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An analysis of the foreign influences on the dramas of Jose Echegaray emphasizing the influence of the dramas of Henrik Ibsen

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An analysis of the foreign influences on the dramas of Jose Echegaray emphasizing the influence of the dramas of Henrik Ibsen

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Content oy AN ANALYSIS OF THE FOREIGN INFLUENCES ON THE DRAMAS OF JOS& ECHEGARAY EMPHASIZING THE INFLUENCE OF THE DRAMAS OF HENRIK IBSEN Co S (s> A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the Department of Comparative Literature University of Southern California In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts V Rosalie sErdos June 1934 UMI Number: EP43033 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI EP43033 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 This thesis, w ritte n under the direction of the candidate’s F aculty Com m ittee and approved by a ll its members, has been presented to and ac cepted by the C ouncil on Graduate Study and Research in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t of the require ments fo r the degree of (R -l Dean Faculty Committee Chairman TABU OF CONTENTS CHASTER PAGE Introduction.......................... iv I, A COMPARISON OF HENRIK IBSEN AND JOSE ECHEGARAY. * , ,........... ' 1 As to Life................... a s to Temperament.............. as to Influence............. II* A COMPARISON OF THE THEMES AND PLOTS OF CERTAIN uF IBSEN'S AM) ECHEGARAY'S PLAYS ........ 32 Historical Plays........... Social Dramas................... Other Influences on Schegaray,.. Ill* A COMPARISON uF THE DRAMATIC TECHNIQUE IN CERTAIN OF IBSEN'S AND ECHEGARAY'S PLAYS. ................... 74 riot Construction .............. Form. ............. Dialogue. ...... Style . Theatrical Effects ii IV. ii COMPARISON OF THE CHARACTERS IN CERTAIN OF IBSEN’S AND ECHEGAPAYTS PLAYS...... ,............. ....... Ill Type of Characters Portrayed...... Methods Used to Portray I’ hem...... V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ............. 131 Bibliography. ...... 136 Appendix 1 ............. 164 Chart I A Comparison; of;the Publication Bateaiof Henrik Ibsen’s and Jos6 Bohegaray’s Plays.................... 164 Appendix I I .................. 170 Chart II Dates of Publication* production, and 1'ranslation into French, German, and English of Henrik Ibsen’s Plays....... 170 Appendix III ............. 174 Charts III— VI Diagram Showing the Plot Structure of the ”Well- Made-Play” Used in Ibsen’s Early Works and In Most of the Plays of Jbs^ Echegaray................. 174 Chart VII Plot Diagram of Ibsen’s Later Plot Construct ion........... 178 Appendix IV. ........ 179 Chart VIII Chart Showing Form of Henrik Ibsen's Plays..........179 Chart IX Chart Showing Form of Jose Sehegaray's Plays........ ,,.180 INTRODUCTION ivr INTRODUCTION Probably no other playwright of today has received more comment than has Henrik Ibsen# With the publication Brand Ibsen became famous, not only in his own country but throughout Europe. Montrose J. loses in an artiele in The Theatre Arts Monthly expresses well the feelings of dramatic critics when he says, "Judged by comparison with any modern author, Ibsen seems to me to be a giant*'*'1 ' Since he is recognized as one of our great drama tists, and since he has caused a storm of comment, it is not at all singular that he should have influenced a great number of modern writers. Among the dramatists whom he is credited with having influenced, there is prominent the name of Jose Echegaray, the Spanish Nobel Prize winner. As might be expected, however, the direct influence of Henrik Ibsen on the drama of Jose Echegaray has in some regards been overestimated. This is due probably, partly to the ob vious indebtedness of the Spanish dramatist to the Nor- 1 Montrose Moses, "The Little Man from Skien". The Theatre Arts Monthly. March 1928, volume 12, p. 179. V' wegian in El Hljo de Don Juan and partly to certain sweep ing statements that have been echoed and re-echoed by various critics. It is the purpose of this investigation to study certain plays of Echegaray in order to ascertain the extent to which they manifest the influence of Ibsen. First, there will be worked out a comparison be tween the lives, interests, and temperaments of these two artists. The life of Jose Echegaray will be given in de tail since there is not, outside of the Encyclopedia, an English biography of him. A rapid comparison will be made of the publication dates of the plays of the two writers in order to eliminate those plays of Echegaray which were published before those of Ibsen, and could not, therefore, possibly have been modelled after his. In this brief survey it will be necessary, more over, to limit the number of Echegaray*s plays studied, for his entire list of work numbers sixty-seven. Tod analyze such a great number would be a great task; this study aspires to nothing so exhaustive, but proposes to consider a smaller number of plays which have been thought to show a particularly strong influence of Ibsen's work and which have been most instrumental in making Echegaray famous in his own country and in other countries of the world. vi The writer aims to survey the influence of Ibsen on Echegaray in regard to theme, plot, dramatic construction, and,finally, character. There will be considered, also, briefly, along with the influence of Ibsen, the influence of other writers from the time of the Greeks to Echegaray*s contemporaries, who may have influenced the dramas of the Spanish playwright. CHAPTER I A COMPARISON OF HENRIK IBSEN AND JOSE ECHEGARAY AS' TO LIFE AND TEMPERAMENT AND A DISCUSSION OF THE POSSIBLE INFLUENCES OF IBSEN'S PLAYS ON THOSE OF ECHEGARAY IN VIEW OF THE PUBLICATION DATES OF THEIR DRAMAS CHAPTER I The names of both Henrik Ibsen and Jose Echegaray first crossed the boundaries of their native countries to become known to the reading public of all countries through their social dramas. Both dramatists, especially the Nor wegian, wrote in a language little translated outside of their own countries; yet both, because of the universality of the problems treated in their work, were able to over come the barriers of writing in the tongues of Spanish and of Norwegian* "It is easier, "r says one critic, "for a third- rate intelligence to gain favor in a wide-spread tongue than for a first-rate spirit to assert itself through 2 translation*" But here, particularly, in Ibsen, we have an author who though writing in an almost unknown language and living himself in the utmost retirement separating him from the civilised world at large, has won fame throughout the whole of western Europe and is considered the herald of the younger generation, both among those nations whose origins tend to a similarity of character with his own and even more among those who are of entirely alien descent,3 2 Georg-Brandes, "Henrik Ibsen," The Independent, May 31, 1906* volume 60, p. 1249', 3 L, Simons, "Ibsen as an Artist," Westminster Review, 1893. volume 140, p, 507'. Ibsen’s international reputation is due chiefly to his "popularization in play form of the social prob- 4 lem"* He has been called the "great surgeon of the 5 social body of our time", and no one has more strongly put the problems of love, marriage, heredity, and sin cerity before the European conscience;; this achievement gave him an immense influence in almost all countries g and a place in the first rank of the modern drama*- Brand is called by some reviewers?. Ibsen’s best 7 work ; it, at least, made him "a power in Scandinavian 8 literature" and cre,ated a great sensation throughout Europe* 4 Barrett H* Glarke, A study of the Modern Drama (New York, D* Appleton and'Company, 19S8), p* 4* 5 Archibald Henderson, "Henrik Ibsen and Social Progress" The Arena, January 1905, volume 35, p* 28* 6 Paul Van Tieghera, Outline of the Literary History of Europe since the Renaissance I London: The Century Co* 193by, p* 284* 7 A* M* Butler, "A View of Ibsen" The Contemporary Review/. May 1902E, volume 81, p, 710* 8 Hjalmer Boyesen, "Henrik Ibden’s Greatest Work", The Chautauquan, November 1890, volume 12, p. 211. The play which brought world fame to Echegaray was his Great Galeoto composed in his prime showing by its sustained success that his fame as a dramatist was 9 deserved* This drama along with The Son of Don Juan* A ffuerza de Arrastrarse, and The Madman or Saint would justify Goldbergfs statement that Echegaray brought to the stage a vast political acumen, a mature life of constant study and activity, a mind naturally given over to moral, mathematical, and social considerations *** In the drama he saw *•• a means for exploiting his own particular moral principles. He is thus frankly a writer of problem plays.^ In contrast to Ibsen, Echegaray lived a diversi fied and varied life. In 1904 he shared with Frederic Mistral the Nobel Prize granted to him in appreciation of his comprehensive and intellectu al authorship which, in an independent and original way, has brought to life again the great traditions of the Spanish drama, yet his career as a dramatist began only at the age of forty. Before this time his name was famous in Spain as 9 A.F.G. Bell, Contemporary Spanish Literature (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1925), p. 154. 10 Isaac Goldberg, Drama of Transition (Cincinnati: Stewart Kidd Co., 1922), p. 63 11 Inscription with the Nobel prize award in litera ture, 1904. Annie Marble, The Nobel Prize Winners in Literature (New York: D, Appleton and Oompany, 192777 p. 239. a mathematician, engineer, professor, and statesman. The birth date of Echegaray has been ai matter of some controversy. One writer says he was born in Madrid 12 on Holy Thursday, larch 1853 • W. A'* Beardsley gives the date as April 19, 1832?-3. This is probably correct, because in the only biography of Echegaray the authors, who interviewed Echegaray, himself, give this date: Nacio D. Jose' Echegaray y Eizaguirre en la villa y Corte el 19 de Abril de 1832 en una casa, cuyo numero no recuerda, de la calle del Nino; que era una bocacalle de la de Lope de Vega. Since Echegaray*s name has the Basque ending in "garay", it is often thought that his father was a Basque-1 -5 Although he was not a Basque yet both his parents were Spaniards^-6, for he tells us: Luis del Olmet, Autores Dramaticos Contemporaneos (Madrid:: Alrededor del Mundo, 1866), p. 533. 13 W. A. Beardsley, El Gran Galeoto (Boston: D. C. Heath and Company, 1930), Introduction, p. vii. 14 Luis del Olmet, op. cit.. p. 17. 15 F. H. Gardiner, "Echegaray:: Spanish Statesman, Dramatist, Poet" Poet Lore, volume 12, no. 3. p. 406. 16 J. Geddes, O Locura (5 Santidad (Boston: D. C, Heath and Company, 1901), Introduction, p. iii. Su gadre se Xlaraaba Jose Echegaray Lacosta. Era Aragones, Medico y profesor de Botanica, hombre de gran talento y de cultura extensa. Su madre, Manuela Eizaguirre Chaler, d& Navarra, perteneeiente a distinguida familia.i? While Jose7 was still a child, his father was ap pointed Professor of Greek in the Institute of Murcia. Here the gifted child began his education under the most favorable conditions. From the first he showed a clearly defined taste for mathematics, although he studied here also "Latin under Professor Soriano, Natural History un- X8 der Angel Girao, and Greek under his own father". With such excellent tutors and such a kind and cultured father to supervise him it is not surprising that his progress in learning was rapid. When he was fifteen years old, he received his degree, Bachelor of Philosophic Sciences, and then went to Madrid in October 1847 to prepare for entrance into the Eseuela Oficial de Ingenieros de Caminos Canales y Puertos. In this famous school he devoted himself with great ardour 17 Luis del Olmet, op. cit.. p. 17. 18 James Graham, The Son of Don Juan (London: T. Fisher, Unwin, 1895),Introduction, p. 5. 6 to his favorite study, mathematics. In fact, it has been maintained that in all the records of Spanish scientific history no one has ever been known to devote more eager and profound study to mathematics than Jose Echegaray. The following is an experience related by a fellow- student of Echegaray at this engineering school: Every Saturday our professor of mathematics was fond of setting us problems of the most difficult kind, the solutions of which we were expected to hand in on the Monday. On a certain occasion the problem given out to us was of such an excruciating ly intricate nature that the huge majority of the class had to give up all hope of mastering it. I was among the unsuccessful ones. I had seen Satur day, Sunday pass over without bringing me nearer to a glimpse of light. On the Monday morning I was all at once inspired with the idea of going to Echegaray to obtain some hint on a question which could not have failed to occupy his atten tion at least as much as mine. It was an hour be fore the time appointed for the opening of the Escrela and the delivering up of the answers. I set out for Echegaray*s lodgings* I found my friend in his room. The curtains were drawn and the shutters were fastened over the windows* On the chimney-place was an expiring lamp. On the edge of the bed- the clothes of which were tossed about in much disorder- sat Echegaray in his night shirt. His head was bent, and he was in an attitude of deep thought. The noise which I made on entrance was as unsuccessful as my friendly greeting in with drawing him from his abstraction. He confined him self to raising his hand with a gentle but expres sive motion, and to saying 'Hush V Suddenly he bounded up, undressed as he was, and, to my stupe faction, exclaiming, 'Here it is J* hurried across; to a small board close at hand. He commenced to draw lines upon lines and circles upon circles, and dash down figures here and there, till at length he said, 'The whole night have I been thinking of that problem, and look there I' And he drew back to show me the signs all fairly traced, the operation com pleted, the problem solved. The rehearsed performance 19 Ibid. p. 6 he repeated in school that morning. He alone did it, to the admiration almost to the alarm of the profes sor himself, who, I think, had really given out the problem without much serious thought of anyone even attempting a solution. In 1853' Echegaray graduated from the Escuela Cami- nos with the highest honours, at the head of the list of engineers.He was shortly afterwards appointed profes sor of pure and applied mathematics and for thirteen years he devoted himself chiefly to the study and teaching of such subjects as the integral calculus, theoretical and applied mechanics, hydro statics, descriptive geometry, etc, 22 He soon became widely recognized as one of the leading engineers and mathematicians in Spain, His Problems of Analytical Geometry opened to him the doors of the A- cademy of Sciences (he was elected in 1866) in Madrid23, and he justified his election by a remarkable treatise on Teorias Modernas de la Fisica Unidad de las Fuerzas 20 Ibid, p. 7 and 8, 21 Anonymous, ”A Great Spanish Dramatist” The Out look, September 1916, volume 114, p, 167. 22 E, R. Hunt, The Great Galeoto (New York: Double day, Page and Company, 1914)," Introduction p, vi, 23 Anonymous. "Echegaray” The Nation, September 21, 1916, volume 103, p. 702, Materiales in 1867 • Civil engineers have found and still find it to their advantage to consult him on points which are the special study and occupation of their lives# Besides books on the theories of physics and geometry he has written also a volume on sub-marine vessels of war. He is admitted by Spaniards to be the chief of their own mathematicians; they further claim for him the honour of being one of the 25 first mathematicians in the world. In spite of this interest in mathematical and scien tific subjects Echegaray was also greatly interested in other fields of achievements. Merimee has interestingly com pared his life to one of his plays. He says: La vie de Jose Echegaray ••• est, comme tout bon drame espagnol, divisee en trois actes. Le premier nous montre l'ingenieur, le mathematicien, le pro- fesseur, 1'academicien des Sciences; le second, le politique, l’economiste libre-echangiste, le ministre du Foment© ou des Finances; le troisieme, l’auteur dramatique. 26 WTe have seen "l’ingenieur, le mathematicien, le professeur, 1’academicien des Sciences”; let us now see 24 Espasa. Enciclopedia Universal Ilustrada. europea- amerioana (Barcelona), volume IX, p. 11. 25 J. Graham, op. cit., p. 10. 26 E, leri.mee, Precis d ’Histoire de 3La Litteratura Espagnole (Paris: Librairie Garnier Freres, 1922), p. 583. him as "le politique, l'economiste libre-echangiStej.le- ministre du Fomento ou des Finances". His interest in polities manifested itself quite early, for when the Revo- lutionists dethroned and exiled Queen Isabella he was elec ted to the Cortes. Here he had an opportunity to display his talents both as a statesman and as a brilliant orator. His speech in favor of religious freedom was instrumental in procuring for him the portfolio of Public Works and Commerce in the Cabinet* He served on the committee that welcomed Prince Amadeo of Savoy to his throne in 1870 and Amadeo rewarded him by making him Minister of Public Works and Finance in 1872, but he had to abandon his work when the Republic was proclaimed in April 1873 and retire to Paris. He was very promptly recalled, however, following the coup d*etat which restored the Bourbons to power and again became Minister of Finance, "founding la Banque d’Espagne"2^. After seven years of political life he withdrew from public life and then began "le troisifeme acte de la vie, 1*auteur dramatique". 27 Ghssou, J., Litterature Espagnole (Paris: Regnault, 1931), p. 265. 10 The divisions in his life, however, are not as clear cut as it seems when we thus divide them into three, for his entire life was synthetical;; he abandoned none of his interests at the choice of a new one; he merely added his new work to his old. Thus he never gave up his univer sity career, At the time of his death he was still professor in the University of Madrid; his early mathematical interests never entirely left him, for he published from time to time a great many popular articles on scientific, political and economic problems in such periodicals as the Eoonomista and La Razon, He never wholly deserted politics, though after 1874 he lived apart from public life. In 1880 he helped to found with other men of the Revolution, The Progressive Republican Party, and in 1888 he delivered a notable oration on the regeneration of Spain before the Athenaeum of Madrid, He occupied, moreover, after 1904 several political offices such as senator for life and President of the Council for Education,28 He was active, besides, in the business world being at the time of his death chairman of the Board of O Q Trustees of the Spanish Tobacco Company • It seemed impos> 28 Federico de Onis, The Warner Library of World Litera ture (Toronto, Knickerbocker Press, 1896), volume 8, p, 5101, Z9 Anonymous, "Honoring Spain*s Grand Old Dramatist" Literary Digest, September 16, 1916, volume 53, Part I, p,685. IX sible that he should give his attention to multitudinous labours of this kind, and at the same time devote eight or ten hours of his days and nights to pri vate lessons in mathematics and to public lectures on other subjects, among which were Physics and Naval and Military Engineering* Such excessive work would have paralysed a nature less vigorous than Echegaray * s♦30 With such a record it is no small wonder that the Madrid illustrated weeklies, Blanco £ Negro and Nuevo Mundo each devoted, at the time of his death in 1916, practically an entire number to Echegaray and gave a great deal of inter esting information concerning him and his work* To show his versatility Nuevo Mundo published a prose tale, a dialogue from the drama, El_Gran Galeoto* a scientific article, a political speech, a mathematical paper, and two poems all - 31 by Echegaray * To celebrate the Fiftieth Academic Anni versary of Echegaray the Madrid Academy of Sciences pre sented him with a wonderful golden medal, and the King him self paid a graceful tribute to the versatile old man with the following speech; 30 J, Graham, op* cit*, p. 14. 31 Anonymous. "Spain*s Homage to Echegaray" The American Monthly Review of Reviews. May 1905, volume 31, p* 613. 12 Gentlemen: ... Don Jose Echegaray appears to us a spiritual monument belonging to another epoch, to which we, the younger contemporaries, look up with veneration. Beginning his career in the severe isolation of the academic chair, continuing it as eloquent tribune of the people in our political assemblies, but finding his greatest triumphs on the stage where all the human passions, crisscross one another, where our soul utters its pains and doubts ... Echegaray whose name will forever be inseparable from the literary history of our country, represents the double miracle of the power of the will and of the dominion of the genius. He showed the world that, in spite of our national shortcomings, in spite of our natural lean ing toward pessimism, the spirit of the Spanish nation is still full of life and passion, tolerant for the opinions of others, devoted to deep think ing, rising to wonderful heights in the field of art. The King of Spain, coming to-day to your Academy knows that he is the interpreter of the entire nation by paying this well-deserved tribute to one of the greatest sons of our country who, through the example of his noble life, confirms our belief in the great future of our nation.38 In spite of the numerous positions Echegaray held in the latter part of his life, the greater part of his time he devoted then to writing, and it was as a dramatist that he gained his greatest fame both at home and in foreign lands* In 1882 he was made a member of the Royal Spanish Academy; in 1904 he won the coveted Nobel Prize for Litera ture, at which time Alphonso XIII dubbed him a Chevalier of 32 Anonymous* "Honoring Spain's Grand Old Dramatist" Literary Digest. September 16, 1916, volume 53, Part I, p. 684. 1® the Fleece of Gold, and there was a great public demon stration in his honor at Madrid. Few critics of Echegaray realize that he had an interest in drama in his early life. They think that his first literary attempt appeared spontaneously in 1874 with the publication of El Libro Talonario. It is true that his first play was not produced until he was forty; it may, likewise, be said, perhaps, that ’ ’his attraction to the stage was largely the result of the success there won by his younger brother Miguel, n' S3 whose work was never very popular, however, in Spain and is now entirely forgotten. One must not, however, think that Echegaray had no thought of writing until at the age of forty he saw a play of his younger brother’s produced. His interest in drama manifested itself at a very early age, for he tells us of an early visit to the theatre as a young child: Lo que si recuerdo es que mi aficion al teatro se , desfloraba ya; lbs mucho y gozaba grandemente. Alii vi ”Ep Faje", de Garcia Gutierre^, "Don Fernando el Etaplazado", que se' yo ... Aprendime muchos versos de memoria y.los recitaba haciendo las delicias de mis padres,*4 33 Isaac Goldberg, The Drama of Transition (Cincin nati, Stewart Kidd Company, 1922), p. 64. 34 Luis del Olmet, op. oit., p. 18. 14 In another passage he says: Mi aficion al teatro era tan grande- Anadio- que teniendo yo unos doce anos represente en casa de un amigo llamado Presneda una comedia andaluza del gfnero chistoso, titulada "La Feria de Mirena", 5 At La Escuela de Caminos his interest in the theatre continually increased, and he tells us that he even cut one of his favorite arithmetic classes to see a work of Lopez de Ayala. Su afecion al teatro crecia intensamente. En el esi,reno de "Angela" de Tamayo, y en la escena a obscuras, fue tal su emoeien, que estuvo a punto de arrojar el sombrero al escenario. Vi6 todo el repertorio de Romea, Latarre, Valero, Ar^ona, Guzman, Calvo, Matilde Diez, y Teodora Lamadrid.^7 Not only was Echegaray interested in seeing drama* but early he began to have a desire to write them. He tells us of numerous early attempts at writing which he tried un successfully to have produced. He mentions several friends, Eduardo Gutierrez Calleja, Jose' Counedo, and Leopoldo Brookman, in particular, who attended the engineering school with him and who all were interested in writing. Echegaray’s first dramatic attempt, written in collobaration with Brook- 35 Ibid. p. 20. 36 Ibid. p. 25. 37 loc. cit. 15 man, was entitled La Cortesan "modo por Alejandro Dumas, hijo, con su "Dame de las Camelias". He made numerous attempts after that to write but was wholly unsuccessful in having any plays accepted until he finished The Check Book written in Paris in 1874 during his exile there because of political upheavals at home* 39 This play was produced under the anagram of Jorge Hayes eca. but did not attract great attention* His first success was 40 En jel Puno la Espada in 1875 ; this was followed by a long series of tragedies, romantic melodramas, and thesis plays. James Fitzmaurice-Kelly divides his plays into three groups, namely: first, the pure romantic; secondly, the school of the younger Dumas; and third, the symbolic 41 and problem plays influenced by Ibsen. Since Echegaray’s work has had some influence from Ibsen it would not be surprising to note a similarity in temperament and feelings of these two men; there is, how- 38 Ibid. p. 41. 39 \ ; James Fitzmaurize-Kelly, A History of Spahish Litera ture (New York: D* Appleton and Company, 1910), p. 396. 40 Barrett H. Clark, The Continental Drama of To-Day (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1914), p. 215. 41 James Fitzmauriee-Kelly, loc. cit. 16 ever, a great difference in their characters. In the first place Echegaray possessed a scien tific mind; we have seen his interest in mathematics, physics, and chemistry. He was an apt and quick pupil, graduating with honors in his class. Ibsen, however, possessed a slower mind, and he did not shine at the head of his class. The diploma which Henrik Ibsen received from the Christiania High School represented the lowest grades which would admit of graduation. Even his marks in the Norwegian language indicated only an average ability. We should expect some distinction in the linguistic powers of a youth destined to write extraordinary dramas.42 Echegaray, on the other hand, "read a vast number of French, English, Italian, and Portuguese novels"4^, and there is current a story that Echegaray learned German in two months. On one occasion, he being in a drawing-room with several of his friends, among whom was a philo sophical critic of some renown, the conversation fell upon German philosophy. Echegaray, who knew little of the matter discussed, and less of the 42 W. B. Pitkin, Life Begins at Forty (New York: DfcartesoScribndr<fs-*Sons, 1934), p* 45. 43 James Graham, op. cit., p. 8 17 German tongue, deemed it presumptuous to hazard an opinion for or against the thesis advanced, and maintained an absolute silence* Gradually, however, the debate resolved itself into a dispute as to the possibility of making an exhaustive study of a cer tain school of philosophy within a relatively short period* He left the house with the secret in tention of proving that nothing is difficult to a man with clear brain and indomitable purpose* From that hour he devoted himself with patient zeal to no less a task than that of studying the special school of philosophy just argued about in the very fountains from which it emanated, in the original text of the German authors themselves* With such effect did he apply himself that, two months later, being in almost the same company, and the con versation- as the narrators will have it, with the usual emphatic pointing to coincidence- veering round to the same theme, the new student of philo sophy displayed a depth of discernment, an acuteness of independent thought, a readiness of argumentative resource, a fertility of citation from the German language itself, which confounded the listeners; and apart from the congratualations on his new lin guistic acquirement, there was an unanimous admission that Echegaray had expressed himself on the sub'ject as a master in the midst of novices*44 Ibsen, however, could "not understand a wori of English or French when spoken, and (could) scarcely read 45 even a newspaper article in either language"*. Literary critics comment often on his lack of ability to read foreign languages:: 44 Ibid, p* 16. 45 W* H. Schofield, "Personal Impressions of Bjornson and Ibsen" Atlantic Monthly. April 1898, volume 81, p* 567, 18 His reading must have been limited by his insensibil ity to foreign languages* All through his life he forgot the tongues of other countries almost faster than he gained them* Probably, at this time, he had begun to know German, a language in which he did ultimately achieve a fluency, which was, it appears, always ungrammatical* But, as is not infrequent with a man who is fond of reading but no linguist, Ibsen's French and English came and went in a trembling un certainty* As time passed on, he gave up the effort to read, even a newspaper, in either language*46 Ibsen loved art as Echegaray loved his mathematics; like Goethe, his greatest ambition was to be an artist* He is described as a reserved and thoughtful boy ••* His favorite amusements were conjuring and rigging up a toy theatre, with cardboard characters designed and colored by himself His power of using his pencil, both in landscapes and caricatures, was the only thing that greatly distinguished him from his school-fellows*4” His sister long afterwards described him as "an unsociable child, never a pleasant companion, and out of sympathy with 48 all the rest of the family"* This love for solitude remained with him throughout 46 E* W* Gosse, Henrik Ibsen (New York: Charles Scrib ner's Sons, 1908), p* 30. 47 William Archer, "Henrik Ibsen: An Appreciation" The Critic. July 1906, volume 49, p. 31. 48 E* W. Gosse, op. oit.. p* 5. 19 his life* "All his life he strove to be alone”49. He never mingled with people, and "having, as he himself says, no talent for citizenship, he held himself aloof from the strife of social and political parties at home"50* Not only did he not wish to mingle with people, but unlike Echegaray, he hated even to contribute to magazines unless starvation forced him to it. Echegaray wrote numerous magazine articles not only concerned with drama and mathe matics but also with his personal affairs. For example, in one article he discusses such matters as his favorite flower, work, and the like:: Cualidad que prefiero en el hombre: Dos; honradez y talento* f En la mujer: Muchas. Bondad, hermosura, simpatia, inteligencia. Mi principal defect; No lo se ni lo diria. Ocupaoion que prefiero: La lectura* Mi sueno dorado:; Generalmente cuando duermo no sueno• Lo que constituiria mi desgracia: Esta es una X que tiene muchos valores. Lo que quisiera ser: inmortal en cuerpo y alma. Pa£s para vivir: Espa'Jfa. Color: Arco iris. Flor: Todas. Animal: Perro. 49 Anonymous. "Personal Traits of Ibsen" Current Literature. July 1906, volume 41, p. 63* 50 Anonymous. "Henrik Ibsen: His Men and Women" Westminster Review. June 1889, volume 131, p. 626. 20 Comidar Espalfola* Reforma urgente: Ensenanza, (Juisiera morirme: De ningun modo* Estado actual de espiritu: Agradable, Faltas que miro con indulgencia; Todas, 1 Ibsen would never have consented to write so much about himself* He wrote all his plays and his letters with his own hand; he never employed a secretary, and never dic tated, He was very secretive about his work, and he would allow no one near him: he sleeps on his manuscripts as if he were afraid they might be purloined* Whenever there is a knock at the door he hides the pages, and his most intimate friends are not permitted to know in detail the nature of his effort with pen and paper, even his wife is required to announce her presence by a knock; nor is she permit ted to see what is contained in those large, rough papers with that labored, rounded, stereotyped hand writing she knows so well, 52 Part of his attitude was probably a result of his life; he was very poor and unhappy during most of his years,. He had very few friends, because he said, they were a luxury which he could not afford, Echegaray was never troubled financially as was Ibsen; his darkest days could hardly be worse than the brightest of Ibsen's early days, blackened by poverty and isolation. 51 Luis del Olmet, op, cit,. p, 216, 52 Stampenbourg, B, de, "The Passing of Ibsen" The Independent. November 7, volume 53, Part 2, p, 2630, 21 The life of the latter is a mere catalogue of mis fortunes and humiliations* His earlier years were embittered by an apparently hopeless struggle for literary recognition, the bitterness of which was aggravated by an equally hope less struggle for existence* Henrik Ibsen was born at &kien, Norway in 1828 of mixed Danish and Norwegian ancestry* His family were fairly well-to-do and here, in Skine, he attended a school kept by two theological students. When Henrik was eight, however, his father failed in business, and the ladrs life from now on was sad and lonely, in Peer G-ynt and i'he Wild Duck he presents many of his own miserable child-hood ex- 54 periences. At the age of sixteen he was apprenticed to an apothecary's shop at Grimstad where he remained until he was twenty-two. He wished to enter medical school, and although he studied hard he was unable to do so, because he had failed in arithmetic and Greek, it is a strange coinci dence that ibsen should find so hard what Hehegaray so ex celled in. 55 There is a controversy over the origin of his an cestors ; for a discussion of his predecessors see the following: K. A. Linderfelt, "Ibsen's Ancestry0 ^he Critic* February 15, 1890, volume 15, p. 85. 54 E. W, Gosse, op* cit*, p. 16. 22 He became, in 1852^ director of the Bergen Theatre where he remained for five years* He then went to Chris tiania as manager of the theatre, a position which he left in 1862 to become "aesthetic adviser" to still another thea tre. In 1864, disgusted that the Swedish and Norwegian people refused to help Denmark in her fight with Prussia, he went to Italy and Germany* Ten years later he returned to his native land for a short period, after which he took up his residence in Germany, remaining there until 1891, From that time until his death in 1906 he lived in Chris tiania* Ibsen had little time to read and cared little about reading. His education came from the stage directly.55 He gained his dramatic knowledge and technique from those days which he spent at the Bergen Theatre where he was to assist as dramatic author. Here, however, it seems that every responsibility fell upon his shoulders and that there was no part of stage life that it was not his duty to look after. The dresses of the actresses (he even designed costumes many of which are still preserved55) the scene-painting, the instruction of 55 G. M. Allen, "The Problem of Individualism in Relation to Society in Ibsen, Maeterlinck and Hauptman" Poet Lore. June 1921, volume 32, p. 263. 56 Anonymous. "Henrik Ibsen as Seen in His Own Country" The American Monthly Review of Reviews. March 1905, volume 31, p. 95. 23 raw Norwegian actors and actresses, the selection of plays, now to please himself, now to please the bourgeois of Bergen, all this must be done by the poet or not done at allv This practical experience, was, then, the chief source for Ibsen's dramatic technique; yet his plays are most excellently worked out. Probably this was due to the great care with which he worked, Echegaray turned out sometimes as many as four plays a year5®; Ibsen, on the other hand, felt that one play in every two years was sufficient* Thus we see the chief differences in the charac teristics and temperaments of these two writers, William H* Schofield contrasts Ibsen with Bjornson, One feels on reading this description that Echegaray*s name could be well substituted for that of Bjornson, Could two men be more unlike than Bjornson and Ibsen? Bjornson, as we have seen, friendly, enthusi astic, outspoken, exuberant, fond of his family, in terested in his fellows, Ibsen, reserved, cold, 57 A, Le Roy Andrews, "Ibsen's Peer Gynt and Goethe's Faust" The Journal of English and Germanic Philology, volume 13, p, 238, 58 See Appendix I, Chart I, years 1877 and 1878, m cautious, taciturn, never caught off his guard, always alone* Bjornson has been called the heart of Norway, Ibsen its head* Bjornson delights in being the centre of an audience gathering. Ibsen abhors the curious crowd* Bjornson has always a word for everyone; an opinion on every question, an eloquent speech for every occasion, Ibsen is one of the most uncommunicative of men; he has almost never been induced to address a meeting; he avoids expressing his opinion on any subject whatever* Bjornson fills columns of the radical newspapers at a moments notice. Ibsen keeps his ideas to himself, broods over them, and produces only one book every two years as regularly as the seasons return. Bjornson tells you all about his plans in advance. As for Ibsen, no one (not even his most intimate friends, if he may be said to have such) has the remotest idea what a forth coming drama is to be about. He absolutely re fuses to give the slightest hint as to the nature of the work before it is in the hands of the book sellers, though the day on which it is to be obtained is announced a month ahead. Even the actors who are to play the piece almost immedi ately have to await its publication. Yet there is something inspiring in such a picture. The poor apothecary boy in a tin}*- country village, hopelessly remote from the great centres of literary endeavor, has risen by the sheer force of indomitable will and by unswerving fixity of purpose to be perhaps the greatest writer his land has ever known; the one Norwegian in this, century who, above all others has succeeded in influencing profoundly the thoughts of men, far, far beyond the confines of that wild but glorious land which gave him birth. Perhaps Ibsen, however, had a sunnier side also to his nature, for one person at least saw two sides to 59 William H. Schofield, "Personal Impressions of Bjornson and Ibsen" Atlantic Monthly. April 1898, volume 81, p. 567. his personality, and one was a most beautiful one* The stern or sarcastic seriousness of his counte nance veiled a tender soul* ••• I recognize two forms of expression in Ibsen's poetry* The first is shown in an expression of his- of impatience, anger, just wrath, biting^scorning expression of almost cruel sterness that recalls the words of his beautiful old poem, "Terje Vigen": Oft when he faced the approaching storm Uncanny wrath in his eyes would blaze That people thought the man was mad, Run out his way, and shunned the.gaze of Terje Vigen, This was the aspect of his poet's soul that the world most often saw* But I know another* The second is when a smile- his kindly delicate smile- breaks through the mask of his countenance and illumines it as if all that was cordial and intimate and profound in his soul v/as on the point of bursting through. Ibsen was, to a certain extent, shy and embarrassed, as earnest men frequently are. But he had one of the most beautiful of smiles; and he could say much in a smile, a glance, and a pressure of the hand that he could not or would not clothe in words. Furthermore, he had a way, when he was talk ing, of smiling with an expression of good-humored roguishness, as he interjected a short cutting word in his remarks, that betrayed the fundamental kind ness of his nature. The smile compensated for the sharpness of the thrust.60 Ibsen's dramas may be divided into three main AT groups. In the first there are the mythological and 60 Georg Brandes, "Sidelights on Ibsen, I" Living Age. October 27, 1923, volume 319, p. 172. '61 Anonymous, "The Commanding Influence of Ibsen" Current Literature, July 1906, volume 41, p. 58. historical plays such as Cataline, Brand, and Peer Gynt; in the second group the plays are mainly sociological in character and are typified by such dramas as Pillars of Society and The League of Youth: his last group contains the maturest products of his genius, and deals chiefly with the problems of the individual. In this class fall Ghosts, Rosmersholm, The Doll's House, Hedda Gabler, and When We Dead Awaken, His early hardships were later compensated for 62 when "more than 900,000 copies of his original works" 63 The following figures state the number of original editions each of 10,000 copies which were issued on the following plays of Ibsen: Solhaug>s Feast. 2; Catilina, & ; Emperor and Galilean. 4; The Vikings at Helgeland, 6; The Pretenders, 8; Frau Inger of Ostrot. 3; The Comedy of Love,6 Brand. 12; Peer Gynt, 9; The Wild Duck, 2; Rosmersholm, 2; Ghosts,2:; Hedda Gabler, 2; The Doll rs" House, 3; The Lady from the Sea, 2; The Young Men*s League, 5; An Enemy of the People, 2;The Pillars of Society, 3; Solness, 3; Little Eyolf. 3; John Gabriel Borkman, 2; When we Dead Awaken.2; Poems. 5, (It is interesting to note that his first drama was placed for sale by his friend Ole Schulerud, and sold for $15, another $15 to be given when the first 400 copies had been sold. The present publisher the Gyldendalske Bog- forlag of Copenhagen has up to now (March 1905) sold 104 editions of his works some of them reaching a sale of more than 10,000 copies whifch considering the fact that the population of Denmark and Norway together does not exceed five millions, is an excellent sale. Anonymous, "Henrik Ibsen, as Seen in His Own Country" The American Monthly Review of Reviews, March 1905, volume 31, p, 365, 2 7 were sold in Denmark and Scandinavia, and various editions brought him a total of very little less than two million 63 kroner ($540,000) exclusive of his returns from verse* It is chiefly in the last two groups, sociological and problem plays, that Ibsenfs influence has been felt on Echegaray, That there is an influence of the Scandinavian on the Spanish writer is evident since Echegaray himself in his "Two Words by Way of Prologue"’ in The Son of Don Juan credits Ibsen with having inspired his play. But some writers become so enthusiastic in their belief of Ibsen's influence on Echegaray that they have proved that such a play as Piensa mal « Acertaras? was influenced by Ibsen’s Wild Duck, Now this, of course, is absurd since Echegaray’s play was written first and so could not have been modelled on the play of Ibsen* Piensa mal yuAcertaras? contains a symbolic story of a wounded bird that immediately recalls the use of the wild duck in Ibsen's drama of that 64 name, * 63 Baron de Stampenbourg, "The Passing of Ibsen” The Independent. November 7, 1901, volume 53, part 3, p, 2632* 64 Huth W, Kennedy,"Indebtedness of Echegaray to Ibsen" The Sewanee Review Quarterly, 1926, volume 34, p, 402, 28 Valentin, led by his evil genius, Pedro, misin terprets the happy relationship existing between the generous Benigno, the ward Esperanza, and little Nieves, and so concludes that his friendte attempt to further his marriage with Esperanza springs from a desire to rid him self of an embarrassing reminder of the past. The situation differs from that of the elder Werle, Gina, Hedwig, and Hjalmar in Ibsen's play only in that it was imagined rather than real. Furthermore, Valentin and Benigno were old college friends, and the description of their boyhood relationship is remarkably similiar to that of Gregars, Werle, and Hjalmar, And if Hjalmar is one who prefers to live in a world of unreality, not less so Valentin, who feels that "the world of dreams is such a smiling one". Genaro, in his dislike of idealists, recalls the character of Dr, Helling and, in his relation of grand father to little Nieves, that of old Ekdal, Gina and Olvido, both at the mercy of the tempest in times past, are equally passive in their attitude toward life while little Hedwig and Nieves feel the need of love at every moment and instinctively sense the storm that is playihg above their heads. Also, the birthday of each plays quite an important part in the story as a whole. Other details which are suggestive are Valentin's hunting-trips, 29 which recall Ekdal's and Hjalmar*s fondness for that sport; and the minute consideration of Valentin*s photo graph, which brings to mind the important roll photography plays in the drama of Ibsen, Finally, we have Pedro and Gregers Werle, both trouble-makers, although from different reasons, uttering the same wish and under much the same general conditions. Both are expressing the role they would like to play if things might be as they wish: Gregers: If I could choose, I should like best to be a clever dog- one that goes to the bottom after wild ducks when they dive and bite themselves fast in tangle and sea-weed among the ooze. Compare with this the remark of Pedro, who like Gregers Werle, is a self-appointed guardian of his friend's happiness: I tell you, and I speak you fair, That in this dream you see The role of dog I want to plg¥» 'Tis that role pleases me Such striking similarities would certainly justi fy the critic in Hupposing a relationship, if dates did not preclude the possibility, Echegaray*s play was staged on February 5, 1884, and must therefore have been written too 65 Ruth Kennedy, op, cit,, p,403. 30 early to have been influenced by The Wild Duck whose first sketch was not completed, according to Moses, until June, 1884, and was not translated until 1887 when it first appeared in Germany, In order to avoid such comparisons as the one just stated a chart has been made showing the comparative dates of the plays of the two writers. There is no record to indicate that Echegaray could read Norwegian; he could, however, read German, French, and English; in Chart II®'7. , therefore, is given the translation dates of Ibsen’s plays,68 In the next chapter will be discus sed the plots and themes of the dramas of Echegaray which are supposedly modelled on the plays of Ibsen, 66 See Chart I in Appendix I* 67 See Appendix II, 68 For additional information as to publisher, name of translator, place of production, etc, see the following: 1, W, H, Eller, Ibsen In Germany (Boston: R, G, Badger, 1918). 2, M, A, Franc, Ibsen in England (Boston: The Four Seas Company, 1919). 3, Ossip-Lourie, La Philosophie Sociale dans le Theatre d’Ibsen (Paris; F. Alcan, 1900). CHAPTER II A COMPARISON OF THE THEMES AND PLOTS OF CERTAIN OF IBSEN’S AND ECHEGARAY’S PLAYS CHAETER II The influence of Ibsen is, as we have said, most strongly seen in the social dramas of Echegaray; yet some feel that Ibsen's influence may have occurred earlier in EchegarayJs historical drama, for to them the Spaniard's Haroldo el Mormando shows a resemblance to the northern dramatist's The Vikings of Helgelandf^ If we compare the publication dates of these two plays on the chart we find that it is quite possible that Echegaray might have had an opportunity to read Ibsen's viking play before writing his own early historical drama* Ibsen's play, according to Archer, was published.in April lj 1858 as a supplement to a Christiania illustrated paper. On November 34, 1858 it was produced at the little Norwegi an Theatre in Christiania, In 1876 the first German translation appeared, and it was in this same year produced in Munich, The Spanish play did not appear until 1881; so we see that between 1858, or at least 1876, and 1881 Eche garay would have had opportunity enough to have read Ibsen's play. 69 Ruth Kennedy, op, cit., p, 402, 52 In the Norwegian1 ^ play the setting is on the island of Helgeland in the Horthern part of Norway; the time is about 935 A. D. during the reign of Erik Blood- Axe, in Haroldo el Normando the action, likewise, takes place in Norway during the Tenth Oentury*. Ibsen, himself, has told us that the germ for his play was first suggested to him when he read the old Icelandic family-sagas; the reader, therefore, is not surprised to note the similarity in plot of his play to t that of the Volsunga-Saga. The theme, like that in the ancient Norse legends, is revenge, the desire for revenge by a woman, Hjordis, who is tricked into marrying Gunnar. Sigurd, true to an oath of friendship, wins for his friend, Gunnar- Hjorids, the girl whom Sigurd himself loves and who is the foster-daughter of the chieftain uernulf, by accepting her challenge that he who would wed her must first slay the great white bear that guards her chamber, Hjordis secretly loves Sigurd and knowing his delight in performing perilous deeds has set this challenge in order to win him, Sigurd slays the bear at night, but secretly puts in his place Gunnar who carries off Hjorids leaving Sigurd to carry off Sagny, Uernulfrs own daughter. When the play opens several years have gone by since the flight of the two couples. Uernulf and his seeking revenge for the abduction of Hjordis and Dagny, happen to dis-embark near the home of Gunnar and Sigurd. There is a storm, and in seeking shelter, Oernulf meets Sigurd whom he recognizes, and immediately there is a duel between the two men. Dagny appears and establishes peace between her husband and father after Sigurd has promised to give, as is the custom, a share of his property to him whose daughter he has wed. When Gunnar and Hjordis enter, in pursuit of a peasant who has killed one of their servants, we;see, for the first time, the hateful spirit of revenge with which Hjordis is filled. As soon as Oernulf recognizes Gunnar he naturally demands that Gunnar, like Sigurd, make amends for carrying off Hjordis. Gunnar is quite willing, and is about to make peace, but Hjordis angry and jealous taunts Sigurd for making peace so easily and forbids Gunnar to follow his example. Hjordis claims that if Gunnar makes atonement for his deeds Oernulf must in turn make amends to her for killing her father. Oernulf angered at these words, because he has slain Jokul, Hjo'rdi father, in fair fight, utters angry words, and Hjordis then swears revenge upon him. Therefore, when Gunnar invites all the company to a feast at his home, Oernulf, fearing that Hjordis is plot 34 ting trouble hesitates to go* Sigurd hesitates also, but his fears are occasioned because Dagny possesses a bracelet which Hjordis gave to Sigurd (thinking it was Gunnar) when he slew the white bear. Finally, however, all accept Gunnar's invitation, and we next see them in his feasting hall. Hjordis, still smarting from Oernulf*s unkind words, cannot be pacified by the gentle Dagny. Dagny asks her why she is so unhappy; Hjordis tells her version of the bear story, telling Dagny that the night Gunnar crushed her in his arms, after slaying the bear, was the only time that she had really felt his love. The reader and Dagny now realize that Sigurd loves Hjordis. The warriors gradually assemble, and the feasting begins. Gunnar has sent away his small son, Egil, fearing that Oernulf still wishes revenge. That warrior, however, is not present, but is represented by his youngest and his most dearly beloved son, Thorolf. After the drinking be gins Hjordis weaves her spell of disaster. She boasts to the warriors of Gunnar's strength, forces him to describe how he killed the great white bear and openly proclaims him to be a better man than Sigurd, Even this insult does not embitter the friends; Thorolf, however, is young and im 35 prudent and at a chance word from Hjordis, taunted by her, he tells her that her son Egil has been kidnapped by his father, Oernulf, She immediately announces that Oernulf has killed her son, she urges Gunnar, further more, to revenge his son's death by killing Thorolf# In spite of Sigurd's warning, Gunnar rushes upon and kills the boy, A moment later Oernulf enters with Egil, happy and unharmed in his arms# In a striking climax he tells how his other eight sons were killed in fighting for Egil whom the treacherous peasant, Kara, kidnapped# Broken-hearted Gunnar now tells Oernulf of his last and favorite son's death# Outraged at the deed Hjordis has caused, Dagny, when Gunnar's brave deed is again discussed by her, tells Hjordis that it was Sigurd who actually killed the bear and not Gunnar, and proves it by showing the ring she wears upon her arm# Enraged at this trick from the man she loves Hjordis then says to herself, "Now have I but one thing left to do, but one deed to think upon- Sigurd or I must die"'#170 This speech proclaims the tragedy which is to follow# We next see Hjdrdis weaving a bow which she in- 70 ffienrik Ibsen, The Vikings of Helgeland (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1914), p# 49# SB tends Gunnar to use in killing Sigurd and Dagny* She finally persuades her husband, by promising him all her love, to agree to kill his friend* Dagny enters and Hjordis carried out her revenge by telling her how un fit a mate she is for a viking warrior. Dagny, wounded, decides that she will no longer be a hindrance to him and leaves* Sigurd arrives after her departure. He now tells Hjordis his story of the bear fight revealing to her his love for her, which he has concealed because of loyalty to his friend* Hjordis, in turn, tells Sigurd of her love for him and her reason for the challenge. Knowing now that Sigurd loves her she is determined to have him in life or in death. We next see the unhappy Oernulf lamenting his murdered son* A storm arises and night falls. Hjordis arrives at Sigurd's house and after unsuccessfully en treating him to flee with her, kills him with the bow she has made. Sigurd, dying, tells her to her horror that he is not a pagan, that even in death they will not be together, for he has been taught by King Aethelstan of England to adopt the new Christian God and religion. In despair Hjordis casts herself into the sea, just before the arrival of Oernulf, Dagny, Gunnar, and Egil who come 37 in time to see her in the storm clouds riding on a black horse to Valhall* In the first scene in Echegaray1s play we see Harold and Raguenhar contending for the leadership of an expedition against Galicia* Harold wins over Raguenhar who, however, has not given up hope of securing the army* He promises Harold that he will tell him the secret of his birth if he, in turn, will give to him the coveted leadership* Harold agrees and learns that he is the son of a noble, Einar, and that Ausguerds is his mother* The latter, upon learning that her son has surrendered his right to lead the expedition, chides him for his seeming eowardice in much the same manner with which Hjordis urges Gunnar to kill* Raguenhar rejoices in his victory, but not for long, because Harold has again won the troops a and has more reasons than ever to strive for success now, since he has fallen in love with Aurelia, a slave, whose home is in Galicia* Harold has learned, moreover, that the man who has slain his father is Lotario, whose castle is also in Galicia* The expedition finally arrives before Lotario*s gate* Here we see Ausguerda, Harold's mother, in a secret conferance with Lotario (whom we now learn is her son and Harold's step-brother) to warn him against Harold's desire for revenge* 38 Ausguerda, in the course of time, is able to, lead against Harold his best friend Eric and his sweetheart, through whose love Harold has accepted the Christian Gody They not only permit but aid, Lotario to escape from Harold* Eric in the name of friendship is now asked to procure Lotario; however, even when he does bring Lotario to Harold the latter*s revenge is forestalled, for Lotario kills himself before the Norwegian has an opportunity to kill him* , Then in a sudden reversal of sentiment, aided no doubt by the envious Raguenhar, the army suddenly once more turns against Harold, and the play ends with their demand for his life* The chief similarity that we note in these two plays is the theme of revenge. Harold is trying to avenge the death of his. father; Hjordis, besides trying to avenge the death of her- father, b^ urging Gunnar to slay the son of Oernulf, also slays Sigurd and herself to avenge Gunnar for his deception.. Besides the theme of revenge, the two plays have settings similar in time and place. The characters of the women are also similar. Ausguerda, with her revengful temperament, is as much a contrast to the gently Aurelia as the Amazon Hjordis is to the mild and tender Dagny. But beyond these three points there are no other like nesses in these two plays of Echegaray and Ibsen* Eche- garay can hardly be said to depict the true spirit of the old Norse legend as did Ibsen; from the above summary of the plot, moreover, it may be seen that there is hardly a. parallel incident in the two dramas* Thus, although Echegaray had an opportunity and may have been influenced in setting and in the revenge motive (the revenge motive was also, however, to be found as a very common theme among the 19th Century romanticists) we can hardly say that this play was directly influenced in plot by Ibsen. Rather should we agree with "that bold, discerning critic, Lepoldo Alas, "who feels here the influence of Oehlen- sehlager in such of his dramas as his Fostbrederne. Hagart 71 and Signe, and Palnatoke". Although Ibsen*s influence was more indirect on this historical drama he does, nevertheless, exert a direct influence on some of Echegaray*s later work* Let us first see some of the themes and problems which Ibsen brings out in his own work. Ibsen was a revolutionary poet, a dramatist of ideals, a symbolist, and a surgeon of the soul, an analyst of motives, and he managed to stir up the intellectual world to unusual 71 Isaac Goldberg, Jose Echegaray. (Unpublished dissertation, Harvard-University, Massachusetts, 1912), p* 123. 40 72 passions , for he was almost the first to break away from the sentimental, maudlin melodrama and give what 73 has since been called the problem play. At times his motives have been compared to those of the great Goethe* Goethe*s message was that the experience a man gets is the experience he needs, that we may find in our environment the means of the broadest culture if we will but determine, once and for all, to do away with half-measures and all forms of incompleteness, and live with fixed resolve in the whole, the good and the beautiful. ... Now, Dr. Ibsen*s message may be described as an in-; tensified form of Goethe*s. The injunction of both alike is to live wholly to make life as complete as possible',”4 Thus in his drama, Ibsen unfolds the daily social problems of the individual. In his plays just.as in the classical drama two personages dominate the entire scene, man and destiny, so ■under all the various masks which are assigned to them, only two personages likewise appear in all Ibsen's plays, the individual and society*.. It is the struggle between these two forces, be tween these two principles..which is the warp and woof of Ibsen's w o r k , ' ® 72 J. M. Rogers, "Ibsen and his Ism" Lippinoott*s Magazine, April 1907, volume 79, p. 494. 73 Anonymous, "The Purpose of Ibsen" Current Litera ture, June 1903, volume 34, p. 720. 74 Payne, Wm. "Henrik Ibsen" The Dial, April 16, 1894, volume 16, p. £36. 75 Anonymous, "The Ibsen Myth Analyzed" The American Monthly Review of Reviews. June 1911, volume 43, p. 477. 41 It is moral truths which Ibsen opposes perpetually to the falsehoods of society which to him may be symbolized in the family, the state, religion- or any other institutions by which the enslavement of the individual is increased* Thus those in the greatest numbers are not always right;; the "compact majority", as he calls it-, in various institution alized forms is preventing the expression of individualism because in great assemblies each individual feels his share of responsibility less keenly* He believed that all the evil in the world came from the fact that the Individual has not freedom enough, 1hat the individual oppresses "his true nature", because of false social conditions. "Free the man," says Ibsen, "from this serfdom of spirit, and the kingdom of the proud and beautiful personality will 76 prevail on earth*" In order to awaken man, certain ideas, themes, and motives Ibsen has constantly recurring throughout his plays. For example, in some dramas he emphasizes the ennobling power of suffering; elsewhere he shows his reader the law of the "compact majority" and its power to cripple the genius of the individual; again he may 76 C* Baussan, "The Moral Ideas of Ibsen" The Catholic World. September 1, 1908, volume 87, p. 786* 42 discuss the position of women in relation to family and society, or he may show the tragic results of social dis eases and heredity* Ibsen's scheme is to revolutionize society by bringing the reader or spectator to some point attained by effort from which things may be seen more clearly or more deeply, even though this may be only a moment's standing place in some ascent which does not here cease; he desires to raise questions, even if no entirely satisfactory answer can as yet be given to them, to awaken those who slumber on the easy pillow of traditional opinion and con ventional morals, to startle them from the false dream of eustom, and^ if need be, to combat, to censure, to satirise"7 Ibsen may truthfully be called a dramatic reformer who ventilated the theatre with draughts of fresh thought* He swept from the stage the false sentimentality and moral shams that had reigned there. He emancipated the theatre from the thraldom of convention*78 His importance lies in this, that he gave drama tists a new view of the purpose of their art. He taught 77 Edward Dowden, Essays Modern And Elizabethan (New York: E. P, Dutton and Company, 1910), p, 27, 78 M. A* Franc, Ibsen in England, op. cit., p * 32 » 43 them to have done with that old, conventional limelight life that has no existence except in the minds of obsolete 79 actors and playwrights. Ibsen was a Radical at heart; a man of the keenest observation, the imagination of a poet, which showed him the truth in its fulness, and a fixed resolve to see and tell the truth and nothing else. He was a man of a keen, if bitter, wit and unflinching honesty; the combination of the two was quite enough-to impale in him that desire to ... shock the comfortable, middle-class man, which he carried out so courageous ly and thoroughly... Ibsen is not a prophet who says smooth things; no convention, however firmly settled, no pretence, however wide-spread and comfortable, is safe from him. He thinks for himself, and he says what he thinks— not as a preacher or a lecturer but as a playwright, a master of character, a poet, a man of imagination. His value, when al3£s said, lies not altogether in the actual criticism he passed on the life of our own times, which may or may not be superseded as society changes and develops; his greatest achievement was this: that by means of the theatre, a neglected and despised instrument of education, he made people think. He knew the forde of the theatre, knew that a scene or an idea conveyed by actual representations has ten times the force of one conveyed by black ink on white paper, and will reach, moreover, scores of people on whom books have little or no influence. To him we owe very largely the artial supersession of the stage of meaningless, thoughtless drama, in which old types and sentimentalities and incidents were repeated ad nauseam, by plays that present an idea, that set you thinking.®0 79 Peter McBrien, "Ibsenism" The Catholic World, November 1923, volume 118, p. 195. 80 Anonymous. "Henrik Ibsen” The Academy, May 26, 1906, volume 70, p, 501. 44 The fascination of an Ibsen drama lies in the fact that one catches a new and deeper meaning in it each time he reads it, and realizes the significance of what he had before past over* It is like Peer Gyntrs anion* layer beneath layer, until finally- but we will not carry the simile so far as Ibsen did.83- Ibsen was to the drama what Wagner was to music; like Wagner he was far ahead of his time and generation, as ail true poets must be; and he kept constantly ahead by pressing closer and closer to life* Ibsen saw the truth and expressed it thus: "that man is right who 82 stands closest to the future"* Seldom, on the other hand, has Echegaray been said to be ahead of his times* The best that has been said about him is that he is a link between the transition— alists and the moderns. He looks, however, more often backward than forward. While his plays are plainly in the trend of modern ethical thought and frankly acknowledging a debt to Ibsen, he has held to old ideals of love and duty ... He brings the erring generation to its knees with grief and bit ter cries for forgiveness. Often Echegaray brings out the word duty with a genuinely old-fashioned ring; with him it means devotion to oners neigh- 81 Anonymous. "Ibsen” The Independent. April 23, 1908, volume 64, p. 921. 82 Edward Bjorkman, "The Ibsen Myth", The Forum. May 1911, volume 45, p. 567. 45 bar, saorifice of oneself, obedience to abstract laws of justice#3,5 Self-sacrifice, obedience to abstract laws- it was this very thing that Ibsen was so bitter against. One can say indeed, that Echegaray "upheld the old ideals"84 and that in his work, "there is an unmistakable ring of the past"85, Ibsen cared not what the majority wanted. In his plays he emphasizes this fact, and he carried it out in his own work, G h o s t s created such a tremendous furor that nowhere in Europe could it be produced until several years had passed. It was first produced in the United States at 86 Chicago, Yery different was the attitude of the public to the plays of echegaray, "He seemed to sense what the Katherine a , Graham, "Some Aspects of Echegaray" Poet Lore, Summer No* 1910, volume 21, p, 235* 84 Hannah Lynch, "Jose Echegaray" The Contemporary, October 1893, volume 64, p, 579, 85 Ibid, 86 William Henry Slier, op, cit,, p, 112,, Qrt people wanted and tried to give it to them” * Echegaray stamped ready-made ideas into the prevailing dramatic 38 form ; he was popular for so many years because in his work there is continually reflected the passing fashions 89 of the moment . Most of the plays which gave Echegaray his cele brity are melodramatic, those in which a romantic treat ment is applied to modern life. Melodrama appeals to the popular Spanish audience, and Echegaray*s plays are built up round the finale; the grand ’ ‘curtain” is the dominant feature of all his plays. He does not see fit to make his plots and incidents believable; they are as a rule improbably and preposterous, it is not that he was unable to make them more probable, nor that his audiences would swallow any stage tricks, or conventions, but that he had a taste for the bombastic and flam boyant. Torrents of extravagant declamations are em- 87 G. I. Willadsen, History of the Spanish theatre (Unpublished thesis, University of Southern Uaiifornia, 1930), p. 62. 8B Isaac Goldberg. Drama of Ira nsition, op. cit., p. 120. 89 Ibid. 47 ployed to adorn and heighten the effect of the climax90. He is a typical Spaniard in his fondness for melodramatic and exaggerated situations; (he slips) into melo drama on the slightest pretext, and heaps up extr- ordinary events and surprising coups de theatre; he is too lavish with his murders, his poisons and his daggers; it becomes a real massacre, It is in this ’ ’cult of the grandiose that Eche garay reflects the influence of Victor Hugo and the elder op Dumas”^ • But even to a French critic Echegaray some times goes too far, as Ernest Me'rimee says: Tous ces drames, dont les titres sont deja signifi- catifs, sont romantiques par les sujets, par le recherche de l*effet (efectismo), et par la couleur du style. Ils arrivent trop souvent a 1*emotion poignante aux depens de la vraisemblance. Les ev^nements, comme les caracteres, en sont trop en dehors de la r^alite;9® Merimee is probably thinking of such titles as The Gladiator of Ravena, Lysander, the Bandit, The Son of Steel and the 90 L.A. Warren, Modern Spanish Literature (London: Brentano*s, Ltd., 1929), Volume II, p. 196. 91 Merimee, E. Precis dtHistoire de la Litteratura Espagnole (Paris: Libraire Garnier Freres, 1922), p. 583. 92 Isaac Goldberg, The Drama of Transition, op. cit., p. 67. 93 Ernest Merimee, op. cit., p. 584. 48 Son Flesh. The Enraged Lady. Wild Love. Accursed Heri- . tages. and The Bosom of Death which are a tremendous contrast to such plain titles froqi Ibsen as, Brand. Beer Gynt. Emperor and Galilean. The Wild Duck. Hedda Gabler. and The Masterbuilder. The Ibsen play that most directly influenced Echegaray was, of course, Ghosts. It is typical of the Spaniard to choose to imitate that play which was causing such great comment. Brand. the most popular of all of Ibsen*s plays, was another which influenced Echegaray. These two plays of Ibsen's may be compared to El Hi,jo de Don Juan and 0 Locuro C) Santidad and El Loco Dios. The thesis Ibsen means to bring out in Ghosts is the influence of Heredity on the individual and society*s attitude toward it; in this play the author undertook to show that he is at the bottom of the worst evils of society. He meant to show that an old ideal may become a lie, and that it should then be cast aside to make room for new and better ideals.94 Brand he shows, likewise, that an ideal can be carried too far, that an individual upholding his ideal among an unsympathetic society will be crushed by it. Here, also, 94 P. H. Grummann, "Ibsen in his Maturity, I" Poet Lore, Vacation No. 1917, p. 434. 49 is Ibsen's belief in the ennobling power of suffering* Echegaray in The Great Galeoto shows the evil power of gossip which can mould the individual* This play has been said to show an influence of An Enemy of the People* Since, however, The Great Galeoto was written first this could not be true* Dr* Goldberg feels that it may have been influenced by Shakespeare, for he says* It is interesting to compare tiis play with one of Shakespeare's comedies to which it bears a slight external resemblance. A comparison with "Much ado about Nothing”, though never before suggested, may serve to bring out the tragic element of Eche- garay's play more distinctly, by sheer contrast. In the Spanish play there is none of the scintillating wit that marks the Elizabethan comedy, but neither are we to expect it, either from the author of"El Gran Galeoto” or from the nature of his play* It will be remembered that in Shakespeare's comedy Beatrix and Benedick, although at the beginning the most pleasant of enemies, with the thought of love and marriage furthest from their merry hearts, are nevertheless led together by the malicious intrigue of their clever friends, and all is happily con summated* Nothing could be more distant in tone from this play then the Spaniard's drama; and yet there is an element in which they meet. Just as Ernesto and Teodora are brought to each other's arms by the chatter of the twon about them, by the very suggestive force of public rumor, - so Beatrix and Benedick have love implanted into their hearts by the gossipy frivolers. of their set* ”E1 Gran Galeoto” shows society accomplisjiing unconscious ly, unintentionally, tragically, what in "Much Ado about Nothing” is effected consciously, intentionally and comically. Another comparison suggested by Charles Nirdlinger, the author of a version of "The Great Galeoto” ... is with "The School for Scandal". Sheridan is a 50 frivoler when the Spaniard is a philosopher, says the critic, ••• The comparison with Sheridan*s satirical comedy is somewhat more forced than that with "Much Ado about Nothing"• True, in the "School for Scandal" we get an effective picture of scandal at its worst, but none of the con*- sequences delineated in "The Great Galeoto".9 These two comparisons are probably rather doubtful since this idea brought out in The Great Galeoto was found in Spanish Literature even before the time of Shakespeare. Shakespeare*s influence, however, shows in the line where Ernesto talking to Julian explains that his 96 character is everybody, "ese monstruo de cien mil cabezas"9^ which is similar to the line in Henry IV, Open your ears; for which of you will stop The vent of hearing when loud Rumour speaks? •••• That the blunt monster with uncounted heads,98 Gertrude Gardner Brainerd sees iri The Great 95 Isaac Goldberg, Don Jose Echegaray. op. cit., pp. 114-, 115. 96 Isaac Goldberg, loc. cit. 97 Jose Echegaray, KL Gran Galeoto (New York: A. A. Knopf, 1918), p. 6. 98 William Shakespeare, King Henry the Fourth, Part II (London: Oxford University Press, 1924), p. 504. 51 Galeoto another version of the Paolo and Francesca theme* Though the details of the story are entirely different from those of the love plot of the Dante episode, Echegaray's "Great Galeoto " is inreality a very novel, original and up-to-date variation of the Paolo and Francesca theme. In Ernest, "He of the dramas, the poet and the dreamer, with a soul on fire and given to romanticism," we discover the Paolo, though a more fully developed character .*• There are in fact many allusions to the Paolo and Francesca theme all the way through the work. Ernest, in the pro logue of the play, inspired by the "immortal work of the immortal Florentine", invokes the shades of Francesca and Paolo to assist him with the story of their loves; thereafter, when we see Ernest at work the "Divine Comedy" is spread out always before him, open at the "Francesca page".99 Ibsen's attitude toward women has, of course, held a great place in the critics' discussion. But, although Echegaray carried out other themes of Ibsen, this attitude toward women made no impression on him whatsoever. This being the case, Echegaray's attitude toward this phase of "Ibsenisra" will be discussed later in the chapter on character. Let us now see the similarities and differences . in the plots of those plays of Echegaray which the critics agree are directly influenced by Ibsen. We have first, Brand which provoked Madman or Saint and perhpps The Mad man Divine, and second, Ghosts reflected in The Son of Don Juan. 99 G* G. Brainerd, "The Paolo and Francesca Theme in Modern Drama" Poet Lore, July 1916, volume 37, p. 402. 52 Brand was published in 1866 and was first trans lated into German in 18728; Echegaray published his Mad man or Saint in 1877 and his Madman Divine long after ward in 1900* Brand has been called, by some reviewers Ibsen's best work.'1 ' 00 According to "a competent English critic Ibsen’s Brand is one of the greatest dramas written since Shakespeare"*'1 ' 0' 1 ’ In Germany its; intellectual sug gestiveness and philosophical mysticism were keenly 10: appreciated; it was compared with Hamlet and with Faust. Ho less than four translations appeared there between 1873 and 1883. With popular criticism such as this it is not surprising that the Scandinavian play should reach the eyes of the Spaniard and impress him. The play is divided into five acts and the scene is in a mountainous country in Norway. As the play opens we see Brand climbing the steep and slippery mountain passes, explaining to the peasants, who fear for him, that 100 ^ A. M* Butler, "A View of Ibsen” The Contemporary Review, May 1903, volume 81, p. 710. 101 G. Boghandel, "A Norwegian- Brand" The Literary World, October 7, 1883, volume 13, p. 335. 1025 William Archer, !Brand (New York: Charles Scrib ner’s Sons, 1927), Introduction, p. vii. 53 he must keep on his path of duty in spite of the danger to himself. Brand soon meets Einar, an old school mate, and his sweetheart, Agnes* The sun has burst forth and they are dancing and flitting around as lightly and happily as butterflies* They are on their way to the village and Brand, after a.few words with them, continues on his way until he meets a wild mountain girl, called Gerd, who takes him further up the mountain and shows him her church of snow and ice. Brand returns to the village and again risks his life to cross the stormy sea to go to a dying man. He asks for someone to accompany him; all refuse but Agnes, She goes with him, and inspired by his loyalty and sincerity, she finally decides to marry him and suffer with him although Einar could have better pro vided for her. Brand’s mother appears and begs him to go with her, but when he requests her to give up all her gold she refuses and angrily goes away. Three .years later we see Brand, a priest of the people whom he has helped; he is still as stern and un relenting as he formerly was. His mother is ill and dies, t » but he won’t go to her, because, although she promised to give the larger part of her money, she will not give up all. 54 With Brand, however, it must be "All or nothing”* His little son is dying; the doctor says they must leave the cold climate, or he will be dead in a year* Brand feels, however, that he must give all for his duty. Agnes still remains faithfully with him in spite of the fact that she knows the cold means death to her son. On Christmas Eve Agnes is in mourning. Brand, still hard and duty-bound, refuses to let Agnes keep her baby's clothes when a poor gypsy woman comes to the door and needs them for her baby* Agnes gives them up, but she now feels she is dying. Brand, heartbroken, still, nevertheless, clings to what he feels is his task. A year and a half later the new church stands completed and adorned for consecration. Brand has com pleted what he so longed for, but it has cost him all that was dear to him. Now he is still unsatisfied and feels that the church is not big enough; he remembers Gerd's great ice and snow church and feels that only such grandeur is worthy to be a worshipping place of his great God. He locks the church door and throws the key into the river telling the noisy crowd to follow him. Some follow, but they gradually, one by one, leave him and taunt him for the death of his mother, child, and wife. They believe him insane, now, and stone him* After all leave him he still continues going up alone on the path which leads to Gerd’s Church* He sees a vision of Agnes who even yet tries to persuade him to give up his eruel creed. Brand, however, not yet ready to sur render, goes on until he meets Gerd by the ice church hunting for a bird which she shoots. The ice chureh, shaken by the shot of the gun, falls, and the two are buried in an avalanche out of which a voice cries above the storm, "He is the God of Love”103 To his mother, to Einar, to his people, and even to Agnes, Brand seemed mad. They could not understand this "Norwegian Don Quixote"104 whose motto was "All or Nothing", who chilled all human affection and gave up all, though it broke his heart, to the creed by which he shaped his life. "In his last moment he learns, that in his half-scornful treatment of the needs of those he at tempted to help, he had neglected the truth that love or 103 Henrik Ibsen, Brand (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1927), p. 262. 104 Edward Dowden, "Henrik Ibsen" Contemporary Review. November 1906, volume 90, p. 656. 56 sympathy is the law of life"-*-®® Just so does Don Lorenzo in 0. Locuro 0 Santidad, sacrifice all to his creed that is dear in life to him. The play opens in Don Lorenzo’s study where that worthy gentleman is seated at his desk, reading aloud from Don Quixote; These are the mercies which God has shown me at this moment. ... Now ray judgment is free and clear... I feel that I am near death; I would meet it so that it might be understood that my life had not been so wild as to make me remembered as a madman, for al though I have been one I would not confirm this truth at my death ... The beauty of this whole passage lies in its direct ap plication to Lorenzo himself. Dr. Tomas and Angela, the wife of the Don, break in upon his thoughts. The Doctor, half in fun and half in earnest, warns Angela to watch her husband's wisdom; "Your Your husband is a scholar; but learning is not to be abused* If a string at its tensest gives forth the clearest notes, it also breaks more easily; and when that has happened an eternal silence follows the di vine music. While the brain is stirring in its sublime struggles, madness lies in ambush; remember that.'107 105 Anonymous, "Henrik Ibsen: His Men and Women" The Westminster Review. June 1889, volume 131, p. 648. 106 Jose Echegaray, Madman or Saint (in Poet Lore Summer No. 1913,), p. 163. 107 -Ibid. pi. 163.- ...1 ‘ • t 57 Lorenzo, in the meantime, continues reading Don Quixote,but he stops abruptly when the doctor reminds him that Ines, his daughter, is ill with a strange malady called love- curable only by the aid of a priest, Angela, with the concern of a true mother, insists that Lorenzo give his consent to the marriage of Ines to Edward, but Lorenzo, proud and dignified, will not for a moment think of allowing this, Edward is a noble; his family is opposed to the match; Lorenzo feels it would be shameful to beg for his daughter. He insists that it is the place of Edward's mother to come begging Ines on be half of her son, Angela, a loving mother, herself prepares to swallow pride and conventions and solicit the duchess for the hand of her son. Next we are introduced to Ines, unhappy yet unwilling to go against her father's wishes. Dr, Tomas, in order to aid her, questions Lorenzo whether there are not cases where, in order to prevent large misfortunes, one may compromise with a minute fault, a mere grain of sand. The Don characteristically replies that the grain would grow all too quickly into a mountain. The doctor, however, trying to force Lorenzo to extremes, gets him to agree that evil, in any form whatsoever, is to be 58 eombatted to the bitter end. The better to apply the theory, the doctor introduces as an example a matter which is to be of the utmost importance in the unravel ling of the drama itself. He tells the story of an old women, who that very day, entrusted him with a kiss for D&n Lorenzo, It is the last farewell of one who in a few hours is doomed to die. The doctor adds that she protested her innocence in some matter, yet begged for pardon. This woman turns out to be Lorenzo's old nurse who is brought to the house. From her, Lorenzo discovers that his name and his fortune are not his. His nurse, Juana, whom he has lost sight of for some years, claims him as her own son. When he was a baby, she tells him, her mistress was childless and therefore adopted him. There can be no doubt of the facts, for Juana gives him a confession written by the mistress. She tells Lorenzo to take the sealed envelope from the casket which is hidden at the head of her bed and read it when she is gone. Lorenzo is about to see it when the arrival of the Duchess is announced. Ill-pleased at this untimely interruption, he is torn between his desire to seal his daughter’s happiness and his burning curiosity to see the paper which his mother has left him. In a frenzy, he 59 seizes the paper from the nurse, refuses to see the Duchess, and trembling readsz Your father was rich, very rich; his estate amounted to millions, I was very poor; we had no children , Angela bursts in upon him announcing again the arrival of the Duchess and is stupified when he tells her to leave him, Edward enters to persuade him to speak to his mother, but in vain. As soon as they leave him he again reads the paper: My husband knew that a fatal disease was rapidly under mining his health. The unhappy man lived with death in his heart, ,,, We hunted for a son- X cannot, 1 can not write any more. Jane knows this secret. Jane will tell you all... I have loved you like a son, although you were hot ours, Lorenzo is stupified; the aspect of everything is now alter ed, He realizes that he bears a name not his own, and that for forty years he has possessed a fortune belonging to some one else. For himself he does not care, but he forsees the disgrace of Ines and Angela. Juana advises him to keep silent, that none need know. fthile Lorenzo is listening to this revelation Ines and Angela are rejoicing with the news that Edward’s mother, the Duchess of Almonte, has suddenly withdrawn her opposition to their marriage and is coming immediately to ask for Ines's hand. Lorenzo, however, cannot now rejoice. He feels sure that the Duchess will never consent to the marriage of her son with a girl who has neither name nor fortune. His sense 60 of honor impels him to relinquish his name and all his pos session, while his love for his wife and daughter tempt him to conceal his discovery and save their happiness. He de cides that even their happiness, which is all that matters to him, can not stand in the way of his honor; he refuses the petition of the Duchess. After Lorenzo makes his decision that the marriage is impossible there follows a series of dialogues between him and the other characters in which they all urge him to consent. In spite of Angela’s arguments that he is virtu ally condemning their daughter to death he sees his duty standing cleqrly before him. Angela tells him that the deception was not really his fault but that of Juana; therefore if he were consistent he should put the dying woman into prison* He vacillates; his mind raves about truth and falsehood. In the depths of his gloom he goes to his desk where lies the cause of all his misery- the paper. At this point Lorenzo is called away to Ines. Juana alone torments and blames herself for all this trouble which she has caused and decides that she can mend it only by burning the pajpers in her hands which are the only proofs of Lorenzo’s origin. She burns the paper and returns a blank sheet into the envelope. 61 No sooner has this taken place than the Duchess, Angela,, and Ines enter with Lorenzo who is still discussing the problem of honor. Ines is told that this woman is Lorenzo's real mother, but the latter having burned the paper,, refuses to acknowledge him. Two days later the Duchess has been persuaded by Edward to allow the marriage if Lorenzo renounces his for tune quietly, but she desires no publicity* ?o Lorenzo such a reparation is only partial and he insists that he must go all the way. In order to carry out his plans of restitution he plans to make a statement before a lawyer and submit the latter as proof. Doctor Thomas is convinced that Lorenzo*s mind has left him; he cannot believe that Lorenzo is saint enough to sacrifice his family’s happiness and perhaps Ines's life for such a quixotic ideal. He has asked alienists to come to the interview with the notary and unless Lorenzo brings evidence to prove his story, his sanity is to be investi gated. Meantime Lorenzo enters, seeking to glance at the paper furtively, he is interrupted by the entrance of the dootors. He locks the paper up in his desk, and places the key in his pocket for security. He next announces that he intends to draw up a legal act of renunciation giving up the house and all to the law. The Duchess and Edward enter; the lover of Ines now also believes 'Lorenzo to be mad. He and Ines discuss the cruel fate that has brought this upon them. The end of the play occurs quickly. Lorenzo becomes aware of the close surveillance under which he is being kept. He begins to suspect his family and friends of treachery. The doctors declare him mad, but he says he has a surprise in store for them; he will reveal the letter to the physicians and then laugh at them. He is about to pass the letter to Doctor Thomas when he notices that it is only the blank sheet which Juana has substituted for the original letter. Lorenzo feels that the others have conspired against him; but to these he has asserted his insanity and he is taken into custody while his daughter weeps a sad farewell, promising to save him while Lorenzo himself says, HWhat can yod do, my child, if God does not save me?” Thus ends the play, ^orenzo, who has begun by ridiculing the modern Don Quixote among the Sanchos ends by becoming a Don Quixote himself. In this play the reader naturally sees that Eche garay was also much influenced by Cervantes1 novel, Don Quixote. .Likewise, the mad actions of Don Lorenzo along with the quotations from Shakespeare leave no doubt that Echegaray was also influenced by the English playwright's mad Hamlet. Echegaray himself tells us of his fondness 63 for the Elizabethan playwright: Habia adema's aprendid Echegaray a traducir el inglis, y oomo se dedieo' durante algunos meses a estudiar Shakespeare en su propio idoma.108 In these two plays discussed we have a rather simi lar plot in that both Lorenzo and ©rand were deserted early by their mothers in whom the love of money (although Juana wishes the money for her son rather than for herself} was greater than the love for the soul of their children. Since both mothers, even in the end cannot bear giving up the thought of losing the wealth they have, they both lose their sons; Brand's mother has to die without him, and Lorenzo's mother, in order to let him keep his wealth and name, has to renounce her son and burn the proof. Thenytoo, Lorenzo like Brand would give up his daughter, wife, and even himself to maintain what he calls his "honor". Although we realize that Echegaray had Brand in mind when he was writing his own play; it seems, never theless, that he hardly catches the greatness of Ibsen's play* The love motive of Ines and Edward, though "a 108 Olmet, Anton del. op* cit.. p. 62. 64 minor incident, has been emphasized more than by Ibsen, and Echegaray, furthermore, alters the characters and their motives so that the plot belongs strictly to Spain rather than to the universe as does Brand, . Brand's problems could come to anyone; Lorenzo's mad gropings for honor are strictly Spanish. The same may be said about Gabriel in The Madman Divine when he goes even further than Brand in proclaiming himself a God. .Perhaps the play in which ^chegaray is most indebted to Ibsen and which we can actually say is in direct imi tation, because the Spaniard himself admits it, is his Son of Don Juan written as he says on his title page after Gengangere. Ghosts was published in 1881 and was first translated into German in 1886, although it was several years before European theatres would produce it. In this play Ibsen intended to show how the sins of the fathers fall upon their children; he wished, more- over to show that "men were following the routine of dead generations without asking themselves how this affected their morality and the morality of their fellow men". The plot is as follows: a young girl falls in love with Manders, the parson of the village, but her relatives decide that she is 65 eligible for a good match; so she is married to the handsome, dashing, rich Captain Alving, who satisfies all the traditional demands. In a short time Mrs, Alving finds out that her husband is dissolute beyond toleration. Completely overcome, she flees to landers, her minister, and explains the situation* Manders, the confirmed traditionalist, tells her to return to her dissolute husband and convinces her that she has com mitted a sin by thinking of disloyalty to him. She is utterly unable to reform her husband, who goes from bad to worse. In time she has a child, Oswald, It becomes the duty of Mrs, Alving to make the best of a bad situation; so she plans to cover up as much as pos sible, She cannot allow Oswald to grow up amid such conditions; he is sent to Paris* In following this plan she exercises great care, for Oswald grows up entirely without evil influences. She carefully guards the secret of his father’s conduct. She writes to him in only the most glowing terms in order that he will have a worthy ideal set before him, . At home conditions become so bad that Alving lapses into complete imbecility, Mrs, Alving is forced to take over the management of the estate and her new responsibility develops her into an efficient person- 66 ality. Her problems also give her food for thought. Gradually she drifts into a new type of reasoning that questions the sanctity of her narrow traditions. For this reason she gladly assents to Oswald’s ambition to become a painter and to live in a world unlike that of the Norwegian village. When Mrs. Alving dies, his wife decides to break with the past. She takes all the money that has come to her through her marriage and builds a public orphanage with it. She does not want one cent of the tainted money to go to her son. But she does not con fess the truth to him* She dedicates the orphanage to the memory of her husband, in the hope that she may still further inspire the son to noble emulation. But a greater tragedy is developing. The son is under the shadow of the father's sin. This manifests it self by a lack of ambition and mysterious headaches. He consults a physician who diagnoses his malady correctly. Oswald is stunned. He immediately replies that his father has been faultless and produces the letters of his mother as evidence. This unsettles the judgment of the physician who now decides that the trouble must be due to Oswald's own life. Oswald has led the exuberant, care-free life of the Parisian art student, but he has 67 not lapsed morally# He has been both industrious and successful, but he now thinks that the very joy of Hiring has been a sin# His self-reproach interferes with any improvement that the physician might accomplish and hastens his impending collapse# When the orphanage is to be dedicated Oswald returns home with his doom completely fastened upon him. He knows that he will lapse into imbecility, and the nature of his illness accounts for his pronounced mel ancholia, It is clear that Mrs, Alving*s secrecy has hastened the doom of her son, but it has also had other serious consequences# Some years after Oswald’s birth, Mr, Alving has had a child by a servant in the house, Mrs. Alving covered up this shame and later took the child, a daughter, into her household, where she reared her as a servant and shielded her from temptation. This daughter, Regina, lacks the blood of Mrs. Alving, and she has the bad tendencies of both of her own parents. Ignorant of her ancestry, she is fired with the ambition to win Oswald and to go to gay Paris with him. This situation presents a curious problem to the young man. To him Regina seems to be the sure raft in his shipwreck; she may mean renewed health and sanity to him, for he has heard that a sound, vigorous woman might prove to be the salvation of a man that was doomed, and he therefore sees a possibility for himself. He is not really in love with Regina, for he makes an objective analysis of her at the outset, stressing her robustness and vigor which he feels may save him. He is also cons tantly thinking of the alternative. He knows that if he is not restored to health, that if he lapses into im becility, Regina will not shrink from handing him the poison that will dispose of him. He is convinced that she is not the creature who would burden herself with such an irksome charge. Oswald's advances to Regina should not be in terpreted. as careless flirtations. Mrs. Alving's morality and serious attitude toward life are the certain heritage of her son. But Oswald contemplates marriage in the hope of saving himself and not harming Regina. When Mrs. Alving is confronted with the pos sibility of such a marriage she shocks the parson by saying that there are plenty of marriages in good society between persons as closely related and that she would be willing to make even 1his sacrifice for the welfare of Oswald. This statement only shocks Manders; he over looks entirely the tragic situation of Mrs, Alving, She has tried the traditional marriage and has found it black as night. She has tried through out the years of re flection to gain some new and sound standards of morality and her views are not clarified. Now she abruptly faces the crisis in her son’s life^ and she knows that his sanity is at stake, but when the matter takes a really serious turn she acts in accordance with her fundamental prin ciples of morality. The orphanage, dedicated to the memory of the father, burns, and Oswald becomes completely exhausted in his efforts to save it. Now that the father is com pletely eradicated Mrs, Alving resolves to make a clean breast of affairs and reveal the father to his children, Regina does what might be expected of her; she leaves the house for the sailor’s home where she will follow her parent's example, Oswald is overwhelmed and lapses into imbecility* He now tries to ask his mother for poison in this extremity, but his mental processes become confused and he stammers repeatedly, "Give me the sun, mother, the sun." The sun is just rising out side, and the conception "sun" takes the place of poison in his mind. 70 The Son of Don Juan, published in 1893, brings out the same theories of Ibsen, Don Juan has a friend whose daughter Carmen is engaged to marry Lazaro, his son, Lazaro is a genius for whom the future holds every thing and Carmen is a picture of beauty. The old Don, with two friends, is discussing his son’s affairs and he is delighting in telling his two old friends of his "wild oats” which he has imsparingly sown in his own youth. It appears from their conversation that Lazaro, despite his father's words, is not quite so robust and strong as Juan boasts. He displays signs of ill health, talks in a dreamy maze of poetic incoherencies, and im presses us as a rather effeminate genius. In the second act father and son are having a discussion which is a fine key to the character of both men. While the father is engrossed in something which appeals to his lower tastes, Lazaro is absorbed in that complicated German philosopher, Kant, The father, hypo critically condemns papers of immoral character but takes care at the same time to hide the one that he is reading, for fear that it might fall into the hands of Carmen, Carmen herself is afflicted with a cough not entirely unrelated to the previous questionable habits of her own father. Lasaro, seems to suspect his illness although his friends blame his genius for his strange feeling and conduct. He goes to the doctor, and here we have a scene even more pitiful and gloomy between Lazaro and Doctor Bermudez, than that between Oswald and his physician, for the Spanish doctor unconscious that his patient is before him, since Lazaro misleads him by ask ing for advice for a friend, talks on with great frank ness cutting like a khife into Lazaro. When the doctor learns that Lazaro is the victim he tries to calm him with optimistic lies, but Lazaro is determined to know the truth, if for no other reason than to protect Car men. He understands how hopeless is his case and at the closing of the scene we have his struggle with his conscience. His father, with this typical attitude, tells him to take Carmen, that she is his and he should b be happy with her though the world crumble. Carmen still wishes to marry Lazaro, and says she would rather die with him than give him up. In the last act Lazaro is still brooding over his sad fate. He begins to distrust all and begins to wander in his mind, talking about the beautiful night, the river, the perfume of flowers, and the insects and butterflies. With great skill Echegaray portrays the wandering mind of this poetic genius. Lazaro takes to drinking with Paca* an old mistress of his father’s. Upset by drink and his swift approaching madness he dances, drinks, and shouts with Paca losing more and more of himself continually. Even Don Juan is awe- stricken at this terrible sight. The stricken youth sinks into speechless unconsciousness but the rising sun steals into his mind and unseals his lips so that in a scene similar to the close of Ibsen's Ghosts he begs for the sun, "Mother, the Sun, the sun, give me the sun J" Here in Ghosta and The Son of Don Juan we have the same fundamental plot..Lazaro like Oswald is ruined through his father’s early escapades. The scenes where the two men hear their fate from the doctors are simi lar, but Echegaray’s is the more moving because the doctor is at first unconscious of what he is doing. Echegaray’s plot is somewhat altered in that his charac ters are changed. Captain Alving is dead; Juan is still alive to see what the result of his early life is. Carmen suffers more than Regina, because she really loves Lazaro; she also suffers from the conduct of her own father. There is nothing in Echegaray’s play to 73 correspond to the building of the Orphan's Asylum or to Pastor Manders, Because of this omission Echegaray has left out one point that Ibsen wished to convey in his play* Ibsen did not wholly center his attention upon the sins of the father; he.wishes us to see that there might have been some hope if the mother had not placed a hollow and untrue ideal before her son* If he had known the facts from the beginning his physician would not have blundered* Mrs, Alving lied to her son with the best of intentions, but she lied* 7/hen she went back to her husband, she lied through the conventions of society, for no moral marriage can exist when the one or the other, man or woman, persists in immorality. This phase of Ibsen's theories is totally absent in Echegaray. Thus we see the similarities and differences in the themes and plots of some of the plays of Echegaray and Ibsen. Not only in theme, however, was Ibsen con sidered an innovator, but he was called an originator and even a revolutionarist of dramatic construction. Although he at first used old methods of construction and theatrical effects we shall see that he was also able to abandon them. Furthermore we shall see in the next chapter whether or not Echegaray was able to follow his example'. CHAPTER III A COMPARISON OF THE BRAMATIC TECHNIQUE IN CERTAIN OF IBSEN'S AND ECHEGARAY»S PLAYS CHAPTER III 74 Although Ibsen disclaims being an artist at all, and prefers to be regarded as a social philosopher, it is obvious that his practice is other than his theory, for more competent judges agree that the world has 109 scarcely seen a greater master of stage-craft. If you consider Ibsen at all, they say, you are forced to judge his play first as a work of art and secondly as a moral lesson, Ibsen knew the laws and needs of the playwright's art thoroughly; many of the concoctors of stagy plays would give much to be able to manipulate their characters and scenes as did the innovator of whom at one time it was not uncommonly said that he was not a playwright at all. We like to think of Ibsen as a great modern realist, but apart from his ideas and message to the age, Ibsen’s fame and influence rested on his wonderful tech- 110 nique, on his matchless art. It is true that he was first and last a dramatist who chose his subjects (in 109 E* Fuller, "Ibsen's Social Dramas" New England, July 1890, volume 3, p, 585, 110 Anonymous, "Henrik Ibsen, the Artist-Moralist" The Chautauquan, July 1906, volume 43, p, 394, 75 his later and better known plays, at least) from the life . of his time* True, he was interested in ethical problems, and he recognized the tremendous forces at work upon modern society, but these he perceived to be dramatic themes susceptible of effective treatment in plays; he was not so much interested in converting his audience as he was in moving them by arousing their emotions; so it is as an artist, and not as a thinker, that he takes 111 rank as the greatest dramatist of modern times. His chief interest, from the beginning to the end of his career as a dramatist, was not with the propa gation of ethical ideas, but with the solution of aesthetic problems. He was, in brief, not a preacher, but an artist, and not the moony artist of popular legend, but the alert and competent artist of fact, intent upon the technical difficulties of his business. He gave infinitely more thought to questions of practical dramaturgy- to getting his characters on and off the stage, to building up climaxes, to calculating effects- than he ever gave to the idea content of his dramas. ... Read his letters and you will find him tremendously concerned, from the start, with tech nical difficulties and expedients- and never mentioning morals, lesson, symbols, and that sort of thing at all. So early as the time when he wrote "The League of Youth'1 you will find him discussing the details of dramatic machinery with Dr* G-eorg Brandes, and laying stress on the fact, with no little vanity, that had "accomplished the feat of doing without a single monologue, in fact without a Hi B. H. Clark, A Study of the Modern Drama (New York; D* Appleton and Company, 1928), p. 212. single aside* Huneker settles the problem of whether Ibsen is a greater artist or preacher by calling him the "greatest moral artist of his century, Tolstoy not excepted"-*- -^* He is further praised by this critic who would go so far as to compare him with Shakespeare, and quotes from one who feels he may be ranked with the great Greek dramatist, Sophocles; Equally imposing as playwright, satirist, and moral teacher, it may be said without exaggeration that he presents the most conspicuous dramatic personality since Shakespeare* "The highest point of human consciousness," according to Maeterlinck, "is reached by the dramas of Ibsen* Here we touch the limit of the resources of modern dramaturgy". And Georg Brandes, the Danish critic, has written: "He dis played a dramatic certainty, simplicity and .deli cacy which recalled antique tragedy in the hands of Sophocles", After such favorable criticism of his dramatic technique we can not help but agree with Henderson that "however opinions may differ in regard to Ibsen as symbolist, poet, 112 H* L* Mencken, "Ibsen: Journeyman Dramatist" The Dial* October 11, 1917, volume 63, p. 323, 113 Anonymous "Quotations showing the Commanding Influence of Ibsen", Current Literature, July 1906, volume 41, .p. 59, 114 Ibid. 77 philosopher, polemist, or man, critics as a rule agreed that Ibsen was a great master of stagecraft”-*--^. Often he is referred to as "the master technician of the century"^® but more than just displaying such artistry in his own work he was "a reformer who actually 117 accomplished” . It was inevitable that Ibsen should leave an impress upon the literature of his day, that his great ness should demonstrate itself by its influence on the modern stage in Europe. It was the brilliant Bernard Shaw who said that drama could never be just the same again, since Henrik Ibsen has written. The whole spirit of modern times, the most fruitful germs of modern culture are embodied in the dramas of Ibsen and his disciples. Such a dramatist as Ibsen is the child of the past, the companion of the present, and the pro- 115 A. Henderson, "The Ibsen Harvest” The Atlantic Monthly. August 1908, volume 102, p. 258. 116 . Mr, Fitch, "Mr. Fitch’s Fling at Ibsen" Current Literature, June 1903, volume 34, p. 720. 117 Anonymous, "The Wild Duck”, Theatre Magazine, April 1918, volume 27, p. 217. 78 genitor of the future**1® Ibsen was not merely a dramatist; he was a drama tist for dramatists. The entire European stage bears the impress of his influence. In Germany, Sudermann, and Hauptmann; in Austria, Schnitzler and Bahr; in Russia, Gorky and Chirikov; in England, Pinero and Bernard Shaw; in Italy, D ’Annunzio, in Spain, Echegaray and Benevente- all have drawn inspiration from Ibsen. And even in France, which-the Scandinavian critics have declared was in capable of understanding Ibsen's depth and symbolism, he has made such a marked impression that Adolphe Brisson, the well-known critic, writing in the, Paris Figaro, says: All our modern drama is Ibsen clarified, simpli fied, ’filtered', if I may use the expression. It represents the brain of Ibsen grafted on to an other land, and bearing new literary fruit. It is the fusion of Northern and Central Europe, of Scandinavian dreaminess and French grace. Ibsen exereised on the present generation an influence analogous to that exerted by Shakespeare in the romantic age.•*-19 The ordinary play of Ibsen's date was along the good old-fashioned lines, where the plot worked up to a climax in the last act, and the climax was either a tragedy or,. preferably for most persons, a rapid solution 118 A. Henderson, "Henrik Ibsen and Social Progress" The Arena, January 1905, volume 33, p. 26. 119 Anonymous, "The Commanding Influence of Ibsen" Current Literature, July 1906, volume 41, p. 58. 79 of impossible difficulties, of all "the nice young people" married, and everybody happy. The changes have been rung on this prescription for centuries with such monotony that it is not surprising that Ibsen eventually abandoned this method for a more interesting way. Unquestionably he did much to improve the dramatic methods. He broke the conventional French model of the mid century. He did away with soliloquy and monolog, both clumsy and ineffective expedients. And in epitomizing the issues of a long period of time in. ax single critical situation, in such a way as to reflect its causes and foreshadow its remotest con sequences, he displaced the old sprawling analytic action with a compact, synthetic one, which is hardly surpassed for intensity save by the Greek p1aywr i ght s.1 It is customary to say that the modern drama begins with Henrik Ibsen, for at least if he was no innovator he improved on a sound method when in the best of his plays he employs a simplicity of construction, a lack of accent, a logic of arrangement, which gives their spectators a vivid impression of life. Above all, Ibsen suppressed the strong curtain, and opposed the tyranny of the well- 121 made play. 120 William Archer, "Anent Ibsen" The Independent. August 29, 1901, volume 53, p. 2047. 121 Anonymous, "Musings without Method- Henrik Ibsen: His life Works: The Folly of Ibsenism" Blackwood»s Maga zine. July 1906, volume 180, p. 132. 80 Up to a certain point, however, Ibsen's work was imitative of this early happy-ending play because in technique, his first masters were the French writers of society drama, Scribe, Augier, and the younger Dumas* Some critics doubt the influence of the French playwrights on Ibsen since he could not read French* William H* Schofield says: He does not understand a word of English or French when spoken, and can scarcely read even a news paper article in either language. The assertion commonly made until lately, that he has been much influenced by French authors, is the veriest non sense; he hardly knew of their existence. *•• Of English and French literature he knows practic ally nothing.122 That he could not read French might be true; yet it is unwise to jump to the conclusion that Ibsen was not familiar with great dramas for his "education came not from reading but from the stage"123. It is certain that Ibsen as a master in dramatic technique is due in a great measure to his twelve years theatrical 122 William H. Schofield, "Personal Impressions of Bjornson and Ibsen" Atlantic Monthly. April 1898, volume 81, p. 570. 123 Clayton Hamilton, "Ibsen once Again" The Bookman. June 1918, p. 428* TP A experience in Bergen and Christiania. In 185% when he was sent by the management of the Bergen Theatre to study the Danish Stage in Copenhagen, he writes to his employers: In respect to the repertory we have been very fortunate, in having seen Hamlet and several other plays of Shakespeare, and also several of Holberg*s Bataille de Dame (Scribe and Legouve), A Sunday inAmage'r (Johanne Luise Heiberg), The Relatives, (Buntzen), and others.12® Since the French playwrights were so popular at this time, Ibsen, undoubtedly, as theatre manager and chooser of plays must have been quite familiar with them, Scribe was the first of these French drama tists to influence Ibsen, to "teach him the tricks of 126 his trade”. After Scribe came Dumas fils, and Augier to the French stage as founders of a new species of art- the 124 E. P. Evans, "Henrik Ibsen: His Early Career as Poet and Playwright” Atlantic Monthly, May 1890, volume 65, p. 577, 125 Henrik Ibsen, Letters of Henrik Ibsen (New York: Fox, Duffie-ld and Company, 1905), P« 55, 126 A. Clutton-Brock-, "Ibsen" Living Age, June 30, 1906, volume 249, -p. -817. • 82 ethical drama. Dumas is commonly looked upon as the founder of this new species of the dramatic art. In the light of the evolution of the drama this state ment is not correct, for the beginnings of the form he cultivated must be looked for in the French drame bourgeois of the 18th century but he brought that form to its first perfection. The distinctive characteristic of his work, however, is the deliberate introduction of a thesis ... But his methods were too insistent and undisguised; he was too continually ^harp ing on the one string. Brilliant technician though he was, he marred his effects and failed to achieve permanence, because he dealt with the transitory and the superficial aspects of a particular society at a particular epoch of its social development..'. Confusing the offices of the moral reformer bent on laying bare the social corruptions of his day, and of the dramatic artist who deals with the deeper-lying truths of life, he forced upon his theatre a union of art and ethics that was forgetting both; hence the moral was often lost through being overstated, and the art, limited and circumscribed, sank into artifice. Augier, though likewise strenuously believing in the theater as an agent for social reform, had a much higher conception of the function of the dramatic artist. His work is entirely impersonal. He did not flaunt his thesis in the faces of his spectators, as Dumas continually did. He gained his effects by masterly characterization, and by carefully, yet naturally, wrought-out plots. He is already named among the French classics, second only to Hgliere in the comedy of character and of manners.-1 ' 2 127 Helena Knorr, "Henrik Ibsen and the Ethical Drama of the Nineteenth Century" Poet Lore. 1898, volume II (new series), p. 51. 83 Receiving thus from his predecessors an ethical drama with limited material conditions, Ibsen widened its boundaries and spiritualized its meaning, and in his hands, again it passed through several transformation. At first it had many points in common with the work that preceded* Then breaking entirely with the stage traditions handed down to him, the dramatist, no longer the advocate of a society that must be upheld in its prejudices now bit terly arraigned the conventionalities and social shams that were trammels to the development of the drama. The influence of the French on Ibsen was great, but he was a great constructive thinker and creator as well and not a mere disciple; so although as a dramatist Ibsen owes not a little to the French playwrights, Emile Augier and Alexandre Dumas, fils, from whom he learned valuable lessons in theme and dramatic technique, he eventually evolved a method all his own which has exer cised incalculable influence upon practically all the dramatists who have written since his time. He was able by means of his skill as an artist to state in dramatic form a number of social problems and conditions of especial interest and significance to his generation. In other words, he took the French "well-made play”, made it more 84 flexible than it had ever been, and adapted it to his own artistic requirements* William Archer thinks that in The Doll's House we are able to see this method of Ibsen’s work: We cannot cease to wonder at the marvellous technical excellence of Ibsen’s art from The Doll*s House on wards. The letters dropped opportunely into the letter box in that play are the last stirrings in him of the old Adam, Scribe; and after Dr. Rank, the Dumas raisonneur ceases to trouble. Here ends Ibsen's first period in which we have the influence of the French School, a group of dramatists con cerned with the so called "well-made play". These drama tists developed a perfectly balanced and logically made plot which could be perfectly worked out as to Intro duction, Rise, Climax, and Catastrophe, of which dramatic critics have been delighted in drawing well balanced triangles illustrating the logicalness and mathematical 129 exactness with which they are composed . In this type of play the revelation of past events is brought about by an adroit choice of the opening situation, which method Otto Heller defines as "the synthetic method as 128 J. G* Robertson, "Henrik Ibsen" Contemporary Review, April 1928, volume 133, p. 464. 129 See diagrams of plot Construction in Appendix III. 85 130 action developed within the play” . Here we may clas sify most of Ibsen*s early national romantic and histori cal dramas such as Catiline, The Warriors Barrow. Olaf Lil.iekrans, and The Feast of Solhoug, and then the his torical dramas such as Lady Inger, The Vikings of Helge- land, The Pretenders. Peer Gynt, and The Emperor and Galilean. From this list we see that there is probably no play that has directly influenced the dramas of Eche garay, for Brand, The Pillars of Society, Ghosts, and the later social dramas all lie in the second period of Ibsen*s dramatic technique. In this second period Ibsen was influenced by the methods of the Greeks in which there is a gradual revelation of past events through out the play. This method Otto Heller calls "the analytical method as action which is already completed, but first coming to light in the course of the playt l ' L31. Turning from romantic and historical dramas to realistic dramas of social life Ibsen believed he needed 130 Otto Heller, Flays and Problems (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin Company, 191S), p. 181. 131 Ibid. 86 to change to a more realistic method of construction* He did not abandon the revealment of the past, for the present is always a result of the past; he does not, however, as in the old models, relate the past in his first act im mediately, but reveals it naturally as the play progresses and as the entrances of the various characters demand. In this matter Ibsen follows Eaton's definition of a good play when he says: The best play, of course, is the one in which the characters reveal themselves so naturally that we are not aware that they are doing it, and in which every speech which explains the past is almost directly related to the present and the future, and in which, finally, the solution is not forced, but a natural and inevitable outgrowth of the characters. In the best plays we are least conscious of the means employed to get the plot across*-*-^ Brander Matthews expresses a view similar to Eaton's: In considering the technique of Ibsen's drama, one is reminded of Whistler's remark that art is only great when all traces of the means used have vanished. Ibsen's skill as a playwright is so consummate that his art is never obtruded. In fact,, it was so adroitly hidden that when he first loomed on the horizon careless theatrical critics were tempted rather to deny its existence. 133 W. P. Eaton, Plays and Players (Cincinnati: Stewart Kidd and Company, 1916), "p. 340« 133 Anonymous, "The Commanding Influence of Ibsen" Current Literature. July 1906, volume 41, p. 60. 87 The plays in the second period that reveal Ibsen best in his technical originality and daring are Ghosts, The Wild Duck, and Rosmersholm. Since it was Ghosts that of all Ibsen's plays most directly influenced Echegaray, it is Ghosts that should be discussed from the standpoint of dramatic technique. In this play, according to Heller, Ibsen has rejuvenated the Greek tragedy. On this point Brander Matthews also agrees saying: Sometimes a play of Ibsen's has another likeness to a tragedy of the Greeks, in that it presents in action before the assembled spectators only the culminating scenes of the story* ''Ghosts" recalls "Oedipus, the King" not only in the horror at the heart of it and the poignancy of the emotion it evokes, but also in its being a fifth act only, the culmination of a long and complex concentration of events, which took place before the point at which Sophocles and Ibsen saw fit to begin their plays. In the Greek Tragedy, as in the Scandinavian social drama, the poet has chosen to deal with the result of the action, rather than with the visible struggle itself; it is not the present doings of the characters, but their past deeds, ihich determine their fate; and it seems almost as though the ancient Athenian and the modern Norwegian had taken as a motto George Eliot's saying that "consequences are unpitying", 3 In the judgment of Bjornstjerne Bjornson, Ghosts is Ibsen's masterpiece. To a representative of the Copen- 134 Anonymous, "The Commanding Influence of Ibsen" Current Literature, op, cit., p, 60, 88 hagen Politiken who asked him for an expression of opinion in connection with Ibsen*s death, Bjornson said: It is in G-hosts that he most lavishly develops his poetic gifts, and there that he goes deepest for his material. I do not know whether he can be called the greatest of contemporary poets; but the great est Master Builder, that he is.155 In reference to Ghosts, Archer says that it has done far more than any of Ibsen*s other plays to . "move boundary posts", that it has advanced the frontiers of dramatic art and new ideals, both technical and intellectual in the minds of a whole generation of playwrights, and that here, X 36 at last, Ibsen becomes the most modern of the moderns. Ghosts is perhaps the most interesting of all of Ibsen's plays, for the action of the play is almost entirely retrospective; and, therefore, Ibsen has had to reverse the dramatic processes used in his dither plays. Instead of the first scene being a revelation of the past to prepare the audience for coming events, it is used to arouse the interest of the audience in what has happened before the play; in stead of circumstances being created in the play to further the action of the plot, they are created gradually to bring about a natural revelation of past events; and instead of 135 Ibid. 136 William- Archer, Collected Works of Henrik Ibsen, Ghosts, op. cit., Introduction. 89 the characters being developed during the course of the play they are already formed when the action begins; and the gradual' revelation of the past explains why the characters are what they are. The entire interest in character and in plot is centered in the past. Since Ibsen begins his plot with the return of the wretched Osv/ald, he is, as Clark says, "merely dramatizing an effect; the cause of the tragedy is over, years before 1^7 the play begins". There is very little stage action presented in addition to the past actions; it is, there fore, almost entirely retrospective action. There are many facts of past history to be uncovered in Ghosts, but Ibsen does not resort to any conventional device, such as a group of gossipers, or the confidences of school friends, to pre sent his necessary past history. He takes the realistic method of letting these facts become known throughout the course of the play as the meeting of the characters and their conversation necessitates* The characters who re veal the past are vital characters in the play and not mere conveniences chosen by the dramatist for his need. They relate past events because they are a part of the past, and because the present situations in which they 137 B. H. Clark, A Study of the Modern Drama (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1928)”, p. 31. 90 find themselves force them to reveal the part they have played in the past. The curtain rises upon a quiet scene just as one might open a door, Regina foreshadows the coming revelation of her past history when she tells Engstrand that Mrs, Alving treats her almost like a daughter. Engstrand reveals the fact that he is a widower, that Reginars mother was in Alving's service three years, and that an Englishman had wed her mother. Engstrand asks Regina to accompany him; she is teased for wanting to remain near Oswald, and thus foreshadows the coming relation between them. Thus this opening situation has given enougir.of the present situation to create a desire in the audience for a knowledge of the past history of these characters. Oswald gives the audience its first glimpse of his past when he tells how his father laughed at him for not smoking. His talk of Paris life brings out comments of Mrs. Alving’s past from Pastor Manders, The audience is is now interested in the past for its own sake and not for what it will reveal; so instead of revealing past action in preparation for the future, Ibsen reverses the process and makes the present situation pave the way for the revelation of the past. Manders gives his version of the past; Mrs, Alving gives a true version of the part she played in the past. Oswald is told the history of Regina and his father only just before the final catastrophe (when she promises him poison). Thus until the very last our interest remains really in the past. The technique which Echegaray uses in The Son of Don Juan is entirely different. In the opening scene we have Don Juan and his friends discussing all the events of the past which will be of consequence in th e play. After this act there is nothing left to learn about the past, and the interest of the audience is wholly centered in the present; the past is forgotten. Echegaray works out his drama following the "well-made-play” where we have the orderly consecutive introduction, rise, climax, fall, and catastrophe as in Madman or Saint’ , In Ghosts. however, the action begins only with the coming of the final catastrophe, and as soon as the past has been fully unravelled, the actaon is over and only the catastrophe remains, Ibsen has another classical quality in his drama which Professor Matthews brings out thus: A play of Ibsen’s is always compact and symmetrical. It has a beginning, a middle, and an end; it never straggles, but never moves straight forwards to its conclusion. It has unity; and often it conforms even to the pseudo-unities proclaimed by the super- 92 1 7 0 ingenious critics of the Italian Renascence* In no play of Ibsen’s is the action longer than a' day or two; the time, place and action are probably so unified because of the fewness of the characters and the bareness of the plots which he presents* We cannot say this is always true of Echegaray *'s plays. It is true that in Echegaray1s best known plays, The Great Galeoto, The Son of Don Juan* and Madman or Baint, he follows the unities (of action in particular) fairly well, especially if we consider Elizabeth Nitchie*s definition of unity: Unity depends upon the setting of a single tone and the emphasizing of the central characters and the most dominant purpose of the play in the opening acts; in the middle scenes upon the inevitability of movement toward the climax and the harmonizing of stage picture with the emotional crisis; and - in the final scenes upon avoidanee of anything to mar the climax, and, as in the first act the main taining of the emphasis upon the dominant tone, purposejand character**-39 In some plays, however, Echegaray does not carry out the 138 Anonymous. "The Commanding Influence of Ibsen" Current Literature, op. cit., p. 58* 139 Elizabeth Nitchie, The Criticism of Literature (New York: Macmillan Company, 1928), p* 288. 95 Unities so well; sometimes characters take long journeys by sea and much time elapses during the action of the drama which Ibsen would place outside of the actual plot of his play. In the three plays mentioned above, however, Echegaray does carefully follow the.Unities of Time and Place. In.spite of the carrying out of these Greek unities the plays of Echegaray seem to be formed not after the Greeks but after Ibsen's early work% modelled after the French school, or probably rather directly after the French School's old method of le piece bien faite where the situation is logically unravelled from the conversation of servants, meeting of old friends, and in soliloquies rather than in Ibsen's more natural manner. In some plays of Echegaray the critics do agree that we find a similarity of theme and a resemblence to some of Ibsen's plots, but as to structure and technique not one has been able to say that the northern writer's revolutionary measures has affected the dramatic technique of Echegaray. For example, Ibsen said that he never answered questions; he always asked them. Dumas fils, on the other hand, and Brieux not only ask, but answer their questions.In 140 B. H. Clark, A Study of the Modern Drama, opw cit., p. 114. 94 Ghosts, Ibsen asks but does not answer; in The Son of Don Juan Echegaray loudly flaunts his moralizing answer much as did Dumas and iiugier earlier. The best that can be said of Echegaray*s technique is that it is "comparable with that of some of the cleverest 141 inventions of Sardou” . Storm Jameson brings out the in fluence of Dumas and Scribe on Echegaray and adds to it the influence of the technique of the old Classical Spanish dramatist, O&lderon; Echegaray is typical of these years of confusion. He wrote over sixty plays, Among them are comedies after the fashion of Scribe and Dumas, some with a grace be yond their reach. There are also tragedies, in the tragedies of Calderon ... To these comedies after Dumas and tragedies after Calderon, Echegaray, poli tician, scientist, mathematician, added a curious problem drama. He was influenced by the work of the French naturalists; one of his plays is founded directly on a part of Salammbo. He observed, dis sected, attempting the dispassionate faithfulness of the Theatre Libre. His study of social questions and psychological cases is a mixture of the theatre's ad herence to the document, and of the mechanical analy sis of Scribe and Dumas. Hot content with thus destroying the purity of the problem drama, he further complicated it by clinging to his traditional desire for terrific scenes and moyigg passions. He made of Ghosts a horrid melodrama. 141 Anonymous, "Drama” The nation. June 4, 1914, volume 98, p. 672. 142 Storm Jameson, Modern Drama in Europe (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Howe), p. 231. 95 Ibsen*s technique ranks with that of the greatest dramatists, but Echegaray missed that very originality in technique for which Ibsen has been praised, un the whole we can only say hbout him that: he represents in drama the well-made play of the type that Scribe made popular in I'rance; and although he has greater passion and color than ocribe, and in some situations.makes use of a draimtic technique which ibsen was using at the same time in .Northern Europe, he must be considered as an author of third or fourth rank in the history of European literature. 3-^3 Before Ibsenrs time the drama had been a part of 144 poetry; Ibsen made it prose. His first attempts were in poetry and date back to the time when he was apprenticed to a druggist and in his spare moments prepared for the university; his first book of verses came out in 1848. Ibsen has been criticised for his lack of ability to ap preciate the music which Grieg made for Beer Gynt; for verse, however, his sense was exceedingly delicate, and 145 the sound of poetry gave him acute pleasure. 143 E R. D. Jameson, A Short History of European Litera ture (Shanghai. China. The Commercial rress. Limited” 1930'}. pTT60. 144 A. Symons, "Henrik Ibsen" Living -&ge. December 82, 1906. volume 251, p. 717. 145 Edward W. G'osse, Henrik Ibsen (New York: Gharles Scribner's Sons, 1908), p. 233. His: first drama Catalina was in a beautiful poetry permeated with grandeur, and the poetry of Brand and Peer Grynt makes their creator one of the great pets of the world. Peer Gynt with its exuberant poetic beauty represents the flood-tide of Ibsen’s imagination and the third act, culminating with the drive to Soria Moria Castle and the death of Ase, is of the very quintessence of poetry, and puts Ibsen in the first rank of creators. The fifth act contains much which the reader can hardly enjoy, but it opens with a scene so full of the glory of the mountains and the sea that there is according-to England's great champion of Ibsen.ftGosse, nothing else in drama to compare with it.14® Although Ibsen was essentially a poet he forced himself to write prose, for when he parted company with the ponderous play, burdened with profound and witty incidents and concentrated his attention upon the characters and the main plot, he took another important step. Up to this time he had written much verse. Now he came to the con clusion that verse too often embalms a lie; that sweet meter makes the reader accept a half truth at full value. He therefore resolved to write sober prose, prose that is shorn of every sentimental and insinuating appeal.147 146 Edward W. Gosse, 0£. cit., p. 107. 147 F. H. G-rummann, "Ibsen in his Maturity, I" Poet Lore. Vacation No. 1917, p. 434. 97 When asked wjay, after writing Loire1 s Comedy« Brand and Peer Gynt, he abandoned dramatic poetry and took up prose he answered, "I might say, briefly that it followed of itself* At that time I turned to the study and treatment of modern life* Poetry could not have been used to develop my 148 ideas* It would have been out of place*'* In a letter to Edmund Grosse he again explains his change in form: There is one point which I must discuss with you* You think my new drama ought to be written in verse, and that it will gain an advantage if it is. Here I must simply contradict you; for the piece is, as you will find, developed in the most realistic way possible. The illusion I wish ,to produce is that of truth itself; I want to produce upon the reader the impression that what he is reading is actually taking place before him* If I were to use verse, I should by so doing be stulti fying my own intention and the object which I place before me. The variety of everyda5' and unimportant characters, which I have intentionally introduced into the piece, would be effaced and blended into one another, if I had allowed them all to converse in a rhythmic movement. We are no longer living in the time of Shakespeare, and among sculptors there is beginning to be a discussion whether statuary ought not to be painted with lively colours* Much can be said for and against such a practice. I myself would not have the Venus of Milo painted, but I would rather s see a negro's head carved in black marble than in white. On the whole, my feeling is that literary form ought to be in relation to the amount of ideal ity which is spread over the representation* My new drama is not, indeed, a tragedy in the old-world signification of the word, but what I have tried to 148 E* 0* Achorn, "Ibsen at Home" Hew England Magazine. February 1896, volume 13, p. 737, 98 depict in it is human beings, and for that very reason I have not allowed them to talk the "language of the gods* Ibsen's emphasis on realism and on character affect ed greatly the development of the modern drama. Dialogue became more.natural, because the flowery speeches of the romantic drama seemed absurd in comparison with his col loquialisms. The problems of contemporary life and the crises in the lives of ordinary individuals were chosen as the most suitable subjects; so speech became "the language of the newspaper, recorded with the fidelity .of the phono graph."^50 Such is Ibsen's dialogue, for example in The Doll*s House where the dialogue is as it is in a thousand modern homes, whereas no one ever spoke as Romeo speaks to Juliet in the balcony scene. Here we see a vital dif ference in method. Yet we must not think that Ibsen did not carefully work out his conversation. He did; "he always polished up his phrases but he never worked up his dialogue, so to speak, for its own sake alone*1-^^ 149 Henrik Ibsen, Letters. op. cit., p. 269. 150 A. Symons, "Henrik Ibsen", op. cit., p. 714. 151 Anonymous "Peeps into Ibsen's Brain" Current Literaturej February 1910, volume 48, p. 191. 99 Another way in which he strove for naturalness of dialogue was to omit "hsides" and soliloquies* It has often been said in defense of the "aside” and the soliloquy that since the drama is a series of conventions, why not accept these as well as the others? For hundreds of years certain 152 conventions have been accepted, why then, asks B. H. Clark should we cast them aside at this late date? The drama has changed radically during the past century, and is still developing at a rapid rate* With the change in subject matter has come a corresponding change in the manner of treat ment* The "aside” is not natural, because it does not seem natural; people seldom or never turn their heads aside and utter words not intended to be heard by any one else; and when these words are spoken loud enough to be overheard by a large audience, while the characters who must not hear them are within whispering distance of the speaker, the falsity of the situation becomes too apparent. In Ibsen’s prose plays there are no "asides” and very few soliloquies. Ibsen sought everyday likeness and 152 B. H* Clark, A Study of Modern Drama;, op. cit., p . 3 6 5 . 100 forged a remarkable instrument for obtaining it in his prose dialogue. He has taken with singular fidelity the mould or actual, living converse between two minds at play upon, and into, and through each other, in which the thought or feeling evolved belongs to neither alone, and is not so much communicated from mind to mind as produced by the swift interaction of the pair. ... Question, reply, suggestion, develop ment, pause, anticipation, hesitancy- these, and all else of which conversation is made up, are most ingeniously reproduced. The conventions of the stage are ignored; ... His speakers are never rhetorical, except when they are born rhetoricians, like Stensgaard, or born sentimentalists like Hjal- mer Ekdal; when passion grows tense, the speech is ordinarily most concentrated and simple. The dialogue seldom errs by excess of brilliancy, seldom glitters with epigram or flashes ?/ith para dox. Since it has become the fashion to issue plays in book-form, certain dramatists felt the need of ampli fying and expounding their stage directions. Ibsen was among the first to do this.154: With the effort for reality has come the need of commenting upon the more complex settings and subtler characters, which are com paratively new. Perhaps these minute stage directions of 153 Edward Dowden, "Henrik Ibsen" Contemporary Review. November 1906, volume 90, p. 660. 154 • B. H. Clark, A Study of the Modern Drama, op.cit. 101 Ibsen's are the results of his work as stage master. In 1899 Ibsen remarked that it was almost useless for actors nowadays to try to perform the comedies of Holberg, because there were no stage directions and the traditions were lost. Of his own work, fortunately, that can never be said. Echegaray, as well as missing Ibsen’s technique, misses his wonderful prose dialogue; his own language is bombastic and full of exaggerated expressions of the Romantic School and of its extravagance. Even in such a play as El_ Gran Galeoto one cannot help wishing that Eche garay had shaken off the trammels of verse and rhyme, and although KL Gran Galeoto*s dialogue is easy and spirited 156 we miss a sparkle and incisive brevity in it. His 167 style is cramped and awkward, without fluency* ' An artist in the polished, complete sense he can not be described. He has none of the French drama tist's incision, none of his delicate irony, his playfulness and humorous depravity, none of his beautiful clarity of expression, still less of his polish, his wit and consummate dexterity. Poetry is his favorite form of dramatic expression, but 155: Edward Gosse, op. cit., p. 189. 156 H. Lynch, ”Jos^ Echegaray” The Contemporary, October 1893, volume 64, p. 580. 157 Anonymous, "Drama" The Nation, June 4, 1914. volume 98, p. 678. 102 it is not the suave measured poetry ... and while he often takes his inspiration from the middle ages, he offers us nothing like the ethereal and fanciful verse.158 Later, it is true, Echegaray alternates between verse and prose, "and his hesitance in choosing a medium of expression is amply justified, for the writer's prose is not more dis- 159 tinguished than his verse". Ibsen, after 1869, never returned to verse, but Echegaray continually varied the form of his drama; now i fin it is verse, next it is prose, and then verse again. He chose verse more often than prose because it was the rule that romantic plays should be written in verse. It is true that his prose is equally ugly and unmusical, but in drama, a perfect prose style is of less importance. To write in verse without being a poet is to emphasize one's 161 deficiencies. 158 H. Lynch, "Jos^ Echegaray". op. cit. 159 Anonymous, "Echegaray" Encyclopaedia Britannica (London:: Encyclopaedia Britannica 'Company,' Ltd. 14th ed.) volume 7, p. 895. 160 See Appendix IV. 161 L* A. Warren, Modern Spanish Literature (London: Brentano's Ltd. 1929), p. 544. Not only is his style poor^ but he uses the old methods of "asides” and soliloquies. Every play is packed with numerous lines in which the characters talk to themselves. "One of the longest soliloquies dis coverable in all dramatic literature", says Professor Matthews, "is the Kingfs argumentative monologue of more than one hundred lines in Victor Hugo*s Hernani. He evidently at this time had not read The Great Galeoto, for here Pepito's soliloquy is one hundred and twenty lines long;; and it, moreover, furthers neither plot nor reveals character. Besides the long soliloquies, Echegaray uses the old Scribian devices with which he obtains spectacular theatrical effects. Nearly every play has letters or papers on which the plot hangs; duels, intrigues, deaths, conspiracies are numerous in his work. His plays often show little else than a mere striving after picturesque effect and sensational situations. In most of his plays Echegaray tends to exaggeration, sensationalism, passion, outrage, scandal, madness and fanaticism. Of him Galdos said, "He was, as it 162 Brander Matthews, A Study of the Drama (New York Houghton, Mifflin Company, 1910) ' i ' p. 146. 104 were, a thundering flashing hurricane which changed discreet emotions into violent passions*163 What a contrast to Ibsen who knew how to achieve the maximum of effect by the minimum of means* Where a Victor Hugo would pour out floods of rhetoric, Ibsen limits himself to a few laconic words and pauses. By his structure he succeeds in concen trating in simple, unpathetic expressions the high est dramatic pathos. Yet with all this striving for effect, or because of it, Echegaray fails to produce in his audience that feeling of pity and fear, that purging of the emotions which Aristotle feels all good tragedy should possess. In this manner Ibsen exhibits another classical quality, for nowhere in all literature are found scenes of more poignant grief, and yet spiritual exaltation, than here in the third and fourth acts of ’Brand** Aristotle’s demand that tragedy purge the feelings through fear and pity is unreservedly met. We fear for ’ ’the hapless blossom, laid within the piti less grasp of such a lord I” We pity her, and yet we pity Btfand Too, that soul * storm-stressed* who cannot find tears, that inexorable will that can- 163 T. H. Dickinson, An Outline of Contemporary Drama. (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1927)", p. 148. 164 Janko Lavrin, Ibsen and his Creation. (Londons W. Collins Sons and Company, Ltd. 1921), p. 26. 105 not yield ! 165 Since Echegaray's father was a professor of Greek, and supervised his son's early education we should expect a strong Greek influence; his work, however, shows more evidence of the technique of the French School and es pecially of the classical Spanish drama* Cesar Barja says : E1 drama del senor Echegaray es clasicamente espanol, espanol por los cuatro cQstadosr language, caracteres, intriga, desenlace.166 He himself tells us of numerous romantic novels which he read, especially in French*"He has under gone manifest influences," says Merime'e, "Balzac, Dumas fils, Sardou,", Knowlton adds the names of Cervantes, Calderon, Lope de Vega, Victor Hugo, Moliere, and Shakespeare*^68 Especially is the influence of Victor 165 J* Dransfield, "Ibsen's Brand: an Interpretation” Poet Lore, Autumn No* 1906, volume 17, p* 65* 166 Cesar Barja, Libros y, autores modernos (New York: G* E* Stechert and Company, 1924), volume 2, p. 470. ♦ * 167 J. Graham, The Son of Don Juan (London: T. Fisher Unwin, and Company), Introduction, p. vii. 168 E. Merim^e, op. cit., p. 585. 106 Hugo felt in the romantic atmosphere of his work;; France 169 honored him by calling him "a second Victor Hugo.” All these opinions are well summarized by Professor Federico de Onis, of Columbia Universaty,who writes: Echegaray is a direct product of Romanticism, both of French and Spanish. He continues the Duqua de Rivas, Garcia Gutierrez, Zorrilla, Victor Hugo, and Dumas; • though his origins really go still farther back to the classic theatre of Spain (notably to Calderon), and in a certain sense to Shakespeare. But among all these sources, the most important, if not as regards actual derivation, certainly as regards apparent re sults, is Calderon. It may well be said that Eche garay is the Calderon of Spanish Romanticism. Calderon was the elegant affected "Mannerist” of a declining theater in the Spanish Golden Age. Eche garay likewise is a straggler of the romantic move ment, appearing on the scene when Romanticism itself had entirely passed away under the powerful reaction led against it by Tamayo and Ayala* Echegaray is, in other words, a decadent romantic arriving out of season, and finding his inspiration in the decadent art of the Spanish stage of the Seventeenth Century.1”0 It is no small wonder that Echegaray’s work did not measure up to the quality of Ibsen’s. This dramatist in forty years wrote only twenty-four plays; Echegaray began writing at forty,, and then made up for lost time, for 169 Edgar C. Knowlton, An Outline of World Literature. (New York: Thomas, Nelson and Sons, 1929*7, p. 344. 170 Federico de Onis, The Columbia University Course in Literature (New York: The Columbia University Press, 1929), p. 176, 107 in thirty-two years he produced sixty-three plays ex cluding three translations. For this Federico de Onis blames Echegaray*s audience: In Spain, although the circulation.of books is limited, both the lettered and the unlettered at tend the theatre. The demand for plays is there fore, large, and Spanish dramatists, like their predecessors of The Golden Age. are induced to write too much and too easily.171 Echegaray never took his writing as seriously as Ibsen; at first, the writing of plays seemed just a pas+-~ 172 time to this mathematician and politician. His un usual productivity naturally caused his work to be of inferior quality. His own receipt for writing indicates to us that the results to be expected will certainly not be great: Escojo una pasion, tomo una idea; Un problema, un cardcter, Y lo infundo Cual densa dinamita, en lo profundo de un personaje que mi mente crea. La t.rama, al personaje le rodea de unos cuantos raunecos que en el mundo o' se revuelcan en el cieno inmundo o se calientan d la luz febea* La mecha enciendo, El fuego se propaga, el cartucho revienta sin remedio, y el astro ^principal es ^quien lo paga, Aunque a veces tambien en este asedio que al arte pongo y que al instinto halaga. Me coge la explosion de medio a medio,17* 171 Federico de Onis, loc, cit, 172 Annie R, Marble, op, cit.. ph 240^ 173 Citation quoted by Luis del Olmet, op.cit., p* 79. 108 Ibsen’s receipt was of quite a different kind: The making of a play meant, for Ibsen, an extra-1 ordinary effort of mental concentration. He put everything else aside, read no books, attended to no business that was not absolutely imperative, and lived for weeks and months with his characters alone. He writes in June 1884, "I have in these days completed a play in five acts. That is to say, I have roughed it out: Now comes the more delicate manipulation of it, the more energetic individualisation of the characters and their mode of expression,",., A month or two later he writes, "The people in my new play, in spite of their manifold frailties, have through long and daily familiarity endeared themselves to me,-^4 See the result of this formula. There is not a super fluous line in it; every word has its purpose; it is 175 absolutely miraculous'. But Ibsen worked and worked at each of his plays for two years on end, and did nothing else; Echegaray completed one play in three days, Echegaray had no time to polish his work; Ibsen, on the other hand, worked long and hard, "He writes and re-writes, scribbles and destroys, an enormous amount be fore he makes the exquisite fair copy he sends to Copen- 174 William Archer, "Ibsen in his Letters" Living Age, April 32, 1905, volume 27, p, 210, 175 Anonymous, "The Commanding Influence of Ibsen" Current Literature, July 1906, volume 41, p, 59, 109 hagen." The papers in his workshop show clearly how long he brooded over his plays and how well known his characters hecame to him; they became almost real to him_, and he missed them when he completed his plays: In 1890, when he has finished Hedda Gabler, he writes to Count Prozor:: "It gives me a strange feeling of emptiness to part from a piece of work which has now for several months, exclusively oocupied my time and my thoughts. Yet it is well that it has come to an end. The incessant association with these imaginary people was beginning to make me not a little nervous*"1'' It was not in Echegaray to finish, elaborate.,and try every phrase and word by fire as did Ibsen. We are told by his biographer that Dr. Ibsen does not set pen to paper until he has thought out the material for his work, and made it the subject of long and careful meditation. Having done this, "he makes a rough sketch of it, which he then proceeds to shape," But this sketch is mepely pre liminary. Not until it is completed does he begin to feel acquainted with these charactersjto know their dispositions, and to feel sure of the manner in which they will express 176 E. W. Gosse, op. cit., p. 231. 177 Wm. Archer, "Ibsen in his Letters", op. cit., p. 211. 110 themselves. So this first manuscript is worked over into a second, and from the second a third is carefully written out. By these laborious methods practised four hours a day all the year round, the dramatist completes a play once in two years, and presents it to the public at Christmas time.^® Z It is small wonder, then, that William Archer can say: : I have never felt Ibsen’s genius more clearly than in comparing his first conceptions with his finished work. It is as though we watched a city turning at a magician’s touch, from brick into marble.■ ‘ •”9 Thu§: it' is to be expected that we see little in Echegaray*s dramatic technique that can be compared to Ibsen's. Let us see in the next chapter whether or not Echegaray*s delineation of characters may be compared to the creator of such living-beings as Nora, Hedda Gabler, Brand, and a host of others. 178 T/illiam Morton Payne, ! , John Babriel Borkman" The Dial. January 16, 1897, volume 22, p. 39. 179 William Archer, "From Ibsen's Workshop:: The Geneisis* of the Drama" Fortnightly Review, December 1909, volume 92, p. 978. CHAPTER IV A COMPARISON OF THE CHARACTERS IN"CERTAIN'OF IBSEN'S AND ECHEGARAY'8 PLAYS CHAPTER IV In comparing the characters of these two drama tists, Henrik Ibsen and Jose Echegaray there are two points to be observed; first, the type of character which is portrayed, and second, the manner of means; by which each dramatist portrays his various types and his attitude toward them. When thinking about Ibsen's characters there immediately comes to one's mind his interest in portray ing abnormal persons, Ibsen is considered by some "the greatest psychological dramatist since the time of Racine." Ariyone who has attended a series of performances of Ibsen's plays can scarcely help but be struck by the fact that most of his popular dramas are concerned with dis tinctly medical questions. "There is scarcely one of them which does not contain a wonderfully accurate study of TOT some pathological condition." 180 E. Faguet, "The Symbolical Drama" The Inter national Quarterly, December 1903, volume 8, p. 389. 181 J. J. Walsh, "Medical Aspects of Ibsen" The Independent, volume 61, August 23, 1906, p. 444. 112: This fact need not surprise anyone if he remem bers that Ibsen, before he became a dramatist, tried to prepare himself for the study of medicine; even at that time he must have felt an interest not only in normal people but in those who were ill both physically and mentally. He evidently never lost his interest in studying abnormal types, for even physicians notice his wonderfully acute observations with regard to those mentally diseased. Dr. J. J. Walsh, M. D. says: No one since Shakespeare has succeeded in paint ing so truthfully to life various types of men?-'-* tal peculiarities. There are strokes of genius ' in the rapidity with which each picture is sketch ed, and the unobtrusiveness of even the most pathological aspects of the character is so mark ed that the plays do not disgust nor deter, but on the contrary, attract the public whom they are meant to instruct. ... Of all his later dramas there is not a single one that does not con tain some striking example of a mind "jangled out of tune”. It is of the essence of his genius that these abnormal characters are eminently true to those most frequently seen in the life around u s . 1 8 2 £Fo accurate were Ibsen’s observations that critics today have come to believe that he "knew what only our later psychoanalysts have taught us- that even the people 182 Ibid. 113 we call normal are also possessed of complicated neu- * | Q *Z roses", and so supremely skillful a dramatist was he that he was able to point out without exaggeration the tiniest complex of normal people. Even in such a delightful character as Ellida in The Lady from the Sea Ibsen has subtly shown her mental state diseased from childhood.184 The play we first think of in regard to abnormal characters is, of course, Ghosts which received the harsh est criticism of all of Ibsen’s plays. It has been called '•a notebook stolen from a dissecting table"1®8 and Ibsen was accused of deliberately trying to create a sensation by "hacking and hewing, which is not art but butchery"*^86 Today, however, playgoers have become more open-minded and are truthfully able to say, "Never was a scientific note 183 G. Seldies, "The Theatre" The Dial, May 1925, volume 78, p. 430. 184 R. D, Skinner, "The Play" Commonwealth. April 3, 1929, volume 9, p. 626. 185 Anonymous, "The Art and Moral of Ibsen’s Ghosts" Poet Lore. 1894, volume 6, p. 360. 186 Ibid. p. 356. 114 book rich as this is in the artist's way of seeing and 187 the dramatist's way of putting his divination." Today it is realized that when the dramatist is able to create so completely as he has the degenerate character and to show its in evitable tendencies, then the picture, though human ly sad with a supreme poignancy, may be as artistic and as justified in itself as Shakespeare's work in the creation of Ophelia. And who shall say that Shakespeare's delineation of Ophelia's madness is not as great as his creation of Iago's awful malig nity?!^ In Ghosts Ibsen has given us a marvellous study of a very serious disease of modern civilization, paresia. The symptomatic picture is complete, even to the attacks of epileptiform character, which so often mark the early stage of the disease. The de lusions, the sensual excesses, the change of dis position- in a word, the course of the disease, are well marked in Ibsen's wonderful delineation. Perhaps no more striking study of paresis has ever been w r i t t e n . After reading such plays of Echegaray*s as The Son of Don Juan and Madman or Saint the suspicion of the reader deepens into certainty that Echegaray, too, de lighted in the portrayal of the abnormal character. "The subject of lunacy has a peculiar attraction for Echegaray"' 187 Ibid. p. 360. 188 J. J. Walsh, op. cit., p. 466. 189 Ibid. 115 but it is not at all like Ibsen's deep interest. Ibsen's portrayals have been called artistic masterpieces; some "plays of Echegaray seem to be merely a wanton exhibition of insanity, the dramatist seemingly taking the same pleasure in its portrayal that the earlier sculptors took 190 in the exhibition of mere brute force" Hannah Lynch, after reading the two plays on an hereditary disease . and its cause of abnormality in the characters, analyzes them thus: The Spanish mind, as I believe,is not subjective enough to enjoy or understand the psychological analysis which is the motive of Ibsen's work.... And even Echegaray, when he attempts that kind of composition, as in "The Son of Don Juan", seems to be working from the outside, objectively, and his characters are puppets rather than real people.191 Grhosts and in other of his psychological plays Ibsen has brought another new type of character to the stage, for in The Doll1s House. Hedda Gabler, and The Pillars of Society he more than any other modern writer has proved himself ai prophet and an apostle of the cause of women; no other modern writer has shown more sympathetic com prehension of her nature ai|d its latent powers..,'. His plays may fitly be called the heralds of the 190 K« ‘ A# Graham, "Some Aspects of Echegaray" Poet Lore, Summer No. 1910. volume 21, p. 239. 191 F. H. Gardiner, "Echegaray: Spanish Statesman, Dramatist, Poet", Poet Lore, volume 12, p. 408. 116 Woman Movement which characterised the beginning of a new Movement in drama*192 Often has Ibsen received’the compliment of having "certain of his female characters discussed as though they were real women, living lives apart from the poet’s creative intelligence"*193 "It is a mistake," says the great Ibsen actress, All Nazimova, "to talk of "Ibsen’s heroines", Ibsen has no heroines; he has women, Shakespeare has heroines. There is a simplicity and grandeur about them that make them seem very remote from us and very difficult for us to interpret and present on the stage,,,, Shakespeare's women seem more like types, ideals than real persons. They are clear and definite, either good or bad, coquettish or demure, vixenish or humble, and what they are at the beginning of the play that they stay till the curtain falls*1^ But the characters of Ibsen at the fall of the curtain are entirely different from the characters when the curtain first goes up. Let us take for example, the change in the character of Mrs* Alving* 192 L. Bennett, "Ibsen as a Pioneer of the Woman Movement" Westminster Review, March 1910, volume 183, p. 278. 193 J. B. Matthews, "Ibsen the Playwright" The Bookman, February 1906, volume 22, p, 569, 194 A* Mazimova, "Ibsen's Women" The Independent, October 17, 1907, volume 43, p. 912. 117 For the essence of that play is in the contrast between the attitude of Mrs. Alving towards her afflictions in the first act and in the second and third acts. In the first act she blames her husband and Pastor Manders for all that has hap pened. In the second she blames the community she is living in for her husband. In the third she blames herself and Pastor Manders for that community.195 The same change takes place in Nora in The Doll*s House. At the beginning of the play she is the product of man’s fostering care through centuries, his doll, from whom nature has kindly removed the unused faculties which produce clear thinking and business-like actions, Nora adorns a little home with her pretty dresses, her pretty manner, her sweet childish ignorance. For the sake of her husband, she ventures once beyond the limit of the nest. He is ill, and she forges her rich father’s name to obtain money to send him abroad. The disclosure of her guilt, the guilt of a doll who did not know better, brings her face to face with the realities of the world and of life; so by the time the play closes the puppet has become vitalized, changed into a suffering woman 195 G-. S., "After the Play" The New Republic, May 19, 1917, volume 83, p. 114. 118 who realizes that there is "something wrong" in the state of women. "If a dramatist", says Clark, "introduces a cer tain character early in the play vwith the idea of changing the mind and spirit of that character, he must motivate each action and account for the character at the end of the play" If Ibsen wished to show Nora as a doll in the first act of "A Doll's House", and a mature and thinking woman in the last, he must adduce convincing proofs that the change would occur.... In Ibsen's "Doll's House", Nora's change of mind covers less than a week, but Ibsen takes good pare to support her final act by credible motivation.19® According to one critic this credible motivation is just what Echegaray lacked. In Mariana (one of Eche- garay's best plays) the mental processesses of the heroine are torturous and perplexing. We understand easily enough the manner in which the heroine tortures the man who loves her, but are puzzled to know when and how a passion so intense as that she finally displays finds entrance into her heart.197 Echegaray in not one play has a woman character that may be compared to Mrs. Alving or Nora. The wife of 196 B. H. Clark, A Study of the Modern Drama, loc. cit. 19? Anonymous, "Mariana- the Drama of the Week" The Athenaeum. June 1, 1901, volume 1, p. 703. 119 Don tjuan in The Son of Don Juan, it is true, takes Mrs* Alving's place, but there is no growth and development in her character; she remains the typical adoring Spanish wife and mother who accepts the action of her husband as her inevitable fate. It would never occur to her that she herself might have been the dause for, or that she might have altered the existing conditions. Mariana, the heroine of Mariana, is said to be the most European character of the Spanish writer, and one of 198 his strongest delineations , but even she is very weak compared to Ibsen's women. Echegaray*s characters are much dominated by the honor theme which makes out of his people "women who are but puppets and men who are little better than belted ranters", who are mere "mechanisms 199 fighting their battles for honor and truth". The motif par excellence of Echegaray's dramas is the conflict between two inherently opposing duties or forces. Now it is a daughter who sacrifices her own happiness in order to shield her father from the consequences of an indiscretion; now it is a son who, in order to save his father from a disgrace, gives up a happy marriage. Again, we find a scientist pitted against the cohorts of superstition, or a father who assumes responsibility for the crime of his illegitimate son, thus expiating his own crime against society. The characters of these 198 Annie R. Marble, o j d . cit., p.241. 199 Ibid. 120 plays all seem to exist for the satisfaction of their morbid desires for self-sacrifice and ex piation* From this standpoint the theatre of Echegaray presents a long procession of heroines in ill-merited dishonor, ... heroes of the exag gerated Hugoesque type, villains too often rem iniscent of the nickel novel Mhair-raiser". So that he has created many situations, innumerable problems, but little character. 200 Although Ibsen’s women have been praised, his men have often been criticized. In character and will 201 Ibsen’s women stand out above the men; there runs through Ibsen’s work not only a continual tendency to glorify woman but also a continually increasing faith in her. The relationships between men and women are 202 placed in a totally new light. Through the representation of his characters Ibsen meant the world to receive two lessons: first, the duty of the individual to assert his freedom, as a means to the purification of society,and second, the duty of men to recognize the equality of women, not so much by opening to them separate careers, as by listening to their advice, and by helping, where necessary, to train them to have independent judgments on those 200 Isaac Goldberg, The Drama of Transition, op. cit. p. 66. 201 Anonymous "Henrik Ibsen: His Men and Women" The Westminster Review. June 1889, volume 131, p. 627, 202 Georg Brandes, Creative Spirits (New York: Thomas Y Crowell Company, 1923), p. 391, 121 203 matters which need the eommonwork of both sexes. Professor Litzman writes as follows of Ibsen's ideals concerning those conditions:; From women and the coming generation he hoped for healing (of social evils) from their joint work the bringing in of the ideal state,,,. He put great faith in woman's power, unspent as it is and drawn from fresh sources, for social work in companion ship with men. This comradeship seemed to him the surest guarantee for the realisation of his social ideals; how much so is revealed by the fact that his men without exception, even the coldest and least sensual, only feel themselves strong in association with woman; that they seem weak almost to unmanliness if the woman, for any reason, withdraws from this comradeship. Comradeship J That is the keynote of Ibsen's philosophy with regard to the relations of the sexes. Without comradeship, there will be disaster; with it, humanity may attain to heights of blessedness as yet uneonceived. Society is built upon the family; the founders of the family, the man and the woman, must be united in ideals, in sympathy, in mutual interests, and must work together helpfully and harmoniously. Under such conditions and such con ditions only, may we hope for a society whose pil lars are the spirits of Truth and Freedom,^®'* For this reason Ibsen has been "the champion of wives and mothers". In this sense he may be called the "poet of women", for Ibsen saw woman's weakness, but he also saw her strength. 203 C. E. Maurice, "Henrik Ibsen" Economic Review, July 1891, volume 1, p. 350. 204 Anonymous, "When the Dead Awaken" The Bookman, May 1900, volume 11, p. 283, 122 He knew she is made up of heart, and he knew the heart is the spring of life. This is why he points out that a woman’s love dan become a man's salvation, while, on the other hand, a man dries up the purest sources of energy in himself when he kills a woman's love. In the new country of which Ibsen is the prophet he did not give to faith and hope the place they have occupied in the country of the setting sun; For him doubt and sorrow are greater,than faith and hope. But love is greater still. Of all of Ibsen's women the one who portrays this ideal best is Brand's wife, one of the loveliest of all of his characters. In the opening scene of the play she is like a delicate character stepping out of the canvass of some Italian master; later, however, in a scene of wonderful power Agnes lends Brand the support he both craves and dreads, when their little son is sacrificed to Brand's duty. As a specimen of wifely devotion this scene is unequalled. Nothing in literature, ancient or modern, can com pare with it. Many a woman has given her life to save her husband's ... but to offer up what was dearer than life itself to preserve a husband's self-respect, that is something quite different, ° 205 Anonymous, "Ellen Key's Masterly Interpretation Of Ibsen’s Women" Current Literature, April 1910, volume 48, p, 308, 206 D, K, Dodge, "Some of Ibsen's Women" New England, February 1892, volume 56, p, 119, 123' Brand, while he has Agnes to uphold and fortify him through his toilsome climb, can still strive, but after he has lost her his human heart breaks and he feels in a pathetic way that "without the wisdom of human love he must needs strive in vain",807 Of this comradeship between men and women there is no hint in the work of Echegaray, His men believe in the 'double standard", and his women, Carmen, Ines, Angela, Mariana, surrender to their inevitable destiny, lovingj, loving after the good old fashioned way which counts the world well lost for love, and are blissfully oblivious- or it may be shamelessly indifferent- to the fact that they are under the dominion of ’mere illusion* or ’base apetite*,^® These characters are neither individuals nor universal types. They do nothing more than act out the author's well formulated plot. Instead of the plot depending upon the action of the characters, and allowing the characters to control the plot as Ibsen did, his people are merely puppets dancing to the author's strings. That was the purpose of Augier's, Scribe's, and Dumas's vast dramatic machinery. Everything else- reason, 207 E. Dowden, "Henrik Ibsen" Contemporary Review, November 1906, volume 90, p. 652, 208 K, A. Graham, "Some Aspects of Echegaray" op, cit.. p, 234. 124 probability, human nature- were all sacrificed to make 209 the machine run* But Ibsen threw overboard all these old mechanisms; "he gave the theatre new, many-facetted 210 human figures, stripped of all theatrical tradition" • With his realism Ibsen brought characters of living men and women. He included in his dramatis personae no stage hero, no perfect heroine, no absolute villain**.* Ibsen’s characters were always individualized. They were never merely typical* •••• Never had modern dramatists shown a more masterly analysis of human nature. Each character had a reality that was startling.^11 Often is he compared to Shakespeare:: Ibsen a cree quelques figures d’une verite' et d’une richesse telles qu'on n ’en trouve, pas chez un second poete depuis Shakespeare. ! In general, the earlier "well-made-plays" were simpler; they treated characters more as types. With the advent of Ibsen, stock actors found that such in dications as "First Lead", "Villain", and "Ingenue" were not sufficient, because each character had his own in- r 209 H. L* Mencken, "Ibsen:: Journeyman Dramatist" The Dial, op. cit., p. 324. 210 J. G-. Robertson, "Henrik Ibsen", Oontemporar.y Review, April 1928, volume 133, p. 463. 211 M. A. Franc, Ibsen in England, op. cit., p. 135. 212 Lourie-ossit. La Philosophie Sociale dans Ibsen (Paris: F. Alcan, 1900), p. 2. 185 dividuality.213 With Ibsen's characters it was dif ferent; from the time when, in A Doll's House, Ibsen's puppets came to life, they refused ever since to be put back into their boxes. The manager could play what tricks with them he pleased, but he could not get them back in to their boxes. They were alive and they lived with si weird, spectacular, but irrevocable life,2- 1 - 4 Yet although his characters possessed &i swarm of individual features, he was able to pre sent the enthralling duplicity of being at once ax universal symbol, the declining genius and an in dividual with hundreds of singularities,215 That is one reason why Ibsen was able to break through the barrier of language, because his characters are universal types, and at the same time very definite individuals* So Borkman and Stockmann, Nora and Hilda were first dis covered by Ibsen in Norway, but the same species are found in all countries, and nowhere more abundantly than in America!,.,, cirippled in his first engagement ,,, He had sacrificed his love, his family and him self to his commercial aim, but.this, he insisted was not a selfish aim. He did not want money or luxury or ease; he wanted to set the wheels going, to free the bolts of the metals from their idle prison life. Consequently he cannot repent his act; he can only regret that the world has robbed itself 213 B* H, Clark, A Study of the Modern Drama, op. cit., p. 256. 214 G, Brandes, "Henrik Ibsen" The Independent, May 31, 1906, volume 60, p. 1249. 215 Ibid. 126 pi ft of what he alone could do for it. In Nora we see the type of the woman of strong individuality; in Mrs. Alving, the well-intentioned op portunist who makes the best of a bad situation; in Dr* Stockman, the scientific idealist; in Hedda Gabler, the strong-willed, self-respecting aristocrat; in Solness, the conceited promoter who does not learn his profession, but uses spurious and unprincipled means to bolster up hiss deficiencies. Indeed it might be said that Ibsen has created a kind of 20th century mythology in these figures since they reflect our ideas in regard to these various types*which are both personal studies and national les- sons.^^ It is worthy of noting that even in America, which Ibsen never saw, Edwin S. Slosson cay say; Ibsen describes our small towns better than our own n writers. The vices of the village, its narrow interests, its gossip, its exclusiveness, and its rigid control of the conduct and opinions of the individual, are the same here as in Norway, and need the same drastic exposure;, we are all acquainted with Peter, the pompous burgo master, with Mortensgard, the free-thinker, who turns out to be neither free nor a thinker; Aslaksen, the moderate man, whose heart belongs to the people, but whose reason inclines to the authorities; Hovsted, the printer, whose paper is radical on questions of national politics, but observes a certain amount of 216 E. E. Slosson, "Ibsen as an Interpreter of Ameri can Life" The Independent, May 31, 1906, volume 60, p. 1253. 217 A. Symons, "Henrik Ibsen" Living Age, December 22, 1906, volume 251, p. 719. 127 caution in regard to purely local matters; Solness, the master builder, losing his grip on his work and in mortal terror of being supplanted by the younger generation; and Tesman, the professor, physically and mentally nearsighted. As for Ibsen’s women, we have them all here, from Nora, the bird-woman, to Hedda, the cat woman,218 Besides the great major characters, Ibsen has un usual skill in the handling of minor characters. He suc ceeds in utilizing them in many ways in bringing out the main purposes of his drama, Echegaray utterly lacks this ability, and his minor characters often lack even a pur pose for being in the drama. But Ibsen worked carefully; as a rule, as we have said before, he devoted two years to a single play and much of this time was spent in studying people. It is in teresting to note his method. At the Cafe Maximilian in Munich, where he always appeared bn the stroke of a certain hour; he had his accustomed place in front of a large mirror which re flected the entrance with all coming and going guests. Without having to turn around he could sit there and observe everything. Like a poetical detective, he sat before the mirror with his big newspaper held up to his face and nothing eluded his alert eye. "To create is to see", he once explained. ^ 218 E, E. Slosson, ojs. cit., p. 1255. 219 Anonymous, "Ibsen’s Voice from the Grave" Current Literature, March 1907, volume 42^ p. 310. 128 The question was raised once as to how far he found his characters in real life and how far they were creatures of his imagination, "They are both", he said, "I have been going about studying life and characters now, for twenty-seven o t twenty-eight years, mostly in Germany and Italy, and my characters are either taken from the people and my incidents from fact, or they are suggested to me by experiences of life which I have myself shared or seen,1,220 In developing his characters Ibsen used one method- symbolism which is almost totally lacking in the work of Echegaray in regard to characters. The sun, it is' true, is symbollically employed in The Son of Don Juan (and in some other plays of his) but Echegaray lacked poetical ability and did not have the elaborately work ed out scheme of Symbolism that Ibsen did. The purpose of Ibsen's symbolism is well des- / cribed by Emile Faguet:: To sum up, the symbolical drama is one that uses signs, animate and inanimate representations, to express, apart from what the personages say and do, certain ideas relating to the play, and, most often, the essential, the central, idea of the play. Symbolism is in no wise necessary to the drama; it is less necessary to the drama than to all the other arts, since the drama has words in which to express its ideas,- to say naught of 220 Cited from E, 0, Achorn, "Ibsen at Home" New England Magazine, February 1896, volume 13, p, 737, 129 the actions, the gestures, and even the physiognomies of the personages. On this account, symbolism is rather dangerous in the drama, since one of two things may happen; it may be superfluous, expressing ideas which the words of the characters also express; or if it does not thus repeat ideas, the spectator may be tempted to- say, "Why do you not have expressed by one of your characters what your symbol expresses, for your characters would express it more clearly than the symbol can?" Nevertheless, the symbol may be an ornament, an additional interpreter of the author's thought, and an ornament is never superfluous if it is fair and well chosen. Besides, it may happen that what it is natural for no character to express, through timidity, lack of intellectual depth, or the necessity of the situation, the author may himself through the interpretation, as it were, of a symbol, and in this case the symbol plays a part analogous, I say only analogous, to that of the chorus in the ancient Greek tragedy. Finally, the symbol is above all a means for the dramatic poet to give full ex pression to the poetry in his soul. That is its chief office. It is a direct product of the poetical faculty of the author, and not at all an artifice, or an expedient, or a motive factor; in Ibsen it is essentially a direct product of the author's poetic faculty.22^ There are few writers, and Echegaray is not one of them, who would work out such an elaborate system as did Ibsen, One of his most difficult symbols is the use of the bird which Gerd shoots, in Brand. In the notes to his translation, C. H. Herford, observes five things about it: 1. It is the enemy of Gerd, who persistently tries to kill it and finally succeeds; 2. It will not en ter the ice-Church; 3. It is associated with the two moments at which Brand is about to abandon his 221 E. Faguet, "The Symbolical Drama" The International Quarterly, December 1903, volume 8, p. 330. 130 rigid formula and yield to human affection; 4, It is identified with the "tempter in the wilderness," who assuages the form and pleads in the spirit of Agnes; 5, When slain by Gerd, it is found to be white as a.dove. In view of these conditions Her- ford identifies the falcon with the spirit of compromise, or ♦humane1 yielding, and speaks of it as allied to love,322 It is said that Ibsen never introduced descriptions of scenery for their own sake, but only as symbols of human thought and aspiration and heroic endeavor; as, for example, the allusions to the glaciers and the "ice-church"j the misty mountain-tops and the stormy fiord, in Brand. Brand has the love of an old Norse salt for the "fierce, con flicting brine," but it is the mysteriousness and unfathom ableness of the restless water, typifying the seething passions of the soul which fascinate him, and are so much like him,223 Few dramatists have worked out their characters with such care from the standpoint of individuality, universality, and then finally symbollically* When we think of Echegaray's character Sj we see that there is hardly one character of his that may be classed in any way with Ibsen's. 222' J, Dransfield, "Ibsen's Brand'; an Interpretation" Poet Lore. Autumn, 1906, volume 17, p. 67. 223 E. P. Evans, "Henrik Ibsen; His Early Care,er as Poet and Playwright" Atlantic Monthly, May 1890, volume 65, p. 578. CHAPTER V SUMMARY AMD CONCLUSIONS CHAPTER V 131 The extent to which one writer is influenced by another is difficult to determine since it can hardly be conclusively proved where one author*s originality ends and the conformance to the other writer*s rules begins* Authorities, in general, agree that one of the greatest influences on modern drama was the work of Henrik Ibsen* So revolutionary were his reforms and so much dis turbance did he create that hardly a dramatist who wrote after him can be omitted from a list of those whom he in fluenced* Critics realize, however, that his influence affects writers in varying degrees determined by the author and the contemporary conditions under which he wrote. Often two men working in the same age and under similar conditions produce identical results* Have not inventors, perfecting their work within a few hours of each other, often been accused of taking the ideas of the other? Writers, also, may produce nearly similar novels or dramas which grow out of mutual experiences* A very good example of such a coincidence has been shown already in the similarity which exists between Ibsen's Wild Duck and Echegaray*s Piensa mal ,,, £ acertara^s?. 132' Such striking similarities as there are between these two dramas would certainly justify the critic in sup posing a relationship between the authors, if dates did not preclude the possibility. This example should be ample warning to those critics who too enthusiastically point out the influence of the Scandinavian and other writers such as Augier, Scribe, Dumas,fils, Hugo, Calderon, and other Spanish dramatists contemporary with Echegaray. It is granted that Echegaray received much from Ibsen in both ideas and technique, that his style and dramatic methods were influenced by the French School, and that Calderon^s influence in particular was great, but what Echegaray in turn reproduced is quite different from much of the work which he, supposedly, imitated. Fundamentally the ideas of Ibsen and Echegaray are'similar; ; the difference lies in their expression. For instance, although both Ibsen and Echegaray recognize the role of society in life, yet the Spaniard would seek self-realization in self-repression, while the Norwegian hopes for the realization of self t through the expansion of self. IhSen is an out- and-out radical; Echegaray is that peculiar, but familiar, type who to the radical seems conservative and to the conservative seems radical 224 Isaac Goldberg, The Drama of Transition, op. cit. p. 67. 1335 Ibsen, more than Echegaray, has felt the ills of the modern world, but whereas, the Spaniard is content merely to moralize, the Norwegian, like the harsh stormy winds of his country, flays and rends to shreds the wrong as he sees it with an unrelenting hand* The moralist in both is strong, but whereas out of the chaos of modern social ill-adjustments the Spaniard has drawn situations, artificially con structed proofs of a hollow fatalism, melodramatic tales of oft-repeated wrong-doing, ceaseless retri bution, suffering of the innocent for the guilty, The Norwegian (in birth only) sees life truly as a stage, learfis, through his apprenticeship as stage- manager, the technique of the vehicle by which he is to attempt the reform of modern notions, progresses from Dumas* romanticism to a form of drama virtually his own. Where the moralist in Echegaray submerges the dramatist, in Ibsen, the latter aids the former. Where the impetus of the Spaniard leads him to extravagance in drama, Ibsen's extravagance confines itself more to his ideas, and he possesses a tact, a reserve, a sense of the effective, that would have sufficed to lift Echegaray forever out of the limbo in which he now hangs suspended- too good to be classed with the lowly writers, author of a few masterpieces worthy of the highest commendation, yet uncertain as to his rank with the grand drama tists of his nation.225 So much for the ideas of the two writers. The plays of Ibsen, more than those of Echegaray, reveal the man who has written them; Echegaray would be the re former where Ibsen is the iconoclast; the Spaniard will 225 Issac Goldberg, Don Jose Echegaray, op. cit., p. 182. 154 take some if he cannot receive all, while Ibsen, like his own Brand, wants all or nothing and is foredoomed to pes simism as far as the immediate present (though not the future) is concerned* As to technique we find also a difference. In this matter one feels that Echegaray was probably more influenced by the "well-made” French plays than by Ibsen's newer methods. Professor Goldberg sums up very well the chief dif ferences between these two men and writerst To Ibsen the long speeches of Echegaray*s personages would appear abhorrent, against the very atmosphere of the stage. Ibsen possessed just that nicety of art, that crispness of dialogue, that manipulation of plot (exaggerated as it became at times) which the Span iard lacked. His progress is sure, if slow. He reasons about his tools with the attitude of self- criticism, a method never indulged in by the Span iard. He recognizes that poetry can do just so much, while for further purposes he must use prose. The Spaniard is apparently willing to leave the mat ter to fate, and alternates uncertainly between prose and verse, attaining little distinction in either, to echo Fitzmaurice Kelly. One saving grace of Ibsen Echegaray lacked— the power of self satire, of extended irony. This power, so much akin to the self-criticism which we have a while ago mentioned, could lead Ibsen to such a keen satire against himself as the "Wild Duck" - his humor could be pressed into service for "Love's Comedy", where, if one is at all affected, it is with a rather sobre smile. Echegaray never varied the dignified monotone §£ expiation" by sacrifice. Less discerning, less radical than the Norwegian, he is less lenient with his fellow-men; Ibsen can rail at the victim of the state, but he has a human pity for him; Echegaray at times is just and equitable beyond the bounds of humane considerations. To Echegaray conscience, morally and dramatically, is 135 the spirit of sacrifice and expiation; to Ibsen, Conscience (and there is Conscience in Ibsen) is the repudiation of conventional ideals, the deter mination rather to live life with the sincerity of one's own vision than to exist under the blind ac ceptance of the legacy of the past..., Ibsen had the iron will, but the doubting heart. He set up the worship of self and came to doubt even that. No such struggle appears in Echegaray,... Com ing to the stage with a ripened intellect, his opinions are all clear, he has but to arrange a situation to "prove'1 them, and ring down the cur tain on the last act with a dramaturgic Q. E. D. This explains at once why Ibsen's plays waver, not in worth, but iriputlook, while Echegaray suc- ceding plays vacillate, not in outlook, but in worth. The one, Echegaray, is sure of his ideas and not of his art; the other is sure of his art and not of his ideas. Such, then, in general is a comparison betw.een the moral aims and the technical efficiency of the two writers. As poets the variance between the two is even greater. Ibsen possesses "the fire, the prophetic vision, the ver bal beauty" which have been denied to Echegaray. The fiords of his fatherland, the long days, the long nights, the bleak mountains that seemed to typify the immovability of the "compact liberal majority" all inspired the Nor wegian Ibsen with a sense of the poetic and an insight into the strength and weaknesses of humans which the sunnier, more beautiful clime of Spain had failed to impress upon Echegaray. 226 Isaac Goldberg, Don Jose Echegaray> op, cit., p. 183. 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(Magazine Articles) Anonymous, "Spaing Homage to Echegaray 1 ? The Ameri can Monthly Review of Reviews. XXXI (May 1905), 613-614, New York: Review of Review's Company. . . , "Don Jose Echegaray, Engineer, Statesman, and Dramatist”. The American Monthly Review of Reviews. LVI (July 1917), 96-97. New York: Re view of Review's Company. • • • », "Mariana- Drama of the Week". The Athenaeum. I (June 1, 1901), 703-04. London: John Edward Francis. • • • •, "The World and His Wife- A Play on the Power of Calumny". Current Literature, XLVI (January 1909), 78-83* New York: The Current Literature Publishing Company. • • • ,, "Mariana, A Play of Past Performance". The Dramatist. IV (April 1913), p. 356* Pennsylvania: (n.p.) . • • "The Nobel Prizemen". The Independent. LVII (December 22, 1904), 1458-59. New York: The Inde pendent Company. • • • ., "Honoring Spain's Grand Old Dramatist". Literary Digest. LIII (September 16, 1916), 682-86. New York: Funk and Wagnalls Company, • * • ., "Drama". The Nation. XCVIII (June 4, 1914), 672-3. New York: New York Evening Post Company. • • • ., "Echegaray". The Nation, CIII (September 21, 1916), 702-03* New York: The Nation Press, Inc. • . • ., "Echegaray and the Medern Drama", The Nation, CIII (September 28, 1916), p. 297. New York: The Nation Press, Inc. • . . *, "A Great Spanish Dramatist". The Outlook, CXIV (September 1916), 166-7. New York: (n.p.). Brainerd, Gertrude Gardner, "The Paolo and Fran cesca Theme in Modern Drama". Poet Lore. XXVII (July 1916), 390-404. Boston: Poet Lore Com pany. 141 Echegaray, Jose, "A Legend”, Current Opinion. LXII (January 1917), 58-9, New York; Cprrent Litera ture Publishing Company, \ Gardiner, Fanny Hale, "Echegaray; Spanish Statesman, Dramatist, Poet”, Poet Lore. XII (Number III) 405-17, Boston! Poet Lore Company, Graham, Katharine A, "Some Aspects of Echegaray", Poet Lore. 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Boston: The Atlantic Monthly Company, Webster, Wentworth* "Review of The Great Galeoto. Folly or Saintliness”. The Academy. XLVIII (Nov ember 2, 1895), 358-59. London: (n.p.) Henrik Ibsen (Letters and Plays) Ibsen, Henrik. The Collected Works of Henrik Ibsen. Translated by William Archer; Revised and Edited by William Archer; New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1906-27. XI Volumes. 142 Ibsen, Henrik., Early Plays of Ibsen, Translated from the Norwegian by Anders Orbeckj New York: Ameri- can-S’ candinavian Foundation, 1921. Ibsen, Henrik.,Letters of Henrik Ibsen. Translated by John Nelson Laurvik and Mary Morrison; New York: Duffield and Company, 1905. (Secondary Sources) Archer, William1 *. The Old Drama and the New. Boston: Small, Maynard and Company, 1923. Bordeaux, Henry., Ames Modernes. Paris: Perrin. 1921. Boyesen, Hjalman Hjort, A Commentary on the Writings of Ibsen. London: Heinemann, 1894. Brandes, Georg Morris Cohen, Creative Spirits. Trans lated by Rasmus B. 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York: Henry Holt and Company, 1925. Zucker, Adolf Eduard, Ibsen, the Master-Builder. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1929. (Magazine Articles) Anonymous. "Review of Henrik Ibsen: B.iornst.ierne B.iorn- son; Critical Studies by Georg Brandes; (Heine- m a n n ) The Academy, LVII (July 22, 1899), 79-80. London: (n.p•) • • • ., "Review of Love*s Comedy by Ibsen”. The Academy. LXX (May 26, 1906), p. 501. Londonr (n.p.), . . . ., "Henrik Ibsen". The Academy, LKIII (June 23, 1900), 527-28. London: (n.p.)• 145 Anonymous* "Ghosts at the Ibsen Club". The Academy, LXXX (May 20, 1911), p. 616, London; (n.p.). • . • », "Heddat Gabler at theKingsway". The Academy, LXXX (June 3, 1911), p, 632. London; (n.p,)•" • . . *, "Henrik Ibsen, as Seen in his Own Country". The American Monthly Review of Reviews. XXXI (March 1905), 365-66. New York; The Review of Review Company. • , • *, "Ibsen as a World Force from Many View points". The American Monthly Review of Reviews, XXXIV (July 1906), 94-98. 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XXXVI (May 1904), 551-52. New York: Current Literature Publication Company* • . • "Ibsen as Revealed in His Letters". Current Literature, XXXIX (September 1905), 3O7-310J. New York: Current Literature Publi cation Company. . • . «, "The Commanding Influence of Ibsen", Current Literature. XLI (July 1906), 57-61. New York: Current Literature Publication Com pany. "Personal Traits of Ibsen". Current Litera ture, XLI (July 1906), 62-63. New York: Current Literature Publication Company. . • . ., "New. Light on Ibsen's Character". Current Literature, XLI (October 1906), 416-18. New/ York: Current Literature Publication Company. 147 Anonymous* "Ibsen's Voice from the Grave"• Current Literature, XLII (March 1907), 300-12V New/York; Current Literature Publicatioh Company* • * • *, "Peeps into Ibsen's Brain"* Current Litera ture. XLVIII (February 1910), 191-92V New York: Current Literature Publication Company. • * * ., "Ellen Key's Masterly Interpretation of Ibsen's Women". 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Theatre Arts Monthly. XII (March 1928), 199-211. New York: The Theatre Arts Company. . . . ., "Henrik Ibsen: His Men and Women" The Westminster Review. CXXXI (June 1889),626-49. Philadelphia: Leonard Scott Publication Com pany. • • . "The Drama". The Westminster Review. CLVIII (July 1902), 105-08. London: R. Brimley Johnson. Aehorn, Edgar 0. "Ibsen at Home". The New England Magazine. XIII (New Series) (February 1896), 737-48. Boston: Warren F. Kellogg. Allen, Genieve M. "The Problem of Individualism in Relation to Society in Ibsen, Maeterlinck and Hauptman". Poet Lore. XXXII (June 1921), 262-66. Boston: Poet Lore Company. Allen, B. Sprague. "Recurrent Elements in Ibsen's Art"• The Journal of English and Germanic Philology. XVII. Pages 217-26. Illinois: The University of Illinois. Andrews, A. Le Roy. "Ibsen's Peer Gynt and Goethe's Faust". The Journal of English and Germanic Philology. XIII. Pages 238-46. Illinois: The University of Illinois. Archer, William. "Two Dramas by Ibsen". 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XL (September 1930), 420- 25. Boston: The Richard G. Badger Publishing Company. Evans, Edward Payson. "Henrik Ibsen: His Early Career as Poet and Playwright". The Atlantic Monthly. LXV (May 1890), 577-88. Boston: The Houghton, Mifflin Company. * • • ., "Ibsen's Horae and Working Habits". The Critic. XIII (March 8, 1890), p. 122. New York: The Critic Publication Company. Faguet, Emile. "The Symbolical Drama", The International Quarterly. VIII (December 1903), 329-41. Vermont: Frederick A. Richardson. 154 Findlater, J. H. "Ibsen, the Reformer"• The National Review, XLVIII (December 1906), 482-91, London: Published by Proprietor at 23 Ryder St. St, James’s London, S,W, Fitch, "Mr, Fitch’s Fling at Ibsen". Current Litera ture. XXXIV (June 1903), p. 720. New York: The Current Literature Publishing Company* Forster, E. M. "Ibsen, the Romantic". The New Republic, (March 28, 1928), 186-88. New York: The Republic Publishing Company. Fuller, Edward. "Ibsen’s Social Dramas". The New England Magazine, II (July 1890), 584-90. Boston: The New England Magazine Company. Gallienne, Richard Le. "The Romantic 90’&:"• The Satur day Evening Post. CXCVII (May 9, 1925), p. 33 and p. 105. Philadelphia: The Curtis Publishing Com pany, Glutton-Broek, A. "The Genius of Ibsen". The Living Age. (June 30, 1906), 816-18, Boston: I’ he Living Age Company. Gosse, Edmund. "Ibsen". The Atlantic Monthly, XCVIII (July 1906), 30-44. Boston: The Houghton, Miff lin Company. • • , "Ibsen's Social Dramas", The Fortnightly Re view, LI (January 1, 1889), 107-22. London: The Chapman and Hall Publication Company. Granville-Barker, Harley. "The Coming of Ibsen".The Theatre Arts Monthly. XIV (October 1930), 866-74; (November 1930), 931-9. New York: Theatre Arts, Inc. Grummann, Paul H. "Ibsen in his Maturity, I". Poet Lore, (Vacation No. 1917), 434-44. Boston: The Poet Lore Publishing Company. • • • ., "Ibsen in his Maturyty, II". Poet Lore, XXVIII (Autumn 1917), 609-20. Boston: The Poet Lore Pub lishing Company. . . . ., "Ibsen in his Maturity, III", Poet Lore, XXXIII (Winter 1917), 730-41. Boston: The Poet Lore Publishing Company. 155 H. , F. “After the Play”. The New Republic, XIII (March 23, 1 9 1 8 ) , p. 238. New York: The Re- Public Publishing Company. H., F. “After the Play". The New Republic, XIV (April 20, 1918), p. 359. New York: The Re public Publishing Company. Hackett, Francis* “A Masterpiece". The New Repub lic. II (April 17, 1915), p. 285* NewYork: The Republic Publishing Company. Hamilton, Clayton. “Ibsen once Again". The Book man. XLVII (June 1918), 426-31. New York: Dodd, Mead and Company. Hapgood, Norman. “The Drama of the Month". The Bookman. XIII (May 1898), 162-66. New York: Dodd, Mead and Company. Harding, Edward J. "Henry Ibsen, Iconoclast". The Critic, XIII (March 15, 1890), 131-32. New York: The Critic Company. . . • ., "Is Ibsen a Reformer?". The Critic, XIII (March 29, 1890), p. 157. New York: The Critic Company. Harford, C* H. "A Scene from Ibsen's Love *s Comedy". The Fortnightly Review, LXXIII (February 1900), 191-99.' New York: ‘ The Leonard Scott Publishing Company. Heilman, Anton. "The Greater Courage in Ibsen's Hedda". The Poet Lore. XXII (Spring 1911), 134-36. Boston: The Poet Lore Company. Henderson, Archibald, "Henrik Ibsen and Social Progress". The Arena. XXXIII (January 1905), 26-30. Boston: The Arena Publishing Company. . . . ., "The Ibsen Harvest". The Atlantic Monthly, CII (August 1908), 258-62. Boston: "the Atlantic Monthly Company. . . • », "How Ibsen Made His Plays". The Bookman, XXXI (July 1910), 492-97. New York: Dodd, Mead and Com pany. 156 Howells, William Dean, "The Editor's Easy-Chair", Harper's Magazine, (May 1906), 958-61, Boston: Harper's Brothers, Hurdcer, James Gibbons, "After Ibsen?". The Forum, XLI (October 1907), 248-54. London:: Mitchell Kennerley,. • . • "Henrik Ibsen", Scribner's Magazine, XL (September 1906), 351-61. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. . , . "Three Disagreeable Girls". The Forum, LII (November 1914), 32-37, New York: Mitchell Kennerley. Hutchens, John. "Anchors Aweight* The Theatre Arts Monthly, XV (December 1931), 989-90, New to rk: The Theatre Arts, Inc. Ibsen, Henrik, "Letters of Henrik Ibsen to Gerog Brandes", The Critic. XLVI (February 1905), 157-625, New York: G. p. Putnam's Sons. • • . "Unpublished Ibsen Letters". The Li ting Age. XXII,(May 28, 1921), 541-43. Boston: The Living Age Company. . , . "Ibsen Discusses A Doll * 3 HOUse". The Living Age. XXXVIII (March 8, 1924), 477-78. New York: The Living Age Company. Johnson, Reginald Brimley. "A Commentary on the Works o f HenrikIbsen". The Academy. XLV (April 7 , 1 8 9 4 ), 2 8 5 -8 6 . L o n d o n T T n .p .) . Knorr, Helena. "Henrik Ibsen and the Ethical Drama of the 19th Century". The Poet Lore, II (1898), 49-65. Boston: The Poet Lore Publishing Com pany. Koht, Halvdan. "Ibsen as a Norwegian". The Nineteenth Century. (February 1910), 346-55. New York• The Leonard Scott Publication Company. Krutch, J. W. "Ibsen Restated". The Nation. (November 17, 1926), 513-14. New YorkTThe Evening Post Publication Company. L., P. "Books and Things". The-New Republic. IX (January 27, 1917), p. 356. New York: The Repub lic Publishing Company. 15? L., P. "Books and Things"* The New Republic. II (February 27, 1915), p* 106* New York: The Re public Publishing Company* Larsen, Thorleif. "Henrik Ibsen: A Sketch"• The Canadian Magazine. XXVII (1906), 416-20, Toronto: Ontario Publishing Company, Laughlin, J, Laurence. "Ibsen*s"Spectres"*. The Nation. XLIV (February 10, 1887), 116-17. New York: The Evening Post Publishing Com pany. Lawson, R, "Ibsen, the Individualist". The Fort nightly Review, (August 1913), 314-327. New York: The Leonard Scott Publishing Company. Levinson, Andre, "Ibsen Today". The Living Age. CCCXXXIV (June 1928), 937-42; Boston: The Living Age Company. Lie, Erik. "Ibsen in Transformation". The Living Age. CCCIX (May 21, 1921), 451-53. Boston The Living Age Company. Linderfelt, K. A, "Ibsen's Ancestry". The Critic. XIII (February 15, 1890), 83-84. New York: The Critic Publishing Company. Lovett, R. M. "Ibsen To-Day". The New Republic, (September 16, 1925), 102-03. Boston: The Re public Company. M. C. D. "Ibsen and Common Sense". The Nation. <Jlarch 21, 1918), 328-29. New York: The Evening Post Publishing Company. MeBrien, Peter. "Ibsenism". Yhe Catholic World. CXVIII (November 1923), 192-96. New York: The Paulist Fathers, A Massachusetts Woman. "Ibsen's Morality". The Critic. XIII (April 12, 1890), 187-88. New YorFT^he Critic Publishing Company. Mather, Frank Jewett, "Ibsen's Ghosts". The Literary Digest. (June 9, 1917), 1781-782. Newark: Funk and Wagnalls. 158 Matthews, James Brander. "Makers of the Drama of To- Day", The Atlantic, XCI (June 1916), p. 504. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. • • • "Ibsen the Playwright". The Bookman. XXII (February 1906), 568-75. New York: Dodd, Mead and Company. Maurice, C. E. "Henrik Ibsen". The Economic Review. I (July 1891), 348-57. London: Fercival and Company. Mencken, H. L. "Ibsen: Journeyman Dramatist". The Dial. LXIII (October 11, 1917), 147-48. New York: The Dial Publication Company. Meyer, Annie Nathan. "Ibsen's Attitude Toward Women". The Critic. XIII (March 22, 1890), 147-48. New York: The Critic Publishing Company. Morton, Dixon M. "The Wwilight of the Gods". The Theatre Arts Monthly. XII (March 1928), 189-90. New York: The Theatre Arts, Inc. Moses, Montrose J. "The Little Man'flrom Skien". The Theatre Arts Monthly. XII (Mawch 1928), 179-87. New York: The Theatre Arts, Inc. Nazimova, Alla. "Ibsen's Women". The Independent. X1III (October 17, 1907), 909-14. New Tork: The Independ- ent Company. Offutt, Milton. "Ibsen's Centenary in Norway". The Current Hjstory. XXVIII (May 1928), 321-22. New York The New York Times Company. Orton, W. Aylott, "The Ethics of Ibsen". The Westminster Review. j CLXXIV (August 1910), 163-70. London: E. Marlborough and Company. "F". "Ibsen’s New Play: John Gabriel Borkman". The Poet Lore. I. (1897), 302-6. Boston: The Poet Lore Com pany. Payne, William Morton. "Henrik Ibsen". The Dial, XVI (April 16, 1894), 236-40. Chicago: The Dial Pub lishing Company. 159 Payne, Willaim Morton. "John Gabriel Borkman". The Dial. XXII (January 16, 1897), 37-41. Chicago: i'he Dial Publishing Company. . . . ., "When We Dead Awake". The Dial. XXVIII (Feb ruary 191677 109-13. Chicago: The Dial Publishing Company. Poizat, Alfred. "Ibsen and his Origins". The Living Age. CCCXVI (January 27, 1923), 6-9. New York: The Living Age Publishing Company. Raimond, C. E. "Ibsen the Force". The Academy. LVII (July 22, 1899), 80-81. London: ( & pV) • Ramsden, Hermions. "The New Mysticism in Scandinavia". The Nineteenth Century. XLVII (February 1900), 279-96. (New York: The Leonard Scott Publishing Company. Robertson, J. G. "Henrik Ibsen". The Contemporary Re view. CXXXIII (April 1928), 463-68. London: The Contemporary Review Company. Rogers, Joseph M. "Ibsen and his Ism". Lippincott1s Magazine. LXXIX (April 1907), 491-501. Phila delphia: J. B. Lippincott Company. Rose, Henry, "Ibsen as a Religious Teacher". The Contemporary Review. XCIII (June 1908), 692-709. London: Horace Marshalland Son. S: . G*, "After the Play". -The New Republic, II (May 19, 1917), p. 83. NeTTofF: TSeSifuBlic Pub lishing Company. 5., G. B. "The New Ibsen Play". The Saturday Review. LXXXIII (January 30, 1897), 114-15. London: The Saturday Review Publishing Company. 5., G. B. "Ghosts-at the Jubilee". The Saturday Review. LXXXIII (July 3, 1897), 12-14. London: The Satur day Review Publishing Company. Saintsbury, George. "The Literary Prophets of the Later Nineteenth Century". The Independent. LIV (December IS, 1902), 32-33* New York: The Indeg- endent Company* 160 Schmidt, G. G, "Ibsen's Influence upthn German Litera ture". The Poet Lore, XVII (1906), 112-18. Boston: The Poet Lore Company. Schofield, William Henry. "Personal Impressions of Bjornsonand Ibsen". At. 1 antic Monthly. LXXXI (April 1898), 567-73. New York: The Houghton, Mifflin Company. Seldies, Gilbert. "The Theatre". The Dial. LXXVIII (May 1925), 430-433. New York: The Dial Publishing Company. Sharp, Granville. "Ibsen in 1876-81". Blackwood's Maga zine. CLXXXXI (February 1912), 252-61. New York: The Leonard Publication Company. Shaw, George Bernard. "Ibsen as Fashion Arbiter". The Outlook. CCCCCXXXI (April 4, 1928), 26-28. New York: The Outlook Company. Simons, L. "Ibsen as an Artist". The Westminster Re view. CXL (1893), 506-13. New lork: The Leonard Scott Publication Company. Skinner, R. Dana. "ThePlay". The Commonwealth. IX (April 3, 1929), 626-27. New York: The Common wealth Publication Company. Slosson, Edwin E. "Ibsen as an Interpreter of Ameri can Life". The Independent. LX (May 31, 1906), 1253-55. New York: TheIndependent Company. Smedley, Constance. "The Hedda Gabler of To-Day". The Fortnightly Review, LXXXVIII (July 1907), 77-90, London: Chapman and Hall. • • • ., "In Defence of Hedda Gabler". The Fort- nightly Review, LXXXIII (March 2, 1908),565- 67. London: Chapman and Hall. Smith, L. W. "Ibsen, Emerson, and Nietzsche:: the Individualists". Popular Science Monthly, (February 1911), 147-57. New York: The Popular Science, Inc. Sontom, Bolette. "Personal Recollections of Ibsen". The Bookman, XXXVII (May 1913), 247-56. New York: Dodd, Mead," and Company. 161 Sivampenbourg, Baron de. "The Passing of Ibsen", The Independent, LIII (November 7, 1901), 2630-633, New York: The Independent Company, Stewart, H. L. "Ibsen and Some Current Superstitions", The North American Review, (February 1921), 237— 246, New York: The North American Review Publishing Company, Stobart, M, A. "New Lights on Ibsen's Brand", The Fort nightly Review. LXVI (August 1, 1899), 227-39, Symons, Arthur, "Henrik Ibsen", The LivingAge, CCLI (December 22, 1906), 707-21, Boston: The Living Age Company, Traill, H, D, "Ibsenism", The Living Age. XII (January 30, 1897), 317-22, Boston: The Living Age Com pany. Tweedie, Mrs. "Description of Ibsen", The Canadian Magazine. XVI (November 1900), p, 84, Toronto: The Ontario Publication Company, Tweediey Mrs. Alec, "The Lounger- Ibsen", The Critic, XLIX (July 1906), 3-4. New York: The Critic Com pany. Tweedie, Mrs. Alec. "Henrik Ibsen and Bjornstjerne Bjornson". The Temple Bar, XCVIII (August 1893), 536-53. London: Bentley and Sons. W., E. Vr. "Plays of Some Importance". The Catholic World, XVIII (February 1926), 663-65. Boston: The Paulist Fathers. Walkley, A. B. "Ibsen in England". Living Age, III (September 21, 1904), 789-92. Boston: The Living Age Company. , . . ., "The Passing of Ibsen". The Living Age. XLII (May 15, 1926), 371-73. Boston: The Living Age Company. Walsh, James J., M.D. "Medical Aspects of Ibsen". The independent. LXI (August 23, 1906), 444-47. New York: The Independent. 162 Wheeler, Edward J, "The Real Meaning of Ibsen". Current LiteratureI L (June 1911), New York: The Currant Literature Publishing Company. Whitcomb, S. L. "Work and Influence of Ibsen". The American Monthly Review of Reviews. IV (July 1906), 37-9* New ^ork: ’ The Review of Review Company• Wilson, C. W. "Henrik Ibsen". The Fortnightly Re view. XXIII (April 1928), 493-502. New York: The Leonard Scott Publication Company. Woodbridge, Homer E. "The Fruit of the Tree and Ibsen's Rosmersholm". The Hation, LXXXV (Dec ember 5, 1907), pi 457 . New York: The Evening Post Company. Xiane. "The Real Doll's Houae»# Living Age. XXXIII Ollarch 1, 1924), 415-16. New York: The Evening Post Company. Miscellaneous Andrews, Charlton, The Technique of Playwrighting. Massachussetts, The House Correspondence School, 1918. Carpenter, Bruce, The Way of Drama. New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 1929. Chandler, F. W., Aspects of Modern Drama. New York: Macmillan Company, 1914. Freytag, G. Technique of the Drama. Translated by Elias J. MacEiranJt; Chicago: Scott Forman and Company, 1904. Hannequin, Alfred, Playwriting. New York: Houghton, Mifflin Company, 1900. Hunt, Elizabeth Roxane, The Play of Today. New York: John Lane Company, 1913. Lewisohn, Ludwig, The Drama and the Stage. New York: Hareourt Brace and Company, 1922* 163 Painter, F. V. N., Elementary Guide to Literary Criticism. Boston: Ginn and Company, 1904. Platt, A., Practical Hints on Playwriting. London: Paul, 1919. Price, W. T. The Technique of the Drama, New York: Brentano's, 1903. Pride, W. T.,Analysis of the Play Construction. New York, W. T. Price, 19.21. Woodbridge, Elizabeth, The Drama- Its Laws and Technique. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1913. APPENDIX I A COMPARISON OF THE PUBLICATION DATES OF HENRIK IBSEN*S JOSE ECHECMRAY*S PLAYS CHART I COMPARISON OF THE PUBLICATION DATES OF HENRIK IBSEN’S AND JOSE ECHEGARAY’S PLAYS s . Date? Plays Published [bsen”s Play First Pros-: duced Ibsen’s Play First Translated 20. March 18285 Henrik Ibsen Born 19 April 1832 Jos a Eche/M-rav Born 1850 Catilina 1854 Warrior’s Barrow 1855 Lady Inger of Ostrat 1856 The Feast at Solhaug The feast at Solhaug 1857 Lady Inger of O'strat 1858 The Vikings at Helgelanc The Vikings at Helgeland 1862 Love’s Comedy 1864 The Pretenders The Pretenders 1866 Brand 1867 Peer Gynt Date Plays Published Ibsen*s Play First Pro duced Ibsen’s Play First Translated 1896 John Gabriel Borkman The Street Singer John Gabriel Borkman » 1897 Calumny as a Chastise ment John Gabriel Borkman (G.E.F.) 1898 The Dalibi The Man in Black The Silence of Death 1899 When We Dead Awaken When We Dead Awaken 1900 The Madman Divine When we Dead Awaken (G.E.F.) 1903 Accursed Heritages: 1903 The Steps of a Throne The Unstable One Emperor and Galilean 1905 T.etting oneself be Dragged along 1906 Death of Ibsen 1908 Hero and Clown 1916 Death of Echegarav 165 Date Plays Published Ibsen's Play First Pro duced Ibsen's Play First Translated 1890 Hedda Gabler The Prologue to a Drama Alwavs Ridiculous ■ ) 1891 Irene de Otronto The Embrvo Critic Comedv without Denouement Hedda Gabler Hedda Gabler (G, & E.) 189S The Masterbuilder The Son of Don Juan Sic vos. non vobis. or the Last Alms Mariana The Masterbuilder 1893 The Power of Impo tence At the Sea-Shore The Iasterbuilder(G.E,F.) 1894 Little Eyolf The Enraged Ladv Little Eyolf 1895 The Cleansing Stain The First Act of a Drama The Stigma Little Eyolf (G.E.F.) 166 Date Plays Published Ibsen's Play First Pro duced Ibsen's Play First Translated 1884 The Wild Duck (Nov*) In SuDuosins Evil ... Will You Guess? (Feb. 5) The Pest of Otranto Ghosts (G) 1885 Brand The Wild Duck 1886 Rosmersholm Lvsander. the Bandit Evil Race 1887 Two Fanaticisms Count Lathario Realitv and Delirium Rosmersholm The Wild Duck (G) Rosmersholm (G) 1888 The Lady from the Sea:. The Son of Steel and The Son of Flesh The Sublime in the Commonolace The Feast at Solhaug(G) The Lady from the Sea(G) 1889 Everlasting Source of Th«.Ex.to.ini st.s; The Lady from the Sea Love's Comedy (G§> Date Flays Published Ibsen’s Play First Pro-, duced Ibsen’s Play First Translated 1878 A Doll’s House Before the Pillar and the Gross In Pursuit of an Ideal Sometimes Below Morir por no despertar The Pillars of Society(G) 1879 In the Bosom of Death The Tragic .Eedding The Shoreless Sea The Doll’s House Peer Gynt (E in part) 1880 Death on the Lips The Doll’s House (G) 1881 Ghosts The Great Galeoto Harold the Norman Catilina Peer Gynt (G) 1882 An Enemy of the Fteple The Two Curious Im- pertinentsr Conflict Bet?/een Two Ghosts^ 1883 A Miracle in Esvot An Enemy of th§ People An Enemy of the People(G] 168 Date Plays published Ibsen*s Play First Pro duced Ibsen’’ s Play First Translated 1869 1872' 187$ The League of Youth The League of Youth Love’s Comedy The Pretenders (G) Brand (G) The League of Youth(G) Love’s Comedy (E-in pt*) 1874 Emperor and Galilean The Check Book The Wife of the Aven ger 1875 The Last Nieht At the Hilt of the Sfcsrfl A Sun that Rises and a Sun That_Sa±s 1876 Como Empieza y Como Peer Gynt Catilina (F) The Vikings of Helge- land (G) Emperor and Galilean(E) Acaba The Gladiator of Ravena The Beginning and the End 1877 U The Pillars of So ciety Follv or Saintli- The Pillars of So ciety Lady Inger of Ostrat(G) ness The Peacemaker. A Fault _& a r - Punish- ment f/hat Cannot be Told 169 APPENDIX II PUBLICATION, PRODUCTION, AND TRANSLATION DATES OF HENRIK IBSEN’S PLAYS * 170 CHART NO XI Dates of Publication, Production, and Translation into French, German, and English of Henrik Ibsen*s Plays Drama;. Date of Pub* First Prod* Tirst IranSi Into Ger* First Prod* Into Ger* First Trans* Into Fr. First Trans* Into Eng* Tirst Prod* Into Eng. 1 Catilina 1850 1881 1896 1876 1910 ......... - . - 4 2 Warrior*s Barrow 1854 3 Gildet paaa Solhaug The Feast at Solaug Da F6te a Solhaug DDas Fest auf Solhaig 1856 1856 1888 1891 1906 1910 4 Fru Inger til Ostr^b Lady Inger of Ostrat La Chatelaine Inger Oestraat Die Herrin von Oestrot 1857 1855 1877 1891 1906 1910 5 Olaf Liljekrans 1857 6 Haermaendene paa Helgoland The Vikings at Helgeland Les Guerriers a Helgeland Die Helden auf Helgeland 1858 1858 . 1876 1876 1893 1890 1903 171 Dramas. Date of Pub# First Prod# First Trans. Into Ger* First Prod. Into Ger. First Trans. Into Fr . First Trans. Into Eng# First Prod. Into Eng. 7 K^aerlighedens Ko- medie Love*s Comedy La Com^die de 1*Amour Comodie der Liebe 1862 1873 1889 1896 1896 1873 1910 8 Kongsmnerne The Pretenders Les Pretendants a la Couronne Die Kronpratenden- ten L864 1864 1872 1875 1893 1876 1910 9 Brand L866 1885 1872 1898 1895 1873 1893" 10 Peer Gynt L867 1876 1881 19028 1899 1879 1900 11 De Unges Forbund The League of Youth L’lttn des Jeunes Der Bund der Ji®nd L869 1869 1872 1891 1893 1890 1900 12 Kejser og Galilaeer Emperor and Gali lean Empereur et Gali lean Kaiser und Gali- laer L873 1903 1888 1896 1895 1876 1910 13 Samfundets St&t'ter Pillars of Society Les Soutiens de la Socie'te' Die Stutzen der Gesellschaft .877 1877 1878 1878 .18935 1888 1880 172 Drama Date of Pub, First Prod* First Trans, Into Ger* First Prod, Into Ger, First Trans, Into Fr, First Trans, Into Eng, First Prod. Into Eng. 14 Et Dukkehjem A Doll*s House La Mai son de Pqpee Ein Puppenheim 1878 1879 1880 1880 1892 1885 1884 15 Gengangere Ghosts Les Revenants Gespenster 1881 1882 1884 1886 1892 1885 1891 16 En Folksfiende Enemy of the People Un Ennemi du Peuple Ein Volksfeind 1882 1883 1883 1887 1892 1888 1890 17 Vildanden The Wild Duck Le Canard Sauvage Die Wildente 1884 1885 1887 1888 1893 1890 1894 18 Rosmersholm 1886 1887 1887 1887 1893 1889 1891 19 Fruen fra Havet Lady from the Sea La Dame de la Mer Die Frau vom Meer 1888 1889 1888 1889 18923 1890 1891 20 Hedda. Gabler 1890 1891 1891 1891 1892 1891 1911 173 Drama Date of Pub. First Prod. First Trans, Into Ger. First Prod. Into Ger. First Trans. Into Fr. First Trans. Into Eng. First Prod. Into Eng. 81 Bygmester Solness Masterbuilder Solness le Con- structeur Baumeister Sol ness 1898 1898 1893 1893 1893 1893 1893 333 Lille Eyolf Little Eyolf Le Petit Eyolf Klein Eyolf L894 1894 1895 1895 1895 1895 1894' 83 John Gabriel Borkman L896 1896 1897 1897 1897 1897 1897 84 N&r vi d/zfde VAgner When we Dead Awaken Quand nous nous Reveillerons d*Entre les Morts Wenn Wir Taten Erwachen .899 1899 1899 1900 1900 1900 1903? APPENDIX III CHARTS SHOWING METHOD OF THE "WELL-MADE-PLAY AND IBSEN'S LATER PLAYS 174 227 CHART III PLOT DIAGRAM SHOWING THE METHOD OF THE "WELL-MADE-PLAY" USED IN IBSEN'S EARLY WORKS AND IN MOST OF THE PLAYS OF JOSE ECHEGARAYf" ' A Beginning of Action AB Exposition BC Growth of Action CD Falling of Action (Denouement) D Close or Catastrophe 2£7 A. Hennequin, Playwriting (New York: Houghfcon, Mifflin Company, n.d.), p. 98. 175 CHART IV 228 PLOT DIAGRAM SHOWING THE METHOD OF THE "WELL-MADE-PLAY" USED IN IBSEN'S EARLY WORKS AND IN MOST OF THE PLAYS OF JOSE ECHEGARAY £ A Introduction B Rise C Climax D Fall E Catastrophe 238 G, Freytag, Technique of the Drama (Chicago: Scott, Forman and Company, 1904), p* 114, 176 CHART V829 PLOT DIAGRAM SHOWING THE METHOD OF THE "WELL-MADE-PLAY1 1 USED IN IBSEN’S EARLY WORKS AND IN MOST OF THE PLAYS OF JOSE ECHEGARAY A Introduction B Rising Action or Tying of tlie Knot C Climax D Falling Action or Untying of the Knot E Denouement a Cause or exciting Impulse b Tragic Impulse c Impulse of Last Suspense 229 F.V.N. Painter, Elementary Guide to Literary Criticism (Boston: Ginn and Company, 1904)7' p. 120* 177 P^n CHART VI PLOT DIAGRAM SHOWING THE METHOD OF THE "WELL-MADE-PLAY" USED IN IBSEN'S EARLY WORKS AND IN MOST OF THE PLAYS OF JOSE' ECHEGARAY A Introduction B Rising Action C Turning Point or Climax: D Falling Action E Catastrophe 830 E, Woodbridge, The Drama- Its Laws and Technique (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1981), p, 33 178 CHART VII231 PLOT DIAGRAM SHOWING IBSEN'S LATER PLOT CONSTRUCTION DE Ibsen’s Plot ABCD Omitted by Ibsen, for his plot's action starts at D very near to E 231 J,B.P* Lee, The Ibsen Secret (New York: G* P. Putnam* Sons, 1907), p« 88* APPENDIX IV CHARTS SHOWING THE FORM OF IBSEN*S AND ECHEGARAY*S PLAYS 179 CHART VIII CHART SHOWING FORM OF HENRIK IBSEN’S PLAYS Date Drama Form 1850 Catilina verse 1854 The Warrior’s Barrow verse 1856 The Feast at Solhaug verse 1857 Lady Inger of Ostrat verse 1857 Olaf Liljekrans verse 1858 The Vikings at Helgeland verse and prose 1862 Love's Comedy verse 1864 The Pretenders prose 1866 Brand verse 1867 Peer Gynt verse -last time 1869 The League of Youth prose 1873 Emperor and Galilean prose 1877 The Pillars of Society prose 1878 A Doll’s House prose 1881 Ghosts prose 1882 An Enemy of the People prose 1884 The Wild Duck prose 1886 Rosmersholm prose 1888 The Lady from the Sea prose 1890 Hedda Gabler prose 1892 The Masterbuilder prose 1894 Little Eyolf prose 1896 John Gabriel Borkman prose 1899 When We Dead Awaken prose 18Q CHART IX CHART SHOWING FORM OF JOSE ECHEGARAY*S PLAYS Date Drama Form 1874 El Libro talonario •v .verse 1874 La esposa del vengador verse 1875 La ultima noche verse 1875 En el puffo de la espada verse 1875 Un sol que nace y un sol que muere verse 1876 Como empieza y como acaba verse 1876 El gladiador de Ravena verse 1877 0 locura o Santidad prose 1877 Iris de paz verse 1877 Para tal culpa tal pena verse 1877 Lo que no puede decirse prnse 1878 En el pilar y en la curz verse 1878 Correr en pos de un ideal verse 1878 Algunas veces aqui prose 1878 Morir por no despertar verse 1879 En el seno de la muerte verse 1879 Bodas tra'gieas verse 1879 Mar sin orillas verse 1880 La mnerte en los labios prose 1881 El Gran Galeoto ; ■ * • » • * ' ■ * • ' f.* / •-* werse(prose dial*) 1881 Haroldo el Normando verse 1882 Los dos curiosos impertinentes verse 1882 Conflicto entre dos deberes verse 181 Date Drama Form 1883 Un Milagro en Egipto verse 1884 Piensa mal ... y Acertaras? verse 1884 La peste de Otranto verse 1886 Vida alegre y muerte triste verse 1886 El bandido Lisandro prose 1886 De mala rasa prose 1887 Dos fanatismos prose 1887 El conde Lotario verse 1887 La Realidad y el delirio prose 1888 El hijo de carne y el hijo de hierro prose 1888 Lo sublime en lo vulgar verse 1889 Manantial que no se agota verse 1889 Los rigidos 1 rerse and prose 1890 Siempre en ridiculo i pprose 1890 El prc^logo de un drama verse 1890 Irene de Otranto verse 1893a Un critico incipiente prose 1891 Comedia sin desenlace prose 1891 El hijo de Don Juan prose 1898 Sic vos non vobis o la ultima limosne prose 1898 Mariana prose 1898 El poder de la impotencia prose 1893 A la orilla del mar prose 1893 La rencorosa prose 1894 Mancha que limpia prose 182 Date Drama Form 1895 El primer acto de un drama verse 1895 El estigma prose 1896 La cantante callejera prose 1896 Amor salvaje prose 1896 Semiramis o la hi.ia del aire verse 1897 La ealumnia por castlgo prose 1898 La duda prose 1898 El hombre negro prose 1898 Silencio de muerte prose 1900 El loco Dios prose 1902 Malas herencias prose 1903 La escalinata de un trono verse 1903 La desequilibrada prose 1905 A fuerza de arrastrarse prose 1906 Entre dolora y cuento verse

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Erdos, Rosalie J (author)

Core Title An analysis of the foreign influences on the dramas of Jose Echegaray emphasizing the influence of the dramas of Henrik Ibsen

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Comparative Literature

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag language, literature and linguistics,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-291457

Unique identifier UC11224318

Identifier usctheses-c26-291457 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier EP43033.pdf

Dmrecord 291457

Document Type Thesis

Rights Erdos, Rosalie J.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA