T£5--------- United States Bureau of Education, "The Trend of College Entrance Requirements, 1913-1922," Bulletin Ho. 55, 1924. Washington, 2)* C#, Government Printing Office. 105 127 a maximum of four unite in commerQial work. While college entrance requirements have had, on the whole, a restrictive effect upon secondary business edu cation, the practices of the collegiate schools of business, on the other hand,*have had a broadening effect on the aims and curricula; showing, as they have, that business is a vitally important social institution worthy of study and that business education implies much more than a mastery of the clerical arts. (b) Specialized schools and other institutions en gaged in business education on various levels. The particu lar functions of other institutions engaged in business edu cation are sources of the aims and objectives of secondary business education. As the high school is not the only in stitution in this fieldjits aims and curricula are influenced by those of other institutions. The presence of specialized schools of all kinds— private business colleges, corporation schools, evening and correspondence schools— may influence the administrators of the public high school to provide at public cost the training vshich would otherwise represent an expense to the pupil, or to provide a general education— socially and personally useful— at public expense as a foundation for the specialized training provided by the other institutions. Again, the aims and curricula of the junior 12Tm — -------- Grace M* Meyer, "Commercial Credit and College Entrance," The Journal of Business Education. Hew York: Yol. YII Ho. 10 (june, 19SJ&J pp. 1$ ff. 104 high school, the senior high school, and the junior college may he modified by those of the other institutions, result ing in the offering of general education wherever possible and in providing job training only during the last year or two of the pupil’s formal education, thus offering job train ing on each of the three levels as needed• The sources of the aims and curricula of each institution, then, are found, to a certain extent , in the functions performed by other institutions. (c) Institutions engaged in business education in other countries. The practices of institutions engaged in business education in other countries furnish sources for the aims and curricula of business education here. In 1892, the American Bankers Association sent Edmund J. James to Europe to study business education there. He reported that the United States could learn much from Germany relative to business education and that the commercial colleges there were training not only leaders in business life1^8^1^ but men of public affairs as well. Another student of German business education reported that because of the radically TSS ------- - Edmund J. James, Addresses and Proceedings. Washington, B.C.: national Education Association, 1961', p. 725. (Also reported in the Annual Report of the United States ComMssioner of Education. 1696.) _ _ _ T£9 - Joseph E. Johnson, "Tendencies in Commercial Education," Report of the Commissioner of Education for the Year Ended June to . I$i3. Washington, B.C.: United States Department of the Interior, Yol. I, Whole lumber 582, pp. 235-247. 105 different social and political ideals of the two people, German schools could not he transplanted to the United States hut that a study of some of their features would he of ser- 130 vice to us* A more recent statement hy a British educator presents evidence that a study of business education in Great Britain might influence, to a certain extent, our aims and curricula: Commercial education, properly defined, has little concern with these humbler arts and skills, The British represen tatives have made the distinction very clear; they speak and write of the * office arts1, meaning thereby the tools of the bureau— shorthand, typewriting and the like— tools by which the man of commerce handles his 3ok Real commercial education begins at a higher level. Its theoretical foundations are to be sought in sociology and in psycho logy..... A study of business education in other countries, then, may furnish sources for the aims ana curricula of busi- ness education in the United States. (d) A study of aims and curricula of other institutions on the secondary level. One practice used as a source of aims and curricula is an investigation of procedures in other institutions giving the same types of work. Curricula ------------ Frederic Ernest Farrington, Commercial Education in Germany. Bew York: £ he Macmillan Company, 191^. 131 J. J. Findlay, Quoted by Herbert A. Tonne, ’ ’Business Education for the Consumer,w The Journal of Business Education. Wilkesbarre, Pennsylvania: the Trethaway Publishing Company, Inc. Yol. YIII, Bo. 1, (September, 193£) p. £1 ff. of other secondary schools are analyzed before new curricula are set up. lists of the general aims of business education and the aims of the individual business subjects are compiled by securing a consensus of opinion of workers in the field. The results of these investigations are valid in so far as they discover aims and curricula which have proved practi cable in actual situations. These investigations have the disadvantages of all studies of present status in that they show what is, not necessarily what should be. Jn order to evaluate the use of the procedures of other institutions as sources of the aims and curricula of secondary business education, it would be necessary to in quire into the sources of such procedures in the individual institutions studied* 3. local and state school administration and financial status. The core curriculum set up by the state or local educational authorities and arising out of varied sources, is itself one of the sources of local curriculum practice. The sentiments and interests of local school administrators are sources of aims and curricula in that they broaden or make narrow the scope of the field. The financial status of the school district, too, has an effect upon the aims and curricula in determining the scope of the offerings. 4. Teacher preparation and interests. Teacher pre paration and interests affect the aims of business education- in the local school, particularly in the smaller schools in 107 which one or two teachers are responsible for the entire program of business education. The implications of this fact for business-teacher education are quite obvious. 5. Enrollment trends. Enrollment trends may furnish a source of curricula in that they influence administrators in planning business-education programs. The following trends in enrollment indicated in a recent government report may easily serve as sources in the construction of curricula: exceedingly rapid growth of enrollments in business subjects; the large proportion of young women enrolled; the comparative decline in enrollments in technical-business subjects; the unusually large increase in the enrollments in the general- business information courses; and the increased enrollments for boys in salesmanship, commercial law, office practice, commercial geography, economies, typewriting, commercial arithmetic, and bookkeeping. These enrollment data are indicative of public demand and, as such, may serve as the sources of curriculum changes. 6. Reorganization in general secondary education. The objectives of business education, an integral part of general secondary education, are derived from the same sources as are those from the entire field. Therefore, any study of well- rounded life resulting in objectives and curricula for seconds ary education is also a source of the aims and curricula of business education. Philosophical discussions, sociological T5S ------ J. 0* Malott, "Commercial Education," Chapter IT of "Biennial Survey of Education in the United States, 1928-1930Bulletin. 1931 Ho. 20. Washington, B.C.: Government Printing Office, pp. 4-6. 108 studies , and psychological experiments resulting in a re organization of secondary education have, likewise, impli cations for business education. A study of new developments in secondary education is a necessary prerequisite to a consideration of aims and curricula in business education. While the most easily available sources of aims and curricula are in the field of education itself, other phases of social life may be examined for sources of pro cedure in business education. B. SOCIOLOGICAL— Of HER THAN E1UCATXONAL— SOURCES OF AIMS AIL CURRICULA II BUSINESS ELUCAII0I r fhe final test of the value of the aims and curricula of business education will be their ultimate usefulness in the "mutual adjustment and welfare of the individual and society." Therefore, a study of social and economic life reveals appropriate sources for aims and curricula in busi ness education. As social and economic life are constantly changing, repeated investigations are necessary to reveal trends and to prevent the basing of practices on results which are applicable for only a short period of time. Two lines of study may be used for discovering sources of aims and curricula: (1) informal study of social and economic changes in the United States; and (£) formal sociological research. 1. Informal study of social and economic changes in the United States, fhe reading of historical and current publications reveals the social and economic changes in the United States which may serve as sources for aims and cur* ricula. Four of them are here discussed: (a) the change from independence to interdependence in business ownership and relationships; (b) changes in employment conditions; (c) changes in the popular conception of business; and (d) increasing alliance between government and business• (a) fhe change from independence to interde- pendence in business ownership and relationships. Within a generation or two, we have emerged from a state of com parative independence in business ownership, characterized by the economic independence of the family and single pro prietorship in business, to a state of interdependence and multiple business ownership# In this impersonal, interde pendent era in business, the individual can no longer be looked upon as self-sufficient, and individualism can no longer be the dominating doctrine of our society. The re sult of our former emphasis upon the individual has been characterized in the following quotation: We find ourselves a nation of individuals trained primarily to think in terms of independent action and uncontrolled competition and living in a world demanding a degree of cooperation such as has never been required before# This particular change, then, demands increased emphasis upon social studies in all curricula and a minimizing of the aim of individual success. isz------------------ C# 1# Gushman, "Social Responsibilities of Commercial Education," The Journal of Business Education# Wilkesbarre, ' Pennsylvania: The Trethaway Publishing Company, Inc• T"”” Yol. VIII, Ho. 1 (September, 193S), p. 9 ff. : 110 (fc) Changes in employment conditions. A country which has passed from a state characterized by plentiful natural resources and frontier areas to one in which manu facturing and trade are dominant interests, while natural resources must be conserved and the frontier has disappeared, has obviously witnessed changes in employment conditions. That the frontier can no longer absorb our excess workers caused by technological changes demands increased attention to education and the "frontier within." William F. Russell suggests that these technological changes make more important than ever the study of the use of leisure, health education, the attitude of creative experimentation, thrift education, 134 and broad vocational education. The change from the all-around worker to the highly skilled specialist implies rather paradoxically that voca tional training should be general rather than too narrow. General training provides for adaptability to new tasks when the specialized work is outmoded due to swift advances in technology. The increasing tendency for women to be gainfully em ployed has created new problems in education. The 1930 census figures state that ten million girls and women between the ages of sixteen and sixty-four are gainfully employed as against some eight and one-half million in 1920. In fact, Wjfche woman gainfully employed is now a permanent figure in 181 - William F* Russell, I ’The Frontier Within— Educational Implications of the Coming Industrial Age." Journal of Adult Education. Philadelphia: American Association for Adult Education, Yol. Ill, Ho. 3, (June, 1931), pp. 283-289. in 135 the nation* e economic structure". All of these changes in employment conditions have necessitated a reorganization of the aims and curricula of secondary education to provide for new needs and new modes of life. (c) Changes in the popular conception of business. At present there is universal interest in business which dig- nifies it and the training for it. This elevation of business to the level of a socially approved activity, along with the desire of many people to enter it, presents new problems and enlarges the scope not only of business education but of all secondary education as well* (d) increasing alliance between government and business. In this "business’ * age* politics and business are closely interrelated. The expansion of secondary education to include the economic phases of citizenship is made neces sary by this increasing alliance between government and busi ness . Constant study of economic and social changes is neces sary in order that the aims and curricula of business edu cation may be adapted to contemporaneous life. The same purpose is served by more formal sociological research. U 5 ---------- ------ Anna S. Richardson, "When Mother Goes to Business”, Springfield, Ohio; The Woman's Home Companion^ (pecember, 1930). p. 22. 112 2. Formal sociological research* Examples of formal sociological research which may be used to discover, sources for the aims and curricula of secondary business education are discussed in the following paragraphs under four head ings: (a) the program of the Federal Board for Vocational Education; (b) proposals made by Frederick J. lichols; (c) United States census statistics; and (d) other foims of sociological research. (a) fhe program of the Federal Board for Voca tional Education. One phase of the work of the Federal Board for Vocational Education is "carrying on research to get the fundamental facts about commercial vocations to pro vide a basis for the organization of commercial courses which will train properly for these vocations." fhe reports of these "studies to determine specialized commercial occupations in various types of communities, occupations open to begin ners with varying amounts of education, business occupational biographies of commercial workers to discover job sequence, and job analyses" are published in the annual reports of the Federal Board for Vocational Education and in bulletins issued by the Board* fhese studies of actual business re quirements and conditions are fruitful sources of aims and curricula of vocational business education. 135---------- Federal Board for Vocational Education, "Commercial Edu*r cation." Yearbook. 1925. Washington, B.C.: Government Printing office, 1^24, Bart IV, p. 373. 113 (b) Proposals made by Frederick J. Hichols. Frederick J. Hichols has suggested a national research pro- 137 gram for business education involving three major problems* fhe first major problem is: "how can commercial education on the secondary-school level be made to yield measurable outcomes in the way of social betterment and progress?" Research into the specific contributions of the social-busi- ness subjects and the skill subjects to the development of social ideals and eivic intelligence is suggested* fhe sec ond major problem is: "How can pupils be so trained as to insure that they will be efficient productive units of society?" Research into occupations; sex distribution in occupations; local conditions; proportion of background education, related knowledge, and cultural education needed, etc. is outlined, fhe third major problem is concerned with "the personal utility outcomes of commercial education." fhe research suggested covers the relationship between consumer knowledge and productive ability and preparation for the wise use of leisure. fhe research proposed by Mr. Hiehols involves inquiry into the social institution of business, and into other phases of social life such as citizenship and the "social program." fhe carrying out of such a research project would reveal many social sources of aims and curricula in secondary business education* m — — - — ■ Frederick G. Hiehols, "A Rational Research Program,” Ihe Journal of Bnelneea Eaueation. Wllkeebarre, Pennsylvania: Tol. viii., ]j0< (October, 1932) p. 9 ££. 1X4 (e) tJnlted States census statistics. She United 1 'i",rrT; i States eenstis statistics are sources for curriculum prac tices in vocational business education as they indicate kinds of training which should he emphasized. For example, while the general population increased 43 per cent between 1900 and 1920 , the number of lawyers increased only seven per cent; physicians, nine per cent; clerks in stores, 84 per cent; bookkeepers and accountants, 190 per cent; and stenog- T raphers and typists, 456 per cent. Comparable figures for 1930 are not available at the time of writing. When issued and compared with previous statistics, they will reveal occupational trends which may be used in planning vocational curricula# (d) Other forms of sociological research* Any objective examination into social and economic life will reveal sources of aims and curricula of secondary business education. David Snedden, for example, has studied the "values’ ? of life— physical, vocational, social and per sonal** cultural— and has come to the conclusion that voca tional schools should train for hundreds of specific voca tions and that cultural education should be separated from 139 vocational education. Other sociological research— that m ------------------- United States Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract. 1920. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, faEIe 52, p. 61. 139 David Snedden, School Educations: Sociological Sources of Values- lew York: Bureau of Publications; 'Teachers College, Columbia University, 1931 115 of Harold Rugg, Charles Beard, Henry Harap, and Stuart Chase— has resulted in the advocacy of Broader education along economic and soeial lines for producers and consumers alike* Some of the social phenomena studied are: mention of topics in publications, subjects of court litigation, issues appearing in political platforms, etc* fhe results of occupational and educational city and state surveys also comprise sources of aims and curricula* As was mentioned in a previous paragraph, some of these in vestigations have been reported by the Federal Board for Vocational Education*Lists of such studies are compiled 141 from time to time by J* 0. Maiott• If the conditions re vealed by such surveys are not regarded as static ones but are accepted as changing phenomena, they constitute valid sources for the aims and curricula of business education* C. PSYCHOLOGICAL SOURCES OF THE AIMS AND CURRICULA OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION. A third source of the aims and curricula of secondary business education is in the field of educational psychology* The result of the psychological studies of the last few decades has been new emphasis upon the individual student* Investi- w ~ --------- Federal Board for Vocational Education, op. cit. 141 J. 0. Maiott, "A List of Studies and Researches Pertaining to'Commercial Education„" First Yearbook* Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Eastern Commercial Teachers Association, 1928, Appendices A-B-C-D, pp* 383^423. (Also issued in mimeographed form by J. 0* Maiott, Specialist in Commercial Education, United States Office of Education, Department of the Interior, Washington, D*C*) 116 gatiohs of individual differences in aptitudes, interests, and character traits have led to the consideration of pupil goals and to the 'broadening of curricular offerings to suit the capacities and tastes of individual students, fhe find ings of studies in educational psychology, then, must he con sidered in planning business-education programs and teacher- education curricula. L. PHILOSOPHICAL SOURCES OF THE AIMS AHI) CURRICULA OF BUSINESS EDUCATION The sources of the aims and curricula of secondary busi ness education are found not only in the field of education and of the broader field of sociology with their probable imperfections, nor in the field of educational psychology with incomplete studies of individual differences, but in the ideal “good life* as envisaged by the philosophers. The phi losophers and “frontier thinkers* may base their conclusions upon investigations of social phenomena and studies of the individual, but they see beyond the “status $uo“ and point to desirable procedures as they conceive them. Ihether they advocate “experimentalism” without ultimate goals or picture an ideal future state with definite objectives, they pro foundly influence the practices of their adherents. The philosophy of the administrator and teacher of business sub jects affects the aims of the business education administered by them and the curricula which they set up. 117 A series of quotations istxiah indicate the desirability of looking beyond present status in planning educational pro grams is here given* John Dewey mentions the limitations of sociological re search in the following statement; ...... any scheme for vocational education which takes its point of departure from the industrial regime that now exists, is likely to assume and to perpetuate its divisions and weaknesses and thus become an instrument in accomplishing the feudal dogma of social predestination..*..* but an education which acknowledges the full intellectual and social meaning of a vocation would include instruc tion in the historic background of present conditions; training in science to give in telligence and initiative in dealing with materials and agencies of production; and study of economics, civics, and polities, to bring the future worker into touch with the problems of the day and the various methods proposed for its improvement. Above all, it would train power of readaptation to chang ing conditions so that the future workers would not become blindly subject to a fate imposed upon them.142 Boyd H* Bode stresses, the need for provision for future growth in vocational education: It appears, then, that culture, or broad com prehension, is not incompatible with vocational training, fhese two form a contrast only when vocational training has no other purpose than to prepare the learner to do certain specific things. To qualify, for example, as a stenog rapher in a law office requires a certain technical vocabulary, a eertain rate of speed, and a certain degree of accuracy;....... what these requirements are can be determined empirically, so that the content of the train- Dewey, John, Democracy and Education, Hew York: fhe Macmillan Company, p. 118 ing can be made perfectly definite. Voca tional training becomes a doubtful blessing when, putting aside all responsibility for further growth, it recognizes no higher aim than to place itself on the same definitely quantitative level as a factory and to turn out a product that can be guaranteed to have an equipment for the specific job for which it was intended.143 J. F. Bobbit speaks of practices that ought to be rather than those that are as sources of aims and curricula; fhe task is to develop in the rising genera tion, not merely the degree of proficiency found in the world about them but to carry them much beyond; to look, not merely to the actual practices, but rather to those that ought to be.144 Chapman and Counts feel that the "broader and more permanent interests of society” must be recognized in planning an adequate program of education: fhe present educational program, however, is a half-hearted and inadequate attempt to meet the needs of the situation. It is the product of the blind drive of necessity, rather than the result of an intelligent consideration of the principles involved. It has centered too exclusively upon voca tional preparation in the narrow sense of the term; it has placed disproportionate emphasis on those highly specialized skills and knowledges which are peculiar to a particular calling. fhe object of an adequate program of edu cation must be an economic efficiency, IJB------------ Bode, Boyd H., Fundamentals of Education. Hew York: fhe Macmillan Company, 1524,' p. 3$. 144 Bobbit, J. F. , fhe Curriculum. Boston: Houghton- Mifflin Company, l'9ld, p. 64. 119 balanced by a recognition of the broader, and more peaaaanent interests of society and tem pered by an unequivocal exaltation of human over material values. In their search for sources of aims and curricula of secondary business education, administrators and teachers will look beyond the findings of sociological research to the vision of the philosophers as to ideal conditions for the individual and, for society. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER The sources of the aims and curricula as found in four fields are here enumerated* Educational sources: 1. Tradition is sometimes a source of aims and curricula but it is not a valid one# S. The procedures in other institutions which serve as sources are: college entrance requirements; the practices of collegiate schools of business; the functions of specialized schools; the work of other institutions of secondary grade; and procedures of business schools in other countries. 3. The sentiment of local and state school ad ministrators with reference to business education and the financial status of the sehool district constitute practical sources of aims and curricula. Ttt ~----- Chapman, J. 0. and Counts, G. S., Principles of Education, . Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Company. I9&4. p. 242. 120 4. teacher preparation and interests, influenc ing teacher philosophy, affect the aims and curricula. 5. Enrollment trends indicate public demand for the various offerings of business subjects and as such com prise sources of aims and curricula. 6. All the aspects of reorganization in secondary education are sources of aim and curricula of business edu cation which is an integral part of secondary education. Sociological— other than educational— sources of aims and curricula; i !♦ A study of social and economic changes in the United States— increasing interdependence in economic re lationships, changes in employment conditions, changes in the popular conception of business, and the increasing allianee between government and business-:—reveals sources of aims and curricula. 2. Formal sociological research as carried on by various agencies in a national research program, in various studies of economic and social phenomena, in census investi gations, and in city and state surveys, helps to adapt edu cation to present-day life and thus serves as a source of aims and curricula. Psychological Sources of Aims and Curricula.: All studies of individual differences which throw new light upon the aptitudes and interests of the individual pupil are sources of aims and curricula. Philosophical Sources of Aims and Curricula; 121 A study of philosoptical writings reveals sources of aims and curricula by indicating ideal conditions beyond the ^status guo* revealed by sociological research. Aims and curricula should be based upon a study of all potential sources. A consideration of a well-rounded indi vidual life and of ideal social and economic conditions must have a foundation covering all phases of life. Such consideration results in the setting-up of the aims and curricula which it is believed will load to the goals of mutual individual and social well-being. The sources of aims and curricula are here considered as a necessary prelude to a study of the aims and curricula themselves. (The following chapter (Chapter VI) is concerned with the early aims and curricula of secondary business edu cation in the United States, after which an investigation of present aims and curricula is reported in Chapter Til. Trends in aims and curricula are discussed in Chapter Till. The results of this study of aims and curricula will be referred to in later chapters and their close relationship to business- teacher education indicated. CHAPTER VI 122 PAST AIMS AND CURRICULA OP SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION In the last two chapters a history of secondary business education and the sources of aims and curricula were pre sented* The next logical step in a study of secondary busi ness education, with its implications for business-teacher education, is a consideration of the past aims and curricula which, influenced by historical development, arose from the sources discussed in the preceding chapter. The year 1919 has been set as the beginning of the pre sent era in business education, it being the publication date of the report of the committee appointed by the National Edu cation Association to study the reorganization of secondary 146 business education. Although training for business was introduced in colonial times and although early school laws 147 mention business subjects, there were practically no pub lished statements of aims of business education before 1892* The Business Educators* Association was formed in 1878 but reports of the meetings were not published until 1892 when it 146 United States Bureau of Education, t t Business Education in Secondary Schools,” Bulletin, 1919, No. 55. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1919. 147 I. L* Kandel, History of Secondary Education. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Company, 1930, (In 1827, the Massachusetts law included single-entry bookkeeping as a high-school sub ject. The Board of Regents of the State of New York, recog nized, in 1829, bookkeeping as a subject appropriate to an English education. In 1851, the California state law men tioned bookkeeping as a subject for high-school instruction. — Adapted from Chapter IX.) 123 148 was affiliated with the National Education Association* The statements of aim discussed in this chapter were, with one exception, published between 1892 and 1918. The exception is a statement of the purpose of business education quoted from the "First Annual Report of the High School Society of New 149 York” published in 1825. With this exception, the earliest statements of aim are found in the publications of the Na tional Education Association and in the fifth yearbook (1899) of the National Herbart Society. The earliest published cur riculum found was dated 1889. The period from 1889 to 1918, then, is here considered with reference to the past aims and curricula of secondary business education. The aims and cur ricula presented refer to secondary business education in general as published material relative to the aims and curric ula of the three levels— junior high school, senior high school, and junior college— is not available for the years prior to 1919. Three divisions of the subject of past aims and curric ula of secondary business education form the headings for the following discussion: (A) Past aims of secondary business education; (B) Past curricula of secondary business education; and (G) The influence of historical development upon aims and 148 National Education Association, Addresses and Proceedings. Washington, D. C.: 1894, p. 957. 149 Quoted by Ira W. Kibby, nThe Objectives and Majors in Business Education,1 1 Bulletin C-5. Bureau of Business Educa tion, Sacramento: California State Department of Education, 1929, p. 1* curricula* 124 A. PAST AIMS OP SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION All available material on the subject of business educa- tion published prior to 1919 was carefully analyzed in order to secure statements of aim. Eighty-four expressions of aim were found in forty-seven published statements. These aims, grouped tinder sixteen heads, are here presented. They are then compared with the aims expressed by seventy-four teachers in 1917. Finally, a series of quotations, typical of the early writings on business education, is given. This section, is, therefore, divided into three parts: (1) past aims of business education as expressed in forty-seven published statements; (2) past aims as stated by seventy-four teachers; and (3) quotations from typical early writings on business education* 1. Past aims of business education as expressed in forty-seven published statements. The aim most frequently mentioned by early writers was that of preparing pupils for simple office positions--mentioned twenty times, which rep resents 23.8 per cent of the total of eighty-four expressions of aim* The next most frequently expressed aim— to give that form of general education which will prepare young people to enter business pursuits— was mentioned thirteen times, 15.5 per cent of the total. The aim of adapting business educa tion to social and civic life was mentioned only eight times. It is interesting to note that seven writers considered the provision of opportunity for mental discipline as a valid aim 125 for business education. Only six writers recognized the identification of the aims of business education with those of all secondary education. Pour of them wrote in terms of consumer business education. Statements of other aims were made in but a few instances. In the following chapter of this study--Chapter VII— present aims and curricula of secon dary business education will be presented after which trends will be discussed in Chapter VIII at which point it will be noted that the aims rarely mentioned by early writers are a significant part of the program of today. However, these early statements of aim do not present a true picture of ac tual practice before 1919. In some cases they are mentioned as being current aims of which the writer disapproved. Then, too, among those who publish statements relative to a new field are the pioneer thinkers who are pointing the way to improved practice. The practical results of their construc tive thinking are not apparent until years after the date of the publication of their ideas. The early aims of business education as found in forty-seven published statements are set forth in Table I. (Here insert Table I, "Purposes of Business Education as Expressed in Forty-Seven Published Statements from 1825 to 1918.") 2. Past aims as stated by seventy-four teachers. In 1917, Koos made a study of the aims of business education concurred in by seventy-four teachers of business sub- 126 TABLE I PURPOSES OP BUSINESS EDUCATION AS EXPRESSED IN 150 FORTY-SEVEN PUBLISHED STATEMENTS PROM 1825 TO 1918 * Purposes Number of Times Mentioned Percentage • of Total • • 1. To prepare pupils for • specific office positions— (as • clerks, bookkeepers, stenogra- • phers, etc.,)------------------- 20 23.8 I •2. To give that form of general • education which will prepare • young people to enter business: • pursuits (related knowledge)---- 13 15.5 I • 5. To adapt business education •to social and civic life-— ----- 9 10.8 •! *4. To prepare pupils for later • promotion— — ------------------- 8 9.5 ! •5* To provide opportunity for • mental discipline— ------------ 7 8.3 I • 6* To fulfill the general • objectives of all secondary • education---------------------- 6 7.1 ! • 7* To give business information . and skills useful to all pupils • in personal, social, and civic • life— -------------------------- 4 4.8 ! .8. To give practical training • to boys and girls who cannot • meet the examination require- . ments of other courses--------- - 3 3.5 ! 150 See Appendix H for specific references* 127 TABLE I (CONTINUED) PURPOSES OF BUSINESS EDUCATION AS EXPRESSED IN FORTY-SEVEN PUBLISHED STATEMENTS FROM 1825 TO 1918 Purposes . Number of Times Mentioned Percentage • of Total • » *9. To prepare for university * work in commerce*— — ----------- * 3 • • 3.5 • *10. To help the United States * to win commercial supremacy----- * 2 • 2.4 • * 11. To keep pupils in school— — * 2 2.4 • *12. To give pupils the hest pos-* * sible preparation for a career * * of business usefulness in the * local community------------ ---— * 2 • • • 2.4 . * 13. To train owners and * managers of business enter- * * prises------------- ----•------- * 2 • 2.4 • * m 14. To teach principles rather * than practices of business------ * 1 • 1.2 *15. To provide for citizenship * * in a democratic society— ------- * 1 • 1.2 • * 16. To train in desirable * business habits----- ----------- * 1 • 1.2 • • * Total----------------- * 84 • 100.0 % • • • XiJJL jects# Unlike the writers, the teachers give first place to general preparation for a business career and second place to specific preparation for clerical positions# Twenty of the teachers were thinking in terms of later promotion while only eight of the writers mentioned this phase of business training# The early writers were not concerned with the needs of large business organization as were four of the teachers. The statements of aim by the teachers in the year 1917 did not include mention of consumer-business education, the adaptation of business education to social and civic life, nor the general objectives of secondary education; nor were the teachers concerned with the subject of mental disci pline as were seven of the writers# The number and percentage of teachers checking each aim is shown in Table II. (Here insert Table II, "Aims of Business Education Concurred in By Seventy-Pour Teachers.11) 3# Quotations from typical early writings on business education# Early writings on business education are not characterized by clear-cut statements of aims which have been objectively evaluated as are present publications. Typ ical examples of these early general statements of aim are included in the following series of quotations: It should never be forgotten that the grand object of this 151 Leonard V. Eoos, The Administration of Secondary-School Units. Supplementary Educational Monograph No. 5# (Whole Number 3) Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1917, pp. 141-158. 129 TABLE II AIMS OF BUSINESS EDUCATION 152 CONCURRED IN BY SEVENTY-FOUR TEACHERS • • • • ; Aim • • • * * Number of Teachers Checking Aim --- ---- '1 Percentage: of ; Teachers : Checking I Aim ; • • • j 1. To give a general preparation • for a business career* 69 93.2 * • • • 2. To furnish the technique I requisite for specific • business (clerical) positions.••* 34 45.9 * . • 3. To give such training as • will look toward the student*s j later occupying business • positions of responsibility..... • 20 27.0 • ♦ ♦ 4. To train for the needs of : large business organization ; and a resulting specialization ; of occupation................... • • • • » • 4 5.4 • 152 Leonard V. Koos, op. cit., pp. 154-155 130 institution is to prepare its boys for such advancements and such pursuits in life as they are destined to after leaving it.153 Another general statement of aim is quoted as typical of the publications of the nineties: The object of a business course is to create ideal business men and women, not on the supposition that the graduate will become at once a proprietor but in accordance with the doctrine that the best assistant is one who has a full knowledge of the results to be attained .154 A broadening of the purpose of business education and ”mind training” are mentioned in the following statement: The aim of the commercial course (in high school) should be to supply that form of a business education which the business college cannot•..•• It should not strive to make mere bookkeepers or clerks... Its aim should be to train the mind along certain channels which it must take in following a business career. It should not aim to give simply what will be of immediate use but rather principles which will give the possessor's grasp of things that will enable him successfully to master difficulties as they arise.155 155 Quoted by Ira W. Kibby from ”First Annual Report of the High School Society of New York,” op. cit. p. 1. 154 Allan Davis, ”A Course of Study for Business High Schools,” Addresses and Proceedings. Washington, D. C.: National Edu- cation Association, 1896, p. 804. 155 D. W. Springer, ”Business Education,” National Education Association, op. cit., 1898, p. 857. 131 The writings of Ch.eesman A. Herrick invariably contain a plea for breadth of view in business education: Education for commerce will disappoint if it be planned on narrow technical lines .If schools of commerce, as a branch of public education, are to win and hold the favor of educational experts on the one hand and of the business community on the other, they must be more than 1 clerk factories1.156 The next quotation presents two opposing points of view# 157 A criticism of an article by George Archibald Clark in which he advocated that nine-tenths of the time spent in the business curriculum be devoted to cultural subjects is in cluded in the following paragraph: ...it seems best to us to provide for this applied instruction (in the technical business subjects) as the leading purpose, and to graft on to that as much of general culture as the time and circumstances will allow to be logically correlated with the central aim# 158 The aims as stated by the early writers found expression in the business curricula set up during the corresponding years. While they were subject to all the influences dis cussed in Chapter V as sources of aims and curricula, they 156 Cheesman A. Herrick, 1 1 Commercial Education,” Supplement to the Fifth Yearbook# Chicago: National Herbart Society, 1899, p. 123. 157 George A. Clark, "Commercial Branches in the High School Curriculum,” Educational Review# Vol. XXXVIII, No. 1, (June, 1909) pp. 31-42. 158 C# Meriwether, "Commercial Branches in the High School Curriculum--a Reply,” Educational Review. Rahway, N. J#: Vol. XXXIX, No. 3, (March, 1910) pp. 308-309. 132 represented to a great extent the ideas of the leaders as to subjects appropriate to fulfilling the aims of business edu cation as they saw them• B. PAST CURRICULA OP SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION A search through the literature of business education pub lished prior to 1919 resulted in the finding of twenty-nine business curricula* In the majority of cases these curricula were in actual use* A few of them, however, as may be seen by 159 inspection, were proposed by leaders in the field as ful filling their conceptions of business education* This section presents: (1) the results of a detailed analysis of these twenty-nine early curricula and (2) the findings of other cur riculum studies in business education* 1. A detailed analysis of twenty-nine business curricula* Curricula set up between 1889 and 1918 were characterized by the addition of business subjects to the existing college- preparatory curriculum. In the field of mathematics, algebra, general arithmetic, geometry, and trigonometry were required in some curricula— 7.06 per cent of the total time specified in twenty-nine curricula being required for general mathematics** 159 ^ See Appendix I for detailed curricula. "The total time for each subject was arrived at by considering the recitations per week required for one-year periods* For example, if English were required in one curriculum for four years, five days each week, the total time required would be twenty hours# On the other hand, if music were required for two days a week for one-half year, the total time required would be one hour* The total hours were then translated into percentages* 133 English was required in practically all curricula— 15#06 per cent of the total time. The science courses required were biology, botany, chemistry, physics, physiology, and geography — in all curricula, science being required 7.96 per cent of the time. Social studies took 10.41 per cent of total time while foreign languages requiring 10.82 per cent of time were considered of more value than mathematics or science and of equal value with the social sciences. Domestic science and industrial arts were not required (three hours of industrial arts being the total required in all curricula). Fine arts, music, physical education, and miscellaneous subjects required respectively less than two per cent of total time. The social business subjects required— business law, economic geography, business organization, advertising, salesmanship, history of commerce, and banking— accounted for 7.88 per cent of the total time while the technical subjects occupied 20.61 per cent of the time— the highest percentage required in any field. There were no free electives in the twenty-nine curricula analyzed but 15.1 per cent of time was allowed for restricted elec tives. Among the twenty-nine curricula, only two were differ entiated for prospective stenographers and bookkeepers. Simi lar analyses of later curricula are presented in Chapter VII and trends are indicated in Chapter VIII. The total number of recitations per week required in each subject in twenty- nine curricula are presented in Table III. (Here insert Table III, "Total Number of Recitations per Week for One Year Required in Twenty-Nine Business Curricula— 1889- 1918.") 134 M NO * - r > t- J ► - 3 3 CO 53 H- * CO H- O 3 CO CO 3 3 £ 0 1 — * <1 c+ c+ T5 CO CO 3* 3 * 3 *-3 C + “ 3 TO c+ O 3' c4- * - < * - < CO P »- 3 P* CO CO 3 GQ > * - , 3 CO M CD H* O 3 CO CO 3 3 3 CO H-* < c+ c+ TJ CD * - 3 * - * CO P* 3* 3 0 c+ 3 -0 c+ -3 P* c+ ► < ! CD p > p- CO CO 3 03 * < ! P p O CO CO ► < ! 3 3 co p CO 3 3 P c+ 3 Business Law Economic Ge ography Business English Business Organization Advertising Banking Misc. Business Arithmetic Penmanship Spelling Shorthand ■Typewriting Bookkeeping Accounting Steno^raohi c Office ractice Business ractice ■isc. Secretarial Itenographi Sookk.-eping Restricted lectives Salesmanshin ^ in History of Commerce r~i O C J ogj y 3 U o re a - 3 c t ! t - 3 M a JN O N f .J l NO N H-» VO f-J VO P-1 o o v n V O V o N v - 1 V H l—* O O ' .0 VO VO ON * ON • V o VO M M » vN vtv J.V - h-* JH k J N M M H-» ► J N NT! • O - v r O O N O O O v n VO M ON v n O ON ON * H-* on v n v n O ON r - V o V o F - r - fV ■-A v n NO 'v r ON '• J no r - v n NO NO h-* ‘O M O '< r VO r fS. ON .0 N O - v j VO V ) I— . ON h-* TO VO VO CO h-* N O M N O O 0 O 00 00 N O O 1 —* h-* v n 0 0 • M v o N O oO NO J 0 O H-* iN h- » N O • VO ON ON VO N O v j; S -» P-» N O v n N O u 4 VO VO H-» • 0 N O VO v n f 00 £ ON » T N ) \ * 'VO N O O t-» NO O n NO O O VO A V T 00 ON ] V3 • h-* v > J l VO p -. ,*0 r > NO N O i • W* V o VO W VO h - » tf* • • C O v n V ) J l p -1 r VO 00 v n ^ NO M • N O O I— . > V o JO H-* H * P-* L -i M ,(*> • • NJ S O N ) r C O < r CO CO j-J b* VO M vO * * VO V I v r •sj VO < s \ Jl Arithmetic Mgebra Ge ome try Trigonometry Misc. English Biology B otany Chemistry Physics Physiology Ge ography Misc. ., Med., M History 3. History Economics Misc. Arts Pine Arts ,!usic H J f j . lisc. TOTAL NUMBER O F RECITATIONS "ER WEEK FOR ONE TSAR REOUIRSD I N TV/ENTY-NINE BUSINESS CURRICULA— I889-I9I81 155 The twenty-nine early curricula were further analyzed for the purpose of discovering the years in which the indi vidual subjects were required, as a basis for later comparison with recent curricula. Courses in mathematics were required more frequently in the first than in the later years of the curriculum (16.49 per cent of total time of first year and 1.05 per cent of total time of fourth year); the requirements in English were uniformly divided among the first three years with a lessening of requirements in the fourth year. Science requirements, too, were practically uniform for the four years as were those in social studies, foreign languages, fine and practical arts, and physical education. The social-business subjects received their greatest emphasis in the fourth year (13.12 per cent) while the technical-business subjects occu pied 28.26 per cent of the time of the second year. This high percentage is due to the almost universal requirement of book keeping during the second year. Detailed statistics as to re quirement s s for each year are presented in Table IV. (Here insert Table IV, ”Percentage of Time Required for Each Subject during Each Year in Twenty-Hine Business Curricula, 1889-1918*w) 2. The findings of other curriculum studies in business education. A search through the literature of business edu cation has failed to reveal the report of a curriculum study similar to that given in the preceding paragraphs. However, two investigators have studied offerings rather than required subjects. Some data from their reports are here presented for 136 Group Percentage Grand Total i Group Total Twelfth Year Pe rcentage Group Percentage Grand Total Eleventh Tear Percentage Grout) Total Grand Total Group Total Group Percentage 0 3 * - 3 < 0 0 ** 5. O c+ 2 & -4. ^ 0 3 C P 3 P C D > 5 Ninth Year Percentage Group Total Group Percentage Grand Total N O — M • C O Nn Arithmetic P irf* ; n o 1 ro ro 0 H - * O N J N Algebra i t C D 3 P OT i ; • NO M v Q C O Geometry O W M O vjn <y NO M N j N > N > • » N NO On C O N O N T v O H - * Nn O N I U N O H O Trigonometry o \ o ON » ? * N O Llisc, on ON NO I-* f-j o M > r NO 1 1 ,0 1 ON vQ N O Nn s r H - * O M H* » N • Nn ■<r M Nn • N Jl to H - * O ON H* Nn nh ro M NO • ro O N h-i ro Nn M N O ro ON English vn Nn Biology ON Botany • ' C O t-4 NO • NO O C O C D Chemistry O P J - C D - • ro X 11.26 ’N I C O « N O C O NO C O NO J O Nn > J N Gen11 Science C D NO M N j N > C O N O P -* O TO O N Physics *N N O P r 5 * M NH Physiology vn H ~ * NO C O Ge ography M • Nn tN O tN ;ro ;o Nn NO M Llisc, M NO C O NO Nn M O • NO N O 'NT to M • '< r N O O N NO O C O 0 M Anc#> Mod.* Hod. tTistory Social Stuc H - * N O ♦ '-a Nn O N U . S. History O N 'NT i~i— • • N T N O ON M Nn ro , 1 — • NO ro M O N O N > • ON • s r Civics H* ta ■ • C O ro 1 —J C D C D - 1 Economics M • No . O N M NO N o H* Hi sc. NO • ON V J1 ON V D ON vn H* O • NH NO NO M O N n NO H* ro IS C O Nn 12.42 M O O N ro ON NO M O ON ro Foreign Languages ON Industrial Arts 9 5 « C i H S’ N > r-0 O n M N T t ro • ro ON • Nn 00 iN • No H - * • N O K > N O • N O NO ♦ ro p N to M ro NO Fine Arts O e » So c + * M NH NO • p t N ON LlusiC c)* W i_j C O h — 5 ro H - * ( J O H - * i— * NO M ro M • NO M • O N ro (-* • •<y on C O vn ro r—* • C O vn PI ysical Education <\> • tN> ON H-* N Tt N) to ON JO ■I n N n ro • v n i-i O ro h ' j * 0 ro Llisc, PERCENTAGE OF TIME REQUIRED FOR EACH SUBJECT DURING EACH TEAR I N TWENTY-NINE BUSINESS CURRICULA, 1889-1J18 137 0 *1 0 p •v C D a C D ► 3 c + * P C; C T J G roup T o t a l TJ *3 C D g H © O 1 — C D w > » cf «+ p C D O P *1 1 G roup P e r c e n ta g e ] 1 O •s 0 -§ Hi O P F-1 nc C * 3 C D 1 M ► 3 C D O < J C D C D 3 2 c + * c + * P ■ J C D Kj C D P * 5 0 O C *v *T 3 C D O C D 3 c+ £ (B O c T3 H| O c+ P F-* T e n th Y e a r P e r c e n t a g e Group P e r c e n t a g e G roup T o t a l N in th Y e a r P e r c e n t a g e Vo • f N_o • -J VO v r VO M vn B u s in s s 0 L a w VO 0 F -» VO VO VD on CN M S c o n o n i c Go o ^ r a n h y Oi 0 Vo Vo N > VO M M *-.n O N B u s in e '’ ^ E n g l i s h "" 0 H* P 1 F -> Vo • j- j N > O D 'VT 'v r vn ON • O O N v |N N ? '*'• I ON v n VO v |N ON VO 0 B u s in o s s O r m n i z a t i o n C D P « H* P C D vn A d v o r t i s i n y C D C O s ON O S a le s r . a n . s h ip a c r C D N> • C O -v t VO F -» -cr : - L c t o r p o f Co..’.n e r c o • VO 0 B a n h in . " M O vn H * vo • vo H-* N> .O " i s c . VO 0 ' 4 FD vo' 0 <r -O O ■ T J B u s in e s s A r l t h r . e t i c ■ F -* £ H* vO O na VO N> H : ," a n '!V' i n 0 'V? VO t-J S ' e l l i n - H3 C D O ►r n ON '-#1 O • o n O N JO S ’ lo r t h p - n d P R *** 0 P 1~» 1 a \ *<r \ p V~* v 5 N •^0 M v n T y n e w r i t i n g s p -** 3 iD F -» O ND ■ v - O \_0 • CO •■V F-J ? 'O F -* .r« N> C P \ ' f v C ) i 7 ON (— J VO 1 —1 ' 0 Y J t-J C O 0 N > F -» M ^0 • vn A B o o k h e e o '- n y w C O 3- ON A c c o u n t i n g 0 c + * C O F -J M vn r - ' i 0 ^ ;-a n M c O f f i c e P r a c t i c e * 'A f . > •N . 1 — J O t— J V J1 A T u s in e s ? P r a c t i c e C o - o p e r a t i v e C o u r s e s I • -<r vn H* • A C T \ t i i s c . E I M oO M O N O ro >> M VO H A ON F -* N ? t-J H* v r rfN .0^ -.......... M t-J K? C O h-l !U N > - 0 N D v J N s i 4 « N J A R e s t r i c t e d E l e c t i v e s PERCENTAGE OP TBS REQUIRED 'FOR EACH SUBJECT OURING EACH TEAR I N TWENTY-NINE BUSINESS CURRICULA, IB89-I9IP 158 the purpose of emphasizing the relative importance of certain business subjects in early curricula* Stout, in his analysis of the offerings in twenty schools for each five-year period from 1860 to 1880, found that book keeping was the only business subject offered before 1876 in 160 the north-central section of the United States• Business forms and business arithmetic were added to offerings after 1876 and commercial law and phonography, after 1886. The of ferings of forty curricula for each five-year period from 1891 to 1918 included typewriting, shorthand, and bookkeeping as the most frequently offered subjects. These three subjects were included in the offerings of thirty-seven of the forty schools, the 1918 offerings of which were analyzed. Com mercial law, offered in thirty-one schools; commercial geog raphy, in twenty-seven schools; and business arithmetic, in twenty-six schools ranked next in order of frequency. Two quotations from this report are given in order to present a picture of the status of business education between 1860 and 1918: Toward the close of the century a few schools offered courses providing a considerable range of commercial subjects, but the rule was a short course providing a meager offering of commercial subjects. Even in the four-year commercial courses 160 John Elbert Stout, The Development of High-School Curric ula in the North Central States from 1860 to 1918. Chicago: The University of Chicago, 1921, pp. 264-290. 139 ......the offering of commercial subjects was limited........... Until the last years of the nineteenth century, industrial and commercial demands had very little influence in determining the character of high-school curricula*161 The so-called commercial courses were for the most part made up of subjects only remotely connected with training for business of any sort•••••••• The whole field of commercial education so far as the high schools were concerned, remained practically undeveloped until after the beginning of the present century#162 In 1917, Koos studied the offerings in seventy-four schools in fifteen states,163 He, too, found that book keeping, typewriting, and shorthand were the most frequently offered of the business subjects, being included in the pro grams of sixty-nine of the seventy-four schools • Business arithmetic and commercial law, offered in sixty-eight and fifty-seven schools respectively, ranked second, while com mercial geography, offered in forty-seven schools, ranked third. An inspection of Table III will show that bookkeeping, typewriting, and shorthand were the business subjects most frequently required in the twenty-nine curricula analyzed* 161 John Elbert Stout, op. cit., p. 51• 162 Ibid, p. 193. 163 Leonard V. Koos, op. cit., pp.141-158. 140 It will be noted further that in these curricula, penmanship and economic geography were required more frequently than business arithmetic and that, in addition to these subjects, business practice was required more frequently than business law. Penmanship is not included in Stout’s investigation and was offered in only twenty-three of the seventy-four schools in Koos’s study, although in fifteen additional schools, a combined course in penmanship and spelling was offered, making total offerings of penmanship in thirty-eight cases. In the curricula analyzed in the present study, such combined courses were recorded by giving half of the specified time to each subject. The results of the three investigations of early business education are similar with the exception of "business practice". In 1917, Koos found only nine of a to tal of seventy-four schools in which this subject was offered. Stout found that, in 1918, this subject was offered in thirteen of a total of forty schools while the data presented in Table III indicate that it was required for a greater percentage of time than was business law. A study of the detailed curric ula, however, shows that business practice was generally re quired for five periods each week while business law was 1 64 sometimes a two-or three-period-a-week subject. This ap parent discrepancy, then, may be explained by the fact that the first two studies report number of schools in which sub jects were offered while Table III includes total number of 164 See Appendix I 141 recitations per week for one year# The conclusion is reached, then, that, prior to 1919, hookkeeping, shorthand, and typewriting were the most fre quently offered and required business subjects followed by business arithmetic, commercial law, economic geography, pen manship, and business practice# A study of the aims and curricula discussed in preceding sections of this chapter reveals the influence of historical development upon them* C. THE INFLUENCE OF THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION UPON AIMS AND CURRICULA The influence of the historical development of business education upon aims and curricula may be seen in: (1) the emphasis placed upon the aim of training for clerkships and the importance of bookkeeping, shorthand, and typewriting in the curriculum; (2) the infrequency of the expression of the social aim of business education; (3) the expression of the aim of mental discipline; and (4) the requirement of tradi tional college-preparatory subjects in business curricula# A brief discussion of each follows. 1# The emphasis placed upon the aim of training for clerkships and the importance of bookkeeping, shorthand, and typewriting in the business curriculum# The emphasis placed upon the clerical arts is the obvious result of the fact that business 1 1 college” training attracted more pupils than did high-school business training prior to 1918# According to 1 4 : 2 Lyon, there were, in 1893, only 15,270 pupils enrolled in business courses in high school, while there were 115,748 pupils in private business schools* In 1918, there were 165 enrolled approximately 280,000 pupils in each institution* Then, too, there was a demand by rapidly expanding American business for workers trained in high school and business col lege* In 1912, J* H* Beveridge published data which showed that graduates of high-school commercial departments were receiving higher salaries than were public-school teachers— $70*22 per month for male graduates, $55*07 for female grad uates, and $50.00 for teachers, the third year after gradu- 166 ation. Bookkeeping, the earliest subject introduced into the curriculum, maintained its place of prominence while type writing was not introduced until the typewriter became com mercially useful— in 1873* Shorthand, while taught previously, increased in numbers enrolled after the introduction of Gregg shorthand in this country in 1893. The clerical arts, then, are emphasized in the commercial curriculum because of the historical development of business education in the United States* 2. The infrequency of the expression of the social aim* The history of American business is one of individual enter prise. Business training, too, was given under private rather 165 Leverett S* Lyon, Education for Business* Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1922 edition, pp. 1-17. 166 J. H. Beveridge, "Efficiency in the Business Department of the High School," Addresses and Proceedings* Washington, D* C.: National Education Association, 1912, p* 1037. 143 than under public auspices prior to 1918— as is shown by num bers enrolled, noted in the preceding paragraph# In a society in which individual success is a dominant objective and in which business training is controlled by individuals, the goal of personal success is a logical one. This goal, however, is an inheritance from our history and while it should not be superseded entirely, another purpose more appropriate to the age of necessary cooperation in which we live should be given equal rank. This subject will be treated more fully in Chap ter VII. 3. Expression of the aim of mental discipline. The mention of mental discipline by the early writers reflects the then current acceptance of faculty psychology. While present writers may mention the transfer of ”identical elements” or ”generalization”, they no longer speak of ”mind training” and ”knowledge for knowledge’s sake”. 4. The requirement of college-preparatory subjects in the business curriculum. The requirement of college-preparatory subjects— algebra, geometry, trigonometry, chemistry, physics, and foreign languages— in the business curriculum reflects the influence of the accrediting associations and of college- entrance requirements. Harold Hugg explains this dominance of secondary education by higher education by saying that it is a tendency of the American mind to divorce education from practical life, that "people wanted their schools to r , give voice to a spiritual idealism which they lacked or had lost”* The influence of the historical development of business education, then, is seen in the emphasis placed upon training for clerkships, in the lack of emphasis upon social aims, in mention of mental discipline, and in the requirement in the business curriculum of the traditional college-entrance sub jects* SUMMARY OP CHAPTER 1* The five aims of secondary business education prior to 1919 mentioned most frequently by the writers of the peri od were: a* To prepare pupils for specific office positions* b* To give that form of general education which will prepare young people to enter business pursuits. c. To adapt business education to social and civic life. d. To prepare pupils for later promotion. e. To provide opportunity for mental discipline. 2. An analysis of twenty-nine curricula set up between 1889 and 1918 shows that the college-preparatory subjects— mathematics, the physical sciences, and foreign languages— were required for 25.84 per cent of the total time of the four 167 National Society for the Study of Education, “Curriculum- Making: Past and Present,” The Twenty-Sixth Yearbook. Bloomington; Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1926, p. 19. 145 years of high-school education— analyzed on the basis of hours required per week for one year— while technical-business subjects; were required for 20.61 per cent of the total time; English, for 15.06 per cent; the social sciences, for 10.41 per cent; and the social-business subjects for 7.88 per cent of total time. 3. The most frequently required business subjects were bookkeeping, typewriting, shorthand, penmanship, economic geography, business arithmetic, business practice and business; law, in the order named. 4. A study of requirements by years shows that mathe matics was required more frequently in the first than in later years, that requirements in the other "academic” subjects were fairly uniform throughout the four years, that social-business subjects were required more frequently in the fourth year, and that the requirements of technical-business subjects were heaviest during the second year due to the requirement of book keeping during that year in practically all of the curricula analyzed. 5. The influence of the historical development of busi ness education may be seen in the emphasis upon clerical sub jects, in the comparative absence of the social aim, in the mention made of mental discipline, and in the requirement of traditional college-preparatory subjects in business curricula. After a consideration of present aims and curricula in Chapter VII immediately following and of trends in aims and curricula in Chapter VIII, the implications of the aims and curricula for business-teacher education will be indicated. 146 CHAPTER VII PRESENT AIMS AND CURRICULA OP SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION In the preceding chapters of Part II of this study, the historical background, the sources of aims and curricula, and the early aims and curricula of business education have been presented. As a basis for a later consideration of trends, the aims and curricula of business education from 1919 to 1933 have been made the subject of an investigation, the results of which are given in the present chapter. This entire study of secondary business education, presented in Part II, will be used as a foundation for later recommendations as to the pro fessional and educational preparation of teachers of business subjects. The present aims and curricula of business educa tion are here considered under four headings: (A) Aims of secondary business education, 1919 to 1933; (B) Curricula of secondary business education, 1919 to 1933; (C) Aims and cur ricula of junior-high-school business education; and (D) Aims and curricula of junior-college business education. A. AIMS OP SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION, 1919 TO 1933 A search through the literature of business education resulted in the finding of 125 statements of aim made by 147 forty-six writers between 1919 and 1933.^®® In this section are presented: (1) a summary of 125 statements of aim made by forty-six writers; (2) the findings of other objective stud ies of the aims of secondary business education; and (3) a comparative study of findings. 1. A summary of one-hundred twenty-five statements of aim made by forty-six writers. As is to be expected, the aim of preparing pupils for simple office positions is the one most frequently mentioned by writers in the field of business education. The majority of writers, however, mention it in con nection with the statement that it is not the sole aim of busi ness education and that other values should be stressed. The recent writers call attention to the fact that the efficient attainment of the goal of preparing for simple office positions involves a study of the needs of the business community. While thirty-two, or 25.6 per cent of all the statements of aim, were concerned with preparation for simple office positions, the aim of adapting business education to social and civic life was a close second, being mentioned in thirty-one, or 24.8 per cent of the total statements. These aims, it is true, are not ex clusive but complementary. The recent attention to the adap- 168 As was explained in the preceding chapter, 1919 was se lected as the beginning , of the present stage of business educa tion because it was the date of the publication of the report of the Committee on Business Education of the Commission for' the Reorganization of Secondary Education appointed by the Na tional Education Association. United States Bureau of Educa tion. "Business Education in Secondary Schools," Bulletin, 1919. No. 55. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1919. 148 tation of secondary business education to social and civic life represents an enlargement of the earlier narrowly voca tional aim. Another aspect of the liberalization of vocational- business education is seen in the aim ranking third in fre quency of statement— ”to give that form of general education which will prepare young people to enter business pursuits”— mentioned nineteen times, or 15.2 per cent of the total. The broadening of the scope of business education to give the necessary business information and skills to all pupils for use in personal, social, and civic life was mentioned fifteen times, or twelve per cent of the total. Similar evidence of the realization within recent years on the part of workers in the field that business education is an integral part of a liberal education is given in the next statement of aim. That the aim of business education is to fulfill the general objec tives of all secondary education has been expressed in twelve, or 9.6 per cent, of the statements of aim. The contribution of business education toward the fulfillment of each of the ”cardinal objectives” of secondary education has been pointed out by these writers. Other aims— to prepare pupils for later promotion, for university work in commerce, and to meet the needs of the local community--have been mentioned a total of sixteen times by forty-six writers. The aims of business edu cation as expressed in forty-six published statements are pre sented in Table V. (Here insert Table V, ”Present Aims of Business Education Expressed in Forty-Six Published Statements.”) 149 TABLE V PRESENT AIMS OP BUSINESS EDUCATION EXPRESSED IN 169 PORTY-SIX PUBLISHED STATEMENTS Aims of Business Education • Number of Times Mentioned Percentage of Total . • 1. To prepare pupils for simple . office positions— meeting the • needs of the "business community--• 32 25.6 I .2. To adapt business training to • • the needs of social and civic .life................. ........... . 31 24.8 * .3. To give that form of general • education which will prepare . young people to enter business . pursuits— (related knowledge)---- . 19 15.2 ! .4. To give necessary business • information and skills to all • . pupils for use in personal, • social, and civic life----- ------. 15 12.0 i .5. To fulfill the general objec- • . tives of all secondary education— . 12 9.6 ! .6, To prepare pupils for later • • promotion---------------- r-------. 9 7.2 * . 7 • To prepare for university . work in commerce---------- ----- — . 5 4.0 i .8. To adapt program to community . • needs------*--------------------- • 2 1.6 ! Total-------------- • 125 100.0 ! 169 See Appendix J for individual references. 150 The comparatively small number of statements of aim- 125— found during extensive reading of the literature of the field may be explained by the fact that a majority of state ments of aim are now concerned with the individual business subjects rather than with business education in general* Also, the three levels of secondary education— junior-high, senior- high, and junior-college— are receiving individual study as to aims and curricula* In fact, the broad field of business edu cation is so complex and so closely interrelated with all of secondary education that general statements of aim probably will appear less and less frequently in the literature of the field, to be superseded by statements of the aims of various parts of business education* 2* The findings of other objective studies of the aims of secondary business education* At least two other objective studies of aims have been made* Their findings are here pre sented for purposes of comparison with those discussed in the preceding paragraphs* The two studies were made by Weersing and Sollars. (a) Weersing1 s study of the aims of secondary busi ness education*Weersing secured a list of the aims of business education from a careful analysis of the statements of twenty-five writers in this field* A total of 160 expres sions of aim were found* These were sorted into groups of 170 Frederick J. Weersing, Reorganization of Commercial Educa tion in Public High Schools* Cincinnati, Ohio: South-Western Publishing Company, 1929, p. 17. 151 aims and then ranked by 145 school administrators. The aim, "to prepare pupils directly for business and clerical posi- tionsj” was mentioned with greatest frequency by the writers— forty-three times— but was ranked as third in importance by the administrators. "To develop a better appreciation of the world of commerce and its social and economic significance” ranked second in frequency of mention by writers but was given sixth place by administrators. The adaptation of business edu cation to the needs of all pupils as expressed in the aim, "to impart general knowledge and skills useful in everyday prac tical life activities,” was considered of first importance by the administrators although it ranked only fifth in frequency of mention by writers. Promotion in business and development of desirable personal qualities were considered important by administrators and writers. The rank assigned to each aim is shown in Table VI, reproduced from the original study. (Here insert Table VI, "Aims of Commercial Education Stated by Twenty-Five Writers and the Ranks Assigned to These Aims by One Hundred Forty-Five Administrators.") (b) Sollarfs investigation of the aims of business 171 education. This investigator secured the opinions of 121 administrators and teachers as to the aims of secondary busi ness education. Little agreement was found among them. The largest percentage of administrators and teachers in favor of Robert C. Sollars, "The Commercial Curriculum in Indiana," Masterfs Thesis, (unpublished), Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio State University, 1928. TABLE VI 152 AIMS OF COMMERCIAL EDUCATION STATED BY TWENTY-FIVE WRITERS AND RANKS ASSIGNED TO THESE AIMS BY ONE HUNDRED FORTY-FIVE ADMINISTRATORS • • • Alms • Frequency of Mention by Writers Average Rank Given by Adminis trators Final Rank • by Adminis- . trators • • a. To impart general • knowledge and skills use- • ful in everyday practical • life activities--------- 15 2.73 1 • • b. To teach fundamental . principles by which stu- • dents advance in business 19 3.19 2 • c. To prepare pupils • directly for business and • clerical positions---- -— 43 3.46 3 . d. To impart qualities • of initiative, indepen- • dence, honesty, integrity . good citizenship, etc.-- 16 3.98 4 ! . e. To explore pupils* • interests and aptitudes, • and to reveal the oppor- • tunities of commercial . pursuits---- ------------ 9 4.08 5 ! . f. To develop a better . appreciation of the world • of commerce and its so- • cial and economic signif- • igance----------------- 25 5.36 6 ! • g. To provide elementary . preparation for the study . of commerce in collegiate • institutions------- ----- 11 6.23 7 * ; h. To prepare for col- . lege entrance, as pro- • viding in part a good . basis for college work—— 5 • 7.06 8 ! . i. To provide continued • training in such funda- • mentals as arithmetic, • spelling, handwriting, . grammar, etc.------- — — 2 7.69 9 1 . j. To serve as an outlet . for pupils of low intel- . ligence----------------- • • 3 9.33 10 • 153 one proposition— 88.2 per cent— was in the case of emphasis upon the social phases of business education. Special courses fulfilling the needs of the community were favored by eighty- six per cent of the administrators and teachers. Opinions were divided almost evenly with reference to the question of whether or not the chief aim is that of ”securing of immediate jobs for pupils upon completion of course.9 The replies given to seven questions relative to the aims of business education are presented in Table VII which has been adapted from the original data. (Here insert Table VII, 1 1 Opinions of One Hundred Twenty-One Administrators and Teachers with Reference to the Aims of Business Education.”) 3. A comparative study of the findings of three inves tigations into the aims of secondary business education. The three investigations reported in the preceding paragraphs were concerned with the aims of secondary business education as stated by writers in the field and as ranked by teachers and administrators. Writers mention the preparation of pupils for simple office jobs more frequently than they mention the other aims of secondary business education, although 145 administra tors rank it third in importance and 121 administrators and teachers are evenly divided as to whether or not it is the chief aim of secondary business education. The adaptation of business education to social and civic life ranks second in frequency of mention by writers, sixth by 145 administra tors, and is favored by 88.2 per cent of 121 administrators 154 TABLE VII OPINIONS OP ONE HUNDRED TWENTY-ONE ADMINISTRATORS AND TEACHERS WITH REFERENCE TO THE AIMS OP BUSINESS EDUCATION • • • Percentage of Replies <^ue scions • • Yes NO • # • • 1. Should the social phase of • commercial education he empha- • sized?------------------------ -— • 88.2 • • 11.8 ! # • •2. Should special courses fit- • ting the needs of the community • he offered?------- --------------• 86.0 • • 14.0 * • • 3. Should compensatory courses , • he offered hy other departments • to supply cultural opportunities . • to commercial pupils?----------- • 73.5 • • • 26.5 • • • 4* Should the commercial cur- • riculum he part of a liberal edu-. . cation for all?----------------- . 67.5 • • 32.5 • • • 5. Should the high-school com- • • mercial curriculum prepare pupils. • for higher schools of commerce?— . 64.5 • • 35.5 ! • • • 6• Should cultural opportunitie s. • he provided hy the commercial • curriculum itself?— -------------• 61.1 • # 38.9 • • • 7. Should the commercial curric-. . ulum have as its chief aim the . securing of immediate johs for • . pupils after completion of . course?-------------- ------------• • • • • • • 49.6 • • # • ♦ 50.4 • • • • 155 and teachers* The adaptation of general education to the demands of business life and the identification of the aims of business education with those of all secondary education are recognized by writers but not included in the lists ranked by administrators and teachers* The broadening of the scope of business education to meet the needs of all pupils as part of a liberal education is stressed by writers, ranked first by 145 administrators and concurred in by 67.5 per cent of 121 admin istrators and teachers* MTo prepare pupils for later promotion1 1 ranks third in frequency of mention by twenty-five writers and sixth by forty-six writers; while it is given second place by 145 administrators and not ranked by the other group. "To prepare for university work in commerce" is mentioned by only five writers in each group and is ranked eighth by 145 adminis trators and concurred in as an aim of business education by 64.5 per cent of 121 administrators and teachers* Other aims in cluded in the three investigations but upon which there is little unanimity of opinion are: "to adapt program to community needs, to develop desirable personal qualities, to explore pupils1 aptitudes, to provide continued training in "fundamentals", to serve as an outlet for pupils of low intelligence, and to pro vide cultural opportunities for pupils in business curricula. The curricula set up by various school authorities directly or indirectly reflect the aims of business education as conceived by the curriculum makers. The following section is concerned with business curricula constructed between 1919 and 1933 as they reflect the aims expressed during the period. B. CURRICULA OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION, 1919 TO 1953 156 Because of the rapidly changing nature of business educa tion, this investigation into curricula was divided into two sections: (1) business curricula from 1919 to 1928; and (2) business curricula from 1929 to 1933. Ninety-six curricula were examined— fifty-two set up from 1919 to 1928 and forty-six in use from 1929 to 1933• 1. Analysis of fifty-two curricula in business education, 1919 to 1928. Fifty-two curricula in use from 1919 to 1928 were analyzed. The total number of recitations per week for one year for each subject was found. For example, English was frequently required for five hours each week for one year during the entire four years. Therefore, the total number of hours required in English in one curriculum was twenty and in all curricula was 766 hours or 14.66 per cent of total hours required. This analysis revealed that only eighty-six hours in mathematics were required in the fifty-two curricula, or 1.65 per cent of the total. Physical and biological sciences were required for 4.38 per cent of the time and social sciences for 12.19 per cent of the time. The requirements in foreign languages totalled only seventy-one hours or 1.36 per cent of the total. Physical education was required for 296 hours, or 5.66 per cent of the total time. The social business subjects were required for 11.60 per cent of the time while technical- business subjects were required for the highest percentage of time specified for any group, 24.16 per cent. Three and 157 seventy-three hundredths per cent of time was allowed for free electives and 16.36 per cent for restricted electives. This high percentage of time specified for restricted electives in proportion to the other requirements may be explained by the fact that in some curricula provision for specialization is made by a system of electives rather than by differentiated curricula. Fifty-seven and five-tenths per cent of the cur ricula were differentiated for five fields of service— steno graphic, bookkeeping, salesmanship, clerical, and general busi ness. The detailed requirements for each subject in the fifty- two curricula are shown in Table VIII* (Here insert Table VIII, , , Total Humber of Recitations per Week per Year Required in Fifty-Two Business Curricula, 1919-1928”.) An analysis of the requirements by years revealed that the ”academic” subjects--mathematics, English, physical and biolog ical sciences— were required in the first two years and that social sciences were required more frequently during the third and fourth years. The technical-business subjects were re quired during all four years, the heaviest requirements coming during the first year, at which point 30.05 per cent of all the time was required in technical-business subjects. Busi ness arithmetic and typewriting were the subjects required in the greatest number of cases during the first year. Book keeping requirements amounted to 13.35 per cent of the entire time of the second year. The peak requirements for shorthand and typewriting occurred during the third year. The social- business subjects were required most frequently during the ~o to "J cd ■3 o 3 O •o o C. o >-3 CD 10 CD O 3 3 H! <■+ c+ > p f to 03 ■ CD CD S 3 o d t-» CD CD CD fj -< H« «J«j ct* CD W} CD CD 3* p c f P S PT CD U> ro ff\ Business Law Economic Geography Business ■ English Business Organization Junior Busines Training Advertising Salesmanship w iistory of w „ ° .Commerce ^ Banking W ,Ii s c. 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History Civics E conomics Foreign Language s Fine Arts :od Education tilSC. tn p cb H - * i a * 158 f O cp > - 3 1-1 o g £ f c > V i —i i; - 0 * * l b 3 n t * D **) p o < - e i - 3 r u O t - J o to 1 —I ci 1 - 3 CO > I — I > - 3 a i —i W o £ C ' J g » o 5 * 3 a c m t - ^ s> fourth year— “ business law, “ business English, business organi zation, advertising and salesmanship being required for a larger proportion of time than during the other three years. General free electives were rather evenly divided among the four yearsg. Restricted electives, on the other hand, were more generally allowed during the second, third, and fourth years of the curriculum. The percentage of total time required in fifty- two curricula for each subject for each year is shown in Table IX. (Here insert Table IX, ” Percent age of Total Time Required for Each Subject by Years in Fifty-Two Business Curricula, 1919-1928.”) In connection with the presentation of the 1929 to 1933 curricula in the following paragraphs, similarities and dif ferences between the 1919-1928 requirements here described and the more recent curricula will be pointed out. 2. Analysis of forty-four curricula in business educa tion, 1929-1953. An analysis of forty-four curricula in use between 1929 and 1933 revealed that the mathematical subjects required are algebra and general mathematics; but that these subjects require only 1.62 per cent of the total time speci fied for all subjects in forty-four curricula. English re quires sixteen per cent of total time, a very slight increase over the 14.66 per cent required in the 1919-1928 curricula. Physical and biological sciences require 3.59 per cent of total time, a slight decrease over the 4.38 per cent of total time required in 1919-1928. The social studies require 10.86 per cent of time, a little less than the 12.19 per cent re- 160 Group T o t a l P e r c e n t a g e T w e lf t h Y e a r Group P e r c e n t a g e Group T o t a l - 0 W C D h-i M } C O o * 1 C D C D C+- C+- p ^ © C D £ O Q ► S ^ o o £ £ ru x$ nj > - 3 C w O 2 £ < D M 3 c+ P J P e r c e n t a g e Tenth Y e a r Group P e r c e n t a g e Group T o t a l * 0 © O C D 0 cf p 1 0 © ITin th Y e a r o \ • VO f t to vO ON J —4 B u s in e s s L a w * } C O ON VO £> O E c o n o m ic Ge o g r a p h y 10 o o H* s . ' * £ t o W * "<r • vn t— ’ vn C O I—4 VO o ON ft* B u s in e s s E n g l i s h HP--------- I—4 on vo W4 N > VO • B u s in e s s O r g a n i s a t i o n £ © 0 1 © tO C O vjn c» VO o h -< o 'vr J —4 N3 C O J D J —4 ON VO VO ft ON O it* vn H4 • ON C O J r . B u s in e s s T r a i n i n g £ cr c— © o - j= 3 --------- • O J —4 A d v e r t i s i n g c+ W C O • C O ro H4 • vn vn • VO C O S a le s m a n s h ip ro ro vo V O l«I J —4 H i s t o r y o f C o m m erce o B a n k in g i—4 vo vO I—4 ON O C O C O M i s c . C O J—4 ON ro to N O C O f t ' J B u s in e s s A r i t h m e t i c ► J © o 5 H* ; n> vo O N V J1 to P o n n & n s h ip to vo VO f-J I—4 •vn rv > S p e l l i n g P h -* & C V > J V J1 ON UT NO V -4 'VJ rt* o S h o r t h a n d H* ' 3 © w w O -vr ON C O ON ON ON vo T y p e w r i t i n g C O c cr c_, © a h -* * vn ON ON h -> VO Vo vn vo # N O N > B o o k k e e p in g cr Vi C O vo vo ro j — 4 '-C to h O V •IS O - N > C O VD V -4 J —4 ON ro -vy 0 0 vO ON ■ jn h -> • vo W4 VO Q • O vn vo -vr ON I—4 O N O A c c o u n t in g VO o vo « VO h -* S t e n o g r a p h i c O f f i c e P r a c t i c e S t o r e P r a c t i c e vo ON f t ON vn f t N O VO VO N > • C O O B u s in e s s P r a c t i c e * vo ON H4 f t n N > M i s c . ■ s 1 ro on vo H* V3 # tf* N > K) O VO N ? •<r o .o o -vO N . M C O ON v> o 0 0 h -* ^n ON 0 0 ON * 0 M o ;co C O O N vO R e s t r i c t e d E l e c t i v e s on vn ilv ON NO VO if5 -. vn ON • vO fO f t *? ■ jO j0 to rV> j0 N O 0 0 f-j U D fO C O G e n e r a l F r e e E ' < -> > . + i TfO < 7 \ Z J O w* M C i O c o » w F h t u o > cn o 161 T A ’ Li IX PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL THE REGUIRSD FOR EACH SUBJECT UY YEARS IN FIFTY-TU'O RUSH! SS CURRICULA, I9IO-I928 Y a th e n a 'ic s Sciance S o cial x 1 ine and Studios ''r a c 'ic a l A rts O ' w • N > O O C D • h >j t H " ! •H O t - ' j > 5 T 3 i * t. C O d d W c ^ s * c ° s ' . 0 f 0 0 3 > h -p ( > H 0 0 5 Si >0 . -P < " r - i P. „ . -P -P -H C • ’ U ® U c d -H F S -p to tj > > n . h o d c o c o c n s 1 5 0 + » H J 3 P) • .H 0 S i -H rH O .H S p • •'•H • -H O O . -H d £ H o *H d ' ,? + = O O rH 1 - l d G - V > w r o M K ^ C « 0 ) J 3 < ' ,H ® O 1 S •H t . O CO t' O + > (0 c ! > > O CO O > O CO S * -ts C w £ to S h rH ® *H c *H o X 0 ’ ^ 0 ) .H c • -H O -H O C 1 H H £ Tl < j; t ; 5 r .q c n c “ o r i x , o «! C o o w , a. n ^ S ix , & o *rf Ninth Year Percentage Group Total Group Percentage 'Tenth Year Percentage Group Total Group Percentage Eleventh Year Percentage Group Total Group Percentage Twelfth Year Percentage Group Total .2 4 2.0 1 .4 4 1 8 .0 6 5.20 .72 .2 4 • 72 3.12 .2 4 5.83 .2 4 1 .4 4 1.60 1 .8 4 1.60 8.07 1.P 4 46 22 6 86 136 20 43 im 23 3,68 1 8 .0 6 6.87 10.87 1.60 3 .4 4 8 .0 7 1 .8 4 1 .5 3 ' 1 .1 4 18,61 .23 .23 2.4 4 3.05 .53 .7 6 1 .5 3 .7 6 1 .4 5 7.25 1 . 37- 35 244 38 57 20 29 95 18 2,67 18.61 2.90 4.45 1 .5 3 2.21 7*25 1 .3 7 • 39 •39 1 4 .04 .78 1.09 • 39 ( 2 .7 9 1.94 5.12 2.64 4 .0 3 1 .9 4 1 .4 0 .70 2 .8 7 3.49 10 181 65 ; 2.79 202 18 9 37 45 .7 8 1 4.04 5.0 4 i i 15*^7 1 .4 0 .70 2.87 3 .4 9 | 1 .36 ; - 8.3 1,66 j ! 1.23 5.42 4.12 5.42 2-53 .9 4 C O lf\ • 4.55 ,3.39 5 1 f i 1 115 40 | 242 13 8 63 47 i 162 quired in the 1919-1928 curricula. Foreign languages are not required in the 1929-1933 curricula although 1,36 per cent of total time was given to them in the 1919 to 1928 curricula* The social-business subjects require 11*97 per cent of total time; practically the same percentage as was required in 1919- 1928* The technical-business subjects are required for 24*75 per cent of total time; approximately the same percentage as that required in the 1919-1928 curricula. Penmanship is now required for less than one per cent of total time and spelling is no longer required as a separate subject. Sixty-eight per cent of all the curricula are differentiated for five types of business service--stenographic, bookkeeping, salesmanship, general clerical, and general business. Two and eight-hundredths per cent of total time is allowed for free electives and 18.03 per cent of tdtal time, for restricted electives. The detailed \ requirements for each subject in forty-four business curricula from 1929-1933 are shown in Table X. (Here insert Table X, t t Total Number of Recitations per Week for one Year Required in Forty-Four Business Curricula— 1929-1933.11) A further analysis of the forty-four business curricula in use from 1929 to 1933 revealed that mathematics are re quired more frequently during the first than the subsequent years. English, and the physical and biological sciences are required during all four years but the requirements are much heavier in the first two than in the last two years. Social studies— United States history, civics, and economics— are re quired more frequently during the third and fourth than the 163 r:> *3 »-3 ' : Z 0 > C D • H* o © © 3 2 £ o t~3 M <d c'r cr • x l t t > O C D P* s r t i c+ *T J a - £ S 3 * < * < 0 t r © C D *5 (.i ► < { P P o © < t> ► c * 1 ► J o P © rs p cV m ► 5 OQ vn oi o n Q § > - 3 O > - 3 > r* Business Law Economic Be ograohy U) 0 Business £ English ^ 1 Business “ 0 rganizat i on ^ Jr. Business § t c Training M w g Advertising e_ t o o H3 Salesmanship w Banking Hi sc. Business Arithmetic Penmanship ► 3 Shorthand « 2 M O Typewriting ^ s Bookkeeping Accounting | Stenographic § Office § Practice . - 3 tn Store Practice Business • Practice Business Machines Hi sc. Secretarial Stenographic mi m t Bookkeeping ^ Salesmanship 3 Genfl Clerical y a c Llisc* Eg i - ( o Restricted a Electives General Free Electives *-3 O HI S> t r CP C D H* VO vn ^O .n O • ON N> C D M VO vn H- 1 vn h-1 on ON VO to h -J ON O N> h-1 ON o tO ON VO to h-1 VO vo H* 0 0 o H VO 'vr H- 1 C O fV > • o & rf*. vn vn *-* vn vn u3 • ^n vO ) r * « • o vn vn O **P fO ro N > vn vn I—1 ► . O O vn ON vn to o w vo H- 1 C O fo • • I—1 O vn ro vn K) O vn o !-* O to • ON h-1 vn “V ? VD VO ON VO V- 4 o ♦ C O cr\ to C D rv > to to vn H- 1 VO C O tJ V I—1 ’ fc ON N > vn fo h-1 o • .n VO vo to o n> H- 1 O M O vo to •* i—1 0 0 <r O N VO vo H- 1 vn to vn H- 1 h-1 par- - » '-y y on M M VO vo M VO vo to • vo vo vr s O \> VO o C O vo h-1 o VO C O ON £ *■ to vo D to ro Algebra Misc. English Biology bsnf 1 Science PI ysiclogy ?-e opraphy Mi sc. Anc., Med., Mod History U. S. History Civics Economics Misc. Domestic Science Fine Arts Music Physical Education a r M E X F 3 mi hi o t -j S • < ; o a, • ’ a s to o s § to c n o t - j c; to to to H H 0 t 3 ~ w f > mi 1 o 1 8 0 s.D O ro e; so w 164 first and second years. The social-business subjects are re quired during all four years; the increase in first-year requirements since the 1919-1928 curricula being in the re quirement of junior-business training for 12.74 per cent of the total time of the first year. The technical-business subjects are required more frequently during the second, third, and fourth years than during the first year. Shorthand is no longer required during the first year; typewriting and book keeping are required in only a few instances while business arithmetic is the technical-business subject most frequently required during the first year. Electives— restricted and free--are allowed during all four years. The detailed re quirements for each subject by years are shown in Table XI* (Here insert Table XI, Percentage of Total Time Required for Each Subject by Years in Forty- Four Business Curricula--1929-1933.) Since 1919, the literature of secondary business educa tion has included books and magazine articles relating to three fields— junior high school, senior high school, and junior college. The preceding sections of this chapter have treated of the aims and curricula of secondary business edu cation with especial emphasis upon senior-high-school business education. The remaining sections are concerned with the special problems of the other two levels of secondary business education--junior high school and junior college. 165 3 s f Oq ' - a £3 Q 33 a ® CD 3 3 CD H» 3 3 O O 3 3 a c+ 3 3 O c+ CD TS 33 CD 3" 3 3 c4- T> •-3 c+ P CD (D O P CD 03 P 3 c+ (m P CD 3 O P CD 3 c+ P O Arithmetic Algebra Geometry Trigonometry Vise. 'isc. inglish Biolo y Botany Chemistry "oology Gen’l Science ^hysics Physiology Geography Misc. Anc• ^ i f k t i u . ^ ch. History U. S. History Civics Economics Misc. Foroi"n Laiv'ui'.es Domesti c Science Industrial _ Arts Fine Arts Music Physical Education Misc. " V 3 P r t h- H* <D a p m PERCENTAGE O F TOTAL TIME REQUIRED FOR EACH SUBJECT 3Y YEARS I N FORTY-FOUR BUSINESS CURRICULA— I929-I932 166 TABLE XI (Cont’d) PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL TIME REQUIRED FOR EACU SUBJECT BY YEARS IN FORTY-FOUR BUSINESS CURRICULA— 1529-1932' Ninth Year Percentage Group Total Group Percentage Tenth Year Percentage Group Total ” ■ ...... ~ ...... ......... " - Social-Business Subjects Technical-Business Subjects Business Law Economic G e ography Business English Business Organization T O C O T O O a r , r i •h tj n .h- +> w t o a c x 2 5 3 ’ . 0 .H T O E *H " I " "H IE C i a S t o .3 -C bp C += •H -H tS T O 4^ T O B ( S 3 -H s-,fl}+>re ao-Hfi • < - > s ' , C l f , T O .H • CfnOj « - H -P & •H £ - * c T O jy E rH B T O C > r - 4 C T O T O - E T O O C 3 T, . c i . < 3 *H . 3 f f l C< JS >> « a ! m ' pa v. f' O- i n m e- Bookkeeping 0 w 0 G ) W < V W t£ x; 0 0 0 x> > * ? C CU *H *H a T O -C > •H c 6 T O T O 4* T O *H +’ ’ w- 5 *H •P E O T O T O O T O TOC -P C b; TO*H c 6 T O ( r i O 0 tH T O T O 3 0 0+5 toShCShCoJ * J — » —c 0 0 a "-'TO BC .H Cm -H-Us T O -P M T O rH O T O 0 T O T O T O T O TOM O f HhC, +> 3 3 C O «< CO OCi. CO . CP CQ i cd ( * « 12.74 .84 8.21 2.42 ,p4 1.05 7 3 3 .53 17.68 1.58 129 129 168 15 13.58 13.58 17.68 1.58 f c ~ - , 8.25 1.74 1 / 2.6l 2.6l .26 1.30 . 11,03 18,0 17.98 1.30 153 320 207 15 Group Percentage Eleventh Year Percentage Group Total Group Percentage 13.29 27,80 I u.qp 1.30 2.45 ,44 3.32 ,44 .87 .25 1.14 P.57 11.71 7.78 .26 .09 19.4> ?.19 89 338 223 25 CO c -7 2°, 54 19.42 2.19 Twelfth Year Percentage Group Total 4.19 3.31 •93 .28 3.54 .4'7 .28 1.68 7.'70 5-87 2.75 1.68 3.72 .47 1.68 .37 ,28 16.85 3.2b 14 5 202 1«1 35 167 C. AIMS AM) CURRICULA OF JUNIOR-HIGH SCHOOL BUSINESS EDUCATION The subject of business education in the junior high school is here presented under three headings: (1) evolution of aims and curricula; (2) present aims; and (3) present curricula. 1. Evolution of aims and curricula of business educa tion in the .junior high school. One of the early aims of busi ness education in the junior high school was to prepare pupils for simple clerical positions just as was being done in the senior high school Hence, the same curriculum was used— shorthand, typewriting and bookkeeping. In some cases, how ever, subjects were taught as “exploratory” courses, to give the pupils an indication of their interest in them and apti tude for them. Later, occupational surveys revealed that junior workers were not employed as stenographers, bookkeepers, and typists to any great extent; but that they were acting as office boys, stock clerks, file clerks, record clerks, etc. The aims and curricula of business education in the junior high school were then adapted to the needs of these junior workers, and early courses in junior business training were constructed. Still later, there came a realization of the fact that certain elements of business training are a neces sary part of a liberal education; and fusion courses concerned with information, attitudes, and skills pertaining to business were made a part of the core curriculum in the junior high 168 174 school. It is probable that, due to lack of demand for junior workers, the general values of business training on the junior-high-school level will continue to be stressed. 2. Present aims of junior-high-school business education. A study of published material relating to business education in the junior high school— consisting of sections in general books on junior-high-school education and city courses of study--reveals that there are at present four commonly accepted aims of business education on this level: a. To give to all pupils the information, attitudes, and skills necessary to intelligent participation in the activ ities of an age, the interests of which are largely economic— an interpretation of the economic environment. b. To provide technical training--preparation for jobs open to junior workers— for those pupils who find it im possible through economic necessity to continue their formal education. c. To provide pre-vocational training for pupils who are planning to enroll in business courses in the high school. This pre-vocational training takes the form of neces sary skills— arithmetic, record keeping, spelling, and penman ship; but does not consist of shorthand and bookkeeping. These aims are given expression in the curricular offerings. 174 "Elements of Business” is part of the core curriculum of the junior high school in San Jose, California; Albany, New York; and Johnstown, Pennsylvania among other cities. After September, 1933, it will be required in Philadelphia. 169 3* Curricula of junior-high-school business education* Although the fusion course indicative of the latest stage of junior-high-school business education— junior business training or elements of business--was introduced about 1915, the senior- high-school technical subjects have been retained in the cur- riculums of some schools until the present time* Rogers, in 1921, found that the only commercial subjects, not including penmanship, offered in two-year schools were bookkeeping and typewriting; although stenography and a course in business 175 practice were sometimes found. James M. Glass, in 1929, made a ”composite case study of the business curriculum in the junior high school1 1 and reported the following trends: (1) A required course of interpretation of commercial practices in the eighth year, fulfilling the ”interpretation of environment function of the junior high school11. (2) A pre-vocational course in the eighth year— office practice and typewriting— plus a strictly vocational course in the ninth year— business practice, bookkeeping and 176 typewriting. The present investigator found that, in 1931-1932, busi ness subjects were offered in 105 of the 126 junior high schools 175 Quoted by Leonard V. Koos, The Junior High School. Boston: Ginn and Company, 1927, p. 294 ff. 176 James M. Glass, ”Composite Case Study of the Business Cur riculum in the Junior High School,” Second Yearbook. 1200 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Eastern Commercial Teachers1 Association, 1929, pp. 115-121. 170 in California. The courses offered were: junior business training, typewriting, business arithmetic, office practice, business English, bookkeeping, commercial geography, and short hand. There were only five schools in which bookkeeping was offered and only two in which shorthand was taught. In this investigation, penmanship and spelling were not regarded as business subjects. The subjects most frequently offered are junior business training, typewriting, and business arithmetic. B. AIMS AND CURRICULA OP JUNIOR-COLLEGE BUSINESS EDUCATION The present upgrading process in office and store occupa tions emphasizes the importance of junior-college business edu cation. In some cases the high-school business subjects have been transplanted into the junior college and in others, the university courses in economics have been adapted to junior- college needs. This field, however, is one with its own pe culiar problems requiring more than mere imitation of high school or university for their solution. Two phases of busi ness education on the junior-college level are here presented: (1) aims of junior-college business education, and (2) cur ricula of junior-college business education. 1. Aims of junior-college business education. An in spection of junior-college catalogs reveals that definitely stated aims are frequently given in connection with specific curriculums, such as the secretarial curriculum, but that general aims of business education are seldom mentioned. A 171 study of the literature of the field resulted in the compi lation of the following list of aims: a* To prepare for a vocation to be entered upon leaving junior college* b. To impart general knowledge and skills useful in everyday practical life* c* To teach fundamental principles by which students may advance in business* d. To provide preparation for the study of commerce in professional schools. e. To impart qualities of initiative, inde pendence, honesty, integrity, good citizenship, etc* f. To foster habits conducive to success in business. g* To prepare for college entrance, providing, to some extent, a basis for college work. h. To explore the students* interests and aptitudes, and to reveal the opportunities of commercial pur suit s. W? An inspection of the above list shows that the aims do not differ from those of high-school business education. Junior- college business education, like that of the high school, may be planned to serve the needs of four classes of students: (a) those who wish to enter business occupations immediately upon leaving the junior college; (b) those who need business training as an auxiliary to the work of a profession; (c) those who desire two years of post-high-school education and for whom business training is part of a liberal education; and (d) those 177 Frederick J. Weersing and Arthur S. Taylor, “Preliminary Report of a Junior College Curriculum Study," Junior College Journal. Vol. II, No. 8, (May, 1932), p. 502. (also mimeo graphed list of aims). 172 who are preparing for university schools of business. The aims of business education, then, will vary according to the individual goals of the pupils. 2• Curricula of junior-college business education. La Dow, in his study of offerings, found three groups of business courses: (a) Economics--perhaps a duplication of courses offered in the senior college of commerce. (b) Typewriting, shorthand, bookkeeping, etc.— a duplication of the business curriculum of the high school. (c) Office training, banking and finance, selling, investments, business organization and management, advertising --the group upon which the junior college should focus its 178 attention. While there have been at least six studies of offerings in business education in the junior college, very few inves tigations of curricula have been made. A search through the literature of the field disclosed only one curriculum study. In 1930, J. 0. Mallott, of the United States Office of Educa tion, gathered data regarding the curricula set up by 241 of the 286 junior colleges listed in the Office of Education 178 Robert La Dow, ”A Survey of Commercial Education in the Junior College,” ”Keseareh Studies in Commercial Education IV,” University of Iowa Monographs in Education* First Series No. 11, Iowa City: University of Iowa, (January 1, 1929), pp. 129-140. 173 179 Directory. This study revealed that there are 137 junior colleges in which a total of 206 curricula in business educa tion are offered. In some of these institutions, from two to five business curricula have been set up. Accounting and sec retarial curricula predominate. Although courses in marketing and salesmanship are offered in twenty-five of the 137 junior colleges, only three curricula have been constructed for retail selling or store service. In approximately one-half of the schools in which business subjects are offered, background courses in business have been introduced. Only ten junior col leges have entered the stage in which junior technical curric ula in real estate, insurance, and similar subjects have been developed. The report of this study concludes with the state ment that analyses such as this emphasize the desirability of basing the business education studies on local needs. It is probable that, as more and more investigations are made in this field, new curricula will be set up to meet local requirements and the individual needs of the junior-college pupils. SUMMARY OP CHAPTER A. An analysis of aims of secondary business education as expressed by writers and ranked by administrators revealed that the following aims are commonly accepted: 1. To prepare pupils for simple office jobs. 179 J. 0. Malott, 1 1 Commercial Education,” Chapter V of the "Biennial Survey of Education in the United States,” Bulletin, 1951, Ho. 20. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931, pp. 33-34. 174 2. To adapt business training to the needs of social and civic life. 3. To give that form of general education which will prepare young people to enter business pursuits. 4. To give necessary business information and skills to all pupils for use in personal, social and civic life. 5. To fulfill the general objectives of all secondary education. 6. To prepare pupils for later promotion. 7. To prepare for university work in commerce. B. An analysis of fifty-two business curricula in use from 1919 to 1928 and of forty-four curricula set up from 1929 to 1933 resulted in the following findings: 1. General mathematics are required for less than two per cent of the total time specified for all subjects in all curricula. 2. English is required for approximately sixteen per cent of total time. 3. Physical and biological sciences are required for approximately four per cent of total time. 4. The requirements in the general social studies are responsible for approximately ten per cent of total time. 5. Foreign languages, while required during 1919 to 1928, are no longer required. 6. The social-business subjects are required for approximately twelve per cent of total time. 7. Approximately twenty-five per cent of total time 175 is given to technical-business subjects* 8. Free and restricted electives are allowed for two per cent and eighteen per cent of total time respectively. C. Junior-high-school business education is planned to serve the needs of three classes of pupils; (a) all pupils, as an interpretation of economic environment and part of a liberal education; (b) potential drop-outs; (c) pupils who desire to enroll in business courses in high school, fhe sub jects most frequently offered are junior business training (elements of business), business arithmetic, and typewriting. D. Junior-college business education is planned to serve the needs of four classes of students: (a) those who desire to enter business occupations immediately upon leaving junior college; (b) those who need business training as an auxiliary to the work of a profession; (c) those who consider it part of a two-year liberal college education; and (d) those who are preparing for university schools of business. Three groups of courses are frequently offered; (a) economics; (b) high- school technical-business subjects; and (c) business organi zation, marketing subjects, office management and other sub jects necessary for entrance into the semi-professions. The following chapter is concerned with trends in aims and curricula of secondary business education. These trends will be disclosed by a comparison of early aims and curricula discussed in the preceding chapter and present aims and cur ricula presented in this chapter. The implications of these trends in aims and curricula of secondary business education for business-teacher education will then be considered. CHAPTER VIII TRENDS IN THE AIMS AND CURRICULA. OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION Chapter VI of this report was concerned with early aims and curricula of secondary business education and Chapter VII, with present aims and curricula. In order to discover trends in the aims and curricula of secondary business education for the purpose of making recommen dations for the preparation of teachers of business subjects, a comparative study of past and present aims and curricula has been made. The results are here presented under six headings: (A) Trends in topics dis cussed by leaders in the field; (B) Trends in aims of secondary business education; (C) Trends in curricula of secondary business education; (D) Trends in junior-high- school business education; (E) Trends in junior-college business education, and (F) Summary, with implications for business-teacher education. A. TRENDS IN TOPICS DISCUSSED BY LEADERS IN THE FIELD Analysis of the topics discussed at the meetings of the Department of Business Education of the National Edu cation Association from 1892 to 1931 reveals trends in 180 topics of interest in business education* From 1892 to 1901, fifty-four addresses were given; seventeen of which treated of private business schools; fifteen, of high schools; fifteen, of individual business subjects; and seven were concerned with general topics— for example, "the relation between business education and the needs of the local community," "personal qualities leading to suc cess in business," etc. From 1902 to 1931, only two addresses upon the topic of private business colleges were made; while interest in individual business subjects and general topics is attested to by thirty-seven and thirty-eight addresses respectively in the decade from 1922 to 1931. The trend with reference to topics of interest in business education is away from the problems of the private business school to those connected with individual business subjects and to topics of general interest. The topics discussed in the meetings of the Department of Business Education of the National Edu cation Association are shown in Table XII. (Here insert Table XII, "Topics Discussed in Meetings Of the Department of Business Education of the National Education Association, 1892 to 1931 inclusive.") 180 National Education Association, Addresses and Proceedings Washington, D. C.: 1892 to 1931 inclusive. 178 TABLE XII TOPICS DISCUSSED IN MEETINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, 1892 TO 1931 INCLUSIVE Decade REPORT TOPICS Total Private Business Schools High Schools Individual Business Subjects General 1892-1901 54 17 15 15 7 1902-1911 62 2 19 17 24 1912-1921 62 0 17 31 14 1922-1931 89 0 14 37 38 Totals— 267 19 65 100 83 179 B. TRENDS IN AIMS OP SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION A comparative study of the aims of secondary business education prior to 1919 and subsequent to that date, as shown in Tables I and V of this report respectively, discloses trends in this phase of business education. The aim wto prepare pupils for simple office positions1 * is mentioned as frequently by recent as by early writers. A trend may be seen, however, in discussions as to means of carrying out this aim. Recent writers stress the necessity for adapting the program to the occupational demands of the community and to the requirements of business men relative to personal and educational qualifications. Recent writers emphasize to a much greater extent than did early writers the aim of adapting business training to social and civic life. The purpose of giving ”necessary business information and skills to all pupils for use in personal, social, and civic life** was mentioned infrequently by early writers but is receiving increased attention by present-day writers who are beginning to perceive the hitherto undreamed of possibilities for the expansion of business education. The identification of the purposes of business education with those of all secondary education have been pointed out more frequently by recent than by early writers. A final trend in statements of aims is seen in state and city courses of study in which the aims of individual subjects rather than of business education are set forth. All of these trends in aims indicate that business education has passed from its early stage of rather narrow isolation to 180 one in which it is recognized as an integral part of secondary education and in which the individual subjects have received sufficient study so that specific lists of purposes have been proposed for them* The trends in the aims of business education may be summarized as follows: 1. Continued emphasis upon the aim of preparing pupils for simple office positions* 2. Increased emphasis upon the adaptation of busi ness education to the needs of social and civic life* 3* A trend toward giving necessary business in formation and skills to all pupils for use in personal, social, and civic life* 4. A trend toward universal recognition of the identification of the aims of business education with those of all secondary education* 5. A trend toward the analysis of the individual business subjectsresulting in statements of aim and objective determination of course content. C. TRENDS IN CURRICULA OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION A comparative study of 125 curricula set up between 1889 and 1933, analyses of which are presented in Tables III, VIII, and X, reveals trends in the subjects required in business curricula. The early curricula reflect the college-entrance requirements of the period in that 7.06 per cent of total time specified in the early curricula was devoted to mathematics— algebra, general arithmetic, 181 goemetry, and trigonometry. On the other hand, only 1.62 per cent of the total time in the modern curricula are given to mathematics. A fusion course, called ”general mathematics”, has replaced to a great extent the algebra, geometry, and trigonometry formerly required. The re quirements in English are practically the same in early as in later curricula— approximately fifteen per cent of total time. Requirements in the physical and biological sciences have been reduced from 7.96 per cent to 3.59 per cent of total time. A fusion course in this field, ”general science”, has partially replaced the early courses in physics and chemistry. The requirements in social sciences account for approximately ten per cent of total time in early and later curricula. While foreign languages were required for eleven per cent of total time in early curricula, they are no longer required. Physical education was required infrequently in early curricula but now is responsible for 7.93 per cent of total time. The social- business subjects are being required for a much larger percentage of time than formerly— 11.97 per cent now, in comparison with 7.88 per cent prior to 1919. In this, as in other fields, a fusion course has appeared— ”elements of business” or ”junior business training”— while the ”history of commerce” has practically disap peared. Business organization, advertising, and sales manship are required more frequently in present-day than in early curricula. Mention should be made at this point 182 that advertising and salesmanship may be either technical or social subjects depending upon the goals of the individual pupils. The teohnical-business subjects now occupy twenty- five per cent of total time as compared with twenty per cent in early curricula. However, the individual subjects within the group have changed. Penmanship and spelling are infrequently required at present, while courses in office practice, store practice, and business machines have been developed. There were no free electives in the early curricula, although 2.08 per cent of total time is now allowed for such choices. Restricted electives, too, are being allowed more frequently than formerly— eighteen per cent as compared with fifteen per cent. Only seven per cent of early curricula were differentiated for the various fields of business service— stenographic, bookkeeping, salesmanship, and general clerical— while sixty-height per cent of present curricula are so differentiated. The trends in curricula may be summed up as follows: 1. A trend away from the requirement of traditional college-entrance subjects-^geometry, trigonometry, physics, chemistry, and foreign languages♦ 2. A trend toward fusion courses in mathematics, science, and general business. 3. A trend toward the requirement of physical edu** cation. 4. A trend toward the requirement of more social- business subjects. 185 5. A trend toward the requirement of more technical- business subjects— office practice and similar courses replacing the former requirement of shorthand and book keeping for all pupils. 6. A trend toward more free and more restricted electives. ✓ 7. A trend toward differentiated curricula. A comparison of the analyses made of early and later curricula as to years in which subjects are required reveals that the most noticeable trend is toward postponing of the technieal-business subjects until the third and fourth years of the curriculum. Shorthand, formerly required in the first and second years, is now required in the later years of the curriculum. D. TRENDS IN JUNIOR-HIGH-SCHOOL BUSINESS EDUCATION The outstanding trend in junior-high school business education is the adaptation of business training to the needs of all pupils as interpretation of economic environ ment and development of an appreciation of the importance of an understanding of business relationships in this present-day complex world. Elements of business, business arithmetic, and typewriting have replaced the transplanted senior-high-school technical-business subjects. 184 E. TRENDS IN JUNIOR-COLLEGE BUSINESS EDUCATION The outstanding trend in junior-college business education has been described by J. 0. Malott as follows: The chief effort today, however, is directed toward upgrading secretarial training and other terminal curricula rather than toward radical changes from the traditional content and organi zation of secondary education. This upgrading trend is in harmony with the growing demand for persons with junior- _ college standards of business training. Increased offerings in background courses in business, marketing, real estate, and insurance are noted. F. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR BUSINESS-TEACEER EDUCATION The implications of the trends of business education for business-teacher education are here listed: A. Topics discussed by leaders in the field: The trend away from discussions of business education in private business schools and high schools toward individual business subjects and general topics implies that the prospective business teacher should familiarize himself with the rapidly growing literature of the individual subjects vtfiich he is planning to teach; and that he should be made aware of the relationships existing among business education, all other education, 181 J. 0. Malott, "Commercial Education,1 1 Chapter V of the "Biennial Survey of Education in the United States, 1928- 1930, Bulletin, 1931, No. 20. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, p. 33. 185 and economic life rather than to have his attention centered exclusively upon the problems of the "commercial department•" B. Aims of secondary business education: 1. Unless he is planning to specialize in the teaching of the social-business subjects, the prospective teacher should be prepared to teach the technical subjects required in one or more office jobs. He should be familiar with the results of occupational research and job analyses. 2. He should have as rieh a program of social studies as possible if he is to help in the carrying out of the aim of "adapting business education to social and civic life." 3. He should study the problems of secondary edu cation to the end that he may be able to participate in telligently in the program of business education as an in tegral part of all education. 4. He should be familiar with the findings of social surveys so that he may further the work of business education as part of a liberal education for all pupils. C. Trends in curricula: 1. The prospective teacher should be made aware of the interrelationships among various courses in harmony with the present-day trend toward the building of fusion courses in various fields* 2. Because of the trend toward the requirement of more social-business subjects, the prospective teacher should 186 be prepared to teach these subjects in addition to the technical-business courses* 3* The teacher-in-training should prepare to teach courses in office practice and business machines and should plan to keep in touch with the demands of the business world regarding such courses* 4. The prospective teacher should be made aware of the results of occupational studies and job analyses so that he may have a part in the construction of differentiated curricula suitable to the demands of business* D. Trends in junior-high-school business education: 1. The prospective teacher of business subjects in the junior-high school should make a special study of "elements of business” including the current literature of this rapidly changing field. S* He should have an understanding of the general purposes of junior-high-school education so that he may participate intelligently in administering business training as part of the core curriculum. E. Trends in junior-college business education: 1* The teacher who is desirous of serving in the junior college should be prepared to teach in one of three fields: (a) economics; (b) transplanted and upgraded high- school technical-business subjects; (c) "new” subjects, such as real estate, business background subjects, marketing, insurance, and banking. The preceding study of trends represents the con clusion of Part II of this report which has dealt with the 187 history of secondary business education, sources of aims and curricula, and aims and curricula. This entire study of secondary business education has been made as a necessary prerequisite to a consideration of business-teacher education in harmony with secondary business education— the subject of discussion in Part III immediately following. PART III CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER PREPARATION OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF THE UNITED STATES IX. THE PRESENT PREPARATION OP TEACHERS OP BUSINESS SUBJECTS AS REVEALED IN THE NATIONAL SURVEY OP THE EDUCATION OP TEACHERS. X. CURRICULA DEVISED FOR THE PREPARATION OE TEACHERS OP BUSINESS SUBJECTS AS REVEALED BY PREVIOUS STUDIES. XI. TRENDS IN CURRICULA DEVISED FOR THE PREPARATION OP TEACHERS OP BUSINESS SUBJECTS. XII. PRESENT PRACTICES IN INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION. CHAPTER XIII. STANDARDS SET UP IN EMPLOYING INSTITUTIONS RELATIVE TO THE PREPARATION OP TEACHERS OP BUSINESS SUBJECTS. 189 CHAPTER IX THE PREPARATION OP TEACHERS OP BUSINESS SUBJECTS IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS OP THE UNITED STATES AS REVEALED BY THE NATIONAL SURVEY OF THE EDUCATION OP TEACHERS The preceding chapters of this study have "been concerned with the aims and curricula of secondary business education as a foundation for curriculum building in business-teacher education* Among other influencing factors which should be made a part of such preliminary study are: the preparation received by teachers who are nov/ teaching business subjects in secondary schools, the nature of the services they are called upon to perform, and the tangible rewards of such services* This chapter presents such data, relative to business teachers, collected by a recent nation-wide survey and by eighteen state wide surveys of business education* The Seventy-first Congress of the United States provided for a nation-wide survey of the demand for and education of teachers* Questionnaires were mailed from the United States Office of Education to teachers in the public school systems of the United States on January 12, 1931. The information re quested pertained to: type of school; description of main work; size of school; sex and marital status of teacher; size of community in which school is located; age; teaching experi ence; salary; highest training level; source of earned degrees; hours of credit in "education” and practice teaching; 190 reason for demand for services; relation of training to teach ing field; and teaching load# Among all the replies received, 15,000 were from teachers of business subjects--approximately 182 fifty per cent of all such teachers in the United States# Topics of significance to the present study have been selected 183 from these data and will be discussed in the following para graphs as follows: (A) Degrees earned; (B) Highest level of training; (C) Credits earned in business subjects; (D) Credits earned in practice teaching; (E) Credits earned in “education” courses; (F) Number of different fields in which teachers of business subjects offer instruction; (G) Next main field of teaching for instructors whose major field is business; (H) Teaching load; (I) Years of teaching experience; (J) Num ber of different school systems in which teaching experience was gained; (K) Salaries received; and (L) Summary of data segregated as to size of community. A. DEGREES EARNED This investigation revealed that two junior-high school teachers of business subjects and twenty-two senior-high- school teachers are the holder’s of doctor’s degrees; seventy- one junior-high-school teachers and 776 senior-high-school 182 J# 0. Malott, Specialist in Commercial Education, United States Office of Education, letter dated August 10, 1932# 183 Preliminary report (hektographed) received July, 1932# 191 teachers have masterfs degrees; while 633 junior-high-school teachers and 6,275 senior-high-school teachers have bachelor*^ degrees. The preliminary report from which these data were taken does not specify the total number of teachers answering this section of the questionnaire. However, 1,185 junior- high-school teachers and 9,093 senior-high-school teachers were the largest number answering any one section of the questionnaire! Such totals are of little value for comparative purposes, as there is no way of knowing the nature of the sampling of the estimated 30,000 teachers of business subjects in the United States. It may be assumed that teachers with advanced training were more likely to answer the questionnaire because of interest in, and familiarity with, educational research. The data presented in Table XIII give an indication of the comparative scarcity of higher degrees among teachers of business subjects. (Here insert Table XIl'I "Degrees Earned by Teachers of Business Subjects As Re vealed in National Survey")• State surveys made between the years 1915 and 1932 show that from 19.3 per cent to eighty-five per cent of the teach ers of business subjects in certain states were holders of baccalaureate degrees. In states for which comparable data were available for other groups of high-school teachers, the percentage of teachers holding degrees ranged from 65.0 per cent of all high-school teachers in Pennsylvania in 1920 to 79.2 per cent of all teachers of English in Ohio in 1929. 192 TABLE XIII DEGREES EARNED BY TEACHERS OP BUSINESS SUBJECTS AS REVEALED IN NATIONAL SURVEY Degree Number of Junior High School Teachers Holding Degree- Number of Senior High School Teachers Holding Degree Doctor * s 2 22 Master * s 71 776 Bachelor * s 633 6,275 Largest number of teachers answering any one section of questionnaire 1,135 9,093 193 While comparable data for the National Survey are not avail able at this time, the conclusion may be reached from the results of state surveys that teachers of business subjects as a group have had less professional preparation than other high-3Chool teachers have had. The findings of eighteen state surveys relative to degrees earned by teachers of business subjects are shown in Table XIV. (Here insert Table XIV, "Degrees Earned by Teachers of Business Subjects as Revealed by State Surveys,11) B. HIGHEST LEVEL OF TRAINING A subject probably more enlightening than that of degrees held5to students interested in the field of business-teacher education^is that of the highest level of training received by teachers. It was found that, of 9,086 senior-highrschool teachers replying to this section of the questionnaire, four have had no training beyond the elementary school and that 1,358 teachers have had two years of college training or less. It is probably encouraging, however, to note that 1,907 teach ers of business subjects in senior high school have had gradu ate work. The median training for all senior-high-school teachers of business subjects is a little more than four years of college. Among 1,183 junior-high-school teachers of busi ness subjects, 280 have had only two years of college training or less. The mode for junior-high-3chool teachers occurs at the same level as that for senior-high-school teachers, although 194 TABLE X IV DEGHEES EARNED BY TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS AS REVEALED BY STATE SUHVEYS ? r Percentage of Percentage Date Investigator State Business Teachers Holding Degrees of All High School Teachers 1915 Rice154 , Pinkel185 New Jersey 23.2 1920 Pennsyl vania 19.3 65.0 1924 f Frost180 ; Raymond and Adams Oklahoma . 35.5 — - : 1925 California Less than 50.0 — -1926 Blackstone188 Iowa 62.8 - - - 1926 Walters1®;^ 190 Weersigj i Lomax r Kuykendall192 M c P 9^ 194 Pinkel Pennsylvania 37.6 - - - 1927 Minnesota 56.0 — - 1927 New Jersey 29.3 204 I927i Pennsylvania 25.7 74.2 1927 New Jersey 30.7 - - - j 1928 Pennsylvania 38.8 87*3 j 1928 O’Brien198 Kansas 70.0 — - '1929 Young198 Montana • 71.5 1929 Lehmann19’ ' * New Mexico 78.0 O A C 1929 Reynolds198 Ohio 63.7 79.2 1930 Lawrence199 Kentucky 40.0 - - - ; 1930 .-Dating^8* 9 Killgallon 1 Ohio 67.5 - - - 1930; Pennsylvania 49.9 — - ' 1931;■ Clevtenger^'9^ : Mce2°g Oklahoma 85.0 1932; New Jersey 43.4 --- ' t m . 185 186 18? 188 189 190 191 192 193 op. op, op, op, op, op op, op, O D , 194 op, op, cit. cit. cit. cit. cit. cit. cit. cit. cit. cit. cit. footnote 17. footnote 46. footnote 19. footnote 43. footnote 11. footnote 44. footnote 14. footnote 47. footnote 45. footnote 17. footnote 46. 195 196 is?; op, op, cit. cit. op. cit. 198oP. cit. 199 200 201 202 203 op. cit. op. cit • op op, cit. cit. 'op. cit., 204— science — English footnote 12. footnote 15. footnote 18. footnote 21. footnote 13. footnote 22. footnote 23. footnote 20. footnote 49. teachers, teachers. 195 the median level of training is slightly less for the former group. It is further noted, however, that 230 of the junior- high-school teachers of business subjects have taken graduate work. Two factors may explain the comparative showing of the two groups of teachers. The fact that teachers working on the lower educational level have received training almost commensurate with that received by those on a higher level may be explained by the shorter history of the junior-high school. In the senior-high school, there are now some teachers who were employed before educational standards for certificates were raised. On the other hand, the fact that the junior-high school teachers do not make quite such a good showing as the senior-high-school teachers may be explained by the real Or supposed superiority of the senior-high-school teacherTs posi* tion. Those who seek advanced training are ambitious for senior-high-school rather than for junior-high-school teaching positions, especially in business education, as many teachers prefer the, technical business subjects which do not appear in the junior-high-school curriculum. Data relative to the high est level of training received by teachers of business subjects is shown in Table XV. (Here insert Table XV "Highest Level of Training Received by Teachers of Business Subjects.") 196 TABLE XV HIGHEST LEVEL OF TRAINING RECEIVED BY TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS Highest Level of Training Number of Junior- High-School Teachers Number of Senior- High-School Teachers Graduates of Elementary School 0 4 One - Two Years of High School 0 3 Three - Four Years of High School 10 70 Six Weeks— One-half year of College 8 48 One - Two Years of College 262 1,233 Three - Four Years of College 673 5,821 One-Year Graduate Work 154 1,324 Two or More Years Graduate Work 76 583 Total 1,183 9,086 ‘ Median Training^^^ 11.2 11.4 206 Classification ”11” * four years of college. This means, then, that the median teacher has a little more than four years of college training* 197 C. CREDITS EARNED IN BUSINESS SUBJECTS A necessary feature of a teacher*s preparation is train ing in the subjects which he is to teach. Unfortunately, teachers do not always have this essential preparation. For example, a recent report by the Placement Service, College of Education, Ohio State University, Columbus, showed that forty-three per cent of the new commercial teachers in that state had neither majored nor minored in commercial subjects. A master*s thesis, recently completed at the same institution, revealed that fifty-nine per cent of the experienced commercial teachers of Ohio had neither majored nor minored in business 207 subjects. The data gathered by the National Survey of the Education of Teachers apparently present a more encouraging picture than the facts just quoted. However, only 5,701 senior-high-school teachers and 685 junior-high-school teachers answered this section of the questionnaire. This may mean that a large proportion o.f the teachers who did not answer the questionnaire at all, or this section of it, had not earned college credits in business subjects. The mode for junior- high-school teachers occurs at eleven to twenty semester units of credit and for senior-high-school teachers at twenty-one to thirty semester hours. The median for the former is 52.8 semester hours and for the latter 40.1 semester hours, which 207 Quoted by J. 0. Malott, Specialist in Commercial Education, United States Office of Education, in a letter dated August 10, 1932. 198 would appear entirely satisfactory if the returns include a representative sampling of commercial teachers, which they probably do not. The number of semester-hours credit earned in business subjects by teachers of business subjects is shown in Table XVI. (Here insert Table XVI nCredits Earned in Business Subjects by Teachers of Business Subjects.”) D. CREDITS EARNED IN PRACTICE TEACHING The questionnaire of the National Survey of the Educa tion of Teachers included a section on ’ ’ credits earned in practice teaching.” This information is helpful to those en gaged in business-teacher education inasmuch as practice teaching represents the student-teacherTs first contact with his prospective job. For this reason, the amount of practice teaching done by present teachers would be of interest to training institutions. However, the preliminary report did not contain these data and, up to the time of present writing, it has been impossible to obtain them. E. CREDITS EARNED IN ’ ’ EDUCATION” COURSES As teacher-training curricula always include a certain number of credits in ’ ’ education” courses, it would be inter esting to know how many credits have been earned by present teachers of business subjects. However, the statement made 199 TABLE XVI CREDITS EARNED IN BUSINESS SUBJECTS BY TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS Number of Semester Hours Credit in Business Subjects Number of Junior- High-School Teachers Number of Senior- High-School Teachers 0 - 10 91 442 11 - 20 140 758 21 - 30 104 963 31 - 40 68 953 41 - 50 69 660 51 - 60 60 622 61 - 70 38 339 0 C O 1 1 —1 23 283 0 o 1 1 —1 C O 27 167 91 - 100 65 524 Total 685 5,701 Median Semester Hours 32.8 40.1 200 in the preceding paragraph as to practice teaching applies also to credits earned in "education" courses. P. NUMBER OP DIFFERENT FIELDS IN WHICH TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS OFFER INSTRUCTION A subject of vital interest in teacher-preparation is that of teaching fields. If a large number of teachers find it necessary to teach in several different fields, some pro vision must be made in training programs; at least, by the requirement of teaching minors. This survey has revealed that only 53.56 per cent of the 9,093 senior-high school teachers of business subjects who sent replies to this section teach in one field. The remainder of them teach in from two to eight fields. An inspection of the footnote to Table XVII will show that the fields indicated are entirely distinct from business, with the possible exception of economics in the history field. It will further be noted that only 40.5 per cent of the junior-high-school teachers are allowed to specialize in one field and that 47.8 per cent of all junior- high-school teachers of business subjects teach in two fields. The implications of these data for business-teacher education are obvious. (Here insert Table XVII "Number of Different Fields in which Teachers of Business Subiects Offer Instruction. ) 2 0 1 TABLE XVII NUMBER OP DIFFERENT FIELDS IN TOICH TEACHERS. OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS OFFER INSTRUCTION206 Number of Fields Junior-High-School Teachers Senio r-High-Scho o1 Teachers Number Per cent Number Per cent 1 480 40.5 4,870 53.56 2 566 47.8 3,530 38.82 3 84 7.1 501 5.51 4 43 3.6 149 1.64 5 7 0.6 31 0.34 6 4 0.3 9 0.10 7 1 0.1 2 0.02 8 0 0.0 1 0.01 Total 1,185 100.0 9,093 100.00 208 "Fields” include (a) agriculture and forestry; (b) art . and drawing; (c) "biological sciences; (d) business and commerce; Te) education and teacher-training; (f) English;1 (g) classic languages; (h) modern languages; (i) health and physical education; (j) home economics or household arts; (k) physical sciences; (1) mathematics; (m) music; (n) history, sociology, economics; (o) trades and indus trial arts; and (p) subjects not listed here* 202 G. NEXT MAIN FIELD OF TEACHING FOR INSTRUCTORS WHOSE MAJOR FIELD IS BUSINESS The next subject of interest is the nature of the other fields in which the teaching is done. The results of this survey indicate that the modal field for senior-high school is "history, sociology, and economics" with English second, and mathematics third. The present emphasis upon social- business subjects makes the first combination a peculiarly happy one. In junior high school, the subjects rank in differ ent order:- mathematics, "history, sociology, and economics", and English. Data presented in Table XVIII indicate that all possible combinations of other subjects with business subjects are made, even to the extent that 103 teachers of business subjects are instructing in classic languages--traditional opposites— as a second teaching field* (Here insert Table XVIII "Next Main Field of Teaching of Teachers with Business Subjects as Major Field of Teaching*") H. TEACHING LOAD A subject of secondary interest in business-teacher edu cation is the matter of teaching load. The number of clock hours of teaching per week help to complete the picture of the teacher*s job but afford little suggestion as to the policy of a teacher-training institution. The findings of this survey show that the median clock hours of teaching per 203 TABLE XVIII NEXT MAIN FIELD OF TEACHING OF TEACHERS WITH BUSINESS SUBJECTS AS MAJOR FIELD OF TEACHING Next Main Teaching Field Number of Junior- High-School Teachers Number of Senior- High- School Teachers Agriculture and Forestry 2 15 Art and Drawing 15 27 Biological Sciences 8 132 Education and Teacher Training 22 22 English 157 993 Classic Languages 17 103 Modern Languages 23 240 Health and Physical Education 23 189 Home Economics and Household Arts 9 i Physical Sciences 21 116 Mathematics 208 607 Music 13 93 History, Sociology, Economics 159 1,324 Trades and Industrial Arts 6 50 Subjects Not Listed Here 14 57 204 week occur between the classifications "four” and t ! five, f on the original data or betv/een twenty-five to twenty-nine clock hours per week” and thirty to thirty-four clock hours per week.” It will fVurther be noted, from an inspection of Table XIX, that more than six hundred teachers have teaching loads of more than thirty-five hours per week. (Here insert Table XIX t f Teaching Load of Teachers of Business Subjects.”) I. YEARS OP TEACHING EXPERIENCE Another subject of minor importance in business-teacher education is the amount of teaching experience of the present teachers of business subjects. However, these data testify as to the permanence of such positions and as to the probable rate of turnover. The data secured in this survey indicate that while the majority of teachers have less than fifteen years of experience, substantial numbers of them have remained in the profession for each period from one year to fifty years. According to the original data, 730 senior-high-school teachers and sixty-four junior-high-school teachers, of a total number of 9,060 and 1,175 respectively, are serving in first-year positions. As the number of teachers decreases with each year of service, there is some turnover, which means opportunity for graduates of teacher-training institutions. It is prob-. able, however, that just as many openings will occur because of school growth as for replacement of teachers in service. The median junior-high-school teacher has served nine and 205 TABLE XIX TEACHING LOAD OP TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS Clock Hours per Week Number of Junior- High- School Teachers Number of Senior- High- School Teachers 1 - 9 39 405 10 - 14 12 97 15 - 19 56 793 20 - 24 194 1,757 25 - 29 407 ______ 2,417 ... 30 - 34 318 2,401 35 and over 74 546 Median Load209 4.6 4.5 3355 This is interpreted as approximately halfway between classi fication 1 1 4” (25 - 29 clock hours) and "5” (30 - 34 clock hours) on original data* 206 five-tenths years and the senior-high-school teacher, eight years. Data relative to years of teaching experience are shown in Table XX. (Here insert Table XX, ’ ’ Years of Teaching Experience of Teachers of Business Subjects.’ 1) J. HUMBER OF DIFFERENT SCHOOL SYSTEMS IN WHICH TEACHING EXPERIENCE Wr AS GAINED A matter closely allied with years of experience is that of number of school systems in which experience has been gained. These data clearly indicate turnover, especially in vie?/ of the fact that only 2,873 of 9,089 senior-high-school teachers have served in one school system exclusively. The others have served in two to eighteen systems respectively. Of 1,184 junior-high-school teachers, 453 have served in only one school system, the others having experience in two to twenty-three school systems. The median number of systems for junior-high-school teachers is 2.5 and for senior-high- school teachers, 2.7j indicating a state of restlessness which assures some teaching vacancies each year. The number of dif ferent school systems in which teaching experience was gained by teachers of business subjects is shown in Table XXI. (Here insert Table XXI, ’ ’ Number of Different School Systems in which Teaching Experience Vt fas Gained.”) 207 TABLE XX YEARS OF TEACHING EXPERIENCE OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS Years of Teaching Ex perience Number of Junior- High- School Teachers Number of Senior- High- School Teachers 1 - 5 364 3,494 6-10 299 2,138 11 - 15 166 1,242 16 - 20 129 868 21 - 25 84 594 26 - 50 68 370 31 - 35 30 203 36 - 40 20 117 41 - 45 13 23 46 - 50- 2 11 Total 1,175 9,060 Median Years 9.5 8.0 208 TABLE XXI NUMBER OP DIFFERENT SCHOOL SYSTEMS IN WHICH TEACHING EXPERIENCE WAS GAINED Number of Different Systems Number of Junior- High- School Teachers Number of Senior- High- School Teachers 1 453 2,873 2 299 2,330 3 189 1,575 4 112 1,021 5 65 627 6 24 ' 294 7 20 • 167 8 9 98 9 4 38 10 5 40 11 1 6 12 1 6 13 0 3 14 0 5 15 0 2 16 1 2 ___— 17 . . . 0 0 18 0 1 23 1 0 Total 1,184 9,089 Median number 2.5 2.7 K. SALARIES RECEIVED 209 Prospective teachers, present teachers, and training institutions are concerned with the tangible rewards of the profession. By means of the National Survey, information relative to salaries received by 8,102 senior-high-school „ teachers and 1,007 junior-high-school teachers was assembled* The original data show that 242 senior-high-school teachers and twenty-two junior-high-school teachers are employed for six to eight months each year; while 591 senior-high-school teachers and 137 junior-high-school teachers are employed for eleven and twelve months each year* The data as to salaries are for teachers employed for nine and ten months only* It is surprising that four senior-high-school teachers receive as little as $>500*00 each year* The median salary for junior- high-school teachers serving nine months is $1,493*00 and in ten-month schools, is $2,160*00. The difference in favor of ten-month schools may be explained by the fact that larger cities usually have long terms and also pay higher salaries as will be noted in a later table. Salaries received by teachers of business subjects are shown in Table XXII* (Here insert Table XXII, "Salaries Received by Teachers of Business Subjects.n) '•"Data assembled in fourteen state'surveys indicate that the medians obtained in the National Survey are representative. The median salaries of teachers of business subjects as re vealed by state surveys made between 1915 and 1932 range from 2X0 TABLE XXII SALARIES RECEIVED BY TEACHERS OP BUSINESS SUBJECTS Salaries in Dollars Number of Junior- High-School Teachers Number of Senior- High- School Teachers 9 months 10 months 9 months 10 months 400 - 500 0 0 4 0 600 - 1,000 28 6 200 18 1,100 - 1,500 103 119 2,002 779 1,600 - 2,000 59 298 742 1,488 2,100 - 2,500 22 198 217 1,180 2,600 - 3,000 7 128 36 794 3,100 - 3,500 0 19 12 318 3,600 - 4,000 0 19 6 199 4,100 - 4,500 0 1 1 87 4,500 - 7,500 0 0 0 18 Total 219 788 3,220 4,881 Median Salary ..lli'493 .... #2,051 #1,443 #2,160 211 #1100*00 in New Jersey in 1915 to #2350*00 in Illinois in 1930* In every case in which comparable data are available, other high-school teachers receive larger salaries than do teachers of business subjects* No indication is given in the reports of state surveys as to whether the salaries re ported are for nine-months1 or for ten-months’ service. Median salaries of teachers of business subjects as revealed by fourteen state surveys are shown in Table XXIII. (Here insert Ta&be XXIII, 1 1 Salaries of Teachers of Business Subjects as Revealed by State Surveys.’ 1) L. SUMMARY OP DATA SEGREGATED AS TO SIZE OP COMMUNITY Administrators and instructors engaged in business- teacher education should know the types of communities in which graduates will probably be placed and the status of teaching positions in those communities. The preliminary report of the National Survey gives such information for five types of com munities: open country; villages; communities of 2,500 to 10,000 population; cities of 10,000 to 100,000 population; and cities of 100,000 population and over. The information relative to these communities has been segregated into ten divisions which are discussed in the following paragraphs: (1) degrees earned; (2) highest level of training; (3) credits earned in business subjects; (4) number of different fields in which teachers offer instruction; (5) teaching load; (6) years of teaching experience; (7) number of different school systems 212 TABLE XXIII SALARIES OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS AS REVEALED BY STATE SURVEYS Date Investigator State Median Sal ary of Business Teachers Median Salary of Other High School Teachers 1915 1920 1924 1926 1926 1927 1927 1928 1928 1929 1929 1929 1929 1930 1930 1930 1930 1932 Rice^O. Pinkel211 Frost212f Matthews213 Burden21 _ _ Kuykendall .Bice b Pinkel21? Daring212 Young21® Young22^ w 007 Lehmann Reynolds222 File223 Lawrence22^ Lawrence223 Killgallon22^ Rice227 New Jersey Pennsylvania Oklahoma Six States Indiana Pennsylvania New Jersey Pennsylvania Ohio Montana Montana New Mexico Ohio Illinois Kentucky Kentucky Pennsylvania New Jersey $1,100.00 1.383.00 1,530.85 1.646.00 2,000.00 1,661.36 2.200.00 i 1.616.00 2,000.00 1.420.00 1.375.00 1,437.50 1,936.96 2.350.00 1.900.00 1.475.00 1.789.00 2.270.00 1.198.00 1,559.14 2.017.00 1,720.90 1.761.00 1,850.00229 (men)— (women}- 2.008.00 HIU 211 212 213 214, 215 216 217 218 219 op. cit., footnote 17. op. cit., footnote 46. op. cit., footnote 19. op. cit., footnote 54. op. cit., footnote 9. op. cit., footnote 45. op. cit., footnote 17. op. cit., footnote 46. op. cit., footnote 22. op. cit., footnote 15. 220 221 222 223 224, 225 226 227 'op. cit., footnote 15. pp. cit., footnote 18. pp. cit., footnote 21. Pp. cit., footnote 52. Pp. cit., footnote 13. Pp. cit., footnote 13. |op* cit., footnote 23. op. cit., footnote 49. 228— Science teachers. 229— teachers of English, 215 in which teaching was done; (8) salaries received; and (9) sex and age. 1. Degrees earned. As is to be expected, more teachers with degrees are in large than in small communities. No teachers with doctor*s degrees serve in the open country nor in villages, while sixteen are found in cities of 100,000 population or over. Similarly, five teachers in the open country have master*s degrees as contrasted with 518 in large cities. The same condition exists with reference to bach* elor*s degrees. However, it should be remembered that there are fewer teachers in rural communities than in cities. The preliminary report did not give the total number of teachers replying to this section. Mere addition will not supply this information as masterfs and doctor*s degrees are duplicates of bachelor*s degrees and the number of teachers in each type of community having no degree would not be included in such a sum. Detailed information relative to degrees earned is given in Table 3KX.IV* (Here insert Table XXIV,, "Data Relative to Degrees Earned by Teachers of Business Subjects Segregated as to Size of Community.M) Highest level of training. Here, again, teach ers with higher levels of training tend to serve in large rather than in small school systems. However, there is com paratively little difference in medians, which range for junior-high-school teachers from 10.1 in open country to 11.7 in large cities. In the original data, the classification 214 table xxiy DATA RELATIVE TO DEGREES EARNED BY TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS SEGREGATED AS TO SIZE OF COMMUNITY Number of Teachers Description of Data Open Country Villages 2,500 to 10,000 Popu lation 10,000 to 100,000 Popu lation 100,000 Popu lation and over Total Degrees Earneds Doctor*s Degree Junior230 0 0 0 0 2 2 Senior 0 0 4 [ . 4 14 22 Master’s Degree Junior 0 2 5 | 19 45 71 Senior 5 39 79 180 473 776 Bachelor’s Degree Junior 5 28 28 219 355 633 Senior | 120 1,355 1,048 1,589 2,163 6,275 230 Junior - Junior-high school teachers; Senior - Senior-high school teachers. 215 1 1 10” represents “three years of college”, ”11” represents “four years of college”, and ”12” represents ”one year of graduate work”. These data, then, may be interpreted to mean that in the open country teachers of business subjects in junior high school (of whom there are but fifteen) have a median of three years of college training, while the median teacher in large cities (total number of junior high school teachers, 605) has had some graduate work. A further inspec tion of Table XXV. will indicate that the median senior-high school teachers in all communities have had graduate work and that the small communities very closely approximate the record of the larger communities in this respect. (Here insert Table XXV j “Data Relative to Highest Level of Training Received by Teachers of Business Subjects; Segregated as to Size of Community.”) 3* Credits earned in business subjects. This sec tion of the questionnaire was answered by 685 junior-high- school teachers, the majority of whom were in large cities; and by 5,701 senior-high-school teachers, who were rather evenly divided among four groups of communities from villages to large cities. The returns show that the median credits in business subjects earned by junior-high-school teachers are in every instance less than those earned by senior-high-school teachers. This is probably to be expected when one remembers that the technical business subjects have a place in the senior-high school rather than in the junior-high school cur riculum. The junior-high school business subjects emphasize, 216 (TABLE XXy DATA RELATIVE TO HIGHEST LEVEL OF TRAINING -RECEIVED BY TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS SEGREGATED, AS' TO SIZE-OF COMMUNITY Humber of Teachers Description of Data Open Country Villages 2,500 to 10,000 Popu lation 10,000 to 100,000 Popu lation 100,000 Popu lation and over Total (2) Highest Level of Training Elementary and High School Junior 0 0 1 5 4 10 Senior 0 6 6 29 36 77 Six Weeks to Two Years College Junior 7 14 22 106 121 270 Senior 18 265 1 298 376 324 1,281 Three-Four Years College Junior 8 34 42 259 330 673 Senior ; 122 1,505 1,152 1,574 1,468 5*821 Graduate Work Junior 0 5 12 63 150 230 Senior 23 168 230 469 1,017 1,907 Median Training2®1 - Junior 101 12.0 10.7 11J 13.4 “112 Senior 1 U 12.3 11.3 13*4 13.7 13.4 Total Junior 15 53 77 433 605 1,183 Senior ■ 163 1,944 1,686 2,448 2,845 9,086 • 231 11-4 years of college? median teacher had a little more than 4 years of college. quite properly, social values and it is, therefore, probably fitting that junior-high-school teachers should have less training in technical-business subjects than do. senior-high- school teachers. Even with this fact in mind, it may be noted that the junior-high-school teachers present an acceptable number of credits--more than a major in every case, with the exception of the eight teachers in open villages whose median is 19.5 semester hours. The preparation of senior-high-school teachers presents a fine showing in this respect— 36.9 semester hours in business subjects being the lowest median and that, strangely enough, occurring in large cities. If the 6,386 teachers of business subjects who answered this section of the questionnaire represent a fair sampling of business teachers, it may be said that teachers in this field are adequately trained in the content subjects which they teach. A further bit of evidence along this line has been presented by a study in which the administrators of 90 per cent of Kentucky high schools ranked teachers of business subjects in comparison with teachers of academic subjects*''''"" In mastery of sub jects taught,” 30.30 per cent of teachers of business subjects were ranked above the average of the ”academic” teachers, 69.70 per cent were ranked average, and none were rated below average. In contrast to this, 3.09 per cent of teachers of business subjects were rated above the average of “academic” 232. A. J. Lawrence, ”How Do We Compare With Others?” The Journal of Business Education. Vol. VII, No. 5 (April, 1932) p. 12-13. 218 teachers In the matter of academic degrees, 54.55 per cent were rated average, and 42.42 per cent 7/ere ranked as "below average. These two bits of evidence apparently indicate that one element of strength in the preparation of present teachers of business subjects is their training in the content of the subjects they teach. Table XXVI presents data relative to credits earned in business subjects. (Here insert Table XXVI, r f Data Relative to Credits Earned in Business Subjects by Teachers of Business Subjects Segregated as to Size of Community.11) 4. Number of different fields in which teachers offer instruction. The questionnaire specified fifteen teaching fields other than business and commerce. The data show that 480 of the 1,184 junior-high-school teachers and 4,870 of the 9,093 senior-high-school teachers give instruction in only one field— business and commerce. The others teach in from two to eight fields respectively. As is to be expected, the larger cities offer more opportunity for specialization in teaching; only a comparatively small percentage of their teachers being asked to instruct in more than one field. Roughly speaking, one-fourth of the teachers in open country instruct in one field only, and more than one-half of the teachers in all communities with more than 2,500 inhabitants. Approximately one-fourth of the teachers in the open country teach in three or more fields as contrasted with one-sixth in villages, one-seventeenth in communities of 2,500 to 10,000 population, one-twenty-eighth in cities of 10,000 to 100,000 219 TABLE XXVI DATA RELATIVE TO CREDITS EARNED II BUSINESS SUBJECTS BY TEACHERS OP BUSINESS SUBJECTS SEGREGATED AS TO SIZE OP COMMUNITY Number of Teachers i Description of Data Open Country Villages 2,500 to 10,000 Popu lation 10,000 to 100,000 Popu lation 100,000 Popu lation and over Total {5) Credits Earned in Business subjects 0 semester Hours Junior 0 0 0 0 0 0 Senior 0 0 2 4 15 21 1- 20 Semester Hours Junior 6 11 9 74 132 231 Senior 26 225 182 323 423 1,179 21- <40 Semester Hours Junior 0 8 14 65 85 172 Senior 34 542 368 480 492 1,916 41- 60 Semester Hours Junior 0 3 8 55 v 63 129 Senior 22 325 254 350 331 1,282 61- 80 Semester Hours Junior 3 2 5 21 30 ■ 61 Senior 18 134 138 182 150 62k 81- 100 Semester Hours Junior 0 1 5 18 68 92 Senior 11 105 130 201 244 691 Median Semester Hours Junior 19.5 25.3 39.0 32.8 33.0 32.8 Senior 40.2 38.5 40.8 40.5 36.9 40.1 Total Junior 8 25 4 s i . 233 378 685 Senior 111 1,331 1,064 1,540 1,655 5,701 220 population, and one-thirty-fourth in cities of 100,000 popu lation or over. The implications of these data for institu tions engaged in business-teacher education are that teaching minors should be provided for all prospective teachers who will probably find it necessary to teach in at least one other field in addition to commerce. It is hoped that this condition will be alleviated by the introduction of more social-business subjects and the._ resulting larger enrollments in business classes. Business teaching, itself, is such a complex field admitting of majors and minors within it. In fact, the teacher who is reported as teaching in the business field exclusively may be teaching a variety of business subjects within that field. The lesson to be learned from these data is that pro spective teachers of business subjects should not be encouraged in too rigid specialization either within the commerce field or to the exclusion of other subjects. Data relative to fields of instruction are shown in Table XXVII. (Here insert Table XXVII, "Data Relative to Number of Different Fields in which Teachers of Business Subjects Offer Instruction— Segregated by Size of Community.n) 5. Teaching Load. The section on teaching load shows that, on the whole, heavier teaching loads are required in small communities rather than in large cities. An inspection of Table XXVIII will indicate that the medians are expressed in 221 TABLE XXVII BATA Wukfim TO TOBEB Of BlffBBSIf FIMS II WHICH TBACHBBS Of BUSIIBSS SUBJECTS OfflB IISTHIOflOI SBGHSCrATEB AS TO SXSE OF COBOTITt . 1 . 'Imher.of Teachers. . . . Description of Data Open Country fillage© 2,500 to 10,000 Popu lation 10,000 to 100,000 Popu lation 100*000 Popu lation and over ■ f . Total (d) lumber of Biffer- ent Fields in Which Teachers Offer Instruction2®*5 1 Junior . 3 13 24 186 274 480 Senior M' r"SSff 1,464 1,685 ' 4*870 t. . . luSer" . lj6r " 4g ■ &$"' r 566 ’ Senior ' ^ r W : \ r W " ■ se? 1.322 , , r 3,530 " ........ 3-5 . Junior' r - r , 20 ■r^ny n 50 ’ " 51 1 134 Senior m YoS 1 r T12Q , IH Sax 6 - 8 Sunkor J '0" , . . . n 0 r . r " 2 r + ' l t p * T*1 1 ,,1 , . g . "r-" S'"' SSior ' - ■ g - 7 ■ ■ O ------j g — - Total Junior. ’ r jirg, . r-r , 78 ' .433. " 1 l . S ' O S ' " Senior i 64 1 , 9 44 , •liSeB1 2,849 ’ 9,0§3 / zm ' . ' **fieldsw include (l| agriculture and forestry; (2) art and drafting! (3) biolog ical sciences; {4) business and commerce; (5) education and teacher training! (6) English; (7) classic languages; {8} modern languages; (9) health and physical education; {10) home economic© or household arts; (11) physical sciences; (IE) mathe- matics; (13) music; (14) history, sociology, economics; (15) trades and industrial arts; and (16) subjects not listed here. 222 terms of classifications in the original data. Thus junior- high- school teachers in the open country carry a median teach ing load of more than thirty to thirty-four clock hours per week,” while in large cities the median load is a little more than half-way between twenty-five to twenty-nine clock hours1 1 and "thirty to thirty-four clock hours.” In senior-high schools the teaching loads are comparatively similar with a slightly lower load in large cities. (Here insert Table SSV.IXJL', "Data Relative to Teaching Load Segregated as to Size of Community.”) 6. Years of teaching experience. These data indi cate that teachers with more teaching experience in terms of years tend to hold positions in larger cities. The median junior-high-school teacher in the open country has had 8.5 years of experience, while in the large city, he has had 11.0 years of experience. The difference is more striking in the case of the senior-high school, of which the median teacher in the open country has had 4.3 years of experience and in the large cities has had 14.4 years of teaching experience. The implication for business-teacher education is that relatively inexperienced teachers are likely to be found in small com munities and that tesxhers newly graduated from training institutions will probably do their first teaching in small school systems. Data relative to years of teaching experience are shown in Table • 223 TABLE- XXVIII LATA RELATIVE TO TEACHING LOAD SEGREGATED AS TO SIZE OP COMvIUiHTY Eumber of Teachers Lescription of Lata Open Country Villages 2,500 to 10,000 Popu lation 10,000 to 100,000 Popu lation 100,000 Popu lation and over Total (5) Clock Hours per Week— Teaching Loads 1-14 Junior 0 0 5 24 22 51 Senior 6 116 107 116 157 502 15 - 24 Junior 2 9 16 90 133 250 Senior 48 439 398 666 999 2,550 25 — 54 Junior 9 31 45 264 376 725 Senior 96 1,127 960 1,550 1,485 4,818 35 andever Junior 2 7 5 27 33 74 Senior 7 132 109 134 164 546 Median2^ Junior 5.1 4.9 4.6 4.6 4.6 4.6 Senior 4.7 4.7 4.6 4.5 4.2 4.5 Total Junior 13 47 71 406 564 1,101 Senior 157 1,814 1,574 2,266 2,605 8,416 234 These medians are interpreted to mean that they fall around classification n4** in original data (25 to 29 clock hours) and W5W (30 to 34 clock houre). 224 (Here insert Table XXXIX* “Data Relative to Years of Teaching Experience of Teachers of Business Subjects Segregated as to Size of Community •,r) 7. Number of different school systems in which teaching was done« These data show that the median teachers in all communities have had experience in at least two school systems* indicating a certain amount of turnover among teachers of business subjects* Details are shown in Table ?XX..» (Here insert Table XXXv* “Data Relative to Number of Different School Systems in which Teaching was Done — Segregated as to Size of Community•11) Salaries received* The returns from the National Survey indicate that the modal point for senior-high-school teachers is $2*000*00 or less in nine-months schools and from $2,100.00 to $4*000.00 in ten-months schools* The median salaries for ten-months schools rise from villages to large cities in the following order: $1*534.00; $1,737.00; $2,043*00; and $2*607.00. In nine-months schools the same progression is indicated: $1*340.00; $1*353*00; $1,451.00; $1*696.00; and $2,056.00* The same condition is revealed by junior-high school salaries, with the exception of communities under 10,000 population which do not show the same progression as for senior-high-school teachers. The median junior-high- school salaries for nine-months schools, from open country to large cities, are as follows: $1,.250.00; $1,230.00; $1,194.00; $1,564.00; and $1,787.00. For ten-months schools the medians 225 TABLE XXIX BATA EEL AT IVI TO YEABS OF TEACHING EXPERIENCE OF TEACHEBS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS SEGREGATED AS TO SIZE OF COMMUNITY Number of Teachers Description of Data Open Country Villages 2,500 to 10,000 Popu lation 10,000 to 100,000 Popu lation 100,000 Popu lation and over Total (6) Years of Teach ing Experience: 1 - 5 Junior 5 30 36 144 149 364 Senior 104 1,334 814 721 521 3,494 i o <U 1! to! ! Junior 8 20 34 226 306 .594 Senior 54 550 743 1,383 1,518 TE^248 21 and over Junior 2 2 8 60 145 217 Senior 6 56 123 338 795 T,318 Median Years Junior 8.5 5.3 7.3 8.8 11.0 9.5 Senior 4.3, 4.2 6.2 9.3 14.4. 8.0 Total Junior 15 52 78 430 600 1,175 Senior 164 1,940 1,680 2,442 2,834 9,060 226 TABLE XXX DATA RELATIVE NUMBER OP DIFFERENT SCHOOL SYSTEMS IN WHICH TEACHING- WAS DONE — SEGREGATED AS TO SIZE OF COMMUNITY. Number of Teachers Description, of Data Open Country. Villages 2,500 to 10,000 Popu lation 10,000 to 100,000 Popu lation 100,000 Popu lation and over Total (7) Number of Differ ent School Systems in Which Teaching Was Done. Median Junior S.5 2.6 2.5 2.7 2.2 2.5 Senior 2.4 2.3 2.6 3.1 2.8 2.7 227 are; $1,550.00; #1,400.00; #1,758.00; #1,894.00; and #2,274.00. These data indicate one reason for the superior preparation of teachers in large cities, as revealed by pre vious sections of the report, in that the tangible rewards for their services are greater than for teachers in small communities. Data as to salaries are presented in Table XXXX^.. (Here insert Table f f Data Relative to Salaries Received by Teachers of Business Subjects Segregated by Size of Communities.”) 9. Sex and age. The sex of teachers of business subjects is a matter of only secondary importance to institu tions engaged in business-teacher education. The sex of present teachers is no indication that there will or will not be future opportunities for persons of either sex to secure teaching positions. However, as a mere matter of interest, it may be noted that women predominate in this field in the ratio of approximately seven to three. Table shows that almost one-half of the teachers in open country and in cities are men, with a smaller proportion of men in the other communities. The subject of age of teachers in service has little bearing upon business-teacher education, unless to indicate possible age limits for the acceptance of candidates for training. The table indicates that 32.8 years and 31.1 years are median ages for junior-high-school and senior-high-school teachers respectively and that older teachers are likely to be found in cities, as would be expected from the data 228 TABLE .XXXI- DATA RELATIVE TO SALARIES RECEIVED BY TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS SBOSEGATED AS TO SIZE OF COIvMJEITY lumber of Teachers Description of Data Open Country Villages 2,500 to 10,000 Popu lation 10,000 to 100,000 Popu lation 100,000 Popu lation and over Total (8) Salaries Re ceived: §400 - 2,000 Junior Months 33 29 91 31 190 9 6 10 5 ,12 34 202 170 423 Senior 9 96 1,359 804 ' 586 104 2,949 10 0 349 579 862 "495 2,285 §2^L00 - 4,000 Junior 9 0 0 0 13 16 29 10 0 2 5 94 263 364 Senior 9 2 21 42 124 82 .271 10 0 36 172 697 1,586 ~%49l Above §4,000 9* 0 0 0 0 0 0 d UXiXUX^ 10 0 0 0 0 1 1 Senior 9 0 0 0 0 1 1 10 0 0 0 2 103 105 Median Salaries Junior 9 1250 1,230 1,194 1,564 1,787 1 , ‘ 493 10 1550 1,400 1,758 1,894 2,274 2,051 Senior 9 1340 1,353 1,451 1,696 2,056 1,443 10 0 1,534 1,737 2,607 2,160 Total Junior 9 6 33 29 104 47 219 10 5 14 39 296 434 788 Senior 9 98 1,380 846 710 187 " 3,221 10 0 385 751 1,561 2,184 4,881 t 229 previously given as to length of teaching experience* (Here insert Table MXII.*, “Summary of Data Relative to Sex and Age of Teachers of Business Subjects Segregated as to Size of Community•! !) SUMMARY OP CHAPTER In this chapter, the results of the National Survey of the Education of Teachers have been presented in so far as these results apply to teachers of business subjects* Selec tions were made from the original data with the criterion of significance in business-teacher education* Previous studies reported in Chapter II of this study indicate that teachers of business subjects, as a class, have been inferior to other teachers in the matter of preparation. At the present writing, comparative data relative to all teachers have not been re leased; but the statement may safely be made that, in the present study, the teachers of business subjects have shown preparation superior to that revealed by previous studies* This may be explained in two ways: (1) the interest in business-teacher education during the last decade— shown by research studies, by the upgrading of certification require ments, and by the construction or reconstruction of curricula in this field— has resulted in improved preparation of pros pective teachers and of teachers in service; (2) the teachers answering this questionnaire probably are those with superior educational preparation which means that the sampling obtajned is not a representative one. 830 TABLE, .XXXII DATA EELATIVE TO SEX AND AGE OP TSACHEHS OP BUSINESS SUBJECTS SSGEEGATED BY SIZE OF COMMUNITY Number of Teachers Description of Data Open Country Pillages 2,500 to 10,000 Popu lation 10,000 t ' o 100,000 Popu lation 100,000 Popu lation and over Total ]9l Sex: Male Junior 5 16 14 90 146 271 Senior 61 482 378 701 1,015 2,637 Female Junior 10 37 64 343 458 912 Senior .103 1,459 1,303 1,744 1,821 6,430 (10) Age; Median Junior 30.5 27.0 29.4 31.9 35.0 32.8 Senior 26.9 26.5 28.3 32.4 38.2 31.1 231 Some of the findings of the National Survey of the Edu cation of Teachers of significance in business-teacher educa tion are: 1. More than two-thirds of the teachers answering the questionnaire report academic degrees. The day of the teacher who was "picked up in the office or business college" is definitely past. 2. The median level of training of approximately ten thousand teachers of business subjects is more than four years of college education. 3. The median credits in business content subjects reported by 5,701 teachers are 40.1 semester hours. This indi cates that teachers of business subjects are apparently well trained in the content of their teaching subjects, 4. Only 40.5 per cent of junior-high-school teachers and 53.56 per cent of senior-high-school teachers offer in struction in the field of commerce and business exclusively. This fact indicates the desirability of the requirement of teaching minors for prospective teachers of business subjects. 5. The median teacher of business subjects has a teaching load requiring from twenty-nine to thirty-four clock hours per week. 6. The median teacher of business subjects has had eight or nine years of teaching experience in more than two school systems. This indicates some turnover and consequent opportunities for teaching positions for graduates of insti tutions engaged in business-teacher preparation. i 232 7. The tangible rewards of the profession are not great* They range from $400.00 to $7,500.00 as yearly sala ry, only one representative of each of these extremes having been discovered. The median for nine months is a little bet ter than $1,400.00 and for ten months, approximately $ 2, 100. 00. 8. A further classification of the. data relative to the teacher and his job in five types of communities ranging from open country to cities of more than 100,000 population, indicates that, in approximately every case, the preparation of the teachers and the conditions of employment are pro gressively better from small to large communities. However, the needs of communities of various sizes must be investigated because inexperienced teachers are accepted by fifty per cent 255 of the communities of each class. This picture of teaching conditions in communities of various types is, then, of vital interest in the building of curricula for the education of prospective teachers of business subjects. The following chapter sets forth a composite curriculum for the education of teachers of business subjects constructed after a study of the provisions made in 1928-1929 for business- teacher-education by the degree-granting institutions of the United States. The findings of that study, together with the 235 See Chapter XIII for confirmation of this statement. data presented in this chapter, will he used in a later evaluation of present business-teacher-education curricula. 234 CHAPTER X CURRICULA. DEVISED EOR THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS AS REVEALED BY PREVIOUS STUDIES The harmonization of the programs of two inherently re lated phases of education— business education and business- teacher preparation— implies a consideration of all factors - involved in each program. The first part of this study was concerned with secondary business education; a tracing of its evolution from its early history, through early aims and curricula to present aims and curricula, together with a consideration of current trends. The second part deals with business teacher preparation for the purpose of har monizing its practices with those of secondary business education. The preceding chapter presented the results of the National Survey of the Education of Teachers, setting forth the professional and educational status of 15,000 of the business teachers of the country. These teachers, with the preparation received, have successfully allied themselves with business education in the secondary schools— success being measured, in this instance, by retention in the position of teacher. Such being the case, their education is of interest in the solving of the present problem. A further phase of this study is an investigation into past and present curricula set up for the education of business teachers, so that trends may be indicated and relationship to the secondary-schoo'l program noted. The S3 5 first step in this portion of the investigation is a consideration of business-teacher curricula as revealed by past studies. This phase of the problem will be presented under six headings, as follows: (A) Summary of previous studies; (B) The institutions investigated; (C) Total offerings in business education; (D) Detailed analysis of four-year curricula devised for the education of teachers of business subjects; (1) Summary of present practice; (F) Curriculum recommended upon the basis of the findings; and (G-) Comparative study of curricula suggested by six investigators. Each of these topics is made the subject of discussion in the following paragraphs, A. SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS STUDIES In Chapter II, eight previous studies in business teacher education were reviewed. As a result of such studies, six investigators have suggested curricula for business-teacher education# A comparative study of these six curricula is presented under section t t Ff t of this chapter. In 1929, the present investigator made a study of business-teacher education in the United States, A search through the available catalogs of 685 degree-granting insti tutions having departments or schools of education revealed that 477, or 69,7 per cent of them, offered courses in economics and business; but that only 138, or 20,1 per cent, offered courses for the preparation of business teachers. Of these, sixty-six or 9.7 per cent of all, published in their catalogs curricular requirements for business-teacher 236 education; and only forty-five or 6*6 per cent of all, presented four-year curricula outlined by years. The details of the investigation are given in the following paragraphs. B. THE INSTITUTIONS INVESTIGATED The available published catalogs of all degree-granting institutions listed by the United States Bureau of Education Educational Directory for 1928 as having departments or schools of education were examined. Four-hundred and ninety- two of these institutions were private universities and colleges, forty-five were state universities, ninety-nine were teachers’ colleges, and forty-nine were agricultural and publically controlled institutions. C. TOTAL OFFERINGS IN BUSINESS EDUCATION AND BUSINESS- TEACHER. EDUCATION - ^t was found that in all of the state universities courses in economics and business were offered, and that in 69.7 per cent of all the institutions investigated, such courses were offered. In business-teacher education, the state universities and teachers’ colleges ranked above agricultural and private colleges and universities in per centage of institutions in which courses were offered— 53.3, 45.5, 24.5, and 6.0 respectively. In all, 138 in stitutions, or 20.1 per cent of the total number, were engaged in business-teacher education. The offerings of the four types of institutions are presented in Table XXXIII;r, (Here insert Table XXXIII. "Business Courses and. Business^Teacher Education Offered in 685 Degree-Grant ing Institutions.") D. DETAILED ANALYSIS OF FOUR-YEAH CURRICULA DEVISED -FOR -THE. EDUCATION OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS. SUBJECTS The curricula of forty-five institutions, in the catalogs of which were published detailed four-year programs in business-teacher education, were further investigated. The curricula were first analyzed for each of the four types of institutions mentioned in the preceding paragraphs# A composite picture is here given, however, because the present study is concerned with all institutions engaged in business teacher education rather than with types of institutions. The total number of institutions in which each subject was required by years and the mean number of semester units required was ascertained. Little uniformity among insti tutions in the matter of requirements was found, many of the subjects being scattered over four years# The closest agreement was in the requirement of English composition in the first year, in forty of the forty-five institutions# The requirements in business education were meager, the nearest approach to agreement being fifteen institutions in which general methods courses in business subjects were required during the last year# Detailed requirements for each subject are shown in Table XXXCV. 238 TABLE Xmil BUSINESS COURSES AND BUSINESS-TEACHER-1DUCATION OFFERED IN 685 DEGREE-GRANTING INSTITUTIONS, Private Colleges and Universi ties State Universi ties Teachers’ Colleges Agricultur al and Publically Controlled Institutions Totals No business education offered: Number 160 0 37 11 208.3 Percentage 32*4 0.0 38.3 22.5 30.3 Business edu cation offered: Number 332 45 62 38 477 Percentage 67.5 100.0 62.7 77.5 69.7 Business- teacher education offered: Number 57 24 45 12 138 Percentage 6.0 53.3 45.5 24.5 20.1 239 (Here insert Table 22X17, .^Semester Units Required in the ^Business-Teacher-Education Curricula in Forty-Five Degree-Granting Institutions.”) A further summary of curricular requirements arranged by subject groupings was made. Decimal values in "total semester units” were necessitated by the fact that in some schools requirements were listed in terms of quarter units which were translated into semester units— (three quarter units are equal to two semester units). The average requirements in general academic subjects were 29.4 semester units; in free electives, 12.9 semester units; in social studies, 16.2 semester units; in technical and social-business subjects, 47.7 semester units; in general education courses, 15.9 semester units; and in commercial education, 4.0 semester units. The average semester units for the individual subjects have been considered in constructing the composite curriculum depicted in the following pages. The total units required in each subject are presented in Table 22X7. (Here insert Table XXXY, "Total Units Required in Each Subject in Forty-Five Degree-Granting Institutions In Which Curricula are Provided For the Preparation of Teachers Of Business Subjects.") E. SUMMARY OF PRESENT PRACTICE The construction of a composite curriculum based on present practice involves four steps: (1) the selection of the most important subjects on the basis of total TABLE XXHF 240 SEMESTER UNITS REQUIRED IN THE BCRSH^ESS-TEAOHER-EDUOATION CURRICULA IN FORTY-FIVE DEGREE-GRANTING INSTITUTI0NS236 YEARS' I II III IF Sub.iects No. Mean No. Mean No. Mean No. Mean GENERAL REQUIREMENTS: English Composition 40 5.3 14 2.8 2 4.0 0 0.0 Literature 5 2.9 20 4.3 6 3.9 5 4.8 Speech 1 4.0 9 1.9 2 2.4 4 1.5 Science 16 5.8 7 7.4 2 4.0 0 0.0 Foreign Language 18 7.9 13 6.5 i 10.0 0 0.0 General Psychology 3 2.0 15 3.8 6 5.2 2 2.5 Mathematics 6 5.6 1 6.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 Miscellaneous 15 1*9 4 3.4 4 1.5 8 2.8 Physical Education Military Training and Hygiene 30 2.5 20 2.8 5 2*0 2 2.0 Specified Electives 4 9.0 2 5.0 1 6.0 1 15.0 FREE ELECTIVES ii ’' 5.5 15 6.3 23 7.1 27 9.4 SOCIAL STUDIES: Economics 17 4.3 22 5.2 16 4.8 12 4.3 Political Science 5 5.0 2 5.0 6 3.7 9 5.0 Sociology 2 2.7 5 3.8 3 2.8 3 3.6 History 21 4.5 10 4.0 2 3.8 4 3.5 Electives in Social Studies 1 6.0 1 6.0 2 5.4 0 0.0 COMMERCE: Accounting 21 5*6 33 5.8 15 5.9 6 6.5 Shorthand 11 5.0 19 6.0 15 5.7 5 4.3 Typewriting 14 5.0 11 3.6 12 3.3 4 2.8 Business Law 2 3.5 9 6.2 19 5.2 10 3.4 Business Organization and— Office Management 2 4.5 4 2.7 16 3*4 22 4.0 Finance 1 3.9 10 2.5 14 3*5 11 4.0 Commercial Geography 20 4.1 2 4.2 9 3.8 2 2.7 Office and Secretarial Practice 4 5.7 4 3.1 7 3.0 1 4.0 Business English 4 3.8 7 2.8 10 3.8 4 2.4 Commercial Mathematics 16 3.5 6 2.7 3 2.3 1 3.0 Marketing 0 0.0 1 8.0 6 3.0 1 2.7 Advertising 0 0.0 0 ) 0.0 3 3*2 4 2.8 Salesmanship 0 0.0 2 3.0 4 2.2 5 2.6 Transportation 0 0*0 0 0.0 5 2.7 3 4.0 Statistics 0 0.0 3 3.7 3 2.9 2 5.0 Business Experience 0 0.0 1 2 4.0 1 3.0 236 This table should be read: English Composition is required by 40 nstitutions in the first year; 5*3 semester units are the mean number of credits TABLE XXXIV(continued) 241 SEMESTER HUTS REQUIRED IN TEE BDSIHESS-TEACHER-EDUCATION CURRICULA IN EORTT-EIVE EE GKEE-GRANTING INSTITUTIONS YEARS I II I]a r Subjects No* Mean No. Mean No. Mean No. Mean COMMERCE (Continued): History of Commerce . 0 0*0 0 0.0 2 2.0 0 0.0 Miscellaneous 9 4.8 3 4.7 9 2.7 16 2.8 Electives in Conmerce 2 7.0 5 8.0 0 5.4 10 5.3 EDUCATION: Principles of Education 3 1.3 1 3.3 7 2.8 4 1.9 Introduction to Teaching 4 1.4 3 3.0 6 2.5 0 0.0 Philosophy of Education 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 3.3 2 2.0 Secondary Education 0 0.0 1 2.0 13 2.5 8 2.6 Educational Psychology 1 2.0 7 3.6 15 2.8 4 2.5 Tests and Measurements 0 0.0 2 2.3 2 2.4 2 3.0 Ugh School Methods 0 0.0 0 0.0 3 2.6 8 3.0 Educational Guidance 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 3 3.2 History of Education 1 2.0 2 3.7 U 3.9 1 1.5 Administration and— Supervision 0 0.0 0 0.0 4 1.7 9 3.1 Educational Sociology 0 0.0 1 3.3 2 4.0 2 4.5 Vocational Education 2 1.0 0 0.0 1 2.0 0 0.0 Practice Teaching 0 o.o 3 2.3 12 4.0 30 5.7 Miscellaneous 3 2.0 2 2.6 2 4*0 5 2.0 Electives in Education 0 0.0 1 10.0 4 5.0 4 7.0 BUSINESS EDUCATION: Methods in Business Education General 0 0.0 1 2.7 4 3.4 15 3.7 Shorthand 0 0.0 3 1.8 3 2*2 3 1.4 Typing 1 0.7 2 2.4 4 1.7 2 1.0 Accounting 0 0.0 1 4.0 2 2.5 3 2.4 Penmanship 4 1.3 0 0.0 2 2.0 0 0.0 Office and Secretarial- Practice 0 0.0 1 2.7 0 0.0 2 3.0 Miscellaneous 0 0.0 0 0*0 0 0.0 3 2.3 Introduction to Business— Education 0 0.0 2 2.0 1 4.0 0 0.0 Principles of Business— Education 0 0.0 X 2.0 3 1.8 3 2.1 History of Business Education 0 0.0 1 2.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 Curriculum in Business— Education 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 2.0 1 2.0 Tests and Measurements in— Business Education 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 3.0 1 2.0 Miscellaneous 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 2*7 Electives in Business— Education 0 0.0 0 0*0 0 0.0 0 0.0 242 TABLE XXXV TOTAL UNITS REQUIRED IN EACH SUBJECT IN FORTY-FIVE DEGREE GRANTING INSTITUTIONS IN TSHICH CURRICULA ARE PROVIDED FOR THE PREPARATION CF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS Subjects Total Semester Units Mean Semester Units GENERAL "ACADEMIC" REQUIREMENTS; 1,294.6 29.4 English Composition 264.5 6.1 English Literature 140.1 3.2 Speech 35.5 0.8 Scienee 165.7 3.8 Foreign Language 224.0 5.0 General Psychology 100.6 2.3 Mathematics 62.7 Miscellaneous 83.3 1.9 Physical Education,- Military Training and Hygiene 149.4 3.4 Specified Electives 69.0 1.6 FREE ELECTIVES 566.3 12.9 SOCIAL STUDIES 713.0 16.2 Economics 308.5 7.0 Political Science 102.7 2.5 Sociology 60.7 1.3 History 165.4 3.7 Electives in Social Studies 75.7 1.8 COMMERCE 2,099.7 47.7 Accounting 444.8 10.0 Shorthand 272.7 6.2 Typewriting 157.5 3.6 Business Law 214.7 4.8 Business Organization and- Office Management 158.4 3.6 Finance 107.2 2.4 Commercial Geography 127.0 2.9 Office and Secretarial Training 97.1 2.2 Business English 82.4 1.9 Business Mathematics 90.2 2.1 243. TABLE XXXV (continued) TOTAL UNITS REQUIRED IN EACH SUBJECT IN FORTY-FIVE DEGREE- GRANTING INSTITUTIONS IN 1HICH CURRICULA ARE PROVIDED FOR THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS Total Mean Subjects Semester Semester Units Units COMMERCE (continued) Marketing 26.7 0.6 Advertising 21.4 0.5 Salesmanship 27.1 0.6 Transportation 20.6 0.5 Statistics 30.0 0.7 Business Experience 14 i0 0.3 History of Commerce 4.0 0.1 Miscellaneous 68.1 1.5 Electives in Commerce 135.6 3.1 EDUCATION 694.1 15.9 Principles of Education 36.3 0.8 Introduction to Teaching 36.4 0.8 Philosophy of Education 7.3 0.2 Secondary Education 56.6 1.3 Educational Psychology 77.8 1.8 Tests and Measurements 13.0 0.3 High School Methods 30.2 0.7 Educational Guidance 9.4 0.2 History of Education 56.6 1.3 Administration and Supervision 32.0 0.7 Educational Sociology 18.3 0.4 Vocational Education 5.7 0.1 Practice Teaching 26.5 5.3 Miscellaneous 32.0 0.7 Electives in Education 57.0 1.3 BUSINESS EDUCATION 173.2 4.0 Methods in Business Education; General 72.4 1.6 Shorthand 13.2 0.3 Typewriting 13.2 0.3 Accounting 14.0 0.3 Penmanship 11.1 0.3 Office and Secretarial Practice 8.7 0.2 Miscellaneous 7.0 0.2 244 TABLE XECV (continued) TOTAL UNITS REQUIRED IN EACH SUBJECT IN FORTY-FIVE DEGREE- GRANTING INSTITUTIONS IN WHICH CURRICULA ARE PROVIDED FOR THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS OF.BUSINESS SUBJECTS Subjects Total Semester Units Mean Semester Units BUSINESS EDUCATION (continued) Introduction to Business Education History of Business Education Principles of Business Education Curriculum in Business Education Tests and Measurements in Business- Edueation Miscellaneous 8.0 5.3 12.0 4.0 6.5 2.7 0,2 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 TOTAL GRADUATION REQUIREMENTS 126.1 245 semester units required; (2) the arrangement of these subjects by years, according to frequency of occurrence during each year; (3) re-arrangement for the purpose of balancing the number of semester units in each year; (4) comparison of total semester units required in each group of subjects with the average number of semester units required in each group of subjects by all the institutions* The detailed steps followed in the construction of the composite curriculum here presented are included in the original study and are 237 not reproduced here. It is believed that the curriculum thus constructed presents a picture of current practice in business-teacher-education in 1928-1929. 257 Jessie Graham, "The Present Status of Commercial Teacher Training in the Degree-Granting Institutions of the United States," Masters Thesis. (Unpublished), Dos Angeles: University of Southern California, 1929, pp. 92-100. 246 CURRICULUM CONSTRUCTED FROM THE BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION CURRICULA, OF FdRTYrFIVE DEGREE-GRANTING INSTITUTIONS First Semester Semester Second Semester Semesl tJnits Units YEAR I English Composition 3 English Composition 3 Foreign Language 3 Foreign Language 3 Accounting 2 Accounting 2 Science 2 Science 2 Commercial Geography 3 Economics 3 Physical Education 1 Physical Education 1 General Electives 2 General Electives 2 16 YEAR II ■ j [ ' g . Literature 3 . . Accounting 3 Accounting 3 Shorthand 2 Shorthand 2 38 2 Typewriting 1 Typewriting 1 History 4 General Psychology 2 Economics 2 Economics 2 Physical Education 1 Physical Education 1 Electives in Commerce 3 Free Electives 2 16 YEAR III I8~ Shorthand 1 Shorthand 1 Business Law 3 Business Law 2 Typewriting 1 Typewriting 1 Finance 2 Secondary Education 2 History of Education 2 Educational Psychology 2 Free Electives 8 17 YEAR Electives in Commerce IV 7 15 Business Organization. 4 Political Science 2 Office Practice 2 Practice Teaching 5 General Methods in - Business Education 2 Electives: Special Methods 2 General 2 Principles and - Free 3 Philosophy of Edu Education 5 8 cation 2 Electives in Social - Studies 3 TIP 15 238 As shorthand should not be required of all teachers of business subjects, other subjects should be substituted according to the teaching field chosen— differentiated curricula should be provided for teachers of secretarial subjects, accounting, and merchandising. 247 SDMARY OF REQ.UIHEMENTS Specified Electives Total 25 6 31 13 3 16 36 10 46 13 3 16 4 0 4 13 13 l26 sem. ___________ units F. CURRICULDM RECOMMENDED UPON THE BASIS OF THE FINDINGS The preceding paragraphs presented a curriculum constructed from an analysis of the curricula in use in 1928 for the edu cation of teachers of business subjects. The curriculum thus constructed merely presents a picture of the then current practice and is not recommended as a guide for future procedure. The one given below, however, includes modifications made in con formity with suggestions given by leaders in the field. Lomax and Tonne, as the result of an investigation made under the auspices of the National Association of Commercial Teacher-Training Insti tutions, recommended that twelve semester units of business education be included in business-teacher training curricula in addition to four semester units of practice teaching in business 239 subjects and four semester units in business participation. In a four-year curriculum for business teachers published by Yoder, thirty-four to forty semester hours of work in education including special methods of teaching business subjects were 239 Paul S. Lomax and Herbert A Tonne, Curriculum Making in Commercial Teacher Training;, (unpublished), (Mimeographed copy was obtained from the National Association of Commercial Teacher Training Institutions, May, 1929.) General Requirements Social Studies Commerce Education Business Education Free Electives Total 248 , 240 recommended, Weersing, in his suggested curriculum for prospective teachers of business subjects, included courses in organization and administration of business education and 241 special methods in specific business subjects. All of the suggested curricula quoted (those suggested by Lomax, Tonne, Yoder, Weersing) include provision for specialisation with regard to the teaching subject. The 1928-1929 study here quoted revealed only four institutions in which differentiated curricula for the teachers of specific business subjects were provided. The trend, however, seems to be in the direction of differentiated curricula and provision for specialization. The curriculum here suggested provides for sufficient electives to take care of this situation. Lomax and Tonne have suggested that the degree of specialization be controlled by the use of Restricted electives*, which means that they are selected with the consent of the faculty adviser. This suggested curriculum, then, represents an attempt to modify curricula in use— and which had proved themselves practicable— by the inclusion of recommendations which seemed warranted by the 1928-1929 investigation andwhich were in harmony with the opinions of leaders in the field of business-teacher education. 240 C, M. Yoder, "Commercial Teacher Training Curricula for Teachers* Colleges," Commercial Education, Bulletin Ho. 148. Whitewater, Wisconsin: Whitewater State Teachers* Gollege, (May, 1929), p. 7. 241 Frederick J. Weersing, Reorganization of Commercial Education in Public High Schools. Cincinnati: South-Western Publishing Company, 1929, p. 147, 249 ; CURRICULUM RECOMMENDED FOR THE EDUCATION OF TEACHERS OR BUSINESS SUBJECTS First Semester Semester Second Semester Semester Units Units YEAR I English composition 5 English composition 3 Foreign language 3 Foreign language 3 Accounting 2 Accounting 2 Science 2 Science 2 Commercial geography 3 Economics 3 Physical education 2 Physical education 2 Electives 2 17 YEAR II nr Literature 3 Accounting 3 Accounting 3 Shorthand 2 Shorthand 2 Typewriting 1 Typewriting 1 History 4 General psychology 2 Economics 2 Economics 2 Physical education 1 Physical education 1 Electives 3 Electives 2 IS YEAR III 16" Shorthand 2 Shorthand 2 Business law 3 Business law 2 Typewriting 1 Typewriting 1 Finance 2 Secondary education 2 History of Education 2 Educational psychology 2 Principles of- Curriculum in- business education 2 business education 2 Tests in business- Extra-curri cular- education 2 activities 2 Electives 2 Business participation (no credit) IS YEAR IV 13 Business organization 4 Political science 2 Office practice 2 Practice teaching . 5 General methods in- Research in - business education 2 business education 2 Special methods in Electives 6 business subjects 2 Principles and- philosophy of edu cation 2 Electives 4 16 15 250 SUMMARY OF CURRICULAR REQUIREMENTS Semester Units General foundational subjects-------- 27 Commerce------------------------- — 38 Social sciences--------------------- 13 General education------------------- 10 Business education---------- ------- 17 Electives (to provide for special ization if desired------- 19 Total------------------------------- 124 G. CQMPARATI'VE STUDY 0E CURRICULA IN BUSINESS- TEACKER-EBUCATION SUGGESTED BY SIX INVESTIGATORS At least six investigators have suggested curricula which are the result of objective studies. All of tbese curricula make provision for specialization in four teaching fields— stenographic, accounting, merchandising, and general business— either through a system Qf electives or through definite group options within the curriculum. From thirty-two to forty-five semester hours are required in general back ground subjects— liberal arts and social sciences. From thirty to sixty semester hours are required in courses in commerce. In the field of education, from seven to twenty semester hours are required in general education courses . . . a n d from six to twenty-three semester hours in courses in business education. From four to nineteen semester hours of electives are allowed. The detailed requirements in each group of subjects are presented in Table XXXVI. (Here Insert Table XXXVI, "Comparative Study of Curricula -In Business-Teacher Education Suggested by Six Investigators,") 251 table xxxvi COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CURRICULA IN BUS INESS -TEACHER-EDUGATIGN SUGGESTED BY SIX INVESTIGATORS INVESTIGATOR Semester Units Suggesited General Requirements Commerce Education Electives Business General Liberal Social Arts Science 242 Weersing 27 18 40 9 15 15 243 Lomax and- Tonne 32 42 20 14 12 244 248 Yoder 32 to 40 — 30 to 40 30 to 40 4 to 6 245 Erickson 37 — 50 19 6 +2 246 Garbutt 34 — . 60 7 23 — 247 Graham 27 13 38 17 10 19 242 Frederick J. Weersing, op* cit., footnote 241, p. 146-147# 243 Lomax and Tonne, op. cit., footnote 239# 244 C# M. YOder, op* cit., footnote 41* pp. 201-208. 245 Arthur E. Erickson, op. cit., footnote 38. 246 Irving R. Garbutt, Director of Commercial Education, Cincinnati, Ohio. (Typewritten curriculum received October, 1932.) 247 Jessie Graham, op. cit., footnote 237, p. 132. 248 Includes general and business education. 252 s m s m m of chapter An investigation into curricula set up for the edu cation of teachers of "business subjects, made in 1929, re vealed that 138 degree-granting institutions in the United . States were then engaged in business-teacher education. An analysis of the curricular requirements published in forty-five institutional catalogs resulted in a composite summary of curricular requirements. The results of this analysis were then used in constructing a curriculum. A comparative study made of this and five other suggested curricula revealed that the following requirements were recommended for the training of teachers of business subjects: Semester hours a. Liberal-arts and social- science group-------------- 32 to 45 b. Commerce courses- technical and general------- 30 to 60 c. General education courses------ 7 to 20 d. Business education courses----- 6 to 23 e. Electives--------- ----------- 4 to 19 Total-------------------- 120 to!24 The following chapter sets forth the results of the present investigation into current curricula devised for the preparation of teachers of business subjects. The findings of previous studies and of the present study will then be compared for the purpose of discovering present trends in business-teacher education. Finally, the requirements of employing institutions as to the qualifi- • cations of teachers of business subjects, as set forth in a later chapter, will be used in evaluating the present facilities offered for business-teacher education. CHAPTER XI 253 PRESENT PRACTICES IN INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION The results of an investigation of the 1928-1929 curricula in institutions engaged in business-teacher education were re ported in the preceding chapter. In order to discover present practices and trends in business-teacher education, 181 in quiries were sent to degree-granting institutions and the cur ricula published in forty-five 1932-1933 catalogs were analyzed. Ninety-six replies to the inquiry were received, seventy-four of which were used in compiling the results here presented. The other twenty-two replies contained reports of conditions which made the answering of the inquiry difficult if not impossible. In at least three institutions, business-teacher education has been discontinued; in others, the curriculum has been placed largely on an elective basis. The remainder of the adminis trators of whom inquiry was made wrote letters describing various practices. The information contained in the letters is of such variety that it does not lend itself to statistical treatment. The following paragraphs, therefore, include reports of seventy-four returned questionnaires and the analysis of forty-five curricula. These data are presented under eight headings as follows: (A) Geographical distribution of insti tutions for which data are available; (B) Present curricular requirements in forty-five institutions engaged in business- teacher education; (C) Differentiated curricula offered in seventy institutions engaged in business-teacher education; 254 (D) Standards of technical skill required in sixty-one insti tutions engaged in business-teacher education; (E) Bata rel ative to business experience required in seventy-one insti tutions engaged in business-teacher education; (P) Provisions made for solving four problems in business-teaeher education; (G) Problems suggested by administrators in thirty-nine insti tutions engaged in business-teaeher education; and (H) Syllabi in courses in business-teaeher education. A. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSTITUTIONS FOR WHICH BATA ARE AVAILABLE One hundred eighty-one questionnaires were sent to insti tutions represented in the membership of the National Association of Commercial Teacher Training Institutions and also to adminis trators of institutions in which business-teaeher education is offered, as shown by'previous studies. Ninety-six replies were received, fifty-three per cent of the total number sent out. Of these, as explained in the preceding paragraph, only seventy- four were usable, forty-one per cent of the total number sent out. These seventy-four replies came from administrators in institutions in thirty-three states. Pennsylvania was repre sented by eight institutions; New York, by five; Indiana, Ohio, and Texas, by four each; California, Illinois, Iowa, Michigan, Missouri, Nebraska, and Wisconsin by three each; and the remainder by two and one each. The data presented in the following paragraphs are, therefore, representative of practices prevailing in thirty-three states. B. PRESENT CURRICULAR REQUIREMENTS IN FORTY-FIVE INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION An attempt was made to secure the 1932-1933 catalogs of the forty-five institutions the business-teaeher curricula of which had been analyzed in 1928-1929. In some cases, however, the curriculum for business teachers has been discontinued; in others, it is in a state of reorganization; and in still others, efforts made to get catalogs were unsuccessful. In all these 249 instances, catalogs of other institutions were substituted. The following summary represents, therefore, an analysis of the curricular requirements set up for prospective teachers of business subjects in forty-five institutions in 1932: Average Semester Units Business content subjects -------- 41.6 General academic subjectST-?-??*”*-— ----- 32.7 Social Sciences---------------- — ----- — 14.9 General education courses--— 13.2 Business education courses-— -— ------— . 5.2 Practice teaching— — 4.8 Free electives-— ----- — ---- 17.1 Total----- 129.5 The above summary represents a great variety of requirements. Total semester units required for graduation range from 120 to 145 semester units, the modal point being 128semester units. In eleven cases, the total equals 130 semester units or more. In the case of institutions on the quarter basis, it was necessary to translate quarter units into semester units by using two-thirds of the number of quarter units required. Business content subjects are allotted the greatest proportion of time in the average curriculum. The general academic subjects constitute the core curriculum required of all candidates for degrees and 249 See Appendices M and N for names of institutions used in each analysis. 256 rank second in semester units required. The social sciences, too, are frequently required as a part of the core curriculum. In other instances, the suggestion is made that prospective teachers of business subjects select a minor in the social sciences. The requirements in general education courses are influenced by state requirements for teaching credentials. Requirements in business education courses range from none to eighteen and two- thirds semester units. Practice teaching is required in all but five institutions. Free electives range from none to forty- eight semester units. As curricula are built to meet local conditions, a summary of requirements is presented, not as an example to be followed, but as a general picture of present requirements. These requirements will again be discussed in the following chapter in their r&Le as indices of trends in business-teaeher education. C. DIFFEREHTIATEH) CURRICULA OFFERED IN SWmmiY INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION The administrators of seventy institutions gave in formation relative to differentiated curricula. In thirty in stitutions, only one curriculum for prospective teachers of business subjects is offered. In all, 154 differentiated currie- ; ula are offered in forty institutions# Forty curricula, twenty-six per cent of the total, have been set up for each of two groups of prospective teachers— secretarial and accounting. Curricula for teachers of general-business subjects have been planned in twenty-two institutions. Sixteen curricula for teachers of marketing and merchandising subjects have been set 257 up. In twelve Institutions, special provision is made for teachers in small high schools. It is interesting, to note that in seven instances, special curricula have been set up for junior high-school teachers; in six cases, for teachers of social-business subjects; and in three institutions, for junior- college teachers. The eight “other” curricula include business administration, general clerical, banking and finance, personnel administration, journalism, and differentiation through electives. This variety of differentiated curricula indicates the wide scope of the field of secondary business education. Data relative to differentiated curricula are shown in Table 22X711* (Here insert Table XXX7II, ‘ ’Differentiated Curricula Offered .In Seventy Institutions Engaged in Business-Teacher Education.tt) D. STANDARDS OF TECHNICAL SKILL REQUIRED IN SIXTT-ONE INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION In fifty-five institutions standards of technical skill in shorthand and typewriting have been set up for prospective teach ers of business subjects. The standards for shorthand speed range from forty-five to 150 words per minute, with an average of 100.50 words per minute* The time of test ranges from one to ISO minutes with an average of 14.22 words per minute. The errors allowed range from three to twenty with an average of 6.72* Due to the variations in time of test, however, “errors allowed” have!little significance. Ninety-five per cent accuracy was specified in eight cases, ninety and eighty per cent in one case each. The standards in typewriting range from thirty-five to eighty words per minute with an average of TABLE XXXVII DIFFERENTIATED CURRICULA OFFERED IN SEVENTY INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION Differentiated Curricula Number of Institutions in 1/Vhich Offered Per Cent of Total Curricula 1* Secretarial and Steno graphic-— ; ------- —-- 40 26.00 2* Accounting and book keeping-------------- 40 26.00 3* General business------ 22 14.27 4. Salesmanship and mar- 16 10.40 5* Special for teachers in small high schools---- 12 7.77 6. Special for junior-high school teachers------- 7 4.54 7* Social business— ----- 6 3.90 8* Special for junior- college teachers---— - 3 1.94 9. Others— — ---— — --- 8 5.18 Total number of special curricula-— — -- 154 100.00 Total number of institutions in which offered— ------■ -- 40 57.2 This table should be read as follows* nIn forty institutions engaged in business-teaeher education, secretarial and stenographic curricula are offered* They represent twenty-six per cent of the total number of curricula offered*w 50.68 words per minute. The test time ranges from ten to 130 minutes with an average of 16.68 minutes* Errors allowed range from three to ten with an average of 5.33 errors. Standards of technical skill set up in institutions for teacher preparation are shown in Table XXXVIII. (Here insert Table XXXVIII, "Standards of Technical Skill Required in Fifty-live Institutions Engaged in Business-Teacher Education.") E. BUSINESS EXPERIENCE REQUIRED IN SEVENTT- QNE INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED IN BUSINESS- TEACHER EDUCATION Business experience is required in nineteen institutions, 37.53 per cent of the total number for which data are available. In only eight instances, representing four states, is business experience required for a general state teaching credential; while in eleven cases, representing seven states, it is required for a special state teaching credential. Credit toward graduation for business experience is given in only ten insti tutions, 14.05 per cent of the total of seventy-one institutions for which data are available. In eighteen institutions, six months or less is the time required for business experience; while in two institutions, one year is required. Moreover, one year is the greatest length of time for which experience is required in any curriculum. The requirements relative to busi ness experience are shown in Table XXXIX. (Here insert Table XXXIX, "Data Relative to Business -Experience Required in Seventy- One Institutions Engaged in Business-Teacher Education."} TABLE XXXVIII STANDARDS OF TECHNICAL SKILL REQUIRED IN FIFTY-FIVE INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION Criteria Range Average Shorthand skill: Speed— words per minute 45 to 150 100.50 Time of test in minutes 1 to 120 14.22; Errors allowed 3 to 20 6.72 Typewriting skill: Speed— words per minute 35 to 80 50.68 Time of test in minutes 10 to 120 16.68 Errors allowed 3 to 10 5.33 Number of institutions! With standards 55 Without standards 6 Total 61 This table should be read as follows: "The requirements of shorthand skill in fifty-five institutions engaged in business-teaeher education range from forty-five to 150 words per minute with an average of 100*50 words per minute.” 261 TABLE XXXIX DATA RELATIVE TO BUSINESS EXPERIENCE REQUIRED IN SEVENTY-ONE INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION Requirements for Business Experience Yes No Number Per Cent Number Per Cent I. Business experience required: a. For graduation 19 27.52 50 72.48 b. For general state teaching certifi cate 8 13.35 52 86.65 c. For special state teaching certifi cate 11 18.65 48 81.35 II. Credit given 10 14.05 61 85.95 III. Kind of experience specified 11 21.16 41 78.84 IV. Minimum time required Six months or less 18 90.00 One year 2 10.00 More them one year 0 0.00 This table should be read as follows: t t In nineteen institutions, busi ness experience is required for graduation. These nineteen institutions represent 27*52 per cent of the sixty-nine institutions for which data are available.’ 1 262 t F. PROVISIONS MADE FOR SOLVING FOUR PROBLEMS IN BUSINESS TEACHER EDUCATION That administrators in institutions engaged in business- teaeher education are aware of problems in the field is evi denced by the variety of provisions made for solving four problems presented to them. The suggestions made are set forth in the following paragraphs under four headings: (l) provision made for acquainting student-teachers with the progressive quality of aims, curricula, and procedures in secondary business education; (2) provisions made for promoting familiarity with research findings and the habit of constant search for new developments on the part of student-teachers; (3) provisions made for personality and character development of student- teachers; and (4) provisions made for giving the teacher a basis for presenting to secondary school pupils an adequate picture of present social and economic life. 1. Provisions made for acquainting student-teachers with the progressive quality of aims, curricula, and procedures in secondary business education. Six means for acquainting student-teachers with the progressive quality of aims, curric- : : .cula, and procedures in secondary business education are mentioned a total of ninety-eight times. This response is an encouraging indication for the future of business education, especially in view of the fact that teachers of business subjects are accused by administrators participating in this investigation of being T T unprogressiveM§ As definite provisions are now made for acquainting student-teachers with the fact 263 that secondary business education is not static and that their procedures must be adapted to changing aims and curr icula, this criticism should no longer be a valid one. In fifty-seven instances, such provisions are now made through courses in business education; and in thirty cases, through courses in general education. Required readings in current litera ture are the means used in eight institutions to accomplish this end. In other instances, discussions at informal social gatherings, the work of the commerce club, and comparative studies of the business curricula of various high schools are used. The provisions made for acquainting student teachers with the fact that aims, curricula, and procedures in secondary business education are progressive are shown in Table XL. (Here insert Table XL, "Provisions Made in Institutions Engaged in Business-Teacher Education for Acquainting Student-Teachers with the Progressive Quality of Aims, Curricula, and Procedures in Secondary Business Education.*1) 2. Provisions made for promoting familiarity with research findings and the habit of constant search for new developments on the part of student-teachers. Definite provision for promoting familiarity with research findings is made in seventy- three cases. In thirty-five instances, or 47.90 per cent of the total, these provisions are made in courses in principles and procedures in business education. This problem is very closely connected with the one in the preceding paragraph inasmuch as research studies reveal the progressive quality of aims, curricula, and procedures in business education. In seven institutions, students are required to carry on research; TABLE XL PROVISIONS MADE IN INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION FOR ACQUAINTING STUDENT-TEACHERS WITH THE PROGRESSIVE QUALITY OF AIMS, CURRICULA, AND PROCEDURES IN SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION Frequency of Mention Provisions Made Number Per Cent In course works Business education— --— General education-----* — 57 30 58.17 30.60 Required readings in current literature— — 8 8.17 Discussions at informal social functions— — --- 1 1.02 Commerce club— — -------— 1 1*02 Comparative curriculum studies 1 1*02 Total-----■ ----- 98 100*00 This table should be read as follows: "Ninety-eight statements were made relative to provisions for acquainting student-teachers with the progressive quality of aims, curricula and procedures in secondary business education* Of these, fifty-seven, or 58*17 per cent of the total, were’ through courses in business education* 265 and in two institutions, they are requested to take part in state surveys. Other means suggested are through lectures and seminars, courses in business eontent subjects, courses in general education^courses in research, practice teaching projects, required readings, faculty membership in research organizations, business contacts, and the commerce club. The frequency with which each method is used is shown in Table XLI. {Here insert Table XLI, "Provisions Made in Institutions Engaged in Business-Teacher Education for Promoting Familiarity With Research Findings and the Habit of Constant Search for New Developments on the Part of Student- Teachers.”) 3. Provisions made for jijersonality and character develop ment of student-teachers. That this subject is considered worthy of attention is shown by the fact that fourteen means for such development are mentioned a total frequency of 135 times by administrators of institutions engaged in business- teaeher education. Teacher-rating of personality is the means most commonly used; it being mentioned thirty-eight times, or 28.14 per cent of the total. "Student-rating in practice teaching classes” is mentioned twenty-nine times, or 21.48 per cent of the total. It may be that this phrase was interpreted in two ways and that the original statement in the questionn aire should have read, "pupil rating of student-teachers doing practice teaching." It is probable that in some in stances the phrase was interpreted to mean, "supervisor-rating of students doing practice teaching." However, in twenty- nine cases— plus three more designated, "rating of student- 266 TABLE X LI PROVISIONS MADE IN INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION FOR PROMOTING FAMILIARITY WITH RESEARCH FINDINGS AND THE HABIT OF CONSTANT SEARCH FOR NEW DEVELOPMENTS ON THE PART OF STUDENT-TEACHERS ............. ” " Provisions Made Frequency of Mention Number Per Cent 1, Courses in principles and pro cedures in business education 35 47.90 2• Required research— -— ------- 7 9.58 3, Lectures and seminars------— 6 8.27 4, Business content subjects— 5 6.84 5, Courses in general education— 5 6.84 6, Special study in research courses— — — — — — 3 4.11 7. Practice teaching projects--- 3 4.11 8, Required readings--------- — 2 2.74 9, Faculty membership in research organizations— *------- ---- 2 2.74 10, Participation in state survey on which business-teaeher cur ricula have been based------- 2 2.74 11• Business contacts----------- 2 2.74 12, Commerce club— ---- -------- 1 1.39 Total— — — ----- 73 100.00 This table should be read as follows: “Seventy-three means for promoting familiarity with research findings on the part of student teachers were stated. Of these, thirty-five, or 47,9 per cent of the total were through courses in principles and procedures in business education,” 267 teacher by supervisor”— practice teaching is used as a means for personality development through rating. Definite provision for personality and character development is made in secretarial training courses in tvrenty-seven institutions. Self-rating of personality is used in twenty instances. Other provisions are made through the personnel service of the institution; the commerce club; suggested readings; personal discussions; extra- curriculum activities; and ethics, salesmanship, and guidance courses. The frequency of mention of the various provisions made for personality and character development is shown in Table XLII. (Here insert Table XLII, "Provisions Made in Institutions Engaged in Business-Teacher Education for Personality and Character Development of Student- Teachers. * * ) 4. Provisions made for giving the teacher a basis for presenting to secondary school pupils an adequate picture of present social and economic life. Of the four problems presented to administrators, the one relating to providing the teacher with a basis for giving to secondary school pupils an adequate picture of present social and economic life elicited the greatest number of responses. Eive means for providing such a basis are mentioned a total of 168 times. In seventy-three cases, or 45.40 per cent of the total, such provision is made through social science courses; and in seventy instances, through general academic eourses. Other means used are: business education courses, general education courses and practice teaching. The awareness of administrators to the fact that this is a problem is encouraging in view of TABLE X L II PROVISIONS MADE IN INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION FOR PERSONALITY AND CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT OF STUDENT-TEACHERS Provisions Made Frequency of Mention Number Per Cent 1. Teacher-rating of per sonality— — — — — — — 38 28.14 2, Student-rating in practice teaching classes 29 21.48 3. Definite provision in sec retarial training courses 27 20.00 4. Self-rating of personality 21 15.55 5. Personnel service of institution-— — -— --- 5 3.73 6. Commerce club— — — — 4 2.96 7. Rating of student-teacher by ’ supervisor— — — — — 3 2.22 8. ”School does this work”— 2 1.48 9. Suggested readings— — 1 0.74 10. Personal discussions----- 1 0.74 11. Extra-curriculum activi ties— — — — — — — 1 0.74 12. Ethics course----------- 1 0.74 13. Salesmanship course— — — 1 0.74 14. Guidance course--------- 1 0.74 Total-------— — 135 100.00 This table should be read as follows: ”Fourteen provisions for development of teacher personality and character were mentioned a total of 135 times. Teacher-rating of person ality is practiced in thirty-eight instances, or 28.14 per cent of the total.” 269 the present emphasis upon social sciences in secondary schools* The frequency of mention of provisions made for giving the teacher a basis for presenting an adequate picture of social and economic life is shown in Table XLIII. (Here insert Table XLIII, "Provisions Made in Institutions Engaged in Business-Teacher Education For Giving the Teacher a Basis for Presenting to Secondary School Pupils an Adequate Picture of Present Social and Economic Life.") In addition to the four problems, means for the solution of which are suggested in the preceding paragraphs, others were indicated by the administrators of thirty-nine insti tutions engaged in business-teaeher education. G. PROBLEMS SUGGESTED BY ADMINISTRATORS IN THIRTY-NINE INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION Fifty-three problems were suggested by administrators in thirtjr-nine institutions. They may be roughly grouped into twenty divisions. Eight problems, 15.09 per cent of the total, are in the field of social-business education; the building of courses in this field and the liberalization of business education being mentioned. The individual business subjects and closer cooperation with high schools are mentioned six times each. Problems connected with business contacts and practice teaching are suggested five and four times res pectively. Educating administrators and school authorities as to the importance of business education and the follow-up of graduates are mentioned three times each. Other problems are connected with the liberalization of the teacher’s TABLE XLIII PROVISIONS MALE IN INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION FOR GIVING THE TEACHER A BASIS FOR PRESENTING TO SECONDARY-SCHOOL PUPILS AN ADEQUATE PICTURE OF PRESENT SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC LIFE Courses through which Such Provision is Made Frequency of Mention Number Per Cent Social Science courses------ 73 43.40 General academic courses----- 70 41.70 Business education courses— — 18 10.73 General education courses---- 5 2.98 Practice teaching— ---— 2 1.19 Total--------- — 168 100.00 This table should be read as followss ”Courses through which provisions are made for ‘giving the teacher a basis for pre senting to secondary-school pupils an adequate picture of pre sent social and economic life* are listed 168 times. Provision for reaching this goal is made in 73 cases through social science courses, or 43.40 per cent of the total.” 271 A preparation, tests and measurements, state certification, the selection of minor teaching subjects, and methods courses. All of the problems listed in Table XLIV are mentioned by at least one administrator as worthy of study. (Here insert Table XLIV, "Problems Suggested by Administrators In Thirty-Nine Institutions Engaged in Business-Teacher Education." H. SYLLABI IN COURSES IN BUSINESS- TEACHER EDUCATION Of the fifty-seven institutions for which data are available, only ten publish syllabi for courses in business- teacher education^ In a few instances mention is made of the fact that mimeographed outlines of courses are available if they will be helpful to workers in other institutions. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 1. Data relative to business-teacher education were obtained from administrators of institutions in thirty-three states. 2. An analysis of forty-five published curricula in business-teacher education reveals the following curricular requirements: Semester Units Business content courses----- 41.6 General academic courses— --------32.7 Social sciences------------ 14.9 Business education courses------ 13.2 General education courses-------- 5.2 Practice teaching------------ 4.8 Electives------------------------17.1 Average semester units _____ required for graduation----129.5 3. One hundred fifty-four differentiated curricula TABLE XLIV PROBLEMS SUGGESTED BY ADMINISTRATORS IN THIRTY-NINE INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION Field in which Problem is Located Freauencv of Mention Number Per Cent 1. Social-business education— ■ --- 8 15.09 2. Individual business subjects— 6 11.32 3. Cooperation with high schools— 6 11.32 4. Business contacts— — -------- 5 9.44 5. Practice teaching— — — — -— - 4 7.55 6. Education of administrators and school authorities as to im portance of business education- 3 5.66 7. Follow-up of graduates-r-r----- 3 5.66 8. Liberalization of teacher*s preparation— — — — — — 2 : 3.78 9. Tests and measurements— 2 3.77 10. State certification— — — — — — 2 3.78 11. Minor teaching subjects— — — — 2 3.77 12. Methods courses— — — — — — 2 3.78 13. Personality development— --— 1 1.88 14. State supervision— — — — — — 1 1.89 15. Surveys under direction of institutions— — — — — — 1 1.88 16. Reorganization of high-school curricula— — — — — — 1.89 17. Needs of small rural schools— 1 1.88 18. Acquainting students with tan gible rewards of profession— — • 1 1.89 19. Preparation of college teachers for the field of business edu cation—— — — — — — — — 1 1.88 20. Business ethics— ----------- 1 1.89 Total-— — — — -— — 53 100.00 This table should be read as follows: "Twenty problems were sug gested a total of fifty-three times* Social-business education was mentioned eight times, or 15*09 per cent of the total*" 273 are offered in forty institutions. Special curricula have been set up for the following types of teaching positions (in order of frequency): secretarial, accounting, general business, salesmanship, small high school, junior high school, social business, and junior college. 4. The average shorthand speed required in fifty-five institutions is 100.50 words per minute for 14.22 minutes with $.72 errors allowed. The average standards in typewriting are: 50.68 words per minute for 16.68 minutes with 5.33 errors allowed. 5. Business experience is required for graduation in nineteen institutions; for general state teaching credential, in eight instances; and for special state teaching credential in eleven eases. Credit is given for such experience in ten institutions. In ninety-per cent of institutions, six months or less experience is required; while in no instance, is more than one year specified. 6. Provisions are made, in 58.17 per cent of the ninety- eight instances cited, for acquainting student-teachers with the progressive quality of aims, curricula, and procedures in secondary business education through business "education” courses. In other cases, such provision is made through general education courses, required readings, commerce clubs, informal discussions, and curriculum studies. 7. In thirty-five, or 47.90 per cent of the seventy- three instances cited, provisions are made for promoting familiarity with research findings and the habit of constant search for new developments through courses in business edu- 27 4 cation. Among the other means suggested are: required research, lectures and seminars, business content subjects, general education courses, special study in research courses, and practice teaching projects. 8. Eating of personality— by teacher, pupil, supervisor, or the student himself— is the means most frequently suggested for personality and character development of student-teachers. Other means are: suggested readings; personal discussions; extra curriculum activities; and ethics, salesmanship, and guidance courses. 9. Social science courses and general academic courses are the means most frequently used for giving the teacher a basis for presenting to secondary school pupils an adequate picture of present social and economic life. Other means suggested are: business education courses, general education courses, and practice teaching. 10. Fifty-three problems in business-teacher education are suggested by thirty-nine administrators. These problems are of many varieties. Problems most frequently mentioned are in the fields of: social-business education, individual business subjects, cooperation with high schools, business contacts and practice teaching. 11. Only in ten institutions engaged in business edu cation are syllabi of courses in business education published. The discussion in this chapter has been concerned with the results of an investigation into present practices in business-teacher education. In the following chapter, a comparison is made between previous practice indicated in the preceding chapter and the present practice depicted in this chapter and trends are pointed out. These data will be used in Chapter XIV for an evaluation of present practice and trends in terms of the requirements for teachers of business subjects set up in employing institutions. 276 CHAPTER XII TRENDS IN CURRICULA DEVISED FOR THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS A comparison of the results of two investigations— one in 1929, and the other in 1932— will be made in this chapter for the purpose of indicating trends in business- teacher education. Trends are revealed in two ways: (A) Changes made in semester units required in business- teacher curricula since 1928-1929; and (B) Courses added to and dropped from business-teacher curricula since 1928- 1929. In the following paragraphs are presented the results of a comparative study under these two headings with a summary including a suggested curriculum in business-teacher education. A. CHANGES MADE IN SEMESTER UNITS REQUIRED IN BUSINESS-TEACHER CURRICULA SINCE 1928-1929 In 1928-1929, the catalogs of forty-five institutions were analyzed for the purpose of ascertaining graduation requirements for prospective teachers of business subjects. In 1932, forty-five catalogs were examined for the purposes of discovering trends in business-teacher education. As was explained in Chapter XI, 1932-1933 catalogs of the same institutions used in the previous analysis were secured if possible. The results of this comparative study show that while an average of 47.7 semester units in business content subjects were required in 1928-1929, the requirement has now been decreased to 41.6 semester units. Average require ments in social sciences have been decreased from 16.2 to 14.9 semester units and in practice teaching from 5.5 to 4.8 semester units. In all other subject groups, increases in requirements are noted. Requirements in academic sub jects have increased from 29.4 to 32.7 semester units; general education courses from 10.4 to 13.2 semester units; business education courses from four to 5.2 semester units; and free electives from 12.9 to 17.1 semester units. While average semester units obtained by catalog analysis are of little significance, the increases and decreases so revealed do indicate trends especially in view of the fact that simi lar trends were disclosed by another line of inquiry. Admin istrators in fifty-four institutions engaged in business- teacher education reported semester-units added to and removed from graduation requirements since 1928, While the average semester units vary in the two investigations, the increases and decreases occur in the same groups of subjects. The catalog analysis reveals an average increase in total gradua tion requirements of 3.4 semester units; total graduation requirements being 129.5 semester units. The results of , this investigation into trends in curricula set up for the preparation of teachers of business education are shown in Table XLV. 278 (Here insert Table XLV, "Changes Made in Business-Teacher Curricula from 1928-1929 to 1932- 1933 as Shown in Forty-Five Catalogs of Institutions Engaged in Business-Teacher Education and Reported by Fifty-Four Administrators,") An additional indication of change is the fact that the 1928-1929 study revealed only four institutions in which differentiated curricula were offered while the present investigation discloses that in forty institutions such cur ricula are now offered for teachers in various specialized fields of business education. B. COURSES ADDED TO OR DROPPED FROM REQUIREMENTS IN BUSINESS-TEACHER CURRICULA SINCE 1928-1929 Of the administrators of seventy-four institutions who replied to the questionnaire on business-teacher educa tion, sixteen or 22.85 per cent of the total number reply ing, reported no change in business-teacher curricula since 1928-1929. The fifty-four or 77.15 per cent of the total, who reported changes, listed courses added to or dropped from requirements. The changes made were of great variety. The net results have been assembled and are here presented. For example, seven courses in business law were added to curricula and one was dropped. The net result is six courses added. The changes made are found in six groups of subjects: (1) business content subjects; (2) general academic subjects; (3) social sciences; (4) general education courses; (5) busi ness education courses; and (6) practice teaching. 279 TABLE XLV CHANGES MADE IN BUSINESS-TEACHER CURRICULA FROM 1928-1929 TO 1932-1933 AS SHOIN IN FORTY-FIVE CATALOGS OF INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION AND REPORTED BY FIFTY-FOUR ADMINISTRATORS: Subject Groups i Semester Units Required in Forty-Five Institutions Net Change Changes Reported by Administrators in Fifty-Four Institutions Additional Units Required Fewer Units Required Net Change L928-1929 1932-1933 Business content subjects General academic subjects Social sciences General education courses Business educatioz courses Practice teaching Free electives Total 47.7 29.4 16.2 10.4 i 4.0 . 5.5 12.9 41.6 32.7 14.9 13.2 5.2 4.8 17.1 -6.1 3.3 -1.3 2.8 1.2 - .7 4.2 7.16 9.05 6.24 6.31 3.80 4.15 11.96 8.18 8.94 7.26 3.98 2.50 3.00 7.50 -1.02 .11 -1.02 2.33 1.30 1.15 ' 4.46 126.1 129.5 3.4 This table should be read as follows t ®In 1928-1929, an average of 47.7 semester, units in business content subjects was. required in forty- five institutions; in 1932-1933, an average of 41*6 semester units is required, a decrease of 6.1 semester units. Administrators in fifty- four institutions report an average of 7.16 additional units and 8.18 fewer semester units in business-content subjects since 1928-1929, or a net decrease of 1.02 semester units.* 280 1. Business content subjects. Courses in twelve of the business content subjects were added and in eight of them dropped* Ten courses in accounting were added to business-teacher curricula while six courses in bookkeeping were dropped, indicating an upgrading in requirements. Courses added in salesmanship, business law, office prac tice, economic geography, business mathematics, money and i banking, office machines indicate corresponding changes in secondary business curricula. Six courses in principles of business added probably indicate the trend toward fusion courses in business education. The courses dropped occur in isolated instances with the exception of penmanship, two courses of which have been dropped. The other instances of courses being dropped probably indicate local adjust ments rather than trends in business-teacher education. 2. General academic subjects. The only academic sub jects dropped, except in cases in which corresponding courses were added, were general agriculture and library practice. In all other cases, courses were added to requirements. Seven courses in natural science were added, five in English literature, three in geography, two in mathematics, and seven other courses in single instances. All of these addi tions indicate the liberalization of the education of the teacher of business subjects. 3. Social sciences. The present interest in social sciences is reflected in business-teacher curricula, to which, in fifty-four institutions, eighteen social-science courses were added to requirements. Seven of these courses 281 are in the field of economies; six, in history; three, in civics; and two, in sociology. 4. General education courses. One course in singing methods was the only one in this group dropped from require ments. Twelve courses in principles of education were added; nine, in educational psychology; five, in administra tion; and three scattered courses. All of these additions indicate a trend toward the identification of the interests of business education with those of all education and increased recognition of the fact that business education is an integral part of all education. 5. Business education courses. The greatest number of additions to the requirements of business-teacher curricula were in the field of business education courses; a net addition of forty courses being made. Thirty-three of the added courses are concerned with methods of teaching indi vidual business subjects. In one case, a course in methods of teaching business English was dropped. Other added courses are: problems in business education, commercial curriculum, and test procedures in business education. This trend toward requiring more courses in business educa tion is an encouraging one as it implies continued study of the field and the gathering of an increasing body of knowledge to form the content of such courses* 5. Practice Teaching. Ten courses in practice teach ing were added and one dropped which indicate a trend toward the requirement of more work along this line for prospective teachers. 282 The question may well be raised after reading the foregoing paragraphs as to which courses were dropped to make room for all these additions; there being net addi- 9 tions in every field. These courses probably take the place of free electives or required electives in special fields, On the other hand it is possible that, in answer ing the questionnaire, administrators found it easier to recall courses in the field of their own interest added than other courses dropped. Whatever the explanation, it is believed that the list of courses added and dropped indicates trends in business-teacher education, A detailed list of courses added and dropped in business-teacher cur ricula is shown in Table XLYI. (Here insert Table XLYI, "Net Courses Added and Dropped in Business-Teacher Curricula in Fifty-Four Institutions Since 1928-1929.") SUMMARY OF CHAPTER The summary of this chapter is presented in the form of a suggested curriculum in business-teacher education. The suggested curriculum given in Chapter X, as the result of the 1928-1929 study, has been modified in accordance with changes revealed by the present investigation. It will be noted that requirements in shorthand and typewriting have been changed to electives in business subjects in order to allow for specialization in the field of student’s choice in harmony with the trend toward specialized 283 TABLE XLVI NET COURSES ADDED AND DROPPED IN BUSINESS-TEACHER CURRICULA IN FIFTY-FOUR INSTITUTIONS SINCE 1928-1929 Net Courses Added Net Courses Dropped Business Content Subjects Accounting-----—-------- — 10 Salesmanship— — — — — — — 8 Principles of Business— 6 Business Law — -------- 6 Office Practice— — — — — — 5 Shorthand— — — — — — — 5 Typewriting— — — — — — — 4 Economic Geography— — — 4 Business Mathematics— — — 4 Money and Banking— — — 4 Office Machines— — — — — — 2 Directed Business Experience- 2 Bookkeeping— — — Penmanship— — — — — Spelling— --- Seminar-------------- Industrial Chemistry- Commercial Occupations- Commercial Art— — — Business Cycle— -- General Acacemic Subjects Natural Science— English Literature- Geography---- Mathematics------ Foreign Language— Ethics----------- Health and Hygiene- General Psychology- Orient at ion— - Music Appreciation- Art Appreciation—— ----- 7 — 5 ---- 3 2: General Agriculture- Library Practice--- Economic s- Hi story-— Civics--- Sociology- Social - 7 - 6 - 3 - 2 Sciences 284. TABLE XLVI (co n tin u e d ) NET COURSES ADDED AND DROPPED IN BUSINESS-TEACHER CURRICULA IN FIFTY-FOUR INSTITUTIONS SINCE 1928-1929 Net Courses Added Net Courses Dropped General Educatio Courses Principles of Education— — — 12 Educational Psychology— — — 9 Administration— — — — — — 5 History of Education— — — 1 Methods Courses-— — — — - 1 Play Activities— — — — — — 1 Singing Methods- Business Education Courses Methods of Teaching Bookkeeping Methods of Teaching Shorthand— Methods of Teaching Typewriting Methods of Teaching Elementary Business Training-— — — --- Methods of Teaching Business Subjects— — — — — — ---— — -- Problems in Business Education- Commercial Curriculum-------- Methods of Teaching Penmanship- Test Procedures in Business Education— — — — — — — Administration and Super vision of Business Education 1 Methods of Teaching Business English---------— -------1 Practice Te ching Practice Teaching- 10 Junior Practice Teaching— 1 This table should be read as follows* WA comparison of courses in natural science added and dropped reveals that the number dropped sub tracted from the number added results in seven, the net number added in business-teacher curricula since 1928-1929 285 curricula disclosed by this study* Other subjects have been added or omitted in accordance with the results of the curriculum analysis reported in this chapter* 286 CURRICULUM RECOMMENDED FOB THE EDUCATION OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS— 1932-1933 First Semester Semester Second Semester Semester Uni ts Units YEAR I Orientation i Orientation i English Composition 3 English Composition 3 Physical or Physical or biological science 3 biological science 3 Economic geography 3 Physical education 1 Physical education 1 Electives in Electives in business subjects 5 business subjects 5 History 4 15* YEAR II Tei English literature 3 Physical or General psychology 2 biological science 3 Physical or Economics 3 biological science 3 Economic History 3 Economics 3 Physical education 1 Physical education 1 Electives in Electives in business subjects 6 business subjects 4 16“ 16 YEAR III Business law 3 Business law 3 Business mathematics Educational psychology 2 or Money and banking 2 Extra-curriculum History of education 2 activities 2 Secondary education 2 Tests in business Principles of education 2 business education 2 Business curriculum 2 Electives in Business participation business subjects 6 vr YEAR (no credit) Free electives IY 4 15 Business organiza- Political science 2 ti on 3 Research in Offiee practice 2 business education 2 ‘ General methods in Practice teaching 5 business education 2 Free electives 7 Special methods in teaching business subjects 2 Principles and philo-? sophy of education 2 Educational sociology 2 Free electives ’3 16 X6~ 287 CHAPTER XIII STANDARDS SET UP BY ADMINISTRATORS OF EMPLOYING INSTITUTIONS RELATIVE TO THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS - OF. BUSINESS SUBJECTS In order to evaluate the provisions for business- teacher education set forth in the three chapters im mediately preceding, administrators in 1,585 employing institutions— junior high schools, senior high schools, and junior colleges— were canvassed relative to their re quirements for teachers of business subjects# A total of 517 replies was received, 32.6 per cent of the inquiries sent out. Of the administrators who returned the inquiry blank, 392 listed requirements for teachers of business subjects and gave suggestions for business-teacher edu cation. A compilation of the results of this investi gation is here presented under five headings: (A) Geographical distribution of institutions represented in the returns from the questionnaires; (B) Standards set up by administrators of junior high schools relative to teachers of business subjects; (C) Standards set up by administrators of senior high schools relative to teachers of business subjects; (D) Standards set up by administrators of junior colleges relative to teachers of business subjects; and (E) Summary of standards set up by administrators of employing institutions relative to teachers of business 288 subjects. A. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSTITUTIONS REPRESENTED-IN.THE-RETURNS FROM THE .. questionnaires Returns were received from administrators in em ploying institutions in every state of the United States with the exception of Nevada and Vermont# The replies represent an even distribution among the states, not more than nine being received from any one group of high-sehool administrators inrany state. The returns from the junior- college questionnaire— 183, or 39.9 per cent of the number sent out— were received from junior-college administrators in thirty-nine states. Thirty returns were received from junior-college administrators in California; twenty, in Iowa; thirteen, in Missouri; and eleven, in Texas. While the percentage of returns received was not large, it is believed that a representative sampling of the requirements of the administrators in employing institutions has been secured because of the geographical distribution of the junior and senior high schools in communities of small, medium, and large size and the junior colleges represented. The distributipn of the. returns received is shown in Table? XLVTI. (Here insert Table XLVII, -wGeographical Distribution -Of Institutions Represented In the Returns from the Que s t i onnai re s.") 289 TABLE XLVII GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSTITUTIONS REPRESENTED IN THE RETURNS FROM THE QUESTIONNAIRES State Junior High Schools Senior High Schools “.... .. Junior Colleges Small Medium Large Small Medium Large 1, Alabama 1 2 1 — 2, Arizona — 2 — 1 — — 2 3* Arkansas 3 1 — 2 1 — 5 4. California 1 6 2 2 6 2 30 5# Colorado 1 1 — 1 — — 2 6, Connecticut — tmmm 1 2 3 1 1 7, Delaware 8. District of —* * wrnwm 1 Columbia — 1 — 1 — 5 9. Florida 1 -- 1 1 3 10, Georgia — 1 1 1 1 4 11* Idaho — — 1 a* a* - ■ * 1 12, Illinois 3 4 1 4 7 1 8 13, Indiana 3 5 2 4 4 2 — 14, Iowa 4 1 5 1 — 20 15, Kansas 1 2 — 1 3 — 9 IS, Kentucky- 1 1 1 1 1 6 17, Louisiana — — — — — 2 18# Maine 1 — — 2 1 — 1 19, Maryland — 1 1 — » 2 1 3 20# Massachusetts 2 7 3 5 9 4 2 21, Michigan 1 8 — 2 8 a»a* 6 22. Minnesota 2 1 — 2 — 1 4 23. Mississippi — — — — — 1 24. Missouri — 1 — 4 2 — 13 2 : 5 . Montana 1 — 1 — — 1 26. Nebraska 1 — — 2 — 1 2 27, Nevada — — — — — — — 28. New Jersey 1 3 1 1 5 1 .... . . ......................... 850 Small communities, 1,000 to 5,000 population; communities of medium size, 25,000 to 99,999 population; large communities, 100,000 population and over. 290 TABLE XLVII (co n tin u e d ) GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSTITUTIONS REPRESENTED IN THE RETURNS FROM THE QUESTIONNAIRES State Junior High Schools Senior High Schools Junior Colleges Small Medium Large Small Medium Large Brought Forward 28 44 13 47 56 17 132 29. New Hampshire 2 — mmmm 2 mm mm — 1 30. New Mexico 1 1 M M 1 1 — 1 31. New York — 1 1 2 3 1 3 32. North Carolina 2 3 • M B * 3 3 — 3 33. North Dakota — - - - - - - - - - - 1 I MM 3 34. Ohio 3 2 1 4 4 1 6 35. Oklahoma 2 1 1 2 — 1 3 36. Oregon — — 1 1 mm mm 1 — 37. Pennsylvania — 4 2 3 7 2 3 38. Rhode Island — — m 1 1 1 1 — 39. South Carolina — 1 — — 40. South Dakota 1 m b mm M M 1 — 9m mm 1 41. Tennessee • M M l 1 1 1 1 1 5 42. Texas W B 0 2 1 1 2 2 11 43. Utah 1 1 MM 1 1 — 2 44. Vermont — — - - - - - - - - • _ — — M B « M 45. Virginia 1 1 M M ‘ 2 1 — 2 46. Washington - - - - - - - - — - - - - - - - - - M B M B 1 1 1 47. West Virginia - - - - - - - - 1 — — 1 — 3 48. Wisconsin 3 3 1 4 3 1 — 49. Wyoming 1 — — 1 — — — 50. State not Mentioned 2 3 1 1 — 3 Total 47 68 24 79 87 29 183 Number of Inquiries sent out 279 191 93 279 191 93 459 Percentage Returned 16.9 35.9 25.6 28.3 45.9 31.2 39.9 Group Total— returns 139 195 183 Group Percentage 22.9 t 34.7 39.9 Grand Total 517 Total Percentage 32.6 291 B. STANDARDS SET UP BY ADMINISTRATORS OP JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS RELATIVE TO TEACHERS OP BUSINESS SUBJECTS One hundred thirty-nine replies to an inquiry relating to the preparation of teachers of business subjects were re ceived from administrators in junior high schools* Of these, thirty-nine, or twenty^eight per cent, reported that no busi ness subjects are offered in the junior high school. An analysis of the returns reveals that business subjects are offered in all of the twenty-four junior high schools in large cities (over 100,000 population) for which data are available; in fifty-eight, or 84.1 per cent, of the junior high schools in communities of medium size (25,000 to 100.000 population); and in only nineteen, or 40.5 per cent, of the junior high schools in small communities (1,000 to 5.000 population). The standards set up by the administrators of these junior high schools relative to the preparation of teachers of business subjects are here presented under eight headings: (1) degrees required; (2) composite ranking of subject groups as to their relative importance in teacher preparation; (3) specialization for teachers of business subjects; (4) requirements relative to business experience; (5)standards of technical skill; (6) practices relative to employment of teachers without previous teaching experi ence; (7) ranking of problems in business-teacher education; and (8) other problems suggested by administrators. 1. Degrees required. Degrees are required for teachers 292 of business subjects in a large proportion of junior high schools— eighty-nine per cent. While the Ph.D. degree and the Ed.D degree are not required, and while in only one school is the master’s degree required, bachelor’s degrees are specified by the administrators of eighty-two, or 85.42 per cent of the ninety-six junior high schools for which data are available. Administrators of junior high sehools in large cities are less willing to accept teachers without degrees than are those in small communities— nine per cent, in large cities; 12*5 per cent, in communities of medium size; and eleven per cent, in small communities are willing to employ teachers without baccalaureate degrees. That there is relatively little difference, however, among the re quirements of administrators in communities of various sizes may be seen from an inspection of Table XLYIII. (Here insert Table XLYIII, . . **Degrees Required for. Teachers .Of Business Subjects in Hinety- Six Junior High Sehools.99) 2. Composite ranking of subject groups in education as to their relative importance in teacher preparation. Administrators were asked to rank seven groups of subjects according to their desirability as elements in teacher ' preparation. The business content subjects— accounting, salesmanship, stenography, business law, etc.— are given an average ranking in first position by ninety-four ad ministrators in junior high schools, the composite ranking being 1.66. This position of first importance, moreover, is given to this group by administrators in communities 293 TABLE XLVIII DEGREES REQUIRED FOR TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS IN NINETY-SIX JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS Degree Communities in whi eh Required Small MetLium Large Total Num ber Per Cent Num ber Per Cent Num ber Per Cent Num ber Per Cent Ph. D. 0 wm 0 mm 0 0 Ed* D* 0 0 — 0 — 0 — M. A. 0 — 1 1.79 0 — 1 1*04 M* B* A* 0 0 0 0 — Bachelor’s 14 77.76 48 85.71 20 90*91 82 85*42 Others 2 11*12 0 0 2 2*08 None 2 11.12 7 12*50 2 9*09 11 11*46 Total 18 100*00 56 100.00 22 100*00 96 100*00 This table should be read as follows* “In fourteen junior high sehools in small communities— 1,000 to 5,000 population— the bachelor*6 degree is required of teachers of business subjects, or in 77*76 per cent of small junior high schools the administrators of which answered this in quiry* In 82, or 85*42 per cent of a total of 96 junior high schools in communities of various sizes, the bachelor's degree is required*1 1 294 of various sizes. Although three administrators rank it fifth in importance, a large proportion of all the ad ministrators place this group in first or second position, an indication that they consider the teacher*s preparation in the content of the subjects he is to teach of utmost importance. Business education courses are ranked second by the administrators as a whole, although those in large cities consider the social sciences of greater value in teacher preparation. General education courses are ranked third in importance by the group as a whole; but are considered of less value than social sciences and general academic subjects by administrators in small communities. The social sciences are ranked fourth; general academic subjects— English, foreign languages, mathematics, physical \ and biological sciences, etc., fifth; practice teaching, sixth; and free electives, seventh in importance. The composite rankings place business content subjects between first and second place; business education courses, between second and third places; general education courses/ social sciences, general academic subjects, and practice teaching, between third and fourth places; and free electives, as sixth in importance. The rankings are shown in Table XLIX. (Here insert Table XXIX, T f Composite Ranking by Administrators in Ninety-Pour Junior High Schools of Subject Groups in Undergraduate and Graduate Education as to Their Relative Importance in Teacher Preparation.tf) 3* Specialization for teachers of business subjects. 295 TABLE XLIX COMPOSITE RANKING BY ADMINISTRATORS IN NINETY-FOUR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS OF SUBJECT GROUPS IN UNDERGRADUATE AND GRADUATE EDUCATION AS TO THEIR RELATIVE IMPORTANCE IN TEACHER PREPARATION Average Ranking by Administrators Final Subject Groups Communities Y8 Small 55 Medium 21 Large 94 Total Rank 1* Business content subjects 1.78 1.69 1.48 1.66 1 2* Business edu cation courses 2.89 2.64 3.25 2.83 2 3* General edu cation courses 3.77 2.91 3.19 3.14 3 4* Social sciences 3.17 3.46 2.81 3.26 4 5* General academic subjects -— 6* Practice teach 2.94 3.74 3.18 3.46 5 ing — — ■ — — 4.59 3.82 3.65 3.94 6 7, Free electives - 6.31 6.00 5.72 5.98 7 This table should be read as follows} "Administrators in junior high schools in communities of small, medium, and large size rank business content subjects first in importance in business teacher education— 1.78, 1*69, and 1*48 respectively; average, 1.66." Eighty-seven junior-high-school administrators expressed preferences as to specialization for teachers of business subjects. Eorty-eight, or 57.2 per cent of the eighty-four administrators answering this question, prefer teachers who have specialized in one of four fields of business edu- eation^-seeretarial, accounting, salesmanship, and general business. Of the eighteen junior-high-school administrators in small communities who answered the questionnaire, only eleven replied to the section relative to specialization* Of these, five prefer teachers who have specialized in one of four fields* On the other hand, all but four of the fifty- seven administrators in communities of medium size who participated in this investigation answered this section. Thirty-three, or 62.2 per cent of them, prefer teachers who have specialized in one of four fields of business education; while administrators in the large cities are evenly divided as to the desirability of such specialization* Only fifty- six of the one hundred junior-high-school administrators who answered the questionnaire, expressed an opinion as to the desirability of specialization in the social-business sub jects. Thirty-eight, or 67.9 per cent of the total, favored such specialization. It is interesting to note that twenty- seven administrators, or thirty-one per cent of the total, feel that a special curriculum for prospective junior high school teachers is unnecessary. The framer of this question expected an overwhelmingly favorable response to the suggestion that teachers of business subjects in junior high schools make a special study of the problems of the junior 297 high school through the subjects set up in a specialized curriculum. It is probable that these administrators prefer that teachers have general courses relative to the junior high school rather than a specialized curriculum which might cause their work to be merely an "attachment to” and not a "coalescence with" the program of the junior high school by apparently isolating business education from the rest of the junior-high-’ •school work. The opinions of eighty-seven administrators in junior high schools relative to speciali zation for teachers of business subjects are shown in Table L. (Here insert Table L, "Opinions of Eighty-Seven Adminis- -trators in Junior High Schools Relative to Specialization for Teachers of Business Subjects,") 4, Requirements relative to business experience. Ninety-one of the one hundred junior-high school adminis trators who answered the questionnaire, replied to in quiries relative to actual business experience. Only five of them require actual business experience; but eighty-one prefer it. Only nine require specific kinds of business experience, Thirteen administrators, or SI.3 per cent of a total of sixty-one, specify experience lasting six months or less. Over half of the administrators feel that the business experience should be for the period of one year. Experience lasting three or four years is specified in three cases* Administrators in small junior high schools mention business experience of longer duration than do those in larger communities. However, the small number of administrators in each type of community answering this 298 TABLE L OPINIONS OF EIGHTY-SEVEN ADMINISTRATORS IN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS RELATIVE TO SPECIALIZATION FOR TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS Number Communities Propositions and Small Medium Large Total Per Cent Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No 1* Specializat ion in four fields of busi" Number 5 6 33 20 10 10 48 36 ness education Per Cent 45*5 54*5 62.2 37.7 50.0 50.0 57.2 42.8 2* Specializat ion in social- business edu cation Number 13 1 19 11 6 6 38 18 Per Cent 92*9 7.2 63.4 11.0 50.0 50.0 67.9 32.1 3* Special cur riculum for prospective Junior-high school teach ers Number 11 5 34 17 15 5 60 27 Per Cent 68*8 31.2 66.7 33.2 75.0 25.0 69.0 31.0 This table should be read as follows* "Five administrators in Junior high schools in small communities, or 45*5 per cent of those replying to this question, pre fer teachers who have specialized in one of four fields of business education- secretarial, accounting, salesmanship, and general business*" 299 section of the questionnaire makes this fact of little significance# The requirements of administrators relative to actual business experience are shown in Table LI# (Here insert Table LI, ."Requirements of Administrators In Ninety-One Junior High Schools Relative to Business Experience for Teachers of Business Subjects#”) 5. Standards of technical skill required of teachers in junior high schools. The administrators of fifty-six junior high schools gave information as to their standards of technical skill for teachers of business subjects. Forty-six of them reported no standards; some with the comment,”unimportant,” or "unnecessary*” Only ten ad ministrators have set up standards of technical skill# Standards are of ten varieties, with several combinations of speed, time, and number of errors allowed. The range for shorthand speed is from seventy to one hundred words per minute with an average of 87.1 words per minute; the range for test time is from five to fifteen minutes with an average of 6.7 minutes; and the range of errors allowed is five to eighteen with an average of eight. The range for typewriting speed is from thirty to seventy words per minute with an average of 46.3 words per minute; the range of test time is from 3.5 to fifteen minutes with an average of 11.9 minutes; the range in errors allowed is from three to ten with an average of six errors. As there are no more than four administrators in each type of community who have set up standards, the averages for the communi ties of small, medium, and large size have little signifi*- 500 TABLE LI REQUIREMENTS OF ADMINISTRATORS IN NINETY-ONE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS RELATIVE TO BUSINESS EXPERIENCE FOR TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS Proposition Number and Per Cent Community . — "•■■■Site* Small Med:Lum Large Total Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No 1* Actual business experience re quired ------- Number 2 16 2 49 1 21 5 86 Per Cent 11.1 88.9 3.9 96.1 4.5 95.5 5.5 94.5 2• Actual business experienoe preferred — — Number 10 4 54 2 17 2 81 8 Per Cent 71.4 28.6 96.4 3.6 89.5 10.5 91.0 9.0 3* Specific kinds of business ex perience re quired — — — — Number 1 16 6 40 2 18 9 74 Per Cent 5.9 94.1 13.1 87.0 10.0 90.0 10.8 89.2 4* Length of time suggested: Six months or lass Number 1 8 4 13 Per Cent 9.1 12.2 28.6 21•3 One year Number 4 19 9 32 Per Cent 36.4 52.8 64.3 52.5 One to two years — — Number 4 8 1 13 Per Cent 36.4 22.>2 7.2 21.3 Three to four years ------ Number 2 1 0 3 Per Cent 18.2 2.>8 - , * .9 This table should be read as follows: "Of eighteen administrators in junior high schools in small communities, two, or 11*1 per oent of the total, require actual business experience of prospective teachers of business subjects; five# or 5*5 per cent of a total of ninety-one junior high school administrators require it** 301 canoe. Moreover, standards of technical skill are not regarded as important by a large proportion of the ad ministrators replying to the inquiry. Bata relative to standards of technical skill are presented in Table LXI. (Here insert Table LII, -"Standards of Technical Skill .Esquired of Teachers in Fifty- Six Junior High Schools.") 6. Practices in . 1 uni or high schools relative to employing teachers without -previous teaching experience. Fortunately for the graduates of institutions engaged in business-teacher education, forty-five per cent of the administrators of junior high schools are willing to em ploy teachers without previous teaching experience. More over, approximately the same percentage of administrators in communities of small, medium, and large size is willing to employ inexperienced teachers. Prospective teachers, then, should study the problems of communities of various sizes unless the exact location of the future teaching position is known. The practices in junior high schools relative to the employment of inexperienced teachers are presented in Table LIII. (Here insert Table LIII, ."Practices in Ninety-Three Junior .High Schools Relative to Employment of Teachers of Business Subjects without Previous Teaching Experience.") 7. Ranking of problems in business-teacher education by administrators in junior high schools. Ninety-two ad ministrators in junior high schools ranked four problems in business-teacher education. The problem of "acquainting 302 TABLE LI I STANDARDS OF TECHNICAL SKILL REQUIRED OF TEACHERS IN FIFTY-SIX JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS Criteria Communities Small Medium Large Total Range Aver age Range Aver- age Range Aver age _ Range Aver age Shorthands Speed— words 70 to 100 90*0 80 to 100 90*0 none 80.0 70 to 100 87.1 per minute Time of test in minutes — 5 to 15 8*3 none 5*0 none 5.0 5 to 15 6.7 Errors allowed 5 to 6 5*3 5 to 18 11.5 none 5.0 5 to 18 8.0 Typewriting* Spee^— ' words per minute — 50 to 70 60*0 30 to 50 40.0 30 to 50 41.0 30 to 70 46.3 Time of test in minutes — none 15*0 3*5 to 15 8*5 10 to 15 13.3 3.5 to 15 11.9 Errors allowed 5 to 10 6.7 3 to 5 4.0 6 to 10 7.3 3 to 10 6.0 Number of Schools* With standards Without stan dards — — 3 7 4 33 3 6 10 46 Total — — 10 37 9 56 his table should be read as follows* wIn only three junior high schools in small ammunities, standards in shorthand and typewriting skill have been set up for eachers of business subjects* The standards in shorthand skill range from seventy o one hundred words per minute with an average of ninety words per minute.* * 303 TABLE LIII PRACTICES IN NINETY-THREE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS RELATIVE TO EMPLOYMENT OP TEACHERS OP BUSINESS SUBJECTS WITHOUT PREVIOUS TEACHING EXPERIENCE Community Proposition Small Medium Lart Total Num ber Per Cent Num ber Per Cent Num ber Per Cent Num ber Per Cent Employment of teaohers with out previous teaching ex perience yes 8 47*0 24 44*5 10 45*5 42 45*2 no 9 53*0 30 55*5 12 54*5 51 54*8 Total 17 100.0 54 100*0 22 100.0 93 100.0 This table should be read as follows t “Eight administrators in junior high schools in small communities, or forty-seven per eent of a total of seventeen, are willing to employ teachers of business subjects with out previous teaching experience*” 504 student-teaohers with the progressive quality of aims, curricula, and procedures in secondary business education1 1 is ranked as of first importance by all groups of ad ministrators with the exception of those in large comr - munities who give it second rank equally with the development of teacher personality# These administrators in large cities feel that providing the teacher with a basis for giving secondary school pupils an adequate picture of present social and economic lifef 1 is first in importance# In the final ranking, "acquainting the student-teachers with the progressive quality of secondary education" places firsts "the development of personality," second; "providing a basis for giving secondary-school pupils an adequate picture of present social and economic life," third; and "promoting familiarity with research findings," fourth. The willingness of administrators to rank these problems shows that they are aware of them and interested in their solution# The rankings assigned to these problems are shown in Table LIT. (Here insert Table LIV, "Hanking of Problems in Business- -Teacher Education by Ninety- Two Junior-High-School Administrators.") 8# Other Problems suggested by junior-high-school administrators# In addition to ranking the problems listed above, the administrators were asked to mention problems connected with the teaching of business subjects in junior high schools which should be recognized by persons engaged 305 TABLE LIV RANKING OF PROBLEMS IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION BY NINETY-TWO JUNIOR-HIGH-SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS Composite Ranking Problems Community T V Small 55 Medium 20 Large Average Total Number Final Rank 1* How to acquaint student-teacher s with the progres sive quality of aims, curricula, and procedures in secondary busi ness education 1*89 1.87 2.15 1.94 92 1 2. How to aid in the development of de sirable teacher personality 2,35 2.18 2.15 2.21 91 2 3* How to provide the teacher with a basis for giving secondary-school pupils an adequate picture of present social and econo mic life 2,29 2.40 2.00 2.29 90 3 4* How to promote familiarity with research findings and the habit of constant search for new developments 3*41 3.34 3.30 3.34 90 4 This table should be read as follows« "The average ranking of ninety- two administrators in junior high schools plaoes problem •one* first in importance; composite ranking is 1.94.” 306 in business-teacher education* A total of thirty-one problems was suggested* They may be roughly grouped into eight classes: problems connected with (a) individual busi ness subjects; (b) educational psychology; (e) personality development for teachers and pupils; (d) social-business education; (e) general education; (f) business contacts; (g) curriculum; and (h) tests and measurements. The brevity of their treatment in the following paragraphs is not an indication of their importance in business-teacher education. On the other hand, these problems suggested by administrators in daily contact with secondary business education are of utmost importance. (a) Individual business subjects. The development of adequate methods courses for the teaching of the individual business subjects is considered a problem by seven adminis trators. They mention the effective organization of routine and teaching procedures in elements of business, penmanship, business arithmetic and composite courses. (b) Educational psychology. Six problems in the field of psychology are suggested. They are: differentiation of procedures for pupils of various mental levels, adapting instruction to the mental capacity of students, an under standing of the characteristics of pupils of junior-high- school age; and problems in the field of guidance. (c) Personality development for teachers and pupils. Four administrators are concerned with the *lack of cultural and business backgrounds* on the part of teachers / 307 of business subjects. They feel that personality develop ment of teachers and pupils, character training, and the development of appreciation of the value of general culture in the life of the business man and woman are subjects worthy of investigation. (d) Social-business education. That the adminis trators in junior high schools are aware of the contribution made by business subjects to consumer education is evidenced by the fact that four of them mention problems in this field. One administrator states the problem thus: "the making of a gradual transition; to an economic order better suited to the twentieth century than the one we now have.* (e) General education. Three administrators mention the lack of general education on the part of business teachers as a problem. They believe that academically trained teachers can easily acquire the information necessary to teach the business subjects and that they do more satis factory work than do technically trained teachers. (f) Business Contacts, familiarity with business standards, training in making business contacts, and knowledge of general business are listed by three adminis trators as subjects worthy of study. (s) Curriculum. development of a suitable curriculum in business training on the junior-high-school level and the building of a curriculum for slow pupils are specified by two administrators as problems. (h) Tests and measurements. Two administrators mention the Development of means of appraisal to determine 308 the effectiveness of teaching*n All of these problems listed by junior-high-school administrators are of significance in business-teacher education* C. STANDARDS SET TJB BY ADMINISTRATORS OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS RELATIVE TO TEACHERS OF BUSINESS. SUBJECTS An inquiry addressed to senior-high-school adminis trators resulted in 196 replies, 182 of which contained information relative to standards set up by administrators * of senior high schools relative to teachers of business subjects. The other fourteen replies were from adminis trators of schools in which no business subjects are offered. While these inquiries are concerned with senior high schools, some of them were answered by administrators in four-year high schools. For all practical purposes, however, the qualifications of teachers instructing in courses offered during the last three years of a four-year high school are the same as those teaching these same courses in a senior high school* The standards presented in this section, then, apply equally to teachers in senior high schools and in the last three years of four-year high schools. Those teaching ninth-year subjects, too, will probably find it necessary to meet senior-high-school standards. The standards set up by 182 senior-high-school administrators are here presented under eight headings: (l) degrees required: (2) composite ranking *of subject groups in edu cation as to their relative importance in teacher prepar 509 . ation; (3) specialization for teachers of business subjects; (4) requirements relative to business experience; (5) standards of technical skill; (6) practices relative to employment of inexperienced teachers; (7) ranking of problems in business-teacher education; and (8) other problems suggested by administrators# 1. Degrees required. The administrators of 180 senior high schools reported their standards relative to degrees required of teachers of business subjects. The doctor’s degree is not required and the master’s degree is specified in only three cases, 1.67 per cent of the total. One ad ministrator in each type of community— small, medium, and large— requires the master’s degree. One hundred fifty- two, or 84.44 per cent of the total number, require the bachelor’s degree. Only nineteen administrators, 10.56 per cent of the total, are willing to employ business teachers without baccalaureate degrees; indicating that an upgrading in business-teacher education is necessary in consideration of the fact that state surveys made between 1915 and 1952 have revealed that only 19.3 to eighty-five per cent of 251 teachers of business subjects hold baccalaureate degrees. The requirements in three types of communities— small, medium, and large— are approximately the same, with the ex ception of communities of medium size in which 16.28 per cent of administrators are willing to employ teachers with out baccalaureate degrees. The degrees required by 180 senior-high-school administrators are presented in Table LY. See Table XIY in Chapter IX. 310 (Here insert Table LV, "Degrees Required for Teachers Of Business Subjects in One Hundred Eighty Senior High Schools.n) 2, Composite ranking of subject groups in education as to their relative importance in teacher preparation* The administrators in 172 senior high schools ranked seven subject groups as to their desirability in teacher preparation* The business content subjects were given first place by all groups of administrators--those in communities of small, medium, and large size* The business education courses were considered second in importance* These rankings indicate that the ad ministrators in senior high schools feel that teachers of business subjects should emphasize the content of these subjects and methods of teaching them. Again, these rankings may mean that administrators, in harmony with tradition, feel that business education should be confined to the teaching of technical skills and that it is not an integral part of secondary education. On the other hand, it is encouraging to note that the administrators rank the general education courses and social sciences third and fourth in importance, the rankings of 3.35 and 3.36 being practically identical* Academic subjects are ranked fifth by the group as a whole. It is interesting to note that, as in the case of the junior- high-school administrators, the academic subjects are ranked above social sciences and general education courses by administrators in small communities who are probably more conservative in their conception of education than are those in larger communities who give higher rank to the 511 TABLE LV DEGREES REQUIRED FOR TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS IN ONE HUNDRED EIGHTY SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS Degree Communities in which Required Small Medium Large Total Num ber Per Cent Num ber Per Cent Num ber Per Cent Num ber Per Cent Ph. D. 0 m 0 0 0 Ed. D. 0 - 0 - 0 • 0 • • 1 C . A* 1 1*59 1 1.16 0 - 2 1.11 H. B. A* 0 - 0 - 1 3.25 1 0.56 Bachelor’s 53 84*13 70 81.40 29 93.50 152 84.44 Others 5 7.93 1 1*16 0 • 6 3.33 None 4 6*35 14 16.28 1 3.25 19 10.56 Total 63 100.00 86 100.00 31 100.00 180 100.00 This table should be read as follows i "In one senior high school in a small community, the master’s degree is required of teachers of busi ness subjects; while in fifty-three small communities, the bachelor’s degree is required* These fifty-three communities represent 84*13 per cent of the sixty-three communities, requirements in which have been reported." 512 social sciences* Practice teaching and free electives are ranked sixth and seventh respectively* The rankings given by senior-high-school administrators to seven subject groups in business-teacher education are presented in Table LVI. (Here insert Table LVI, "Composite Ranking by Administrators In One Hundred Seventy-Two Senior High Schools of Subject Croups in Undergraduate and Graduate Education As to Their Relative Importance in Teacher Preparation*11) 3. Specialization for teachers of business subjects* In harmony with the senior-high-school emphasis upon technical-business subjects, 108 administrators, or 64.5 per cent of the total, prefer teachers who have specialized in one of four fields of business educatlon--seeretarial, accounting, salesmanship, and general business. The adminis trators of the small senior high schools are about evenly divided as to whether or not such specialization is desirable. This equal division of opinion is evident among all groups of administrators relative to the desirability of specialization in the social-business subjects. Eleven of the administrators in large high schools, or 73.3 per cent of the total, feel that such specialization is desirable. One hundred nine administrators, or 65.3 per cent of the total, favor a special curriculum for pro spective senior-high-school teachers. As present curricula in business-teacher education are virtually senior-high- school curricula and in view of the TABLE LVI COMPOSITE RANKING BY ADMINISTRATORS IN ONE HUNDRED SEVENTY-TWO SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS OF SUBJECT GROUPS IN UNDERGRADUATE AND GRADUATE EDUCATION AS TO THEIR RELATIVE IMPORTANCE IN TEACHER PREPARATION Subject Groups Average Ranking by Administrators Final Rank Communities 61 Small 81 Medium 30 Large 172 Total 1* Business content subjects 1,40 1.31 1.07 1.30 1 2. Business education courses -----— - 2,80 2,71 3.00 2.80 2 5* General education courses ------- 3.58 3.23 3.27 3.35 3 4* Social sciences 3.64 3.21 3.17 3.36 4 5* General academic subjects — — — 3.16 3*73 3.30 3.45 5 6# Practice teaching 4.50 3.79 3.73 4.04 6 7* Free electives 6.54 5*95 5.49 6.08 7 This table should be read as follows: "Administrators in senior high schools in communities of small, medium, and large size rank business content subjects first in importance in business-teacher education— sixty-one administrators in small communities ranking it 1.40." 314 fact that special courses for junior-high-school and junior-eollege teachers of business subjects are seldom given, it is surprising that fifty-eight administrators indicate that such a curriculum is not desirable* The opinions of 168 administrators relative to the special ization of teachers of business subjects are set forth in Table LYII. (Here insert Table LYII, "Opinions of One Hundred Sixty- -Sight Administrators in Senior High Schools Relative to Specialization for Teachers of Business Subjects,") 4* Requirements relative to business experience* Only thirteen administrators in 173 senior high schools, or 7*5 per cent of the total, require that teachers of business subjects have had actual business experience although 158, or 91*8 per cent of the total, -prefer, teachers with such experience* Only eighteen, or 10*9 per cent of the total, specify the kin$ of business experience— in the field of teacher*s specialization. Yifteen administrators, or 12.3 per cent of the 122 who suggest the length of time for such experience, name six months or less as appropriate time for such experience; the remainder specifying one year or more, 85.2 per cent of the administrators mentioning experience of one or two-years* duration* The requirements of administrators relative to business experience are shown in Table LYIII. (Here insert Table LYIII, "Requirements of Administrators -In One Hundred Seventy-Three Senior High Schools Relative to 315 TABLE LYII OPINIONS OF ONE HUNDRED SIXTY-EIGHT ADMINISTRATORS IN SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS RELATIVE TO SPECIALIZATION OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS Propositions Number Communities and Small Medium Large Total Per Cent Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No 1* Specialization in four fields of business education — — Number 29 26 59 21 20 13 108 60 Per Cent 52*8 47*3 73*8 26.3 60.1 39.4 64.3 35.8 2* Specialization in social- business edu cation — — - Number 18 14 15 15 4 11 37 40 Per Cent 56*3 43*8 50.0 50.0 26.7 73.3 48.0 52.0 3* Special cur riculum for prospective senior-high school teachers — — - Number 36 20 54 26 19 12 109 58 Per Cent 64*3 35*7 67.5 32.5 61.3 38.8 65.3 34.8 This table should be read as follows* "Twenty-nine administrators of senior high schools in small communities, or 52*8 per cent of a total of 55, prefer teachers who have specialized in one of four fields of business education- secretarial, accounting, salesmanship, and general business*" 316 TABLE LVIII REQUIREMENTS OF ADMINISTRATORS IN ONE HUNDRED SEVENTY-THREE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS RELATIVE TO BUSINESS EXPERIENCE FOR TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS Number and Per Cent Community Sma!LI MecHum Large Total Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No 1# Actual business experience required Number 4 57 7 75 2 28 IS 160 Per Cent 6 #6 93.4 8.5 91.5 6.7 93.3 7.5 92.5 2# Actual business experience preferred — — Number 50 7 81 4 27 3 158 14 Per Cent 87 #7 12.3 95.3 4.7 90.0 10.0 91.8 8.2 3# Specific kinds of business ex perience re quired Number 6 50 11 67 1 30 18 147 Per Cent 10 #8 89*3 14.1 85.9 3.3 96.8 10.9 89.1 4. Length of time suggesteds Six months or less Number 3 9 3 15 Per Cent 7,►7 14,3 15.10 12•3 One year -- Number 20 29 12 61 Per Cent 51.3 46«,0 60.0 50.0 One to two years — — — • Number 16 23 4 43 Per Cent 41 4►0 36,5 20.1D 35.2 Three to four year 8 — — — Number 0 1 0 1 Per Cent - 1.59 - 0•8 Five or more years Number 0 1 0 1 Per Cent - 1.59 - 0•8 Conditional — Number 0 0 1 1 Per Cent 5.(3 0•8 This table should be read as followss "Of sixty-one administrators of senior high schools in small communities, four, or 6*6 per cent of the total, require actual business experience of prospective business teachers#" 317 Business Experience for Teachers of Business Subjects.") 5. Standards of technical skill. Only 115 of a total of 182 administrators in senior high school answered the section of the inquiry blank on standards of skill. Of these,eighty reported no standards. There are, then, only thirty-five senior high schools in which standards of technical skill have been set up for teachers of business subjects♦ The range in shorthand skill is from forty to 140 words per minute with an average of 97.1 words per minute; the time of test, from two and one-half minutes to twenty minutes with an average of 10*9 minutes; and the errors allowed, from three to twenty-five with an average of 8.2 errors. The range in typewriting speed is from thirty to eighty words per minute with an average of 52*4 words per minute; the time of test from five to sixty minutes with an average of sixteen minutes; and the errors allowed from three to fifteen with an average of 6.1 errors. The standards of technical skill required of teachers of senior-high-school business subjects are shown in Table LIX. (Here insert Table LIZ, "Standards of Technical Skill .Required of Teachers in One Hundred Fifteen Senior High Schools.") 6. Practices relative to employment of teachers without previous teaching experience. One hundred seventy- five senior-high-school administrators indicated their practices as to the employment of inexperienced teachers of business subjects. Seventy-five, or 42.9 per cent of the 318 TABLE LIX STANDARDS OF TECHNICAL SKILL REQUIRED OF TEACHERS IN ONE HUNDRED FIFTEEN SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS Criteria Communities Small Medium Large Total Range Aver age Range Aver age Range Aver se Range Aver age Shorthand* Speed— words per minute — 60 to 140 104.8 40 to 125 93.8 60 to 125 9.12 40 to 140 97.1 Time of test in minutes -- 5 to 15 9.6 5 to 20 15.7 2.5 to 15 6.9 2.5 to 20 10.9 Errors allowed 5 to 10 8.0 3 to 25 7.6 5 to 15 10.0 3 to 25 8.2 Typewritings Speed— words per minute — 40 to 80 58.4 35 to 80 48.8 30 to 75 48.9 30 to 80 52.4 Time of test in minutes — none 15.0 5 to 60 18.5 5 to 30 14.0 5 to 60 16.0 Errors allowed 3 to 7 7.3 3 to 7 4.3 3 to 15 7.3 3 to 15 6.1 Number of schools* With standards 13 13 9 35 Without stan dards 27 39 14 80 Total ------ 40 52 23 115 his table should be read as follows* "In thirteen senior high schools in small ommunities, standards in shorthand and typewriting skill have been set up for teachers f business subjects. The standards in shorthand skill range from sixty to 140 words er minute with an average of 104*8 words per minute." 319 total, are willing to employ teachers without previous teaching experience* The opportunities for employment for inexperienced teachers are greater in small communities than in larger ones* Fifty-eight per cent of the adminis trators in small communities are willing to employ in experienced teachers while only 35*3 per cent of those in communities of medium size and 32*3 per cent, in communi ties of large size employ teachers without previous teach ing experience* The practices of administrators in senior high schools relative to the employment of inexperienced teachers of business subjects are shown in Table IX* (Here Insert Table IX, "Practices in One Hundred Seventy- Five Senior High Schools Relative To Employment of Teachers without Previous Teaching Experience.") 7. Hanking of problems in business-teacher-education* One hundred seventy-two senior-high-school administrators ranked four problems in the field of business-teacher edu cation. As a group, they rank "the acquainting of student^-teachers with the progressive quality of aims, curricula, and procedures in secondary business education" as first in importance, although acbainistrators in large high schools feel that the development of desirable teacher personality is of paramount importance. This problem and that of "providing the teacher with a.basis for giving secondary-sehool pupils an adequate picture of present social and economic life" are tied for second place in the ranking of all administrators. The problem of "promoting familiarity with research findings and the habit of constant 320 TABLE LX PRACTICES IN ONE HUNDRED SEVENTY-FIVE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS RELATIVE TO EMPLOYMENT OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS WITHOUT PREVIOUS TEACHING EXPERIENCE Community Proposition Small Medium Large Total Num ber Per Cent Num ber Per Cent Num ber Per Cent Num ber Per Cent Employment of teachers with out previous teaching ex perience s Yes 36 58*1 29 35*3 10 32.3 75 42.9 No 26 41*9 53 64.7 21 67.7 100 57.1 Total 62 100*0 82 100.0 31 100.0 175 100.0 This table should be read as follows * "Thirty-six administrators in senior high schools in small communities, or 58*1 per cent of a total of sixty-two, are willing to employ teachers of business subjects with out previous teaching experience • * * 521 search for new developments" is ranked as of least im portance by all groups of administrators. The average rankings by the three groups of administrators are shown in Table IXI. (Here insert Table XXI, ."Banking of Problems in Business- .Teacher Education by One Hundred Seventy-Two Senior-High- School Administrators.") 8. Other problems suggested by administrators. Sixty-five additional problems in the field of business- teacher education are suggested by senior-high-school ad ministrators. They are here presented under nine headings: (a) individual business subjects; (b) general education; (c) educational psychology; (d) personality development for teachers and pupils; (e) social-business education; (f) busi ness contacts; (g) tests and measurements; (h) curriculum, and (i) miscellaneous. The great variety of these problems and their wide scope prevent more than brief mention here. However these problems suggested by administrators of employing institutions are worthy of careful study. (a) Individual business subjects. Sixteen problems relate to the individual business subjects. The business subjects which, in the opinion of the administrators, should be investigated are, in order of frequency of mention: business machines, bookkeeping, business English, economic geography, and co-operative courses in retail selling. (b) General education. Fifteen administrators present problems concerned with the liberalization of the edu- 322 TABLE LXI RANKING OP PROBLEMS IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION BY ONE HUNDRED SEVENTY-TWO SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS Composite Ranking Problems Community 60 Small 84 Medium 29 Large Average Total Number Final Rank 1* How to acquaint student-teaehers with the progres sive quality of aimSj curricula, and pro cedures in secondary business education 2*07 1*81 2*11 1*95 171 1 2. How to aid in the development of de sirable teacher per sonality 2*13 2*27 1*97 2.17 172 2 3* How to provide the teacher with a basis for giving secondary- school pupil8 an ade quate picture of pre sent social and eco nomic life 2.15 2.22 2*07 2.17 171 2 4* How to promote familiarity with re search findings and the habit of constant search for new de velopments 3*54 3.34 3*39 3*42 172 3 This table should be read as follows« *The average ranking of 171 senior-high-school administrators plaees problem ’one* first in impor tance* composite ranking is 1*95.* 323 cation of the teacher of business subjects. They deplore the "narrowness that frequently accompanies specialization." Two administrators specify "the development of ability to see the general aims of education" as a problem. (c) Bducational psychology. The problem of individud. differences, especially as it applies to adaptation of in struction to the needs of slow pupils, is indicated by nine administrators. The problem of guidance is also mentioned. (d) Personality development for teachers and pupils* The problem of the development of teacher and pupil person ality is considered important by six administrators# (e) Sooial-business education. The development of courses "to replace the excessive time now given to technical subjects" is a pressing problem according to five adminis trators. (f) Business contacts. Five administrators mention the problem of providing for actual business contacts for the teacher of business subjects. (g) Tests and measurements. Four administrators mention the problem of satisfactory measurement of the results obtained through instruction in the business subjects as one which should be studied# (h) Curriculum. The building of two special curriculums; one, to meet the needs of boys and another adapted to present economic conditions is mentioned# (i) Miscellaneous# Three miscellaneous problems are mentioned: "the improvement of efficiency in the process of selecting candidates for teacher training", "drill in present practical economic problems", and "getting teacher- 324 training institutions to recognize the business courses of the four-year high school." A final group of administrators who gave information as to standards set up for teachers of business subjects were those in junior colleges. D. STANDARDS SIT IIP BY ADMINISTRATORS OF JUNIOR COLLEGES RELATIVE . TO TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS One hundred and eighty-three returns were received from administrators in junior colleges. Seventy-three of them report that no business subjects are taught in their res pective institutions. The standards presented in this section are, therefore, those set up by 110 junior-eollege adminis trators. These standards are discussed under eight headings: (1) degrees required; (2) composite ranking of subject groups in education desirable for teacher preparation; (3) special ization for teachers of business subjects; (4) requirements relative to business experience; (5) standards of technical skill; (6) ranking of problems in business-teacher education; (7) practices relative to employment of teachers without previous teaching experience; and (8) suggested problems. 1. Degrees required. As is to be expected, junior- eollege degree requirements are higher than those of junior or senior high schools for teachers of business subjects. Six administrators in junior colleges specify the doctor*s degree for teachers of business subjects. The doctors degree was thus mentioned 4*27 per cent of the total number of times degrees were specified. One hundred and forty 325 degrees were mentioned by 110 administrators, two degrees of equal rank being indicated in some cases. The master’s degree is specified in sixty-seven cases, or 47.84 per cent of the total; the M. A. degree being mentioned forty-one times and the M. B. A., twenty-six times. The bachelor’s degree is required in fifty-three cases, 37.9 per cent of the total. The administrators of only six institutions, 4.28 per cent of total, are willing to employ teachers without baccalaureate degrees. Prospective teachers in junior colleges should plan, then, to secure the bachelor’s degree and, if possible, graduate degrees. The degree re quirements of junior-eollege administrators are shown in Table LXII. (Here insert Table LXII, ? , Degrees Required for Teachers Of Business Subjects in One Hundred Ten junior Colleges.,,) 2. Composite ranking of subject groups in education desirable for teacher preparation. Seven subject groups were ranked by 113 junior-eollege administrators as to their relative importance in business-teacher education. Business content subjects are ranked as first in importance by eighty- five administrators and place first in the final ranking. The social sciences are ranked second and general academic subjects a close third although sixteen administrators consider the social sciences first in importance and twenty administrators so rate the academic subjects. Business education courses are ranked as slightly more important than general education courses, both being between third and fourth place. Practice teaching is placed sixth in the TABLE LXII DEGREES REQUIRED FOR TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS IN ONE HUNDRED TEN JUNIOR COLLEGES Degree Institutions in which Required Number Percentage Ph. D. 5 3.56 Ed* D. 1 •71 M* A. 41 29,30 M. B* A. 26 18*54 Bachelor's 53 37,90 Others 8 5,71 None 6 4,28 Total 140 100,00 This table should be read thus— "Of 140 degrees specified by 110 junior*eollege administrators, the Fh* D* degree was mentioned five times, or 3*56 per eent of the total number," 327 final ranking. Six administrators, however, feel that practice teaching is the most important element in the teacher’s preparation. General electives receive a final ranking of seventh. The ranking of the subject groups by junior-eollege administrators is shown in Table IXEII. (Here insert Table LXIII, MComposite Banking- by Administrators .In One Hundred Thirteen Junior Colleges of Subject Groups in Undergraduate and Graduate Education as to Their Relative Importance in Teacher Preparation.") 3. Specialization for teachers of business subjects. One hundred eight administrators in junior colleges give opinions as to the desirability of specialization in business-teacher education. Seventy-two of the adminis trators, or 76.6 per cent of those answering this section of the inquiry, prefer teachers who have specialized in one of four fields— secretarial, accounting, salesmanship, or general business. Only fifty-three administrators express an opinion as to the desirability of specialization in the social-business subjects; thirty-one, or 58.5 per cent of them, favoring such specialization. Only sixty-four ad ministrators, or 59.25 per cent of those replying to this question, feel that a special curriculum should be set up for teachers of business subjects in junior colleges. The opinions of administrators as to specialization for teachers of business subjects are set forth in Table (Here insert Table IXEV, "Opinions of One Hundred Eight .Administrators in Junior Colleges Relative to Specialization for Teachers of Business Subjects.") 528 TABLE LXIII COMPOSITE RANKING BY ADMINISTRATORS IN ONE HUNDRED THIRTEEN JUNIOR COLLEGES OF SUBJECT GROUPS IN UNDERGRADUATE AND GRADUATE EDUCATION AS TO THEIR RELATIVE IMPORTANCE IN TEACHER PREPARATION Subject Groups Rank and Frequency Aver Final Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total age 1* Business content subjects 85 18 6 2 2 0 0 113 1*39 1 2* Social sciences 16 39 16 18 5 9 2 105 2*93 2 3* General academic subjects 20 28 25 15 13 8 1 110 3*01 3 4* Business edu cation courses 5 22 30 28 18 5 0 108 3*43 4 5* General edu cation courses 4 18 31 17 21 12 3 106 3*76 5 6# Practice teach ing 6 6 8 21 18 32 9 100 4.71 6 7. Free electives 1 2 1 5 12 8 47 76 6.12 7 This table should be read as followst "Of 113 administrators ranking fields of education in curricula for business-teacher education, eighty- five gave first rank to business content subjects* The average ranking of business content subjects by 113 administrators was 1*39." 329 TABLE LXIV OPINIONS OF ONE HUNDRED EIGHT ADMINISTRATORS IN JUNIOR COLLEGES RELATIVE TO SPECIALIZATION FOR TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS Preference Expressed Number Propositions Yes No Answering Num ber Per Cent Num ber Per Cent Question Speoialization in four fields of business edu cation-secretarial, accounting, salesmanship, general business 72 76,6 22 23,4 94 Specialization in social- business subjects 31 58*5 22 41,5 53 Special curriculum for prospective junior-eollege teachers 64 59*25 44 40,8 108 This table should be read as followss "Of ninety-four administrators, seventy-two, or 76,6 per cent of the total, expressed a preference for teachers who had specialised in one of four fields of business education*" 330 4. Requirements relative to business experience# Administrators in 108 junior colleges have given information as to their requirements relative to business experience for teachers of business subjects. Only twenty-five, or 23.10 per cent of a total of 108, require business ex perience but ninety-one, 91.9 per cent of a total of ninety- n*ne» prefer that teachers have had such experience. Only fifteen administrators feel that a specific kind of business experience should be required. Seventy-eight administrators make suggestions as to the duration of such experience; seventy of them specifying one year or more as desirable. The requirements and preferences of junior-eollege admin istrators relative to business experience are shown in Table LXV. (Here insert Table DCV, nRequirements of Administrators in .One Hundred Sight Junior Colleges Relative to Business Experience for Teachers of Business Subjects.”) 5. Standards of technical skill. Forty-five adminis trators answered the section of the inquiry referring to standards of technioal skill. Only twenty-one of them have set up such standards for teachers of business subjects* The standards in shorthand skill range from one hundred to 150 words per minute with an average of 118.5 words per minute. The time of test ranges from five to 120 minutes, the average being 17.9 minutes. From no errors to five errors are allowed with an average of 4*3 errors. The standards in typewriting skill range from forty to eighty words per minute with an average of 58.1 words per minute. 331 TABLE LXV REQUIREMENTS OF ADMINISTRATORS IN ONE HUNDRED EIGHT JUNIOR COLLEGES RELATIVE TO BUSINESS EXPERIENCE FOR TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS Requirements and Preference Proposition Yes No Number Num ber Per Cent Num ber Per Cent Replying 1. Actual business experience re* quired — — — — . 25 23.10 83 76.90 108 2* Actual business experience pre ferred — — — — 91 91.90 8 8.10 99 3* Specific kinds of business exper ience required -— 15 14.85 86 85.15 101 Number Per Cent • « 4* Length of time suggested: Six months or less - One year One to two years Three to four year 8 Five or more years Conditional 8 28 28 11 1 2 10.25 35.90 35*90 14.10 1.28 2.59 78 This table should be read as follows: "Of 108 administrators, twenty* five, or 23*1 per cent of the total, require that prospective teachers of business subjects have business experience*** 352 The time of test ranges from ten to 120 minutes, an average of 21,2 minutes* Three to ten errors are allowed, an average of 5.9 errors. The standards of technical skill required by junior-eollege teachers are shown in Table LXVT. (Here insert Table LXVT, "Standards of Technical Skill -Required of Teachers in Forty- Five Junior Colleges*") 6* Practices relative to employment of teachers without previous teaching experience. Only thirty-three junior college administrators, 31.1 per cent of a total of 106 answering this question, are willing to employ teachers of business subjects without previous teaching experience. Prospective teachers, then, who are ambitious to teach in junior colleges should plan to serve an apprenticeship period in high-school teaching* The practices in junior colleges relative to the employment of inexperienced teachers are shown in Table HXVII. (Here insert Table LXVTI, "Practices in One Hundred Six .Junior Colleges Relative to Employment of Inexperienced Teachers of Business Subjects.") 7. Ranking of problems in business-teacher education. Four problems in business-teacher education were ranked by 107 junior-eollege administrators as to their relative importance* All four problems are ranked between second and third places by the group as a whole* "Providing the teacher with a basis for giving secondary-school pupils an adequate picture of present social and economic life" is ranked 2.15, the highest ranking given to any one of the four problems. TABLE LXVI STANDARDS OP TECHNICAL SKILL REQUIRED OF TEACHERS IN FORTY-FIVE JUNIOR COLLEGES Criteria Standards Range Average Shorthand: Speed— words per minute — — — — 100 to 150 118*5 Time of test in minute 8 5 to 120 17.9 Errors allowed 0 to 5 4*3 Typewriting* Speed— words per minute — — — — — 40 to 80 58*1 Time of test in minutes •*»•«— • • « • • • 10 to 120 21*2 Errors allowed — 3 to 10 5*9 Number of schools* With standards — 21 Without standards 24 Total 45 This table should be read as follows s *Administrators of twenty-one junior colleges have set up standards of shorthand skill for prospective teachers ranging from 100 to 150 words per minute or an average of 118*5 words per minute*1 * TABLE LXVII PRACTICES IN ONE HUNDRED SIX JUNIOR COLLEGES RELATIVE TO EMPLOYMENT OF INEXPERIENCED TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS Replies Proposition Yes N0 Number Per Cent Number Per Cent Employment of teachers without previous teaching experience 33 31.1 73 68*9 This table should be read as follows * *In thirty-three junior colleges, or 31*1 per cent of a total of 106, teachers are em ployed without previous teaching experience • * * 335 1 1 Acquainting the student-*teachers with the progressive quality of aims, curricula, and procedures in secondary busi ness education” is fated 2.22 or second highest. "The development of desirable teacher personality” has a com posite ranking of 2.37, third in final rank. "Promoting familiarity with research findings and the habit of constant search for new developments” is considered of least importance by the administrators. These problems, then, are of almost equal importance judged by the scattered rankings given them by junior-eollege administrators* The frequency distribution and average ranks are shown in Table LXVTII. (Here insert Table LXVIII, "Hanking of Problems in Business- -Teacher Education by One Hundred Seven Junior-College Administrators.”) 8. Other problems suggested by junior-eollege adminis trators. Porty-four additional problems were suggested. They are roughly grouped under eight headings: (a) business contacts (b) terminal curricula; (o) educational psychology; (d) liberalization of business education; (e) general education; (f) personality development; (g) individual business subjects; (h) tests and measurements; and (i) miscellaneous. These problems are briefly discussed in the following paragraphs. (a) Business contacts. Eleven administrators mention the problem of getting the teacher to maintain business con tacts and to familiarize himself with the demands made of business employees especially with regard to the local comm unity. (b) Terminal curricula. Six administrators feel 336 TABLE LXVTII RANKING OF PROBLEMS IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION BY ONE HUNDRED SEVEN JUNIOR-COLLEGE ADMINISTRATORS Problems Rank and Frequency Final 1 2 3 4 Total Average Rank 1. How to provide the teacher with a basis for giving secondary school pupils an adequate picture of present social and economic life 36 35 15 16 104 2*15 1 2* How to acquaint student-teaehers with the progres sive quality of aims, curricula, and pro cedures in secondary business education 33 28 34 11 106 2.22 2 3* How to aid in the development of de sirable teacher personality 27 36 22 22 107 2.37 3 4. How to promote familiarity with research findings and the habit of constant search for new developments 19 12 29 46 106 2.96 4 This table should be read as follows * “Of 104 Junior-eollege adminis trators, thirty-six consider problem number one as first in importance in business-teacher education; 104 administrators rank this problem as 2*15 in importance •“ 337 that the construction of good terminal curricula is a vital problem in junior-eollege education* One administrator feels that beginning teachers do not understand the differ ence between terminal and university^preparatory courses. (c) Educational psychology. Five administrators suggest two problems in the field of educational psychology. They are: ”the recognition of individual differences” and ”pupil guidance and placement.” (d) Liberalization of business education. Five administrators are concerned with the broadening of the scope of business education in the junior college. They deplore excessive attention to specialized courses and feel that the development of courses in general business education consti tutes a problem. (e) General education. The need for more general education on the part of the teachers of business subjects is mentioned as a problem by three administrators. (f) Personality development. Two administrators feel that personality development for teachers and pupils constitutes a problem. (g) Individual business subjects. Business sta tistics is the only subject mentioned by junior-eollege ad ministrators as one which should be investigated with a view to building courses in it. (h) Tests and measurements. Only one adminis trator specifies this field as one in which investigation should be made by prospective teachers of business subjects* 338 (i) Miscellaneous: Seveh miscellaneous problems are mentioned a total of ten times: (1) determining the objectives of business education; (2) development of pro fessional consciousness and the desire for professional growth on the part of the teacher; (3) development of a satisfactory philosophy of life on the part of the teacher; (4) development of interest in the student rather than in the subject matter; (5) provision of educational experiences as substitutes for business experience; (6) the recognition by university authorities of the work done in the business courses of the junior college; and (S?) the problem of discovering what constitutes good teaching* The preceding sections of this chapter have been concerned with standards set up for teachers of business subjects in employing institutions of three types— junior high schools, senior high schools, and junior colleges, In the following section is presented a summary of the re quirements set up by the administrators of these institutions* E. SUMMARY OF STANDARDS SET UP BY ADMINISTRATORS OF EMPLOYING INSTITUTIONS RELATIVE TO TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS The standards set up for teachers of business subjects in 392 employing Institutions are presented in the following paragraphs as a summary of the chapter* Eight headings are used: (1) degrees required; (2) composite ranking of subject groups in education as to their relative importance in teacher preparation; (3) specialization for teachers of busi- 339 ness subjects; (4) requirements relative to business ex perience; (5) standards of technical skill; (6) practices relative to employment of teachers without previous teaching experience; (7) ranking of problems in business- teacher education; and (8) other problems suggested by- administrators * In the following paragraphs average requirements for all institutions are given* In addition, variations among the standards set up by different types of employing institutions are noted in cases where such variations exist* 1* Degrees required* A total of 416 degree re quirements is mentioned by 386 administrators in employing institutions* The doctors degree is required in six instances, 1*44 per cent of the total; while masters degrees are specified seventy-one times, or 17*07 per cant of the total* Bachelor1s degrees are cited 287 times, 68*90 per cent of the total* Only in 36 institutions are teachers without baccalaureate degrees accepted, which fact indicates the desirability of the securing of a bachelor’s degree by the prospective teacher of business subjects; and, if possible, a graduate degree. As is to be expected, requirements are higher in the junior college than in the high school* The requirements relative to degrees for teachers of business subjects are shown in Table IXDC. (Here insert Table IXEX, ^Degrees Required for Teachers of .Business Subjects in Three Hundred lighty-Six Employing Institutions.”) TABLE LXIX DEGREES REQUIRED FOR TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS IN THREE HUNDRED EIGHTY-SIX EMPLOYING INSTITUTIONS Degree Institutions Ln which Required Number Percentage Fh. D. 5 1*20 Ed* D. 1 •24 M* A* 44 10.58 M* B* A* 27 6.49 Bachelor’s 287 68.90 Others 16 3.84 None 36 8.75 Total 416 100.00 This table should be read as follows t "The Fh* D. degree was mentioned by the administrators of five institutions as being required for teachers of busi ness subjects* Five is 1*20 per cent of the total of 416 degrees specified by all administrators** 341 2. Composite ranking of subject groups In education as to their relative importance In teacher preparation. That there is diversity of opinion among administrators as to elements of importance in the teacher’s preparation is shown by the rankings given seven subject groups each of which with few exceptions is given all seven rankings* The business content subjects are placed first by 283 ad ministrators and also receive the highest average ranking; indicating that administrators prefer teachers who are well prepared in the content of the subjects they are to teach. Business education courses are given second highest ranking and social sciences, third* General academic subjects and general education courses receive average rankings of 3.32 and 3.42 respectively or final ranks of fourth and fifth places. Practice teaching and free electives are ranked as of least importance in business- teacher education. The ranking of business education courses and social sciences above general academic subjects and general education courses indicated a recognition of the fact that there are special problems in the field of business education and of the need for present-day emphasis upon social sciences. There is little variation in the opinion of administrators in various types of institutions. Without exception, they rank business content subjects as first in importance. Junior- eollege administrators rank the social sciences second, while those in senior high school and junior high school rank it third and fourth respectively. That high-school administrators favor business education courses is shown 342 by their ranking of them in second place; while junior- eollege administrators consider them fourth in importance. Although twenty-one administrators mention the liberalization of the education of the teacher of business subjects as a problem worthy of study, the group as a whole ranks the general academic subjects— an element in liberalization— as follows: junior-eollege administrators, third; and 252 junior and senior-high school administrators, fifth. That there is little real difference, however, among the average rankings of the various groups will be seen from an inspection of Tables XLIX, LXIII, and LXX. The composite ranking of seven subject groups as to their relative im portance in business-teacher education is shown in Table LXX. (Here insert Table LXX, ''Composite Ranking by Administrators In Three Hundred Seventy-Nine Employing Institutions of Subject Groups in Undergraduate and Graduate Education as to Their Relative Importance in Teacher Preparation.11) 3. Specialization for teachers of business subjects. A majority of the 362 administrators in employing insti tutions favor specialization for teachers of business subjects. Two hundred twenty-eight, or 65.9 per cent of a total of 346, prefer teachers who have specialized in one of four fields of business education— stenographic, accounting, salesmanship, and general business. One hundred six, 56.9 ' See Table LXXVI. 543 TABLE LXX COMPOSITE RANKING BY ADMINISTRATORS IN THREE HUNDRED SEVENTY-NINE EMPLOYING INSTITUTIONS OP SUBJECT GROUPS IN UNDERGRADUATE AND GRADUATE EDUCATION AS TO THEIR RELATIVE IMPORTANCE IN TEACHER PREPARATION Subject Groups Rank and Frequency Final Total Aver age Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Num ber Rank 1. Business content subjects — -— — 283 58 21 11 6 0 0 379 1.42 1 2. Business edu cation courses - 46 109 91 64 50 11 0 371 2.99 2 3. Social sciences 49 103 53 80 40 33 4 362 3.20 3 4. General academie subjects 70 74 69 50 56 44 10 373 3.32 4 5. General education courses 33 82 85 67 54 35 5 361 3.42 5 6. Practice teaching 27 30 58 63 57 86 14 335 4.22 6 7. Free electives — 5 7 9 19 32 29 168 269 6.06 7 This table should be read as follows * "Business content subjects are con sidered first in importance in teacher preparation by 283 administrators in employing institutions. The average ranking given the business content subjects by 379 administrators is 1.42 or approximately half-way between first and second place." 344 per cent of a total of 186, feel that specialization in social-business subjects is desirable and 233, or 64*4 per cent of a total of 362, favor a special curriculum for teachers planning to serve in one of the three types of secondary institutions* The junior-eollege administrators prefer teachers who are specialists to a greater extent than do high-school administrators* This is probably due to the nature of the work in junior college which is usually specialized, particularly in terminal curricula. The junior-high school administrators favor specialization in soeial-business education to a greater extent than do administrators in senior high schools and junior colleges* This, too, may be explained by the nature of the work in junior high school and the emphasis upon social sciences* The administrators of the three types of institutions are of like mind with reference to special curricula for the type of institution in which the teacher is planning to serve; between fifty-rnine and sixty-nine per cent of them being in favor of such specialization# The opinions of administrators relative to specialization for teachers of business subjects are set forth in Table I2QCI. (Here insert Table IX£I, - *Opinions of Three Hundred .Sixty-Two Administrators in Employing Institutions Relative To Specialization for Teachers of Business Subjects.") 4. Requirements relative to business experience* Actual business experience is required by only forty-three administrators, 11.55 per cent of a total of 372; but is 345 TABLE LXXI OPINIONS OF THREE HUNDRED SIXTY-TWO ADMINISTRATORS IN EMPLOYING INSTITUTIONS RELATIVE TO SPECIALIZATION FOR TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS Preference Expressed Number Propositions Yes No Answering Num ber Per Cent Num ber Per Cent Question 1* Specialization in four fields of business edu cation — — — — 228 65*9 118 54*1 346 2. Specialization in social-business edu cation — — — — 106 56*9 80 43.1 186 3. Special curriculum for institution of each type— junior high, senior high, or junior college — — 253 64*4 129 35.6 362 This table should be read as follows t “Two hundred twenty-eight ad ministrators in employing institutions, or 65*9 per cent of the total9 prefer teachers who have specialized in one of four fields of business education— stenographic, accounting, salesmanship, and general business.* •preferred by 330, or 91*62 per cent of a total of 360 administrators* This fact emphasizes the importance of actual business experience to prospective teachers of business subjects* Only forty-two administrators, 12*05 per cent of a total of 349, prefer teachers who have had a specific kind of business experience— in the field of the teachers specialization* Thirty-six administrators, or 13*81 per cent of the total of 261, specify six months or less as the duration of the business experience; while all of the others suggest one year or more as the length of time suitable for such experience* More junior-college administrators require actual business experience than do high-school administrators* This may be explained by the fact that the terminal curricula in junior college are devised to train for actual business positions while the work of the high school is in the field of general education On the other hand, ninety-one per cent of the administrators in each type of institution prefer teachers who have had actual business experience* On the whole, the junior- college administrators specify longer periods of business experience than do high-school administrators* Require ments as to business experience are indicated in Table LXXII (Here insert Table 13X11, "Requirements of Administrators .In Three Hundred Seventy-Two Employing Institutions Relative to Business Experience for Teachers Of Business Subjects•”) 5. Standards of technical skill* Of the 150 ad ministrators who replied to this section of the question#*- 347 TABLE LXXII REQUIREMENTS OF ADMINISTRATORS IN THREE HUNDRED SEVENTY-TWO EMPLOYING INSTITUTIONS RELATIVE TO BUSINESS EXPERIENCE FOR TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS Requirements and Preference Total Proposition Yes No Number Num ber per Cent Num ber Per Cent Replying 1, Actual business ex perience required 43 11,55 329 88,45 372 2, Actual business ex perience preferred 330 91,62 30 8,38 360 3, Specific kinds of business experience required 42 12,05 307 87,95 349 Number Per Cent 4, Length of time sug gested; Six months or less One Year — — — — One to two years - Three to four years Five or more years Conditional 36 121 84 15 2 3 13,81 46,32 32,21 5,74 0,76 1,15 261 This table should be read as follows * *In forty-three institutions, or 11,55 per cent of a total of 372, actual business experience is required of teachers of business subjects; while in 330, or 91,62 per cent of a total of 360, it is preferred,* naire, only sixty-six have set up standards of technical skill for teachers of business subjects. The range for shorthand skill is from forty to 150 words per minute with an average of 103.09 words per minute. The test time ranges from two and one^half to ISO minutes with an average of 12.96 minutes. The errors allowed range from none to twenty-five. The range for typewriting skill is from thirty to eighty words a minute, with an average of 53.30 words per minute. The test time ranges from three and one-half to ISO minutes, an average of 17.08 minutes. The errors allowed range from three to fifteen with an average of six. The majority of administrators do not regard technical skill as important for teachers of busi ness subjects. Those who have set up standards, however, have indicated average standards very slightly in advance of those expected of high-school pupils. Junior-college administrators specify a higher standard of skill than do those in senior and junior high schools. The average standards for shorthand skill in the three types of insti tutions are 118.5, 97.1, and 87.1 words per minute respectively. Test time shows the same gradation: 17.9, 10.9, and 6.7 minutes respectively. More errors are allowed in institutions on lower than on higher levels: junior college, 4.3 errors; senior high school, 8*2 errors; and junior high school, 8.0 errors. The standards for typewriting skill on the three levels show the same gradation speed— 58.1, 5S.4, and 46.3 words per minute respectively; test time— 21.2, sixteen, and 11.9 minutes respectively; 349 and errors allowed— ’ 5*9, 6.1 and six respectively. The standards of technical skill required of teachers of business subjects are shown in Table LXXIII. (Here insert Table LXXIII, , ^Standards of Technical Skill .Required of Teachers in Two Hundred Sixteen Employing Institutions.”) 6. Practices relative to employment of teachers with out previous teaching experience. One hundred fifty adminis trators, 40.2 per cent of a total of 374, are willing to employ teachers without previous teaching experience. This fact is an encouraging one to prospective teachers. The percentage of administrators in each institution willing to employ inexperienced teachers is as follows: junior college, 31.1; senior high school, 42.9; and junior high school, 45.2. These data indicate that the prospective teacher of business subjects who prepares to teach in the junior high school has a slightly better chance of being accepted for employment than has the one who plans to teach in senior high school or junior college. However, it may be that the numerical chances for senior-high school employment are better. In the present investigation, while 563 questionn aires were sent to administrators in institutions of each type, only ninety-three junior-high-school administrators answered this section of the inquiry^ while 175 senior-high- school administrators reported their requirements* In Table LX2GV, are shown the number and percentage of replies to this question. TABLE LXXIII STANDARDS OP TECHNICAL SKILL REQUIRED OF TEACHERS IN TWO HUNDRED SIXTEEN EMPLOYING INSTITUTIONS Criteria Standards Range Average Shorthand: Speed— words per minute — — — — 40 to 150 103.09 Time of test in minutes — — — — 2.5 to 120 12*96 Errors allowed — 0 to 25 6*85 Typewriting: Speed— word8 per minute 30 to 80 53*30 Time of test in minutes 3*5 to 120 17.08 Errors allowed — 3 to 15 6*00 Number of schools: With standards 66 Without standards 150 Total 216 This table should be read as follows: "Of 216 administrators who answered this section of the questionnaire, only sixty-six have set up standards of technical skill for teachers of busi ness subjects* In shorthand speed, the range is from forty to 150 words per minute, with an average of 103*09 words per min ute*" 351 (Here insert Table LXXIY, --"Practices' in Three Hundred -Seventy-Four Employing Institutions Belative to Employment of Teachers without Previous Teaching Experience#") 7# Banking of problems in business-teaoher education# Four problems in the field of business-teacher education were ranked as to their relative importance by 370 adminis trators* That these problems are all regarded important is seen in the fact that each of them is ranked first by some administrators# In fact, each problem received all four rankings# The average ranking places the "acquainting of the student-teacher with the progressive quality of aims, curricula, and procedures in secondary business education" first and the "provision of a basis for giving secondary school pupils an adequate picture of present social and economic life", second# The "development of teacher personality" and the "promotion of familiarity with research findings and the habit of constant search for new de velopments" are ranked third and fourth respectively# Ad ministrators of all types of institutions agree as to giving first rank to "acquainting student-teachers with the progressive quality of aims, curricula, and procedures in secondary business education" with the exception of junior- college administrators who give a slightly better ranking to "providing the teacher with a basis for giving secondary- school pupils an adequate picture of present social and economic life#" Otherwise, there is little variation in the ranking given the four problems by administrators in various types of institutions# The average and final rankings TABLE LXXTV PRACTICES IN THREE HUNDRED SEVENTY-FOUR EMPLOYMENT INSTITUTIONS RELATIVE TO EMPLOYMENT OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS WITHOUT PREVIOUS TEACHING EXPERIENCE Proposition Replies Yes N0 Number Per Cent Number Per Cent Employment of teachers without previous teaching experience — ----- 150 40*2 224 59*8 This table should be read as follows: "One hundred fifty ad ministrators, 40*2 per eent of a total of 374, are willing to employ teachers of business subjects without previous teaching experience 555 are shown in Table LXXV* (Here insert Table LHY, ."Ranking of Problems in Business- .Teacher Education by Three Hundred Seventy Administrators in Employing Institutions*") 8, Other problems suggested by administrators. Additional problems in the field of business-teacher education are mentioned a total of 140 times by 105 adminis trators, there being very little duplication* They are roughly grouped under eight headings for convenience in reporting. Administrators in senior high schools are more concerned with problems in the field of the individual business subjects than are any other group; the individual business subjects being mentioned sixteen times by senior- high-school administrators. This group is also especially interested in the liberalization at the education of the business teacher, fifteen of them mentioning this problem. As is to be expected, only a few junior-college adminis trators, who have higher degree requirements for teachers of business subjects than do high-school administrators, feel that this is a problem. Administrators in all types of institutions list problems in the field of educational psychology, especially with reference to individual differences. Eleven junior-college administrators and nineteen, in all types of institutions, feel that the maintaining of business contacts constitutes a problem, Social-business education as a field worthy of study is specified by fourteen administrators. Personality develop- 354 TABLE LXXV RANKING OF PROBLEMS IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION BY THREE HUNDRED SEVENTY ADMINISTRATORS IN EMPLOYING SITUATIONS Problems Rank and Frequency 1 2 3 4 Total Average Final Rank 1. How to aoquaint student-teachers with the progressive qual ity of aims, cur ricula, and proce dures in secondary business education 150 95 90 34 369 2.02 1 2. How to provide the teacher with a basis for giving secondary school pupils an adequate picture of present social and economic life — — — 108 127 81 49 365 2*19 2 3. How to aid in the development of de sirable teacher personality — — 102 130 87 51 370 2.24 3 4. How to promote familiarity with re search findings and the habit of constant search for new de velopments — — — -— 33 37 96 202 368 3.27 4 This table should be read as follows * "One hundred fifty administrators rank problem 'number one' as first in importance; the average ranking being 2.02." 555 ment for teachers and pupils is suggested as a problem by twelve administrators. The building of special curricula is mentioned by ten administrators, six of whom are interested in terminal curricula for the junior college* Seven adminis trators list problems in the field of tests and measurements* Thirteen miscellaneous problems dealing with such subjects as professional ethics, teacher-pupil relationships, and college-entrance requirements are mentioned. The problems in business-teacher education suggested by administrators in 105 employing institutions are listed in Table £2QCVT* (Here insert Table £XXVI, "Problems in Business-Teacher .Education Suggested by Administrators In One Hundred Five Employing Institutions*") The results of an investigation into the requirements set up for teachers of business subjects by administrators in 592 employing institutions have been set forth in the present chapter# These standards will be used in the following chapter as a means for evaluating the provisions made in institutions engaged in business-teacher edu cation for the preparation of teachers of business subjects which were presented in Chapters X, XI, and XII* 356 TABLE LOTT PROBLEMS IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION SUGGESTED BY ADMINISTRATORS IN ONE HUNDRED FIVE EMPLOYING INSTITUTIONS Field in Ihioh Frequencyf . of Mention Problem is Located Junior High School Senior High School Junior College Total 1* Individual business subjects — — — — - 7 16 1 24 : 2. General education — — 3 15 3 21 3* Educational psychology 6 9 5 20 4* Business oontacts --- 5. Social-business edu 3 5 11 19 cation 6* Personality develop ment for teachers 4 5 5 14 and pupils 4 6 2 12 7 • Curriculum ---------- 2 2 6 10 8* Tests and measurements 2 4 1 7 9. Miscellaneous ---— — —— 3 10 13 Total------------ 31 65 44 140 Number of administrators presenting problems 28 41 36 105 This table should be read as follows $ n Seven administrators in the junior high school; sixteen, in senior high school; one, in junior college; a total of twenty-four administrators suggest problems in the individual business subjects** P ART IV EVALUATION AND SUMMARY CHAPTER XIV. AN EVALUATION OP PRACTICES IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION IN TERMS OF THE AIMS AND CURRICULA OP SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION AND REQUIREMENTS IN EMPLOYING INSTITUTIONS. CHAPTER XV. SUMMARY OP FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS. 358 CHAPTER XIV AN EVALUATION OF PRACTICES IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION IN TERMS OF THE AIMS AND CURRICULA OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION AND REQUIREMENTS IN EMPLOYING INSTITUTIONS In Part II of this study an analysis of secondary busi ness education— its history, the sources of aims and curricula, and trends in aims and curricula— is presented. Part III is concerned with the education of the teachers of business subjects— their present preparation as revealed by the National Survey of the Education of Teachers, past and present curricula devised for their preparation, and the requirements of the administrators of institutions in which the prospective teach ers will render service. In this part of the study, Part IV, an attempt will be made to point out the implications for business-teacher education inherent in secondary business education and to indicate points of contact in these two divi sions of business education. It is obvious that close co operation bet¥/een them is mutually advantageous. In order to further this necessary cooperation, recommendations which appear to be warranted will be made. In the present chapter business-teacher education is discussed in its relation to six phases of secondary business education: (A) History of secondary business education; (B) Sources of aims and cur ricula in secondary business education; (C) Aims of secondary 359 business education; (D) Curricula in secondary business education; (E) Characteristics of the occupation of teach ing business subjects; and (F) Requirements of administrat ors in employing institutions. A. HISTORY OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION At least three aspects of the history of secondary business education are of especial significance in business- teacher education: (1) close relationship between business education and social and economic development; (2) the in fluence of tradition; and (3) the effect of the reorganiza tion movement in education. The implications in each of these phases of the evolution of business education for business-teacher education are indicated in the following paragraphs. 1. Close relationship between business education and social and economic development. A study of the history of business education reveals its close relationship with social and economic development. In colonial times, business educa tion consisted of rudimentary training for boys in harmony with the simple business procedure of the time. During the period of struggle for national commercial' and economic independence in the early part of the nineteenth century, business training was given new impetus due to increasing need for those who could assist in the "facilitating processes of business.” While the practices of business education were thus expanded, they were still concerned exclusively with the "office arts." In the later period of economic integra tion and industrial organization, office machines were developed and became part of the equipment of schools teach ing business subjects; women entered business in large numbers; and the content material of the business subjects was greatly enriched. In our present stage of social and economic development, business education is being gradually adapted to changing conditions. Universal enlightenment relative to business and economic principles is necessary for the sane reorganization of society which now appears to be inevitable. The scope of business education, then, in harmony with present-day economic conditions, is being expanded to include not only the liberalization of the edu cation of business workers but basic training for all persons. The practices of business-teacher education have likewise been influenced by social and economic development. In the early stages of its evolution, training in the office arts was sufficient education to enable the teacher to prepare young people for office positions. Today, as the scope of business education has been broadened so extensively, so must the interests of business-teacher education be enlarged. As the practices of business education have paralleled social and economic development, so, necessarily, have those of business-teacher education. The lesson to be learned from history by administrators of institutions engaged in business- teacher education is that the narrow training which suited an age in which business was simple will not function 361 adequately in a highly complex economic system. Continuous study of social and economic conditions is therefore essen tial, to the end that such education will be administered to teachers of business subjects that they may, in turn, prepare pupils to live in a changing world and in what may be an entirely reorganized economic order. 2. The influence of tradition. The influence of tradi tion is seen in two types of curriculums— those in secondary schools, and those in institutions engaged in business edu cation. In the former, the persistence of the clerical arts is noted. In some instances, shorthand and bookkeeping are still required of all pupils. This condition may be ascribed to two influencing factors: tradition with its correspond ing inertia, and narrowly-trained teachers. Today occupa tional and social research are resulting in the overthrow of the influence of tradition and the reorganization of curricula. The preceding statement does not imply, however, that there is no place in business education for the "office arts." In fact, one limitation of curriculum analysis lies in the fact that titles do not indicate aims, content, and procedures used in courses. The mere presence of these subjects in the curriculum is not valid ground for criticism. Every curriculum prescription, however, should be examined and if found to be present merely because of tradition and inertia should be replaced by a course or courses built in harmony with present-day needs. Curricula set up for the education of business teachers also show the influence of 362 tradition. Such influence is especially noticeable in the tendency to add business subjects to the regular and tradi tional degree requirements rather than to make substitutions; the refusal, in some instances, to grant credit for courses in shorthand and typev/riting; and the tendency to offer preparation to teachers of shorthand, typewriting, and book keeping more frequently than to those wishing to teach salesmanship, general business, or social-business subjects. Here again these practices are conderoned only if they are the result of tradition and not if they have been establidi ed after careful analysis of present needs. 3. Effect of the reorganization movement in education. The reorganization movement in education has been responsible not only for the establishment of new courses in business education but also for the enlargement of the scope of business-teacher education to include preparation of teachers for junior high schools, senior high schools, junior colleges, and university schools of business. The chief implication for business-teacher education in the history of business education is that as the practices of business- education change in harmony with social and economic changes, continuous research into economic conditions, or familiarity with the findings of investigations made by others, is necessary on the part of those engaged in business- teacher education to the end that teachers may meet the challenge of the new order. Definite suggestions for such research are indicated in the following paragraphs. 363 B. SOURCES OF AIMS AND CURRICULA IN SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION As it would be impossible to evaluate curricula in terms of sources unless a thorough study of all sources were made, the following paragraphs contain merely brief descriptions of sources which should be investigated before curricula are set up. The education of the teacher of busi ness subjects should be based upon the results of investiga tions into the sources of the aims and curricula of secondary business education to the end that he may participate intelligently in a reorganized program of secondary business education. Sources of aims and curricula are of four types: (1) educational; (2) sociological— other than educational; (3) psychological; and (4) philosophical. 1. Educational sources of aims and curricula. A study of educational practices results in orienting the investi gator as to the place of business education in relation to all other education. Then, too, procedures in other insti tutions may be investigated for factors influencing local curricula. 2. Sociological— other than educational— sources of aims and curricula. Continuous sociological research is necessary in order that the practices of business-teacher education and secondary business education be kept in close relationship to social and economic life. In rapidly changing times such as these, investigations which result in the indication of trends are particularly helpful. 364 3. Psychological sources of aims and curricula. Studies of individual differences, ways of adapting instruction to various types of persons, prognosis of individual achieve ment, and personality and character development are forms of psychological research useful in business-teacher education, 4, Philosophical sources of aims and curricula. Philo sophical research is concerned with hypotheses underlying practices. It also goes beyond the "status quo” revealed by sociological research and assembles the ideas of "frontier thinkers” as to ideal conditions. Curricula in business-teacher education, to be effec tive, must be based not only upon one but upon all of the types of research mentioned in the preceding paragraphs; C, AIMS OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION In the following paragraphs each of the present aims of secondary business education, as shown in Chapter VII, will be examined and provisions made in business-teacher * education toward fulfilling it will be indicated: 1. To prepare pupils for simple office positions* The practices of institutions engaged in business-teacher edu cation as shown by this investigation apparently provide for the carrying out of this aim of secondary business education. The fact that more credits are required in business content subjects than in any other group, the setting up of differentiated curricula for those who ?/ish to teach subjects connected with various types of business 365 service, the requirement of actual business experience for the teacher, and the requirement of methods courses, all point to the fact that provision is made for the carrying out of this aim. 2. To adapt business education to the needs of social and economic lif6. The requirement of an average of fifteen units in the social sciences and the suggestion that pros pective teachers of business subjects minor in this field assure teachers of some familiarity with social and economic life. The building of research courses may also aid in making teachers aware of the necessity for adapting business education to the needs of social and economic life. It is obvious that mere provision of courses in social sciences ' will not bring the desired result. As the kind of experi ence the pupil has in various social science courses is impossible to measure, the provisions made are at present the only criteria for judging the recognition of this aim by administrators. 3. To give that form of general education which will prepare young people to enter business pursuits. The presence of courses in business English, economic geography, salesmanship, business law, commercial art, economic history, business mathematics, industrial chemistry, and money and banking, indicates an attempt to adapt various kinds of general education to the needs of prospective business workers through the instrumentality of teachers of business subjects. These business background subjects are required in secondary business education either as separate courses 566 or as fusion courses• Methods courses in teaching some of these subjects are provided, indicating a recognition of their rightful place in secondary business education. 4. To give necessary business information and skills to all pupils for use in personal, social, and civic life. The one direct method of giving cognizance to this aim is the provision of courses in methods of teaching junior business training. Other means, if they exist, are found in courses in general education and business education. In every institution definite provision should be made to assure a recognition on the part of each graduate of this possible and essential broadening of the scope of business education. 5. To fulfill the general objectives of all secondary education. Courses in general education and in business education may be used to present to students the conception that business education is a part of all education and as such is an agency in fulfilling the general objectives of secondary education. This relationship justifies the requirement of an average of 13.2 semester units in general education courses in business-teacher curricula. 6. To prepare pupils for later promotion. ?diile no definite provision is made for the carrying out of this aim it can probably be done best by teachers who have had a liberal business education. Attention to personality and character development as reported by administrators of institutions engaged in business-teacher education is also helpful in this connection. 367 7* To prepare for university work in commerce. This aim can be furthered by the acceptance of entrance credits in business subjects on the part of higher institutions, by the provision in secondary schools of curricula which fulfill college-entrance requirements, and by teachers who have the quality of inspiring capable pupils to seek higher education. The close relationship between aims and curricula is shown in the following paragraphs in which are set forth points of similarity and difference in curricula in second- / ary business education and in business-teacher education. D. CURRICULA OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION An analysis of ninety-six secondary business curricula set up between 1919 and 1933 and of forty-five recent cur ricula in business-teacher education reveals striking similarities in the two programs. They are here presented under five headings: (1) general academic subjects; (2) social sciences; (3) business content subjects; (4) edu cation courses; and (5) electives, 1* General academic subjects. In all, mathematics, English, physical and biological sciences, and physical education require twenty-seven per cent of the total time of curricula in secondary business education. Likewise, twenty-seven per cent of the semester units required for graduation in curricula in business-teacher education are required for these same subjects, thereby assuring the teachers of advanced training in the same subjects required 368 of their pupils* 2, Social sciences* Social sciences require approxim ately eleven per cent of the total time of the secondary business curriculum and likewise eleven per cent of the credits required for graduation in business-teacher cur ricula* 3* Business content subjects* Business content subjects require thirty-seven per cent of total time (twelve per cent, for social-business subjects; and twenty-five per cent, for technical-business subjects) in secondary business curricula and thirty-two per cent of graduation credits in curricula set up for the education of teachers of business subjects; assuring teachers of advanced study of the subjects required of their pupils* 4* Education courses* Seventeen per cent of the credits required for graduation are required for courses in educa tion, business education, and practice teaching* Obviously, there are no courses comparable to education courses in the secondary business curriculum* The corresponding time is taken up with electives, and fine and practical arts* 5* Electives * Twenty-one per cent of total time re quired in the secondary business curriculum is allowed for free and restrictive electives while thirteen per cent of credits required for graduation in business-teacher cur ricula are allowed for free electives* In the latter cur ricula, restricted electives are recorded under their appropriate groups. 569 On the whole, curricula in secondary business education and in business-teacher education are similar. Even though their objectives vary according to the goals of the students pursuing them^their requirements as to groups of subjects are similar# Thus it appears that teachers of business subjects have the opportunity of securing advanced instruc tion in the subjects required of their pupils# E. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE OCCUPATION OF TEACHING BUSINESS SUBJECTS Studies reported in Chapter II show that there is not so large an oversupply of teachers of business subjects as of teachers in other fields. In order to prevent an over- supply, definite facts about the occupation should be given to prospective teachers so that large numbers do not seek to enter the profession and cause it to become overcrowded* Such facts have been gathered in the National Survey of the Education of Teachers reported in Chapter IX# The character istics of the occupation of teacher of business subjects are here listed because of their significance in business- teacher education. They are discussed in the following paragraphs under eight headings: (1) highest level of training; (B) credits earned in business subjects; (3) num ber of different fields in which teachers of business sub jects offer instruction; (4) next main field of teaching for instructors whose major field is business; (5) teaching load; (6) years of teaching experience; (7) salaries re ceived; and (8) data segregated as to size of community. 370 1. Highest level of training. An investigation of the training received by more than ten thousand teachers of business subjects reveals that the median teacher has had a little more than four years of college education. This fact implies that the prospective teacher of business sub-* jects should plan to continue his education beyond the bachelor’s degree if he wishes to equal or surpass the median record of the teachers now in service, 2. Credits earned in business subjects. As the median semester hours earned in business subjects is 32,8 for junior-high-school teachers and 40.1 for senior-high- school teachers and as the average requirements for gradua tion are 41.6 semester hours, the new teacher will find himself as well prepared in the matter of credits in busi ness subjects as the more experienced teacher. 3. Number of different fields in which teachers of bus! ness subjects offer instruction. Not only is business edu cation a complex field in which there are a score or more of subjects but it is often accompanied by other teaching fields. Not more than 33.56 per cent of teachers of busi ness subjects confine their teaching to one field; 38,82 per cent of senior-high-school teachers and 47,8 per cent of junior-high school teachers giving instruction in two fields. In other cases, instruction is given in from one to eight fields, there being only one instance of the latter extreme. This fact, that teachers of business subjects frequently teach in more than one field, points to two advisable resolves on the part of the prospective teacher: 371 (a) to get a general teaching credential; and (b) to be provided with a teaching minor. 4. Hext main field of teaching for instructors v/hose major field is business. The selection of a teaching minor is facilitated by data which reveal that social sciences are the next main teaching field in the largest number of instances among senior-high-sehool-teachers, followed by English, mathematics, modern languages, and health and physical education. For junior-high-school teachers, the next main teaching field is mathematics, followed by social sciences, and English. 5. Teaching load. As a rule teachers of business sub jects have heavy teaching loads, the median being between twenty-nine and thirty hours per week. Prospective teachers are informed, through these data, that the work of the teacher of business subjects is, as a rule, arduous, 6. Years of teaching experience. The median years of teaching experience are nine and one-half for junior-high- school teachers and eight for senior-high-school teachers, indicating a certain degree of permanence in the profession as the calculation of this median involves inclusion of the large number of new teachers who enter the profession each year and thus lower the median. 7. Salaries received. That the profession is not a lucrative one is indicated by the fact that the median salaries in nine-months* schools are $1,493.00 and $1,443.00 respectively; and in ten-months* schools, $2,051.00 and $2,160.00 respectively. The range, however, is from 372 $400.00 to $7,500.00, only one example of each extreme being reported. In every case in which comparable data are available, teachers of other high-sehool subjects receive larger salaries than do teachers of business subjects. 8. Data segregated as to size of community. In gen eral it may be said that requirements relative to teachers of business subjects in large communities are more stringent than in small communities. On the other hand, in larger communities the teachers are more likely to confine their efforts to one teaching subject, to have lighter teaching loads, to receive higher salaries, and to remain longer in one position. Another approach to a better understanding of the char acteristics of the occupation of teacher of business subjects is found in the requirements of the administrators of employ ing institutions. F. EEQUIREMENTS OF ADMINISTKATOBS IN EMPLOYING- INSTITUTIONS Six phases of the work of institutions engaged in . business-teacher education may be evaluated in teras of the requirements set up by administrators in employing institu tions. They are-: (1) curricular requirements; (2) teacher specialization; (3) business experience required; (4) stand ards of technical skill; (5) ranking of problems and provi sions made for their solution; and (6) other problems suggested. In the following paragraphs, comparisons based upon data collected in this investigation will be made. 373 1. Comparison of ranking of subject groups by adminis trators with requirements in business-teacher curricula* Three hundred seventy-nine administrators ranked seven sub ject groups as to their relative importance in business- teacher education* The average number of semester units required for each subject group in forty-five business- teacher curricula is a measure of their relative importance in actual practice* Both groups accord first place to business content subjects. While the administrators con sider business education courses second in importance, actual requirements give it sixth rank* Social sciences i are ranked third by administrators and fourth in curricula. The general academic subjects are considered fourth in importance by administrators but rank second in actual practice. There is virtual agreement relative to general education courses which place fifth in both classifications. Practice teaching is ranked sixth in importance and seventh in sernester-units required. Free electives are ranked as least in importance but are given third place in curricula. However, in some cases, ranking and semester units required are not a true measure of importance. For example, practice teaching represents the culmination of work in other courses. A few units of work in practice teaching preceded by pre paratory work in other subject groups is probably of much more value than a larger requirement in practice teaching with consequent lessening of other preparation. The only change which appears to be warranted by the above comparison 374 is the requirement of more business education courses in business-teacher curricula. Detailed ranking of subject groups by administrators and the curricular requirements in institutions engaged in business-teacher education are shown in Table LXXVTI. (Here insert Table LXOTI, "Comparison of Ranking of Subject Croups by Administrators in Three Hundred Seventy-Nine Employing Institutions with Actual Requirements in Forty-Rive Institutions Engaged in Business- Teacher Education,") 2* Comparison of opinions of administrators of employ ing institutions and practices relative to teacher special ization, The provisions made for teacher-preparation are adequate to meet the preferences of administrators in employing institutions only in the case of provision for specialization in secretarial and accounting subjects; 65.9 per cent of administrators preferring teachers with such specialization and curricula in each field being provided in 57,1 of institutions engaged in business-teacher educa tion. While 56,9 per cent of the administrators favor specialization in social-business education, it is provided in only 8.6 per cent of the cases studied. The same dis crepancy appears relative to specialized curricula for teachers in various types of institutions. While sixty- nine junior-high-school administrators favor such a curricu lum, it is provided in only seven instances, ten per cent of the total. As the majority of existing business-teacher curricula are designed for high-school teachers, the one 375 TABLE LXXVII COMPARISON OF RANKING OF SUBJECT GROUPS BY ADMINISTRATORS IN THREE HUNDRED SEVENTY-NINE EMPLOYING INSTITUTIONS WITH ACTUAL REQUIREMENTS IN FORTY-FIVE INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION Ranking by Busine s s-Teacher Subject Groups Admini str ator s Curricula Semester Units Required Rank Business content sub jects — — — 1.42 41.6 1 Business education courses 2.99 5.2 6 Social sciences — — — 3.20 14.9 4 General academic sub jects — — — — • 3.32 32.7 2 General education courses ——— — — 3.42 13.2 5 Practice teaching — 4.22 4.8 7 Free electives 6.06 17.1 3 This table should be read as follows: “The average ranking by 379 ,ad ministrators places business content subjects as the most important sub ject group in business-teacher education. Forty-one and six-tenths semester units are the average required in business-content subjects in forty-five business-teacher curricula; thus being first among require ments in such curricula.” 376 special curriculum reported for the preparation of senior- high-sehool teachers is of little significance. Although 59*3 per cent of junior-college administrators prefer teachers who have had such preparation, it is provided in only three instances, 4.3 per cent of the total. Detailed comparison of the preferences of administrators in employ ing institutions and the actual offerings are shown in Table LXXVIII. (Here insert Table LXXVIII, Comparison of Opinions of Three Hundred Sixty-Two Administrators in Employing Institutions and Practices in Seventy Institutions Engaged in Business- Teacher Education Relative to Teacher Specialization.”) 3. Comparison of requirements of administrators of employing institutions and of institutions engaged in business-teacher education relative to actual business ex perience. Actual business experience is required by 11.55 per cent of employing institutions and by 27.52 per cent of institutions engaged in business-teacher education**. While this requirement appears to be adequate in the light of the requirements of employing administrators, it does not meet the criterion set up by the 91.9 per cent of them who prefer teachers with such experience. While 86.19 per cent of employing administrators suggest business experience of more than six months* duration, in only ten per cent of instances in which such experience is required for gradua tion is experience of more than six months specified. The 377 TABLE LXXVIII COMPARISON OF OPINIONS OF THREE HUNDRED SIXTY-TWO ADMINISTRATORS IN SSiPLOYING INSTITUTIONS AND PRACTICES IN SEVENTY INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION RELATIVE TO TEACHER SPECIALIZATION Types of Specialization Preferred by Admini str ator s Differentiated Curricula Offered Number Per Cent Number Per Cent 1. Specialization in four fields of business education: 228 65.9 Secretarial 40 57.1 Accounting 40 57.1 Salesmanship 16 22.9 General business 22 31.4 2. Specialization in sooial-business edu cation — — — — — — 106 56.9 6 8.6 3. Special curriculum for institution of each type: 233 64.4 Junior-high 60 69.0 7 10.0 Senior-high 109 65.3 1 1.4 Junior-college 64 59.3 3 4.3 This table should be read as follows t "Two hundred twenty-eight adminis trators in employing institutions, or 65*9 per cent of the total number answering the question, favor specialization for teachers of business sub jects. On the other hand, in forty, or 57.1 per cent of seventy insti tutions engaged in business-teacher education opportunity for such spe cialization is provided in secretarial subjects." 378 detailed requirements relative to business experience are shown in Table DQCIX. (Here insert Table LXXIX, "Comparison of Requirements of Administrators in Three Hundred Seventy-Two Employing Institutions and in Seventy-One Institutions Engaged in Business-Teacher Education, Relative to Business Experience.") 4. Comparison of standards of technical skill required of teachers in employing institutions and in institutions engaged in business-teacher education. The standards of technical skill required in the two types of institutions are similar* The general requirement for shorthand skill is a little better than one hundred words per minute, a test lasting about fourteen minutes, with seven errors allowed* The standards for typewriting skill are approxim ately fifty words per minute, a test lasting seventeen minutes, and six errors allowed. These standards are shown in Table LXXX. (Here insert Table LXXX, "Comparison of Standards of Technical Skill Required of Teachers in Sixty-Six Employing Institutions and in Fifty-Five Institutions Engaged in Business-Teacher Education.") 5. Comparison of ranking of problems in business- teacher education by administrators in employing institu tions and provisions made for solving these problems in institutions engaged in business-teacher education. Adminis trators ranked four problems in business-teacher education as to their relative importance. The frequency of mention 379 TABLE LXXIX COMPARISON OF REQUIREMENTS OF ADMINISTRATORS IN THREE HUNDRED SEVENTY-TWO EMPLOYING INSTITUTIONS AND IN SEVENTY-ONE INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION RELATIVE TO BUSINESS EXPERIENCE Proposition Requirements In Employing Institutions In Business-Teacher Curricula Number Per Cent Number Per Cent 1* Actual business experience required 43 11*55 19 27.52 2* Kind of experience specified — — — 42 12*05 11 21*16 3* Length of time for such experience: Six months or less 36 13*81 18 90*00 One year — — — — 121 46*32 2 10*00 One to two years - 84 32*21 0 Three to four years 15 5*74 0 — Five or more years 2 0*76 0 Conditional — — — 3 1.15 0 This table should he read as follows: nActual business experience is required in forty-three employing institutions, 11*55 of the total number represented in the answers to this question* On the other hand, it is required in nineteen business-teacher curricula, or 27*52 per cent of the total for which data are available*1 1 380 TABLE LXXX COMPARISON OF STANDARDS OP TECHNICAL SKILL REQUIRED OF TEACHERS IN SIXTY-SIX EMPLOYING INSTITUTIONS AND IN FIFTTj-FIVE INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION Criteria Average Requirements In Employing Institutions In Business- Teacher Curricula Shorthand skills Speed--wbrds per minute 103.09 100*50 Time of test in minutes 12*96 14*22 Errors Allowed 6*65 6*72 Typewriting skills Speed— words per minute 53*30 50.68 Time of test in minutes 17.08 16*68 Errors allowed 6*00 1 5*33 This table should be read as follows * *In sixty-six employing insti tutions, an average speed of 103*09 words per minute in shorthand is required of teachers of business subjects* In business-teacher cur ricula in fifty-five institutions, a speed of 100*50 words per minute in shorthand is required*4 * 381 of provisions made for the solution of these problems is the measure of their importance as regarded by administrators; in institutions engaged in business-teacher education* Administrators in employing institutions give first place to the problem of "acquainting student-teachers with the progressive quality of aims, curricula, and procedures in secondary business education/while, judged by number of provisions made for its solution, it is third in importance in actual teacher preparation* "How to provide the teacher with a basis for giving secondary school pupils an adequate picture of present social and economic life” is ranked second by employing administrators but is given first place in actual teacher preparation* Personality development is ranked third by employing administrators and is second in practice* The promotion of familiarity with research find ings is ranked as of least importance in both instances. This may be explained by the fact that the solution of the first two problems, "acquaintance with the progressive quality of aims and curricula,” and "provision of an adequate picture of present social and civic life" are based upon familiarity with research findings. These applications of such knowledge are naturally considered of more importance than the knowledge itself. The comparative rankings of four problems in business-teacher education are shown in Table IXSXI. 382 (Here insert Table UQGCI, "Comparison of Ranking of Problems in Business-Teacher Education by Three Hundred Seventy Administrators in Employing Institutions and Provisions Made for Solving These Problems in Seventy Institutions Engaged in Business-Teacher Education,") 6, Comparison of problems suggested by administrators in employing institutions and in institutions engaged in business-teacher education, A comparison of the types of problems suggested by the two groups of administrators reveals differences in "points of reference" from which the functions of business-teacher education are viewed. Adminis trators in employing institutions are concerned with the individual business subjects to a greater extent than are those engaged in business-teacher education. The former group present problems having to do with the provision of more general education for the teacher of business subjects. Then, too, these administrators of employing institutions feel that the teacher’s preparation should include material and experiences which will aid in solving such problems in educational psychology as adaptation of instruction to pupils varying in abilities and interests, while adminis trators in institutions for teacher preparation do not mention these problems. Administrators in employing insti tutions are more concerned with establishing business contacts than are the other group. Only in problems con nected with social-business education do the administrators in institutions for teacher preparation show greater inter est than do the administrators in employing institutions. 383 TABLE LXXXI COMPARISON OF RANKING OF PROBLEMS IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION BY THREE HUNDRED SEVENTY ADMINISTRATORS IN EMPLOYING INSTITUTIONS AND PROVISIONS MADE FOR SOLVING THESE PROBLEMS IN SEVENTY INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION Problems Average Ranking by Employing Admini str at or s Frequency of Mention of Provisions Made for Solution Number Rank 1. How to acquaint student- teachers with the pro gressive quality of aims, curricula, and procedures in secondary business education — — — — — — — 2,02 98 3 2. How to provide the teacher with a basis for giving secondary school pupils an adequate pic ture of present social and economic life ------ 2*19 168 1 5. How to aid in the de velopment of desirable teacher personality — — 2.24 135 2 4* How to promote familiar ity with research findings and the habit of constant search for new develop- 3*27 73 A JU&ZlvO T This table should he read as follows: "While the average ranking by three hundred seventy administrators places problem one first in im portance , it is third in importance measured by provisions made for its solution in institutions engaged in business-teacher education." 384 The miscellaneous group of problems suggested by adminis trators in institutions engaged in business-teacher educa tion indicates topics of peculiar interest to them, such as: cooperation with high schools, practice teaching, education of administrators and school authorities as to importance of business education, follow-up of graduates, state certification, minor teaching subjects, state super vision, state surveys, and preparation of college instructors who are efficient in administering business-teacher educa tion. Comparison of the problems suggested by administrators in the two types of institutions is shown in Table LXXXII. (Here insert Table LXXXII, ^Comparison of Problems Suggested by Administrators in One Hundred Five Employing Institutions and by Administrators in Thirty-Nine Institutions Engaged in Business- Teacher Education.") SUMMARY OF CHAPTER The summary of this chapter includes only the out standing implications indicated in the preceding paragraphs inasmuch as the entire chapter itself constitutes a summary of previous chapters. Some of the conclusions which may be drawn from an evaluation of present practices in business- teacher education in terms of the findings of a study of secondary business education are: 1. Because of the close relationship between business education and social and economic conditions, as shown by an historical study, continuous research and familiarity with research findings are necessary bases for the 385 TABLE LXXXII COMPARISON OF PROBLEMS SUGGESTED BY ADMINISTRATORS IN ONE HUNDRED FIVE EMPLOYING INSTITUTIONS AND BY ADMINISTRATORS IN THIRTY-NINE INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION Frequency of Mention . Field in which Employing Administrators Problem is Located Administrators in Business- Teacher Education Number Per Cent Number Per Cent 1* Individual business subjects — — — — — 24 17.14 6 11.32 2* General education — — 21 15.00 2 3.78 3* Educational psychology 20 14*30 0 — 4* Business contacts — — 5* Sooial-business edu 19 13.59 5 9*44 cation 6* Personality develop ment for teachers 14 10.00 8 15.09 and pupils — ----— 12 8.57 1 1*88 7* Curriculum 10 7*11 1 1*89 8* Tests and measurements 7 5.00 2 3*77 9* Miscellaneous 13 9.29 28 52.83 Total — — — — — — 140 100.00 53 100.00 This table should be read as fellowst "Problems relating to the individual business subjects were suggested by twenty-four employing administrators and by six administrators in the field of business- teacher education* The first represents a percentage of 17*14 of all problems suggested by the group end the second* a percentage of 11*32** 386 construction of curricula in business-teacher education. If practices in business education are to be adapted to changing social and economic conditions, teachers must have preparation whieh will enable them to make such adapta tions directly in their work and indirectly in the lives of their pupils. 2. The necessary original research and study of research findings should be along four lihes: educational; sociolog ical, other than educational; psychological; and philosoph- \ ical. All of these are needed for the building of curricula which .will prove adequate in meeting present needs. 3. Institutions engaged in businessrteacher education are apparently aiding in carrying out the aim of secondary business education concerned with the preparation for office jobs. Requirements in business-teacher curricula in social sciences help in carrying out the aim of “adapting business education to the needs of social and economic life.* Require ments of social-business courses and of academic subjects adapted to the needs of business assist in carrying out the aim of "giving that form of general education which will prepare young people to enter business pursuits." Little definite provision for carrying out the aim of "giving necessary business information and skill to all persons" seems to be made except in the case of methods courses in junior business training. Courses in general education and in business education help the prospective teacher to realize that business education is a part of all education and that 387 its teachers have an obligation to aid in fulfilling the general objectives of education. These and other aims can be carried out best by teachers who are aware of them and who are making definite provision toward their realization. 4. Approximately the same proportion of time spent in currioulums in secondary business education and in business- teacher education are given to various groups of studies. Both types of curricula require that twenty-seven per cent of total time be spent in academic studies and eleven per cent in social studies. Business content subjects require thirty-seven per cent of the time spent in secondary busi ness curricula and thirty-two per cent, in business-teacher curricula. Electives— free and restricted— are allowed for twenty-one per cent of total time in secondary business curricula; while free electives are allowed for thirteen per cent of the credits required for graduation in business- teacher curricula. Teachers of business subjects, then, are assured advanced study of the subjects required of their pupils. 5. Data from the National Survey of the Education of Teachers reveal that the median teacher of business subjects has had more than four years of college education, and has from 32.8 to 40.1 semester-hours credit in business subjects. The prospective teacher should, therefore, plan to do gradu ate work and to take sufficient courses in business content subjects so that he equals or surpasses the present median. As 46.44 per cent of teachers of business subjects teach in 388 more than one field, the prospective teacher should be pre pared with a teaching minor* The other fields in which teachers of business subjects give instruction are: social sciences, English, mathematics * foreign languages, and * health and physical education. The median teacher of busi ness subjects has a teaching load of twenty-nine or thirty hours per week. His length of teaching experience is between eight and 9,5 years. The median salary ranges from #1,443.00 in nine-months1 schools to #2,160.00 in ten- months1 schools. In general, the requirements in large communities are more stringent than those in small communi ties with working conditions and salaries more desirable. 6. The curricular requirements in institutions engaged in business-teacher education are apparently adequate to meet the standards set up by administrators except in the case of"business education*in which more courses should be offered as the administrators rank it second while accord ing to curricular requirements it is ranked sixth. Provi sions for teacher specialization are apparently inadequate in the case of social-business subjects and special curricula for teachers in various types of institutions. Business experience is required in a larger proportion of business- teacher curricula than in employing institutions although it is preferred by 91.9 per cent of employing administrators. Standards of technical skill are approximately the same in both types of institutions; being a little better than one hundred words per minute in shorthand and fifty words per minute in typewriting. Administrators in employing insti tutions rank four problems in business-teacher education in the following order: (1) how to acquaint student-teachers with progressive quality of aims, curricula* and procedures in secondary business education; (2) how to provide teachers with basis for giving pupils an adequate picture of present social and economic life; (3) how to aid in personality development; and.(4) how to promote familiarity with research findings and the habit of constant search for new develop ments. Judged by the provisions made for solving them in institutions engaged in business-teacher education, the above problems are ranked third, first, second, and fourth in actual practice. One-hundred fifty-three problems relating to many phases of business-teacher education are suggested by administrators* The following chapter, the final one of this study, presents a summary of findings and the conclusions and recommendations which seem to be warranted by them. 390 CHAPTER X? summary of findings, conclusions, and recommendations In the preceding chapters the findings of an investi gation into various phases of secondary business education and of business-teacher education have been presented for the purpose of discovering implications for the academic and professional preparation of teachers of business sub jects. The justification for such a study lies in the modi fications which may be made in the conception of business education held by prospective teachers and in practical applications to business-teacher education. For the pur pose of pointing out such applications, a summary of find ings is here presented, together with the conclusions and recommendations which appear to be warranted therefrom. This summary covers seven phases of the subject: (A) His tory of secondary business education; (B) Sources of aims and curricula in secondary business education; (C) Trends in aims and curricula of secondary business education; (D) Preparation of teachers of business subjects as re vealed by the National Survey of the Education of Teachers; (E) Trends in curricula devised for the preparation of teachers of business subjects; (F) Standards set up in employing institutions relative to teachers of business subjects; and (G) Evaluation of practices in business- teacher education in terms of the aims and curricula of 391 secondary business education and requirements in employ ing institutions. The findings, conclusions, and recom mendations applicable to each topic are considered in the following paragraphs, A. HISTORY OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION Findings, An investigation into the history of sec ondary business education in the United States reveals the following facts which have implications for business-teacher education: 1, Business education was highly individualistic in colonial times. Individual instruction was given by pri vate teachers and through the apprenticeship system. Single proprietorship and personal attention to all transactions were the ruling attributes of business. Individual success was the goal of the student of business subjects. Today, in contrast, the disappearance of the frontier, the neces sity for1 conserving natural resources, and the complex or ganization of business, make a socialistic conception of education necessary. Instruction is now given to large groups of pupils, the corporation school has replaced the apprenticeship system, business ownership and management are generally remote from the work of the individual em ployee, business is regarded as an institution performing social service; hence, the aim of education can no longer 592 be directed exclusively toward individual success. 2* Early business education was planned exclusively for "young gentlemen." Since tbe advent of women into business, the training has been adapted to their needs with the result that today girls represent a large pro portion of pupils studying business subjects although more men than women are engaged in actual business. 3. In the early national period of our history, the work of the academies, although they were privately managed, represented the adaptation of education to contemporaneous social and economic life as a protest to the exclusively classical education of the time* While some business sub jects were taught in the academies, they did not reach the? popularity later achieved in the private business schools. These latter schools, organized for private profit! were concerned primarily with providing the training needed for simple office work. In contrast to these two institutions, the work of the public school today, financed by the tax payers, must not only be adapted to social and economic life, but also result in mutual individual and social wel fare. 4. Early business education was concerned exclusively with training for simple office positions. Today, because of the all-pervasive nature of business, the study of busi ness subjects has been adapted to the work of the junior high school, the senior high school, the junior college, 393 and the university school of business as well as to various specialized institutions— private business schools, cor poration schools, and correspondence schools. Conclusions: From the foregoing facts, the following conclusions appear to be warranted: 1. The nature of business-teacher education has been radically changed since the time when individualism was the dominating characteristic of American business and education. Today, the preparation of the teacher must include materials which will not only give him a social conception of business and of business education but will enable him to induct his pupils into a way of life in harmony with contemporaneous social and economic conditions. 2. Business education should, today, be adapted to the needs of young men as well as of young women if it is to be as serviceable in its time as was colonial business educa tion# 3. The program for business education in a publicly supported institution must have social aims as well as the individualistic goals which are legitimate in privately Supported institutions. 4. Because of the expansion of American business and its contact with so many of the affairs of life, a single type of business training is no longer feasible. The pe culiar problems of the various institutions engaged in busi ness education must be investigated with a view to their solution. 394 Becommendations* Four recommendations arise out of the foregoing conclusions: 1* Prospective teachers of business subjects must have opportunities for developing a social point of view based upon familiarity with contemporaneous social and economic life* The most helpful agencies in the develop ment of this social conception of business and of business education are the social studies and courses in business education* It is therefore recommended that such courses be required of prospective teachers* 2. The needs of young mem in the business world of today should receive the especial attention of teachers of business subjects to the end that suitable courses will be established* 3* The social values in business education should be made the subject of investigation so that the program of business education may be an integral part of the entire program of publicly supported institutions. 4. Prospective teachers should be made aware of the complex nature of business education today— that it com prises many subjects and that it is administered in insti tutions of various types. Adaptations to these changes from simple to complex business education, as shown by a study of history, can be intelligently made only upon an investigation of the sources of the aims and curricula of the institutions in which business education is now offered• 395 B. SOURCES OF AIMS AND CURRICULA IN SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION Findings. A library study of the sources of aims and curricula in secondary business education resulted in the following findings: 1. The educational sources of aims and curricula in secondary business education are: tradition, college en trance requirements, the practices of collegiate schools of business, the functions of specialized schools, the work of other institutions of secondary grade, procedures of business schools in other countries, the sentiment of local and state school administrators with reference to business education, school finance, teacher preparation and interests, enrollment trends, and all of the aspects of the reorganization movement in secondary education. 2. Sociological sources of aims and curricula are: a study of social and economic changes in the United States; census investigations; city and state surveys of various kinds; studies of the needs of adults for business information; investigations into topics of social interest, such as— subjects of court litigation, topics discussed in newspapers, magazines, and books; and occupational analyses. 3* Psychological sources of aims and curricula are: studies of individual differences and experiments with va rious types of educational procedure. 396 4. Philosophical sources of aims and curricula are revealed by a study of the writings of philosophers as to their conceptions of the "good life" and the needs of society; and of the work of "pioneer thinkers" relative to their recommendations based upon the results of social research. Conclusions. The following conclusions are 2 2 3 ade as the result of a study of the sources of aims and curricula in secondary business education: 1. Tradition is not a valid source of aims and cur ricula in that contemporaneous social and economic life is ignored in procedures arising out of this source. The procedures of other educational institutions are valid sources of aims and curricula if the limitations of such sources are clearly recognized. In addition* the sources of the procedures themselves should be studied. As these procedures represent actual practice, they should be con sidered along with the more idealistic sources of aims and curricula. 2. Constant search into the conditions of contem poraneous social and economic life is essential to the adaptation of any program of education to such life. The trends revealed by investigation are especially important in these rapidly changing times. 3. Psychological studies which reveal new facts about the educands are necessary bases for educational programs. As relatively few experiments in procedures 597 in business education have been reported, this source of aims and curricula has probably been neglected. 4. A program of business education based upon edu cational, sociological, and psychological research would be incomplete without the contributions made by philo sophers and "pioneer thinkers" in organizing this material into a system of basic assumptions and beliefs to be used as a foundation for the entire program. Recommendations; As the individual business teacher does not have sufficient time to undertake the necessary original research into educational and other sociological sources, to make psychological experiments, and to read and interpret all the writings of the philosophers, he should be familiar with the findings of such studies made by research workers, should have access to compilations of • the findings of research and the published ideas of the philosophers and pioneer thinkers, and should himself be prepared to make such compilations as well as the suitable adaptations to his own work suggested by them. A study of the sources of the aims and curricula of secondary business education is, then, a necessary part of the preparation of the teacher of business subjects. C. TRENDS IN THE AIMS AND CURRICULA OF SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION Findings: A study of the early and present aims of secondary business education has resulted in the discovery of the following trends: 398 1. Continued emphasis upon the aim of preparing pupils for simple office positions* 2. Increased emphasis upon the adaptations of busi ness education to the needs of social and civic life* 3. A trend toward giving necessary business infor mation and skills to all pupils for use in personal, social, and civic life. 4. A trend toward universal recognition of the iden tification of the aims of business education with those of all secondary education. 5. A trend toward the analysis of the individual business subjects resulting in statements of aim and ob jective determination of course content. Analysis of IBS curricula set up between 1889 and 1933 has revealed the following trends in the subjects required in business curricula: 1. A trend away from the requirement of traditional college-entrance subjects— geometry, trigonometry, physics, chemistry, and foreign languages. 2. A trend toward fusion courses in mathematics, the biological and physical sciences, and general business. 3. A trend toward the requirement of physical edu cation. 4. A trend toward the requirement of more social- business subjects. 5. A trend toward the requirement of more technical- business subjects— office practice and similiar courses replacing the former requirement of shorthand and book- 399 keeping for all pupils. 6* A trend toward more electives, both free and restricted. 7. A trend toward differentiated curricula. A study of junior-high school business education re veals a trend toward the adaptation of business training to the needs of all pupils as interpretation of economic environment and development of an appreciation of the im portance of an understanding of business relationships in this present-day complex world. The outstanding trend in Junior-college business edu cation is the upgrading of the requirements in terminal business curricula. There is also a trend toward the con struction of business orientation courses. Conclusions. A study of trends in the aims of sec ondary business education leads to the following conclusions 1. While writers in the field of business education continue to emphasize the preparation of pupils for simple office work as the major aim of secondary business edu cation, methods of carrying out this aim have changed. Early business training was adapted to the individualfs felt needs as to business employments. Today, curricula are set up on the basis of occupational research and the carrying out of this aim is planned in harmony with social needs. Prospective teachers of business subjects should, therefore, be familiar with the findings of occupational research. 2. As increased emphasis upon the adaptations of . 400 business education to the needs of social and civic life is noted in recent statements of aim, prospective teachers of business subjects should have a foundational education which will enable them to participate intelligently in such adaptation* 3. As there is a trend toward giving necessary busi ness information and skills to all pupils for use in per sonal, social, and civic life, teachers should be cogni zant of the service which they can perform in carrying out this program. Such cognizance includes familiarity with the results of social research, with possible adaptations of business education to needs thus discovered, and orien tation as to the general purposes of secondary education. 4. As there is a trend toward universal recognition of the identification of the aims of business education with those of all secondary education, the preparation of the teacher of business subjects should be sufficiently broad that he may understand the relationship between business education and general secondary education and not regard business education as an isolated entity. 5. The prospective teacher of business subjects should be familiar with the material compiled relative to the individual business subjects* Conclusions reached after an analysis of curricula, set up from 191.9 to 1933 are: 1. As a trend toward fusion courses is noticeable, prospective teachers should be aware of relationships among the content materials of separate business courses 401 and the possibilities for the breaking down of subject lines and the building of fusion courses. £. The trend toward the requirement of more courses in social-business subjects implies that a study of the entire field of social-business education is a necessary part of the teacher’s preparation. 3. The changes in teehnlcal-business subjects imply that prospective teachers should not give exclusive at tention to preparation for teaching shorthand, typewrit ing, and bookkeeping, but that they should be familiar with procedures in other courses, such as: office prac tice, business machines, and store practice. 4. The trend toward more electives implies that teachers should have training in educational psychology, the findings of occupational research, and in principles of guidance so that they may lead pupils toward wise choice of electives. 5. The trend toward differentiated curricula implies study on the part of the teacher of the requirements for the various types of business service for which curricula are differentiated--secretaria1, accounting, salesmanship, general business, and general clerical. As business education in the Junior high school is being adapted to the needs of all pupils, prospective teachers of business subjects in the Junior high school should make an especial study of the findings of socio logical research and of the adaptation of business know ledge, attitudes, and skills to the needs of Junior-high 402 school pupils. Prospective teachers of business subjects in the junior college should be familiar with research findings along the line of the semi-professions for which business curricula are planned, with changes in procedures in the teaching of courses in the terminal curricula, and with the newer courses in business orientation. Recotnmendations. The following recommendations are made as the result of conclusions drawn from a study of trends in the aims and curricula of secondary business edu cation. 1. A study of the findings of occupational research should be definitely included in business-teacher education so that the aim of preparing for simple office positions may be carried out in harmony with actual business needs. The maintaining of business contacts and a study of the re sults of job analyses should also be included in the teach er’s preparation. 2* At least a minor in social studies should be in cluded in every curriculum in business-teacher education because of increased emphasis upon the adaptation of busi ness education to the needs of social and civic life. 3. Provision should be made during the teacher’s period of preparation for study of the results of socio logical research and the development of the habit of con tinued study of the findings of such research as published. Definite provision should be made in courses in business education for consideration of the adaptation of business 403 education to the needs of social and civic life and to the needs of all pupils for use in personal, social, and civic life* 4. Courses in secondary education and in principles of education should be included in every curriculum in busi ness-teacher education so that prospective teachers may have a comprehensive view of the entire field and thus form an intelligent conception of the rSle played by business edu cation in carrying out the general aims of secondary edu cation. 5. Because of the growing body of literature relative to each of the business subjects, at least one course should be set up in which teachers become familiar with such liter ature • 6. In the general course in methods of teaching the business subjects, procedures in teaching fusion courses in business should be treated. 7. There should be definite provision for a study of social-business subjects; in the business content subjects required; in the general methods course; and, if possible, in a special course in social-business education. 8. Studies of occupational requirements and of supply of and demand for teachers of the various technical-business subjects should be made as a basis for the guidance of pro spective teachers in the selection of teaching majors. 9. A course in guidance— educational and vocational— should be included in every business-teacher curriculum be cause of the increased allowance of electives in secondary business curricula* 10. The course in “principles of business education" or the course in "business curriculum" should include a study of the requirements for various types of business service so that there may be an understanding of the needs of pupils in the differentiated curricula. 11. A special course in junior-high-school business education should be set up for prospective teachers in that field. 12. Provision should be made for special study of the problems of junior-college business education by teachers who are planning to render service in the junior college. D. PREPARATION OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS AS REVEALED BY THE NATIONAL SURVEY OF THE EDUCATION OF TEACHERS \ Findings. Some of the findings of the National Survey of the Education of Teachers of significance in business- teacher education are: 1. More than two-thirds of the teachers answering the questionnaire report academic degrees. 2. The median level of training of approximately ten thousand teachers of business subjects is more than four years of college education. 3. The median sernester-hours credit in business sub jects reported by 5,701 teachers is 40.1 semester hours. 4. Only 40.5 per cent of junior-high-school teachers and 53.56 per cent of sen.ior-high-school teachers offer instruction in the field of commerce and business exclusively. 405 5* The median teacher of business subjects has a teaching load requiring from twenty-nine to thirty-four clock hours per week. 6. The median teacher of business subjects has had eight or nine years of teaching experience in more than two school systems. 7. Salaries of teachers of business subjects range from $400.00 to $7500.00 yearly* The median for nine months is a little better than #1,400.00 and for ten months, ap- proximately #2,100•00 8. In approximately every case, the preparation of teachers and conditions of employment are progressively better from small to large communities. Conclusions: The conclusions drawn from a study of the findings of the National Survey of the Education of Teachers are: 1. It is probable that the teachers who reported no academic degrees are those who started to teach before the recent upgrading of requirements for teaching credentials* Therefore, in order to secure favorable consideration, and to be admitted to this group, two-thirds of the members of which have academic degrees, the prospective teacher of busi ness subjects should not attempt to -teach before securing a degree. 2. As the median level of training of approximately ten thousand teachers of business subjects is more than four years of college, the prospective teacher should plan to continue his education beyond the baccalaureate degree. 406 4. Between forty and fifty-four per cent of teachers offer instruction in the field of commerce and business ex clusively; the remainder teaching in from two to eight fields of instruction. This fact implies that teaching minors are an important element in business-teacher edu cation. 5. Teachers of business subjects, as a rule, carry heavy teaching loads averaging from twenty-nine to thirty- four clock hours a week. In contrast, the maximum load for all high school teachers in one city is twenty-five hours a week; and in another, thirty hours a week. 6. As the median teacher of business subjects has had eight or nine years of teaching experience in more than two school systems, there is some turnover in this field with consequent opportunities for teaching positions for grad uates of institutions engaged in business-teacher prepar ation. 7. The wide range in salaries indicates opportunities for persons of varying abilities and varying amounts of pre paration within the profession. In each case in which com parisons have been made, teachers of business subjects re ceive lower salaries than do teachers of academic subjects. 8. Even though teaching conditions in large cities are generally more desirable than those in small communi ties, only a small proportion of the new teachers each year start their careers in large communities. As communities of all sizes represent the locale of the work of the be ginning teacher, the problems of business education in 407 each type of community should be studied by persons engaged in business-teacher education. Hecoimnendations. Recommendations* based upon data gathered in the National Survey of the Education of Teachers are: 1. It is recommended that credentials to teach business subjects be not issued to teachers without baccalaureate de grees. Inasmuch as two-thirds of the present teachers of business subjects have degrees* teachers with less formal edu cation than those already rendering service should not be ad mitted to the group and thus lower the median. Prospective teachers and teachers-in-service should be advised to get graduate degrees in order to improve the present status of the profession in this respect. S. Graduate courses in business education should be pro vided so that teachers without graduate education may take courses useful in their work and helpful in raising indivi duals to present group level of more than four years of col lege education and, at the same time, raise the group median. 3. Prospective teachers of business subjects should be required to have teaching minors, preferably in the social sciences; or in mathematics, English, or other fields of especial interest to individual students. 4* Students who are planning to teach business sub jects should be apprised of the fact that there is a wide range in salaries paid to teachers and that individual abil** ities, education, and efforts will, in large measure, de termine the tangible rewards of the work. 408 5. Courses in business education should deal with the problems of communities of small, medium, and large size unless the administrators of the institutions engaged in business-teacher education know the types of communities in which their graduates will be placed. E. TRENDS IN CURRICULA DEVISED FOR THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS Findings. A comparative study of provisions made in 1928-1929 and 1932-1933 for the education of teachers of business subjects reveals the following trends: 1. An average of 47.7 semester units in business con tent subjects was required for graduation in forty-five in stitutions in 1928-29, while an average of 41.6 semester units is required in 1932-33; a decrease of six semester units. 2. While 29.4 semester units were required in general academic subjects in 1928-1929, 32.7 semester units are now required; an increase of 3*3 semester units. 3. Sixteen and two-tenths semester units in social sciences were required in 1928-1929 and 14.9 semester units, in 1932-1933; a decrease of 1.3 semester units. 4* While 10.4 semester units in education courses were required in 1928-1929, 13.2 semester units are required in 1932-1933; an increase of 2*8 semester units. 5. An average of four semester units in business edu cation courses was required in 1928-1929 and 5.2 semester units, in 1932-1933; an increase of 1.2 semester units. 409 6. Five and five-tenths semester units in practice teaching were required in 1938-1929, and 4.8 semester units in 1932-1933; a decrease of seven-tenths of a semester unit. 7. While 12.9 semester units were elective in 1928- 1929, 17.1 are elective in 1932-1933; an increase of 4.2 semester units. 8. The total requirements for graduation have increas ed an average of 3.4 semester units since 1928-1929. 9. In the business content subjects, courses in ac counting have replaced courses in bookkeeping. Courses in salesmanship, business law, office practice, economic geog raphy, business mathematics, money and banking, and office machines have been added since 1928-1929. 10. Academic courses added include: natural science, English literature, geography, and mathematics. 11. Although an average of 1.3 fewer semester units re quired in social sciences are shown by catalogs, individual institutions report the addition of course requirements in economics, history, civics, and sociology. 12. Courses in principles of education, educational psychology, and educational administration were added to the requirements in general education courses. 13. Courses in methods of teaching business subjects, problems in business education, commercial curriculum, and test procedures in business education were added to gra duation requirements. 410 Conclusions. Conclusions drawn from trends observed in curricula set up for the preparation of teachers of busi ness subjects are: 1. While there have been decreases in graduation re quirements in business content subjects, social sciences, and practice teaching; increases have been made in require ments in general academic sub jects— indicating a trend toward the liberalization of the teacher’s education; general edu cation, and business education courses— indicating more at tention to technique of teaching and underlying principles; and free electives— indicating a trend away from rigid gra duation requirements. 2. The nature of the courses added to requirements in business content subjects indicates a trend in harmony with changes now being made in secondary business curricula— a trend away from clerical-business subjects to social-busi ness subjects. 3. The nature of the courses added in general academic subjects, social sciences, and education indicate a general trend toward a study of the natural sciences, economics, principles of education, and educational psychology. 4. Additional course requirements in business education apparently indicate that requirements in this group of courses are added as soon as new courses are set up; the entire field being comparatively new. Recommendations. It is practically impossible to make recommendations merely from analyses indicating present gra duation requirements in institutions engaged in business- 43.1 teacher education. Therefore, recommendations along this line are postponed until after the introduction of further pertinent data in later sections of this chapter. F. STANDARDS SET UP BY ADMINISTRATORS OF EMPLOYING INSTITUTIONS RELATIVE TO THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS Findings. An inquiry relative to standards set up in employing institutions for teachers of business subjects answered by 393 administrators resulted in the following findings: 1. Teachers without baccalaureate degrees are ac cepted for employment in less than ten per cent of insti tutions for which reports are available. Of degrees speci fied by employing administrators, 1.44 per cent of the total are doctor’s degrees; 17.0? per cent, master’s de grees; and 68.9 per cent, bachelor’s degrees. Degree re quirements are more rigid in junior colleges than in senior and junior high schools. 2. Administrators in employing institutions agree that courses in business content subjects are the most im portant element in the teacher’s preparation. They ranh the other subject groups in the following order: business education, social sciences, general academic subjects, general education courses, practice teaching, and free electives. 3. Actual business experience is required by 11.55 per cent of the administrators but preferred by 91.62 per 412 cent of them* Only 12.05 per cent of the administrators prefer teachers who have had a specific kind of experience, lighty-seven per cent of the administrators who mention the time specify more than one year as the duration of time for such experience. 4. Only seventeen per cent of the administrators have set up standards of technical skill for teachers of busi ness subjects. The average standard in shorthand skill is 103.09 words per minute, a test lasting 12.96 minutes, with an average of seven errors allowed. The average standard in typewriting skill is 53.30 words per minute, a test lasting 17.08 minutes, with an average of six errors allowed. 5. Forty and two-tenths per cent of the administrators are willing to employ teachers without previous teaching ex perience. Only 31.1 per cent of junior-college administra tors are willing to employ inexperienced teachers, while 42.9 per cent of senior-high-school administrators and 45.2 per cent of junior-high-school administrators are willing to employ teachers without previous teaching experiences. There is a slightly better chance for the employment of an inexperienced teacher in a small than in a large community— fifty-eight per cent of the administrators in small com munities; 35.3 per cent, in communities of medium size; and 32.3 per cent, in large communities being willing to employ inexperienced teachers in senior-high-school. 6. Administrators in employing institutions rank the problem of "acquainting the student-teacher with the pro gressive quality of aims, curricula, and procedures in secondary business education” as first in importance; "pro vision of a basis for giving secondary school pupils an adequate picture of present social and economic life,” second "development of desirable teacher personality,” third; and "promotion of familiarity with research findings and the con stant search for new developments,” fourth. 7- Problems in business-teacher education suggested by administrators may be grouped under the following headings: procedures in the individual business subjects, the liberal ization of the education of the teacher; provision for in dividual differences, maintaining of business contacts, per sonality development, building of special curricula, im provement of testing devices, and miscellaneous problems. Conclusions. The following conclusions are drawn from a study of the replies of 39E administrators of institutions in which teachers of business subjects are employed to an inquiry relative to standards set up by themt 1. As less than ten per cent of administrators are willing to employ teachers without baccalaureate degrees, it is advisable for teachers to secure degrees before ap plying for teaching positions. As eighteen per cent of administrators require that teachers have graduate degrees, superior students should be encouraged to get such degrees and apply for positions of presumably superior type. £• Curricula in business-teacher education should be built with some consideration for the opinions of employing institutions* According to this criterion, business con tent subjects should receive first emphasis; followed by 414 courses in business education, social sciences, general academic subjects, general education courses, practice teaching, and free electives* i • - 3. As more than ninety per cent of employing adminis trators prefer teachers who have had actual business ex perience, it is advisable that prospective teachers secure such experience, of at least one year’s duration, if pos sible* 4* Prospective teachers of technical-business subjects should be able to meet the standards set up by employers— 103 words per minute in shorthand and 53*3 words per minute in typewriting* 5* As from 31*1 per cent to fifty-eight per cent of administrators in institutions of various types are willing to employ teachers without previous teaching experience, prospective teachers may select any one of the three types of secondary institutions for specialization and may plan to teach in communities of small, medium or large size. Recommendations * The recommendations arising out of the foregoing data will be postponed until the end of the following section in which an evaluation of present cur ricula is made in terms of the requirements of adminis trators in employing institutions. 4X5 G. AN EVALUATION OF PRACTICES IN INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION IN TERMS OF THE REQUIRE MENTS SET UP BY ADMINISTRATORS IN EMPLOYING INSTITUTIONS Findings. A comparison of the practices in insit-’ tutions engaged in business-teacher education and the re quirements set up by administrators in employing insti tutions has resulted in the following findings: 1. The rankings by administrators of subject groups as to their relative importance in business-teacher edu cation are similar to the places assigned these subject groups when ranked according to semester .units required for graduation with the exception of courses in business edu cation which are given second place by administrators and fifth place in actual practice. 2. While approximately seventy per cent of adminis trators prefer teachers who have specialized in one of four fields in the teaching of teehnical-business subjects— secretarial, accounting, salesmanship, or general business— such specialization is provided through special curricula in only twenty-six per cent of institutions engaged in business-teacher education. Approximately fifty per cent of the administrators favor specialization in the social- business subjects, but only 3*9 per cent of institutions engaged in business-teacher education provide special cur ricula for teachers of social-business subjects. While approximately sixty-five per cent of administrators favor specialization for teachers in various types of institutions 416 — Junior college, senior high school, and Junior high school-—only fourteen per cent of all special curricula have been planned for such specialization. However, it must be remembered that specialization can be made through a system of electives as well as through special curricula. 3. Standards of technical skill are approximately the same in institutions engaged in business-teacher education as those set up by administrators in employing institutions 103 words per minute in shorthand, a test lasting fourteen minutes, with an average of seven errors allowed; fifty- three words per minute in typewriting, a test lasting se venteen minutes, with an average of six errors allowed. 4. While 91.62 per cent of administrators prefer teachers who have had actual business experience and 86.19 per cent of them feel 'that such experience should cover a period of one year or more,! in only 14.05 per cent of in stitutions engaged in business-teacher education require such experience; only two institutions specifying one year or more as the duration of such experience. 5. Administrators rank the problem of "acquainting the student-teacher with the progressive quality of aims,, curricula, and procedures in secondary business education" as first in importance; but, Judged by frequency of men tion of provisions made to solve it, it ranks third. While radministrators rank the "provision of a basis for giving secondary school pupils an adequate picture of present social and economic life," second; it ranks first in actual practice. "Personality development" is regarded third in 417 importance by administrators and second when Judged by pro visions made for its. accomplishment* "Familiarity with re search findings" ranks fourth according to both criteria* 6* As is to be expected, the nature of the problems sx^gested by administrators vary according to the types of institutions with which they are connected* Conclusions * The following conclusions are drawn as the result of a comparative study of the practices of in stitutions engaged in business-teacher education and "Hie requirements set up by administrators in employing insti tutions relative to teachers of business subjects: 1* Courses in business education are not receiving the attention which should be given to them according to the opinions of administrators in employing institutions. 2. Sufficient specialized curricula for prospective teachers of technical-business subjects, social-business subjects, and teachers in various types of institutions have not been set up to meet the preferences of adminis trators, unless such specialization is provided by the allowance of an adequate number of electives to meet it. 3* Standards of technical skill set up in insti tutions engaged in business-teacher education are adequate to meet the standards set up by administrators in employ ing institutions. 4. In institutions engaged in business-teacher edu cation actual business experience is not required to an extent necessary to meet the preferences of administrators in employing institutions* 418 5* Judged by the opinions of administrators in em ploying institutions, sufficient provision is not made in institutions engaged in business-teacher education for solv ing the problem of "acquainting the student-teacher with the progressive quality of aims, curricula, and procedures in secondary business education." Recommendations. The following recommendations are made as a result of the findings and conclusions given in the preceding paragraphs: 1. More courses in business education should be pro vided for prospective teachers of business subjects. 2. Prospective teachers should be acquainted with the desirability of a certain amount of specialization in teach ing technical-business subjects, social-business subjects, and in teaching in various types of secondary institutions. 3. Business experience should be required of pros pective teachers of business subjects. If possible, this experience should be for a period of one year or more. 4. More provisions should be made in institutions engaged in business-teacher education for "acquainting stu dent- teachers with the progressive quality of aims, cur ricula, and procedures in secondary business education." 419 SUMMARY OF RECOMME3JTDATIONS RELATIVE TO BUSINESS - TEACHER EDUCATION The findings resulting from several lines of inquiry into secondary business education and business-teacher edu cation have led to the conclusions and recommendations set forth in the preceding paragraphs* In some cases, it will be noted that the recommendations made as the result of one line of investigation are the same as those arising out of other lines of inquiry* A summary of recommendations is given in the following paragraphs: 1* Recommendations relating to the social sciences: A study of the history of business education, sources of aims and curricula, trends in aims and curricula, and the findings of the National Survey of the Education of Teachers, leads to the following recommendations: a* At least a minor in social sciences should be re quired of all prospective teachers of business subjects* b* Curricula and courses in business-teacher education Should be based upon the findings of sociological research* 2* Recommendations relating to the making available of research findings for prospective teachers of business subjects* As the result of a study of the sources of aims and curricula, trends in aims and curricula, and the ex pressed preferences of administrators in employing insti tutions, the following recommendations are made: a* The findings of occupational research into busi- 420 ness employment and the demand for various types of teach ing service, as well as the results of job analyses of office work and teaching, should be incorporated into courses de signed for prospective teachers of business subjects. b. Compilations of the findings of educational, socio logical, psychological, and philosophical research should be made available to prospective teachers of business subjects. 3. Becommendation relative to courses in business edu cation. As the result of a study of the history of business education, trends in aims and curricula, the findings of the National Survey of the Education of Teachers, and the opin ions of administrators in employing institutions, the follow ing recommendations are made: a. More courses in business education should be offered for and required of prospective teachers of business subjects. b. Prospective teachers should be made aware of the complexity of the field of business education; that it em braces many individual subjects taught on various levels; and that there is wide range in tangible rewards and in the de sirability of teaching positions. 4. Recommendation as to special courses in business education. A study of trends in aims and curricula in se condary business education leads to the recommendation that the following special courses be established: a. Courses in which familiarity with the literature of the individual business subjects is developed* b. Courses in methods of teaching fusion courses in business education. 421 c. Courses in which social-business education and the social-business subjects are considered. d. Courses in vocational and educational guidance. e. Courses for prospective teachers of business sub jects in junior high school. f. Courses for prospective teachers of business sub jects in junior college. 5» Be commendations relative to special curricula. As the result of a study of the history of business education and the standards set up by administrators in employing in stitutions, the following recommendations are made: a. A special curriculum should be set up in the se condary school for young men planning to enter business pursuits. b. Prospective teachers should be made aware of the desirability of a certain amount of specialization parti cularly with reference to social-business education and service in various types of institutions. a• Becommendations relative to business contacts. A study of trends in aims and curricula and the standards set up by administrators in employing institutions suggests the follow ing recommenda tions.: a. Prospective teachers of business subjects should be required to have actual business experience; if possible, for a period of at least one year. b. Definite plans should be made for the maintaining of business contacts on'the. part of prospective teachers and of instructors in institutions engaged in business-teacher edu- cation* ^ 7* Recommendations relative to the securing of academic degrees by teachers of business subjects. The findings of the National Survey of the Education of Teachers and the requirements of administrators in employing insti tutions lead to the following recommend a tions: a. Teaching credentials should be issued only to can didates who have baccalaureate degrees. b. Teachers of business subjects should be advised to do graduate work and to get graduate degrees. 8. Recommendations relative to contact with secondary business education. A study of trends in aims and curricula, and the standards set up by administrators in employing in stitutions suggests the following recommendations: a. Additional provisions should be made in institutions engaged in business-teacher education for acquainting student- teachers with the progressive quality of aims , curricula and procedures in secondary business education. b. Courses in secondary education, principles of edu cation, and business education should provide for close con tact between secondary education and business-teacher edu cation. 9. Recommendation relative to a study of the problems; of communities of various sizes. A study of the findings of the National Survey of the Education of Teachers and of the standards set up by administrators in employing institutions leads to the recommendation that special problems relating to the teaching of business subjects in various types of 425 communities be studied. The present investigation has been concerned with various phases of secondary business education and of business-teacher education for the purpose of suggesting means by which these two divisions of business education may be haimonized, Studies of trends emphasize the chang ing nature of the entire field of business education. Therefore, the most striking feature of a report such as this is not the list of desirable procedures suggested but the indication in the results of every phase of the investigation that this field is a rapidly changing one and that continuous research is necessary so that its practices may be kept in harmony with present social and economic life. PART V APPENDICES AND ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 425 APPENDIX A LETTER ACCOMPANYING QUESTIONNAIRE TO BUSINESS-TEACHER TRAINING INSTITUTIONS SAN JOSE STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE SAN JOSE, CALIFORNIA October 1, 1932. To Professor in Charge- of Commercial Teacher Training: Will you please fill out the enclosed, inquiry blank, which is being sent to all institutions engaged in business-? teacher education; the results of which, it is hoped, will aid in making our programs more adequate to meet the needs of students who are going into business teaching in our highly dynamic secondary schools. This is one portion of an investigation of business- teacher education. The other part deals with the requirements of the employing secondary institutions as to desirable preparation and qualifications for their teachers of business subjects. If you wish a summary of the results of this study, please so indicate on the last page of the inquiry blank. I shall be deeply grateful for your help. Cordially yours, Return envelope enclosed. APPENDIX B 42 I TO INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED IN 1 BUSINESS -TEACHER EDUCATION [ . Changes in Curricula since 1928-1929: (In 1928-1929, the present investigator made a study of curricula hy an examina tion of the catalogues of 585 degree-granting institutions and an analysis of curri cula set up for the preparation of teachers of Business subjects.) a. Have any changes Been made in your Business-teacher chrricula since 1928? [Please check) Yes ___ No_____ . B. Please indicate changes Number of Additional Semester Units Required Number of Fewer Semester Units Required [1) Business content subjects (accounting, Business organization, salesmanship, stenography, Business law, etc.) 2) General "academic" subjects (English, foreign language, mathematics, etc.) 3) Social sciences, (economics, history, economic geography, etc.) ,4) General "education" courses, (educational psy chology, history, philosophy, methods, curri culum. etc.) 5) Business "education" courses (principles, methods, curriculum in Business education, etc.) 6) Practice teaching 7) Electives (free choice allowed) c. Please indicate names of courses added to or dropped from list of courses "equired for graduation since 1928-1929: 'ITLES OF > COURSES ADDED TO REQUIREMENTS TITLES 07 COURSES DROPPED FROM 'REQUIRED ! . ? : (l) Business content subjects ~ " ! _______ (2) General "academic" subjects 427 TITLES QP COURSES ADDED TO REQUIREMENTS TITLES OP COURSES DROPPED PROM REQUIREMENTS (3) Social sciences (4) General ■ Meducation” courses (5) Business , , educationH courses (6) Practice teaching II. Differentiated Curricula: (a) Have you set up definite requirements for differentiated fields in busi ness teaching? Yes ___ No ____. (b) Please check curricula provided: (1) Secretarial and stenographic________________________ _________ (2) Accounting and bookkeeping___________________________________ (3) Salesmanship (marketing, merchandising)______________ _________ A 428 3 ( I d) (cont.) Please check curricula provided: (4) General business (5) Social business (6) Special curricula for junior-college teachers of business subjects (7) Special curricula for junior-high-school teachers of business subjects (8) Special curricula for teachers of business subjects in small high-schools (9) Others_________ . _ III. What standards of technical skill do you require for graduation in shorthand and typewriting? Shorthand: Words per minute Typewriting: Words per m i n u t e______ Errors allowed____________ Errors allowed^_______ Length of time of test_____ Length of time of test____ IT- Business experience required. Is actual business experience required? (1) Eor graduation Yes ____ No ____ (2) For general state teaching certificate Yes ___, No____ (3) For special state teaching certificate in business subjects Yes No_ Are credits given for actual business experience? Yes ___ No ___ What is minimum length of time required for such experience? ___________ Do you specify kind of experience — (stenographic, bookkeeping, etc.) — in field of teacher's specialization? Yes ___ No ___ What definite provision is made for acquainting students with the progress! quality of aims, curricula, and procedures in secondary business education? Through which courses (please check): General courses in education ■ Business education courses _________ Others (please specify) ____________________________ . ___________ (a) ( 1 = ) (c) (a) V. (a) 0>) 429 A 4 VI. itecognizing the importance of familiarity with the findings of research in setting up teaching procedures, what provision, is made for the acquisition of this knowledge and the habit of constant search for new developments in business education on the part of prospective teachers of business subjects? In which courses? VII. What provision is made for personality and character development?(please check) (a) Self-rating of personality______________________________ ________ _ (b) Teacher-rating of personality - ■ (c) Definite provision in secretarial training courses ______ (d) Student rating in practice teaching classes ______ __ (e) Other methods . . ...... ■ VIII. Recognizing the increasing importance of giving secondary-school pupils an adequate picture of our present- social and economic life, what provision is made to give the teacher a basis for presenting such a picture? Through which courses? (Please list individual courses) IX. Please list here any problems which you consider important in preserving a close relationship between business-teacher education and our dynamic secondary school curriculum: 430 A 5 (All information will be reported in summary form. Neither names of individuals nor of institutions will be used without special permission.) (Please sign) _________________________________ Title ________ _________________________________ Institution. ____________________________ Plac e"______ i __________________________________ Dat e ____ Please return in the enclosed stamped-addressed envelope to: Miss Jessie Craham, San Jose State Teachers College, San Jose, California. Note: It is believed that questions V to VIII inclusive are of especial significance in business--teacher education. ITill you please indicate on the back of this page suggestions for promoting any of these considerations or for making further research. Are syllabi of your courses in business education available? Yes ___ No Please state how they may be procured: APPENDIX C LETTER ACCOMPANYING QUESTIONNAIRE TO EMPLOYERS OF BUSINESS TEACHERS SAN JOSE STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE * SAN JOSE, CALIFORNIA October 1, 1932' Dear Employer of Business Teachers: The institutions engaged in the preparation of business teachers are ea.ger to please the administrators of the schools in which their students will later be teaching® To this end, will you please check the enclosed inquiry blank. It is hoped that the results will aid, in some small measure, in preparing teachers who are in harmony with your ideas and who will perform satisfactory service. This study is a nation-wide one. Your help will be deeply appreciated. To junior colleges: This inquiry has been authorized.by the Research Division of the American Association of Junior Colleges Return envelone enclosed. Assistant Professor of Commerce Cordially yours APPENDIX D 432 B TO EMPLOYERS OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS 1 BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION INQUIRY ADDRESSED TO JUNIOR COLLEGES I. Degree Requirements: In employing teachers of Business subjects, what academic degrees do you require? (Please check) Ph.D. , Ed.D. _, M.A. , M.B.A._____ , Bachelor’s__, Others , None__. Remarks ______ . . . . __________ II. Ma.ior Emphasis in Preparatory Curricula: Please rank the following fields of undergraduate and graduate education as to relative importance in preparing for a position as teacher of business subjects in your institution: (Please use 1 -2-3-4-5-6-7-in ranking.) (if you consider two of equal rank, please give them same rank.) 1. Business content subjects (Accounting, salesmanship, stenography, business law, etc.) , _____ 2. General "academic” subjects (English, foreign language, mathematics, etc.) _________ 3. S oc ial s ci enc es (Economics, history, economic geography, etc.) _ 4. General ”education” courses (Educational psychology, history, philosophy, methods,) (curriculum, etc.) _________ 5. Business "education” courses (Principles, methods, curriculum in Business Education, etc.)____ 6. Practice teaching 7. Electives (free choice allowed) III. a. Do you prefer teachers whq have specialized in-one of four fields in business education — secretarial, accounting, salesmanship, general business/ Yes ____ No or, in social business subjects? Yes No_____ b. Do you feel that a special curriculum should be set up for students planning to teach business subjects in junior college? Yes ____ No ____ IV. Do you require that teachers have actual business experience? Yes No __ Do you prefer it? Yes __ No . . Suggest minimum length of time for such experience__________. _________________________________________________________ _ Do you specify kind of business experience in field of teacher's specialization? (secretarial, bookkeeping, salesmanship, etc.) Yes ____ No.____ V. What standards of technical skill do you require of teachers? Shorthand: Words per minute_________Typewriting: Words per minute_________ Length of time of test Length of time of test___ Errors allowed____________ Errors allowed___________ 433 B J C 2 VI. Below is a list of problems in the field of business teacher education. Will you please rank them in order of importance (1-2-3-4) and add others. How to: 1 . acquaint student-teachers with the progressive q u a l i t y of aims, curricula, and procedures in secondary_____________ ____ business education 2. promote familiarity with research findings and the habit of constant search for new developments ____ 3. aid in the development of desirable teacher personality ____ 4. provide the teacher with a basis'for giving secondary- school pupils an adequate picture of present social ____ and economic life Other problems which, in your opinion, should be studied by institutions engaged in business-teacher education VII. Do you employ teachers who have had no previous teaching experience? Yes Ho_ VIII. Are there any problems connected with the teaching of business subjects in junior college which should be the especial concern of institutions engaged in business-teacher education? (Please note them on back of this paper.) All information will be reported in summaries; neither individual names nor names of institutions will be used without special permission. Please sign Title____________________________ . _______ School___________________________________ Place ___________________________________ Date_________________________________ Please return in enclosed stamped addressed envelope to; Mi*ss Jessie Graham, Assistant Professor of Commerce, San Jose State Teachers’ College, San Jose, California. If convenient to you, I shall appreciate having a copy of your business curriculum. APPENDIX E B g 1^1 TO EMPLOYERS OE TEACHERS OP BUSINESS SUBJECTS 1 ^ BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION INQUIRY ADDRESSED TO SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS I. Degree Requirements: In employing teachers of business subjects, what academic degrees do you require? (Please check) Ph.D. , Ed.D. , M.A. , M.B.A. » Bachelor’s j Others , None . Remarks______________________________; ____________________________ II* Major Emphasis in Preparatory Curricula: Please rank the following fields of undergraduate and graduate education as to relative importance in preparing for a position as teacher of business subjects in your institution: (Please use 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-in ranking.) (If you consider two of equal rank, please give them same rank.) 1. Business content subjects (Accounting, salesmanship, stenography, business lav;, etc.) _________ 2. General "academic'1 subjects (English, foreign language, mathematics, etc.) ■ _____ 3. Social sciences (Economics, history, economic geography, etc.) _________ 4. General "education” courses (Educational psychology, history, philosophy, methods, ) (curriculum, etc.} _________ 5. Business "education" courses (Principles, methods, curriculum in Business Education, etc.)_________ 6. Practice teaching 7. Electives (free choice allowed) III. a. Do you prefer teachers who have specialized in one of four fields in business education — secretarial, accounting, salesmanship, general business Yes__ No or, in social business subjects? Yes No__ i b. Do you feel that a special curriculum should be set up for students planning to teach business subjects in senior high school? Yes No__ IV. Do you require that teachers have actual business experience? Yes No__ Do you prefer it? Yes No___. Suggest minimum length of time for such experience ■ ___________________________ _____• ________ _______ Do you specify kind of business experience in field of teacher’s specialization; (secretarial, bookkeeping, salesmanship, etc.) Yes No__ V. What standards of technical skill do you require of teachers? Shorthand: Words per minute.____________ Typewriting: Words per minute______ Length of time of test_______ Length of time of test_ Errors allowed________________ Errors allowed________ b S H 455 2 VI.. Below is a list of problems in the field of business teacher education. Will you please rank them in order of importance (1-2-3-4) and add others. How to: 1. acquaint student-teachers with the progressive quality of aims, curricula, and procedures in secondary_____________ ____ business education 2. promote familiarity with research findings and the habit of constant search for new developments ____ 3. aid in the development of desirable teacher personality ____ 4. provide the teacher with a basis for giving secondary- school pupils an adequate picture of present social ____ and economic life Other problems which, in your opinion, should be studied by institutions engaged in business-teacher education VII. Do you employ teachers who have had no previous teaching experience? Yes Ho VIII. Are there any problems connected with the teaching of business subjects in senior high school which should be the especial concern of institutions engaged in business-teacher education? (Please note them on back of this paper.) All information will be reported in summaries; neither individual names nor names of institutions will be used without special permission. Please sign ____________________________ _ Title _______________ , __________________ School______________________ _____ Place , ______________________________' Date . ________________ _____ , Please return in enclosed stamped addressed envelope to; Miss Jessie Graham, Assistant Professor of Commerce, San Jose State Teachers' College, San Jose, California. If convenient to you, I shall appreciate having a copy of your business curriculum. < J H APPENDIX F TO EMPLOYERS OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS 1 BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION INQUIRY ADDRESSED TO JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS I. Degree Requirements; In employing teachers of business subjects, what academic degrees do you require? (Please check) Ph.D. , Ed.D. , M.A. , M.B.A. , . Bachelor’s , Others , None . R emarks__________ ; ____________________________ _______________________ II. Major Emphasis in Preparatory Curricula: Please rank the following fields of undergraduate and graduate education as to relative importance in preparing for a position as teacher of business subjects in your institution: (Please use 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-in ranking.) (if you consider two of equal rank, please give them same rank.) 1. Business content subjects (Accounting, salesmanship, stenography, business law, etc.) _________ 2. General "academic” subjects (English, foreign language, mathematics, etc.) ______________ 3. Social sciences (Economics, history, economic geography, etc.) _________ 4. General "education” courses (Educational psychology, history, philosophy, methods,) (curriculum, etc.)_______________________________________ _________ 5. Business "education” courses (Principles, methods, curriculum in Business Education, etc.)_________ 6. Practice teaching 7. Electives (free choice allowed) III. a. Do you prefer teachers who have specialized in one of four fields in business education — secretarial, accounting, salesmanship, general business Yes No or, in social business subjects? Yes____No__ b. Do you feel that a special curriculum should be set up for students planning to teach business subjects in junior high school? Yes____No__ IV. Do you require that teachers have actual business experience? Yes____No__ l Do you prefer it? Yes_ No _. Suggest minimum length of time for such exp er i enc e __________________________________________ * _________ Do you specify kind of business experience in field of teacher’s specialization? (secretarial, bookkeeping, salesmanship, etc.) Yes No__ V. What standards of technical skill do you require of teachers? Shorthand: Words per minute_ Typewriting: Words per minute______ _ Length of time of test Length of time of test^ Errors allowed _______ Errors allowed________ 437 2 VI. Below is a list of problems in the field of business teacher education. Will you please rank them in order of importance (1-2-3-4) and add others. Hoy/ to: 1. acquaint student-teachers with the progressive quality of aims, curricula, and procedures, in secondary_____________ ____ business education 2. promote familiarity with research findings and the habit of constant search for new developments ____ 3. aid in the development of desirable teacher personality ____ 4. provide the teacher with a basis for giving secondary- school pupils an adequate picture of present social_________ ____ and economic life Other problems which, in your opinion, should be studied by institutions engaged in business-teacher education VII. Bo you employ teachers who have had no previous teaching experience? Yes No. VIII. Are there any problems connected with the teaching of business subjects in junior high school which should be the especial concern of institutions engaged in business-teacher education? (Plea.se note them on back of this paper.) All information will be reported in summaries; neither individual names nor names of institutions will be used.without special permission. Please sign ______________________________ Title _____________ ______________________ School__________________ _____________. Place ■ _________ _______________ Bat e Please return in enclosed stamped addressed envelope to: Miss Jessie Graham, Assistant Professor of Commerce, San Jose State Teachers' College, San Jose, California. If convenient to you, I shall appreciate having a copy of your business curriculum. APPENDIX G COPY OF SECOND LETTER STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE San Jose, California November 21, 1932* On October T, 1932, I mailed you an inquiry blank relative to your provisions for the training of teachers of business subjects. A duplicate copy is here attached, I shall very much appreciate your courtesy in sending me this information. My study is con cerned with trends in business-teacher education and is based upon a similar investigation made in 1929. Its success depends upon complete data from all institutions engaged in this field. If you so desire, I shall send you a report of the findings of this investigation. P.S, While 67 replies to this inquiry blank have been received, I feel that the report will not be complete unless data from your institution is included. Cordially yours, U Ass GsEB Assistant Professor of Commerce 439 APPENDIX H REFERENCES FOR TABLE I® (PURPOSES OF BUSINESS EDUCATION AS EXPRESSED IN FORTY-SEVEN PUBLISHED STATEMENTS FROM 1825-1916) 1* Ira W. Kibby, f , The Objectives and Majors in Business Edu cation,” Bulletin, C-5. Sacramento: Bureau of Business Educa tion, California State Department of Education, 1929, (1-4)* (Quoted from First Annual Report of the High School Society of Hew York, 1825). 2* S. S. Packard, Addresses and Proceedings. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1892, p. 470, (1). 3. George Soule', Ibid., 1893, p. 793, (7). 4. R. E. Gallagher, Ibid., 1893, p. 798, (7). 5* James Macalister, Ibid., 1893, p. 807, (3). 6. Allan Davis, Ibid*, 1896, p. 808, (13)* 7. Discussion, Ibid., 1896, p* 809, (8)* 8. C. H. Thurber, Ibid., 1897, p. 808-818, (1-3-5). 9. D. W. Springer, Ibid., 1898, p. 857, (4-5). 10. Emory R. Johnson, Ibid., 1898, p. 870, (4). 11. J. H. Frances, Ibid., p. 1014, (1-3). 12. Charles W. Eliot, f l Recent Changes in Secondary Education,” The Atlantic Monthly. Vol. LXXXIV, Ho. DIV, (October, 1899), pp. 433-444, (6). 13. Charles W. Eliot, (Harvard University), ”Commercial Educa tion,” Educational Review. Vol. XVIII, No. 5 (December, 1899) p. 417-424, (1-2). Numbers in parentheses after each reference indicate the purpose or purposes stated by the writer. The numbers corre spond to those given in Table I. 440 APPENDIX H (CONTINUED) REFERENCES FOR TABLE I (CONTINUED) (PURPOSES OF BUSINESS EDUCATION AS EXPRESSED IN FORTY-SEVEN PUBLISHED STATEMENTS FROM 1825-1918) 14* William E. Doggett, National Education Association, op* cit., 1900, p. 558, (1-5)• 15* Parke Schoch, Ibid., 1901, p. 738, (10). 16* Discussion, Ibid., 1901, p. 726, (2)* 17. I. 0. Crissy, Ibid., 1901, p. 726, (1). 18* A. E. Winship, Ibid., 1902, p. 652, (5). 19. Worlds Work. (November, 1902), p. 2711, (7). (Question naire sent to business and professional men in New York City.) 20. C. W.* Irish, t f The Place of Commercial Studies in the High School,” The School Review. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, Vol. X, No. 7, (September, 1902) p. 554, (16). 21. Carlos B. Ellis, ”Commercial Education in Secondary Schools,” Education. Vol. XXII, No. 10 (June, 1902), p. 631-637, (1-2-6). 22. Carlos B. Ellis, ”The Purpose of a Good Business Department in a Public High School,” The School Review. Vol. XI, No. 2, Whole Number 102, (Frebruary, 1903),p. 123-137, (1-2-6-8-11). 23. Cheesman A. Herrick, Meaning and Practice of Commercial Education. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1904, p. 29, (1-3..4-5-6-10). 24. "Committee of Nine,” National Education Association, op. cit., 1904, p. 721, (2). 25. Irving R. Garbutt, ”The High School Commercial Course: Its Subjects, Their Practical and Educational Value,” Addresses and Proceedings. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1908, p. 876, (2). 26. George A. Clark, "Commercial Branches in the High School Curriculum,” Educational Review. Rahway, N. J.: Volume XXXVIII, No. I, (June, 1909, p. 31 ff, (3-6). 441 APPENDIX H (CONTINUED) REFERENCES FOR TABLE I (CONTINUED) (PURPOSES OF BUSINESS EDUCATION AS EXPRESSED IN FORTY-SEVEN PUBLISHED STATEMENTS FROM 1825-1918) 27* George A* Clark, (Stanford University) Commercial Branches in the High School Curriculum,1 1 Educational Review* Vol. XXXVIII, No. 1, (June, 1909) p. 31-42, (1-2). 28. C. Meriwether, Commercial Branches in the High School Curriculum— A Reply,” Educational Review. Rahway, N. J.: Volume XXXIX, No. 3 (March, 1910), pp. 308-309, (1). 29. Cheesman A. Herrick, National Education Association, op. Cit., 1910, p. 862, (3-5-7). 30. George A. Clark, Commercial Subjects in High Schools,” Sierra Educational News and Book Review. San Francisco: Calif ornia Council of Education; Vol. VII, No. 7 (September, 1911), pp. 34-39, (1-4). 31. Selby A. Moran, “Commercial Education,” in Charles H. Johnston, High School Education. New York: Charles Scribnerfs Sons, 1912, p. 396-408, (2-9-11-12). 32. Paul H* Neystrom, (University of Wisconsin), "A Commercial Course for High Schools,” Educational Review. Volume XLIII, No. 5, (May, 1912) p. 483-498, (1-3). 33. James J. Sheppard, “The Place of the High School in Com mercial Education," Journal of Political Economy. Vol. XXI, No. 3, (March, 1913) p. 209-220, (1-2). 34. James E. Downey, “Education for Business”, The Journal of Political Economy. Vol. XXI, No. 3, (March, 1913), pp. 221- 242, (12). 35. F. W. Roman, The Industrial and Commercial Schools of the United States and Germany. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1915, (1). 36. F. V. Thompson, Commercial Education in Public Secondary Schools. Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York: World Book Company, 1915, p. 105, (1-2-9). 442 APPENDIX H (CONTINUED) REFERENCES FOR TABLE I (CONTINUED) (PURPOSES OF BUSINESS EDUCATION AS EXPRESSED IN FORTY-SEVEN PUBLISHED STATEMENTS FROM 1825-1918) 37. E. Newton Smith., "Commercial Education," Education. Bos- ton: The Palmer Company, Vol. 37, Ho. 1, (September, 1916) pp. 51-61, (1—3—4—13). 38. Paul Monroe, "Commercial Education in Secondary Schools," "Commercial Education", Bulletin, 1916, Ho. 25. Washington, D. C.: United States Bureau of Education, 1916, p. 47, (1). 39. E. P. Dahm, National Education Association, op. cit., 1917, p. 327, (1). 40. William Fairley, "The Commercial High School," in "Commercial Education," Bulletin, 1916, No. 25. Washington, D. C.: United States Bureau of Education, 1916, p. 67, (1-2-4-9). 41. Paul S. Lomax, "Significant Results of Missouri and New Mexico Commercial Education Surveys." The School Review. Vol. XXVI, No. 2, (February, 1918) p. 73-84, (14). 42. Leverett S. Lyon, "The Commercial Curriculum in Secondary Schools," The School Review. Chicago: University of Chicago, Vol. XXVI, No. 6, (June, 1918), pp. 401-415, (3). 43. The Teaching of Commercial Subjects. A Symposium, London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, Limited, 1921, (1-2). 44. Conner T. Jones, Teaching Business Subjects in the Secondary School. New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1924. pp. 4-5, (6). 45. Arnon W. Welch, Some Observations on Secondary Commercial Education. New.York: The Gregg Publishing Company, 1924, (1-2-15). 46. Harold Rugg, "The School Curriculum, 1825-1890," The Twenty-Sixth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of jEducation. Bloomington, Illinois: “ Public School Publishing Company, 1926, pp. 17-32, (5). 47. Elwood P. Cubberley, "Commercial Education--Its Past History, Present Status, and Prospects for Future Development," The Balance Sheet. Vol. VII, No. 9, (May, 1926), (8). APPENDIX I SECONDARY BUSINESS CURRICULA 1889-1918 APPENDIX I BUSINESS CURRICULA. 1889-1918 LENGTH OF COURSE IN YEARS* ^ FIRST-YEAR REQUIREMENTS PLACE DATE -- ATE2.IATICS .. . r o i --p - . --- — 5 SCIENCE [ .... ,..J______- _ -. ...— —.— ------t SOCIAL STUDIES j \ FINE 1 A5D. 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P t j ■ —1 a ) 0 • H C O P - . • • 0 1 0 • r l s. 2. * Dhiol J.897 m. -4. *JL -- I - ■ i i { * I 1 4 A ' 4 .Springer f?°]l(f ) m j 1(1 I -if 3 ^ ) —Hr ■ i f t) r i L898 |(J ) K«( i 1 . ’ •T’ ! tt! 5) l ? v—1 1(5) - 5 .pavia 1899! 1 1 jl 1 ! 1 * r ) 190?.] 1 j 1 / - - 1 7^Booth 1 f ) i 1 , . ) _ I 1 iff?" —^8*S±eiena__ I. .1 9Q 2 Ifs) . . id 7~*"1 r ) , 1 10 . ) 1(3] 1C 1 3 — ~£.0jaylorri ___0908 4U* ] in) --iIf! X - K-~~ * * 19Q3,iir. lu 1 ) , New iori<nr ~ 11 • ofCo3 umer< Lgn SAhoo sgl§°jL , K J r f j l ' 7 " ■ “ * ’ ) - j 3(4 i(? . ) 1(4) , , r ~ * » " ^lf l l ( S ' " cenrral hi 12. Philadeli |n Scnodi phial^04 i(5) 1(1 ) iV f(4 i'1 I 1/3■8 1(?) 1(1 1(4 if? r»r ) 13 .Parker 190$ 1 1 1 I 14, Bishop 19oii .*T i i i 1&. 1 1 f * —— i f T 1 i 1 x T l r — 16.New YorkS^atel9lQ 1(S) l(<)K 1) if? 1 1(B) F. 1 - » t ^ ♦ 1 i9ii| 1(5 ) T— 1 — lB^Muzipby.„ . . .191*1 if / , u r 5) Hf ■ ) 1-- 1(4 > 1 1/0\ 1 19®Laird • 1 1911 1 z) i « : ’ i 4) ; ! . • k 1 ! . . . 1 i tt*> I ... _ 1 1(2 7- .1 .. to BUSINESS CURRICULA 1889-1913 APPENDIX I(Continued) FIRST-YEAR REQUIREMENTS ................ .................. — - T -------------1 P L A C E ] B A S E f—— ------------------------------ ! ; : a t k 3 . ; a ? i c s l ............... ------- r i .... « ^ f 1 — ............ -.................... » ■ ■ ■ — | S C O J C E j _______________ J .................................... ................................ i — —— T S O C I A J S T U D I E S \ ! ..................... — -------------"tj---------------- f i x e I a d d f r : x . a r t | II . ♦ ------------ >- I I i 1 I ! ) " "■* ~"j ■ “ * — 2 0 ♦ N e y - s t r o m - | 1 9 1 Z ~ 1 - E a e ...............i i a i a . { [ i A r i t h m e t i c oS • § bO rH < L (J 5 u •p © O ' © ct> * ■ ) -P © £ o £1 o . bO •H . £•* o O m •H t r - ■ » . ■ ■ . « i T j 1 J o i l i . faO ; o i— 1 5 PQ u , ) & o 3 43] P j p q| >Sj • p ! to ‘S i © ■ j O j h D O sH O © C t5 © * o r— i S 3 - © S3*H © o O cO m o ♦H C Q >! 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M [ M cn i rfs > s 1 j H* 03 • H to * M M • o • CO • 00 t -3 • crs • cn * • 03 • ro » . * General j Free Electives i bBg&ness J M t * i f e . , 03 to Mh Economic Geoairaohv » < 03 j u t 1 0 3 Business JEngli s h.. f Business Organizatic Jr« Business .Trtd ni no1 ... idverti sing^ Salesmanship % .... .1 History of Commerce . . . . ! i Banking t f c sssex ! Mi sc* „ f c. w! h & 03 T btH > 33^ cn u— Business Ar**i T ih n iA ’M M 03 X to *=t . CO ro t- I P0|H gga— K 03 sue 03 ^ ' M j | H p ^ “ 'm MjH Penmanship R* .. Spelling * ro W|H Shorthand Typewriting M 03 t f e f c wt1 03 03 f ! , 5™ ro 0 3 n M w' Bookkeeping * Accounting . SffJBFMi! . M W ^5T" 03 .........., -1 T - Store Pract. 03 Business I Practice 1 • Business Maohlnoq Cooperative Courses 03^ Bf M Misc. r — - • . j ; . Sec, Steno. Bookkeeping! , , Salesmanship - Gen’l Cleri<< Mis®• , M M M CO M * > : » -- Restricted Electives t * . > r >1 A t A * "H 0 b d a co ft) CO CO 8 pi P i M O 00 0 0 CD I M C D H J CO H pd CO f - 3 1 % * tS § K H <o cn w o m O > t p > e ■ — 4 tn » - 3 CO W 447 ' ro ro ro CD ■ • ro -3 • to 05 • to cn • ro • to w ♦ to ro • CO . * ro . o General Free Electives L _ — ... « ■ ■ ' ■ BE8Jfless W|H JSJ* ■W U*- ' H j j p ; jkconomie Geoffranhv i MjH 1 ' 1 Business —JEfasI1 ah. - .7 .. . 1 . f Business Organizatic ’ Tr» Business r * : r . . . . r Advertising Salesmanship i * History of Commence ] 1 : Banking , U . . r .1 1 r . .1 ' s — • ^ ^ ; Misc® " , tap' > b | H 1 1 .. pK Ar - t iviTnA+i^ < * » ^ A M M cn M cn j c n 3 EOM 3 2 E f * i T 1 ' J br M . t o Penmanship M Spelling I - * Shorthand ; Typewriting > ■ — ■ Bookkeeping , Accounting ■' 1 /r • p u r.J.in ■ Store Practo jw niniii ii / 5^’ cn m| h 03 Business ! B?aet>!tfe < • S^s^ess , ' Cooperative < Courses . 2 t M Misc« — - ...........,,, 1..II 1 . . Sec* Steno, Suli.'--.. . . . . . . . Bookkeeping > Salesmanship * i Gen*! Cleri<< A Mifie . j UO ' IS 3T cn ro to I fn Restricted - Elective8 n n w CO « - 3 f H W B a W CO > ♦ f t t 0 . S - 1 t b X > » f e l fc BUSINESS 0HR1ICUIA 1889-1918 APPENDIX I (CON*T) f-J C O • M 00 • M • ■ m l 3 5 f-J • w 1 t — ' 9* * H * 0 3 • , M. - , ro v '# r*— H * t-> • \ \ M o * to ■ >-* ! 0 3 • \ \ ■ ^ 3 ♦ c n * 1 cn I & • [ • j i i T i . , 4 .- - 04 • ...!" ■ i t ° r i 1 • i ! 8 » H I i B I i n i m . ^ * * ■ » i . w m * ' . I p D o © o 1 3 m 3 O 2 3 3 ! P * 1 h* L ..._--- 0 3 — - *xi e 8 O + 1 I — r-;rr- — i ? i * } | r 1 td _ - ; t 1 !.- Arithm etic ► • t-'— “ V - * M | I\» J r o |H r i Algebra W % . (-3 b - i v o L m (-J — — -i M K J H 0 4 H * < < — v 0 3 1 t..... M i 1 Geometry Trigonometr MisCo , "W~ X jfc s- X X M X -jfe — M M X * “ ip— < r ^ s jd fe — . Tar- * < ~ v X .sn- M TJ-* M |H ! ------t w | h • English ------ i — , Biology C O — o V -i M T , i ... Botany X f t > r J -J ro i i — i ....^ i ___ i_ _j , Chemi stry^ Geology -------- r .......4 Gen’ l . Science H * *— • » ' ro M ■ ■ t _ _ _ _4 _ i .Physics > y - Physiology L > . . _ ..... ------- __ _J gpi~ cn cn k j { h Geography. . — n cn M M .. H * k " i ro PI C A * cn “ j= r | f e r Kl-^ 0 4 X to Anc#Med.Mo« Til story. 1 8 r a •J& 1 - 4 w CO G o S* Histo; X to t O J 0 |H Civics 1 | ' Economics i r * , Misc* i I i — M M Cn I-* M M cn H ** ! “• i cn i— * cn M v cn fit •< Foreign Languages r - 1 . -------- Domestic Science t % •rtn PS o B ,.f3 j.L.u ■ , . UJ. ! In d u s tria l - Arts........ .. M s p Find Arts " 5 ” to L * JK — i Music H to H J ro > . Physical Ed • — " ”■ » —1 V — 1 /-s 03 M isc. ■ ...... CO 1 © ■ ’ S z j t s > w S 3 <o M t o f e 5 * - 3 to * * n r f w c a * BUSI1ESS CURRICULA 1889-1918 AFRENDIX I (CON'T) Arithmetic ! m|h j Algebra m |h j to|h Geometry Trigonometrjy English Biology Botany Chemistry Geology Gen’1• Science. Physics Physiology Geography Ange||d .Mod Histor Civics Economics Misc. Foreign Languages Domestic Science Industrial Ar±a Find Arts Music Physical Ed Mi sc • BUSINESS CURRICULA 1889-1918 ' APPENDIX I (CON*T) 450 BUSINESS CURRICULA 1889-1918 APPENDIX I (Continued) SECOND-YEAR REQUIREMENTS r a © rH > ©-© -ri ft © -P © ft O ft w © © rH C i> M w M © 4 JW P Q oft s u oo o© wo — | r o © K ft-r ♦H r- 0 3 h m l Business J O rg an iza tid r o r o © f c ft P ♦ H T r o £ 3 ♦r P Q 4 * . •a- ft A dvertising Salesmanship l< + h o a >* © ft ft o © ■ P g r o g ♦H O w p ' f a O ft •H c © P Q • • o r o •H 3 •r m + r o q 2* PU •H+ ro .r ftp a •H .ft r o P i © © A h b C P i ♦ H r-t rH © ft G O T J P i © -p p . o .ft G O T ypew riting hi P l ♦ H _ ft © © M M © o P Q b p P © G O o < t OP •HO > .ft© O ft - u b £ © oo P S h a x u -pft G O O • -P O © ft ft © ft o -p C O © © ro -t? ro .f> © d •SJ5 s - P Q 's'J e ft, CfM ro o <S *d © v. J > a ♦ H © •P ft © ft ft o ©o ft o o o « M •H * § © -p G O • O © G O b O ft •H ft © © 53 O O PQ Salesmanship ■ ♦H ft © rH O rH " ft © d w •H ftd R e s tric te d E le c tiv e s 1 . 1 f? La . - .. : > & r ~ j~ i........ ........... 4C (?. ) -At... ...... .. i C if? i ( f7 1 /i I - K .... 1 i/s ; . ' l/? 6* n/fi 7 . i ( 1 1 (S 8 . l( : ' v(< 9 . 1(2 4 ( * s 1(5 1 (5 i f i T * f t R t r i r C S 1 1 . i ( P , » a' ■ « V1 .8,0-1- 1 2 . (3 1 (1 !l 0 1(1 1 3 . i i O k 1(1 P 1 A. 1( i u 4 i ( 4 1 5 . •(2i 1) "IS** l(2 i r .y"’ " r ) 1(1 »)- 1,(2 w 1 6 . ■ 4 - 1 7 . > lYK - ( R i f f 1A * 1 1(2 1(' ■ rlr* u |C /J 1 9 . I 1 (3 1(J H i — .— L j — K i l V 451 ■ _ l X) M - J • c n • -- 1 - i C X I [ * 1 i 1 M • M 0 3 « M ro « M H * • f —1 " W * o • to • 8 3 • - 0 • 0 3 * C X I » * 0 3 • ro • 3 - » • General Free Electives Hi r - ro, Bfig*ness m| h ' jql- . o! hh P M , _en M c,n. KJF1 < ' - ~ V en Ecoriomip Geograohv ■ a s J " " 0 3 f ^ j f X tsr- S ’ Business ^..English_ - .“" ' I Business Orgahizatic Jr* Business . r P*»o‘ i r v - i v i t r Advertising .. Salesmanship * 1 M lii story of .Commerce , . 1 f .......j £ . ■ J Banking S J h C X I I 3r n • • ■ 1- Misc. win S ilL. ** f l t l i r 1 ' ~ 4 p- f ro Business A v » i + : V v n n © - M n • 0 3 K M » ! h Penmanship w! h W 0 3 Spelling t O m| h jm t o < 7 ? , m| h Shorthand J = t 5 0 k * L f f l_ t o! h ro t f t * P t a 0 3 Typewriting ( M 0 3 j a l t * C X I N > M 5 ! h J-JM O 0 3 p i t * C X I M cn X C X I 0 2 s a l t * 1 c n *4 ro WjH Bookkeeping Accounting § M s m j s . Store Pract, i »M > | h C X I Business I Practice ~ ( * Business. Machinoq Cooperative Courses k! h / - s cn Misc. , .... r . Sec, Steno. Bookkeeping Salesmanship - Gen1! Cleri<< Misc. i s M w* ■ 1(6) 1 t l ro f - J 1 Htt ro * « = * M *-< H ro Restricted - Electives ’ I CO w o O ■ t - i ! • < w C[ M B S3 S5 1 - 3 CO > r "h f a 2 ' b BUS NESS CURRICULA 1889-1918 APPENDIX I (CON»T) m 2 1 1 1 - ro C O • r o 0 0 • r o • ^ 0 , • C V > 0 5 # ro c n ' * r o . ' ♦ r o 0 3 • to to * r o M • r o o • General Free Electives *1 ■ ' r W|H < « —» c n BM&ness O l cn C n ' ^ 5 w » C J 1 cn Economic Geocraohv 1 H ' iM , r f v Business . EngH a h . Business . . . Organizatic Jr. Business Advertising f salesmanship * i | M[H c n History of ' Commerce 1 j T “f H i v - f ' J 1 Banking i n urn Mis C < , S s n e - 1 cn S^. C T 1 — s .. ! .Business At*. 3 tViTno-f-^ r*. M ; k H iH ’ Penmanship f— N-1 ‘ Spelling M c n Shorthand M K -» cn H c n Typewriting M M O -JM ro i *n Bookkeeping Accounting J J m r a & k 1 Store Pract. ‘ j X r o Business I PfaeiiCe — | - Business Mishin©g Cooperative Copses r — ^"7^ Miac. Sec. Steno.l ( Bookkeeping * Salesmanship Gen’l Clerid Mitt©, 1 — i— • M Or c n M c n t o 1 * r c r H ro l l rr“ <n v-** ^ * s c n Restricted Electives CO Of % § C} M H3 m >r "h IV , « jS ft- < t r "*£ T n fc 05 BUSt NESS CURRICULA. 1889-1818 APPENDIX I (OON'T) M C D • M O O • --3 ■ cn • n i « M • O T !‘ H* Cn • M ro * f T T ’ M # E € • i f J i C D • l DO -*3 • 03 » --------r » cn • t * I i I 1 i cn * i C O i M 1* ! ' 1 i i ! i ! ____4— Person Recommending e § : 8 :r — - -- " ~ i j i : ____ L— 1 N . . rT T ‘ J — j- i Arithmetic t ' 5 lH /• • a s • r 6 | P 9 *- i i r f | Algebra s . >3 t - H y o Lcn w! h cn .S ^ p ^ s r cn I cn M ro »-* i i | j i 1 . 1 j j Geometry i 1 jro|H - t - Trigonometr i — — . . . J l Misc. _ 'M' jt e - ■jalt-" Pi. P i X C n _ f— •' X M ... P=i .« ... 03 T L .. to n " m . X < ? i h - » k t j s r -CSLOlfeu-, K ) ! h |M|H English I - r l - - i Biology c n —o M N 8 I < Botany Pi. cn salt1 salt' * > • M T O jH J m! h - H - ... - 1 _____ L / — Chemi stry Geology -------- f . .1 . _ Gen*1. Science h* P 3 [ H /— v < f S » S t j ^ ! — i— Phxsi.cs T O | h ! Physiology — •m m — ■ Geography * - • o n d f c = t... cn tf*,, J=i ■ M /•N xaun M X — N . * T cn K ' to *— M. l 8 - O M •J & tS l cn M 03 k |h cn t o ! h t— * , ■ — » ro jgjpf cn mJ h cn [ J * S* Histo: «5 |H M ro. w cn salt1 cn CJl*\ ■ —<n Civics P ro • a t cn •S t 3 t S t cn T3|P“ ” cn Economics to • Misc* f-» cn iiMi_ M M s -# . f-» *-* H 1 -3 i.'MC. H- ro I_l cn M M •F * 2 m £ ™ m to , ■ — ' >0 2M&, Foreign Languages Domestic Science ■ P B O f e t3 Industrial Art a --------- ro Find Arts Music M ro V-*” . - Physical Ed • M M cn % « ✓ ‘ to Misc* ........ i &RP8AJEJX l0CON*T) LENGTH O F COURSE I N YEARS BUSINESS CURRICULA 1889-1918 THIRpP-TEAR REQUIREMENTS RECITATIONS PER WEEK # 5 4 r o co • f - — to ■ 0 3 * | t o - 3 • t o 0 3 • M c n * $ 23*___ _ _ _ ___ 24. t o to • r~—r — ~ tO ! t O i ^ o !' j‘ ! I ■ < | ! ___A £ 3 O Q * t ) a < d 3 ’ - J B w § s 0 * 9 ► 0 £ 8 § 1 b ’ j i — - T ~ i ! ! — _;fcrrp ! f i ---- - Arithmetic c . ^ " m « 1 t . 1.L r t T — - J-- Algehra H W k - l ■ t - 3 H H y O A 0 2 i » * • ! 1 f t „ __i -- Geometry Trigonometr u Misc. , H* ■ M 03 ^ , ^ c n c n 3?* 09 09 -ja- cn • cn^ English 03 —o Hi a f e j » ] . ._L—- ~ Biology i W Botany — : p-’ i -- | ... . . i __ Chemistry Geology T < i ■ t ■ - Gen’1. Science K - » U f e t u - j — i — Physics 1 I Physiology -------- “ p*" " . s s . « __ _ Geography.... » - * 5 * Ann,Med.Mo ( nistory tg . o H H t-l t r - J 0 2 W [ H M cn [ J , S, Histoj Civics . R 3 ( H yEconomics H * c n Mi sc* M ( - < cn M cn Foreign . Languages. Domestic Science 1 • T l F H A S b • i n H 3 Industrial ^rt a... M £L Find Arts Tar” t - » Music M * —« ► to M to s _ y M w ' Physical Ed • ' V |~J H * ■ W ... H « —\ M M < — * H * Mi sc* “ ." 1... 1 1 a? FH { j > W M w 1 - 3 C / i BUSINESS CURRICULA. 1839-1918. APPENDIX I (CON*T) #55 h -» 00 • \ M « M 0> m t- 1 } M cn ]*>. . . j ; f-* 03 • H* ro » M • M O * C O # oo • • 0 3 * en * * 03 » ro M < • G e n e r a l F r e e E l e c t i v e s J H to 7 SIJp- 01 'w ' . BM 4rn e s s t o |h p m 1 1 1 i a i M E c o n o m ic G e o e r a n n v 1 . 1......... 1 H* < — s . 0 3 p * B u s i n e s s .... R n g H Rh i ' ”1 B u s i n e s s O r e a n i z a t i t a ... . . . . J r * B u s i n e s s T r» c ii.n i n«* ■ ;. . . . . 3 ' A d v e r t i s i n g r k - ' ■ t . o a ife s m a n s h ip ' 4 i r ■ ■ • ■f — I. ; ' ’ I - /' '! ■ i H i s t o r y o f • ^ r .CQ ftm er.ce. f .....• - ! 1 ! 1 ■ . . s ' s i 1 B a n k i n g ^ I . , » 1 : = = = ** ' w|h • ( V K a i i i N i a | h « M i s c . 1 rajn 1 . . . . . 7 0 [H £ . . . . - J 1 ■ ■ J l u g i n e s s J r - r r i ■ i— * , '•SIL ( .P en m an ;^ h ip .. > 3 r . S p e l l i n g - . „ -R 1 ( 2 ) m|h M «-s fP ® ; ■ *-* ft8 J * \ H cn'x, SfW *-* t-» fS > ) S h o r t h a n d 1 . 1 ^ M o |h ” m|h > « . " -M, • _ . ■ ,.J c n ^ •-rf’O * s . *“ ■ * L—si ' ! i . < * , T y p e w r i t i n g . ; W JH > P » * , * fP p - cn < ✓ " 7 2 / H 1 " ^ m|h B o o k k e e p in g ! H*ro|i- O l / . ; , , , J ‘ ■ w r i l„ . i ^ .c c o ( u n t i n g . .ro . ,... M * r-s '4 * ^ : j r ■ * W ’ a f l S B O F u i ? . . < K e . J S t o r e P r a c t w ' ^ . , » “ cn cn * W|P"' $$ B u s i n e s s r k ?.P2 * a d t i o e ^ ( ib|H * * — s . 'B U c S in e s e . \ ' M a o h ln o s C o o p e r a t i v e ^ C o u r s e s # ; ' 1 1 i ■M 03 ' M|H k |h Miao. . { ■ ■ - ■ - ■ ■ ■ ■ n - ■ , , , r ■ ‘1 , i t S e e . S t e n o . f * B o o k k e e p in g ^ S a l e s m a n s h i p r G e n Tl C l.e r i( j? .^ ~ l Miicr; J *7* Win : cn 03 03 4 r - 1 e t* N_X • J— — «V ro 1 ’*75 !” ' « - * O n to «-* 1 H* y_>. 10 ro R e s t r i c t e d - E l e c t i v e s H3 M K ■O a M p d M 5 £ ! H 3 00 I » ► >r ' T t 3 b I ) i : i M M l x / f f r o t o • r o C O • r o -0 « r o Oi • ' 4 r o c n • r o • r o o * • r o r o • r o | a j r o o | General | Free Electives — -f— 4 i » I I... ,,..1 NiH „ - - V T=x~* O J BES4rness i I / MiK v id, Economic Geoeraohv 1 I / 1 Business ...English.. . . . — T \ Business Organizatic Jr® Business advertising . salesmanship » | r jp 1 o a W' History of Commerce. j j Banking T i ro I t o £ £ > r. „ „ j . Mi sc. * : v Business A Y r ^ . - h V i r h i a + i n r * Penmanship Spelling m| h MjH .k c n M H k c n M Shorthand »|H H ' H J r n » J = i ? n Typewriting C 3 | H £ - » © M —' - j Bookkeeping X c n •pat— Accounting . Store Pract, / ' Business I Practice ( • Business Machines Cooperative Courses. Misc. Sec, Steno, Bookkeeping • Salesmanship Genfl Clerid Mis «, — i I M M cn M cn 1. M <W .1- 1 r o O J _J ___ _ r j cn .. . 1 4 . . . . Restricted Electives t d a t s j f e j 03 03 O 3 w H 8 H 03 00 C O I i ~ > to ! —1 CO » - 3 W M S3 a m ! td > td td <q cd M td t - 3 03 > f >» • > » . S i f > . «■ if *> S 3 t d M X a o H3 £! © f p O' r Arithmetic Algebra Geometry Trigonomet 7 M|H !H English Biology Bciiany Chemi stry Geology Gen’l Science Physiology 1 Geography i« , M im iiW in ■ « » -- d ory t s s z z .Mo( i Histor cn r f c l t - v - * Civic s Economics Misc. Foreign Languages Domestic Science Industrial AdLa Find Arts Music Physical Ed Misc. #5 7 a d M X M O O t e : H3 BUSINESS CURRICULA 1889-1918. { 1 1 — ~ -— L f c o 1 * 1 j ! C O C D > I r o • .. r ro f ro o : f c n « I * . *.. ~ ~ j n M j CO ! tO ; 03 fro * 1 * I ! i j ! ! __L __A— r--y~ | r o f t o 1 r ip i f [ ! ! j 1 tji P o t e l i i ! ■ - - — 1 I l _L_ i . | = j . . X I t e l t t . — — . . J __ ...-T-— f Arithmetic 1 j & > ' • f - 3 i —i yR i i I t f Algebra 1..t 1 1 .. 1 " T’" ___L Geometry ‘ f i p r i h r t r n . Trigonometr , n w w n s . Misc. f —• S' . . c n . . Ftsr3 < ^ s . J E M . , .. < 3 . , . . ^£EL_^—— English c n —O H - t y 8 --- i I Biology r i Botany i ~ i { ...i__ Chemistry Geology > T i .- I -- Gen’1« Science f - * I t Phvsics i Physiology . — — •— Geography.. i W H W u f r JUifiSj _ __ _ l'8- . o C Q | H c n . |!L J G. S. Histo: v-t M t e J £n M jjH £ T L c n Civics i | , f - » ■ k . . . P 1 / • —s 0 3 03 J f l i t e ? n M i H 03 Economics r~~ ~r I 7 0 | H I f * W | H / - N Misc. Foreign Languages J i i__ M M cn t—* r--: P—— --- Domestic Science tel o k H 3 1 Industrial , Arts. .. Fin<4 Arts"\ Music , . i n M M ....... . t o i M t o 1-* R Physical Ed9 f - * 03 t-J M l Misa. ..... . — | • j w a m M t e ? t e l CO co o s W H H 0 c ? P i —1 CD 0 3 < o 1 tO ■ H * 0 0 s I t e l § c ! M h3 CO C J ■AH M O O » - 3 M / * * %n J 8 * 4&9 M 1 0 0 f - » - 3 • c n * h* r h- * cn j » f k ♦ } • 1 I 1 , 0 3 • h-> to m M h - > • h-> o I . 1. ’ 1 CD • 0 0 ♦ - < J • o # c n • • t 0 3 f t / ’ r o • r { « - » I * General Free , " • ■ Electives ' r , 1 ^ jit i f ’ • ro M L h to , ' f L . 1 BES*ness | 1 ' - MJH y! j^ggnoni^ - 0 3 ' ! "P* . M 1 M ' I Business , Rngl r sth.. .* r . j Business .Or^anizatic s Jr. Business Troi ni v i er » | h‘ Advertising j Salesmanship t —» < - - ~ N w 2t * ■F V —# * > T S p n ^o! h| & rp— / —s ro v _ « » JBt1 ' > : i P ' 09 ->~4- History of Commerce . J ] ! Banking jk" CO i * • . _ ^ _s_d w M , > v f * MisCp ‘ ■ j M Business. ■ ' « Penmanship ‘ Spelling »|H f - j 2t W|H • > } Shorthand m| h n i . i c n r o i » c o | h i Typewriting j f t - r - r i .Bookkeeping -AiCpounting, §ll?8lr#EkoS. , : i 1 Store Pract* / > Business I F^a&tioe l . , 1 L l f / ■ ^ N c n L r..., . • F ' •Msiness. . lachinop Cooperative ( Courses : 1 to r e j H ■ Mis p. ... . a . ; i L . „ ■ < Sec. Steno, ( r " ■ j $ Bookkeeping 1 ‘ | " » Salesmanship’ - ' ■ d 1 Gen'l Cleri< k s . i . . ' . ■ i Mis«. s t — M 0 3 c n CO * » * : o 0 3 H - » ' r o M- 0 3 <^N c n CO f - J - i_ t - * / —s t f * M • m J . Restricted Electives > r t l f h - f t * < r r h c j f d . t-3 w I I d f d t ? j <o a id t x j C O bo a ' f e * t ? j C O C O o a I d id M O a p CO C O CO I h - > C D h - > 00 * " t i 3 H o M X M o o M w tt £ * r - j ^ * r » *-•( cn ‘ -3 ~3 - 3 W ° O * a j c n Q CJ, * 0 I T T C o d i ? . t £ a . Of | W > 46© t ! i t S | ' --------- 1 --------- ro c o • ro 0 0 * C O -o 1 ro 03 ■* CO c n * ro ► ro oo * ro ro • C O M • C O O • General Free j Electives -- I t MjH w j j » ~ c n . s —< . . . , R ‘ " c n BMfrne’ ss Economic Geograohv ) M V I M VI ,.p,, Business E n .g 15 sh-- 1... ! 1 Business , Organizatic Jr. Business r Pr*oT n-i ntr Advertising 2 t cn salesmanship * j History of Commence 1 1 Banking , , , , , Misc. »-* M Business Ari ■hTirrna’ t - . n / ■ > c r r “ Penmanship Spelling M ✓ “ N i , f n Shorthand M , WjH ^ L M Q jj, , - * " " N Typewriting M M|H .pr- c n O Bookkeeping Accounting... &?5§FMl£ Store Practo / Business I Practice 1 • Business Machinofl Cooperative Courses. M < * “N , M Misc. Sec. Steno. Bookkeeping Salesmanship Gen!l Clerin Mis®. 1 M cn *_* M c n M cn t ' C C P ro c n -4 J o * / - N ro -4r- M 03 <r> "0j- 03 si ro c n I Restricted Electives t x 3 a 03 SH d w 03 03 O C J W W W O d co C O C O I to ! —* CO a a £ 3 H 3 H r * HH S 3 a M S3 s s H3 03 > r > t P i f t * * *5 S3 d H H O O d H3 461 1. 2. 3- 4* 5* 6 • 7- 8. 9- 10. li. 12 . 13* 14* 15- IS. 1 7. 18. 19- 20. SOURCES FOR CURRICULA II APPENDIX X John Elbert Stout, "The Development of High-School Curricula in the North Central States from18So to I9I8. Chicago: The University of Chic ago, I92I, p. 3 2. Ibid., p. 3 8. Edmund J. James, "Commercial Education," Monographs on Educat- ion. (Edited by Nicholas Murray Butler] , No. 13, Universal Exposition, 1 9 0 4* pp. 26-27. National Education Association, Addresses and Proceedings. Washington, D. C.: 1898, p. 862'. Ibid, I8 9 9, P* 1 0 0 2. Stout, op. cit., p. 4°* National Education Association, op. cit., I9 0 2, p. 678• Ibid, I902, p. SSS• Ibid, 1902, p. S87* Ibid, I903, p. 75I. New York High School of Commerce, Yearbook. 1903, p. 31. Cheesman A. Herrick, Meaning and Practice of Commercial Educat ion . New York: The Macmillan Company, 1904* P* 3^-5• National Education Association, op. cit., 1 9 0 4* P* 73° • Ibid, I9 0 4, P* 733 • Ibid, I9 0 4, P* 734- Ibid, 1910 , P* SSo. Ibid, 1 9 1 1, P* 8 5 4. Ibid, 1 9 1 1, P* 8 5 5- Raymond G-. Laird, "The Commercial High School Curriculum," Education. Boston: Vol. XXXI, No. 7 (March, 19II) p. 456ft. Paul H. Neystrom, "A Commercial Course for High Schools," Educational Review. Vol. XLIII, No.. 5, (May, 1912) p. 483- 49^ 462 SOURCES EOR CURRICULA Iff APPENDIX IT (Continued) 21* Rational Bdueation Association, op. Cit., I9I2, p. 1068. 22. Joseph Kahn, and Joseph J. Klein, Principles and Methods in Commercial Education* Mew YorF: The Mac mill an Company, I921 (Pirst edition',' 1914) . 23. Rational Education Association, op. cit., 1914* P* 661* 24* P. V. Thompson, Commercial Education in Public Secondary Schools. Yonkers-on-U/udson , Hew York: World Book Company, 19^5* PP* 120-121. 25. Ibid, p. I39. 26. Rational Education Associa/fcion , op. cit., I9I5* P* 932* 27. Ibid, p. 933* 28. Stout, op. cit., p. 209* 29. Ibid, p. 215. APPENDIX J 463 REFERENCES FOR TABLE V, nPRESENT AIMS OF BUSINESS EDUCATION EXPRESSED IN FORTY-SIX PUBLISHED STATEMENTS1 1 * 1. Allen, John T., “Course of Study in Commercial Department of Austin Public Schools,” Austin, Texas, n. d., (2-3-5-S). 2. Association of Collegiate Schools of Business, Social Studies in Secondary Schools* Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1922. p. IX, (1-2-3). 3. Bexel, J. A., National Education Association, op. cit., 1927, p. 339, (2). 4. Commercial Courses in High School,” The School Review. Chicago: University of Chicago, Vol. XXXIV, No. 4 (April, 1926) pp. 251-252, (1). 5. Crawford, C. C., “Redirecting Commercial Education in our Public Schools,” Education. Boston: Vol. XLIII, No. 5, (January, 1923) pp. 272-279. (1-2). 6* Cushman, C. L., “Social Responsibilities of Commercial Edu cation,” The Journal of Business Education. Wilkesbarre, Pennsylvania: The Trethaway Publishing Company, Inc., Vol. VIII, No. 1 (September, 1932), p. 9 ff., (2-4). 7. Denver Public Schools, “Commerce, Senior High School,” Course of Study Monograph No. 8. Denver, Colorado: 1925, pp. 11-13, (1-3-5). 8. Department of Superintendence, National Education Associ ation, ”The Development of the High-School Curriculum,” Sixth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: 1928, (1-2-4-5). 9* Education* Boston: The Palmer Company, Vol. LIII, No. 1, (September, 1932) “Commercial Education Number”, (1). 10. Elton, J. E., National Education Association, op. cit., 1927, p. 345, (1-2-3-6). ^Numbers in parentheses after each reference indicate the aims stated by the writer. Numbers correspond to those used In Table V. APPENDIX J (CONTINUED) REFERENCES FOR TABLE V, "PRESENT AIMS OF BUSINESS EDUCATION EXPRESSED IN FORTY-SIX PUBLISHED STATEMENTS" (CONTINUED) 11. Evans. Marguerite, "The Status of Secondary Commercial Education, Vocational Education Magazine, Vole II, No. 8, (April, 1924) p. 645 (discontinued), (1-2-3)• 12. Federal Board for Vocational Education, Fourteenth Annual Report. Washington, D. C#: Government Printing Office, 1930, pp. 49-56. (1). 13. Fort Smith, Arkansas, Pupils Manual. 1932, p. 50, (1-2-6-7)• 14. Gruenberg, Benjamin C., ”Commercial Education,” School and Society. Lancaster, Pennsylvania: The Science Press, Vol. XII, No. 302 (October 9, 1920) pp. 300-304, (2). 15. Haynes, Benjamin R., Syllabus for Course in Business Educa tion in Secondary Schools. Los Angeles: University of Southern California Book Store, 1930, (5). 16. Haynes, Benjamin R., National Education Association, op. cit., 1931, pp. 354-355, (4). 17. Kibby, Ira W., Bureau of Business Education, l ! Objectives and Majors in Business Education,” Bulletin C-5. Sacramento: California State Department of Education, (February, 1929), (1-2) . 18. Lewis, Inez Johnson, National Education Association, op. cit., 1931, pp. 110-112, (2). 19. Lomax, Paul S., Commercial Teaching Problems. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1928, p. 25. (1-2-3-4-5). 20. Lyon, Leverett S., Education for Business. Chicago: Uni versity of Chicago Press, 1931 (Third Edition), p. 551, (1-2-3). 21. Malott, J. 0., “Commercial Education in 1924-1926”, Bulletin, 1928, No. 4. Washington, D. C.: United States Bureau of Education, 1928. (1-2). APPENDIX J (CONTINUED) REFERENCES FOR TABLE V, MPRESENT AIMS OF 465 BUSINESS EDUCATION EXPRESSED IN FORTY-SIX PUBLISHED STATEMENTS” (CONTINUED) 22. Malott, J. O., Office of Education, Washington, D. C. Paper presented at Annual Conference on Commercial Education, Ball State Teachers* College, Muncie, Indiana, February 21, 1931, (mimeographed). (1-3-4-6). 23. Malott, J. 0., Commercial Education,” Chapter V of “Biennial Survey of Education in the United States 1928-1930,” Bulletin, 1951, No. 20. Washington, D. G.: Government Printing Office, 1931, pp. 6-8, (1-2-3-4-6-8). 24. Marshall, Leon C., ”The Relation of the Collegiate School of Business to the Secondary-School System,” The Journal of Political Economy.. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, Vol. XXVIII, No. 2, (February, 1920) pp. 137-179, (2-7). 25. Marvin, Cloyd Heck, Commercial Education in Secondary Schools. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1922, (1-2-3-5). 26. Merrill, A. W., “Wider Fields for Commercial Education,” The American Shorthand Teacher. June, 1931, p. 386, (1-2-4). 27. Nichols, Frederick G., “The Obligations and Position of Commercial Education,” Commercial Education. Whitewater, Wisconsin: Whitewater State Teachers College, Vol. XVII, No. 3, (March, 1932) Serial No. 171, pp. 39-40, (1-2-3-4-5-6). 28. Odell, William R., "An Appraisal of Secondary School Commercial Education,” Teachers College Record. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, Vol. XXXIV, No. 1 (October, 1932), pp. 43-52, (5). 29. Pasadena City Schools, "Course of Study for dommerce, Junior High School and Junior College— Grades VII-XIV,” Curriculum Monograph No. 14. Pasadena, California: May, 1929, (Revised, July, 1931), (1-2-3-5). 30. Potter, W. P., "The High School Commercial Course: Its Aim”, Education. Boston: Vol. XL, No. 6, (February, 1920), pp. 367-370. 31. Rittenhouse, Charles F., National Education Association, Addresses and Proceedings. Washington, D. C.: 1922, p. 589, (1-7). APPENDIX J (CONTINUED) REFERENCES FOR TABLE V, 1 1 PRESENT AIMS OF BUSINESS EDUCATION EXPRESSED IN FORTY-SIX PUBLISHED STATEMENTS’ * (CONTINUED) 32. Russell, William F., "The Frontier Within— Educational Implications of the Coming Industrial Age,” Journal of Adult Education. Philadelphia: American Association for Adult Edu cation, Vol. Ill, No. 3, (June, 1931), pp. 283-289, (2-4). 33. St. Louis, ’ ’Stenography and Typewriting for the High School,1 * Curriculum* Bui let in No. 57. St. Louis, Missouri: Board of Education, 1926, pp. 8-9, (1-3-5). 34. San Francisco Public Schools, ’ ’Commercial, High Schools, Grades IX, X, XI, and XII,” Curriculum Bulletin No. 201. Board of Education, 1928, (1-2-3-4). 35. Sollars, Robert C., ’ ’The Commercial Curriculum in Indiana,” Masterfs Thesis, (unpublished), Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio State University, 1928, (4-7). 36. Studebaker, M. E., ’ ’The Function of Commercial Education in Rural Communities,” The Balance Sheet. December, 1931, p. 122, (2-8). 37. Tigert, John J., National Education Association, op. cit., 1927, p. 337, (1-2). 38. Tonne, Herbert A., ’ ’The Equipment of the Commercial Teacher,” The Balance Sheet. February, 1929, pp. 163-164, (1-2-3-4-5)• 39. Toothaker, 0. H., ’ ’The Commercial Curriculum in Small High Schools,” Education. Boston: The Palmer Company, Vol. 47, No. 7 (March, 1927) pp. 434-441, (2-3). 40. United States Bureau of Education, ”Commercial Education”, Bulletin, 1919, No. 18. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1919, (1-3-4). 41. United States Bureau of Education, ’ ’Business Education in Secondary Schools,” Bulletin, 1919, No. 55. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1919, (1-2-3). 42. United States Bureau of Education, ”Busihess Training and Commercial Education,” Bulletin, 1921, No. 43. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1921, (1-2). 467 APPENDIX J (CONTINUED) REFERENCES FOR TABLE V, t t PRESENT AIMS OF BUSINESS EDUCATION EXPRESSED IN FORTY-SIX PUBLISHED STATEMENTS1 1 (CONTINUED) 43. Walters, R. 0#, l t High School Commercial Subjects as Entrance Credits to Collegiate Schools of Commerce,1 1 Education. Boston: The Palmer Company, Vol. XLV, No. 6, (February, 1925) p. 333-337, (1). 44. Weersing, Frederick J., Reorganization of Commercial Edu cation in Public High Schools. Cincinnati: South-Western Publishing Company, 1929, p. 129, (1-2-4-6). 45. Weersing, Frederick J., National Education Association, op. cit., 1931, pp. 348-350, (1-2-3-4). 46. Winters> T. Howard* Ohio High School Standards. Columbus, Ohio: The F. J. Heer Printing Company, 1929, (1-3-4). APPENDIX K SECONDARY BUSINESS CURRICULA 1919-1928 BUSINESS-CURRICULA 1919-1928 o> <D APPENDIX K FIRST-YEAR REQUIREMENTS LENGTH OF COURSE IN YEARS* FI KB ADD FRAC.AHT SCIENCE i ; . : ate3c .^tics PLACE SOCIAL STUDIES CO: < D &0 o t f H p $ © f a £ f - » £ 3 O « 5 1 - 3 co v . Ej * A» 3* N.E.A. *4 kfrSagwlqik- 19JsL.ji -S [ 19£gl I S 7-^Walters 1.1922 lgita 1922, 1322, on 11* . D«C»—11922 Paanflylfrania 12«Bu££aLo 1922j 1&-* 3 5. ♦Atlanta 1922 ; law 1$ •Bo- s ton i v Johnsto — ^Beoaeu—i-1922 03 00 p 1 <3 ^ 1 g a. i • 03 -0 • r & 3- «• 03 03 • W IE Q P ^ ri* P <0 O o % T *-— 1 03 cn • O o jt-** -»p D O P ri* H* V ' UD ro CH r — — ~ 03 r t o 03 03 i* W o 3 03 ro • m « j. p. 09 I—* 0 3c O P s £ DO p? m* a 3 0 > r N> !*• 03 M D W ■J d* D P * c+ 3 © 3 O fSU--i CO CO 03 09 o • Jco r g trr* 0 1 1----- 1 S .. . CO 00 *• 3 CO ro jro cn fen * I* H * © a & ~ r ^ i o i d i JV, r p . . {. r , ,j , ro } ro ! to »f> 103 | ro • ? • | • 1 . lisjco C let) c+ s j.. P S . » Ih< (D i P ; !►* o p * M > * ; »»>■> i » y T ! s r t — jJ2 B i* r o o o L *-* tJ P ® l o p*^ I f-j h »© f P 01-J v I P ' s P ; P* 3 tO ?ro , r . . . i L ~ — P O t?d ...... , s 1 r— — « 3 3 * 5 i i ! * r i i 1 m : r j. ,— p — .....L_. I 1 ; f i A r i t h m e t i c ► ► M 5 ? j , ■ i * — 4 . ! | A l g e b r a k4 t: ■ i'a v o A w 1 ) t > 1 r u‘ ’ I1 ^,T 1 7 1 -.....i . — G e o m e t r y j T r i g o n o m e t r 03 r r *, i r r 0|H M i s c «■ M .. an h-» H* F * ~ jar- <*~*v So _ (-» M yrj^ ^p p . .CO___ *pr— cn JOQ— i p cn. " P — cn___ X •jar- -tfe— : H* M E n g l i s h cn o M u ------- ; i , , ■"-’ — B i o l o g y i i ... i B o t a n y ------ ------ 1 _____ i \ — i-... i ______ i_____ C h e m i s t r y G e o l o g y ------- M cn [k cn 1 ^ f »]h ! ... _r j ---- G e n ’1 . S c i e n c e | ^ ....i — P h y s i c s ( i P h y s i o l o g y . ----- -----; , !■ ■ ------ ------ — ►. ! Geography... , M i s c * .... H* A n n „ M e d eM o ( H i s t o r y 1 8 - O M w b~f CO ro|n [J. 3 * H i s t o a l-J H* M M M . H r "KtiJ « oi vk cn cn salt* cn jalf cn S -*1 r- CO M to fci CO C i v i c s i j ro|p E c o n o m i c s i--- i i cn St cn ; M i s c , i i - F o r e i g n rL a n g u a g e s r „ ...... t ... ------ D o m e s t i c S c i e n c e v> h*j *TJ+H o {>> W b3 r * ; I n d u s t r i a l A r t s .... . . . M CO K f>v M to > ! to F i n d A r t s Onr M M M I —1 — V J = L - H-* tdUii H* JbriU. H* 1=> pi M u s i c M »-X 03 IT' O'. b^,„ M l-J ro H* ro M >-* H* **•>» 03 M 03 M 03 , X--V 03 b*£-*. ■ i > ■ »nr«. f-* P h y s i c a l E d w cn ■ > — »• . -...*, r^"— M i s c , 1 1 J prr— : — ---r — . "— r— | i, o a M a CD to t t —' tO ro oo w rO 0 3 * - 3 I H t?3 P d cj t —i P d £3 t - j S ! • > - 3 03 Arithmetic 1 Algetra Geometry Trigonomet Misc English Biology Bemany Chemistry Geology Gen’l. Science Physiology snory Civics Economics Misc. Foreign l&ngua&es Domestic Science Industrial Find Arts Music Physical Eq Misc o a w to M 0 g M CO M CD 1 H - * CO ro oo t e j w oa te SJ pd B a M P d § M S 2 $ Hi CO s O M N o o & H* g o > cn B Arithmetic ; .Algebra | Geometry |Trigonomet I Misc English Biology Botany Chemistry Geology Gen* 1. Science Physios Physiology G* S. Histor Civics Economics. Mi sc # Foreign Languages Domestic Science Industrial Ants Find. Arts Music Physical Ed Misc. m 2 BUSINESS CURRICULA 1919-1928 APPENDIX K (Continued) “ T ™ 1 1 0 3 # ■ ro • H* M » » - ■ o ♦ t o • c o - 3 • m * cn • • 0 3 * r o - * M • I General j Free j Electives ? - Bgg^ness ‘ Economic G.eogratmv . > Business Engl - i sh — ^ Business Organizatic* X M pr f —* X M M 7 r 0 Business . T l O T V J f l * Advertising ,,rr I Salesmanship * • i History of A .Commerce... 1 i Banking ' j i ] Misc, ^ S ( h " ' Cn H * / —s cn "P1 * * cn X cn X cn X cn 5T cn sP cn i o ) h Business Av i T . V i m o + - i ^ m[ h s 5t: f i | H wp / —■ s m| h Penmanship m| h ^ = S . _ « _ j ( - r M # ? * N . i w! h Spelling is* M M M Shorthand X c n X c n cn Typewriting H* M O M O 1 Bookkeeping Accounting . . . . if H B E M & Store Pract* / mI h Business < I Practice -— • Business Maenmoq L Cooperative < J ..Courses., f o f n r o R 5 J h ro ro Misc• { Sec, Steno. f Bookkeeping ^ Salesmanship * Gen’l Cleri<€ Misc. j ; — i i M c n M ro M ” 1 Restricted • * Electives >r ' T * 3 ’ b ft* o > - 3 474 BUSINESS CURRICULA 1919-1928 APPENDIX K (Continued) FIRST-YEAR REQUIREMENTS r U . f P £ % a n Tt f i t ? £ . £ > General Free Electives w tO © Sft P Q oj: •H P 0-«J oft ftbf o o o © {x?e to ®,C •©a ft c r •Hr- W b S E ---TT •H •P © ctf « N - ®-H ft ft •H 05 ) w b( 2 ft P Q O CO © © b ft s •Ht to g ft »r P Q a P «E- ft -Pi— > n ♦iH - f f i -P ft © f c » -2. Salesmanship ' i ft o © a ft f t o © -p I © g iH o W o W ft aS P Q » O co •H t •r TO+ © a ©£ pU •H+ W«r ft*. ft •H ft w © ft. •H rH i —1 © ft CO *3 § ft O ft CO bfl S 3 •H -P •H i a EH •H a © © M * o b P *r | C o o < op •HO iftaj ftft t - 4 b0D s° ©ft -f*H coo • -p o «5 ft P-. © ft o -p CO j © 4s w.to © c5 I S 0~* m i s J •Hft DtO 9 0 Cooperative < Courses , r-—r o‘ w a 8 © •P CO . o © CO bO ft •H ft © © s3 O O PQ Salesmanship £ •rl ft © t —• o f —1 ft © o o n •H t e r ) »tJ « © © ^ {> O -^1 •H +S ft o 4> © w rH ; © PQ ft -14-*... _n , V 8 (10 1 L/3 . _}.C IK; > i(6 1 5 . 1 6 . (4 9 1 7 . | ( S A(i ' O S * . .. . j i ' If I 3s.f % r — 19 * 1(1 _ ■ t w * •UJII ^ ~^tr> 20. i({ 21* i } , t "1"" 2li] l(F 1 22. I t * * 2 S . ► 1 f — — i 2 4 . f \ i d i K 2 •. 2 5 . f ij l ( ' i 1 ( , 2 6 . r- - - i i 1(! K 2 I " — — J 1 — ... J s - - - -- - - - . 1 — r * 1 — i ■5 { j T - - - •%75 03 03 0 3 o> 03 03 to ro 00 03 H* General Free Electives Economic Business .English— — Business Organizatic Jr» Business IT,raining. . Advertising ale sman ship History of Banking q Misc M M cn cn Spelling Shorthand Typewriting \ Bookkeeping ,Ag.ff9.unting^. H* cn •vsr cn c n *< Store Pract M is c cn c n Sec, Steno. ^ Bookkeeping ^ Salesmanship Gen*l Cleritel Restricted Electives M M c n c n J e n cn a P 3 I —I O ( - » t o i~> CO 1 to £ V 3 03 ► x j H W DO H i w a M 3 CO 6 * 3 s a M w o o a H * 3 c a 03 to s 1 1 1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _L 05 ro • cn H * • c n O • t o • 0 0 • - a • 05 • c n • • cn • r f s . ro • • r f ^ O j General J Free Electives — f — i ■ " ■ ' .... ■ ■ bE R ^ ss I M Economic Geograohv ! j Business _,.JEa&lish___ 1 i Business Organizatic M Jr* Business Ty*on n - i • n o 1 Advertising Salesmanship - j ... A History of Commerpe.. . ..J. I i Banking j f e f i c n oN, wen Misc. M j a l t * cn b r cn yr ; W cn ro Business. 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I 1 > 1 — 4— * P 6 t ' i / • “ n ,W-- M-|-- f j j . . . 1-- — « , t Arithmetio > L * |w __i i Z > j „ ! _ L _ { 1 Algebra t ~ 3 r i , hj yO £ - 0 2 ' 1 ! 1 i | Geometry j ™ , I [Trigonometr \ ,.... i J .1 1 Misc. . . . ^ ■ s c n O l ■ T O 1 ' " <71 ' ¥ = * — < 7 ! . „ T»~T = r ~ * . c n , ~ Tpr~ r ' - ' v j f e _ p K — j - j j —^ - __l e a , — m r ( - » f lS-IS-L.5ss^-^ - — __ L . _ .-------------- J | Biology 0 2 —o w f e s - * r —~ ..J — i 1 . . . . . B o t a n y . -- -- -- -- ( ---j . . ___L __ Chemi stry Geology --- T .— i .T Gen’1. Science i f Physics Physiology ; — -- -- -- L— Geography .JU&SS.9— ?r* C n u~—j --- . /mfiillory0< l8 ■ . « ► C O P H c q H 0 2 O n HistOJ M / - s ro Civics 1 1 Economics 1--- Misc. 1 i — M ro Foreign . Jan/^ages ?-- t .. Domestic Science f c J * ^ 1 PB o r*. ; . u 1 - 3 i , . t . . l i t . 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Gen!l Cleri<<€ Mis?, J { I —1 cn M cn M cn ro ro i-* 1*— ro «-*N M t - * ro M f --* M M ro X~s cn Restricted ^ Electives s T » * b H 3 1 - 4 I w w 8 c j M W H 3 05 O £ » f d M « 5 ( - » to I M CO ro 0 5 S 3 O H O o 3 - H * g © i f ^ 0 0 39. 1(5) 03 OO oa • Ofl 03 03 cn ■ . w • 03 03 03 * 03 ro « 03 * 03 O • JO to * to CO • JO - * o * General; Free Electives i t o| h BE§#nPss j Economic GeoeraDhv . 1 M M " ^ r sn fC T ’ * Business .Engl i «h.._ ! R J j p - cn Business Organizaticl Jr* Business fcdverti ping m| h cn cn Salesmanship * ‘ ■ i History of ^ Commerce... 1 i ,.i. . t b i ' r 1 Banking 5 I ■ Misc. t ..- Business Penmanship Spelling M h - » t —* jn.. Shorthand Oi\ s-'Ol l - j i —* cn w .: M M o S 5 - — -1 l - J P Typewriting M cn w! h P3|H M /—s i —• 0 1 Bookkeeping n Accounting af!?§irs M ? . Store Pract. / z o | h Business 0 3 ■ Business j Machlnos: Cooperative ( Coujrses Misc. ! Sec, Steno, ^ Bookkeeping * Salesmanship - Gen*l Cleric Mis$» J — ‘T o ’ y - " s » cn ro M H* cn 0 3 03 * * ~ N . cn S-/ ifrr> ■ ■ s" Restricted ~ Electives > » t o f b v < * .3 i? t ) i - 3 H -M H pc o £ P C S P C £ 3 c 3 s 03 O pd M C3 !-J to f-» t O I v - » t o £ > 3 CO o o 2 c t H * P C < t > P - CO cn — r . I ) 1 i cn ro • M cn t - * 1 • H* 1 50. 11 to 0 to CO • M -a • o • cn • — r i * • r i * Cn • L-- ..... . 1 M • 4 0 . 1 ( 1 ) r -....... *'•■■' ■ General Free Electives * ♦ BE§^pss T - l l " I l y l ^ c n -p£- cn B|H * - ~ N Economic Geoff-ranhv T I f J M H* 'M S3|H M|H n! h C | H Business Engl i R h "1-- cn Business Organizaticl s ..1 .. Jr* Business Advertising 1 i . 1 Salesmanship J * 1 ! [History of ^ ...1 Commerce . 1 f ‘ Banking ^ i h-» Misc,. t ! ¥usineps A r *n * h V i T n ^ > " h i n. ; Penmanship Spelling M M cn M ^ ... cn Shorthand f —1 » - » ro cn Typewriting M i— * Boskkeeping ^ Accounting . . . c n m SffKPff&S Store Pract. / Business r 1 ! Salesmanship * Gen’l Cleric Mis®, 'j : t f ' t—* t * M O iH MjH H *1 " 1 Restricted Electives > . ' T t • > > 3 b ft* 1 * 3 w M § t s > w £ 0 B c j M S 3 H 3 c a w M O tO M CO I J ~ * c o ro c o t # « o § ( - 3 M f e 5 a a o > b 0 0 e r a I" I i i 4 1 1 i n j l - j 09 • H* CO • M M » s? » i . • 1 CO 1 » i I i -o -0 3 / • cn • • ; i i i ; • cn « \ ) ( b-> ► ’ • j i - 1 i i . . . 5 . r ' 7 1 f e l ■ ._*J 1 --- j i — - j ..- 4 - - - —^ t i 4 = ___L . ! I u^—4 — . . % ' t ? a p : — , . , U — * ■ “ T - . . . Arithmetic 1 i f __L . i f ! i i Algebra s ■ - H 3 M v o : L c o c n ! i I i ; i ; j Geometry i ....... i . . . . . j [Trigonometr r 1- ■ 1 .. Misco ~FX~ . c n . . . h = r “ “ N , ---f -- ! ■ English --- i j.. Biology in o M M a ' ■ i Botany — : I S " cn ; -- -- ' t i 1 , - i __ Chemistry Geology f . . . . 1 . . . . . Gen*1. Science i ^ ■ | I Physics ! j Physiology -- -- -- -- 'X2 -uuJ * -* ■ • 1 I _ii .-.j 1 ..i i J L i - § . P . « -- -r*j— 1 8 ' 8 w i b e t c n ✓ — c n r o o| hm c n hif i c n } c n v _/ [ J , S, Histoi ■ V t f r - Top" c n w c n i $ H ' - J X r o cn i f c s e C - cn i § p " " “ c n Mr c n vr , Civics j | H| h cn cn Economics j--- - I —* cn— Misc* » . h - » <7> cn £ m6 « Foreign . _ Languages f-- --- Domestic Science 1 *TlM gB O fe f - 3 a g ^ y * a » Industrial Arts.... Find Arts h - 1 hi..- M - J b * . . - M < « ~ s . Music ro -J M ro ( —s M <-> { - » f —» M 05 M cn V — Physical Ed* h - » ro V- , Misc* --T~ | apehmbxx K (CONTINUED) 488 CURRICULA 1919-1928 FOURTH-YEAR REQUIRED TS Fim AHD FRAG.ART : : atE3.latics SOCIAL STUDI T V 4 PLACE W O B XSO! © w 0} a V B * fftj* I 1 1 m d i w f i m s M n C O • is r 00 |cn'*r S e n • i -r-.. , c n • i 1 c n • c n O i ♦ 0 3 & n s n H1 iO * 1 /* i * i * i i - .,)...- j C O C O • I C O | C O 4 c o < h r i i 1 \ 1 i . ^ ^ j 1 » i f i i f V r 1 i i ! i r i ~4~__ i i . { u 5 1 " 'I " ....4 ... i — ^ — — - » . Arithm etic ! ■ ‘ • i | ■ ; • !' 4 Algebra 1 . v - 3 1 —1 vO Lm . l ■ < ! » " ’ ! ™ L ~ -- Geometry i l ._ r Trigonometr I ! Misc. . . ■ ' , ---- M ' ' /*N -o*~ M * * * N . ry > H t-» fe n -q»— » —‘-| 1 M c n — — mi— English__ . m — C 2 y H .. . {. - | } .., Biology 1 . , . j ; ) Botany ----- : ..... H 0 3 I ! —--t...— 1 - i_ . . . Chemi stry Geology T .. ., I...— Gen1! . Science * - ■ 1 Physics ■ Physiology ----- ----- ----- --- , . ----- Geography ■ i j T i a j i-r r n r J- - — ■ » • • „ <W |— « » 1,> '' [ 8 „ 0 n 01 H 3 w 0 w “ r a jF * * c n plH M c o in '^pr- c n c n ’ P*"" c n ■ p * c n [J* S. Histo: j o J h c n m| h M »|h P 1 m|h m! h c n W ]H c n Civics 1 j ra in c n « d | h m| h C O M o | h s n .__ M .C E L . Economics j„ x C l m| h 'w' Misc. i * I — Foreign Languages i t Domestic Science 1 h tj * T 1 M O \V H 3 In d u s tria l A rts..... . . . . Find Arts M ' Music o a | — j » - » M © • v _y M o a Physical Ed • . S M isc. - - * - ” ■ v r ... n l c n i —> CO co 0 3 * T » V ~ J P 0 I H N o o f e 5 t - 3 H f c $ < 3 f c * 5 a f j l ro * cn i —* • 1 s U * I • i i t 00 • i s -o • vK a> • t - K cn . * —T ‘ -- t ! 1 ■#* i r f * ^ } oa * 1* ' i ♦ i • i i - ro ♦ — r u ir ! I s i ; * . ____^4 O • u P 8 i — -----—; r r „ . r i t f ! j r i : ! 1 r i t * — * > m r »in 1 1 1 1 ----------- 1 t ' i k ......,L.... ] T n I Arithmetic 1 • ^3 vO Leo 1 I i ' .....i ___ ! j • - ■ J '*~r~ f n ! j Algebra r --y- ...I I | Geometry i . f" {Trigonometr { Mise, m! h MjH MjH M H* cn ■ Ca~ qn -- . |cn English --- ___[ _ Biology CO —O n y 8 1 nr*'m I I Botany --- -- - — -- . . . . . . ! t 1 ___ j --- Chemistry Geology f . - J-- Gen11. Science I ? L___L— . Physics 1 j Physiology i ■ ( T T i r r --- --- --- " V * ~ m l z [ cn ■ J3eo£raphi,, _M3vSS.«— Anc#Med.Mo< 111 story ■8 - o MjH m| h M|H MjH J. S* Histoj H - t f c c j co m| h m[ h m| h MjH MjH Civics i I M|H M M|H Economics i — .- 1 . MjH M M Misc. > • Foreign .Languages r~“ - i t .... Domestic Science ‘1 * T l H i & a o • - . a, r1 , 1 j ■ ’ ^ Industrial . Arts..... Find Arts f r Music * M ' H* 3 I —* Physical Ed* . . . . . jf , ■ < : -4 : , 1 i; > : ■ 1 H* ; Mis'cj • 4 : -4 i : 1 i i : ■ ! j ' ‘ I i . 1 ■ ! 1 j i J i . ■ * 1 •di ■ > I • > c n 3 1 < 4 & 6 t - 3 t d i. w a M fri 07 CURRICULA 1919-1928 APPENDIX K (Continued) 419-7 i i i l i M M • I —* / > —• . c n M t O • M • O • . • 0 3 • • a • c n - • ♦ c * • C O » « General Free Electives — t — * cn j g j j p " c n ■ M i n , . - c n t o h — / > —• . c n H ’ to c n ■ T O j F ^ * c n S - ' U i B^ness i Economic .Geography . I J t cn £5 cn M / > —• . c n A ' c n i —* . 9 * , , *P[ o a J K . 1 -. . . . .. . . H * ' m — Business English--- — f-- i . M c n 2t c n ' C 5 r S i > < w » ■ Business Organizatic 1 Jr„ Business . Tp j f t T -pg /•N c n Advertising k cn M cn Salesmanship * j % \ . . j History of Commerce. . . i » i Banking ! 1 2t cn . J Mi sc. n r ^ i , C O . : H * " ■ ■ ■ C O Business. c 3 ~ * ( Penmanship Spelling... r» M »|H J f i s " cn ' " ■ ■ ' ■ Shorthand 1 P » „ „ » —> c n . . . - M j M c n M * > —• . Typewriting Bookkeeping. cn w cn Accounting,— r o i - i - i n f . i mi i M I H i n . - . M Lou. m m r m $ 4 - * Store Practo . / M cn Business !Practice 1 , • Business Machines' Cooperative Courses. Misc, 1 Sec, Steno,, Bookkeeping Salesmanship Gen’l Cleric Mis®, 4— 1 I ro / > —• . cn ' w ' 4 — N > / * s c n i ~ * c n M c n t - * c n j o — ! £ I t * c n _-« i » ► H * Restricted Electives > t 3 FOORTH-YEAR REQUIREMENTS 498 CURRICULA. 1919-19&8 APFEUBIX K (Continued) 492 FOURTH-YEAR REQUIREMENTS SOC t f\lr &i/ S / { - v e 5c ^u . 0J€cTS / £ -C A »,c*L-£vs,n£ ?5 to & * F F£ - i !M £ /v 7 7 £t&£> i,L n 03 © r— I {> C t l -<D_ »cH P © -P © P © P Ph © © t - i o w 14. 1(5) t Uii 18. J 20. 21. 22. 1(5) 23,1(6) 24. 1(6) 26. , 26. o p SP P Q h) OOL o©J p c KO p q f E x a ■C£) 3(E) J L s J L g 1 r 0 - 3 ^ ) i k a § H P CO © a P P 6 * ( .*Ht— to 1(0 Mil i flil K * b 1.(4) •H -p 0 3 a S 03 N ©•h; P P •h aS: to h b P p P Q O 63 CO CO © P s j •H 03 P P Q •Ei P i 3 k f c i D P •H T O •H -P P © t> 2. •H P to S to © ■ —i a J JO. , 'P i O 1(6) >> P o -p 03 «H O W O ha „ p •H P c S P Q C O - J - 03 G W. 2*= p,£ t O s , P t P Q *3 P -. 1(6) P L •H a t x L P •H r - t « H © P4 C/3 P a s J Q -P P o ,P C/3 1(5) K t 1(5 ) , KiDJiSl K5) 6 © p •H -p •H © P. r’V E -h W J p Pi © - © O P Q M O O O 0 tf oo Mrl Q & h C O D * ( f Mil © K H W “ H “ 4? - „ C O . .b * P.Hrj © C S ■ - H . C J P «9, ®'0 ’H Cp f JS ci © P -P ^ li PQ^ O w » H 6 © P ■•H P. © © o o ■ P Q Ph • H ,p 03 P a S 6 03 © i —I © C/3 T3 j K 3 j © ©| -P M O » H } •H -P j P © f •P © W rH © « P h SLif) 2 ( 1 ^ ) 2( 1H3) ■ \ 2(1-|S) 2(1-5) 1(5) 2(6) Mil 49$ ■ ’1— } ? I i i i 04 to • cn 03 • cn -o • 04 cn m cn cn * cn • 04 04 04 • t ---- Cn M • S 1 ro to • ro 03 *-• ro -o • T ~ 1 j General j Free Electives — | — \ ...L »*tpr cn'x s-'W S T cn (0{H tO M o| h t - » Str cn St cn .....‘ • ’ " ' " r... Bg^ness 1 H - * Economic . Geograohv f r-> cn w| h H cn SK cn ~— - Business Organizatic j j.. . . . . . cn\ w> <8# w* . 5 « —s Jr® Business rPv»oi rri vm> s W|H ^|h M ro C O R Q l OH j Advertising ! ^|h M CO 5 | H 0 | » - ■ « <. .. L2> • »p • * cn V—< - . Salesmanship ♦ { t ____i... History of ..Commence . . . . . . Banking s a a ^ i s M|H ■ .pa—. cn > * » ✓ j" 11 Misc. Business ! Av*T+:nrn*»4-n r > . ‘ 1 Penmanphip Spelling m| h < cn u c n Shorthand P3| H I —* M O M t s , cn Typewriting , : h- « pr Boakkeeping. “ pf" cn H* K cn Accounting .J M J=! cn ' Store Pract. I ■ > ■ ■ ■ Business I Practice I , * ■ • Business. ---- ' i \ Cooperative Copses _ ( Misc. ---, 4 . . i . ; . Sec, Steno, ? —. . T .... . a Bookkeeping 0 f ^ Salesmanship - Gen*l Clerid 1 Mia? • 4— \ ! IN 3 *“S cn M u~ !-• M M i_j -~n( to j cn w ..t ra cn Restricted Electives " m - f t t * a ► - 3 w I M P d £ 2 t * J <0 a M S 3 w § C O o w H O to M to I M « D ro 0 3 *P t s j O M X X a o a H * g C D CX to 0 4 CURRICULA. 1919-1928 ¥ APPENDIX K (CONTINUED) .O ID FOURTH-YEAR REQUIRMBITS f F £ n a /v Tt(iTa£ > General Free Electives 1 0 t o C D me! ssq PQ OJQ P i b < OO O C D p t f c D -- t o t O , C C D K p J * r • H i — C O h SI I Business J 1 Organizatid t o C O C D 6 P i P •H T t o p P * * r PQ a P • E - J=L_. bQ 3 .3 t o •H -P J Q © t > J S l Salesmanship L < t - * O © > i O u u O < M -P | C O g * r - f O W u bO P i •H M P J a S PQ O t o •H a c • r CQ+ C O G pU »H+ W.r 3P PQ« Penmanship b C P ! •H ( —1 rH © P , IQ [ Shorthand r Typewriting b £ P i •H P . © © M © O P Q b P P P O o a OP •HO l P i e d PH a j i . P i b f l D OO P*H ®H -PH OQO Store Pract. © e c oo? c o.b © c i P i U • H ' (L C O _ , 3 P Q cod t o O’ P J mH •H^5 m o 3 d PC*a Cooperative t o W » = i i . o P i © -P C Q . O © C Q c Bookkeeping n * Salesmanship - •H P . © rH O » —1 © CQ » M Restricted Electives 40. A 5) tt/3 h i 1(5 )f5-10’ 2/3 (5) 41. j ---- - 2 42. I5) l<5; M 5 ^5 s(5 43. ---— -----} M E ) l(£) 1-3 44. 1(5 1 •K5 1 45. ■ * 4 46. 1 g 1 1 1 1 ' ■ 47. ^5) 1(5 ) 1(5 m: • 48. 1 1 1 1 49. 1 1 1 5©. 1 ' 1 1 1 51. 1 1 52. 1 1 1 ---- 4 j L, 2 ' ■ 1 501 SOURCES EOR CURRICULA III APPENDIX K 1* United States Bureau of Education, "Business Education in Secondary Schools," Bulletin, I9I9, No. 55. Washington, D.C., p. 16 (Report of "Committee on Reorganization of Business Education appointed by the National Education Association). 2. Ibid, p. 16. 3. Ibid, p. 16. State of Oklahoma, Curriculum Bulletin. 1919, pp. 11-12. United States Bureau of Education, "Business draining and Com mercial Education,” Bulletin, I92I, No. 43* Washington, D.C.,: I92I, p. 8. 6. Cloyd Heck Marvin, Commercial Education in Secondary Schools. New York: Henry Holt and Company, I922, p.‘ I52. 7. R. G. Walters, High School Commercial Education. London: Isaac Pitman and““ Sotis", 1922' , p. 44* 44 44. 48. 2. 30. 232. 233. 234. 236. 236. 236. 238. 240. 241. 243. 245. 24b. 246. 2 5. City of New York, Commercial Courses of Study for High Schools. p. 3. Bulletin of Vocational Education. 1 , p. 9. 8. Ibid P* 9* Ibid P* 1 0. Ibid P* 11. Ibid P* 1 2. Ibid P* 1 7. Ibid P* 14. Ibid P* 15* Ibid p. lb. Ibid P* 3. 7. Ibid P. 18. Ibid P* 19. Ibid p. 2 0. Ibid P* 2 1. Ibid P* 22. Ibid P* 23. Ibid ,p. 24. Ibid , p. 25 • City of I92 28. Ibid, P* 27. Ibid, p. 28. Ibid, P* 29. Idaho , " Vol 30. Ibid, p. 9. SOURCES EOR CURRICULA IN APPENDIX K (Continued) 50 & 31. State of Oregon, A Course of Study for the Commercial Departments in the State o'f OregonL I923, pp. 6-7. 32. Milton C. Potter, High School Course Handbook. Milwaukee Public Schools, Office" of the Superintendent, 1924* p. 11 • 33. Simon R. Hoover, T f Content , Sequence, and Variations of Commercial Courses in Secondary Schools,” in Conner T. Jones, Peaching Business Subjects in the Secondary School. New York! The Ronald press Company, 1924, pp. 3-24. 34. Arnon ?/. Welch, Some Observations on Secondary Commercial Education. New York: The Gregg Publishing Company, I324, p• 119 • 35. Harry S. Young, "The Development of Commercial Education in the Public High Schools of the United States, "Master *s Thesis, (unpublished), Urbana: University of Illinois, I927, p. 58. 36. Jay W. Miller, Methods in Commercial Teaching. Cincinnati: South- Western Publishing C0mpany, 1925, p. 369. 37. Ibid, p. 370. 3&. Ibid, p. 371. 39. Ibid, p. 377. 40 • Ibid, p. 378. 41. State of Minnesota, Curriculum Bulletin. I925, p. 10. 42* Denver, Colorado, "Commerce— Senior High School," Course of Study Monograph No. 8. Denver: Public Schools, 1923, ' p. lb. 43. Ibid, p. 16* 44* Ibid, p. 16. 45. Chico High School, Course of Study. (Mimeographed) I92G. 46* State of Indiana, Bulletin No. 65. Department of Public Instruction, 1926, p. XIV. 47* Young, op. cit., p. I36. 48# Ibid, p. 89* 49. Amarillo, Texas, Teachers* Refer&ace Book and Course of Study. Amarillo: I92U-I929, p.' 28. 30. San Prancisco, "Commercial Curriculum Bulletin, No. 201. 1928, p. 16. 51, Ibid, p. 16. 32. Ibid, p. I7. APPENDIX L SECONDARY BUSINESS CURRICULA 1929-1933 406 1929-1932 CURRICULA. ..APPENDIX L LENGTH OF COURSE IN YEARS g FIRST-YEAR REQUIREMENTS ■ ■ -------------------1— E L A C E | D12E A T K S .IA T IC S ________ ____ ----- H » ....... . " — ......1 , .......... ............................ . 1 ■ ■ m t m , S C IE N C E | .................... ..J .... _ _ _ L s o e ------------- ----- -------- ----- - I £ L S T U D IE S j 1 i F IN ® m y F H A G -A H T < • ----------T ! I | b •H + > - < D -P •H b u & 0 h C t-r < t >» jh -p © £ o © o -p 1 £ o hO •H Eh o O ( 0 *rl 3 = *.....t i rCjj 8 3 »H rH t> C S 4 W r o rH o •H P Q j & a o P Q - p ! >> 6 3 ; bD •H O rH © I O ^ ! © O { C3 0! • O j rH P4 - 0 PkH 0 O cistO © o •rH ro £ Ph >* w O rH O •H ro J? P4 3 4 § i 2j 1 * | s \ o •U TOO © P 3 « > r 21 0 3 ! • C O • iO-: ro o •H > •H O ro o •rH 6 o fj* o b . 1 } • i O i ro f •H ! te d 1 « J F o r e i g n ^ L a n g u a g e s o •H ® -P O ro £ 0 0 g-H o o QCO rH c e 5 •H J h •p ro a ? 4 - ■s > i—t i ro ‘ s •rH ! 1 o •H C O 5 . 'd W rH aJ o •rH ro £ p . © o C O •H ^ ! 1 . O r e g o n 2 , ” L929 u — — — 1 1(5 L( 5 ---------- | T --------- ~ — T L _ 1 r — 1 ! t ... ---------- ' N e w Y o r k 3 * S t a t e 1930 « , 4 1 1(6 i ( « L , ) L( 4 n I k e _ 4 . ___________ 5 > M g P a s a d e n a , 7. " L(4 | K e - • , Iri r ! 1 » j 1(6 L(4 t l ( S 1 1931 n 1 .. _ i . ... 1 i 1 I 1 1 i 8 . * t» 1 -------- 1 i _ L 1 i 9 . A y e r , M a s s . L932 !S L ------------| i -------- i ( e ) 1(5 t ■ * B r i d g e p o r t , 3 -Q o C o n n .______ r » ; j 1(5 * * ----------- n ■ n > ___________ | ....... |; . ) , 3(5 i a-....... j C i n c i n n a t i ] , „ ;• ....................„ i.......... . it. . 1(5 r i L I . 1 1 ( 2 ) 1(1 1( 2 ) ' , J o h n s t o w n , ! i j l 3 s P e n n a . 1 tt i ; 1(« H K 5, i 1(2 1( 2 ) .1( 2 ) u . " • p r - i t - 1(5 1 ( 5’ i i 1(2 1( 2) 1( 2 ) *i jx K o ko m o * - I n d i a n a It ' ; 1 l 1 r i 16. S t s ? 6 ’ « ; 1 w w i i , i , i ....... L(5 1(5 1 ( 5) ( 1. i R o c k a w a y ,. V .F e w Y o r k n |i L(5 . 1(1 0 1( 2) 1 — ! .0 S a n J o s e , 18* C a l i f . tt ! 1 L(5 i ; i j k 4 «I 1( 5 ) | h 19. * * rr . \ l .(5 ! j .— .. ... i ! ! i l(5l t r 11 ! 1 --- M--- 1( 5) i H____ f * Figures in parentheses indicate number of re c ita tio n s each week.* IO o 1929-1932 CURRICULA APPENDIX L( Continued) FIRSTLYEAR REQUIREMENTS SOCIAL STUDIIS FINE AND PRACTICAL M ' l SCIENCE PLACI DAL h J O •H(D -PO rap} ©CD OO pro • H rH © a o © © © o O OO -p rH i —I •H t o t o -p ( —I •H ■ H •H • H ora r a p •H O S© Ip © B i H j W) O & 3 e - - — - 119321 - 20»San Jose.Calilr.____ 21.Thornton jTwntQM-E ,111 £ ora o wp O 'H O M • H « H PQ o o P Q 1(5 22 w p ,«r 24• Waltham, Mass 25. Chisago.) 1 1 1 . , 26 .Sac City .[Iowa Jui lioil Hirfh sbhodl 27. Holvoke Madi 1932. 2R. H--- 30. Altoona Peii a Santa Monica 32.» Calif » 1 — . Juniojr Hiigh jBchc c 34. Wheeling 35 36.Hammond, Indiiiia 37.Charlotte N.C Junior Ligffi Scjfcol 03 C O o ro ; Geometry ; g j j 1 _________j W - 3 Trigonometry 53 • Miscellanej ; OUR._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ M O 02 h* ! English [Biology Botany j Geology General Science M Physics j t? j (Geography I Mi scellan- ;eous jAnc. Med .Mod, I j H i s t o r y j S i s l o r y | Civics GO o (Economics iM is c e lla n ,eous (Foreign (Languages i domestic ; science w ^ > • i —i o i - o t * j M O iIndustrial (Arts ]Fine Arts Musi c Physical Education Miscellaneous 1929-1932 BUSINESS CURRICULA APPENDIX L( Continued) FIRST-YEAR REQUIREMENTS *■■ > H* 00 • M - o |M * . i - E T * - c n | r f k i 1 I 1 . ; . ' ! h 0 5 • ■ j i L - r o • i t s * * - . W - * • tJB&mm o • ' " “ B" * - » 0 0 • ' < i • i c n ’ • cn“ • f - j c n “ • M c n 0 3 • f w a j cn h N ro • |L_ * - * • . t General | Free ] Electives 1 BfiS»ness . 1 . i Economic ji.XJeoerachv 1 f j i j i 1 Business .EhgH Rb... -- |._u Business Orgafitzatic “ s K— T p J / “V P-- cn p r - - < “ N . c n Tprr p i < t n w l ^ 3 j H » | h » | h /*N cn ! | J ' cn . » - * ■ r->. cn Jr * Business T t*«iT v j t Y\er ' ■ Advertising * ’ Salesmanship j * * • ■ . , j . : f | History of . . . . {Commerce.. . J W - i . ' ; ! i h i r r - T f.-... ' ' •Banking * i g l p * 3 , ' e t - c n Misc9 ^ n M cn ^ ^ ' O T O j h r a r o | H» | H m| h m| h rp- c n . "FT- * * “ N c n Business ^ * O T M j k 1 . : n w j H0 | H M jH m| h ... ( —1 Penmanship "IT* Spelling f Shorthand n w | r \ * . . . ’ 1 Typewriting * s pr— cn X r cn ; , , . . w * Bookkeeping f Recounting. ' < Store Pract*', 1 cn 1 Business { I Pjra^tiee _4 . _ — ► ■ r - r - V L T . i , * , m m . 1 . . - . . . r - • m $ i n e e s , r __, ——H Cooperative < . . . . Courses . [;; Miao» , ! X X * Sec* Steno, f k , .., X X Bookkeeping ^ j X ■ . . . . X Salesmanship, * Gen’l Cleri<< , X Minet f M t - J 1 • nym-m M cn V-/ ro cn l TO~ cn Jo" cn x ~ v cn M M ro ro Restricted • - Electives M P S co i - 3 l a M ► r f 1 - 3 CO ! b * H * t O ro to « M to Oi ro o t = d M O a p 1 3 t 2 K 3 H 1 * 5 O O £ 3 H 3 to to 1929-1932 CURRICULA. APPEN D IX L ( CON * T ) F IR S T -Y E A R REQUIREMENTS 500 P pi ff*n a tv Tt G eneral Free E le o tiv e s to to © ■i SQ P Q uc 6 a qu s 3 fa ( oo O© W C 5 — C O mx 9 « S 3 -r - •H i— C O f a St - T 3 •rt •P C O c t f t O « N j ©-H S 3 S 3 •H © 09 h i v s *4 PQO to to © f a S 3 S •H*r to s 3*n P Q e f S •Ei .tL . f a O ) S 3 •H C O •H -P © f > • X 3 P •H to i (0 © rH © b -£ Q U . L * * ~ > O < e >s C u t * O < E -P § to £ •H O W o 5 © P Q • * © w 8 t •r «+ e g a Sts •H 4- W t- 3 i p. •H .d C O “ S 3 © ' © j P -. f a £ S 3 •H rH rH © P C O S 3 © -P J U o .d C O iTypew riting 1 f a r s i P © © ^ 4 § P Q S ♦ f- -s s o o O OP •H O >.d© P J h J U fa t© oo pH Q J H -PH coo « -P o © P U © J, o -p C O . © • r i »■» to.© © © S 3 8 a «Hp* < 0 © "T P Q i J ©fi S + rM fW3 too SfcJ PQS Cooperative < Courses.. , o W •H « « r < » = * . o S 3 © -P to » o © C O Bookkeeping s . r . . .._r Salesmanship s •H S . © rH O i— 1 * S 3 © O t f t •H ~T *© c a f © © -P P O *H •H S * o rP © B HI © i*3 .. 1(5 1(5 '“ 1— 1(5 1 1( 5) . 22#... 1 (6 1(5 1(5 1(5) 23. .. 1( 5 1(5 25. 1 (6 2(5) 26. Jur io i Hi chc Ol * 27. K ? X X L( 4«*l > 28. i ( ' ■ • X 29. X L(4wi> 3 0 , i . X 1 31. l X 1 32. Ju lie r H : gh >ch< >ol 33. Ju iio r H : gh 5ch< >el ------ - 34, 1 •l J 3 2 , s J k £ 1 X i l < J-s 35. 1 e l e , 1 f? X n i . 1 S3 36. 2 — < ■ » 37. * Ju iio C.H3 m : lch<>ol ! ; ’ 1 m. 9 >P> * >P> cn • to . • r f * M • § • 03 CO . , j Free j Electives , a Her- C 1 3 ' % % § $ n e s s O Economic Geograonv s f - M H* Business . , ..■Englisk___ .. j T ? C O o Business Organizatic a 3 3* o o cn H* M Jr« Business ..iTM.T nffl ff i - p r - l Advertising salesmanship * History of .Commerce. f ! Banking ■i -ini’" r Misc., p p - ffl M M Business Av*1 ! ■r.ViTn», t * . ' i o • Penmanship ■ Spelling Shorthand Typewiting Bookkeeping Accounting ' * Store Pract, / . Business ! Practice --- • Business Machine? . Cooperative Courses . ■ Misc, M Sec, Steno, >4 Bookkeeping Salesmanship Gen’l Cleric - Mise • — ..I M I-* Restricted Electives w ! * 5 CO (-3 A t d f d I M H 3 CO > ? - h f h < ) CD t o CD I M CD 0 3 ro o < 3 o < 3 P { t > 3 o o r ^ 5 !-3 cn O M C O .• i ! M 0 0 • m ■ o • H * O i • ■M c n * * j M O a . # - t o ♦ r ~ " — M M • i ° I * i c o • 0 0 • I I I . n . » —. 1 . - O • 9 ) • ' ' j j c n j r f » . j 0 3 * I * j * i i t » j } i | ---1 -- 1 { r o j m * | « ! 1 i i _— ■ j —■ . . . - A H I £ 8 ! i ( j i L i t . , 1 r r f i r f f o i M i i * * I i n i w p 1 t e l I - . . . , i j [ * ! f | Algebra fp ■ I H ■ > * 3 t i i 1 . ; Geometry i i ' } {Trigonometr h ~ t yR ■ o c a a J C I 1 - . . J . H . i l l n . r j J 1 Misc. I p s r X . * " " N i n - . . . h * , OL M fpj- xn._ n=r- ^ * s hC I L - 1.cn_ *g- ^xnu TT* _ c n . _ . M M j M " J F J " H1 M - » t ! h — c n ' c n , , w . , English --- --- k e i * ^ M M M i i M . i ... i ...........i , - Biology CO —O f - J u o t e l 1 i — I — , — I i Bciiany -- -- i ! i - - — i - .- * * j .- i.. Chemistry Geology --- f . - i.- Gen?l. Science 1 j ■ » . . . — L - Phvsics M to T » physiology --- -- -- . . . » i Geography... ■ — f s r — c n c n Ann*Med .Hoc History ' ■ ■ ■ - — - ■ ■ .... .. .* r SOCIAJa STUDIES j ■ LJ. S. Histo] , MJH cn 2t cn it1 cn Civics i \ Economics | --- - Misc. \ i — Foreign r Languages r — Domestic Science 1 * * 1 HIM m o • B ►3 . Industrial Arts... FinU Arts M H H* K M Jn!.. Music M X—v cn cn M OO M M to M to M to V— < » Mi H* M Physical Ed« » - • ro Mise® 1 • .....m l \ 1 co to CO I M CO 03 t o O c 3 VO VO M O a p 09 * » > Q S H J t J H w g a 3 B 9 c a o O i s j HI O 9 a v o w fed a c o s w o h r j cn O ro 1$29~1932 CURRICULA APPENDIX L (CON*T) m Jo SECOND-YEAR REQUIREMENTS PLACE ]DATE --- ATREcIATICS ______ --- i ---------. — --- ------------ r SCIENCE j ------ --------- - r SOCIAL STUDIES j _ ■ c* 1 1 FINE AND PRAC.A3T . : . . * ■ S ■ | _ ^ t O •H -P © -P •H £ c S u A < D b f l < \ U -P © & o © o -p 8 o £ o hD •H E - t « O 1 0 i ! C O ? r - t b f i a 1 h Q o rH O •H PQ & a J o PQ -P ! >s o o • bO •H O g I rH © ! : O A i © . . o * ' © »o rH £ 0 i ®o OCQ r a o •H W V , ^ bD O rH O •H < 0 £ fR si 8< a S • Hi b£ Q © i i J ©p S » H r < o -p t o I •H « • co . . Jp- © o •H > •H O 1 0 o •H 6 o r t o e > PQ | j • \ ° t < a ? •H J S t o * © P J W bO c j •H p J © b l o i A o •H © -PO w P S © © g-H o o QCO H •H +> © a P A A V S 3 < n i w ’ f i « r l fH f * o •H © M T t PQ rH a d o * r H r a £ PH • 6 » ; •H ___20, 21, --- — i(i i)l(,E ! T - i --- ! J 1(5 1(5 3(4 k ; i 1(1 22. ..! I s.. K 5 1(5 1(5 i - I (5 j 1(4 1(! . 1(1 23. ___ 24. s . » . k(5 1 f 1 .. 1. . . . 1 i i (5 i r t T i } K i ) !(?]| . to CM r - — H --- - — «5 i ! 1(31 26. 1 f < ... 1 . j i 1 1 1 27. 1 1 " r i ?. w ----— ll.. 1( > • 1 j * --. i(: 1(2) j ro 00 . i 1 t i " t i * : s 1 ; ? ! 1 - I U i (2 ) 29. 1(1 r . . , . c _ I — i(n I 2 ) 1 30. i i J . 1 1 i 1 3i:.........|... i i 1 1 t i - , 1 ■ - i 1 32. j j ; 1(1 1 \ \ W . 3* 1 i i . ' O v, j . ( ™ i _ 1(5) ..S4,_..... ; j 1 1 i i i 1 .. ~ 1— —— r — ^ 35. I r . r . f f t . . , ..... i . . . — 14__ 1 1 J ' 36. < a . . - - t .. - . . I.... j l . 1 i . . I 1 _»7, .. ' J 1 1 i \ 1 i i 1 38. | 1 i i . . 1 . — i i . - . . . . . ! I I i i ^___ I * —* ■ vy j Arithmetic | Algebra Geometry M* Am* Trigohombt Misc. English Biology Bomany Chemi stry Geology Gen1!. Science Physios Physiology Geography Mi££Lv-. Anc#Mpd,Mo(l isnory S. Histor Civics Economics Misc Foreign Languages ihhwiwiii1 Domestic Science Industrial wrta Find Arts Music Physical Ed Misc, 61*2 m w 0 g C3 1 p > ro r o 0 a i - 3 m to t o to I H » C O M r o o a w P O M O * X ) *73 K f e i f c > R o o H 3 ©is » - » C D • M 0 0 • M - < j * M o > * m r cn ( • 1 M v t > • o a * M ? \ 3 * ■ H* M • H o • C D • CO • - 0 ' + 0 > • c n • M c n w * 1 ^ • M c n c n * t - » c n r o • M • General Free Electives c n . Bfif%ness v o n w'Wjh M cn ( nra jH * - » F* l h^‘ "I - * c n ? oJ jC n K ) | H Economic Geoerannv f T * * o * M * M C ^ Business „ .Bngli alu__ i cn ...... t Business Organizatici 1 ■ f i . i i . Jr# Business TrO'TMTMfl* : idverti sing Salesmanship ■ * i i t History of i r . Commence. ! ; -.i ■ ! i Banking : ] ■ j f c f - 1' . v * • - . i o Jfa^ c n M ( r%r ' ■ ■ ' ■ m| h c n MjH ' c n MisCo V . , . 1 / M ■ ’ v cn. fn , ' • M r ^ * f p n Business , L Penmanship ; , . ’ > ; Spelling < c n s t ya n a a j t - „ . . . , . j Shorthand p i -1 c n h-> ®r M 4 M — v „p £a_ ( —* 0 3_ H* 1 | M. . . ( M C A . . V i l l - o n M M M M i . C | l j ; Typewriting ’ M : £3_ ’ jwr a t ’ * " ' M 3 1 t 3 l H S i y . . , : n m| ^ M H * V25"1 1 M r ~ - H * ■ I —1 K - » . -Is ' p r * c n pr- M . hpr* M ,Bookkeeping O l" " ** PO* ■ " ’ Ape onnt ing . _ , _ < , i Jll£l£ri^8. r H Store Pract* • j Business ■ < I Hi act ice --- ( ! , " • Business Machinoa. ■ i Cooperative I Courses y V y w n r i i w i ) ■ i . . . . . ■- t t l i - i j r w * i * i r wr m r r r ' i ^ i ■ V ^ v a W % 't e r r a s Misc. ' f t - . : * < :h ■ M - Sec. Steno. r x X ■ ' BookkeepingU X X Salesmanship;; r X Genfl Cleri;U S - v ■ # X ■ / i Mis®. j M c n ( - » / -N c n M io > - J . - i —. < * n 'M O c n 0 0 P 0 KS» f w C O c n Mr- r o c n •A— H > c n r ■ “ I Restricted • * Electives >r 't* C D ro CD I » - • CD Crt ro o S t o t o H O c j c a t * J o § U « to to C J M to t - 3 CO 5 •X) t o e$ t o M o - s - E l | H 3 c n O c n 2* oa 00 • 03 ■ < J • 03 cn • 03 CD • — r OJ I r | W 03 • 03 ro • 03 I-* 03 o • ro CO • CO CO • ro -o • ro cn • ro cn ro • ro 03 • ro ro ro M • co o • G e n e r a l F r e e E l e c t i v e s B ^ n e s s TOjH mmuimmn " P -ffl, . P ■ ■ ...on. -cn,^ -pr- _ ..r cp..r ’F " " E c o n o m i c G e o e r a n n v | ! > B u s i n e s s — J B o f e l i f t h . - . . - ■ ’ --------1 W ,T“ B u s i n e s s O r g a n i z a t i c j. i o| h v 5 |P " r M jH uunmn* J r * B u s i n e s s T t»® i y>i yitr A d v e r t i s i n g i , , s a l e s m a n s h i p * S T,l r- H i s t o r y o f C o m m e r c e 1 I 1 B a n k i n g | .„ , i j M M " M i s q , . m |h f ^ w ! cn -I ■sass U H* B u s i n e s s A r>i TtVrtno.+N? f* ........... I P e n m a n s h i p S p e l l i n g m S h o r t h a n d t-» M »1h P ’ r-cn - ...p .— cn (■ p a r— cn M cn X-N cn M r — ■ cn 1 . p cn T y p e w r i t i n g t-» »!h *t.» .™ » , M P H | M B o o k k e e p i n g ■ '. > ■ » A c c o u n t i n g . ® m rm % . S t o r e P r a c t * i B u s i n e s s ! P r a c t i s e ( • B u s i n e s s M a c h i n e s — C o o p e r a t i v e . C o u r s e s . . -- M i s c . X X X X X S e c , S t e n o , X X X X B o o k k e e p i n g . S a l e s m a n s h i p X G e n * l C l e r i < X M i s c • M ro H* M k |h ro S t * cn ‘ tar* ro O cn x_^ M F TTT*~ (-* *~s I ♦w — P ^ *“N 1 cn M 03 o cn ro <'~x ro I TXT e T ” « ---V cn H cn Sm/ R e s t r i c t e d \ E l e c t i v e s | C/\ o " V N £>v ^ o On X 3 ( * (0 rv n > * < * (\ o r L- 1 r > i o f > * f? c o f e 3 o a i ( H w t - 9 CO M C O ro CO I M CO 0 3 ro o § w w o a p > h j *d t ? d t—i « = - « fcJ M a o cn O < J > ...... 1 I ? t i ! — 1 — — « $ • I * w k ✓ t > 5 ► A O General Free Electives ..r.. * - ......-t........— • Bgg^ness- V 1 J O t H 3 j H O j H M XH Economic Geoeranhv | V i -- Business Business Organizatic --j . . . } . ■ ■ Jr. Business Advertising ' Salesmanship ( * i I - ' ■ Hi story of ^ Commerce.. ! i Banking : i ! • 4 , Misc. . t 1 1 - ! Business. r A i XM Penmanship 1 Spelling Shorthand m |m Typewriting 1XH 3 Xh i -• H Bookkeeping Accounting ' gf f SSPffiSiS. Store Pract. / Business 1 Practice ( * Business MachihoB Cooperative C o u r s e s . . . , Misc. .................— t M 4 Sec, Steno. ^ 4 $ Bookkeeping s Salesmanship - 4 Genii Cleri<6 Misc. | 1 < - 1.a Restricted ■' Electives 03 S 3 o o ■ >r " h f h < • BUSINESS CimRICULA 1929-1932 APPENDIX L (Continued) H <0 • mt » ► H -O • M I o> • • 4 n • 03 • 4 ■ * H* M • i M 0 ♦ 1 C O 3 00 • 4 0 1 at » i | <n 1 * » « * 4 j 1 i ! ! ! ! ! ! jw | H * r r I ■ ' * j lb ' ! ". , - z r . 1 i 1 f \ _ 1 _ L _ _ - 1 ■ j - j. ■ S — . H ~ y w i ' j t t Arithmetic . - 4 , J I r . I i ■ ! ; _i ' !.! . t T f . T 4-- ! ' Algebra 1 H - i ■ i " 3 H H VO 0 3 . V I ■ t ! . i ..I . -- i ( ! Geometry ] ■ 1 1 1 Trigonometr r w t t — J -„ 1 _ L Misc. H ■ —s . . M i - c n ~ s— Lp—. j o t — * - N l _Olv . * P oL^i p— p. N J | h h » 1 C — m ip ■ ” S J - N r* l < ^ s • ■ — - 4 4 ^ « —! ■ English --— e n— -H n^-~ ■ , i— :4 C 3 » . —«&—“ S—* ■ ■ ■ h ,Biology 0 3 E-O w 1 ' [ ' ,.&e4iany — : --- 1 1 ! i _______ Chemistry G0616gy I ” T .......... - 1 ----------- Geii* i i Science ! „„-J — Physics ■ II I If 1 1 . . . . i Physiology r . — ,— * " r " " ■ ------------- ------------1 „ t — « n 1 c n ■ m i ! , Geography . . . —- M S S * _Mi§c.a„ _____ — • ' ar “ - - ] ■ s n M . m - - • ■ H l8 ■ - O M h~i t e l 0 3 H * rs < . W * » ■ S i i - i » - » # ^ s p i H J 0 * > 4 i ? 4 j L ■ N >\ G, S, Histo] \ • / 3 Civics i t i Economics j — - Misc* i i--- Foreign Languages 1 --- — . Domestic Science h > hrfu ffl- o Industrial , A r . . t s . „_ " S C O Find Arts ' m* » H l - » i - 1 Music M I cn < ■* I " S i , n • a A H CO H mI -H 9 » - » H# 1 • 4 Physical Ed• * ■ * 03 M 03 K» f s » 1 a Misc* . - — . — t d c ! GO M S S W 03 CO I 3 b w o > to C O C O I H* C O 0 3 C O 7 % £ B w w § w w CO M 0 1 H » g © P * Arithmetic ; Algebra Geometry Trigonomet | | » | . I Misc English Biology Botany Chemistry GenT1. Science Physios Physiology Geography- Mi_sc. _ Q. S. Histoj Civics (MM 1HM Economics Misc. Foreign Languages Domestic Science Industrial arts Find Arts Music Physical Ed Misc. 5027 BUSINESS CURRICULA 1929-1932 APPENDIX L (Continued) 1 r.• * — t i I * | ---j —— i i i r f * ! » £ * ■ o a f r o 1 ! > i v f * M • . . i n - i s b * ! ! 1 ! J _ i ___i I i • t i $ 8 u 6 I I '""T j .. "7 1 | .J__ : # i i p:z:~ ■ ■ f T " J 1 i Arithmetic c . r .Li _ ! 1 - f 1 Algebra i - j i . s V o Lcn - • O V * . : • - J ' i U-J__ Geometry . . { . . Trigonometr — jU— M - I Misc, t —1 M -JT cn F m {h - j English --- ! , , J . Biology c n —o w W mi o t * J T , i Botany -- I — i.- i ___i -- Chemi stry Geology T i n - i i - ; - Gen'l. Science . , n i | i . . . . __I -- Phvsics I 4 ... Physiology « * * n — -- M — Geography Misc.. . _ _ Anc*Med.Mo( history I W 1 o - o > - 4 ( - » c n I —* M M [ J . S, Histoj Ciyics i i m| h Economics j : -- w! h Mi s c. j i t Foreign Languages r~ - Domestic Science <5 • T l H m . o • < u b 3 u , i ' " s Industrial Arts Fini Arts Music Physical Ed• Misc. 1 1 --1 --- 1 I 1 • 5 ms M § P O £ 3 < o c M § 1-3 co CD ro CD I I - 1 CO Oa ro o a M c l J f c * ► p § w X t r * o o f e j cn H * O 5ia a J 0 M 0 0 1 7 . M cn • M ! cn { ! i M • m M • to ro * M M • v a n M O • co • • CD • M -43 • w |h cn • K)fH cn • M cn 4w» * M cn "w« w » M •"V cn 4 _ -^ to * M » General Free Electives ‘S t cn . M|H cn B E S * t t e s s ^0|> cn , i Eoanomle Geograoiv oM • *S n M an « -— 4 cn ft# m M Business - E n g l i fOn s a f e r Cn Business Organisatici Jr® Business Tt' ot r » i n e r Advertising m TJ- an salesmanship ' 4 j History of ^ Commerce i j Banking : 1 Misc. £ ......^ business Ar^ T . V i T t i A + i n n Penmanship ,„,„1 U n r, Spelling cn m M (-» * p j. ■ « > * “S cn M cn X cn M X— 4 , cn M Shorthand X cn M i " C ^ ! . * Y > M 3 1 M « > * “ S M r - c s ■ M cn - - ' t o l l - M M M r - i Typewriting « 31 M M O' ' O * 0 | t i M Ln „, M M '“-4 y i ^ —4 M M <? Bookkeeping J - ■ * % Accounting. . . JH3£SB&£. Store Pract®: 1 Business ! Practice 2f to • Business Machlnoal. ---------- . > Cooperative I * Courses < W i . .- - - . i ____ * . *, .i ' Misc. ! X X X X X * Sec® Steno. ( * X H X , i j ; Bookkeeping; i X X Salesmanship! - X Genfl Cleric ■ 4 . A X Mi^«. j a -N n ro cn ■ ' M ' /^N M .- 4 — . M = » c n H> to cn M : cn ro cn 4 ------ M o a U - M cn W " r o cn k — 4 to to Restricted J Electives > t I f t o . X > C O ro c o i M CO w ro o W M O a p > - 3 M M W B C H » f e S i-3 03 'S § M w r » o o O l M 52© a > 03 -o 03 03 ♦ 03 cn • 03. ■ ■ : ** • i 03 03 • 03 ro * 03 M • 03 O * ro C O * ro 00 - • ro -o • ro 03 * ro cn ro ^ ' * to 03 • P " ro # t ro i-* • tN 3 o » G e n e r a l , F r e e E l e c t i v e s i ' V * . • m| h ■ 0 |H W |H ( s t 71 3 £ & ^ e s s i E c o n o m ic G eo e-ra n i v . b - > i cn B u s in e s s ...E r ig H .ftk •! ' - S t cn B u s in e s s O r g a n i z a t i c J r * B u s in e s s T.T*OTri^ met' A d v e r t i s i n g s a le s m a n s h ip H i s t o r y of C om m erce m|h ! f B a n k in g IJ fe x s I 1 H M is C o r i l i i-* cn E T " cn B u s in e s s . Ar*i TinrhibT-.'i t > ' S ' ' csr* P e n m a n s h ip S p e l l i n g M M M cn I-* 4 0 3 i-* m & , I -» iC M /~s cn S h o r t h a n d M M y ~ > fee cn I-* I-* p r — cn 3 1 i-* cnw|f- cn f- 1 w > cn m Kfmmm Q|f-M *S>< o| h h V _J /"“S . T y p e w r i t i n g H :H| m | h M M JSI cn cn m 01 f j B o o k k e e p in g cn 7 A c c o u n t in g .... N|H J & J 8 0 & & S t o r e P r a c t # I B u s in e s s ? P r a c t i c e ------ ( “ 1 1 '" ,r ,‘ " 1 n r . • B u s i n e s s . M a o h in o fl C o o p e r a t i v e C o u r s e s M i s o • M > 4 * — X S e c * S t e n o . X W X B o o k k e e p in g X S a le s m a n s h ip X G e n * l C l e r i H X M i s s . H* ro r-i L * . w~~ m to 01 T ar- cn -par— Ol cn i-* 03 cn ro r-< t ■or-* to sn ro |Cn R e s t r i c t e d E l e c t i v e s \3 > » fin X . * CD r o < X > I M CO 0 5 ro M O a g f c d i M W t r * a o an H ro jbsl i i i | • O S • ro « * M • 6 • O s t o ■ • General Free Electives t O | H 0 1 " .... Bfit^ness Economic Geoeranhv i Business E n g lis h . ... T . i Business Organizatici j Jr* Business Tr*©- ? r v i n f l * Advertising Salesmanship ( 4 3 History of I Commerce . . . . i 1 Banking : . U . . Misc. t W|H . ■ Business A r * i i/hm « + • . ' ? r* Penmanship Spelling M M Shorthand ■_ M cn M Typewriting M f - > ■ Bookkeeping Accounting . . §f?icirfP^c¥ , * . ' ( , Store Pract# " p f Business 1 - r • Business Maoh&nds Cooperative ( Courses • r— - < “n- t ' Mi EC. ' ? i , „ i . —«-r i H* k ; X * ; Sec, Steno. ( * 1 x Bookkeeping;! Salesmanship! - Gen’l Clerili 1 \ i Mi**. j j £ » : i — — M ro cn = 3 ! t— * M Restricted • * Electives >r >« h i P i f h b t o ro t o i M C O o o to o ' ■ — t w M O c j HI t-r* P i w t # I i - d a w W t e { > 3 0 3 > tj ir* o o ^ 2 5 H 3 cn ( - * os ( —* C O ■ # M 0 0 * F? H * - 0 « ' ' M c n i r ”! — c n # j - » * ! M 0 5 # r o • M t - j • H - * O * ] t o | 4 k 0 0 . » I r ’ -- i 1 i c n | » £ > * j ♦ ! i » ; 0 3 # p. —" T i i y > i j « I j _ j h J / 1 » [ I h i F p > § 1 * * 1 ! ' I u t s 1 .L.. — I — , „ . i. i \ Arithmetic ► • j 1 ’ » ..4 - Algebra h3 > > * 9 * .. . . “ 1 ™ ■ ~ 4 ~ Geometry I Tri genome tr t —< v o A c o _|— Misc. C n PT" c n f p r . cn ■«: . c n - er cn '.W c n ;er c n H * 1 English ---- -- 1 ...L . __ Biology C O —o w % M r . I Botany 1 1 ---j i . J Chemistry Geology 1 J , I .- Genfl. Science | ^ ___i _ Physics 1 ! Physiology ' -- -- -- — I Geography » 1 h - _Misc.t__ * - * / —\ ..«J ( - * U l . . . . Ann.Med.Moi history l8 - o HH • j f e c n g » —( W C O M|M c n (F c n c n l - i y ' - ' s cn t o | h r a | h r o i n r o W i H - J ? N -C ' \ 3 I I * 3, Histoj * c n » ! h c n 2t c n str c n H ro » ! h m| h (D jH r o W|H-*t w* 0 \3 )jH ^ » Civics list j o | h c n 2t C ^ e r * ror-» we c n j j p c n c n r c j n m|h w| h We c n we c n S - X S i t * cn ' Economics 1 } 1 Misc. i j_ Foreign Languages f ------ «.. Domestic Science & tJ hi hiM o k Uj ..h3 I" ..... j , Industrial A r t . f t , . ... i p* * f - » H* Find Arts M —— Music prr to ai.~- H . ro h - 4 | w « 4 M ■ . M H * Physical Ed *- h -* w t - i 0 3 S r s -' Misc. . . ■ ■ ■ ■. ? ....j ®2'2 w j j > w p d c j H i S * . n f e n l~3 CO t £ ? ro t o f f - < to 0 3 ro 8 s H O > h i s f e S o w M o o tel i-3 cn M 1..... ! 0 3 0 0 * 0 3 ~ d » 0 3 O i * M - ■ :n , > r ~ i— • 0 3 f 0 3 0 3 ro • 0 3 ! — 1 • 0 3 o • I {ro jro \ < o c o U j. ! 1 i | \ ' ; 1 .... to * ro Iro S3 s e n • r ! i i i — r-— 1 i ro | ro j 0 3 * 1 * j 1 * i ; i » . ..j.. - i ro 1 ro | ro 1 ro f r - * i O ♦ ! * » * } ! ! ! ! 1 1 i ! ! ! i h i F * | r > » O l ? d 8 L ’: i i —; 1 1 i 4 *— • * * • * # 1 i -----\ — i. f | =^=.i * ... 4.... . . j 1 f * j | Arithmetic ► • « i _ _ i _ i _ .....|..... LAi.SS]?I.a-_._ 1 C . ’ . i - t y o L e o ! t t i.......... ! 1 ‘ : ! Geometry i . J t i n ! | jTrigonometr I | Misco M H * 0 | ' h 5 |h t — 1 _ c n — rM l« * S -c n — M jH -c n —■ ■ j W — . M •c n — M 4 j) T T i c n M -- ■ m —i ----- English cn — O y, 8 ----- ---- ; ----- ---- ---- 1 Biology , \ a —.H i Botany ~ ---- ----- ----- __ i i ‘ Chemi stry i { | Geology : j Gen’ l , 1 i Science i i ! Physics oAl < -> 0 3 i | Physiology ----- ---- ---- -- - - ----- - (Geography ,Misc. .. M M c n P i l l o r y 0' - o H * r o jn r o |n t o | h p y — . c n c n c n [J. S. Histo] H H ■ s & c n S n h d c o ------ , 0 jH m | h T O P " c n W J j ” ’ c n c n M H - * c n w 0 3 c n Civics i f M jH T O j H 5 ]P c n w | h c n sir , Economics t ----- - i f Misc, i L— Foreign Lancnases 1 ----- : t Domestic Science 1 ' • tIim m o h • f " Industrial ,...Arts....... . Fin& Arts M ■ C n i > i w M C n _ _ M t-* M /— > Music Physical E d M i-» ■ X - - S ‘ ro |5 s * U . M ro h - * ; i x — - to ImU ‘ pr-*’ 0 3 W ' jjj-r -n ro * « ✓ h - » * - » f — ' h ~ > c n V - Mi sc* i 1 1 1 ■ 3 S v-3 w I n d c j M h ? U 3 c a < 0 ro CD i ( _ » CD 0 3 ro o c } W W V H o > h i h i i t d M X o o t e j cn M cn 1 i i \ 1 1 1 1 1 1 • 0 3 « r * v £ > . r o 1 • I ' ; ; v f » M • --T-~ i i 1 0 3 O * t O |. j- 1 1 3 * I ! i' 1 I i f ! I I — • * r i P 8 I 1 i . .. i i ' t ! 1 i — i _ f i r u * £ § p:-nr , ... , — . . . r i * ... * 1 Arithmetic ! • 1 , --1 ■ i j » - • t • 1 ■ -1 — • - - ! -- f Algebra P i r ( ! 5 t | Geometry ■ j jTrigonometr h~i V ^ A . c o - — , , “ T' 1 i 1 1 ) Misc. H* M M c n M English i Biology " « r » " - * I ■ i Botany i « ------— I .....1.... Chemi stry C O — o Geology w W T -, T 4 .- 1 - 1 Gen*1. Science t - s i ’ Physics Physiology .Geography M win Misc..—. Ann .Med. Mo c Tti story 1 8 - O 1(5 G0 S, Histoj n f a m| h W|H Civics n 1 i W|H ro|H Economics HI f c = J C O h-— I f Misc. 1 J L -- -- Foreign Languages f-- 1 Domestic Science K * > Fi Industrial Ar-hp... . t D •*3 o • Find Arts Music P i I n > • 3 Physical Ed« Misc« j ------ , i 1 . ssaa 3 W * r*J W g £ 3 J O d M a t - 3 C O H * to ro to i t - » to O J ro o c ■ w w M O C 3 • n d t - ^ t ? 3 tei a H > 525 J-» i CO * M -<3 * M cn • «-* | M cn 1 • |* • j —1 03 • H* CO • M E —* * t-* O • r-«~— ■ CO • 00 » l~* -0 • M cn * M cn * cn >W«* * M cn N-o' . 03 * ro cn Vm* . ' CO * h» • General Free Electives I " * - - + — t - - - >-. I T St cn m| h \ 5 [ h S cn *r— : cn»5|h ■sH nwii- B g ^ness & 8 * ht Economic Geograonv sj»- * M M r*s M cn H* X—N ' Business r E n g U s h— . . ” ? ! * cn »|h cn Business Organizatic Jrc Business 4 y\A Y\<r Idvertising,. pr— X“> » cn X cn cn X cn ' Salesmanship % I Hi story of Commerce. ... ! ■ Banking f 1 l M|H Misc. 1 Business AyH +:Vitop4H r> 1 T Penmanship Spelling W|H P3""-' >~N 01 2 t a k cn w! h M cn cnt-» w* Shorthand , J 2 t H 1 r> Typewriting SUf cn Bookkeeping J 1 Accounting ... rc|H M cn »-* M 8 t H 8 F f f f e i « . Store Pract, H-» M M Business I Practise »Business. Machine^ ... - ^ Cooperative < Courses _ JSfp— cn .... Misc. X ’ Im ' X X X Sec, Steno. t X X Bookkeeping s E H X Salesmanship - X -V E;-' f J ' ' y Gen1! Clerii* f \ - > X Mix«^ j e o| h loo — M cn .p4___ H-* cn -J— CO M|H cn W|H cn N W - , CO cn M U M < < * —* cn M *s> cn . w - V-* x'"'* cn K 5 jH -- 1 .ro M Restricted Electives % > r ■>» fa V * © 0 c 3 t n f-3 w 1 © <o a t —t M S 3 ► 3 CO C D CO CO 1 H * C O 0 3 CO o w M O > » * = 0 M 5 2 ! C J M W tr« X — ' S . O o f e i cn > — 1 - 3 526 o a -s3 • o a c n • -----p. O a c n • 0 3 • 0 3 0 3 • 0 3 r o • o a • o a O • r o C O • r o C D • r o -<i • r o cn ,* r o c n • r o » r o o a » r o C O • r o H * • ro o G e n e r a l F r e e E l e c t i v e s b ot|h (-* S2f o n , m |h c n o|h 0 1 , 2 t .cn.. B g § ^ n e s s ' § e o ? r a o f i v " o |h m |h j »|h m |h "pr** r o B u s i n e s s . E n g l i s h . ________ 1 <”~v c n B u s i n e s s O r g a n i z a t i c »,rtjr,r J r * B u s i n e s s T * * ® : ? n i vrtr . J | F A d v e r t i s i n g o !h »3}H s cn#fl M I^N. £ 1 i S a l e s m a n s h i p H i s t o r y o f C o m m e r c e ........ j M B a n k i n g rl ji iru i n . M i s c . , h -> M M j H Cf1 B u s i n e s s .At*i ■ h n w i A ' k ^ n. 4 c n P e n m a n s h i p S p e l l i n g -J f— 1 (-> o c n M fis. c n M j H N r <?" , O l . H* 3 1 ... M C7|. . . S h o r t h a n d -J h-» j_» i c n roi-j O H r p H » \i|h T y p e w r i t i n g H * • l~» M c n M , B o o k k e e p i n g R e c o u n t i n g . # M | H H * 99| H i~* S t o r e P r a c t , / . B u s i n e s s I P r a e f c l e e — 1 | l ( 4 * B u s i n e s s M a o b s h o s C o o p e r a t i v e C o u r s e s . , w | h - M i s c . X X X X X S e c * S t e n o * X H X ♦ r o o « * t i — r o 1 r — . M 1(5) p , >■— N r o i ■ m - - * j g " ‘ c n i M <^~N c n R e s t r i c t e d E l e c t i v e s > » ( V t X . r K t o r o < o i ( —' t O 0 3 r o 0 1 M O i S 3 h3 w S 3 S 3 a H S3 E 3 t d S 3 > - 3 in > S 3 S 3 E d 523 a a o S 3 f -3 c n H » 0 0 ms? General Free Electives C O t o Business Law w M Business English 03 03 Business Organization Junior Busines Training Advertising Salesmanship History of Commerce Miscellaneous Business Arithmetic o o M Spelling Shorthand 03 w 03 Typewriting Bookkeeping Accounting c o Stenographic Office Practice S*bore Practice C O Business Machines Cooperative Courses Miscellaneous Secretarial Stenographic Bookkeeping Salesmanship - - General ClericaL Electives w c j 03 C O C O o w o C D t o C O I C O C M C M % t " 8 & H * i ® O b 528 APPENDIX M. DEGHEE GRANTING INSTITUTIONS 1928-1929 CATALOGS OF WHICH WERE USED IN AN ANALYSIS OF FORTY-FIVE CURRICULA IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES Beaver College, Jenkintown, Pennsylvania University of Buffalo, New York University of Denver Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Elizabethtown College, Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania Findlay College, Findlay, Ohio Grove City College, Grove City, Pennsylvania Marshall College, Huntington, West Virginia Marywood College, Scranton, Pennsylvania Mercer College, Macon, Georgia Miami University, Oxford, Ohio New York University {differentiated programs for teachers of accounting and secretarial subjects). Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois Simmons College, Boston, Massachusetts Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, New York Susquehanna University, Selinsgrove, Pennsylvania Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania {differ entiated programs for'teachers of accounting and secretarial subjects). Valparaiso University, Valparaiso, Indiana Wilberforce University {negro), Wilberforee, Ohio STATE UNIVERSITIES University of Arizona, Tuscon University of Idaho, Moscow University of Illinois, Urbana University of Indiana, Bloomington University of Michigan,/ Ann Arbor University of Minnesota, Minneapolis Ohio State University at Columbus University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia University of Vermont, Burlington University of Wisconsin, Madison University of Wyoming, Laramie TEACHERS COLLEGES State Teachers College, San Jose, California Northern Arizona State Teachers College, Flagstaff Colorado State Teachers College, Greeley (differentiated curricula for teachers of general business, accounting, and secretarial subjects). 529 APPENDIX M.(continued) DEGREE GRANTING INSTITUTIONS 1928-1929 CATALOGS OF WHICH WERE USED IN AN ANALYSIS OF FORTY-FIVE CURRICULA IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION TEACHERS COLLEGES(continued) Ball Teachers College, Muncie, Indiana Kansas State Teachers College at Emporia State Normal School, Salem, Massachusetts New Mexico State University, Silver City State Teachers College, Indiana, Pennsylvania State Teachers College, Fredericksburg, Virginia State Teachers College, Whitewater, Wisconsin AGRICULTURAL AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS University of Akron, Akron, Ohio Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College, Stillwater Oregon State College, Corvallis (differentiated curricula for teachers of accounting and secretatial subjects). State Agricultural and Mechanical College, Orangeburg, South Carolina Virginia Polytechnic*. Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia 530 APPENBIX N# BEGREE-GRANTING INSTITUTIONS 1932-1933 CATALOGS OF WHICH WERE USEB IN AN ANALYSIS OF FORTY-FIVE CURRICULA IN BUSINESS -TEACHER EDUCATION PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES ANB COLLEGES Baylor University, Waco, Texas Bowling Green Business University, Bowling Green, Ohio University of Buffalo, Buffalo, New York Brexel Institute, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Buquesne University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Marshall College, Huntington, West Virginia Mercer University, Macon, Georgia Miami University, Oxford, Ohio New York University, New York, New York Simmons College, Boston, Massachusetts Susquehanna University, Selinsgrove, Pennsylvania Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California Valparaiso University, Valparaiso, Indiana STATE UNIVERSITIES University of Alabama, University, Alabama University of Arizona, Tuscan University of California at Los Angeles University of Idaho, Moscow University of Illinois, Urbana University of Indiana, Bloomington University of Michigan, Ann Arbor University of Minnesota, Minneapolis University of Nebraska, Lincoln New Mexico State University, Silver City, New Mexico University of North Bakota, Grand Forks TEACHERS COLLEGES Northern Arizona State Teachers College, Flagstaff State Teachers College, Tempe, Arizona State Teachers College, San Biego, California State Teachers College, San Jose, California Colorado State Teachers College, Greeley Illinois State Normal University, Normal, Illinois Western Illinois State Teachers College, Macomb, Illinois Central Normal School, Banville, Indiana Ball Teachers College, Muncie, Indiana 531 APPENDIX N.{continued) DEGREE-GRANTING INSTITUTIONS 1932-1933 CATALOGS OF WHICH WIRE USED IN AN ANALYSIS OF FORTY-FIVE CURRICULA IN BUSINESS-TEACHER EDUCATION TEACHERS COLLEGES(cont inued) Kansas State Teachers College, Emporia Kansas State Teachers College, Hays State Normal School, Salem, Massachusetts Western State Teachers College, Kalamazoo, Michigan Nebraska State Normal at Chadron New Mexico Normal University, Las Vegas, New Mexico State Teachers College, Tahlequah, Oklahoma State Teachers College, Indiana, Pennsylvania State Teachers College, Whitewater, Wisconsin CITY UNIVERSITIES University of Akron, Akron, Ohio College of the City of New York 532 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE AUTHOR Personal History* Born in Pottstown, Pennsylvania, August 25, 1890, Graduate of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, High School, 1907. B. S. Schuylkill Seminary, Reading, Pennsylvania, 1911. B. S. in Education, University of Southern California, 1927. M. A. in Education, University of Southern California, 1929. Office and Teaching Experience: Several years of experience in part-time office work in stenography and bookkeeping. Fourteen years of teaching experience in the commercial departments of high schools* Westerleigh Collegiate Institute, Staten Island, New York, 1911-1912. High School,Beliefonte, Pennsylvania, 1912-1914. High School, York, Pennsylvania, 1914-1917. Central High School, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, 1917-1919. High School, Stockton, California, 1919-1921. Kensington High School for Girlfc, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1923-1926. Benjamin Franklin High School, Los Angeles, California, 1927-1931* San Jose State Teachers College, Assistant Professor of Commerce, 1931 to date. University of Southern California, Summer Session, 1932. Fields of-Major and Minor Interest* Commerce and education were majors in undergraduate work; education, major and social sciences,minor for master’s degree; education, major and banking and finance, minor for doctor’s degree. Publications: Co-author, with Benjamin R. Haynes, Research in Business Education, published in 1932 by C. C. Crawford, Los Angeles, California. Author of articles on business education in the Nation’s Schools, October, 1930; Journal of Business Education, October, 1928 and March, 1931; Balance Sheet, December, 1930; Symposium on Commercial Education, Southern California Commercial Teachers’ Association, Spring, 1931. Membership in Organizations; Pi Lambda Theta, Phi Kappa Phi, California State Typewriting Committee, National Education Association, Business Department of the National Education Association, National Commercial Teachers Federation, National Association of Commercial Teacher Training Institutions, California Teachers Association, Southern California Commercial Teachers Association, Eastern Commercial Teachers Association. 553 ‘ ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY GENERAL REFERENCES '1* Atkinson, Earl W., “The Commercial Education Program in Secondary Schools,1 * Ph. P. Dissertation. (unpublished) Pittsburgh, Penna.: Duouesne University, 1930 (4 volumes). Each, of the business subjects--its history, aims, preparation and qualifications of teachers, equipment, place in curriculum, teaching plans, , and textbooks--is analyzed. This material is designed for use in a proposed course to be given to prospective leaders in business education. 2. Blackstone, Earl G., (Editor) **Research Studies, in Commercial Education,* * University of Iowa Monographs in Education. Iov/a City:, University of Iowa, Vols. I, II, III, IV, Vl The results of investigations into all aspects of business education are published in these , f research studies.** They have been issued at irregular intervals from 1926 to 1932. 3. Botsford, Frances R., l f A Proposed Plan for Acquainting High School Administrators with Recent Trends in Commercial Education, * * “Research Studies in Commercial Education IV,w University of Iowa Monographs in Education. Iowa City: First Series, No. 11, (January 1, 1929), p7 156-167• A study made for the purpose of finding out whether or not principals of Iowa high schools are acquainted with recent trends in commercial education. Methods suggested for bringing recent trends to attention of administrators: newspaper releases, books, reports of proceedings of conferences-, and bulletins. 4. Business Education Department, Addresses and Proceedings. Wash ington, D. C.: National Educ at ion Ass ociation, 1892 to 1931 Inclusive. The Business Education Department of the National Education Association was organized in 1892. The Addresses and Proceedings published annually con tain the addresses made at the meetings of the department. These yearbooks--from 1892 to 1931-- contain 267 articles on business education, show ing the current thought of leaders in this field. 534 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY GENERAL REFERENCES (continued) 5. City and State Courses of Study. City and state courses of study frequently list the aims and objectives of business education in general and of the individual business subjects specifically. Curricula are included in many of them. These publi cations also form sources of practical in formation as to teaching procedures. 6. Department of Superintendence, National Education Association, "The Junior High-School Curriculum," Fifth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: 1927. Reports on the junior high-school curriculum. The junior commerce curriculum is treated on pages 430-454. Reports of research studies and city courses of study are given. 7. Department of Superintendence, National Education Association, "The Development of the High-School Curriculum,1 1 Sixth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: 1928. This volume which treats of the high school curriculum in general contains reports of "research in high-school commercial studies," pp. 435-454. 8. Eastern Commercial Teachers Association, Yearbooks. 1200 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: 1928 to 1932 inclusive. The first yearbook published by this associa tion was concerned with research in business education; the second, with curriculum-making. The third yearbook covered the administration and supervision of various units engaged in business education; while the fourth and fifth discussed methods of teaching the business subjects. 9. Federal Bos.rd for Vocational Education, Annual Reports. Washington, D. C.: 1918 to 1931 inclusive. Each of these reports contains a section on business education prepared by Earl W. Barnhart, 555 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY GENERAL REFERENCES (continued) Chief of Commercial Education Service. These sections deal with studies, investi gations, and reports made during the year and progress in commercial education. 10. Federal Board for Vocational Education, “Commercial Education,1 1 Bulletin 34, June, 1919. Washington, D. C.: A proposed high-school business curriculum based upon the unit-plan. Young people are to be trained in units of commercial work designed for each grade. The work is based upon local occupational surveys. The inclu sion of some vocational work at each grade level provides for the needs of drop-outs. Academic and social studies are included in the curriculum. 11. Herrick, Cheesman A., Meaning and Practice of Commercial Edu cation. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1904. One of the first books published upon the subject of commercial education. The thesis of the book is that business men need broad education especially along social and econ omic lines. This book is much more modern in its philosophy than the date of publication would indicate, 12. Jones, Conner T., Teaching Business Subjects in the Secondary School. New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1924. A general book on methods of teaching the business subjects. The aims and objectives of business education presented are such as 'will result in a well-rounded life. Instruction in the social sciences is stressed. 13. Kahn, Joseph and Klein, Joseph J., Principles and Methods in Commercial Education. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1921 (First edition,1914). A plea for the broadening of business education and the requirement that mastery of skill subjects by prospective teachers be placed upon a strong pedagogical foundation. The theme of this book is that an all-around education is as necessary for business men as for any other persons. 536 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY GENERAL REFERENCES (continued) 14. Kitson, Harry D., Commercial Education in Secondary Schools. Boston, Ginn and Company, 1929. A symposium in which various writers discuss certain phases of business education and the individual business subjects. A chapter by John A. Stevenson on “Building the Commercial Curriculum1 1 presents the steps necessary in building such curricula. 15. Koos, Leonard V., “The Administration of Secondary School Units,” Supplementary Educational Monographs. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Vol. I, No. 3, whole No. 3, (July, 1917) pp. 141-158. This study of secondary education includes a section on business education. It presents the aims of business education as checked by teachers, the offerings of schools, and the business occupations for which pupils are being prepared. 16. Lomax, Paul S., Commercial Teaching Problems. New York: Pr enti c e-Hall, Inc., 1929. This book considers the application of edu cational philosophy (why to teach), sociology (what to teach), and psychology (how to teach). Practical examples of these applications are given. 17. Lyon, Leverett, S. Education for Business. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1931. A comprehensive treatise on business edu cation. Starting with a discussion of “what business is,“ it presents “what business wants.” The general aims of secondary edu cation are considered after which a history of business education is presented— from practical training among savages, through the educational systems of the medieval1 guilds to present-day business education. A program emphasizing social sciences is proposed with provision for vocational train ing immediately before the end of the period of formal education. 557 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY GENERAL REFERENCES (continued) 18. Odell, William R., 1 1 An Appraisal of Secondary School Commercial Education,” Teachers College Record. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, Vol. XXXIV, No. 1 (October, 1952), pp. 43-52. This article is written from the point of view that the objectives of commercial edu cation and of all secondary education are identical. A plea is made for recognition of the law of supply and demand in vocational training. 19. Swiggett, Glen L., “Commercial Education,” Bulletin, 1916» No. 25. Washington, D. C.: United States Bureau of Educa tion. Government Printing Office, 1916. A report on the commercial education subsec tion of the second Pan-American Scientific Congress, December, 1915— January, 1916. Addresses on business education in the United States, Latin America, Germany, and England. Consideration of commercial education in secondary schools by Paul Monroe and David Snedden. 20. Thompson, F. V., Commercial Education in Public Secondary Schools. Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York: World Book Company, 1915. : A book which discusses the unsatisfactory status of business education in 1915. The observations made are based upon a survey of business education in the city of New York. The limited objective of business education andl"the fact that it results in meeting only fifteen per cent of the demand of commercial employees is discussed. 21. United States Bureau of Education, Annual Reports of the Com missioner of Education. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1868 to 1917. Each report contains chapters and statistics on commercial education. Report of 1895-1896 includes description of “Commercial Education in Europe” by Edmund J. James. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 538 GENERAL DEFERENCES (continued) 22. United States Bureau of Education, "Business Education in Secondary Schools," Bulletin, 1919, No. 55. (A Report of the Committee on Business Educat ion of the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education. Appointed by the National Education Association). Washington, D. G.: Government Printing Office, 1919. * Report of a committee appointed in 1913. During the years of its work, there was a great expansion of domestic and foreign commerce. Suggestions are given for short curriculums, commercial courses in the junior high school, and for the teaching of the individual business subjects in senior high school. 23. United States Bureau of Education, "Commercial Education." Bulletin. 1919, No. 18. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1919. Chapter on commercial education for the Biennial Survey of Education, 1916-1918. Suggestion is made that whole field of com mercial education be reorganized where necessary on the basis of vocational needs, individual aptitudes, and local requirements. 24. United States Bureau of Education, "Business Training and Commercial Education,"r f Bulletin, 1921. No. 45. Washington, D. C.; Government Printing Office, 1921. Chapter on commercial education from the Biennial Survey of Education, 1918-1920. Differentiation is made between training for specific jobs, and education which "deals with principles and laws of com merce; possesses a body of information that may rightly be called the culture of business; and gives the technique necessary in management of business.” 25. United States Office of Education, "Commercial Education," Chapters in Biennial Surveys of Education in the United States. Bulletin No. 18, 1919, prepared by Frank Y. Thompson; Bulletin No. 45, 1929 prepared by Glen L. Swiggett, Specialist in Commercial Education; Bulletin No. 4, 1928, 539 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY GENERAL REFERENCES (continued) Bulletin No. 26, 1939, and Bulletin No. 30> 1931, pre pared by J. 0. Malott, Specialist in Commercial Education. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office. These chapters from the biennial surveys of education report trends in business education for each biennium. They cover tendencies in enrollments, trend of objectives, surveys, de velopment of business education in junior high schools, senior high schools, junior colleges, private business schools, and university schools, of business. Tendencies in commercial teacher training are also reported. 26. Walters, R. G., High School Commercial Education. London: Isaac Pitman and Sons, 1922. Although this book was published abroad, it is concerned with business education in the United States. Several typical high-school business curricula are included. 27. Welch, Arnon W., Some Observations on Secondary Commercial Education. New York: The Gregg Publishing Company, 1984. This book is written from the point of view that a specific skill in one of the office arts is the appropriate point of departure from which good citizenship and provisions for advancement can be developed. BUSINESS EDUCATION ON FOUR LEVELS— UNIVERSITY EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS, JUNIOR COLLEGE, SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL, AND JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL. j(Bote: Practically all books covering the general aspects of of these four fields contain chapters on or references to business education). 540 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY BUSINESS EDUCATION ON FOUR LEVELS— University Education for Business 28. Bossard, James H. S. and Dewhurst, J. Frederic, University Education for Business. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1931. A study of the after-graduation experiences of graduates of the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania. Contains a detailed history of American University edu cation for business, an-analysis of curricula of university schools of business and a summary of present trends in university edu cation for business. 29. Marshall, Leon C., nThe American Collegiate School of Business.” The Collegiate School of Business. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1928. A criticism of secondary business education. 30. McClung, Reid L., “Curricular Tendencies in Schools of Commerce,” The Journal of Business. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Vol. V, No. 4, Part. 3, (October, 1932)-pp. 29-34. Part 3 of this issue of The Journal of Business is devoted to reports of addresses delivered at the fourteenth annual meeting of the American Association of Collegiate Schools of Business. The above article discusses curricular tendencies in schools of commerce. The writer advocates close co-operation between schools of commerce and schools of education in providing op portunities for teacher training in the field of commerce. 31. Wills, Elbert Vaughn, ”The Old University of Louisiana.” Education. Boston, Mass.: The Palmer Company, January, 1928. A description of the first collegiate course in commerce ”in all its manifest . . relations” at the old University of Louisiana. 541 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY BUSINESS EDUCATION ON FOUR LEVELS— (continued) Junior-College Business Education 32. Fullenwider, Francis C., ”The Aims and Curricular Organization of Commercial Education on the Junior College Level,” Mastef1s Thesis, (unpublished), University of Southern California, 1932. A study of junior college business educa tion for the purpose of ascertaining aims, comparing curricula, and observing the opportunities of junior colleges to serve typical American communities. 33. Koos, Leonard V., “The Junior College,” Research Publications of the University of Minnesota, Education Series No. 5. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 1924. A report of an- investigation of the junior- college movement. Chapter VIII deals with training for the semi-professions in the junior college. 34. Koos, Leonard V., The Junior-College Movement. Boston: Ginn and Company, 1925, A consideration of the junior-college movement based upon the investigation reported in the preceding reference. The semi-professions are discussed on pp. 121-145. 35. La Dow, R., “A Survey of Commercial Education in the Junior College,” “Research Studies in Commercial Education IV,” University of Iowa Monographs in Education. First Series No. 11,1 owa Cit'y: University of Iowa, (January 1, 1929), pp. 129-140. A study of the present status of business education in the junior college with especial reference to tendencies and objectives. Data were gathered from 131 junior colleges offer ing business courses. 542 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY BUSINESS EDUCATION ON FOUR LEVELS— (continued) Senior-High-School Business Education (see General Bibliography for these references) 36. Koos, Leonard V., The American Secondary School. Boston: Ginn and Company, 192?’ " . . A comprehensive book on secondary edu cation. A study of the objectives of secondary education resulted in the conclusion that “occupational effi ciency" and “social-civic responsi bility” were mentioned with equal frequency by leading writers. Junior-High-School » Business Education 37. Cox, Phillip W. L., The Junior High School and Its Curriculum. New York: Charles Scribnerfs Sons, 1929. A book dealing with the modern "spirit of the junior high school." It describes school business activities taken over by junior high school students. 38. Glass, James M., “Curriculum Practices in the Junior High School and Grades 5 and 6," Supplementary Educational Monographs No. 25. Chicago: University of Chicago, (November, 1924.) Includes a study of fourteen junior high schools with an analysis of their offer ings in business subjects. 39. Koos, Leonard V., The Junior High School. Boston: Ginn and Company, 1927, pp. 294-304. A book treating of the junior high school, its organization, the forces responsible for its introduction into the American educational system, and the separate subjects of study. The status of commercial subjects in junior high schools is treated in Chapter VII. 543 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY BUSINESS EDUCATION " ON FOUR LEVELS— (continued) Junior-High-School Business Education (continued) 40. National Education Association, “Creating A Curriculum for Adolescent Youth,“ Research Bulletin. Washington, D. C.: Vol. VI, No. 1, 1928. An analysis of 139 junior-high-school ■ . h curricula does not include commercial subjects as constants hut indicates that they are variables in the ninth grade. Mentions the “present experi mental character of the junior commerce curriculum.1 1 Presents a summary of research in junior high school commercial education taken wholly from the Fifth and Sixth Yearbooks of the Department of Superintendence. BUSINESS TEACHER EDUCATION 41. Blackstone, Earl G., “Status of Commercial Education in Secondary Public Schools of Iowa,” University of Iowa Extension Bulletin No. 141. Iowa City: University of Iowa, 1926, p. 9. A study of business education in Iowa which includes a report of the professional and general preparation of the teachers- of business subjects. 42. Briggs, Elizabeth, “Commercial Teacher Preparation.1 1 Philadelphia: The Journal of Commercial Education, 237-239; 238-270, Volume 55, No. 89 and 90, (October and November, 1926). A study of practice teaching procedure. 43. Eastern Commercial Teachers1 Association, “Foundations of Commercial Education.” First Yearbook. Part II, 1200 Walnut Street, Philadelphia: “Curriculum Building in Teacher Train ing . ” Reports of curriculum investigations in commercial teacher training. 544 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY BUSINESS TEACHER EDUCATION (continued) 44. Erickson, Arthur E., "An Analysis of Commercial Teacher- Training Curricula," Master’s Thesis, (unpublished), University of Minnesota, 19&9. Report of a survey of curricula for the training of commercial teachers in the teachers* colleges, colleges, and uni versities of the United States. The findings were evaluated by the use of a questionnaire setting up tentative standards for evaluating such curricula. 45. Haynes, Benjamin R., "Need of a Teacher-Training Program in Business Education," California Quarterly of Secondary Education. Berkeley, California: California Society of Secondary Education. Vol. VI, No. 2, January, 1931, p. 157. A discussion of recent trends in busi ness education with their implications for business-teacher education. 46. Henton, Ida D., "Collection of Data on Commercial Curricula in Teacher Training Institutions of the United States." (Unpublished.) Spearfish, South Dakota: State Normal School, 1927. An investigation of the catalogs of one hundred sixty-nine normal schools and teachers* colleges for the purpose of determining opportunities offered for prospective commercial teachers. 47. Hill, G. G., "The Pennsylvania Plan", The Vocational Education Magazine. Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott, January, 1923, p. 355. A description of the provision for actual business experience for prospective com mercial teachers at the State Normal School, Indiana, Pennsylvania. 48. Hill,. G. G., "The Pennsylvania Plan", The Vocational Education Magazine. Philadelphia; J. B. Lippincott, February, 1923, p. 422 A description of the practice teaching pro cedure at the State Normal School, Indiana,. Pennsylvania. 545 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY BUSINESS TEACHER EDUCATION (continued) 49. Hill, G. G. , "Qualifications of Commercial Teachers.” Teaching Business Subjects in Secondary Schools. Edited by Jones, Conner T., New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1924. p. 25. A chapter giving the personal and educa tional requirements for commercial teachers with suggested courses for their training. 50. Hoadley, Ruth, "Present Status of Commercial Teacher Training in the Public Institutions in the United States.” The Journal. of Commercial Education, The Stenographic World Publishing Co., Philadelphia: Volume 57, No. 6, (June, 1928). A study based uoon a questionnaire sent to public colleges, universities, and normal schools. Recommendations for improvement of commercial teacher training facilities are made and further research suggested. 51. Kelley, E. L., "Trends in Business Education Certification,1 1 The American Shorthand Teacher. New York: The Gregg Publishing Company, Vol. XIII, No. 1 (September, 1932) p. 21 ff. A report of a study of state certification requirements for business teachers. The author found "too many types of certificates," the decline in popularity of the "general" certificate and increased use of the "special" certificate. On September 1, 1932, eleven states required the baccalaureate degree of teachers of business subjects. 52. Leonard, Robert J., "A Program for Commercial Education." The Vocational Education Magazine. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott and Co., February, 1924, p. 459. A study showing the need of training for beginning teachers and for those already in service and the fact that colleges of commerce are not prepared to give tes^cher training. 546 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY BUSINESS TEACHER EDUCATION (continued) 53. Lomax, Paul S., "Comparative Study of Commercial, English, Mathematics, and Science Teachers in the State of New Jersey." Education Bulletin. Trenton, New Jersey: State of New Jersey, Department of Education, May, 1927, p. 359. A comparison of the degrees held by teachers of four groups of high school subjects; an inquiry into the teaching programs of the commercial teachers. 54. Lomax, Paul S. and Tonne, Herbert A., "Problems of Curriculum Making in Business Teacher Training," "Research Studies in Commercial Education IV," University of Iowa Monographs in Education. Iowa City: First Series No. 11, January 1, 1929, pp. 182-199. A report of a questionnaire study of curriculum making in business teacher education. Opinions of 21 individual members of the National Association of Commercial Teacher Training Institutions are given. 55. Miller, Jay W., Methods in Commercial Teaching. Cincinnati: South-Western Publishing Company, 1925. This book on methods in commercial teach ing includes a discussion of desirable teacher training, with consideration of personality traits. 56. National Association of Commercial Teacher Training Institutions, "Report of Third Annual Conference," Bulletin No. 1. New York: School of Education, New York University, February, 1930. A report of statements of first speakers and summaries of the discussions of these statements at sectional meetings. Techni cal and specialized subjects in the field of business and of business education formed the basis for the discussions. 547 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY BUSINESS TEACHER EDUCATION (continued) 57. Nichols, F. G., "The Commercial Teacher's Library." Vocational Education Magazine. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., November, 1923, p. 200. An article in which the statement is made that the average commercial teacher is unaware of the existence of professional literature. 58. Raymond, Frances Effinger and Adams, Elizabeth S., The University Training of the Commercial Teachers in the High Schools of California^ New York: The Gregg Publishing Company, (pamohlet) , 1925. Data with regard to the teaching force and suggestions from teachers as to training programs. 59. Rice, Louis A., "Course of Study Making in Business-Teacher Train ing Institutions," 1929 Yearbook. Philadelphia: Eastern Commercial Teachers' Association, p. 289 ff. An investigation of the content of courses in Principles of Commercial Education in 65 private business schools, teachers' colleges, normal schools, colleges and universities throughout the United States. 60. Runkle, J. D., "The Training Received by Commercial Teachers, a State-wide Survey." Vocational Education Magazine. ‘Phila delphia,: J. B. Lippinco11 & Co., (April, 1923), p. 583. A study of .the professional preparation of Ohio commercial teachers. 61. Runkle, J. D., "A Commercial Teacher Training Program," Vocational Education Magazine. Philadelphia,: J. B. Lippincott and Co. , (June", 1923), p. 745. A study made to determine the general types of teachers who should be trained for commercial ?/ork and the courses of training for ea„ch type. 62. Runkle, J. D. , "Better Trained Teachers Needed," Vocational Educa tion Magazine. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott a„nd Co. , (March, 1923), p. 511. A survey of commercial teacher training in universities, colleges and normal 548 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY BUSINESS TEACHER EDUCATION ("cont inued) 62. (continued) schools. Universities reported no demand for commercial teacher training because of loYsT state requirements for certifica tion and because of unattractiveness of courses offered. 63v Selby, P. 0. , "The Status of Shorthand a,nd Typewriting in the Colleges of the North Centra,! Association, " The Journal of Commercia.1 Education. Philadelphia: The Stenographic World Publishing Company, Vol. LVI, No. 2. (February, 1927) p. 39. A study of credits allowed for shorthand and typewriting by the colleges in the North Central Association. 6; 4. Sproul, A. H. , "The Salem Plan;1 1 Vocational Education Magazine. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott and Co., (January, 1923), p. 354. An explanation of the plan in use at the State Normal School, Salem, Massachusetts for providing actual business experience for prospective commercial teachers. 65. Sproul, A. H., "The Salem Plan." Vocational Education Magazine. Philadelphia: J. B. Liopincott and^CcT.” (Februarv, 1923),. p. 423. “ A description of the provisions for prac tice teaching at the State Normal School, Salem, Massachusetts. ©6. Suhrie, Ambrose L., "Research Method as Applied to Curriculum Building in Teacher Training," 1928 Yearbook. Philadelphia: Eastern Commercial Teachers’ Association, p. 121-131. Four principles of curriculum building for commercia,! teacher training were set up by a graduate seminar and the curriculum com mittee of the faculty of New York University School of Education. 549 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY BUSINESS TEACHER EDUCATION (continued) 67. Tonne, Herbert A., ’ ’Business Teacher Training Curricula, in Universities and Colleges,” 1929 Yearbook. Philadelphia: Eastern Commercial Teachers’ Association, p. 179 ff. A study of cornmercial-teacher training curricula in 97 institutions. A series of recommendations relative to cornmercial- teacher training curricula, is given. 68. Tonne, Herbert A., ’ ’Commercial Teacher Training Curricula.,” Ph. F. - The sis.' (unpubli she d) New York University, 1928. A study of the curricula for t^he training of commercial teachers in ninety-seven institutions including business colleges and two-year and three-year normal schools. 69. Walters, R. G. , ’ ’Specialization of Commercial Tea.chers in Pennsyl vania,” ’ ’Research Studies in Commercial Education,” University of Iowa Monographs in Education. First Series, No. 7. Iowa City: : University of Iowa, ( July, 1926) , p. 53. A study of the teaching programs and duties of teachers' of business subjects in Pennsylvania. 70. Yoder, C. M. , ’ ’The Whitewater, Wisconsin, Plan.” The Vocational E due at i on Magaz i ne, Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott and Co., (February, 1923), p. 423. A description of the practice teaching facilities and provisions for actual busi ness experience at the Whitewater, Wisconsin, State Normal School. 71. Yoder, C. M. , ’ ’Commercial Teacher Training Curricula, for Teachers Colleges,” ’ ’Research Studies in Commercial Education IV,” University of Iowa Monographs in Education. Iowa. City: First Series, No. 11, (January 1, 1929), pp. 200-208. A suggested curriculum for commercial teacher training in a . teachers’ college with the proviso that it must be adapted to the community in which the teachers’ college is located. 550 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY BUSINESS TEACHER EDUCATION (continued) 72. York, G. M., "The Albany Plan for Practice Teaching." The Vocational Education Magazine. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott and Co., (February, 1923), pV 423. A description of the practice teaching procedure at the State College for Teachers, Albany, New York. HISTORY OF BUSINESS EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES 73. Barnhart, Earl W., "Early Beginnings of Commercial Education," Voccitional Education Magazine. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company, (October, 1922), pp. 101-102. (discontinued). An account of the business education of Colonial times, especially of the activi ties of private teachers. 74. Cubberley, Elwood P., "Commercial Education— Its Past History, Present Status, and Prospects for Future Development," The Balance Sheet. • South-Western Publishing Company, (lay, 1926), p. 4. An account of early business education in the United States; a tracing of its evolution from its establishment about 1870, through the impetus given it by the World War to its solving of present-day problems and the pres ent enlargement of its sphere. 75. Gordon, David, "The History of the Development of Commercial Curricula in the High Schools," Master1s Thesis. (unpublished), New York: College of the City of New Yorkj 1926. A history of business education in the United States with especial reference to three curricula— the first recommended by the Committee of Nine, Department of Business Education, National Education Association, 1903; the second recommended in 1915 by a committee appointed by the same organization; and the third formulated in 1919 as a part of the "reorganization movement in secondary eduee : tion. " 5£L ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY HISTORY OF BUSINESS EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES (continued) 76. James, Edmund J., "Origin and Progress of Business Education in the United States,” Conference on Commercial Education and Business Progress. Urbana-Champaign, Illinois: 1913. A history of business education showing that business education has lagged behind other fields. Even as late as 1890, the business man learned his business hap hazardly in the office— in contrast to the lawyer, physician, farmer, teacher, etc. who had schools provided for them. 77. Johnson, Joseph F., "Commercial Education,” Cyclopedia of Educa tion. The Macmillan Company, 1911, Vol. II, p. 143 ff. A history of business education in the United States followed by a discussion of its present status not only in this country but in Europe. 78. Kandel, I. L., History of Secondary Education. Boston: Houghton- Mifflin Company, 1930. This book is a history of secondary edu cation in general. As such, it contains references to the introduction of business subjects into the academies and high schools. 79. Marvin, Cloyd Heck, Commercial Education in Secondary Schools. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1922, p. 17. A book dealing with business education in general. The first chapter presents a history of business education in the United States with especial reference to the in fluence of the work of private business schools upon that of public high schools. 80. Ttov/e,_H. Mi, "History of Commercial Education," The Rowe Budget. BalTimore: The Rowe Publishing Company, September, 1926 to March, 1932. A series of articles on the history of com- 1 mercial education, with especial emphasis upon \ private business schools, beginning in September, 1926 and incomplete as of* March, 1932. / -TV* 7> y r - V ■ / ut'ZL j- • y /iJL 4. 552 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY HISTORY OF BUSINESS EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES (continued) 8 :1 . Rugg, Harold, "The School Curriculum, 1825-1890,” The Twenty- Sixth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1926, pp. 17-32. A description of the adaptation of the school curriculum to the nsteps of a century of development in America: industrialism, urbanization, mass edu cation.” The reasons for the lag of education behind social changes are discussed. 82. Seyboltd, Robert F., "The Evening Schools in Colonial America,” University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 22, No. 21. Bureau of Education Research, Study No. 24. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1925, p. 9 and p. 21. This study discloses the fact that writing, arithmetic, and bookkeeping were popular subjects in the evening schools of colonial t ime s. 86. Seyboldt, Robert F. , "Source Studies in American Colonial Educa tion; the Private School," Bulletin Number 28. Urbana, Illinois: Bureau of Educational Research, College of Education, University of Illinois, 1925. A study of private schools in colonial times. Newspaper advertisements of the period contained many advertisements of private teachers of handwriting, arith metic, bookkeeping, and merchants’ accounts. 84. Stout, John Elbert, The Development of High-School Curricula in the North Central States from 1860 to 1918. Chicago: The University of Chicago, 1921. A general history of curriculum development in the United States with references to the introduction of business subjects into the curriculum. Detailed studies of curricula in the North Central States from 1860 to 1918. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 553 HISTORY OF BUSINESS EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES (continued) 85. Young, Harry S., "The Development of Commercial Education in the Public High Schools of the United States," Master1 s Thesis.(unpublished) Urbona: University of Illinois, 1927. A study of the origin, groYrth, and development of commercial education in the public high schools of the United States. The European background of business education is discussed, • after which the history of this educational field in this country is traced. The statement is made that "teachers do not have the necessary training to instruct in social business subjects nor to correlate techni cal business subjects with social studies." PRESENT EDUCATIONAL STATUS OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS 86. Baker, Elizabeth, "Studies of Comparative Qualifications of Commercial Teachers and Other Teacher Groups," 1938 Yearbook. Philadelphia: Eastern Commercial Teachers Association, pp. 201-206. A summary of studies made in this field. 87. File, Clinton M. ., "A Study of Illinois Business Teachers in High Schools'with an Enrollment of Five Hundred.or More," Research Bulletin in Commercial Education. New York: New York Uni- versity, Vol. II, No. 3, (October, 1930) p. 3. (discontinued). An appraisal of the training and jobs of Illinois teachers of business subjects in high schools with enrollments of more than 500 pupils. 88. Hill, Luvicy Martha, "Some Problems of Commercial Teachers in Nebraska High Schools." Master1s Thesis.(unpublished), Uni versity of Nebraska, 1930. A study of the problems met in teaching by one hundred commercial teachers of Nebraska. The conclusion was reached that teacher- training curriculums should definitely pro vide for certain abilities, characteristics and traits which would enable the teachers to cope better with the problems they meet in the schools. 554 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY PRESENT EDUCATIONAL STATUS OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS (continued) 89. Lawrence, A. J., "How Do We Conroare with Others?," The Journal of Business Education. Vol. VII, No. 5, (April, 1932) pp. 12-13. A study of the traits of commercial teachers compared with those of academic teachers as judged by 33 principals and superintendents in Kentucky, representing 90 per cent of the high schools in which business subjects are ■taught and all the larger schools. 90. Mathews, Frances C., "Analysis of the Duties and Difficulties of Commercial Teachers of Shorthand, Bookkeeping, and Typewriting," Master1s Thesis, (unpublished) , Greeley: Colorado State Teachers’ College, 1926. An analysis of the duties of commercial teachers and an attempt to discover the ease or difficulty of performance of such duties and whether they should be learned on the job or in school. 91. Rice, Louis A., "Activities of New Jersey Commercial Teachers," "Research Studies in Commercial Education IV," University of Iowa Monographs in Education, Iowa City: First Series, No. 11, (January 1, 1929), pp. 229-240. A study of the activities of business teachers covering the following points: subject combinations taught, extra- curriculum activities, numbers of classes and pupils taught per day, with recom mendations for teacher training. SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF BUSINESS EDUCATION 92. Commission on Correlation of Secondary and Collegiate Education with Particular Reference to Business Education, The Association of Collegiate Schools of Business, Social Studies in Secondary Schools.' Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1922. A study of proposals made to date for social studies in high schools with the conclusion that they are inadeauate 555 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF BUSINESS. EDUCATION (continued.) Si, (continued) to meet present-day needs, A suggested program of* social studies designed for secondary schools and especially for business students. A consideration of the functions of the collegiate school of business and its relation to second ary business education. This book might easily bear the date of 1932 instead of 1922 in its emphasis upon social studies in the business curriculum, 943* Cushman, C. L., ’ ’Social Responsibilities of Commercial Education,” The Journal of Business Education, Wilkesbarre, Pennsylvania: The Trethaway Publishing Company, Inc., Vol. VIII, No. 1, (September, 1932), p. 9 ff. The writer of this article believes that the r$le of education should be to convert a nation trained primarily for rugged indi vidualism to one of cooperative action. He presents six aims for commercial education based upon his philosophy that all business conduct should be evaluated in terms of its contribution to society as a whole. 9f. Moore, Hazelle S., ”Certain Problems of the Machine Age and their Educational Implications,” California Quarterly of Secondary Education. Berkeley: California Society of Secondary Educa- tion, Vol. VII, No. 3, (April, 1932), pp. 253-263. A discussion of present unemployment condi tions culminating in a list of educational implications. The importance of the sci entific attitude of more general education, of broader vocational education, of the social studies, and of education for leisure are stressed. 556 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF BUSINESS EDUCATION (continued) 96. Rugg, Harold,- Culture and Education in America. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1931. Described by the author as "a tentative outline of the chief concepts of American culture and of needed steps in educational reconstruction*1 1 Chapter VIII discusses "the new curriculum and the reconstruction of community life." "The very base of the new secondary curriculum" lies in such economic problems as "problems of machines and dis placement of men," "statesmanship in our chang ing democracy," "economic imperialism in an interdependent world and the constant danger of war," and others. Chapter XX lists "the five chief tasks of the teachers1 college in educat ing prospective leaders, the first of which is "an introduction to changing civilizations and cultures." This book has implication for busi ness education as it strengthens the conception of business education as an integral part of all education through its social and economic connections. 96. Russell, William F., "The Frontier Within— Educational Implications of the Coming Industrial Age," Journal of Adult Education. Philadelphia: American Association for Adult Education, Vol. Ill, No. 3, (June, 1931), pp. 283-289. An article calling attention to the fact that the full effects of the Industrial Revolution have not been reached and that it is our duty "to study the social changes round about us, cardfully to estimate trends, and then to derive the educational implications." 9( 7 . Tonne, Herbert A., "Business Education for the Consumer," The Journal of Business. Education. Wilkesbarre, Pennsylvania: The Trethaway Publishing Company, Inc., Vol. VIII, No. 1, (September, 1932), p. 21 ff. An article initiating a new department of "consumer-business education" in the journal. Three key purposes of business education are given. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY SOCIAL.IMPLICATIONS OF BUSINESS EDUCATION (continued) 98, Tonne, Herbert A., and Tonne, Henriette M., Social-Business Education in Secondary Schools. New York: New York University Book Store. A study of the need for social-business education and an evaluation of each of the social-business subjects. A suggested curriculum emphasizing social studies is given. '■.99, Viewpoints on Social Issues, Educational Objectives,and Educational Theories. 347 Madison Avenue, New York: Generaa Education Service, National Council of the Young Men*s Christian Associa tion, 1932. A survey of the viewpoints of 300 instructors and administrators in Y. M. C. A. schools and colleges. STATE SURVEYS 100, Burden, C. 0., “The Status of Commercial Education in the Public Secondary. Schools of Indiana," Master^ Thesis, (unpublished), Bloomington, Indiana: University of Indiana, 1926. An investigation into commercial education in Indiana. The features studied were: curriculum offerings, training and experience of teachers of business subjects, extent and amount of equipment, and placement service. That policies as to length of courses, con tent, and standards for business subjects have not been formulated was shown by the diversity of practices founds by this study. 103.. Daring, Z. La Verne, "A Survey of Commercial Education in the Public City High Schools of Ohio," Ma.sterts Thesis, (unpublished) Columbus: Ohio State University, 1930. The purpose of this study was to enable the prospective commercial teacher to be informed concerning the opportunities and demands of commercial education in the public city high schools of Ohio. Various phases of the teacher^ job were studied— teaching load, subjects taught, salary, and preparation. 558 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY STATE SURVEYS (continued) 103. Frost, Ellis M., “Commercial Education in the High Schools of Oklahoma,” Masterfs Thesis, (unpublished), Stillwater, Oklahoma: Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College, 1924. A study of the effectiveness of commercial high-school education in Oklahoma. Questionn aires were sent to 185 teachers and to 185 business concerns. Conclusions show that business education is not meeting the demands of business in number of boys trained, in related subjects, and in the development of desirable personal qualities. 105* Helmstadter, Carl W., “Some Trends in Commercial Education in Nebraska High Schools,” Masterfs Thesis, (unpublished), Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 1929. A study made.for the purpose of determin ing trends in business education relative to number of subjects offered and enroll ments. It was found that typewriting, short hand, bookkeeping, commercial law, commercial arithmetic, and business English are the subjects most frequently required and that enrollments axe increasing in business administration, accounting, and secretarial training. 10C4„ Killgallon, Katherine Winifred, “A Study of Certain Phases of Commercial Education in the Approved High Schools of Pennsylvania Masterfs Thesis, (unpublished;, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: University of Pittsburgh, 1930. A study made for the purpose of determin ing the status of commercial education in the approved high schools of Pennsylvania. Enrollments, length of curricula, required subjects, preparation of teachers, and various phases of teachers1 jobs were investigated. 559 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY STATE SURVEYS (continued) 10&. Kuykendall, Benjamin, ”A Study of the Commercial, English, Mathematics, and Science Teachers in the State of Pennsylvania,” Master’s Thesis, (unpublished), New York: New York University, 1029. : An investigation of the preparation and status of commercial, English, mathematics, and science teachers in the public high schools of Pennsylvania. The teachers of commercial branches ranked lowest in number employed, second in median salary, and lowest in holding of baccalaureate degrees. 108, Lawrence, Armon J., ”A Study to Determine the Status of Commercial Education in the Public White High Schools of Kentucky,” Master’s Thesis, (unpublished), Lexington, Kentucky: University of Kentucky, 1030. An investigation of commercial education in 59 Kentucky high schools for white pupils offering business courses. A study of the pre-teaching preparation of the teachers of business subjects. 10c7, Lehmann, Harold T., ”The Status of Some Phases of Commercial Education in Thirty-Nine Public Senior High Schools of New Mexico in 1929,” Master’s Thesis, (unpublished), Lawrence, Kansas: University of Kansas, 1929. A study made for the purpose of discover ing present practices in commercial educa tion in New Mexico. Thirty-nine schools offering business courses replied to the questionnaire. The median enrollment in business courses for each school was 37 which represented 29 per cent of total school enrollments. This is, then, es sentially a study of business education in small high schools. 108. Noble, M. C. S., Jr., Commercial Teachers in the High Schools for Whites of North Carolina, 1929-1930. Raleigh, N. C.: State Superintendent of Public Instruction (mimeographed). A study of the supply of and demand for commercial teachers in the high schools of North Carolina, and the amount and kind of j 560 1 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY STATE SURVEYS (continued) 108, (continued) training possessed by them. One-third of the superintendents reported that it was difficult to secure an adequate supply of properly trained commercial teachers. 1GB. O'Brien, F. P. , , f The Status of Business Courses in the High School.,® Bulletin of Education. Lawrence: University of Kansas, Vol. II, No. 1, (October, 1938). A study made for the purpose of ascer taining the present status of business education in Kansas high schools. En rollments, preparation of teachers, various phases of teachers' jobs, and extra-curriculum activities were investigated. 11Q. Phillips, James Paul, "A Study of Commercial Education with Special Reference to Tennessee,® Master's Thesis, (unpublislsd), Knoxville: University, of Tennessee, 1938. A study designed to set forth the historical background of business education in the United States and to describe the present status of commercial educa/bion in Tennessee country high schools. A descrip tion of the average Tennessee teacher of business subjects is given. Ill. Reynolds, Helen, "A Study of the Status of Commercial Teaching in Public High Schools of Ohio Particularly as it Relates to the Training of Commercial Teachers for the High Schools of That State," Master's Thesis, (unpublished), New York: New York‘ University, 1939. The purpose of this study was to determine the status of commercial teaching in the public high schools of Ohio, specifically as it related to the training of those teachers at.Ohio University, Athens, Ohio. A comparison of the training and status of teachers of commercial and English subjects was made. 561 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY STATE SURVEYS (continued) 11&* Rice, Louis A., "A Comparison of Commercial Education in the Public High Schools of New Jersey in 1916 and in 1928," Masterfs Thesis. New York: New York University, 1930. Published in New York University Research Bulletin in Commercial Education, Vol. II, No. 1 (March, 1930), p. 5-11. (discontinued). A comparison of certain aspects of commercial education in New Jersey for 1916 and 1938 was made. Tbis report shows an increase of 94.6 per cent in commercial enrollment during the period, an increase of 408.3 per cent in holding power of commercial curriculum, and improved teacher preparation and status. IIS* Sollars, Robert C., "The Commercial Curriculum in Indiana," Master^ Thesis, (unpublished), Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio State University, 1938. The purpose of this study was to evalu ate the aims and practices of business education in Indiana schools. Divergence of opinion with respect to aims was found, administrators being about equally divided on such questions as: "Should the commercial curriculum have as its chief aim the securing of immediate jobs for pupils after completion of course?" 114. Walters, R. G., "Commercial Education in Pennsylvania High Schools," Journal of Commercial Educa/bion. Philadelphia: Vol. LV, (1§36) p. 361; A study of various phases of business education in Pennsylvania high schools including teacher preparation. 11 $5, Weersing, Frederick J., Reorganization of Commercial Education in Public High Schools! Cincinnati: South-Western Publish- ing Company, 1929. A state-wide investigation of commercial education in the public high schools of Minnesota. A thorough study of all aspects of this field. Chapter V treats of the edu cational and professional status of the com mercial teacher. Although the data collected 562 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY STATE SURVEYS (continued) 115. (continued) in this study refer to one state, the applications made by the author are general. It is therefore a helpful book for all teachers of business subjects. SUPPLY AND DEMAND OF TEACHERS OF BUSINESS SUBJECTS 118, California, State Department of Education, Division of Teacher Training and Certification, A Survey of the Oversupply of Teachers as Reflected in the Placement Agencies of the California Teacher Training Institutions, November 1, 1931. Sacramento: January 26, 1932. An analysis of the distribution of un placed teachers in California by institu tions and previous teaching experience, with reasons for non-placement. Commercial subjects were mentioned among the under graduate majors or minors of 57 of the 2,514- unplaced teachers. 117. Neuner, John J. W. , MA Comparative Study of Supply and Demand of Commercial Teachers in the Public Day High Schools of New York State Exclusive of New York City for the Year 1926-1927,1 1 Research Bulletin in Commercial Education. New York: New York University , Vol. II, No. 2, ("May, 1930) pp. 2-7. (dis continued) . A study made for the purpose of determin ing the demand for commercial teachers in the public day high schools of New York state exclusive of New York City, to show the supply of such teachers, and to determine the trend of supply and demand. 115. Neuner, John J. W., HThe Suoply and Demand of Public High School Commercial Teachers in New York City,1 1 1928 Yearbook. Philadelphia: Eastern Commercial Teachers Association, pp. 213-22 A comparison of the conditions surrounding the appointment of, and the standing in examinations of commercial and academic teachers in New York City. 563 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY TEACHER TRAINING STUDIES IN OTHER FIELDS 119. Betts, Gilbert L., Gamble, Guy C., and Frazier, Ben W., “Annotated Bibliography of Teacher Training," Bulletin ________. Washington, D. C.: United States Office of Education, Government Printing Office. 1932. First publication of the National Survey of the Education of Teachers. Contains 3,000 annotated references* 120. Charters, Werrett W. and Waples, Douglas, The Commonwealth Teacher-Training Study. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1929. This study uses the activities and traits of teachers as a basis for selection of useful methods and prin ciples from the accumulation of race experience to be used in teacher train ing. Suggestions are given for the construction of new courses and for means of incorporating traits with other curriculum materials. 121. Hall-Quest, A. L. “Professional Secondary Education in Teachers1 Colleges." Columbia University Contributions to Education. Teachers College Series, Volume 169, New York: 1925. A study of the professional preparation of all secondary teachers with findings relating, to commercial education. 122. Hughes, J. M., and Melby, E. 0., “Supervision of Instruction in the High School," Northwestern University Contributions to Education, School, of Education Series No. 4. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1930. Chapter V of this study concerns the training of the teaching staff. Chapter VI is the report of an investigation into the types of graduate training recommended by school administrators for teachers of social science. 564 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY TEACHER TRAINING STUDIES IN OTHER FIELDS (continued) 123. National Education Association, "Teacher Supply and Demand," Research Bulletin, Washington, D. C. Vol. IX, No. 5. (November, 1931)7 A summary of previous studies of teacher demand and supply. Data obtained from questionnaires sent to state departments of education indicated an apparent sur plus of persons with teaching licenses in 1929-30. A comprehensive annotated bib liography on teacher demand and supply is included.

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Creator Graham, Jessie (author)

Core Title The evolution of business education in the United States and its implications for the preparation of secondary teachers of business subjects

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, business,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-404653

Unique identifier UC11244217

Identifier usctheses-c26-404653 (legacy record id)

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Document Type Dissertation

Rights Graham, Jessie

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Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA