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The effect of variation of race and sex of mediated vocational role models upon Black urban female junior high school students

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The effect of variation of race and sex of mediated vocational role models upon Black urban female junior high school students

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Content THE EFFECT OF VARIATION OF RACE AND SEX OF
MEDIATED VOCATIONAL ROLE MODELS UPON BLACK
URBAN FEMALE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
by
Pamela Dawn JabIonsky
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Education)
September 1980
UMI Number: DP24777
All rights reserved
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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
TH E G RADUATE SC HO O L
U N IV E R S IT Y PARK
LOS ANGELES, C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7
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This dissertation, written by
Pam ela Dawn J a b Io n s k y srt-v-vH
under the direction of h.§.¥... Dissertation Com-
mittee, and approved by all its members, has ^
been presented to and accepted by The Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of
the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
DISSERTATION C O M M ITTEE
2 ? l . .
Chairman
UNIVERSITY OF
SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
LIBRARY ^
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES...................................... iv
Chapter
I * THE PROBLEM........................ 1
Background of the Problem ................... 1
Statement of the Problem................... 5
Importance of the Study..................... 7
Research Hypotheses ............. 9
Methodology .................................. 9
Assumptions.......... 11
Delimitations ................................ 11
Limitations.................................. 11
Definition of Terms......................... 12
II. LITERATURE REVIEW ....... 14
Making Occupational Choices . ............... 14
Observational Learning....................... 16
Vocational Role Models . .................. 17
Symbolic Models ............................. 19
Role Model Variables.................. 20
Race of the Role Model . . .................. 23
Black Subjects' Responses to Role Models . . 24
Prestige Preference Correlations ...... 25
Summary ............................. 27
III. METHODOLOGY.................................... 29
Pilot Questionnaire......................... 29
Experimental Design ......................... 35
Experimental Variables... .................... 35
Experimental Materials.................. . 35
Analysis . ................................ 40
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION....................... 41
ii
Chapter Page
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . 49
Summary............................... 49
Conclusions........................... 50
Recommendations....................... 52
BIBLIOGRAPHY................................. 53
APPENDIXES................................... 61
APPENDIX A PILOT QUESTIONNAIRE FORM ........... 62
APPENDIX B PILOT QUESTIONNAIRE INSTRUCTIONS * . 65
APPENDIX C PILOT QUESTIONNAIRE RESPONSES . . . . 68
APPENDIX D PRESENTATION SEQUENCE: MODELS AND
OCCUPATIONS ' IN TREATMENT PROGRAMS . 71
APPENDIX E TREATMENT PROGRAM SCRIPTS ...... 73
APPENDIX F INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS FOR
EXPERIMENTAL QUESTIONNAIRE .... 146
APPENDIX G EXPERIMENT QUESTIONNAIRE FORM .... 150
APPENDIX H RAW SCORES BY SUBJECT.............. 152
iii
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Median Money Wage or Salary Income
of All Workers........................... 6
2. Graeco-Latin Square .......................... 36
3. Race and Sex of Model Portraying the
Occupation for which Subject
Expressed Preference ..................... 42
4. Rank Sums by Race and Sex of Model in
Response to the Question "Rank the Four
Occupations According to their Educational
Requirements." A Score of One Indicated
the Highest Requirement; a Score of
Four, the Lowest......................... 44
5. Rank Sums by Race and Sex of Model in
Response to the Question "Rank the Four
Occupations According to their Importance."
A Score of One Indicated the Greatest
Importance; a Score of Four, the Least . . 46
6. Rank Sums by Race and Sex of Model in
Response to the Question "Rank the Four
Occupations According to Salary Level."
A Score of One Indicated the Highest
Level; a Score of Four, the Lowest .... 46
7. Rank Sums by Race and Sex of Model in
Response to the Question "Rank the Four
Occupations According to Advancement
Potential." A score of One Indicated the
Highest Potential; a Score of Four,
the Lowest................................ 47
iv
---
CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM
The purpose of this study was to examine the responses
of urban Black female junior high school students to
vocational role models portrayed in specially-constructed
slide tapes by persons varying in race and sex.
Specifically, the investigator sought to determine whether
the subjects' expressed preferences of occupation, and
their perceptions of occupational prestige were influenced
by the race and sex of the vocational role models they had
observed.
Background of the Problem
The process by which people seek, select, and attain
their occupations is described as vocational development.
A subject of investigation for many years, researchers
decry the leaving of such important decisions to chance,
and consequently seek knowledge of the process in order to
facilitate informed intervention and guidance by trained
counselors. Years of study have produced the consensual
finding that knowledge of a wide variety of occupations
1
is a critical step prior to the making of an informed
decision.
How do youngsters learn about occupations? Early work
postulated the importance of role models, and identified
the parents as the most significant "vocational role
models." Later studies have suggested that enterprising
young people are attuned to other vocational role models,
notably people who hold the occupation (Uzzell, 1961;
Simpson & Simpson, 1963; Almquist & Angrist, 1971; Pallone,
Rickard & Hurley, 1970, 1973).
But are the requisite vocational role models available
to everyone? Researchers consistently cite the dearth of
suitable vocational role models for minority and female
youngsters as a real barrier to the vocational
mainstreaming of these populations, frequently stratified
in lower paying jobs (Patterson, 1973; Smith, 1975; Burlin,
1976).
Modern evidence that mediated, or "symbolic," role
models are an adequate substitute for live role models is
offered by Bandura and Walters (1963). This knowledge
provides the unique opportunity to systematically introduce
a diverse collection of role models into the career
awareness programs of young people through audio-visual
2
means. This would benefit the vocational development of
all, but particularly the students who historically have
had few vocational role models: minorities and women.
Research has identified three principal critical
variables in role models: the prestige of the model, the
competence of the model, and the perceived similarity
between the model and the subject.
Studies done with samples varying in age, race, and
socioeconomic status have revealed the subjects' persistent
attendance to cues, subtle and otherwise, identifying the
model as competent in his/her "work" (Rosenbaum & Tucker,
1962), and as a prestigious and respected individual
(Miller & Dollard, 1941; Bandura & Walters, 1963? Bandura,
1969).
The work done to assess the effects of "perceived
similarity to the model," however, has been comparatively
limited in the dimensions of similarity considered. These
studies have dealt with verbal explanations of social
similarities (Rosekrans, 1967), and with sex of the model.
Like-sex has been found by a number of independent
investigations to be a significant factor in observational
learning (Maccoby & Wilson, 1957; Krumboltz, Varenhorst &
Thoresen, 1967? Plost & Rosen, 1974).
3
Virtually no studies on the significance of the role
model's race have been done. The extent to which race is a
part of "perceived similarity" remains to be explored.
Previous role model studies have dealt almost
exclusively with white subjects. Several career theorists
(Chansky, 1965; Smith, 1975) warn of the danger of
generalizing white subject research across other races.
Exploratory work is needed to assess the reactions of non-
Caucasian students to role models varying in race and sex.
Another important variable is the age of the subjects.
Is there a "critical period" for vocational role model
introduction? Many career theorists believe so (Ginzberg,
Ginsburg, Axelrad & Herma, 1951; Gesell, Ilg & Ames, 1956;
Super, 1957; Hollender, 1971). They identify the ages of
twelve to fourteen as the exploratory stage of vocational
development in young people. It is a time when vocational
information is sought, directly and indirectly, and
preliminary decisions are made.
Plost and Rosen (1974) conducted symbolic vocational
role model studies with white middle-class suburban junior
high school students in this age range. They showed the
subjects slide tapes featuring white male and white female
role models portraying professions in the computer
4
industry. Their findings showed gravitation by both sexes
toward the like-sex model, with the female students
preferring the like-sex model significantly more often than
the males.
However, what happens when the variable "race" is
added to the mix, and the resulting experiment is tested
on an urban population? This investigator has elected to
test the responses of young Black women. Historically, the
Black female has been the lowest paid, and the lowest
status group of worker on the United States Census
statistical tables (see Table 1). Is similarity of sex
the most important variable, as Plost and Rosen's (1974)
work has suggested, or will similarity of race influence
more young Black women? Must a symbolic vocational role
model be both like-race and like-sex for maximum
influence, or will race and sex of the role model have no
influence upon this population?
Statement of the Problem
After viewing a slide tape presentation about science
careers, the following questions are proposed: Will the
expressed occupational preference of Black urban female
junior high school students be significantly affected by
5
Table 1
Median Money Wage or Salary Income of All Workers
Year
Male Female
White
Negro
and
Other
Races White
Negro
and
Other
Races
1970 $8,254 $5,485 $3,870 $3,285
1969 7,859 5,237 3,640 2,884
1968 7,291 4,839 3,465 2,497
1967 6,833 4,369 3,254 2,288
1966 6,510 3,864 3,079 1,981
1965 6,188 3,563 2,994 1,722
1964 5,853 3,426 2,841 1,652
1963 5,663 3,217 2,723 1,448
1962 5,462 3,023 2,630 1,396
1961 5,287 3,015 2,538 1,802
1960 5,137 3,075 2,537 1,276
1959 4,902 2,844 2,422 1,289
1958 4,569 2,652 2,364 1,055
1957 4,396 2,436 2,240 1,019
1956 4,260 2,396 2,179 970
1955 3,986 2,342 2,065 894
1954 3,754 2,131 2,046 914
1953 3,760 2,233 2,049 994
1952 3,507 2,038 1,976 814
1951 3,345 2,060 1,855 781
1950 2,982 1,828 1,698 626
1939 1,112 460 676 246
Note. From United States Department of Commerce, Bureau
of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States
Colonial Times to 1970, vol. 1 (Washington, D.C.;
Government Printing Office, 1975), p. 304.
6
the race and/or sex of the vocational role models they have
viewed? Will the perceived prestige of each occupation as
expressed by Black urban female junior high school students
be significantly affected by the race and/or sex of the
vocational role models they have viewed?
Importance of the Study
.... complex problems of career development [face]
women and minorities. Increasing their career
opportunities is not an easy task. Creative means
must be sought by persons in the helping professions
to assist in this endeavor...........we need to look
for more ways to help women and minorities:
(a) to become aware of career possibilities,
(b) to explore career opportunities, and
(c) to prepare for careers. (Miles, 1977, p. 360)
Extensive research has documented the fact that ready
access to vocational role models representing a wide
variety of occupations may benefit virtually every student
during the "exploratory" stage of vocational development,
that is, roughly twelve to fourteen years of age. A know
ledge of many occupational opportunities must result in a
more informed choice.
However, research also documents the groups that have
historically had few available role models: minority
youth and young women. There is evidence that existing
audio-visual technology could help meet these needs through
7
"symbolic" role models (models portrayed on film or tape).
Furthermore, federal money is available for such "main-
streaming" efforts. Given the opportunity, then, to
"provide" role models for these groups, it is incumbent
upon us to learn more about the perceptions of minorities
and young women when confronted by such role models. In
order to shape the symbolic models for maximum impact and
influence, what variables are critical?
The importance of carrying out this line of
investigation cannot be overestimated. If carefully
"manufactured" role models can be provided minority and
female youngsters during the critical phases of their
vocational development with the ease of taking a film or
slide tape down from the schoolroom shelf, this type of
cost-effective vocational counseling intervention could
significantly affect the alarming occupational stratifi
cation of these populations. With new legislation and
attitudes about equal opportunity employment in America,
the occupations actually available to these groups are more
diverse than ever before. The chance exists that their
ability and will to take advantage of these opportunities
could be influenced by symbolic vocational role models.
8
Research Hypotheses
H - j ^ : the sample of urban Black female junior high
school students investigated will express a preference
significantly more often for the occupation portrayed by
the like~race> like-sex symbolic model.
U-2: The sample of urban Black female junior high
school students investigated will, in ranking the four
occupations along four measures of occupational prestige,
significantly more often rank the occupation portrayed by
the like-race> like-sex model lower than any other.
Methodology
Past research (Roe, 1956? Shinar, 1975) identified a
list of occupations that were not commonly sex-typed. A
pilot questionnaire utilizing occupations from this list
queried a sample of urban junior high school students
similar in composition to the experimental sample about
their perceptions. The questionnaire responses identified
eight occupations which students felt that a person of any
race or sex could hold, or occupations with which they
were not familiar (and consequently had no a priori
stereotypes).
9
Four of the eight occupations so identified were
equivalent, college educated scientific positions, and were
selected for the experimental treatments. The treatments
consisted of four color slide and audio tape presentations.
Each of the four presentations featured general information
about each one of the four scientific occupations, but the
presentation versions differed from each other in three
ways: role models portraying each of the occupations
varied in race and sex, and each portrayed a different
occupation in each version. The order in which the role
models appeared varied, and the order in which the
occupations appeared varied. After viewing one version of
the presentation, students completed a questionnaire
requiring them to (1) identify the occupation they would
prefer of the four they had seen, and (2) rank each of the
four occupations along four measures of occupational
prestige: educational requirements, importance, salary
level, and advancement potential.
The programs were viewed by all class members, but
only the data from the Black female students were analyzed.
10
Assumptions
1. Expressed occupational preferences will be
generated by the subjects based upon perception of the
model's race and sex.
2. Expressed ranking of the four occupations will,
along with four measures of occupational prestige, be
generated by the subjects based upon perception of the race
and sex of the «models portraying each occupation.
Delimitations
1. The sample of Black, female, urban junior high
school students will consists of intact, eighth grade core
classes in an urban Southern California junior high school.
2. Only two races, Black and White, will be
portrayed in the treatment programs; the data from only the
*
female Black students will be tabulated.
Limitations
1. The treatment length is approximately fifteen
minutes.
2. The color slides are shown on 6 feet by 6 feet
classroom screens, in group settings.
11
3, There is no discussion period, individualized
materials, or followup.
Definition of Terms
Observational learning; ". . . . the tendency for a
person to reproduce the actions, attitudes, or emotional
responses exhibited by real-life or symbolic models"
(Bandura & Walters, 1963, p. 89).
Role model; "An individual whose behavior in a parti
cular role provides a pattern or model upon which another
individual bases his behavior in performing the same role.
A role model need not be personally known to the individ
ual, nor living, nor necessarily real, and may include
public figures, historical figures, and legendary heroes"
(Theodorson & Theodorson, 1969, p. 355).
Symbolic models: ". . . . models presented through
oral or written instructions, pictorially, or through a
combination of verbal and pictorial devices" (Bandura &
Walters, 1963, p. 89).
Type (as in race-type; sex-type): "A pattern of
traits of an individual, group, or culture, that dis
tinguishes it from other individuals, groups, etc."
(Theodorson & Theodorson, 1969, p. 444).
12
Vocational development: ". . . . the process of
growth and learning which underlies the sequence of
vocational behavior . . . vocational orientation, choice,
adjustment, and retirement . . - [with] the emphasis on
process over a period of time" (Super, Crites, Hummel,
Moser, Overstreet & Warnath, 1957, p. vii).
13
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter outlines the existing research basis for
this study. It includes discussions of the critical period
for occupational decision making, the influence of role
models, critical role model variables, pertinent existing
black subject research, and prestige preference correlation
work.
Making Occupational Choices
How are occupational choices made? What are the
critical milestones in the path by which youngsters become
working adults? A thorough understanding of the answers to
these questions would facilitate support and intervention
by vocational counselors. The principal contribution of
such intervention would be the lessening of the element of
chance in occupational decisions.
The dean of early investigative work into the process
by which human beings seek, select, and attain occupations
(Super, 1953), postulated the existence of an "exploratory
stage" in a young person's vocational development.
14
Divided into three parts, "fantasy," "tentative," and
"realistic," the exploratory stage commences with idle
thoughts about work and ends with a firm decision. What
factors affected this decision? Super (1953) names:
". . . . parental socioeconomic level, mental ability,
personality characteristics, and . . . the opportunities to
which he is exposed" (pp. 189-190).
Some investigators argue convincingly for the
existence of a "critical period" during which serious
initial occupational decisions take place. For example,
Gesell, Ilg & Ames (1956) found that children reach
tentative decisions between the ages of thirteen and
sixteen. Hollender (1971) described the end of junior high
school as the beginning of a "realistic" stage of vocational
development. Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad and Herma, (1951)
identified the adolescent years (12-17) as the "tentative
period" when vocational awareness is formed and initial
choices made.
The opportunities to which youngsters are exposed is
identified throughout the research into the vocational
development process as a critical factor (Super &
Overstreet, 1960; Banducci, 1970; Nuckols & Banducci, 1974;
Hamdani, 1977). From the earliest work at the beginning of
15
this century to the most modern investigations, vocational
development researchers are virtually unanimous on the
importance of a thorough knowledge of a wide variety of
occupations prior to the making of a choice. Such know
ledge, when available, is commonly derived from various
sources (Encicott, 1931; Peters, 1941; Super, 1953, 1957;
Parker, 1963).
Observational Learning
Early studies consistently identified the like-sex
parent as the chief source of information about work. Boys
sought to "follow in their father's footsteps"; girls
learned homemaking skills in the kitchens of their mothers.
Though such activities did not consist of formal
teaching about homemaking as a vocation, or the pros and
cons of farming from a didactic, objective point of view,
they constituted a most powerful form of learning not
widely recognized until relatively recently: observational
learning.
Observational learning bears many names in the
literature: vicarious learning (Logan, Olmsted, Rosner,
Schwartz & Stevens, 1955; Kanfer & Duerfeldt, 1967),
identification (Bancura & Huston, 1961; Sears, Maccoby &
16
Levin, 1957), and imitative learning (Bandura, Ross & Ross,
1961). Observational learning takes place as a consequence
of watching, listening to, and imitating the behaviors of
another, often unconsciously. The observed person thus
becomes a role model. Parents serve as role models for
their children in many important ways other than
vocationally. In agrarian times, when populations were
sparse, and consistent interaction with many other adults
was lacking, it is likely that parents were the only, or at
least , the principal, role models. In modern times, when
occupations and expectations are more diversified, and
parents themselves may urge upward mobility, contemporary
investigations suggest that young people learn occupational
information from many role models. Today, vocational role
models may or may not be parents.
Vocational Role Models
Consistently identified by the literature as a source
of significant importance is a person who holds the job.
Studies naming such a person as the principal influence
upon youngsters include those done with a population of
white college students (Simpson & Simpson, 1963; Almquist &
Angrist, 1971), Black male high school students (Uzzell,
17
1961) and Black, White, and Puerto Rican boys and girls
(Pallone, Rickard & Hurley, 1970, 1973).
How necessary is the presence of a role model to the
vocational development process? Marr (1965) summarizes the
majority of opinion among vocational development
investigators: ". . . . absence of a role model makes
vocational choice difficult" (p. 407).
Suitably diverse vocational role models are difficult
for nearly every youngster to find, but particularly so for
minority adolescents and young women of any race. The
United States Department of Commerce (1975) statistics show
these groups commonly clustered in lower-status, lower-
paying occupations. Where can upwardly mobile members of
these groups find the necessary role models to help them
take advantage of today's social and legislative changes
designed to eliminate the occupational stratification of
the past? Several studies have specifically concluded that
this is a crucial step in bridging the occupational gab of
past years, both in the case of young women (Patterson,
1973; Burlin, 1976) and young Black men and women (Moynihan,
1965; Smith, 1975; Miles, 1977).
18
Symbolic Models
Bandura, who devoted a great deal of his professional
life to the study of the influence of role models upon
children, argued the equivalency of role models presented
through audio-visual media, or "symbolic models," to live
role models. He suggested that media-wise youngsters have
learned (consciously or unconsciously) to learn from such
symbolic models as a consequence of mass media exposure:
"Because of the amount of time during which most young
people are exposed to pictorially presented models, mainly
through television, such models play a major part in
shaping behavior . . . and thus exert a strong influence on
the behavior of children and adolescents" (Bandura &
Walters, 1963, p. 49).
The influence of symbolic models upon children is
documented by substantial research. Lovaas (1961), and
Mussen and Rutherford (1961), for example, influenced the
aggressive play of children by exposing them to filmed
aggressive models. Hamilton and Bergland (1971), and
Thoresen and Hamilton (1972), influenced the career
exploratory behaviors of adolescents by showing them films
of similarly aged models seeking career information.
19
Modern sociological literature commonly identifies symbolic
models alongside parents and peers as key socialization
agents of children (Weitz, 1977; Elkin & Handel, 1978).
Horton and Wohl (1956) describe the intimate relationship
between a viewer and symbolic models:
One of the striking characteristics of the new mass
media— radio, television, and the movies— is that they
give the illusion of a face-to-face relationship with
the performer. The conditions of response to the per
former are analogous to those in a primary group. The
most remote and illustrious men are set as if they
were in the circle of one's peers; the same is true of
a character in a story who comes to life in these
media in an especially vivid and arresting way. If
television especially, the image which is presented
makes available nuances of appearance and gesture to
which ordinary social perception is attentive and to
which interaction is cued . . . the audience . . . is
. . . subtly insinuated into the program's action and
internal social relationships. . . . This simulation
of conversational give and take may be called para-
social interaction. (p. 215)
Role Model Variables
Three critical variables which influence the accept
ability of role models have been identified by past studies:
(1) the perceived prestige of the model (Miller & Dollard,
1941; Bandura & Walters, 1963; Bandura, 1969); (2) the per
ceived competence of the model (Rosenbaum & Tucker, 1962);
and the perceived similarity of the model (Rosekrans, 1967;
Krumboltz, Varenhorst & Thoresen, 1967).
20
The third factor on that list is an intriguing one,
with significant ramifications particularly for minorities
and women. A number of "similarities" have been specifi
cally identified as critical.
Rosekrans (1967) showed films of a young male model to
pre-adolescent boys, explaining the "similarities" between
the model and the viewer to one group, and the
"dissimilarities" between the model and the viewer to the
second. The "similarities" group was told" ". . . . he's
a boy scout just like you . . . he lives here in [subject's
home town] . . . and goes to . . . the same kind of school
as you do. It looks as though he is a lot like you are"
(p. 309). The "dissimilarities" group was told: ". . . .
he lives in another state far away . . . he doesn't go to
the same kind of school as you do . . . it looks as though
he is not very much like you are at all. He doesn't like
to do the things you like to do" (p. 309).
Both groups then watched the filmed model play a
manipulative game, which they were asked to duplicate
afterward. Rosekrans (1967) found that the boys from the
"similarities" group had learned to play far more
skillfully than the boys from the "dissimilarities" group.
21
Such artificially induced information about "similar
ity, " however, is frequently not available from potential
role models. What about readily perceived characteristics,
such as the race and sex of the model? Maccoby and Wilson
(1957) found that similarity in sex to a filmed hero elici
ted greater identification from viewers. Krumboltz and
Schroeder (1965) successful in influencing male subjects
but not female, to imitate the information seeking behavior
of live male vocational counselors and a tape recording of
a male counselee, expressed their suspicion that the role
models' sex was the salient factor. Subsequent work
(Krumboltz, Varenhorst & Thoresen, 1967) using exclusively
female counselors and female subjects supported their
hypothesis when the information seeking behavior of the
subjects was significantly increased in the manner of that
of the male subjects of the previous study.
Plost and Rosen (1974) studied the relationship
between sex of student and sex of vocational role model in
specially created slide tapes depicting occupations
unassociated commonly with either sex. Using a white
suburban population of junior high school students, they
drew these conclusions: (1) students did tend to indicate
a preference for occupations portrayed by like-sex models;
22
and (2) female students tended to select occupations by
like-sex models significantly more frequently than male
students.
Race of the Role Model
The importance of the race of the vocational role
model is a virtually unexplored subject. Henderson (1967)
argued that providing Negro role models alone to Negro
children is detrimental to their subsequent vocational
mainstreaming. He pointed out that "Middle class Negro role
models are functional for improving the self-concepts of
lower class Negro children, but they do not provide the
total range of occupational choices" (p. 7). Henderson
further lammented: ". . . . the implied importance that
this places upon 'race, overshadowing occupational
competency1" (p. 7).
We have learned from previous studies that perceived
competency is certainly a critical variable in role models,
and agree with Henderson that it should not be neglected in
favor of race alone. His point is well taken regarding the
need to represent "the total range of occupational choices."
However, knowing that "perceived similarity" is an import
ant factor in role model perception, we dare not disregard
the variable "race," without further investigation.
23
Black Subjects' Responses to Role Models
Some evidence of differential responses to role models
by young Black and white women exists. Oberle (1974)
attempted to identify the most significant role models for
Black and white female high school sophomores and seniors.
Both white groups consistently chose "close friends" as
exercising the most influence upon them, while the Black
sophomore girls chose "glamour figures, school counselors,
relatives, and parents." The Black senior girls hold out
special hope for the success of vocational counseling
intervention with their expressed choices "teachers and
school counselors."
Oberle, Stowers and Falk's (1978) findings suggested
that the place of residence (urban or rural) may be a
significant variable for role model choices among Black
youngsters, contrary to the findings of similar work done
with white students (Sewell, Haller & Portes, 1970), which
found no significant differences.
Thus, we have some evidence that reactions of Black
female subjects to symbolic role models differ
significantly in a variety of ways from the reactions of
white female subjects. Further exploratory work is
24
desperately needed to build upon these initial sketchy
findings. Plost and Rosen's work (1974) is promising, but
it was performed with white suburban subjects. Our know
ledge of the responses of white female subjects is far more
complete, and the temptation to generalize across another
race is strong, but Smith (1975) warns: "As long as
theorists continue to generalize vocational theories based
upon White people to Black people, research on Black people
will continue to have large loopholes and conflicting
results" (p. 54).
Prestige Preference Correlations
In addition to the influence of vocational role models
upon occupational choice, a second issue identified by
several studies seems germane to the role model perception
issue: prestige preference correlations.
Studies of the occupational choices expressed by males
have tended to show positive prestige preference
correlations. That is, the subject believed the occupa
tions they preferred to be prestigious ones (Olive, 1973;
Barnett, 1975).
Studies performed with white female subjects of
various ages, however, have frequently found negative
25
correlations between expressed occupational preference and
perceived prestige of the occupation. That is, the female
subjects tend to select for themselves occupations which
they view as being lower in prestige than other potential
choices.
One study, hypothesized that adolescent girls were
systematically influenced by environmental cues in their
expressions of occupational aspirations, resulting in lower
prestige choices (Burlin, 1976). Barnett's (1975) study of
male and female subjects between the ages of nine and
seventeen found all female subjects scoring consistently
negative correlations between occupational prestige and
preference. In fact, the correlations between prestige and
aversion were higher than those between prestige and
preference— the investigators expressed bewilderment.
Plost and Roser "peopled" potential occupational
choices with symbolic role portrayals by white models who
varied in sex. Their findings suggest that not only do
white female subjects express occupational preferences that
differ from their perceptions of high prestige, but they
also perceive occupations as less prestigious when they are
represented by a female vocational role model. This
finding identifies a second line of inquiry about the
26
vocational role model perceptions of young Black girls:
how will the race and sex combination of the symbolic model
affect their perceptions of prestige, and how will their
expressed occupational preference compare with their
perceptions of prestige?
The research to date, again, is based almost
exclusively on white subjects. It suggests that they will
prefer the like-sex, like-race role model, and will rank
the occupation portrayed by that model lower in prestige
than those portrayed by models of other races and/or sexes.
Summary
The body of knowledge about vocational role model
portrayal assembled by the work of many investigators is
tenuous but promising. A significant gap in this body is
the unanswered question' about the race and sex of the role
model, and the importance of those variables to the percep
tion of young people, particularly minorities and women.
There is reason to hope that further work will help to
lessen the occupational stratification that frequently
affects these groups by the deft and deliberate introduc
tion of suitable symbolic vocational role models into
school career awareness programs.
27
This exploratory study proposes to examine the
responses of a sample population of young Black women to
role models which vary in race and sex.
28
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
Pilot Questionnaire
Responses by a given subject to a given role model
might be triggered by factors other than the model's race
or sex. One potential contributing factor might be the
commonly held social implications about an occupation. A
fighter aircraft pilot is commonly thought of as a male-
dominated occupation. A manicurist is almost certainly a .
woman. A physician may be thought of as an occupation held
by Caucasians, while a person asked to imagine a train
station porter will probably envision a . Black man.
Sex-typing and race-typing of occupations in this
manner is perhaps one of the most difficult obstacles for
upwardly mobile minorities and women to overcome because it
stubbornly resists reason and evidence. As counter
productive as such practices are to the vocational
"mainstreaming" of stratified populations, they are none
theless a reality. Those restricted in the job market by
such attitudes are not immune to them.
29
In order to elicit valid responses to the portrayals
of occupations by models varying in race and sex, the first
step was to eliminate the extraneous influence of sex and
race-typing. It was necessary to begin with "neutral"
occupations.
Early work with a population of college students
(Shinar, 1975) had sorted out an extensive list of
occupational titles into a continuum ranging from most
frequently male associated to most frequently female
associated. The occupations at the center of this
continuum, then, were consistently associated with neither
sex. The experimental sample believed they were commonly
held by either men or women. The Shinar study provided a
place to begin an identification of nonsex-typed
occupations in the eyes of junior high school students.
Race-typing of occupations, however, proved to be a
virtually unexplored subject, as an extensive literature
search disclosed no specific material. A pilot question
naire was designed to identify "neutral" occupations, and
was administered to a sample similar in composition to the
experimental sample.
Fifteen occupations falling in the center of the
Shinar continuum were selected. This list of fifteen was
30
"salted" with five occupations falling close to one end or
the other of the continuum, that is, occupations
consistently associated with one sex or the other. The
fifteen occupations from the center of the continuum (non
sex-typed) include:
School Principal Geologist
Managing Editor of a magazine Veterinarian
Motel Manager Pharmacist
Public Relations Director Oceanographer
Insurance Agent Architect
Educational Administrator Meteorologist
Research Scientist Statistician
Astronomer
The five occupations from the ends of the continuum (highly
sex-typed) include:
Physician (male) Nurse (female)
Elementary School Teacher (female)
TV Repair person (male) Waiter (male)
The purpose of including several sex-typed occupations
in the questionnaire was the provision of some diversity
and contrast for the subjects, thus possibly avoiding
desensitization due to monotonous responses to exclusively
non-sex-typed stimuli.
31
The resulting list of twenty occupations was printed
on the administrator's instruction sheet only. The
questionnaire provided the students (see Appendix A, for
Pilot Questionnaire Form) consisted of six columns with
blank spaces for responses. The columns were headed:
"Black male/" "White male," "Black female," White female,"
"any of these" (would commonly have this occupation), and
"don't know."
The questionnaire and instructions were given to a
teacher of eighth grade exploratory industrial arts at a
primarily Black, inner-city Los Angeles junior high school.
The four exploratory industrial arts classes in which it
was administered were composed of students from all back
grounds and curriculum tracks, as the class is required for
all students. (Refer to Appendixes A and 3.)
Results
The responses recorded in two columns "any of these,"
and "don't know," were tallied cumulatively using a simple
frequency distribution (see Appendix C). The results
identified eight occupations as the highest scoring in
these two columns combined. The eight occupations so
identified were:
32
Geologist Meteorologist
Statistician Educational Administrator
Research Scientist Architect
Astronomer Public Relations Director
A unique problem existed with the construction of a
mediated presentation about four randomly selected
occupations: the obvious differences in social class, in
working conditions or environments, in dress of the models,
in implications about the tediousness and/or intensity of
the work could conceivably influence subject response.
Especially considering the four questions; subjects would
ultimately be asked about their perceptions of the
occupation's prestige; the selections of relatively
equivalent occupations became an important factor.
Among the top eight non-sex/race-typed occupations
identified, fortunately, were four comparable high-level
science occupations: research scientist, meterologist,
geologist, and astronomer. These four were selected on
the basis that they were highly similar, increasing the
probability that a choice among them would be based upon
perception of the role model. Further, models portraying
the occupations could plausibly dress in white laboratory
coats eliminating any contaminating effects from
33
the quality, type, or the color of clothing (see
Appendix D).
Overview
A list of occupations identified by college students
as being commonly associated with neither sex was "salted"
with five frequently sex-typed occupations (identified in
the same study) and read aloud to four core curriculum
classes of eighth grade, primarily Black, inner-city Los
Angeles junior high school students. The students
responded to each occupation by marking upon a question
naire one of six columns, headed "Black Man," "White Man,"
"Black Woman," "White Woman," "anyone" (could hold the
job), and "don't know," based upon their perception of
their race and sex associations with occupations.
A simple frequency distribution of responses in the
"don't know" and "anyone" columns cumulatively identified
eight occupations as being least frequently associated with
a particular race and/or sex. Of the eight, four
relatively equivalent science occupations were selected for
the occupations to be portrayed in the slide tapes to be
constructed for the main study. The four occupations thus
selected were research scientist, meteorologist, geologist,
and astronomer.
34
Experimental Design
There were four treatment program versions created.
Each two-class cell viewed one of the four versions. The
subjects were then asked to select their preference from
among the four occupations they had seen, and to further
rank the four occupations along four common measures of
occupational prestige. The resulting research design was
a Graeco-Latin Square design (Table 2).
Experimental Variables
The independent variables in the study were the race
and sex of the role models as portrayed in the treatment
slide tape programs.
The dependent variables were the responses of the
subjects upon the posttest questionnaire: expressed
occupational preference, ranking of the four occupations in
four categories of occupational prestige (Appendix D).
Experimental Materials
Creation of the visuals for the treatments was done in
the science laboratories at California State University,
Los Angeles, using four hired models: a Black man, a . Black
35
Table 2
Graeco-Latin Square
Program
Version Role Model Role Model Role Model Role Model
1 Geologist Research Astronomer Meteor
Scientist ologist
(White (Black (White (Black
male) female) female) male)
2 Meteor Astronomer Research Geologist
ologist Scientist
(Black (White (Black (White
female) ma le) male) female)
3 Astronomer Meteor Geologist Research
ologist Scientist
(Black (White (Black (White
male) female) female) male)
4 Research Geologist Meteor Astronomer
Scientist ologist
(White (Black (White (Black
female) male) male) female)
woman, a white man, and a white woman. The models were all
between twenty-five and thirty years of age, and were all
physically attractive. The women were of approximately
equal height, 5 feet six inches, and the men were each
about 6 feet one inch. The women wore plain pumps, a skirt
and a turtleneck blouse. The men wore dark slacks, a white
36
shirt and dark tie. All four models donned identical white
laboratory coats over their clothing for the photographs.
With the guidance of California State University, Los
Angeles, professors from Biology, Chemistry, Astronomy,
Geology, and Meteorology, the models were accurately posed
and photographed "using" appropriate scientific para
phernalia. A scene and props would be prepared, and, one
by one, the four models would each step into it, assume the
directed pose, and step out. The resulting four shots were
nearly identical in composition as a consequence. The face
of the model was emphasized in all shots. Relatively few
"long shots" were employed, but many "close-up" and "three-
quarter" shots.
The scripts for the narrative accompanying the slides
were written in a deliberately vague and innocuous manner.
They did not provide any definitive information about the
duties, working conditions, educations, or salaries of the
occupations in order that the subjects' impression be
formed chiefly by the presence of the role model (see
Appendix E).
The narrative was recorded by a male announcer, and
the resulting tape was duped and edited into four different
configurations to account for the differential orders of
37
presentation. Except for these alterations, all four
narratives were identical.
Sample
The experiment was conducted using a population of
intact eighth grade classes from an urban Southern
California junior high school with a principally Black
student body. The original research proposal had
stipulated the collection of data from white children as
well as Black, but difficulties in locating a cooperative
school population resulted in the necessity to conduct the
experiment in a school which met all the requirements save
the presence of adequate numbers of white students.
Consequently, the responses of the Black students alone
were available. The decision was made to tabulate the
responses of the Black females alone and compare them with
the body of literature on the responses of White female
subj ects.
Eight intact core-curriculum classes were identified
by the school district office for participation in the
study. The post-hoc discovery that one of the classes was
composed exclusively of "gifted" children required the
discarding of that data.
38
Instrumentation
The slide tapes were projected with a Kodak Carousel
slide projector accompanied by a Wollensak synchronizing
cue cassette tape player. High frequency (inaudible)
signals recorded onto the tape advanced the slide program
automatically.
In addition to the slide tape, visual aids matched to
each of the four treatments were constructed. These
consisted of color 8 by 10 photographs made from select
color slides from the treatment programs. Each set of four
photographs was mounted on a sheet of poster board and
prominently labeled with the name of the occupation.
Field Procedures
Three research associates and the writer administered
the treatments. The slide tape was set up before the
students entered the class. Upon entering, their teacher
simply introduced the researcher and then sat down. The
researcher read/spoke a brief introduction (Appendix F).
The slide tape was then begun. Following the
presentation, the researcher passed out questionnaire
forms. The questionnaires, printed in four different forms
(varying order of occupation listed), were randomly
distributed to the subjects. The researcher, using the
39
stil1-photograph visual aid, directed the subjects in the
recording of their responses (Appendix G). Question one
asked them to express a preference for one of the four
occupations they had seen. Questions two through five
asked them to rank the same four occupations in descending
order according to their perceptions of four measures of
occupational prestige: educational requirements,
importance, salary, and advancement potential.
Analysis
Raw score data was tallied by hand from the completed
questionnaires. Responses to question one, the expression
of occupatiori preference, were analyzed using chi-square
for goodness of fit. The remaining four items, the ranking
questions, were analyzed using the Friedman Test. The
significance level was set at .05. The complete statisti
cal analysis is outlined and discussed in Chapter IV.
40
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter summarizes the raw score data and results
of the chi-square and Friedman Test statistical analyses.
The complete raw score results by subject can be found in
Appendix H.
The occupational preference question responses were
subjected to a chi-square one-variable test (or chi-square
for goodness of fit) in order to determine whether the
responses of the subjects to the occupation preference
expression item were influenced by the programs they had
seen or were generated as a consequence of chance alone.
Response totals by race and sex of model, number of
subjects, and chi-square statistics are shown in Table 3.
Seventeen subjects chose the Black female portrayed model;
seventeen subjects chose the Black male portrayed model;
ten subjects chose the White female portrayed model; and
seven subjects chose the White male portrayed model. The
resulting chi-square statistic was 6.02, with 7.8 or above
indicating significance.
41
Table 3
Race and Sex of Model Portraying the Occupation
for which Subject Expressed Preference
Black Black White White
Female___________Male______________ Female Male
17 17 10 7
n =54
missing
observations = 3
X2 = 6.03
f = observed frequency by category
fe = expected frequency by category
2 2 2
k o~"f O (17-12.75) (17-12.75)
Xo = 2 X = - +
1=i fe 12.75 12.75
+ (10-12-75)2 + ( 7-12.75)2 = 6 .02
12.75 12.75
Note. From W. J. Conover, Practical Nonparametrie
Statistics (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1971),
p. 186.
42
H-j^s The sample of urban Black female junior high
school students investigated will express a preference
significantly more often for the occupation portrayed by
the like-race/like-sex symbolic model.
Hq : The sample of urban Black female junior high
school students investigated will not express a preference
significantly more often for the occupation portrayed by
the like-race/like-sex symbolic model.
Results: the null hypothesis was not rejected. The
sample of urban Black female junior high school students
did not express a preference significantly more often for
the occupation portrayed by the like-race/like-sex model.
Employed to test H2 was the Friedman Test, a non-
parametric procedure to test for correlations among the
rankings of the occupations along four measures of
occupational prestige. Rank sum totals by race and sex of
model, number of subjects, and Friedman statistics are
shown in Tables 4 through 7 for the four ranking questions.
Required for significance in all cases was t = 7.8.
Table 4 shows results of the question "Rank the Four
Occupations According to their Educational Requirements."
The Friedman statistic on responses to this question was
t = .9849. Subjects did not consistently rank the Black
43
Table 4
Rank Sums by Race and Sex of Model in Response to
the Question "Rank the Four Occupations According
to their Educational Requirements." A Score of
One Indicated the Highest Requirement;
a Score of Four# the Lowest
Black Black White White
Female Male Female Male
— — 136 138
n =54
missing
observations = 2
x = . 05
t = .9849 t =
k
12 E
k = number of role models bk(k+l) j 1
b = number of subjects 0
[r, - bjQc+ 11]2
' 3 2
t - i2 [(131- 53(4+1))2 +
2
(53x4)(4+1)
(126- 53(4+1))2 +
2
(136- 53(4+1))2 +
2
(138- 53(4+1))2 ] 2 = .9849
2
Note. From W. J. Conover# Practical Nonparametrie
Statistics (New York: John Wiley and Sons# Inc.# 1971),
p. 266.
44
female portrayed occupation lower than any other in
perceived educational requirements.
Table 5 shows results of the question "Rank the Four
Occupations According to their Importance." The Friedman
statistic on responses to this question was t = .2830.
Subjects did not consistently rank the Black female
portrayed occupation lower than any other in perceived
importance.
Table 6 shows results of the question "Rank the Four
Occupations According to Salary Level." The Friedman
statistic on responses to this question was t = 4.08.
Subjects did not consistently rank the Black female
portrayed occupation lower than any other in perceived
salary level.
Table 7 shows results of the question "Rank the Four
Occupations according to advancement potential." The
Friedman statistic on responses to this question was t =
2.75. Subjects did not consistently rank the Black female
portrayed occupation lower than any other in perceived
advancement.
H2 : The sample of urban Black female junior high
school students investigated will, in ranking the four
occupations along four measures of occupational prestige,
45
Table 5
Rank Sums by Race and Sex of Model in Response to the
Question "Rank the Four Occupations According to their
Importance." A Score of One Indicated the Greatest
Importance; a Score of Four, the Leasts
Black Black White White
Female ________Male______________ Female ____________ Male
130 133 130 136
n =54
missing
observations = 2
a = .05
t = .2830
aRaw scores by subject (see Appendix H).
Table 6
Rank Sums by Race and Sex of Model in Response to
the Question "Rank the Four Occupations According
to Salary Level." A Score of One Indicated the
Highest Level; a Score of Four, the Lowest®
Black Black White White
Female ________Male______________ Female ______ _____ Male
149 125 129 127
n =54
missing
observations = 2
a = . 05
t =4.08
aRaw scores by subject (see Appendix H).
46
Table 7
Rank Sums by Race and Sex of Model in Response to
the Question "Rank the Four Occupations According
to Advancement Potential." A Score of One
Indicated the Highest Potential;
a Score of Four, the Lowest3
Black Black
Female Male
White
Female
White
Male
123 144 132 128
n =54
missing
observations = 2
a = . 05
t = 2.75
aRaw scores by subject (see Appendix H).
significantly more often rank the occupation portrayed by
the like-race/like-sex model lower than any other.
Hq : The sample of urban Black female junior high
school students investigated will not, in ranking the four
occupations along four measures of occupational prestige,
significantly more often rank the occupation portrayed by
the like-race/like-sex model lower than any other.
Results; The null hypothesis was not rejected. The
sample of urban Black female junior high school students
47
did not, in ranking the four occupations along four
measures of occupational prestige, significantly more often
rank the occupation portrayed by the like-ra.ee/like-sex
model lower than any other.
48
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS,
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter summarizes the investigation, draws
conclusions based on the results, and suggests directions
for further research.
Summary
A summary of the data analysis resulted in the
following findings:
1. Subjects did not consistently express preference
for the occupation portrayed by the like-race/like-sex
model after viewing the programs.
2. Subjects did not consistently rank the Black
female portrayed occupation lowest along four measures of
occupational prestige.
Black urban junior high school girls, after viewing a
slide tape on scientific occupations featuring role models
varying by race and sex did not systematically express
preference for any specific model. Neither did they tend
49
to rank the portrayed occupations in any pattern on
perceived prestige consistent with the race and sex of the
role models.
Conclusions
Plost and Rosen (1974), who earlier performed a
similar study using a suburban population of white children
and the variable sex alone, found that their female
subjects expressed preference for the female portrayed
occupation significantly more frequently than the male
subjects expressed preference for the male portrayed
occupation. What are the reasons for the discrepancy
between the two studies?
The sample investigated in this study contained
insufficient numbers of white female students to facilitate
a valid post hoc look at a sample closer in composition (in
one dimension) to the Plost and Rosen sample.
Several real and potential differences between the two
studies exist. In the current study, the entire narration
of each program version was done by a man. Plost and Rosen
do not identify the sex of their narrator, though the
experiment was conducted as a Master's thesis by Plost, a
woman, who may have consequently narrated. The Plost and
50
Rosen male role model wore a suit and tie, and removed his
coat for some of the visuals. Their female model wore a
mini-skirt and boots, and sported a blond bouffant hairdo.
Models in the current investigation were "neutralized" to
avoid variance caused by physical cues extraneous to the
simple differences of race and sex. Male and female models
alike wore white laboratory coats and conservative hair-1
styles. An interesting question is this: Could the
responses have been influenced by changing the dress, the
hairstyle, or, for that matter, the sex of the narrator?
Would the alteration of "cues" other than the race and sex
of the model produced greater variance in responses? We
can only speculate. Laboratory coats and conservative,
bun-at-the-nape hairstyles may not have been "neutral"
qualities, as this investigator believed. They may indeed
have been negative influences, characterizing the models in
the eyes of the subjects as boring, scholarly, and
pursuing lonely work. Would a flashy, smiling, Afro-ed
young woman performing the tasks of a geologist in a
laboratory filled with bustling people have influenced the
subjects significantly?
Furthermore, though the subjects failed to select the
like-race/like-sex portrayed occupation significantly more
51
frequently as "had been hypothesized, the raw score
figures clearly indicate a consistent preference for the
like-race portrayed occupations. Race appeared to be a
greater influence upon this sample of subjects than sex.
This clearly warrants further investigation.
Recommendations
1. A replication of the study holding race and sex
constant but varying other physical cues is recommended.
2. A replication of the study with white suburban
young women holding sex constant but varying other
physical cues is recommended. (We lack sufficient evidence
to conclude that the Plost and Rosen (1974) subjects were
attending exclusively to the sex of the model.)
3. Additional investigation of the influence of the
role model1s race upon the perceptions of male and female
Black students alike is recommended.
4. Continued Black subject vocational development
research and a renewed commitment to cease generalization
of existing white subject research across Black populations
is recommended.
52
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53
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Vocational Guidance Quarterly, 1977, 2 _ 5 . , 356-363.
Miller, N. & Dollard, J. Social learning and imitation.
New Haven: Yale University Press, 1941.
Moynihan, D. The Negro family: The case for national
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Printing Office, 1965.
Mussen, P. & Ruthford, E. Effects of aggressive cartoons
on children's aggressive play. Journal of Abnormal
Psychology, 1961, 62_(2) , 461-464.
Nuckols, T. & Bancucci, R. Knowledge of occupations— Is it
important to occupational choice? Journal of
Counseling Psychology, 1974, 21.(3), 191-195.
Oberle, W. Role models of Negro and white rural youth at
two stages of adolescence. Journal of Negro
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Oberle, W. , Stowers, K. & Falk, W. Place of residence and
the role model preferences of Black boys and girls.
Adolescence, 1978, 1_3 (49) , 13-20.
Olive, H. Sex differences in adolescent vocational
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Pallone, N., Rickard, F. & Hurley, R. Key influencers of
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Patterson, L. Girls' careers— Expression of identity.
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57
Peters, E. Factors which contribute to youth's vocational
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58
Simpson, R. & Simpson, I. Occupational choice among
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59
Thoresen, C. & Hamilton, J* Peer social modeling in
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Uzzell, O. Influencers of occupational choice. Personnel
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1977.
60
APPENDIXES
61
APPENDIX A
PILOT QUESTIONNAIRE FORM
62
PILOT QUESTIONNAIRE FORM
White Black White
Man Man Woman
Black
Woman
any of
these
don' t
know
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
•
o
H 11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
63
PILOT QUESTIONNAIRE FORM
(cont.)
White Black White Black any of
Man Man Woman Woman these
18.
19.
20.
don 11
know
64
*
APPENDIX B
PILOT QUESTIONNAIRE INSTRUCTIONS
65
PILOT QUESTIONNAIRE INSTRUCTIONS
The instructor distributed the questionnaires and read
these instructions aloud:
"This is an attempt to learn more about junior high
school students' views of occupations. Think about an
automobile mechanic! Picture the mechanic in your mind. I
bet you pictured a man! We have many of these unconscious
associations with different occupations. Scientists call
them "occupational stereotypes."
(1) Look at the form I just handed out. Across the
top of it says "White Man, Black Man, White Woman, Black
Woman, any of these, and don't know." I am going to read
you a list of occupations, one at a time. I want you to
draw an "x" under one— and only one— of the descriptions
matching the "mind-picture" you have of that occupation.
Just as you thought of the automobile mechanic as being a
man, mark the associations you have with these twenty
occupations.
"Let's practice. What if I said 'hairdresser'?" Do
you think of a hairdresser as being a White man, a Black
man, a White woman, a Black woman, or do you see any of
66
PILOT QUESTIONNAIRE INSTRUCTIONS
(cont. )
these people as being a . hairdresser? You would mark an "x"
under one of those categories. If you don't know what the
occupation is, mark an "x" under "don't know." This is
important: don't guess if you don't know! Remember these
importanct rules: (1) You must answer honestly; and (2)
you must not say your answer aloud. Ready? Let's go!
As the instructor read the name of an occupation, the
students then marked one of the six columns on the
questionnaire form.
67
APPENDIX C
PILOT QUESTIONNAIRE RESPONSES
PILOT QUESTIONNAIRE RESPONSES
Occupation "any of these" "don't know" Tota!
1. Physician 8 4 12
2. Elementary
School Teacher 12 4 16
3. Nurse 7 2 9
4. School Principal 7 6 13
5. Waiter 7 2 10
6. TV Repair person 3 1 4
7. Geologist 9 9 18*
8. Veterinarian 12 2 14
9. Oceanographer 13 4 17
10. Insurance Agent 10 1 11
11. Motel Manager 11 2 13
12. Managing Editor
of a magagazine 8 2 10
13. Educational
Administrator 11 7 18*
14. Pharmacist 11 5 16
15. Public Relations
Director 13 9 22*
*the eight highest totals; the closest to "neutral"
(nonrace or sextyped) occupations on the list
69
PILOT QUESTIONNAIRE RESPONSES
(cont. )
Occupation "any of these" "don't know" Total
16. Research
Scientist 21 1 22*
17. Meteorologist 22 2 24*
18. Statistician 12 30 42*
19. Architect 15 3 18*
to
o
•
Astronomer 17 3 20*
*the eight highest totals; the closest to "neutral"
(nonrace or sextyped) occupations on the list
70
APPENDIX D
PRESENTATION SEQUENCE: MODELS AND
OCCUPATIONS IN TREATMENT PROGRAMS
71
PRESENTATION SEQUENCE: MODELS AND
OCCUPATIONS IN TREATMENT PROGRAMS
Program Version 1:
(1) Geologist - white male
(2) Research Scientist - black female
(3) Astronomer - white female
(4) Meteorologist - black male
Program Version 2:
(1) Meteorologist - black female
(2) Astronomer - white male
(3) Research Scientist - black male
(4) Geologist - white female
Program Version 3:
(1) Astronomer - black male
(2) Meteorologist - white female
(3) Geologist - black female
(4) Research Scientist - white male
Program Version 4:
(1) Research Scientist - white female
(2) Geologist - black male
(3) Meteorologist - white male
(4) Astronomer - black female
72
APPENDIX E
TREATMENT PROGRAM SCRIPTS
73
Four
Careers
In
Science
I 1
| , _______ _________ ✓
1 > Four .
1
Careers
!
Four Four
In
Careers Careers
Science
B n In
Science Science
Junior high school is an important time during your school years. It's
particularly important because research done on junior high school students
shows that this is the time when boys and girls first begin to think
seriously about what they want to do for a living— about their occupation.
Before anyone can make a , choice, they have to have occupations to
choose from. They have to know about the occupations that are available.
The slide presentation you are about to see is designed to help you learn
more about four scientific occupations that you may not be familiar with.
As you watch, imagine yourself in these occupations. See if you can find
one that you particularly like.
-J
jfe.
Geologist
Geologist
Geologist
Since the dawn of time, men and women have wondered about how the earth
began, and about how its features were formed: mountains, rivers, valleys,
oceans, and deserts. The study of the earth has developed through the
collection of data and the building of scientific theories.
'- j
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One scientific career has contributed a great deal of this knowledge:
Geology, the science of the earth. This is a geologist.
•^4
+
I +
They use many complex instruments to help them locate minerals, to
help them tell how old the minerals are, to help them learn about the
history of the surface of the earth.
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t
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+
It is through the work of geologists like this one that we know that much
of the earth's surface was covered with ocean many millions of years ago.
VO
The geologists' work of studying the layers of rock in a landscape
o o
o
and dating the presence of small animal skeletons, or "fossils," has helped
people everywhere understand more of the history of our planet.
Besides learning about what happened millions of years ago, modern
geologists help us in many phases of our modern industrial society.
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1 6
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Iron, copper, gold, and silver, plus many of the alloys in
modern steelmaking must be found in and mined from the earth.
o o
w
I
The work of some geologists is to locate these important
minerals so they may be mined and refined.
o o
+
And geologists are helping us with energy problems, too. With oil
supplies dwindling in the world, the geologists are helping American
companies find and mine coal to take its place.
o o
o n
Coal has been identified as the most likely fuel to take the place of
oil, and the geologists are pointing the way for us in finding coal in our
own country to warm our homes and power our factories.
o o
c n
Another important service performed by geologists is the
identification of geological hazards.
o o
Through extensive field work and analysis, geologists plot maps of unstable
land areas: areas that may result in huge landslides or massive earthquakes.
o o
00
Earth movement is monitored carefully by geologists who use this instrument,
a "seismograph," to record any unusual motion that might warn of an earthquake.
CD
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Geologists. They are concerned with the past, present, and future
development of our planet and its continents.
v O
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f
Research
Scientist
Research
Scientist
Research
Scientist
The research scientist is one of the members of the science family of careers.
H
Though research scientists may be members of any one scientific discipline,
such as biology, chemistry, or physics, they may also cross over into several
fields in their work.
v o
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I
Research scientists are concerned with the theoretical side of
science: the why and how behind a phenomenon.
v o
oj
By experimenting with compounds and samples in their laboratories,
they are able to arrive at an analysis, and answer important questions.
For example, research scientists are responsible for what we know
about the dangerous materials present in the air on a smoggy day.
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%
%
\ %
O J
U }
+
Research scientists are responsible for many of the new drugs
that have saved lives and cured people who were impossibly ill.
The work of research scientists helps us learn more about
the effects of modern preservatives in our food.
And about new sources of energy, or problems with an existing energy source
All of these things are learned by testing, analyzing,
writing, and researching.
100
Research scientists are interested in the many ways
in which substances change and behave.
Why does photographic film turn black when exposed to light?
H
O
H
102
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fmiHti'iU
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Why does a steel girder rust when exposed to the atmosphere?
103
What takes place when food is digested in the human body?
104
u
How do antibiotics seek out bacteria and destroy it?
105
Why does the green foliage of a forest burst into a
blaze of color in the autumn?
106
A research scientist may be employed by a corporation, by a university,
or by the government to seek answers to these and other questions.
107
f
A great deal of what we take for granted in our modern technological
world, we owe to the work of research scientists.
108
Our modern synthetic fabrics, the development of plastics, the vitamin
pill you took this morning: all of these started with the work of
the research scientist.
109
y
Astronomer Astronomer
Astronomer
From the beginning of time, human beings have gazed into
the sky at the bright objects that surround the earth.
Astronomer
OTT
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The scientific study of these objects is called ASTRONOMY, and the
scientists who study them, ASTRONOMERS. This is an Astronomer.
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O)
Unlike the other scientists seen in this presentation,
astronomers can only study their material.
They cannot control it, or do experiments with it, or even touch it
The astronomer is restricted to observation and recording
of data using some very sophisticated instruments.
u >
114
C j
How do planets originate? Is there life elsewhere than on the earth?
What is the nature of the expanding universe?
w x m z
r.
These are questions that astronomers cope with every day.
These are the questions that guide their work.
116
Ci
Astronomers study many types of celestial phenomena:
117
Astronomers study many types of celestial phenomena: planets
118
Astronomers study many types of celestial phenomena: stars.
119
Astronomers study many types of celestial phenomena: nebula
Astronomers photograph and record light wavelength
patterns from these.
O
Analyzing them to learn more about the composition
of the gases they emit.
H
r o
122
Radio waves sent out by stars are recorded here on earth
by radio telescopes, and are studied by astronomers.
I
The development of our knowledge about space has been
rapid in this modern technological age.
to
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' *■/ 7 0 11 ? '
And astronomers have been in the forefront of the space age,
guiding us in the launching of satellites and manned
spacecraft, which help us learn still more about the
heavenly bodies our planet shares the sky with.
r o
125
Many beliefs and laws we held before have been modified
or abandoned because new technological developments
enabled astronomers to gain new knowledge.
126
i
This is the nature of the process. Astronomers are
helping science push back the walls of ignorance.
They are helping us learn more about our universe and
the part our earth plays in it.
t o
128
Meteorologist
Meteorologist
Meteorologist Meteorologist
One of the natural occurrences that has a great deal of
influence upon our lives every single day is the weather.
129
eteorologisl
eteorol
An occupation that deals exclusively with this important
knowledge is METEOROLOGY, the science of the weather.
This is a METEOROLOGIST.
130
Meteorologists observe and record the variables of the weather
with the aid of sophisticated instrumentation:
wind speed, temperature, rainfall, humidity, barometric pressure.
The United States Weather Service collects data from a system of
many thousands of meteorologists. This is fed into a computer
which plots the information out onto a map.
0 0
I
Once drawn, the map is analyzed based on our knowledge of
the atmosphere.
The results enable meteorologists to predict, or
FORECAST the weather.
O J
ro
The resulting printed record is distributed nationally
through published books like this one.
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134
And through remote receiving units enabling a meteorologist
in California to receive a copy of a weather map sent from
Washington through a facsimile recorder like this.
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v e
In this way, we can turn on our local television news station
at night and learn about the weather all over the nation.
You are probably familiar with some of the forecasting aids used
by meteorologists:
radar and weather balloons.
But did you know that there are satellites orbiting the earth for
the sole purpose of transmitting pictures and information about weather?
u>
* .
Here's a satellite picture showing a white swirling cloud.
This is a tornado, a dangerous storm that rips up houses
and automobiles with its roaring winds.
U>
'vj
One of the most important services a meteorologist performs
is that of alerting people to the danger of an oncoming
storm so that they may seek shelter.
139
Many lives would be lost in storms each year if it were
not for the meteorologists' information.
Weather maps also help airplane pilots, who fly routes
that insure the best weather.
M © '
for*' &
These maps identify atmospheric pressure patterns, and help
the pilots avoid areas of turbulence, or areas where the
wings of the aircraft would be in danger of icing up.
i —*
4^
‘ on
The meteorologists' work affects shipping, transportation,
the growing of crops that put food on America's tables.
143
Furthermore, meteorologists can forecast the probability of forest
fires based on temperature and humidity of coming weather. Fire
fighters can stand on alert during these critical periods, and
prevent forest fires that might destroy millions of acres of
wilderness.
144
Meteorologists. They are concerned with the weather which
surrounds us and affects our lives and country every day.
145
One thing all of these scientific occupations have in common is this
they all require a college education. If you've seen an occupation here
that particularly interested you, there are several places you can go to
learn more about it. Your school counselor, your science teacher, or a
telephone call to the science program advisor at any local college are
all good places to begin. We hope you will spend a lot of time learning
about different occupations. Remember, the more occupations you learn
about, the better the choice you can make for yourself.
APPENDIX F
INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS FOR
EXPERIMENTAL QUESTIONNAIRE
INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS FOR
EXPERIMENTAL QUESTIONNAIRE
Directions to the subjects preceding viewing of
the treatment:
"I'm from California State University, Los Angeles.
[We are very interested in seeing young people plan their
i
|futures carefully. The slide program you are about to see
jis designed to tell you a little about four scientific
occupations you may not know about. Why is it important to
think about occupations in junior high school? Listen, and
you111 see I"
Directions to the subjects about completion of
the questionnaire:
"Astronomer, Geologist, Research Scientist, and
|Meteorologist. Four careers in science. Here are the four
occupations. And now, we're going to test your observa
tions of the program you've just seen. Look at question
number one on your answer sheet. There are the names of
the four occupations you've just seen. Think about it
carefully. If you had to choose one of these occupations
for yourself, if you had to make a living at one of these
j
I
147
four, which one would you choose? Circle the name of that
occupation beside question number one."
The second through fifth questions required the
subjects to rank the occupations. The subjects were
instructed in this manner:
"Now let's move to question number two. The next four
; i
iquestions will test your observations about these
|occupations. Which of these four do you feel requires the
|most education to become? Write a number 'one' in the
| I
space beside that occupation. Which occupation do you I
i
think would come in second in educational requirements?
|
Write the number 'two' in the space beside that occupation, j
!Which would come third in educational requirements? Which j
i !
would come fourth? What you've just done is called
j
j 'ranking.' You've ranked the occupations according to
|educational requirements. Number one requires the most
|education, number four requires the least education. Now |
let's move to question three and rank the four occupations
in another way: importance. Which of the four occupations
do you feel is the most important? You don't have to
i j
explain why, just write the number one beside the one which j
[
is most important. Now write the number two beside the one j
j |
which you feel is second most important. And write the j
i
j
I 148 i
one which you feel is second most important. And write the
number three beside the third most important. And four
beside the fourth most important."
Question four was asked in a similar manner regarding
salary. Which occupation makes the most money? Question
five pertained to advancement potential. "Who will rise to
a higher position? Who is most likely to become the head
t
scientist in the laboratory?"
Following the completion of the responses to the
ranking questions, the students were asked to write their
I
race and sex under items six and seven.
APPENDIX G
EXPERIMENT QUESTIONNAIRE FORM
EXPERIMENT QUESTIONNAIRE FORM
1. RESEARCH SCIENTIST GEOLOGIST
METEOROLOGIST ASTRONOMER
2 ._______ GEOLOGIST
_____ METEOROLOGIST
_____ ASTRONOMER
_____ RESEARCH SCIENTIST
3 • METEOROLOGIST
_____ ASTRONOMER
_____ RESEARCH SCIENTIST
_____ GEOLOGIST
4. _____ ASTRONOMER
_____ RESEARCH SCIENTIST
_____ GEOLOGIST
_____ METEOROLOGIST
_____ RESEARCH SCIENTIST
_____ GEOLOGIST
_____ METEOROLOGIST
_____ ASTRONOMER
6. _________________
7.
151
APPENDIX H
RAW SCORES BY SUBJECT
152
RAW SCORES BY SUBJECT
Ranking Question
!Question 2
i
Black Black White White
Subject_____________Female______ Male_______ Male______ Female
1 1 3 2 4
2 2 4 3 1
3 1 4 2 3
4 1 3 2 4
5 4 2 3 1
6 2 4 3 1
7 2 1 3 4
8 4 3 2 1
9 1 4 3 2
10 4 1 3 2
11 2 1 3 4
12 2 1 3 4
13 2 1 4 3
14 4 2 3 1
15 2 1 4 3
16 2 1 4 3
17 3 1 2 4
153
RAW SCORES BY SUBJECT
(cont.) |
Ranking Question
Question 2
Black Black White White
Subject_____________Female______ Male_______ Male______ Female
18 4 1 2 3
19 2 3 1 4
20 1 3 2 4
21 3 1 4 2
22 2 4 1 3
23 1 2 4 3
24 1 2 3 4
25 1 3 4 2
26 4 3 2 1
27 3 4 2 1
28 3 2 1 4
29 3 4 2 1
30 4 3 2 1
31 4 3 2 1
32 3 2 1 4
33 1 4 3 2
34 4 2 1 3
35 2 1 3 4
154
RAW SCORES BY SUBJECT
(cont.)
Ranking Question
Question 2
Black Black White White
Subject_____________Female______Male_______ Male______ Female
36 1 3 2 4
37 4 3 1 2
38 4 1 3 2
39 3 1 4 2
40 3 1 2 4
41 3 2 4 1
42 2 1
3
4
43 1 3 4 2
44 1 2 3 4
45 3 2 1 4
46 3 2 4 1
47 2 4 3 1
48 2 4 3 1
49 2 4 1 3
50 2 1 3 4
51 4 3 2 1
52 2 4 3 2
53 4 1 3 2
155
RAW SCORES BY SUBJECT
Question 3
Subiect
Rankinq
Black
Female
Question
Black
Male
White
Male
White
Female
1 4 1 2 3
2 1 4 3 2
3 1 3 4
2
4 4 3 1 2
5 1 3 4 2
6 3 1 2 4
7 3 1 2 4
8 1 4 3 2
9 2 3 1 4
10 2 4 3 1
11 1 2 3 4
12 1 2 3 4
13 1 2 4 3
14 1 4 2 3
15 1 2 3 4
16 2 1 4 3
17 2 1 3 4
156
RAW SCORES BY SUBJECT
(cont.)
Ranking Question
Question 3
Black Black White White
Subiect Female Male Male Fem<
18 2 3 4 1
19 2 3 4 1
20 1 2 4 3
21 2 4 3 1
22 4 2 1 3
23 4 1 2 3
24 4 2 3 1
25 2 1 3 4
26 3 4 2 1
27 4 3 2 1
28 3 2 1 4
29 1 4 3 2
30 1 4 2 3
31 4 2 3 1
32 2 3 4 1
33 2 1 3 4
34 2 4 1 3
35 3 2 1 4
157
RAW SCORES BY SUBJECT
n
(cont.)
Ranking Question
Question 3
Subiect
Black
Female
Black
Male
White
Male
White
Female
36 3 2 1 4
37 4 3 2 1
38 4 3 2 1
39 2 1 3 4
40 4 2 3 1
41 2 3 4 1
42 2 3 4 1
43 3 1 2 4
44 3 3 2 1
45 4 3 2 1
46 2 3 1 4
47 4 1 3 2
48 4 3 1 2
49 3 4 1 2
50 2 4 1 3
51 3 1 4 2
52 2 4 3 1
53 2 1 4 3
158
RAW SCORES BY SUBJECT
Ranking Question
i
I Question 4
! Black Black White White
1
Subiect_____________Female______Male________Male______Female
1 4 1 2 3
2 3 4 1 2
3 4 2 3 1
4 1 4 2 3
5 4 3 2 1
6 3 4 2 1
7 2 3 1 4
8 2 3 1 4
9 2 3 4 1
10 1 2 4 3
11 2 1 3 4
12 2 1 3 4
13 4 1 2 3
14 4 3 1 2
15 4 3 1 2
16 1 2 4 3
17 1 2 3 4
159
RAW SCORES BY SUBJECT
(cont. )
| Ranking Question
Question 4
! Black Black White White
■ Subj ect____________ Female______Male________ Male______Female
18 4 2 3 1
19 2 1 3 4
20 2 1 3 4
21 3 4 1 2
22 4 1 2 3
23 4 3 1 2
24 1 3 2 4
25 2 1 3 4
26 4 3 1 2
27 4 3 2 1
28 2 3 1 4
29 2 4 3 1
30 2 4 3 1
31 4 2 3 1
32 4 1 3 2
33 1 3 4 2
34 4 2 1 3
35 2 1 3 4
160
RAW SCORES BY SUBJECT
_ ” '
(cont.)
Rankinq Question
Question 4
Subiect
Black
Female
Black
Male
White
Male
White
Female
36 4 2 1 3
37 3 4 2 1
38 1 3 2 4
39 3 1 4 2
40 4 1 2 3
41 4 1 3 2
42 4 1 3 2
43 4 2 3 1
44 3 4 2 1
45 1 2 3 4
46 3 2 4 1
47 2 4 3 1
48 4 3 2 1
49 4 3 2 1
50 1 3 2 4
51 4 1 2 3
52 2 3 4 1
53 3 1 2 4
161
RAW SCORES BY SUBJECT
Ranking Question
Black Black White White
Subiect_____________Female______Male_______ Male______ Female
1 1 3 2 4
2 4 2 1 3
3 2 3 4 1
4 1 3 2 4
5 4 2 3 1
6 3 4 1 2
7 3 2 1 4
8 1 3 2 4
9 1 4 2 3
10 2 1 3 4
11 3 4 2 1
12 3 4 2 1
13 1 4 2 3
14 3 1 2 4
15 3 4 2 1
16 1 2 4 3
17 2 1 3 4
162
Question 5
RAW SCORES BY SUBJECT
(cont:)
Ranking Question
Question 5
Black Black White White
Subiect_____________Female______ Male_______ Male______ Female
18 3 4 2 1
19 4 1 3 2
20 2 1 3 4
21 1 4 3 2
22 2 1 3 4
23 2 1 4 3
24 1 2 3 4
25 3 1 2 4
26 3 4 1 2
27 1 4 3 2
28 3 2 1 4
29 3 4 1 2
30 1 4 3 2
31 4 2 3 1
32 4 2 3 1
33 2 3 4 1
34 2 3 1 4
35 1 2 4 3
163
j RAW SCORES BY SUBJECT
|
(cont.)
Ranking Question
!Question 5
Black Black White
Subiect Female Male Ma
36 4 3 1
37 3 4 2
38 2 4 3
39 1 3 4
40 1 2 3
41 2 4 3
42 4 2 1
43 3 2 1
44 2 4 3
45 2 1 4
46 3 1 4
47 2 4 3
48 2 4 1
49 4 3 1
50 3 2 1
51 1 2 4
52 3 4 2
53 4 3 2
White
Female
2
1
1
2
4
1
3
4
1
3
2
1
3
2
4
3
1
1
164

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Asset Metadata

Creator Jablonsky, Pamela Dawn (author)

Core Title The effect of variation of race and sex of mediated vocational role models upon Black urban female junior high school students

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Black studies,Education, Middle School,education, vocational,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-489407

Unique identifier UC11245232

Identifier usctheses-c26-489407 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP24777.pdf

Dmrecord 489407

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Jablonsky, Pamela Dawn

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA