Educational reform in Peru, 1970-1974: A model of developmental education

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Content ; ED U CA TIO N A L R E F O R M IN P E R U , 1970-1974
i
j A MODEL, O F D E V E L O P M E N T A L ED U CA TIO N
| by
I
! S ilvia R o s a G on zalez
I
I
i
, A D is s e r ta tio n P r e s e n te d to the
F A C U L T Y O F TH E GRADUATE SCHOOL
!
| UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN C A LIFO RN IA
i
I
In P a r ti a l F u lfillm e n t of the
R e q u ire m e n ts fo r the D e g re e
D O CTO R O F PH ILOSOPHY
(E ducation)
Ju n e 1978
C o p y rig h t (Silvia R o sa G o n zalez) 1978
UMI Number: DP24280
All rights reserved
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UMI DP24280
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UNIVERSITY O F SO U THERN CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL. E -X S 1 —
UNIVERSITY PARK O W
LOS A N G ELES. C A LIFO R N IA 9 0 0 0 7 ) •r ' ' '
E d L
i -7 g *
G.
3 4 ^ & I
This dissertation, written by
Silvia Rosa Gonzalez
under the direction of h Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of
the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
MMITTEE DISSK
.Chau
T A B L E O F C O N TEN TS
i C hapte r P a g e
I I. IN TRO D U CTIO N AND STA TEM EN T O F TH E P R O B L E M . . 1
B ac k g ro u n d of the P r o b le m
The P r o b le m
T h e o re tic a l F r a m e w o r k
D e sig n and M ethodology
D efin itio n s of T e r m s
O rg a n iz a tio n of th e D is s e r ta tio n
H. REV IEW O F T H E L IT E R A T U R E ...............................................................15
T h e o rie s on D ev elo p m en t
E d u c a tio n 's R ole in N ational D ev elo p m en t
N atio n al D ev elo p m en t and E d u c atio n in P e r u
S u m m a ry !
III. BACKGROUND AND GOALS O F TH E ED U CA TIO N A L
R E F O R M .............................................................................................................. 37
i
S ynopsis of H is to r ic a l D ev elo p m en t of P e r u v ia n !
E d u c atio n
P h y sic a l, C u ltu ra l, and E co n o m ic C onditions
A ffecting P e ru v ia n E d u c atio n
R e su lts of E d u c atio n a l S tra tific a tio n
E d u c a tio n a l D ev elo p m en t S tra te g ie s
G o als of the 1970 E d u c atio n a l R e fo rm
R e fo rm P r o c e s s
IV. S E L E C T E D O B JE C T IV E S O F TH E ED U CA TIO N A L j
R E F O R M 66 :
B a sic R e g u la r E d u catio n
B a sic L a b o r E d u c atio n
H ig h er E d u c atio n
P r o fe s s io n a l C e rtific a tio n
_____________________________________________ii
I C hapte r P a g e ]
I i
j N u c le a riz a tio n
S u m m a ry of the F in d in g s
V alid atio n R e su lts
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOM M ENDATIONS . . 113
S u m m a ry
C o n clu sio n s
R e c o m m e n d a tio n s
A P P E N D IX .......................................................................................................................122
BIBLIO G RA PH Y 126
LIST O F T A B L E S
T a b le P a g e
1. R a c ia l G ro u p s in P e r u a s Shown in the N atio n al C e n su s
of 1940 .......................................................................................................... 44
2. P e ru v ia n S o c io -C u ltu ra l and E d u c a tio n a l S tra tific a tio n . . 47
3. D is trib u tio n of Incom e by M ajo r Social G ro u p s in 1963 . . 49
4. I llite r a c y R a te s by G eo g rap h ic L o c atio n in P e r u , 1961 . . 51
5. P e r u v ia n 1961 U rb an and R u ra l I llite r a c y R a te s of
P e r s o n s O v er S ev en teen Y e a r s of A ge, A c c o rd in g
to S e x ................................................................................................... 51
6. E d u c atio n a l L e v e l of the P o p u latio n Above F o u r Y e a rs
of Age in P e ru , 1961, Shown in T h o u s a n d s ................... 52
7. E n ro llm e n t In c re a s e D u rin g 1958-1968, in P e r u .......... 53
8. S u sten tio n R a te s in P e r u v ia n E d u c a tio n fo r D e c a d e s
1950-1960 and 1957-1967 ........................................................... 54
9. C o m p o site of D is s e r ta tio n E v a lu a tio n s .......................................... I l l
C H A P T E R I
IN TRO D U CTIO N AND ST A T E M E N T O F TH E P R O B L E M
R e fo rm and inn o v atio n have b eco m e e s s e n tia l to A m e ric a n
and E u ro p e a n ed u c atio n in th e p a s t d e c a d e s . F a c t o r s su ch a s p o p u la
tio n grow th, e g a lita r ia n a s p ir a tio n s , and e v e r m o re c o m p lex
e c o n o m ie s have d em an d ed e x p e rim e n ta l and c re a tiv e e v a lu a tio n of
tra d itio n a l p a tte r n s and s t r u c t u r e s of ed u catio n . S p e c ia lis ts in d e v e l
oping c o u n trie s have a ls o begun to re c o g n iz e the im p o rta n c e of
m odifying th e ir ed u c a tio n a l s y s te m s to m e e t the n ee d s of s o c io
eco n o m ic d ev elo p m en t. In 1970, P e r u in itia te d a m a jo r ed u c a tio n a l
r e f o r m w hich w as d e sig n e d to p ro m o te the a c h ie v e m e n t of n a tio n a l
d ev elo p m en t, p a r tic u la r ly the a c h ie v e m e n t of e c o n o m ic o b je c tiv e s,
th e r e s t r u c t u r e of the c o u n try ’s s o c ia l o r d e r, and th e a ffirm a tio n of
1 n atio n al id en tity .
B ac k g ro u n d of th e P r o b le m
In O cto b e r, 1968, a m ilita r y g o v e rn m e n t a s s u m e d p o w er in
P e r u and in itia te d a n u m b e r of s tr u c tu r a l r e f o r m s w hich w e re
d e sig n e d to " ra d ic a lly change the tra d itio n a l p a tte r n s of o w n e rsh ip in
o r d e r to d ir e c t the e co n o m ic w e a lth of the c o u n try in su ch a w ay a s to
b e n efit the g r e a t m a jo r ity of the n atio n as a w h o le" (P once de Leon,
1971:175). The In fo rm e G e n e r a l, a d o c u m e n t p u b lish e d by the M in
i s t r y of E d u c atio n , a n a ly z e d the n a tio n ’s p r e c a r io u s e d u c a tio n a l
a c h ie v e m e n t and the in h e re n t in c a p a c ity of the e x is tin g s y s te m to
fu n ctio n a s a v e h ic le of in d iv id u al and n a tio n a l d ev elo p m en t. The
stu d y p ro p o se d a r e f o r m e d s y s te m c o n s is te n t w ith n a tio n a l n eed s
w h ich w as m a n d a te d by the Law D e c re e 19326 in 1972.
In 1970, P e r u 's illite r a c y r a te w as 36 p e rc e n t and the
a v e ra g e ed u c a tio n a l a tta in m e n t of the p o p u latio n w as the th ird g ra d e .
E n ro llm e n ts in c r e a s e d by 78. 12 p e r c e n t in e le m e n ta r y sc h o o ls, by
165. 8 p e r c e n t in s e c o n d a ry sc h o o ls, and b y 280. 9 p e r c e n t a t the
u n iv e rs ity le v e l b e tw e e n 1958 and 1968. T he r e te n tio n r a te in c r e a s e d
f r o m 4. 6 p e rc e n t to 12 p e r c e n t fo r s tu d e n ts e n te rin g f i r s t g ra d e and
c o m p le tin g s e c o n d a ry sch o o l d u rin g the 1957-1967 d ecad e. N e v e r th e
le s s , due to in c r e a s e d e n ro llm e n ts , th e n u m b e r of d ro p o u ts in c r e a s e d
by fo u r th o u sa n d d u rin g th a t p e rio d (M in iste rio de E d u cacio n , In fo rm e |
g e n e ra l, 1971:1-11).
I
l
The m o s t im p o rta n t d y sfu n c tio n of P e r u v ia n e d u catio n h a s
b e e n a p tly d e s c rib e d by R o llan d P a u lsto n :
One of th e m o s t p e r s is te n t and e n d u rin g th e m e s in
P e r u v ia n ed u c a tio n d u rin g th e p a s t five c e n tu rie s o r so h as
b een the u se of e d u c atio n to m a in ta in and p e rp e tu a te c la s s
and c a s te d iv isio n s. (P au lsto n , 1971b:20)
M ost L a tin A m e ric a n c o u n trie s have re c o g n iz e d th e low p ro d u c tiv ity
of th e ir e d u c a tio n s y s te m s and have in stitu te d in n o v atio n s (C u m m in g s
and L e m k e , 1973:35). G e n e ra lly , th e s e r e f o r m s have b e e n f ra g m e n te d
a d a p ta tio n s of m o d e ls f ro m in d u s tr ia liz e d c o u n trie s w hich have not
g e n e ra te d the "fu n d a m e n ta l tr a n s f o r m a tio n s th a t now s e e m to be
r e q u is ite s fo r d y n am ic d e v e lo p m e n t" (C u m m in g s an d L e m k e , 1973:35).
The P e ru v ia n e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m a tte m p te d to be a n in s tr u m e n t of
n atio n al d e v e lo p m e n t and a tte m p te d to avoid the s h o rtc o m in g s of the
tra d itio n a l e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m s . T h o se r e f o r m s w e re g e n e ra lly no
m o re th a n a f o rm a l re o rg a n iz a tio n of the s y s te m and did not tak e into
c o n s id e ra tio n s o c io -p o litic a l r e a litie s . T h ey w e re p r im a r i l y d esig n e d
to in c r e a s e a c c e s s to sc h o o lin g w ithout changing the co n ten t o r
m e th o d s of e d u c atio n (C ueto F e rn a n d in i, 1971:11-12).
T he P r o b le m
S ta te m e n t of th e P r o b le m
A d e s c rip tiv e a n a ly s is of the P e r u v ia n ed u c a tio n a l r e f o r m
I
i
f r o m 1970 until 1974 c o n s titu te s the p u rp o se of th is d is s e r ta tio n . ,
Since the h is to r y of the r e f o r m c o m m e n c e s in 1970 w ith the p u b lic a - |
tio n of the Inf or m e G e n e ra l and a c tu a l in s titu tio n a liz a tio n of the
r e f o r m ta k e s p la ce in 1972 w ith th e D e c re to L ey 19326, a c o m p re h e n
siv e e v a lu a tio n of its a p p lic a tio n is not p o ssib le due to its r e c e n t
im p le m e n ta tio n ; th e ta r g e t d ate fo r the to ta l im p le m e n ta tio n of the
r e f o r m th ro u g h o u t the s y s te m is 1980. H ow ever, the g o als,
o b je c tiv e s, and p r o c e s s of the r e f o r m can be id en tified , an aly zed , and
a s s e s s e d . T h is stu d y in v e stig a te d th e n eed s and g o als of the r e f o r m
a s defined by P e r u v ia n a u th o r itie s and d e s c rip tiv e ly a n a ly z e d s e le c te d
o b je c tiv e s of the r e f o r m and the s tr a te g ie s by w h ich th e s e o b je c tiv e s
w e re to be a c h ie v e d and a s s e s s e d .
P u rp o s e of th e Study
The p u rp o se of th is stu d y w as to d e s c rib e a n a ly tic a lly the
g o als of the P e ru v ia n e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m as le g is la te d in 1972.
A dditionally, s e le c te d o b je c tiv e s of the r e f o r m w e re a n a ly z e d and
th e ir im p le m e n ta tio n a c tiv itie s a s s e s s e d . The stu d y f u r th e r e x p la in s
the re la tio n s h ip s b e tw e e n th e s e in n o v atio n s and p a r tic u la r c u r r e n t
s o c io -e c o n o m ic and c u ltu ra l, a s w ell a s e d u c a tio n a l, p ro b le m s .
Im p o rta n c e of the Study
All L a tin A m e ric a n n atio n s find th e m s e lv e s a t so m e point in
the d e v e lo p m e n t continuum , and a s su ch , th e y s h a r e p ro b le m s and
in te r e s ts w ith th e r e s t of the T h ird W o rld w hich o v e r the p a s t d e c a d e s
has b e e n a c tiv e ly e x p r e s s in g th e n eed fo r s o c io -e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p
m en t, a s p ir a tio n s of fre e d o m , and s e lf d e te rm in a tio n . A ny d e v e lo p
m e n t th a t o c c u rs in the T h ird W o rld is not only of sig n ific an c e
in te rn a lly , but a ffe c ts the to ta l w o rld o r d e r; th is is b e co m in g m o re
a p p a re n t in the d ecad e of th e 1970s w hen d e c r e a s in g n a tu ra l r e s o u r c e s
of W e s te rn n atio n s a r e w a r ra n tin g a r e a s s e s s m e n t of re la tio n s of the
in te rn a tio n a l co m m u n ity . B a r r i e r s th a t have e x iste d am o n g the
i n te r e s ts of in d u s tria liz e d and d ev elo p in g n a tio n s on the b a s is of
c u ltu ra l, eco n o m ic, r a c ia l, and p o litic a l d iffe re n c e s m a y be
r e a d ju s te d w ith g r e a t e r a c c e p ta n c e of th e p lu ra lity th a t f o rm s th e
w o rld co m m u n ity . In fact, th e f i r s t a s su m p tio n u n d e rly in g the w o rk
of th e r e p o r t of th e In te rn a tio n a l C o m m is sio n on th e D e v elo p m e n t of
E d u c a tio n of the U nited N ations E d u c a tio n a l, S cien tific and C u ltu ra l
O rg a n iz a tio n (1972:v-vi) sta te d :
The f i r s t [a s s u m p tio n ], w hich w as in d eed th e ju s tif ic a
tio n fo r the ta s k we u n d erto o k , is th a t of th e e x iste n c e of an
in te rn a tio n a l co m m u n ity , w hich, a m id s t the v a r ie ty of
n a tio n s and c u ltu re s , of p o litic a l options and d e g r e e s of
d ev elo p m en t, is re fle c te d in co m m o n a s p ir a tio n s , p ro b le m s
and tre n d s , and in its m o v e m e n t to w a rd s one and the s a m e
d e stin y . The c o r o lla r y to th is is the fu n d a m e n ta l s o lid a r ity
of g o v e rn m e n ts and of p e o p le s, d e sp ite tr a n s i t o r y d iffe re n c e s
and co n flic ts.
A s its f i r s t re c o m m e n d a tio n , th e In te rn a tio n a l C o m m is s io n on the
D ev elo p m en t of E d u c a tio n (1972:182), in its r e p o r t, L e a rn in g to B e ,
p ro p o se d lifelo n g ed u ca tio n M a s th e m a s t e r co n cep t fo r e d u c a tio n a l
p o lic ie s in th e y e a r s to co m e fo r both d ev elo p ed and d ev elo p in g
c o u n trie s . " It illu s tr a te d its re c o m m e n d a tio n by d e s c rib in g the
P e ru v ia n r e f o r m w h ich w as b a s e d on the p rin c ip le of lifelo n g e d u c a
tio n . T hus, P e r u v ia n e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m m ay in flu en ce e d u c atio n a l
d e v elo p m en ts p a r tic u la r ly in c o u n trie s w hich n eed a lte rn a tiv e
s tr u c t u r e s and m o d a litie s to a tta in th e i r n atio n al g o als w ith lim ite d
r e s o u r c e s .
5
Since W o rld W a r II, P e r u h a s b e e n a tte m p tin g to evolve f ro m
an e s s e n tia lly fe u d a l and d ep en d en t s o c io -e c o n o m ic s y s te m to a
m o d e rn and in d ep en d en t one. U rb an m ig ra tio n , high d e m o g ra p h ic
grow th, in c r e a s e d a c c e s s to tech n o lo g y , and b r o a d e r p a rtic ip a tio n
have b e e n e ro d in g the tra d itio n a l s o c io -e c o n o m ic d u a lity and s u b
stitu tin g it w ith m u ch m o re co m p le x s tr u c t u r e s w hich r e q u ire a
r a d ic a l r e v is io n of the e d u c a tio n a l p h ilo so p h y and p r a c tic e s .
T oday, the p ro b le m facin g P e r u is how to m ove f r o m
b e in g a s e m i- f e u d a l s ta te , ju s t on the th re s h o ld of in d u s
tr ia liz a tio n , into a w o rld of e q u a lity and au to m atio n , f ro m
b ein g a c o u n try w hich is p h y s ic a lly and c u ltu ra lly m an y
c o u n trie s into a w o rld of in te rn a tio n a l in te g ra tio n . (Ponce
de L eo n , 1971:45)
T h e se e x ig e n c ie s d em an d a fu n c tio n a l e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m th a t can
p r e p a r e c itiz e n s to c o n trib u te to n a tio n a l d ev elo p m en t. If its go als
a r e ach ie v e d , its sig n ific a n c e m a y w e ll go beyond n a tio n a l b o u n d a rie s.
T h e o re tic a l F r a m e w o r k
H y p o th eses
The lit e r a t u r e on L a tin A m e r ic a n e d u c a tio n in d ic a te d a
n u m b e r of e d u c a tio n a l d e fic ie n c ie s w hich a p p e a r to v a ry in g d e g re e s
co m m o n to a ll th e s e n a tio n s. On th e b a s is of th is g e n e ra liz a tio n , it
w as h y p o th e siz e d th a t the P e r u v ia n e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m w ould e n c o m
p a s s m e a s u r e s and a c tiv itie s d e sig n e d to r e c tify su ch co n d itio n s. The
follow ing h y p o th e se s w e re te s te d :
1. The P e r u v ia n e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m is d esig n e d to
d e m o c ra tiz e b a s ic ed u c a tio n
2. T he P e r u v ia n e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m is d e sig n e d to d e c r e a s e
illite r a c y r a t e s
3. T he P e r u v ia n e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m w ill in c r e a s e su ste n tio n
r a te s of s tu d e n ts
4. The P e r u v ia n e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m w ill in c r e a s e a c c e s s to
h ig h e r e d u ca tio n
5. T he P e r u v ia n e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m is d e sig n e d to m e e t the
e c o n o m ic r e q u ire m e n ts of a d ev elo p in g eco n o m y
Q u e stio n s
The r e f o r m e d e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m is o rg a n iz e d in le v e ls ,
c y c le s , and m o d a litie s . T he q u e stio n s to be a n s w e re d re la te d to
th e s e sp e c ific s tr u c t u r a l o b je c tiv e s a s w ell a s to the n eed s and g e n
e r a l g o als of the r e f o r m . Specific q u e stio n s to be a n s w e re d w e re :
1. W hat a r e the e d u c a tio n a l n e e d s of P e r u v ia n so c ie ty ?
2. W hat a r e the g o als of the e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m ?
3. W hat a r e the o b je c tiv e s and im p le m e n ta tio n s tr a te g y of
b a s ic r e g u la r e d u ca tio n ?
4. W hat a r e th e o b je c tiv e s and im p le m e n ta tio n s tr a te g y of
b a s ic la b o r e d u c a tio n ?
5. W hat a r e the o b je c tiv e s and im p le m e n ta tio n s tr a te g y of
p r o fe s s io n a l c e rtific a tio n ?
6. W hat a r e the o b je c tiv e s and im p le m e n ta tio n s tr a te g y of
h ig h e r e d u c a tio n ?
7. W hat a r e the o b je c tiv e s and im p le m e n ta tio n s tr a te g y of
the n u c le a riz a tio n p r o c e s s and s y s te m ?
A ssu m p tio n s
Two b a s ic a s s u m p tio n s u n d e rly the p ro b le m of th is d i s s e r t a
tion:
1. An im p ro v e d e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m d e sig n e d to m e e t e c o
n o m ic d ev e lo p m en t n e e d s is d e s ir a b le
2. T he in te g ra tio n of the m a r g in a l m a s s e s in the s o c io
eco n o m ic p r o c e s s is a ls o d e s ira b le
D e lim ita tio n s
T h is stu d y w a s d e lim ite d to the a p p lic a tio n of e d u c a tio n a l
r e f o r m in P e r u b e tw een 1970 and 1974. T he a s s u m p tio n of p o w er of
th e m ilita r y ju n ta in 1968 c o n s titu te d a to ta l r e -e v a lu a tio n of the
s o c ia l o r d e r and n a tio n a l p r io r itie s . T h is e v en t le d to an a n a ly s is of
the d y sfu n ctio n s of ed u c a tio n a l p r a c tic e s in 1970, c u lm in a tin g w ith the
r e f o r m le g isla tio n , D e c re to L e y 19326, in 1972. T he e d u c a tio n a l
r e f o r m cannot be a s s e s s e d in a s o c ia l v acu u m , a s it is one of a s e r i e s
of r e f o r m s th a t is b ein g in s titu te d in o r d e r to ach ie v e new n atio n al
g o a ls. It w a s n e c e s s a r y fo r th e in v e s tig a to r to stu d y the p o litic a l
d y n a m ic s th a t have e n g e n d e re d th e e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m , but only
in s o fa r a s th e y c o n stitu te d the s o c ia l s e ttin g of the r e fo r m . A d e ta ile d
a n a ly s is of th e new P e r u v ia n p o litic a l s y s te m w as beyond the sco p e of
th is d is s e r ta tio n . H ence, not a ll c o m p o n en ts of th e r e f o r m w e r e
an aly zed , but s p e c ific o b je c tiv e s of the r e f o r m w e re s e le c te d a s
r e p r e s e n ta tiv e of the m a jo r th r u s t of th e r e fo r m .
D e sig n and M ethodology
The r e s e a r c h d e sig n of th is stu d y w as a co m b in a tio n of the
h is to r ic a l and d e s c rip tiv e m eth o d s. T he h is to r ic a l m eth o d w as u sed
to r e c o n s tr u c t r e le v a n t s o c io -e c o n o m ic and e d u c a tio n a l a n te c e d e n ts
th a t gave an a p p ro p ria te p e rs p e c tiv e to the 1970 e d u c a tio n a l r e fo rm .
The d e s c rip tiv e m eth o d w as u se d to d e s c rib e th e P e r u v ia n e d u c a tio n a l
r e f o r m of 1970-1974. In te rv ie w s , s u rv e y s of the l i t e r a t u r e , and
d o c u m e n ta ry a n a ly s e s w e re u sed fo r d e s c rip tiv e a n a ly s is .
The in v e s tig a to r conducted the r e s e a r c h d u rin g the p e rio d of
A ugust, 1974, to A ugust, 1975. T h is p e rio d in clu d ed a th r e e m o n th s ’
|
in v e stig a tio n in th e M in is try of E d u c atio n , L im a , P e r u . A p p ro p ria te \
\
v is ita tio n s to sc h o o ls in L im a and o th e r re g io n s in the c o u n try w e r e i
i
a ls o u n d e rta k e n to a m p lify the p e r s p e c tiv e and sco p e of the r e s e a r c h
study.
The stu d y w as conducted in th re e s ta g e s : d a ta g a th e rin g ,
in te r p r e ta tio n of d ata, and v a lid a tio n of the a n a ly s is .
9
D a ta G a th e rin g
Included in th e d a ta -g a th e rin g p r o c e s s w e re : (1) a s u rv e y of
re le v a n t d o cu m e n ta tio n ( p r im a r y and s e c o n d a ry s o u rc e s ) in P e r u ;
(2) a s u rv e y of re le v a n t d o c u m e n ta tio n ( p r im a r y and s e c o n d a ry
s o u rc e s ) in the U nited S ta tes; and (3) in te rv ie w s w ith P e r u v ia n e d u c a
tio n a l le a d e r s and r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s f r o m g ro u p s opp o sin g and fa v o rin g
the e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m p r o c e s s in P e r u at the M in is try of E d u catio n ,
L im a , P e r u , and in u rb a n and r u r a l e d u c a tio n a l p ro g ra m s*
I n te rp r e ta tio n of D ata
The m e a n in g and s ig n ific a n c e of the g o als and s e le c te d
o b je c tiv e s u n d e r stu d y w e r e in te rp r e te d , w ith s p e c ia l e m p h a s is on:
(1) the u n d e rly in g p ro b le m s o r n e ed s r e la te d to the o b je c tiv e s u n d er
study; (2) th e ra tio n a le and d e s c rip tio n of the innovation; and (3) the
d e g re e of im p le m e n ta tio n b y 1974.
I
V alid a tio n of the A n a ly s is J
P r i m a r y and s e c o n d a ry s o u r c e s s e rv e d as one of the b a s e s
of th e a n a ly s is . In te rn a l s o u rc e s w e re c o n su lte d to a s s e s s the lo g ic,
c o h e re n c e , and r e s o u r c e s of the r e f o r m co m p o n e n ts. D ata f ro m
e x te r n a l s o u r c e s (UNESCO, O rg a n iz a tio n of A m e ric a n S ta te s, I n t e r -
A m e ric a n D ev elo p m en t Bank, In te rn a tio n a l B ank fo r R e c o n s tru c tio n
and D ev elo p m en t, O rg a n iz a tio n fo r E c o n o m ic D e v elo p m en t and
C o o p e ra tio n , e tc . ) s e r v e d as the b a s is fo r a n aly zin g and a s s e s s in g
10
the v a lid ity of th e n ee d s, g o als, and o b je c tiv e s.
The d a ta g a th e re d f r o m the in te rv ie w s s e r v e d to am p lify ,
c la rify , and v e rify the m e a n in g of the d o cu m e n ta tio n ; the in te rv ie w s
w e re s e m i - s t r u c t u r e d an d c o n s is te d of a s e t of q u e stio n s r e la tin g to
th e r e f o r m in g e n e r a l and to the a r e a of c o m p e te n c e of the i n t e r
v ie w e e s.
F in a lly , th re e e d u c a tio n a l le a d e r s w ith d e m o n s tr a te d c o m
p e te n c e in L a tin A m e r ic a n e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m s a g r e e d to re v ie w the
c o m p le te d c h a p te r s and to v a lid a te th e d a ta and th e ir in te r p r e ta tio n s .
The d a ta w e re e v a lu a te d u n d e r the follow ing c a te g o rie s :
1. P r o b le m is c l e a r ly s ta te d
2. H y p o th e se s a r e c le a r ly s ta te d
3. P r o b le m is sig n ific a n t
4. A s su m p tio n s a r e c le a r ly s ta te d
5. L im ita tio n s of the stu d y a r e s ta te d
6. Im p o rta n t t e r m s a r e defined
7. R e la tio n sh ip of the p ro b le m to p re v io u s r e s e a r c h is m ad e
cle a r
8. R e s e a r c h d e s ig n is d e s c rib e d fu lly
9. R e s e a r c h d e sig n is a p p ro p ria te fo r the s o lu tio n of the
p r oblem
10. D a ta - g a th e rin g m e th o d s o r p r o c e d u r e s a r e d e s c rib e d
11. D a ta -g a th e rin g m e th o d s o r p r o c e d u re s a r e a p p ro p ria te to
the so lu tio n of the p ro b le m
12. V alid ity and r e lia b ility of the evidence g a th e re d a r e
e s ta b lis h e d
13. A p p ro p ria te m eth o d s a r e s e le c te d to a n a ly z e the d ata
14. M ethods u tiliz e d in a n a ly z in g the d a ta a r e ap p lie d c o r
r e c tly
15. R e su lts of th e a n a ly s is a r e p r e s e n te d c le a r ly
16. C o n clu sio n s a r e c le a r ly s ta te d
17. C o n clu sio n s a r e s u b s ta n tia te d by the e v id en ce p r e s e n te d
18. R e p o rt is c le a r ly w r itte n
19. R e p o rt is lo g ic a lly o rg a n iz e d
20. T one of the r e p o r t d isp la y s an u n b iase d , im p a rtia l,
s c ie n tific attitu d e
The e v a lu a tio n f o r m s , a s c o m p le te d by th e th r e e e d u c a tio n a l
le a d e r s , a r e c o n tain ed in the appendix.
D efin itio n s of T e rm s
T he r e f o r m le g is la tio n in c lu d e s a g lo s s a r y of t e r m s . Som e
of th e s e have b e e n s e le c te d fo r tra n s la tio n .
C o n s c ie n tiz a tio n
C o n s c ie n tiz a tio n is a n e d u c a tiv e p r o c e s s by w hich p e r s o n s
and s o c ia l g ro u p s r e a c h c r itic a l c o n s c io u s n e s s of th e h is to r ic a l,
c u ltu ra l w o rld in w hich th e y live, and a s s u m e th e r e s p o n s ib ilitie s and
12
u n d e rta k e the n e c e s s a r y a c tio n s in o r d e r to tr a n s f o r m it. C o n s c ie n ti
z a tio n is not a tr a n s itiv e a c t of im p o sitio n , but an a c t of re fle c tio n and
fre e d o m by w h ich people b e c o m e c o n sc io u s w ith in an e lu c id a tin g
p r o c e s s of h u m a n in te ra c tio n (M in iste rio de E d u c acio n , L ey G e n e r a l,
1972).
D e sc h o o le d E d u c a tio n
D e sc h o o led ed u ca tio n o r n o n -fo rm a l e d u ca tio n is a type of
e d u c a tio n w hich fa v o rs th e p u r s u it of s tu d ie s o u tsid e of e d u c a tio n a l
c e n te r s (sch o o ls, u n iv e r s itie s , e tc . ) and allo w s e d u c a tio n d u rin g
e m p lo y m e n t and d a ily a c tiv itie s w ith o u t p re v io u s r e q u ire m e n ts of a
s p e c ific a c a d e m ic c u r r ic u lu m (M in iste rio de E d u c acio n , L e y G e n e r a l,
1972).
L ifelo n g E d u c atio n
L ifelo n g o r p e rm a n e n t e d u c a tio n is a p e d a g o g ic a l p rin c ip le by
w h ich th e e d u c a tio n a l p r o c e s s co n tin u es th ro u g h o u t th e life of an
in d iv id u al. It s u p p o se s c o n sta n t p r e p a ra tio n , a c tu a liz a tio n of k n o w l
edge and s p e c ia liz a tio n (M in iste rio de E d u c acio n , L ey G e n e r a l, 1972).
O rg a n iz a tio n of th e D is s e r ta tio n
C h a p te r I in tro d u c e d th e p ro b le m and d is c u s s e d the m e th o d
ology of r e s e a r c h . C h a p te r II p ro v id e s a re v ie w of th e l i t e r a t u r e and
d o c u m e n ta tio n r e la te d to th e p ro b le m . C h a p te r III d e s c r ib e s the n e e d s
co n fro n tin g P e r u v ia n s o c ie ty and the goals of e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m as
th e y r e la te to th o se n e e d s. C h a p ter IV a n a ly z e s s e le c te d o b je c tiv e s of
th e re fo r m . C h a p te r V s u m m a r iz e s the stu d y and in d ic a te s c o n c lu
sio n s and re c o m m e n d a tio n s .
14
C H A P T E R II
REV IEW OF TH E L IT E R A T U R E
T h e o rie s on D ev e lo p m en t
T he c a u s e s and c o n se q u e n c e s of u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t in L a tin
A m e r ic a a r e m a n y and co m p lex , and th e s tr a te g ie s p ro p o se d o r
e x p e rie n c e d fo r d e v e lo p m en t a lso show s ig n ific a n t v a ria n c e . One
c o m m o n f e a tu re of a ll a p p ro a c h e s is th a t u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t is
a n a ly z e d and d e v e lo p m e n t p ro p o s e d a c c o rd in g to the p o litic a l p h ilo s o
phy of a g iv en n atio n o r a given w r ite r . T h u s, ed u c a tio n p e r c e iv e d as
a n in s tr u m e n t e ith e r to su p p o rt o r to in itia te s o c io -e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p
m en t m u s t be c o n s id e re d w ith in th e s o c io -e c o n o m ic , c u ltu ra l, o r
p o litic a l f r a m e of r e f e r e n c e . C u m m in g s and L e m k e (1973:9) n oted
th a t "e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m s can only be u n d e rsto o d a s th ey a r e v iew ed
a g a in s t th e b a c k g ro u n d of th e ir c o n te m p o r a ry s o c ia l and c u ltu ra l
e n v iro n m e n t. "
A g u ila r (1969) p ro v id e d a ty p o lo g y of u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t
th e o r ie s w h ich a c c o u n ted fo r m o s t p o s itio n s on th e rig h t o r le ft of the
p o litic a l s p e c tru m . T h is typology and l i t e r a t u r e r e p r e s e n tin g so m e of
the c a te g o r ie s a r e in clu d ed to d e m o n s tra te the c o m p le x ity and
m u ltip lic ity of a n a ly s e s th a t u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t p ro d u c e s, and to show
the m a n y d e v e lo p m e n t s tr a te g ie s th a t a r e a d v o c a te d o r im p le m e n te d
by e d u c a to rs . T he l i t e r a t u r e re v ie w e d in th is c h a p te r in clu d es:
(1) a n a ly s e s of u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t in g e n e ra l; (2) s tu d ie s and e x p e r
ie n c e s of d e v e lo p m e n ta l ed u catio n in p a r tic u la r ; and (3) fin ally ,
s tu d ie s of P e r u v ia n e d u c a tio n a l co n d itio n s and p r o s p e c ts w ith in the
s o c ia l, ec o n o m ic , and p o litic a l context.
A g u ila r (1969) id en tified th e follow ing t h e o r ie s on u n d e r
d ev elo p m en t:
1. T he n o n -e c o n o m ic th e o r y w h ich a ttrib u te d u n d e rd e v e lo p
m e n t to b io lo g ic al, r a c ia l, re lig io u s , c lim a c tic ,
p sy c h o lo g ic a l, and c e r ta in s o c io - c u ltu r a l co n d itio n s
2. The d e fic ie n c y of re p ro d u c tiv e r e s o u r c e s th e o ry w hich
e x p la in ed u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t by a la c k of n a tu ra l and
h u m a n r e s o u r c e s , te c h n ic a l c a p a b ility , and c a p ita l
in fo rm a tio n
3. The v ic io u s c ir c le th e o ry w h ich e x p la in e d th a t u n d e r
d e v e lo p m e n t th ro u g h a s e r i e s of n o n -p ro d u c tiv e s ta te s
c a n only y ield m o re u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t
4. T he s o c ia l d ic h o to m y th e o r y w h ich im p lie d th a t th e
ju x ta p o sitio n of one eco n o m ic s y s te m , u su a lly o c c id e n ta l
c a p ita lis m , o v e r an a g r a r ia n , p r e - c a p i t a l i s t s y s te m did
not allow fo r the im p le m e n ta tio n of a v ia b ly unified
d e v e lo p m e n t p o lic y
5. The m a r k e t im p e rfe c tio n s th e o ry w hich e x p la in e d th a t
c a p ita l, m a n p o w e r, and o th e r p ro d u c tiv e r e s o u r c e s a r e
a llo c a te d d e fe c tiv e ly and y ield in fe rio r p ro d u c tio n
6. The th e o r y th a t e x p lain ed th a t in te rn a tio n a l m a r k e ts have
b een u n fav o rab le to u n d erd e v e lo p e d e c o n o m ie s and have
e ith e r c a u se d o r r e in fo r c e d u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t
7. T he s o c ia l, e c o n o m ic , p o litic a l o rg a n iz a tio n in h ib its
d e v elo p m en t a c c o rd in g to the in stitu tio n a l a n a c h ro n is m
th e o ry
8. The h is to r ic a l d o m in a tio n of c a p ita lis t c o lo n ia lis m is
a n o th e r th e o ry th a t e x p la in e d u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t
9. A n o th e r th e o ry ex p la in e d th a t u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t w as
c a u s e d by U nited S ta te s im p e r ia lis m d u rin g the tw e n tie th
c e n tu ry
10. M o n o p o listic c o n tro ls and in te rf e r e n c e in s ta te a c tiv itie s
by n e o c a p ita lis m c o n stitu te d a n o th e r in te r p r e ta tio n of the
u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t of L a tin A m e r ic a
11. T he s tr u c t u r a l d ep en d en ce th e o r y ad v an ced the p r e m is e
th a t the d ep en d en ce of c o m m e rc e , fin a n c e s, eco n o m y ,
technology, and c u ltu re on in d u s tr ia liz e d n a tio n s h a s
p re v e n te d v iab le d e v e lo p m e n t in L a tin A m e r ic a
12. A n o th er th e o ry e x p la in ed th a t the d efe c tiv e d is trib u tio n of
17
w e a lth is at the ro o t of u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t
A g u ila r ’s c a te g o r ie s w e re not m u tu a lly e x c lu siv e and d i s
c r e te . In m o st a n a ly s e s th e y o v e rla p p e d and should be p e rc e iv e d as a
co n tin u u m of th e o r ie s on u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t th a t go f ro m le ft to rig h t
on the p o litic a l, eco n o m ic , so c ia l, and c u ltu ra l s p e c tru m .
A c c o rd in g to L ip s e t (1972:119), eco n o m ic co n d itio n s and the
value s tr u c tu r e in L a tin A m e r ic a w e r e not conducive to s o c io
eco n o m ic d ev e lo p m e n t. He contended th a t L a tin A m e ric a n v alu es
w e re " a n tith e tic to the b a s ic lo g ic of a la r g e s c a le in d u s tr ia l s y s te m "
in c o m p a ris o n w ith th e U nited S tates o r o th e r in d u s tr ia liz e d n a tio n s.
L a tin A m e r ic a 's v alu e d e fic ie n c ie s w e re e m p h a s iz e d by fa m ily and
lo c a l co m m u n ity , w eak a c h ie v e m e n t o rie n ta tio n , tra d itio n a l m o ra l
s ta n d a rd s , and e x p r e s s iv e b e h a v io r (as opposed to in s tr u m e n ta l
b e h a v io r), a c c o rd in g to L ip s e t. C h an g es in the e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m ,
su c h as in c lu sio n of v o c a tio n a l e d u ca tio n and a c h ie v e m e n t th e m e s in
the c u r ric u lu m , w ould m o d e rn iz e the v alu e s y s te m . N e v e rth e le s s ,
L ip s e t (1972:119) contended th a t th e s e s o c ie tie s :
. . . n eed not r e je c t th e ir tra d itio n a l v alu e s y s te m if th ey
can w o rk out m e c h a n is m s to g u a ra n te e th a t a la r g e s e c tio n
of the e lite w ill be c o m p o se d of m en who a r e h ig h ly m o ti
v a te d and able to a c h ie v e .
T he re la tio n s h ip b etw e e n c u ltu ra l p a tte r n s and d e v e lo p m e n t
and the e ffe c t of e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m on c u ltu ra l d e te r m in is m w as
e x p lo re d by G id eo n se (1963:431), w ho q u estio n ed :
18
H ave th e in sig h ts of M ax W e b e r an d R. H. T ow ney c o n
c e rn in g the m o r a l o rig in "of We s te rn - ec o n o m ic in stitu tio n s 1
nothing to c o n trib u te to o u r th in k in g about the e co n o m ic and
e d u c a tio n a l d e v e lo p m e n t of c o u n trie s in w hich e x a c tly the
o p p o site r e lig io u s a ttitu d e s p r e v a il? Is it n a iv e ly a s s u m e d
. th a t such m o ra l q u a litie s w ill be a b y -p ro d u c t of ec o n o m ic
s tim u la tio n ?
T he m o ra l p r e r e q u is ite s f o r d e v e lo p m e n t included:
. . . w illin g n e ss to c o n tro l, a p p e tite [of c o n su m p tio n ]
. . . th r if t . . . an open attitu d e to w a rd inn o v atio n and
in itia tiv e . . . r e s p e c t fo r th e fu tu re and fo r c h ild re n
. . . r e s p e c t fo r a p r o m is e and fo r p r o p e rty . . . . It is
the a b s e n c e of th o se q u a litie s th a t e x p la in s th e s te r i l i t y of
m an y of o u r w e ll-fin a n c e d p r o je c ts in L a tin A m e r ic a and
A s ia . (G ideonse, 1963:431)
The r e q u ir e m e n ts fo r d ev elo p m en t, a c c o rd in g to C u rie (1969),
d e m a n d to ta l in d u s tria liz a tio n , a g r a r i a n r e f o r m , a g r ic u ltu r a l m o d e r n
iz a tio n , and p eo p le e d u c a te d to new ta s k s and r e s p o n s ib ilitie s and a
s tro n g m id d le c la s s of e n tr e p r e n e u r s and p r o fe s s io n a l p e r s o n s .
D uncan (1968:187) a rg u e d th a t the ch an g es b ro u g h t about by e d u catio n
w e r e not su ffic ie n t to ch an g e th e p o litic a l s tr u c tu r e . He n oted th a t in
L a tin A m e r ic a th e in c r e a s e in lit e r a c y had not a ffe c te d tr a d itio n a l
a ttitu d e s; v a lu e s re m a in e d " p e r s o n a lis tic , p a te r n a lis tic , t r a n s c e n
d en tal, f a ta lis tic , a tta c h g r e a t w eight to h i e r a r c h y and s t r e s s e m o tio n
and fu lfillm e n t of se lf. n In 1972, D u n can stu d ie d the re la tio n s h ip
b e tw e e n lit e r a c y and th e c u ltu re of p o litic s, and c o n clu d ed th a t th e
f o r m e r d o es not p ro d u c e sig n ific a n t ch a n g e s in th e la t t e r . He
d e s c rib e d the tra d itio n a l c u ltu re a s e x h ib itin g " a u th o r ita r ia n d e c is io n
m ak in g , c e n tr a liz e d c o n tro l by a lim ite d p o litic a l e lite , and
19
d o m in a n t-s u b m is s iv e in te r p e r s o n a l r e la tio n s b etw een the le a d e r s and !
the le d " (D uncan, 1972:126).
M ed allin (1973:3), n e v e r th e le s s , s ta te d th a t "the b e lie f th a t
e d u ca tio n is one of the s u r e s t w ay s to a c h ie v e g e n e ra l e co n o m ic
p r o g r e s s is u n iv e rs a lly a c c e p te d . " He d efin ed d e v e lo p m e n t a s
m o d e rn iz a tio n of a g r ic u ltu r a l and in d u s tr ia l p ro d u c tio n and the a d m in
is tr a tiv e , s c ie n tific , an d p o litic a l su p p o rt s y s te m s . He s u g g e ste d
f u r th e r r e s e a r c h on the o u tco m e of p r o fe s s io n a l e d u catio n , " o n -th e -
job tra in in g " p r o g r a m s , and the im p a c t of e d u c a tio n on a g r ic u ltu r a l
p ro d u ctio n . D eW itt (1965:197) r e i te r a t e d th a t th e p e r c a p ita in co m e
in d ev elo p ed c o u n trie s w as p o s itiv e ly c o r r e la te d to e d u c a tio n a l
in v e stm e n t, and c o n s id e re d th a t "if a s o c ie ty is unable to d ev elo p its
h u m an r e s o u r c e s , it cannot d ev elo p m u ch e ls e , be it tech n o lo g y ,
p o litic a l o r s o c ia l in stitu tio n s, m a t e r ia l o r c u ltu ra l w e lfa re , o r its
eco n o m y . A d a m s (1965:169) co n ten d ed th a t the m ea n in g of d e v e lo p -
I
m e n t w a s not c le a r . In te rp r e ta tio n s included: j
i
(a) "e c o n o m ic g ro w th a s m e a s u r e d by in v e s tm e n t r a te s ,
n a tio n a l in c o m e , in d u s tr ia l p ro d u c tiv ity " . . . [an d ] (b) I
in c r e a s e in lite r a c y , m o re r e s p o n s ib le s o c ia l and p o litic a l
p a rtic ip a tio n , id e n tific a tio n w ith n a tio n a l sy m b o ls an d
a u th o rity , th e p re v a le n c e of c e r ta in " m o d e rn " a ttitu d e s and
v a lu e s , o r the le v e l of h e a lth of the population.
"D ev e lo p m e n t" is a ls o e q u a ted w ith " m o d e rn iz a tio n " an d w ith " in d u s
tr ia liz a tio n " and " W e s te rn iz a tio n . " T he c o r r e la tio n b etw een e d u c a tio n
and s o c ia l and in d iv id u al d e v e lo p m e n t is obvious, but it is not c le a r ,
20
and s o c ia l d e v e lo p m e n t m a y be a c a u se o r a r e s u lt of e c o n o m ic d e v e l
opm en t. G e n e ra lly , the co m m o n q u a n tita tiv e in d ic e s of d ev elo p m en t
sh o u ld be re c o n s id e r e d .
A g u ila r, F r ig e r io , E g g e rs L an, F e r n a n d e z L opez, and
F r a n c o (A rm a d a , 1969) p r e s e n te d in c isiv e a n a ly s e s of the th e m e s of
d e v elo p m en t and u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t. D e s a r r o llo y D e s a r r o llis m o
[D e v elo p m en t an d D e v e lo p m e n ta lis m ] c o n stitu te d a s tro n g c ritiq u e of
the d e v e lo p m e n ta list th e o r ie s :
Unlike w h at o c c u r r e d in W e s te rn E u ro p e in o th e r tim e s ,
L a tin A m e r ic a n c a p ita lis m , in s p ite of its long ev o lu tio n , h a s
not b e e n able to f r e e o u r c o u n trie s f ro m b a c k w a rd n e s s . . .
a s if it h a s not b e e n c a p ita lis m , in p a r tic u la r fo re ig n c a p ita l
is m , [w hich h a s b e e n ] the c a u se of th e [e c o n o m ic ] h e t e r o
g e n e ity w hich is o ffe re d a s the c a u se of u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t!
(A rm ad a, 1969:66-67)
G e n e ra lly , the a u th o rs who c r itic iz e a " d e v e lo p m e n ta lis t1 1
so lu tio n to u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t su c h a s the ones p re v io u s ly m en tio n ed ,
b la m e c o lo n ia lism , im p e r ia lis m , n e o c a p ita lis m , s tr u c t u r a l d e p e n
d en ce, and d e fe c tiv e d is trib u tio n of w e a lth and in co m e as the "fu n d a
m e n ta l o b s ta c le s to d ev e lo p m e n t. 1 1 D os Santos (1974:128-29) s h a re d
th is p o sitio n by s u g g e stin g " tra n s c e n d in g the d e v e lo p m e n t th e o ry th a t
t r i e s to ex p la in th e co n d itio n of u n d e rd e v e lo p e d c o u n trie s as a c o n s e
quence of th e slo w n e ss o r fa ilu r e in the adoption of effic ie n c y . "
W o rld ex p a n sio n of c a p ita lis m w a s c o n s id e re d the p rin c ip a l c a u se of
u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t by the a u th o r. S tav en h ag en (1974) a g re e d w ith
D os Santos and r e je c te d s e v e n so c io lo g ic a l th e s e s of u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t
a s follow s:
1. L a tin A m e r ic a n s o c ie tie s a r e d u al s o c ie tie s ; r a th e r , he
v iew ed su c h s itu a tio n s as c a s e s of in te rn a l c o lo n ia lis m
2. L a tin A m e ric a n d e v e lo p m e n t w ill co m e ab o u t by i n c o r
p o ra tin g in d u s tr ia l p ro d u c ts in b a c k w a rd a r e a s
3. R u ra l and b a c k w a rd a r e a s a r e an o b sta c le to c a p ita lis tic
d ev elo p m en t; but, in fact, u rb a n d e v e lo p m e n t is m ad e
p o s sib le by the s o c ia l and e c o n o m ic s tr u c tu r e of th e se
a r e a s
4. T he b o u rg e o is ie is in te r e s te d in d e s tro y in g the p o w er of
the lan d h o ld in g o lig a rc h y ; contending th a t both b e n efit
f r o m in te rn a l c o lo n ia lis m
5. The m id d le c la s s w ill p ro m o te n a tio n a l d ev elo p m en t; but
r a t h e r , he co n ten d ed th a t the m id d le c la s s m a in ta in s the
p o litic a l s ta tu s quo
6. L a tin A m e r ic a n d e v e lo p m e n t w ill be a c h ie v e d th ro u g h
" m e s tis a je " [m ix tu re of the w hite and Indian r a c e s ] ,
w hich im p lie d to the a u th o r th a t Indian c u ltu re s w ould be
u n d e rm in e d and e lim in a te d
7. A f a r m e r - w o r k e r a llia n c e w ill ach iev e p r o g r e s s , but
S tav en h ag en co n ten d ed th a t the u rb a n w o r k e r b e n e fits f ro m
the in te rn a l c o lo n ia lis m of r u r a l a r e a s .
The ideologue of th e P e r u v ia n e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m c o n ta in s
22
S a la z a r B o n d y 's " L a L a te rn a tiv a d e l T e r c e r M undo" ["T h e A lte rn a tiv e '
i
of the T h ird W o rld ” ], in w hich th e a u th o r ad v an ced the th e s is th a t
L a tin A m e r ic a can n o t r e p lic a te the d e v e lo p m e n t s te p s of in d u s tr ia liz e d
c o u n trie s b e c a u s e c o n d itio n s a r e to ta lly d iffe re n t. He co n ten d ed th a t
th e r e is a q u a lita tiv e r a t h e r th a n a q u a n tita tiv e d iffe re n c e b etw een
d e v e lo p m e n t and u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t. He p ro p o se d :
F o r th e m [T h ir d W o rld c o u n tr ie s ] , the a lte rn a tiv e is not
to follow th e o c c id e n ta l m o d e l of d e v e lo p m e n t o r to s ta y
behind, but to o v e rc o m e the o c c id e n ta l d e v e lo p m e n t m o d el o r
to r e m a in u n d er d o m in a tio n and u n d e r in c u ra b le u n d e rd e v e lo p
m en t. (S a la z a r Bondy, 1974a:229)
In " L a C u ltu ra de la D o m in acio n , M S a la z a r Bondy d e s c rib e d
the effect of the d o m in a n c e /u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t s y n d ro m e on P e r u v ia n
c u ltu re . P r im a r i l y , P e r u la c k e d an in te g ra tiv e fo rc e f o r its hig h ly
d isjo in te d p lu r a lis m w h ich c a u se d , S a la z a r Bondy ex p lain ed , " m y s t i
fic a tio n of v a lu e s , in a u th e n tic ity and im ita tiv e a ttitu d e s , s u p e r f ic ia l
ity of id e a s and im p ro v is a tio n of p u r p o s e s 1 ' (S a la z a r Bondy, 1974b:20).
He c o n s id e re d th at:
O ur c r i s i s is th e r e s u l t of th e im p la n ta tio n of p o w er ^
s y s te m s and in te rn a tio n a l r e la tio n s of d ep en d en ce th a t c a u s e I
su b je c tio n of the n atio n al life to o th e r c o u n trie s and n a tio n a l >
g ro u p s. (S a la z a r Bondy, 1974b:31)
G iven the s tr u c t u r a l b a s is of u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t, a r a d ic a l b r e a k an d a
new in te rn a tio n a l o r d e r a r e e s s e n tia l to e lim in a te u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t.
He c o n clu d ed th a t "the only au th e n tic th in g th a t a ll P e r u v ia n s have
to d ay is, undoubtedly, th e c o n s c io u s n e s s of o u r d e fectiv e co n d itio n "
(S a la z a r Bondy, 1974b:43).
F r a n c o (1974) a ls o r e je c te d e x p la n a tio n s of u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t
b a s e d on b io lo g ica l, r a c ia l, r e lig io u s , o r p s y c h o lo g ic a l f a c to rs , as
w ell as a n a ly s e s b a s e d on la c k of c a p ita l, e n tr e p r e n e u r s h ip , and
tech n o lo g y . He d ev elo p ed th e co n c e p t of s tr u c t u r a l m a r g in a lity and
co n ten d ed th a t the two r e a l r e a s o n s fo r u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t a r e c o lo n ia l
is m and im p e r ia lis m . H e r r e r a (1974:51) a g r e e d w ith S a la z a r Bondy
th at:
U n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t is not m e r e ly a p r i m a r y s ta te of
d ev elo p m en t, bu t a s itu a tio n w h ich is s tr u c tu r a lly d iffe re n t,
and to a g r e a t d e g re e g e n e ra te d and co n d itio n ed by the a c tu a l
e x is te n c e of d ev elo p ed s o c ie tie s th e m s e lv e s .
F r a n k (1967) and B o d e n h e im e r (1970) c r itic iz e d the th e o r ie s
of L a tin A m e r ic a n d e v e lo p m e n t ad v an ced by A m e r ic a n p o litic a l
s c ie n tis ts , b e c a u s e th e y w e re r e la te d to ’’c e r ta in A m e ric a n in te r e s ts
in L a tin A m e r ic a . ” T h e se th e o r ie s a re :
1. The c u m u la tiv e th e o ry , w hich a s s e r t s th a t d ev e lo p m e n t
and ’’m o d e r n iz a tio n ” p ro c e e d in a co n tin u o u s, lin e a r p r o g r e s s io n j
f ro m ’’tr a d itio n a lis m ” to ’’m o d e rn ity . ” B o d e n h e im e r c r itic iz e d th is I
i
th e o ry b e c a u s e it ig n o re s th e fa c t th a t L a tin A m e r ic a is in c re a s in g ly
d ep en d en t on fo re ig n r e s o u r c e s an d b e c a u s e d e v elo p m e n t co n d itio n s of
th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry do not e x is t an y lo n g e r. T he a u th o r contended
th a t th is th e o ry d o es not allow fo r r a d ic a l tr a n s f o r m a tio n s , is b a se d
on a u n iv e rs a l m o d el of d ev e lo p m en t, is a h i s to r ic a l one, and d o es not
24
include th e p o s s ib ility of a q u a lita tiv e ly d iffe re n t type of d ev e lo p m e n t '
i
fo r L a tin A m e ric a .
2. T he s ta b ility th e o r y c o n s id e re d " in s ta b ility a s the m a in
h in d ra n c e to d e v e lo p m e n t" but " se ld o m is it s u g g e ste d th a t the m a in
p ro b le m in L a tin A m e r ic a is not in s ta b ility but s ta b ility , i. e. , th e
p a u c ity of s u b s ta n tia l s o c ia l o r eco n o m ic c h a n g e" (B o d e n h e im e r,
1970:105). T h is th e o r y p ro m o te s " a d a p ta tio n " and " in te g ra tio n " of
the p o litic a l s y s te m and is p r im a r i l y c o n c e rn e d w ith m a in te n a n c e of
the s y s te m .
3. T he "E n d of Ideology" and p lu r a lis m th e o r ie s p r e d ic te d
th a t " ra tio n a l, " c o n c e n s u s - d ire c te d p o litic s of co n flic t w ould c r e a te
"flu id ity and fle x ib ility of c la s s s tr u c t u r e " (B o d e n h e im e r, 1970:108).
T h e se th e o r ie s e lim in a te th e M a rx ia n c la s s c o n flic t a n a ly s is by
e lim in a tin g the notion of p o w er, d o m in atio n , and ex p lo itatio n , a c c o r d
ing to B o d e n h e im e r.
4. T he d iffu sio n th e o r y c la im e d th a t d e v e lo p m e n t can be |
ex te n d e d c u ltu ra lly and m a te r ia lly f r o m d ev elo p ed a r e a s to u n d e r
d ev elo p ed a r e a s and th a t " m o d e rn " s e c tio n s in u n d erd e v e lo p e d a r e a s
su ch a s u n iv e r s itie s p e n e tra te b a c k w a rd a r e a s . T h is th e o ry does not
a c co u n t fo r the fa c t th a t the tw o p o le s " r e p r e s e n t the fu n ctio n in g of a
sin g le unified s o c ie ty " (B o d e n h e im e r, 1970:109). The m a s s m e d ia
and e d u c a tio n a r e the p rin c ip a l v e h ic le s of diffusion.
5. T he d ep en d en cy m o d e l m a in ta in s th a t L a tin A m e r ic a h as
25
b e e n d ep en d en t on o th e r c a p ita lis t e c o n o m ie s sin c e the S panish c o n
q u e st.
E d u c a tio n s R ole in N atio n al D e v e lo p m e n t
T he in tr in s ic ro le of e d u c a tio n in s o c io -e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p
m e n t e ffo rts b e c a m e a p p a re n t d u rin g the d ecad e of the 1960s w hich
w as d e c la r e d th e F i r s t D e v e lo p m en t D e c a d e by the U nited N atio n s. In
1962 the C o n fe ren c e on E d u c a tio n and E c o n o m ic an d S ocial D e v e lo p
m e n t in L a tin A m e r ic a , h eld in Santiago, C hile, s e t n a tio n a l and
re g io n a l t a r g e ts fo r e d u c a tio n a l d e v elo p m en t. R e c o m m e n d a tio n s a t
th is c o n fe re n c e s u g g e ste d th a t s ix y e a r s of p r im a r y e d u ca tio n should
be c o m p u lso ry ; s o c ia l s e r v ic e s sh o u ld be p ro v id e d to the c h ild re n ;
s e c o n d a ry e d u c a tio n sh o u ld co n ta in two c y c le s , g e n e r a l and s p e c ia l
iz e d b ra n c h e s ; and sc ie n c e should be e m p h a s iz e d in h ig h e r ed u catio n .
A d d itio n al re c o m m e n d a tio n s in clu d ed v o c a tio n a l tra in in g , a g r ic u ltu r a l
ed u catio n , l i t e r a c y c a m p a ig n s , an d ad u lt ed u catio n .
The O rg a n iz a tio n of A m e ric a n S ta te s E d u c a tio n a l T a sk
F o r c e ’s ’'P e r s p e c tiv e s d el D e s a r r o lo de la E d u c a c io n en A m e r ic a
L a tin a ” c o n s id e re d th r e e m a jo r p r io r i t y o b je c tiv e s: (a) tra in in g of
sch o o l p r o fe s s io n a l p e rs o n n e l, (b) in clu d in g m a n p o w e r c o n s id e r a
tio n s in e d u c a tio n a l plan n in g , and (c) im p ro v in g e le m e n ta r y -
s e c o n d a ry a r tic u la tio n and ex ten d in g v o c a tio n a l ed u c a tio n (L yons,
1965). E ffo rts of the A llia n c e fo r P r o g r e s s w e re d ir e c te d to w a rd
26
e lim in a tio n of illite r a c y , re d u c in g d ro p o u t r a t e s , in c r e a s in g te c h n ic a l !
e d u catio n , a d m in is tr a tiv e effic ie n cy , and im p ro v in g s c ie n tific and
r u r a l ed u catio n .
U n p re c e d e n te d d e m o g ra p h ic grow th, im p ro v e d c o m m u n ic a
tio n s an d tra n s p o r ta tio n , c o n so lid a tio n of the m id d le c la s s , and
te c h n o lo g ic a l in flu e n c e s on s o c ie ty a r e f a c to r s th a t have d ra m a tiz e d
th e re la tio n s h ip b etw een e d u c a tio n and s o c io -e c o n o m ic d ev elo p m en t.
H in es (1973) c o n s id e re d th a t ch an g in g eco n o m ic p a tte r n s , the
in flu en ce of the A llia n c e fo r P r o g r e s s , the a c tio n s of the P a n
A m e r ic a n Union and UNESCO, and the im p a c t of the C uban R ev o lu tio n
h ave s ig n ific a n tly in flu e n c e d L a tin A m e ric a n ed u catio n .
T he e c o n o m ic v alu e of e d u c a tio n w as c o n s id e re d by Schultz
(1962:170) a s "no m o re th a n one of th e v a rio u s ty p e s of in v e stm e n t
th a t a u g m e n t fu tu re in c o m e . M F u r t h e r a n a ly s is of th e im p a c t of
h u m a n c a p ita l in v e s tm e n t is g iv en in "In v e stm e n t in H u m an C a p ita l"
(Schultz, 1961b), " C a p ita l F o r m a tio n by E d u c a tio n " (Schultz, 1960), j
and " E d u c a tio n and E c o n o m ic G ro w th " (Schultz, 1961a). H a rb is o n \
I
and M y e rs (1964:2) c o n s id e re d h u m an r e s o u r c e d e v e lo p m e n t a s:
. . . th e p r o c e s s of in c r e a s in g th e know ledge, th e s k ills ,
and th e c a p a c itie s of a ll the p eo p le in a s o c ie ty . . . [ fo r]
a c c u m u la tio n of h u m a n c a p ita l and its effe c tiv e in v e stm e n t
in th e d e v e lo p m e n t of o u r e c o n o m y . . . [a n d ] fo r ad u lt
p a rtic ip a tio n in p o litic a l p r o c e s s e s , p a r tic u la r ly a s c itiz e n s
in a d e m o c ra c y .
P in illa 's w o rk (1966) co n clu d ed th a t th e r e w a s no c o n sta n t
27
v a ria b le th a t p ro m o te d n a tio n a l d ev e lo p m e n t, although e m p h a s is on
h ig h e r e d u c a tio n and e ffic ie n t a r tic u la tio n w ith s e c o n d a ry e d u c a tio n is
one v a ria b le p r e s e n t in d ev elo p ed c o u n trie s . H is p ro p o s e d d e v e lo p
m e n t s tr a te g y w as s ta te d as:
C o u n trie s a r e u n d e rd e v e lo p e d e s s e n tia lly b e c a u s e th e y
d o n 't have th e p r o fe s s io n a l and a d m in is tr a tiv e h u m a n e le m e n t
w h ich w ill allow th e m to co m e out of u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t and
th ey m u s t im p o rt th is c a p a b ility f ro m o th e r c o u n trie s .
(P in illa , 1966:158)
P in illa c o n s id e re d th a t e d u c a tio n p ro m o te d e c o n o m ic d ev elo p m en t
w hich, in tu rn , c r e a te d m o re e ffic ie n c y and new h a b its of c o n s u m p
tio n . A r is ta (1973:253) c r itic iz e d th is p o sitio n b e c a u s e "it m a k e s
p eople the p r o d u c e r s and the m a jo r c o n s u m e rs of so m eb o d y e l s e 's
goods . . . and it a s s u r e s the s u rv iv a l of the o lig a rc h ic a l m in o rity
and the c a p ita lis t s y s te m . "
C oo m b s (1964, 1968, 1970) a n a ly z e d the s h o rtc o m in g s of a
c o n tin u o u s lin e a r e x p a n sio n of e x is tin g e d u c atio n a l s y s te m s . T he
m a la d ju s tm e n ts of the p r e s e n t s y s te m s w e re :
. . . the gap b e tw e e n e d u c a tio n a l d e m a n d and su p p ly . . .
th e in ev ita b le le v e lin g off of e d u c a tio n a l e x p e n d itu re s . . .
im b a la n c e s of the e d u c a tio n a l p ro d u c t and m a n p o w e r r e q u i r e
m e n ts . . . th e ir r e le v a n c e of e d u c a tio n a l m eth o d s and c o n
te n t . . . and the im b a la n c e b etw e e n f o rm a l and n o n -fo rm a l
e d u catio n . (C oom bs, 1970:76-81)
C o o m b s f u r th e r su g g e ste d th a t new s tr a te g ie s of e d u ca tio n a l d e v e lo p
m e n t should in clu d e m o d e rn iz a tio n of e d u c a tio n a l m a n a g e m e n t,
t e a c h e r s , content, m e th o d s, and a m o re e ffic ie n t u se of e d u c a tio n a l
28
r e s o u r c e s .
D ev elo p m en t s tr a te g ie s can no lo n g e r be e x a c t c o p ie s of
U nited S ta te s o r E u ro p e a n m o d e ls, a c c o rd in g to Sloan (1973:24):
T he p a s t d ecad e h a s tau g h t us th a t m o d e ls of b e h av io r
im p o rte d f r o m the h ig h ly d ev elo p ed W e s te r n c o u n trie s f r e
q u en tly do not w o rk in th e d i s s i m i l a r e n v iro n m e n ts of the
T h ir d W orld.
Q u a n tita tiv e a n a ly s is of e d u c a tio n is not su ffic ie n t b e c a u s e it
ig n o re s the d o m in a tio n -d e p e n d e n c y r e a lity of u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t,
a c c o rd in g to M olina (1970). S o cial re la tio n s of c la s s , p ro d u c tio n ,
p o w er, and d o m in a tio n a r e m a n ife s te d in the e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m , so
e d u ca tio n m u s t be v iew ed in t e r m s of its s o c ia l co n tex t. O choa, et al.
(1971) a ls o c la im e d th a t L a tin A m e r ic a n e d u c a tio n m u s t be view ed
w ith in the co n tex t of u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t. E d u c a tio n a l d e v elo p m en t
e ffo rts w e re c la s s if ie d in th r e e c a te g o r ie s : (a) m o d e rn iz a tio n th ro u g h
te ch n o lo g y w ith o u t s o c ia l change, (b) te c h n o lo g ic a l m o d e rn iz a tio n
w ith n o n - s tr u c tu r a l s o c ia l c h an g es, and (c) s tr u c t u r a l ch an g es
in clu d in g te c h n o lo g ic a l m o d ifica tio n . The a u th o rs co n clu d ed th a t
although e d u c a tio n is e s s e n tia l fo r s o c ia l change, it can n o t p ro d u c e
so c ia l change b y its e lf. V a sc o n i (1970) did not b e lie v e th a t the
m a r g in a lity of the m a s s e s could be sig n ific a n tly m o d ified by ed u catio n .
In fa ct, it could be e x p e c te d th a t s ta tu s -q u o f o r c e s , r a t h e r th an s o c ia l
in te g ra tio n , w ould o c c u r th ro u g h m a s s lite ra c y .
U sing M ex ican ed u c a tio n fo r h is a n a ly s is of th e ro le of
sc h o o ls, M e d a llin (1973) co n clu d ed th a t the M ex ican e d u c a tio n s y s te m
had m a in ta in e d the s o c ia l s tr u c t u r e by p ro d u c in g ch eap m an p o w e r
w h ich m a in ta in e d a h ig h le v e l of output fo r th e c a p ita l. T he sc h o o ls,
in fa c t, have s o c ia liz e d the in d iv id u a ls to b e h a v io rs n e c e s s a r y fo r
p ro d u c tio n . He contended th a t th e p o litic a l e lite o ffe re d f r e e ed u c atio n
in a n a c t of good w ill, alth o u g h s e c o n d a ry and h ig h e r e d u c a tio n u su a lly
b e n e fit.th e m id d le and u p p er c l a s s e s only. A g re e in g w ith A r is ta ,
/
M e d a llin c o n s id e re d th a t the c u r r ic u lu m r e in f o r c e s s u b m is s io n and
*
r e s p e c t to p o litic a l a u th o rity . M ost im p o rta n tly , M e d allin c o n s id e re d
th a t e d u c a tio n a l e x p a n sio n w as a s tr a te g y n e c e s s a r y to m a in ta in the
s ta tu s quo, b e c a u s e w h en th e le v e l of e d u c a tio n a l a s p ir a tio n of the
lo w e r c l a s s e s r i s e s , a d ju s tm e n ts m u s t be m ad e to m in im iz e the
re v o lu tio n a ry p o te n tia l.
C o m ita s (1972:365) stu d ie d th e B o liv ian e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m
to a s s e s s how th e 1952 re v o lu tio n and s u b se q u e n t e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m s
e ffec te d c h a n g e s in th e c o u n tr y ’s s tr a tific a tio n s y s te m . He co n sid e red j
th at:
i
A n a n a ly s is of e d u c a tio n in a s o c ie ty la b e le d re v o lu tio n a ry
sh o u ld be uniq u ely s u ite d to a s s e s s the in te n s ity and s o c ia l
im p a c t of any c e n tr a liz e d a tte m p ts to change the tra d itio n a l
p a tte r n s of s tr a tif ic a tio n sin ce su c h a tte m p ts a r e the k e y s to
s u c c e s s fu l and c o m p le te d re v o lu tio n and e d u c a tio n a n in te g ra l
p a r t of the p r o c e s s .
In h is e x a m in a tio n s of e d u c a tio n a l p r a c tic e s , C o m ita s c o n s id e re d
’’fu n d a m e n ta l e d u catio n , " the use of Spanish, and the te r m in a l
c h a r a c t e r of e d u c a tio n in r u r a l a r e a s a s n o n -c o n d u c iv e to s o c ia l
in te g ra tio n . He co n clu d ed th a t ch an g es in B o liv ia sin c e the re v o lu tio n
h ad b e e n a r e s u l t of n a tu r a l s o c ia l change r a t h e r th a n of p lan n ed
re v o lu tio n a ry s tr a te g y .
C u m m in g s and L e m k e (1973:332) d e s c r ib e d e d u c a tio n a l
ch a n g e s, e x p e rim e n ta tio n , and r e f o r m in C o s ta R ica, G u a te m a la ,
C o lo m b ia, E l S a lv a d o r, H o n d u ra s, C uba, B ra z il, and P a ra g u a y . In
co n clu d in g an d s u m m a r iz in g th e s e le c tio n s , the a u th o rs noted th at:
W ith few e x c e p tio n s, h o w e v e r, the d ecad e of 1960s in
L a tin A m e r ic a h a s not fa th e re d id e a s of change. . . . One
of th e p r e d is p o s itio n s w h ich h a s b e e n m o s t e v id e n t in the
e s s a y s h a s b een th e d e s ir e to do e v e ry th in g w ith the m o d e rn
co n v e n ie n c e s w hich a r e a v a ila b le . T h e se a r e in e v ita b ly
e x p e n siv e . T h is m e a n s th a t the b e s t of the m a te r ia ls go no
f u r th e r th a n s e le c te d sc h o o ls in the c a p ita l o r th e m a jo r
c itie s .
Illic h (1969:108, 113) co n ten d ed th a t sc h o o ls p ro m o te d in e q u a l
ity in so c ie ty , "the m a r g in a l m a jo r ity and the sc h o o le d m in o rity . ”
R a th e r th a n im p ro v in g o r ex te n d in g sc h o o lin g he su g g e ste d th a t "we
m u s t not ex clu d e th e p o s s ib ility th a t th e e m e rg in g n a tio n s c an n o t be
s c h o o le d ” b e c a u s e ’’n e ith e r r a d ic a l p o p u latio n c o n tro l n o r m a x im u m i
I
r e a llo c a tio n s of g o v e rn m e n t b u d g ets not u n p re c e d e n te d fo re ig n aid
w ould end the p r e s e n t u n fe a sib ility of sc h o o lin g fo r a ll. ” In ste a d he
s u g g e ste d inn o v atio n in the use of in d u s tr ia l p la n ts, o th e r e co n o m ic
r e s o u r c e s , and the m e d ia .
31
N atio n al D ev elo p m en t and E d u c a tio n in P e r u
The a n a ly s is of P e r u v ia n e d u c a tio n a l r e a litie s , the s tr a te g ie s
p ro p o s e d to a m e lio ra te th o se co n d itio n s, and th e re la tio n s h ip of
P e r u v ia n e d u c a tio n to n a tio n a l d e v e lo p m e n t r e p r e s e n t a d iv e rg e n t body
of l i t e r a t u r e w h ich w ill be re v ie w e d in th is s e c tio n .
In s p ite of the in n u m e ra b le e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m s p lan n ed
a n d /o r im p le m e n te d , P a u ls to n s ta te d in Society, Schools, and
P r o g r e s s in P e r u (1971b: 116) th a t P e r u h a s p ro d u c e d " a s y s te m th a t
h a s b e c o m e in c r e a s in g ly d y sfu n c tio n al in t e r m s of g ro w in g d e m a n d s
fo r in c r e a s e d s o c ia l ju stic e and n a tio n a l d ev e lo p m e n t. ” A lthough the
s ta te d o b je c tiv e s of m o s t r e f o r m s w e re to in c r e a s e e ffic ie n c y and
re le v a n c e of th e o p e ra tio n and c o n ten t of ed u catio n , ''little h a s
c h a n g e d ” ( C a r te r , 1965:304). B a r r a n te s (1971:39) s ta te d th a t la c k of
c o n tin u ity and p lan n in g a r e am o n g the s h o rtc o m in g s of the r e f o r m s .
D y sfu n c tio n a l e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m s and in efficie n t r e f o r m s a r e not
e x c lu siv e to P e r u , as noted by P a u ls to n in "S w ed ish School R e fo rm ,
1918-1950: T he P e r io d of F o rm u la tio n and A d o p tio n ” (1966:3):
A ny e ffo rt to a c h ie v e r a d ic a l sch o o l r e f o r m in c o u n trie s
w ith c la s s - lin k e d sc h o o ls w ill alw ay s b ec o m e an e m o tio n a lly
c h a rg e d is s u e b e c a u s e of th e h ig h ly in stitu tio n a liz e d n a tu re
of e d u c a tio n and b e c a u s e of the e x iste n c e of g ro u p s w ith
v e s te d i n te r e s ts in the e d u c a tio n a l s ta tu s quo.
T o r r e s L lo s a (1960) and A lz a m o ra V ald ez (1969) a g r e e d th a t
e d u c a tio n w a s th e m a in v e h ic le to d ev elo p m en t, but a ra d ic a lly
r e f o r m e d e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m could only be effe c tiv e w ith in a to ta l
32
s o c io -e c o n o m ic r e f o r m e d co n tex t. O rte c h o V illen a (1972) c la im e d
th a t P e r u v ia n e d u c a tio n had b een a fu n ctio n of c la s s sin c e th e e a r ly
In ca o rig in s , c a u sin g s o c ia l and ec o n o m ic p o la r iz a tio n d u rin g the In ca
p e rio d , the S panish colony, and th e R ep u b lic. T h is p o la r iz a tio n h a s
b e e n v iew ed a s the ro o t of P e r u 's e d u c a tio n a l p r o b le m s . In "S o cio
c u ltu ra l C o n s tra in ts on E d u c a tio n a l D e v e lo p m en t in P e r u , " P a u ls to n
(1971a:406) e x p lo re d th e re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n the c la s s s tr u c tu r e of
P e ru v ia n s o c ie ty and the s tr u c tu r e of th e e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m . He
id en tifie d fo u r s o c ia l c la s s e s - - I n d ia n , cholo, m e s tiz o , and w h ite - -
c o r r e la tin g th e ir s o c io -e c o n o m ic b a c k g ro u n d s to th e ir e d u c a tio n a l
e x p e rie n c e :
The s o c ia l c la s s - lin k e d e d u c a tio n a l s tr u c tu r e r e fle c ts
and h e lp s to p e rp e tu a te th e h i e r a r c h ic a l s o c ia l s y s te m and
in so doing, is in flu e n tia l in o b s tru c tin g e d u c a tio n a l r a t io n
a liz a tio n and d ev elo p m en t.
P e r u v ia n s o c ie ty d ev elo p ed in two s ta g e s . T he in d ig en o u s
p e rio d la s te d until th e s ix te e n th c e n tu ry ; th en its d ev e lo p m e n t b e c a m e
I
d ep en d en t on Spain, E n g lan d , and the U nited S ta te s (M atos M ar, 1974).j
T h e se two d is tin c t f o r m s of d e v elo p m e n t r e s u lte d in a h ig h ly in c o h e r - j
i
en t s o c ie ty of g r e a t c u ltu ra l, s o c ia l, ec o n o m ic , an d p o litic a l d i s p a r i
tie s . M atos M a r (1974:65) d e s c rib e d th is a s a " s o c io - c u ltu r a l a r c h i
p elag o , " co n ten d in g th a t the p h en o m en o n of d e p e n d e n c e /d o m in a n c e
w as r e in fo r c e d by the e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m and the m e d ia . In E l C u r
ric u lu m y la D e p e n d e n c ia E d u c a tiv a P e r u a n a (T he C u r r ic u lu m and
33
P e r u v ia n E d u c a tio n a l D e p e n d e n c e ), A r i s t a (1973:55) a lso id e n tifie d !
i
th e sa m e tw o e r a s in P e r u 's d ev elo p m en t: ’’E a c h h i s to r ic a l p e r io d
h a s e la b o ra te d a c u r r ic u lu m th a t f a c ilita te s the in s tr u m e n ta tio n of
e d u c a tio n to b en efit th e d o m in an t g ro u p s. ” T h e p u rp o s e of th e c u r
ric u lu m d u rin g the d ep en d en t p e rio d w as to hide the a u th e n tic P e r u v ia n
r e a lity , to ju s tify the e x is tin g o r d e r, to p ro m o te fo re ig n v a lu e s and
d e n ig ra te n a tio n a l v a lu e s, and, fin a lly , to ju stify th e d iv isio n of
c l a s s e s a s a n o r m a l and in d isp e n s a b le condition, a c c o rd in g to A r is ta .
P e r u v ia n e d u c a tio n p ro m o te d n o n -c o o p e ra tiv e , in d iv id u a listic
p e r s o n a lity d ev elo p m en t; its g o als d iv e rg e d f r o m its a c tu a l fu n ctio n s.
It w a s in te lle c tu a lis tic ; it w a s o v e rly s a tu r a te d w ith co n te n t m a te r ia l;
its m e th o d s w e r e d y sfu n ctio n al; it w a s b ad ly a r tic u la te d am o n g th e
v a rio u s le v e ls ; and it la c k e d a s e n s e of n a tio n a lism . In fa c t, it w as
an e d u c a tio n fo r u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t r a t h e r th a n f o r d ev e lo p m e n t,
a c c o rd in g to C e s p e d e s B e d re g a l (1972).
M anpow er and e c o n o m ic a n a ly s e s and p ro je c tio n s d e v elo p ed j
by a C o m m is s io n of W o rld B ank and the O rg a n iz a tio n of A m e r ic a n ^
S ta te s re c o m m e n d e d th e type of e d u c a tio n a l c h a n g e s n e ed e d fo r s o c io
e c o n o m ic d ev e lo p m e n t. T h e se re c o m m e n d a tio n s c o n c u r re d w ith the
stu d y u n d e rta k e n b y th e P e ru v ia n N atio n al P la n n in g In stitu te , the
O rg a n iz a tio n fo r E c o n o m ic C o o p e ra tio n and D ev elo p m en t, and the
U nited S ta te s A g en cy fo r In te rn a tio n a l D e v e lo p m e n t’s C o lu m b ia
U n iv e rs ity M issio n , w hich p ro je c te d e d u c a tio n a l n ee d s b a s e d on
34
m a n p o w e r r e q u ir e d fo r a c c e le r a te d e c o n o m ic gro w th fo r the p e rio d !
1970-1980. The r e p o r t in d ic a te d th a t P e r u ’s m o s t u rg e n t need w as
fo r s c ie n tific and te c h n ic a lly tra in e d p e rs o n n e l at a ll le v e ls
(C o rn e h ls, 1972).
T he E d u c a tio n a l P la n of the N atio n al D e v e lo p m e n t P la n ,
1971-1975, c o n s titu te d the o p e ra tio n a l g u id e lin es of the G e n e r a l Law
of E d u c a tio n , Law D e c re e 19326 of 1972. T h is w as p re c e d e d by th e
In fo rm e G e n e ra l, w h ich c o n s titu te d a c o m p re h e n siv e d ia g n o stic
a s s e s s m e n t of the e d u c a tio n a l s tr a te g ie s and p o lic ie s th a t w e re
c o n so lid a te d into th e Law D e c re e 19326 a f te r so m e public p a r t ic ip a
tio n and m o d ific a tio n . A r tic le s on a ll a s p e c ts of P e r u v ia n e d u c a tio n a l
r e f o r m a p p e a r in E d u c a tio n , w h ich in itia te d its p u b lic a tio n in 1970.
S u m m a ry
T h e o rie s about d e v elo p m en t in g e n e ra l have b e e n re v ie w e d in
o r d e r to d e m o n s tr a te th e g r e a t d iv e r s ity of in te rp r e ta tio n s the concept!
I
of d e v e lo p m e n t p ro d u c e s and to o ffer b e tte r a n a ly tic p e r s p e c tiv e on |
d e v e lo p m e n t e ffo rts , p a r tic u la r ly a s th e y r e la te d to P e r u . The i
s p e c ia l r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n e d u c a tio n and d ev e lo p m e n t w as a lso
re v ie w e d .
A th ir d s e c tio n p r e s e n te d e d u c a tio n a l th e o r ie s and e x p e r i
e n c e s a s th e y r e la te d s p e c ific a lly to P e r u . G e n e ra lly it can be c o n
cluded th a t d e v e lo p m e n t th e o r ie s a r e d ir e c tly r e la te d to p o litic a l
35.
p h ilo so p h ie s about d is trib u tio n of w e a lth and p o w e r. T he r e la tio n s h ip
b e tw een e d u c a tio n and d e v e lo p m e n t fa lls into tw o p o sitio n s: (a) e d u c a
tio n p ro d u c e s d ev e lo p m en t, and (b) e d u c a tio n by its e lf cannot p ro d u c e
d e v e lo p m e n t- - r a th e r , e d u c a tio n only c o n trib u te s to d ev e lo p m e n t p r o
v ided th e r e e x is t o th e r s tr u c t u r a l ch an g es in the s o c io -e c o n o m ic and
p o litic a l o r d e r.
36
C H A P T E R III
BACKGROUND AND GOALS O F TH E
ED U CA TIO N A L R E F O R M
S y n o p sis of H is to r ic a l D e v e lo p m en t
of P e r u v ia n E d u c a tio n
P e r u v ia n e d u c a tio n p r io r to th e r e f o r m of 1970-1974 c a n be
d iv id ed in to th r e e p e r i o d s - - t h e In c a n p e rio d , the C o lo n ial p e rio d , an d
th e p e rio d of the R ep u b lic.
In ca E d u c a tio n
In ca s o c ie ty w as h ig h ly s tr a tif ie d b e tw e e n the noble In ca
c la s s and th e c o m m o n e rs . The In ca n o b les s e rv e d a s th e civ il,
m ilita ry , and re lig io u s le a d e r s , w hile th e c o m m o n e rs w e re the p r o -
i
i
d u c e rs and s u p p o r te r s of the e c o n o m y and s e r v ic e s r e q u ir e d by th e j
' s ta te . A lthough th e c o m m o n e rs had no a c c e s s to the p r iv ile g e s of th e |
i
n o b le s, s u b s is te n c e r e q u ir e m e n ts su c h a s food, clo th in g , and s h e lte r
w e r e p ro v id e d fo r th o se who could c o n trib u te a s w e ll a s th o se who
could not c o n trib u te to the e c o n o m y (P a u lsto n , 197l b : 24). A m ong the
p r iv ile g e s th a t w e r e not e q u a lly s h a r e d w a s e d u c atio n . T h e n o b les
re c e iv e d tra in in g in h is to r y , re lig io n , m o r a ls , a s tro n o m y ,
37
a r ith m e tic , g e o m e try , m e d ic in e , m a n u a l w o rk , a r t s , and p h y s ic a l
e d u catio n . F u r th e r s tr a tif ic a tio n w as d e te rm in e d on the b a s is of sex .
N oble w o m en w e r e s e le c te d as V irg in s of the Sun, and c lo is te r e d ,
d ev o tin g th e ir liv e s to th e c u lt and d o m e s tic n e e d s. O th e r noble
w o m en w e r e s e le c te d a s th e I n c a fs w iv e s. T he c o m m o n e r s 1 ed u ca tio n
w as p ro v id e d in the fa m ily n u c le u s and c o n s is te d p r i m a r i l y in le a rn in g
th e fa m ily tr a d e , a g r ic u ltu r e , and irrig a tio n , (P a u lsto n , 1971b:26-7).
P a u ls to n co n clu d ed th a t In ca e d u c a tio n s e r v e d to p e rp e tu a te the s o c ia l
o r d e r and p a r tic u la r ly the p riv ile g e s of the ru lin g c la s s . A r i s t a (1973:
16) s ta te d :
Sim ply, th e c o m p le x ity of th e s o c ia l s y s te m r e q u ir e s
d iffe re n tia tio n and d is trib u tio n of fu n c tio n s, a d iv isio n of
w o rk . In th is s e n s e , e d u c a tio n a s s u m e s th e r e s p o n s ib ility
to t r a i n e a c h p e r s o n in a s p e c ific ac tiv ity . Such a s itu a tio n
e x is ts in a ll s o c ie tie s , w ith the d iffe re n c e th a t th e r u lin g
c la s s m a in ta in e d th e p r iv ile g e to know and to a c t a c c o rd in g
to c u ltu ra l a c q u is itio n s w hich w e r e g ra n te d on the b a s is of
c la s s p riv ile g e .
C o lo n ial E d u c atio n
T he c h u rc h w as to c o n so lid a te th e m i lita r y c o n q u e st c o m -
i
p le te d in 1572, and th e in s tr u m e n ts of th is c o n so lid a tio n w e re r e lig io n
and e d u catio n . T he ro le of th e J e s u its who d o m in a te d P e r u v ia n e d u c a
tio n until th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry w a s to p r e p a r e p r i e s t s , to p ro v id e
h ig h e r e d u c a tio n to th e ru lin g S panish c la s s , and to c o n v e rt the
in d ig en o u s p o p u latio n s to C h r is tia n ity (P a u lsto n , 1971b:33). P r i m a r y
e d u c a tio n fo r the m a s s e s w a s v e r y lim ite d and:
__________ 38
. . . w a s r e s t r i c t e d to th e know ledge n e c e s s a r y to the d i s
c h a rg e of the s im p le ta s k s of d a ily d ev o tio n s, s u c h a s in c ip i
e n t lite r a c y , r u d im e n ta r y a r ith m e tic , an d the m u s ic a l c u ltu re
n e c e s s a r y fo r litu r g ic a l p u r p o s e s . (K u b ler and Row e, 1946:
409)
T h e w e a lth y c la s s h ire d p riv a te tu to r s to te a c h th e ir c h ild re n a t hom e
(P a u lsto n , 1971b:34; A r is ta , 1973:21).
S e c o n d a ry e d u c a tio n d e v elo p ed a fte r th e c r e a tio n of the
u n iv e rs ity . In itia lly , s e c o n d a ry s c h o o ls s e r v e d a s im i l a r fu n ctio n to
th a t of the s e m in a r ie s , the tr a in in g of c le r g y (P a u lsto n , 197l b : 34).
A r is ta (1973) c o n s id e re d th at, a fte r the c iv il w a r s , a c le a r d if f e r e n
tia tio n b e tw ee n the p u re S p a n ia rd s and the m e s tiz o s p ro m o te d the
c r e a tio n of th is e d u c a tio n a l s e g m e n t.
T he u n iv e r s ity w as founded in 1551 by ro y a l d e c re e follow ing
the m o d el of th e U n iv e rs ity of S a la m a n c a . T he in t e r e s t s th a t
a c c e le r a te d u n iv e r s ity d e v e lo p m e n t w e re the n eed of th e c re o le c la s s
to o b tain in s tr u c tio n and m o b ility , th e n eed of th e re lig io u s o r d e r s to
t r a i n p r i e s t s , and the need of the co lo n ia l a d m in is tr a tio n to a c c e le r a te
S panish a c c u ltu ra tio n . The u n iv e r s itie s u n d e rto o k the te a c h in g of
m e d ic in e , s e c u la r law , and lan g u ag e, b e s id e s re lig io n . . U n iv e rsity
a d m is s io n w as open to only p u re -b lo o d m a le S p a n ia rd s. A lthough
Indian la n g u a g e s w e r e in clu d ed in the u n iv e r s ity c u r r ic u lu m an d
In d ia n s w e r e allo w ed in the u n iv e r s itie s th ro u g h the c h u r c h 's e ffo rts ,
: few In d ian s a c tu a lly a tte n d ed . S c h o la rsh ip s to in d ig en t w hite stu d e n ts
w e re a lso g ra n te d d u rin g th is p e rio d (P a u lsto n , 1971b:35-38).
E d u c a tio n D u rin g the R epublic
P e r u a c h ie v e d p o litic a l in d ep en d en ce f ro m Spain in 1825, and
th e n in e te e n th and tw e n tie th c e n tu r ie s have s e e n a s u c c e s s io n of
p o litic a l and e c o n o m ic c r i s e s . A c c o rd in g to P a u ls to n (1971b:40),
p o litic a l in d ep en d en ce f r o m Spain s u b s titu te d m e s tiz o ru le fo r S p an ish
ru le but did not e ffe c t an y s ig n ific a n t q u a lita tiv e c h an g e s in s o c ie ty in
g e n e r a l o r in th e e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m in p a r tic u la r . In fa c t, e d u c a
tio n a l p ro b le m s th a t e x is te d in 1825 have not b een so lv e d in p r e s e n t -
day P e r u . T he c o n stitu tio n of 1823 e s ta b lis h e d th e y e a r 1840 a s th e
d e a d lin e fo r e lim in a tio n of illite r a c y (A ris ta , 1973:29). T he new
e d u c a tio n law (1972) e s ta b lis h e d 1980 a s the d ead lin e to e lim in a te
illite r a c y . D u rin g the R e p u b lic a n p e rio d , a s y s te m of p u b lic s c h o o l
ing b eg an c r e a tio n of te a c h e r - e d u c a tio n in stitu tio n s to m e e t an
in c r e a s in g need fo r e d u c a tio n p r o f e s s io n a ls . A s e r i e s of e d u c a tio n a l
r e f o r m s th a t a tte m p te d to so lv e th e m o s t o v e rt p ro b le m s su c c e e d e d ,
but the r e s u l t s w e re not alw ay s s u c c e s s fu l and g o a ls s e ld o m a tta in e d .
The r e f o r m of 1850 d istin g u is h e d b e tw e e n p riv a te an d public
e d u c a tio n , c e n tr a liz e d s ta te a u th o rity o v e r ed u catio n , and p ro v id e d
fo r g i r l s ’ e d u c a tio n (e.g., se w in g and k n ittin g ) in s e p a r a te i n s titu
tio n s. T he r e f o r m of 1855 o rg a n iz e d P e r u v ia n e d u c a tio n in th r e e
s e g m e n ts : p o p u la r, s e c o n d a ry , and u n iv e r s ity e d u c a tio n (P a u lsto n ,
1971b:43; A r is ta , 1973:33-37). T he c o n stitu tio n s of 1856 and 1860
g u a ra n te e d f r e e public in s tru c tio n ; an d in 1861, u n iv e r s ity r e g u la tio n s
w e re s y s te m a tiz e d fo r a ll u n iv e r s itie s (A ris ta , 1973:37-38). T he 1875
r e f o r m w a s in s p ir e d b y F r e n c h e d u catio n , and th is in flu en ce ex ten d ed
to e le m e n ta r y , s e c o n d a ry , and u n iv e r s ity s tr u c tu r e and co n ten t
(P a u lsto n , 1971b:44). M a c L e a n y E s te n o s (1944:47) c o m m e n te d on the
1875 r e f o r m :
The p r o - F r e n c h r e f o r m e r s , in ste a d of c o r r e c tin g the
li t e r a c y and r h e to r ic a l e m p h a s is in e d u c a tio n in h e rite d f ro m
th e co lo n ial v ice ro y a lty , a c c e n tu a te d and c o m p lic a te d it by
a d d in g th e d e fe c ts of th e F r e n c h s y s te m to the o rig in a l
d e fe c ts of the S p an ish in h e rita n c e .
F r e e an d u n iv e rs a l e le m e n ta r y e d u c a tio n and th e founding of
v o c a tio n a l s c h o o ls fo r th e In d ian s w e re p ro m o te d by P r e s id e n t M anuel
P a rd o , but th e c h u rc h o ffe re d s tro n g o p p o sitio n to any e ffo rts d e sig n e d
to a s s im ila te In d ian s into P e r u v ia n life . The 1884 e d u c a tio n law
r e p la c e d the 1876 law u ntil 1886, w hen the 1876 law b e c a m e o p e ra tiv e
ag ain by d e c r e e . A c o m m is s io n w a s ap p o in ted in 1896 to fo rm u la te a
new e d u c a tio n law , but th e c o m m is s io n plan w a s not ap p ro v e d . In
1901 a new law w a s d e c re e d . T he 1901 law e s ta b lis h e d a h ig h e r I
I
co u n cil to d ecid e on a ll m a t t e r s p e r ta in in g to e d u c a tio n . T h is law
I
a tte m p te d to im p ro v e p r im a r y e d u c atio n , m eth o d o lo g y , and te a c h in g
p e rs o n n e l, and e s ta b lis h e d both p ro v in c ia l and d i s t r i c t a d v is o ry
co u n c ils. B e fo re the 1901 r e f o r m w as o p e ra tio n a liz e d , the 1902
r e f o r m w a s le g is la te d . Both th e 1902 and 1905 r e f o r m s w e re
in flu en c ed by th e B r itis h s y s te m and w e re d e sig n e d to c r e a te a s m a ll
en lig h te n e d e lite . B etw e en 1904 and 1908, e d u c a tio n saw f u r th e r
41
c e n tra liz a tio n . F r e e , c o m p u ls o ry e le m e n ta r y e d u c a tio n w as l e g i s
la te d . In 1908, in c r e a s e d in d u s tr ia liz a tio n d ire c te d i n te r e s t to w a rd
the U nited S ta te s e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m . A m e r ic a n a d v is o r s a r r i v e d in
P e r u in 1909 and d ev elo p ed a r e f o r m p r o g r a m th a t w as n e v e r p u t into
o p e ra tio n due to p o litic a l c h a n g e s. In 1918 a c o m m is s io n w as
ap p o in ted , b u t due to p o litic a l ch an g e s did not c o m p le te its plan. In
1920, a n o th e r A m e ric a n -d ra fte d e d u c a tio n law w a s adopted, but its
m in im a l im p a c t v a n ish e d a s so o n a s the A m e r ic a n m is s io n le ft in
1924. T h e c h u rc h h ad c r itic iz e d its a d v o c a c y of c o e d u c a tio n and s e x
e d u catio n . M a ria te g u i's c ritiq u e of th is r e f o r m is th a t it did not
p ro p o se sig n ific a n t s tr u c t u r a l r e f o r m th a t m ig h t th r e a te n c la s s
p riv ile g e ; r a t h e r , it c r e a te d a m o d ified s tr u c tu r e fo r p o o r c h ild re n
w hich did no t le a d to s e c o n d a ry e d u c a tio n . O th e r P e r u v ia n e d u c a to r s
b la m e d the c u ltu ra l in a d e q u ac y of th e m i s s i o n 's p e rs o n n e l. The
se c o n d N o rth A m e r ic a n m is s io n o c c u r r e d d u rin g the 1940s and 1950s.
It c r e a te d and o p e ra te d a n e tw o rk of r u r a l sc h o o ls until 1962, w hen
the m is s io n w ith d re w . F r o m 1963 to 1968, T e a c h e r s C o lleg e,
C o lu m b ia U n iv e rsity , a d v ise d the m in is tr y , but, a c c o rd in g to
P a u ls to n (1971b:79), ’’did not s e c u r e an y sw e ep in g ch a n g e s. ”
It w as obvious f r o m th is b r ie f s u m m a r y of P e r u v ia n e d u c a
tio n a l le g is la tio n and r e f o r m s th a t th e p r o c e s s is not new, n o r is the
c r i ti c a l a w a r e n e s s th a t e d u c a tio n w a s in a d e q u a te and sh o u ld be m o d i
fied . C u eto F e r n a n d in i (1971:11-12) e x p r e s s e d th is:
42
T he p ro m u lg a tio n of e d u c a tio n a l law s h a s not g iven the
c o u n try in c r e a s e d q u a lity of ed u catio n . L e g is la tiv e i n s t r u
m e n ts have b e e n e x e m p t of c re a tiv e p o w e r. T h e re h a s b e en
no c o rre s p o n d e n c e at a ll b e tw e e n the in te n se and s o m e tim e s
s in c e r e e ffo rts w h ich have b e e n ap p lied to the le g is la tio n and
its p r a c tic a l r e s u l t s . T he c a u s e s of th is la c k of b a lan c e
b e tw e e n p u rp o se and a c tio n a r e tw ofold: F i r s t : a b s e n c e of a
c o m p re h e n s iv e p lan and la c k of p e r s is te n c e to continue the
r e f o r m to its u ltim a te c o n se q u e n c e s . . . . Secondly, la c k
of know ledge of co n d itio n s o u tsid e sc h o o l th a t m a k e r e f o r m
p o s s ib le . E d u c a tio n is a p r o c e s s by w hich s o c ia l life and
in d iv id u al life a r e in te g ra te d . If th e p o s s ib ility of th is
c o h e sio n d o es not e x is t, a ll e ffo rts b e c o m e in v alid at th e end;
the sch o o l th a t is o rg a n iz e d o v e r b a s e s th a t a r e fo re ig n to the
s o c ia l co n tex t can n o t p r o s p e r .
P h y s ic a l, C u ltu ra l, and E c o n o m ic C o n d itio n s
A ffectin g P e r u v ia n E d u c a tio n
G e o g ra p h y
One q u a lity th a t p e r m e a te s a ll a s p e c ts of P e r u v ia n life is
" d iv isio n " (P a u lsto n , 1971b: 1). P e r u ’s g e o g ra p h y is one p h y s ic a l
m a n ife s ta tio n of th is d iv isio n . T he c o u n try is t r a v e r s e d by the A ndes
M ountains w hich divide the c o u n try into th re e d is tin c t re g io n s . The
c o a s t is a n a rro w s tr i p of d e s e r t w ith te m p e r a te w e a th e r; only 10
p e r c e n t of th is a r e a is u n d er c u ltiv a tio n (P o n ce de L eon, 1971:18).
L im a is th e n e rv e c e n te r of th is re g io n and of th e e n tir e co u n try . The
h ig h la n d s a r e m ad e up of the C o r d ille ra , o r c h a in s of m o u n ta in s and
high a ltitu d e p la te a u s , w h ich ra n g e f r o m te n th o u sa n d to th ir te e n
th o u san d fe e t in altitu d e . T he cold c lim a te and d iffic u lty of ir r ig a tio n
do not allow m u ch a g r ic u ltu r e to flo u ris h ; only o n e -fifth of th is a r e a
is u n d e r c u ltiv a tio n . T he A m a z o n Ju n g le a r e a is div id ed into the high
43
jungle, w h ich m e r g e s w ith the e a s t e r n s lo p e s of the A n d es, and the
low jungle, w h ich is a v a s t e x p a n sio n of h igh v e g e ta tio n and r i v e r s
n o u ris h e d by t o r r e n t i a l r a in s . C o m m u n ic a tio n and tr a v e l a r e d ifficu lt
in th e A ndean and jungle a r e a s ; th is h a s not p e r m itte d effe c tiv e
e x p lo ita tio n of n a tu r a l r e s o u r c e s (P o n ce de L eon, 1971:12-31;
P a u lsto n , 1971b:8-19).
D e m o g ra p h ic F a c to r s
R ace, c u ltu re , lan g u ag e , s o c io -e c o n o m ic s itu a tio n s , and
p o litic a l co n d itio n s p r e s e n t h ig h d iv e r s ity in P e ru .
R a c e s . The m a jo r ity of th e P e r u v ia n p o p u latio n of th ir te e n
m illio n people can be c la s s if ie d a s Indian, S panish, o r m e s tiz o , a s
show n in T a b le 1.
T A B L E 1
R A CIA L G R O U PS IN P E R U AS SHOWN
IN T H E N A TIO N A L CENSUS O F 1940
R a c ia l G ro u p s P e rc e n ta g e
E u ro p e a n an d M e stiz o 52. 89
Indian 45. 86
A sia n .6 8
A fric a n .4 7
SOURCE: P a u ls to n , 1971b:23
44
A lthough r a c e h a s b ee n th e f i r s t d e te rm in a n t of s o c ia l and
eco n o m ic s tr a tific a tio n , r a c e d is tin c tio n s a r e not c le a r . C u ltu ra l,
lin g u is tic , and e co n o m ic p a tte r n s a r e m o r e in d ic a tiv e of s o c ia l g ro u p
a ffilia tio n th a n a r e s t r i c t r a c ia l c la s s if ic a tio n s . ’’R a c ia l c o n s id e r a
tio n s, in th e s e n s e of a ttrib u tin g a ’p e o p le ’s in f e r io r ity ' o r 's u p e r i o r
ity ' to th e ir r a c i a l c h a r a c t e r is t i c s a r e s u r p r is in g ly w id e s p re a d in
P e r u ” (P a u ls to n , 1971b:87).
T he c o n c e rn , e s p e c ia lly by th e s m a ll, E u ro p e a n iz e d , or
w h ite, e le m e n t of P e r u v ia n s o c ie ty to be in clu d ed w ith in the
r e a l m of W e s te rn c iv iliz a tio n and, a t th e s a m e tim e , to
r e j e c t the n ex t lo w e r s u b c u ltu re ( i.e . , the m e stiz o ) is
e v id en t. (P a u lsto n , 1971b:86)
A s V e liz (1957:106) ex p lain ed :
T h is d e v a lu a tio n of n a tio n a l w o rth and in f e r io r ity c o m p le x
to w a rd th e W e st s te m s f r o m th e fo re ig n iz e d m e n ta lity of o u r
s m a ll ru lin g c la s s who have so u g h t to p o p u late P e r u w ith
E u ro p e a n im m ig r a n ts , Saxons if p o s s ib le , in o r d e r to m a k e
th e c o u n try p r o g r e s s and to im p ro v e th e ’’r a c e . "
L a n g u a g e s . T h ir ty - th r e e p e r c e n t of the P e r u v ia n p o p u latio n
i
d o es not s p e a k S panish; in s ix A ndean s ta te s th e n o n -S p a n ish -sp e a k in g |
'p o p u la tio n in c r e a s e s to 60 p e r c e n t (P a u lsto n , 1971b:175). T h r e e 1
m a jo r d ia le c ts of Q u ech u a and A y m a r a a r e sp o k en in the A ndean
S i e r r a s . In th e jungle a r e a th e r e e x is t e le v e n lan g u ag e f a m ilie s , w ith
m an y m o re d ia le c ta l s u b d iv isio n s.
C u ltu r e . G e o g ra p h ic d is trib u tio n , r a c e , and lan g u ag e a r e
d ir e c tly r e la te d to c u ltu ra l p a tte r n s of th e fo u r d is tin c t g ro u p s
45.
fo rm in g P e r u v ia n so c ie ty . The w h ite g ro u p h a s b e e n in p o litic a l
e co n o m ic c o n tro l sin c e co lo n ial tim e s and a ffe c ts W e s te rn E u ro p e a n
and N o rth A m e r ic a n v alu e s y s te m s . T h e m e s tiz o s have a tta in e d
a d m in is tr a tiv e c o n tro l of a lm o s t a ll a s p e c ts of P e r u v ia n eco n o m y and
s e r v ic e s , p r o fe s s in g a v a lu e o rie n ta tio n c o p ied f r o m the b ia n c o /
E u ro p e a n c la s s w h ich th e y im ita te and a s p ir e to a tta in . C holos a r e
In d ian s who hav e m ig r a te d to the c itie s and f o r m a g r e a t m a s s of
u n sk ille d w o r k e r s , liv in g in " sh a n ty to w n s" u n d e r h a r s h ec o n o m ic
co n d itio n s, and to v a rio u s d e g r e e s a c q u irin g c u ltu ra l and lin g u istic
p a tte r n s of the d o m in an t c la s s e s . T he In d ian s r e m a in in the S ie r r a s ,
m a in ta in in g tra d itio n a l v a lu e s and lan g u ag e, and p e rfo rm in g fa rm in g
and m in in g jo b s. T a b le 2 g iv es an o v e rv ie w of the c la s s s tr u c tu r e .
E c o n o m ic o rg a n iz a tio n . The m e s tiz o and b ian co c o n stitu te
the m id d le an d u p p e r c la s s e s , w hile th e In d ian s and cholos c o n stitu te
th e r u r a l and u rb a n lo w e r c l a s s e s . A c c o rd in g to P a u ls to n (1971b:
90-92), usin g th e in te rn a l c o lo n ia lis m th e o ry :
It w ould s e e m to be m o s t a c c u r a te to view P e r u and s i m
i l a r L a tin A m e r ic a n c o u n tr ie s w ith la r g e In d ia n -c h o lo
p o p u la tio n s (i. e. , E c u a d o r, G u a te m a la , M exico, B olivia,
e tc. ) not a s d u al s o c ie tie s bu t a s s o c ie tie s in te g ra te d in su c h
a w ay a s to p e rp e tu a te the in f e r io r ity of th e indigenous c u l
tu r e v i s - a - v i s the H isp a n ic c u ltu re . . . and th e r u r a l a r e a s
v i s - a - v i s the u rb a n c e n te r s .
In b rie f, the d is trib u tio n of w e a lth and in co m e in P e r u is
e x tr e m e . It is m o re u n eq u al th a n in any o th e r u n d e r
d ev elo p ed c o u n try fo r w h ich c o m p a ra tiv e d a ta a r e a v a ila b le .
T a b le 3 sh o w s the d is trib u tio n of in co m e a c c o rd in g to s o c ia l group.
46
TA BLE 2
PERUVIAN SOCIO-CULTURAL AND EDUCATIONAL STRATIFICATION
Sub-
C ulture
L ocation in
Social
H ie ra rc h y
L ocation
Languages
Spoken
O ccupation
Schools
Us ually
A ttended
U su al Length
of Schooling
Blanco U pper U rban
(L im a and
abroad)
Spanish
and other
E u ro p ean
O w ners E lite
p riv ate
schools
(L im a and
abroad)
U n iv e rsity -le v e l study
in L im a and ab ro ad
E n tra n ce highly re s tric te d , using so cio -eco n o m ic, c u ltu ra l, and genetic c rite ria .
Middle U rban M ostly M anagers, L e s s e r High school and study
(lo w er-m id d le (provincial Spanish p ro fe s s io n p riv a te at u n iv ersity level
through and L im a) a ls, b u re a u schools (national schools in
u p p er-m id d le) c ra ts , (b etter L im a or in p ro v in c ia l
skilled public cities)
w o rk e rs schools in
la rg e cities)
A c c ess open but r e s tr ic te d and co n tested using c u ltu ra l c rite ria .
TA BLE 2 --C ontinued
Sub-
C ulture
L ocation in
Social
H ierarchy-
L ocation
Languages
Spoken
O ccupation
Schools
Us ually
A ttended
U sual Length
of Schooling
Cholo
Social n
Cholos
a rath er
Low er
(lo w er-lo w er
through
u p p er-lo w er)
lo b ility blockec
are a tra n sitio r
’ d istin ct social
U rban r u r a l
(m ig rato ry )
a ccu ltu ratio n
lary group and
. group com bini
Indigenous
(Quechua
or A ym ara)
and Spanish
en co u rag ed an
is yet have evo
ng Indian and r
U nskilled
w o rk e rs,
m enial ven d
e r s , so ld ie rs
d re w a rd e d in i
lved only a p ro
nestizo cultures
Public
schools
irban settings
to -su b c u ltu rt
3 in v ary in g c
P r im a r y (and som e
se c o n d a ry in la r g e r
cities)
3 , r e s tr ic te d in r u ra l.
5. They a re , how ever,
le g re e s.
Indian M arginal R u ral Indigenous
(Quechua
or A ym ara)
som e
Spanish
m ales
A g ricu ltu ra l
la b o re rs ,
sm a ll f a r m
e r s , h e rd e rs
N uclear
Indian
schools of
the S ie rra ,
bilingual
jungle
schools
S ev eral y e a rs of
p rim a ry or unschooled
SOURCE: P au lsto n , 1971b:94.
T A B L E 3
D ISTR IB U TIO N O F IN CO M E BY M A JO R
SOCIAL G R O U PS IN 1963
S ocial G ro u p s (A p p ro x im a tio n s)
P e r c e n t of
T o ta l
P o p u la tio n
P e r c e n t of T o ta l
N atio n al
In co m e R e c e iv e d
B la n c o - - L a r g e la n d o w n e rs, in d u s
t r i a l i s t s , c a p ita lis ts , so m e
p r o fe s s io n a ls
0. 1 19. 9
M e stiz o s - - B u r e a u c r a t s , b u s in e s s m e n ,
p r o fe s s io n a ls and s u b -
p r o fe s s io n a ls , e m p lo y e e s ,
s k ille d w o r k e r s , m ilita r y
o ffic e rs
20. 4 53. 0
C h o lo s --U n s k ille d w o r k e r s , p e d d le r s ,
d o m e s tic s , d r iv e r s , c le r k s ,
e n lis te d m e n
22. 8 14. 2
In d ia n s --M o u n ta in -d w e llin g f a r m e r s ,
h e r d e r s , h a c ie n d a l a b o r e r s ,
a r m y d r a fte e s
56. 7 12. 9
T o tal: 100. 0 100. 0
SOURCE: P a u ls to n , 1971b:92.
S u m m a ry
T he g e o g ra p h ic lo c a tio n , r a c e , c u ltu re , lin g u is tic s , and
s o c io -e c o n o m ic c h a r a c t e r is t i c s d e te r m in e the q u a lity and q u a n tity of
e d u c a tio n th a t a c itiz e n w ill r e c e iv e . P a u ls to n (1971b) h as g ra p h e d
a ll th e s e v a r ia b le s and th e i r r e la tio n s h ip to ed u ca tio n , and s ta te d th a t
the s o c ia l c la s s - lin k e d e d u c a tio n a l s tr u c tu r e both r e f le c ts an d te n d s to
49
p e rp e tu a te the h i e r a r c h ic a l s o c ia l s y s te m , and in so d oing o b s tr u c ts
e d u c a tio n ra tio n a liz a tio n and d ev e lo p m e n t.
R e s u lts of E d u c a tio n a l S tra tific a tio n
The 1971 e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m a tte m p te d to d e a l w ith in n u m e r
ab le p r o b le m s in the e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m . P r e c e d in g r e f o r m s had, in
d iv e r s e w a y s, a tte m p te d to d e a l w ith som e o r a ll of th e s e p ro b le m s
u n s u c c e s s fu lly o r w ith m in im a l s u c c e s s . S e v e ra l a u th o rs hav e p o in ted
out th a t P e r u v ia n e d u c a tio n a l p ro b le m s go beyond th e r e a l m of p e d a
gogy. T h e y a r e the r e s u l t of e x tr e m e s o c io -e c o n o m ic s tr a tif ic a tio n
b ro u g h t ab o u t b y the n a tu re of P e r u 's c o lo n ia l and c o n te m p o r a ry
h is to r y . An e n u m e ra tio n of e d u c a tio n a l p ro b le m s p ro v id e s a b a s is fo r
a n a ly s is of th e 1971 e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m s tr a te g ie s .
I llite r a c y
A lthough the p e r c e n ta g e of illite r a c y h a s b e e n p r o g r e s s iv e ly
d e c r e a s in g , s till in 1969 the n a tio n a l i l l ite r a c y r a te w a s 32. 3 p e r c e n t
(P o n ce de L eon, 1971:174). A n d ean s ta te s w ith s ig n ific a n t a m o u n ts of
in d ig en o u s p o p u la tio n s and r u r a l a r e a s show ed g r e a t e r illite r a c y
r a t e s . In sp ite of the r e la tiv e d e c r e a s e of illite r a c y , the ab so lu te
r a t e s in c r e a s e d due to d e m o g ra p h ic g row th, w ith a to ta l fig u re
r e m a in in g at fo u r m illio n (M in is te rio de E d u c a c io n , 1971:11). T a b le s
4 and 5 show the 1961 illite r a c y r a t e s . A s can be s e e n in T a b le 5,
i l l ite r a c y is g r e a t e r f o r w o m e n both in u rb a n and r u r a l a r e a s .
T A B L E 4
IL L IT E R A C Y R A T E S BY G EO G RA PH IC LO CA TIO N
IN P E R U , 1961
L o c a tio n
A v e ra g e
P e r c e n ta g e
R u ra l
P e r c e n ta g e
P e r u 39 78
D e p a rtm e n ts of:
A n c a sh 51 82
A p u rim a c 76 86
A yacucho 72 81
C uzco 72 80
H u a n c a v e lic a 66 88
P u n o 64 66
SOURCE: P a u lsto n , 197 lb: 14.
T A B L E 5
P E R U V IA N 1961 URBAN AND R U R A L IL L IT E R A C Y
R A TES O F PER SO N S O V ER S E V E N T E E N
Y EA R S O F A G E, A CCORD ING TO SEX
Sex
U rb a n
P e r c e n ta g e
R u ra l
P e rc e n ta g e
T o ta l
P e r c e n ta g e
I llite r a te M en 4. 7 2 0. 6 12. 8
I llite r a te W o m en 13. 6 40. 0 27. 0
T o tal: 18. 3 60. 6 39. 8
SOURCE: C en so N a c io n a l, V ol. Ill, L im a , 1961, c ite d by
P a u lsto n , 1971b:85.
51
E d u c a tio n a l A tta in m e n t
T he a v e ra g e e d u c a tio n a l le v e l of the p o p u latio n w as 3. 2
g ra d e s of p r i m a r y ed u c a tio n , w h ich d o es not c o n stitu te the m in im u m
n u m b e r of y e a r s to e s ta b lis h fu n ctio n a l l i t e r a c y (P o n ce de L eon, 1971:
174). T ab le 6 show s the P e r u v ia n e d u c a tio n a l a tta in m e n t a s of 1961.
T A B L E 6
ED U CA TIO N A L L E V E L O F TH E P O P U L A T IO N A BOVE FO U R
Y EA RS O F AGE IN P E R U , 1961, SHOWN IN THOUSANDS
L e v e l of
M en W om en T o ta l
E d u c a tio n
N u m b e r P e r c e n t N u m b e r P e r c e n t N u m b e r P e r c e n t
One G ra d e
P r i m a r y 2142 50. 4 1538 35. 6 3680 42. 9
One G ra d e
S e c o n d a ry 388 9. 1 275 6 .4 664 7. 8
H ig h e r
I n s tru c tio n 85 2 . 0 46 1. 1 131 1. 5
No G ra d e
C o m p le te d 1636 38. 5 2456 56. 9 4092 4 7 .8
T o tal: 4251 100. 0 4315 100. 0 8567 100. 0 .
SOURCE: C en so N acio n al, V ol. Ill, L im a , 1961, c ite d by
P a u lsto n , 1971b:85.
I n c re a s e d E n r o llm e n ts
P o p u la tio n h a s in c r e a s e d f r o m 6, 208, 000 in 1940 to a p p r o x i
m a te ly 13, 000, 000 in 1971. T he an n u al b irth r a te in c r e a s e d 3. 4
52 .
p e r c e n t (P a u lsto n , 1971b:82). T h is r a p id d e m o g ra p h ic g ro w th h a s
p ro d u c e d a c o n c u r r e n t e n r o llm e n t in c r e a s e d u rin g 1958-1968, w hen
e d u c a tio n a l e n r o llm e n t e x p e rie n c e d a g ro w th of 100 p e r c e n t. T a b le 7
show s th is e n ro llm e n t i n c r e a s e .
T A B L E 7
E N R O L L M E N T IN C R EA SE DURING 1958-1968, IN P E R U
L e v e l of E d u c a tio n
P e r c e n ta g e
I n c r e a s e
P r i m a r y 78. 1
S e c o n d a ry 165. 8
U n iv e rs ity 280. 9
SOURCE: M in is te rio de E d u c acio n , 1971:9.
S u ste n tio n R ate
T he s u s te n tio n r a te in c r e a s e d f r o m 4. 6 p e r c e n t to 11 p e rc e n t;
i
j
«
n e v e r th e le s s , th e a b so lu te f ig u r e s a r e s till g r e a t, a s show n in T a b le j
8 . T he c a u s e f o r d e s e r tio n f r o m e d u c a tio n is p r i m a r i l y e c o n o m ic .
In m o s t p o o r f a m ilie s , c h ild re n a r e e x p e c te d to c o n trib u te to fa m ily
s u b s is te n c e by w o rk in g in r u r a l a r e a s o r by p e r fo r m in g m e n ia l jobs
in th e c itie s . A d d itio n ally , c l a s s e s w e re c ro w d e d and la c k e d m o d e rn
te a c h in g e q u ip m e n t and te x ts . W ith the e x c e p tio n of a few b ilin g u a l
s c h o o ls , in s tr u c tio n h a s b e e n c o n d u cted in S panish, w h e r e a s 50
p e r c e n t of the r u r a l p o p u la tio n 's f i r s t lan g u ag e is Q u ech u a (P o n ce de
L eon, 1971:174).
T A B L E 8
SU STEN TIO N R A T E S IN P E R U V IA N ED U CA TIO N
F O R D E C A D ES 1950-1960 AND 1957-1967
N u m b e r of S tudents N u m b e r of Students P e r c e n t
D ecad e
E n te r in g C onclu d in g of
F i r s t G ra d e S e c o n d a ry S u c c e s s
1950-1960 380, 425 175,7 7 7 4. 6
1957-1967 400, 845 4 3 ,2 0 0 11
SO U RCE: M in is te rio de E d u c a c io n , 1971:10.
D iffe re n tia l A c c e s s
C h ild re n f r o m m a r g in a l r u r a l o r u rb a n b a c k g ro u n d h av e not
h ad th e s a m e b e n e fit a s th o se of th e m id d le an d u p p e r c la s s e s (M in is
t e r io de E d u c a c io n , 1971:11).
O ur e d u c a tio n h a s b e e n an e d u c a tio n in fu n ctio n of c la s s .
Not only b e c a u s e it g iv es p riv ile g e to th e m in o r itie s and
h o ld s b ack th e m a jo r ity g ro u p s, p a r t ic u la r l y b e c a u s e it
d e n ie s a c c e s s to th e h ig h e r le v e ls , b e c a u s e it is d i s c r i m i n a t
ing in its in a b ility to o ffe r eq u a l a c c e s s and its h ig h d e g re e of
d ro p o u ts , but a ls o b e c a u s e it is d iv o rc e d f r o m r e a lity . . . .
E d u c a tio n , a s th e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e of our s e m ife u d a l e c o n o m ic
o rg a n iz a tio n , p a r tly c a p ita lis tic , p a r tly s u b -in d u s tr ia liz e d
and s e m ic o lo n ia l, is not only a m a n ife s ta tio n of th e s tr u c t u r e
but, b e c a u s e of its g r e a t im p o rta n c e , c o n s titu te s an i n s t r u
m e n t th ro u g h w h ic h the d o m in an t c la s s a c h ie v e s le g itim a tio n
of its c u ltu ra l, p o litic a l and e c o n o m ic c o n tro l. (O rte c h o
V ille n a , 1972:58)
P u b lic an d p r iv a te e d u c a tio n , in fa c t, m a in ta in the d iffe re n c e s and
im p e d e e ffe c tiv e n a tio n a l d e v e lo p m e n t (M in iste rio de E d u c acio n ,
1971:12). S pecific d e fic ie n c ie s in the v a rio u s e d u c a tio n a l le v e ls a r e
d is c u s s e d in the nex t c h a p te r.
E d u c a tio n a l D e v e lo p m en t S tra te g ie s
H u m an R e s o u rc e D e v e lo p m e n t
A c c o rd in g to an in d ex of h u m a n r e s o u r c e d e v e lo p m e n t
p r e s e n te d by H a rb is o n an d M y e rs (1964:38), P e r u is c o n s id e re d a
p a r tia lly d e v elo p ed c o u n try in a s c a le of u n d e rd e v e lo p e d , p a r tia lly
d ev elo p ed , s e m ia d v a n c e d , an d a d v a n c ed c a te g o r ie s . L e v e l II p a r tia lly
d ev elo p ed c o u n trie s e x h ib it c e r ta in c o m m o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . T h e y
have e x p e rie n c e d sig n ific a n t e n r o llm e n t i n c r e a s e s , w ith a d e c r e a s e in
the q u a lity of e d u ca tio n . P r i m a r y e d u c a tio n h a s ex p an d ed b u t only
r e a c h e s c h ild re n in u rb a n a r e a s ; ad d itio n a lly , d ro p o u t r a t e s a r e high
and th e r e a r e m a n y r e p e a t e r s . E ffo rts in th e se c o u n trie s have (
I
i
fo c u se d on an in c r e a s e of te a c h in g f a c ilitie s and p e rs o n n e l, r a th e r j
th a n on q u a lita tiv e r e f o r m s (H a rb iso n and M y e rs, 1964:78-79). |
i
S e c o n d a ry e d u c a tio n is u s u a lly m o re d e fic ie n t th an is. p r i m a r y o r
h ig h e r e d u c a tio n . S e c o n d a ry sch o o l e n r o llm e n t is p r i m a r i l y d ire c te d
to the a c a d e m ic sc h o o ls w h ich p r e p a r e s tu d e n ts for u n iv e r s ity
e n tra n c e ; te c h n ic a l sc h o o ls have l e s s p r e s tig e an d u s u a lly e n r o ll th o se
who a r e r e je c te d f r o m the a c a d e m ic s c h o o ls. In s tru c tio n a t s e c o n d a ry
55j
te c h n ic a l sc h o o ls in L e v e l II c o u n trie s is:
. . . p o o r b e c a u s e of e x tre m e s h o rta g e s of q u a lifie d t e a c h
e r s , in ad eq u ate e q u ip m en t, and often ig n o ra n c e of th e
s p e c ific n e e d s of the em p lo y in g e s ta b lis h m e n ts . . . and
a c a d e m ic s e c o n d a ry sc h o o ls do not have su ffic ie n t p la c e s to
m e e t the d e m a n d s . . . and the c u r r ic u lu m is g e n e ra lly
d e fic ie n t in b a s ic m a th e m a tic s , s c ie n c e , and e v e n the e l e
m e n ts of n a tio n a l c u ltu re , a ll of w h ich a r e im p o rta n t fo r
p r e p a r in g le a d e r s in to d a y 's m o d e rn iz in g s o c ie tie s .
(H a rb iso n an d M y e rs , 1964:82-83)
U n iv e rs ity e d u c a tio n is c h a r a c te r iz e d b y th e q u an tity of in stitu tio n s,
to th e d e tr im e n t of the q u a lity of p r o g r a m s ; and by an e m p h a s is on th e
p r o fe s s io n s of law , a r t s , m e d ic in e , and h u m a n itie s and a d e - e m p h a s is
of s c ie n tific and te c h n ic a l e d u c a tio n . O n -th e -jo b tra in in g in th e se
c o u n trie s h a s not e x p an d ed enough to a d ju st m a n p o w e r d e fic ie n c ie s .
The g r e a te s t n eed in the L e v e l II c o u n trie s w a s thought to be fo r
m a s s iv e a g r ic u ltu r a l e x te n s io n s e r v i c e s and r u r a l c o m m u n ity
r e o rg a n iz a tio n and d e v e lo p m e n ta l p r o je c ts (H a rb iso n and M y e rs , 1964:
84-91).
The s tr a te g y of h u m a n r e s o u r c e d e v elo p m en t p ro p o s e d by j
!
H a rb is o n and M y e rs (1964:95-98) fo r th e s e c o u n trie s included:
1. T he e x p a n s io n of m u lti-p u r p o s e s e c o n d a ry s c h o o ls w ith
tra in in g in m a th e m a tic s and s c ie n c e and th e e lim in a tio n
of v o c a tio n a l sc h o o ls
2. U n iv e rs ity e m p h a s is on a g r ic u ltu r e , s c ie n tific study, and
m a th e m a tic s , w ith a d e - e m p h a s is on the a r t s , h u m a n i
tie s , and law
56
3. S a la ry and s ta tu s of s c ie n tific and te c h n ic a l p e rs o n n e l
should be m a in ta in e d at the s a m e le v e l fo r o th e r u n iv e r
s ity g ra d u a te s
4. D e v e lo p m e n t of m id le v e l m a n p o w e r su c h a s a g r ic u ltu r a l
and e n g in e e rin g a s s i s ta n t s , s e c o n d a ry sc h o o l s c ie n c e
te a c h e r s , an d n u r s e s and m e d ic a l te c h n ic ia n s
5. P r i m a r y e d u c a tio n sh o u ld in c r e a s e q u a n tita tiv e ly and
q u a lita tiv e ly ; la c k of te a c h e r p r o fe s s io n a liz a tio n sh o u ld
be o ffset by new te c h n o lo g ie s
6 . School c o n s tru c tio n s sh o u ld be the r e s p o n s ib ility of the
lo c a l c o m m u n itie s in o r d e r to o ffse t th e b a la n c e of
e d u c a tio n a l in v e s tm e n ts
7. P a r t - t i m e tr a in in g of em p lo y e d p e r s o n n e l sh o u ld be
e m p h a s iz e d in s e c o n d a ry and h ig h e r e d u c a tio n
M anpow er and E d u c a tio n a l
F o r e c a s t s
T he O rg a n iz a tio n fo r E c o n o m ic C o o p e ra tio n and D e v e lo p
m e n t (1964) r e p o r te d on a stu d y by th is o rg a n iz a tio n and the In stitu to
de P la n ific a c io n , w h ich m a d e e d u c a tio n a l p ro je c tio n s u n til 1980 to
fu lfill m a n p o w e r r e q u ir e m e n ts . P r o je c tio n s on the n u m b e r of s t u
d e n ts, t e a c h e r s , and c o s ts w e r e p ro v id e d by the n u m b e r of g r a d u a te s
fo r e a c h s e c to r .
P r im a r y e d u c a tio n . The stu d y p r o je c te d th a t th e n u r s e r y
sc h o o l and p r i m a r y sc h o o l e n ro llm e n t w ould double b etw een 1964 and
1980. T h is in c r e a s e w ould r e p r e s e n t u n iv e r s a l p r i m a r y ed u catio n ,
but the stu d y ca u tio n e d about th e q u a lity of p r im a r y te a c h in g . School
in sp e c tio n s e r v i c e s and in c r e a s e d c o m m u n ity c o n tro l w e re r e c o m
m e n d e d to im p ro v e s e r v i c e s (O rg a n iz a tio n fo r E c o n o m ic C o o p e ra tio n
and D ev elo p m en t, 1964:30, 278).
S e c o n d a ry e d u c a tio n . E n ro llm e n t fo r s e c o n d a ry e d u c a tio n
w as e x p e c te d to in c r e a s e th r e e tim e s b e tw e e n 1964 and 1980. T e c h
n ic a l e d u c a tio n sh o u ld in c r e a s e , and the s tr u c t u r a l and c u r r i c u l a r
d iv e r s ity of s e c o n d a ry tr a in in g should be e lim in a te d a s c o m p e llin g
stu d e n ts to m ak e p r e m a tu r e c h o ic e s , a c c o rd in g to the stu d y (O rg a n i
z a tio n fo r E c o n o m ic C o o p e ra tio n and D ev elo p m en t, 1964:30, 278).
H ig h e r e d u c a tio n . E n r o llm e n t w as e x p e c te d to double
b e tw e e n 1964 and 1980. D e c lin in g e n ro llm e n ts w e re e x p e c te d in
te a c h e r tra in in g and ed u catio n , f ro m 37. 7 p e r c e n t to 30. 6 p e rc e n t; in
th e h u m a n itie s f r o m 35. 7 p e r c e n t to 19. 5 p e rc e n t; and in c r e a s in g ^
I
e n r o llm e n ts w e re e x p e c te d in m e d ic in e , f r o m 6. 0 to 12. 7 p e rc e n t; in >
s c ie n c e , f r o m 6. 7 to 22. 8 p e rc e n t; and in e n g in e e rin g to 14. 4 p e rc e n t.
A c c o rd in g to the stu d y , the " in te rm e d ia te " le v e l o r re g io n a l c o lle g e s
sh o u ld c o n s id e r the u n iv e r s ity fs and re g io n a l n e e d s in c u r r ic u lu m
p lan n in g to av o id s h o rta g e s and s u r p lu s e s (O rg a n iz a tio n fo r E c o n o m ic
C o o p e ra tio n and D ev elo p m en t, 1964:31, 278).
58
G o als of th e 1970 E d u c a tio n a l R e fo rm
T he e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m is p a r t of the g o v e r n m e n t's g e n e ra l
d e v e lo p m e n t p o lic ie s . T he In fo rm e G e n e ra l (M in is te rio de E d u c a c io n ,
1971:7-8) e la b o ra te d :
D e v e lo p m e n t is a p r o c e s s of deep tr a n s f o r m a tio n s a t th e
b a s is of th e e c o n o m ic , p o litic a l and s o c ia l r e la tio n s . A s a
c o n se q u e n c e , d e v e lo p m e n t r e s u l t s in th e e lim in a tio n of
in te rn a l s tr u c t u r a l im b a la n c e s and the r e la tio n s of d e p e n
d e n c y th a t, jo in tly , have d efin ed th e n a tu re and e s s e n c e of
the tra d itio n a l s o c ia l o r d e r . . . the p ro b le m of e d u c a tio n
is a t the b ase of the l a r g e r p ro b le m s of n a tio n a l d e v e lo p
m en t.
In fa c t, th e s p ir i t and g o als of e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m a r e in fu n c tio n a
p a r t of trn a tio n a l d e v e lo p m e n t p o lic ie s and p o litic a l o rie n ta tio n of the
s t a t e 1 ’ (M in iste rio de E d u c a c io n , 1971:8). T he e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m
p u rs u e d t h r e e g o a ls, a c c o rd in g to the In fo rm e G e n e r a l (M in is te rio de
E d u c a cio n , 1971:39-42):
1. E d u c a tio n fo r w o rk and d e v e lo p m e n t
2. E d u c a tio n fo r the s tr u c t u r a l tr a n s f o r m a tio n of s o c ie ty
i
3. E d u c a tio n fo r the s e lf d e te rm in a tio n an d in d ep en d en ce of ;
the P e r u v ia n n atio n
E d u c a tio n fo r W o rk an d
D ev e lo p m e n t
E d u c a tio n m u s t h e lp e lim in a te ’’p o v e rty , b a c k w a rd n e s s ,
e c o n o m ic im m o b ility , and low le v e ls of p ro d u c tio n an d c o n su m p tio n ”
(M in is te rio de E d u c a c io n , 1971:38). In fact, e d u c a tio n m u s t be one of
59
th e d ev e lo p m e n t a g e n ts w ith in a to ta l n a tio n a l d e v e lo p m e n t s tr a te g y
and not th e only in s tr u m e n t e x p e c te d to ch an g e n a tio n a l e c o n o m ic
tr e n d s . D ev e lo p m e n t a s u n d e rsto o d by th e P e r u v ia n g o v e rn m e n t w as
e c o n o m ic g ro w th a c c o m p a n ie d by e q u ita b le d is trib u tio n of goods an d
s o c ia l s e r v ic e s . S tru c tu r a l ch an g es m u s t o c c u r at a ll s o c ia l and
p o litic a l le v e ls in o r d e r to a tta in su c h a goal. M o re tra in in g of m a n
p o w e r to m a x im iz e e c o n o m ic p ro d u c tio n and b e n e fit a s m a ll p riv ile g e d
c la s s c o n s titu te d " d e v e lo p m e n ta lis m " and w as r e je c te d by P e r u v ia n
n a tio n a l p o licy .
E d u c a tio n fo r w o rk in th e p e r s p e c tiv e of th e s tr u c t u r a l
r e f o r m s d ir e c te d to w a rd d e v e lo p m e n t m e a n s the c r e a tio n of
co n d itio n s to m a k e p o s s ib le the s p ir itu a l re a liz a tio n of e a c h
p e r s o n a s he is jo in tly b u ild in g a ju s t so c ie ty . (M in is te rio de
E d u c a cio n , 1971:39)
E d u c a tio n f o r th e S tr u c tu r a l
T r a n s f o r m a tio n of S o ciety
In p a r t, e d u c a tio n h a s su p p o rte d , r e in fo rc e d , and ju stifie d
th e tra d itio n a l s o c ia l o r d e r . In view of the new n a tio n a l g o als e s ta b
lis h e d by th e R e v o lu tio n a ry g o v e rn m e n t, e d u c a tio n m u s t a s s i s t in the
c r e a tio n of a new s o c ia l o r d e r . E d u c a tio n m u s t e lim in a te "n e g a tiv e
v a lu e s su c h a s d e s ir e fo r w ea lth , in e q u a lity and c o n fo rm is m "
(M in is te rio de E d u c ac io n , 1971:40) and a s s i s t in the e lim in a tio n of the
h ig h ly p o la r iz e d c la s s s tr u c tu r e .
60
E d u c a tio n fo r th e Self D e te rm in a tio n
and In d ep en d en ce of P e r u
In te rn a l and e x te r n a l d o m in a tio n have p ro d u c e d the p h e n o m
e n a of "a lie n a tio n , m a rg in a tio n and d is in te g ra tio n " (M in is te rio de
E d u c a cio n , 1971:40) in P e r u v ia n so c ie ty . E d u c a tio n m u s t e lim in a te
th is a lie n a tio n and be tr u ly lib e r a tin g th ro u g h a c u ltu r a l re v o lu tio n . A
new s e n s e of n a tio n a lis m m u s t be c r e a te d and m u s t be in te g ra te d
th ro u g h o u t th e A n d ean a r e a and f u r th e r m u s t r e la te to o th e r T h ird
W o rld c o u n trie s (M in is te rio de E d u c ac io n , 1971:41).
A c c o rd in g to the In fo rm e G e n e ra l (M in iste rio de E d u c acio n ,
1971:42), th e s p ir i t of c ritiq u e , c r e a tiv ity , and c o o p e ra tio n m u s t
u n d e r s c o r e a ll e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m e ffo rts . T he n o rm a tiv e p r in c ip le s
of th e r e f o r m w e r e a ls o e n u m e ra te d :
1. It m u s t p r e p a r e c h ild re n and a d u lts fo r w o rk and n a tio n a l
d e v e lo p m e n t
2. It m u s t s e r v e the s tr u c t u r a l c h a n g e s of s o c ie ty and
d e m o c r a c y
3. It m u s t p ro m o te a r e a l n a tio n a l c o n s c io u s n e s s
4. It m u s t be a c c e s s ib le to a ll P e r u v ia n s
5. It m u s t o ffer e q u a l o p p o rtu n ity , e lim in a tin g s o c io
e c o n o m ic b a r r i e r s
6 . It m u s t be a c tiv e , te a c h in g s tu d e n ts to ta k e the in itia tiv e
and do th in g s in s te a d of r e m e m b e r in g and r e p e a tin g
7. It m u s t p ro m o te s e lf e d u c a tio n and the p e r s o n a l c o n tr ib u
tio n and e x p r e s s io n of stu d e n ts
8. It m u s t p ro m o te fa m ily v a lu e s a s the b a s is of s o c ie ty
9. It m u s t r e in fo r c e civ ic an d s o c ia l r e s p o n s ib ility in the
s tu d e n ts
10. It m u s t ap p ly a ll r e s o u r c e s and e ffo rts to o b tain m a x im u m
r e s u l t s in e d u c a tio n
11. It m u s t p ro m o te a c tiv e p a r tic ip a tio n of th e c o m m u n ity in
th e e d u c a tio n a l e ffo rts
12. It m u s t p ro m o te in fo rm a l e d u ca tio n
13. It m u s t be o rg a n ic , fle x ib le , d iv e rs ifie d and in n o v ativ e
14. It m u s t be s c ie n tif ic a lly p lan n ed w ith in the to ta l n a tio n a l
p la n
15. It m u s t be e v a lu a te d and r e a d ju s te d
P r in c ip a l C h an g e s P r o p o s e d
by the R e fo rm
The tra d itio n a l s y s te m in c lu d ed five y e a r s of p r i m a r y e d u c a
tio n follow ed by five y e a r s of s e c o n d a ry ed u c a tio n , w hich w as div id ed
into g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n and te c h n ic a l ed u catio n . U n iv e rs ity a d m is s io n
w a s o b tain ed a f te r r ig o r o u s e x a m in a tio n s w hich e lim in a te d g r e a t
n u m b e rs of s tu d e n ts . U n iv e rs ity o p e ra tio n an d a d m in is tr a tio n w e re
in d ep en d en t f r o m the r e s t of th e e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m . A dult e d u c atio n
w as o p e ra te d in e v en in g p r o g r a m s , and l i t e r a c y c a m p a ig n s w e re
c a r r i e d on s p o ra d ic a lly w ith little s tr u c t u r a l o r co n ten t c o o rd in a tio n
w ith th e r e s t of the e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m . G e n e ra lly , the s y s te m
s u ffe re d f r o m low p ro d u c tiv ity , la c k of effe c tiv e a r tic u la tio n , i r r e l e
v an t co n ten t, and a r c h a ic m eth o d o lo g y .
The ch a n g e s p ro p o s e d th r e e le v e ls , su b d iv id ed into th re e
c y c le s e a c h and in clu d in g v a rio u s m o d a litie s to ac c o u n t fo r d iffe re n t
e d u c a tio n a l n e e d s.
L E V E L M O D A LITY C Y C L E S
P r e - s c h o o l e d u c a tio n K in d e r g a r te n (0-2 y e a r s )
K in d e r g a rte n (3 -4 y e a r s )
K in d e r g a rte n (5 y e a r s )
B a s ic e d u c a tio n R e g u la r 1st, 2nd, 3 rd
L a b o r 1st, 2nd, 3 rd
S p ecial e d u c a tio n
P r o f e s s io n a l c e r tific a tio n
H ig h e r e d u c a tio n R e g u la r 1st, 2nd, 3 rd
N o n -fo rm a l
The new s y s te m w a s flu id in t e r m s of tr a n s f e r e n c e am o n g the v a rio u s
m o d a litie s an d le v e ls . N o n -fo rm a l e d u c atio n w as a ls o e s ta b lis h e d by
the new s y s te m . T he to ta l s y s te m w as o rg a n iz e d in a n u c le a r s t r u c
tu r e in w h ich sc h o o ls w ith in a g e o g ra p h ic a r e a w e re g ro u p e d a ro u n d
a c e n tr a l sc h o o l w h ich s h a r e d r e s o u r c e s and s ta ff w ith the o th e r
sc h o o ls w ith in th a t n u c le u s. C o m m u n ity p a r tic ip a tio n w a s p ro v id e d
a t th e n u c le a r le v e l (M in is te rio de E d u c a c io n , 1972:14-16).
63
R e fo rm P r o c e s s
The E d u c a tio n a l R e fo rm C o m m is sio n , c o m p o se d of e d u c a to rs
f r o m th e M in is try of E d u c a tio n an d th e u n iv e rsity , p u b lish e d its fin d
in g s in th e f o r m of th e In fo rm e G e n e r a l in 1971. D is c u s s io n and
d eb ate a t v a rio u s s o c ia l le v e ls and in a ll re g io n s of the c o u n try
follow ed th e p u b lic a tio n of the r e p o r t. T h e G e n e ra l E d u c a tio n Law ,
19326, w as d e c r e e d in M a rc h , 1972. V a rio u s e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m
a c tiv itie s w e r e u n d e rta k e n p r i o r to the o fficial d e c r e e of the law . F o r
e x a m p le , in O c to b e r, 1971, th e tr a in in g of the p r o m o t e r s fo r the
r e f o r m w a s in itia te d . T h e p r o m o te r s w e re te a c h e r s w ho w e re
s e le c te d on the b a s is of th e ir p r o fe s s io n a l c o m p e te n c ie s and attitu d e
to im p le m e n t an d p ro m o te r e f o r m a c tiv itie s in th e i r ow n tow ns.
In itia lly , 1, 200 t e a c h e r s w e r e r e tr a in e d , and 36, 000 t e a c h e r s had
b een r e t r a i n e d by 1974, in c o u r s e s v a ry in g f r o m tw o y e a r s (s ta rtin g
in 1971) to five w e e k s (in 1974). T he co n ten t of the tra in in g in clu d ed
c r i ti c a l a s s e s s m e n t of P e r u v ia n r e a lity an d e la b o r a tio n an d e v a lu a
tio n of th e r e f o r m c u r r ic u la . A fte r the in itia l tra in in g in L im a ,
fo llo w -u p a c tiv itie s w e r e co n tin u ed by c o rre s p o n d e n c e . It w as
e x p e c te d th a t 120, 000 t e a c h e r s w ould be r e t r a i n e d by 1980. E v a lu a
tio n of the r e tr a in in g of te a c h e r s w as done v ia w r itte n t e s t s , but
c la s s r o o m b e h a v io r o r a ttitu d e s w e r e not m e a s u re d . T he c o m m it
m e n t to th e r e f o r m o r la c k of it w as c o n tro lle d by a g r e a t am o u n t of
s tr e n g th of one of the t e a c h e r s ' unions, S in d icato U nico de
P r o f e s io n a le s de la E d u c a c io n , w h ich h a d n e g o tia te d its p o s itio n
d ir e c tly w ith P r e s id e n t V e la s c o in A u g u st, 1974.
A t the s a m e tim e , th e n u c le a r o rg a n iz a tio n w a s b ein g fo rm e d
and a 1 3 7 -sc h o o l n u c le i a ffec tin g a p p ro x im a te ly 75, 000 stu d e n ts w as
s e le c te d . In A p ril, 1972, im m e d ia te ly a f te r L aw 19326 w as d e c re e d ,
th e o fficial a u th o r itie s of th e sc h o o l n u c le i w e re e le c te d . The
o rg a n iz a tio n a l s tr u c t u r e of the M in is try of E d u c a tio n w as a ls o
e v a lu a te d and m o d ifie d a t th is tim e , and p e r s o n n e l ch an g es o c c u r re d .
In 1969, th e U n iv e rs ity R e fo rm L aw , e lim in a tin g th e
p ro fe s s io n a l " fa c u lty " o rg a n iz a tio n an d im p le m e n tin g a d e p a r tm e n ta l
s tr u c tu r e and c r e d it s y s te m , had b e e n d e c re e d . T he C o n sejo N acio n al
de la U n iv e rsid a d P e r u a n a w as a ls o c r e a te d to c o o rd in a te and p la n a ll
u n iv e r s ity ed u c a tio n . A d d itio n ally , e d u c a tio n a l r e s e a r c h and d e v e lo p
m en t a c tiv itie s w e r e c e n tr a liz e d in th e new ly e s ta b lis h e d In stitu to
N acio n al In v e stig a c io n D e s a r r o llo de la E d u c acio n , l a t e r to be n a m e d
i
In stitu to N ac io n a l A u g u sto S a la z a r Bondy, in h o n o r of the p r in c ip a l j
i
ideologue of the e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m (W ilfred o H u e rta , p e r s o n a l c o m
m u n ic atio n , A u g u st 15, 1974). A s of 1972, a g ra d u a l and p r o g r e s s iv e
im p le m e n ta tio n of the s y s te m had ta k e n p la c e .
65
C H A P T E R IV
S E L E C T E D O B JE C T IV E S O F TH E ED U CA TIO N A L R E F O R M
C h a p te r IV w ill d e s c rib e and a n a ly z e s e le c te d o b je c tiv e s of
th e e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m . The o b je c tiv e s to be stu d ie d a r e : (a) b a s ic
r e g u la r ed u catio n , (b) b a s ic la b o r e d u c atio n , (c) h ig h e r e d u c a tio n ,
(d) p r o fe s s io n a l c e rtific a tio n , and (e) n u c le a riz a tio n . The d e s c rip tio n
and a n a ly s is of the above o b je c tiv e s w ill include (a) id e n tific a tio n and
in te r p r e ta tio n of o u tsta n d in g e d u c a tio n a l p r o b le m s r e la te d to the
sp e c ific o b je c tiv e u n d er d is c u s s io n , (b) a s ta te m e n t of th e g o als and
o b je c tiv e s a s p r e s e n te d by th e new e d u c a tio n law , (c) d e s c rip tio n and
a n a ly s is of th e s tr u c tu r a l, co n ten t, and m e th o d o lo g ic a l c h a n g e s
p lan n ed a n d / o r im p le m e n te d by the r e fo r m , and, fin ally , (d) the le v e l
of im p le m e n ta tio n of the p ro p o s e d c h a n g e s. j
l
B a s ic R e g u la r E d u c a tio n
B a s ic r e g u la r e d u c a tio n o ffe re d in s tr u c tio n to c h ild re n f r o m
the age of six to th e age of fifte e n y e a r s old.
E d u c a tio n a l P r o b le m s R e la te d to
B a s ic R e g u la r E d u c a tio n
P r i m a r y e d u c a tio n e n ro llm e n t h a s s ig n ific a n tly in c r e a s e d
66
sin c e 1960. T h e g o v e r n m e n t's re s p o n s e in the p a s t h as b e e n to c r e a te
te a c h in g p o s ts ’’w ith o u t an y p r io r p lan n in g of d is trib u tio n o r c o n s id e r a
tio n of th e p u p il- te a c h e r r a tio " (O rg a n iz a tio n fo r E c o n o m ic C o o p e r a
tio n and D ev e lo p m en t, 1964:61). A s p r e v io u s ly m en tio n ed , b e tw een
1958 and 1968, p r i m a r y sch o o l e n r o llm e n t in c r e a s e d 100 p e r c e n t
(M in iste rio de E d u c a c io n , 1971:9). In s p ite of th e ra p id e n r o llm e n t
in c r e a s e , ill i t e r a c y c a m p a ig n s , and a d u lt ed u c a tio n p r o g r a m s , the
d ro p o u t r a t e s w e r e s till h ig h and the g e n e r a l p ro d u c tiv ity of the s y s te m
low . P r i m a r y e d u c a tio n w as m a n d a to ry fo r s ix y e a r s and w as
o rg a n iz e d in a v a r ie ty of sc h o o ls w hich, a c c o rd in g to P a u ls to n 's
(197lb : 147) a n a ly s is , w e re d ir e c tly r e la te d to P e r u 's fo u r b a s ic s u b
c u ltu re s : In d ia n s, ch o lo s, m e s tiz o s , an d w h ite s. T he f i r s t le v e l of
p r im a r y sch o o l, tr a n s ic io n , in itia te d s k ills and a ttitu d e s th a t f o r m the
b a s e of th e f i r s t g ra d e , but the m a jo r ity of P e r u v ia n c h ild re n b eg an
th e ir sc h o o l e x p e rie n c e d ir e c tly in f i r s t g ra d e w ith o u t b e n e fit of
*
tra n s ic io n . C h ild re n in th e p o o r s t r a t a of s o c ie ty d ro p p e d out due to
i
p r e c a r io u s e c o n o m ic co n d itio n s, m a ln u tritio n , and illn e s s e s (P aulston,,
I
1971b:149).
S e c o n d a ry sc h o o ls w e r e e s ta b lis h e d d u rin g th e c o lo n ia l p e r io d
by r e lig io u s o r d e r s follow ing S p an ish a n d F r e n c h m o d e ls. T he
u n iv e r s ity r e f o r m m o v e m e n t in th e 1920s, 1930s, and W o rld W a r II,
p r e s s e d s e c o n d a ry e d u c a tio n to o ffer m o r e v a r ie d in s tr u c tio n a l p r o
g r a m s . In 1941, the te c h n ic a l b ra n c h w a s c r e a te d and tau g h t
6 7 .
in d u s tr ia l, c o m m e r c ia l, and a g r ic u ltu r a l s u b je c ts . T e c h n ic a l s e c o n
d a r y sc h o o l n e v e r a tta in e d the p r e s tig e of the a c a d e m ic s e c o n d a ry
sc h o o ls and, in m a n y c a s e s , it c o n s titu te d the only a lte r n a tiv e le ft fo r
stu d e n ts who w e r e r e je c te d b y a c a d e m ic s e c o n d a ry s c h o o ls . In 1964,
81. 4 p e r c e n t of th e s tu d e n ts in s e c o n d a ry e d u c a tio n w e re e n ro lle d in
th e g e n e r a l t r a c k and 18. 8 p e r c e n t in the te c h n ic a l b ra n c h . In the
te c h n ic a l b ra n c h , 46. 6 p e r c e n t w e re e n ro lle d in th e c o m m e r c ia l p r o
g r a m s , 23 p e r c e n t in in d u s tr ia l d e p a r tm e n ts fo r b o y s, 18. 6 p e r c e n t in
in d u s tr ia l d e p a r tm e n ts fo r g ir ls , and 11. 8 p e r c e n t in a g r ic u ltu r a l
d e p a r tm e n ts (O rg a n iz a tio n fo r E c o n o m ic C o o p e ra tio n and D e v e lo p
m en t, 1964:68).
A c a d e m ic s e c o n d a ry sc h o o ls w e re not eq u ip p ed to te a c h
s c ie n c e an d s c ie n c e te a c h e r s w e r e few ; a d d itio n a lly , e m p h a s is w a s
p la c e d on l i t e r a r y h u m a n is tic s tu d ie s and a n a n ti- s c ie n tif ic attitu d e
m o ld ed b y th e c h u rc h and la n d - b a s e d o lig a rc h y e x iste d . T h is d e -
e m p h a s is on te c h n o lo g y and s c ie n c e c o n s titu te d one of th e m a in
t a r g e t s f o r e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m as both s c ie n c e an d tech n o lo g y tra in in g
a r e e s s e n tia l fo r d e v e lo p m e n t (P a u lsto n , 1971b: 158-165).
T he m a in w e a k n e s s of th e tw o le v e ls w as th a t n e ith e r one
p r e p a r e d s tu d e n ts fo r p ro d u c tiv e w o rk a t the tim e of g ra d u a tio n , and
the p r i m a r y le v e l had no r e la tio n s h ip to the s e c o n d a ry le v e l. C u r r i c
u lu m and e d u c a tio n a l p h ilo so p h ie s w e re not c o n s is te n t in the d iffe re n t
le v e ls due to th e ir in itia l in d ep en d en t d ev e lo p m e n t and su b se q u e n t
f r a g m e n ta r y p lan n in g . T he p r im a r y e d u c a tio n a l e x p e rie n c e w a s no
p r e p a r a tio n fo r s e c o n d a ry e d u c a tio n w hich, in tu rn , did not p r e p a r e
th e stu d e n t fo r h ig h e r ed u catio n . A s e r i e s of e n tra n c e e x a m in a tio n s
d e te rm in e d a d m is s io n to the nex t h ig h e r le v e l (C e sp e d e s B e d re g a l,
1972:14-15).
T he co n ten t of o u r ed u c a tio n is to ta lly d iv o rc e d f r o m the
i n t e r e s t s and c o n c e rn s of the n a tio n a l m a jo r itie s w hich c o n
s titu te m o s t of o u r e n ro llm e n t. . . . T h e a u g m e n ta tio n of
e d u c a tio n a l co n ten t h a s not p ro d u c e d q u a lita tiv e ch a n g e s of
th e e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m , but h a s p ro d u c e d a h y p e rtro p h ie d
v e r s io n of the e litis t m o d e l w h ich is re m o v e d f r o m P e r u v ia n
re a lity . (M in is te rio de E d u c a c io n , 1971:12-13)
P r im a r y , s e c o n d a ry , and h ig h e r e d u c a tio n did not p r e p a r e
the in d iv id u al w ith th e in fo rm a tio n and a ttitu d e s n e c e s s a r y fo r a c tiv e
and p ro d u c tiv e p a r tic ip a tio n in n a tio n a l an d in d iv id u al d e v e lo p m en t
e ffo rts . T he v a lu e s , co n ten t, an d m e th o d s w e re p a ra ly z e d b y a
c la s s i c a l and l i b e r a l u n d e rly in g p h ilo so p h y w h ich only a s p ir e d to p r o
duce " c u ltu re d m e n " in th e F r e n c h tr a d itio n of h o m m e c u ltiv e . T h is
i
d iv o rc e of s o c io -e c o n o m ic r e q u ir e m e n ts and in d iv id u a l-c e n te re d I
i
e d u ca tio n w a s d y sfu n c tio n a l fo r n a tio n a l i n t e r e s t s (C e sp e d e s B e d re g a l,
1972:11). On the s u b je c t of v a lu e s , P a u ls to n (1971b:156) s ta te d :
V a lu e s of e litis m , h ie r a r c h y , p e r s o n a lis m and a u th o r i
t a r ia n is m s t r e s s e d a r e th o se of th e s m a ll but p o w erfu l
H is p a n ic iz e d m in o rity w ho have con tin u ed to ru le P e r u sin c e
th e co lo n ia l p e rio d .
T he co n ten t of ed u c a tio n did not ev o lv e, but in c r e a s e d . A n
a c c u m u la tio n of new m a t e r ia ls and s u b je c ts , w ithout p r io r
69
r e a s s e s s m e n t of the old, in c r e a s e d the n u m b e r of sch o o l y e a r s to
c o v e r the m a te r ia l and r e in fo r c e d e n c y c lo p e d ic e d u c a tio n (C e sp e d e s
B e d re g a l, 1972:12-14). F o r e ig n in flu e n c e s in the d e v e lo p m e n t of
P e r u v ia n e d u c a tio n did not p e r m it the d efin itio n of a n a u th e n tic
P e r u v ia n p h ilo so p h y of ed u c a tio n . nIts a p p a re n t P e r u v ia n is m is
lim ite d to a h is to r ic a l use of s y m b o ls th a t hide th e t r u e P e r u v ia n
s itu a tio n ” (M in is te rio de E d u c acio n , 1971:13). T h is fo re ig n v alu e
o rie n ta tio n r e fle c te d im p lic it and e x p lic it s e lf - r e je c tio n . T h is s e l f
r e je c tio n a tte m p te d to ig n o re the Indian d im e n sio n of e v e r y a s p e c t of
P e r u v ia n life and g lo rifie d a b a d ly a s s im ila te d E u ro p e a n and N o rth
A m e r ic a n m o d el. A ny v ia b le n a tio n a l d e v e lo p m e n t e ffo rt m u s t be
b a s e d on th e in tr in s ic co n v ictio n of n a tio n a l a u th e n tic ity and w o rth .
The type of n a tio n a lis m th a t is p ro m p te d by the e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m h a s
e m p h a s iz e d a s u p e rf ic ia l love of c o u n try but h a s not e m p h a s iz e d
in d ig en o u s v a lu e s (C e sp e d e s B e d re g a l, 1972:16-17).
The le a r n in g p r o c e s s in a tra d itio n a l in te lle c tu a lis tic s y s te m , j
su c h a s the P e ru v ia n , e m p h a s iz e d m e m o ry and a c c u m u la tio n of f a c ts , ■
I
and in h ib ited a n a ly s is and c re a tiv ity . W ith few e x c e p tio n s, c r i ti c a l <
th in k in g w as not f o s te r e d in P e r u v ia n sc h o o ls and th e m e th o d s of
e d u c a tio n w e r e s ta tic and rig id , not re sp o n d in g to c o n te m p o r a ry
r e s e a r c h on e d u c a tio n a l p sy c h o lo g y and child d e v e lo p m e n t (M in is te rio
de E d u c a c io n , 1971:14).
70
G o als and O b je c tiv e s of B a sic R e g u la r
E d u c a tio n A c c o rd in g to the New
E d u c a tio n Law
B a s ic r e g u la r e d u c a tio n is a m o d a lity d e sig n e d to a s s u r e the
to ta l d e v e lo p m e n t of the stu d en t and to p r e p a r e h im fo r w o rk , in o r d e r
to p ro m o te h is p a r tic ip a tio n in the s o c ia l p r o c e s s :
1. T o s tim u la te th e a d e q u a te b io -p h y s ic d e v e lo p m e n t of
the stu d e n t and to p ro v id e h im w ith b a s ic s c ie n tific , t e c h
n ic a l and h u m a n is tic know ledge
2. To p ro m o te in the l e a r n e r d isc ip lin e , d e v e lo p m e n t of
his a p titu d e s and th e a c q u is itio n of a b ilitie s an d s k ills n e c e s
s a r y fo r p e r s o n a l d e v e lo p m e n t
3. T o c u ltiv a te th e c r i ti c a l c o n s c ie n c e of the stu d e n t in
o r d e r fo r h im to u n d e rs ta n d P e r u v ia n r e a l i ty and be ab le to
p a r tic ip a te in a r e s p o n s ib le a n d /o r c r e a tiv e m a n n e r in the
* s tr u c t u r a l tr a n s f o r m a tio n and b e tte r m e n t of so c ie ty , a s w e ll
a s to c o n trib u te to the s o v e re ig n ty , s e c u r ity and d e fe n se of
the n atio n
4. To s tim u la te in the l e a r n e r a s e n s e of fa m ily , a s p ir i t
of s o lid a r ity and s o c ia l c o o p e ra tio n a s w e ll a s th e a b ility fo r
the r e a liz a tio n of v ita l v a lu e s , i . e . e th ic a l, r e lig io u s , a e s
th e tic and o th e r s
5. T o t r a i n the stu d e n t fo r th e p e r f o r m a n c e of a job th a t
is u se fu l fo r h im and fo r the c o m m u n ity (M in is te rio de E d u c a
cion, 1972:50-51)
S tru c tu r a l, C o n ten t, and M eth o d o lo g ical i
C h an g e s of B a s ic R e g u la r E d u c a tio n
B a sic r e g u la r e d u c a tio n h as c o m b in ed a p p ro x im a te ly th e f i r s t
s ix y e a r s of p r i m a r y e d u c a tio n and th e f i r s t th r e e g ra d e s of s e c o n d a ry
e d u c a tio n of the old s y s te m , th u s c r e a tin g a n in e - y e a r c o m p u ls o ry
b a s ic r e g u la r e d u catio n . T he nine y e a r s a r e d iv id ed into th re e c y c le s .
The p r in c ip a l r e a s o n fo r th is in te g ra tio n of th e p r im a r y and s e c o n d a ry
sc h o o l into one in te g ra te d le v e l w a s to b e tte r a r tic u la te th e le v e ls and
71
to f o r m an in te g ra te d s y s te m w ith u n ity of p u rp o s e .
In an in c is iv e a n a ly s is of p r e - r e f o r m p r i m a r y sc h o o l re a d in g
te x ts by B oggio, e t al.(1973), a c o m p re h e n s iv e a n a ly s is of r e p r e s e n t a
tiv e m a te r ia l w a s p r e s e n te d . T h e a u th o rs o b s e rv e d th a t h ig h ly s ty liz e d
c h a r a c t e r s and s itu a tio n s to ta lly devoid of an y d im e n sio n of r e a lity
e s ta b lis h a c c e p ta b le n o r m s an d p a tte r n s in the s tu d e n t's p e rc e p tio n
of h im s e lf, fa m ily , sc h o o l, re lig io n , c o n s titu te d a u th o rity , and the
n atio n . " T h e s e id e a s co n d itio n h im to a p a s s iv e and a d a p tiv e s u b je c t
to s o c ie ty as is " (Boggio, e t a l., 1973:128). E x a m p le s of th e co n ten t
a n a ly z e d a r e illu s tr a tiv e of th e n o rm a tiv e s ta n d a rd s of th e s e te x ts .
"T h e bad so n w ill have a s h o r t life in th is w o rld an d a n e te r n a l p u n is h
m en t in th e o th e r w o rld " (Boggio, e t al. , 1973:17) is r e p r e s e n ta tiv e
of th e v alu e s y s te m and the b e h a v io r r e q u ir e d in a th ird g ra d e r e a d e r .
A h ig h ly m o ra liz in g and d o g m a tic a ttitu d e is p r e s e n t in m o s t te x ts
re v ie w e d .
Id e a liz a tio n of th e m o th e r c o u n try w a s e x p r e s s e d in a s e r i e s
of a b s tr a c tio n s th a t did not allow a n a ly s is of P e r u v ia n r e a l i ty a s
I
illu s tr a te d b y a f i r s t g ra d e p o e m . S ocial, c u ltu ra l, an d p o litic a l
d e te r m in is m w e re e s ta b lis h e d on th e b a s is of r a c e .
T h e re is no la n d in th e w o rld a s r ic h a s m y lan d ;
T h e re is no b e tte r la n d u n d er th e sk y . . .
T he c o a s t d w e lle r is happy, h o n e st, w e lc o m in g and
u n c o m p lic a te d . . . th e In d ian is sa d and m is tr u s tf u l, he is
not in te r e s te d in o v e rc o m in g h is co n d itio n and liv e s p o o rly
f r o m h is h a r v e s t and h is c a ttle . . . . T h e "c h u n c h o s"
72
[d e ro g a to ry t e r m r e f e r r i n g to in h a b ita n ts of the A m a z o n a r e a ]
live in the f o r e s t re g io n s and f o r m t r i b e s th a t a r e d i s s e m i
n a te d th ro u g h a r e a s th a t c iv iliz a tio n h a s not r e a c h e d yet.
(Boggio, e t al. , 1973:56, 61)
Such d e s c rip tio n s w e re not only r a c ia lly b ia s e d but a lso ju s tifie d the
c o n d itio n s of in d ig en o u s p eo p le. R elig io u s p r in c ip le s w e r e ad v an ced ,
su c h a s : "G od w ill r e w a r d m e if I a m good, and He w ill p u n ish m e if I
a m bad. n A c c e p ta n c e of o n e 's fate w a s r e p e a te d ly ad v a n c e d in the
te x ts a n a ly z ed : "W e m u s t a c c e p t w ith r e s ig n a tio n the fate th a t a w a its
u s " (Boggio, e t al. , 1973:73, 96).
The co n ten t of e d u c a tio n a s e v id e n c e d b y th e s e q u o tatio n s
in d ic a te d a d e fin ite id e o lo g ic a l co n tex t. B oggio, e t al. , co n clu d ed
t h e ir s tu d y by in d ic a tin g th at:
It is im p o rta n t to note how th is type of id e o lo g ic a l t r a n s
m is s io n b e c o m e s a d e fo rm in g a g e n t in th e e d u c a tio n of
c h ild re n . . . . In the sc h o o l te x ts a n a ly z e d we h a v e n 't found
a u th e n tic l i t e r a r y p ie c e s , but found b ad l i t e r a r y c o m p o sitio n s
in w hich the fo llo w in g e le m e n ts a r e c o m b in ed : r a c i a l d i s
c rim in a tio n , m a s k in g of r e a lity , h y p o c ris y , s a d is m , r e s i g n a
tio n , b la c k h u m o r, f a ta lis m , h a b its of the w e a lth y , r e p r e s
sio n , lie s , a d u la tio n , f e a r , r e p r e s s e d childhood, c o n d e m n a
tio n of re b e llio n , in fa c t . . . a ll . . . (Boggio, e t al. , 1973:128,
159)
A lthough it w a s a d m itte d by the a u th o rs th a t it co u ld be a s s u m e d th a t
te x tb o o k s w e r e the p r in c ip a l a g e n ts of id eo lo g y tr a n s m is s io n , th e ir
c o n te n ts w e re " s ta n d a r d iz e d , s y s te m iz e d , and c o n d e n se d " and th e y
fa c ilita te d a n a ly s is (Boggio, e t al. , 1973:159). A r i s t a (1973:89) c o n
te n d e d th a t c u r r ic u lu m s in c e th e a r r i v a l of the S p a n ia rd s h a d s e r v e d
tw o p u r p o s e s : (a) to m a s k the r e a l s itu a tio n of th e m a jo r ity of
P e r u v ia n s , and (b) to o rie n t th e c o n sc ie n c e of P e r u v ia n s to w a rd th e ir !
own ex p lo ita tio n . n T he v alu e o rie n ta tio n and b e h a v io r p r e s c r ib e d in
th e s e te x ts p o in t to an id eo lo g y of s u b m is s io n , a c c e p ta n c e , and r e p r e s
sio n , w h ich did n o t allow c r itic a l, e x p e rim e n ta l, o r in d iv id u al
e x p r e s s io n . The goal of su c h c u r r ic u lu m w as to t r a i n stu d e n ts to c o n
f o r m to the e s ta b lis h e d o r d e r .
T he c u r r ic u lu m p ro p o s e d b y th e e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m of 1972
w as not devoid of ideology; a s A r i s t a (1973) co n ten d ed , no c u r r ic u lu m
is p o litic a lly n e u tra l. T he id eo lo g y of the c u r r ic u lu m w a s e x p lic itly
d iffe re n t; in fa c t, th e d e fin itio n of c u r r ic u lu m w hich w a s tra d itio n a lly
"a s e r i e s of c o u r s e s '1 h a s ch an g ed to:
. . . a g ro u p of e x p e r ie n c e s th a t the stu d e n t h a s th ro u g h a
s e r i e s of p r e s c r i b e d a c tiv itie s by the sc h o o l and c o m m u n ity ,
in o r d e r to d ev elo p a d e q u a te ly in a f r e e and c r e a tiv e f o rm , in
o r d e r to c o n trib u te to the s o c ia l, e c o n o m ic an d c u ltu ra l
d e v e lo p m e n t of th e n atio n . (A ris ta , 1973:246)
C le a rly , th is d e fin itio n im p lie d e d u c a tio n fo r a p u rp o s e beyond in d iv id
u al d e v e lo p m e n t and s e lf - r e a liz a tio n ; it m ad e in d iv id u al d e v elo p m e n t j
an in s tr u m e n t to w a rd s o c ia l d e v e lo p m e n t. B e s id e s being an in s t r u -
I
m e n ta tio n fo r d ev e lo p m e n t, e d u c a tio n n eed ed to r e e v a lu a te the
in d iv id u a l in r e la tio n to h im s e lf an d the to ta l g ro u p . The new c u r r i c u
lu m a tte m p te d to f a c ilita te n a tio n a l d e v e lo p m e n t, but it w en t beyond a
s im p le m a n p o w e r d e v e lo p m e n t p r o g r a m . C u r r ic u lu m w a s c h a r a c t e r
iz e d a s in te g ra l in L aw D e c r e e 19326 (M in is te rio de E d u c ac io n , 1972).
It in v o lv ed o th e r d im e n s io n s b e s id e s co g n itiv e in fo rm a tio n . A ll
7 4 .
e d u c a tio n a l a c tiv itie s in volved fo u r ’’lin e s of .a c tio n ” : fa c tu a l k n o w l
edge, a c tiv itie s , job tra in in g , an d c o u n selin g :
1. F a c ts w h ich in clu d e in fo rm a tio n , know ledge and
s c ie n tific in fe re n c e s an d o th e r th e o r e tic a l and p r a c tic a l
know ledge
2. A c tiv itie s w h ich include e x p e r ie n c e s , p r o c e s s e s and
e x e r c i s e s of a fo rm a tiv e n a tu re
3. Jo b tr a in in g w h ich in c lu d e s the a c q u is itio n of a ll
sy m b o lic , te c h n ic a l, a b ilitie s and s k ills r e q u ir e d fo r d if
f e r e n t p ro d u c tiv e p r o c e s s e s
4. C o u n se lin g w hich in c lu d e s m e th o d o lo g ic al, v o c a tio n a l,
and p s y c h o lo g ic a l s u p p o rt fo r the stu d e n t (M in iste rio de
E d u c a c io n , 1974b: 14)
L in e s of e d u c a tio n a l a c tio n in clu d ed lan g u ag e, m a th e m a tic s , s o c ia l
s c ie n c e , n a tu r a l s c ie n c e s , a r t e d u ca tio n , p s y c h o m o to r ed u ca tio n , job
tra in in g , and re lig io u s e d u c atio n . By d efin itio n :
L in e s of e d u c a tio n a l a c tio n a r e a g ro u p of c o m p a tib le
e x p e r ie n c e s and c o n te n ts w h ic h p e r m it th e stu d en t to d ev elo p
a b ilitie s , s k ills , a ttitu d e s , k n ow ledge, and sp e c ific v a lu e s
w h ich p ro m o te d is c o v e ry and tr a n s f o r m a tio n of r e a lity .
(M in is te rio de E d u c a cio n , 1974b: 16)
E a c h lin e of a c tio n h ad its fo u r d im e n s io n s of fa c tu a l know ledge,
. a c tiv itie s , job tra in in g , and c o u n se lin g , w ith v a ry in g e m p h a s is on
e a c h a c c o rd in g to th e n a tu re of th e co n ten t. T he m u ltip le d im e n sio n s
in e a c h d isc ip lin e a tte m p te d to a tta in an in te g r a l c u r r i c u l a r a p p ro a c h
in a m o re o rg a n ic r e la tio n s h ip to re a lity , th u s c r e a tin g th e s c h o o l-
c o m m u n ity r e la tio n s h ip w hich did not p r e v io u s ly e x ist. The im m e d i
ate r e a l i ty of the s tu d e n ts w a s th e fo u n d atio n of the c u r r ic u lu m and
c u r r i c u l a r d e c is io n -m a k in g w as d e c e n tr a liz e d . T he M in is try of
E d u c a tio n d e v e lo p e d the n o rm s , the b a s ic s tr u c tu r e , the e v a lu a tio n
75.
m e c h a n is m s , and the t e a c h e r ’s m a n u a ls and te x tb o o k s; and im p le
m e n te d ch an g e s a c c o rd in g to th e r e s u l t s of the e v a lu a tio n s. The
re g io n a l le v e l c o o rd in a te d c u r r i c u l a r a c tiv itie s and g a th e re d d a ta; the
zo n es a s s i s te d the n u c le a r sc h o o ls in the in te r p r e ta tio n and a p p lic a
tio n of th e c u r ric u lu m . T he n u c le a r le v e l c o o rd in a te d r e s e a r c h to
d e te r m in e th e s itu a tio n of th e a r e a , e n c o u ra g e d c o m m u n ity p a r t ic ip a
tion, a s s i s t e d in the p r e p a r a tio n of c u r r i c u l a r u n its, and p e r f o r m e d
e v a lu a tio n and fo llo w -u p a c tiv itie s . T he e d u c a tio n a l c e n te r ap p lied
c u r r i c u l a r m a te r ia l a c c o rd in g to the n e e d s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the
stu d e n ts (M in iste rio de E d u c a c io n , 1974b: 112-113). T he c u r r i c u l a r
guide fo r te a c h e r s in clu d ed th e o b je c tiv e s of the g r a d e s a c c o rd in g to
the lin e s of e d u c a tio n a l a c tio n , but th e s p e c ific a c tiv itie s to in s t r u -
m e n ta liz e th e le a r n in g p r o c e s s w e re ’’s u g g e s te d " in th e f o r m of
e x a m p le s ; th e te a c h e r m u s t d e te rm in e w hat a c tiv itie s w ould ach ie v e
th e o b je c tiv e s s p e c ifie d u sin g the im m e d ia te s o c ia l, e c o n o m ic ,
i
g e o g ra p h ic , and c u ltu ra l r e a lity . j
A c c o rd in g to the C u r r ic u lu m de E d u c a c io n B a s ic a R e g u la r ,
I
l e r C iclo (M in iste rio de E d u c a cio n , 1974b), the o u tsta n d in g c h a r a c t e r
is tic of the e d u c a tio n a l a c tio n w a s the a c c e p ta n c e an d use of in d ig en o u s
la n g u a g e s . S p an ish w a s u s e d a s a se c o n d lan g u ag e w h en the m o th e r
lan g u ag e w as d iffe re n t.
L a n g u ag e in P e r u h as s e r v e d as an in s tr u m e n t of a lie n a
tio n and a s a re in fo r c e m e n t of a n u n ju st s o c ia l s tr a tific a tio n .
T h is p h en o m en o n h a s b e e n c o n s ta n tly r e fle c te d in the sch o o l,
76
b e c a u s e it h a s p r e v e n te d c r itic a l th ought and in d iv id u al
e x p r e s s io n , and h a s im p o se d n o r m s th a t a s s u r e d the s u b
s is te n c e of the d o m in an t c u ltu re . (M in is te rio de E d u c acio n ,
1974b:234)
In 1975, Q u ech u a, the d o m in an t in d ig en o u s lan g u ag e of the A n d es, w as
d e c la r e d P e r u 's se c o n d o fficial lan g u ag e w hich w ould have a p ro fo u n d
e ffec t on the e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m .
A r t e d u c a tio n e m p h a s iz e d th e p r o c e s s , th e e x p e rie n c e , and
the p e r s o n a l e x p r e s s io n , r a t h e r th a n th e fin a l p ro d u c t; and a tte m p te d
to d e v elo p s e n s itiv ity to a r t , p a r t ic u la r l y a p p re c ia tio n fo r P e r u v ia n
a r t along w ith a p p re c ia tio n of n o n - P e r u v ia n a r t e x p r e s s io n . In the
p a s t, a r t e d u c a tio n had b e e n f o r m a l and h ad c o n c e n tra te d on E u ro p e a n
a r t (M in is te rio de E d u c a c io n , 1974b:28-29).
M a th e m a tic s e m p h a s iz e d the u se of s e n s o r , m o to r, p e r c e p
tiv e , lo g ic a l, n u m e r ic a l, and s p e c ia l a c tiv itie s in o r d e r to in te rn a liz e
and c o o rd in a te m a th e m a tic a l p r in c ip le s (M in is te rio de E d u cacio n ,
1974b:43).
A ctiv e p a r tic ip a tio n an d e x p e rie n c e w e re e m p h a s iz e d in the
s o c ia l s c ie n c e s (M in is te rio de E d u c a c io n , 1974b:47), and n a tu ra l
s c ie n c e s w e re fo r the f i r s t tim e in clu d ed in th e e a r l y g r a d e s (M in is
t e r i o de E d u c a c io n , 1973a:7).
W ork w as c o n s id e re d to be:
. . . th e e x e r c is e of c r e a tiv e c a p a c ity and s e lf r e a liz a tio n
in the p ro d u c tio n of goods and s e r v i c e s fo r the co m m o n good,
and not a s " m a n p o w e r" to be u se d fo r an y p u r p o s e s fo r the
s im p le p ro v is io n of "h u m an r e s o u r c e s . " (M in is te rio de
77
E d u c a c io n , 1973a:56)
L a b o r tra in in g w ith in th e to ta l c u r r ic u lu m p r e p a r e d the s t u
dent, s c ie n tific a lly and te c h n o lo g ic a lly , fo r s e m i- s k ille d w o rk . T he
f i r s t cy cle m o tiv a te d and s tim u la te d th e stu d e n t to w a rd p o s itiv e w o rk
a ttitu d e and h a b its. T he se c o n d cy cle p ro v id e d fo r a b ilitie s and s k ills
w h ic h w ould allow a ch o ice of v o c a tio n fo r the n ex t c y c le . T he th ir d
cy cle o ffe re d s e m i- s k ille d o c c u p a tio n s: a g r ic u ltu r e , a n im a l h u s
b a n d ry , and s m a ll in d u s tr ie s (d re s s m a k in g , le a th e r w o rk , e le c tr ic a l
w o rk , an d c o n s tru c tio n , fo r e x a m p le ). T he s e le c tio n o ffe re d and the
ch o ice of the stu d en t d ep en d ed upon m a n p o w e r r e q u ir e m e n ts , th e s t u
d e n t’s a p titu d e s, and e x is tin g r e s o u r c e s .
The c o n te n ts d e s c r ib e d could not be o p e ra tio n a liz e d in a
tra d itio n a l r e c ita tio n m eth o d , in w h ich the te a c h e r d ic ta te d the c o n ten t
to be m e m o r iz e d by the s tu d e n ts . T h is m eth o d o lo g y m ig h t only be
a p p lic a b le to the know ledge of f a c ts but w ould be to ta lly d y sfu n c tio n al
in th e lin e s of a c tiv itie s , job tra in in g , and co u n selin g . T he "new
P e r u v ia n m a n " m o d e le d by the re v o lu tio n m u s t be " c r itic a l, c r e a tiv e ,
c o o p e ra tiv e , and c o m m itte d " (M in is te rio de E d u c a c io n , 1974b:106-
107). T he new m eth o d o lo g y w a s b a s e d on a new e d u c a tio n a l p h ilo so p h y
and new e d u c a tio n a l r e s e a r c h . P r in c ip le s th a t guided th e new m e th o d
ology e m p h a s iz e d the u se of th e c h ild ’s own c r e a tiv ity , in itia tiv e , an d
r e s o u r c e s , e n c o u ra g in g in te rc o m m u n ic a tio n and in te ra c tio n to d ev elo p
in a s p ir i t of s o lid a r ity and c o o p e ra tio n . E x p e rim e n ta l a c tiv itie s w e re
78.
p r e s c r i b e d in a lm o s t a ll a r e a s of the c u r r ic u lu m to e s ta b lis h the
re la tio n s h ip b etw e e n a b s tr a c t c o n ce p ts and r e a l life.
L e v e l of A p p lic a tio n of B a sic
R e g u la r E d u c a tio n
By 1974, f i r s t g ra d e in th e r e f o r m e d s y s te m had b e e n
e x p an d ed to the 277 n u c le a r sc h o o ls e s ta b lis h e d in 1973; s e c o n d and
th ir d g ra d e of the r e f o r m e d s y s te m w e re ex p an d ed to the 137 n u c le a r
sc h o o ls e s ta b lis h e d in 1972. A ll sc h o o ls in the c o u n try w h ich w e re
not im p le m e n tin g the r e f o r m w e re ap p ly in g c u r r ic u lu m d e sig n e d to
f a c ilita te tr a n s itio n to th e new s y s te m . A d d itio n ally , te a c h e r in -
s e r v ic e tra in in g had b e e n in itia te d in 1972.
B a s ic L a b o r E d u c a tio n
B a s ic la b o r e d u c a tio n h a s b e e n d ev elo p ed to m e e t th e e d u c a
tio n a l n e e d s of the p o p u latio n fifte e n y e a r s of age o r o ld e r who have
not a tte n d e d sch o o l in the p a s t. B a s ic la b o r e d u c a tio n is a p a r a lle l
and e q u iv a le n t s y s te m to b a s ic r e g u la r ed u catio n .
E d u c a tio n a l P r o b le m s R e la te d
to B a s ic L a b o r E d u c a tio n
In th e p a s t, b a s ic la b o r e d u c a tio n h a s e x is te d u n d er the n a m e
of a d u lt e d u c a tio n . A v a r ie ty of p r o g r a m s have been c a lle d ad u lt
e d u catio n . A c a d e m ic p r o g r a m s o ffe re d in the ev en in g s c h o o ls fo r
a d u lts, lit e r a c y c a m p a ig n s , and s h o r t - t e r m m a n p o w e r tra in in g
c o u r s e s h av e b een c o n s id e re d ad u lt e d u catio n . D u rin g th e d e c ad e of
th e 1960s, an ev o lu tio n h a s o c c u r r e d fro m :
. . . a s t r i c t l y c u ltu ra l o b je ctiv e to a s o c io -e c o n o m ic o b je c
tiv e . In h a rm o n y w ith th is ten d en cy , a d u lt e d u c a tio n h a s
a tte m p te d to c o n trib u te to d e v elo p m en t, f i r s t by e r r a d ic a tin g
illite r a c y , th e n by p r e p a r in g fo r w o rk and d e v e lo p m e n t in
g e n e ra l, an d a s s o c ia tin g its e lf w ith c o m m u n ity d e v e lo p m e n t
p r o g r a m s . (L a R e s p u e s ta d el G o b iern o P e r u a n a , 1972:61)
In th is stu d y , the th r e e e x p r e s s io n s of a d u lt e d u c a tio n --e v e n in g p r o
g r a m s , l i t e r a c y c a m p a ig n s , and s h o r t - t e r m m a n p o w e r p r o g r a m s - -
w ill be t r e a te d s e p a ra te ly .
A dult e d u c a tio n w a s o ffe re d p r im a r i l y in u rb a n c e n te r s an d
c o n s titu te d th ir te e n y e a r s of stu d y , se v e n y e a r s of p r i m a r y sc h o o l
and s ix y e a r s of s e c o n d a ry sc h o o l in ev en in g o r night s c h o o ls . A dult
e d u c a tio n w a s o rg a n iz e d and a d m in is te r e d e x a c tly a s c h ild r e n 's
e d u c a tio n . C u r ric u lu m , m e th o d s, and te x ts u se d in a d u lt e d u c a tio n
w e r e th o s e d e sig n e d fo r the c h ild r e n 's p r o g r a m . T he c o n te n t and
m e th o d o lo g ic a l s h o rtc o m in g s of p r i m a r y and s e c o n d a ry e d u c a tio n
d e ta ile d in the p re v io u s s e c tio n a lso apply. In ad d itio n , the a d u lt's
e x p e rie n c e w as n o t ta k e n into c o n s id e ra tio n and the p e r s o n w as
e x p e c te d to e n te r f i r s t g ra d e an d fin ish th ir te e n g r a d e s . H y p o th e ti
c a lly , a p e r s o n e n te rin g f i r s t g ra d e at the age of th ir ty w ould no t
g ra d u a te f r o m s e c o n d a ry sc h o o l until th e age of f o r ty - th r e e ; in
e v en in g o r night s c h o o ls few s tu d e n ts c o m p le te d th is c y c le . The p r o
g r a m did not o ffer m a n p o w e r tr a in in g but w a s s tr i c t l y a c a d e m ic .
80
E n ro llm e n t o r c o m p le tio n of th is p r o g r a m did not c o n stitu te job
a d v a n c e m e n t p o te n tia l. D o c tr in a r y and o p e ra tio n a l s h o rtc o m in g s of
adult e d u c a tio n p r o g r a m s in L a tin A m e r ic a w e r e o u tlin ed by the
V e n e z u e la n D ir e c to r of A dult E d u c a tio n , F e lix A d a m (1969:84):
. . . (a) a d u lt e d u c a tio n is c o m p le m e n ta r y to p r i m a r y and
s e c o n d a ry e d u c a tio n and r e m e d ia te s t h e ir fa u lts , (b) ad u lt
e d u c a tio n is a lu x u ry of little im p o rta n c e , (c) r e a l ed u c atio n
is fo r y o u th s, a s a d u lts can n o t le a r n , and (d) ad u lt e d u c a
tio n is sy n o n y m o u s w ith l i t e r a c y p r o g r a m s o r w ith lim ite d
job tra in in g . T h e re have a ls o b e e n s h o rtc o m in g s in the
im p le m e n ta tio n : (a) th e e x iste n c e of u n in te g ra te d s y s te m s
(e m p h a sis on m e r e l i t e r a c y p r o g r a m s , d is p e r s e d p r o g r a m s ,
e tc . ), (b) in su ffic ie n t a llo c a tio n of fu n d s, (c) not tak in g
e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t a s a g e n e r a l o b je c tiv e and p r o g r a m a tic
n o rm , and (d) in te rn a l d e fic ie n c ie s : la c k of p ro fe s s io n a l
a d u lt e d u c a to rs , of ongoing p r o fe s s io n a l d ev e lo p m e n t, of
s u p e rv is io n , e tc.
T ra d itio n a lly , l i t e r a c y c a m p a ig n s have b e e n is o la te d and
b a d ly c o o rd in a te d e ffo rts to te a c h re a d in g and w ritin g to a d u lts.
T he e x p e rie n c e in P e r u , as in o th e r u n d e rd e v e lo p e d
c o u n trie s , show ed th a t alth o u g h th is a c tio n a c h ie v e d its
g o a ls, it w as s t e r i l e in lo n g -ra n g e t e r m s . T he fa ilu re of
th is e d u c a tio n a l a c tiv ity is c a u s e d by, a m o n g o th e r th in g s,
the la c k of r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e le a r n in g p r o c e s s and th e j
p e r s o n a l n e e d s and s o c ia l s itu a tio n of th e l e a r n e r s . (S a la z a r ,
Bondy, 19 74c: 46)
I
The s a m e co n ten t, m e th o d s, and te x ts d ev elo p ed in L im a fo r e le m e n - ■
t a r y sc h o o l c h ild re n w e re u se d to te a c h re a d in g and w ritin g to a d u lts,
p r im a r i l y in th e A ndean r u r a l re g io n s , w ho w e r e not g e n e ra lly
S p an ish sp e a k in g . L i te r a c y its e lf did not e ffe c t s ig n ific a n t q u a lita tiv e
c h a n g e s in th e liv e s of the stu d e n ts b e c a u s e th e i r s o c ia l co n d itio n did
not n e c e s s a r i l y change. P ro d u c tiv ity did not n e c e s s a r i l y in c r e a s e ,
81
u n le ss a c c o m p a n ie d by c u ltu ra l, te c h n ic a l, and s c ie n tific tra in in g .
M an p o w er tra in in g sh o u ld c o n s titu te an in itia l s te p in a la r g e p r o c e s s
of ad u lt e d u c a tio n (A dam , 1969:88).
The lim ite d o b je ctiv e of te a c h in g how to r e a d and w r ite w as
th u s ex p an d ed b y in te g ra tin g m a n p o w e r tra in in g w ith th e u ltim a te
o b jec tiv e of s o c io -e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t. F u n d a m e n ta l ed u c atio n
r e la te d l i t e r a c y p r o g r a m s to d e v e lo p m e n t p r o g r a m s . C u n n in g h am
(1969:12), u sin g o b s e rv a tio n s f r o m T a n z a n ia , s ta te d :
F o r m an y c o u n trie s in th e d e v elo p in g w o rld , th e r e f o r e ,
ad u lt e d u c a tio n h a s m e a n t i l l i t e r a c y c a m p a ig n s an d h e a lth ,
baby, and ch ild c a r e and n u tritio n c a m p a ig n s. In o r d e r to
s u p p o rt th e s e " d e v e lo p m e n t” p r o g r a m s , a la r g e s u p e r s t r u c
tu r e of h e a d q u a r te r s and fie ld s ta ff h a s b e e n b u ilt up, and a
m y stiq u e about c o m m u n ity d e v e lo p m e n t c r e a te d w h ich h a s
n e v e r, u n fo rtu n a te ly , h ad to s u b m it to a th o ro u g h a n a ly s is of
an y kind.
S a la z a r B ondy (1974c:46) c o n s id e re d the lite r a c y /d e v e lo p -
m e n t re la tio n s h ip a s p o s itiv e , but he p e r c e iv e d a r i s k in u sin g li t e r a c y
p r o g r a m s a s in s tr u m e n ts of m a n p o w e r tra in in g . (
I
I
G o als and O b je c tiv e s of B a s ic L a b o r
E d u c a tio n A c c o rd in g to the
New E d u c a tio n Law
T he goal of b a s ic la b o r e d u c a tio n h a s b ee n s ta te d as follow s:
B a sic la b o r e d u c a tio n is a m o d a lity of th e s y s te m d e sig n e d
fo r to ta l d e v e lo p m e n t and m a n p o w e r tra in in g in fu n c tio n a l
w o rk a r e a s , fo r a d o le s c e n ts and a d u lts w ho did n o t p u rs u e
b a s ic r e g u la r e d u c a tio n , in o r d e r to p ro m o te th e ir a c tiv e
p a r tic ip a tio n in th e s o c ia l p r o c e s s . (M in is te rio de E d u c a
cion, 1972:42)
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O bjectives of basic labor education were:
1. To s y s te m a tic a lly e r r a d ic a te e x is tin g s ta te s of i l l i t
e r a c y
2 . To o ffer e d u c a tio n a l o p p o rtu n itie s to a d o le s c e n ts and
a d u lts, e s p e c ia lly to w o r k e r s , in o r d e r fo r th e m to ad v an ce
th e ir e d u c a tio n a l le v e l an d a c q u ire a n a d e q u a te s c ie n tif ic /
h u m a n is tic fo rm a tio n , d ir e c te d to w a rd s e lf e d u c a tio n and
p e r m a n e n t e d u c a tio n
3. To c u ltiv a te the c r i ti c a l c o n sc ie n c e of the stu d e n t in
o r d e r fo r h im to u n d e rsta n d P e r u v ia n r e a lity and be in a
co n d itio n to p a r tic ip a te in a re s p o n s ib le an d c r e a tiv e m a n n e r
in th e s t r u c t u r a l tr a n s f o r m a tio n and b e tte r m e n t of s o c ie ty ,
and to c o n trib u te to the s o v e re ig n ty , s a fe ty , and s e c u r ity of
th e n atio n
4. To p r e p a r e s tu d e n ts fo r w o rk , in fu n ctio n of c o n c re te
p r o je c ts of s o c io -e c o n o m ic im p a c t and in d e te r m in e d m a n
p o w e r a r e a s e m p h a s iz in g the c r e a tiv e c o n trib u tio n of th e s t u
d en ts
5. To s tim u la te in the s tu d e n t a s e n s e of fa m ily life, a
s p ir i t of s o lid a r ity and s o c ia l c o o p e ra tio n , an d the c a p a c ity
fo r th e f r e e r e a liz a tio n of v ita l re lig io u s , a e s th e tic , e th ic a l
v a lu e s (M in is te rio de E d u c a c io n , 1972:43)
S tru c tu ra l, C ontent, and M eth o d o lo g ical
C h an g e s of B a sic L a b o r E d u c a tio n
B a s ic la b o r e d u c a tio n w as d e sig n e d fo r s tu d e n ts fifte e n y e a r s
of age o r o ld e r, alth o u g h w o rk in g c h ild re n m a y a tte n d th e s e c o u r s e s j
a f te r w o rk in g h o u rs . U nlike th e old a d u lt e d u c a tio n s y s te m , s tu d e n ts ^
t
(
w e r e no t r e q u ir e d to e n te r th e f i r s t g ra d e ; r a th e r , d ia g n o stic t e s t s
w e re u s e d to d e te r m in e th e ir a c a d e m ic le v e ls . B a sic la b o r e d u c a tio n
w as d iv id ed into th r e e c y c le s w h ich to ta lle d nine g ra d e s . In the
fu tu re , it is e x p e c te d th a t e a c h g ra d e w ill ta k e one s e m e s t e r , th u s
d e c r e a s in g th e tq ta l n u m b e r of y e a r s to fo u r and o n e -h a lf.
C u r r ic u la r e m p h a s is w as not a c q u is itio n of f a c ts but r a t h e r
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an a ttitu d e f o rm a tio n th ro u g h e x p e r ie n c e s . T h is a ttitu d e f o rm a tio n
w a s in tim a te ly r e la te d to the s tu d e n t’s e m p lo y m e n t o r u n e m p lo y m e n t
s itu a tio n in an a tte m p t to g e n e ra te an a n a ly s is of h is e d u c a tio n a l
s itu a tio n . T he p o litic a l fu n c tio n of e d u c a tio n and th e s o c io -e c o n o m ic ,
p o litic a l, an d c u ltu ra l p r o b le m s of the c o m m u n ity w e re e m p h a s iz e d .
In a d d itio n to the lin e s of e d u c a tio n a l a c tio n a s o u tlin ed fo r b a s ic
r e g u la r ed u c a tio n , b a s ic la b o r e d u c a tio n h ad an a d d itio n a l d im e n sio n :
c o m m u n ity d e v e lo p m e n t in w hich the stu d e n t d e m o n s tr a te d h is c o m
m itm e n t to the co m m u n ity ; ad d itio n ally , the c u r r ic u lu m w as a d ju ste d
to re g io n a l c h a r a c t e r is t i c s an d n e e d s, tak in g the s tu d e n t’s i n t e r e s t a s
a point of d e p a r tu r e (M in is te rio de E d u c a c io n , 1972:43).
A c u r r i c u l a r w o rk in g d o c u m e n t fo r tr a n s itio n a l p r o g r a m s
fo r s e c o n d to six th g ra d e s of b a s ic la b o r ed u c a tio n p ro v id e d an
e x a m p le of th e o b je c tiv e s d efin ed fo r th is le v e l in s o c ia l s c ie n c e , as
follow s:
A t the end of the y e a r , th e stu d e n t w ill be a b le to: (a)
ex p lain , in a n e le m e n ta r y m a n n e r, how w o rk p ro d u c e s s o c ia l
w e a lth and w hich w o rk re la tio n s h ip s e x is t in in d u s tr ia l
p ro d u c tio n ; (b) e x p la in th e w o rk re la tio n s h ip s w h ich a r e
e s ta b lis h e d in in d u s tr ia l p ro d u c tio n ; (c) e x p la in the ro le of
w o rk in s tr u m e n ts in th e p r o c e s s of tr a n s f o r m a tio n of ra w
m a t e r ia ls ; and (d) u sin g re g io n a l e x a m p le s , e x p la in the
w o rk re la tio n s h ip s in a s m a ll c r a f ts m a n s h ip p ro d u c tio n ,
in d ic a tin g te c h n ic a l d iv isio n of w o rk , c o n tro l of p ro d u c tiv ity ,
e ffe c ts of o w n e rsh ip and la c k of o w n e rsh ip on p ro d u c tio n , and
s o c ia l o w n e rsh ip . (M in is te rio de E d u c acio n , 1974a:3-4)
A lthough c u r r i c u l a r c o n te n ts v a r ie d f r o m th o se of b a s ic
r e g u la r e d u c atio n , g r a d u a te s f r o m e ith e r m o d a lity could e n te r the
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first cycle of higher education.
B a s ic la b o r e d u c a tio n w as c a r r i e d on in ev en in g and high
s c h o o ls , but the u ltim a te go al w as to o ffer it p r im a r i l y in a non-
f o r m a l m a n n e r. E x p e rim e n ta tio n of n o n - fo r m a l p r o g r a m s w as
c a r r i e d on in e ig h te e n n u c le a r sc h o o ls. P r o g r a m m e d s e lf - in s tr u c tio n
w a s u sed . S tudents in th e s e p r o g r a m s w e r e o rg a n iz e d in " i n t e r -
le a r n in g n g ro u p s w hich w e r e th e r e s p o n s ib ility of a c o o rd in a to r.
T h e se p r o je c ts c o n ta in e d one g e n e r a l c o o rd in a to r, th re e c o m m u n ity
o r g a n iz e r s , and te n itin e r a n t c o o r d in a to rs . E a c h c o o rd in a to r w as
r e s p o n s ib le fo r one h u n d re d s tu d e n ts . L an g u ag e, m a th e m a tic s ,
s o c ia l s c ie n c e s , and n a tu r a l s c ie n c e s w e r e o ffe re d v ia p r o g ra m m e d
s e lf - in s tr u c tio n a l m a t e r ia ls . A rt e d u c a tio n , p h y s ic a l e d u catio n ,
s p o r ts , and c o m m u n ity d e v e lo p m e n t w e re c a r r i e d on in g ro u p s.
In r e a lity , th e s e g ro u p s g u a ra n te e the e x e r c i s e of c o m
m u n ity p a rtic ip a tio n ; th e y m u s t m e e t, d is c u s s , an d u n d e r
ta k e c o m m u n ity p r o je c ts ; w ithout th e s e g ro u p s th is m o d a lity
w ould be s im p ly c o rre s p o n d e n c e c o u r s e s . (E rn e s to R aez,
p e r s o n a l c o m m u n ic a tio n , S e p te m b e r 10, 1974)
A d d itio n ally , m a n p o w e r tr a in in g w a s o rg a n iz e d by c o m
m u n ity d e v e lo p e rs w ho did a c o m m u n ity n e e d s a n a ly s is and d ev elo p ed
p r o je c ts of s o c io -e c o n o m ic im p a c t fo r stu d e n t p a rtic ip a tio n . In d u s try
p a r tic ip a te d in th is a c tiv ity by p ro v id in g p e rs o n n e l o r tra in in g
f a c ilitie s . T he p r o g r a m w as u s u a lly r e la te d to the in d iv id u a l's e x i s t
in g o r p o te n tia l e m p lo y m e n t. A ll in d u s tr ia l e n t e r p r i s e s w e re
r e q u ir e d to p a r tic ip a te in the e d u c a tio n of the w o r k e r s and th e ir
f a m ilie s .
T he n eed to o ffer a m o re in te g ra te d a p p ro a c h to l i t e r a c y
c a m p a ig n s h a s b e e n a tte n d e d to in th e r e f o r m e d s y s te m b y p la c in g
l i t e r a c y e ffo rts a s th e f i r s t p r e ro g a tiv e of b a s ic la b o r e d u catio n . T he
p s y c h o s o c ia l m eth o d of l i t e r a c y tra in in g , d e v elo p ed b y P a u lo F r e i r e
and e ffe c tiv e ly ap p lie d in B r a z il, C uba, and C hile, c o n s titu te s the
b a s is fo r l i t e r a c y e ffo rts in P e r u .
T he e s s e n tia l p a r t of th e m e th o d is th e id e a th a t l i t e r a c y
e ffo rts m u s t be in s c r ib e d in a p ro fo u n d and d e c is iv e ’’p r is e
de c o n s c ie n c e " of th e e x is te n tia l s itu a tio n of the individual.
L i te r a c y is m ad e p o s s ib le by aw ak en in g th e r a tio n a l c o n
s c ie n c e of e a c h in d iv id u a l and, a t th e s a m e tim e , in te n sify in g
th e c r i ti c a l c h a r a c t e r of th is c o n sc ie n c e w h ich le a d s to
a s s u m in g a p o s itio n about th e w o rld . L i te r a c y is th u s tie d to
c o n s c ie n tiz a tio n and th e y both f o r m an in d iso lu b le unity.
(S a la z a r Bondy, 1974c:46)
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of " in te g ra l l ite r a c y " in clu d e in s tr u c tio n in re a d in g
and w ritin g , in clu d in g fo llo w -u p and e x te n s io n of s k ills w h en th e
in itia l a b ilitie s hav e b e e n d ev elo p ed , c r i ti c a l p r is e de c o n s c ie n c e of
th e s tu d e n t’s r e a lity , in te g ra tio n of d ev e lo p m e n t p r o je c ts v ia m a n
p o w e r p r o g r a m s , c o n s id e ra tio n of th e s tu d e n t’s e x p e r ie n c e s and
n a tu r a l r e s o u r c e s , and, fin a lly , u se of th e s tu d e n t’s d o m in an t
la n g u a g e in th e p r o c e s s of l i t e r a c y tra in in g (S a la z a r Bondy, 1974c:50).
L e v e l of A p p lic a tio n of B a sic
L a b o r E d u c a tio n
In te g ra l l i t e r a c y p r o g r a m s w e r e in itia te d in 1974, w ith the
f i r s t cy c le ( f ir s t an d s e c o n d g ra d e s ) im p le m e n te d n a tio n a lly . The
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se c o n d cy cle of b a s ic la b o r e d u c a tio n w as ex panded to n u c le a r sc h o o ls
in 1973. T r a n s itio n a l p r o g r a m s , in clu d in g th e fo u rth y e a r of s e c o n
d a r y sch o o l, w e re ap p lied in a ll sc h o o ls in th e c o u n try .
H ig h e r E d u c a tio n
M o st s e c o n d a ry e d u c a tio n h a s b een opened to an y stu d e n t w ho
h a s c o m p le te d b a s ic r e g u la r o r b a s ic la b o r ed u catio n , and is div id ed
into f i r s t , seco n d , and th ir d c y c le s . T he f i r s t cy cle c o r re s p o n d s to
the E s c u e la s S u p e rio re s de E d u c a c io n P r o f e s s io n a l (E S E P ), w hich
w ill g ra n t p r o fe s s io n a l b a c h e lo r d e g r e e s . The seco n d cy cle c o r r e
sp o n d s to s tu d ie s of L ic e n c ia and th e m a s t e r 's d e g re e , w ith th e th ird
c y c le c o rre s p o n d in g to th e d o c to ra l d e g re e . T h is in v e stig a tio n c o n
c e n tr a te s on an a n a ly s is of th e f i r s t cy cle of h ig h e r e d u c a tio n (E S E P ),
and b r ie f ly d e s c r ib e s th e s ta tu s of th e o th e r tw o c y c le s .
E d u c a tio n a l P r o b le m s R e la te d
to H ig h e r E d u c a tio n
The h ig h ly r e s t r i c t e d c o lo n ia l u n iv e r s itie s w e re p r i m a r i l y
d e sig n e d to t r a in c le r g y and c iv il a d m i n is tr a to r s v ia th e p r o fe s s io n s
of th eo lo g y and law ; to a l e s s e r d e g re e , m e d ic in e and the a r t s w e re
a ls o o ffe re d . T he R e p u b lic a n p e rio d w as in flu en ced by a N apoleonic
p a tte r n of h ig h e r e d u c a tio n , e m p h a s iz in g p r e p a r a tio n fo r the p r o f e s
s io n s. A t th is tim e , u n iv e r s itie s w e re o rg a n iz e d in fa c u lta d e s and
d ev elo p ed p a tte r n s th a t had not b e e n s ig n ific a n tly ch an g ed u n til 1969.
In sp ite of th e d e m o c r a tic p r in c ip le s of th e re v o lu tio n a ry e ffo rts , the
u n iv e rs ity c o n tin u ed its e litis t fu n c tio n s of e d u c a tin g and c e rtify in g
th e p o w er of th e u p p e r c la s s e s . P a u ls to n (1971c:248) in d ic a te d th a t in
the 1900s w hen the la n d o lig a rc h y s ta r t e d lo sin g its s tr e n g th due to
in d u s tria liz a tio n , e d u c a tio n b e c a m e a s u b s titu te , c o m p le m e n t, and
s u p p le m e n t fo r the u p p e r c la s s e s . "A new o lig a rc h y w as th u s e s t a b
lis h e d , b a s e d on the u n iv e r s ity d e g r e e ” (1962:14), u n til th e in flu e n c e s
of W o rld W a r I and th e R u s s ia n and M e x ic a n R ev o lu tio n s p ro m p te d the
m e s tiz o c l a s s - - w h o h ad a lr e a d y w on the rig h t to p u b lic s c h o o lin g --to
d e m a n d u n iv e r s ity r e f o r m s (P a u lsto n , 1971c:249).
T he u n iv e r s ity r e f o r m m o v e m e n t th a t e v e n tu a lly a ffe c te d a ll
L a tin A m e r ic a n u n iv e r s itie s s ta r t e d in C o rd o b a, A rg e n tin a in 1918.
T he m o v e m e n t a s p ir e d to c r e a te c o -g o v e rn m e n t (u n iv e rs ity g o v e r n
m en t by a u th o r itie s , p r o f e s s o r s , and stu d e n ts), to a tta in u n iv e rs ity
a u to n o m y f r o m g o v e rn m e n t in te rv e n tio n , and to g ra n t te n u re and
u n iv e r s ity a p p o in tm e n ts on the b a s is of a c a d e m ic a c h ie v e m e n t. It
a ls o so u g h t to p ro v id e fin a n c ia l h elp to need y stu d e n ts and to r e la te
the u n iv e r s ity to s o c io -e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t of the n a tio n s. U n iv e r
s ity of San M a rc o s stu d e n ts d e m a n d e d " u n iv e rs ity re o rg a n iz a tio n ,
a c a d e m ic fre e d o m , d is m is s a l of in c o m p e te n t p r o f e s s o r s , and stu d en t
p a rtic ip a tio n in u n iv e rs ity g o v e rn m e n t (P a u lsto n , 1971c:250), and
a f te r fo u r m o n th s of s tr ik e , o b tain e d r e f o r m s th a t w e r e to b r e a k the
m o n opoly the o lig a rc h y had on h ig h e r ed u catio n . The c r i s i s of h ig h e r
88
ed u c a tio n r e p r e s e n te d "the in a b ility of a c o n s id e ra b ly m o d ified
c o lo n ial in stitu tio n to a d a p t f u r th e r and re s p o n d to c h a n g e s a r is in g
f r o m im p o rte d id e o lo g ie s, s c ie n c e and tech n o lo g y " (P a u lsto n , 1971c:
252).
T he d e m o g ra p h ic g ro w th and th e in c r e a s e in p u b lic sc h o o lin g
have c r e a te d a s ig n ific a n t p r e s s u r e of in c r e a s e d n u m b e rs and
in c r e a s e d e x p e c ta tio n s , w h ich in tu r n h av e p ro d u c e d a n in c r e a s e in
h ig h e r e d u c a tio n in s titu tio n s , p a r t ic u la r l y te a c h e r tra in in g c o lle g e s.
In 1968, of 54, 000 a p p lic a n ts who took e n tra n c e e x a m in a tio n s in L im a ,
l e s s th a n 10 p e r c e n t w e re a d m itte d . "T he N atio n al I n te r - U n iv e r s ity
P la n n in g O ffice w a rn e d th a t by 1970 only 40, 000 of 110, 000 u n iv e rs ity
a p p lic a n ts w ill be a b le to s e c u r e a d m is s io n in any one y e a r " (P a u lsto n ,
1971c:254).
T he O rg a n iz a tio n fo r E c o n o m ic C o o p e ra tio n and D e v e lo p m e n t
(1964:76) n oted th a t " g e n e r a lly sp eak in g , none of the t e a c h e r tra in in g
c o lleg e b r a n c h e s o r s p e c ia ltie s have b ee n ex p an d ed on th e b a s is of !
f o r e c a s ts of r e q u ir e m e n t of te a c h in g p e rs o n n e l. " A d d itio n ally ,
i
e m p lo y m e n t p o s s ib ilitie s w e r e not g u a ra n te e d a t the end of the tra in in g
p e rio d and th e q u a lity of th e tra in in g e x p e rie n c e w a s q u e stio n a b le .
T e a c h in g p e r s o n n e l in r u r a l a n d /o r in h o sp ita b le a r e a s w e re s e ld o m
p r o fe s s io n a lly p r e p a r e d , an d often h ad c o m p le te d only p r i m a r y or
s e c o n d a ry e d u c a tio n (C e sp e d e s B e d re g a l, 1972:59-61). "T h e in a d e
quate s e le c tio n and p r e p a r a tio n of t e a c h e r s . . . is p a r tly r e s p o n s ib le
89
fo r th e s e r io u s q u a lita tiv e d e fe c ts of e d u c a tio n to d ay " (M in is te rio de
E d u c acio n , 1971:14). T w e n ty -o n e u n iv e r s itie s w e r e c r e a te d b etw een
1955 and 1964, in ad d itio n to the o rig in a l s e v e n s ta te u n iv e r s itie s , but
th e y h ad not b een c r e a te d fo r re g io n a l n e c e s s itie s , and c a r e e r s w e re
o ffe re d in d ep e n d en tly f r o m m a n p o w e r n e e d s. A r t and e d u c a tio n
e n r o llm e n t h a s b een p r o g r e s s iv e ly ex p an d in g sin c e 1955; e n g in e e rin g
w as ex p anding n o rm a lly ; m e d ic a l sc h o o ls w e re s ta tio n a ry ; and s c ie n c e
e n ro llm e n t w as d e clin in g . C o m p e titiv e e x a m in a tio n s h av e b e e n
r e je c tin g stu d e n ts and r e d ir e c tin g th e m to c a r e e r s w ith o u t v o c a tio n a l
g u id an ce (O rg a n iz a tio n fo r E c o n o m ic C o o p e ra tio n and D ev elo p m en t,
1964:68-69).
G e n e ra lly , an a c u te c r i s i s of la c k of r e s o u r c e s o r m is a llo c a -
tio n of r e s o u r c e s is p r e v a le n t th ro u g h o u t h ig h e r e d u catio n . Since
u n iv e r s ity e x p a n sio n h a s b e e n an in d is c r im in a te n u m e r ic a l ex p an sio n ,
w ith o u t c o n s id e ra tio n of m a n p o w e r n e e d s, u n iv e r s ity g ra d u a te s did
not find e m p lo y m e n t in th e i r a r e a s of s p e c ia liz a tio n and w e r e fo rc e d
to s e e k e m p lo y m e n t in o th e r c o u n trie s . C o m p a n ie s, on th e o th e r
hand, m u s t im p o rt h ig h le v e l e x e c u tiv e s and te c h n ic ia n s . On the
b a s is of th e s e co n d itio n s, 50 p e r c e n t of the u n iv e rs ity s tu d e n ts s e e k
th e ir tr a in in g a b ro a d (O rg a n iz a tio n fo r E c o n o m ic C o o p e ra tio n and
D e v e lo p m e n t, 1964:84-85). A c c o rd in g to f ig u r e s p ro v id e d by P a u ls to n
(1971c:254), in 1967, 37 p e r c e n t of the stu d e n ts w e re stu d y in g a b ro a d ,
c a u s in g a p r o b le m r e f e r r e d to a s th e " b r a in d ra in . "
90
G o als and O b je c tiv e s of the F i r s t C ycle
of H ig h e r E d u c a tio n (E S E P ), A c c o rd in g
to th e New E d u c a tio n Law
H ig h e r e d u c a tio n w a s d e sig n e d to s tr e n g th e n g e n e ra l e d u c a
tio n , to p ro m o te and p ro d u c e te c h n ic a l and s c ie n tific r e s e a r c h , to
t r a i n p r o f e s s io n a ls in s c ie n c e and tech n o lo g y , to p r e p a r e a d m i n i s t r a
to r s , to c o n trib u te to n a tio n a l d ev e lo p m e n t, to p a r tic ip a te in the
p r o c e s s of s tr u c t u r a l c h a n g e s, and to s e r v e th e e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m
w ith th e r e s u l t s of its r e s e a r c h (M in is te rio de E d u c ac io n , 1971:61).
1. To c o n so lid a te and e x ten d the h u m a n is tic s c ie n tific
and te c h n ic a l know ledge th a t w as a c q u ire d in the p re v io u s
le v e l, p a r t ic u la r l y in r e la tio n to n a tio n a l r e a lity , c o n tr ib
u tin g to the to ta l d e v e lo p m e n t of th e stu d e n t a s a p e r s o n
2 . To p r e p a r e s tu d e n ts fo r w o rk v ia a p ro fe s s io n a l
p r e p a r a tio n
3. To p r e p a r e s tu d e n ts fo r re s p o n s ib le fa m ily and c o m
m u n ity life, s tre n g th e n in g t h e ir c o n s c ie n tio u s n e s s fo r ac tiv e
p a r tic ip a tio n in th e p r o c e s s of s tr u c t u r a l change and p e r m a n
en t b e tte r m e n t of P e r u v ia n so c ie ty , a s w e ll a s fo r c o n tr ib
uting to the s o v e re ig n ty , s e c u rity , and d e fe n se of the n a tio n
4. To c o u n se l the stu d e n ts to a p p r e c ia te th e ir d o m in a n t
a p titu d e s and v o c a tio n s, and to a d v ise about c o rre s p o n d in g
p r o fe s s io n a l options
i
S tru c tu ra l, C o n ten t, and M eth o d - ^
o lo g ic a l C h an g e s of th e F i r s t i
C y cle of H ig h er E d u c a tio n
In th e old s y s te m , th e to ta l sc h o o l e x p e rie n c e c o n s is te d of
s ix te e n y e a r s of sc h o o lin g (one y e a r of tra n s itio n , five y e a r s of
p r im a r y , and five y e a r s of s e c o n d a ry ). E v e n a f te r the p r i m a r y o r
s e c o n d a ry cy c le , h o w e v e r, th e s tu d e n ts w e re not p r e p a r e d to e n te r
e m p lo y m e n t (D r. V ia c a b a R o cca, p e r s o n a l c o m m u n ic a tio n , A u g u st 11,
91
1974).
It s e e m s a t th is le v e l [s e c o n d a ry s c h o o ls ] th a t e d u c a tio n
h a s b e e n o rg a n iz e d m a in ly to p r e p a r e a d o le s c e n ts fo r h ig h e r
e d u c a tio n although, in p r a c tic e , only h alf of th o se le a v in g
s e c o n d a ry sc h o o l go on to h ig h e r ed u catio n . (O rg a n iz a tio n fo r
E c o n o m ic C o o p e ra tio n an d D e v e lo p m e n t, 1964:81)
In th e new s y s te m , th e f i r s t cy c le of h ig h e r e d u c a tio n w as
c o m p r is e d of s ix o r eig h t s e m e s t e r s of h u m a n is tic /te c h n ic a l p r e p a r a
tio n w hich w a s open, w ith o u t an y ty p e of e n tra n c e e x a m in a tio n , to a ll
s tu d e n ts who g ra d u a te d f r o m b a s ic r e g u la r o r b a s ic la b o r ed u catio n .
In c o m p a r is o n w ith th e old s y s te m , a stu d e n t w ould be an em p lo y a b le
m id -le v e l p r o fe s s io n a l a f te r t h ir te e n y e a r s of e d u c a tio n (nine y e a r s of
b a s ic r e g u la r o r b a s ic la b o r e d u c a tio n and fo u r y e a r s in th e E S E P ).
T h is s ta g e (E S E P ), w h ich is c o m p a ra b le to th e la s t two
y e a r s of h ig h sc h o o l an d th e f i r s t tw o y e a r s of co lleg e of the
A m e r ic a n s y s te m , c o m b in e s g e n e ra l s tu d ie s and p r o f e s
sio n a l tr a in in g in a r e a s s u c h a s te a c h e r p r e p a ra tio n , in d u s
t r i a l and a g r ic u ltu r a l c a r e e r s , a r t s , an d s e r v ic e s ; ex p an d in g
and c o n so lid a tin g the s c ie n tific , h u m a n is tic and te c h n ic a l
tr a in in g r e c e iv e d in th e b a s ic le v e l and p r e p a r in g th e stu d e n t
fo r h is affec tiv e in c o r p o ra tio n in th e la b o r m a r k e t v ia p r o
fe s s io n a l p r e p a ra tio n , w h ich is c o m p a ra b le to the v o c a tio n a l
p r o g r a m s of the A m e r ic a n c o m m u n ity c o lle g e s an d the |
C a n a d ia n C E G E P (C o lle g e s d 'E n s e ig n e m e n t G e n e r a l et P r o
fe s s io n a l). (Y iacab a R o cca, 1974)
U nlike th e A m e r ic a n c o m m u n ity c o lle g e s , the g e n e ra l e d u c a
tio n t r a n s f e r c o u r s e s and v o c a tio n a l p r e p a r a tio n w e r e in te g ra te d in
th e P e r u v ia n E S E P , both lin e s of stu d y c o n stitu tin g r e q u ir e m e n ts fo r
g ra d u a tio n . A lso , unlike th e A m e r ic a n c o m m u n ity c o lle g e, th e f i r s t
cy cle of h ig h e r e d u c a tio n w a s r e q u ir e d of a ll stu d e n ts w ho w a n te d to
92
r e a c h the se c o n d c y c le . The D ir e c to r G e n e ra l of H ig h e r E d u c a tio n ,
D r. E r n e s to V ia c a b a R o cc a (p e rs o n a l c o m m u n ic a tio n , A u g u st 11,
1974) in d ic a te d th a t th e law "d o es not w an t to e s ta b lis h s h o r t c a r e e r s
and lo n g c a r e e r s , but r a t h e r ta k e a ll the p o s s ib le o c c u p a tio n a l
a c tiv itie s and o cc u p a tio n p o s itio n s and c r e a te c a r e e r la d d e r s . "
T h e se c a r e e r la d d e r s of a ll fie ld s w ill be d e te r m in e d a c c o rd in g to the
le v e l of c o m p le x ity , r e s p o n s ib ility , an d e d u c a tio n a l p r e p a r a tio n
r e q u ir e d by the p o sitio n . D os Santos (1974:120), in h is c o m p a ra tiv e
a n a ly s is of s h o r t- c y c le p o s t- s e c o n d a r y s tr u c t u r e s , d e s c rib e d the
P e r u v ia n an d C a n a d ia n s y s te m s a s " in te r m e d ia r y m u ltip u rp o s e
co lle g e m o d e ls " an d a s a " g ra d u a te d and in te g ra te d s y s te m of h ig h e r
e d u catio n . " He continued:
Such in stitu tio n s c o n stitu te the f i r s t cy cle of h ig h e r e d u c a tio n
an d a r e c o n s id e re d of a p r e - u n i v e r s i t y le v e l. The seco n d
and th ir d c y c le s a r e s p e c ific a lly of a u n iv e r s ity le v e l and a re
o ffe re d by u n iv e r s itie s . (Dos S antos, 1974:120)
He a ls o in d ic a te d th a t th e " in te r m e d ia r y m u ltip u rp o s e tr e n d " e x is ts
de fa c to in the U nited S ta te s, w h e re " ju n io r c o lle g e s a r e to d ay
re c e iv in g e n tr a n ts into h ig h e r ed u catio n , and m o re an d m o re u n iv e r
s itie s a r e d is c a rd in g o r d im in ish in g te a c h in g a t the f i r s t tw o y e a r s of
c o lleg e e d u ca tio n " (Dos S antos, 1974:120). On th is su b je c t, V ia ca b a
R o c c a (p e rs o n a l c o m m u n ic a tio n , A u g u st 11, 1974) s ta te d :
T h is r e - e v a lu a tio n of p r o fe s s io n a l c a r e e r s a t th is i n t e r
m e d ia r y le v e l, w h ich is im p lic it in the f a c t th a t it is the only
an d m a n d a to r y m o d a lity fo r l a t e r s tu d ie s of u n iv e r s ity lev el,
is m a n ife s te d e x p lic itly by th e n a tu re of th e d e g re e th a t
c e r tif ie s th e s tu d ie s of th is cy cle. T he P r o f e s s io n a l B a c h e lo r
d e g re e r e p r e s e n t s a s p e c ific v o c a tio n a l s p e c ia lty , and at the
s a m e tim e , it is an a c a d e m ic d e g re e .
P r o f e s s io n a l B a c h e lo r d e g r e e s a r e c o n s id e re d t e r m in a l d e g r e e s by
P e r u v ia n e d u c a to rs in the s e n s e th a t th e y a r e s e lf-c o n ta in e d to ta l
p r o g r a m s , and a r e not an in itia l o r tr a n s itio n a l sta g e to the u n iv e r
s ity . T h e se a r e not t e r m in a l d e g r e e s in th e s e n s e of te r m in a l
v o c a tio n a l p r o g r a m s in A m e r ic a n c o m m u n ity c o lle g e s , but a r e a
p r e r e q u is ite fo r f u r th e r u n iv e r s ity s tu d ie s . N e v e r th e le s s , s p e c i a l
iz a tio n in the f i r s t cy cle of h ig h e r e d u c atio n does not n e c e s s a r ily
r e q u ir e the sa m e s p e c ia liz a tio n in the se c o n d c y c le , w h ich p e r m its
th e w o rk e r to t r a n s f e r o c c u p a tio n a lly a c c o rd in g to the in te r e s ts or
a c c o rd in g to s o c io -e c o n o m ic co n d itio n s and s c ie n tific and te c h n o lo g i
c al flu c tu a tio n s (V iacab a R o cca, 1974:3).
In the E S E P , g e n e r a l e d u c a tio n an d m a n p o w e r tr a in in g a r e
co m b in ed , and the p r o fe s s io n s o ffe re d have a d ir e c t re la tio n s h ip to
m a n p o w e r n e e d s of th e re g io n in w h ich th e y a r e o ffe re d . P r o f e s s io n s
o ffe re d in the E S E P a r e not te c h n ic a l only, but a ll p r o fe s s io n s as th e y
a r e o rg a n iz e d in a c a r e e r la d d e r s tr u c tu r e w ould have a f i r s t cy c le at
E S E P . A p r e lim in a r y l i s t r e fle c tin g p ro fe s s io n s th a t a r e p r o je c te d
fo r the E S E P in clu d e: a g r ic u ltu r e , n u rsin g , e le c tr o n ic s , jo u rn a lis m ,
te x tile s , s ta tis tic s , h e a lth , a d m in is tra tio n , e d u c a tio n , l i b r a r y
s c ie n c e , c h e m is tr y , a u to m e c h a n ic s , acco u n tin g , p h a rm a c y , s o c ia l
s e r v ic e s , f o r e s tr y , c o n s tru c tio n , fish in g , e le c tr ic ity , m e ta llu rg y ,
94
eco n o m y , zo o technology, an d ra d io . G e n e r a l e d u c atio n and s p e c i a l i
z a tio n c o u r s e s a r e o ffered . In ad d itio n to th e g e n e ra l p r o fe s s io n a l
c o u r s e s , s p e c ia liz a tio n w ith in the p r o fe s s io n s is d ev elo p ed ; fo r
e x a m p le , in a d m in is tr a tio n , th e r e a r e optio n s of p u b lic a d m i n i s t r a
tio n , a d m in is tr a tio n of f a r m c o o p e ra tiv e s , o r p e r s o n n e l a d m i n i s t r a
tio n .(M in is te rio de E d u c acio n , 1974c:4-5).
I n s tru c tio n is o ffe re d in a " r e g u la r m o d a lity (i. e. , in E S E P
c e n te r s ) and in a n o n - r e g u la r o r d e -s c h o o le d m o d a lity , w hich w ould
be of g r e a t im p o rta n c e fo r s tu d ie s in s m a ll to w n s, p a r tic u la r ly in
r u r a l a r e a s . P r o g r a m m e d s e lf - in s tr u c tio n a l p r o g r a m s w ith u tiliz a
tio n of c o r re s p o n d e n c e , s h o rt-w a v e ra d io , an d m o b ile u n its, and w ith
e d u c a tio n a l m a te r ia l and an e d u c a tio n a l te a m w ould be used .
L e v e l of Im p le m e n ta tio n of th e F i r s t
C y cle of H ig h er E d u c a tio n
In A p ril, 1975, n in e e x p e r im e n ta l E S E P g ro u p s b eg an o p e r a
tio n in d iv e r s e g e o g ra p h ic a l a r e a s . Six th o u sa n d stu d e n ts w ho c o m
p le te d th e th ir d y e a r of s e c o n d a ry sc h o o l in tr a n s itio n a l p r o g r a m s
w e r e e x p e c te d to e n te r th e f i r s t E S E P . E x p e rim e n ta l n o n -fo rm a l
p r o g r a m s w e re a lso im p le m e n te d in fo u r lo w -d e n s ity p o p u latio n
a r e a s . T e a c h in g staff, p r i m a r i l y s e le c te d f r o m the s e c o n d a ry le v e l,
w as a s s ig n e d , and f r o m M ay th ro u g h D e c e m b e r, 1974, an i n - s e r v ic e
p r o g r a m w a s co n d u cted v ia w o rk sh o p s w ith m in i s t r y s ta ff and
c o rre s p o n d e n c e c o u r s e s . F r o m J a n u a r y th ro u g h M arc h , 1975, an
in te n siv e tr a in in g s e s s io n w as co n d u cted in o r d e r to fin a liz e tra in in g
fo r the sta ff (M in iste rio de E d u c ac io n , 1974c:9). A d d itio n ally , n o rm a l
sc h o o ls th a t w e re c o n trib u tin g to the o v e rsu p p ly of te a c h e r s w e r e c o n
v e r te d to E S E P (C a rm e n V ega C en ten o , p e r s o n a l c o m m u n ic a tio n ,
A u g u st 13, 1974). A d m in is tra tiv e and a c a d e m ic a s p e c ts of th e E S E P
w e r e o rg a n iz e d , and s o c io -e c o n o m ic s tu d ie s of a ll the re g io n s w e re
a ls o u n d e rta k e n d u rin g 1974, in o r d e r to d e te rm in e p r io r i t i e s fo r
p r o fe s s io n a l tr a in in g and th e o c c u p a tio n a l m a r k e t (V iacab a R o cca,
1974).
Second and T h ird C y cles
of H ig h e r E d u c a tio n
T he se c o n d cy cle of h ig h e r e d u c a tio n o ffe re d s tu d ie s le a d in g
to th e L ic e n c ia tu r a , m a s t e r 's d e g r e e s , and o th e r p r o fe s s io n a l
d e g r e e s . T he th ir d cy c le o ffe re d s tu d ie s c o rre s p o n d in g to the
d o c to ra te . Law d e c r e e 19326 o u tlin ed the o b je c tiv e s and g e n e r a l
s tr u c tu r e of th e s e le v e ls of ed u c a tio n . T h e se c h a r a c t e r is t i c s w e re : j
th a t th e e n tr a n c e r e q u ir e m e n t fo r the se c o n d cy cle w ould be c o m p le - ^
!
tio n of th e f i r s t c y c le , alth o u g h f i r s t cy cle s p e c ia liz a tio n did not
d e te r m in e ch o ice of s p e c ia liz a tio n fo r the se c o n d c y c le . C u r r ic u la r
p la n s w ould be d e te r m in e d on the b a s is of a m a n p o w e r n ee d s a n a ly s is .
T h ird cy cle s tu d ie s w ould be o ffe re d in u n iv e r s itie s and the N atio n al
In stitu te of H ig h e r S tudies, w ith n a tio n a l d e v e lo p m e n t n e e d s d e t e r m in
ing the a c tiv itie s to be u n d e rta k e n a t th is le v e l. A n a tio n a l u n iv e r s ity
96
a s s e m b ly , c o m p o se d of r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s of facu lty , a d m in is tra tio n ,
and stu d e n ts of e a c h u n iv e rs ity , w a s c r e a te d as the m a jo r d e c is io n
m a k in g body in th e u n iv e r s ity s y s te m . C o o rd in a tio n of f i r s t and
se c o n d cy cle e d u c a tio n w ould be done by a c o o rd in a tin g c o m m itte e
of h ig h e r e d u c a tio n (M in is te rio de E d u c a c io n , 1972:49-57).
M ore s p e c ific o p e ra tin g d ire c tiv e s and re g u la tio n s w e re to
be p ro v id e d by the P e r u v ia n U n iv e rsity , e la b o r a te d by a S ta tu to ry
C o m m is s io n c o m p o se d of a d m in is tr a to r s , fa cu lty , and s tu d e n ts, and
a p p ro v e d b y the U n iv e rs ity N atio n al A s s e m b ly (M in is te rio de E d u c a
cion, 1972:79). T he c o m m is s io n e la b o r a te d a s ta tu te th a t w as not
a p p ro v e d b e c a u s e it c o n tra d ic te d Law D e c r e e 19326. The S ta tu to ry
C o m m is s io n w as p r im a r i l y o p p o sed to the c r e a tio n of the E S E P . T he
u n iv e r s ity co n tin u ed to be le g is la te d by U n iv e rs ity L aw 17437, p a s s e d
in 1969 a s one of the f i r s t a c tio n s of th e m i lita r y ju n ta. U n iv e rs ity
R e fo rm L aw 17347 a tte m p te d to s ta b iliz e the r i o t - t o r n u n iv e r s itie s ,
e s ta b lis h in g a d e p a r tm e n ta l o rg a n iz a tio n and a c r e d it s y s te m .
U n iv e r s itie s w e re to f o r m p a r t of a sin g le h ig h e r e d u c a tio n s y s te m .
A ll u n iv e r s itie s w ill in the fu tu re be re s p o n s ib le fo r
s ig n ific a n t c o n trib u tio n s to n a tio n a l u n ificatio n , to s o c ia l,
e c o n o m ic , and c u ltu ra l d e v elo p m en t, and to a d v a n c in g the
p r o g r e s s and w e llb e in g of th e c o u n try . (P a u lsto n , 1971c:
265)
A new U n iv e rs ity C o u n cil w a s c r e a te d w ith th e r e s p o n s ib ility of
c a r r y in g out th e ch a n g e s o u tlin ed above.
The C ouncil, if it c a n a c tu a lly c a r r y out its d u tie s and
97 .
a s s ig n m e n ts , w ill b rin g a d e g re e of c o o rd in a tio n , c o n tro l,
and o v e r a ll d ire c tio n p re v io u s ly unknow n in P e r u v ia n h ig h e r
e d u c a tio n . (P a u lsto n , 1971c:266)
P a r tic ip a tio n of stu d e n ts in g o v e rn m e n t w as lim ite d to th o se
s tu d e n ts f r o m th e top 20 p e r c e n t of a c a d e m ic p e r fo r m a n c e . T h e se
re g u la tio n s w ill be in e ffe c t until th e u n iv e r s ity s ta tu te fo r Law 19326
is ap p ro v ed .
P r o f e s s io n a l C e rtific a tio n
P r o f e s s io n a l c e r tific a tio n in clu d ed p r e - and in - s e r v i c e m a n
p o w e r p r o g r a m s d ir e c tly r e la te d to s o c io -e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t
n e e d s.
E d u c a tio n a l P r o b le m s R e la te d
to P r o f e s s io n a l C e r tific a tio n
W o r k - r e la te d e d u c a tio n w a s e s s e n tia l to P e r u , a s th e I n t e r
n a tio n a l B ank fo r R e c o n s tru c tio n and D e v elo p m en t had e s ta b lis h e d
th a t P e r u 's u n e m p lo y m e n t p ro b le m His th a t it ta k e s th e f o r m of l
i
I
u n d e re m p lo y m e n t and low e a rn in g s r a t h e r th an o v e rt, to ta l u n em p lo y -j
m e n tn (In te rn a tio n a l B ank fo r R e c o n s tru c tio n an d D e v e lo p m e n t,
1973:7). U n d e re m p lo y m e n t is d efin ed as e m p lo y m e n t fo r l e s s th a n
th ir ty - f iv e h o u rs p e r w eek, o r e a rn in g s of l e s s th a n m in im u m w age.
In 1971, the r a te of u n e m p lo y m e n t w a s 4. 4 p e r c e n t and th e r a te of
u n d e re m p lo y m e n t w a s 44. 4 p e rc e n t. If the to ta l n u m b e r of h o u rs
w o rk e d is d iv id ed by th ir ty - f iv e h o u rs p e r p e rs o n , p e r day, the
98
u n e m p lo y m e n t r a te g e n e ra te d is 27 p e rc e n t. T he h ig h e s t u n e m p lo y
m e n t r a te o c c u rs in a g r ic u ltu r e w h e re u n em p lo y m e n t r e p r e s e n t s 31
p e rc e n t, but
. . . the e m p lo y m e n t p r o b le m in a g r ic u ltu r e ta k e s the f o rm
of w id e s p re a d and s e v e r e u n d e re m p lo y m e n t r a t h e r th an
e m p lo y m e n t. M e a s u re d in t e r m s of m a n h o u rs a v a ila b le and
r e q u ir e d to p ro d u c e p r e s e n t le v e ls of output, th e r e is c o n
s id e r a b le e x c e s s la b o r . (In te rn a tio n a l B ank f o r R e c o n s tr u c
tio n and D ev elo p m en t, 1973:7)
A c c o rd in g to the In te rn a tio n a l B ank fo r R e c o n s tr u c tio n and
D e v e lo p m e n t (1973:14), th e g o v e rn m e n t's d e v e lo p m e n ta l s tr a te g y fo r
e c o n o m ic g ro w th and tr a n s f o r m a tio n of s o c ie ty in clu d ed :
1. E x p a n d in g the e c o n o m ic ro le of th e s ta te by in c r e a s in g
its d ir e c t p a r tic ip a tio n in d e v elo p in g and ex p lo itin g the
c o u n tr y 's b a s ic p ro d u c tiv e r e s o u r c e s and m a r k e tin g its m a in
e x p o rt p ro d u c ts
2. C a r r y in g out s t r u c t u r a l r e f o r m s in the in d u s tr ia l
fie ld and a n a g r a r i a n r e f o r m e n ta ilin g s u b s ta n tia l c h an g es
in la n d o w n e rsh ip and f a r m o rg a n iz a tio n and m a n a g e m e n t
3. S tim u la tin g e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t in re g io n s o u tsid e
the L im a - C a lla o a r e a
S tru c tu r a l r e f o r m s have a lr e a d y b e e n im p le m e n te d , but the
a v a ila b ility of tr a in e d m a n p o w e r w a s e s s e n tia l f o r s u c c e s s fu l e x p a n
s io n of s ta te a c tiv ity in in d u s tr y and a g r ic u ltu r e ,
[T he g o v e rn m e n t] w ill s h o r tly fa c e the p r o b le m of
r e c r u itin g o r tra in in g th e te c h n ic a l and m a n a g e r ia l p e r s o n
n e l th a t w ill be r e q u ir e d fo r o p e ra tin g and a d m in is te r in g
s e v e r a l of th e e n t e r p r i s e s th a t now a r e only in p lan n in g o r
c o n s tru c tio n p h a s e s . (In te rn a tio n a l B ank fo r R e c o n s tru c tio n
and D ev e lo p m e n t, 1973:16)
S h o r t- te r m p r o g r a m s h ad b e e n o ffe re d in the p a s t by
in d u stry , th e m ilita ry , th e g o v e rn m e n t, and o th e r o rg a n iz a tio n s, but
. . . th e y t s h o r t - t e r m m a n p o w e r p r o g r a m s ] a r e . . . not
p lan n ed o r c o o rd in a te d in an y s y s te m a tic o r c o m p re h e n s iv e
m a n n e r. L ittle know ledge e x is ts about th e ir n u m b e r an d
fu n c tio n s, n o r do w e know m u c h ab o u t th e ir to ta l c o n tr ib u
tio n to the d e v e lo p m e n t of h u m an r e s o u r c e s n e e d e d fo r m o d e r n
iz a tio n . We do know, h o w ev e r, th a t b e c a u s e of the g ro w in g
d e m a n d fo r new s k ills and the s e r io u s lim ita tio n and d e f ic ie n
c ie s of f o r m a l e d u catio n , P e r u v ia n n o n -fo rm a l e d u c a tio n a l
a c tiv itie s p la y an in c r e a s in g ly v ita l ro le in b rin g in g about the
re q u is ite new b e h a v io ra l c a p a b ilitie s - -i. e. , w o rk s k ills ,
c o m m u n ic a tio n s k ills , as w e ll a s new a ttitu d e s an d u n d e r
sta n d in g s e s s e n tia l fo r m o d e rn iz a tio n and n a tio n -b u ild in g . . . .
T he r a tio n a le fo r n o n - fo r m a l e d u c a tio n a l p r o g r a m s in p o o r
c o u n trie s is both c o m p e n s a to ry and c o m p le m e n ta ry in
n a tu re . . . . P e r u p ro v id e s a n e x c e lle n t e x a m p le of a
d ev elo p in g c o u n try w h e re the c o m b in atio n of ra p id , if uneven,
m o d e rn iz a tio n co m b in e d w ith an in flex ib le a r c h a ic fo rm a l
sc h o o l s y s te m h a s g iven r i s e to an im p r e s s iv e a r r a y of n o n -
f o r m a l e d u c a tio n a l p r o g r a m s . (P a u lsto n , 1971b: 180-181)
S u m m a riz in g n o n -fo rm a l p r o g r a m s , P a u ls to n (1971b: 192)
sta te d : M N o n -fo rm a l e d u c a tio n m u s t be given b e tte r r e s o u r c e s , b e tte r
c o o rd in a tio n w ith f o rm a l p r o g r a m s , and a la r g e m e a s u r e of c r i ti c a l
and s y s te m a tic e x a m in a tio n . "
G o als and O b je c tiv e s of
P r o f e s s io n a l C e rtific a tio n
P r o f e s s io n a l c e r tific a tio n is d e sig n e d to p ro v id e ongoing
tra in in g an d e d u c a tio n a l u p g rad in g fo r e m p lo y e d and u n em p lo y ed
c itiz e n s . S pecific o b je c tiv e s a r e :
1. T o p r o fe s s io n a lly p r e p a r e a p p re n tic e s fo r the p e r
fo rm a n c e of s p e c ific o c c u p a tio n s . . .
2. To u p g ra d e and s p e c ia liz e e m p lo y e d w o r k e r s p e r i o d
ic a lly . . ,
3. To t r a i n in d ep en d en t w o r k e r s f o r b e tte r p e r fo r m a n c e
of th e ir o c c u p a tio n al a c tiv itie s . . .
4. To t r a i n un em p lo y ed and u n d e re m p lo y e d p e rs o n n e l
100
fo r e x e r c is e of s p e c ific o c cu p atio n s . . .
5. To c o n trib u te to p ro fe s s io n a l r e tr a in in g and r e h a b i l it a
tio n of w o r k e r s so th e y m a y be in c o r p o ra te d into the n a tio n 's
a c tiv e life . . . (M in iste rio de E d u c acio n , 1972:58)
S tru c tu ra l, C ontent, and M eth o d
o lo g ic a l C h an g e s of P r o f e s s io n a l
C e rtific a tio n
T he p r in c ip a l ch an g e in the s tr u c t u r e of p r e - s e r v i c e and
i n - s e r v i c e tr a in in g w a s th a t it could be d iv e rs ifie d and in d iv id u alized
to tr a in in g n e e d s in an y a r e a of p ro d u c tio n and s e r v ic e . A c tiv itie s
a r e u ltim a te ly m o n ito re d by the M in is try of E d u c a tio n . A ll p r o d u c
tio n and s e r v ic e a g e n c ie s c o o p e ra te and c o o rd in a te th e i r tra in in g
e ffo rts w ith the M in is try of E d u c atio n . U ltim a te ly , th e M in is try of
E d u c a tio n m o n ito rs a ll tr a in in g a c tiv itie s of p r o fe s s io n a l c e rtific a tio n .
W ith th is c e n tr a liz e d m o n ito rin g of a c tiv itie s , p lan n in g h a s b e c o m e
m o re c o m p re h e n s iv e and im p le m e n ta tio n m o re s y s te m a tic .
P r o f e s s io n a l c e r tific a tio n m u s t c o v e r fa c tu a l know ledge,
p r a c tic a l tra in in g , p r o fe s s io n a l c o u n selin g , and a c tiv itie s . T h e c o n
te n ts in clu d ed : tech n o lo g y , w o rk s a fe ty and h y g ien e, ap p lied m a th e
m a tic s , la n g u a g e , s o c ia l s c ie n c e s , c o m m u n ity o rg a n iz a tio n , a r t, and
p h y s ic a l ed u catio n . A ll th e s e c o n te n ts w e r e o ffe re d in a p p r e n tic e
sh ip p r o g r a m s . M ost i n - s e r v ic e p r o g r a m s of s h o r t d u ra tio n o ffe r
only tech n o lo g y , s a fe ty and h y g ien e, and ap p lied m a th e m a tic s . P r o
fe s s io n a l c e rtific a tio n , unlike s im ila r e ffo rts in th e p a s t, w a s m o re
th a n d e v e lo p m e n t of in e x p e n siv e m an p o w e r; it w a s c o n c e rn e d w ith
m a x im u m p ro d u c tio n and m a x im u m d e v e lo p m e n t of the in d iv id u al.
Since p r o fe s s io n a l c e r tific a tio n w as a d e -s c h o o le d p r o g r a m
and p a r t of life -lo n g e d u ca tio n s tr a t e g i e s , th e m e th o d s v a r ie d
a c c o rd in g to th e r e q u ir e m e n ts of the s tu d e n ts and th e p r o g r a m to be
o ffe re d . It w a s p r in c ip a lly a v e r y fle x ib le m o d a lity and w ould be
o ffe re d in the p la c e of e m p lo y m e n t, in c e n te r s of p r o fe s s io n a l c e r t i
fic a tio n , o r in o th e r a g e n c ie s , su ch a s to p e rs o n n e l in the s a m e
e n t e r p r is e o rg a n iz in g the p r o g r a m , o r to p e rs o n n e l f r o m o th e r p r o
d u ctio n o r s e rv ic e a r e a s . W ork u n d e rta k e n in th is m o d a lity re c e iv e d
tr a n s f e r a b le c r e d it to b a s ic la b o r ed u catio n .
L e v e l of Im p le m e n ta tio n of
P r o f e s s io n a l C e rtific a tio n
W ith the c o o p e ra tio n of in d u s tr ia l and a g r ic u ltu r a l f ir m s ,
a p p r e n tic e s h ip p r o g r a m s and s h o r t - t e r m c o u r s e s in v a rio u s a r e a s
w e r e im p le m e n te d . A n a tio n a l c o o rd in a tin g c o m m itte e , w ith p a r t i c i
p a tio n f r o m the e c o n o m ic s e c to r s and g o v e rn m e n t, o v e rsa w th e p r o
g r a m m in g and im p le m e n ta tio n of p r o fe s s io n a l c e rtific a tio n p r o g r a m s .
T h is w as in o r d e r to m a in ta in m a n p o w e r and e c o n o m ic c o n s id e r a
tio n s in p la n n in g p r o g r a m s .
N u c le a riz a tio n
A m ong the m a n y a d m in is tr a tiv e ch a n g es u n d e rta k e n by the
r e f o r m , n u c le a r iz a tio n is th e m o s t s ig n ific a n t. O th e r ch an g es
in clu d e d d e c e n tra liz a tio n , c o m m u n ity p a r tic ip a tio n v ia c o m m u n ity
c o u n c ils, and re o rg a n iz a tio n of the M in is try of E d u c a tio n . N u c le a r
iz a tio n w as the o rg a n iz in g p rin c ip le of the e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m by w hich
a ll e d u c a tio n a l a c tiv itie s and f a c ilitie s w e re c o o rd in a te d w ith in s p e
c ific g e o g ra p h ic a r e a s in o r d e r to m a x im iz e r e s o u r c e s an d im p ro v e
s e r v ic e s .
E d u c a tio n a l P r o b le m s R e la te d
to N u c le a riz a tio n
A h igh d e g re e of c e n tr a liz a tio n in p o lic y m ak in g , c u r r i c u l a r ,
and p r o g r a m a tic d e c is io n s had c r e a te d a v e r y rig id and h ie r a r c h i c a l
s y s te m . T h is a d m in is tr a tiv e p y ra m id had d ev elo p ed into a h ig h ly
b u r e a u c r a tic s y s te m w h e re p o s itio n s and p e r s o n a litie s w e re m o re
im p o rta n t th a n fu n c tio n s. The s o lid ific a tio n of p o s itio n s w ithout
c r i ti c a l a s s e s s m e n t of th e i r p u rp o s e s a f te r m a n y y e a r s had not p e r
m itte d th e fle x ib ility n e c e s s a r y to e ffe c t c h a n g e s a s often as th e y had
b e e n a d v o c a te d (O rtech o V illen a, 1972:61-62; M in is te rio de E d u c acio n ;
1971:14-15). 1
Tw o c h a r a c t e r is t i c s of th e old e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m w e re th a t
e d u c a tio n w a s co n fin ed to sch o o l e s ta b lis h m e n ts w h ich w e re g e n e ra lly
d iv o rc e d f r o m th e r e s t of the c o m m u n ity , w ith sc h o o ls to ta lly d i s
co n n e c te d f r o m e a c h o th e r, and d ep en d en t on the c e n tr a l a u th o rity of
the M in is try of E d u c atio n . V a rio u s o rg a n iz in g a tte m p ts had been
m ad e p r e v io u s ly w ith s o m e d e g re e of s u c c e s s , to b e tte r c o o rd in a te
s e r v ic e s an d r e s o u r c e s , but did not o ffe r th e e ffic ie n c y n e c e s s a r y fo r ,
in c r e a s in g e n r o llm e n ts (M in iste rio de E d u c a c io n , 1971:121-122). Not
enough p eo p le p a r tic ip a te d in the f o r m a l sc h o o l s y s te m , and th e n o n -
f o rm a l s y s te m w as not e x te n s iv e enough to a b s o rb th is e x c e s s ; th e
n u m b e r of i l lite r a te p e r s o n s a u g m e n te d . T he c o m m u n ity w a s to ta lly
a lie n to th e e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m , only a s s u r in g its c h ild r e n ’s e d u catio n ,
e v e n tu a lly fo rc in g th o se w ish in g to p u rs u e a d v a n c ed s tu d ie s to ab andon
the s m a ll to w n s. In m o s t c a s e s , a f te r c o m p le tio n of stu d ie s the s t u
dent w as not ab le to fin d e m p lo y m e n t e q u iv a le n t to p r e p a r a tio n and
w as u n d e re m p lo y e d . G e n e ra lly , the stu d e n ts did no t r e tu r n to the
o rig in a l c o m m u n ity to c o n trib u te to its d ev elo p m en t, a s it o ffe re d no
p r o fe s s io n a l in c e n tiv e s. ''T h e s e c ir c u m s ta n c e s show ed th a t the tru e
re s p o n s ib ility fo r e d u c a tio n m u st fa ll on the lo c a l c o m m u n ity its e lf"
(G iron, p e r s o n a l c o m m u n ic a tio n , A u g u st 10, 1974).
G o als and O b je c tiv e s of
N u c le a riz a tio n |
I
N u c le a riz a tio n w as the o rg a n iz a tio n a l s tr u c t u r e d e sig n e d to
i
m a x im iz e e d u c a tio n a l r e s o u r c e s and s e r v ic e s . Its o b je c tiv e s w e re :
1. To p ro m o te fa m ily an d c o m m u n ity p a rtic ip a tio n and
c o o p e ra tio n in e d u c a tio n a l w o rk and to p r o je c t e d u c a tio n a l
a c tio n to th e c o m m u n ity
2. T o r e n d e r e d u c a tio n a l s e r v i c e s to a ll the p o p u latio n
w ith in a t e r r i t o r i a l a r e a
3. To in te g ra te e d u c a tio n a l c e n te r s into in te r- c o n n e c te d
fu n c tio n a l n etw o rk s
4. To a s s u r e th e o p tim u m u tiliz a tio n of p h y s ic a l r e s o u r c e s
a n d e d u c a tio n a l te a m s a s w e ll a s any o th e r r e s o u r c e s th a t have
104
e d u c a tio n a l p o te n tia l in th e a r e a
5. To p ro m o te c o o p e ra tio n am o n g the s e c t o r s (p ro d u c
tio n and s e r v ic e s ) w ith in the c o rre s p o n d in g g e o g ra p h ic a l
a r e a (M in is te rio de E d u c a c io n , 1972:36)
D e s c rip tio n of the N u c le a r S y ste m
N u c le a riz a tio n is b a s e d on p e rm a n e n t e d u c a tio n . . . and
in n o n -fo rm a l e d u catio n ; th a t is, in th e p r o c e s s of r e d i r e c t
ing th e r e s p o n s ib ility of e d u c a tio n f r o m the e d u c a tio n a l c e n
t e r s to w a rd th e co m m u n ity , r e a liz in g th a t not only ed u c a tio n
s p e c ia lis ts a r e ab le to o ffer e d u c a tio n a l e x p e r ie n c e s but the
w hole c o m m u n ity is c a p a b le of o ffe rin g e d u c a tio n a l e x p e r i
e n c e s . (G iron, p e r s o n a l c o m m u n ic a tio n , A u g u st 10, 1974)
The n u c le a r s y s te m w as th e b a s ic unit of c o m m u n ity p r o m o
tio n , p e r m ittin g a d m in is tr a tiv e c e n tr a liz a tio n and p e r m ittin g the
c lie n ts to a s s u m e d e c is io n m ak in g r e s p o n s ib ilitie s . T he e d u c a tio n a l
n u c le u s c o n tain ed a ll the e d u c a tio n a l c e n te r s of p r e - s c h o o l, b a s ic
r e g u la r , and b a s ic la b o r e d u c a tio n w hich w e r e lo c a te d w ith in its
g e o g ra p h ic a l b o u n d a rie s . E S E P , u n iv e r s itie s , and o th e r h ig h e r
e d u c a tio n c e n te r s w ould p a r tic ip a te in a c tiv itie s w ith in the co n te n t of
th e ir le g a l f ra m e w o r k and lo c a l p o lic y d ev elo p ed by c o m m u n ity
e d u c a tio n a l c o u n c ils. One e d u c a tio n a l c e n te r w as d e s ig n a te d a s the
b a s e c e n te r of the c o m m u n ity e d u c a tio n n u c le u s. T he c o m m u n ity
e d u c a tio n a l co u n cil w ould s e le c t the th re e f in a lis ts fo r the p o s itio n of
d ir e c to r of th e c o m m u n ity n u c le u s who w ould r e p o r t to a zo n al d i r e c
to r. T he c o m m u n ity co u n c il w a s c o m p o se d of 40 p e r c e n t p a r e n ts and
30 p e r c e n t te a c h e r s . E a c h e d u c a tio n a l n u c le u s had five to fifte e n
e d u c a tio n a l c e n te r s , w ith tw o th o u sa n d to fo u r th o u sa n d in h a b ita n ts.
105
A ll e d u c a tio n a l c e n te r s w e r e not r e q u ir e d to o ffer a ll g r a d e s of b a s ic |
e d u c a tio n , b u t the n u c le a r c e n te r w ould o ffer a ll g ra d e s . R u ra l
a r e a s w ould r e c e iv e s e r v i c e s in e d u c a tio n a l c e n te r s f r o m itin e ra n t
e d u c a tio n a l te a m s b a s e d a t the n u c le a r c e n te r. M ost im p o rta n tly ,
in th e n u c le a r s y s te m ,
. . . e d u c a tio n a l a c tio n w ill not be c ir c u m s c r ib e d to s o c ia l
is la n d s o v e r w hich th e e d u c a tio n a l s e c to r e x e r c is e d fu ll
ju ris d ic tio n . It w ill be in te r r e l a t e d in m u ltis e c to r ia l e ffo rts ,
w h ich a r e m o re a p p r o p ria te fo r th e ta s k of n a tio n a l t r a n s
f o rm a tio n w hich the P e r u v ia n re v o lu tio n h a s u n d e rta k e n .
(M in is te rio de E d u c ac io n , 1971:125)
N u c le a r e d u c a tio n w as a lso a p p ro p ria te fo r the in c r e a s e d u tiliz a tio n of
m e d ia fo r n o n -fo rm a l ed u catio n :
T h is new s y s te m is b u ilt upon c o m m u n ity p a r tic ip a tio n
a s one of its fu n d a m e n ta l p illa r s , in te g ra tin g s y s te m a tic a lly
a ll r e s o u r c e s w ith e d u c a tio n a l p o te n tia l into a c o h e re n t s e t
of a c tio n s, by w h ich e d u c a tio n is lib e ra te d f r o m the utopic
p r e te n s io n of h av in g w ith in its b u ild in g e v e ry th in g r e q u ir e d
f o r the e d u c a tio n a l p r o c e s s . (M in is te rio de E d u c a c io n ,
1971:127)
C h a r a c te r is tic s of the n u c le a r s y s te m w e re : (a) in te g ra tio n
of e d u c a tio n a l a c tiv itie s in a given a r e a , (b) in te g ra tio n of e d u c a tio n a l j
r e s o u r c e s of o th e r n o n -sc h o o l r e la te d r e s o u r c e s th a t m a y have ed u ca-j
tio n a l p o te n tia l, (c) c o m m u n ity b a s e d r a t h e r th a n sch o o l b a se d ,
(d) use of the sc h o o l a s the c e n te r of co m m u n ity a c tiv itie s , and
(e) u se of n o n -fo rm a l e d u c a tio n a l p r o g r a m s and innovative d e liv e ry
s y s te m s to r e a c h the to ta l p o p u latio n in the e d u c a tio n a l n u clei.
106
Im p le m e n ta tio n of the N u c le a r S y ste m
D u rin g 1972, 137 n u c le i w e r e o rg a n iz e d ; 140 in 1973; and
202 in 1974. R e s e a r c h , e v a lu a tio n , and a d ju s tm e n ts of t e r r i t o r i a l
b o u n d a rie s w e r e p r o g r e s s iv e ly a c c o m p lish e d . T he to ta l n u c le a r iz a -
tio n p r o c e s s w a s e x p e c te d to be c o m p le te d by 1980.
S u m m a ry of th e F in d in g s
B a sic R e g u la r E d u c a tio n
T he p rin c ip a l fin d in g s r e la te d to b a s ic r e g u la r e d u c a tio n a re :
1. The f o r m e r e le m e n ta r y and s e c o n d a ry s y s te m s w e re
unified into b a s ic r e g u la r e d u c a tio n fo r b e tte r a r t i c u l a
tio n
2. Nine y e a r s of b a s ic r e g u la r e d u c a tio n b e c a m e c o m p u ls o ry
a s o p p o sed to th e f o r m e r s ix y e a r s of c o m p u ls o ry e d u c a
tio n
3. T he new c u r r ic u lu m w a s stu d e n t c e n te r e d and w o rk
i
o rie n te d I
4. The new m eth o d o lo g y of in s tru c tio n e m p h a s iz e d d y n am ic
p a r tic ip a tio n of th e stu d e n ts and e x p e r ie n tia l a c tiv itie s
B a sic L a b o r E d u c a tio n
F in d in g s r e la te d to b a s ic la b o r ed u c a tio n a r e :
1. B a sic la b o r e d u c a tio n is no lo n g e r the e x a c t p a r a lle l of
the e le m e n ta r y and s e c o n d a ry s y s te m but a m o re
107
c o n c e n tra te d an d in d iv id u a liz e d s y s te m w hich a s s e s s e s
and a c c o u n ts fo r the s tu d e n t's e x p e r ie n tia l know ledge
2. L ite r a c y p r o g r a m s have b een in te g ra te d to the b a s ic
la b o r e d u c a tio n s tr a n d to av o id th e u n c o o rd in a te d and.
te r m in a l c h a r a c t e r of th e tra d itio n a l l i t e r a c y c a m p a ig n s
3. W o rk r e a d in e s s and w o rk e ffe c tiv e n e s s is e m p h a s iz e d
in s te a d of the a c q u is itio n of f a c ts a s in the old s y s te m
4. Student a ttitu d e an d c o m m u n ity d e v e lo p m e n t a r e i m p o r
ta n t d im e n sio n s of the new c u r r ic u lu m
5. P r o g r a m m e d in s tru c tio n , i n te r - le a r n in g g ro u p s, and
in d u s tr y - r e la te d in s tr u c tio n a r e m e th o d s w hich w ill
in c r e a s e a c c e s s and re le v a n c e of e d u c a tio n fo r a d u lts
H ig h e r E d u c a tio n
S ig n ifican t fin d in g s in th e a r e a of h ig h e r e d u c a tio n include:
1. A new le v e l, the E S E P , h a s b een fo rm e d a s a tr a n s itio n
b e tw e e n b a s ic e d u c atio n and the u n iv e r s ity fo r a ll s t u
d en ts
2. A ll stu d e n ts g ra d u a tin g f r o m b a s ic e d u c a tio n can e n te r
h ig h e r e d u c a tio n a u to m a tic a lly w ithout rig o r o u s e x a m in a
tio n s a s b e fo re
3. T he E S E P o ffe rs m id - le v e l te r m in a l c a r e e r s but allo w s
a u to m a tic t r a n s f e r to th e se c o n d cy cle of h ig h e r e d u c a tio n
once a student has su ccessfu lly com pleted the first cycle
4. The c u r r ic u lu m of the E S E P o ffe rs g e n e r a l s tu d ie s and
p r o fe s s io n a l tra in in g d e sig n e d fo r im m e d ia te in te g ra tio n
into the w o rk f o rc e a t th e le v e l of te c h n ic ia n
5. P r o f e s s io n s o ffe re d a t the E S E P a r e d e sig n e d to m e e t
m an p o w e r n e e d s and p ro v id e im p a c t on e c o n o m ic d ev elo p
m e n t
6. B oth f o rm a l p r o g r a m s and s e lf - in s tr u c tio n p r o g r a m s a r e
u se d a t th is le v e l
7. A s of 1974, the e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m p la n h ad not been
c o m p le te ly o p e ra tio n a l a t the u n iv e r s ity le v e l, although
e ffo rts to im p ro v e c o o rd in a tio n and to m a x im iz e e f fi
c ie n c y w e r e in e ffe c t
P r o f e s s io n a l C e rtific a tio n
T he stu d y of p r o f e s s io n a l c e r tific a tio n g e n e r a te d th e fo llo w
ing fin d in g s:
1. A ll s h o r t - t e r m tra in in g p r o g r a m s have b een c o o rd in a te d
by the M in is try of E d u c atio n and s e r v ic e and p ro d u c tio n
a g e n c ie s
2. M ore c o m p re h e n s iv e m a n p o w e r p lan n in g e n te r s into
the d e sig n of p r o fe s s io n a l c e rtific a tio n p r o g r a m s
3. P r o f e s s io n a l c e r tific a tio n p r o g r a m s re c e iv e tr a n s f e r a b le
credit to basic labor education
N u c le a riz a tio n
The d e s c rip tio n and a n a ly s is of the n u c le a r s y s te m g e n e ra te d
th e follow ing fin d in g s:
1. The h ig h ly c e n tr a liz e d and u n c o o rd in a te d s y s te m h as
b een r e p la c e d by a m o re d e c e n tr a liz e d s y s te m b a s e d on
fu n c tio n a l units
2. C o m m u n ity p a rtic ip a tio n a t d e c is io n m ak in g le v e ls is an
e s s e n tia l a s p e c t of th e n u c le a r s y s te m
3. T he n u c le a r sch o o l s y s te m h a s b e c o m e the o p e ra tio n a l
b a s e of c o m m u n ity p ro m o tio n
4. T he n u c le a r o rg a n iz a tio n is d e sig n e d to m a x im iz e
e d u c a tio n a l r e s o u r c e s and f a c ilita te n o n -fo rm a l e d u c atio n
V a lid a tio n R e s u lts
!
T he p r e c e d in g fin d in g s hav e been e v a lu a te d by th re e e d u c a - |
t o r s c o m p e te n t in the a r e a of L a tin A m e r ic a n e d u c a tio n . The r e s u lts ^
of th e i r e v a lu a tio n s a r e p r e s e n te d in T ab le 9. Individual ev a lu a tio n
f o r m s a r e in the appendix.
110
T A B L E 9
C O M PO SITE O F D ISSER TA TIO N EV A LU A TIO N S
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c
E x cellen t
Adequate
Inadequate
P r o b le m is c le a r ly s ta te d 3
H y p o th e se s a r e c le a r ly s ta te d 2 1
P r o b le m is s ig n ific a n t 3
A s su m p tio n s a r e c l e a r ly s ta te d 1 2
L im ita tio n s of the stu d y a r e s ta te d 1 2
Im p o rta n t t e r m s a r e d efin ed 2 1
R e la tio n sh ip of the p ro b le m to p re v io u s r e s e a r c h is m ad e
c le a r
3
R e s e a r c h d e s ig n is d e s c r ib e d fu lly 3
R e s e a r c h d e sig n is a p p r o p ria te fo r the s o lu tio n of the
p ro b le m
1 2
D a ta - g a th e rin g m e th o d s o r p r o c e d u r e s a r e d e s c rib e d 2 1
D a ta - g a th e rin g m e th o d s o r p r o c e d u r e s a r e a p p r o p ria te to
th e s o lu tio n of th e p ro b le m
2 1
V a lid ity and r e lia b ility of th e e v id e n ce g a th e re d a r e
e s ta b lis h e d
2 1
A p p ro p ria te m e th o d s a r e s e le c te d to a n a ly z e the d a ta 2 1
M ethods u tiliz e d in a n a ly z in g the d a ta a r e ap p lie d c o r r e c t l y 1 2
R e s u lts of th e a n a ly s is a r e p r e s e n te d c le a r ly 1 2
C o n c lu sio n s a r e c le a r ly s ta te d 3
C o n c lu sio n s a r e s u b s ta n tia te d by the ev id en ce p r e s e n te d 3
R e p o rt is c le a r ly w r itte n 2 1
R e p o rt is lo g ic a lly o rg a n iz e d 2 1
Tone of the r e p o r t d isp la y s an u n b iase d , im p a rtia l,
s c ie n tific a ttitu d e
2 1
C o m m e n ts
M s. G o n zalez h a s c h o se n an e x tr e m e ly d iffic u lt and c o m p le x
a r e a of e d u c a tio n a l d e v e lo p m e n t to study, and h e r p a p e r d e m o n s tr a te s
111
s u p e r io r r e s e a r c h s k ills and p o w e rs of a n a ly s is . In a stu d y su ch as
th is th e r e a r e bound to be g r e y a r e a s w h e re s c h o la r s d is a g r e e on
q u e stio n s of m eth o d and ev en p h ilo so p h ic a l p o in ts of view , but th is is
m in im iz e d in th is s tu d y by the c l a r ity of e x p r e s s io n and a rg u m e n t.
T h u s, w hile th e r e a r e so m e p o in ts to c r itic iz e of th e m a n u s c rip t, on
the w hole th e s e a r e m in o r and th e s tu d y a p p e a r s to be c o m p le te .
J e s u s C h a v a rr ia , P r o f e s s o r
U n iv e rs ity of C a lifo rn ia
S anta B a r b a r a
Ju n e 1, 1976
The s tu d y of E d u c a tio n a l R e fo rm in P e r u , 1970-1974, is an
e x te n siv e and s e r io u s stu d y th a t fo c u s e s on the m o s t s ig n ific a n t and
in n o v ativ e c h an g es in P e r u v ia n e d u c a tio n and p e r h a p s in a ll L a tin
A m e ric a . A lthough th e to p ic of th e stu d y is v e r y b ro a d and not to ta lly
c o v e re d , an o b jectiv e a n a ly s is of c le a r and s p e c ific o b je c tiv e s h as
b e e n p r e s e n te d .
P e p e B a rro n , D ir e c to r
C o n g re so N a c io n a l de A su n to s
C o le g ia le s
One D upont C irc le , N. W.
Suite 400
W ashington, D. C. 20036
J u ly 1, 1976
M s. G o n z a le z h a s m a n a g ed to s y n th e s iz e and a n a ly z e so m e
of th e m o s t o u tsta n d in g f e a tu r e s of th e P e r u v ia n e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m , i
H e r stu d y c o n s titu te s a p r e lim in a r y r e s e a r c h a n a ly s is w hich should
be of h ig h i n te r e s t to s tu d e n ts and e x p e r ts of c o m p a ra tiv e ed u catio n .
T he P e r u v ia n e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m is one of th e m o s t c o m p re h e n s iv e |
a tte m p ts to r e la te e d u c a tio n a l e ffo rts to s o c io -e c o n o m ic n e e d s, w h ich .
is a c r u c ia l c o n s id e ra tio n f o r a ll d ev elo p in g c o u n trie s . T h is s tu d y is
an e x c e lle n t d e m o n s tra tio n of th is fact.
J o r g e P e r e z P o n c e , D ir e c to r
O ffice of In te rn a tio n a l P r o g r a m s
A m e r ic a n A s s o c ia tio n of J u n io r
and C o m m u n ity C o lleg e s
One D upont C irc le , N. W.
Suite 410
W ashington, D. C. 20036
J u ly 1, 1976
112 _
C H A P T E R V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECO M M EN D A TIO N S
S u m m a ry
T h is stu d y h a s d e s c r ib e d and a n a ly z e d s e le c te d o b je c tiv e s of
the P e r u v ia n e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m a s le g is la te d in 1970, and it h a s
a s s e s s e d the im p le m e n ta tio n of th e s e o b je c tiv e s b e tw e e n 1970 and
1974. T he u n d e rly in g p ro b le m s w a r r a n tin g th e sp e c ific r e f o r m
o b je c tiv e s have b e e n p r e s e n te d in o r d e r to o ffer a c o m p re h e n siv e
p e r s p e c tiv e of e d u c a tio n a l p ro b le m s p r io r to the re fo r m .
T he m eth o d o lo g y h a s in clu d ed c o n su lta tio n of p r i m a r y and
s e c o n d a ry s o u r c e s , in te rv ie w s w ith P e r u v ia n e d u c a tio n a l le a d e r s ,
fie ld o b s e rv a tio n , in te r p r e ta tio n of th e d ata, and fin a l v a lid a tio n of
th e a n a ly s is by th re e e d u c a tio n a l e x p e r ts in th e fie ld of in te rn a tio n a l
ed u catio n .
The m e a n in g of d e v e lo p m e n t an d its r e la tio n s h ip w ith e d u c a
tio n a p p e a r in th e s e c o n d c h a p te r, and th e b ac k g ro u n d and co n d itio n s
a ffe c tin g e d u c a tio n w e re p r e s e n te d in C h a p te r III. D e ta ile d a n a ly s e s
of the s p e c ific s tr u c tu r a l, co n ten t, and m e th o d o lo g ic a l a s p e c ts of
b a s ic r e g u la r ed u catio n , b a s ic la b o r ed u catio n , p r o fe s s io n a l
113
c e rtific a tio n , h ig h e r e d u catio n , an d n u c le a r iz a tio n w e re p r e s e n te d in
o r d e r to d e m o n s tr a te th e in itia l h y p o th e se s.
C o n c lu sio n s
In 1965, T h o m a s C a r t e r w ro te :
P r e s e n t d ay P e r u is s e e n a s a c u ltu re in flux. A m y ria d
of both in te rn a l and e x te r n a l f a c to r s a r e c a u s in g in c r e a s in g ly
r a p id s o c ia l ch an g e. T h e tra d itio n a l v a lu e s once p e rh a p s
w id e ly h eld , a s w e ll a s the p o w e r c e n te r s , s e e m to be unable
to co n ta in o r d ir e c t so c ie ty . F o r c e im p o se d by p o w e r - e lite s
a p p e a r m o re an d m o re a s th e a n s w e r to th e p r e s e n t s o c ia l
c r i s i s . I n te r - g r o u p c o m m u n ic a tio n and effec tiv e in te ra c tio n
a p p e a r to be b re a k in g down. W h e th e r th e p r e s e n t s o c ia l d i s
o rg a n iz a tio n w ill be re s o lv e d b y re v o lu tio n o r e v o lu tio n is
unknow n. H o w e v e r, it a p p e a r s c e r ta in th a t the r is in g a s p i r a
tio n s of the lo w e r c l a s s e s , a m a jo r ity of P e r u v ia n s , w ill be
m a n ife s t in one f o r m or a n o th e r. ( C a r te r , 1965:v-vi)
In 1967, a b lo o d le ss re v o lu tio n sh ifte d th e p o litic a l p o w er to
a h ig h ly n a tio n a lis t an d r e f o r m i s t m ilita r y junta; n e v e r th e le s s , m an y
of th e is s u e s r a i s e d by C a r t e r a r e s till u n re so lv e d . P r e s e n t day
P e r u is s till a c u ltu re in flux. In n o v atio n s in tro d u c e d in ed u c a tio n
w ill not n e c e s s a r i l y c r y s ta lliz e a ll th e s o c io -e c o n o m ic ch an g es p r o - j
p o se d in 1967, but th e y w ill s u r e ly c o n trib u te s ig n ific a n tly to w a rd ^
th e p ro p o s e d g o als of s o c io -e c o n o m ic d ev e lo p m e n t.
It w a s found th a t w ith th e e x c e p tio n of one m a in s tr u c t u r a l
w e a k n e s s , th e p e r s is te n c e of a d u al public and p r iv a te sc h o o l s y s te m ,
th e c h a n g e s p ro p o s e d by th e r e f o r m d e m o c r a tiz e a c c e s s to b a s ic and
h ig h e r e d u c a tio n , d e c r e a s e ill i t e r a c y r a t e s , in c r e a s e s u s te n tio n
r a t e s of s tu d e n ts , an d m e e t s o c io -e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t n e e d s.
114
The c o n c lu sio n s a r e s ta te d in r e la tio n s h ip to the h y p o th e se s
a d v a n c ed in C h a p te r I.
The P e r u v ia n E d u c a tio n a l R e fo rm
is D e sig n e d to D e m o c ra tiz e
B a s ic E d u c a tio n
T he r e f o r m e d s y s te m p ro v id e s a m o re d e m o c r a tic a c c e s s to
b a s ic ed u catio n , but m ig ra tio n to u rb a n c e n te r s and s o c io -e c o n o m ic
co n d itio n s of the stu d e n ts d e te r m in e a c c e s s to b a s ic e d u c a tio n m u c h
m o re th a n s tr i c t l y e d u c a tio n a l f a c to r s . D ir e c t p a rtic ip a tio n of the
c o m m u n ity in th e p o lic y m a k in g and o p e ra tio n of the sc h o o ls p ro v id e s
a d ir e c t a c c o u n ta b ility th a t p r o p itia te s a c c e s s of a ll s e g m e n ts of th e
co m m u n ity .
N u c le a riz a tio n is e x p e c te d to have an im p a c t on the r u r a l -
u rb a n im b a la n c e . T he f e m a le - m a le im b a la n c e w ill not n e c e s s a r i l y
be a ffected , a s w o m a n 's p o s itio n in P e r u v ia n s o c ie ty is d e te r m in e d by
a v alu e s y s te m w hich is u n lik ely to change by e d u c a tio n a l r e fo r m .
P o s s ib ly the m o s t sig n ific a n t fa c to r im p a c tin g upon a c c e s s to
b a s ic ed u c a tio n fo r th e m a r g in a l m a s s e s h a s been the s y s te m a tiz a tio n
of a d u lt e d u c a tio n in the p a r a lle l and eq u iv a len t s y s te m of b a s ic la b o r
e d u ca tio n w hich p ro v id e s an a lte rn a tiv e fo r e d u c a tio n r e c u p e ra tio n of
th o se a d u lts who m a y o r m a y not have had a c c e s s to e d u c a tio n d u rin g
th e ir childhood. The r e a l i s t i c and h ig h ly fu n ctio n a l c u r r ic u lu m and
m eth o d o lo g y , th e a c c e le r a tio n of in s tru c tio n , an d the re c o g n itio n of
a d u lt c o m p e te n c ie s a c q u ire d b y e x p e rie n c e c o n s titu te the m o s t
a ttr a c tiv e e le m e n t of the a lte r n a tiv e s y s te m w h ich m a k e s it highly
d e s ir a b le f o r a d u lts.
M ost im p o rta n tly , th e u n ifica tio n of the p r im a r y and s e c o n
d a r y s y s te m s and the e lim in a tio n of th e du al v o c a tio n a l/a c a d e m ic
s tr u c t u r e s w ill f a c ilita te a c c e s s to the s e c o n d a ry s y s te m w hich in
th e p a s t w a s c o n tro lle d by e n tra n c e e x a m in a tio n s. A d d itio n ally , n o n -
f o r m a l o r d e -s c h o o le d e d u c a tio n p r o g r a m s v ia s e lf - in s tr u c tio n a l
m a te r ia ls and itin e r a n t te a m s of e d u c a to rs w ill g r e a tly in c r e a s e th e
p a rtic ip a tio n of p r e v io u s ly ig n o re d p o p u la tio n s.
The P e r u v ia n E d u c a tio n a l R e fo rm is
D esig n e d to D e c r e a s e I llite r a c y R a te s
I llite r a c y r a t e s w ill be d e c r e a s e d by a s y s te m a tiz a tio n of
l i t e r a c y p r o g r a m s and b y th e a p p lic a tio n of a n e ffe c tiv e m eth o d o lo g y
w h ich h a s b een s u c c e s s fu lly ap p lie d in o th e r L a tin A m e r ic a n c o u n trie s .
A d d itio n ally , th e p r o b le m of m in im a lly lit e r a t e p eople r e v e r tin g b a c k |
i
to i l l ite r a c y fo r la c k of u se of the c o m p e te n c ie s a c q u ire d is m in im iz e d
b e c a u s e l i t e r a c y p r o g r a m s a r e e q u iv a le n t to the f i r s t y e a r of b a s ic
la b o r ed u catio n ; and a f te r l i t e r a c y h a s b e en a c h ie v e d , ongoing p r o
g r e s s iv e e d u c a tio n a l a c tiv itie s can be p u rs u e d v ia b a s ic la b o r e d u c a
tio n and d e -s c h o o le d o r n o n - fo r m a l p r o g r a m s .
P r o f e s s io n a l c e r tific a tio n p r o g r a m s a ls o o ffe r an avenue fo r
r e c e n t l i t e r a t e s to p u r s u e f u r th e r lite r a c y d e v e lo p m e n t. A c h ie v e m e n t
116
of l i t e r a c y in S p an ish w ill be f a c ilita te d by the g o v e rn m e n t's 1975
d e c r e e th a t Q u ech u a w ill a ls o be P e r u ’s o fficial lan g u ag e.
T he P e r u v ia n E d u c a tio n a l R e fo rm
is D e sig n e d to In c re a s e S u sten tio n
R a te s of S tudents
S tu d e n ts’ s u s te n tio n w ill be an d is p r e s e n tly in c r e a s e d by
s o m e r a d ic a l s tr u c t u r a l r e f o r m s . F i r s t , e n tra n c e e x a m in a tio n s fo r
th e s e c o n d a ry le v e l a r e e lim in a te d b e c a u s e th e p r im a r y and s e c o n
d a r y le v e ls a r e unified. A d m iss io n to the f i r s t cy cle of h ig h e r
e d u c a tio n is open to an y g ra d u a te of b a s ic r e g u la r o r b a s ic la b o r
ed u catio n , and a d m is s io n to su b se q u e n t le v e ls is co n tin g en t upon
g ra d u a tio n f r o m an E S E P g ro u p and not upon a s c o r e on an e n tra n c e
e x a m in a tio n .
G ra d e r e p e titio n w as one of th e m a in f a c to r s affe c tin g s u s
ten tio n . F e w stu d e n ts w ho re p e a te d g ra d e s o r had to tak e m a k e -u p
e x a m in a tio n s fo r s p e c ific c o u r s e s w e r e m o tiv a te d to co n tin u e s c h o o l- (
I
i
ing. T he p r e s e n t s y s te m h a s in stitu te d a u to m a tic g ra d e p ro m o tio n . j
Since s u s te n tio n is lo w e st in low s o c io -e c o n o m ic a r e a s - -
th a t is, r u r a l a r e a s , jungle a r e a s , and u rb a n ’' y o u n g to w n s ” - - c u r
r ic u la r co n ten t e m p h a s iz e s re g io n a l v a lu e s , c u s to m s , an d th e
s tu d e n t’s e x p e rie n c e ; and d o es not n e g a te o r d is c r im in a te a g a in s t the
s tu d e n t's s o c ia l re a lity .
The m eth o d o lo g y is le s s a r b i t r a r y and a u th o r ita r ia n , and
117
c o m m u n ity p a rtic ip a tio n in a d m in is tr a tiv e le v e ls a ls o c o n s titu te s
b e n e fic ia l f a c to r s fo r su ste n tio n .
The P e r u v ia n E d u c a tio n a l R e fo rm W ill
I n c re a s e A c c e s s to H ig h e r E d u c a tio n
A c c e s s to h ig h e r ed u c a tio n w ill i n c r e a s e sig n ific a n tly . A ll
g ra d u a te s f r o m b a s ic la b o r o r b a s ic r e g u la r e d u c a tio n m a y be a d m it
te d to the f i r s t cy cle of h ig h e r ed u c a tio n in th e r e g u l a r o r n o n - r e g u la r
m o d a litie s . R e s tric tiv e e x a m in a tio n s w ill no lo n g e r p re v e n t p a r t i c i
p atio n in h ig h e r ed u catio n . A d d itio n ally , the a v a ila b ility of s h o r t
c a r e e r s w ith a h ig h ly o c c u p a tio n a l e m p h a s is m a k e s h ig h e r e d u c a tio n
a d e s ir a b le option w hich w ill e n c o u ra g e stu d e n ts who a r e in te r e s te d
in e n te rin g th e job m a r k e t a t a m id -m a n a g e m e n t o r te c h n ic ia l lev e l.
A c c e s s to o th e r a d v an c ed le v e ls of h ig h e r e d u c atio n w ill be f a c ilita te d
by the n o n - r e s tr ic tiv e c h a r a c t e r of the E S E P .
The P e r u v ia n E d u c a tio n a l R e fo rm
is D e sig n e d to M eet th e E c o n o m ic
R e q u ire m e n ts of a D ev elo p in g
E c o n o m y
The new e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m m e e ts e c o n o m ic d ev elo p m en t
r e q u ir e m e n ts in v a r io u s w a y s. P r im a r i l y , th e w hole c u r r ic u lu m of
b a s ic r e g u la r e d u c a tio n c o n ta in s a w o rk r e a d in e s s and v o c a tio n a l
d im e n sio n . B a sic la b o r e d u c a tio n is e v en m o re w o rk o rie n te d as
p r e s e n t e m p lo y m e n t o r p o te n tia l e m p lo y m e n t c o n d itio n s of the ad u lt
s tu d e n ts a r e in clu d ed in the c u r ric u lu m .
118
P r o f e s s io n a l p r e p a r a tio n c o n s titu te s continuous s h o r t - t e r m
p r e - s e r v i c e o r in - s e r v ic e tra in in g d e sig n e d to p ro d u c e q u a lifie d
m a n p o w e r a s n ee d e d by the in d u s tr ia l and s e r v ic e s e c to r s of the
eco n o m y . The c r e a tio n of the E S E P is p ro b a b ly the m o s t im p o rta n t
fa c to r in the p ro v is io n of ad eq u ate m a n p o w e r fo r e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p
m en t.
R e c o m m e n d a tio n s
B eyond th e e v a lu a tio n of sp e c ific e d u c a tio n a l o b je c tiv e s, the
m o s t c r u c ia l a s p e c t of the P e ru v ia n e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m is b a s e d on
th e fa c t th a t its s u c c e s s is to ta lly d ep en d en t on the c o n s is te n c y and
c o n tin u ity of th e g o v e rn m e n t in p o w e r, and w h e th e r o r not its o b je c
tiv e s a r e ach ie v e d , not only in e d u c a tio n b u t in a ll p ro d u c tio n and
s e r v ic e a r e a s . O b s e r v e r s of L a tin A m e r ic a n p o litic s d is a g r e e a s to
th e lo n g -ra n g e s u c c e s s p o te n tia l of the P e r u v ia n m ilita r y ju n ta
(C e sp e d e s B e d re g a l, 1972; S a la z a r Bondy, 1974b; H e r r e r a , 1974).
A s su m in g s u c c e s s and m a in te n a n c e of the re v o lu tio n a ry junta, the
s y s te m w ould b e n efit f ro m the fo llo w in g e m p h a s e s .
M ore C o n s iste n t P la n n in g w ith C o n s o lid a
tio n of S e g m e n ta l P la n n in g Into One
C o m p re h e n s iv e P la n
A s of 1974, one f iv e - y e a r e d u c a tio n a l p lan h a d b een a p p ro v ed ,
alo n g w ith tw o tw o - y e a r p la n s w hich r e s ta te d g o als and s p e c ifie d the
a c tiv itie s of the f iv e - y e a r p lan . It w ould be im p o s s ib le to m e a s u r e
119
the a c c o m p lis h m e n t of o b je c tiv e s of the f iv e - y e a r p lan by acco u n tin g
fo r only fo u r y e a r s of a c tiv itie s . A lthough, g e n e ra lly , a ll th r e e
p lan s w e r e c o n s is te n t in the s e t of g o als and o b je c tiv e s th a t th e y
ad v an ced , s p e c ific a lly , g o als and o b je c tiv e s w e re not p a r a lle l. In
fa c t, th e r e w e r e a t le a s t fo u r s e ts of g o als and o b je c tiv e s as th e y
ap p lied to the 1970-1975 p e rio d . In o r d e r to a r r i v e a t one c o m m o n
s e t of o b je c tiv e s, a c o m p o site s e t w ould have to be d e sig n e d . T he
re c o m m e n d a tio n of th is in v e s tig a to r is to e s ta b lis h f iv e - y e a r goals
and y e a r ly o b je c tiv e s to m e e t th e s e g o als.
E v a lu a tio n S y ste m s a t A ll L e v e ls
N eed to be E s ta b lis h e d
Of p r im a r y c o n c e rn sh o u ld be to e v a lu a te s tr u c t u r a l r e f o r m s
by c o lle c tin g and a n a ly z in g d a ta r e la te d to an y c h a n g e s in the u tiliz a
tio n p a tte r n s of v a rio u s s e g m e n ts of th e s y s te m . E v a lu a tio n of
in s tru c tio n a l co n ten t and m eth o d o lo g y w ould be helpful and could be
o b tain ed by fie ld e v a lu a tio n s. C h an g es in te a c h e r s , ' p a r e n ts , T and
s tu d e n ts ’ a ttitu d e s a r e a ls o of im p o rta n c e if the s tr u c t u r a l r e f o r m s
a r e to ach ie v e th e ir g o als.
N eed fo r F u r th e r R e s e a r c h
T h is d is s e r ta tio n does n o t a tte m p t to be a c o m p le te a n a ly s is
of th e P e r u v ia n e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m , b u t a p r o c e s s e v a lu a tio n of
s e le c te d a s p e c ts of th e r e f o r m . T o ta l im p le m e n ta tio n of th e r e f o r m
120
is p r o je c te d fo r 1980; f u r th e r r e s e a r c h and e v a lu a tio n a r e n e e d e d at
a ll le v e ls of im p le m e n ta tio n .
I
A P P E N D I X
i
122
D ISSER TA TIO N EV A LU A TIO N F O R M
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c
E x cellen t
A dequate
Inadequate
P r o b le m is c le a r ly s ta te d X
H y p o th e se s a r e c le a r ly s ta te d X
P r o b le m is sig n ific a n t X
A ssu m p tio n s a r e c le a r ly s ta te d X
L im ita tio n s of th e stu d y a r e s ta te d X
Im p o rta n t t e r m s a r e defin ed X
R e la tio n sh ip of the p ro b le m to p re v io u s r e s e a r c h is m ad e
c le a r
X
R e s e a r c h d e s ig n is d e s c rib e d fu lly X
R e s e a r c h d e sig n is a p p r o p ria te fo r the so lu tio n of the
p ro b le m
X
D a ta - g a th e rin g m e th o d s o r p r o c e d u re s a r e d e s c rib e d X
D a ta - g a th e rin g m e th o d s o r p r o c e d u r e s a r e a p p r o p ria te to
th e so lu tio n of th e p ro b le m
X
V alid ity and r e lia b ility of th e ev id en c e g a th e re d a r e
e s ta b lis h e d
X
A p p ro p ria te m e th o d s a r e s e le c te d to an a ly z e the d a ta X
M ethods u tiliz e d in a n a ly z in g th e d a ta a r e ap p lied c o r r e c t l y X
R e s u lts of the a n a ly s is a r e p r e s e n te d c le a r ly X
C o n c lu sio n s a r e c le a r ly s ta te d X
C o n clu sio n s a r e s u b s ta n tia te d by the e v id en ce p r e s e n te d X
R e p o rt is c le a r ly w r itte n X
R e p o rt is lo g ic a lly o rg a n iz e d X
Tone of the r e p o r t d isp la y s an u n b iase d , im p a rtia l,
s c ie n tific a ttitu d e
X
J e s u s C h a v a rr ia , P r o f e s s o r , UCSB
_______________________________________123
D ISSER TA TIO N EV A LU A TIO N F O R M
1
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c
E x cellen t
Adequate
Inadequate
'P ro b le m is c le a r ly s ta te d X
,H ypotheses a r e c le a r ly s ta te d X
P r o b le m is s ig n ific a n t X
A s su m p tio n s a r e c le a r ly s ta te d
I
X
;L im ita tio n s of the stu d y a r e s ta te d X
Im p o rta n t t e r m s a r e d efin ed X
R e la tio n sh ip of th e p ro b le m to p re v io u s r e s e a r c h is m a d e
c le a r
X
R e s e a r c h d e s ig n is d e s c r ib e d fu lly X
R e s e a r c h d e s ig n is a p p r o p ria te fo r the so lu tio n of th e
p ro b le m
X
‘D a ta - g a th e rin g m eth o d s o r p r o c e d u r e s a r e d e s c rib e d X
D a ta - g a th e rin g m eth o d s o r p r o c e d u r e s a r e a p p r o p ria te to
the so lu tio n of th e p ro b le m
X
V a lid ity and r e lia b ility of the e v id e n c e g a th e re d a r e
e s ta b lis h e d
X
A p p ro p ria te m e th o d s a r e s e le c te d to a n a ly z e the d ata X
M ethods u tiliz e d in a n a ly z in g the d a ta a r e ap p lie d c o r r e c t l y X
R e s u lts of th e a n a ly s is a r e p r e s e n te d c le a r ly X
C o n c lu sio n s a r e c le a r ly s ta te d X
C o n c lu sio n s a r e s u b s ta n tia te d b y the ev id en ce p r e s e n te d X
R e p o rt is c le a r ly w r itte n X
R e p o rt is lo g ic a lly o rg a n iz e d X
T one of the r e p o r t d isp la y s an u n b iase d , im p a rtia l,
s c ie n tific a ttitu d e
X
P e p e B a rro n , D ir e c to r
C o n g re s o N acio n al de A su n to s C o le g ia le s
L 124
D ISSER TA TIO N EV A LU A TIO N F O R M
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c
E x c elle n t
A dequate
Inadequate
P r o b le m is c le a r ly s ta te d X
H y p o th e se s a r e c le a r ly s ta te d X
P r o b le m is s ig n ific a n t X
1 ■ ■ i * . „
A s su m p tio n s a r e c le a r ly s ta te d
i
X
!L im ita tio n s of the stu d y a r e s ta te d X
Im p o rta n t t e r m s a r e d efin ed X
R e la tio n sh ip of the p ro b le m to p re v io u s r e s e a r c h is m ad e
c le a r
X
R e s e a r c h d e s ig n is d e s c r ib e d fu lly X
R e s e a r c h d e s ig n is a p p ro p ria te fo r th e so lu tio n of the
p ro b le m
X
D a ta - g a th e rin g m e th o d s o r p r o c e d u re s a r e d e s c rib e d X
D a ta -g e th e r in g m eth o d s o r p r o c e d u re s a r e a p p ro p ria te to
;the so lu tio n of the p ro b le m
X
V a lid ity and r e lia b ility of the e v id en ce g a th e re d a r e
E s ta b lis h e d
X
A p p ro p ria te m e th o d s a r e s e le c te d to a n aly ze the d a ta X
M ethods u tiliz e d in a n a ly z in g the d a ta a r e a p p lied c o r r e c t l y X
R e s u lts of th e a n a ly s is a r e p r e s e n te d c le a r ly
t
X
C o n c lu sio n s a r e c le a r ly s ta te d X
C o n clu sio n s a r e s u b s ta n tia te d by the ev id en ce p r e s e n te d X
R e p o rt is c le a r ly w r itte n X
R e p o rt is lo g ic a lly o rg a n iz e d X
Tone of the r e p o r t d isp la y s a n u n b iase d , im p a rtia l,
s c ie n tific a ttitu d e
X
J o rg e P e r e z P o n c e , D ir e c to r , I n te r n a t'l P r o g r a m s
A m e ric a n A ssn . of J u n io r and C o m m u n ity C o lle g e s
125
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
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I
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1 f
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I
< x
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, - —
[Coom bs, P . H. The a d ju s tm e n t of the e d u c a tio n a l s tr u c tu r e to the
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Creator Gonzalez, Silvia Rosa (author)

Core Title Educational reform in Peru, 1970-1974: A model of developmental education

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, sociology of,OAI-PMH Harvest

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