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Midlife "baby-boom" women compared to their older counterparts in midlife

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Midlife "baby-boom" women compared to their older counterparts in midlife

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Content MIDLIFE "BABY BOOM" WOMEN COMPARED TO THEIR
OLDER COUNTERPARTS IN MIDLIFE
by
Joan Mathews Jacobson
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Education)
May 19 89
Copyright 1989 Joan Mathews Jacobson
UMI Number: DP25280
All rights reserved
INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
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In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed,
a note will indicate the deletion.
Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author.
Dtesertaiibin Publishing
UMI DP25280
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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 90089
This dissertation, written by
Joan Mathews Jacobson
under the direction of f e T . . . . . . . . Dissertation
Committee, and approved by all its members,
has been presented to and accepted by The
Graduate School, in partial fulfillm ent of re
quirements fo r the degree of
Bis Uh»
Ed
’'8 9
117
D O C T O R O F P H IL O S O P H Y
Dean of Graduate Studies
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
Chairperson
uSLLO *}..
11
DEDICATION
The constant support and caring of my wonderful
family has inspired me to accept the challenge and to make
this dream a reality. My husband, Jake, has never doubted
that it was possible. Because he gave so much of himself,
my doctorate is a reality. Therefore, it is fitting that
this dissertation be dedicated to him.
i
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
As in every worthwhile endeavor, many individuals are
instrumental in bringing an idea to fruition. Dr. Penny
Richardson, my Committee Chair, has been my most steadfast
supporter. She has guided me throughout my re-entry
career at the University of Southern California, and has j
been invaluable in bringing it to a successful conclusion,
for this I am eternally grateful. Dr. David Peterson's
support of this investigation of midlife development has
helped enormously to make the project credible and
relevant. Dr. Judith Treas lent her expertise in guiding j
the project and assuring its generalization to the real !
issues of midlife transition and the "Baby Boom"
generation. It has been an honor to have the opportunity
to be guided by scholars of this stature.
Without the assistance of Shari Thorell, Vice
President Alumni Relations, and Susan Hoder, her
assistant, and their vital interest in women's issues
there would be no sample. The labels they generated were
invaluable in expediting the mailing.
Dr. Debbie Allinger was untiring in her efforts to
assist me in the statistical design and interpretation of
the results of the study.
A special thanks is due Joe Iarocci and his staff for
the time they spent helping to assure a professional
iv
presentation for the mailing. Then, there are the
numerous friends; Helen Ullman, Connie Stires, Barbara
Dermody, Mary Lou Winroth, Diane Wirth, Dottie Neilson,
and Peggy Bicknell, who assisted in the preparation and
the mailing of those 2730 survey packets that filled 28
mail bags and went to 55 zip codes. The Bradburns helped
to sort those initial returns and offered encouragement as
I analyzed the 1,100 responses. Finally, there was Thania
Rios whose command of English grammar was invaluable in
helping to edit the final product.
Chapter
1.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION............................... 1
Background of the Problem................ 2
"Baby Boom" Women......................... 2
Pre "Baby Boom" Women.................... 2
Theoretical Discussion................... 3
Problem................................... 5
Purpose of the Study..................... 7
Major Questions to be Answered........... 7
Hypotheses to be Tested.................. 8
Importance of the Study.................. 9
Definition of Terms...................... 10
Summary ............................. 11
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE................... 13
Issues Facing Midlife Women.............. 13
Introduction.............................. 13
Conceptual Framework..................... 13
Developmental Theories................... 14
Anxiety and Life Satisfaction............ 16
Sources and Trends in Achieving LS...... 17
Family Trends........................... 17
Marriage and Divorce.................... 18
Employment and Family Roles............. 21
Satisfaction For Women in the Work Place 23
vi
Employment to Increase Household Income 24
Motherhood in Midlife.............. 25
Over Extended Midlife Children..... 27
Health Issues Confronting Midlife Women 28
The "Baby Boom" Generation............. 29
Conclusions of the Literature Review 3 3
Summary.................................... 3 6
3. METHOD........................................ 37
Introduction............................... 37
Population of Interest and the Sample 37
The University of Interest................ 39
Other Research Questions.................. 41
Description of the Variables.............. 41
Background............................... 43
Present SES.......... 47
Miscellaneous Variables................. 48
Procedures for Data Collection............ 50
Treatment of the Data and Response Rate... 51
The Instruments............................ 53
The Anxiety Inventory................... 53
Life Satisfaction Scale................. 56
Delimitations of the Study................ 57
Limitations of the Study.................. 58
Assumptions of the Study.................. 58
Post-Hoc Analysis.......................... 59
vii
Summary.................................... 59
4. RESULTS........................................ 61
Introduction............................... 61
Identifying Significant Variables......... 63
Cross Tabulation Results.................. 63
Similarities............................... 64
Differences................................ 66
Significant Independent Variables........ 7 0
Other Trends............................... 88
Miscellaneous Results..................... 91
Investigating the Factor of Age........... 93
Summary.................................... 100
5 . CONCLUSIONS.................................... 102
Introduction............................... 102
Discussion of Similarities and Differences 103
Discussion of the Research Questions..... 104
Discussion of the Hypotheses.............. 109
Implications............................... 113
Summary..................................... 115
REFERENCES.............................................. 117
APPENDICES.............................................. 12 2
A. State-Trait Anxiety Inventory................. 122
B. Salamon-Conte Life Satisfaction Scale........ 123
C. Demographic Survey............................. 127
D. Cover Letter................................... 129
viii
E. File Codes for Demographic Survey............ 13 0
F. Mailing Procedures............................ 13 5
G. Types of Occupations.......................... 13 7
H. Types of Religions............................ 140
I. Types of Volunteer Activities................. 142
J. Miscellaneous Personal Comments.............. 14 6
Figure
1.
2.
3 .
4 .
5 .
6.
7 .
8.
9 .
10.
11.
12.
13 .
1 4 .
1 5 .
1 6 .
1 7 .
1 8 .
1 9 .
20.
IX
LIST OF FIGURES
Income Effect on ANXS....................... 71
Income Effect on ANXT....................... 72
Income Effect on LS......................... 72
Exercise and Life Satisfaction............... 74
Life Satisfaction Comparisons, Never Married,
Divorced, Married, etc..................... 75
Anxiety State Comparisons, Never Married,
Divorced, Married, etc..................... 7 6
Anxiety Trait Comparisons, Never Married,
Divorced, Married, etc..................... 7 6
Anxiety State/ Parental Encouragement....... 79
Anxiety Trait/ Parental Encouragement...... 79
Life Satisfaction/ Parental Encouragement.... 80
Anxiety State/ With and Without Children 81 j
Anxiety Trait/ With and Without Children 81 |
Life Satisfaction/ With and Without Children. 82 !
Anxiety State Without Work Enjoyment......... 83
Anxiety Trait Without Work Enjoyment 83 !
j
Life Satisfaction Without Work Enjoyment 84
Age Groups and Advanced Degrees.............. 89
Analysis of Variance (ANXS).................. 95 !
i
Analysis of Variance (ANXT).................. 95 ;
i
Analysis of Variance (LS).................... 9 6
21. Analysis of Variance (Age Groups ANXS, ANXT,
& LS)........................................
22. Linear Regression Slope, Age Groups 1, 2 & 3
(LS/ ANXS)..................................
23. Linear Regression Slope, Age Groups 1, 2, & 3
(LS/ ANXT)..................................
24. Linear Regression Slope, Age Groups 1, 2, & 3
(ANXT/ ANXS)................................
xi
ABSTRACT
For the purpose of this study a stratified random
j
sample of "Baby Boom" women aged 35 to 42 was compared to
a group of older midlife women who are aged 43 to 55. The
sample was purposefully selected and consisted of 992
alumna of the University of Southern California who were
randomly selected from the classes that graduated between
1975 and 1955. In addition to individual year group
statistical analyses, those women who were aged 35, 45,
and 55 were grouped so that comparisons could be made in
the interest of controlling for the effects of age.
Controlling for age was helpful in explaining whether the
differences between the groups of midlife women were age
related or whether they occurred as a result of
socialization. j
i
i
The "baby boom" cohort of women, born after January
i
1, 194 6, have only recently entered the ranks of midlife. j
They have been recognized as being unique and less j
traditional with regard to sexual freedom, career choices,
and educational opportunities than those midlife women who
preceded them. This cohort was among the first to
experience the benefits of equal opportunity, which came
about as a result of the women1 s and the civil rights
movements. These women were socialized in an era of
affluence, television, sexual revolution, proliferation of
j
xii
illegal drug use, and the Vietnam protests in which
national doubt was rampant. On the other hand, the pre
"baby boom" cohort, aged 43 to 55, was socialized during
contrasting circumstances. Some experienced the Great
Depression, and later, World War II. Most were raised
with the traditional values of home and family. For this
older cohort there were fewer opportunities for autonomy
and equality. For most women during this time it was not
acceptable to enter male dominated professions such as
i
medicine, law, engineering, and business. They were
relegated to career choices in teaching, nursing, or
secretarial work, which they often left after short
periods of time to marry and raise families. j
The results of the study illustrated that age does
not appear to be a factor in determining life satisfaction
and high levels of anxiety. Some of the variables that j
did influence the measures of life satisfaction and j
anxiety were household income, regular exercise, and j
family status. Although many similarities exist among the
groups of midlife women, a new form of traditionalism is
emerging as the "baby boom" women adopt a more |
|
conservative lifestyle. Here, age and maturity are the
factors that seem to influence confronting the structural
norms provided by society. Clearly, in this study the
effects of socialization yield the major significant
xii
variables that influence a feeling of well being in the
"baby boom" and pre-"baby boom" cohorts of midlrfe women.
e *
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
The study was undertaken to discover how societal j
changes have rendered contemporary midlife women different
from those midlife women who preceded them. Societal
myths regarding midlife women have been perpetuated
because of a dearth of empirical study on women in this
stage of the life cycle. Previous studies reflected
mainly on dysfunctional women and were based on Freudian
theory, conducted mainly on male subjects, by male
researchers, and biased because women were considered
deviant if they differed from the men in the studies
(Duffy, 1985).
Modern societal changes and the advent of the "baby
boom" generation into midlife has caused the slow erosion
of these misconceptions about midlife women. The question
before us is to examine how these changes have impinged
upon the newest generation of midlife women, and how they
compare to their older cohorts in levels of life
satisfaction and anxiety. This chapter will address a
theoretical discussion of the midlife transition and will
pose the major research questions and hypotheses generated
by the literature.
2
Background of the Problem
"Baby Boom Women"
Born following January 1, 194 6, and only recently
entering the ranks of midlife, these individuals have been
recognized by many contemporary researchers (Jones, 1981)
(Easterlin, 1980) as being unique, more liberal, and less
conforming than women born a generation earlier. "Baby
Boom" women had more career and more educational j
i
opportunities, later marriage, and more sexual freedom ;
i
than those who preceded them (Kessler-Harris, 1982). Some j
i
in the "baby boom" cohort were among the first to I
experience the benefits of equal opportunity for women
resulting from the women*s and civil rights* movements.
They were socialized during an era of affluence,
television, sexual revolution, the proliferation of
illegal drug use, and the Vietnam protests in which
national self doubt was rampant (Jones, 1981).
Pre "Baby Boom Women"
On the other hand, pre "baby boom" midlife women
(aged 4 3-55) were socialized during entirely different
circumstances. Some of them experienced the Great
Depression and World War II and were, for the most part,
raised with the traditional values of home and family.
They experienced fewer opportunities in education and in
the male dominated professions such as medicine, law, and
3
business (Kessler-Harris, 1982). These older women came
of age in a period in which patriotism and national
consensus flourished. Traditional values have been
explicated as revolving around the family, love of
country, competition, conformity, and authority (Gribbon,
1981). When earlier studies on midlife were conducted in
the 1950s and 1960s, women did not generally participate
in roles outside the home. Ehrenreich (1983) reported
that men in those years were perceived as breadwinners
while most women were expected to follow the traditional
patterns of early marriage, child bearing, and child
rearing.
Theoretical Discussion
Midlife is the term used to describe a period in the
adult life cycle when certain developmental landmarks
occur, such as reflection upon one's mortality and life's
limits, thought to occur sometime during the middle
thirties (Sheehy, 1976). The actual age varies according
to cultural and other factors, which designate midlife
dependent on the theories set forth by disparate
researchers. Erikson (1950) defines the middle years in ]
i
terms of one of his eight phases in the life cycle in j
which specific reguisites are necessary in order to I
i
progress through the transition in an adaptive manner. |
i
Gould (1978) speaks of an inner-directedness, or a focus
4
on self, which designates midiife and assigns these events
to the fortieth decade. Jung (1961), whose influence is
found in Gould's work, suggests a feeling of inner
uncertainty prevails during an individual's mid to late
thirties.
Exploration of cohort theory is relevant so that the
"baby boom" and pre "baby boom" women may be compared to
enhance our understanding of adult midlife development and
transition. A cohort refers to a group of people born
during the same or several-year period who share similar
experiences over time (Jones, 1981) . In this study the
"baby boom" cohort of women who were born between 194 6 and
1953 were compared to older midlife women born between
1933 and 1945. Cohort differences between these women
have not been fully explored. Jennings and Niemi (1981)
describe a birth cohort as one that shares experience
under somewhat similar circumstances. This creates a
generational effect in which the individuals born during a
similar time frame go through certain life adventures
together. These life events take place at pivotal and
impressionable times during early developmental phases at
a point before adulthood. It is logical to expect to find
differences in attitudes between the younger and older
cohorts of midlife women. It is recognized that it is
difficult to control for an overlapping or "coat-tailing"
5
effect. Similarly, it is challenging to understand the
effect of change caused by aging in any research involving
midlife women in the aggregate. One might theorize that
the shared experiences of social change and upheaval that
occurred during similar pivotal times in the lives of the
members of the cohort groups may be the explanation for
"overlapping" in attitudes and feelings. It may become
evident through the results of this and future studies
that shared experiences can affect attitudinal changes in
life phases other than pre-adulthood. This study
addresses the issue of understanding societal change and
its effects, further enhancing a discussion of adult
midlife development. Because of the sheer numbers and the
power of the 37 million strong cohort of "baby boomers"
including both men and women, what has happened to this
cohort may impact the future of midlife women.
Problem
The dramatic increase in the number of contemporary
women between the ages of 35 and 42 has far reaching
implications. This cohort is the largest in the
population today and is rapidly advancing into middle age
with the average age for all Americans now reported to be
just over age 3 0 (Statistical Abstract of the United
States, 1985). Silverstone and Hyman (1978) refer to the
midlife generation as the "sandwich generation," those in
6
between the younger generation on one side and the elder
generation on the other. Furthermore, Silverstone
concludes there is a lack of knowledge because empirical
studies on midlife are negligible. Davis (1981) reports
that it has only been recently that the middle years have
been recognized as pivotal, encompassing numerous life
transitions, and not uneventful as had been previously
believed. Models and norms of behavior for this life
transition are slowly emerging for midlife women who are
45 and older. However, the newest cohort of midlife women
may be quite divergent in light of how they were
socialized and how they accepted new roles and adjustments
to societal norms. The most recent participants in the j
midlife transition may find themselves ambivalent with the
possibility of being in high states of anxiety because of
their non-traditional lifestyles, which include
postponement of marriage and child bearing, and working in
previously male-dominated spheres. As a result of the
ambivalence and anxiety that may be present, it is
significant to compare the "baby boom" group of midlife
women to an older sample of midlife women. The results of
the questionnaires (Appendices A, B, C) answered by each |
of the respondents in the study will be compared in order J
!
to help to explain how socialization and social change j
might have influenced life satisfaction in each of the
groups. It is also important to attempt to separate the
'effects of aging and maturity on how persons perceive
i
(their own levels of satisfaction. It is becoming
j
increasingly obvious that what transpires in the middle
l
(years will set the stage for the later years, and for
'women who can expect a life span well into their eighties,
I
I this stage in life will have great importance (Birren,
!
Kinney, Schaie & Woodruff, 1981). Through an
understanding of how the women in this study compare to
other studies of midlife women, a theoretical basis may
begin to evolve that will aid in projections on how this
enormous cohort will impact societal structures in their j
i
later years.
I
Purpose of the Study
i
The study compared the older and younger participants ,
i
to describe how the various year groups are similar and |
i
different from one another. The comparisons were made by j
(
separating and analyzing the "baby boom" and the pre "baby j
t
boom" cohorts.
Major Questions to be Answered
1. Do "baby boom," college educated, midlife women
experience lower levels of life satisfaction and
anxiety than pre "baby boom" women as measured by the
Salamon-Conte Life Satisfaction Scale and the State
8
Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) (Spielberger et al. ,
1970)?
2. What are the determinants of life satisfaction and
anxiety in the "baby boom" and pre "baby boom" midlife
women?
Hypotheses to be Tested
Note: All measures have been calculated at the .05 level
of significance when applicable.
1. High anxiety in midlife women who are 35 to 55 is
related to a low level of life satisfaction.
2. The "baby boom" women are significantly higher in
i
levels of anxiety than the pre "baby boom" cohort. j
i
i
3. The "baby boom" cohort will experience a lower level j
of life satisfaction than the older group of midlife ^
women.
4. The following demographic variables are positively
| i
associated with life satisfaction: job status, the
i
| presence of children, marriage, extended family,
general health status, culture/ethnicity, political I
activism, and family background. 1
5. The following demographic variables are negatively
associated with life satisfaction: divorce, never |
having been married, the absence of children, and !
responsibility for elderly parents. 1
9
Importance of the Study
The study is important for two reasons. First, it
presents information about the "baby boom" generation who
have recently entered the midlife transition. This newest
cohort of midlife women was socialized during a period of
great national upheaval in which the sexual revolution,
the women's movement, and numerous other societal changes
have occurred. Changes related to these events are not
well understood, nor has their impact on the pivotal
midlife transition been studied. The literature reflects
inconsistency in its treatment of the "baby boom" midlife
women. Some researchers have posited that the younger
cohort of midlife women has achieved a high level of life
satisfaction because of the numerous opportunities
afforded them (Friedan, 1981) (Wheeler, Lee and Loe,
1983). Others report that this cohort is highly stressed
because of the multiple roles cast upon them (Naisbitt,
1982) (Jones, 1981). Secondly, older midlife women have
been negatively portrayed as being highly anxious in
previous research, which may have been biased. Gilligan
(1986) contends that such eminent male researchers as
Piaget, Kohlberg, Erikson, Levinson, and Valliant left
female subjects out of their studies of developmental
theory or concluded that feminine behavior was deviant
according to male behavioral norms. Contemporary feminist
10
writers deny that women are highly anxious and show
deviant behavior (Chodorow, 1978) (Keohane, Rosaldo &
Gelpi, 1981). Investigating evolving behavioral norms
will enable us to determine whether the trend toward
refuting the earlier studies portraying midlife women in a
negative light holds for the "baby boomers." They have I
reportedly experienced self fulfillment, have higher
levels of life satisfaction, but possibly additional
stress and anxiety in their lives due to the multiple
societal roles that they have adopted.
Definition of Terms
Midlife Transitions the portion of the life cycle
between the years 35 and 65 as defined by a consensus of
adult developmental researchers (Sheehy, 197 6). Neugarten
i
(1978) presents with the following parameters: (a)
launching the children from the home (this may be
different for the "baby boom" generation who married later
and postponed child bearing), (b) reaching a peak in one's
occupation, (c) menopause (usually around 45 or 50), (d)
grandparenthood, and in the later middle years (e)
retirement, (f) chronic illness onset, and (g) widowhood.
It is expected that new criteria will emerge from this and
other studies, showing lowered levels of anxiety in
midlife women as a result of adaptation to life stressors
as indicated by Selye (1955).
11
Anxiety: A state that occurs when there is a lowering
of the adaptive responses. When high levels of anxiety
are experienced, problem solving and other activities tend
to become rigid and inflexible (Adams, Hayes & Hopson,
1977). Anxiety is also conceptualized as a transitory
state in which feelings of tension and apprehension are
'present (Spielberger et al., 1970). The STAI will provide
data regarding this variable.
Life Satisfaction: A feeling of well being and
perceived success in one's undertakings. When this occurs
a feeling of self fulfillment is present. This is usually
i
associated with a strong sense of self value and autonomy ■
i
(Krueger, 1984). Data regarding this variable will be j
i
obtained from the Life Satisfaction Scale.
"Baby Boom" Generation: The generation born following \
i
i
World War II, beginning 1946, peaked in 1957, and ended
in 1964. Some 76,441,000 babies were born during these 19
years (Jones, 1981) . The oldest female members who are
now 3 5 to 4 2 are referred to as "baby boom" midlife women
in this study.
Summary
This chapter presented an overview of the study
outlining the background of the problem comparing
experiences of "baby boom" midlife women to their
predecessors in midlife. A theoretical discussion
12
reviewed the existing theories about midlife and related
this least studied life transition to the purpose of the
study. The research questions and the hypotheses
generated by the literature were detailed.
Two major reasons for initiating the study were given
and the assumptions/limitations of the study were
explained. Finally, terms unique to the study were
defined.
Chapter Two will provide the reader with a review of
the emerging literature in support of a more positive
attitude toward women in midlife by providing a conceptual
framework dealing with applicative midlife issues.
Previous and contemporary studies provide comparisons
between the experiences of both the younger and older
cohorts who comprise the generation of midlife women aged
35 to 55.
13
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Issues Facing Contemporary Midlife Women
Introduction
This study involves a comparison between two groups
of midlife women, the "baby boom" and pre "baby boom"
cohorts. This chapter addresses a theoretical discussion
and the major issues confronted by midlife individuals in
the aggregate. The specific experience of the newest
members of this most important life transition is also
included.
Conceptual Framework
The framework of the review of the literature will be
within the parameters of the psychosocial and
developmental aspects of the midlife transition. This
will permit an in-depth examination of how these factors
impact women who have recently entered the midlife cohort
compared to those women who have preceded them in midlife.
Some of the major issues identified in the literature are:
1. The problems of midlife women are only minimally
recognized by society (Cahn, 1978).
2. Negative societal feelings can intensify fear of
aging, health problems, and menopause (Boston Women's
Health Book Collective, 1985).
3. Women in midlife experience a generational pull in
14
which children are making demands on one hand and aged
parents are seeking assistance at the other (Silverstone &
Hyman 1982).
4. The divorce rate for midlife marriages has
increased dramatically. In midlife women, role
transitions caused by divorce or widowhood occur; these
are often accompanied by crises, conflict, and confusion
(Schlossberg and Entine, 1977).
Developmental Theories.
Erikson (1959) characterized the midlife stage as
having the components of basic psychosocial conflicts of
generativity versus self absorption in which raising one's
t
family to young adulthood and interacting with the older
family members and grandchildren become the issues. The
individual in this stage is also expected to extend caring
and concern for the welfare of the community at large.
When these expectations are not fulfilled, the individual
becomes self absorbed and stagnates. Sheehy (1976) has
i
suggested, as has Erikson (1959) , that one must j
i
successfully resolve the conflicts found in each life
stage in order to adapt to the next phase.
i
Gould (1978) suggested that midlife is a time of.
introspection in which the individual looks at the
prospect of his or her own mortality, and finally casts
aside childhood perceptions of wonder about what others
think or do, and focuses on self. Through self discovery,
the individual, according to Gould, is wiser and more
philosophical. However, sickness, divorce, physical
deterioration, reduced circumstances, forced retirement,
the ingratitude of those we love, tragedies, and
disappointments may all take their toll. Gould contends
that these events can be overcome by a strong sense of
self. If these conflicts are not resolved, then
negativity and unhappiness will occur.
Other theorists have also contributed to the body of
knowledge of adult development, but for the purpose of
this study only Erikson and Gould are discussed. Although
Erikson is well respected for his conclusions, Gould
presents a more contemporary conceptualization. Erikson
is mainly family focused and writes under the assumption
that midlife individuals have passed through previous
stages in which they assumed parenting roles. Erikson's
theory, although it provides a framework, is not
appropriate for the contemporary cohort of "baby boom”
midlife women because of their predisposition toward
having fewer children later in life, or choosing not to
have children as the case may be (The New Baby Bloom,
1982). Gould, on the other hand, presents a practical
approach that is applicable. However, it will be
essential to formulate a new developmental and theoretical
16
approach to the midlife transition in order to deal with a
contemporary and dynamic society.
Anxiety and Life Satisfaction
What transpires in midlife encroaches upon feelings
of life satisfaction and levels of anxiety that are
related to stress. Moos (1977) reported that if an
individual1s usual coping mechanisms are impinged upon by
I
life events, tension, strain, anxiety, fear, and guilt may
occur. Individuals who find themselves in a midlife
transition are often faced with high levels of anxiety or
decreased life satisfaction. It is noted by Moos (1977)
that successfully coping with one challenge or transition
i
provides a mechanism for dealing with subsequent
challenges. Therefore, it is possible to conjecture that
as individuals mature, their coping mechanisms allow for
lowered levels of anxiety and stress. How individuals
cope during transitions is an important consideration,
establishing adaptive coping patterns that may benefit
society as a whole.
Davis (1981) writes of negative attribution assigned
to midlife in which individuals expect irreversible
midlife "crises" and losses. In writing of the experience
of midlife women, he uses the example of the loss of one
nurturing role and the projection of an even more
stressful role in nurturing aging parents. There is also
17
a perception of loss of attractiveness as one experiences
wrinkles and other physiological changes. However, these
are only the negative aspects and there are evolving new
directions for women who can now experience a period of
growth and life satisfaction. One can conjecture that the
experience of the midlife "baby boom" women may be quite
divergent from the above because their social patterns
have been so dissimilar.
Birren et al. (1981) posit that how individuals lead
their lives will determine how long they live, and more
important, will determine the quality of their lives.
Accepting responsibility for the their lives is a new
consideration for individuals who must become well versed
both in the process of aging and their own role in
society. Management of stress and anxiety is also a major
concern leading to improved life satisfaction and a longer
life-span. Developmental psychology and its theories can
enhance the prospects for increasing individual potential
and will evolve primarily from social and environmental
i
sources rather than genetics.
Sources and Trends in Achieving Life Satisfaction
Family Trends. Friedan (1963), who earlier wrote in
favor of political activism and women's rights, now
recognizes a return to a new type of traditionalism in
which husband, family, and home are the terms that define
18
contemporary women (Friedan, 1981). Schwartz (1989)
reiterates this trend and defines the participants as
career and family women who want to both pursue their
careers and actively participate in raising their
children. The contemporary midlife woman is finding life
satisfaction within the parameters of traditional values
by including a new perspective.
Traditional lifestyle trends were also echoed by
Naisbitt (1982) who explained that employment and success
in business has, in many instances, given way to marriage
and childbearing decisions as women reach their late
thirties and forties. Contrary to popular conception of
the "baby boom" women being labeled as self sufficient and
independent, the "biological clock" is ticking and these
women are realizing that professional employment
opportunities and advancement in the outside world are not
all-encompassing and fulfilling. As previously stated
"these women want it all" and indicate unhappiness if
these wishes remain unfulfilled.
Marriage and divorce. Scharf (1987) deals with a
contemporary overview of marriage and the changes that
occur over time. Five couples were analyzed by using case
|
study methodology as they dealt with the cyclical tasks i
I
confronting all married couples. An attempt is made to |
carefully describe the architecture in each of the j
19
prototype marriages and its effect on either eventual
divorce or reconciliation. There is an in-depth
discussion of human sexuality with strategies for coming
to terms with dysfunctional behaviors in marriage.
Inability to achieve sexual harmony because of lack of
knowledge is often seen as a major cause of divorce. A
basic understanding of the causes of divorce and how
either resolution or dissolution of the marriage is
effected makes this a definitive handbook for all
individuals who must find their way within the structure
of marriage.
Krantzler (1981) reports that, although the
institution of marriage is still alive and well, there is
a restructuring occurring as roughly four out of five, or
80 percent, of all persons who divorce remarry. Serial
marriages are becoming a recognized entity, and there are
over 96 million persons currently married in the United
States today. Of these marriages about two-thirds are
currently first marriages. The notion of family
solidarity is in evidence, albeit in a revised
formulation.
Livson (1977) also noted that the institution of
marriage in the United States and in other developed parts
of the world has changed drastically over the past twenty
years. Although it is reported that most divorces occur
20
in the first years of marriage, a sharp increase has been
seen in midlife divorces. Knox (1977) wrote that the
secondary peak for divorce occurs when couples are between
their mid thirties and forties.
Russianoff (1981) offered a philosophical explanation
for the increasing divorce rates. She equates their
incidence to the women1s movement and applauds women's
freedom to make choices toward personal growth and
fulfillment that are now acceptable in today's society.
She reminds us that the term "displaced homemakers" has
new meaning in light of the high divorce rates among
middle aged women. Many older women in midlife who have
forgone education and careers have found themselves in
severe economic straits following divorce. The resulting
turmoil in a divorced woman's life can lead to midlife
crisis, and interventions such as re-entry programs for
women are essential for survival in contemporary society.
McConnell and Anderson (1978) reported that three out
of four women will find themselves suddenly alone either
through divorce or widowhood and many of these will be
midlife women. They describe a self help approach based
on interviews and questionnaires with over 500 widowed or
divorced persons. Some of the topics presented were; how
to overcome the emotional distress and rebuild a new life,
meeting new people, how to handle money, job finding, and
21
how to deal with family members.
Rubin (1979) who has probably written the most
definitive study on midlife women addresses the subject of
divorce in a most succinct and rational manner. She
states, as have others, that divorce at midlife for many
women has meant going from rich to poor, from living in
comfort to living in deprivation, and from companionship
to loneliness. For those over 40 who wish to remarry, it
is more difficult because most men in midlife prefer
younger women. Most women who become divorced adjust to
their new lives following the initial shock. Friendships
also take a new turn for divorcees who are seen as a
threat to their still-married friends. Eventually, when
adaptation occurs these women will be free to enjoy new
alliances, interests, and autonomy. However, it should be
taken into account that adaptation and other strategies
may suffice for the younger midlife woman who1 is more well
educated, has a career, and is already self sufficient.
Employment and family roles. Still another
perspective is presented by Schwartz (1989) who admonishes
industry to assure retention of career and family women by
providing flexibility in the work place. To protect their
newly recognized asset, industry is advised to initiate
alternate work schedules, job sharing, time off for
maternity leave, child care, and freedom to work at home
22
whenever possible. In addition, the new demographics are
cited showing a 40-percent decline in the birth rate over
the past sixteen years, resulting in fewer workers
available to meet the needs of an ever-expanding economy.
Thus, the demand for well educated, creative workers will
increasingly include women. This study confirms the fact
that child bearing and rearing are significant factors in
one's sense of well-being and must be taken into
consideration for those women who are participating in
ever-expanding numbers in the work force.
In opposition are the findings of McKinlay and
McKinlay (1986) who found that 39 percent of Massachusetts
women reported that children were a major cause of stress
in their lives. An explanation for this discrepancy may
be age since there were only 45 to 55 year old women in
the five-year study and these women might have been
experiencing stress in dealing with adolescent children.
i
There were no participants from the "baby boom" generation
and distinctly different background variables such as
educational factors and geographic location were also
noted.
Sometimes midlife marriages need to be re-negotiated
when midlife women reenter the work force and roles need
to be readjusted. Rubin (1978) found marital
dissatisfaction when this did not occur. Additional
23
in-depth cohort studies conducted on women who have always
worked and those who have recently returned to the work
force will help to define and explore this theory.
Satisfaction for women in the work place. Wheeler,
Lee, and Loe (1983) compared the satisfaction of women who
work to those who do not. Data about utilization of
professional health care services by the women in the
survey were also studied. The researchers embarked upon
the study because of the changing roles of women in
entering the work force and the lack of evidence on the
health of employed women. The study was based on a
national probability sample using data from the National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey of 1971-1975
(NHANES). The researchers proposed the study to determine
the effect of women's employment on their sense of
well-being and their use of professional health services.
The methodology was to obtain data from the NHANES, which
was conducted by the National Center for Health
Statistics. The General Well-Being schedule (GWB) was
administered to a subsample of 6,913 adults aged 24-74
from the NHANES survey to obtain a complete assessment of
the health and well-being of the adult population. The
study concluded that non-employed women were higher in
moderate or severe distress than employed women. The two
groups did not differ on life satisfaction, energy level
24
depression, or tension. The overall use of professional
health services was slightly higher for the non-employed
who also used the services of social workers more often.
The sense of lower well-being in both groups was higher in
non-whites than whites, and married women were higher in
sense of well-being than non-married women. Women with
dependent children and less educated women in both groups
were also lower in sense of well-being. On the whole,
women who were employed enjoyed a slightly higher sense of
well-being than those who were not. The researchers
contended that previous research showing that employed
women tend to have role conflicts and increased levels of
stress is not generally supported by this research.
The study (NAHANES) has several implications with
regard to midlife women who, following child rearing, in
large numbers have sought employment outside the home.
Satisfaction with new roles rendered these women healthy
mentally and physically.
Employment to increase household income. The
McKinlay Study (1986) conducted over a period of three
years on 2,500 Massachusetts midlife women, aged 45 to 55
reviewed many aspects of their lives, including the
I
influence of working outside the home. The researchers,
who were sponsored by the National Institute on Aging, i
l
National Institutes of Health, concluded that two thirds j
25
of the women in the study worked outside the home. Half
of the women worked in sales, clerical, or service jobs.
The remainder were employed in professional or managerial
positions. All of the women who worked stated the
important reasons for working were money and interest in
their work. Those who were not employed outside the home
were equally as healthy as those who worked except for the
one third unemployed who said they did not work for health
reasons. Several other aspects of the study will be
discussed in following sections of this paper.
Jones (1980) recalled that the "baby boom" cohort
solved the problem of not being able to reach the
financial success achieved by their parents through
alternate means such as dual career families, postponement
of marriage, and postponement of child rearing until these
expectations could be reached. "Baby boomers" are seen as
consumers of the first order and enjoy enormous financial
power as they engage in "testing new high technology, new
fads, new drugs, new morality and even new ideas about
marriage and children" (p. 387).
Motherhood in midlife. Rubin (1979) has disproved j
the myth of the "empty nest" and reports that, contrary to j
popular belief, midlife women are for the most part
relieved when their children finally leave home, allowing
the midlife woman time to pursue her own interests.
26
However, McKinley (1986) reports that when adult children
return home following their own divorce or difficulty with
financial resources, an emerging source of conflict in
midlife motherhood is reborn.
It can be expected that by the time children reach
young adulthood, most of the adolescent conflict is
resolved as new alliances and friendships are formed.
With less dependency on parents there is recognition that
the children can now function autonomously and
independently. It is also the task for the midlife mother
to allow this transition to occur by backing off, and
allowing this separation to occur in her now adult
children (Cohler & Grunebaum, 1981).
Jones (1981) reported on a relatively new phenomenon
specific to the "baby boom" cohort of midlife women. For
these women marriage is postponed at least eighteen months
later than their predecessors. The resultant later child
bearing has given this cohort of women the lowest birth
rate of any in history. The trend toward delaying
parenthood following marriage is also commonplace as the
"baby boom" couple continue to perceive the need for a
two-career family, often in order to attain funding for
down payment on a family home or other indicators of
affluence. Noteworthy also is the inclination for many
married couples to remain childless throughout the
27
marriage. When childbearing does occur, the family size
averages two children as compared to three previously.
Some of this is attributed to biology accompanying later
parenting and the wish for smaller families in order for
women to continue in satisfying careers outside the home.
Implications of this experience are far reaching. Smaller
families, sometimes referred to the "baby bust," reduces
the number of workers and future tax payers in a society
that has increasing need and demand for both.
Developmentally, the tasks reported previously for midlife
individuals may be radically different for this newest
cohort.
Over extended midlife children. Cohen and Gans have
have demonstrated a sensitivity for the plight of middle
aged men and women whom they contend are overlooked and
poorly supported in their attempt to deal with the issues
concerning their aging parents (1978). This is the first
generation in history that has to deal with the increased
longevity of their aging parents. The authors state that
the traditional definitions of adult children*s ;
responsibilities toward their aging parents no longer
suffice and are outmoded and inadequate. It is probably
in the best interest of the elderly parent to stay
independent as long as possible. Because the midlife
individual has to cope with the other stressors present
28
during this major life transition, focusing only on the
aging parent can be hazardous to the health of an adult
child. Coping mechanisms and understanding of the aging
process is essential for adequate adaptation to the
changes and losses occurring in the lives of aging
individuals.
As the elderly population swells, new solutions will
be found based on the experiences of this present elderly
cohort. Midlife children are warned not to try to "do it
all," but rather to seek assistance from community support
in dealing with their aging parents.
Health issues confronting midlife women. The health
status of women has improved dramatically during the
twentieth century. In spite of the fact that American
women can expect to outlive men, they generally experience
the same health problems that account for male mortality.
Included in the list of most prevalent disease entities
are cardiovascular disease and cancer, which are the
number one and two leading causes of death for both sexes
and are often related to stressful lifestyles. Other
conditions that may effect the health of midlife women are
related to the normal aging process and include menopause,
osteoporosis, and estrogen replacement therapy, all of
which are explicated by Greenwood (1984). A major thrust
for much of the literature on women's health is that women
29
should practice healthy lifestyles and become well
informed consumers of their own health care (Mendelshon,
1981). Health as a specific issue was not addressed in
this study but it was implied in the measurement of life
satisfaction, anxiety, and in some of the questions in the
demographic survey.
The "Baby Boom'1 Generation
Naisbitt (1982) writes that the "baby boomers" were
forced to cope with their own sheer numbers in entering
the educational and job markets. This generation
overwhelmed every institution with which they came in
contact and were likened to a "pig in a python." Job
market competition and vying for limited spaces inspired
this generation to promote themselves and become
increasingly entrepreneurial in seeking their place in
society. Independence and the self help movement were the
themes of this birth cohort as they searched for
happiness. As a result, the "baby boomers" were labeled
the "me generation." They wanted the best of everything
and were used to instant gratification (Jones, 1980).
The Vietnam Generation is the terminology used in a
recent study conducted by the Center for the Study of the
Vietnam Generation (Enduring Legacies, 1987) to describe
the 60 million men and women who were age 3 5 to 52 in
1987, and who came of age during the turbulent sixties,
30
the largest portion of whom are also referred to as "the
baby boom generation." The Vietnam generation was studied
to determine the impact of the events that occurred during
the years between 1963, with the assassination of John F.
Kennedy, and 1972, with the second inauguration of Richard
M. Nixon. During these years occurred the civil rights
movement, Vietnam War, anti-war protests, women's
movement, establishment of the Peace Corps, sexual
revolution, explosion of the drug and rock cultures,
assassinations of John and Robert Kennedy and Martin
Luther King, Jr. (Enduring Legacies, 1987). The study
encompassed 954 individuals from both a younger "baby
boom" group and an older group both, of whom were active
participants in the events of the era. Two thousand
surveys were mailed to a selected sample of individuals
who had previously shown interest in the project. A
43-percent rate of return was realized. These individuals
who answered a ten page survey are now maturing into
stewardship and leadership roles in society.
Some of the characteristics attributed to this group,
according to Enduring Legacies (1987), as it is now
entering the midlife transition are listed here:
1. Moderate to conservative on economic issues.
2. Idealistic and proponents of social justice, somewhat
anti-establishment.
31
3. Social and political activists.
4. Increasing participants in the corporate world.
5. Shifting values with regard to self-fulfillment and
an acceptance of diversity, especially in regard to
sexuality.
6. Increasing numbers of women in the work-place;
married and with young children (a double day for
women this category).
7. Users of high tech in the home and office.
The results of the study expressed a feeling of hope
in the future for a better, safer, more liveable world and
the determination to make it happen. The respondents
appeared to be more spiritual than organized in their
religious beliefs and felt that the most important issue
was honest leadership. The threat of AIDS looms larger
than that of nuclear war. The effects of a decline in
moral values is seen to be a large cause of the stress and
alienation in society. Many who responded believed that
during their midlife transition they were moving away from
the stigma of a "me generation" to an increase in social
awareness and active participation in making the earth a
more healthy place for all living beings (Enduring
i
Legacies, 1987) .
Jones (1981) chronicled the "baby boom" generation !
t
before it became middle aged. His is a view of a troubled
32
and more hedonistic "me generation." Society is portrayed
as sick, with a rise in suicide, drug and alcohol abuse,
and the emergence of the self help movement in which
everyone is obsessively searching for individual
happiness. This generation was seen as having lost
confidence in itself and the country as a whole. The
"baby boomers," according to the author, were off to an
auspicious beginning having been offered the best of
everything because of an increasingly affluent society.
What went wrong is linked to the enormous size of the
cohort. This led to a lifetime of stress and competition
i
for these individuals who found that they could not equal I
i
the living standards of their parents. A breakdown in the
family system with the rise of divorce in the parents of
the "baby boomers" also resulted in their disillusionment.
Again, the question of a lack of leadership or direction
for the country following the assassination of President
Kennedy also led to the unhappiness experienced by the
generation.
The future has been and will continue to be shaped by
this gargantuan cohort. As this group shifts into
retirement age all government systems will become strained
if no solutions are found to assure the integrity of the
social security system. Having had so many educational
advantages, this cohort will stand in good stead as they
33
are expected to practice healthier lifestyles and have
been the recipients of burgeoning medical technological
advances.
Jones (1981) ends on positive note as he enumerates
what he perceives as the positive effects of the "baby
boomers."
1. Increasing tolerance for a broad range of
non-traditional lifestyles.
2. Increasing tolerance for minorities, integration, and
enhanced opportunity for these groups.
3. Questioning of authority and societal institutions,
resulting in reform or decline depending on the j
perspective. I
i
i
4. Women's rights and higher levels of education and ,
l
employment.
Jones concludes that, although the great expectations
set for this cohort have become somewhat tarnished, there
is still embodied in the cohort a will to survive and to
succeed in finding their place in the world. It should be
noted that this study occurred before the study on the
Vietnam Generation and that many of the issues have since
been mitigated as the generation transits into the middle
years.
Conclusions of the Literature Review
The following conclusions are presented.
34
1. Midlife is a crucial time in the life cycle of a
woman. The events that occur in the middle years can have
serious implications and will set the tone for the later
transitions in the life cycle (Davis, 1981). Midlife
study is more important today than ever before because
midlife individuals comprise the largest population
segment in America today.
2. Many theorists have hypothesized about the
characteristics and tasks of midlife (Lowenthal, Thurner,
Chiriboga, 1976) (Erikson, 1959 and others), but they do
not seem appropriate in contemporary society in light of
i
the societal upheaval that occurred in part as a result of I
the impact of enormous numbers of individuals who comprise j
i
the "baby boom" generation. ;
i
3. There have been innumerable studies of children !
i
I
and the elderly, but few noteworthy empirical studies of |
i
the midlife transition, .especially of women, have been!
I
undertaken. j
4. As a group, those in the middle years are j
inherently different to those in previous generations who I
|
passed through this transition. This present group is j
i
more socially aware, well educated and more affluent than I
those who came before them. This more articulate group
will demand and receive increased services and will
probably work longer and be more involved in social action
35
than ever before (Cohen & Gans, 1978). Many will pursue
life-long learning and activities that are stimulating and
meaningful. Many will have changing and varied careers.
Because of the high divorce rates, multiple marriages are
foreseen. Due to the lengthening of the life-span and
greater longevity, it is projected that there will be an
increase in multigenerational families with a resultant
growth in family responsibility and greater stress for the
generation in the middle.
5. Divorce is a real concern and is likely to occur
in the lives of contemporary midlife women.
6. High anxiety levels and stress may not be present
in midlife women as previously thought.
7. Because midlife often heralds the onset of
chronic illness, health practices and interventions will
need to be geared toward health promotion and prevention
of illness.
8. Self-fulfilling negative attributions about the
menopause and other midlife health issues need to be
overcome through education and increased sensitivity.
9. Women need to be more assertive and informed when
dealing with the medical profession.
10. Unhealthy lifestyles and not being well informed
consumers has a deleterious effect on the health of
midlife women who must take responsibility for enhancing
36
their own potential.
11. The "baby boom" generation of women in midlife
i
| now aged 35 to 42 is theorized to be different in many
4
j aspects than those midlife women who proceeded them,
j Most of the above generalized about the issues that
! confront most midlife women. Some were derived from
studies that did not include the cohort of women who have
I just recently entered the midlife ranks. Additional
i
issues that are relevant to the "baby boom" generation j
were also clarified.
Summary
The problem addressed in this chapter was to present J
I
a theoretical discussion of the general issues in midlife !
and then to illustrate how socialization has influenced
trends toward enhancing or lessening life satisfaction and
increasing or decreasing anxiety. A comparison between
i
the "baby boom generation and their older cohorts in
midlife has been generated in response to the key factors
i
influencing the contemporary experience. It is suggested j
that this life transition has been the least studied of I
i
all of the life transitions in spite of the fact that it
is a pivotal transitional stage in the lives of both men
and women.
CHAPTER THREE
METHOD
Introduction
The previous chapter addressed the literature that
determined the research questions and assisted in
formulating the empirical measurement structure for the
jstudy. All of the measures listed below will assist in an
increased understanding of how the "baby boom" cohort of
midlife women is different from or similar to those
midlife women in the generation that preceded them. In
this chapter there will be a discussion of the sample and
how it originated and the return rate. An explanation of
all of the measurements for each of the variables and the
procedures for data collection and treatment will follow.
Finally there is an explanation of post-hoc measurement.
Population of Interest and the Sample
Sample survey methodology was used in which the
population to which the findings were generalized was a
stratified random sample of college-educated midlife women
who were born immediately following World War II. These
women are currently entering the midlife stage in the life
cycle and are now between the ages of 35 and 42. j
Additionally, the sample contains pre "baby boom" midlife j
women (aged 4 3 to 55) for the purpose of comparing j
individuals and year groups.
38
A sample of midlife women who are aged 3 5 to 55 were
selected randomly from the roster of graduates of one
Southern California University. Female graduates from the
graduating classes between 1975 and 1955 who are aged 35
to 55 were selected. The Office of Alumni Affairs of the
University generated the random sample from their database
using a random-number generating computer program. The
pre "baby boom" group were from the classes between 1955
and 1969 while the "baby boomers" were from the classes
between 1968 and 1975.
"Baby Boomers" Pre "Baby Boomers"
Class App.Age Birth Yr. Class App.Age Birth Yr.
1975 35 1953 1967 43 1945
1974 37 1952 1966 44 1944
1973 37 1951 1965 45 1943
1972 38 1950 1964 46 1942
1971 39 1949 1963 47 1941
1970 40 1948 1962 48 1940
1969 41 1947 1961 49 1939
1968 42 1946 1960 50 1938
1959 51 1937
1958 52 1936
1957 53 1935
1956 54 1934
1955 55 1933
39
A total of 21 graduating year groups were surveyed. There
were 13 0 randomly selected subjects (273 0 individuals)
from each of the year groups who were invited to
participate in the study. Each of the subjects received a
jmailed packet containing a cover letter, the State Trait
Anxiety Inventory (STAI), the Salamon-Conte Life
i
Satisfaction Scale (LSS), and a demographic variable
I
questionnaire (Appendices A, B, C, D). These university
alumna were selected so that data collected at this point
in time is compared to previously reported experiences of
i
other midlife women. Studies such as a report on Women's j
Health issued by the New England Research Center and j
others compare favorably and validate the findings in this
study. A projected and expected response rate, based on j
other studies, was close to thirty percent and was
considered sufficient to analyze several of the variables
I !
simultaneously. In fact, the actual rate of return in i
this study is in excess of forty-one percent and is j
discussed in greater detail later in this chapter. Babbie I
f
i
(1986) suggests that a review of survey literature will |
i
yield a variety of return rates, but cautions that a poor
irate of response is likely to add bias to any study.
i !
I
The University of Interest
The following information was compiled from the
university catalogue for 1988-1989. The university, a
40
well recognized private institution in a large
metropolitan area in Southern California, was founded in
1880, and is among the top ten private research
institutions in the United States. This has been the case
for the past ten years and this rating is based on federal
research and development support. Furthermore, it is
among the top twenty among all universities in the United
States.
Degrees are offered in 189 fields of study and there
are 21 professional schools in addition to the central
College of Letters, Arts and Sciences. Students who
attend the university reflect the population of
California, the remainder of the United States, and the
international community. Financial aid is a fact of life
at this private university, with well over half of all
students receiving some form of aid.
There is strong alumni support with many second and
third generation families among the alumni rolls. An
exceptionally strong support network is also in evidence
in the business and civic communities. Worldwide
attention focused on the university during the 1984
Olympic Games and resulted in $10 million worth of
improvements to the campus including a new Olympic swim
stadium.
41
Other Research Questions
lm. What is the level of life satisfaction with regard to
the stated lifestyle variables such as marital status,
work role, and family income reported by the cohorts
of the "baby boom" and pre "baby boom" midlife women?
2m. What is the relationship between life satisfaction and
anxiety between each of the year groups and within
three designated cohort year groups (35, 45, and 55)?
3m. What is the relationship between present socioeconomic
status (SES) and life satisfaction?
4m. What is the level of family solidarity (or divorce)
with regard to self-reported life satisfaction?
5m. What is the level of parental influence indicated by
the various groups of midlife women?
6m. What proportion of the "baby boom" women work for i
wages outside the home?
7m. What proportion of the pre "baby boom" women work for !
wages outside the home? 1
i
i
8m. Do the women in the sample experience a high level of |
i
work satisfaction if they work for wages outside the
home?
Description of the Variables
The major research questions sought to answer whether
age was a factor in determining life satisfaction and
anxiety. Subsequent to this, a series of other research
42
questions were generated by the literature and
operationalized by the demographic survey. For the
purpose of clarity they will be referred to as lm, 2m, and
so forth, when the variables are described and illustrated
below.
The demographic, life satisfaction, and anxiety
variables were cross tabulated for each of the groups and
the results were compared. Some examples and the research
question that each variable addressed are illustrated
below.
Explanation: I.V.= Independent Variable
SES= Socioeconomic Status
D.V.= Dependent Variable
Source Variable
Anxiety (I.V.)
Life Sat.(D.V.)
Lifestyle (I.V.)
Life Sat. (I.V.)
Anxiety (D.V.)
Present SES (I.V.)
Life Sat. (D.V.)
Lifestyle (I.V.)
(Family Solidarity)
STAI
LSS
Demo.
Survey
LSS
STAI
Demo.
Survey
LSS
Demo.
Survey
Level of
Measurement
Interval/
Nominal
Ordinal
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval/
Nominal
Ordinal
Ques
2
2, lm
1, 2m
2, 3m
Nominal 2 , 4m
43
Life Sat. (D.V.)
Parent. Infl. (I.V.)
Employment (D.V.)
Age (I.V.)
Life Sat.(D.V.)
Age (I.V.)
Anxiety (D.V.)
LSS
Demo.
Survey
Ordinal
Nominal
LSS
Demo.
Survey
STAI
Ordinal
Nominal
Interval/
Nominal
2, 5m
1, 6m
7m, 8m
1, 2
8m
1, 2m
Raw scores for levels of anxiety, measured by the
STAI, were ultimately scaled high, medium, and low. Raw
scores for life satisfaction were also scaled high, medium
and low, and were measured by the LSS.
The demographic questionnaire addressed the following
categories and was based on the questions generated by the
theories set forth in the literature on midlife women.
These data were compressed, quantified, and coded
(Appendix E) to facilitate easier management of the
analysis.
Background
An explanation about the rationale for the selection
of each of the variables will follow.
Race. Rationale: To explore how minority individuals
might differ from the majority and to formulate a cultural
perspective on each of the individuals. Life satisfaction
44
and anxiety were also expected to be affected by this
variable. A question of income level is also related to
ethnicity. Horowitz-Lefkowitz (1984) speaks to increased
i
j educational opportunities for women, including minority
i
women and Jones (1981) addresses a greater tolerance for
minorities among the "baby boom" generation. These
factors would suggest an increase in the numbers of
minorities among the "baby boom" women in this study.
Stress among minority groups is another component of this
question and is addressed in Enduring Legacies (1987).
Religious preference. Rationale: To understand
whether religious beliefs and practice equated with life
satisfaction and low levels of anxiety. In addition,
religious trends were explored. The question of how
religion affects the cohorts in question is addressed in
Enduring Legacies (1987) and is reflective of a return to
God and organized religion. The "baby boom" generation is
I
seen as becoming increasingly conservative in all aspects |
j !
j of life as they become reflective and search for life*s
j meaning. In addition, White (1986) reports on a national
trend of charitable behavior substantiated by an increase |
j
in volunteerism and charitable contributions. I
i
Urban, suburban, rural. Rationale: A purely |
demographic question to determine the diversity of the
sample.
45 :
Marital status. Rationale: Measures of marital
status were expected to relate to life satisfaction and
were also instrumental identifying trends and societal
changes. Krantzler (1981) and others suggest a return to
the traditional values of marriage and family, and it was
projected that this sample would espouse those values as
well. New norms are emerging as many women are opting for
a combination of homemaking and employment outside the
home. The question of whether this will lead to a more
stressful lifestyle or whether it will equate with
increased life satisfaction is relevant for the cohort of
midlife women in this study. i
Level of education. Rationale: Based on the ;
literature, it was expected that trend for the "baby boom" |
women to experience increased educational opportunities
would hold. This also permitted comparison to the pre
"baby boom" sample. The price of expanded opportunities
in education and the resultant high power career choices
may prove to be a liability for some "baby boom" midlife
women. These women may find themselves facing the limits !
of the biological clock without the self-perceived j
fulfillment of marriage and children. Friedan (1981) has j
i
noted this apparent subtle change in values among the j
I
I
"baby boom" generation of women. For many in the older
cohorts a more traditional lifestyle was the only option,
46
as they were socialized (Rubin, 1979).
J Spouse/ partner employment status. Rationale: This
was important in discovering trends about work history and
role sharing and to compare the experiences of each the
Lge groups. All of these factors were expected to relate
to life satisfaction and anxiety in a mostly positive
|
manner except when there was a role overload or
^dissatisfaction in the workplace. Other factors such as
the societal trend toward a huge increase in the numbers
of women in the work force is also an issue addressed by
Schwartz (1989). Most of the college educated women noted
in her research have chosen to "have it all," suggestive
of marriage and children in conjunction with a successful
career. Admonition is made to industry to be cognizant of
this valuable resource and to provide support for working
women. On the home front two-income families are the
norm, but most studies show that the male spouse is not
participating in household chores in an equitable manner.
It remains to be seen whether there is perceived stress
and anxiety with lower life satisfaction as a result.
Children: y/n. Rationale: Based on the literature,
child rearing was expected to be different for each of the
groups and it was explored to examine emerging trends and
its effect on measures of life satisfaction and anxiety.
The option, as a result of the birth control pill, to
47
choose to bear children is a relatively new phenomenon for
many "baby boom" women. Many are choosing to bear
children, albeit the trend appears to be for smaller
jfamilies and childbearing later in life than their
predecessors (The New Baby Bloom, 1982). McKinlay and
McKinlay (1986) reported that older midlife women in their
jstudy reported high stress when adult children returned
home following divorce or for economic reasons. This is
probably not an issue for women with younger families.
•However, because of the increase in blended families
following divorce, even younger women may face this
dilemma as step-parents.
Assistance with child care. Rationale: Extended
family assisted in child rearing previously, but currently
the literature disputes this. New trends are developing j
and are related to marital status, late child bearing, and \
a mobile society.
Present SES
Employment: pleasurable, status. Rationale: This may
be an instance where age becomes the discriminating
factor. The oldest women in the study may have "retired"
from the work force or may have decided not to work
because their household income is sufficient. Many of the
women in this older group may also be more apt to harbor a
more traditional viewpoint of homemaking and volunteerism
48
rather than employment outside the home. The younger
j women in the study are expected to be involved in less
j traditional professions because they encountered greater
!opportunities than their predecessors.
Household income. Rationale: The literature suggests
that the "baby boom" generation were raised in more
affluent surroundings than their predecessors and were
changing many societal structures in the process. It was
of interest to know if this sample was better off
financially than their predecessors and whether this
equated with life satisfaction and level of anxiety.
i
Financial status compared to parents. Rationale: As i
in the variable above it was also of interest to -
understand whether the "baby boom" women perceive that
they were better off than their parents. The older cohort !
i
was expected to be ahead of their parents in financial I
gain because they came of age during a period of less j
affluence and they, or their spouses, are in their prime ;
earning years.
Miscellaneous Variables !
Volunteer activities. Rationale: So much has been
l
attributed to the "me generation," the "baby boomers,"
that it was of interest to know whether this group was
! indeed hedonistic and uncaring, how they compared to their j
i
predecessors, and whether helping others made them happy j
49
and satisfied.
Political preference. Rationale: Questions 37 and 38
in the demographic survey were based on the General Social
Survey (1972-1987) and this sample will be compared to the
■national survey sample for possible generalization to this
Lample). Active participation in the political system is
seen as a relevant variable because some individuals in
the "baby boom" generation dropped out of the mainstream
of society in protest of existing social values as they
reached their twenties (Lewin & Spates, 1970).
Elderly parents demands. Rationale: The literature
suggests that midlife children are usually expected to
assist their elderly parents as they become infirm
(Silverstone & Hyman, 1982) . However, for many of the
older members in the sample, this may not be an issue
since many of their parents may be deceased and their
children grown.
Physical health and regular exercise. Rationale:
General health status is equated with life satisfaction,
was measured with the life satisfaction scale, and was
implied in the exercise question on the demographic
survey. This facilitated measurement of current trends
toward increased health promotion. Jones (1981) speaks of
a cohort of "baby boomers" who sought self-help and
healing following the early years of upheaval and turmoil.
50
An expansion of participation in physical exercise was a
Lirect result of this. Secondly, the high cost of medical
Jcare and the new emphasis on responsibility for one's own
well being (Birren et al., 1981) is influencing this
variable in all age groups.
Procedures for Data Collection
Prior to the implementation of the study, a proposal was
submitted to the University Guidance Committee for
approval. The proposal was submitted and subsequently
approved by the University Human Rights Committee. The
Office of Alumni Affairs was also presented with a copy of
the proposal and a sample packet of the survey. Following
this, a meeting was arranged with the Vice President for
Alumni Affairs. She gave her approval and support for the
project and agreed that her office would generate a random
sample of 13 0 individuals in each of the 21 requested
graduating year groups. In addition, it was agreed that
three sets of mailing labels would be supplied for each of
the female graduates randomly selected to be in the
sample. The Alumni Affairs Office reviewed the
demographic survey and requested the addition of questions
regarding the volunteer activity of those alumna in the
sample. Because of the expressed interest by the
University, a full report will be made available to the J
Alumni Association when the study is completed.
51
With the final approval of the Guidance and Human
Rightfs Committees, and with the assistance of the Office
of Alumni Affairs, the process of assembling the materials
for the mailing was begun. Included in each packet in the
following order was a cover letter (Appendix D) , a
demographic survey (Appendix C), an anxiety inventory
i
(Appendix A), and a life satisfaction scale (Appendix B).
Three thousand State Trait Anxiety Inventories (STAI) and
three thousand Salamon-Conte Life Satisfaction in the
Elderly Scales were ordered from their respective 1
I
publishers, Consulting Psychologists in Palo Alto,
California and Psychological Assessment Resources in
Odessa, Florida. A self-addressed, first-class, stamped
envelope was included with instructions for the recipient j
to return the completed survey within four weeks. An
in-depth discussion about the mailing procedures is found
i
in Appendix F.
Treatment of the Data and Response Rate
The data source is the response from the mailed
questionnaires. The mailing to the 2,730 randomly
selected midlife women from 21 graduating classes of a
Southern California university yielded 1,100 responses
from California and numerous other states. The response
from each of the artificially divided age groups was
relatively constant. Age Group 1 (ages 35 to 42)
52
consisted of 326 "baby boom" women. Age Group 2 (ages 4 3
to 48) encompassed 292 pre "baby boom" mid-midlife women,
jand Age Group 3 (ages 49 to 55) presented with 344 older
pre "baby boom" midlife women. There were 159 returns
from out of state and the remainder were from the state of
California. Some 33 surveys were returned by the postal
service with no forwarding address. This constituted a
return rate of 41 percent. However, 108 of the returned
surveys were ineligible because the respondents were not
within the age parameters set for the study. In all there
were 992 eligible subjects whose responses were included
in the final analysis.
The STAI and the LSS are pre-coded and quantified and
have been pre-tested for reliability and validity. All
nominal variables in the demographic survey were converted
to numerical values and coded appropriately (Appendix E).
In the case of ordinal data, the rank orders were coded
from high to low for ease of interpretation. When all of
the data were collected, they were entered into the
computer using the Crunch Statistical Package (1987).
This computer program has been designed to free the
researcher from the mechanics of the analysis, while
encouraging examination of the data from different
perspectives. Means, frequencies, standard deviations,
and cross tabulation are only a sample of the capability
53
I
>
of the program. Analysis of variance described the
I
i
differences between the older and younger cohorts in the
I
sample. The data served to help to explain phenomena, but
no causal model is tested. The measures also served to
i
identify subcases to investigate further, summarize, and
!
draw conclusions about similarities and differences
between the groups.
All of the variables were analyzed initially by
computing means and obtaining a correlation coefficient to
determine differences and similarities between the groups.
Analysis of variance was conducted on relevant independent
variables to determine with statistical significance their
effect on the three major dependent variables of anxiety
state, anxiety trait, and life satisfaction. In addition,
a linear regression analysis was plotted on appropriate
data. Some of the variables were cross tabulated for
frequencies and percentages, and in some instances bar
graphs were used to illustrate percentage variation.
The Instruments
The Anxiety Inventory
Before 1950 there was little empirical research on
the subject of anxiety, resulting in a lack of effective (
I
instruments that could adequately measure levels of j
i
. . . i
anxiety. Spielberger (1983) elaborated on the initial ;
i
work on anxiety first presented by Cattell (19 66) and he
54
i
!
•first developed the State Trait Anxiety Inventory in 1970.
i i
Since then numerous refinements to the original instrument j
have been rendered based on research using normal adult
and adolescent populations. Each revision has served to
develop a more pure measure of anxiety, which deleted any
| i
reference to depression. An effort was also made to have |
!
a more universally acceptable format that would relate to i
j
individuals with lower levels of education. The j
i
self-reporting scale has been utilized in over 2,000 j
i
studies and printed in 3 0 languages, and has become a well
^respected measure of anxiety in many settings. j
Normative data suppled with the instrument are i
I
i
reflective mainly of trait anxiety, which is highly
correlated to anxiety state. Samples consisting of |
working adults, college students, high school students, |
and military recruits created the norms for trait anxiety. 1
State anxiety norms were validated using samples of j
I
general medical and surgical patients, young prisoners, j
j i
|and neuropsychiatric patients. The authors acknowledge I
i
that, while the sampling is not representative, it is 1
I
comparable to scores reported by other researchers who j
jused the STAI. One such study was conducted on 1,838 \
i
i . . . . .
jemployees of the Federal Aviation Administration
(Spielberger et al., 1983).
The STAI is based on the premise that an emotional
55
state exists at a given moment in time and at a particular
level of interest. Anxiety states are characterized by j
I i
"subjective feelings of tension, apprehension, j
i
nervousness, worry, and by activation or arousal of the
autonomic nervous system" (Spielberger et al., 1983, p.
*1) . There are two parts to the instrument. The state
anxiety reflects transitory feelings of worry and
apprehension. The trait anxiety portion reflects the
personality trait itself, which is enduring in dealing
with all anxiety provoking situations. A strong or high
anxiety trait score is predictive of how an individual
will experience state anxiety during a threatening
situation. In addition, the trait measurement has also
been effective in measuring depression, which is sometimes
^attributed to women in the midlife transition.
Clear instructions were printed on both sides of the
one-page test, and individuals were asked to describe the
frequency and the intensity of how they generally feel and
how they feel at a particular moment in time. The test
takes roughly 15 minutes to complete and scoring is based
i
on a weighted scale of 1 through 4. Scoring weights for
anxiety present questions such as "I feel upset" are the
same as the numbers on the test. Weights are reversed in
"anxiety absent" questions such as "I feel calm" (Appendix
A) . A scoring key was used and each of the returned
56
surveys was scored by hand. The raw score for each of the
parts of the instrument has a range from 2 0 to 80.
I
Life Satisfaction Scale
A measure of life satisfaction, which is a
representative measure of well being, is found in the
Salamon-Conte Life Satisfaction in the Elderly Scale
(1984) . The LSS was developed based on the existing
'literature in the field, most notably the work of
Neugarten, Havighurst and Tobin (1961). Their work is
reflective of successful aging with clearly defined life
[satisfaction constructs such as pleasure in daily
activities, having a meaningful life, achievement of 1
|
goals, a positive outlook on life, and a high level of
self concept. However, this earlier work presented with '
j
very little reliability and validation data. ;
i
Salamon-Conte (1984) posited that more than the original i
five constructs were necessary to adequately assess life j
satisfaction. To that end they developed the LSS, which ]
incorporated all of the previously suggested constructs
(Neugarten et al., 1961) and added the three additional
I
constructs of health, finances, and social contacts. (
i
The items are presented in a Likert format with a j
range of 1 through 5. The self evaluating pencil test
consists of 40 questions in which five questions were J
generated for each of the eight constructs. A high score
57
Indicates high life satisfaction, while a low score j
reflects the reverse.
i
Reliability measurements of the scale were conducted
initially on numerous individuals aged 55 to 90.
Validation of the LSS used several multivariate approaches i
i
i
such as Cattell's SCREE Test (1978) and factor analysis j
with high correlation noted in all categories
(Salamon-Conte, 1984).
The normative data presented by Salamon-Conte are
preliminary because of the relatively small sample used
^during the early development of the instrument. This is
!
attributed to the recency of the development of the
instrument. However, the tool was developed with a strong
theoretical and parsimonious base relating to the measure
of life satisfaction. Scores noted in this study are
consistent with the norms suggested by the instrument, and
•high levels of life satisfaction appear to correlate with
low levels of anxiety.
Delimitations of the Study
The data in the study explicates those midlife women
in the cohort of interest who were graduates of the same
university. Additional empirical studies would have to be
i
completed in order to create generalizations and !
representative data about the larger universe of midlife
women.
58
The parameters of the study were the female graduates
of a Southern California University who were born between
1933 and 1953. The sample encompassed midlife women from
(the "Baby Boom" generation and those who preceded them.
Because the study is concerned with information about
| [
i I
jcollege-educated women, information about I
non-college-educated women is lacking. j
Limitations of the Study I
|
Because of the passage of time and loss of contact j
I
with the alumni, current names and addresses of 3 3 of the j
alumna are unavailable and their packets were returned. j
i
In one instance, a female spouse of a male alumni member j
offered to participate in the study. The university had
inadvertently chosen her husband to participate, probably
because of his dual gender name. In any case, the spouse j
was ineligible to participate because she was not a I
I
graduate of the university of interest. Two of those j
selected to participate were deceased and their surveys j
were returned by family members. :
Assumptions of the Study j
!
Individuals who do receive the surveys may choose not
i
to answer the request. This may result in bias and make
the results ungeneralizable. However, there is some
dispute as to what constitutes an adequate rate of return, j
i
which is dependent on the type of survey conducted.
59
Mailed surveys rarely achieve more than a 50-percent
return (Miller, 1986). A 41-percent return was realized
in this study.
I
High life satisfaction and low levels of anxiety
indicate adaptive coping mechanisms while low life
satisfaction and high anxiety states may reflect the
i . . .
opposite. Ultimately, these findings will have
implications for adaptation in later life as well.
Post-Hoc Analysis
The variables of interest were isolated following
initial statistical analysis. When statistical
significance was indicated, the nature of the impact of
the independent variables on the dependent variables
warranted additional and more in-depth resolution of a
higher order statistical analysis.
I
To this end, it became important to conduct linear
regression analyses to discover how specific independent
variables affected the dependent variables. In addition, |
i
it was also essential to discover through statistical
correlation whether two independent variables had a
similar affect on a specific dependent variable. All of
i
this fine tuning of the significant variables will be
discussed in detail in Chapter 4.
Summary
This chapter explicated the architecture and laid the
foundation and rationale of what follows in Chapter Four.
An explanation of the sample and its parameters led to a
description of each of the variables and how they would be
measured. An explanation of the projected statistical
analyses, the State Trait Anxiety Inventory, and the
Salamon-Conte Life Satisfaction Scale followed. Chapter
jFour is the culmination of the work set forth in this
jchapter and will display the results of the statistical
i
analysis.
61
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
Introduction
The knowledge gleaned in this study about
college-educated midlife women with regard to lifestyle,
marital status, work roles, and the like has yielded some
i
surprises. While a variety of the results do support and
confirm certain established trends, other results reveal ■
unexpected directions in the behavior of midlife women,
which may be a direct consequence of changes in societal
norms over the past several decades. This suggests that
it will be important to broaden our sample base by
considering the life satisfaction, anxiety state, and
anxiety trait characteristics for a larger class of
jmidlife women who are not necessarily college educated.
This chapter is organized into three major sections. !
!
I
The first section discusses the determination of which I
variables were significant. Once these variables were |
i
identified, contingency tables were generated in which
each of the significant variables was cross tabulated
against the various age groups. These cross-tabulation
results comprise the second major section of this chapter, j
i
The purpose of this analysis was to understand how the
levels of each significant variable were distributed among
!the age groups. When a variable's distribution was
62
[roughly the same from age group to age group, that I
variable was classified as a similarity among age groups.
Otherwise, distinct and significant differences were
■noted. Trying to explain why certain variables are
similarities while others are differences is a major theme
of discussion in the next chapter.
The third section addressed the major statistical
findings that were used to isolate those demographic
variables that were responsible for significant variation
in anxiety state, anxiety trait, and life satisfaction.
|
These variables are collectively referred to as the
i
significant independent variables. Finally, this chapter
concludes with a brief description of other trends that
i
were evident from the evaluation of frequencies and
!
low-order statistics.
j An unexpected dividend from the returns was the i
out-pouring of personal comments and feelings expressed by
i
the women who answered the survey. Their responses were i
too rich and diverse to omit from this treatise. Some of
i
the notes and letters were heart warming displaying
I
enormous courage and strength, others were humorous. Many j
are relevant to the independent variables and are j
integrated into the results that are set forth in this j
chapter. A collection of other miscellaneous comments are
found in Appendix J.
63
Identifying the Significant Variables
The first major task was to determine the specific
demographic variables that were responsible for
'significant variation in anxiety state (how one feels at
i
this particular moment in time), anxiety trait (how one
usually feels) (Spielberger et al., 1983), and life
satisfaction (Salamon-Conte, 1984). When significance was
suspected following lower order analyses, higher order
statistical analysis was conducted, beginning with
frequency, analysis of variance, cross tabulation, and
ending with linear regression.
Cross Tabulation Results
Cross tabulation permitted a vehicle for examination ,
of the individual age groups designated as AGE1 (aged 3 5 |
|
to 42, the "Baby Boomers"), AGE2 (aged 43 to 4 8 mid pre
"Baby Boomers"), and AGE3 (49 to 55, the oldest of the pre
"Baby Boomers"). Contingency tables were created for
significant variables, which allowed for close evaluation
of the ultimate differences between the age groups. It was
determined that age groups exhibited similar behavior with
respect to a significant variable if the distribution
within each age group was the same across the age groups.
i
Otherwise, it was concluded that there were notable
differences between the age groups.
It was essential for us to question how each
64
significant, variable does, in fact, "distribute" itself
among the different, age groups. In the final analysis,
all the differences and similarities must even out and
compensate for each other. Otherwise, the different age
groups would feel differently about life satisfaction,
Lnxiety state, and anxiety trait. By analyzing
contingency tables, it was possible to elucidate
similarities and differences. The question as to why
certain variables are similarities while others are
[differences is taken up in the next chapter. To conclude
this section, similarities will be listed first and then
the differences between the groups will be presented.
Similarities
•1. Current Marital Status
Married 67.47% 71.62% 72.83%
;2. Household Income among the three groups was relatively
the same. This was rather unexpected since the younger
groups are usually attributed to being behind their
older counterparts with regard to household income.
The numbers are presented in percentages and actual
number of individuals in each income group.
*n= the number of subjects in each age group*
AGE GROUP 1 AGE GROUP 2 AGE GROUP 3
n=3 2 6 n=292 n=344
<$25000 5.21% (17) 3.08% (9) 5.23% (18)
65
$25000- 25.77% (84) 18.49% (54) 22.38% (77)
$49999
$50000- 23.31% (76) 22.26% (65) 23.26% (80)
$74999
$75000- 14.11% (46) 18.15% (53) 14.83% (51)
$99999
$100000- 18.40% (60) 19.18% (56) 19.48% (67)
$149999
>$150000 13.19% (43) 18.84% (55) 14.83% (51)
3. Eni ovment Of Employment
Yes 84.59% 81.14% 76.55%
4. Reasons Not Currently Employed
Homemaking 14.46% 13.20% 14.44%
5. Parental Influence (Encouragement to work following
grad.)
Yes 85.93% 81.54% 79.83%
6. Reentry Into The Work Force With Children
Before 21.58% 21.78% 21.97%
Children Went to School
7. Participation In Volunteer Activities
Yes 59.63% 63.37% 60.17%
A complete listing of the types of volunteer activities
participated in by the respondents is provided in
Appendix H.
8. Regular Exercise
Yes 60.37% 66.89% 65.34%
66
Differences
1. Race diversity has changed with each progressive age
group as minority groups have increasingly been
afforded the opportunity to attend institutions of
higher education.
Asian 8.73% (29) 5.30% (16) 3.37% (12)
Black 3.31% (11) 2.32% (7) 0.84% (3)
Caucasian 84.94% (282) 90.73% (274) 94.38% (336)
Hispanic 2.71% (9) 0.66% (2) 1.40% (5)
Humor was present as when asked about her race one
woman replied that she was a member of the "human
race."
2. Current Marital Status
Never 19.88% 7.26% 3.92%
Married
Widowed 0% 2.64% 3.08%
Divorced 8.13% 14.19% 17.37%
Separated 2.41% 0.99% 2.52%
Living 2.11% 3.30% 3.92%
Together
Married 68% 72% 73%
3. Living Together Before Marriage was another surprise
because of the increased sexual freedom attributed to
the "baby boom" generation. Although their percentages
for living together are relatively higher and
difference is noted for the majority of the "baby boom"
67
women in the study, this was not an option. However,
two women who chose this alternative made the following
remarks, a 44 year old, married three times, who "lived
together twice" before marriage, said that she
"wouldn't do it again." Another wrote that she "lived"
[with someone] before marriage, but not with [her]
husband."
Not Applicable 21.39% 8. 33% 5. 62%
yes 28.01% 19.33% 7.58%
Number Of Times Divorced and Remarried
Not Applicable 82.48% 70.96% 69.30%
Once 8.7 6% 13.20% 12.96%
Twice 0.60% 3.30% 2.82%
* additional remarriages were not of sufficient number
to mention
Number Of Children
None 43.23% 21.78% 12.04%
One 15.69% 15.18% 8.96%
Two 33.85% 38.94% 42.58%
Three 7.38% 17.16% 23.81%
Four 1.2 3% 4 . 95% 8. 12%
*additional children were not of sufficient number to
mention.
6. Family Assistance With Children (Grandparents and other
extended family)
68
Yes 32.12% 37.62% 43.73%
7. Employment While Child Rearing
Yes 46.67% 55.78% 56.06%
One woman of 42 wrote that she had recently returned to
work following the birth of her child who was now 18
months. She may be a model for how postponement of
child bearing affects career minded contemporary women.
At least two women in their forties who had never
married and were enjoying successful careers reported
that they were single parents of one child each.
Social acceptance toward single parenthood in unmarried
career women is a trend in evidence here.
8. Reentry Into the Work Force While Child Rearing
(When the children were in school)
6.69% 29.37% 32.11%
9. Reasons Not Currently Employed
Health 0.30% 0.66% 1.12%
Pref.Not To 0.30% 1.65% 5.62%
10.Vacant Nest Following Child Rearing became most
relevant for the older pre "baby boom" cohort.
Yes 0.30% 12.25% 46.48%
In dealing with empty nest issues and her husband's
midlife career change and its effects this was
reported, "My husband is taking a leave of absence from
his law practice forcing me to terminate an eight-year
69
real estate career because of a move to a new
location." Missing her daughter who left for college
was an additional loss felt by this woman. Perhaps, if
her life had remained stable when her child left the
"empty nest" would not be an issue.
11. Political Orientation
Although there are some similarities noted here the
differences are most pronounced with regard to a more
liberal, and then, more of a middle-of-the-road
orientation reported in the younger age group. The
younger group also displayed a slightly lower
percentage in the conservative category.
Extremely 2.43% 2.31% 1.14%
Liberal
Liberal 17.63% 14.19% 10.80%
Slightly 13.68% 14.85% 9.94%
Liberal
Middle-of- 16.72% 13.53% 14.20%
the-Road
Slightly 22.80% 24.42% 23.58%
Conservative
Conservative 23.40% 27.39% 32.10%
Extremely 1.52% 1.65% 5.4 0%
Conservative
Not Sure 1.82% 1.65% 2.84%
12. Change in Political Views With Age illustrates that
the younger group became less liberal with age than
70
the other two age groups.
More Lib. 20.30% 33.67% 31.81%
Less Lib. 40.61% 36.00% 32.09%
No Change 39.09% 30.33% 36.10%
Significant Independent Variables
Upon investigation of the statistical findings, the
following independent variables were isolated as having
had a significant effect on the two measures of anxiety
■and life satisfaction. Significance in the Analysis of
Variance (ANOVA) on all of the measures of variance was
set at the .05 level of probability. In the case of high
F scores Probability registered 0.000.
Household income (HI) was found to have the greatest
influence on life satisfaction (LS) and anxiety (ANXS and
ANXT) of all of the variables. The F distribution
scores, which were computed with five (row) degrees of
freedom corresponding to the six income levels, were 35.41
on LS, 16.86 on ANXT and 9.15 on ANXS (P= 0.00).
Moreover, across all of the age groups the following
findings were nearly identical. High level of income
yielded high scores on life satisfaction and low scores on I
anxiety, while low income levels revealed the opposite.
The greater the income, the greater the sense of well
being on all measures. These observations are summarized
in the following sets of graphs shown in Figures 1-3. The '
71
first graph charts ANXS means against income level. There
is a bar corresponding to each of the three age groups.
Significant distinctions are observed among the income
llevels but not as significantly among the age groups.
INCOME EFFECT ON ANXS
♦NOTE SCALE BEGINS WITH 29*
ANXS MEANS
4 3 -------------------------
<$25000 $26-49999 $50-74999 $76-99999 $100-149999 $150000+
INCOME LEVELS
AGES 35 TO 42 EM3 AGES 43 TO 48 111 AGES 49 TO 55
FIGURE 1
INCOME EFFECT ON ANXT
♦NOTE Y AXIS BEGINS AT 29*
A NXT MEANS
<$25000 $25-49999 $50-74999 $75-99999 $100-149999 $150000+
INCOME LEVELS
AGES 35 TO 42 E S S AGES 43 TO 48 E l l AGES 49 TO 55
FIGURE 2
INCOME EFFECT ON LS
♦NOTE Y AXIS BEGINS AT 130*
161
156
151
146
141
136
$25000 $25-49999 $50-74999 $75-99999 $100-149999 $150000+
INCOME LEVELS
■ 1 AGES 35 TO 42 KSE AGES 43 TO 48 Ell AGES 49 TO 55
FIGURE 3
LS MEANS
73
Several comments presented here represent a new
perspective on the implications and expectations about
household income. A thirty-six year old who makes less
money than her husband is feeling uneasy because she feels
|"sexism is keeping us from the top in the eighties" and
(observes that many women are being "forced out" because of
corporate mergers and the like. Dealing with the problem
of being the sole support of the family while her husband
begins a new business is a problem for a 38 year old. She
is trying to understand how money should be managed in a
family. She posits that "money is power," the more you
have the more power you have. Financial security was on
the mind of this woman who remarked about her recent
divorce that, after a 17-year marriage and a custody
battle, she had entered "instant poverty." She had gone
from upwards of $250,000 a year to $40,000, certainly not
"poverty" but nevertheless a tragic blow to her former
lifestyle.
Finally, this dramatic lifestyle change from a woman
who told about a midlife career change in that both she
and her husband are quitting their professions after 2 5
years. They purchased a million dollar mobile home park
!
that they will manage, hoping to make ends meet so that
they can pay college tuition for their two sons.
Participating in Regular Exercise (REGEX) was yet
74
another independent variable that produced significant
variation among LS, ANXS, and ANXT. The F scores with
one (row) degree of freedom were 41.98 for LS, 21.60 for
ANXT, and 22.58 for ANXS. In addition, those who exercise
regularly were significantly happier than those who did
not. This result is supported by the graph in Figure 4,
which plots life satisfaction means against regular
exercise and is based on the premise that if one is happy
one exercises, or that exercising makes one happy.
EXERCISE AND LIFE SATISFACTION
♦NOTE Y AXIS BEGINS AT 140*
160
155
150
145
140
LS MEANS
155.99
149.27
EXERCISE
■ i YES M NO
FIGURE 4
The next five independent variables that affected LS,
ANXT, and ANXS when analysis of variance was applied all
relate to survey questions related to marriage and child
75
rearing. Those women in the survey who did not espouse a
traditional lifestyle incorporating marriage and child
rearing or those women who were divorced were those most
adversely impacted with regard to being satisfied with
their lives. This analysis of "never having been married"
produced an F score of 11.99 for LS, 11.01 for ANXT
(P=0.00), and 3.77 on ANXS (P=0.02). The LS scores for
never married and divorced women are lower than the other
groups and are compared in Figure 5. Both anxiety scores
for never married women and divorced women were higher
than the other groups. This is seen in Figures 6 and 7.
LIFE SATISFACTION COMPARISONS
NEVER MARRIED, DIVORCED, MARRIED-ETC.
* NOTE Y AXIS BEGINS AT 140*
160
155 -
150
145
140
LS MEANS
153.03
149.19
146.43
MARITAL STATUS
NEVER MARRIED EMS DIVORCED HI MARRIED-ETC.
FIGURE 5
99999999999^
76
ANXIETY STATE COMPARISONS
NEVER MARRIED, DIVORCED, MARRIED-ETC.
♦NOTE Y AXIS BEGINS AT 30*
ANXS MEANS
38 -
MARITAL STATUS
NEVER MARRIED EM3 DIVORCED HI MARRIED-ETC.
FIGURE 6
ANXIETY TRAIT COMPARISONS
NEVER MARRIED, DIVORCED, MARRIED-ETC.
♦NOTE Y AXIS BEGINS AT 30*
ANXT MEANS
37.22
34.86
34.33
MARITAL STATUS
NEVER MARRIED DIVORCED H I MARRIED-ETC.
FIGURE 7
77
On her marriage, a woman wrote, "I wonder how many
women are satisfied with their mates? My previous
relationships were better, but I can't leave because of
money, my age, and single life is lonely." Another
explained that she had divorced and remarried the same
man, that she was busy and over extended, but that she was
"never bored."
I
Again, the pattern of variation repeated itself in
the following collection of variables dealing with
employment and child rearing: EWCH (employment while |
i
child rearing), FACH (family assistance while rearing), (
VNCH (vacant nest following child rearing), and NCURE (not !
I currently employed). Each of these variables provided a ,
i !
I . ...
(significant variation m the sense of LS, ANXT, and ANXS.
i
The actual F scores and Probability are listed. \
Variable ANXS ANXT LS
Employment While Child Rearing 2 . 46 3.95 5.56
Probability 0. 019 0.019 0.004
Vacant Nest 3.73 4.70 6.84
Probability 0.02 0. 009 0. 001
Family Assistance/Child Rearing 3.70 5.87 5. 02
Probability 0.025 0. 002 0.006
Enjoyment of Employment 4.56 4. 14 6.34
Probability 0. 003 0. 006 0. 000
78
Not Currently Employed 2.10 3.17 4.43
Probability 0.049 0.004 0.000
Variance was also noted when parental influence or
encouragement to work (PAREE) was the independent variable
and anxiety state and trait were the dependent variables.
The respective F scores were 7.20 (P 0.007) and 8.85 (P
0.003). However, life satisfaction differences between
those who received encouragement and those who did not was
not significant (F= 2.80). This result suggests that one
tends to perceive a lack of parental encouragement as
contributing to a sense of anxiety but not necessarily
diminishing overall life satisfaction. The three bar i
graphs in Figures 8-10 illustrate this point. The first
set of bars represent the ANXS means of those who did and
those who did not receive parental encouragement. Observe
the difference in the means. The same situation occurs in
the second chart for ANXT. The third bar chart depicts LS
means for both those who received encouragement and those
who did not. Remarking about parental influence one woman
stated, "I wanted to work, my parents never had to
encourage me.1 1
ANXIETY STATE
PARENTAL ENCOURAGEMENT
♦NOTE Y AXIS BEGINS AT 25*
ANXS MEANS
33.06
30.88
PARENTAL ENCOURAGEMENT
YES H I NO
FIGURE 8
ANXIETY TRAIT
PARENTAL ENCOURAGEMENT
♦NOTE Y AXIS BEGINS AT 25*
ANXT MEANS
37 --------------------------
PARENTAL ENCOURAGEMENT
I YES M n O
FIGURE 9
80
LIFE SATISFACTION
PARENTAL ENCOURAGEMENT
♦NOTE Y AXIS BEGINS AT 140*
160
155
150 -
145
140
LS MEANS
153.55
151.12
PARENTAL ENCOURAGEMENT
YES M NO
FIGURE 10
With respect to the other variables in this
collection, several interesting trends that had been
predicted were noted. First, those women who did not have
children scored higher in anxiety and lower in life
satisfaction. This is shown in Figures 11-13.
i
9999999999999999^
ANXIETY STATE
WITH AND WITHOUT CHILDREN
♦NOTE Y AXIS BEGINS AT 25*
ANXS MEANS
37 --------------------------
ANXIETY STATE
CHILDREN M S NO CHILDREN
FIGURE 1 1
ANXIETY TRAIT
WITH AND WITHOUT CHILDREN
♦NOTE Y AXIS BEGINS AT 25*
A NXT MEANS
37 --------------------------
ANXIETY TRAIT
CHILDREN M S NO CHILDREN
FIGURE 12
82
LIFE SATISFACTION
WITH AND WITHOUT CHILDREN
*NOTE Y AXIS BEGINS AT 140*
160
155 -
150 -
145
140
LS MEANS
15355
151.12
LIFE SATISFACTION
CHILDREN K M l NO CHILDREN
FIGURE 13
Furthermore, those women who enjoyed their work only
sometimes or not at all registered higher in anxiety and
lower in life satisfaction. This is illustrated in
Figures 14-16.
j
ANXIETY STATE
WITHOUT WORK ENJOYMENT
♦NOTE Y AXIS BEGINS AT 25*
ANXS MEANS
37.66
32.72
ANXIETY STATE
NOT ENJOYED E M I OTHER
FIGURE 14
ANXIETY TRAIT
WITHOUT WORK ENJOYMENT
♦NOTE Y AXIS BEGINS AT 25*
ANXT MEANS
38.34
3348
ANXIETY TRAIT
NOT ENJOYED E M OTHER
FIGURE 15
84
LIFE SATISFACTION
WITHOUT WORK ENJOYMENT
*NOTE Y AXIS BEGINS AT 135*
160
LS MEANS
153.51
140.68
LIFE SATISFACTION
I H NOT ENJOYED IM S OTHER
FIGURE 16
When reasons for not being currently employed were
explored, those women who were not employed because of
pressure from family or because of health reasons were the
least happy. Those who chose not to work but opted for
homemaking or retirement appeared happy with their
decisions as expressed by the pre "baby boom" women whose
daughter "does it all" and says that her daughter is
critical of her for not accomplishing more in her life.
The mother says, " I never found homemaking boring." It
should be noted that of the 982 women who answered this
question 768 were currently employed either part or
full-time and all but 42 were employed for various periods
85
of time following graduation from college.
Some pertinent comments follow. "I was content being
a homemaker but now everyone is harping on how unfulfilled
I am. My husband says that he is tired of supporting me
and wants me to earn my keep. I must now seek employment
and the prospect is very depressing. My husband thinks we
need a second income; he has so many plans and I am
failing him." One can only question if this is a
prevailing attitude or something particular to this
relationship.
One 4 0 year old who "hates to admit that she is just
a 'homemaker1" said that she retired at 4 0 so that she
could spend time with her children aged 9 and 11. Added
another former career woman, "I have an MBA but I am now a
homemaker and mother of three children." For these and
several other women in the study, it appears that family
comes before career while others manage both work and
children.
Several other of the variables tested yielded only
small significance on one or two of the measures of
anxiety or life satisfaction. Race was an issue that
appeared to effect anxiety but not life satisfaction. In |
i
particular, Hispanic women in the study were somewhat more j
stressed than others. Participation in volunteer activity
( PARVOL) was shown to be indicative of happier feelings
86
with regard to trait anxiety means (32.94) and life
satisfaction means (155.01). A complete listing of
volunteer activities is listed in Appendix I.
Those women whose parents required assistance (RPAR)
showed a higher state anxiety significance than the those
who were not required to assist. Political views (VPOL)
illustrated that those who were undecided or liberal in
their political orientation were the least satisfied
scoring 149 and 148 means on life satisfaction. Levity
was obvious when a 41 year old was asked about her
political preferences and she related that she does not
vote for women, blacks, men or turnips, "I vote for
individuals." Change in political orientation (CGPOL)
also showed slight significance with those who became more
liberal, showing a lower life satisfaction mean score of
152.
The number of times a woman was divorced and
remarried (XMAR) demonstrated only slight significance
i
with regard to decreased life satisfaction with the least
happy being those who never remarried following divorce,
or the four individuals who divorced and remarried three
times. There were 73 0 women in the study had never been
divorced. Roughly 2 5 percent of the women in the study
had been divorced at least once. Finally, the number of !
children (NUMCH^ was significant only in the measure of i
87
anxiety state. It appears that those with more than six
children were most affected. The F scores and probability
for all of these variables are as follows.
Variable ANXS ANXT LS
RACE 5. 12 (0.00)
RPAR 5. 35 (0.021)
PARVOL 4.17 (0.04) 11.74 (0.00)
VPOL 2.44 (0.02)
CGPOL 2.96 (0.05)
XMAR 2.41 (0.03)
NUMCH 3.13 (0.00)
Analysis of Variance was also conducted on several
other of the independent variables for the purpose of
exploring whether there were any other variables that
might influence changes in anxiety or life satisfaction.
There were no significant F scores to illustrate
I
variability with foreign-born parents, religious or I
areligious orientation, change from childhood religious
orientation, participation in religious activity, or form i
f
of assistance reguired for parental needs. Parental j
assistance for aging parents is noted in the following j
comments. One woman shared that all of the siblings in
the family pooled their resources to purchase a home for
their aging parents. This is in opposition to the
feelings of another woman who believes that society does
88
not provide for its aged.
In summary, it has been demonstrated that those
variables that contribute most significantly to one's
sense of either life satisfaction or anxiety are household
income, participating regularly in exercise, having been
married or not, having had children or not, and enjoying
one's work or not. Most importantly, these results hold
regardless of one's age.
Other Trends
This section describes trends that were evident when
frequencies were run on some of the other demographic
variables that were contained in the study.
1. Age of marriage in the "Baby Boom" group was higher
than that in those older midlife women although the age
at which the "baby boom" peaked remained relatively
similar.
Age Married "Baby Boomers" Pre "Baby
Boomers
20 1.87% 3.48%
21 5.61% 8.94%
22 11.50% 17.27
23 *peak age* 12.57% 18.03%
24 9.36% 11.82%
25 4.55% 7.73%
26 6.42% 4.24%
89
27 5.35% 2.58%
28 5.35% 3.33%
29 1.87% 2.42%
30 3 .48% 1.36%
31 1.60% 1. 06%
32 2.14% 1.52%
The popular notion that the "baby boomers" had more
educational opportunities held in this study and is
illustrated in Figure 17.
50 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------: ---------------------------------------------
45 - .............. 41.65.....................................................................................................
40
35
3 0
25
20
15
10
5
0
MASTERS DOCTORATE
ADVANCED DEGREES
AGES 35 TO 42 ESSl AGES 43 TO 48 111 AGES 49 TO 55
FIGURE 17
When frequencies were run on types of occupations great
diversity was evident, with 85 different occupations
noted by the respondents. A listing of the most
AGE GROUPS AND ADVANCED DEGREES
PERCENTAGES
41.65
90
repeated occupations is presented here with percentages
listed for each age group.
Occupation Age Group 1 Age Group 2 Age Grou]
Teaching 24.70% 37.62% 34.45%
Occ./Phys.Therapy 8.13% 3 . 30% 4.48%
Law 6.63% 1.98% 0.84%
Administration 5.72% 1.98% 1.40%
Dental Hygiene 4.22% 6.27% 13.73%
Marketing 3 . 01% 3.30% 0.84%
Pres./VP Company 2.71% 1. 65% 1.96%
School Admin. 2.11% 4.62% 1. 68%
Real Estate 1.81% 3 . 30% 3.92%
Office Mgr. 1.51% 2.97% 2.51%
Counseling 1.51% 2 .97% 1.21%
Secretarial 0.90% 1.98% 1.96%
Nursing 0.60% 0.99% 1.96%
Professor 0.30% 2.97% 0.84%
Retail Mgr. 0.0% 0.33% 1.96%
A complete list of the types of occupations listed by the
.midlife women in the study is found in Appendix G.
In spite of the diversity in the many occupational
categories, it should be noted that teaching remains the
primary occupation for a large percentage of the women in I
j
the "baby boom" age group. The percentage of women who |
i
choose teaching is gradually being eroded and is giving :
91
way gradually to more "male-oriented" types of
professional positions. To underscore the flight from the
teaching profession, a 38 year old woman recalled "I feel
that I am two people, one at home and one at work, with
two full-time jobs. I enjoy working but I wish for more
1
time for me, I am always doing for others. Marriage is 1
I
okay but my teaching career is fraught with too many
unpaid hours, too many students, no free time, too little
respect, and 50 to 60 hours a week." Herein lies a clear
indictment of the problems in the teaching profession and
a plausible reason another woman gave for leaving teaching i
I
l
for a career in real estate. Another of the declining j
professions was commented on as one woman commented, j
I
sadly, that she was forced to leave the dental hygiene j
profession because of the threat of AIDS.
Miscellaneous Results
Frequency results for several of the other
miscellaneous variables from the demographic survey are of
i
interest. The vast majority of the respondents perceived I
t
that they were better off financially than their parents !
!
at a similar age. A poignant comment from one woman was
that she was doing the same financially as her parents, j
i
but the difference was that she had only three children
while her mother had eight.
The level of parental education reported by each of
92
the respondents was that more fathers (46 percent) had
graduated from college than mothers (31 percent). This
correlates with increased educational opportunities for
women (Lefkowitz-Horowitz, 1984).
Despite the many political perspectives, 88 percent
of the women in the study said that they would vote for a
woman for president if she were nominated and qualified
for the job. When these results from question 3 8 from the
demographic survey (Appendix D) were compared to the
General Social Survey (GSS) (1987) data for the years 1986
and 1987, similarities were found. An overwhelming
majority of the respondents to the national survey replied
that they too would vote for a woman for president if she
were qualified. In 1985, 83 percent said that they would
vote for a woman, and in 1986, 76 percent replied in the
affirmative. The national sample consisted of 688 males
and 846 females in 1985; in 1986 there were 621 males and
849 females. The respondents were aged 18 to 89. The
national survey is a modified probability sample. Quotas
based on age, sex, and employment status were created to
assure the cross sectional integrity of the sample.
Comparing political orientation in this study to the
General Social Survey (1987), the parameters and responses
of the question 37, which is found both in this study and
the national survey, are listed.
93
Question: What are your views on political matters?
Frequencies & Percentages
6SS This Study
a. extremely liberal 31 (2%) 19 (2%)
b. liberal 175 (12%) 139 (14%)
c. slightly liberal 190 (13%) 125 (13%)
d. middle of the road 537 (37%) 146 (15%)
e. slightly conservative 235 (16%) 232 (23%)
f. conservative 178 (12%) 273 (28%)
g. extremely conservative 32 (2%) 29 (3%)
h. not sure 59 (4%) 21 (2%)
1. refused to answer 29 12
Total Answering 1437 984
There are many similarities noted, however. The
sample in this study reflects a more conservative
orientation with higher percentages in the slightly
conservative and conservative categories except perhaps
for the woman who commented that she "had no political
opinions before she was forty."
Investigating the Factor of Age
Initially it was hypothesized that age would be the
major factor in determining high life satisfaction and low
anxiety. To facilitate the analysis of the age factor, it
will be recalled that the sample was divided into three
groups; the "baby boomers" (aged 3 5 to 42) and two groups j
94
|Of pre "baby boomers" (aged 43 to 48 and 49 to 55) .
Higher life satisfaction was initially conjectured for the
i
"baby boom" women because of their seemingly unlimited
opportunities in the worlds of education, employment, and
sexuality. However, it was later posited that, because of
|the multiple roles and stresses in their lives, the "baby j
boom" might very well display low life satisfaction and j
high anxiety as well. In addition, it was hypothesized
that the pre "baby boom" groups of women would be lower in
anxiety than the "baby boom" cohort because of the older j
i
women*s presumably more well developed coping skills.
Certainly one of the most surprising results of the study
I
»
was that neither age nor historical events such as the j
great depression, the civil rights movement, or the sexual I
I
revolution appear to be significant in causing variation |
i
i
m life satisfaction, anxiety state, or anxiety trait. j
When age was the independent variable and anxiety state
(ANXS), anxiety trait (ANXT), and life satisfaction (LS)
i
were the dependent variables, there was no significant j
j
variation among the three age groups. This finding was i
replicated when the 35, 45, and 55 year olds scores were
isolated and analyzed. The three testing variables showed
no significant variation, as shown in the Analysis of
Variance (ANOVA) results in Figures 18, 19, and 20.
SOURCE
BETWEEN
SUBJECTS
A (AGE)
SUB w
GROUPS
SOURCE
BETWEEN
SUBJECTS
A (AGE)
SUB w
GROUPS
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
DEPENDENT VARIABLE ANXS
DF SS MSS
100 1 0 2220 .69
2 2 4 1 .5 0 1 4 120.7507
98 9 9 7 9 .1 9 2 4 1 0 1 .8 2 8 5
F P
1.186 0 .0 3 0 7 6
FIGURE 18
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
DEPENDENT VARIABLE ANXT
DF SS MSS
100 7 9 5 4 .9 5 1 2
2 211.1491 10 5.5746
98 7 7 4 3 .1 8 0 2 2 7 9 .0 1 8 4
F P
1.336 0 .2 6 5 7
FIGURE 19
96
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
DEPENDENT VARIABLE LS
SOURCE
BETWEEN
SUBJECTS
A (AGE)
SUB w
GROUPS
DF
100
2
98
F
0.898
SS
2 4 2 7 4 .5 7 6 2
4 3 6 .8 9 2 0
2 3 8 3 7 .6 8 3 6
MSS
2 1 8 .4 4 6 0
2 4 3 .2 4 1 7
P
0 .4 1 4 9
FIGURE 20
Despite further manipulation of the data, all of the
women in the study scored similarly on the three measures.
This is illustrated in Figure 21, which is a table of the
means and statistics for anxiety state (ANXS), anxiety
trait (ANXT) , and life satisfaction (LS) among the age
groups. The results are virtually identical. It should
be noted that high scores reflecting high anxiety on
either of the anxiety measures are above 34, and low
scores (below 150) on life satisfaction reflect low life
satisfaction. While not significant, older midlife women
showed slightly higher anxiety levels and lower life
satisfaction.
97
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
DEPENDENT VARIABLE ANXS, ANXT, LS
VARIABLE AGE N MEAN S.D
ANXS 35 18 3 2 .2 2 2 2 8 .120 8
45 46 2 9 .6 3 04 9 .1296
55 37 3 3 .6 7 5 7 11.7900
ANXT 35 18 3 3 .3 8 8 9 8.1 8 9 9
45 46 3 0 .7 1 7 4 8.40 28
55 37 3 4 .4 3 2 4 9.63 08
LS 35 18 155.0056 12.6560
45 46 156.2609 14.9197
55 37 151.0000 17.4388
FIGURE 21
Even the linear regression relationships between
ANXS, ANXT, and LS as illustrated in Figures 22-24 are
essentially the same with respect to the age groups. This
says that the relationship, for instance, between life
satisfaction and anxiety trait that each age group
experiences is nearly identical. This relationship is as
anxiety declines, life satisfaction increases.
i
98
LINEAR REGRESSION SLOPE
AGE GROUPS 1 , 2, & 3
*NOTE Y AXIS BEGINS AT 110*
LIFE SATISFACTION
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
20 60 80 30 50 70 10 40
ANXIETY STATE
i
— — AGES 35 TO 42 AGES 43 TO 48 * AGES 49 TO 55
I
FIGURE 22 !
LINEAR REGRESSION SLOPE
AGE GROUPS 1 , 2, & 3
♦NOTE Y AXIS BEGINS AT 110*
LIFE SATISFACTION
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
20 60 80 50 10 30 40 70
ANXIETY TRAIT
— AGES 35 TO 42 AGES 43 TO 48 *“ AGES 49 TO 55
FIG 23
99
LINEAR REGRESSION SLOPE
AGE GROUPS 1 , 2, & 3
♦NOTE Y AXIS BEGINS AT 15*
ANXIETY TRAIT
65
55
45
35
25
60 80 20 70 30 50 10 40
ANXIETY STATE
— AGES 35 TO 42 -*+- AGES 43 TO 48 * AGES 49 TO 55
FIGURE 24
Elaborating on being satisfied with their life
situations was expressed eloquently by these women. "I am
very attractive, but not compared to a 2 0 year old." From
a forty year old, "Some of us have managed a home, family,
and career before the modern woman came along." This 54
year old says it all, "I happen to be in love and
everything seems possible."
Anxiety and stress in every day life was expressed by
a woman who claimed that she was anxious because "I had a
bad week, I just paid my income tax, had the car break
down, and had to put the cat to sleep."
It was originally anticipated that it would be
100
difficult to separate the effects of age and historical
events. With the unexpected result of similarity among
the age groups, it became evident that the other factors
mentioned previously in this chapter had to be explored in
order to find significant variation in ANXS, ANXT, and LS.
Summary
It has been shown that the following variables
constitute similarities among the various age groups of
midlife women: household income, parental encouragement to
seek employment, participation in volunteer activities,
participating in regular exercise, and whether one is
i
currently married or not. Differences have been noted
among the age groups with respect to variables such as
reasons for not being currently employed, living together
before marriage, number of times divorced and remarried,
number of children, family assistance with children,
employment while child rearing, vacant nest following
child rearing, views on political orientation, and change
in political views with age. Some of the variables have
been enhanced by the personal comments shared by the
respondents. The greatest surprise in the results was
that age was not significant in determining life
satisfaction and anxiety. The age factor proved to be j
similar across all of the age groups. Chapter Five will !
101
yield a discussion of how the research questions and
hypotheses were answered by the survey returns.
102
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSIONS
Introduction
i
Observations made by comparing the groups of midlife
women have yielded an increased understanding of how
1
younger and older midlife women have experienced life
choices, roles, and new behavioral standards. The trend i
toward refuting earlier studies that were conducted mainly
on men are consistent with the findings in this study.
Evolution of new societal norms is clearly illustrated in
the comparison between the older and younger groups.
Although the "baby boom" women were divergent in many
aspects, many similarities to the older cohorts were
noted.
In this chapter, the similarities and differences
between the various age groups, noted in Chapter Four,
will be discussed. In some instances, the results of this
study will be compared to the literature and other studies
about women in the midlife transition. Following this,
based on the results of the statistical analyses, the
research questions put forth in Chapter One will be
answered. Once the questions have been explicated the
hypotheses generated during the inception of the study
will be shown to have been supported or rejected, as the !
i
case may be. Subsequently, there will be a section
103
suggesting implications for future research about adult
development in midlife women.
Discussion of Similarities and Differences
It is evident from the results of this study that
many of the "baby boom" women have actually reached their
high aspirations and are comparable or ahead of their
older counterparts in occupational status and household
income. This is confirmed by the results shown in the
table in Chapter Four in that the similarities between
household income (HI) for all age groups are illustrated.
The women in this study have remained similar to
their older cohorts in many areas. Somewhere during the
i
societal changes the younger cohorts have maintained many !
!
of their traditional values with a few accommodations. j
Trends are evident that show the vast majority of the
women are choosing marriage and are continuing to bear
children. The difference appears to be that marriage and
childbearing occur later life and childbearing usually
equates with fewer children. The above trends were also
replicated in the report on the study of the Vietnam '
Generation (Enduring Legacies, 1987). Despite the
societal changes, traditional values, in the main, appear
to be the most preferred options for the women in this
l
study. j
Correspondingly, women who reported that they were !
104
: married or living with someone demonstrated lower levels
of anxiety and higher life satisfaction. Living with
someone, rather than the commitment to marriage, has been
an acceptable contemporary trend and represents an area of
social change consistent with increased sexual freedom.
This finding is evident in the data presented in Chapter
Four, Figures 5-7.
Maintaining a traditional lifestyle has been
illustrated by the "baby boom" women in this study. The
majority of the respondents demonstrated a consistent
trend toward marriage, albeit it at a later age. New
family models are emerging with increasing options and
acceptable patterns as women continue in the work force
following childbirth.
Discussion of the Research Questions
The following portion of this chapter will deal with
a discussion of the research questions put forth during
the inception of this study.
1. When the question of whether "baby boom"
college-educated women experience higher levels of anxiety
than pre "baby boom" women was addressed, it was shown in
the previous chapter that age group does not appear to be
a factor in determining life satisfaction or levels of
anxiety. Other factors, such as the inclination in
society to champion youth, activity, and healthy
105
lifestyles, may have some influence on negating the age
factor. Higher levels of education experienced by this
cohort may also be influential in determining attitudes
jabout aging. A generally healthy society and increasing
jlongevity statistics may also effect this variable.
'Maxwell (1988) advises that there are increased
opportunities that abound for women, especially those in
the younger cohorts. The relationship between life
satisfaction and anxiety between the three designated and
i
isolated cohort age groups of 35, 45, and 55 again showed |
that there was no significant difference. It will be |
I
recalled in Figures 17-23 that there were no significant j
differences between any of the age groups. Age was not a
factor in determining differences on these variables. All
age groups registered similar scores for the three
measures.
2. This question explored the determinants of life
i
satisfaction and anxiety among the groups of midlife I
women. ;
i
I
Marital status and life satisfaction are decidedly i
related in this study. Those women who reported being
married or in committed relationships also expressed
higher levels of life satisfaction and lower anxiety, as
shown in Chapter Four. j
i
i
Conversely, those women who were divorced or never I
106
married displayed lower life satisfaction and higher
levels of anxiety. This result may be contrary to the
popular notion that divorced women have become liberated
from unhappy marriages and are receiving greater social
support than ever before. They are considered to be more
self sufficient because they are well educated and enjoy
higher incomes (Maxwell, 1988). Indeed, marriage
stability is a commonality across all of the age groups,
as shown in the similarities section in Chapter Four.
Divorce and how it infringes on life satisfaction was
shown to equate with low levels of life satisfaction.
This finding is illustrated in Figure 5 in Chapter 4.
Other factors associated with divorce, such as single
parenthood and low income levels, may be influential in
creating low levels of life satisfaction.
Widowhood. Curiously, widowed women were relatively
high in life satisfaction and low in anxiety. Maxwell
i
(1988) writes that widows who were educated, worked
outside the home, and were less traditional appeared to
experience widowhood in a more adaptive manner.
Employment. Working outside the home did not appear I
to affect feelings of well being unless the women were !
dissatisfied with their work roles. Most of the women in
the study reported satisfaction with their work situation.
These findings were confirmed in the McKinlay study
107
i
I
|(1986). The results shown in Figures 14-16 typify work
lenjoyment as expressed across all of the age groups. This
has resulted in an emerging assemblage of women whose self
reliance, self fulfillment, and independence have been
enhanced. These midlife women are less likely to be
concerned with the prospect of drastic and unpleasant
differences in their lives as they age.
Most of the women in the study enjoyed their work. A
rationale for this universal life satisfaction factor in
work enjoyment is the socialization that has made it
possible for women to have the freedom to choose the
positions they most desire. This is especially true for
the younger women who have had more diverse educational
opportunities and more choices in vocation.
The proportion of "baby boom" women who work for
wages outside the home revealed that 8 0 percent were
employed either full- or part-time. Sixty four percent
work full-time while roughly 16 percent are employed
part-time. Most of the unmarried women in the sample are
found in the "baby boom" generation; this factor may
account for the large proportion of those who are employed
full-time in this age group. Included in the above are
married women, mothers of young children, who are also
participating in full-time employment outside the home.
These factors are repeated in the results of the Vietnam
108
'Generation survey (Enduring Legacies, 1987).
The proportion of pre "baby boom” women who were
employed is as follows; 46 percent were employed
full-time, while 26 percent of the women over age 43 were
employed part-time. This leaves 27 percent in this age
group who do not work outside the home. Differences
between the two groups are apparent, with a 7-percent
difference noted between those who are currently employed
and those who are not. Equality exists among the age
groups with reference to the percentages of women who
prefer homemaking to employment.
Household income, or socioeconomic status was found
to be highly correlated with life satisfaction and low
anxiety when the household income was sufficiently high.
This is well illustrated in Figures 1-3 in Chapter Four.
Parental Influence. The question of the level of
parental influence appears to impact the women in this
study in a positive manner, although the younger women
report less parental assistance with child rearing. A
plausible explanation for this may be the propensity for
"empty nest women" to seek employment or education
opportunities. The stereotyped image of grandmothers with
graying hair and few options outside of home and hearth
may have to be redefined for the contemporary grandmother j
i
(Rubin, 1979). It is noteworthy that the McKinlay study .
109
(198 6) reported that the modern midlife woman is not j
1
grieving over her "empty nest" but is busier than ever,
Iprobably working outside the home.
I
Discussion of the Hypotheses j
i
/Each of the hypotheses will first be listed and then a
i i
[discussion will follow. !
!
1. High Anxiety m midlife women who are 35 to 55 j
I
i
will be related to low level of life satisfaction.
Discussion: High anxiety in midlife women is related
i
to low life satisfaction as illustrated by the regression j
I
i
curve (Figures 21, 22, & 23). This finding validated the j
integrity and relationship between each of the testing !
i
instruments. I
i
2. The "baby boom" women will have significantly |
higher levels of anxiety than the pre "baby boom" cohort.
Discussion: Hypothesis two was disproved following
analysis of the data. Age group was not a factor in !
determining lower levels of anxiety. Other factors that
I
»
have been discussed previously in this chapter and Chapter i
I
Four, such as household income and regular exercise, have j
been found to influence measures of anxiety. j
3. The "baby boom" cohort may experience a lower !
level of life satisfaction than the older group of midlife
women.
Discussion: Hypothesis three was also disproved.
110
The statistical analysis showed that there were virtually
jno differences between the age groups on life
satisfaction.
4. The following demographic variables may be
positively associated with life satisfaction: job status
and work enjoyment, the presence of children, marriage,
extended family, general health status, culture/ethnicity,
political activism, and family background.
Discussion: Only the following variables were found
t
to be positively associated with life satisfaction (LS) :
enjoyment of work, marriage, presence of children, and
health status.
There was no significance difference in life
satisfaction whether the women in the study worked full-or
part-time, or whether they were currently employed or not.
Significance occurred only if the women enjoyed their
work. All of the women in the study reported high LS with
regard to employment status. Apparently, employment does
not generally influence life satisfaction unless there is
job dissatisfaction and most of the women in the study
reported enjoying their work.
Marriage remains a choice for most of the women in
the study even though the younger midlife women tended to
marry at a later age. This result suggests that by the
time midlife has been reached, the percentage of married
Ill
women throughout the middle years stays fairly constant.
One conjectures that this is a period of marriage
stability.
Children are another option desired by the women in
the study in spite of a trend toward smaller families
noted in the "baby boom" women. Having smaller families
later in life is an accommodation made as more women
remain in the work force for longer periods of time.
Economics is also brought to bear in these decisions as
costs for raising families through college escalate
yearly.
Extended family was addressed in connection with
child rearing, and those who noted family assistance
appeared to be equally as happy as those who did not 1
receive assistance. Acceptance of the necessity of child j
care has become a fact of life for the contemporary parent !
because of societal mobility and unavailability of
grandparents or extended family. The women for whom the
question was not relevant, who were not married and who
did not have children, displayed the lowest LS scores.
Culture/ethnicity was designated by race, and those
who reported being Hispanic also reported the lowest
i
scores on LS. Since there were only 16 individuals in |
this category statistical significance cannot be claimed ;
in this study. Race becomes an important issue because of
112
the trend toward increasing educational opportunities for
•minority groups. Income was not a factor related to race
or ethnicity in this study; however, the sample contained
relatively few minority members and this factor should not
be considered as generalizable.
A discussion of religious practice among the age
groups revealed that 40 percent of the respondents never
attended church services. This compared similarly to the
3 3 percent in the Enduring Legacies Study (1987). The
remainder of the respondents attended services weekly,
monthly or several times a year. This is consistent with j
the findings in Enduring Legacies that notes a resurgence j
. . . . 1
m religious practice nationally. Again, it is apparent |
i
i
that a return to traditional values, which are ]
increasingly conservative, is an emerging norm. A
complete listing of reported religious affiliation is
found in Appendix H.
Family background, measured by mother's and father's
birthplace did not appear to influence changes in LS. The
majority of the respondents and their parents reported j
I
that they were born in the United States and the majority j
were from either urban or suburban settings.
Political orientation is an important difference,
illustrating that the cohorts became increasingly
conservative with age. The sample, when compared to the
113
more heterogeneous General Social Survey, was more
conservative.
General health status was addressed in the life
satisfaction scale and in the question about regular
exercise, with the women who exercised regularly
experiencing higher levels of LS. This finding is
reflective of a societal emphasis on health consciousness.
5. The following demographic variables are
hypothesized to be negatively associated with life
satisfaction: divorce, never having been married, the
absence of children, and responsibility for elderly
parents.
Discussion: There was no question that divorce,
never having been married, and the absence of children
impacted negatively on life satisfaction. Only
responsibility for aging parents did not influence LS.
This may be explicated by the fact that few in the study
reported the necessity for caring for aging parents,
probably because this sample is relatively young and their
parents are mostly self sufficient. Due to increased
longevity, the question of responsibility for aging
parents may not be an issue until later in life for many
individuals.
Implications
1. This study replicates previous contemporary literature,
114
which found that midiife women were not highly anxious and
dissatisfied with their life situations.
2. Age does not appear to be a factor in determining life
satisfaction or high levels of anxiety.
3. Social change appears to have impinged on current
lifestyles. The "baby boom" women have had more
educational benefits, illustrated by the increase in
numbers of Masters1 and Doctoral degrees held by the "baby
boom" women as compared to their older cohorts. This is
reflective of the increased opportunities afforded women
in education. Ultimately, this has led to diversity in
employment, with women enjoying status in larger numbers
than ever before in the formerly male world of business,
engineering, and medicine, among others. These younger
women exercised more sexual freedom but they remain j
traditional in their preference for marriage and family,
adding the dimension of career and employment.
4. Additional research needs to be conducted that will
address women in similar age groups who are graduates of
non-private universities, church-sponsored universities,
and women who are not college educated. i
i
5. A new perspective formulated as a result of this study !
i
and other contemporary studies on midlife women may impact j
l
and contribute to future theories of adult development, i
115
Summary
This final chapter has reviewed the comparison
between this and other studies and concluded that there
are distinct differences between the groups of midlife
women. Although many differences were revealed that are
unigue to the "baby boom" generation of midlife women,
there are still many similarities. An explanation has
been provided for the variability and similarity between
the age groups as the research questions and hypotheses
were answered and discussed.
It is suggested that socialization and probably not
age is responsible for most of the differences between the
groups. A new form of traditionalism is emerging as the
"baby boomers" appear to be adopting a more conservative j
i
lifestyle. In their early adulthood the "baby boomers"
were projected to be anti-establishment, but more recently
they have adopted a more traditional stance. They have
assumed new norms, commiserate with increased freedom and
the sexual revolution. They are searching to make their
imprint as they head toward becoming pillars of society.
In the aggregate they are doing it all, working to realize
their potential and self-imposed expectations. Age and
i
maturity are the emerging factors that lead to conforming j
to structural norms imposed by society. Developmental 1
116
trends will have to be determined through additional
studies on this very important life transition.
117
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I
Davis, R. H. (1981). Aging: Prospects and issues. Los j
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i
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122
APPENDIX A
The following are sample items from the State-Trait
Anxiety.
"Reproduced by special permission of the Publisher,
Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc., Palo Alto CA. 94306
from The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory by Charles D.
Spielberger, 1977. Further reproduction is prohibited
[without the Publisher's consent."
i
l
| Y-l (State Portion)
j 1. NOT AT ALL
| 2. SOMEWHAT
3. MODERATELY SO
4. VERY MUCH SO
I
I
[
I
|I feel calm
i
I feel secure
II am tense
Y-2 (Trait Portion)
1. ALMOST NEVER
2. SOMETIMES
3. OFTEN
4. ALMOST ALWAYS
I feel pleasant
;I feel nervous and restless
!I feel satisfied with myself
i
P
I
I These test items were provided by the publisher only as
|illustrative sample items.
123
APPENDIX B
"Adapted and reproduced by special permission of the
Publisher, Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.,
16102 North Florida 33549, from the Salamon-Conte Life
Satisfaction Scale in the Elderly by M.J. Salamon, Ph.D,
and V. A, Conte, Ph.D. Copyright, 1984. Further
reproduction is prohibited without permission from PAR,
Inc. "
LiFe S a t is f a c t io n S c a I e
M ichael J. Salamon and Vincent A. Conte
N am e____________________________________ Date.
Age-------------------------------- Sex---------------------------- Marital Status______
INSTRUCTIONS
Printed on the following pages are statements w hich tell us your feelings about life in
general. M ark an "X" over the word or phrase to the right o f each statement which is
closest to the w ay you feel. Answer all 40 items.
--------------- r e = ^ ) EXAMPLE -----; -----------------------------
1. M y daily routine is: - ^ _____ _____ _____
very boring boring average satisfying very satisfying
2 . 1 am most satisfied
w ith my life situation: * __ _____
never almost never sometimes often always
Copyright © 1984 by PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT RESOURCES. INC.
All right* reserved. Not to be reproduced in whole or in part by any process without written permission of Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.
APPENDIX B
124
1. My daily routine is:
very boring boring average satisfying very satisfying
2 .1 am most satisfied with
my life situation:
3 .1 think about what I would
like to accomplish:
4 . 1 am in a bad mood.
very often
ilways
often
often
almost never sometimes
sometimes
sometimes
often
seldom
seldom
always
never
5. Physically I am:
unhealthy somewhat
unhealthy
average healthy very healthy
6 .1 take medication:
very often often sometimes seldom never I
7 .1 have enough money to
enjoy myself:
rarely sometimes often always
8 .1 try to spend time with
people:
never rarely sometimes often always
9.1 have friends.
few some many a great many
1 0 .1 generally plan,
activities.
few many a great many
11. In general I feel:
very
unsatisfied
unsatisfied average satisfied very satisfied
12. I feel pain:
always often sometimes seldom
13. Compared to any other
time in my life, I am
now:
very
unsatisfied
unsatisfied average satisfied very satisfied
14. In my life I have
achieved:
nothing very little something a lot a great deal
15. How important are you
to others:
not at
all important
of little
importance
somewhat
important
important very
important
125
APPENDIX B
16. Being with other people
is pleasurable.
rarely sometimes often always
17. My current income is:
very inadequate inadequate fairly
adequate
adequate very adequate
1 8 .1 find the company of
others to be:
very un
comfortable
usually un-
comfortable
somewhat
comfortable
usually very
comfortable comfortable
1 9 .1 worry about finances:
always often sometimes seldom never
20. My financial situation is:
21. In looking back, I feel
that I have done of
the things that I've wanted
to do.
22. My schedule of
activities is:
23. As I look back on my
life, I am:
very bad
very few
very un
satisfying
completely
dissatisfied
bad
not really
satisfying
dissatisfied
occasionally
satisfying
p artially.
satisfied
good
almost all
satisfying
satisfied
excellent
" " a lT
very
satisfying
very
satisfied
24. The things I do every
day give me:
no
pleasure
little
pleasure
some
pleasure
a lot of
pleasure
a great deal
otpleasure
25. My usual mood is:
26. My intelligence is:
severe
depression
far below
average
mild
depression
below
average
sometimes
happy
average
usually
happy
above
average
always
happy
superior
27. My physical
appearance is:
very un
attractive
somewhat un
attractive
average somewhat
attractive
very
attractive
2 8 .1 am generally:
quite ill in average
health
healthy very healthy
PLEASE CONTINUE O N NEXT PACE
APPENDIX B
126
29. The time I spend with
friends is:
co m p letely
unsatisfying
usually un- sometimes
satisfying satisfying
usually
satisfying
always
satisfying
30. People say that I am:
very moody often moody sometimes
moody
usually in
good spirits
always in
good spirits
31. My present situation is:
very
difficult
difficult I get by pleasurable very
pleasurable
32. When it comes to taking
care of myself, I:
totally depend
on others
often depend am sometimes
on others independent
am usually
independent
am always
independent
3 3 .1 regard my life as:
without having little having some
meaning meaning meaning
meaningful very meaning
ful
34. People think that I am
financially well off: •
rarely sometimes often always
3 5 .1 visit my doctor:
very often regularly sometimes rarely almost never
3 6 .1 am happy with the
way things turn out:
alm ost
never
sometimes often very often
3 7 .1 consider myself to be:
always
pessimistic
usually
pessimistic
sometimes
pessimistic
usually
optimistic
always
optimistic
38. I am with my
outlook on life.
very dis-
satisfied
dissatisfied somewhat
dissatisfied
satisfied very
satisfied
3 9 .1 am satisfied with
the way things are:
never almost never sometimes often very often
4 0 .1 am pleased with my
daily activities:
never seldom sometimes usually always
127
APPENDIX C
DEMOGRAPHIC SURVEY
D H tE C TlO N flr IN D IC A T E Y O U R RESPO NSE W IT H A C11ECIC OR D Y W R IT IN G IN Y O U R ANSW ER. CIIECIC
O N L Y O N E XIESPONSE U N LE S S O THER W ISE IN D IC A T E D .P L E A S E T R Y T O A N SW E R A L L O F TH E QUES
T IO N S W H IC H A P T L Y T O Y O U ; Y O U R ANSW EHS A R E IM F O R T A N T I
1 . Y o a r y o u w o r o b o m : ________
2. City* state. and country or your birth:-------- __--------- __---------oouoiry
3. Whoro woro your p aronts born?
Fathor;__________: ___________________ Mother; —.... . —
city |UU oounlry city |UU couaby
4. Do your paronts roquiro assistanco from you? a.; yes b. , no
5 . I f y o s , p lo a s o d o s c r lb o th o ty p o o f a s s is ta n c e r o q u ir o d .
a. _____ monotary b. ^physical c._____ social d.. othor,
spocify:___ ______________________________
0 . A r o y o u d o in g b o tto r f i n a n c i a l l y t h a n y o u r p h ro n to a t a s i m i l a r a g o ?
w b n ttn r h . _ ilia c a m o c . — — n o t a 3 w o l l
7 . 'W h ic h o n o o f th o f o l l o w i n g g r o u p s d o y o u c o n s ld o r y o u r s o l f a x n o m b o r?
a . _______ A s l a n b . T il ante c . _ _ _ _ _ C a u c a s ia n «f T T ig p a ttic /T .a tin a
o. ____ Nativo Amorlcan f. Othor (spocify); -
0 . W h a t Is th o h l g h o s t lo v o l o f o d u c a tlo n t h a t y o u b a v o c o m p lo to d ?
b. _____ Mastor’ sDcgroo.Yoar_____.Major — -
rt. Dnrtnritl Dnpnn, Yflaf , ’ M’ njrty —
0. Did your mothor graduato from collogo? a.
yna - b._ _ no
10. Did your f athor graduato from collogo? a.
yna b. __ no
11. Did your paronts oncourago you to work following; graduation?
a. yna • b._ no
12. Did you work following graduation? a. yna b_. __ no
13. If yos, did you fool you had to work? a. ______ yos b.: __ no
14. How many yoars did you work following graduation?
15.’ Aro you currontly employed? a., „ no b. . fnTI.tfrne r .__ _ pnrfc-ilmo
10. Do you onjoy your work? a. yna b. no
17. What is your occupation? _
1 0 . I f n o t c u r r o n t ly e m p lo y od (d o n o t r o c o lv o p a y m o r tt f o r y o u r w o r k ) , p lo a s o e x p la i n th o
r o a s o n .
a . .... i r o t ir o d b . - h o m o m a lc tn g c . _______ p r o s s u r o f r o m h u s b a n d /f a m ily
d . . . h o a lt h o . _ _ _ _ _ p r o f o r n o t to f. n th n y .
10. W h a t la y o u r c u r r e n t m a r it a l s t a t u s ?
a .----------— -_ x n a r r lo d b . - w ld o w o d c . - d iv o r c o d
d . ■ s o p a r a to d o.. , n o v o r m a r r io d f. _ _ _ _ _ l i v i n g to g o lh o r
20. I f ovor marriod. what was tho yoar of yourwodding?
21. Did you livo togolhor boforo marrlago? a . ______
22. I f o v o r d iv o r c o d . h a v o y o u r o m a r r io d ?
R* - o n c o b . tw ic o c . _______ 3 t im e s *
d . . , t o r m o r o tlm o a o. _ _ _ _ _ n o v o r ‘
23. I f x n a r rlo d o r l i v i n g to g o lh o r , ia y o u r s p o u s o /p a r tn o r o m p lo y o d ?
a * — n ° b . .— . . f u ll- t im o c . p a r t - t im o
128
APPENDIX C
24. What was your approxlmato total gross housohold incomo la 1007?
a._____Bolow $25,000 b._____ $25,000-$49,099 c._____ $50,000-$74,999
d______$75,000-$99,999 o______ $100,000-$ 149.000 f._____ $150,000 and-abovo
25. How many chlldron do you havo? ___________________________ _______________ _
If you havo clilldron, answer tho noxt six questions.
25. Do/dld you work whllo child roaring? a. _______ yos b.. . . no
27. What Is tho ago of your youngest child?___________; ....— . . . .
20. If you stopped working when you had chlldron. did you roturn to tho worlc forco?
a ._____boforo tho chlldron wont to school
b. - whoa thoy woro In school
c. _____ whoa tho chlldron lolt homo
d. ______ did not roturn to tho work forco
29. Do/dld you havo & family xnombor who wlll/dld assist you with your chlldron when.
noodod? a .
- yea b. — - no
30. Aro your chlldron grown and living away from homo? a. yos.
b.
no
31. Do you havo grandchlldron? a.--__yos b. --no
02. In which rollglouo faith woro you ralsod?
a. - Pro to s I ant b. - Cathollo c. - Jo wish
d. _____ Othor (spocify) - .
03. What is your prosont religious proforonco?
a. ______ Pro lost ant b. _____ Protostant/Born Again c. ______ Cathollo
■ d. ______ Jo wish c. Othor (specify) -
34. Do you altond services?
a. ______ woolcly b. _______ monthly c. ______ sovoral tlmos a yoar d. _____ novor
05. Do you partlclpato in volunteor activities?
a. : yos b._____ no Tryni.whnm/what
30. If yos, how many hours awoolcdoyou volunteer your sorvlcos? - — -
37. • What aro your vlows on political mattors?
a. _____ cxtromoly liberal b._____ llboral c. _____ slightly llboral
d. middle of road o. slightly consorvatlvo f. - consorvatlvo
g. _____ cxtromoly consorvatlvo h- not suro
30. If your party nomlnatod a woman for prosldont, would you voto for hor if oho woro
quallflod for tho Job?
a. - . - yqs b. no c. would not voto d. - don’t know
39. Dldyoubocomo moro or I033 liberal as you malurod?
a. ______ moro llboral b. _____ loss liberal c. ____i samo
• 4 0 . Doyouoxorclsorogularly? ^ a._____ yos b. _______ no
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Would you llko to rocolvo tho xosults of tho study when It Is complotod?
a. . yes b. ■ no
Would you bo intorostod in participating in & tolophono intorvlow at alator dato? If yoa ,
ploaso wrlto your tolophono number hero.
Area carlo;. Humber*
129
APPENDIX D
COVER LETTER
J o a n M . J a c o b s o n , K .N ., M .S .N .
900 A rte s ia B oulevard, S u ite 170
Redondo Beach, C a lifo rn ia 90277
A p ril 2,1988
D ear U SC A lum na:
I am a Ph.D . candidate at the U n iv e rs ity of Southern C alifo rn ia. I am
w ritin g to ask y o u r help in the study that I am conducting on how w om en’s
lives have been changing since the end of W orld W ar I I and the beginning of
the B ab y Boom . The purpose of the survey is to gain info rm atio n about
w om en as th ey liv e th e ir lives and m ature in our ever changing society. In
the past, v e ry few studies have addressed w om en’s experiences, and m an y
of those havo been conducted by m ale researchers.
The research project is p a rt of m y D octoral D issertation and the USC
A lu m n i A ssociation is assisting mo in this effort because they aro in te r
ested in obtaining in fo rm ation about USC wom en. Y o u r nam e was chosen
at random from the a lu m n i roster,, and if you choose to participate in the
study, y o u r anonym ity w ill bo assured.
Y o u r cooperation and tho tim e you spend in answ ering the questions
(about 30 to 45 m inutes) w ill help to c la rify some of the misconceptions and
provide now insights about wom en, th eir fam ilies, careers, and th eir feel
ings nboutlifo in general. Y o u r response w ill bo sig n ifican t in assuring tho
success of the study.
Please answ er the questionnaires and return them in the enclosed stamped
and addressed envelope. The identification num ber on the envelope is for
postal p'urposes only.
Y o u r p artic ip a tio n w ill be v e ry im portant in adding to the inform ation
about w hat wom en are th in k in g and doing. In appreciation fo r yo u r help I
w ould lik e to send you a copy of m y recent publication. M iddle Lessons,
w h ich answers some of the questions wom en have asked m e during m y
n u rsin g career.
I need y o u r re p ly b y M a y 1, 1988. I w ill be m ost hap p y to answ er any
questions that you m ay have w hich are sent to the above address. T h an k
you fo r yo u r help.
Sincerely,
Joan M . Jacobson, Ph.D. Candidate
I
130
APPENDIX E
FILE CODES FOR DEMOGRAPHIC SURVEY
Note: 0= not applicable, 999= missing data
;Var.# Code Range Description
1. Class '55—'75 21 Graduated Year Groups
2 . CN 1-992 (code number)
3. ANXS 20-80 (anxiety state)
,4. ANXT 20-80 (anxiety trait)
5.
LS 40-200 (life satisfaction)
6. AGE 35-55 (3 groups: 35-42, 43-48,
49-55)
7. BIRPDF 1-2 (birthplace; domestic/
foreign)
8. BIRPUSR 1,2,3 (birthplace; urban, suburban,
rural)
9. FBIR 1,2 (father's birthplace;
domestic, foreign)
•
o
H
MBIR 1,2 (mother's birthplace;
domestic, foreign)
•
H
H
RPAR 1,2 (required parental assistance:
yes, no)
12 . FPAR 1,2,3,4 (form of parental assistance:
monetary, physical, social,
other)
131
i
I
i
, 13-
FCPAR 1,2,3 (comparison between parents
and subject: better, same, not
as well)
14 . RACE 1,2,3,4,5,6 (Asian, Black, Caucasian,
Hispanic/Latina, Native
American, Other)
15. AGEB 19. . . . (age received B.S. Degree)
16. AGEM 22 ... . (age received Master’s degree)
17. AGED 2 4.... (age received Doctor1s degree)
18. MOTHERG 1,2 (mother college grad.: yes,
no)
19. FATHERG 1,2 (father college grad.: yes,
no)
20. PAREE 1,2 (parental encouragement in
employment after graduation.:
yes, no)
21. AFGE 1,2 (after graduation employment:
yes, no)
22 . NECE 1,2 (necessity to be employed:
yes, no)
23 . AGYRE 1. . . . (years employed after grad.)
24. CURE 1,2,3, (currently employed: no,
part-time, full-time)
25. ENJE 0,1,2,3 (enjoyment of employment: not
relevant, yes, no, sometimes)
132
26. EME
27. NCURE
28. CURMAR
29. AGEMAR
30. LTBMAR
31. XMAR
17. . .
0,1,2
32. SPEMAR 1,2,3
33. HI
1-87 (employment/ occupation type;
see Appendix)
0,1,2,3,4,5,6 (reasons for unemployment: not
employed, retired, homemaking,
pressure from family, health,
prefer not to, other)
1,2,3,4,5,6 (current marital status:
married, widowed, divorced,
separated, never married,
living together)
(age when married)
(lived together before
marriage: not relevant, yes,
no)
0,1,2,3,4,5 (times remarried after
divorce: not relevant, once,
twice, three times, four or
more, never)
(spouse/ partner employment:
no, full-time, part-time)
1,2,3,4,5,6, (household income: <$2 5,000,
$25,000-49,999,
$50,000-74,999,
$75,000-99,999,
$100,00-149,999, $150,00 and
133
34. NUMCH
35. EWCH
36
37
AYCH
RECH
38. FACH
[39. VNCH
40. GRCH
0, 1-8
0,1,2
0,1...
0,1,2,3,4
0,1,2
0,1,2
0,1,3
41. CHFAREL 1,2,3,4
;42. PREFREL 1,2,3,4,5
above)
(number of children)
(employment while child
rearing: not relevant, yes,
no)
(age of youngest child)
(reentry to the work force
with children: not relevant,
before school, during school,
when left home, never)
(family assistance with
children: not relevant, yes,
no)
("vacant nest": not relevant,
yes, no)
(grandchildren: not relevant,
yes, no)
(childhood religious faith/
preference: Protestant,
Catholic Jewish, Other
(present religious preference
Protestant, Protestant/Born
Again, Catholic, Jewish,
Other)
134
| 43 .
I
I
i
I
i
, 44 .
45.
46.
47.
48.
!
49.
50.
PRREL 1,2,3,4
PARVOL 1, 2
HRVOL . 5. .
TVOL 1-71
VPOL 1-8
WPPOL 1,2,3,4
CGPOL 1,2,3
REGEX 1,2
(present religious practice:
weekly, monthly, several times
a year, never)
(participation in volunteer
activities: yes, no)
(hours per week of
volunteerism)
(type of volunteer activity)
(political views: ex. liberal,
liberal, si. liberal, middle/
road, si. conserv., conserv.,
ex. conserv., not sure
(voting for a woman for
president: yes, no, would not
vote, don't know)
(change in political views:
more liberal, less liberal,
same)
(regular exercise: yes, no)
135
APPENDIX F
MAILING PROCEDURES
The bulk rate mailing procedure was used and required
purchasing a Bulk Rate Mailing Permit for $100.00, which
enabled the purchase of a 12.5-cent pre-cancelled stamp.
The pre-cancelled stamp presented a more professional
presentation in the interest of influencing a high rate of
return. Bulk rate mailing regulations required that each
of the 2730 packets be sorted according to postal zip code
and placed in mail bags labeled according to zip code. In
all, this resulted in 24 separate mail bags filled with
surveys, which were mailed to women from American Samoa to
every state excluding Alabama, Maine, Nebraska, New
Hampshire, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and South Dakota. 1
2,400 surveys were mailed to zip codes in California with j
the remaining 3 30 surveys mailed out of state. The |
mailing was greatly enhanced by the random generated
address labels, which were affixed to each of the packets.
A return address that directed the surveys to a post
f
office box in a Southern California city was printed on
the outside envelope. In addition, a code number was
'stamped on each of the return envelopes. Each code number
contained a class number and an individual number
i
designation for each subject for example; 55001, 55002,
..., 55130. Each of the code numbers was recorded on a
136
master list next to the name of the appropriate
prospective subject. This numbering system was known only
to the researcher, and all of the participants were
assured anonymity.
Originally, it was planned to follow up the mailing
with a post card to remind the subjects to return the j
I
packets to the researcher. Because the response rate of j
41 percent was considered sufficient for statistical
analysis it was decided to eliminate this step. Babbie
(1986) suggests that a response rate of no less than 3 0 j
percent is desired for accurate reporting and analysis. ,
All of the surveys that were returned by the postal j
j
service with a return address affixed were re-submitted |
i
|with the correct addresses and new first class postage. j
j
(Many of these were ultimately returned by the subjects.
It should be noted that, while the bulk rate is I
i
)
economical, it does not provide for forwarding as does 1
first class mail. First class postage was required for
t
the return mailing because it was mailed by an individual |
and not in bulk.
137
*The actual
question for
occupation.
Public Health Education 4
Teaching: Elementary,
Secondary 319
Psychologist 16
Medical Technologist 5
Dental Hygiene 82
Counseling 18
Business Major 10
School Administrator 27
Social Work 20
Recreation Administrator 1
Nursing Instructor 1
Occupational Therapy/
Physical Therapy 53
Real Estate: Management,
Broker, Sales 3 0
President/ Vice President/
Owner of Company (Furniture,
Jewelry) 21
Physician 7
the
the
Office Manager 24
Lawyer 31
Bio/ Medical Research 5
Administrator/
Financial Manager
Payroll, Personnel 30 (
Marketing: Medical,
Pharmaceutical,
Customer Services 23 ,
Bank Manager 8 ;
I
Consultant 9
i
Movie/ Television
Production, Schedule 9 !
9 I
! .
Accountant 9
Anthropologist 2 I
I
Hotel Manager 1 j
Music Company/ Motion |
Picture Music 1 I
I
Professor 13 !
APPENDIX G
TYPES OF OCCUPATIONS
number of individuals who answered
each occupation is listed next to
138
Environmental Scientist 1
Director of Special Events/
Public Relations 8
Travel Agent 9
Secretary 16
Archaeologist 1
Regional Director 1
Medical Transcriptionalist 4
Librarian 6
Principal/ Asst. Principal 6
Designer/ Fashion,
Manufacturing 3
Retail Management 3
Artist 4
Assistant Dean 5
Recording/ Reader of Books 1
Psychology Major 3
International Relations Major 2
Computer Software/ Design
Analyst, Programer, Research 15
Dentist 1
Financial Manager 3
Photographer 1
Proof Reader 1
Biology/ Zoology Major 4
Advertising 4
Interior Decorator 8
Floral Designer 1
Audiologist 4
Veterinarian 1
Museum Registrar 1
Quality Assurance/
Analyst 2
Engineer 1
Farm Manager/ Owner 3
Nurse 31
Diatetics 9
Insurance Supervisor 5
Geophysist 1
Architect 1
Journalism Major 1
Bookeeper 7
Law Librarian 2
Revenue Agent 1
Registered Jeweler 2
Chemical Engineer 1
Antique Book Dealer 3
Certified Financial/
Analyst, Consultant 6
Fund Raiser 2
139
Field Representative/
California State Legislator 3
Fashion Consultant/ Model 2
Church Organist 1
Editor/ Writer 6
Retail Sales 4
Student/ Law, Psychology,
Auto Worker/ Union Official 1
Flight Attend./ Airline
Sales 2
Minister 1
Aerobic Instructor 1
Politician/City 1
Pharmacist 2
Accupuncturist 1
i
i
i
APPENDIX H
TYPES OF RELIGIONS
The major religions encountered in the sample
encompassed 2 85 Protestants, 64 Born Again Christians, 148
Catholic, and 74 Jews. It should be recalled that type of
religion did not show variation in LS, ANXT, or ANXS. The
remaining who answered the question are found in the
following religions listed below.
Moslem
Buddhist
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints
Orthodox
Diest
Self Realization Fellowship
Church of Religious Science
Christian Scientist
Sufie Dances of Universal Peace
Agnostic (declared as religion)
Serbian Orthodox
Science of Mind
Unitarian/ Unity
Athenius Society
Spiritualist
Metaphysical
Any local Church
141
Moonie/ Unification Church
Eastern Esotericism
New Age
Jehovah's Witness
Armenian Apostate
Pagan Universal/ Athiest
Taoist
Apostolic (Holiness)
On religion, one person noted that her childhood
religion was "any local church" while another stated
that she was a "laid back Christian." Certainly, prior
to the women's movement a woman in the ministry was
unheard of. Even more unique is the woman in this
i
study who is not only in the ministry but she states !
that she has been divorced twice. I
APPENDIX I
TYPES OF VOLUNTEER ACTIVITIES
j As if to underscore the feelings expressed by many
i
■midlife woman in her cohort, a fifty-four year old
jexpressed, "I feel privileged to have grown up in changing
jtimes. None of us has it all. I would like to be more
j
jfinancially independent but, all in all I am satisfied. I
I
jno longer am searching for new challenges. Satisfaction
jis now coming from love and giving service."
t Many women in the study participated in multiple
i
activities (272) such as children's school and
l
iextracurricular functions (63). Professional
organizations (17) and museum volunteering accounted for
!other types of participation. All examples of volunteer
I
(
!opportunities (70 in all) are recorded below. 1. Adult
S
j Literacy Tutor, Advocate
I
I 2. Junior League
j 3. Children's School Activities
4. Jewish Community Services
5. American Lung Association
j 6. United Way
| 7. American Heart Association
j 8. Hospice
i 9. Society of Women Engineers (career guidance and
development)
143
10. Historian (for local organization)
11. Senior Citizen Center
12. Dental Hygienist for Free Clinic
13. Special Olympics
14. University of Southern California: Trojan League,
Alumni Association, Town and Gown
i
j
15. Assistance League j
16. Long Beach Day Nursery j
17. Scouts j
(
18. John Tracy Clinic
19. Child Abuse Related Activities: Voices for Children
i
I
20. City of Hope
21. Theater Auxiliary
22. NCAAP j
i
23. VITA, Tax Assistance I
i
24. CPR Teaching 1
25. Beyond War ■
I
26. Feeding the Poor j
27. YMCA |
28. American Cancer Society j
!
29. Multiple '
30. Red Cross \
31. Docent/ Museum, Library !
i
32. Hospital Guild ;
i
33. Lukemia Society ,
144
34. Professional Organizations
35. Historical Society
36. American Association of University Women
37. Meals on Wheels
38. Future Farmers of America, 4H
39. Lay Ministry
40. Chamber Music Society/ Art, Music
41. Church
42. San Marino League
43. Juvenile Court System
44. Alcoholics Anonymous
45. League of Women Voters
46. Women's Club
47. Arthritis Foundation
48. Suicide Prevention Services
49. Disabled Children's Foundations
50. Elections/ Political Involvement
51. Sorority
52. Government/ City, State
53. Freedom's Foundation
54. Tutor
55. AAUW (American Association of University Women)
56. Volunteer for Public Radio and Television
57. Masonic Youth Organizations
58. Disabled Ski Program
145
59. Salvation Army
60. Orphanage
61. Auction Society
62. Editor, Gay Newspaper
63. Welcome Wagon
64. Library
65. Literacy Council
66. Ecology Watch
67. Seal Club
68. Family Clinic
69. Chinese Women*s Club
70. National Center for Study of Hyperactive Children
146
i
i
i APPENDIX J
I
! MISCELLANEOUS PERSONAL COMMENTS I
!
This appendix is included because it represents ,
i j
! stories told by individuals who are facing the many !
! . i
■ challenges m achievme a sense of life satisfaction ;
i
within newley formed social parameters. i
! !
Alternative Lifestyle j
One individual faulted the survey because it did not |
irelate to her lifestyle, which involved a committed, j
I :
|long-term relationship with another woman. 1
Blended Family
I
A contemporary aspect with regard to children and
| child rearing came from a woman who commented on blended
i family following divorce and the ensuing "turmoil over
i
jproblems with step-children, otherwise, my career and (
jmarried life are satisfying."
I
|The Women1s Movement
IA political activist in the Woman's Movement in the 70s
\
wrote that in spite of some advancement "in the 8 0s women
i
iare not making it in corporate America or academia because
i
jonly low paying positions are available to them." She
l
also wonders if some women use sex instead of money to
survive and claims that the "Pill" has liberated our :
bodies, but that attitudes toward women have not changed.
147
COURAGE
So many individuals live inspirational lives in spite
of having to deal with great tragedy and make all of us
jfeel insignificant. A moving note was written by a mother
about her blind daughter, an alumna who has reached great
Iheights in her struggle for excellence. The mother
jinterviewed her daughter by phone when the survey was
jreceived, something she has done consistently for her
i
daughter. Proudly, the mother related that her daughter,
through scholarships, had attained a Masters' degree and J
had achieved the highest grade point average of any :
student at the University. A plaque in her honor hangs in i
the Bovard Auditorium. Presently, the 40 year old woman
i
is married with two children. Her present position
i
involves tutoring a blind student. By the way, she walks (
!
to her job. Formerly, she was employed as a counselor for j
t
the probation department in her town.
"I continue to work as a computer and math teacher, in
i
addition to being the mother of two children (youngest is ;
two and a half) although I am a cancer patient. I was i
j
diagnosed 15 months ago and I had surgery and !
chemotherapy. I have a 50/50 chance of survival." So
much is left unsaid by this 39 year old woman, but the
courage in these words is unmistakable.
A 49 year old paraplegic writes "I continue to work
148
with the problems of life, living, and relationships." A
55 year old explained, "I have lost my hearing and I
am totally deaf, a recent turn. It has changed my life
not being able to talk on the telephone. But, there are
worse alternatives."
Two relatives of diseased alumna responded so
eloquently. A mother wrote, "Barbara was 43 when she died
of cancer. She put her husband through college, maybe
this was one of the reasons that her life always seemed
highly stressed."
"My wife was a great lady. Her death was from Toxic
Shock Syndrome in 1979 at age 40. I continue her
involvement in alumni activities, that was our joy." He
answered all of the questions on the demographic survey
for his wife.
A New Perception
A 45 year old who was making in excess of $100,000 a
year who was about to be married for the first time voiced
the hope that she would be able to have children.
Seemingly, the biological clock has no limit for this
woman. j
I
i
Words of Encouragement
So many wrote to congratulate and to encourage? one
in particular admonished me to "Fight On", while another
told me to "expect a miracle, work towards it and it will
( be yours." A 39 year old Judge remarked "It is a pleasure
i
'to see other women advancing and fulfilling their dreams."
I
jSeveral others were so enthusiastic about the project that
i
;they offered names and addresses of their friends who were
I
‘alumna? however, because of the randomness of the sample,
r
lit was not possible to include them in the survey.
Finally, one woman who may be the most philosophical
of the group wrote? "Some run for glory, some run for
imedals, but I want to run for eternal youth. I want to
I
|
llive long and die young."

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Asset Metadata

Creator Jacobson, Joan Mathews (author)

Core Title Midlife "baby-boom" women compared to their older counterparts in midlife

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Psychology, clinical,women's studies

Language English

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-526107

Unique identifier UC11246721

Identifier usctheses-c26-526107 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP25280.pdf

Dmrecord 526107

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Jacobson, Joan Mathews

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA