University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The problem of secondary teacher recruitment and retention in Iran

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The problem of secondary teacher recruitment and retention in Iran

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Content THE PROBLEM OF SECONDARY TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION IN IRAN by Farideh Aleagha A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Education) June 19 81 UMI Number: DP24749 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Rubl & h » n < j UMI DP24749 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA TH E G RADUATE SC HO O L U N IV E R S IT Y PARK LOS A N G ELES, C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by F a ri deh A1eagha...................................................... under the direction of h$T.... Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of the degree of D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y Dean 6 DEDICATION To my mother, Mrs. Molud Rouyani, as my first teacher. To my children Roya, Mandana, and Kaveh. ACKNOWLEDMENTS During the period of my graduate studies at USC, culminating in preparing this dissertation, I have incurred several great debts which I would like to acknowledge with gratitude. I wish to acknowledge my debt to the Chairman and members of my dissertation committee: Professor William M. Rideout, Jr., Professor William G. Millington, and Professor Wesley E. Bjur. My most grateful thanks are due to Professor William Rideout who, as Chairman of my committee, gave me much of his valuable time and knowledge. His insightful criticisms, corrections, comments, and encouragement made this dissertation possible. My sincere regards and thanks to all the pro fessors, secretaries, and staff members in the Department of Social and Philosophical Foundation in the School of Education for all their assistance through these trying times. It was also through the cooperation of several offices and school districts within the Ministry of Education in Iran that response to the questionnaire iii and interviews was possible. I therefore wish to extend my thanks to all of them, particularly Gholam Hossain Sotudeh, in the Ministry of Education. I give my heartfelt thanks and appreciation to Pearl and Bert MacLeech for all the help, love, time, and encouragement they gave me while in the United States. They not only shared their home with me, but gave me the editorial work and encouragement I needed to complete my dissertation. Finally, my thanks to my family back home for giving me the support I needed and their enduring all the long years of separation. Acknowledgment of indebtedness to all these people does not mean that they share with me the responsibility for errors of fact5or judgment. Whatever faults remain are solely mine. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page DEDICATION............ . . ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .............................. iii LIST OF TABLES.................................. vii Chapter I. THE PROBLEM AND ITS IMPORTANCE .... 1 Background A Brief Survey of the Shortage of Secondary Teachers During the Last Two Decades in Iran Area of Concern Statement of the Problem Hypotheses Importance of the Study Assumptions Delimitations Limitations of the Study Procedures Definitions of Terms Used II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE............. 33 Iranian Literature on Secondary Teacher Training Selection and Recruitment Policy Survey of Related Reports on i Teacher Shortage and Recruitment ! in Other Countries III. METHODOLOGY ..... ............... 83 Overview Basic Procedure of the Study The Rationale for the Selection of Literature Reviewed The Questionnaire Survey Population and Selection of the Sample Sample Selection Process Characteristics of the Four Selected School Districts The Sample The Instruments Data Collection ----- : _______________________________________________________V CHAPTER IV. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF FINDINGS .............................. Introduc tion Hypothesis One Hypothesis Two Hypothesis Three Hypothesis Four Findings from Interviews V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..................... Summary Major Findings Conclusions Recommendations BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................. APPENDIXES . . . .............................. A. Letters Endorsing the Study ........ B. Questionnaire in English and Persian . Page 117 186 203 211 212 216 vi LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Comparison of a 15-Year Period of Educational Enrollment Between 1945-46 and 1959-60 . . . . . . . . . . 5 2. Increase in the Number of Students in the Secondary and in the Need for Teachers................................ 13 3. The Increase in Secondary Schools' Educational Staffs by Educational Degree During the Fourth Development P l a n ............ . . 41 4. Predicted and Actual Number of Students in the Academic Secondary School under the Fourth Development Plan...... 44 5. Student Ratio per Class in Academic Secondary Schools in Cities and Villages in the School Year 1972-1973 . 45 6. Distribution of Students in Higher Education by Field of Study for the Fifth P l a n ....................... . 49 7. Distribution of Students in Higher Education by Field of Study for School Years 1970-71 to 1976-77 .... 50 8. Higher Education Entrance Examination by Selected Fields of Study in 1973, 1974, and 1975: Mean and Total Grades of Applicants..................... 57 9. Statistics Related to General Secondary Schools in Tehran: April 1978-79 School Year....................... 94 vii Table Page 10. Statistics Related to General Secondary Schools in Tehran: December 1976-77 School Year ..... 95 11. Number and Distribution of General Secondary Teachers in Sample by School Districts ..................... 104 12. Number and Percentage of Secondary Teachers by Sex ..................... 106 13. Number and Percentage of Secondary Teachers by Marriage Status ........ 106 14. Number and Percentage of Secondary Teachers by Age Category ............. 107 15. Number and Percentage of Secondary Teachers by Educational Degree .... 107 16. Number and Percentage of Secondary Teachers by Educational Institutions from Which Graduated ................. 108 17. Number and Percentage of Secondary Teachers by Years of Teaching Experience ............................ 108 18. Number and Percentage of Secondary Teachers by Amount of In-Service Training Experiences ................. 109 19. Government Employees' Salary by Grade and Group ..................... 120 20. Secondary Teachers1 Reactions to Suggestions for Upgrading Their Profession to Increase Enrollment in Their Training Institutions . . . . . 124 21. Pearson Correlation Coefficients for Relationship Between Secondary Teachers' Backgrounds and Their Reactions to Upgrading the Profession for Increased Enrollments in Their Training Institutions ........... . . 129 viii Table Page 22. Summary of Results of Chi Square Analyses of Secondary Teachers1 Attitudes Toward Upgrading Their Profession to Increase Enrollments in Their Training Institutions ......... 132 23. Secondary Teachers* Opinions Regarding Secondary Teaching as A Career for Females .................... 135 24. Pearson Correlation Coefficient to Show Relationship Between Secondary Teachers' Backgrounds and Their Attitudes Regarding Teaching Careers for W o m e n ................. 139 25. Summary of Results of Chi Square Analyses of Secondary Teachers' Backgrounds and Attitudes Toward Teaching Profession for Women ........ 142 26. Opinions of Sample as to the Ministry of Education*s Attracting, Recruiting and Retaining Math or Science Majors for the Secondary Teaching Profession . 14 6 27. Pearson Correlation Coefficient Between ^ Secondary Teachers' Backgrounds and Their Attitudes Toward Applicants and Teachers in Math and Science............ 152 28. Summary of Chi Square Analyses of Secondary Teachers' Backgrounds and Attitudes Toward Problems Related to Math and Science Secondary Teachers . . 154 29. Respondents' Evaluations of Importance of Full Participation by Secondary Teachers in Curriculum Planning . . ...........................158 30. Respondents' Evaluations of Importance of Equality of Secondary Teachers' Compensation with Other Comparable Government Occupations . . . ........... 160 i_x_ Table Page 31. Respondents' Attitudes in Regard to Having More Frequent In-Service Training................................. 160 32. Number of Secondary Teachers in Iran Who Had In-Service Training, by Area . of Specialization, from School Years 1973-74 to 1978-79 ..................... 162 33. Respondents' Attitudes on How Changing the Salary Increase and Promotion System would Influence Professional Satisfaction . .....................165 34. Respondents' Opinions on Additional Criteria, Educational Specialty and Geographical Location of a School, as Considerations for Salary Increases . 165 35. Respondents' Opinions on Upgrading School Buildings Specifically for Educational Purposes and Updating Instructional Materials ............... 168 36. Respondents' Attitudes on Effect of Reducing Student/Teacher Ratio ° Per C l a s s ............................... 171 37. Respondents' Opinions on Reducing the Required Weekly Teaching Hours ........ 171 38. Respondents' Attitudes on the Decentralization of the Educational System....................... 173 39. Respondents' Opinions on the Professional Teacher Union with Social and Political Power ... .. ...... ........... 173 40. Pearson Correlation Coefficients for Relationship Between Respondents' Backgrounds and Their Opinions on the Effect of 10 Selected Premises That Might Bring More Professional Satisfaction .....................176 x Table Page 41. Summary of Results of Chi Square Analyses of Secondary Teachers* Backgrounds and Opinions on Job Satisfaction ................... 178 xi CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND ITS IMPORTANCE Background Although great scholars and future-oriented pedagogues usually view the students as the basic pivot of education and training systems, teachers also play a main role. Next to students, teachers are the largest, most crucial group comprising an education system (Coombs, 1969) They are also the most expensive inputs, even when they are underpaid, because they are so numerous. The income profiles of teachers are predictable and in very few countries front-loaded. In most countries, a beginning teacher usually knows what he/she will earn and can see that long service brings limited rewards (Lortie, 1975). It is to some extent correct that one way to promote career retention is to delay the income gratifica tion, but a balanced relationship should always exist between effort, capacity, and reward (Lortie, 1975). The potential advancements in teaching are fewer and hold less significance than one normally finds in other middle-class work. The teacher's professional status makes almost no 1 difference whether he or she is a beginning young teacher or one highly experienced— an old-timer. This can have profound impact on teachers* attitudes and satisfaction. The teacher's role would appear to be more impor tant than merely acting as a source of content in the classroom. In a developing country, teachers are one of the most important agents of national development. As developing countries attack the most pressing problems of quantity of education, usually the first task is providing enough teachers. After they achieve this goal of quantity these governments increasingly turn to determining the effects of various other inputs, such as teacher qualifica tions and characteristics (Evan, 1971). As a means of national development in Iran, educa tional improvement was a major objective of the government and received considerable attention in the Fourth Develop ment Plan '(1968-1972), and then had special emphasis in the Fifth Development Plan (1973-1978). The general educational guidelines and policies contained in the Fifth Development Plan stated that: In the implementation of education progress, top priority will be given to teacher train ing, primary education and adult education. Transfer of credits allocated for rural educational programs to urban programs will be avoided. (Plan and Budget Organization, 1973, p. 122) Iran is one of the earliest developing countries to attempt a formal program of manpower development to prepare not only the manpower required in different economic and social sectors, but also the teaching staff that would be needed to achieve these national manpower goals. The concern about manpower planning in Iran started in 1946, at the same time that this concept was becoming fashionable around the world. The Manpower Director of the Plan employed three or four foreign advisors to help Iranian experts in the field to set up a Manpower Development Division. This Division, during its four years of ex istence, by and large did not achieve great things (Baldwin, 1967). The major significance of its work, along with its impact on the five development plans that followed (1947- 1954, 1955-1961, 1962-1968, 1968-1972, and 1973-1978) rested in what it contributed to the theory and practice of manpower planning and its relationship to educational planning. These plans were replete with sound aims which, in the process of implementation, always ended with a great many shortcomings. They have also been characterized by a number of impractical prestige projects (Looney, 1977). The lack of infrastructure, together with unnecessary government expenditures, such as for military purposes, made it practically impossible for any plan to succeed. However, perhaps the main reason for failures in planning was the fact that it was very difficult and often futile to make and execute a development plan in a country where the political and cultural environments were not congenial (Baldwin, 1967). In spite of the reforms of Reza Shah (the first Shah,of the past regime in Iran) and all of the programs whose aims were educationally sound, illiteracy was 95 percent in 1948 (Baldwin, 1967). Consequently, the need for basic and primary education was pervasive. At the same time the country was industrializing and this in creasingly required skills which were to be acquired at the post-primary and post-secondary levels. Progress in this sector meant that manpower planning was dependent upon the quality and quantity of secondary teachers' training programs. International influence, particularly of Western countries, the growth of the mass media, and the impact of some government programs, made education one of the fastest growing sectors in the economy during a 15-year period from 1945-1960. Table 1 illustrates this growth. A comparison of the percentage of students in 1945 and in 1960 showed that the rate of growth in secondary education was very high. Table 1 Comparison of Enrollment a 15-Year Period of Between 1945-46 and Educational 1959-60 No. of Students (1945-46) Percent No. of Student (1959-60) Percent Percentage of Increase Primary 288,000 89 1,327,000 82 360 Secondary 29,000 9 253,000 16 770 University 6,000 2 30,000 2 400 Total 323,000 100 1,610,000 100 400 Source: Baldwin, G. B. Planning and Development in Iran, 1967, p. 144. cn During the same period, while the growth in educa tion was great, the reduction in the illiteracy rate was not comparable. As of 1978, the illiteracy rate among the adult population in Iran was about 60 percent (Abrahamian, 1978). The dispute over the goals, policies, and programs of secondary education in Iran has been one of the most heated national controversies. This research, although it deals with a very specific problem related to secondary education, brought up many other questions. One question was whether the secondary education in Iran was a prepara tory program for entrance into the university; another question was whether the secondary education in Iran was a program for those who were to be absorbed by agriculture, industry, trade or transportion, with only a few students continuing their education at the university level. In preparing the goals and objectives, procedures, and the programs of secondary education in general, and the train ing of secondary teachers in particular, greater attention needed to be paid to the specific mission of secondary level education. Based on the report of research done by the Ministry of Education in 1975, out of the 1,000 students registered for the first year of high school, approximately 6 383 were graduated and less than 50 percent of these graduates were registered in one of the universities or institutions of higher learning (Galili, 1977). It showed that less than 15 percent of high school students continued their study in post-secondary education. Eighty-five per cent of secondary school students either dropped out or were graduated and started working. These findings indicated that it would have been more useful if those who dropped out or started working had studied technical or other kinds of secondary education more appropriate to their future jobs. This could have a profound effect on planning to solve the shortage of academic or general secondary teachers, and to alleviate the problem of scarcity of qualified teachers in technical secondary schools (Phares, 1976). The problem of the shortage of primary and secondary teachers has been, and still is, severe in Iran, in spite of the Shah’s government's programs-for-the~c training of teachers. The most internation^lly^&riowri'v \ ^ program started on January 26, 1963—-Bahman 6, 1341— when the last Shah announced the so-called White Revolution of Reforms in Iran and a national referendum overwhelmingly approved his programs. Among the six original points of reform— later extended to 19— was the establishment of a Literacy Corps (Sepah-e Danesh, also known as the Army of Knowledge) to combat illiteracy in rural areas. The original aim of the Literacy Corps program was to set up schools, to provide personnel to teach in village schools, and to improve the quality of life of the communities to which the "Sepahi" (high school graduate) was assigned. The three categories of objectives in this program were educational, social, and economic. The educational goals were: (a) Provision of educational opportunity to all school-age children in Iran (ages 7 to 18), and (b) Teaching of literacy to adults. (Abhari, 1975, p. 44) Under the "Sepah^e Danesh" program, high school graduates, both male and female, who did not win a place in the university through the highly competitive entrance examination had to register for two years of national service in the army. A majority of these youngsters, who had three months of professional training, were used as primary teachers during their two-year stints (Carr & Carr, 1970). The Sepah-e Danesh program also covered those high school graduates, both male and female, who won a place in a university. They had to register for the same two years of required service after graduation from a university. The university graduates were assigned to different ser vices based on their specialties. Those holding M.D.s were -8 sent to serve in the Health Corps or "Sepah-e Behdasht" in rural areas. Many others holding Bachelor degrees were assigned to serve as secondary teachers in the program of "Sepah-e Danesh" either in rural or urban areas. A further innovation of the Shah's regime was the use of university students as part-time instructors in secondary schools in the same city where the university was located. The government's policy for the implementa tion of this program was not only to reduce the shortage of secondary teachers, but also to subsidize the university students for their university expenses. When the Shah was deposed, the revolutionary government that followed, including its Ministry of Education, found the Shah's programs inefficient. The new Islamic Republic of Iran, from the beginning of its establishment in 1979, reduced the military service from two years to one year for men, and eliminated the service requirement for women. This action was taken mainly to reduce the military budget, but additionally, it put an end to the "Army of Knowledge" program. During the period that the "Army of Knowledge" program was being implemented, no research was conducted to examine the results of and the effects of the short training period for teachers under this program. The training period in the "Army of Knowledge" was three months 9 for both elementary and secondary teachers, while the training period for regular teachers consisted of one year for elementary and two years for secondary teachers. It is too early to predict what effect the elimina tion of this program will have on education in Iran or what the new government's program will be to solve the continuing problem of the teacher shortage. Only recently, after almost two years of existence, the required period for military service was increased by the new government to two years, but there has been no sign of reinstating a program such as the "Army of Knowledge" to help compensate for the teacher shortage. A Brief Survey of the Shortage of Secondary Teachers During the Last Two Decades in Iran Teachers in secondary school were required to teach a maximum of 22 hours per week. However, those with 20 years of experience were required to teach only 18 hours. The high school educational program consisted of 36 hours of classes per week. In the school year of 1962-63, the total number of students, in girls and boys high schools, was 326,866* , By simple calculation, and the addition of 10 percent teacher time to cover principals and their assistants, the secondary school staff requirement was 13,481. (The 10 average class size of 40 students, as established by the Ministry of Education, was used for this calculation.) For that year the secondary school education staff numbered 14,358, with no secondary school teacher shortage (Galili, 1977) . From 1963-64 to 1972-73 the shortage of graduates from teacher training universities and institutions was very noticeable in proportion to the enormously increased number of secondary students. The secondary school students increased from 369,069 in the 1963-64 school year to 1,140,995 at the end of the 1972-73 year. With the above-mentioned criteria for calculation, which excludes factors that would increase this estimate-— such as retirement, death, and a decision to leave the field of education— 31,837 secondary teachers were needed during this 9-year period, in addition to the number of teachers available in 1963. Unfortunately, during the same period, the total number of graduates from secondary teacher training centers was only 5,041. Therefore, over these nine years the number of graduates from secondary teacher training centers was 26,7 96 less than the required number of secondary teachers; these centers provided only 18 percent of this need for the entire country. In 1972-73, the new educational system was adopted which changed the system from six years of elementary and 11 six years of secondary to elementary, guidance, and secondary followed a 5-3-4 pattern, and the first year of guidance school was started. The establishment of the three-year guidance schools for students in the sixth, seventh, and eight year classes absorbed the sixth year elementary students into the new system. The first two years of secondary school students from the old system were also included in the guidance schools. This shortened the high school period and decreased the number of high school students. Thus, the number of secondary students decreased from 1,14 0,995 in the 1971-72 school year to 705,009 in 197 5-76. The total decrease in the number of high school students during these five years was 435,986. The total number of graduates from secondary teacher training centers during the same period was 3,573. The total number of secondary teachers available during the same period was inadequate to supply the teachers re quired. The shortage of secondary teachers reached 9,34 8 in the 197 5-76 school year (see Table 2). In 1976, the State Central Council of Universities required all universities and institutions of higher learning, with the exception of specialized technological institutions, to launch teacher training programs. The report of the American Council on Education, Overseas Liaison Committee (1976) estimated that by the 1977-78 12 Table 2 Increase in the Number of Students in the Secondary and in the Need for Teachers School Years No. of Students Increase Compared to Previous Year No. of Teachers Needed No. of Teachers Graduated/yr. Teacher Shortage or Surplus Accumulative Teacher Shortage 1961-62 . 300,855 - - - - - 1962-63 326,856 26,001 1,072 920 - - 1963-64 369,069 42,213 1,741 739 -821 821 1964-65 426,402 57,333 2,364 805 -1,635 2,446 1965-66 493,735 67,333 2,776 619 -1,972 4,418 1966-67 579,716 85,981 3,546 277 -2,927 7,345 1967-68 674,058 94,342 3,891 128 -3,614 10,959 1968-69 781,507 107,949 4,431 406 -4,303 15,262 1969-70 . 897,443 115,936 4,792 608 -4,375 19,637 1970-71 1,012,920 115,477 4,763 538 -4,155 23,792 1971-72 1,140,995 128,075 5,283 859 -4,745 28,537 1972-73 942,523 -198,472 7,442 884 +8,301 20,237 1973-74 747,242 -195,281 7,323 679 +8,207 12,030 1974-75 666,867 - 80,375 3,014 561 +6,393 8,336 1975-76 705,009 38,142 1,573 590 -1,012 9,348 Note. The decrease of students and the decline of teachers needed during 1972-73, 1973-74, and 1974-75 was the result of a change in educational system and the adoption of the guidance school. Source: Galili, M. R., Modern Society, No. 11, 1977, p. 39.__________________________________ school year, there would be a shortage of 20,000 secondary teachers. Given the rapid pace of development in Iran during the last decade, the expansion of primary and secondary schools as a part of this progress, inadequate classroom space, and the shortage of teachers caused serious educa tional weaknesses (Imperial Inspector Organization for Education and Research, 1977). Area of Concern During the last 15 years of the Shah's regime, mostly because of the oil boom in the 1970s, Iran's inter national position was transformed from one of under development to one of substantial political, and possibly even military, significance in the Middle East. Its regional power grew so tremendously that, after 1967, the great powers and most of the regional powers apparently either desired Iran's friendship or at least avoided antagonizing Iran (Binder, 1972) . Internal circumstances in the country changed rapidly, much faster than anyone could have forecast. I: is worth noting that Iran's rapid development was due basically to its income from petroleum. Outside of petroleum, Iran's productivity and capacity did not show such impressive growth. 14 With such rapid internal and external development and without balanced increases in productivity in non- petroleum sectors of the economy, major problems appeared in many areas, particulary in terms of manpower availabil ity. Secondary education, along with other educational levels, expanded rapidly but the need for secondary teachers accelerated more and more. The number and capacity of teacher training universities and colleges have been increased, but they are still not sufficient in number, nor coordinated to meet the needs of the country. The problem was not and has not been solved. In spite of increases in salary and some financial benefits for teachers, together with some innovative government pro grams, the supply of secondary teachers has remained inadequate. This inadequacy_has been most severe for science and technical^teachers for whom more attractive jobs existed in other public or private organizations. The problem has not just been the financial attraction of other occupations; very little study has been r done on teachers' attitudes toward their profession or on < ,N how to increase their career satisfaction. The issue of secondary teachers' attitudes toward their occupation and / the extent to which teacher training institutions and \ government policies for the secondary teachers' recruitment, and retention affect these attitudes have been the major foci of this study. 15 Choosing to become a secondary school teacher, as a future occupational option, during the period of 1960 through the late 1970s when oil money made many more jobs available to university graduates, was the last choice of high school graduates taking university entrance examina tions. This was particularly true in the case of male students. As a result of the government's inadequate policy to promote secondary teachers' retention, and salaries compared to other civil servants listed in the Employment Law, secondary school teaching attracted those unable to find other jobs. They later were the first to resign if another job was found. The Ministry of Education in Iran adopted policies to prevent secondary teachers from leaving their jobs. One of these old policies, still in use, was to make a contract with a student in the secondary teacher training centers, which committed the student as a secondary school teacher for at least five years after graduation. A second more recent policy, was that the Ministry of Educa tion would not accept any teachers' applications for resignation unless they had a minimum of 15 years' ex perience in the teaching profession. Teachers are govern ment employees. Thirty years of employment as a government employee is sufficient, officially, to be retired on full salary in Iran. Based on this policy, the Ministry 16 anticipated that after 15 years of experience the retire ment benefits accumulated during those years would keep teachers in educational careers, also, that age would be a factor reducing the possibility of finding a job in another field. Another policy that was a barrier to teachers1 resignations was that for a period of one year those who resigned could not be employed by anpther public institu tion. Thus very few could find jobs after resigning because almost all institutions are public and a part of the government organization. It would appear that the Ministry of Education and other official authorities would be better advised to place their emphasis on establishing better policies of recruit ment and retention of secondary teachers in order to attract and keep more highly qualified applicants in the profession rather than in acquiesing as an accomplice in the recruitment of marginally qualified candidates who must ultimately be kept in the profession through coercion. Statement of the Problem The purposes of this study were: 1. to describe the academic, social, and economic status of present secondary teachers in Iran; 17 2. to examine and analyze the interrelationships between the shortage of secondary teachers and the government's planning and policies/ as applied by the Ministry of Education; 3. to explore the secondary teachers* perceptions of the status accorded them; and 4. to identify the problems contributing to the difficulty of recruiting and retraining secondary teacher. It was with these concerns that answers to the following questions were sought: 1. How and why was secondary teaching sought as a profession? Were there any economic reasons, family or cultural demands, was it personal interest or merely the lack of other alternatives? 2. Did secondary teachers find the teacher training curriculum and the in-service training programs sufficient and adequate to prepare them for the teaching profession? 3. Was there any relationship between areas of specialization in teaching and teachers dropping out either during teacher training programs or after having worked as secondary teachers? 4. What were the relationships between secondary teachers' attitudes and the following variables? 18 a. decentralization of the education system, b. student/teacher ratios, c. assigned teaching hours, d. school location and general facilities, e. amount of teacher participation in in-service programs. 5. Were teachers satisfied with their promotions, if any, and how did they perceive them in comparison to internal mobility in comparable professions? 6. Were the increase in secondary teachers* salaries almost equal to the rate of inflation? and how have these increases related to salary increases in other public sector occupations? 7. Was there any difference in attitude between male and female secondary teachers either in their selection of teaching in secondary schools as a job and/or >in their intention to stay in the profession? Hypotheses For the purpose of this study, the following hypotheses were formulated and they underline this study: Hypothesis One: Secondary teacher training universi ties and other secondary teacfier training institutions would attract more students when the teachers' social and economic statuses were upgraded. 19 Hypothesis Two; Female secondary teachers were more satisifed with their jobs, and tended to change their occupation less, because of the influence of the familial, cultural, and religious traditions; the high intrinsic value they attached to the profession of teaching; and because teaching afforded them more free time to devote to their families. Hypothesis Three: Science and mathematic graduates of secondary teacher training institutions have less frequently chosen teaching as an occupation. And if they did accept a teaching job they were more likely to try to change it in favor of some other occupation. Hypothesis Four; Salaries with automatic pay increases and bonuses, although important factors, were not the sole elements contributing to the career satisfaction of secondary teachers; non-monetary incentives, such as in-service training programs, the school *s instructional facilities and other such elements were also important. Importance of the Study Education is a public service. In many countries, with the exception of some like the United States, teachers are considered to be civil servants. However, even in the United States, teachers are "local government employees." The concept of public service and the idea of designating teachers as civil servants would appear to relate to the 20 extent to which the national government assumes responsi bility for the various educational levels. The government has a basic responsibility for assuring an adequate supply of qualified teachers for different levels of education. According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (1971a): Since education is a service of fundamental importance in the general public interest, it should be recognized as a responsibility of the state, which should provide an adequate network of schools, free education in these schools and material assistance to needy pupils. (p. 35) In the developing countries, after the problem of structure, both economic and political attention has been directed, toward the characteristics of the human input, the raw materials from which a nation is fashioned, into the educational structure (Evans, 1971). While family, clan, community, mass media, youth group, and so forth, are very important agencies from which those characteris tics have been acquired, there has been a growing concern for the role of formal education as an effective source of training for the human inputs needed for development. In the process of development, the first goal of formal education is eliminating, or at least reducing, the rate of illiteracy and then providing skilled manpower and qualified civil servants. Education beyond the literacy level and any program for the training of skilled manpower 21 indicates the need for secondary education. There is also a need for qualified indigenous specialists or graduates from universities— both within the country and abroad— who first must be graduated from secondary education. Developing countries have considered education as a precondition for economic development and tremendous attempts have been made to provide quantitative growth at every educational level. This occurs even though the idea of education as a factor of economic growth rests on debatable theoretical bases, since studies on this re lationship are based on extremely simplified educative and economic variables (Debeauvais, 1974). In Iran, as a developing country, but one with a faster rate of development than most, the problem of the increasing demand for education is crucial. The quantita tive expansion of education in many cases is inevitable in almost every third world country. This expansion has led simultaneously to rising educational expenditures with declining quality in education. The argument of this study is that in contrast to the quantitative expansion of secondary education in Iran, at a rate much higher than any other level of education (UNESCO, 1972b), the qualitative change in terms of secondary teachers' recruitment and retention— one of the most important inputs in the system— has been too little 22 and often in the wrong direction. Since this investigator found no research or specific studies in Iran that had attempted to assess recruitment and retention of secondary teachers affecting their attitudes toward their jobs, the results of this study would provide a practical guideline for future research. Secondary teachers' motivations toward their career is associated with the social and economic status of that profession. This motivation is also related to the amount of professional power they enjoy in the bureaucratic educational system in Iran. These motivations and the secondary teachers' sense of empathy— -meaning the ability of a person to imagine that one can make significant changes in one's own status and thinks of status as im portant— are considered as main points in this study. This study seeks to find elements related to the satisfaction of secondary school teachers in Tehran with emphasis on those factors that these secondary teachers consider important, and which serve to attract a greater number of people into secondary teaching as a long term career. Information gained through this investigation can be utilized by the government of Iran in planning for the development of the secondary teacher supply. It can also assist the Ministry of Higher Education in making and 23 implementing new decisions involving teacher retention and occupational environment in terms of the needed school facilities, in-service training, and financial assistance. Furthermore, this study can provide a most vital service by contributing meaningful data to the government so that appropriate policies can be formulated to upgrade the teaching profession and to attract more students to enter teaching training universities. Assumptions Assumptions made related to this study were: 1. That documents, statistics, and educational policies or government plans related to secondary education, and specifically concerned with secondary teachers in Tehran, were available and reasonably accurate. 2. That the sampling of secondary teachers in Tehran was representative of all secondary teachers in Tehran. 3. That the questionnaire developed for the purposes of this study was valid. 4. That the teacher respondents were objective and sincere in their responses and responded freely and honestly to the two measurement instruments. 5. That the teacher organizations, although newly established, were representative of teachers* organizations in Tehran. 24 6. That the English translation of statistics, documents, and literature from Farsi (Persian), which was the responsibility of the investigator herself, were accurate. Delimitations This investigation was delimited by the following: 1. To secondary teachers, not other professional personnel, of various ages and educational experiences. 2. To public and private secondary schools whose teachers were officially recruited by the Iranian Government. 3. To a sample population of Iranian secondary teachers in Tehran, Iran. 4. To analyses of educational planning and decisions made by the Iranian Government related to secondary teachers' recruitment and retention. Limitations of the Study The study was limited by the following: 1. Respondents were limited to secondary teachers, so no attempt was made to analyze problems concerning teacher training, recruitment or retention policies of elementary or guidance schools. 25 2. The sample size was limited because of the reluctance of Iranian secondary teachers to respond to the questionnaire. 3. Many of the latent factors that may influence teachers1 attitudes toward their jobs probably could not be evaluated through the instrument used in this study. 4. The period of investigation, particularly at the time of administering the instruments, was a critical one in Iran. It was immediately after the government changed from a monarchy to an Islamicv Republic. Procedures The descriptive survey research method was employed in this investigation. The study utilized data gathered through questionnaires. Available official documents, statistics, and previously related research were also used. The sample population was drawn from school districts located in Tehran, Iran. The selection of school districts was determined in consultation with the responsible committee in the Ministry of Education in Iran. Then, with the help of the heads of the selected school districts, the required number of secondary schools was selected. The basic reason for going through the process of officially selecting the districts and schools was to 26 allow for and to reflect differences in Tehran’s schools' social and physical environments based on geographical location. Data were collected through a questionnaire from chosen respondents, teachers in Tehran's secondary schools, either public or private, who were officially employed by the Ministry of Education. Additional information was obtained from personal interviews with members of teachers' organizations, as well as from authorities in various offices under the Ministry of Education. Definitions of Terms Used In this investigation the following terms are defined as they were used. Army of Knowledge or Sepah-e Danesh: Graduates of high school or university who worked as teachers for the fulfillment of their required two years of military services. Civil Servant Employment Law: An official document provided by the government which contained all criteria for salary payment to all who were officially recruited as government employees. Danesh Sara (House of Knowledge): The common name for any teacher training center in Iran, which usually carried a suffix to indicate the level of teacher training. So Danesh Sara-y Alii (Advanced House of Knowledge) would ________ 27 be a center for secondary teacher training. The students from these centers usually signed a contract, an official commitment to work after graduation for a minimum specified period as teachers. Development Plans: Documents defining national development policies in the economic and social fields in accordance with existing'legislation. The Development Plans of Iran began in 1937. The Fifth Plan ended in 1978 and the Sixth Plan was launched when the regime changed in February 1979. Educational Plan: A program of action based upon a choice of priorities for the accomplishment of educa tional objectives which had a close relationship to man power planning. In Iran it was usually part of the development plan. Educational System in Iran: Education was public, free, and- compulsory up through grade, eight. The old system consisted of two segments: elementary (6 years) and secondary (6 years). The new system, implemented in 1972-73, changed it to elementary school (5 years); guidance school (3 years); and secondary school (4 years). Merit Salary Increase System or Karaneh Plan: A plan developed by the Shah1s government for increasing teachers' salaries. According to this plan, teachers were paid not only on the basis of their years of service, and 28 degrees received, but also on the basis of the level of teaching, subject matter, ancji geographic location of the school. Ministry of Education: According to the Area Handbook for Iran: The educational system operates under the central control of the Ministry of Education. The Ministry establishes standardized curricula and administers school examinations, writes and approves textbooks, hires and trains school teachers and regulates their salaries, plans the public school budget? and approves all expenditures. It also decides how many, where, and what kind of public schools are to be built annually. (Smith, Cover, & Folen, 1971, p. Ministry of Science and Higher Education: Educa tion and its related policies and budgets for universities and institutions of higher learning, was the responsibility of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education in Iran. The independent universities, like the University of Tehran which had direct access to the national government, were an exception. Secondary teachers in Iran were required to possess a Bachelor*s degree, and their training, either in uni versities or other institutions of higher education, was under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education. In 1979 the new government (Islamic Republic) of Iran assigned the former responsibilities of the Ministry 29 of Art and Culture to the Ministry of Science and Higher Education; and in March 1979, the Ministry's name was changed to the Ministry of Science and National Culture. OECD (The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development): OECD was set up under a convention signed in Paris on December 14, 1960. It provided policies re lated to substainable economic growth and employment and a rising standard of living in member countries. The members of OECD are: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, The Federal Republic of Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, The United Kingdom, and the United States. Plan and Budget Organization: In 1946 the Industrial and Mineral Bank was established and made responsible to accelerate Iran's economic development. In February 1947, the Representative Parliament passed the Bill of the First Development Plan, which centered the responsibility for all areas in the development planning, economic, and social, . on the institution called The Plan Organization. The budget was kept as the responsibility of the Ministry of Financial Affairs and the funds were allocated by them. In 1972 the allocation of the 30 government’s budget was transferred to the Plan Organiza tion and its name was changed to Plan and Budget Organiza tion. Secondary School: Secondary education started from grade 9 and was divided into two main divisions: academic, or general secondary, and vocational/technical education. In this study, problems related to the recruit ment and retention of academic or general secondary school teachers only were taken into consideration. Secondary School Teacher: Those who were teaching in the 4-year secondary school; officially they should have held a Bachelor’s degree, or its equivalent, preferably from a 4-year teacher training college or university, or from a university school of education. Because of the shortage of graduates from these institutions, most secondary teachers in Iran had a B.A. degree from uni versities and had almost no background in education. They were officially recruited by the government either as permanent or temporary secondary school teachers. Temporary secondary school teachers, e.g., students from universities who taught part-time in secondary schools and received some living subsidies from the government, or those under the "Army of Knowledge" (Sepah-e Danesh), were excluded from this study. 31 Sephahi; An individual in the Army of Knowledge or the Sepah-e Danesh. 32 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The review of the literature in this chapter is intended to provide an overview of the Iranian historical, legislative, and social bases from which the problem of this study has emerged. The chapter will present a summary of relevant literature and significant official statistics and documents which delineate the relationship between government policies and the shortage of secondary teachers in Iran. In a broader context, the problem will also be viewed in countries other than Iran. The review of literature in this chapter is developed into two major sections. The first section centers on: (1) the development of secondary teacher training institutes in Iran, along with an examination of the impact of national development plans on the problems of secondary teachers1 shortage; and (2) secondary school teacher selection and recruitment policies and related factors in other countries to indicate some of the solu tions adopted by different nations and to illustrate that effective national education policies can be formulated if 33 the problems of teacher supply and demand for teacher training, recruitment, and utilization are considered together. In this second section relevant policies and studies are discussed which center on reports from (1) countries in the Asian region, and (2) The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries, to show how these countries are dealing with this problem. Iranian Literature on Secondary Teacher Training The history of formal teacher training in Iran goes back only 60 years. At the beginning of 1298, or at the end of 1297 (Iranian calendar comparable to 1918-1919), when Mirza Ahmad Khan Bader (Nasseredolah) was Minister of Education, the first Central Normal School (Dar Al- Moalemin) was established (Sedigh, 196 0). The school had only two options: courses for elementary teacher training and courses for secondary teacher training. The elementary teacher training had an experimental elementary school in which its students could practice teaching under their professor's supervision (Mahboobi Ardakani, 1976). The curriculum of the secondary normal school resembled closely the regular secondary school program, plus some pedagogical courses such as: psychology, logic, and principles of education and training (Danesh Sara-y Alii, 1955). 34 The directors and teachers of the Central Normal School were among the most famous, highly educated persons of that time. Some had formal education backgrounds and some had both traditional and formal education. The expansion of the number of high schools in Iran created a rising demand for high school teachers. As a result, in 1928 the Ministry of Education (Vezarat-e Moareph) established a new advanced normal school (Par Al-Moalemin Alii) allied with the Central Normal School. In the same year, the articles of association and the instructional agenda for secondary Central Normal School were passed by the High Council of the Ministry of Educa tion. In December 1929, a law passed by the Representative Parliament (Majles-e Shora-y Melli) mandated the government to subsidize part of the educational expenses of students in the advanced normal school (Par Al-Moalemin Alii) and to employ them as secondard school teachers after their graduation (Mahboobi Ardakani, 1976) . In March 1933, the name of the advanced normal school was changed to Danesh Sara-y Alii (Advanced House of Knowledge). In the 1935-36 school year women were allowed to enroll in Danesh Sara-y Alii. In the beginning, the three-year curriculum of Danesh Sara-y Alii consisted of individual study each year in two or three subjects plus a thesis related to one of 35 these subjects. If the student met the requirements, under the supervision of a professor, he would be allowed to continue studying the following school year until comple tion of a third year. In the University Establishment Law (1933), it was stipulated that Danesh Sara-y Alii would become a part of the University of Tehran (the oldest university in Iran, established in 1935). Thus Danesh Sara-y Alii, the only national secondary teacher training school, became affiliated with the University of Tehran as part of the School of Humanities and Literature. After December 1959, it was no longer affiliated with the University of Tehran but was an independent institution of higher education under the direct control of the Ministry of Education. When the number of institutions of higher education in creased, and a Ministry of Higher Education was formed, Danesh Sara-y Alii came under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Higher Education. Danesh Sara-y Alii was the only secondary teacher training center in the entire country. Although the preparation of teachers for various levels and types of education was an area of constant concern in Iran (Ayman, 1974), neither the number of institutions nor the number of students enrolling in the secondary teacher training 36 schools increased sufficiently to cope with the country's needs. According to Mostafavi Kashani (1975): The First Development Plan and Second Development Plan were a series of projects concerned with certain areas within the economy which were beneficial to the country. In neither the first nor the second plan was much attention paid to education. (p. 30) The First Development Plan, from 1947-54, and the Second Development Plan, 1955-61, were preliminary experiments in economic development. With the Third Development Plan, 1962-68, the need for mass education and educational development in all areas was recognized. The educational goals of the plan were sound, however, secondary education was destined to be slow because'of the shortage of secondary teachers. Another factor was the increasing rate of unemployment among graduates from the secondary schools. In the implementation process of the Third Develop ment Plan, the critical need for secondary teachers caused the establishment of three new secondary teacher training centers in three central cities in three different states— - Meshad, Isfahan, and Tabriz. But before their graduates started working as teachers, the names of the schools were changed and they became the School of Education of Meshad University, the School of Education of Isfahan University, and the School of Education of Tabriz University. Each 37 became a part of the university in its particular city. This satisfied students' desires for the prestige and validity of a degree granted by a university. Consequently the unique teaching mission of the three new teacher training centers changed and the official commitment of the graduates, five years teaching in secondary schools after graduation, ended (Center for Educational Planning, 1975). Although the Third Development Plan has often been characterized as being devoted to "infrastructure- building" (Vakili, 1978), it did not address the most important component of its mission— the development of the post-primary, trained, skilled manpower needed to build the infrastructure of the country. Since the country had but one secondary teacher training institute (Danesh Sara-y Alii) with very limited capacity, it had the choice either of using unqualified secondary teachers or prevent ing the expansion of secondary education. The responsible authorities in Iran in fact did both during the life of the Third Development Plan. They restricted the budget for expansion of secondary schools while they tried to recruit applicants holding Bachelor's degrees even if the degree was unrelated to the needed fields of specialization. Iran embarked on the Fourth Development Plan, 1968- 72, which was considered the most important transformation 38 in the move toward industrialization. The presumption was that given its economic position, the public and private sectors had developed sufficient confidence to invest their money (Vakili, 1978). The government thus gave priority to becoming an industrialized, modernized country in as short a period of time as possible, with an attendant emphasis upon capital-intensive projects. Instead of opting for a slower development pace utilizing alternative indigenous technology, the government's decision necessitated heavy importation of technology from the advanced nations (Zonis, 1976). However, if we consider the development of human resources of the country as a major element of moderniza tion, then a basic requirement needed to achieve this * development was the qualitative and quantitative growth of the educational system. Obviously, teacher training was a major component in the educational system which needed particular attention. Nevertheless, at the beginning of the Fourth Development Plan, the answer to the increased demand for secondary teachers was to place experienced elementary teachers (with educational background of secondary schooling and some with an additional year of elementary teacher training) into teaching positions in the secondary schools. During the first three years of the Fourth Plan this policy decreased the percentage of 39 university educated secondary teachers as compared to the Third Plan. In the final year of the Third Plan, 48.9 percent of secondary teachers held a Bachelor's degree (either from a teacher training center or a university), while at the end of the third year of the Fourth Plan this percentage had declined to 44.3 percent. During the last two years of the Fourth Plan, with the utilization of the guidance school cycle, 57.6 percent of secondary teachers held a Bachelor's degree. The objective of a three-year guidance school period was to discover students' talents and potentials, and to orient them toward a technical career. So by chang ing the 6-6 (primary and secondary) educational system to a 5-3-4 (primary, guidance, and secondary) system, the secondary school period was reduced to four years. The government transferred all those secondary teachers having a Bachelor's degree from the first two years of the former 6-year secondary schools into the new 4-year secondary schools. The teachers in the guidance cycle were not re quired to have a university degree. Therefore, the govern ment staffed the guidance schools either with experienced elementary teachers or secondary teachers without uni versity degrees— or worse, with newly recruited teachers holding: high school diplomas only. Table 3 demonstrates • 40 Table 3 The Increase in Secondary Schools' Educational Staffs by Educational Degree During the Fourth Development Plan School Year Secondary Schools' Educational Staff Total Less than B.A. % of B.A. B.A. or More % Increase B.A. or More % Increase Less than B.A. 1967-68 20,425 10,435 9,987 48.9 - - 1968-69 22,054 11,845 10,211 46.3 2.2 13.4 1969-70 25,019 13,961 11,058 44.2 8.2 15.1 1970-71 27,153 15,125 12,028 44.3 8.7 8.3 1971-72 29,567 15,170 14,399 48.6 19.7 .3 1973-73 26,073 11,046 15,026 57.6a 4.3 27.1 The increase is the result of the change in education system. Source: Center for Educational Planning. Preliminary Report on a Long-term Educational Master Plan for Iran. Institute for Research and Planning in Science and Education, August 1975, p. 38. H the effects of these policies on the secondary schools' educational staff during this period. The contradiction between the educational goals of the Third and Fourth Plans raised another problem relative to secondary education. An objective of the Third Plan was to slow down the rate of secondary school expansion. Yet in the Fourth Plan, by increasing government expenditure for all levels of education, private sector participation was discouraged and augmented the number of students in public secondary schools. Both the student/teacher ratio and the number of students per classroom were raised, particularly in the urban secondary schools where the average number of students per class was 50 (Center for Educational Planning, 1975). There was no regulated standard for student per classroom ratio in Iran, although it was felt that whenever this ratio decreased ,the efficiency of the students increased. Thus as a result of the controversial policies during the Fourth Plan, the increased number of students per classroom in public secondary schools not only reduced the quality of education but also provided a condition in i which the €ype of secondary school was an indicator of social class discrimination in urban areas. Those families with higher incomes could afford expensive private schools for their children while those wi-ffh low incomes sent their •s 42 children to the crowded free public secondary schools. Tables 4 and 5 • include figures that support these state ments . Iran's Fifth Development Plan, 1973-74, sought to provide a somewhat coordinated leap forward as a result of the sustained economic growth and social transformation of the past decade. In the introduction to the Basic Objec tives and General Guidelines and Policies of the Fifth Plan, the objective of this plan was to achieve a more equitable distribution of national income: The experience of other countries, both developed and developing, indicates that rapidly rising national income is not necessarily accompanied by the more equitable distribution of this income among the various social groups. Never theless, as a result of Iran's social and economic revolution, not only have per capita incomes risen rapidly, but major progress has also been made toward a more equitable national income. (Plan and Budget Organization, 1973, p. I) In the process of implementation of the Fifth Plan, the expansion of social welfare and the raising of living standards, especially among the lower income groups was forgotten, and the plan was characterized as an unco ordinated leap forward (Vakili, 1978). Even during the 1978-79 opposition movement in Iran, which was to some extent the result of maldistribu tion of national income, the popular reaction was often 43 Table 4 Predicted and Actual Number of Students in the Academic Secondary School under the Fourth Development Plan Year Predicted Actual Percentage Students Increase % Students Increase % of Difference 1967-68 674,000 100 674,000 100 - 1968-69 785,000 16.4 781,000 15.8 .6 1969-70 893,000 13.7 817,000 12.9 ; ■ .8 1970-71 986,000 10.4 1,013,000 12.8 +2.4 1971-72 1,076,000 9.1 1,141,000 12.6 +3.5 1972-73 760,000 -29.3a 942,000 -17.4 +12.1 In 1972-73, the educational system changed and the first two years of secondary school and the final year of elementary school composed guidance school, this decreased the number of secondary students. Source: Tehran Ministry of Education. Division of Planning and Programming. Preliminary Report on a Long-Term Educational Master Plan for Iran. Tehran, Iran: Ministry of Education Press, 1975. Table 5 Student Ratio per Class in Academic Secondary Schools in Cities and Villages in the School Year 1972-1973 No. of Students No. of Classes Average No. of Pupils per Class Schools Public Private Total Public Private Total Public Private In City 657,816 181,931 839,747 12,978 4,789 17,767 50 37 In Village 98,727 4,049 102,776 2,315 98 2,493 41 41 Total 756,543 185,980 942,523 15,373 4,884 20,260 49 38 Note. The 1972-73 school year had fewer students per class in secondary schools because of a change in the educational system with the starting of guidance school. Prior to 1973 and up until 1975 the ratios were much higher. Source: Tehran Ministry of Education. Division of Planning and Programming. Preliminary Report on a Long-Term Educational Master Plan for Iran. Tehran, Iran: Ministry of Education Press, 1975. attributed to rapid modernization. The question of how the economic development and modernization were accomplished and whom they benefited was rarely raised (Keddie, 1979) . During the Fifth Plan, in December 1975, the govern ment enacted free education legislation. Under this new law, the secondary and university students could obtain a free education if they committed themselves to serve their country in government posts for an equal number of years after their graduation. In 1976, of all the students in institutions of higher education, 95 percent took advantage of the free education program (Sarnie, 1976). The shortage of university educated manpower during the Fifth Plan was caused in part by lack of higher educa tion institutions in Iran. In 1975, for instance, 28,000 students passed the university entrance examinations. This figure was 14.7 percent of those secondary school graduates who actually took these examinations in the same years (Iran Almanac, 1976, p. 103). The area of secondary teacher training was seriously affected by the unequitable distribution of national income. Incompatibility between the sound goal of the Fifth Plan concerning teacher training and of the Plan's actual accomplishment were observed. According to the educational goals in the summary of the Fifth Plan, in 46 The field of teacher training, on the basis , of this program . . . it is envisaged that j 80 centers for training teachers and j instructors at various levels will be established during the Fifth Plan period. Until these centers become operative, Fifth Plan needs will be met through short term courses at existing centers and uni versities. (Plan and Budget Organization, 1973, p. 126) Although some teacher training centers for various levels were established during this plan, Danesha Sara-y Alii (now the Teacher Training University in Tehran) was the only center for secondary teacher training. In 1974, a new center opened in Zahedan (in the southeast) and in 1975, another one opened in Sanandage (west) with small t S enrollments. In 1976, as a result of insufficient numbers of secondary school teachers, the government asked all / universities, except those engaged in very special / technical science courses, to initiate schools of educar- f tional science (American Council on Education, 1976). With the beginning of the Fifth Plan, a new university (University of Sepahian Enghelab) was estab lished particularly for those who had finished the required two years of training in the military service as Sepahi (or Army of Knowledge) and were willing to continue in teaching positions. The majority of the students in this university were Sepahi who had been pursuing their studies through correspondence, while at the same time teaching in 47 elementary or guidance schools. The university also had other full-time students in the field of education, as well as some students in areas other than education. Table 6, while showing targets and predicted numbers of students in higher education under the Fifth Plan, when compared to Table 7 illustrates the short sighted and superficial educational plan and predictions for the country since the implementation did not bring about the desired results. Table 7 reflects the number of students in higher education and those in educational science. Although based on their areas of specialization, students in educational science were expected to choose secondary teaching as their future profession. Not all of them were committed to do so. Sustained difficulties encountered in meeting the demand for teachers before and during the period of the Fifth Plan led authorities to recruit individuals who were not interested in teaching but were not qualified for other jobs, for various reasons, and held a university degree usually unrelated to the specialties needed. The priority for secondary teacher recruitment has always been from graduates of teacher training university or similar institutions, even though very often they trained individuals who did not ultimately go into teaching. 48 Table 6 Distribution of Students in Higher Education by Field of Study for the Fifth Plan No. End of Students at of Fourth Plan Fifth Plan Objective Field of. Study No. Percent No. Percent Humanities 15,000 14.0 19,000 10.0 Teacher Training and Educational Science 20,000 18.5 37,000 19.5 Fine Arts 3,400 3.1 5,300 2.9 Law 2,000 1.9 3,400 1.8 Social Science 23,600 21.8 42,000 22.2 Mathematics and Natural Sciences 10,800 10.0 20,900 11.0 Engineering 18,000 16.7 34,800 18.3 Medicine 10,500 9.7 19,000 10.0 Agriculture 4,600 4.3 8,300 4.4 Total 108,000 100.0 190,000 100.0 Source: Plan and Budget Organization, Iran's 5th Development Plan 1973-1978: A Summary, 1973, p. 125. Table 7 Distribution of Students in Higher Education by Field of Study for School Years 1970-71 to 1976-77 School Year 1970-71 1971-72 1972-73 1973-74 Field of Study No. % No. % No. % No. % Medicine 10,000 13.39 9,893 10.16 11,339 9.83 13,589 11.04 Law 1,637 2.19 1,979 2.03 2,281 1.98 2,375 1.93 Social Science 16,526 22.12 21,921 22.52 25,623 22.22 28,860 23.44 Humanities 14,704 19.68 20,979 31.55 25,642 22.24 24,160 19.62 Educational Sciences 1,951 2.61 2,522 2.59 2,945 2.55 3,580 2.91 Mathematics and Natural Sciences 9,876 13.22 15,280 15.70 18,928 16.41 19,734 16.30 Agriculture 3,162 4.23 4,154 4.27 4,772 4.10 5,389 4.38 Engineering 14,008 18.75 17,451 17.93 20,621 17.88 22,057 17.91 Fine Arts 2,844 3.81 3,159 3.25 3,219 2.79 2,370 2.74 Total 74,708 100 97,338 100 115,311 100 123,114 100 Source: Institute for Research and Planning in Science and Education. Statistics of Higher Education in Iran. Tehran, Iran: Institute for Research and Planning in Science and Education Press, 1976; 1977. CJl O Table 7 (Cant'd.) School Year 1974-75 1975-76 1976-77 Field of Study No. % No. % No. % Medicine 14,965 11.06 17,810 11.92 19,325 12.54 Law 3,169 2.36 2,884 2.10 2,973 1.92 Social Science 32,138 23.74 31,302 20.40 27,093 17.56 Humanities 22,298 16.47 25,920 17.05 23,648 17.08 Educational Sciences 4,013 2.96 4,800 3.16 5,342 3.50 Mathematics and Natural Sciences 21,996 16.26 24,507 16.08 27,317 17.70 Agriculture 6,466 4.78 7,134 4.57 6,837 4.43 Engineering 25,868 19.11 32,779 21.58 34,411 22.31 Fine Arts 4,414 3.26 4,769 3.14 4,659 3.02 Total 135,354 100 151,905 100 154,215 100 Source: Institute for Research and Planning in Science and Education. Statistics of Higher Education in Iran. Tehran, Iran: Institute for Research and Planning in Science and Education Press, 1976*, 1977. To reduce the critical secondary teacher demand the government decided to establish a network of teacher train- ing branches in different parts of the country, with Danesh Sara-y Alii (Teacher Training University) to serve as the main center for all of these institutions. Based on this decision the Plan and Budget Organization, as contractor, made arrangements with private consultants and the Teacher Training University to work on a comprehensive plan for the establishment of a new campus in Hesarak (about 27 miles from Tehran). The number of day students in the final stage (13th year) of the development of this campus was predicted to be 10,000. With the help of foreign and Iranian advisors, 78 university level programs of study, including 51 areas of specializations with 8 academic divisions were planned. The curricula provided for 29 Bachelor, 43 Master, and 15 Doctoral programs of study— all in education. Based on a modern organizational chart, the specifications for the physical plant for all the official, educational, recreational, housing (for both students and staff), health centers, experimental kinder gartens/ elementary and secondary schools, banks, post office, as well as other essential and modern facilities were planned (Tosehe Omran Consultant Engineers, 1974). This comprehensive plan ran into five volumes in length (educational planning, architecture, structure, and cost 52 analysis) and included 78 instructional curricula. It was never implemented due to unexpected tightening of the i budget allocated for this purpose. As Johnson (1980) said: Iranian planning authorities also had come ! to the decision that many of the investment j projects slated to begin during the Fifth j Plan (1973-78) would have to be postponed I at least until the Sixth Plan. Only projects j already under way were scheduled to be j completed. (p. 6) \ During this period the economic situation in Iran changed quickly, much faster than anyone could have fore cast. It would have been difficult for anyone to imagine, as late as January 1975, that the government of Iran would be forced to undertake a major budgetary stabilizing pro gram. Under this program the budgets of all Ministries were tightened. Iran had loaned money to Britain and France in 1974. Also, the Rial (the nation*s currency) was pegged to the International Monetary Fund *s Special Drawing Rights (SDR) in February 1975,to ensure against the decline of the value of the dollar. However, it was later devaluated against the dollar by 1.6 percent. By mid-1975 Iran was looking to the international markets for funds (Looney, 1977) . In large part, the basic reason for failure to implement much of the plan in Iran was the government’s fiscal difficulties stemming from an inability to control expenditures. Also it implemented a number of impractical 53 prestige projects, such as some of the agrobusiness ventures in Kuzestan. In addition, as early as 1953, when the Shah returned military expenditures had risen tremendously and year by year had to be supported by in creased oil revenues. According to Abrahamian (1979) : The armed force grew from 120,000 men in 1953 to over 400,000 in 1976, making it one of the largest military machines in that part of the world. The annual defense budget rose from $60 million to over $2 billion in 1976, adjusted to constant price. The arms bought abroad but not included in the budget figure jumped from a mere $10 million between 1965 and 1973 to almost $17 billion between 1972 and 1976. (p. 4) Selection and Recruitment Policy The words "selection" and "recruitment," which are used in this study, follow Gilford's (1976) definitions: Recruitment: The process by which qualified persons are informed of possible positions available on the teaching staff of an educational institution, and their potential interest is assessed. Selection: The process of assessing candidates for teaching positions. . . . (p. 2) The selection of a qualified person, of good moral character, who possesses adequate knowledge of his job is the minimum requirement usually made by an employer in considering an individual for a position. For teachers this selection criteris is very important, even if some people regard them as professional workers, because it is 54 the teachers who make the final choices about the best teaching/learning strategies for pupils (Harnack, 1968). The role of the school as a direct agent of socialization, through curricula and formal classes, and indirectly through peer groups and teachers' influences, has been extensively discussed in educational literature. The school's role, in general, and the teacher's role in particular, expand when a society passes through stages of modernization._ In a seminar on "Teacher Training— Goal, Procedure, Program, and Organization" in Tehran, the influential role of teachers and significant criteria for their selection was discussed as an important issue. Rasekh (1977) stated: In a society where the traditional and social cohesion has become increasingly precarious, a teacher can still be considered as a model and serve as an ethical leader. Clearly, a contemptuous teacher with a negative complex, who does not believe in his/her profession, and is unaware of the teaching mission is unable to reach this point. So the selection process for teacher training should be accompanied by a correct choice of personality for the teaching profession. The teacher's basic duty, particularly in societies similar to Iran, where other social institutions like religion and family have begun to lose most of their efficacy, is training the student for living. Academic teaching and the transfer of knowledge comes after that. (p. 12) In spite of the many policies and programs for the selection of qualified persons for teaching jobs, the 55 traditional process did not change. The only criteria for selection of persons who might become teachers still re mained based on nationwide academic examinations. These examinations were used for entrance into any institute of higher learning, including the school of education, in various universities as well as for the University of Teacher Training in Iran. Other criteria for selecting students for teacher training universities or schools of education, have not been considered. Table 8 illustrates the grade points, and means, of students taking entrance examinations in some selected fields of study for 1973, 1974, and 1975. It shows that persons accepted for teacher training had lower grade points. It has been well-documented that those high school graduates with higher grades in these examinations did not choose teaching for their profession. The great economic growth of Iran in the last decade, and its influence on the country’s internal job market, provided little chance for the Ministry of Educa tion to obtain an adequate supply of secondary education teachers. To meet the challenge, educational authorities had taken steps to retain their teaching staffs in much the same way as was done in other employment sectors when they had been faced with manpower shortages. In education the 56 Table 8 Higher Education Entrance Examination by Selected Fields of Study in 1973, 1974, and 1975: Mean and Total Grades of Applicants Institution Field of Study School Year No. of Students Accepted Total Grade Mean University of Tehran Medicine 1973 200 1,443,414 7217.07 University of Pahlavi Electrical Engineering 1973 25 175,053 7002.12 University of Isfahan Medicine 1973 90 606,197 6735.3222 University of Arymehr Mechanics 1973 120 798,431 6653.5916 University of Meshhad Medicine 1973 170 1,099,489 6467.5823 University of Tehran Psychology and Educational Science 1973 66 398,135 6032.3484 Teacher Train ing University Mathematics 1973 50 291,810 5836.2 Teacher Train ing University History 1973 42 240,907 5735.8809 Table 8 (Cont'd.) Institution Field of Study School Year No. of Students Accepted Total Grade Mean University of Tehran Electric 1974 65 475,371 7313.4 University of Tehran Medicine 1974 200 1,460,160 7300.8 University of Arymehr Electric 1974 126 901,429 7154.1984 University of Meshhad Medicine 1974 175 1,135,868 6490.6742 University of Tabriz Agriculture 1974 60 380,265 6337.75 University of Tabriz Electric 1974 45 284,994 6333.2 Teacher Train ing University Biology 1974 50 312,962 6259.24 University of Tehran Psychology and Educational Science 1974 65 396,202 6059.4153 Teacher Train ing University History 1974 45 259,373 5763.8444 m co Table 8 (Cont'd.) Institution Field of Study School Year No. of Students Accepted Total Grade Mean University of Isfahan Psychology and Educational Science 1974 50 279,331 5586.62 University of Tehran Electric 1975 45 269,941 5998.6888 University of Tehran Medicine 1975 200 1,166,381 5831.905 University of Isfahan Medicine 1975 54 297,398 5507.3703 University of Tehran Economi cs 1975 110 603,612 5487.3818 University of Gondi Shaffoor Medicine 1975 36 195,576 5432.6666 University of Teacher Training Biology 1975 50 259,926 5198.52 University of Teacher Training Mathematics 1975 56 2,834 5060.7142 University of Teacher Training History 1975 30 141,993 4733.1 Ln VO most common practice was either to use existing secondary teachers more extensively, or to increase salaries for teaching overtime, or to increase the number of students per teacher in the classroom. Meanwhile, efforts were also made to recruit more applicants holding a Bachelor's degree. The Ministry of Education continued the policy of recruiting applicants without specific teacher training background. This was necessary because there were not enough graduates from teacher training institutions to satisfy the demand for secondary teachers. Prolonged recruitment difficulties and the increased cost required to attract and retain well-qualified teachers were the main reasons for the policies followed by the educational authorities. However, the recruitment of graduates, that were not certified as secondary teachers, from universities other than teacher training universities meant that many secondary teachers did not possess the essential teacher training background specified in secondary education requirements. The lack of esteem for teaching careers in secondary education, while the role of the teacher has been becoming more critical, was of concern to Rasekh (1977). He worried about this, and noted that: 60 . . . today's teacher has to have an image of tomorrow's society. . . . He has to train students not in the same way that he was trained, but to prepare them for living in the future. He has to be acquainted with the process of economic, social and cultural evolution . . . his role does not circulate around the "art of knowing," his duties include transferring the "art of living." (p. 12) After analyzing the various reports related to teacher shortages at all levels, Rasekh made a comparison between the number of teachers in 1972 and the predicted need in 1992. He concluded that: The twenty year forecast plan by the institute for Research and Planning in Science and Educa tion indicates that in 1992 Iran will need 223.000 to 226,000 (ten times that of 1972) elementary teachers, between 200,000 and 223.000 (almost nine to ten times that of 1972), guidance school teachers, 162,000 to 181.000 (five to six times that of 1972), secondary teachers, and 54,000 (five times that of 1972) university faculty members. At the present time the total number of students in educational science in uni versities and institutions of higher learning is between 5,000 and 6,000. The graduates in these fields of study will by no means supply the estimated great demand. (p. 12) Rasekh suggested that as a prerequisite to success ful secondary teacher recruitment and selection, the Ministry of Education in Iran must develop clearly defined new policies. These might include higher salaries for secondary teachers, as well as other motiving factors. Land and Stoop (1968) reinforced this when they wrote: 61 Higher salaries for teachers attract persons with greater potential to the profession. Better teaching conditions and more fringe benefits are also suggested as a means of drawing more capable people to the educational scene. (p. 14) By adopting and implementing such suggestions, the Ministry of Education can then be more effectively selec tive in its teacher-training process. The effect of the employment market and the inability of the Ministry of Education in Iran to compete with employment opportunities in other occupations provided a situation in which the Ministry could not decide to recruit secondary teachers actively and as Sivulich (1974) said, it had to wait for "write-in". or "walk-in" candidates. Many innovative programs and changes, as described in the previous pages, have been developed for the educa tional system of Iran, but without noteworthy success. One of the reasons might be related to the lack of good teacher selection and recruitment. According to O'Steen (1977) : The quality of education offered in a given school or in a given school system is only as good as the quality of teachers employed there. The prevailing climate, the curriculum, and the school's public image are greatly in fluenced by the teaching personnel. A we11-organized program of teacher recruit ment and selection is an integral part of a forward-going school system. (p. 28) 62 Since the mid-1960s, Iran's educational system and its priorities have been the subject of much debate and revision. In 1968, the government inaugurated the first of a series of so-called high level conferences on educa tion. Since then, and up to February 1979, several annual conferences have been held to improve the national educa tional system in almost every aspect. Such considerations contributed to the passage of a law in 1977, which pro vided that the administrative structure of Iran's educa tional system was to be gradually decentralized (Amuzegar, 1977) . This was not implemented. Since 1979, the newly formed government of the Islamic Republic has changed many former laws and legisla tive provisions which they considered inadequate or irrelevant. However, in the area of secondary teacher recruitment and selection, it would seem that many previous problems still have not been resolved. In the very centralized educational system found in Iran, the selection and recruitment of teachers at all levels has remained with the Ministry of Education. Cross and Davis (1976) recommended an alternative process for teacher selection at the high school level adapted from the, academic model used in higher institutions for the selection of professors by a committee of their peers. .The authors suggested that this academic model might be applied at the high school level with the selec tion committee being drawn from fellow teachers. Elements which increase motivation, such as improved working conditions, increases in salaries, and in-service training which have been considered prerequi sites for retaining secondary teachers, will be examined in the following chapters. An attempt will be made to determine, through a questionnaire and supportive statistics, the relative importance of these factors for the retention of secondary teachers in Iran. The appro priate realization of each one of these motivating elements is essential for a secondary school teacher or a prospec tive teacher. When the teaching career carries status and reward in the society, the applicants should be in tellectually competent and substantively committed. Hoyt (1976) opposes setting minimal levels of academic aptitude as a selection for use in teacher education institutions and said: A good teacher, in my opinion, is also an eager learner. The current and continuing knowledge explosion will make this character istic even more important in the future than it has been in the past. The good teacher will demonstrate this quality in one or several possible ways including independent study, participation in professional associa tions, changing lesson plans, and enrolling in further courses as a student. (p. 6) 64 In contrast to this concept, secondary teachers in Iran have had little opportunity to participate in any kind of in-service training, or other professional improvement activities. The working conditions for secondary teachers in Iran have been undesirable. Many of the secondary schools were not constructed for schools and lacked adequate physical facilities. The student/teacher ratio has been high. Instructional facilities in secondary schools have been inadequate (supporting statistics appear in Chapter IV]. Under these conditions, the secondary teacher might not only be less motivated to remain in his or her career, but also might not be able to provide the appropriate teaching and learning, as Gorman (1974) said, as a process of communication among individuals in a favorable group setting. Survey of Related Reports on Teacher Shortage and Recruitment in Other Countries Asian Region The profound changes which have affected education, mostly quantitatively, but to some extent qualitatively, in developing countries since the 1950s, plus the impressive and growing size of expenditures for education in Asian 65 countries other than Iran, have called for a variety of new factors— social, economic, and political— to be considered in order to promote and sustain such expansion (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 1972a). Educational changes in these countries have been stimulated by the idea of educational forecasting related to the input of financial and human resources as well as the output of educated students. Teachers, as part of the human resources, are considered most important input after that of students (Coombs, 1969). The examination of close links between teacher training, recruitment and utiliza-^ tion have made the problem of teacher supply alid demand important Xo^^the'S^^naCions r In the decades of the 1950s and 1960s Asian X national endeavors in education were focused primarily on expanding educational opportunities at the first level— literacy and elementary education. A series of meetings were held in Karachi, Pakistan, between December 1959, and January 1960, to bring forth the "Karachi Plan" (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 1961) . In realizing the targets of the Karachi Plan, the training and supply of teachers was recognized as a critical need. The pressure for expansion of first level education in the 1950s had an enormous impact during the 1960s on the 66 1/ second level— secondary education. By 1965, the shift in educational emphases toward secondary and higher education in these countries was inevitable. At the Third Regional Conference of Ministers of Education and those responsible for economic planning in Asia, the status of teacher educa tion for schools at the first and second levels of educa tion was a main factor. This conference was convened by UNESCO at Singapore from May 31 to June 7, 1971. Based on a regional survey of the participating member states (Afghanistan, Burma, Ceylon, The Republic of China, India, Indoensia, Iran, Cambodia, The Republic of Korea, Japan, Laos, Malaysia, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and The Republic of Viet-Nam), it was found that: Though both secondary and vocational secondary education showed high rates of growth, enroll ments in general secondary accounted for by far the largest proportion of the total enroll ment. The rate of school enrollment increase in teacher training institutions (at the second level) was relatively low. A part of the explanation is that, in some countries of the region, second level teacher training was moved up to the third level. Even taking this into account, however, it appeared that expansion of training facilities did not keep pace with the enrollment increase. (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 1972a) The representatives of the member states at this meeting, while reviewing the educational progress during the last two decades and the prospects for the 1970s in 67 Asia, recommended guiding principles mainly related to teacher education supply and demand (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 1971a). There are two patterns of training for the secondary level in countries in the Asian region. One consists of giving high school graduates three or four years of professional training and general education lead ing to a Bachelor’s degree. The other requires one year of professional training for university graduates. The general trend is toward the former pattern, through which the academic education is more closely related to the future teaching profession. These two approaches have effectively been the only ways to supply adequate secondary level teachers for the countries in this region. The working document of the Singapore conference identified the basic problems affecting teacher supply: the out-moded concepts in teacher education curricula; the unawareness of the changing role of teachers; the gaps between methods advocated by teacher education institutions and what they actually have practiced in training teachers; and the isolation of teacher training institutions from the schools for which they have been preparing teachers (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 1972a). 68 The working document of this conference also pro vided a guideline for the growth of teacher supply and for the future development of teacher education, particularly at the second level, where the demand has been so high. OECD Countries Perhaps the most appropriate studies concerned with primary and secondary teachers and their recruitment and utilization have been a range of surveys done by half of the member countries in the Organization for Economic Co operation and Development (OECD). This series of case studies, under the title of "Study on Teachers," was published by the Organization in several volumes. Although these studies were done in 1968, they projected outcomes through 1976. These case studies were designed to analyze the past, present, and possible future relationships between the demand for and the supply of teachers. They were also designed to indicate some of the solutions adopted by different national authorities. They were planned so that the information on teacher resources was available to other member countries. The shortage of trained teachers in these countries has so far been a chronic source of weakness in their schools and has had an adverse effect on the amount and quality of pupils' knowledge. 69 In almost all reports, the scarcity of upper secondary teachers has been greater than that of primary and lower secondary teachers. The experience in Denmark, has provided a better understanding of this specific shortage. The following reasons have been taken from the Denmark case study: 1. Long time lags are involved before an entrant to a secondary school, who is a potential future teacher, actually becomes one. A longer time is needed to produce a qualified gymnasium (secondary school) teacher who may choose teaching. 2. The gymnasiums are now experiencing very heavy increases in enrollment. 3. Conditions for university admission are difficult, consequently there is a low rate of output. 4. The supply of primary and lower secondary is more easily achieved. 5. Employment opportunities are much higher for university graduates than teacher college graduates. (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1968, p. 200) The extent to which the "market" has intervened to bring about a balance between demand for and supply of secondary teachers is another subject that generally has been discussed in these case studies. Paying higher wages should make it possible, in terms of traditional economic theory, to obtain more teachers. But that has not always been so for the secondary teacher. In order to qualify a teacher, particularly for secondary school, had to have a university or similar educational background. So in the 7(1 short run, the supply could not be influenced on a short term basis by higher earning possibilities. Besides that, the market mechanism might not be sufficient to reorient some who would be teachers, because in modern labor practices an occupation such as teaching would have to conform to standard wage practices. In the case of Ireland as in some other countries, market mechanisms, as well as traditional attitudes, have had a tremendous impact on teacher supply. The following statement has indicated this effect: A large percentage of teachers come from a farmer origin. This distribution is solely a result of economic disability. Sixty-five percent of university students come from a professional family. Undoubtedly, for the former group, their inability to meet the ancillary expenses of textbooks and mainten ance and bear the opportunity costs of earnings foregone, effectively limits participation. . . . We can conclude that not only economic circumstances but also the well-known traditional attachment of certain groups to teaching is the basis for their job selection. (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1969, p. 30) In some OECD countries, the favorable circumstances in regard to recruitment for teaching positions during the 1960s did not automatically continue during the 1970s and particularly into the 1980s. They conceived from their experiences that mitigating factors would include: (1) the number engaged in agriculture would almost certainly continue to decline over the next decades; (2) parallel to 71 this, the establishment of new industries and the provision t of new services were likely to provide new employment opportunities, especially for females; and (3) the growth of opportunities for university education would be a counter attraction for secondary teaching jobs. By and large, in evaluating the sensitivity of teacher supply to market considerations the following factor was important in the case of Denmark as well as other countries: The prospect of high earnings will certainly influence the decisions of young people in the choice of future careers. . . . Men teachers respond far more favorably to financial inducements than do women teachers. (Organization for Economic Co operation and Development, 1968, p. 201) Demand and supply of teachers is generally a shared problem in many OECD countries. In evaluating the factors, the case study of the Netherlands has provided a complete analysis of the reasons affecting this problem. Here a high birth rate in conjunction with a low mortality rate has resulted in an increase in population. The percentage of employed females, as in many Western European Countries, has also been low. So the Netherlands are faced with an ever-increasing demand for teachers at all levels and for all types of education. The size and content of migratory streams, national and international, also influence the supply and demand of teachers for every level (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1968). 72 On the supply side of the picture, a number of points needed to be emphasized. Recruitment to the teach ing profession was made exclusively after people had passed specific examinations. This meant the output of persons with the required qualifications from the educa tional system set rather strict limits on the rate at which the teacher supply could be increased. The rate of response related also to the length of education time the teacher needed. It was obvious for secondary school (gymnasium) that since the educational background required a longer time, and other qualifications were much longer and more specific, the supply would not increase fast. Moreover, in some countries, such as Germany, assuring an adequate supply of teachers was complicated by other factors. For example, there were few career delimita tions for most forms of higher education. There was a kind of uncertainty and no clear-cut distinction between those students who, at the end of their studies, intended to become gymnasium teachers and those who might choose teaching in gymnasium from among a variety of other occupations (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1968) . The delimitation of career prospects and the frustration about their social position as teachers were also two important factors affecting teacher supply. The 73 findings of some research on teachers in Austria, although it was highly suggestive to observe the bitter attacks which some teachers launched against the authors of these studies, revealed that resentment and frustration were quite usual among Austrian teachers, as was the case in practically all other European countries (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1968). However, one should know more of the psychological reasons which stand behind this frustration. The results of the studies done on teachers have shown that the undoubtedly low salaries of most teachers have been a very important, but probably not the only reason. In most European countries, teachers have enjoyed a lot of prestige in the schools. It has seemed that this factor has decreased their frustration, but most teachers till have not liked high titles with low salaries. So status inferiority has led to frustration, and the conviction that they have been underpaid increased their frustration. To solve the problem of anticipated teacher short age during the seventies, which at the primary level was estimated to be slightly smaller than the shortage at the general level, the Austrian educational authorities tried different measures, both short-term and long-term, without noteworthy success to close this gap: 74 1. increasing the geographical mobility of teachers, 2. teaching beyond retirement age, and 3. winning back female teachers who retired after marriage. (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1968, p. 77) Fortunately, subsequent efforts included a number of successful measures for solving the teacher shortage problem. The following policies were implemented and continued during the seventies: 1. Overtime teaching which paid a little bit more than the regular hourly rate. 2. Postponement of the reduction of class size. 3. Acceleration of teacher training. 4. Increase of the mobility of teachers within the teaching force. 5. Provision of scholarships for teacher candidates. 6. Advertisements lauding the teacher profession. 7. Improvement in the financial and general working conditions of the teacher force. 8. Utilization of part-time teachers. 9. Utilization of less qualified teachers. 10. Creation of a new secondary school program only for future teachers. (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1968, pp. 68-73) In evaluating the factors determining the supply and demand of teachers, generally, in all of these case studies, the shortage of mathematic and science teachers for the secondary level has been most visible because of the added university preparation required and the market demand. As this study was a survey limited to the upper secondary teachers, those who teach in the last four of high schools, the difficulty in establishing a balance between the supply and demand for these particular teachers was a special area of concern in other surveys and litera ture reviewed. This problem of the number of upper secondary teachers needed, at least in the case of OECD countries, would be greater if technical education teachers were included within the numbers of science and mathematics teachers (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1971). A reason for this imbalance between the supply and demand in upper secondary education, would be the fact that given an equal number of pupils, upper secondary education has tended to be a bigger "consumer" of teachers than lower secondary and primary education. Another study, done in 1971, on teachers in OECD countries, examined, perhaps to a greater extent than the previous case studies, both quantitative and qualitative factors. For this study, the OECD Educational Committee used the supply and demand of teachers from the case studies and evaluated the factors that simultaneously have effected this problem and identified those which have been most critical. This study, entitled Training, Recruit ment and Utilization of Teachers in Primary and Secondary Education, evaluated problems related to the teacher _______________________________________________________________ 76 situation which were shared by OECD countries. To a great extent, these problems matched major difficulties found in developing countries such as Iran. In this study, the increase in teacher demand was considered to result mainly from'the following factors: 1. Growth in demographic factors: - Increase in the age-group effected by primary and secondary education -Internal migration from rural to urban areas and from cities to suburbs. Various institutional measures to enforce compulsory education (up to the ninth grade in most developed OECD countries) . 3. Sweeping changes in the structure and content of education particulary at the secondary level which had clearly experienced a very independent growth due to the social demand for education. (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1971, p. 22) Concern with the supply side, although there have been many factors that directly affected teacher supply, could not be isolated from changes in education itself. The role of education in the second half of the 20th century has been to give individuals a wider lifetime personal independence. This kind of education has been increasingly obtained through a range of training activi ties including the individual's intellectual, emotional, and psychological development which could not have occurred without the classroom experience. This takes account of potential training resources, family influences, 77 development of the training side of professional life, and the "parallel school" in the framework of the developing mass media, which could perhaps be coordinated so as to undermine the school's monopoly of the dissemination of knowledge. Effective mobilization of these resources could most probably decrease the teacher supply need. Meanwhile, the role of teacher has changed to include being a specialist in human development who helps his/her pupils to be more and more self-educated and educable. This tendency might perhaps eventually help to keep the cost of training down and reduce the supply of teachers needed. The extent to which the above qualitative aspects of education may affect teacher supply depends upon the growth of education and the development of the country itself. This OECD survey considered the following factors as the most common among countries included in their study: 1. Recruits available for prospective secondary teachers were from university graduates— a limited group in the population. These qualified persons had, however, a choice of becoming a teacher or entering another profession. Many chose other professions. Also, those females who become secondary teachers were sometimes lost to the profession due to marriage, child bearing, or other family responsibilities. 2. The unreliability of statistics on teacher stock and flows; the almost total 78 absence of reliable forecasting machinery, or of educational development planning; and the non-existence of systematic research on educational development. 3. The difference between the actual and the theoretical time required to graduate, particularly in independent universities where little attention is paid to the real needs of secondary education. This has strengthened the very machinery which limited the supply of qualified teachers. 4. The lack of financial resources has had various consequences in different countries: -The number of places in teacher training institutions has not always managed to keep pace with the growing number of candidates. -The number of required posts were not always created. -Lack of auxiliary staff, space and equip ment, have deteriorated working conditions. -Salaries have not risen sufficiently to attract teachers and keep them in the profession. -The educational system has itself not helped to improve teaching possibilities. (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1971, pp. 23-24) Recruitment Difficulties The complexity of factors that affect the shortage of qualified teachers, particulary when they prove to be both persistent and substantial, requires a closer look at more social variables and governmental policies rather than solely at factors that directly provide the imbalance between supply and demand. Conditions in societies have evolved so that the time has passed when teachers were considered mainly "intellectual" and their profession was highly prestigious. 79 Industrial expansion has developed other occupations whose social prestige has risen steadily. Depending on the type of education and certification obtained, a multitude of possibilities for employment have developed outside of education. More precisely, if education is to be dynamic and effective, the recruits attracted must meet both the qualitative and quantitative requirements. When education is dynamic it can affect the social and professional status of the teachers. So the decision to become student teachers, to enter the teaching profession definitely, and remain in it, will to some extent, be dependent upon how education can compete with other job opportunities^ Generally speaking, because education is not competitive with other occupations, there could be a greater loss of secondary teachers who opt for other fields where there may be greater rewards in employment. The complexity of educational reforms, which are currently being put into effect in several countries, make it difficult to assess teacher supply and demand needed as a basis for recruitment, particularly in secondary educa tion. The survey conducted by OECD in 1974, stated that the problems of teacher training, recruitment, and utilization are related to each other, and their relation- 80 ship is fundamental and complex. Many factors must be recognized in order to obtain an idea of this complex situation. Some of these factors that were given critical consideration were identified from the case studies, reports, books, and other materials researched for this survey. They included the following: 1. A teaching career is contemplated differently by men and women. This difference in attitude may become evident as early as the period when they are in teacher training. The question of remaining in the profession is often considered in different terms. 2. The continual development of other occupations and the added emphasis of prestige associated with the professional, social, and economic aspects of some of these occupations affected teacher supply. Teachers themselves feel that their social status has been falling, for, as is usual, when one social group rises, the other appears to be lower in the social scale. 3. Salary, although not the sole factor which influences the choice of a job, and related employment policies, are incentives that can be put into operation rapidly and can be manipulated with precision. The out come of these policies will provide a framework for com parison between teachers and other occupations and within different categories of teachers. 81 4. The opportunities for financial and educational promotion in the profession for teachers must be encouraged. The use of in-service training and flexible teacher train ing programs assist in the transfer to a next higher stage. Reviewing the literature in the field in Iran, as well as in the other countries investigated, the problem of secondary school teacher shortages was of serious concern. It was established that secondary teachers need to have a university degree and therefore time, in years, was an important consideration in the preparation of acceptable qualified secondary teachers. However, a university degree also made such person qualified for other positions which would be more personally rewarding in the modern world. Related problems existed: inadequate teacher training facilities; retention policies were not promulgated sufficiently for implementation, especially for female secondary teachers. The descriptive study by this investigator took into consideration the factors brought out in this review of literature. The following chapters contain the methodology used, findings and conclusions, as well as recommendations for future studies. 82 CHAPTER III METHODOLGY Overview This chapter briefly discusses techniques of research. Semanticists state that the definition of words is not in the words but in ourselves (Hayakawa, 194 9). Even within the field of education, the word research does not mean the same thing to everyone (Galfo & Miller, 1970). It adheres to the notion that research is one of the means by which we seek to discover the facts. The value of a particular piece of research is not so much that it fits the reader's already preconceived prejudices, but rather that it meets certain criteria that indicates that the results may be depended upon (Fox, 1969). Engelhart (1972) asserted that all research is based on two general methodologies or models, the hypothetico-deductive model and the inductive natural history or descriptive level of inquiry. These two general methodologies, or deductive and inductive levels of inquiry, reveal the components, structure, and relations of any phenomenon. 83 In a hypothetico-deductive or scientific model the assertion is that research (1) starts with a problem, (2) is characterized by hypotheses deduced from theory, (3) is followed by an empirical testing of the consequences deduced from the hypotheses by observation or experiment, and (4) concludes with generalizations or laws useful in explanation and prediction. Inductive natural history, or general methodology, is commonly used in many scientific studies. This methodology also begins with the recognition of a problem, the next stage is inductive and largely empirical and it includes the inspection or observation of the relevant facts and relations and the description and classification of what is apprehended. The results of stages of research activities may be either in the form of summary statement or descriptive generalizations (Engelhart, 1972). Systematic study is one element that is common to both methodologies, or to all scientific studies classified as research (Galfo & Miller, 1970). For a study to be systematic, (1) the nature of the problem must be clearly understood, (2) regardless of what method is used to approach a problem, the researcher must postulate any assumptions which have a bearing on the problem, (3) the method used must be indicated, (4) all possible relevant data must be collected, (5) the collected data must be 84 analyzed, and (6) based on the method, conclusions a;re drawn, or generalizations are made (Galfo & Miller, 1970, pp. 8-9). To a great extent the nature of the problem will help the researcher to determine the methodology to approach the problem. There is always a mutual interplay between problem and method. The problem influences the method to a considerable extent, but methods— their availability, feasibility, and relevance— also influence problems (Kerlinger, 1964). This present chapter will briefly discuss the nature of the problem of this study. Sub-headings will describe: the basic procedure in this study; the rationale for the selection of literature reviewed; the necessity of the questionnaire survey; population and sample selection process; the characteristics of selected school districts; the sample; the intruments and data collection. This study was to investigate whether or not there were significant relationships between the problem in Iran, of recruitment and retention of secondary school teachers, and (1) teachers*concern over social and economic status, (2) the difficulties faced by teachers of secondary schools Which include unpleasant job conditions, poor physical plant,' inadequate instructional facilities, insufficient preparation training for teaching, and lack of in-service training, and (3) shortages of secondary teacher supply. ________85 This study is based on the assumption that the public, generally, was aware of the low pay, as well as the poor working environment of teachers and, therefore, attached the stigma of low social status to their job. Consequently this public attitude is a factor in the failure to attract applicants into the profession and places a limitation on the number of qualified secondary teachers that remain in the profession on a long-term career basis. Basic Procedure of the Study To design a research study is to plan it, that is, design is the process of making decisions before the situations arise which require the decisions to be implemented (Barnes, 1964). According to research designs described by Barnes (1960), Tuckman (1972), and Gay (1976), descriptive research is a structured attempt to obtain data, facts, and opinions about the current condition or status of things. It seeks to ascertain the prevailing condition of things at the time of the study (Barnes, 1960) . This method involves collecting data in order to test hypotheses systematically or answering the questions related to the current status of the subject of the study (Gay, 1976). Gay also believed that assessing attitudes or opinions toward individuals, organizations, events or procedures is 86 one of the most appropriate types of descriptive study. Descriptive research is also the terminology for a descriptive survey. The term "survey" has been used to mean implicitly "sample survey" in contrast to the study of all the members of a defined total population (Babbie, 1973).’ Although Babbie gives credit to experimental research because of the isolation of experimental vari ables, he added that the controlled experiment provided no useful descriptive data and the result told nothing about the larger population. He also mentioned that the relevance of the experiment to the real world was always subject to question and finally the findings might not have generalizable applicability. This researcher agreed with the writings mentioned above and thus found that the most appropriate design for this study was the descriptive method, and a survey was made of a sample of secondary teachers in Tehran, Iran. More than 6,000 secondary teachers, officially recruited by the Ministry of Education, were teaching in 19 school districts in Tehran in the 1978-79 school year. To involve so large a number of teachers would be impractical for either the case study method or the participant-observer method. in the case study method the researcher represents a comprehensive description and explanation of the many components of a given social situation and the researcher 87 seeks to collect and examine as much data as possible regarding the subject of the study. As an educational planner, this investigator gathered, studied, and evaluated data as background information regarding the shortage of secondary teachers in Iran in 1973 and 1974, while working on the Comprehensive Plan.for Teacher Training University in Iran. In the participant-observer method, the in vestigator seeks to become a member of the social event or group under study. Having been a secondary teacher in Iran, this researcher had the opportunity of knowing the problem first-hand and recognizing its sources. Because of the present investigator*s former job experiences as a secondary school teacher in Tehran, and as an educational planner for the Teacher Training Uni versity in Iran, special data was available and used for this study that otherwise would have come only from the case study or participant-observer method. The investigator approached the study by: 1. reviewing the available literature related to the study, 2. examining the problem through a questionnaire answered by a representative sample of secondary teachers, and 3. personal interviews with secondary teachers in Tehran. 88 The Rationale for the Selection of Literature Reviewed The chapter on Review of the Literature in this study covered the background materials of the problems; The unbalanced situation of supply and demand of secondary school teachers, and the influences of national plans and policies, as well as the social consequences of teacher shortages, were confirmed through statistics, laws, and legislation. The review of the literature covered the following: 1. Materials related to the formal historical background of secondary teacher training in Iran which explained that in spite of a high demand for secondary teachers the expansion of secondary teacher training institutions and their growth of enrollment were re stricted. 2. The literature clarified the role of develop ment plans related to education and secondary teacher training institutions. The relationship between economic development and educational expansion and their effects on the demand for and the supply of secondary teachers were supported by data. The governments educational policies in dealing with the secondary teachers' shortage crisis, and the results of the implementation of policies to cor rect the problems were explored. 89 3. A comparative survey of reports related to comparable problems in the countries of the Asian region and in the OECD countries was made. Based on a review of literature, this was a search for ways in which other countries had tried to find alternative solutions for the secondary teacher problem. The purpose was to locate and determine the extent to which any of these alternative solutions might be applicable in Iran. The Questionnaire Survey It was important to find the answers to questions raised in this study, as the findings and recommendations might be useful to Iran for further study. Although the questionnaire and survey method is only one of many research approaches available to social science re searchers, a questionnaire can be used profitably in the examination of many social events and can be essentially effective (Babbie, 1973). The persons having the appro priate information were the secondary school teachers in Tehran. Therefore essential data was obtained from the secondary teachers in Tehran by using a questionnaire. Questionnaires are usually used in survey research to convert into data the information directly given by a subject (Tuckman, 1972). This approach makes it possible to measure a person's knowledge or information, values, and 90 preferences, attitudes and beliefs, and experiences and biography (Tuckman, 1972) . The gathering of accurate and trustworthy data through questionnaires depends upon the validity, reliabil ity, format and working of the questions. The extent to which the information obtained through questionnaires can be dependable and generalizable is based on the technique of choosing the population and sample. Population and Selection of the Sample Defining the population refers to the establishment of boundary conditions which specify who should be in cluded in, or excluded from, the population (Tuckman, 1972). Population, as Babbie (1973) defined it, is the theoreti cally specified aggregation of survey elements. To define the population has at least one advantage which differentiates it from other groups (Gay, 1976) . Regardless of the effectiveness of the research method and the technique to be used in selecting a sample, a defined population is required for the selection of the sample which effects the nature of the conclusion that may be drawn from a study (Tuckman, 1972). Specifying the group that is to constitute the population is the first step in the sampling process. The population chosen is the group 91 of interest to the researcher, the group to which the results of the study could be generalizable. The rationale for choosing secondary teachers as the population of this study was that they were the primary source of data for generating information on the research topic. Their perceptions of the problems and their attitudes could be considered as the reflection of Iranian society's attitude toward teaching jobs in secondary schools, and the future probability of selecting this profession as a career. The secondary teachers' ideas, concerning ways for removing some of the problems related to secondary teachers' recruitment and retention, consti tuted the best source for obtaining recommendations to remedy their present situation. The secondary teachers' attitudes, and the status that society confers on their jobs have been the result of the existing interrelation ship between social, economic, and educational factors. There were similarities among all general secondary school teachers in Iran, from the viewpoint of employment speci fications, and there were differences in their social environment. In 1977, the number of private general secondary schools in Iran, excluding Tehran, was 110 schools for boys and 68 schools for girls, and they were mostly con centrated in the six states' capital cities with a student 92 population of 34,427 boys and 17,255 girls (Tehran Ministry of Education, 1977, pp. 432-449). In the same year, Tehran had 142 private secondary schools, of which 80 were for boys and 62 for girls (see Table 10). The student enrollment in these schools in Tehran was 4 3,065 boys and 27,066 girls. Private schools indicated the private share of education? they compensated for some of the short comings of public education; and they were good sources for the teachers hired by the government to augment their salaries by teaching extra hours. In the Ministry of Education's reports on secondary schools, the teachers constituted 90 percent of the entire school staff. In December 1977, the female secondary school staff in Tehran was two-thirds of the total (see Table 10), while in all Iran, excluding Tehran, the female school staff on the same date totalled 3,910, or almost one third of the total of 10,908 (Tehran Ministry of Education, 1977, pp. 432-449). Thus, in Tehran one-third of school staff were males while elsewhere, excluding Tehran, two-third were males. In general, the rate of female employment in the secondary school staff was higher in some states' capital cities, and in the cities where university or industrial centers were located. This would indicate that in many areas of the country there were no secondary school female teachers, and would reflect the 93 Table 9 S ta tis tic s Related to General Secondary Schools in Tehran: A p ril 1978-79 School Year School Districts Student Enrollment No. of School Staff Type of School No. of Teachers Girl Boy Total Female Male Total Public Private Total lb 7,400 5,765 13,165 229 220 449 8 9 17 404 2h - - 21,450 - - - - - - 309 3 3,140 5,000 8,140 155 142 298 8 10 18 268 4 4,582 5,622 10,304 173 182 355 11 11 33 319 5h 5,465 6,429 12,894 236 315 551 13 3 16 496 6 1,788 2,070 3,858 56 129 185 7 - 7 166 7 . 5,533 5,760 11,293 159 213 372 13 - 13 335 8h 6,376 6,373 12,749 131 226 357 9 8 17 321 9 9,421 6,043 15,464 187 159 346 9 9 18 311 10 5,801 3,884 9,685 205 260 465 15 1 16 418 11 6,089 4,184 10,273 167 106 273 10 3 13 246 12 1,990 2,646 4,637 71 106 177 9 1 10 159 13 6,246 7,096 13,342 195 255 450 17 - 17 405 14 5,111 3,770 8,881 168 98 266 6 10 16 239 15 - - 9,496 - - - - - - 252 16 5,517 3,613 9,130 217 220 437 15 - 15 393 17 5,148 5,713 10,861 - - - 9 11 20 294 18r - - 12,202 - - - - - - 559 19 6,460 8,130 14,590 201 346 548 24 10 34 493 Total 213,314 6,387 a 10% less than to ta l number of school s t a f f . ^Four school d is t r ic t s from which sample was drawn. cIncludes three d iffe r e n t s a t e l l i t e c it ie s around Tehran--nam ely, Share Ray, Shareyar, Karaj. Source: Based on s ta tis t ic s from the O ffic e o f State Education, Tehran, A p ril 1977, unpublished. Table 10 Statistics Related to General Secondary Schools in Tehran; December 1976-77 School Year School District Student EnrolIment No. of School Staff Type of School Number of Teachers Girl Boy Total Female Male Total Public Private Total 1 6,741 8,257 14,998 169 252 421 6 17 23 379 2 8,444 18,925 27,369 185 230 415 9 27 36 373 3 3,273 4,980 8,253 136 118 254 7 11 18 229 4 4,398 6,626 11,024 133 170 303 11 15 26 273 5 4,200 5,640 9,840 131 234 365 12 5 17 328 6 1,400 3,598 4,998 35 156 191 10 - 10 172 7 4,245 5,882 10,127 72 273 345 12 - 12 310 8 6,673 6,512 13,184 158 250 408 9 11 20 367 9 6,949 5,760 12,709 126 191 317 11 8 19 285 10 5,481 5,272 10,753 161 234 395 12 5 17 355 11 4,863 5,197 10,060 157 168 325 11 4 15 292 12 1,812 2,455 4,267 52 104 156 4 2 6 140 13 4,144 6,287 10,431 119 249 368 19 2 21 331 14 5,012 . 4,045 9,057 178 105 282 6 10 16 254 15 3,894 4,097 7,991 83 102 185 6 9 15 166 16 6,528 7,427 13,955 157 256 413 18 9 27 372 17 4,584 7,365 11,949 112 306 418 11 7 18 376 Total 82,640 108,325 190,965 2,164 3,398 5,562 174 142 316 5,002 Source: Tehran Ministry of Education, Office for Plans1 Cooperation, Statistic Section. Educational Statistics in 1976-77 School Year, March 1977, p. 432. VO U1 social and cultural differences between the sophisticated cities and less developed areas. These differences have social and cultural roots that also bias responses because usually respondents pro vide information on topics that have highly desirable answers (Sudman & Bradbury, 1974). Such social and cultural differences effect secondary teachers' attitudes and cause their answers to be biased. Therefore, the sample for this study was limited to a percentage of the 6,387 general secondary school teachers in Tehran who were more homogeneous and would produce smaller sampling errors. To define the population for this study more specifically, and differentiate it from other groups, the target group was composed of general secondary school teachers in Tehran, Iran, who were officially recruited by the Ministry of Education to teach in either the public or private general secondary schools within 19 school districts in Tehran during the academic year 1978-79. Official employment specifications and regulations required that those appointed as secondary school teachers must have, as minimal qualifications, the Bachelor degree to work in any secondary school in Iran. By limiting the study to Tehran, the investigator defined a narrower population in order to obtain a representative sample. A broader population, such as all secondary,teachers in Iran, would 96 have maximized external validity or generalizability, but it would have required a large sample size drawn from teachers throughout Iran, The cost and time factors this would have required precluded such an option for this study. Differences in social attitudes which might exist between those living in the crowded capital city of Tehran and those living in other areas would be obviated by restricting the population of this study to the more homogeneous group. Consequently the conclusions and generalizations were thus restricted to general secondary teachers in Tehran. Through the 1976-77 school year, Tehran had 17 school districts. In 1978-79, when the questionnaire for this research was administered, there were 19 school districts in Tehran. (Table 9 presents statistics related to general secondary schools in 19 school districts in Tehran in the April 1978-79 school year.) Due to the -\ revolution and the many political and social changes during the 1978-79 school year, the yearly educational statistics were not published. This researcher obtained statistics shown in Table 9 from unpublished, confidential, and for "official use only" reports. The complete statistics for four districts were not available when the researcher was in Tehran during April and May of 1979. Follow-up attempts were made by the researcher but she never received 97 the missing data. (Table 10 provides complete statistics of the secondary schools in Tehran for the 1976-77 school year when there was 17 school districts.) The number of secondary teachers listed in Tables 9 and 10 were 90 per cent of the school staff. Sample Selection Process Sampling is the process of selecting a number of individuals who represent the larger group from which they were selected (Gay, 1976). As survey research is usually intended to generalize, and sample surveys are almost always used to represent a larger population, the selection of the sample is a very important step in survey research because surveys are usually conducted for the purpose of understanding the larger population from which the sample was initially selected (Babbie, 1973). To be sufficiently assured that the sample would represent the secondary teachers in Tehran, the researcher selected school districts that represented the different social environments in Tehran, and then selected required percentages of general secondary teachers in those districts. Consequently a stratified sampling method for obtaining the degree of teacher representativeness desired was adopted. First, a committee of four educational experts having high administrative positions in the Ministry of Education, decided that the Tehran school districts No. 3 98 in the North, No. 6 in the South, No. 1 in the West, and No. 9 in the East, would be the most representative school districts in Tehran. They permitted this researcher to conduct her survey in those districts. The written agree ment from this committee appears in Appendix A. Following the decision of this ministerial com mittee, the researcher designed the process for selecting her sample from the secondary teacher population of the four designated districts. A copy of the letter issued by the ministerial com mittee asking the appropriate administrative person in each of the four districts to cooperate with the researcher is attached in Appendix A. Officials in all four of the selected districts agreed to help in the selection of secondary schools within their boundaries and to obtain the cooperation of the principals of those schools. There were a total of 1,149 general secondary teachers in these four districts (shown with a "b" in Table 9). A smaller sample size was deemed more desirable given the social unrest in Iran at the time. The new regime had just assumed power. The people, including teachers and students, were actively participating almost daily in demonstrations and in the officially-required marches. Also the researcher was in Iran from March through April and the data had to be gathered prior to the 99 end of Iranian academic year (June). Based on these reasons, as well as other minor factors, it was impossible to administer the study to all secondary teachers in the four school districts. An effort was then initiated to select as unbiased as possible acceptable percentage of general secondary school teachers from each one of the four selected districts. Several meetings with the administra tive authorities in the selected districts resulted .in.the approval to have 15 percent of the secondary school teachers in the four districts included in the sample, and the facilities were provided for the teachers' participa tion. Arrangements were made for the investigator to make brief presentations about her study in the regularly scheduled meetings of district heads and school principals in each of the four districts. In these meetings the principals individually indicated their willingness to have their teachers participate. These meetings were critical for selecting the participating schools because only cooperating schools could be included among those from which the 15 percent of the subjects could be selected. The second step was the random selection of teachers totaling 15 percent of the population of general secondary school teachers from the selected schools within the four representative districts. Then, through telephone 100 contacts with the principals, the researcher made arrange ments to deliver personally the questionnaire packets to each of the selected teachers in their respective schools. The investigator was present when each school principal gave the briefing to the selected teachers. Subsequently if there were questions from the teachers the researcher answered them. It was stressed at the district selection, in the principals' meetings, and in direct contact with the teachers, that teacher participation in the study was strictly voluntary. The teachers were asked to respond to the questionnaire while in school and the principal was to return the papers to the investigator the following day. During the district meetings some principals identified themselves as unable to participate because some of their students or teachers, for reasons related to the political situation, were on strike and the principals could not be certain that their school would be functioning normally. However, with the assistance of cooperating principals, random sampling was used to select the sample population of secondary school teachers. Characteristics of the Four Selected School Districts Although it was not required by law, administrators tried to assign teachers to a school in, or close to the geographical locations in which the teachers lived. An 101 exception to this practice was the assignment of teachers to teach in schools located in economically depressed areas. The four school districts chosen for this study were located in four geographical areas that best repre sented the different economic and social statuses in Tehran. Having a sample from secondary teachers of districts whose communities represented diverse social and economic statuses was a basic criterion. It was assumed that the social and economic statuses of the students, parents, and community residents would affect teacher attitudes, especially if the teachers were of the same social and economic statuses as most people in the school community. School District No. 3, having 404 general secondary teachers, was located in the northern part of Tehran in a community of upper middle-class and lower upper-class neighborhoods. School District No. 6, having 166 general secondary teachers, was located in the southern part of the: city in a very poor neighborhood. School District No. 1, having 4 04 general secondary teachers, was located in the western part of Tehran comprised of lower middle-class communities. School District No. 9, had 311 secondary teachers and was located in the newly developed eastern part of the city, whose inhabitants were upper lower-class 102 residents. (Basic statistical data of the four districts samples are shown in Table 9.) The Sample The sample for this study consisted of 16 9 general secondary teachers, 15 percent of 1,149 general secondary teachers working in the four designated school districts. (Table 11 shows the distribution of the subjects and number of secondary teachers in each district.) These teachers were employed by the Ministry of Education and were teaching in either public or private general secondary schools within the boundaries of the four districts (Nos. 3, 6, 1, and 9) in Tehran. When teachers are recruited by the government the differences between public and private secondary schools are due to educational environment and do not affect teacher qualification. In School Districts 3 and 9, exactly 15 percent of their secondary teachers participated; while in Districts 1 and 6, a combined average of 15 percent participated. These slight variances occurred because of absences, the unwillingness to respond by those who returned the questionnaires, and the eagerness of those in District 6 to participate when the questionnaires were delivered to other selected teachers. The analysis of all demographic characteristics requested of the general secondary teachers in the sample 103 Table 11 Number and Distribution of General Secondary Teachers in Sample by School Districts School District No. of Teachers 15% of Teachers No. in Sample 1 404 60 53 3 268 40 40 6 166 26 32 9 311 46 44 Total 1,149 172 169 H o are shown in Tables. 12 through 18. These can be considered as independent variables that might affect the respondents * answers. Sex, marriage status, age, educational degree, and the institution that conferred the degree, years of teaching experience, and number of in-service training experiences were important influences in the career of secondary teachers. The investigator was looking to find secondary teachers' attitudes affecting retention of the job of secondary teaching. Analysis, of the data on these variables would determine those factors affecting recruit ment and retention of secondary teachers. As the confidentiality of all information was stressed in writing and verbally during district meetings, also with principals and with teachers, all identification on demographic items was to be filled out except for subjects' names, which were optional. In 27 cases respondents did not fill in their ages. The Instruments Que stionnaire A survey questionnaire administered to the selected sample was a primary source of data required to address the hypotheses of this study. It is obvious that without considerable prior study and field work it would be unusual for even an experienced person to produce a good 105 Table 12 Number and Percentage of Secondary Teachers by Sex Sex N Percentage Female 73 43.2 Male 96 56.8 Total Valid Cases 169 100.0 Table 13 Number and Percentage of Teachers by Marriage Secondary Status Marriage Status N Percentage Married 50 29.6 Single 119 70.4 Total Valid Cases 169 100.0 106 Table 14 Number and Percentage Teachers by Age of Secondary Category Age Category N Percentage 2 0-29 years 34 20.2 30-39 years 67 39.6 40-49 years 30 17.7 50 years and older 11 6.5 Total Valid Cases 142 84.0 Total Missing Cases 27 16.0 Table 15 Number and Percentage of Secondary Teachers by Educational Degree Educational Degree N Percentage Less than B.A. 18 10.7 Bachelor 139 82.2 Master or more 12 7.1 Total Valid Cases 169 100.0 107 Table 16 Number and Percentage of Secondary Teachers by Educational Institutions from Which Graduated Educational Institution N Percentage University 49 29.0 Teacher Training, College or University 93 55.0 Other Colleges 27 16.0 Total Valid Cases 169 100.0 Table 17 Number and Percentage of Secondary Teachers by Years of Teaching Experience Years of Teaching Experience N Percentage 0-6 years 38 22.3 7-15 years 66 39.0 16 years and more 65 38.7 Total Valid Cases 169 100.0 108 Table 18 Number and Percentage of Secondary Teachers by Amount of In-Service Training Experiences Number of In-Service Training Experiences N Percentage Not any 112 66.3 One Time 14 8.3 Two Times 15 8.9 Three Times 9 5.3 Four Times 7 4.1 Five Times 7 4.1 Six Times 3 H • 0 0 • Nine Times 2 1.2 Total Valid Cases 169 100.0 109 questionnaire. The most important quality of an instru ment, particularly a questionnaire, is its validity, which means not only "To make sure that we are measuring what we think we are measuring" (Tuckman, 1972, p. 174), but also to ascertain the instrument1s content validity in terms of its applicability to the research questions, its read ability, and its content consistency. In constructing the questionnaire, the following were especially important factors: 1. the investigator1s own previous experiences as a researcher, a secondary teacher, and an educational planner for the only Teacher Training University in Iran; 2. the systematic review of literature focusing on the topic in general, and on Iran in particular; and 3. Interviews and correspondence with relevant Iranian educators and officials. Prom the above efforts, hypotheses were generated and subsequently the questionnaire was constructed to attempt to provide data to address the hypotheses and questions of this study. The questionnaire covered each one of the four hypotheses separately. Based on each hypothesis a certain situation or evaluating condition was first prepared which 110 was followed by short statements to be assessed by the subjects. The items of the instrument tried to be precise, clear and unambiguous so that the respondent knew exactly what the researcher*s questions meant. The format of the questionnaire was also important. This was essentially because of data processing involved and the researcher*s intention to keypunch the information directly from questionnaires to IBM cards. Questionnaire items were uncluttered, as were sections and/or boxes for respondents' responses, to promote clarity and avoid errors in subsequent tabulations. The precoded questionnaire consisted of (1) a statement on the intent for using the instrument, (2) the social and demographic identification section, (3) four different parts of questions, based on each of the four hypotheses, and (4) a blank space for additional sugges tions or recommendations. A letter of appreciation, individualized with the subject's name, was attached to the questionnaire when it was delivered to each participant. The questionnaire items were structured, specific, and were predetermined statements permitting a range of responses by means of a modified 4-choice scale. The subject was asked to check the choice most closely corresponding to his/her opinion for each statement by 111 selecting from among options ranging from strongly agree, agree, disagree, to strongly disagree? or from the scale of choices extending from very much, much, some, to very little or none; or on a scale of strongly agree, agree, no opinion, and disagree. The total score of each statement in every subsection of the questionnaire was counted to determine the acceptance or rejection of the relevant hypothesis. For the purpose of validity verification, the investigator pretested the questionnaire, in English, with 30 Iranian secondary school teachers who were working on their Master's programs in the School of Education at the University of Southern California in the 1978-79 school year. They were asked to complete the questionnaire and critique the items individually. As a result of their assessments, a consensus was obtained and items that they indicated were ambiguous were rewritten. The final adaptation was the translation of the English version of the questionnaire into Farsi. To ascertain the questionnaire's English-Farsi comparability and conformity, a native Iranian Farsi-speaking professor at the University of Southern California compared both versions. Her letter, indicating the adequacy of the translation, along with the copies of the English and Farsi versions of the questionnaire, has been reproduced in Appendix B. ______________________________________________________________________ 112 I Interviews During the political revolution some teachers joined four newly developed non-official organizations in Tehran which reflected different political ideologies. The investigator assumed that conducting an unstructured interview with some of the secondary teachers in these organizations would provide information related to the motivational and professional satisfactions derived from membership in these groups. The topic of discussion in these interviews was, "A teachers' union with political and social powers." These interviews were utilized to deter mine if these teachers were aware of the distinction be tween a teachers' professional union and the newer teachers political organizations. The main reason for conducting these personal interviews was the investigator's growing awareness that in answering the questionnaire secondary teachers were not making a distinction between a teacher's political organization and a teacher's professional union with political and social powers. The history of the teachers' union in Iran was relatively short. During the Shah's regime a paternalistic teachers' union was directed and financed by the Ministry of Education. The organization's entire activities consisted of (1) operating very limited cooperative stores, one in each city, which sold sporting equipment, household 113 goods and household appliances, and (2) organizing meetings and marches that required the participation of teachers and other civil servants working for the Ministry of Education. The interview took place at the regularly scheduled general meetings of the four new teachers' organizations. To arrange these interviews, the investigator visited the organization's officers, in advance, and described the purposes of the survey. Consequently the officials in each of the four organizations arranged interviews with five willing secondary teachers in each organization. The interviews lasted approximately 20 to 30 minutes each, during which there was direct interchange between this researcher and the interviewee. Data Collection The investigator returned to Iran and collected data for the study during April and May 1979. It was right after the revolution which ended the old monarchy and established the Islamic Republic. People were participat ing in activities like the referendum to determine the new governmental system and were attending the demonstra tions or public political meetings of different parties. They were marching almost every day throughout Iran for, or against, some policy or public officials. It was very common to find offices or agencies closed in Tehran because 114 employees were participating in these various other activities. Secondary schools and teachers were also involved in such activities. Sometimes schools were closed because of concern for students' safety. The researcher received a great deal of help from different administrative levels in the Ministry of Education for the selection of the four sample school districts, and received cooperation particularly from the administrative authorities in the selected districts. There were several occasions in those secondary schools where the data collection was arranged to take place when she encountered closed secondary schools, or found teachers absent because students were marching in the streets demanding that some teachers be dismissed. In an effort to standardize the procedures for data collection, an envelope containing the questionnaire was personally delivered to the individual teachers at their respective secondary schools where the respondents completed and returned the questionnaire to the principal. The next day the investigator personally picked them up. All instructions given participants were the same and it was stressed both verbally and in writing that participa tion was voluntary, not obligatory, and that confidential ity was assured. Data collected through the precoded questionnaire, containing indicators of conceptual variables, were 115 transferred to IBM cards and a program based on the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) (Nie & Hull, 1975), was designed to compute and show inter relationships between the independent and dependent variables of this study. Through use of the computer, teachers* responses were transferred into frequencies within 36 contingency tables with 8 of them devoted to the identification and background of respondents and 28 dealing with their attitudes. Frequency tables would test the hypotheses. In addition, however, Pearson Correlation Coefficient and chi square procedures were also employed in order to test the hypotheses. Many social, cultural, and economic factors have interacted with the value systems of people and influenced their job selection and preferences. Thus it is impossible to keep the sample and the hypotheses of this study apolitical and separate from such relevant social, cultural, and economic factors. It is not anticipated that the findings of this research will identify all factors explaining the shortage of secondary teachers in Tehran, for the means and ends of education itself are neither content-bound nor linked to a specific nexus of institu tions, economic interests, and political power (Apple, 1974) . 116 CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF FINDINGS Introduction This chapter presents data in answer to the research questions. The information obtained by the investigator was analyzed in this chapter according to ord6r in which ^the four hypotheses were enumerated in Chapter I, so that there are four sections, one for each hypothesis. Each section contains a discussion of the linkage between questionnaire and hypotheses, and of the findings based on the factors involved. Hypothesis One Hypothesis one assumed that "Secondary teacher training universities and other secondary teacher training institutions would attract more students when the teachers' social and economic statuses were upgraded." Following the request for basic demographic information from each respondent, seven statements, each with four possible replies plus one unstructured question, were presented in the first part of the questionnaire. 117 These replies provided information from the secondary teachers in the sample concerning their social and economic statuses in general, and their assessments of the educa tional status of secondary teacher training universities and/or institutions vis-a-vis other universities and institutions of higher education in Iran. Socioeconomic status (SES) is a key concept in sociology and other related fields. Its essence is that individuals, as a result of a variety of determinants, occupy different levels in the social hierarchy. However, social and economic statuses are not well defined, either conceptually or empirically. Standardized and ad hoc measures to assess SES exist, but they vary greatly in their indices from community to community (Anderson, Ball, & Murphy, 197 5) . For this study the income of secondary teachers was compared with the income of other occupations requiring the same amount of education. This provided the indices for determining the economic statuses of secondary teachers. The prestige for social status of secondary teacher train ing universities and teacher training institutions was compared with the prestige of other post-secondary uni versities and institutions based on admission standards and curricula. The one unstructured question in this segment 118 also gave respondents a chance to mention any other factor(s) influencing either the economic or the social status of their occupation. The law regulating civil servant employment in Iran has been a fundamental source of inequality among the different categories of government employees. It has directly influenced economic status and indirectly social status. Civil Servants1 Employment Law In June ]966, parliament passed the State Organiza tion and Administration for Employment Affairs (SOAEA) recommendation, a nationwide law for the recruitment, employment and retention of civil servants in Iran. At that time the State Organization and Administration for Employment Affairs was a new organization and its mission and duties were comparable to those of the Civil Service Commission in the United States of America. This organiza tion was responsible for equalizing salaries, fringe benefits, and other compensations received by civil servants, based upon their qualifications. Education and years of experience were the most important criteria. The organization provided a table showing basic monthly payments for government employees (see Table 19). The scale was arranged by grade (every two years employees 119 1201 Table 19 Government Employees' Salary by Grade and Group Group3 1 2 3 4 5 6 Grades 7 b, c 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 12 443 478 513 548 583 618 653 688 723 - 758 793 828 863 11 388 416 444 472 500 528 556 584 612 640 668 696 724 752 780 10 335 360 385 410 436 460 485 510 535 560 585 610 535 660 685 9 283 307 331 356 379 403 427 451 475 499 523 547 671 595 619 8 236 258 280 302 324 346 368 390 412 434 456 478 500 522 544 7 205 226 247 268 289 310 331 352 373 394 415 436 457 478 499 6 180 199 218 237 256 275 294 313 332 351 370 389 408 427 446 5 159 175 191 207 223 239 255 271 287 303 319 335 351 367 383 4 141 154 167 180 193 206 219 232 245 258 271 284 297 310 323 3 130 141 152 162 174 185 196 207 218 229 240 251 262 273 284 2 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 1 100 106 112 118 124 130 136 142 148 154 160 166 172 178 184 aGroup 1, no education; 2 elementary; 3 guidance; 4 secondary; 5 two years college; 6 Bachelor; 7 Master; 8 Doctorate; 9 and on professional experience. h Grade: upgraded very two years. The figures are shown in Toman (Iranian currency originally equal to one seventh of an American Dollar). Parliament later passed a bill stating that all these figures should be multi pled by 4 to account for inflation; in 1973 by 5, in 1975 by 6, in 1976 by 7, and in 1979 by 10. Source: State Organization and Administration Employment Affaires, Civil Servants Employment Law, Approved: June 21, 1966. Includes all the modifications to March 1975, 1975, p. 19. were upgraded); and grouped from one (no education) to nine (doctoral degree), and continued to twelve for those with additional professional qualifications (State Organization and Administration for Employment Affaires, 1975) . In the process of implementation this law did not cover all governmental institutions, nor were those it covered actually implementing the equalization mandated. For example, in Chapter Three of the Law for State Employ ment, after establishing the basic salaries, as noted in Table 19, there were many articles and conditions attached covering monetary increments for such items as overtime, perquisites, reimbursements for job-related expenses, and other justifiable payments (State Organization and Admin istration for Employment Affaires, 1975). Thus there was actually no salary equalization because total salary compensation was the basic salary plus the high increments made legal under this law. However, the Ministry of Education paid none of these bonuses, in the first few years of the law, to either teachers or principals although it did pay some increments to its other administrative staff members. In 1974, after eight years, a fixed amount of money was set for all teachers, differing for elementary and secondary levels, and was added to their basic salary as a bonus to the profession. 121 The Ministry of the Royal Court, SAVAK, Governmenta Corporations, the Organization for Social Insurances and Municipalities, the Armed Forces, judges, and university professors were excluded from the law passed in 1966. SOAEA explained these exceptions by stating that the coordinated framework of the employment law did not mean equality in implementation; thus differences could be applied in different institutions while the key principles of equivalency could be maintained (Vatani, 1975). Findings Admission to higher education in Iran is based on an entrance examination. High school graduates apply for this examination and are limited to three or four choices of preferred fields of study. The Testing Bureau in the Ministry of Higher Education, responsible for developing and administering these examinations, also established criteria for admitting students to the public universities or other higher educational institutions. Usually those with higher grade point averages on the entrance examina tion obtained appointments to the major fields, such as medicine, engineering, or science. Thus students with lower grade point averages either selected teacher training universities or they are assigned to them. Regardless of the job market demand for teachers, as long as the academic qualifications and employment 122 criteria for teaching jobs differed from those of other comparable university programs and employment situations, the social value that the public assigned to teachers and their jobs would be inferior. Table 20 shows that 76, or 45 percent, of the respondents considered that specialized university en trance examinations for secondary teacher training institu tions had "very much" effect on the social status of teachers; and 45, or 26 percent, indicated that it had "much" effect on their social position. Based on the data presented in Table 20 on upgrading the teaching profession, the specialized selection process seemed to appeal to those who were really interested in secondary school teaching. They felt that better teachers would be available if the authorities chose candidates from those .applicants who applied only for the secondary teacher position. Table 20 also reveals that the nationwide entrance examination for secondary teacher training universities was not overwhelmingly approved. This view is reflected in teachers' responses when 96, or 56.8 percent, indicated that the nationwide entrance examination had "very little or none" effect on upgrading the secondary teachers' social position; 59, or 34.9 percent, noted that it had "some" influence on upgrading their social position. The selection process which used the nationwide entrance examination was 123 Table 20 Secondary Teachers' Reactions to Suggestions for Upgrading Their Profession to Increase Enrollment in Their Training Institutions Suggestions9 Degree of Effectiveness f } 3 Very Much Much Some Very Little or None Total 1. Specialized university entrance 76 45 34 14 169 examination. (45.0) (26.0) (20.1) ( 8.3) (100.0) 2. Nationwide university entrance examination with commitment to 6 8 59 96 169 secondary teaching after graduation. ( 3.6) ( 4.7) (34.9) (56.8) (100.0) 3. Salaries and promotions equal to 129 24 11 5 169 other civil servants. (76.3) (14.2) ( 6.5) ( 3.0) (100.0) 4. Status of secondary teachers is satisfactory; the need is to increase 34 23 52 60 169 training institutions. (20.1) (13.6) (30.8) (35.5) (100.0) 5. Secondary teachers' jobs are not interesting so fewer candidates enter 18 16 61 74 169 teacher training institutions. (10.7) ( 9.5) (36.1) (43.8) (100.0) 6. Teachers usually receive lower salaries; candidates should be trained to make 35 35 50 49 169 sacrifices to serve the nation. (20.7) (20.7) (29.6) (29.0) (100.0) 7. Up-to-date curriculum and methodology should be used in teacher training 137 27 3 2 169 institutions. (81.1) (16.0) ( 1.8) ( 1.2) (100.0) aComplete "Suggestions," as used in the questionnaire, appear in Appendix B. ^In each column entry, the first number = number of respondents, the accompanying number in parentheses = representative percentages. based on high grade point averages that gave priority to various other fields of study. Admission to a teacher training university did not necessitate a high grade, and required the commitment to teach after graduation. These were policies whose implementation downgraded public opinion of a teaching career. It was interesting to note the responses to three in Table 20 where, out of 169 secondary teachers in the sample, 129, or 7 6.3 percent, believed that equal salary and the same promotion policies for secondary teachers as for other civil servants would exert the greatest influence on secondary teachers' economic and social status. Those who answered the unstructured question in this part of the questionnaire which asked for additional recommendations for "other changes that would attract more students to secondary teacher training institutions" emphasized "salaries equal to those of comparable civil servants." The findings from suggestions number 4 about the expansion of teacher training institutions, and number 7, to keep the method and curriculum of existing institutions up-to-date, were probably the most supportive of hypothesis one. In number 4, 34, or 20.1 percent, supported the expansion or increase of teacher training institutions by selecting the "very much" degree of effectiveness. While 125 137 in number 7, or 81.1 percent, of the respondents answered that changes in curriculum had "very much" effect on increasing the enrollment of teacher training institu tions. A significant difference in teachers* attitudes appeared in number 4 in the "very little or none" category where 60, or 35.5 percent, answered that an increase in the number of secondary teacher training institutions had very little or no effect on upgrading the social position of secondary teacher, nor would it attract more applicants into the profession. Only 2, or 1.2 percent, in number 7 indicated that offering up-to-date curriculum and methods of instruction in these institutions had very little or no effect on increasing the enrollment of secondary teacher training centers. The purpose of including suggestions 5 and 6 in part one of the questionnaire was to determine, keeping other factors equal, (1) whether or not the secondary teaching job with its related responsibilities, was of interest to secondary teachers, and (2) whether or not the job had a kind of social reward in that those who taught were making a sacrifice in order to serve the nation. In Table 20 the answers for number 5, ranging from "very much" to "very little or none*" revealed that only 18, or 10.7 percent of the respondents mentioned that teaching in secondary schools, with its related problems, was not 126 interesting and this contributed "very much" to the fact that there were fewer applicants for this job; 16 secondary teachers, or 9.5 percent of the sample, indicated that this idea had "much" influence on the limited enrollment in secondary teacher training centers. A majority of the sample, 74, or 43.8 percent, disagreed with the idea that teaching in secondary schools was not interesting and consequently this factor had "very little or none" effect on the supply of secondary teachers. Similarly, 61, or 36.1 percent, responded that secondary teaching was an interesting job, but the working conditions had some effect on the decisions of applicants to apply for this position. The only item in Table 20 in which the number of respondents and relative percentage were about the same for all options was in relation to low salary and sacrifice to serve the nation. Thirty-five in number 6, or 20.7 per cent, indicated "very much" and 35, or 20.7 percent, indicated "much" acceptance of the fact that they usually received lower salaries, and that there was need for trainees to be taught that they should sacrifice in order to serve the nation. Fifty, or 29.6 percent and 49, or 29.0 percent, did not accept the premise and denied the necessity for teaching this notion to future secondary teachers. The above analysis of the data relevant to hypothesis one revealed that the highest number and 127 greatest percentage of respondents supported the need to enhance the social and economic status of secondary teachers, as well as upgrade the educational level of teacher training centers. These findings were consistent with the literature review and with assumptions made. Hypothesis one did not posit the influence of sex, educational degree, university attended, in-service train ing experiences, school district, and years of teaching experience, but for more support the hypothesis was tested by employing the Pearson Correlation Coefficient. The results of this analysis are shown in Table 21. As presented, there was no significant correlation between the secondary teachers1 backgrounds and their attitudes toward suggested ways to upgrade the social and economic statuses of their careers. In reaching this conclusion, 42 correlation coefficients were computed, out of which only 5 cases, 3 negative and 2 positive correlations, were significant. To clarify the above conclusion further, it should be noted that the sample secondary teachers believed, regardless of their personal background?, that secondary teaching would become more satisfactory if the teacher training institutions had their own specialized, separate entrance examinations and requirements, and if their curricula and methods were more up-to-date. Such 128 129 Table 21 Pearson Correlation Coefficients for Relationship Between Secondary Teachers' Backgrounds and Their Reactions to Upgrading the Profession for Increased Enrollments in Their Training Institutions Background of Sampleb,c Basic Premises9 Sex Educa tional Degree University Attended In-Service Training Experiences School District Years of Teaching Experience 1. Specialized university .04 .02 .12 -.01 .09 -.14 entrance examination. 0.32 0.39 0.06 0.43 0.11 0.04* 2. Nationwide university entrance examination with commitment to secondary -.06 -.10 .18 -.08 -.01 .10 teaching after graduation. 0.21 0.10 0.01* 0.16 0.46 0.08 3. Salaries and promotions equal to other civil -.22 .02 -.02 -.09 -.09 -.03 servants. 0.00* 0.39 0.37 0.13 0.11 0.32 4. Status of secondary teachers is satisfactory; the need is to increase -.23 .20 -.01 -.02 -.03 -.00 training institutions 0.00* 0.00* 0.46 0.40 0.36 0.49 aComplete statements of each item, as used in questionnaire, appear in Appendix B. bN = 169 cIn each entry, the first number = coefficient, the second = level of significance. *p< .05 or p < .01= required minimum level of significance. L3d Table 21 (Cont'd.) b c Background of Sample 9 Basic Premises9 Sex Educa tional Degree University Attended In-Service Training Experiences School District Years of Teaching Experience 5. Secondary teachers' jobs are not inter esting so fewer candidates enter teacher training -.02 -.03 .10 .06 .09 .01 institutions. 0.41 0.34 0.10 0.22 0.11 0.43 6. Teachers usually re ceive lower salaries and candidates should be trained to make sacrifices to serve -.09 .05 .05 -.11 -.01 -.10 the nation. 0.11 0.25 0.24 0.07 0.45 0.10 7. Up-to-date curriculum and methodology should be used in teacher -.04 -.02 -.05 -.00 .06 -.04 training institutions. 0.30 0.42 0.26 0.49 0.21 0.29 aComplete statements of each item, as used in questionnaire, appear in Appendix B. bN = 169. cIn each entry, the first number = coefficient, the second = level of signifiance. * p < .05 or p k* . .01 = required minimum level of signifiance. modifications would upgrade the educational status of secondary teacher training universities. They also believed that teachers should receive salary and compensa tion equal to other civil servants at comparable levels, and that this would upgrade the social and economic status of teaching as a career. When these factors were taken into consideration, the number of interested applicants for teacher training institutions would increase. This interpretation of the above results was also supported by the conclusions derived from 42 chi square computations to determine the significance of relationships,, if any, between secondary teachers* backgrounds and their attitudes toward suggestions made for upgrading their social and economic status. Table 22 presents in summary form the results of the 42 chi square tests at the p^< .05 and p < .01 probability levels were computed for each item. As can be seen in Table 22, the number of sig nificant chi square tests (5 of 42) could be expected solely on the basis of chance. These results strongly support hypothesis one that regardless of secondary teachers * background there was a positive relationship between the social and economic status of secondary teachers and increased teacher training enrollment. In other words, the respondents* points of view and their attitudes were 131 132 Table 22 Summary of Results of Chi Square Analyses of Secondary Teachers' Attitudes Toward Upgrading Their Profession to Increase Enrollments in Their Training Institutions Background of Sampled Basic Premises9 Sex Educa- ti onal Degree In-Service University Training Attended Experiences School District Years of Teaching Experience 1. Specialized university 3 6 6 21 9 6 entrance examination. .83 .86 .48 .92 .25 .10 2. Nationwide university entrance examination with commitment to secondary teaching 3 6 6 21 9 6 after graduation. .28 .69 .04* .20 .15 .03* 3. Salaries and promotions equal to other civil 3 6 6 21 9 6 servants. .04* .80 .92 .91 .57 .81 4. Status of secondary teachers is satisfactory; the need is to increase 3 6 6 21 9 6 training institutions. .01* .03* .33 .11 .08 .35 aComplete statements of each item, as used in questionnaire, appear in Appendix B. bN = 169 cIn each entry, the first number = coefficient, the second = level of significance. * p < .05 or p < .01 = required minimum level of significance. leex Table 22 (Cont'd.) Background of Sampled Basic Premises9 Sex Educa tional Degree In-Service University Training Attended Experiences School District Years of Teaching Experience 5. Secondary teachers' jobs are not inter esting so fewer candidates enter teacher training 3 6 6 21 9 6 institutions. .34 .59 .27 .34 .26 .50 6. Teachers usually re ceive lower salaries; candidates should be trained to make sacrifices to serve 3 6 6 21 9 6 the nation. .49 .64 .77 .40 .34 .11 7. Up-to-date curriculum and methodology should be used in teacher 3 6 6 21 9 6 training institutions. .52 .18 .92 .10 .21 .81 aComplete statements of each item, as used in questionnaire, appear in Appendix B. bN = 169 cIn each entry, the first number = coefficient, the second = level of significance. *p<.05orp<.01 = required minimum level of significance. similar regardless of their personal backgrounds and their professional experiences. Hypothesis Two A second hypothesis was that female secondary teachers were more satisfied with their jobs and tended to change their occupation less because of (1) influences of family, culture, and religious traditions; (2) the high intrinsic values that they attached to the profession of teaching; and (3) the increased amount of free time which permitted them to devote to their families. These assump tions were presented in seven premises in part wo of the questionnaire. In order to evaluate the responses and assess respondents1 attitudes they were requested to check one of four choices— strongly agree, agree, disagree, and strongly disagree. Table 23 shows the responses of the sample group of secondary teachers, by numbers and percentages. Almost without exception the answer "agree" was the response most often checked for all seven premises. One hundred twenty- three, or 69.8 percent, checked "strongly agree" or "agree" to the statement "parents usually prefer teaching for their daughter's profession." The second statement "men prefer to marry a female teacher rather than one in another profession" was even more strongly supported with 135, or 79.9 percent marking either "strongly agree" or "agree." ___________________________________ 134 135 Table 23 Secondary Teachers' Opinions Regarding Secondary Teaching as A Career for Females Opinions^ a Basic Statements Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree Total 1. Parents usually prefer teaching for 41 82 33 13 169 their daughter's profession. (24.3) (45.5) (19.5) ( 7.7) (100) 2. Men prefer to marry a woman who is a teacher rather than one in other 60 75 26 8 169 professions. (35.5) (44.4) (15.4) ( 4.7) (100) 3. The religious viewpoint accepts teaching more than other professions 73 66 20 10 169 for a woman. (43.2) (39.2) (11.8) ( 5.9) (100) 4. Teaching permits a woman more free 53 80 26 8 169 time for her family. (31.4) (47.3) (15.4) ( 5.9) (100) 5. Because of family influences some women, after marriage, want to change jobs 37 88 40 4 169 and become teachers. (21.9) (52.1) (23.7) ( 2.4) (100) 6. The male takes financial responsibility, so even though teaching pays less, female teachers are less likely to 46 103 15 5 169 change their jobs. (27.2) (60.9) ( 8.9) ( 3.0) (100) 7. Female teachers feel more independent and secure in the less bureaucratic 70 80 13 6 169 pressures of the school organization. (41.4) (47.3) ( 7.7) ( 3.6) (100) aComplete "Basic Statements," as used in the questionnaire, appear in Appendix B. In each column entry, the first number = number of respondents, the accompanying number in parentheses = representative percentages. The third statement "the religious viewpoint accepts teaching more than another profession for a woman" was supported with 139, or 82.3 percent, marking "strongly agree" or "agree." Under the new Islamic government in Iran, with its emphasis on restricting women to their traditional role, teaching jobs for women, more than employment in other professions, are stressed. Government officials have already announced this in speeches diffused through the mass media. They proclaimed that women could only work as teachers, or in jobs related to health or social welfare. The evaluation of the fourth and fifth statements revealed basically the same results as the previous ones. In the fourth statement "teaching permits a woman more free time for her family," 133, or 78.7 percent, of the respondents noted "strongly agree" or "agree." In the fifth statement "because of family influences and prefer ences, some women after marriage, want to change jobs and become teachers" the results revealed that 125, or 74.0 percent, "strongly agree" or "agree." However, the fifth statement, compared with the other six statements, also received the highest number, 40, or 23.7 percent, of "disagree" responses. The data (see Table 23) pertaining to the responses to the sixth and seventh statements disclosed the least ______________________________________________________________________ 136 disagreement with the statements. An examination of the respondents' assessments of the situations presented in the sixth statement, "The male takes financial responsibility, so even though teaching pays less, female teachers are less likely to change their jobs," shows that 149, or 88.1 per cent, checked either "strongly agree" or "agree." Only 20, or 11.9 percent, marked either "disagree" or "strongly disagree." The answers to the seventh statement, "female teachers feel more independent and secure in the less bureaucratic pressures of the school organization," were supportive. One hundred fifty, or 88.7 percent, of the respondents noted "strongly agree" or "agree." The influences if Islamic religion, tradition, culture, and family structure on females in Iranian society were clearly evident according to the respondents in Table 23. The new Islamic government has placed substan tial emphasis on factors which inhibit the expansion of female career opportunities, anticipating that this proclivity would decrease the impact of Westernization. Hypothesis two was also tested through the Pearson Correlation Coefficient in order to examine the relation ship between teachers' personal backgrounds and their attitudes toward teaching as a profession for women. Regarding the interpretation of this correlation measure ment, a significant relationship between respondents' _______________ 137 backgrounds and their attitudes toward teaching as a social career for females would not increase the acceptance of hypothesis two. In fact the reverse, or no significant relationship, was found and consequently demonstrated support for this hypothesis. The research substantiated the concept that teachers, regardless of their personal backgrounds strongly agreed that society determined that teaching jobs were more acceptable as a profession for women. Additionally, they indicated that this acceptance had cultural and religious roots. The results of the Pearson Correlation Coefficient, presented in Table 24, indicated that out of 42 correla tion coefficients computed, only nine cases displayed sig nificance at either p < .05 or p < .01 levels. Since these significant relationships, four negative and five positive, were not consistent and directional, it was more likely that those which were positive happened by chance. Despite this fact, there were some interesting points in some of these findings that could not be rejected without dis cussion. In this respect, the dependent variable, premise number 3, in Table 24, had positive significant relation ships for sex and school district, and a negative relation ship for years of teaching experience. In the same manner, premise number 2, showed positive significant relationships for school districts and negative significant relationships 138 139 Table 24 Pearson Correlation Coefficient to Show Relationship Between Secondary Teachers' Backgrounds and Their Attitudes Regarding Teaching Careers for Women Background of Sampleb,c Basic Premises9 Sex Educat ional Degree University Attended In-Service Training Experiences School District Years of Teaching Experience 1. Parents usually prefer teaching for their .04 .12 .00 -.03 -.07 -.09 daughter's profession. 0.28 0.05* 0.48 0.34 0.19 0.13 2. Men prefer to marry a woman who is a teacher rather than one in other .04 -.01 -.05 -.05 .16 -.15 professions. 0.30 0.44 0.23 0.22 0.02* 0.03* 3. The religious viewpoint accepts teaching more than another profession .15 .01 .06 -.10 .15 -.26 for a woman. 0.02* 0.43 0.22 0.1-0 0.02* 0.00* 4. Teaching permits a woman more free time -.08 -.14 -.01 .07 .11 -.05 for her family. 0.13 0.04* 0.45 0.19 0.07 0.24 aComplete statements, as used in the questionnaire, appear in Appendix B. bN = 169. cIn each entry, the first number = coefficient, the second = level of significance. *p < .05 or p < .01 = required minimum level of significance. Table 24 (Cont'd.) Background of Sample^*c Educa In-Service Years of 3 tional University Training School Teaching Basic Premises Sex Degree Attended ExperiencesDistrict Experience 5. Because of family influences some women, after marriage, want to change jobs and become -.09 .01 .13 -.03 .12 -.06 teachers. 0.11 0.46 0.05* 0.34 0.06 0.22 6. The male takes financial responsibility, so even though teaching pays less, female teachers are less likely to change .07 .01 .02 .03 -.00 -.04 their jobs. 0.18 0.42 0.38 0.33 0.49 0.29 7. Female teachers feel more independent and secure in the less bureaucratic pressures of the school .07 -.03 .08 -.08 .08 -.14 organization. 0.18 0.34 0.13 0.16 0.15 0.03* aComplete statements, as used in the questionnaire, appear in Appendix B. bN = 169. cIn each entry, the first number = coefficient, the second = level of significance. *p < .05 or p < .01 = required minimum level of significance. 140 for years of experience. The other two positive sig nificant relationships were between premise number 1 and educational degree, and premise number 5 and the university attended. However, these last two significant relation ships were quite negligible and their occurrence might be considered by chance. To provide additional analyses for hypothesis two, 42 chi square tests were also computed. The purpose of these computations was to determine the significance, if any, of the relationships between respondents* backgrounds and their reactions to the seven basic premises. Table 25 presents, in summary form, the results of the chi square tests. An examination of individual chi square tables revealed that there were no significant differences between the backgrounds of the teachers and their attitudes toward the teaching profession for women. However, there were only 4 cases out of 42 chi square tests that showed probability of significant differences at the p < .05 and p < .01 levels. The years of teaching experience showed a probability of significant differences with premises numbers 2, 3, and 5; the school district variable showed a prob ability of significant difference with premise number 6. In statistical words, the comparisons were meaningful to the extent that no significant differences existed between _______________________________________________________1A1_ Table 25 Summary of Results of Chi Square Analyses of Secondary Teachers' Backgrounds and Attitudes Toward Teaching Profession for Women Background of Sampled a Basic Premises Sex Educa tional Degree University Attended In-Service Training Experiences School District Years of Teaching Experience 1. Parents usually prefer teaching for their 3 6 6 21 9 6 daughter's profession. .35 .10 .89 .62 .62 .98 2. Men prefer to marry a woman who is a teacher rather than one in other 3 6 6 21 9 6 professions. .81 .79 .75 .85 .83 .00* 3. The religious viewpoint accepts teaching more than another profession 3 6 6 21 9 6 for a woman. .11 .91 .74 .76 .29 .00* 4. Teaching permits a woman more free time for her 3 6 6 21 9 6 family. .16 .48 .61 .14 .18 .40 aComplete statements of each item, as used in questionnaire, appear in Appendix B. bN = 169 cIn each entry, the first number = coefficient, the second = level of significance. * p < .05 or p < .01 = required minimum level of significance. H I t s . Table 25 (Cont'd.) Background of Sampleh >c c l Basic Premises Sex Educa tional Degree University Attended In-Service Training Experiences School District Years of Teaching Experience 5. Because of family influences, some women, after marriage, want to change jobs and become 3 6 6 21 9 6 teachers. .46 .73 .35 .91 .26 .05* 6. The male takes financial responsibility, so even though teaching pays less, female teachers are less likely to change their 3 6 6 21 9 6 jobs. .71 .55 .40 .20 .03* .39 7. Female teachers feel more independent and secure in the less bureaucratic pressures of the school 3 6 6 21 9 6 organization. .80 .90 .81 .37 .19 .24 Complete statements of each item, as used in questionnaire, appear in Appendix B. bN = 169 cIn each entry, the first number = coefficient, the second = level of significance. * p < .05 or p < .01 = required minimum level of significance. U> the respondents' answers as far as background variables were concerned. In conclusion, the data summarized in Tables 23, 24 and 25 generally indicated strong support for hypothesis two from the secondary teachers comprising the sample, regardless of background. The sample agreed that the Islamic religion, and Iran's traditions, culture, and family structure have imposed conditions that women have to accept, which include limited job opportunities. Teaching, however, is one of the acceptable careers. Therefore, women have conformed to the expectations—-they look forward to becoming teachers, are more satisfied with their jobs and tend to keep them. Hypothesis Three This hypothesis postulated: "Science and mathe matics graduates of secondary teacher training institutions have less frequently chosen teacher as an occupation. And if they did accept a teaching job they were more likely to try to change it in favor of some other occupation." In order to gain some insight into the secondary teachers* attitudes, and to test this hypothesis, the respondents were given four premises in the questionnaire. They checked either "strongly agree," "agree," "no opinion," or "disagree" for each item to indicate their opinions. 144 Table 26 contains four suggested statements sub mitted to the questionnaire sample and their attitudes regarding each of these premises. Highly significant differences were obvious in the cross-tabulations. Responses to premise number 1, "High school graduates majoring in math or science make secondary teacher training institutions their last choice in taking university entrance examinations," indicated 26.6 percent "strongly agree" and 49.7 percent "agree." "No opinion" was selected by 18.9 percent and only 4.7 percent "dis agree" (see Table 26). Responses to premise number 2, "More gainful employment in other professions limits the Ministry of Education*s possibilities of employing secondary teachers from science or math university graduates," in Table 26 showed that 43.2 percent "strongly agree" and 35.5 percent "agree." "No opinion" was 18.9 percent and only 2.4 per cent "disagree." Opinions for premise number 3, "Secondary teachers who have a math or science Bachelor degree from a teacher training institution usually try to change their profession after or even before their 5-year contract expires," indicated 27.8 percent "strongly agree" and 34.9 percent "agree." "No opinion" was 28.4 percent and 8.9 percent "disagree." It was worth noting that the total percentage _____________________________________________________________________ 145 Table 26 Opinions of Sample as to the Ministry of Education's Recruiting and Retaining Math or Science Majors Secondary Teaching Profession Attracting, for the Premises Opinions of Sample3 Strongly Agree Agree No Opini on Disagree Total 1. High school graduates majoring in math or science make secondary teacher training universities their last choice in taking their university entrance 45 84 32 8 169 examinations. (26.6) (49.7) (18.9) (4.7) (100) 2. More gainful employment in other professions limits the Ministry of Education's possibilities of employing secondary teachers from math or science 73 60 32 4 169 university graduates. (43.2) (35.5) (18.9) (2.4) (100) 3. Secondary teachers who have a math or science Bachelor degree from a teacher training institution usually try to change their profession after or even 47 59 48 15 169 before their 5-year contract expires. (27.8) (34.9) (28.4) (8.9) (100) 4. Female secondary teachers with math or science backgrounds, even though the same opportunities exist for them, are less likely than the male to change 49 70 36 14 169 their profession. (29.0) (41.4) (21.3) (8.3) (100) aIn each column entry, the first number = number of respondents, the accompanying number H i t s * <T\ in parentheses = representative percentages. of the "strongly agree" and "agree" opinions were 62.7 percent; while more than 70 percent was the combined total of "strongly agree" and "agree" opinions for each of the other three premises. These very similar results, while supporting hypothesis three, revealed the strong relation ship between job supply and demand, its effect on job selection, and the role played by social factors, inflation, and economics in retention of secondary teaching jobs. The sample responding to this questionnaire was made up of secondary teachers, some of whom were science or math teachers. They expressed an awareness of a great need in the country for science and math specialists who, at present, were limited in number. Secondary teachers with these specialities were influenced by this demand for such professionals and the secondary teaching profession was suffering from the loss of these highly trained persons. This was so, despite the fact that society relegated females to a teaching profession for limited careers. Responses summarized in Table 26 for the premise number 4, "Female secondary teachers with math or science backgrounds, even though the same opportunities exist for them, are less likely than the male to change their pro fession, " indicated that 29.0 percent of the respondents "strongly agree" and 41.4 percent "agree." "No opinion" was 21.3 percent and 8.3 percent "disagree." The factors _____________________________________________________________________14.7 determining this strong agreement could be explained by traditional, religious, cultural, and other societal values existing in Iran. The demands of family structure and the possibility of more free time available to those females in teaching positions also were indications of job satisfaction for female teachers. These factors were major considerations in their decision to remain in the teaching profession regardless of other potential employ ment opportunities. An analysis of Table 26 shows that a large percent age of the sample of secondary teacher agreed that the economy of the country provided many opportunities for good jobs. The economic situation during the 1970s, based on the oil boom, provided many well-paid public and private jobs. The Civil Servant Emp-loyment Law did not eliminate job discrmination among public employees, and teachers were among those who were underpaid. This discrimination, among other factors, influenced high school graduates, particularly those having math or science backgrounds, to choose academic majors in other areas rather than teacher education in their university or college courses (see Table 8). Graduates in teacher education, regardless of whether their specialization was based on personal interest or on lack of qualifications for other professional areas, 148 compared living expenses with the projected inadequate teacher salaries. It inevitably contributed to an ambivalent attitude toward their profession. This could be somewhat mitigated by higher compensations that would be motivating, but career commitments based on financial factors would always be dependent to a great extent on the economic situation in Iran. The oil money, which was the basic revenue before the revolution and assured the international convertibility of the currency, has decreased. Oil production has been reduced from 4.6 million barrels per day during the previous regime to 500,000 barrels per day under the new regime (Iran Times, 1980). Although extra production from irreplaceable natural resources has to be controlled (Schumacher, 1973), this level of reduction in the national income has created severe economic and political difficul ties for the new revolutionary government. In addition, the millions of dollars of foreign investments, which stimulated the economic boom during the 1970s and benefited a small group of Iranians and foreigner^ in Iran, have now been transferred to other countries. As a result of the loss of foreign investments and the problems faced by many Iranian private or semi-private businesses or other enterprises in Iran, those industries and factories either slowed down substantially or were 149 closed. Such investments and enterprises, when they existed, were not necessarily indicative of a productive economy, if evaluated by the extent to which they met the real needs of the people, or promoted economic independence since they served foreign interests more than national interests. As a result of the post-revolutionary economic changes, there might be a very substantial change in people*s attitudes toward teaching positions in general. This may come about because of the high rate of unemploy ment, the abolition of many jobs, and/or because high salaries have been reduced. Also, if equal educational opportunities for men and women remain constant, the number of available female secondary teachers might be increased given the religious acceptance of teaching positions for women, plus the additional limitations that females face in other professions. For more analysis and evaluation of secondary teachers' attitudes toward the four statements related to hypothsis three, a Pearson Correlation Coefficient was computed for each one of the four statements as it related to secondary teachers' backgrounds. The purpose of these computations was to determine any significant relationships between their opinions and the secondary teachers' back grounds . 150 From the data provided in Table 27, it appeared that out of 24 correlation coefficients computed, only three cases showed significant relationships of the p < .05 and p < .01 levels, but in a negative direction. This highly insignificant relationship indicated strong support for these statements and for the whole hypothesis. In other words, it revealed that a great majority of the respondents, regardless of their personal, educational, and professional backgrounds, were accepting of the state ments in regard to attracting majors in math and science as applicants for secondary teaching and retaining them in the profession. The result of this analysis paralleled this investigator's preconceived expectations that highly significant relationships between these variables would reject hypothesis three and that less significant relation ships would support it. It is interesting to note that 24 chi squares computed for the statements related to hypothesis three indicated the same results. Table 28 summarized this computation and from the data it appeared that 21 cases showed probability of no significant difference and only 3 cases exhibited probability of significant differences at the p < .05 and p < .01 levels. One of the main concerns in this study was the highlighting of the social and economic factors that had a 151 152 Table 27 Pearson Correlation Coefficient Between Secondary Teachers' Backgrounds and Their Attitudes Toward Applicants and Teachers in Math and Science Background of Sample9 Basic Premises Sex Educa tional Degree University Attended In-Service Training School Experiences District Years of Teaching Experience 1. High school graduates majoring in math or science make secondary teacher training universities their last choice in taking their university entrance -.03 .02 -.03 -.03 -.12 -.02 examinations. 0.33 0.40 0.35 0.35 0.06 0.38 2. More gainful employment in other professions limits the Ministry of Education's possibilities of employing secondary teachers from math or science university .02 -.14 -.06 .00 .00 -.17 graduates. 0.41 0.03* 0.23 0.50 0.46 0.01* aN = 169 In each entry, the first number = coefficient, the second = level of significance. * p < .05 or p < .01 = required minimum level of significance. Table 27 (Cont'd.) Background of Sample9* * 3 Basic Premises Sex Educa tional Degree In-Service University Training Attended Experiences School District Years of Teaching Experience 3. Secondary teachers who have a math or science Bachelor degree from a teacher training institution usually try to change their pro fession after or even before their 5-year .01 -.09 -.03 -.01 -.01 -.08 contract expires. 0.46 0.13 0.36 0.42 0.43 0.15 4. Female secondard teachers with math or science backgrounds, even though the same opportunities exist for them, are less likely than the male to -.08 .01 -.16 -.02 -.03 -.03 change their profession. 0.14 0.46 0.02* 0.37 0.35 0.36 aN = 169 In each entry, the first number = coefficient, the second = level of significance. * p < .05 or p < .01 = required minimum level of significance. < ji u> Table 28 Summary of Chi Square Analyses of Secondary Teachers' Backgrounds and Attitudes Toward Problems Related to Math and Science Secondary Teachers Background of Sampled Basic Premises Sex Educa tional Degree In-Service University Training Attended Experiences School District Years of Teaching Experience 1. High school graduates majoring in math or science make secondary teacher training universities their last choice in taking their university entrance 3 6 6 21 9 6 examinations. .70 .97 .82 .00* .02* .72 2. More gainful employment in other professions limits the Ministry of Education's possibilities of employing secondary teachers from math or science university 3 6 6 21 9 6 graduates. .61 .20 .87 .44 .07 .30 aN - 169. L In each entry, the first number = coefficient, the second = level of significance. * p < .05 or p < .01 = required minimum level of significance. i ™ 1 * U1 153 Table 28 (Cont'd.) Background of Sample9 Basic Premises Sex Educa tional Degree In-Service University Training School Experiences District Years of Teaching Experience 3. Secondary teachers who have a math or science Bachelor degree from a teacher training institution usually try to change their pro fession after or even before their 5-year 3 6 6 21 9 6 contract expires. .14 .48 .45 -.55 .89 .67 4. Female secondary teachers with math or science backgrounds, even though the same opportunities exist for them, are less likely than the males to 3 3 3 21 9 6 change their profession. .42 .86 .00* .09 .62 .18 aN = 169 In each entry, the first number = coefficient, the second = level of significance. * p < .05 or p < .01 = required minimum level of significance. negative impact on recruiting and retaining secondary teachers. In this respect, analyses of data gathered through the questionnaire, including the computations, revealed that secondary teachers with different personal and professional backgrounds had, to a great extent, similar attitudes regarding problems related to attracting, recruiting, and retaining math or science majors as secondary teachers. Therefore, social and economic factors in Iran greatly influence the Ministry of Education’s ability to supply the nation’s needs for qualified secondary teachers adequately. Hypothesis Four Hypothesis four stated that "Salaries with auto matic pay increases and bonuses, although important factors, were not the sole elements contributing to secondary teachers’ career satisfaction; non-monetary incentives such as in-service training programs, the school’s instructional facilities, and other such elements were also important." Two means, questionnaire and personal interview, were devised to collect the data on this hypothesis. Ten state ments were submitted on the questionnaire, plus one question that was open-ended. The respondents had four choices, "very much," "much," "some," and "very little or none," from which they checked the one that represented their opinion. The open-ended question asked the 156 respondents for other suggestions. The unstructured interview technique was employed to collect data related to the teachers' awareness of the differences between a teachers' professional union and the four newly founded teachers' political organizations, which were organized just after the revolution started in Iran. A table was made for each premise in the question naire to present the analyses of the sample teachers' responses to support or negate hypothesis four. Responses to the first premise, "Teachers should participate fully in curriculum planning and provide more input," were summarized in Table 29. The respondents (62.1%) reported that secondary teachers' participation in curriculum planning would "very much" affect teachers' satisfaction with their job; 29.6 percent point out that it had "much" affect; 9.5 percent checked that participa tion would have "some" affect; and only 1.8 percent re ported the affect as "very little or none." It was clear, from this data, that fullest participation in curriculum planning was an important factor in secondary teachers' job satisfaction. Given the authoritarian pattern and centralized system of education in Iran, the participation of teachers at any level in the curricula planning, setting of goals, or in other types of decision-making related to curriculum, 157 Table 29 Respondents' Evaluations of Importance of Full Participation by Secondary Teachers in Curriculum Planning Effect on Job Satisfaction Responses Percentage Very Much 105 62.] Much 45 29.6 Some 16 9.5 Very little or none 3 1.8 Total 169 100.0 was questionable. This has been inevitable, since in a large and complex institution true participation at every level in the setting of the goals is clearly impossible (Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959) . Authors Herzberg et al. (1959) observed that if there were more latitude, within certain limits, individuals would develop their own ways of achieving ends that were presented to them by a centralized authority. This ability to determine, or influence, the process could provide employees with motivation. In the case of this study, a similar phenomenon could be considered as one of the most important 158 components of secondary teachers' motivation to make teaching a career and to retain their jobs. Responses to premise number 2, "Since teachers are civil servants they should be compensated equal to other comparable government occupations," presented in Table 30, showed that 68.6 percent of the respondents believed that increasing teachers1 salaries and making them equal to other comparable civil servants' incomes had "very much" effect on teachers' satisfaction with their jobs; 22.5 per cent indicated it had "much" effect; 8.3 percent marked "some"; and only 0.6 percent indicated the effect on job satisfaction as "very little or none." The answers were explicit regarding the problem of equalization of secondary teachers' salaries with those civil servants in other comparable professions. It follows that there was a need for improving compensation so that the secondary teachers' statuses, both economic and social, would coincide with an improved self-image and would give the teaching credential more prestige and general acceptance. Premise number 3, "More frequent in-service train ing should be provided," was analyzed and computed. The data in Table 31 showed that 55.6 percent of the re spondents agreed that more frequent in-service training had "very much" effect on job satisfaction; 33.1 percent indicated it had "much" effect; 9.5 percent checked "some 159 Table 30 Respondents' Evaluations of Importance of Equality of Secondary Teachers * Compensation with Other Comparable Government Occupations Effect on Job Satisfaction Responses Percentage Very much 116 68.6 Much 38 22.5 Some 14 8.3 Very little or none 1 0.6 Total 169 100.0 Table 31 Respondents' Attitudes in Regard to Having More Frequent In-Service Training Effect on Job Satisfaction Responses Percentage Very much 94 55.6 Much 56 33.1 Some 16 9.5 Very little or none 3 1.8 Total 169 100.0 160 effect"; and only 1.8 percent noted it had "very little or none." Therefore there was strong agreement that if more frequent in-service training were to be provided it would contribute to secondary teachers' job satisfaction. The data obtained reflected a serious desire on the part of secondary teachers to be current and aware of any change in educational objectives and policies that would be formu lated by the Ministry of Education. It also emphasized the value they attached to being up-to-date professionally. In planning by the Ministry of Education, in-service* training programs were one of the priorities. The need was emphasized in 1972^73, when, in the reformed educational system, the curricula and resource books were changed and secondary teachers were expected to conform to the new policies and procedures as they related to curriculum content. Secondary teachers therefore recognized that more in-service training was an important factor in their job satisfaction that would give them greater self-realization and happiness, and would motivate them to make secondary teaching their career. Data from a report of the Ministry of Education, Office for In-Service Training (1978), is summarized in Table 32, and presents all the in-service training programs for secondary teachers in Iran by area of specialization, between school years 197 3-74 and 1978-79, inclusive. It 161 Table 32 Number of Secondary Teachers in Iran Who Had In-Service Training, by Area of Specialization, from School Years 1973-74 to 1978-79 Specialty of In-Service 1973 1974 1974- 1975 School 1975- 1976 Years 1976- 1977 1977- 1978 1978- 1979 Program Number of Teachers Who Participated Physics - 330 710 680 1,050 450 Chemistry - 350 810 830 1,000 400 Mathematics - 250 700 750 1,000 450 Natural Science - 390 720 360 660 280 Persian Literature - - - - 348 300 Social Sciences 104 30 56 - - 400 English Language - 20 142 - 100 240 Rel i gi on - - 195 166 451 249 Total 104 1,370 3,333 2,786 4,609 2,769 Source: Ministry of Education, Office for In-Service Training, Training Proqrams. Tehran: Ministry of Education Press, 1978. 162 showed the limited number who participated in in-service training. The content of these in-service training pro grams for secondary teachers was very limited. The methodology of teaching and pedagogical approaches in teacher training aimed at promoting understanding and better communications with students were both omitted even though most of the secondary teachers did not have teacher training backgrounds. There were only very short-term in-service training programs (24 hours in 6 days, or 80 hours in 15 days, and in a very few cases 100 hours in 24 days) for limited content areas in the curricula pertinent to a specific course given by the teachers. The quantitative inadequacy of these programs may also be seen in the background information of the sample in this study. This sample was representative of secondary teachers in Tehran, yet 112, or 66.3 percent, did not have a chance to participate in even one of these in-service programs (see Table 18, Chapter III). Obviously it would be still less for those secondary teachers who lived in small towns rather than in Tehran or other big cities. The quality of these programs and their effective ness was questionable. This investigator found no research done related to questions about the duration, the content, or the continuation of in-service training programs. 163 Responses to premise number 4, "There should be a change in the system for salary increases and eligibility for promotion," presented in Table 33, showed that 37.9 percent indicated that this change had "very much" effect on teachers' job satisfaction; 31.4 percent stated that it had "much effect"; 21.2 percent noted "some" effect; and 9.5 percent checked "very little or none." Secondary teachers automatically received salary increases every two years and promotion to a higher grade. A change which would include performance criteria for evaluation found agreement with respondents in their evaluation of this factor in job satisfaction. It was interesting to note that although a great many of the secondary teachers had expressed positive feelings toward this premise, compared with preyious premises related to secondary teachers' job satisfaction, this factor did not have a similar high percentage of positive acceptance. Responses to premise number 5, "Additional criteria bases for teachers1 salaries should be educational specialty and geographical location of their school," summarized in Table 34, showed that 38.5 percent of the respondents believed that this additional criteria for teachers' compensation had "very much" effect on job satisfaction; 21.2 percent agreed that the consideration of these criteria had "much" effect; 24.9 percent indicated _____________________________________________________________________ JL£A Table 33 Respondents1 Attitudes on How Changing the Salary Increase and Promotion System Would Influence Professional Satisfaction Effect on Job Satisfaction Responses Percentage Very much 64 37.9 Much 53 31.4 Some 36 21.2 Very little or none 16 9.5 Total 169 100.0 Table 34 Respondents* Opinions on Additional Criteria, Educational Specialty and Geographical Location of a School, as Considerations for Salary Increases Effect on Job Satisfaction Responses Percentage Very much 65 38.5 Much 36 21.2 Some 42 24.9 Very little or none 26 15.4 Total 169 100.0 165 "some" effect; and 15.4 percent believed the effect to be "very little or none." From the data in Tables 33 and 34, it could be presumed that teachers with science or math majors would prefer these additional criteria since they would benefit them in their jobs. Since almost 40 percent of the sample responded negatively and these secondary teachers were representative of the entire city of Tehran it might reflect attitudes of: 1. conservative elements who resisted new regulations and criteria for fear that these might bring discriminatory results; 2. those secondary school teachers with social science or humanities majors were not interested in the possibility of such changes since they were so numerous and could not compete with science or math majors for other professional jobs; 3. those who taught in upper middle class communities where the geographical location of the school was in a preferred neighborhood and they would not, consequently, expect higher pay. To attract more science or math majors, as well as more secondary teachers for poverty areas, during the last two years of the old regime in Iran— 1977 and 1978— the Ministry of Education implemented an experimental plan for 166 teachers' payment which received a mixed reception from the teachers. This plan, called the "Karaneh Plan," provided for an extra payment to teachers based on their teaching specialty and the geographical location of their schools. Given teacher discontent because this was discriminatory, the plan was discontinued just before the new regime came to power early in 1979. However, at that time the extra payment was added to all teachers1 salaries. Responses to premise number 6, "School buildings and facilities should be upgraded specifically for educational activities and provided with up-to-date instructional materials," were summarized and presented in Table 35. The majority of the secondary teachers in the sample, 65.7 percent, point out that the building, facilities, and instructional equipment of the school, in terms of their quality and quantity had "very much" affect on their professional satisfaction; 22.5 percent reported these had "much" affect; 10.6 percent noted "some"; and only 1.2 percent indicated "very little or none." Probably one of the basic reasons that teaching jobs were unable to attract qualified people was the environment at the schools. Unsuitable school buildings, with their inadequate facilities have had an adverse impact on the teaching profession. Students and teachers 167 Table 35 Respondents' Opinions on Upgrading School Buildings Specifically for Educational Purposes and Updating Instructional Materials Effect on Job Satisfaction Responses Percentage Very much 111 65.7 Much 38 22.5 Some 18 10.6 Very little or none 2 1.2 Total 169 100.0 have spent a large part of their lives in this undesirable environment. Very few schools have been able to provide conditions suitable for the achievement of educational goals. A survey done in 1976 by the Institute for Research and Planning in Science and Education from a random selection of schools in the north, south, and central parts of the city of Tehran, indicated that 12 percent of the secondary schools, 22 percent of the guidance schools, and 23 percent of the elemntary schools were in danger of'either partial or complete collapse (Galili, 1977). This survey 168 also pointed out that there was less than one square meter of open space per student in 4 6 percent of the elementary, 3 0.5 percent of guidance, and 27 percent of secondary schools. Further figures from the same research indicated that 56 percent of secondary, 10 percent of guidance, and 19 percent of elementary schools had more than 30 students per classroom. These factors add substantially to under standing the sample's responses to premise 6. Another problem related to school buildings has been the ownership of schools in the city of Tehran. The report of the Institute for Research and Planning in Science and Education in 197 6 also found that 57 percent of the elementary, 57 percent of guidance, and 39 percent of secondary schools were in rented buildings. These buildings are not suitable for schools and they did not provide teachers and students with an environment conducive to educational and training objectives. In addition to the inadequate educational facilities at all levels of the school system, there has been the problem related to teaching equipment. Course books, which were nationally designated for use, provided the only basic learning resources in the schools. Very few secondary schools have had libraries, and these had only a limited number of books (Galili, 1977). Teachers, particularly secondary teachers, have had little access to audio-visual laboratory, or workshop equipment. 169 Responses to premise number 7, "The student/ teacher ratio in the classroom should be reduced," were summarized in Table 36. It showed that 66.3 percent of the respondents believed that the smaller number of students per teacher in the classroom could be considered an element which would have "very much" effect on their professional satisfaction; 24.8 percent indicated "much" effect; only 6.5 percent noted "some"; and 2.4 percent checked that the effect was "very little or none." The data provided in Table 36 confirmed that the overcrowded classes in the secondary schools have been one of the basic problems of the educational system in Iran (see Table 5), and particularly in Tehran. Responses to premise number 8, "Teaching hours per week should be reduced," were summarized in Table 37 and it showed that 2 3.7 percent of the sample believed reduc tion in the teaching hours per week had "very much" effect on secondary teachers' professional satisfaction; 22.5 percent indicated it had "much" effect; 33.1 percent replied "some"; and 20.7 percent answered the effect was "very little or none." The responses in this table, when compared with those in Table 36, revealed that 53.8 percent of the respondents were reluctant to choose "reduction of teaching hours" as being significant for their professional ________________________________________________________12G Table 36 Respondentsr Attitudes on Effect Student/Teacher Ratio Per of Reducing Class Effect on Job Satisfaction Responses Percentage Very much 112 Much 4 2 Some 11 Very little or none 4 Total 169 66.3 24.8 6.5 2.4 100.0 Table 37 Respondents1 Opinions on Reducing the Required Weekly Teaching Hours Effect on Job Satisfaction Responses Percentage Very much 40 Much 38 Some 5 6 Very little or none 35 Total 169 23.7 22.5 33.1 20.7 100.0 171 satisfaction. This indicated that a greater number of secondary teachers in Tehran were satisfied with the required teaching hours they now have, and a reduction of hours was not really a factor in job satisfaction. The respondents* reactions to premise number 9, "A decentralized educational system should be established giving communities opportunities to participate in school related policies including teacher recruitment and reten tion, " were summarized in Table 38. As exhibited in this table, 36.5 percent of the respondents indicated a decentralized educational system had "very much" effect on secondary teachers* job satisfaction, 29.6 percent noted it had "much" effect; 23.7 pointed out it had "some" effect; and 11.2 percent felt this effect would be "very little or none. * ' The responses to premise number 10, "Teachers should have a professional union with political and social power," reported in Table 39, showed that 63.9 percent of the respondents agreed that a teachers' union with polit ical and social power could have "very much" effect on secondary teachers* career satisfaction; 29.6 percent pointed out it had "much" effect? only 4.1 percent noted "some"; and 2.4 percent believed the effect of the teachers union would be "very little or none." 172 Table 38 Respondents* Attitudes on the Decentralization of the Educational System Effect on Job Satisfaction Responses Percentage Very much 60 36.5 Much 50 29.6 Some 40 23.7 Very little or none 19 11.2 Total 169 100.0 Table 39 Respondents' Opinions on the Professional Teacher Union with Social and Political Power Effect on Job Satisfaction Responses Percentage Very much 108 63.9 Much 50 29.6 Some 7 4.1 Very little or none 4 2.4 Total 169 100.0 173 A comparison of the findings in Tables 38 and 39 revealed that the sample, based on their own experience, stressed the importance of a powerful teachers professional union much more than a decentralized system of education. This trend might be the result of the social and political situation at the time the questionnaire was administered— just after the take-over of the new revolutionary Islamic government and the establishment of four politically- oriented teachers* organizations. During this time there was very little or no activity by the national government in regard to decentralization or regionalization of the educational system. As a matter of fact, teachers were not prepared for nor oriented toward such a change. Therefore, their responses gave greater consideration to the effect of a professional union for job satisfaction. The strong support for a teachers* professional union reflected their anticipation of a more beneficial social environment. Support of the teachers* union, to a great extent, could be taken as indicative of their desire for more freedom of expression, openness of communication, and the initiation of a democratic society which the secondary teachers believed the Islamic Republic would bring about in Iran. To probe this aspect further, the investigator used the personal interview technique with 20 ___________________________________________________ 12A secondary teachers who were members of the four newly- founded teachers' organizations in Tehran. Sixty Pearson correlation coefficient tests were computed for hypothesis four, as exhibited in Table 40. They showed that no significant relationships existed between the selected professional satisfaction factors. As was postulated at the beginning of this chapter, the less significant the relations of these tests, the greater the support for any given hypothesis of this study. In keeping with the other hypotheses, this hypothesis showed no significant relations. Only 7 cases out of 60 correlation tests, showed positive significant correlation at p < .05 or p < .01 levels, which could have happened by chance. In order to determine the probability of signifi cant differences between the respondents' backgrounds and selected satisfaction factors, 60 chi square tests were also computed. Table 41 has provided a summary of the results of these chi square analyses. An inspection of the individual chi squares revealed that there were only six cases that showed probability of significant differences. It is clear from the data presented in Table 41 that the majority in the study sample accepted the suggested premises as factors of career satisfaction. Furthermore, the lack of enough probability of significant differences strengthened the support for hypothesis four. 175 Table 40 Pearson Correlation Coefficients for Relationship Between Respondents' Backgrounds and Their Opinions on the Effect of 10 Selected Premises That Might Bring More Professional Satisfaction Respondents' Backgroundsb,c Premises3 Sex Educa tional Degree In-Service University Training Attended Experiences School District Years of Teaching Experience 1. Greater geacher -.05 .02 -.05 -.13 .01 .02 participation in 0.26 0.40 0.27 0.05* 0.42 0.41 curriculum planning. 2. Same salaries for teachers as for comparable civil -.03 .05 -.07 -.00 .17 -.12 servants. 0.34 0.25 0.20 0.50 0.01* 0.05 3. More frequent in- -.09 -.05 -.09 -.06 -.01 .09 service training. 0.11 0.26 0.12 0.21 0.45 0.11 4. Change the system of salary increases and -.03 .04 -.03 -.06 .03 .16 promotions. 0.33 0.28 0.34 0.23 0.35 0.02* 5. Include educational specialty and geo graphic location of schools in criteria .00 -.09 .03 .06 .09 .06 for teachers' salaries 0.47 0.12 0.35 0.23 0.13 0.20 aComplete statements of each item, as used in questionnaire, appear in Appendix B. bN = 169 cIn each entry, the first number = coefficient, the second = level of significance. H <* * p < .05 or p < .01 = required minimum level of significance. Table 40 (Cont1d.) Respondents' Backgrounds^,c Premises3 Sex Educa tional Degree University Attended In-Service Training Experiences School District Years of Teaching Experience 6. Bring buildings and instructional materials up-to-date for educa -.12 .07 -.09 -.01 -.01 .19 tional activities. 0.05* 0.17 0.11 0.44 0.40 0.01* 7. Reduction of the .05 .03 -.02 -.01 .07 .01 student/teacher ratio. 0.25 0.33 0.37 0.44 0.16 0.43 8. Reduced teaching hours .23 -.06 .14 -.08 ,14 -.04 per week. 0.00* 0.20 0.04* 0.14 0.04* 0.31 9. Decentrali zed educa- tional system for -.07 -.07 -.01 -.05 .02 .13 community participation. 0.19 0.17 0.42 0.28 0.37 0.05* 10. Teacher professional -.03 -.07 -.00 -.04 .05 .07 union. 0.34 0.19 0.49 0.28 0.24 0.18 3 Complete statements of each item, as used in questionnaire, appear in Appendix B. bN = 169 In each entry, the first number = coefficient, the second = level of significance. * p < .05 or p < .01 = required minimum level of significance. Table 41 Summary of Results of Chi Square Analyses of Secondary Teachers' Backgrounds and Opinions on Job Satisfaction Secondary Teachers1 Backgrounds*^ Premises3 Sex Educa tional Degree University Attended In-Service Training Experiences School Di stri ct Years of Teaching Experience 1. Greater teacher participation in 3 6 6 21 9 6 curriculum planning. .51 .02* .86 .73 .04* .83 2, Same salaries for teachers as for comparable civil 3 6 6 21 9 6 servants. .62 .01* .88 .60 .28 .35 3. More frequent in- 3 6 6 21 9 6 service training. .59 .11 .28 .07 .43 .79 4. Change the system of salary increases and 3 6 6 21 9 6 promotions. .78 .99 .81 .13 .28 .00* 5. Include educational specialty and geographic location of schools in criteria for teachers' 3 6 6 21 9 6 salaries. .96 .18 .83 .49 .13 .10 Complete statements of each item, as used in questionnaire, appear in Appendix B. bN = 169 cIn each entry, the first number = coefficient, the second = level of significance. * p < .05 or p < .01 = required minimum level of significance. Table 41 (Cont'd.) Secondary Teachers1 Backgrounds'3 »c Premises3 Sex Educa tional Degree University Attended In-Service Training Experiences School District Years of Teaching Experience 6. Bring buildings and instructional materials up-to-date for educa 3 6 6 21 9 6 tional activities. .24 .60 .02* .81 .49 .01* 7. Reduction of the 3 6 6 21 9 6 student/teacher ratio .89 .58 .25 .87 .46 .07 8. Reduced teaching hours 3 6 6 21 9 6 per week. .01* .62 .01* .47 .29 .46 9. Decdntralized educa tional system for com 3 6 6 21 9 6 munity participation. .43 .29 .84 .54 .08 . 34 10. Teacher professional 3 6 6 21 9 6 union. .91 .33 .83 .75 .14 .73 Complete statements of each item, as used in questionnaire, appear in Appendix B. bN = 169. cIn each entry, the first number = coefficient, the second = level of significance. * p < .05 or p < .01 = required minimum level of significance. H Findings from Interviews As previously mentioned in Chapter III, the purpose of conducting the interviews was only to examine the extent to which secondary teachers might substitute post revolutionary teachers' political organizations with a teachers' union with a professional (not political) emphasis but still having social and political power. The four teachers' organization, which developed during the revolution in Iran, were to a great extent similar to the political parties which existed there during the same period. Some carried different names but some even had the same name as the political parties with which they were associated. It is important to note that the word "party," in the sense in which people talk about parties, has different applications in different nations. Iranians have, among many other things, modeled their system of political parties after those in Europe. According to Horowitz and Lipset (1978): European parties . . . are organizations that have a central core of interest or ideology around which people gather. The American parties, as many political scientists and others have noted, are essentially coali tions— coalitions of often highly disparate groupings drawn together by interest as well as ideology. (p. 3) 180 It is interesting that in the weekly meetings of all four organizations, where the investigator had a chance to conduct the personal interviews, the topics the group discussed were always political issues. The following briefly describes each one of these organizations. Their distinct tendencies were related to the existing political parties in Iran at the time of the interviews. Mojahedin Members of this teachers* organization were mostly religious radicals and followers of Shari*ati who believed in principles which would lend themselves to social change. The name of this organization was the same as of that of a recently created political party. The party itself had not yet been organized into a regular political party with branches, congresses, programs, and, most important, any elected central leaders. Khat-e- Imam The teachers in this organization were usually religious reactionaries who abhorred everything Western, including technology, and advocated a strict application of early Islamic laws. This organization also carried the same name and followed the same ideology as the political party whose members followed Ayatolah Khomaini, the 181. revolutionary leader of Iran, and they were successful in mobilizing a mass movement against the last regime. Kanoon-e Mostaghel-e Fekri (Center for Independent Thinking) This organization was composed of a group of teachers focusing on the need for a modern Iran. They had a tendency not to follow any ideology copies from any political parties. In fact, they were secular reformers similar to the National Front Party. While favoring the eradication of the monarchy, they preferred a secular republic. Similar to the members of the National Front Party, some of them favored socialism but hoped to attain it through parliamentary democracy. Grouh-e Pishgam (Forwarded Group) The members of this organization were leftist- oriented and they were secular radicals. Ideologically they were divided into the Fadayi (Marxist-Leninist) and the revolutionary Tudeh (Communist) Party. They, similar to the leftist party, demanded equality, democracy, and a workers1 government. Moreover, the Fadayi warned that the people's revolution should not be monopolized by any one group. 182 The procedure utilized in the survey was for the researcher to interview 20 secondary teachers, 5 from each one of the above teachers* organizations. The researcher explained to the secondary teachers selected for interview that the survey questionnaire had been administered and the main purpose of the follow-up interview was to get their ideas about the role of teachers* professional organiza tions which also had social and political power. (Note: this question related to the last item in the question naire.) The responses to this question have been summarized in the following discussion. Although attitudes of each individual interviewee differed, even among those from the same organization, there were some similarities that identified them as secondary teachers. Furthermore, there were also commonalities shared by those who were members of the first two above-mentioned religious-oriented organizations as distinct from those who were members of the two secular organizations. An analysis of the interviews with ail 20 secondary teachers revealed that the problems of secondary teacher recruitment and retention related to a great extent to the social and economic statuses of teachers and that a teachers* professional union, with social and political power, could improve the situation tremendously. Opinions 183 differed among members of the different organizations with regard to the methods to be employed by the teachers' professional unions in order to promote the improvement of teachers' social and economic statuses. The majority of the first two religious groups, eight secondary teachers out of ten interviewees, said that a teachers' professional union with social and political power could suggest many new ideas to the Ministry of Education and help the Ministry in improving the criteria for recruitment of qualified applicants for teaching jobs. They were hoping that the new Islamic Republic regime and its Ministry of Education would support the teachers' positions and through cooperation with teachers' pro fessional unions would develop a new procedure for teacher retention equal to that enjoyed by other civil servants. In fact the interviewees from the first two teachers' organizations supported the new government to a great extent and believed that the first mission of the Islamic Republic was to satisfy the people's needs and to abolish the existence of any inequalities within the nation including those between teachers with other civil servants. The members of the last two groups, particularly the fourth one, had a greater interest in furthering political power for teachers' professional unions. While both groups supported a decentralized system of education, 184 all five interviewees of the last group, Gorouh-e Pishgam, considered teaching to be a profession and believed that the teachers' professional union should have extensive power, similar to workers, in order to improve teachers' statuses in all respects. The members of both groups noted that the dynamic nature of education required a decentral ized system in which teachers, as the main resource, could provide guidelines for many activities including curriculum planning for schools, developing criteria for the selection and recruitment of teachers, supporting teachers' positions in society by means of mass media, and raising their social and economic status. However, ideological difference, as the researcher expected, existed to a large extent among the four groups. Regardless of how long the political parties to which they were attached had existed, all four teachers' organizations were in the early development stage, and their existences, missions, and programs were fluctuating, and sometimes the distinction between the political party and the teachers* professional union was forgotten even by the respective members. 185 CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMEN DATIONS This chapter presents a brief recapitulation of the major issues of concern in this study with (1) a summary of the problems and the methods of investigation used; (2) a summary of findings; (3) conclusions that follow from the data computation and analysis; (4) recommendations in terms of practical suggestions for implementation. Summary The Problem The investigator1s concern about the shortage of secondary teachers in Iran produced the impetus to study and, if possible, to find the basic cause(s) that contrib uted to this problem. More specifically, this study aimed 1. to describe the academic, social and economic statuses of present-day secondary teachers in Iran; 2. to examine and analyze the interrelationships between the shortage of secondary teachers and the government's planning and policies as applied by the Ministry of Education; ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 1 R £ _ 3. to explore the secondary teachers * perceptions of the status accorded them; and 4. to identify the problems contributing to the difficulty of recruiting and retaining secondary teachers. It was with these concerns that answers to the following questions were sought: 1. How and why was secondary teaching sought as a profession? Were there any economic reasons, family or cultural demands, was it personal interest or merely the lack of other alternatives? 2. Did secondary teachers find the teacher training curriculum and the in-service training programs sufficient and adequate to prepare them for the ^ teaching professions? 3. Was there any relationship between areas of specialization in teaching and teachers dropping out either during teacher training programs or after having worked as secondary teachers? 4. What were the relationships between secondary teachers' attitudes and the following variables? / a. decentralization of the education system, b. student/teacher ratios, c. assigned teaching hours, 187 d. school location and general facilities, e. amount of teacher participation in in-service programs. 5. Were teachers satisfied with their promotions, if any, and how did they perceive them in comparison to internal mobility in comparable professions? 6. Were the increase in secondary teachers' salaries almost equal to the rate of inflation; and how have these increases related to salary increases in other public sector occupations? 7. Was there any difference in attitude between male and female secondary teachers either in their selection of teaching in secondary schools as a job and/or in their intention to stay in the profession? For the theoretical background of the key issues related to this investigation, the review of the literature provided an overview of the historical, legislative, and social bases for the study of how this problem has emerged in Iran. The literature pertained to (1) secondary teacher training in Iran, and (2) selection and recruitment policies. The related statistics were presented that showed the shortage of secondary teachers in Iran. The extent to which the shortage of secondary teachers was 188 related to the government's, and the Ministry of Educa tion's policies were discussed. The review of the literature also covered reports on comparable policies and studies which centered on countries in the Asian region, and member countries of OECD, to show how they dealt with problems relating to secondary school teaching. Procedures The descriptive survey design was used and data were collected by means of a questionnaire submitted to 169 secondary teachers employed by the Ministry of Education, in the public or private secondary schools within four school districts in Tehran, Iran. The four school districts were designated by a Ministerial committee as being representative of all school districts in Tehran. In a pilot study, the validity of the questionnaire was examined. It was presented to 30 secondary school teachers from Iran who were studying for their Master's degree in the School of Education at the University of Southern California during the 1978-79 school year. The questionnaire was revised in response to the suggestion from those participating in the pilot study, and it was further revised at the suggestion of the chairperson of this researcher's doctoral committee. It was then trans lated into Persian. 189 The investigator went to Iran, administered the questionnaire, and collected the data during April and May of 1979. The 169 subjects for the sample of this study comprised 15 percent of the total of 1,149 secondary teachers in the four designated school districts. Statistics, and additional data, were obtained personally from Ministry of Education officials in Iran. The data from the questionnaires were analyzed by computer to discover the necessary statistical findings. One-way analysis of variance, Pearson's Correlation Co efficient, and chi square procedures were used in testing the four hypotheses of this study. Because of the revolution in Iran at the time of the administration of the questionnaire, plus the political changes and the development of new teachers* organizations, the researcher found it advisable to conduct personally an unstructured interview with 20 secondary teachers who were members of four new teachers* organizations. These inter views were mainly related to the question of the importance of a teachers* professional union, with social and politicai. power, for improving the teacher profession. The findings were described but not analyzed through computer analysis. 190 Major Findings Within the limitations and delimitations of this study, it was found that in spite of all attempts and reforms to achieve a modern educational system in Iran, the number of secondary teachers available did not meet the required needs. The inability of planners, at both the economic and educational levels, to resolve this most acute national problem was a determining factor. Four hypotheses were formulated in this investiga tion. The analyses of data collected by the questionnaire revealed the following findings: 1. Teacher training universities should have their own specialized teacher training entrance examina tion, separate from that of the national unified university entrance examination. These institu tions should have their own qualifying criteria for the selection of prospective secondary teachers. 2. There were not enough secondary teacher training universities available, and the curriculum and the methods of instruction in those that existed were not sufficiently up-to-date. 3. There was a strong relationship between an increase of enrollments in the secondary teacher training institutions and the upgrading of secondary teachers' social and economic statuses. The most 191 influential factors in this relationship was salary and promotion policies for teachers being similar to those received by other comparable civil servants. 4. Male and female secondary teachers had different attitudes regarding criteria for selecting s e c o n d a r y teaching as a profession. Teaching was one of the few professions relegated to females, and from the religious viewpoint it was more acceptable for a woman to be a teacher. This had a profound effect on the attitudes of women in accepting teaching as a profession. Males did not face such social restrictions and their attitudes toward a teaching job was not influenced. 5. Female secondary teachers were generally more satisfied with their jobs, and tended not to change their occupation even though teaching paid less. The major factors contributing to female secondary teachers’ satisfaction with their job were: a. a traditionally high degree of acceptance attached to a teaching profession for women; b. teaching allowed a woman more free time for her family; and c. greater independence and security in the school environment where bureaucratic pressures were not excessive. 192 6. The secondary schools were suffering a loss of teachers who were math or science majors. This was the result of: a. the smaller number of high school graduates majoring in math of science who chose teacher training universities when taking the university entrance examination; b. more attractive employment opportunities being available to math or science specialists; and c. the inability of the Ministry of Education to compete with other employers in recruiting and retaining these highly trained persons. 7. There were monetary and non-monetary incentives that had positive effects on secondary teachers' job satisfaction. Among these, insofar as this study was concerned were: a. the inequality of employment compensation with other comparable government civil servants; b. the changing of policy regarding automatic salary increases and promotions; and c. the consideration of additional criteria, such as educational specialty and geographic location of schools in determining teachers' salaries. 193 The non-monetary factors which greatly influenced the secondary teachers* professional satisfaction were: a. more frequent and appropriate in-service training; b. school buildings made specifically for educational purposes, with adequate up-to-date instructional materials; c. reduced student/teacher ratios per classroom; and d. recognition of a professional teachers' union with social and political power. Two other non-monetary incentives which received support, although not as much as the others were: reduction of the required weekly teaching hours, and decentraliztion of the educational system. 8. There was no close coordination between the general economic plan and educational planning in Iran. A teachers' professional union was thought to be a channel through which teachers could provide input for educational planning. 9. Respondents' opinions did not appear to be in fluenced by their personal, educational, and professional backgrounds since, as a result of the Pearson Correlation Coefficient tests, there was 194 no correlation between their replies and their backgrounds. 10. There was no probability of significant difference, based on chi square tests, between the backgrounds and opinions of secondary teachers in relation to the premises and suggestions in this study. Even though the findings in this study greatly supported the four hypotheses, it should be noted that the findings were not concerned with causality per se. They reflected the actual opinions of respondents who were familiar with the regulations for recruitment, employment, and retention of secondary teachers. They particularly knew the culture, religion, and the traditions in Iran and the effects these had on influencing the secondary teachers. With the data derived from a sampling of 169 secondary teachers from four representative school districts of the city of Tehran, it was reasonable to assume that the findings approximated the actual conditions among the larger population of secondary teachers in Tehran It provided an empirical basis for formulating conclusions regarding the problems of recruitment and retention of secondary teachers in Iran. 195 Conclusions It is the conclusion of this investigator, based on the ideas and opinions expressed by those of the sample in this inquiry, that secondary teachers are fully aware of the fundamental problems concerning the recruitment and retention of secondary teachers. Any changes related to their profession should be through consultation with them. All the shortcomings in the secondary teaching profession cannot be attributed only to the socioeconomic status that the society has attached to this job. However, the social and economic statuses of secondary teachers did have a direct influence on the decision of applicants to apply for and keep this job. The existing policy for secondary teachers' selection, the nationwide university entrance examination, and the required commitment of students in secondary teacher training institutions to teach after graduation did not increase the number of enrollments in secondary teacher training institutions. The economic situation of the country greatly influenced the inadequate supply of secondary teachers, particularly for those with degrees in specialties where more and better paying non-teaching opportunities in other public or private sectors of the economy existed. This was despite the cultural and other traditional factors that 196 relegated women to specified jobs which included teaching in secondary schools. In Iran, teachers ‘ are civil servants. Their rights are determined by a civil service law to which all state employees are subject. Inequities that existed in this law created a problem in regard to the retention of secondary teachers. The secondary teaching profession was also affected by the lack of teachers' participation in curriculum planning and in decisions which related to attracting, recruiting, and retaining secondary teachers. A primary factor in teachers1 participation is the extent to which education is decentralized. A professional teachers' union, with social and political power, was recognized as an important means of promoting the general welfare and professional interests of teachers. The criteria for selecting, training, and promoting education for teachers could be dealt with more effectively through such organizations initiating or cooperating concurrently with activities of the Ministry of Education. The job conditions in secondary teaching should be one of the main concerns of educational authorities. Teachers should have the necessary materials and a suitable environment in schools to develop the students' talents 197 and aptitudes and to address their educational needs. Providing better conditions should be the responsibility of educational administrators and should contribute to teachers' professional satisfaction and motivate them to continue their teaching careers. Recommendations The following recommendations are those which appear to emanate directly from this survey. The findings and conclusions of this study suggest innumerable recom mendations to this researcher. The Islamic Republic of Iran established a Center for Cultural Revolution to evaluate and change the organization, content, and methods of education at all levels but especially at the university level, including secondary teacher training (Shariatmadari, 1981). Since this center considers the secondary teacher an important element in making changes, it needs input of new criteria for attracting and training applicants for secondary school teaching. It might be beneficial to consider the present research study, which was basically an anlysis of the attitudes and opinions of secondary teachers for modifying educational and teacher employment policies. Investigations similar to this one might be instituted for planning new regulations for secondary teaching jobs in Iran. 198 1. Since education is an essential factor for a country*s growth, educational planning, particularly long term planning, should form an integral part of general economic and social planning. Educational planning and implementation should be considered independently but coordinated with the general economic plan in Iran. It should benefit from decentralization and enable teachers' representatives to take part effectively in the process of forecasting and decision-making. 2. Educational planning is recognized as essential in Iran. Both long-term and short-term planning and programming are necessary since the country's short-term and long-term skilled manpower needs are presented as integral requirements of this plan. In all stages of educational planning, early provisions for the training of fully competent and qualified teachers and for their further education should be major concerns. 3. Since education is accepted as a continuous process, teacher training and the various branches provid ing further education for secondary teachers, should be adequate and coordinated. In-service training for secondary teachers would improve the quality of education at secondary level both for students, who are so critical for Iran's economic development, and for enhancing the status of secondary teachers. In this respect coordinated 199 systematic, and continous research based upon accurate and reliable statistics, followed by utilization of results, are essential in the field of secondary teacher preparation and in-service training. 4. The establishment of a teachers* professional union should be recognized as a force for educational advancement in Iran. Therefore, there should be close cooperation between governmental educational authorities and the teachers* union to improve the quality of education This could be done through sponsoring educational research, and the development and dissemination of new and improved methods. 5. Since secondary education in Iran has been suffering from a shortage of secondary teachers, particularly those qualified, upgrading of the social and economic statuses of secondary teachers should be of concern to the Ministry of Education. With regard to recruitment standards, level of credential for secondary teachers, and equalization of their salaries and promotions so to be comparable to other government occupations, the secondary teachers themselves could be the first source of information. However, the questions of policies and procedures within what limits should be defined and set in close cooperation between a teachers' union and the educa tional authorities. 200 6. Since the teaching and teacher evaluation depend upon many personality traits, personal values, and biases, steps should be taken to adopt criteria to prevent discrimination. This researcher, in view of her past experiences and the findings of this study, does not be-‘ lieve that the greater demand in the job market for some special university majors should justify discriminatory payments for secondar teachers with certain specialties. However, an exception should be made, and there should be extra payment for those secondary teachers, regardless of their teaching specialties, who teach in schools located in poverty areas or in small villages in remote areas. This would encourage them and ensure an adequate supply of secondary teachers for those areas. 7. The achievement of education*s aims and objectives largely depends on the funds made available to education. The environment of the school is an important factor affecting the teaching process and the teachers* professional satisfaction. 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Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1976. 210 APPENDIXES 211 APPENDIX A LETTERS ENDORSING THE STUDY 212 N V " 1 &....... £■ ^ j j i - ^ c ^ j l r \ v * & < -5 k _ S J . . . .»jto\ . - o ^ll \ & .. , ■ > jr« l y f - r / v / T ^' c L ^ . y - Y ^ <yy / j?y c - * * <r's £y!_ ~></f/ZiJj' , S c / v v u - y u - * - ' ’ / 213 ^bj v.by^>jJ 7 JlUjoT 4^b oil *ul^fUjl L~J ^ - a ! j ^ u- i ir~<3*i3- 3 ^ J1 • * ob*3 •■juiU ob^ < ^ j J * ~ o*-!^ -r^J1 o L s 1^*3* J I ^ J ol Cl? 0 , — i i - J *JfOj-*aJ ^bUcul Jf ^13 *J 1 J » I (J-^J r l } , r U^V' J* bU~2* } J f » j I j l ^l ^T- ^ Q5bx* - j y * * 3 Cr^ i b l » ^ L « I < J S « j I - J J ( j - * b - * i j b’ d/»v < , A 214 Jy—* rzr---------------^r. ojL-i Ofj& < j r > J J £ j U - xar- TJ j U " c- r/Yrn ■ / ' lt* > « ■ * * j 4V>/T* J*- L . U a . 1 4j la I — . ^ w j I jj ( J " * " ’ ‘ 4 — ‘ V i ^- t T I J ^ * U T J l> C * - > ‘ JJU O^F* Jlj U T J T*. L > <J>? Lwuj^db* U* j l _ * L. ^ Ij—# *j.i*>- ( _ 3 1 jui<j ijmJ LS a ' * l < ^ J " £ ^ ^ 13j I 1 - 1 Xml ~ 0 y-* Lme t j j—jiVihj « j j<d ,j _ ■ * - * ■ " ■ j l^i, dU j » ■ ' * jJU A.ij*» L r i ,J T d_j I j ^ Ll.., 1 A—1 j — jlwAj c j lu ^ 1 » I * > J ,j j 1 *»*> J > 4 J..*4 A. . 1 J ! ■ j ^ J I U I o Lj 1 ^« I > d Cum I »-x.* T|»A - 1 L— > _ i I ^ I a j * > lw ^ T a J a m *^ — u“ j ^ u ' j > .< O 1 - xTh^ I ijjfd J l«d I >-j j I W Lj LsOta* I dj I > 4 I ‘ fat jj Ijkad < 3 > 215 APPENDIX B QUESTIONNAIRE IN ENGLISH AND PERSIAN 216 QUESTIONNAIRE IN ENGLISH The enclosed questionnaire will be used for a doctoral dissertation and your cooperation will be extremely important and helpful. A blank sheet has been provided at the end of the questionnaire and it*is requested that you use it to offer any suggestions or criticisms you my have. Thank you in advance. Farideh Aleagha Name (Optional) Male_____ Female_____ Single_____ Married_____ Age_____ Educational Degree: University or institution from which you were graduated: Years and teaching experience: Type number(s) and time of inservice training: Educational District: Topic of Disseration, "The Problems of Secondary Teacher Recruitment and Retention in Iran." 1. Suppose teacher training universities and colleges want to attract more students to become secondary school teachers in the future. How important do you feel the following ideas and changes would be in making teacher's position high and increase the number of students in secondary school teacher training institutions. Will you indicate your rating in the case of each one? very much = 1 much = 2 some = 3 very little or none = 4 217 1 2 3 4 ___ ___ ___ Teacher training universities should have theii own specialized entrance examinations and criteria rather than depending upon the general nationwide exam. ___ ___ ___ Applicants for secondary school teaching should have the same nationwide exams and procedures as other students in the universi ties, and have a contract committing them to work as secondary teachers after graduation. ___ ___ Equal salary and promotion laws for secondary school teachers and other employees with the same university degrees and experiences. ___ ___ ___ Secondary teachers' social and economic statuses are high enough; what we need is to expand and increase the number of teacher training institutions. _____ ___ ___ Secondary teachers' job is not interesting. Having the responsibi1ity for working with adolescents, even though you have been upgraded, so fewer candidates enter teacher training institutions. _____ ___ __ _ Being a teacher means receiving a lower salary than some other government employees, so secondary teacher training institutions should train students to make sacrifices in order to serve the nation. ___ ___ ___ The curriculum should be changed in teacher training institutions, to use new and up-to- date methods. Would you please, based on your experience in teaching, recommend other changes that would attract more students to secondary teacher training institutions and therefore increase the number of secondary teachers? 218 2. The following statements express viewpoints that some teachers agree with and others do not. Indicate your own viewpoint by checking one of each statement. SA = strongly agree A = agree D = disagree SD = strongly disagree SA A D SD ___ ___ ___ Teaching is one of the professions that parents usually prefer for their daughters. ___ __ ___ Men usually prefer to marry a female teacher rather than one in another profession. ___ ___ ___ From the viewpoint of religion, it is more accepted for a woman to work as a teacher than in another profession. ___ ___ ___ Teaching as a profession permits more free time for a woman to devote to her family and child rearing. ___ ___ ___ Some women after marriage want, if possible, to change their job to teaching because of family incluence and preference. ___ ___ ___ Because of family structure making males financially responsible, female teachers are less likely to change their jobs even though teaching pays less. ___ ___ ___ School organization is less bureaucratic as compared to other government organizations. So female teachers feel more independent and secure from bureaucratic pressures and manipulations. 219 3. Directions: In thinking over your experiences in teacher training universities, or any area of your specialization in universities, in general, and your experience during your teacher career, indicate your rating of the following statements by checking the appropriate place. SA = strongly agree A = agree NO = no opinion D = disagree SA A NO D High school graduates majoring in math or science make secondary teacher training universities their last choice in taking their university entrance examinations. More gainful employment in other professions limit the Ministry of Educations possibilities of employing secondary teachers from math or science university graduates. Secondary teachers who have a math or science Bachelor degree from a teacher training insti tution usually try to change their profession after or even before their 5-year contract expi res. Female secondary teachers with math or science backgrounds, even though the same opportunities exist for them, are less likely than the male to change their profession. 220 4. Below is a list of premises that might contribute to secondary teachers' probable satisfaction with their profession. Will you please rate these statements based on your teaching experience? Very much = 1 Much = 2 Some = 3 Very little or none = 4 I 2 1 i ___ ___ ___ Teachers should participate fully and give more input in curriculum planning. ___ ___ ___ Since teachers are civil servants they should be compensated equal to other comparable government occupations. ___ ___ ___ More frequent in-service training should be provided. ___ ___ ___ There should be a change in the system for salary increases and eligibility for promo- ti on. ___ ___ ___ Additional criteria for bases of teacher' salaries should be educational specialty and geographical location of their school. ___ ___ ___ School buildings and equipment should be upgraded specifically for educational activities and provided with up-to-date instructional materials. ___ ___ ___ A reduction of the student/teacher ratio in the classroom. ___ ___ ___ Teaching hours per week should be reduced. ___ ___ ___ A decentralized educational system should be established giving communities opportunities to participate in school related policies including teacher recruitment and retention. _____ ___ ___ Teachers should have a professional union with political and social power. Would you please indicate any other suggest!on(s)? 221 SCHOOL OF EDUCATION M a h r o o M o s ta fa v i- K a s h a n i, F s lD . S p e c ia i. A d m in is t r a t iv e A s s is ta n t t o t h e D e a n (213) 741-8192 March 19, 1979 To Whom It May Concern: Ms. Farideh Aleagha's Translation of the questionnaire entitled "Problems of Secondary Teacher Recruitment and Retention in Iran'1 is correctly done and expresses all the points accurately. Sincerely Mahroo Gastaldi Ph . D MG/cr UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. UNIVERSITY PARK, LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA 90007 222 ■ i | > j . i T * ^ > j L S L » a ' i j m I _ l Lc b w) mm (Jj • * X m WW 1 ' X * h i t I > Irt (j-j ^ J *■*1 j r Im I .lu C C i 1 C m I x ' ■ - *A I . o - w U ^ J I j ^ . l c — I A a £ a > <1 I * 1 1 ^ J ^ A m i J ^ a b l A d » J d a f t t - » £ a * M Ja) C a i M ^ a i a J - I t d ^ a S L * I ■ V*n"i id I d_u J s j« j j a f t i .Ci^l ^ h ft- U * ^ 0 ' J ~ I|C ' j i m ji t I C ^ > ’ 4 . 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Asset Metadata

Creator Aleagha, Farideh (author)

Core Title The problem of secondary teacher recruitment and retention in Iran

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, sociology of,Middle Eastern Studies,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-485819

Unique identifier UC11246642

Identifier usctheses-c26-485819 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP24749.pdf

Dmrecord 485819

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Aleagha, Farideh

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA