An investigation of the relative contributions of assertion training to sense of control

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Content AN INVESTIGATION OF THE RELATIVE CONTRIBUTIONS OF ASSERTION TRAINING TO SENSE OF CONTROL by Jose C. Vidal A D is se rta tio n P resented to th e FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillm ent of the R equirem ents for th e D egree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Education) August 1978 UMI Number: DP24682 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Pubi sh#ng UMI DP24682 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 U N IV E R S IT Y O F S O U T H E R N C A L IF O R N IA TH E GRADUATE SC H O O L UNIVER SITY PAR K LOS A N G ELES, C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by J o se C. Vidal •Ph.D. E j. I - 7 C ) V 4* 8 m - under the direction of h \§ ................... Dissertation Committee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Dean of The Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of the re quirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Dean COMMITTEE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am in d e b te d to m any people for th e support and a s s is ta n c e th e y gave me w ith my s tu d ie s and d is s e rta tio n . To th e members of my g u id an ce an d d is s e rta tio n co m m ittees, my th an k s for th e ir v alu ab le critic ism and warm en couragem ent. Bill Ofman serv ed as a helpful and v a lu a b le c h airp erso n and with d e d ic a te d support during th e seven long y ears of my m atricu latio n a t USC. Dr. H ocevar gave v alu a b le an d in sig h tfu l a d v ic e on handling s ta tis tic a l m a te ria ls . M y th a n k s to A1 M arsto n for h is sc h o la rly o b se rv a tio n s both in th e classro o m and with th e d i s s e r ta tio n and for h is g u id an ce during my c lin ic a l s tu d ie s . This stu d y would not have been p o ssib le w ithout th e support of th e H ealth S erv ic es School of San Jose Com m unity C o lle g e --m y a p p re c i a tio n to th e ir fac u lty and, e s p e c ia lly , to M ary Kuhn and th e sta ff of the C o u n selin g and H ealth S erv ices D epartm ent of C ity C o lle g e . I w ant to extend my w arm est an d s in c e re s t ap p reciatio n to S hirley for her p a tie n c e , en d u ran ce, work, and support during th e long le an y ears of study and th e la s t six m onths of co n c e n tra ted effort. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page L ist of T a b le s .. ..................................................... ;;v C hapter I INTRODUCTION............................................................................................. 1 Statem ent of th e Problem S ig n ifican ce of th e Study S pecific R esearch Q u estio n s R esearch H y p o th eses N ull H y p o th eses A ssum ptions D elim itatio n s of th e Study D efinition of Terms O rganization of th e Study II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE........................... 14 Seligm an and th e C oncept of H e lp le s s n e s s In te rn a l-E x te rn a l Locus of Control V ariables O ther L iterature H isto ric a l Review of th e A ssertio n L iterature Recent S tudies on A ssertio n Sex of T h erap ist L iterature C o n clu sio n s III METHODOLOGY.......................................................................................... 39 R esearch Sam ple G roup L ead ersh ip R esearch D esig n Instru m en tatio n Data G athering and D ata A nalysis iii C hapter IV V Page FINDINGS................................................................................................... 55 P rete st D ifferences R esu lts D is c u ss io n SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. . . 69 Summary Im p licatio n s and L im itations Recomm en d atio n s REFERENCES.................................................................................................77 APPENDIX A . .......................................'.....................................................91 APPENDIX B............................................. 94 APPENDIX C .............................. 97 APPENDIX D ............................................................ 99 Table 1 2 LIST OF TABLES Page D em ographic D ata for All G ro u p s.....................................................43 P o stte st M ea n s, F T est R esults on O ne-W ay A nalysis of V ariance on All M e a su re s For All G ro u p s............................................................................................................ .58 v CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION S tatem ent of th e Problem Erwin Singer (1965) has s ta te d , th e " . . . sin g le proposition w hich u n d e rlie s a ll forms of p sy ch o th erap y : The proposition th a t man is cap a b le of ch an g e and cap a b le of bringing th is change about h im self . . . " (p. 16). S in g e r's su p p o sitio n sim ply n o tes th a t the aim s of psy^ ch o th erap y are d ep en d en t upon a re sto ra tio n of se lf-d e te rm in a tio n . Lon don (197 5) s u g g e ste d th a t fundam ental to th e re sto ra tio n of se lf-d e te rm ir atio n is a b a s ic s e n s e of co n tro l. S ense of control, su g g e ste d London (197 5) is th e o b je c tiv e of a ll th erap y . It is the a ttitu d e , th e b a s ic c o n cern in p e o p le 's liv e s th a t in order to function th e y m ust have some c o n tro l o ver th e ir liv e s . A la ck of s e n s e of control in in te rp e rso n a l dysfunc tio n a l re la tio n sh ip s m eans th e "person . . . la c k s th e control over s o c ia l v a lid a tio n p r o c e s s e s . He d o e s n 't know how to make it so c ia lly " (London, 1975, p. 1). Recent y ears have see n th e trem endous growth of new p sy c h o th erap y and co u n selin g tre atm e n t a p p ro a c h e s. In the foreground of th e new-found ro le s of w om en's m o v e m e n ts , a s s e rtio n tra in in g h as becom e one of th e new much u se d th e ra p e u tic a p p ro a c h e s. A ssertion train in g is d^- 1 2 rived h isto ric a lly from so c ia l learn in g theory but has some e lem en ts and com ponents from psychodynam ic ap p ro a c h e s (Lazarus, 1966; W olpe, 1969; Bandura, 1969; C o rsin i, 1966; M oreno, 1946; Alberti & Emmons, 1970; Sm ith, 1975; Lange & Jakubow ski, 1975). A ssertio n tra in in g , as do o th er p sy ch o lo g ica l in te rv e n tio n s, rarely has s p e c ta c u la r r e s u lts but a s a tre atm e n t m ethod it is being prom oted w ithout re s e a rc h te s tin g or ev en form al e v alu atio n (Bandura, 1969). A ssertion train in g is prom oted as a m ethod w ith im m ediate c o n s e q u e n c es but h as b een re se a rc h e d little , alth o u g h a v ariety of w orks and sy ste m s have been d ev elo p ed re c e n tly : C reativ e A ggression (Bach, 197 4); Your P erfect Right (Alberti & Emmons, 197 4); W hen I say No, I Feel G uilty (Smith, 1975); The A ssertiv e Woman (Phelps, 197 5); R esp o n sib le A ssertiv e Behavior (Lange & Jakubow ski, 197 6). W olpe, L azaru s, M a rs - ton and M cF all, Smith, Lange and Jakubow ski, and o th ers have d e v e l oped sy ste m s and procedures for a s s e rtio n tra in in g . The e ffic a c y of a s s e rtio n tra in in g as it is being p re se n te d by current w riters n e e d s stu d y . U ntil re c e n tly th ere have b een re la tiv e ly few co n tro lled stu d ie s on th e th e ra p e u tic effica c y of a s s e rtio n tra in in g . M o st of th o se stu d ie s c o n ce n tra ted on th e sp e cific com ponents and v a ria b le s in v o lv ed in a s s e r tion tra in in g . Furtherm ore, th e y were fo c u se d on th e s y ste m a tic and b e havior a lly o rien ted a s s e rtio n tre a tm e n ts d ev elo p ed early . M ore re c e n tly d ev elo p ed ap p ro ach es have not b e e n s tu d ie d . D evelopm ent of e ffic a c io u s 3 m ethods of tre atm e n t does not m ean th a t th e ch an g es a c h iev ed , by d iv erse app ro ach es involving w hat ap p ear to b e common p ro c e s s e s , are n e c e s s arily due to any one common facto r (W eitzm an, 1967). Both b eh av io ral and psychodynam ic ap p ro ach es involve common ch an g e p r o c e s s e s . The s u c c e s s e s of change are brought about by focusing on the; sp e c ific th e r a peutic g o als in v o lv ed . There a re no stu d ie s known to th is in v e stig a to r w hich s p e c ific a lly a d d re ss w hat London has referred to a s th e fundam ental goal of a ll psy ch o th erap y : th e re sto ra tio n of se lf-d e te rm in a tio n . In fact, th at is p re c ise ly w hat th e d efin itio n of th e term "a sse rtio n " m eans: it is the feeling of power and in d ep en d en ce w hich every person h a s when he is his.ow n ultim ate judge of his,; own beh av io r (Smith, 197 5). Jak u b o w sk i-S p ecto r (197 3) sta te d th a t a m ajor goal of a s s e rtio n training is to build a p erso n al b e lie f system w hich w ill h elp th e c lie n t to support and ju stify her actin g a s s e r tiv e ly . P h ilo so p h ically , Jak u b o w sk i- S pector is not only ech o in g th e so c ia l learning th e o re tic a l b a s e of a s s e r tion training but a ls o th e b e lie fs of Kelly (1955), Jack so n (1967), Fromm- Reichm an (1959), and Arieti (197 4). S en se of control is a n e c e s s a ry co n dition or p ro c ess for th e fu lly functioning p e rso n ality . It is the p u rpose of th is study to in v e s tig a te tw o m odes of a s s e r tiv e tra in in g — S y stem atic and E xperiential, and to determ ine w hich of th e s e tre atm e n ts is e ffectiv e in fa c ilita tin g ch an g e, if any, in th e d ire c 4 tio n of a s s e r tiv e b eh av io r and in th e d ire c tio n of an in n er a n d /o r in tern a l s e n se o f co n tro l. A ssertion Training A ssertio n tra in in g has b een recom m ended and is being promoted as a th e ra p e u tic approach for women who are in some way in h ib ited by an in te rp e rso n a l situ a tio n or ex h ib it in te rp e rso n a l an x iety , d e p re ssio n , and d e fic its . A ssertio n , in itia lly defined by W olpe an d L azarus (1966), is u se d to co v er a ll s o c ia lly a c c e p ta b le e x p re ssio n s of p erso n al rig h ts and fe e lin g s. It is a com plex c o n stru ct producing a v a rie ty of com ponent b e haviors involving a sty le of em otional e x p re ssio n , p o stu re, fa c ia l e x p re ss io n s, some v erb al sp e e c h c h a ra c te ris tic s and s o c ia lly appropriate co n te x t. It is b ehavior w hich e n a b le s a p erson to a c t in her own b e s t in te re s t, to stan d up for h e rse lf w ith m inim al a n x ie ty , to e x e rc ise her rig h ts w ithout denying o th e rs' rig h ts (Alberti <5c Emmons, 197 0). Smith (197 5) s u g g e sts th a t u n a s se rtiv e beh av io r is th e re s u lt of fe e lin g s of p o w e rle ssn e ss and d ep en d en ce th a t com e from doubt th a t e ac h and every person is h is own u ltim ate judge of h is own behavior. ■Inner a n d /o r In te rn al S e n se of C ontrol S ense of co n tro l, s u g g e sts London (1975), is the o b jectiv e of a ll th erap y . It is th e a ttitu d e , th e b a s ic concern in p e o p le 's liv es th a t in order to function th e y m ust have some control o ver th e ir liv e s . A la c k of 5 s e n s e of control in in te rp e rso n a l d y sfu n c tio n a l re la tio n sh ip s m eans th e "person . . . la c k s th e control over s o c ia l v a lid a tio n p ro c e s s e s . He d o e s n 't know how to make is so c ia lly " (London, 1975, p. 1). In te rn a l-e x te rn a l lo c u s of control re fers to th e p ercep tio n of p o s i tiv e a n d /o r n e g a tiv e ev en ts as being a c o n s e q u e n c e of o n e 's own a c tio n s in ce rta in situ a tio n s or /b ey o n d p erso n al control (Lefcourt, 1966). The p re se n t study re p re s e n ts an o th er effort to id en tify and e v a lu a te further th e th e ra p e u tic e ffic a c y of both th e ex p e rie n tia l and th e s y s tem atic a p p ro a ch e s to a s s e rtio n tra in in g ^ /to stu d y th e re la tio n s h ip of a s s e rtio n tra in in g to th e co n c e p t of in n er a n d /o r in tern a l s e n se of control. S ig n ifican ce of th e Study C o n c lu sio n s b a s e d on th e d ata derived from th is study could affect th e a s s e r tio n train in g m odes cu rren tly u tiliz e d in different s e ttin g s , ■including c o lle g e s and u n iv e rsitie s, to e n h an ce the p erso n al grow th of women. If it can bo dem o n strated th a t one kind of a s s e rtio n group is more effe c tiv e th an th e o ther, th e n th e em p h asis may be p lac e d on th e m ost e ffe c tiv e tre a tm e n t. E valuation is an im portant q u e s tio n . Efficacy should be m e a su r a b le . This stu d y may d em o n strate a v arie ty of w ays in w hich th a t e ffi ca c y may be o b serv ed and m ea su red . The study may a ls o provide d ata in ■instruments w hich are re lia b ly d ia g n o stic or p re d ictiv e of a need for a s c - / se rtiv e tra in in g . S p ecific R esearch Q u e stio n s W hat is th e th e ra p e u tic e fficacy of an e x p e rie n tia l a s s e rtio n training treatm ent a s m easu red by th e Rathus A s s e rtiv e n e s s S chedule and a Behavioral A sse ssm e n t T est in a group of c o lle g e -a g e women who v o lu n teer for a s s e rtio n tra in in g ? W hat is th e th e ra p e u tic e ffic a c y of a s y ste m a tic a s s e rtio n tra in in g treatm en t a s m easu red by th e Rathus A s s e rtiv e n e s s S chedule and a B ehavioral A sse ssm e n t T est in a group of c o lle g e -a g e women who v o lu n teer for a s s e rtio n tra in in g ? What i s th e effect of ex p e rie n tia l a s s e r tiv e train in g on th e in d iv id u a l's s e n s e of control a s m easured by the Inner and E x isten tial S c a le s of th e P erso n ality O rien tatio n Inventory and the Rotter Interna E xternal Locus of C ontrol S cale in a group of c o lle g e -a g e women who v olunteer for a s s e rtio n tra in in g ? W hat is th e effect of sy ste m a tic a s s e r tiv e tra in in g on th e in d iv id u a l's s e n s e of control a s m easu red by the Inner and E x isten tial S c a le s of th e P erso n ality O rien tatio n Inventory and th e Rotter Internal External Locus of C ontrol S cale in a group of c o lle g e -a g e women who v o lu n teer for a s s e rtio n tra in in g ? Is one group more e ffectiv e th an th e other in fa c ilita tin g ch an g e to wards a s s e r tiv e b eh av io r? Is one group more effectiv e th an th e other in fa c ilita tin g ch an g e t o 7 w ards inner a n d /o r in te rn a l s e n s e of c o n tro l? R esearch H y p o th eses E xperiential a s s e rtio n tra in in g w ill in c re a s e a s s e r tiv e b eh av io r as m easured by th e Rathus A s s e rtiv e n e s s S chedule and a Behavioral A sse ssm e n t T est in a group of c o lle g e -a g e women who v o lu n teer for a s s e rtio n tra in in g . S y stem atic a s s e rtio n tra in in g w ill in c re a s e a s s e rtiv e b eh av io r a s m easured by the Rathus A s s e rtiv e n e s s S chedule and a B ehavioral A ssessm e n t T est in a group of c o lle g e -a g e women who vo lu n teer for a s s e rtio n tra in in g . E xperiential a s s e rtio n tra in in g w ill modify and in c re a s e in n er a n d /o r in tern a l s e n se of control a s m easu red by th e In n er and E x iste n tia l S c a le s of th e P erso n ality O rien tatio n Inventory and th e Rotter Interna] E xternal L ocus of C ontrol S cale in a group of c o lle g e - a g e women who v o lu n teer for a s s e rtio n tra in in g . S y stem atic a s s e rtio n tra in in g w ill m odify and in c re a s e inner a n d /o r in te rn a l s e n se of control a s m easured by th e Inner and E x isten tia l S ca le s of the P erso n a lity O rien tatio n Inventory and th e Rotter Interna] External Locus of C ontrol S cale in a group of c o lle g e -a g e women who v o lu n teer for a s s e rtio n tra in in g . Null H y p o th eses On p re - and p o s t-m e a s u re s of a s s e rtiv e b eh av io r a s m easured by th e Rathus A sse rtiv e n e ss S chedule and a B ehavioral A sse ssm e n t T est th ere w ill be no sig n ific a n t d ifferen ce in th e m ean ch an g e sc o re s for women p artic ip a tin g in th e E xperiential A ssertio n group an d th o s e in the S y stem atic A ssertion group. On p re- and p o s t-m e a s u re s of a s s e rtiv e b eh av io r a s m easured by th e Rathus A s s e rtiv e n e ss S chedule an d a B ehavioral A sse ssm e n t T e st, th ere w ill be no sig n ific a n t d ifferen ce in th e m ean change sc o re s for women p a rtic ip a tin g in th e E xperiential A ssertio n group and th e S y s te m a tic A ssertio n group and th o s e in a control group. On p re - and p o s t-m e a s u re s of In n e r/In te rn a l S en se of C ontrol a s m easured by th e Inner and E x iste n tia l S c a le s of th e Rotter In te rn a l- E xternal Locus of C ontrol S c ale, th e re w ill be no sig n ific a n t d iffer en ce in th e m ean change sc o re s for women p artic ip atin g in th e Ex p e rie n tia l A ssertio n group and th o se in th e S y stem atic A ssertio n group. On p re - and p o s t-m e a s u re s of In n e r/In te rn a l S en se of Control a s m easured by th e Inner and E x iste n tia l S c a le s of th e P erso n ality O ri en ta tio n Inventory and th e P ersonal S cale of th e Rotter In te rn a l-E x te rn a l Locus of Control S c a le , th ere w ill be no sig n ific an t differen ce in th e m ean change sc o re s for women p a rtic ip a tin g in th e Experiential. 9 A ssertion group an d th e S y stem atic A ssertio n group and th o se in a control group. A ssum ptions The Rathus A s se rtiv e n e ss S chedule c o n s titu te s a v alid m easure of a s s e rtiv e b eh av io r. The B ehavioral A sse ssm e n t T est c o n s titu te s a v a lid m easure of a s s e r tiv e b eh av io r. The Inner S cale of th e P erso n ality O rien tatio n Inventory (POI) c o n s ti tu te s a v a lid m easure of in n er s e n se of co n tro l. The E x isten tia l S ca le of th e P erso n ality O rien tatio n Inventory (POI) c o n s titu te s a v a lid m easure of in n er s e n s e of co n tro l. The Personal S ca le of th e Rotter In te rn a l-E x te rn a l Locus of Control S cale is a v a lid m easu re of in n er s e n s e of co n tro l. The P erso n al S cale of th e Rotter In te rn a l-E x te rn a l Locus of Control S cale is a v a lid m easu re of in te rn a l-e x te rn a l lo c u s of co n tro l. D elim itations of th e Study The random ly a s s ig n e d c lie n ts w ere s e le c te d on th e b a s is of v o lu n te e rs and c h o se n on th e b a s is of th e ir a v a ila b ility . The sco p e of th e stu d y w as confined to one c o lle g e population. This delim its g e n e ra liz a b ility . The sco p e of th e stu d y w as confined to c o lle g e -a g e women. This 10 d elim its g e n e ra liz a b ility . 4. There w as no control for th e im pact of classro o m and other e x p e ri e n c e s on th e s u b je c ts . 5. The s iz e of th e population sam ple w as sm all. 6. Group le a d e rsh ip s ty le s and p e rso n a litie s vary and can n o t be c o n tro lled re g a rd le s s of th e ty p e of group. 7. A ssertio n tra in in g does not fo llo w ^ )o n e s e t of procedures and te c h n iq u e s. For th e p u rp o ses of th is study the procedure of a s s e rtio n tra in in g (modified) dev elo p ed by Smith (197 5) and Lange and Jaku bow ski (1976) were u s e d . D efinition of Terms A ssertiv e B eh av io r: Behavior w hich e n a b le s a person to a c t in her own b e s t in te r e s ts , to stand up for h e rse lf w ith m inim al an x iety , to e x e r c is e her rig h ts w ithout denying th e rig h ts of o th ers (Alberti & Emmons, 1970). A sse rtiv e T raining: A form of actio n -o rien ted s o c ia l learn in g theory, h u m an istic p sy ch o lo g y , and e x is te n tia l p sy ch o lo g y b a s e d th erap y w hich in c o rp o ra te s in to its treatm en t pro ced u res su ch a s : M o d e lin g : The c o u n se lo r or an o th er group member w ill r o le -p la y in order to illu s tra te w ays in w hich th e su b je c t m ight resp o n d in a g iven situ a tio n . B ehavioral R e h e a rsa l: N o n -th re a te n in g ro le -p la y in g situ a tio n s 11 w hich are e n a c te d u n til th e c o u n se le e fe e ls com fortable in his ro le . The s itu a tio n slow ly in c re a s e s th e th re a ten in g v ariab le as the c lie n t fe e ls com fortable. R o le-P lay in g : Acting out some s tre s sfu l situ a tio n a ffe c tin g )in te r- p erso n al re la tio n s by having th e s u b je c ts a ssu m e parts in sp o n ta n e o u s play Joy r e -e n a c tin g re a l life s itu a tio n s . In tern al Locus of C o n tro l: Refers to th e p ercep tio n of p o sitiv e a n d /o r n eg ativ e ev en ts a s being a c o n se q u e n c e of o n e 's own a c tio n s and th ereb y under p e rso n al c o n tro l. External Locus of C o n tro l: Refers to the p ercep tio n of p o sitiv e a n d /o r n e g ativ e e v e n ts a s being u n re la te d to o n e ’s own b e h av io rs in c e rta in s i t u a tio n s and th erefo re beyond p erso n al co n tro l. Ideology C o n tro l: The third^person ite m s of th e Rotter In te rn a l- External Locus of C ontrol S cale fo cu sin g on the c u ltu ra l b e lie fs about s e lf - in itia tiv e . Personal C o n tro l: The first-p e rso n item s of th e Rotter In te rn a l- External Locus of C ontrol S c ale , th e su b je c tiv e power co n cep t w hich p la c e s em p h asis on th e p e rso n 's a p p ra isa l of his own pow er. P erso n ality O rien tatio n Inventory (POI): The POI c o n s is ts of 150 tw o - ch o ic e co m p arativ e v alu e and b ehavior judgm ents in v en to ry for th e m e a s urem ent of s e lf - a c tu a liz a tio n . 12 Support R atio— Inner S c ale: A s c a le of th e POI w hich m easu res w hether re a c tiv ity o rie n ta tio n is b a s ic a lly tow ards s e lf. Support R atio— O uter S cale: A s c a le of th e POI w hich m e a su re s w hether re a c tiv ity o rie n ta tio n is b a s ic a lly tow ards o th e rs. E x is te n tia lity : A s u b - s c a le of th e POI w hich m e a su re s a b ility to s itu a tio n a lly or e x is te n tia lly re a c t w ithout rigid a d h e re n c e to p rin c ip le s. Rathus A sse rtiv e n e ss S c h e d u le : A m easure of a s s e r tiv e n e s s d e v e l oped by Rathus (197 3) b a s e d on W olpe an d L a z a ru s' (1966) s itu a tio n s and on item s from th e G uilford-Zim m erm an Tem peram ent Survey (1956) a s w ell as on item s from th e A-S R eaction Study (Allport, 1928). B ehavioral A sse ssm e n t T e s t: A t e s t w ith a s e rie s of in te rp e rso n a l en co u n ters requiring a s s e r tiv e r e s p o n s e s . Eight b eh av io ral com ponents of a s s e r tiv e n e s s w ere e s ta b lis h e d : duration of rep ly , re q u e sts for new b e h a v io rs, duration of looking, co m p lian ce co n te n t, la te n c y of re sp o n s e , a ffe c t, lo u d n e ss , and o v erall a s s e r tiv e n e s s (Eisler, H e rse n , & M iller, 197 3). This stu d y u s e s a m odified v e rsio n of th e t e s t w ith four b e h a v io r al com ponents: re q u e s ts for new b eh av io r, a ffe c t, lo u d n e ss , an d o v erall a s s e r t i v e n e s s . O rg an izatio n of th e Study C h ap ter II rev iew s th e p ertin e n t lite ra tu re on a s s e rtio n tra in in g , s e n s e of co n tro l, and in te rn a l-e x te rn a l lo cu s of co n tro l. 1 3 I C hapter III d e s c rib e s th e m ethodology of th e stu d y , including r e search sam p le, group le a d e rsh ip , re s e a rc h d e sig n , in stru m en tatio n , and th e lim ita tio n s . C hapter IV c o n ta in s th e findings of th e stu d y and a d is c u s s io n of the r e s u its . C hapter V is a summary of th e fin d in g s, c o n c lu s io n s , and recom m en d a tio n s. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE A lthough no th eo ry a d d re s s e s its e lf d ire ctly to a s s e r tio n and s e n s e of control as com ponents n e c e s s a ry for th e fu lly functioning p er so n a lity , a v a rie ty of th e o rie s m ake im p licit sta te m e n ts about s e n s e of control and a s s e rtio n a s b a s ic c o n c e rn s. London is not the only one to w rite about co n tro l. Jack so n (1967) com m ents th a t th e p erso n who has lo s t a s e n s e of control over so c ia l v a lid a tio n p ro c e s s e s is not in d is tre s s b e c a u s e he d o e s n 't know how to m ake it s o c ia lly , but b e c a u s e in in te r p e rso n a l situ a tio n s and com m unications th a t p erso n d o es not e x is t. He in fe rs th a t th e p erson who d o es not a s s e r t h im self does not e x is t. J a c k son (1967) s u g g e sts further th a t p eo p le, in order to confirm th e ir r e a litie s m ust refram e th e in te rp e rso n a l situ a tio n in order to r e e s ta b lis h , how ever d isto rte d , th e ir e x is te n c e . From m -Reichm ann (1959), w riting about lo n e lin e s s , c o n sid e rs th e e x p erie n c e a common fate in our culture," an u n v e rb a lize d bu t n ev e r th e le s s p o te n tia lly com m unicable e x p e rie n c e . She b e lie v e s th a t it is not th e deep th re a t of uncom m unicable, priv ate em otional e x p erien c e of se v e re lo n e lin e s s th a t is re a lly th e problem but b e lie v e s th a t th e a n sw er lie s in th e degree to w hich a p erson dep en d s on o th ers for his s e lf 14 15 o rie n ta tio n . It may be th a t for som e p eo p le, m aybe a ll, d y sfu n ctio n al s ta te s are prim itive se a rc h in g s or re e n a c tm e n ts of and for s o c ia l r e la tio n sh ip s th a t v a lid a te , an d th e degree and in te n s ity to w hich a person se e k s v a lid a tio n from e x tern al so u rce s (people, sym bols) is th e d egree to w hich pathology e x is ts (Fromm-Reichmann, 1959). Fromm-Reichmann to u c h e s on L ondon's c o n c e p t of a need for s e n s e of co n tro l. Jo ssely n (1971, 197 4) s u g g e sts th a t th e people she has stu d ied suffer from an in a b ility to m eet th e c h a lle n g e s o f in te rp e rso n a l re la tio n s h ip s . She c o n te n d s th a t th e y can be u n d ersto o d in term s of childhood d ep riv atio n s and s u g g e sts th a t re a c tiv a tio n of d ep riv atio n ex p e rie n c e s is at th e root of th e c h a n g e s in th e nature of an d in c id e n c e of p sy c h o th erap y . J o sse ly n co n ten d s th a t p aren ts fail to u n d erstan d th e real n e e d s th a t c h ild re n (and people) h av e. They m ake the fa lla c io u s assu m p tio n th a t th e c h ild 's n e e d s are param ount and m ust be met by o th ers and not by th e c h ild 's in itia tiv e so th a t th e ch ild grow s up failing to re a liz e th e n e c e s s ity of his own in itia tiv e . A rieti (1974) c o n te n d s th a t hum an c o n flic ts c a n d ev elo p far b e yond in s tin c tu a l d ep riv atio n and can n o t be ex p e rie n c e d w ithout in tric a te c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n . During th e developm ent of seco n d ary p ro c e s s e s , the ch ild d ev elo p s one of th re e w ays of re la tin g to th e world: 1) a n x ie ty and ap p ro ach , 2) a n g e r an d ap p ro ach , and 3) a n x ie ty and w ithdraw al. T h ese s ta g e s or m ajor w ays of b eh av in g are sim ilar to H o rn ey 's (1950) 16 "moving tow ard people, moving a g a in s t p eo p le, and m oving aw ay from p e o p le . " A rieti (197 4) s u g g e sts th a t during early ch ild h o o d , th e ex tern al control e x e rc ise d by th e p aren ts le n d s some s e n s e of control to th e child. But from a d o le s c e n c e on, co g n itiv e stru c tu re s re a c tiv a te a p ercep tio n of and s e n s e of lo s s of co n tro l. Seligm an and th e C oncept of H e lp le s s n e s s Seligm an (197 5), in w riting about h e lp le s s n e s s , s u g g e sts th a t human d e p re ssio n o ccu rs w hen th e person e x p e rie n c e s u n c o n tro llab ility of h is environm ent. H e, to o , a s does Jo sse ly n , su g g e sts an early c h ild hood d ep riv atio n . Seligm an w rite s th a t an infant deprived of m aternal stim u latio n is an infant deprived of control of h is stim u latio n , of the m ost im portant outcom e of his life . D ev e lo p m e n ta lly , th e in fan t finds p le a su re in co n tro llin g h is environm ent. S eligm an b e lie v e s th a t th e p ercep tio n of control b eg in s to d ev elo p very early in th e in fa n t's life . At som e prim itive or prim ary le v e l, th e in fan t le a rn s to p erceiv e s y n chrony b e tw een h is re sp o n s e s and o u tc o m e s. Seligm an p o s its th a t th e in fan t d ep riv ed of synchrony b e tw e en re s p o n s e and outcom e is suffering an in terru p tio n of re a ffe re n c e . The m other m ust provide re so lv a b le c o n flic t and fru stra tio n . A s e n s e of h e lp le s s n e s s re s u lts w hen th e r e s o lu tio n is im p o ssib le no m atter w hat th e in fa n t d o es. 17 In te rn a l-E x te rn a l Locus of Control V ariables S o cial learn in g theory (Rotter, 1954, 1955, 1960, 1966) d e v e l oped th e c o n c e p tu a l background for th e lo cu s of control v a ria b le . Rotter w rite s: "The p o ten tia l for a s p e c ific b eh av io r d ire c te d tow ard a re in forcem ent to o c c u r in a p artic u la r situ a tio n is a function of the e x p e c t a n cy of th e o ccu rren c e of th a t reinforcem ent follow ing th e b eh av io r in th a t situ a tio n and th e v alu e of th e rein fo rcem en t in th a t situ atio n " (1967, p. 117). A ccording to Rotter (Rotter, Seem an, & Liverant, 1962), the c o n stru c t w as d e s c rib e d a s'd istrib u tin g in d iv id u als according to th e degree to w hich th e y a c c e p t p erso n al r e s p o n s ib ility for w hat h ap p en s to them . In te rn al control refers to th e p ercep tio n o f p o sitiv e a n d /o r n e g a tiv e ev e n ts a s being a c o n seq u e n c e of o n e 's own a c tio n s and, th ereb y , under p e rso n a l co n tro l. External control refers to th e p ercep tio n of p o s itiv e a n d /o r n e g a tiv e e v e n ts as being u n re la te d to o n e 's behaviors in c e rta in situ a tio n s and, th erefo re, beyond p e rso n a l control (Lefcourt, 1966). A lthough a re v ie w of th e In te rn a l-E x te rn a l C ontrol lite ra tu re re v e a ls no s tu d ie s co n cern ed w ith or com paring I-E w ith a s s e rtio n tra in ing, tw o v a ria b le s re le v a n t to a s s e rtio n and c o rre la te d with I-E have b een stu d ie d . O dell (1959), in a study co n cern in g p e rso n a lity c h a ra c te r is tic s of conform ers, found a sig n ific a n t re la tio n s h ip b etw een th e In te rn a l-E x te rn al Control S cale and te n d e n c ie s to conform . S u b jects 18 high in e x te rn a lity show ed g re a te r te n d e n c ie s to conform . Crowne and Liverant (1963) sup p o rted th e e v id e n c e of O d e ll's findings in a sim ilar stu d y using A sch -ty p e conform ity s itu a tio n s . Crowne and Liverant (1963) in terp reted th e ir re s u lts a s portraying th e conform er a s one who h as low e x p e c ta n c ie s of s u c c e s s in s o c ia lly e v a lu a tiv e s itu a tio n s as re fle c te d in a high e x te rn a l control or d e fe n se p atte rn . Of p artic u la r im portance to th is in v e stig a tio n is th e co n cep t of a n x ie ty . A nxiety is g en e ra lly a c c e p te d a s a v a ria b le in n o n -a s s e rtiv e b eh av io r (Smith, 1975; W olpe & L azaru s, 1966; S alter, 1949). S ev eral s tu d ie s have show n a re la tio n s h ip b etw een v ario u s m e a su re s of an x ie ty and th e I-E S c a le . B utterfield (1964), u sin g the C hild and W aterh o u se F ru stratio n R eaction Inventory and th e A1 p e rt-H a b e r F a c ilita tin g -D e b ili ta tin g T est A nxiety Q u e stio n n a ire , found the ex tern a l control w as p o s i tiv e ly re la te d to in tro p u n itiv e re s p o n s e s to fru stratio n and n e g a tiv e ly re la te d to c o n stru c tiv e re a c tio n s to fru stratio n . S tu d ies by F eather (1967), Liberty, B runstein, and M oulton (1966), Tolor and Reznikoff (1967), y ield ed sim ilar re la tio n s h ip s . Lefcourt (1976) tie s B ibring's (1953) ego fu n ctio n s d ire c tly to s e n s e of control when he d e s c rib e s th a t it is c o n c e iv a b le th a t a p e rs o n 's p ercep tio n of in te rn a l control may be the phenom enological sp e a k in g th e co u n terp art to ego stren g th . In o th er s tu d ie s , in v e s tig a tio n s hav e in d ic a te d th a t in te rn a ls e x h ib ite d more in itia tiv e in th e ir efforts to control th e ir environm ents 19 th an did e x te rn a ls (P hares, 1965; Seem an, 196 3; Seem an & Evans, 1962). Jam es, W oodruff, and W erner (1965) rep o rted th a t in te rn a ls can control not only th e ir environm ent b e tte r but a ls o th e ir own im p u lses b e tte r th an e x te rn a ls . Recent in v e s tig a tio n s have dem o n strated a re la tio n s h ip b etw een th e in te rn a l-e x te rn a l control v ariab le and ad ju stm e n t (Crego, 1970; Platt & E isenm an, 1968; G ottfurcht, 1974). G o ss an d M orosko (1970) found th a t in te rn a lly o rie n te d a lc o h o lic s rep o rted le s s an x ie ty , h e lp le s s n e s s , d e p re ss io n , an d c lin ic a l pathology on th e M in n e so ta M ulti p h a sic P erso n ality In v en to ry (MMPI). A bram ovitz (1969) n o ted e x te rn a ls ten d ed to report more fe e lin g s of anger and d e p re ssio n th an did in te rn a ls . The findings of th e s e s tu d ie s r a is e th e q u e s tio n s of w hether a b e lie f in ex te rn a l control produces p sy ch o p ath o lo g y or p sy ch o p ath o lo g y produces a b e lie f in ex te rn al co n tro l. The stu d ie s s u g g e st a ls o th a t ex tern al e x p e c ta n c y of co n tro l c an be ch an g ed to an in te rn a l frame of re fe re n c e . The lite ra tu re supports the notion th a t th e stu d y of e x te rn a l- in te rn a l control c o n stru c t seem s re le v a n t to th e study of behavior p a th ology, to p sy c h o th e ra p y . As in d ic a te d a b o v e, se v e ra l s tu d ie s have su g g e ste d th a t ex tern al e x p e c ta n c y can be c h a n g e d in th e d irectio n of in te rn a l co n tro l. The p au city of re se a rc h su g g estin g th a t I-E lo c u s of co n tro l can be m odified in th e d ire ctio n of th e in te rn a l fram e d em o n stra te s a need for further 20 work. Joe (1971) s u g g e sts a n eed for the ex p lo ratio n of so u rces for th e m odification of th e e x te rn a l e x p e c ta n c y of c o n tro l. To d a te , a rev iew of the lite ra tu re re v e a ls no stu d ie s exploring th e re la tio n s h ip b etw een a s s e rtio n tra in in g and a s e n s e of control and a s s e rtio n tra in in g and th e In te rn al-E x tern al Locus of C ontrol C o n stru c t, and no s tu d ie s su g g estin g that a s s e rtio n tra in in g c an be e ffic a c io u s a s a tre atm e n t m odifying th e d ire c tio n of th e e x te rn a l-in te rn a l o rie n ta tio n . O ther L iterature O ther th e ra p is ts and th e o ris ts have d is c u s s e d th e im portance of the fe elin g of s e n s e of co n tro l. S later (1971) w rites th a t Am erican c u l ture fru s tra te s : a) th e d e sire for engagem ent, so c ia l and in te rp e rso n a l; and b) th e w ish to sh are re s p o n s ib ility for th e control of o n e 's im p u lse s and d ire c tio n s . S alter (1949) b e lie v e s th e new born in fa n t's b eh av io r is e x c ita to ry — th a t in fa n ts a c t w ithout re s tra in t, th a t th e b a s is of life is e x c ita tio n , we feel by doing, and we do by f e e lin g --a n d th a t n e u ro sis is th e re s u lt of th e in h ib itio n of th e e x c ita tio n re s p o n s e . Too many people are e x c e s s iv e ly in h ib ito ry , and have e la b o ra te ra tio n a liz a tio n s th a t m atch th e ir co n d itio n in g . He further b e lie v e s th a t a ll s e lf - c o n s c io u s n e s s is b a s e d on e x c e s s iv e c o n s c io u s n e s s of an o th er p erso n . N obody is d isc o n te n te d w ith h im self u n le s s he is d isc o n te n te d w ith h is re la tio n s h ip s w ith o th er people (S alter, 1949). W h ite 's (1959) co n cep t of co m p eten ce lo o k s a t b eh av io r as 21 d ire c te d , s e le c tiv e , an d p e rs is te n t, and co n tin u ed not b e c a u se it s e rv e s primary d riv e s, w hich in d eed it cannot serv e un til it is a lm o st perfect, but b e c a u s e th a t beh av io r s a tis fie s an in trin s ic n eed to d e a l with th e environm ent. W hite (1965) refers further to a s e n s e of co m p eten ce and c o n te n d s th a t a s e n s e of h e lp le s s n e s s , or ex tern al o rie n tatio n , re su lts in d is s a tis fa c tio n in s o c ia l in te ra c tio n and even extrem e pathology. Adler (1925) g o es a s far as to s ta te th a t th e need to control o n e 's p erso n al environm ent is an in trin s ic n e c e s s ity of life its e lf . D eCharm s (1968) p o sits th a t the prim ary m otivation of man is a p ro p en sity to be e ffe c tiv e in producing c h a n g e s in h is environm ent. M an striv e s to be a c a u s a l a g e n t, to be a prim ary lo cu s of c a u s a tio n for h is b eh av io r. He striv e s for p erso n al c a u s a tio n . Zimbardo and M iller (1958) s u g g e st th a t e ffe c t ing a ch an g e in th e environm ent is th e b a s ic m otivation of m an. Kelly (1955), w hile not w riting ab o u t th e re la tio n s h ip b etw een a lack of s e n se of control and d e p re ssio n , d o es d is c u s s th e re la tio n b e ^ tw een control and a n x ie ty . Kelly co n te n d s th a t people form b e lie f s y s tem s in order to p red ict and control th e c o u rse of e v e n ts in th e ir liv e s . W hen th e system b re a k s down, a n x ie ty r e s u lts . Lefcourt (197 3) summed up th e e s s e n c e of m ost of th e control r e sea rc h in h is paper d ealin g w ith th e p ercep tio n of control in man w hen he co n clu d ed th a t s e n s e o f control g iv es one th e illu sio n th a t we can e x e rc ise p e rso n a l ch o ic e ; s e n se of control h a s a d e fin ite and p o sitiv e 22 role in su sta in in g life . Dweck and R epuccie (197 3), in re s e a rc h w ith ch ild ren , have show n th a t ch ild ren who give up in th e face of re s p o n s e -c o n tin g e n t failu re do so b e c a u s e th e y do not p erceiv e th e re sp o n s e -o u tc o m e co n tin g e n c y . Dweck (197 5) in d ic a te s th a t th e d e b ilita tio n e ffe c ts of learn ed h e lp le s s n e s s in c h ild re n could be re v e rse d through a re a ttrib u tio n tra in ing program . W hen th e parent te a c h e s th e ch ild to m ake an effort rather th an an a b ility attrib u tio n , th e c h ild le a rn s th e re la tio n s h ip b etw een his a c tio n s and th e ir outcom es and com es to p erceiv e th a t he can control th e production of re in fo rc e rs. Although th ere is little em p irical data to d em o n strate w hether the m otivation to effect c h a n g e and control is le a rn e d or in n a te , th ere a p p ea rs to be a w ide ag reem en t among th e o ris ts th a t man n e e d s to and is m otivated to co n tro l. There a p p e a rs to be a s much ag reem en t on th e d e b ilita tin g e ffec ts of th e a b s e n c e of, or p erceiv ed a b s e n c e of, s e n s e of c o n tro l. H isto ric a l Review of th e A ssertio n L iterature U ntil re c e n tly th e re have b een re la tiv e ly few co n tro lled stu d ie s on th e th e ra p e u tic e ffic a c y of a s s e rtio n tra in in g , much l e s s the s p e c ific com ponents and v a ria b le s in v o lv ed in such th erap y , and even l e s s c o n cerning th e e ffic a c y of su ch tre atm e n t for wom en. Cam eron (19 51), in a n e o -a n a ly tic th e o re tic a l ap p ro ach , s y ste m iz e d a fo u r-s te p procedure for 23 a s s e rtiv e tra in in g . The procedures in clu d ed : 1) reco g n itio n of h o s tility by th e c lie n t; 2) p rep aratio n of the c lie n t for a s s e r tio n beh av io r tow ard th e id e n tifie d o b je c t(s) of h o stility ; 3) th e a c tu a l a s s e rtio n ; 4) p o s t a s s e rtio n th e ra p y . Kelly (1955) attem p ted to determ in e th e situ a tio n s in w hich p a tie n ts e x h ib ited d ifficu lty in th e ir p a s ts b e c a u s e of u n a s se rtiv e b eh av io r. He w ent on further to work on p re se n t situ a tio n a l d iffic u ltie s and th e a n tic ip a te d future a s s e r tiv e n e s s pro b lem s. But it was S alter (1949) who d ev elo p ed th e work th a t had led Cam eron, K elly, L azarus and others to th e c ritic a l c o n sid e ra tio n s of A ssertio n T raining. S alter (1949) p o site d in h is co n d itio n ed reflex- th erap y th a t man is co n d itio n ed to in h ib it h is a s s e r tiv e n e s s from b irth in order to conform to h is so c ia l environm ent. S alter h y p o th e siz e d on n e u ro sis th a t th e b e lie f th a t th e breaking of co n d itio n ed in h ib itio n s w as th e o b je c tiv e of p sy c h o th e ra p y . S alter ad d ed to h is b e lie f th e co n stru c t su g g e stin g th a t v e rb a liz a tio n s of em otions w ould e x te rn a liz e th e in h ib ite d re s p o n s e s . It w as W olpe (1958) who p re se n te d th e f ir s t sy ste m a tic d i s c u s s ion of a s s e rtio n tra in in g . He w as th e first in v e s tig a to r to la b e l th a t tre atm e n t A ssertio n Training. U tilizin g S a lte r's re c ip ro c a l in h ib itio n m odel, W olpe p o site d th a t a s s e r tiv e re s p o n s e s w ere in co m p atib le with an x ie ty . A sse rtiv e b eh av io r could be u tiliz e d to in h ib it an x ie ty . W olpe (1958) d em o n strated th a t a g e n e ra liz e d re d u c tio n of an x ie ty in so c ia l 24 s itu a tio n s is a function of th e a s s e r tiv e re s p o n s e in a n tic ip a te d s o c ia l e n c o u n te rs . D e sp ite th e early work an d th e o re tic a l p o sitio n s p o site d by S alter, Kelly and W olpe, few co n tro lle d stu d ie s on th e th e ra p e u tic e ffi c a c y of a s s e r tio n tra in in g h av e b e e n c o n d u c te d . W olpe and L azarus (1966), in a s s e rtio n tra in in g , have u s e d a v a rie ty of te c h n iq u e s : b eh a v io ra l re h e a rs a l, o p eran t sh ap in g , critic ism , r o le -p la y in g , ro le re h e a rs a l, fe e d b a c k , m odeling, re la x a tio n , fix -ro le - o r-s u g g e s t-w e th e ra p y . So th a t it a p p e a rs th a t the p au city of sy stem atic re s e a rc h is p artly th e re s u lt of th e com plexity, u n sy ste m a tic , and u n s ta n d a rd iz e d p ro ced u res of a s s e r tio n tra in in g . A ssertio n tra in in g , s u g g e s ts th e lite ra tu re , is e c le c tic . Two q u e s tio n s have a ris e n in th e lite ra tu re on th e m anner in w hich a s s e r tio n tra in in g h as b e e n u tiliz e d a s a tre a tm e n t. F irst, w hat is th e e ffic a c y of a s s e rtio n tra in in g a s a tre a tm e n t? One of th e d iffi c u ltie s m entioned before is th e m u ltip lic ity of tre a tm e n ts referred to a s a s s e rtio n tra in in g . S econd is th e problem of d efin itio n of a s s e r tiv e d e fic it. To id e n tify som eone a s u n a s s e rtiv e d o es not a d e q u a te ly id en tify th e n atu re of d ifficu lty b eh av io r nor d o es it point to th e e x a c t c o n te x t of d ifficu lty (M cFall & M arsto n , 197 0). To say th a t som eone is u n a s s e r t ive in a s o c ia l se ttin g sa y s nothing ab o u t th e p e rs o n 's a s s e r tio n w ith h is p a re n ts, w ife, em ployer, neig h b o r, e tc . It s a y s nothing ab o u t his 25 a s s e rtiv e b ehavior in a warm situ a tio n or an a g g re s s iv e -fig h t situ a tio n . The sec o n d q u e s tio n a risin g is im plied from q u e stio n one and h a s b een allu d ed to before in th is d is c u s s io n . A ssertio n tra in in g is a tr e a t m ent th a t i s com plex and em ploys num erous v a ria b le s (Wolpe & L a zaru s, 1966; M cFall & M arsto n , 1970). One stu d y c an n o t and should not a d d re ss its e lf to id e n tific a tio n of a ll v a ria b le s involved in a s s e rtio n tra in in g . Some of th e v a ria b le s m entioned before: b e h a v io ra l re h e a rs a l, co ach in g , ro le -p la y in g , m odeling, have b e e n stu d ie d and id e n tifie d . R ecent Studies on A ssertio n M cFall and M arsto n (197 0), in an effort to b eg in iso la tio n of v a ria b le s in a s s e rtio n tra in in g , stu d ie d b e h a v io ra l r e h e a rs a l in a s s e rtiv e tra in in g . They u s e d th e term b eh av io ral re h e a rs a l to refer to th e u s e of ro le -p la y in g te c h n iq u e in th e ra p y . M cF all an d M arsto n (1970) found b eh av io ral re h e a rs a l a p o te n tia lly effec tiv e tre a tm e n t te c h n iq u e . M cFall and L ille sa n d (1971) defined b eh a v io ra l re h e a rs a l a s a m ethod for providing p a tie n ts w ith re s p o n s e r e h e a rs a l. They follow ed up on th e M cF all an d M arsto n (197 0) stu d y and added sym bolic m odeling and co a c h in g . Their r e s u lts su g g e ste d th a t re h e a rs a l-m o d e lin g -c o a c h in g th erap y is p o ten tia lly e ffe c tiv e , and more s p e c ific a lly th a t a co v ert r e h e a rs a l procedure u s e d w ith m odeling and co ach in g and an overt pro cedure u se d w ith co a c h in g and m odeling w ere e ffe c tiv e th e ra p e u tic m ethods (M cFall & L ille sa n d , 1971). It w as su g g e ste d by th e ir study 26 th a t th e effect of re h e a rs a l-m o d e lin g -c o a c h in g treatm en t w as m ost e ffi c a c io u s in u n re a so n a b le re q u e st b e h a v io rs. M cFall and L ille sa n d (1971) p o site d th e h y p o th e sis th a t re fu s a l b eh av io r is a n x ie ty provoking b e c a u se it m ight in v o lv e overt n e g a tiv e re s p o n s e s th a t are a n tic ip a te d to invoke s o c ia l d isa p p ro v a l. R efusal re sp o n s e s th e n in h ib it to som e e x te n t th e s u b se q u e n t a s s e r tiv e beh av io r (M cFall & L ille sa n d , 1971). M cF all and M arsto n (1970), and o th e rs, have found little e v i d e n ce of g e n e ra liz a tio n of a s s e r tiv e n e s s . A ccording to them , a s s e rtio n tra in in g a p p e a rs to b e broad, n o n s p e c ific , and s itu a tio n a l. But M cFall and Tw entym an (197 3), on four ex p erim en ts on re h e a rs a l-m o d e lin g - c o a c h in g , found th e s e com ponents m ade sig n ific a n t co n trib u tio n s to re a l life s itu a tio n s . Bandura (1971) rep o rts th a t m odeling can produce th re e d iffer e n tia l ty p e s of e ffe c ts in c lie n ts . F irst, c lie n ts do ac q u ire new b e h a v io rs and in te g ra te th em . Second, m odeling d o es stren g th en or w eaken in h ib ito rs. Third, th e c lie n t le a rn s to d isc rim in a te o c c u rre n c e s and re s p o n s e s in th e sam e g e n eral c l a s s . M cFall and Tw entym an (197 3), in th e ir stu d y , s u g g e st th a t m odeling ad d s little or nothing to th e tre a tm e n t e ffe c t. But Bandura (1971 rep o rts th a t a m odel is highly in flu e n tia l a s a com ponent of tre a tm e n t. M cF all and Twentyman s u g g e st th a t m odeling a s a com ponent of a s s e rtio n tra in in g n e e d s further stu d y . 27 The work of L a zaru s, W olpe, S alter, M cF all and M arston have co n trib u ted to th e u n d erstan d in g of a s s e rtio n tra in in g . O thers have attem p ted to expand on th e a p p lic a b ility of a s s e r tio n tra in in g . Lomont, G ilm er, S pector, and Skinner (1969) su g g e ste d in th e ir work th a t a s s e r tio n tra in in g co u ld be e ffic a c io u s in'1 a group th e rap y s e ttin g . L azarus (1968) p o s its th a t d e p re ssio n is a function of in ad eq u ate or in su ffic ie n t rein fo rc e rs; th e d e p re ss e d p erso n em its a few p o sitiv e ly rein fo rced re s p o n s e s . L azarus d o es not s e p a ra te r e a c tiv e d e p re ssio n • •. ■ ' * v and g rief th e w ay th a t Freud d o e s . L azarus fe e ls an anxious person is resp o n d in g to noxious or th re a te n in g stim uli; a d e p re s s e d p erso n is on an e x tin c tio n tria l b e c a u s e som e sig n ific a n t re in fo rc e r h a s b e e n w ith draw n. Therapy o vercom es th e nox io u s e lem en ts in th e an x io u s person but d e p re sse d p a tie n ts req u ire a different sch e d u le or n e e d to le a rn a w ay of reco g n izin g an d u tiliz in g c e rta in rein fo rcers a t th e ir d is p o s a l. Among th e v a rie ty o f tre a tm e n ts s u g g e ste d by L azarus (19 68) for d e p re ssio n , th e one of co n cern for th is rev iew is th e co n c e p t of affective: e x p re ss io n . A ccording to L a zaru s, an y stim u lu s w hich c an sh a tte r th e p a tie n t's web of in e rtia w ill probably a ls o lift th e d e p re ssio n , a t le a s t tem p o rarily . L azarus h y p o th e siz e s th a t w hen an in d iv id u al fe e ls or e x p re s s e s an y strong fe elin g ■ th e d e p re ss iv e a ffe c t is broken. W hat L a z aru s d e sc rib e s is a form of a s s e r tio n tra in in g . Rimm (1967) rep o rts in a c a s e stu d y a tre a tm e n t of chronic crying 28 s p e lls . Rimm h y p o th e siz e s th a t h a b itu a l in h ib itio n of an g er had resultec. in th e chronic crying s p e lls . The p a tie n t w as a 3 8 -y e a r old n o n - a s s e r - tiv e m ale who w as an in -p a tie n t a t th e tim e o f th e a s s e r tio n tre atm en t. H is m ost strik in g ward b eh av io r w as prolonged periods of crying, one to th re e h o u rs, se v e ra l tim es a w eek. The p a tie n t rep o rted th a t th e crying w as a s s o c ia te d w ith situ a tio n s th a t m ade him angry; h is crying would m ake him even a n g rier and th e c y c le e s c a la te d . A ssertio n tra in in g w as in itia te d to in terru p t th is a n g e r-c ry in g - an g e r c y c le . The g o al w as to te a c h th e p a tie n t to be a s s e r tiv e rath e r th a n te a rfu l in th e fa c e of an a n g e r-p ro d u cin g situ a tio n . The tre atm e n t c o n s is te d of a com bination of ro le -p la y in g and shock e s c a p e te c h n iq u e s . Shock w as a d m in iste re d to th e p a tie n t un til;' r e s p o n d e d 't o ( t o l d off) th e ro le -p la y in g th e ra p is t. After a few s e s s io n s th e shock w as ab an d o n ed and only th e ro le -p la y in g s itu a tio n s adm in is te r e d and co n tin u ed u n til th e p a tie n t w as ab le to re sp o n d in convincing a s s e r tiv e b eh av io r. Treatm ent w as s u c c e s s fu l an d th e p a tie n t co ntinued s u c c e s s fu l in te rp e rso n a l re la tio n s a fte r h is h o s p ita l d isc h a rg e . Lomont, G ilm er, S p ecto r, an d Skinner (1969) com pared th e e ffi c a c y of group a s s e rtio n th era p y and group in sig h t th e ra p y . The tw o ty p e s of group th erap y were c o n d u c te d on groups of n o n -p sy c h o tic h o s p ita liz e d p a tie n ts . The tw o groups w ere m atched on m ean IQ^and MMPI s c a l e s . The a s s e r tiv e th e ra p y in v o lv ed th e p ra c tic e of a s s e r tiv e b e h a v 29 io rs in ro le -p la y in g s itu a tio n s . For e a c h in te ra c tio n p rac tic e d th e re w ere se v e ra l m odel sc rip ts w hich s u c c e s s iv e ly in c re a s e d critic ism and a g g re ss io n d ire c te d a t th e p a tie n t. The p a tie n ts w ere ad m in iste red th e MMPI and the L eary In te rp e rso n a l C h eck L ist. On a ll c lin ic a l s c a le s th e a s s e rtio n group show ed a g re ate r c h a n g e . The a s s e rtio n group show ed an in c r e a s e on th e dom inance s c a le of th e In te rp e rso n a l C heck L ist. Lomont, G ilm er, S pector, an d Skinner co n clu d ed th a t a s s e rtio n th era p y produces g re a te r p e rso n a lity ch an g e th an group in sig h t th erap y (at l e a s t for th e ir p a rtic u la r p opulation). Bloom field (197 3) rep o rted on th e u s e of a s s e r tiv e tra in in g in an o u tp atie n t group of ch ro n ic s c h iz o p h re n ic s . Bloom field n o ted th a t schiz-' o p h ren ics te n d to b e co m p lian t, su b m issiv e , and s o c ia lly in h ib ite d . He w orked w ith m ale an d fem ale p a tie n ts d ia g n o se d a s chronic sc h iz o p h re -y n ic s'.w ith a L le a st tw o h o s p ita liz a tio n s . The tre a tm e n t c o n s is te d of o n e - hour w eekly group s e s s io n s w ith c o - th e ra p is t s . Bloom field co n clu d ed that a s s e r tiv e tra in in g w as s u c c e s s fu l in d e c re a sin g th e s o c ia l a n x ie ty and in c re a sin g th e ran g e of in te rp e rso n a l s k ills for o u tp a tie n ts . He n o ted th a t th is p a rtic u la r p o p u latio n n e e d e d th e p recau tio n of feed b ack from th e environm ent. That feed b ack n e e d e d to b e su p p o rtiv e and p o sitiv e . Shoem aker an d Paulson (197 3) rep o rted on group a s s e rtio n tra in ing for m others a s a fam ily in terv e n tio n in a c h ild o u tp a tie n t se ttin g . Their group m et tw ic e a w eek for an hour and a h alf. The procedure in - 30 elu d ed b e h a v io ral re h e a rs a ls and s o c ia l p ra ise . The pro ced u res were b a s e d on Alberti and Emmons (1974). Shoem aker and P aulson (197 3) found th a t m others have b een more a v a ila b le for tre a tm e n t w hen th e p resen tin g c r is is has b een rep o rted to be a "fam ily p ro b le m ." M others often ex h ib it high a n x ie ty , a s s e r tiv e d e fic its th a t re s u lt in unpro d u ctiv e "blo w u p s, " The a s s e r tiv e train in g re v e a le d a b a s ic need for im proved com m unication s k ills an d in c re a s e d p o sitiv e d e c isio n -m a k in g . E isler and M iller (197 3) a d m in istered th e W o lp e-L azaru s A s s e r tiv e n e s s S cale and th e W illoughby P erso n ality S ch ed u le to 30 m ale h o s p ita liz e d p a tie n ts d ia g n o se d a s sc h iz o p h re n ic s, n e u ro tic s, or as having c h a ra c te r d iso rd e rs. The p a tie n ts p a rtic ip a te d in a s s e r tiv e n e s s tra in in g en co u n ters w ith a fem ale ro le m odel a ctin g a s a w ife, c le rk , e tc . T hese m odels were tra in e d to a c t in n e u tra l, stan d ard w a y s. The situ a tio n s c a llin g for a s s e r tiv e r e s p o n s e s on th e part of th e p a tie n ts w ere v id e o ta p e d and ra te d in d ep e n d e n tly by tra in e d ju d g es on th e follow ing b e h a v io rs : 1) nonverbal b e h a v io r— duration of looking, sm iles; 2) sp e e c h c h a r a c te r is tic s — duration of re p ly , la te n c y of re s p o n s e , lo u d n e ss of sp e e c h , flu en cy of sp e e c h ; 3) co n te n t and a ffe c t--c o m p lia n c e co n ten t, co n ten t re q u e stin g new b eh av io r, affe c t; 4) o v e ra ll a s s e r tiv e n e s s . The p a tie n ts w ere div id ed in to o v erall a s s e r tiv e n e s s groups:high a s s e r tiv e n e s s and low a s s e r tiv e n e s s . High a s s e r tiv e b eh av io r p a tien ts 31 differed s ig n ific a n tly from low a s s e r tiv e s in th e follow ing a re a s: 1) r e s ponded m ore*quickly and of sh o rter duration, 2) sp o k e in a stronger, louder v o ic e , 3) w ere l e s s com pliant w ith th e ro le m odel, 4) were more w illing to re q u e s t new b eh av io r, 5) w ere more e x p re ss iv e of a ffe ct, 6) had higher W o lp e-L azaru s s c o re s . F erster (1973) rep o rted on th e e ffe c tiv e n e s s of a s s e rtio n train in g for th e treatm en t of d e p re ss io n . F erster d e s c rib e s d e p re ssio n a s the lo s s of c ertain k in d s of a c tiv ity (a ss e rtio n a c ts ) and th e in c re a s e of o th er kinds of a c tiv itie s (avoidance and m a g ical e s c a p e b eh av io rs such a s co m p la in ts, cry in g , irrita b ility ). He c o n sid e rs th e m ain o b je c tiv e of th erap y to be th e building of an a c tiv e b e h a v io ra l re p e rto ire , c o n c e n tra ting on th e m issin g com ponents and ignoring th e irra tio n a l b ehavior w hich is se e n a s re su ltin g from the lim ited b e h a v io ra l rep e rto ire . F erster s u g g e s ts th a t a s s e rtio n tra in in g e n a b le s th e person to in c re a s e h is b e h av io ral rep erto ire by: 1) augm enting v erb al re p e rto ire , 2) d eveloping an a c c u ra te v iew of how th e environm ent w orks, 3) learn in g p e rs is te n c e in v erb al a c tiv ity , 4) d ev elo p in g v erb al perform ances ab o u t em otional r e s p o n s e s, 5) d eveloping an d planning perform ances to term in ate or rem ove him self from the a v e rsiv e situ a tio n . Friedm an stu d ied th e effects of m odeling and ro le -p la y in g on a s s e r tiv e b eh av io r. The stu d y w as d e sig n e d to t e s t th e e ffe c tiv e n e s s of m odeling and ro le -p la y in g a s b e h a v io ra l ch an g e pro ced u res w hen th e b e 32 h av io r is in te rp e rs o n a lly o rien te d ra th e r th a n n o n in te rp e rso n a lly o rie n te d . Low a s s e r tiv e n e s s w as s e le c te d a s th e b e h a v io r to c h a n g e . Fifty m ale and fifty -o n e fem ale in tro d u cto ry p sy ch o lo g y stu d e n ts w ere s e le c te d a s s u b je c ts b e c a u s e of low a s s e r tio n sc o re s on the A ction S itu atio n In v en to ry and s e lf-re p o rts . They w ere a s s ig n e d to six t r e a t m ents of a s s e rtio n tra in in g . Friedm an s u g g e ste d th a t a s s e rtio n tra in in g w as effec tiv e a s a treatm ent#w ith th e m odeling plus ro le -p la y in g ap p ro ach su g g e stin g th e g re a te s t c h a n g e . A sse rtiv e inform ation rath er th an m odeling w as th e c ru c ia l m ediating v a ria b le lin k in g th e v erb al b e havior in a ll th e co n d itio n s s tu d ie d . There w as no sig n ific a n t ch an g e in th e m easu re of a n x ie ty . H ed q u ist and W einhold (197 0) exam ined th e a p p lic a b ility of a s s e rtio n train in g to group th e ra p y . They com pared th e L azaru s pro ce dures w ith s o c ia l learn in g p ro ced u res d e v e lo p ed by M ainord (1968). Hed-- q u ist and W einhold (197 0) found th a t both ex p erim en tal co n d itio n s pro d uced s ig n ific a n tly more v e rb a l a s s e r tiv e r e s p o n s e s in u n a s s e rtiv e c o l leg e stu d e n ts th a n did th e control situ a tio n of th e sam e c o lle g e p o p u la tio n . The work of L azarus and W olpe (1966), M cF all and M arsto n (197 0), and Lomont, G ilm er, S pector, and Skinner (1969) d em o n strates th e a p p lic a b ility an d e ffic a c y of a s s e rtio n tra in in g w ith u n a s s e rtiv e c o lle g e s tu d e n ts , s o c ia lly an x io u s v e te ra n s , and p assiv e , d e p re ss e d 33 m iddle -a g e d hous e wi ve s . Booraem and Flow ers (197 3) d ev elo p ed ad d itio n al p ro c e s s e s for th e u se of a s s e r tiv e tra in in g w ith se v e re ly d istu rb e d p s y c h ia tric i n p a tie n ts . They em ployed "n eg ativ e a s s e rtio n " te c h n iq u e s d ev elo p ed to te a c h p a tie n ts a v o id a n c e of unw arranted punishm ent follow ed by " p o s i tiv e a s s e rtio n " d e sig n e d to te a c h s o c ia l s k ills . Booraem and Flow ers su g g e ste d in th e ir work th a t a d e c re a s e in a n x ie ty and p erso n al sp a c e requirem ents is a function of a s s e rtio n tra in in g . N ydegger (197 2) and Bloomfield (197 3) have both u tiliz e d a s s e r t ion train in g w ith in -p a tie n t an d o u t-p a tie n t s c h iz o p h re n ic s . In both stu d ie s a s s e r tiv e tra in in g proved e ffic a c io u s . N ydegger sp e c ific a lly stu d ied th e elim in atio n o f h a llu c in a to ry an d d e lu sio n a l b e h a v io r. The goal w as freq u en cy of in c r e a s e of in te rp e rso n a l c o n ta c ts and a s s e r tiv e beh av io r. It w as a c c o m p lish e d . Flow ers and G uerra (197 4) s u g g e ste d in th e ir work on c lie n t co ach in g th a t it is a v a lu a b le and e ffic a c io u s procedure in a s s e rtio n train in g w ith larg e g ro u p s. They em ployed th e c lie n t's s e le c tio n of th e a s s e rtio n s tra te g y a s th e d ep en d en t m easure and found th a t a su b jec t co ac h e d by a fellow c lie n t perform ed b e tte r in la te r a s s e rtio n . They found a ls o th a t c lie n ts co a c h e d perform ed b e tte r th a n c lie n ts who had not had any co ach in g e x p e rie n c e s . 34 Sex of T h e rap ist L iterature As m ost of th e s e s tu d ie s have been re se a rc h e d by s o c ia l le a r n ing th e o r is ts , th e q u e s tio n s h av e a d d re s s e d th e m se lv e s to th e com pon e n ts of tre a tm e n t. But p sy ch o th e rap y is a p ro c e ss th a t in v o lv es not o nly th e c lie n t but a ls o th e th e r a p is t. V ariables from both c lie n ts and th e ra p is t are im portant a s it h a s b een pointed out e lse w h e re in th is r e v ie w . Truax and Carkhuff (1967) have done, of c o u rse , co m p reh en siv e work on th e ra p is t v a ria b le s . C arso n and H eine (1963) su g g e st th a t a re la tio n s h ip e x is ts b etw een th e r a p is t- c lie n t sim ilarity and ra te d im prove m ent of th e c lie n t. K itchener (1966), u tiliz in g a Q -so rt, found sim ilarity of s e lf-c o n c e p t b etw een c o u n se lo r and c lie n t w as p o sitiv e ly re la te d to th e ra p e u tic p r o c e s s e s . S ap o lsk ly (1965), usin g th e FIRO-B S c a le , r e ported a p o s itiv e c o rrelatio n b etw een p a tie n t and doctor co m p atib ility and o u tco m e. There is e v id e n c e th a t s u g g e s ts th a t ap p ro a c h e s th a t e m p h asiz e a c tiv ity on th e part of th e th e ra p is t are p o te n tia lly p o sitiv e to outcom e (C aplan, 1964; L evine, 1966). No doubt th e re are many th e r a p is t v a ria b le s to stu d y . Of p a rtic u la r in te re s t to th is rev iew on a s s e rtio n tra in in g is se x of th e ra p is t a s a v a ria b le . A ssertio n tra in in g h as b een recom m ended and is b eing prom oted a s a th e ra p e u tic approach for a v a rie ty of d e fic ie n c ie s and s itu a tio n s . We have se e n from som e of th e re v ie w of th e lite ra tu re on a s s e rtio n tra in in g th a t b eh av io ral re h e a rs a l, co ach in g and m odeling have re su lte d 35 in effectiv e b e h a v io r c h a n g e . There is som e e v id e n c e to s u g g e st th a t a s s e r tiv e b eh av io r may d e c re a s e an x iety , fear of s o c ia l situ a tio n s and in te rp e rso n a l d is ta n c e . Further re s e a rc h in d ic a te s th a t a s s e rtio n training can be e ffic a c io u s w ith se v e re ly d istu rb e d a s w ell a s m oderately d is - . tu rb ed p a tie n ts a s long a s th e p ro ced u res a d d re s s th e m se lv e s to th e s p e c ific d ifficu lty of th e p a tie n t. Ja k u b o w sk i-S p ecto r (197 3) s u g g e s ts th a t women find th a t th e ir a n x ie ty in in te rp e rs o n a l c o n flic ts often p rev en ts them from e x p re ssin g th e ir tru e fe e lin g s . She further s u g g e sts th a t th re e tre n d s are r e s p o n s i b le for an a w a re n e s s and co n cern about th is d iffic u lty . One is th e c u r ren t c u ltu ra l im p erativ e for se lf-g ro w th w h ich h as p laced women in th e p o sitio n to d isc o v e r th e ir in te rp e rso n a l d iffic u ltie s . The seco n d tre n d is th e in fle x ib ility of se x ro le s a s s ig n e d to both women and men, and th e third tren d is th e grow th of th e w om en's m ovem en ts. A m ajor lim itatio n , s u g g e sts Jak u b o w sk i-S p ecto r (197 3), is a w om an's in a b ility for many women to be a s a s s e r tiv e a s th e y would lik e to b e . This lim itatio n or d e fic it h a s in c re a s e d th e dem and for a s s e r tiv e tra in in g for women. T h o resen and (Kurmboltz (1967) stu d ie d th e e ffe c tiv e n e s s of m ale and fem ale c o u n se lo rs and th e re la tiv e e ffe c tiv e n e s s of m ale an d fem ale so c ia l m odels in c o u n se lin g . They found th a t m odels in th e av erag e w ere more e ffec tiv e for m ales th an for fe m a le s. M a le s, th e study s u g g e s te d , re sp o n d e d b e s t w hen m ales w ere in a ll o th er ro le s and fem ales 36 re sp o n d e d b e s t when a m ale c o u n se lo r p re se n te d e ith e r an a ll-m a le or an a ll-fe m a le m odel. D aane and Schm idt (1957) found c o u n se lo rs of both s e x e s w ere ra ted high on em pathy w hen c o u n se lin g c lie n ts of th e sam e se x , b u t Pohlman (1964) found no re la tio n s h ip for c lie n t p re fe re n c e s for c o u n se lo rs a n d s u c c e s s of c o u n s e lin g . Koile and Bird (1956) found th a t c o lle g e stu d e n ts preferred a c o u n se lo r of th e sam e s e x , but th e num ber of problem s on w hich fem ales w ere w illing to c o n su lt a m ale c o u n se lo r w as g re a te r th an th e num ber of problem s on w hich a m ale stu d e n t w as w illing to c o n su lt a fem ale c o u n s e lo r. C e iu ta t (1964) found th a t com m ents m ade b y an ex p erim en ter of th e sam e se x w ere more e ffe c tiv e . T horesen (1968) s u g g e s ts th a t it may be th a t c e rta in ty p e s of m ale c o u n se lo rs are more effec tiv e w ith c e rta in ty p e s of c lie n ts , m ale or fem ale (K iesler, 1966; Paul, 1966). T horesen an d Krumboltz (1967) found th a t m ale m odels w ere more e ffe c tiv e for m ale th a n for fem ale c lie n ts but did not stu d y fem ale m odels for fem ale c lie n ts . T horesen and Krumboltz s u g g e st th a t th e s u c c e s s of a c o u n se lo r a s a m odel may depend on th e am ount of reg ard or p re stig e a ttrib u te d to him or her by th e c lie n t. One facto r n eed in g in v e stig a tio n is th e ty p e of fem ale m odel effe ctiv e w ith fem ale c lie n ts . Palmer (1971) s u g g e s ts th a t women who a re ex trem ely an x io u s ab o u t a g g re ss iv e b e h a v io r req u ire s p e c ia l p ro ced u res to d e s e n s itiz e them to th e ir own a g g re s s io n . Lomont (19 69) s u g g e sts th a t a s s e r tiv e ra th e r th a n a g g re s s iv e b eh av io r req u ires 37 a slow tria l- a n d - e rr o r p ro c e ss of g rad u ally lea rn in g and shaping ra th e r th an being bound by ru le s of b eh av io r. Jak u b o w sk i-S p ecto r (197 3) s u g g e sts th a t it is im portant th a t th e ra p is ts do not p u n ish women for th e s e s o -c a lle d " a g g re ss iv e m is ta k e s . " Even m ild th e ra p is t d isap p ro v al may r e in s ta te th e n o n - a s s e rtiv e b eh av io r p a tte rn . M ale th e ra p is ts may be p a rtic u la rly v u ln era b le to th is th e ra p e u tic error a s som e re s e a rc h s u g g e sts th a t m ale p sy c h o lo g ists r e a c t more unfavorably to a fe m a le 's " b itc h in e s s " th a n do fem ale p sy c h o lo g ists (Haan & L ivson, 1973; G o o d all, 1973). W hether or not se x of th e ra p is t in a s s e r tio n tra in in g w ill re s u lt in a sig n ific a n t differen ce h a s not b e e n stu d ie d . C o n clu sio n s In th e rev iew of th e g en eral lite ra tu re on a s s e rtio n tra in in g , s e v e ra l c o n c lu s io n s can b e c o n sid e re d . B ehavioral re h e a rs a l, c o a c h in g , m odeling have b ee n w ell d efin ed and s y ste m a tiz e d a s m ethods w hich produce e ffic a c io u s b eh av io r c h a n g e . The lite ra tu re s u g g e s ts a te n ta tiv e c o n c lu sio n m ay be drawn about g e n e ra liz a tio n of b eh av io r a s a re s u lt of b eh av io ral re h e a rs a l, co ach in g and m odeling in a s s e rtio n tra in in g . There is som e e v id e n c e to su g g e st th a t a n x ie ty m ay d e c re a s e a s a r e s u lt of a s s e rtio n tra in in g . There is am ple e v id e n c e to su g g e st th a t a s s e rtio n tra in in g m ay be a p p lic a b le <as a tre atm e n t m ethod for a v a rie ty of deficits, from m o d erately d istu rb ed to se v e re ly d istu rb e d . There is som e e v id e n c e 38 to su g g e st th a t th e s e x of th e th e ra p is t h as som e e ffe c t on th e re s u lts of co u n selin g but th e s p e c ific s itu a tio n s have y et to be id e n tifie d . Finally, th e re is am ple e v id en c e to su g g e st th a t a s s e rtio n tra in in g a s tre atm e n t i s e ffic a c io u s a s long a s th e p ro ced u res are s y ste m a tiz e d and tre atm e n t d e a ls w ith th e s p e c ific d e fic its of th e p a rtic u la r p o p u latio n . The in v e stig a tio n of a s s e rtio n tra in in g lite ra tu re found no stu d ie s w hich ex plored th e r e la tio n s h ip of a s s e rtio n tra in in g and s e n s e of c o n tro l. Nor did th e lite ra tu re r e v e a l any s tu d ie s w hich s u g g e ste d inner s e n s e of control a s a m easu re of th e e ffic a c y of a s s e r tio n tra in in g . CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY R esearch Sam ple The sam ple c o n s is te d of 52 fem ale c o lle g e stu d e n ts atten d in g th e School of H ealth S c ie n c e s at San Jo se Com m unity C o lleg e D istric t during th e Spring, 1977 s e m e ste r. V olunteers w ere o b tain ed from an n o u n cem en ts to th e freshm an c la s s s tu d e n ts . All v o lu n teers w ere p r e -te s te d and p o s t- te s te d before th e v o lu n te e rs w ere random ly a ssig n e d to th e control group or th e ex p erim en tal group. M em bers of th e e x p e ri m ental group w ere random ly a s s ig n e d to e ith e r a s y ste m a tic a s s e rtio n tra in in g group or a n e x p e rie n tia l a s s e rtio n tra in in g group. An effort w as m ade to ch e c k for m atch a ssig n m e n ts to a ll th re e groups b a s e d on th e p re te st sco re of th e Rathus A s se rtiv e n e ss S ch e d u le . No v o lu n tee rs w ere a s s ig n e d to a n o th er group a fte r th e ir in itia l p la c e m e n ts. The control group m em bers re c e iv e d no tre atm e n t but were to ld th a t th e ir a s s e rtio n tra in in g s e s s io n s would b egin at a la te r d a te during th e Spring, 1977 se m e ste r. M em bers of th e ex p erim en tal groups w ere told th e groups w ould co n tin u e for te n w e e k s, two hours per w eek . Each of th e tw o e x perim ental groups c o n s is te d o f 13 s tu d e n ts . The control group c o n s is te d of 26 s tu d e n ts . 40 To control for any v io la tio n s of th e a ssu m p tio n s underlying a n a l y sis of v a ria n c e , an attem p t was m ade to a c h ie v e and m aintain equal n 's during th e ex p erim en tal period. G roup L e a d e rsh ip C arkhuff (19 69) h as s u g g e ste d th a t th e group le a d e r is the sin g le m ost im portant v a ria b le in c lie n t c h a n g e . Jak u b o w sk i-S p ecto r (197 3) su g g e ste d th a t a fem ale m odeling figure is im portant in a s s e rtio n training w ith women. O ther w riters have s u g g e ste d a p o sitiv e co rre la tio n e x is ts b etw een c lie n t and c o u n se lo r co m p a ta b ility and outcom e (S apolosky, 1965). Both ex p erim en tal treatm e n t groups w ere led by tw o fa c ilita to rs : one m ale and one fem ale. Both le a d e rs had c o n sid e ra b le g rad u ate tra in ing in c o u n selin g and p sy ch o lo g y . Both had re c e iv e d tra in in g in a s s e r tio n groups from Smith (197 5). Both le a d e rs had b een em ployed by th e C o u n selin g D epartm ent at San Jose C ity C o lleg e for a t le a s t th re e y e a rs . The fem ale le a d e r w as not aw are of th e n atu re of th is study, nor did she know th e m anner in w hich th e su b je c ts had been s e le c te d and a s s ig n e d to th e v ario u s g ro u p s. This p recau tio n w as ta k e n to m inim ize the effect of ex perim enter b ia s . The m ale le a d e r w as th is in v e stig a to r. P h ilo so p h ica lly , both le a d e rs c o n s id e re d th e m se lv e s h u m an istic in th e ir o rie n ta tio n tow ard c o u n se lin g p sy ch o lo g y . Both had re c e iv e d grad u ate ed u c a tio n in a s s e rtio n train in g and b eh av io r th erap y te c h n iq u e s . The back g ro u n d s of th e le a d e rs w ere m atched acco rd in g to a g e, e d u c a - 41 tio n , and c o u n selin g e x p e rie n c e . The a s s e rtio n tra in in g groups w ere highly stru ctu red and c o n d u cted acco rd in g to m ethods developed by Smith (1975). S u b jects a s s ig n e d to ea c h of th e tw o groups w ere a s k e d to p a rtic ip a te in o p e n - ended d is c u s s io n s about p e rso n a l a s s e r tiv e d e fic its . S pecific e x e rc is e s , ro le -p la y in g , b eh av io ral re h e a rs a l w ith and w ithout c o a ch in g , a c tiv e im ag in atio n , re la x a tio n tra in in g , an d b io e n e rg e tic tra in in g w ere provided for th e sy ste m a tic group. The e x p e rie n tia l group w as en couraged to re la te p e rso n a lly to o p e n -e n d e d d is c u s s io n s on a s s e r tio n . Both groups were a s k e d to keep a diary on both th e ir a s s e r tiv e b e h av io rs and n o n - a s s e rtiv e s itu a tio n s . All s e s s io n s for a ll groups w ere held on the San Jose C ity C o l le g e cam pus in th e G roup Room o f th e H ealth S erv ic es F ac ility of the C o u n selin g D epartm ent. All m eetin g s w ere held at th e sam e hour, on th e sam e day of th e w eek, for e a c h group. At th e beginning of th e se m e ste r a ll s u b je c ts , ex p erim en tal and co n tro l, w ere a s k e d to ta k e th e Rathus A s se rtiv e n e ss S c h ed u le, th e Per so n al O rien tatio n Inventory ( P O I) /th e Rotter In te rn a l-E x te rn a l Locus of Control S c ale, and a B ehavioral A s se s sm e n t T e st. The Rathus A sse rtiv e n e s s S ch ed u le w as to be u se d both a s a m easu re of a s s e r tiv e n e s s and a s % an in stru m en t to sc re e n out th o s e s u b je c ts c o n sid e re d a s s e r tiv e ,a s w ell a s one m easu re of th e e ffic a c y of th e ex p erim en tal a s s e rtio n tra in in g . 42 No stu d e n ts w ere sc re e n e d out. At th e end of th e se m e ste r, th e sam e sta n d a rd iz e d te s t s and th e B ehavioral A s se s sm e n t T est w ere a d m in iste re d to a ll s u b je c ts . This provided th e p o s tte s t data in re la tio n to th e m easu res u se d , as w ell a s th e data n e c e s s a r y to e v a lu a te th e ch an g es in th e sc o re s th a t m ay have occurred a s a .r e s u lt of th e two A ssertio n tre a tm e n t a p p ro a c h e s. The m ean a g e o f th e s u b je c ts in th e stu d y w as 2 0 .6 y e a rs. The range w as from 17 to 26 y e a rs. The m ean age of th e stu d e n t population a t San Jose Com m unity C o lleg e D is tric t is 25 y e a rs . It is 22 y ears for fu ll-tim e , day tim e, fem ale s tu d e n ts . This older stu d e n t population is not a ty p ic a l a t th e com m unity c o lle g e s in C a lifo rn ia . The m ajority of th e su b je c ts w ere sin g le and fresh m en . T h e se dem ographic data are p re se n te d in T able 1. M inority p erso n s were p re se n t in ea ch group; how ever, s p e c ific data concerning eth n ic background of s u b je c ts w ere not re q u e ste d by th is in v e stig a to r. S u b jects a s s ig n e d to the S y stem atic A ssertio n tra in in g group p a rtic ip a te d in d is c u s s io n , ro le -p la y in g , re la x a tio n tra in in g , b e h a v io ra l re h e a rs a l e x e r c is e s , arid b io e n e r g e tic s . S u b jec ts w ere a s k e d to k e e p a diary of a s s e r tiv e and n o n - a s s e rtiv e p e rso n a l b e h a v io rs. O nce th e y id e n tified a s s e r tiv e and n o n - a s s e rtiv e b e h a v io rs, the s u b je c ts p ra c tic e d th e ap p ro p riate a s s e r tiv e b e h a v io rs. The le a d e r ro le -p la y e d problem atic situ a tio n s perm itting th e ap p ro p riate a s s e r tiv e b eh av io r to be e x h ib ited . TABLE 1 Demographic Data for All Groups N M ean Age M arried Divorced Single Educational Level Freshmen Other* G raduate* System atic 13 20.1 2 2 9 11 2 0 Experiential 13 21.2 3 1 9 12 0 1 Control 26 20.6 6 1 li _24 I I Total 52 20.6 11,- 4 37- 47 3 2 * Students who had transferred from other co lleg es and u n iv ersities. Two (2) had received degrees and three (3) were seniors. CO 44 The fem ale le a d e r provided th e m odel for a s s e r tiv e b eh av io rs w ith the m ale le a d e r providing th e a n ta g o n ist ro le . B ehavior re h e a rs a l w ith lik e - sex e d dyads or tria d s w ere u se d in th e first few s e s s io n s and p ro g ressed to o p p o s ite - s e x re h e a rs a ls with co ach in g from th e fem ale le a d e r during th e la te r s e s s io n s . S u b jects in th e E xperiential A ssertio n tra in in g group p a rtic ip a te d in d is c u s s io n s ab o u t th e ir a s s e r tiv e and n o n - a s s e r tiv e b eh av io rs and s itu a tio n s . S u b je c ts w ere a sk e d to k eep a d iary about a s s e r tiv e and n o n -a s s e rtiv e b e h a v io rs. O nce th e y id e n tifie d th e ir n o n - a s s e rtiv e b e h av io rs th e group provided su g g e stio n s and recom m endations on a s s e r tiv e b e h a v io rs. S u g g e stio n s w ere m ade prim arily by th e fem ale le a d e r, w ith th e m ale le a d e r re s tric tin g h is co ach in g to s itu a tio n s in w hich group members re q u e ste d an o p in io n . On o c c a s io n th e fem ale le a d e r m odeled an ap p ro p riate a s s e r tiv e b eh av io r but no re h e a rs a l o ccu rred . No b io - e n e rg e tic and no re la x a tio n train in g w ere provided. L s R esearch D esig n The n atu re of th e stu d y w as e s s e n tia lly c o rre la tio n a l. A P re te s t- P o stte st C ontrol G roup D esig n w as u se d (Cam pbell & S tanley, 196 3). Planned co m p ariso n s w ere perform ed on th e m ean sco re c h a n g e s a s m e a s ured by th e Rathus A s se rtiv e n e ss S ch ed u le, th e P erso n ality O rien tatio n Inventory (POI), th e Rotter In te rn a l-E x te rn a l Locus of C ontrol S cale (I-E), and a B ehavioral A sse ssm e n t T e st. The le v e l of sig n ific a n c e of th e F- 45 ra tio w as s e t at p < . 05. D ata w as a n a ly z e d by a o n e -w a y a n a ly s is of v a ria n c e . The d ep en d en t v a ria b le w as th e ch an g ed s c o re s b etw e e n p re t e s t and p o s tte s tin g p e rio d s. A n aly sis of v a ria n c e w as perform ed on p re te s t sc o re s of all m e a su re s for a ll groups to ch eck for sig n ific a n t p re te st d ifferen ces a t p < . 05 le v e l. There were th re e le v e ls of th e in d ep en d en t v a ria b le : sy ste m a tic a s s e rtio n tra in in g group, e x p e rie n tia l a s s e r tio n tra in in g group, and th e control group. Each re se a rc h h y p o th e s is w as te s te d by the a n a ly s is of th e c h a n g e sc o re s b etw een th e p re - and p o s tte s tin g for a ll m easu res u s e d . In order to t e s t th e null h y p o th e s e s , th e s y ste m a tic group w as com pared to th e e x p e rie n tia l group u sin g th e ch an g e s c o re s b etw een p re - and p o s tte s tin g for a ll m e a s u re s . Each of th e tw o tre atm e n t groups w as in d e p e n d e n tly com pared to the control group to t e s t fu rth er null h y p o th e s e s . Follow ing a sig n ific a n t F on p o s t t e s t a n a ly s is of v a ria n c e , S c h e ffe 's procedure w as u se d to m ake multiple? c o m p a riso n s. Level w as s e t a t p < .0 5 . In order to control for p o s sib le v io la tio n s of th e a ssu m p tio n s underlying s ta tis tic a l a n a ly s is , s u b je c ts w ere random ly a s s ig n e d among th e g ro u p s. In stru m e n ta tio n In attem p tin g to k ee p w ithin th e p u rp o se s of th e stu d y , in s tr u m en ts w ere s e le c te d w hich purported to m easu re 1) a s s e r tiv e n e s s , and 2) s e n s e of co n tro l. 46 P erso n ality O rien tatio n Inventory (POI) Shostrom (1965, 1966) d ev elo p ed th e P erso n ality O rien tatio n Inventory a s a se lf-re p o rt in stru m en t d e sig n e d to a s s e s s s p e c ific v a ri a b le s : Inner Support, Time C om petence, A g g ressio n , and C a p a c ity for Intim ate C o n ta c t. The POI w as dev elo p ed a s a m easu re of v a lu e s and b eh av io r b e lie v e d to be re la te d to th e developm ent of s e lf - a c tu a liz a tio n . It c o n s is ts of 150 tw o -c h o ic e p a ire d -o p p o s ite sta te m e n ts of v a lu e s and b eh av io r ju d g m en ts. The s u b je c ts w ere a s k e d to s e le c t one of th e tw o paired sta te m e n ts th a t m ost c o n s is te n tly a p p lie d to th e m s e lv e s . The Inner Support v a ria b le purports to m easure an a b ility to a c t on o n e 's own p rin cip les and e x is te n tia lity in in te rp e rso n a l r e la tio n s . The purpose of u sin g th e P erso n ality O rien tatio n Inventory in th e p re se n t stu d y w as to provide a d iffe re n tiatin g d e sc rip tio n of ch an g e t o ward in n er control a s a re s u lt of a s s e rtio n tra in in g . (The p artic u la r m eas ure of in n e r s e n s e of control u se d in th is study w as th e u tiliz a tio n of th e In n e r-d ire c te d S cale of S hostrom 's P erso n ality O rien tatio n Inventory ^Shostrom , 1966?). T hese item s purport to m easu re an in n er s e n s e or an inner m o tiv atio n , autonom y, s e lf-su p p o rt, in d iv id u a lity and freedom . The a ssu m p tio n w as m ade th a t ac tin g on o n e 's own p rin c ip les an d e x is te n tia lity i s re la te d to and a m easure of s e n s e of c o n tro l. The item s were sc o re d firs t for tw o b a s ic s c a le s : Support (127 item s), and Time C om petence (23 ite m s). Only th e In n e r-d ire c te d s c a le of th e Support 47 ite m s w as u se d for th is stu d y . A seco n d sco rin g y ie ld e d m e a su re s on 10 m inor s c a le s w hich purport to a s s e s s p a rtic u la r p e rso n a lity c h a ra c te r i s t i c s thought to be re la te d to s e lf - a c tu a liz a tio n . O nly th e s u b - s c a le E x iste n tia lity w as u s e d for th is study. A b rief d e sc rip tio n of e a c h s c a le is provided in A ppendix A. Of im portance to th is stu d y w as th e s u g g e stio n th a t th e POI Inner S cale and th e I-E S c a le s m e a su re c o n c e p tu a lly different a s p e c ts of th e v a ria b le S en se of C ontrol (W all, 197 0). W all found th a t la c k of c o rre la tio n betw een th e In n e r-d ire c te d s c a le of th e POI and th e I-E S cale (r = .07) i s c o n s is te n t w ith R o tter's view th a t th e I-E v a ria b le c o n s titu te s an a s p e c t of co g n itiv e b e h av io r different from th e In n e r-d ire c te d s c a le of th e POI. The In n e r-d ire c te d s c a le of th e POI is b a s e d on th e in n er-o th er d ire c te d dim ension of R iesm an, G la se r, and D ennery (19 50) and Riesm an (1954). The R iesm an c o n c e p t is b a s e d on th e d eg ree to w hich people are co n tro lle d by in te rn a l g o a ls and d e s ire s or by e x te rn a l fo rces; co n tro lled from w ithin or from w ith o u t. In n e r-d ire c te d n e s s is c o n sid e re d an affect v a ria b le w hile th e I-E v a ria b le is co n cern ed w ith w h eth er or not an i n d iv id u al b e lie v e s or p e rc e iv e s th a t h is own b eh av io r d eterm in e s w hat rein fo rcem en ts he r e c e iv e s . It is a co g n itiv e v a ria b le (Rotter, 19 66). R eliab ility and V alidity The POI h a s b een w id ely u se d in s tu d ie s inv o lv in g a d iv e rsity of p o p u latio n s and h a s proven to be a v a lu a b le in stru m en t for d iscrim in atin g 48 s e lf - a c tu a liz a tio n from n o n -a c tu a liz a tio n (Hoffman, 197 5). Early s tu d ie s co n cern ed th e m se lv e s w ith th e v a lid ity and r e lia b ility of th e in stru m e n t. Shostrom (1965) d em o n strated t e s t - r e t e s t re lia b ility in a study w ith 48 c o lle g e u n d e rg ra d u a te s. R eliab ility c o e ffic ie n ts for Inner d ire c tio n , E x iste n tia lity , and S elf-R egard are . 77, .8 2 , and .7 1 , r e s p e c tiv e ly . In g e n e ra l, th e c o rre la tio n s o b ta in e d for th e POI are com m en su rate w ith o th er p e rso n a lity in v e n to rie s . Illa rd i and M ay (1968) rep o rt c o e ffic ie n ts ranging from .32 to .7 4 w hich Shostrom c o n s id e rs w ell w ithin ra n g e s of t e s t - r e t e s t s tu d ie s of th e MM PI an d EPPS. Knapp (1965) su g g e sts th a t th e In n er Support S cale is th e b e s t in d ic a to r of s e lf - a c tu a liz a tio n of a ll POI s c a le s . V alidity d ata rep o rted in th e POI M anual (Shostrom , 1966) is b a s e d on th e d isc rim in a tio n of th e POI s c a le s o f S e lf-a c tu a liz a tio n and N o n - s e lf -a c tu a liz a tio n g ro u p s. Shostrom and Knapp (1966) report th a t th e POI s c a le s d iffe re n tia te o u t-p a tie n ts beginning th e ra p y from p atie n ts in a d v a n c e d s ta g e s of th e ra p y . Shostrom (1965) s u g g e s ts th a t th e POI is m easuring a ttrib u te s in norm al p o p u latio n s im portant in th e d e v e lo p m ent of good in te rp e rso n a l re la tio n s h ip s . / In g e n e ra l, the co n te n t v a lid ity o f th e s c a le s is c o n sid e re d good by Buros (197 4). Of im portance to th is study is th e assu m p tio n th a t th e POI, in m easu rin g s e lf-a c tu a liz a tio n , is m easuring d eg ree of e x te rn a l/in te rn a l s e n s e of co n tro l. Shostrom (1966) su g g e sts th a t th e support o rie n ta tio n 49 of p e rso n s who are s e lf - a c tu a liz in g lie s b e tw e e n th a t of th e extrem e o th er and th e extrem e in n e r-d ire c te d p e rso n . The a ssu m p tio n is m ade th a t th e Support S c a le in g e n e ra l and th e E x isten tia l and Feeling s u b s c a le s re fle c t s e n s e of co n tro l and w ill further re fle c t c h a n g e s in s e n s e of control a s a re s u lt o f a s s e rtio n tra in in g . In te rn a l-E x te rn a l Locus of C ontrol S cale The In te rn a l-E x te rn a l Locus of C ontrol S c a le is a 2 3 -item (six filler), fo rc e d -c h o ic e s c a le (Rotter, 1966). In te rn a l v e rsu s ex te rn a l lo c u s of control re fe rs to a p e rso n 's e x p e c ta tio n s co n cern in g control of h is rein fo rcem en ts (Rotter, 1966). Rotter re p o rts th a t one of th e d eterm in a n ts of a p e rs o n 's b eh av io r is th e d eg ree to w hich he p e rc e iv e s rew ard s as follow ing from, or being c o n tin g en t upon, h is own beh av io r or a ttrib u te s , v e rsu s th e d egree to w hich he f e e ls th e rew ard is c o n tro lle d by- fo rces o u tsid e of h im self and in d e p e n d en tly of h is a c tio n s . S o cial le a rn ing th eo ry (Rotter, 1954, 1955, 1960, 1966) provides th e th e o re tic a l background for th e in te rn a l-e x te rn a l lo c u s of co n tro l c o n stru c t. (See A ppendix B). P erso n al C ontrol For th e p u rp o se of th is stu d y only th o s e item s b a s e d on th e firs t p erson w ere u s e d . T hese item s have b e e n nam ed "P erso n al C ontrol" and ap p e a r c lo s e r to R o tter's c o n c e p t of lo c u s of co n tro l a s a c o n stru c t m e a s - 50 uring th e p e rso n 's a p p ra is a l an d p ercep tio n of h is own pow er. G urin, G urin, Lao, & B e a ttie (1969) and M irels (197 0) report s tu d ie s w hich m ake th e "P erso n al C ontrol" v e rsu s "Ideology C ontrol" d is tin c tio n . Hoffman (1975) supports th e "P erso n al C ontrol" d istin c tio n in a stu d y on Farm W orkers and S e lf-a c tu a liz a tio n . The "P ersonal C o n tro l" first p erson item s a p p e a r to m easu re s u b je c tiv ity pow er. The e m p h a sis of th is study is on th e s u b je c tiv e s e n s e of control and not on th e id e o lo g ic a l facto rs m easu red by th e third p erso n ite m s. V alidity an d R eliab ility The v a lid ity is rep o rted to be w ell e s ta b lis h e d and s tu d ie s ten d to su g g e st th a t e x te rn a ls can be d isc rim in ate d from in te rn a ls c o n s is te n t w ith th e c o n stru c t o f th e s c a le s (Rotter, 1966; C lark e, 1971; G e lle r & Rotter, 1968). In te rn al c o n s is te n c y m e a su re s of an r of ,7 0 a re rep o rted by K uder-R ichardson (Gurin, G urin, Loa, & B e a ttie, 1969). They s u g g e st th a t th e I-E s c a le , in order to be v a lid , m ust be m odified to d istin g u is h p e rso n a l v iew (first p erson item s) from s o c ia l norms (third p erso n item s), R eliab ility m e a su re s rep o rted for th e I-E s c a le s h av e b e e n c o n s is te n t. The t e s t - r e t e s t re lia b ility m e a su re s rep o rted for th e in terv en in g period ranging from one to tw o m onths ranged from b etw een . 49 and . 83 (Rotter, 1966). H ersch and S ch eib e (1967) found sim ilar t e s t - r e t e s t r e lia b ility c o e ffic ie n ts of .8 4 for a tw o month period. T e s t- re te s t r e li- 51 a b ility is good (Rotter, 1966). Rathus A s s e rtiv e n e s s S ch ed u le The Rathus A s s e rtiv e n e ss S ch ed u le w as d ev e lo p e d by Rathus (1973) a s a m easu re of a s s e r tiv e n e s s . It is b a s e d on W o lp e 's (1969) an d W olpe and L a z a ru s ' (1966) s itu a tio n s , and on item s from th e A-S R eaction Study (Allport, 1928), a s w ell a s on item s from th e G uilford - Zimmerman Tem peram ent Survey (Guilford & Zimmerman, 1956). (See A ppendix C . ) The 3 0 -item RAS has m oderate to high t e s t - r e t e s t r e lia b ility (r of .7 0 ; p -£ .0 1 ). T e s t- r e te s t r e lia b ility w as e s ta b lis h e d on u n d erg rad u ate c o lle g e men and women w ith re te stin g a fte r an e ig h t-w e e k period. V alidity w as e s ta b lis h e d in tw o stu d ie s by Rathus (197 3) in term s of th e im p re ssio n s m ade on o th e r people an d in term s of how th e stu d e n ts stu d ie d b e h a v e d in sp e c ific s itu a tio n s in w hich a s s e r tiv e b eh av io r could be u se d (r = .7 0 ; p < .0 1 ) . An item a n a ly s is s u g g e sts th a t a sh o rten ed 19-item v e rsio n o f th e RAS may b e u s e d w ith ab o u t th e sam e a c c u ra c y (Rathus, 197 3). For th e p u rp o ses of th e stu d y , a ll 30 item s w ere u se d but only th e 19-item sh o rten ed s c a le s w ere sco red . B ehavioral A s se s sm e n t T est A B ehavioral A sse ssm e n t T est w as d e s ig n e d to sim u late re a l life 52 s itu a tio n s . A se rie s of in te rp e rso n a l e n c o u n te rs requiring a s s e rtiv e re s p o n s e s w ere c o n s tru c te d . The in te rp e rso n a l situ a tio n s are sim ilar to th o se em ployed b y E isle r, H ersen , and M iller (1973, 197 4), and M cF all and M arston (1970). M ale and fem ale g ra d u a te a s s i s ta n t s w ere em ployed to sim u late situ a tio n s in w hich a s s e r tiv e beh av io r is te s te d in re la tio n s h ip s w ith a n o th e r p erso n . The B ehavioral A sse ssm e n t T est w as a d m in iste re d p re - and p o s t tre atm e n t a t th e beg in n in g an d end of th e s e m e ste r during th e first and la s t s e s s io n s for th e e x p e rie n tia l and sy ste m a tic g ro u p s. The control group re c e iv e d th e sam e a s s e s s m e n t p re - an d p o s t-tre a tm e n t during th e sam e w eek w hich th e t e s t w as ad m in istere d for th e ex p erim en tal groups. A dm inistration of th e B ehavioral A s se s sm e n t T e st w as done by one fem ale an d one m ale s tu d e n t. Both stu d e n ts a d m in iste re d for th e th ree groups in order to e s ta b lis h some r e lia b ility . Both stu d e n ts ra te d e a c h s u b je c t in d e p e n d e n tly of ea c h o th er and arriv ed a t one sco re b e tw een them a fte r th e te s tin g for th a t s u b je c t w as c o m p leted . The sam e procedure w as u tiliz e d for th e p o s tte s tin g . N e ith e r stu d e n t w as to ld th e nature of th e stu d y nor w ere th e y a d v ise d of th e n a tu re o f th e groups: sy ste m a tic , e x p e rie n tia l, and c o n tro l. N eith er of th e stu d e n ts w as to ld of th e o th e r m e asu re s u s e d in a s s e s s m e n t of th e g ro u p s. N eith er a tte n d ed group s e s s io n s o th e r th an th o se during w hich th e y te s te d . R eliab ility of th e B ehavioral A sse ssm e n t T est depended on the 53 u n d erstan d in g of e a c h of th e tw o stu d e n ts of th e W olpe an d L azarus (1966) d e s c rip tio n of a s s e r tiv e behaviors, and of th e work of E isle r, H er- s e n , an d M ille r (197 3) and th e ir eig h t com ponents of a s s e r tiv e n e s s . R e liab ility d ep en d ed a ls o on th e in d ep en d e n t a s s e s s m e n t of e a c h su b je c t by ea ch of th e tw o stu d e n ts an d th e u tiliz a tio n of th e sam e tw o stu d en ts for th e p re - and p o s tte s tin g for a ll th ree g ro u p s. (See A ppendix D .) In th e work by E isler, H ersen , and M iller (197 3), e ig h t b e h a v io ra l com ponents of a s s e r tiv e n e s s w ere e s ta b lis h e d : duration of rep ly , re q u e s ts for new b e h a v io rs, d uration of lo o k in g , co m p lian ce c o n ten t, la te n c y of re s p o n s e , a ffe c t, lo u d n e ss , and o v erall a s s e r tiv e n e s s . E isle r, H e rse n , an d M ille r (1973) found s ig n ific a n t d iffe ren c es on only five of th e eig h t co m p o n en ts. For th e p u rp o ses of th is study o n ly four com ponents w ere u s e d . They w ere: r e q u e s ts for new b eh av io r, a ffe c t, lo u d n e s s , and o v erall a s s e r tiv e n e s s . A to ta l sco re m easuring a ll four com ponents w as a ls o u s e d . Each b e h av io ra l com ponent of a s s e r tiv e n e s s w as d efin ed a s fo l lo w s (E isler, H ersen , & M iller, 197 3): 1. L oudness of sp ee c h : L oudness of th e s u b je c t's s p e e c h for th e s itu a tio n te s te d w as ra te d on a fiv e -p o in t s c a le from 1 (very low) to 5 (very loud). 2. R eq u e sts for new beh av io r: The re q u e stin g of new b eh av io r 54 ,w as ra te d on a n o c c u rre n c e or n o n -o c c u rre n c e b a s is . The su b je c t had to in d ic a te th a t he w anted a c h a n g e in the b e havior of th e s a le s p e rs o n , partner, or d e n tis t. ,3. A ffect: The su b je c t w as sco red on a fiv e -p o in t s c a le for a ffe c t, w ith 1 in d ic a tiv e of a very fla t, unem otional to n e of v o ic e , and 5 a full and liv e in to n a tio n . 4. O verall a s s e r tiv e n e s s : A s se rtiv e n e ss w as ra te d on th e W olpe and L azarus (1966) d e sc rip tio n s of a s s e r tiv e b eh av io r w ith 1 in d ic a tin g v ery u n a s s e rtiv e and 5 in d ic a tin g very a s s e r tiv e . 5. Total: A sum of th e sco re of th e four com ponents w as u se d to m ake further co m p a riso n s. D ata G ath erin g and D ata A nalysis All data from th e Rathus A sse rtiv e n e ss S ch ed u le, th e B ehavioral A sse ssm e n t T est, th e POI, and th e I-E S cale w ere coded an d tra n sfe rre d to com puter card s for a n a ly s is of v a ria n c e . The f a c ilitie s of th e U n iv er s ity of Southern C alifo rn ia w ere u tiliz e d . The s ta tis tic a l m ethods em ployed to e s ta b lis h sig n ific a n c e of th e re s u lts in c lu d e d a n a ly s is of v a ria n c e and th e F ra tio . S ig n ifican ce w as s e t at p ^ . 0 5 . Following a sig n ifica n t F on p o s tte s t a n a ly s is of v a ria n c e , S c h e ffe 's procedure w as u se d as a m ultiple co m p ariso n . CHAPTER IV FINDINGS The purpose of th is c h a p te r is to p re s e n t th e r e s u lts of th e s t a t i s tic a l a n a ly s is u s e d in th is in v e stig a tio n an d to determ ine th e com par a b le e ffe c ts of e x p e rie n tia l a s s e rtio n tra in in g and s y ste m a tic a s s e rtio n tra in in g on th e in n er s e n s e of control c o n c e p t w ith a fem ale c o lle g e p o p u la tio n . M e a su re s of c h a n g e s in a s s e r tiv e n e s s in th e groups w ere p e r formed by exam ining th e p o s tte s t sc o re s on th e Rathus A s s e rtiv e n e ss S ch ed u le and on th e B ehavioral A s se s sm e n t T e st b etw een th e e x p e rie n tia l and th e sy ste m a tic g ro u p s. A nother c rite rio n of ch an g e in a s s e r t iv e n e s s in th e groups w as perform ed by m easu rin g th e p o s tte s t sc o re s on th e Rathus A s s e rtiv e n e s s S chedule and th e B ehavioral A sse ssm e n t T est among th e e x p e rie n tia l, sy ste m a tic and th e co n tro l groups. All m ea su res were u s e d to e v a lu a te and com pare th e e ffic a c y of e x p e rie n tia l a s s e rtio n tra in in g an d sy ste m a tic a s s e rtio n tra in in g . Two m easu res from th e POI w ere u s e d for th e ev a lu a tio n of in n e r s e n s e of control c o n c e p t. M e a su re of ch an g e of in n er s e n s e of co n tro l w ere th e d iffe re n c e s in p o s tte s t s c o re s on th e Inner s c a le and th e E x iste n tia l s u b - s c a le of th e P erso n a lity O rien tatio n In v en to ry . P o s tte s t s c o re s were a n a ly z e d 56 for d iffe re n c e s b etw een th e e x p e rie n tia l an d th e s y ste m a tic groups and for th e p o s tte s t c h a n g e s among th e e x p e rie n tia l and s y ste m a tic and th e co n tro l groups on th e In n er s c a le and th e E x iste n tia l s c a le of th e POI. Another m easu re of ch an g e o f th e in n er s e n s e of co n tro l w as th e d iffe re n c e s in s c o re s and p o s tte s t e v a lu a tio n s on th e P ersonal su b sc a le of th e Rotter In te rn a l-E x te rn a l L ocus o f C ontrol S cale (I-E) b e tw e e n th e e x p e rie n tia l and th e sy ste m a tic g ro u p s. A sim ilar c h a n g e -s c o re e v a lu a tio n w as perform ed among th e e x p e rie n tia l, s y ste m a tic and th e control g ro u p s. All m e a su re s of in n er s e n s e of co n tro l w ere u s e d to e v a lu a te and com pare th e e ffic a c y of e x p e rie n tia l a s s e r tio n tra in in g and s y s te m a tic a s s e rtio n tra in in g . P re te st D ifferen ces An a n a ly s is of v a ria n c e w as perform ed on a ll p re te st m e a su re s to e v a lu a te an y p re te st s ig n ific a n t d iffere n c e s among th e g ro u p s. N one w ere fo und. S ince th e s u b je c ts w ere a s s ig n e d to th e groups on th e b a s is of p re te s t s c o re s , it w as a s su m e d th a t any n o n sig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s could b e a ttrib u te d to c h a n c e . In e a c h of th e p o s tte s t co m p ariso n s a sin g le sco re w as o b tain ed for th e p u rp o se s of ev a lu a tio n of d iffe re n ce s b etw een and am ong th e groups for e a c h of th e h y p o th e s e s . Follow ing a s ig n ific a n t F, S c h e ffe 's procedure w as em ployed to m ake m u ltiple co m p a riso n s. L evel w as s e t a t p<- .0 5 . 57 In order to t e s t H y p o th ese s I through IV p re se n te d in C h ap ter I f th e ch an g e s c o re s of th e Rathus A s se rtiv e n e ss S ch ed u le, th e five s u b s c a le s of th e B ehavioral A sse ssm e n t T e st, e a c h of th e tw o s u b s c a le s of th e POI and th e P ersonal s u b s c a le of th e Rotter In te rn a l-E x te rn a l Locus of C ontrol S cale were com pared b etw een th e e x p e rie n tia l an d th e sy stem a tic groups and among th e e x p e rie n tia l, s y ste m a tic and th e control g ro u p s. \ R esults The m ean s an d a n a ly s is of v a ria n c e r e s u lts for a ll d ep en d en t m ea su res a p p e a r on T able 2. As in d ic a te d b y T able 2, th e re w ere no sig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s on a ll m e a s u re s ^ re x c e p t th e R eq u ests s u b s c a le of th e B ehavioral A sse ssm e n t T est-^b etw een th e sy ste m a tic and e x p e ri e n tia l g r o u p s P th e sy ste m a tic an d control g r o u p s P and th e e x p e rie n tia l an d co n tro l g ro u p s. The Rathus A s s e rtiv e n e s s S ch ed u le and th e B ehav io ra l A s'sessm ent T est w ere in te n d e d to m ea su re a s s e r tiv e beh av io r c h a n g e s a ttrib u te d to tre atm e n t by th e s y ste m a tic and e x p erien tia l g ro u p s. They w ere in ten d ed a ls o to determ ine w hich of th e two e x p e ri m ental g ro u p s, sy ste m a tic or e x p e rie n tia l, w as more e ffic a c io u s in a s s e rtio n tra in in g . Thus R esearch H y p o th ese s 1 an d 2, predicting i n c re a s e d a s s e r tiv e b e h a v io r in both sy ste m a tic an d e x p e rie n tia l g ro u p s, e x c e p t for th e R eq u e sts s u b s c a le of th e B ehavioral A sse ssm e n t T est, w ere n o t confirm ed (Table 2). N ull H y p o th e sis 1, p red ictin g no s ig n ifi- 58 TABLE 2 P o stte s t M e an s, F T est R esu lts on O n e-W ay A n a ly sis of V ariance on All M e a su re s For All G roups D ependent V ariable S y stem atic G roup E x p erien tial G roup C ontrol Group p v a lu e POI Inner 96-. 6154 8 9 .1 5 3 8 9 0 .8 8 4 6 0 .1 8 8 9 POI E x iste n tia l 2 2 .2 3 0 8 2 3 .6 9 2 3 2 2.3461 0 .5 0 9 0 I-E P erso n al 2 .0 7 6 9 2 .2 3 0 8 2.3077 0 .8 9 4 1 R athus 17.4615 1 2.2 3 8 0 8 .7 6 9 2 0 .3686 B ehavioral Total 1 0.6154 9 .0 7 6 9 8 .6 5 3 8 0 .1 8 3 0 B ehavioral R eq u ests 0 .9 2 3 1 0 .6 1 5 4 0.4615 0 .0 1 8 7 * B ehavioral L oudness 3 .2 3 0 8 2 .6 9 2 3 2 .8 8 4 6 0. 27 00 B ehavioral A ffect 3 :2308 2 .6 9 2 3 2 .8 4 6 2 0 .3 6 1 0 B ehavioral O verall 3 .2 3 0 8 2 .8 4 6 2 2 .6 5 3 8 0. 27 87 * p < .0 5 le v e l for sy ste m a tic v s . e x p e rie n tia l, e x p e rie n tia l v s . control s y ste m a tic vs . co n tro l, N ote: N = 13, 13, and 26 for th e s y ste m a tic , e x p e rie n tia l, a n d control g ro u p s, re s p e c tiv e ly . 59' c a n t d iffe re n ce in a s s e r tiv e b eh av io r b e tw e e n th e s y ste m a tic and e x p e ri e n tia l g ro u p s, w as con fin n ed . N ull H y p o th esis 2, pred ictin g rip s ig n if i c a n t d iffe re n c e s in a s s e r tiv e b eh av io r b e tw e e n th e sy ste m a tic and c o n tro l groups an d th e e x p e rie n tia l and co n tro l groups w as confirm ed. R esearch h y p o th e se s 3 an d 4 p red ictin g in c re a se d in n er s e n s e of co n tro l a s a r e s u lt of a s s e r tiv e n e s s tra in in g for th e sy ste m a tic and e x p e rie n tia l groups a s m easu red by the Inner and E x iste n tia l s c a le s of th e POI and th e Rotter I-E P erso n al S ca le w as not confirm ed (Table 2). N ull H y p o th e sis 3, p red ictin g no sig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s in inner s e n s e of -control b e tw e e n th e sy ste m a tic an d e x p e rie n tia l gro u p s, w as confirm ed. N ull H y p o th e sis 4, predicting no s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s in inner s e n s e of co n tro l b e tw ee n th e sy ste m a tic and co n tro l groups and th e experiential! and co n tro l groups w as confirm ed. The r e s u lts of th e a n a ly s is of v a ria n c e on th e R equests s u b s c a le o f th e B ehavioral T est in d ic a te d sig n fic ia n t d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n th e sy ste m a tic an d th e e x p e rie n tia l groups a t th e . 05 le v e l an d b etw een e a c h of th e two ex p erim en tal groups (sy ste m a tic and ex p e rie n tia l) and th e control group a t p < . 0 5 . The fin d in g s s u g g e ste d th a t th e s y ste m a tic group w as more effe c tiv e in th e learn in g of re q u e s ts th a n e ith er th e e x p e rie n tia l or co n tro l group, but th e e x p e rie n tia l group w as a ls o more e ffe c tiv e w hen com pared to th e control group. Thus on th is s u b s c a le only R esearch H y p o th e ses 1 an d 2 w ere confirm ed. N ull H y p o th e se s 1 60 an d 2 proved u n te n a b le . It w as d e c id e d not to perform m u ltip le re g re s sio n a n a ly s is on th e Rathus A ssertio n S ch ed u le m e a su re s for a ll groups d e s p ite w hat a p p e a rs to be a high m ean sc o re for th e s y ste m a tic group (Table 2). This d e c i sio n w as b a s e d on th e d ata from th e p re te st a n a ly s is of v a ria n c e in d ic a ting n o n -sig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s an d on th e a ssu m p tio n th a t th e d iffer e n c e s se e n could be a ttrib u te d to c h a n c e . Thus further a n a ly s is w ould probably re s u lt in n o n -s ig n ific a n t fin d in g s on th e Rathus b etw een th e sy ste m a tic group and th e e x p e rie n tia l and control g ro u p s. But even if sig n ific a n t fin d in g s w ere found for th e sy ste m a tic group on a s s e rtio n a s m easu red by th e R athus, it w as felt by th is in v e s tig a to r th a t sin c e th e m ajor th ru s t of th is stu d y w as th e e ffe c t of a s s e rtio n on inner s e n s e of co n tro l, an y s ig n ific a n t fin d in g s on th e Rathus would add very little s in c e both m e asu re s for in n er s e n s e of control had proved n o n - s ig n ifi c a n t. \ D is c u s s io n The m ajor p red ictio n of th is in v e stig a tio n w as not confirm ed a s it w as not p o ssib le to d em o n strate a p o sitiv e re la tio n s h ip b etw een a s s e rtio n tra in in g for c o lle g e - a g e women and an in c re a s e in inner s e n se of co n tro l. This w as s e e n in th e la c k of sig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s in th e sc o re s of th e Inner D irectio n S cale and th e E x iste n tia l S cale of th e POI a s a m easu re of in n er c o n tro l. In ea c h of th e c o n d itio n s te s te d in Re 61 se a rc h H y p o th e se s 3 and 4, s e n s e of in n e r co n tro l did not sh ift fo cu s from outer to in n e r w ith e ith er th e s y ste m a tic a s s e r tio n group or th e e x p e rie n tia l group. No such sh ift w as s e e n in th e co n tro l group. T hese r e s u lts fail to confirm a h y p o th e siz e d re la tio n s h ip b e tw e en a s s e rtio n tra in in g a n d 'a s e n s e of co n tro l c o n c e p t a s m easu red by th e In n e r-d ire c - tio n s c a le of th e POI. T h ese r e s u lts a re not c o n s is te n t w ith th e c o n te n tio n s of p s y c h o l o g is ts providing a s s e rtio n tra in in g th a t p a rtic ip a tio n in a s s e r tiv e n e s s tra in in g in c r e a s e s a s e n s e of power o ver th e in d iv id u a l's environm ent and r e la tio n s h ip s . The re s u lts a re a ls o n o t c o n s is te n t w ith th e th e o r e t ic a l b a s e of th e lo c u s of co n tro l lite ra tu re w hich s ta te s th a t a s e n se of h e lp le s s n e s s and p o w e rle s s n e s s a re th e r e s u lts of p e rc e iv e d e x te rn a l lo c u s of co n tro l. The Inner S ca le of th e POI purportedly m e a su re s w hether re a c tiv ity o rie n ta tio n s are b a s ic a lly tow ard o th e rs (external) or s e lf (in tern al). Inner d ire ctio n re fe rs to g u id a n c e of o n e 's b eh av io r b y in n er m o tiv atio n rath e r th an e x te rn a l stim u li, w hile th e o th e r-d ire c te d - n e s s re fe rs to a n e e d to look to e x te rn a l s o u rc e s of au th o rity for d ire c tio n s an d v a lid a tio n s . Shostrom (1966) in d ic a te s th a t th e s e lf - a c tu a liz ing p erso n is som ew hat lib e ra te d from c o n v e n tio n a l s o c ia l p re ss u re s and e x p e c ta tio n s —th a t p erso n is in n e r-d ire c te d . S ev eral p o s s ib ilitie s may ex p la in th e la c k of sig n ific a n c e on th e Inner and E x is te n tia l S c a le s of th e POI. One m ay be a la c k of s e n s itiv 62 ity of th e POI s c a le s to th e su b tle p e rso n a lity tra it c h a n g e s . O ther r e s e a rc h e rs h av e s u g g e ste d th a t s e v e ra l of th e s c a le s of th e POI are not s e n s itiv e enough to m easu re ch an g es occurring a s a re s u lt of c o u n selin g and th e ra p y (W ysocki, 197 5). Another p o s s ib ility th a t may a c co u n t for th e lack of s ig n ific a n t c h an g e s in th e Inner and E x iste n tia l S c a le s may sim ply b e th a t a s s e r tio n tra in in g has no e ffe c t on th o s e tra its m easu red by th e s c a le s . A sse rtio n tra in in g is highly s itu a tio n a l and d irected a t changing th o s e s p e c ific b e h av io rs w hich a p a rtic u la r p erson dem on s tra te s in a s s e r tiv e n e s s . In n e r-d ire c te d n e s s an d e x is te n tia lity may be b ro ad er c o n c e p ts d ealin g w ith a v a rie ty of p e rso n a lity tra its and p a tte rn s of w hich n o n e, o n e, or s e v e ra l m ay have b een a ffe c te d by th e tra in in g . Lack of s ig n ific a n t c h a n g e s a lso may be th a t in n e r-d ire c te d n e s s and e x is te n tia l p a tte rn s a re d e e p ly rooted in th e p e rso n a lity and in b e havior and m ay ta k e m uch more in te n s iv e and lo n g er d u ratio n co u n se lin g to a ffe c t c h a n g e . S ince th e th ru s t of th is study w as a h y p o th e siz e d r e la tio n sh ip b etw een a s s e r tiv e n e s s an d in n er s e n s e of co n tro l, th e move tow ard in n e r s e n s e d ep en d ed on th e in c re a s e of a s s e rtio n a s m easured by th e in stru m en ts u s e d in th is stu d y . No su ch in c re a s e in a s s e rtio n o ccu rred so th a t a very p la u sib le e x p lan atio n for th e lac k of sig n ific a n c e on th e s c a le s in te n d e d to m easu re in n er s e n s e o f co n tro l is th e lack of a sig n ific a n t tre a tm e n t— a s s e r tio n . W hat h a s b e e n sa id for th e Inner and E x iste n tia l S c a le s may be 63 a ls o m entioned for th e P erso n al s c a le of th e I-E a s a m easu re of inner s e n s e of c o n tro l. As w ith th e Inner s c a le of th e POI, I-E ch a n g e s were in th e d ire c tio n of in te rn a lity for th e sy ste m a tic group but not to th e degree of th e POI In n e r-d ire c te d n e s s c h a n g e s . The P erso n al s c a le of th e I-E and th e In n er s c a le of th e POI are b a s e d on different c o n c e p ts . W all (197 0) found a la c k of c o rre la tio n b etw een th e In n e r-d ire c te d s c a le of th e POI and th e I-E (r = .0 7 ). This is c o n s is te n t w ith R o tter's v iew of th e I-E v a ria b le (1964). The I-E lo cu s of co n tro l c o n s titu te s an a s p e c t of co g n itiv e b eh av io r s e p a ra te from th e In n e r-d ire c te d dim ension of R eis- ner, G la z e , and D enner (1950) on w hich th e POI is b a s e d . It a p p e a rs th a t th e I-E d e s c rib e s w hat is prim arily a co g n itiv e d im en sio n of p e rs o n a lity referring to how th e in d iv id u a ls p e rc e iv ed th e c a u s a l c o n n ectio n b etw een th e ir b eh av io r an d th e rein fo rcem en t (Lefcourt, 197 6). On th e other hand, in n e r-d ire c te d a p p e a rs to m easu re a ffe c tiv e dim en sio n s of th e s e lf. It re fle c ts fe e lin g s of s e lf - a c c e p ta n c e a t b a s ic em otional le v e ls . E s s e n tia lly , th e d ata (p v a lu e s of th e In n er an d I-E s c a le s ) may s u g g e st th a t a s s e r tio n tra in in g of th e s y s te m a tic group may have its first e ffe c ts on th e a ffe c t s e n s e of co n tro l. Knapp (19 65) h as found th e Inner s c a le is th e b e s t sin g le e s tim a te of s e lf - a c tu a liz a tio n of th e 12 s c a le s of th e POI ra th e r th a n th e co g n itiv e a s p e c ts m easu red by th e I-E . This c o g n itiv e -a ffe c tiv e dichotom y, alth o u g h th e o re tic a l, is worth pur suing in a stu d y on s e n s e of co n tro l. The d a ta , d e s p ite its la ck of s ig 64 n ific a n c e , m ay su g g e st th a t th e co g n itiv e o rie n ta tio n of th e sy ste m a tic a s s e rtio n group may have its first e ffe c t on th e a ffe c tiv e dom ain. S ch a c h te r and S inger (1962) have s u g g e ste d in o th e r re s e a rc h th e n e c e s s ity of hum ans to la b e l th e ir em otional b e h a v io rs. One e x p lan atio n for th e n o n -s ig n ific a n c e of th e I-E could p o s s ib ly stem from th e n atu re of th e ro le s o f women (Bee, 197 5). Those ro le s h av e tra d itio n a lly been tie d to fa m ilial t a s k s . A lthough th e ro le s of women are ch anging, th e p ercep tio n of p o w e rle ss n e ss among women c an n o t b e o v erlo o k ed a s a p o s s ib le ex p la n a tio n for th e ir p e rc eiv e d e x te rn a lity on th e I-E (Blood & H ablin, 1958). It m ay be th a t c o g n itiv e a s p e c ts of b eh av io r n eed m ore in te n s e an d lo n g er d uration a s s e rtio n tra in in g to m ove m em bers of o p p re ss e d groups from e x te rn a lity to in te rn - a lity (Hoffman, 1975). K rieger, E psting, and L eitner (1974), w ith th e ir th re a t in d e x , a co g n itiv e m e a su re , su g g e ste d th a t m ale a n x ie ty te n d s to be more a c o g n itiv e v a ria b le and fem ale a n x ie ty te n d s to be a n a ffe c t v a ria b le . Again d e s p ite th e la c k of s ig n ific a n c e , th e d ata may be sa id to allo w for th e p o s s ib ility th a t on th e I-E and on a s s e r tio n tra in in g , a s s e r tiv e n e s s is firs t an a ffe c t v a ria b le for women and th e co g n itiv e I-E v a ria b le re q u ire s more in te n s e th e ra p y a s s u g g e ste d by th e c h a n g e tow ards in te rn a lity . A nother re a s o n for th e la c k of s ig n ific a n c e on th e I-E is L ef- c o u rt's (197 6) su g g e stio n th a t th e I-E is b ein g u s e d for m any ty p e s of 65 re se a rc h for w hich it m ay not be s e n sitiv e enough to reco rd c h a n g e s . It may b e th a t a s p e c ia l I-E in stru m en t for th e sp e c ific pu rp o se of re c o rd ing a s s e rtio n may be n e c e s s a r y and more a p p ro p riate but th e la c k of s ig n ific a n c e on a s s e r tio n m easu res of th is stu d y d o es not allo w for th e c a te g o ric a l d is p o s itio n of th e p erso n al I-E a s a v a lid in stru m en t for u se in m easu rem en t of s e n s e of co n tro l. Only a fte r a stu d y h as show n s ig n ific a n t r e s u lts on a s s e r tio n may th e re s u lts of th e I-E b e tre a te d w ith more d e fin itiv e s ta te m e n ts . Ja k u b o w sk i-S p ecto r (197 3) s ta te d th a t th e m ajor g o al of a s s e rtio n train in g is to b u ild a p e rso n a l b e lie f sy stem w hich w ill h elp th e woman to support and ju s tify h er a c ts a s s e r tiv e ly . It a p p e a rs from th is study th a t th e co g n itiv e p e rso n a l b e lie f sy stem is a m uch more co m p licated c o n stru c tio n an d su b je c t to more th a n the ch an g in g of th e p ercep tio n of pow er. In e s s e n c e w hat S pector is re la tin g to is th e a ttitu d e form ation or ch an g e s u g g e ste d by Zimbardo (1970) and n e c e s s ita tin g th e change of a ffe c t, co g n itio n , and beh av io r in order to becom e a new b e lie f sy ste m . At a n y ra te , th e d ata from th e stu d y on in n e r s e n s e of control fa ils to a n sw e r th e h y p o th e siz e d re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n a s s e r tio n and inner s e n s e of c o n tro l. A gain, la c k of s ig n ific a n c e on th e a s s e rtio n m easu res m akes it im p o ssib le to a d d re ss th e re la tio n s h ip of a s s e rtio n to s e n se of co n tro l. A se c o n d a re a of stu d y o f th is in v e stig a tio n w as th e e ffic a c y of 66 sy ste m a tic and e x p e rie n tia l a s s e r tiv e tra in in g . N eith er group in c re a se d a s s e r tiv e b eh av io r e x c ep t for th e sig n ific a n t finding on th e R eq u ests s u b s c a le . The d ire c tio n of c h a n g e s on th e m e a su re s may su g g e st th a t th e sy ste m a tic m ethod w as more e ffic a c io u s but w ithout further re se a rc h th a t prop o sitio n i s q u e s tio n a b le . E xperiential a s s e r tio n th e ra p y re se m b le s more in s ig h t th e ra p y . B ecause in sig h t th e ra p y is u s u a lly c o n sid e re d to dem and more tim e th an w as a llo tte d for th is in v e s tig a tio n , it is not su rp risin g th a t th e s y ste m a tic group ap p eared more e ffic a c io u s . N eith er group a c h ie v e d s ig n ifi c a n c e on th e R ath u s. It m ay be th a t th e in stru m en t w as not s e n s itiv e enough or th a t t e s t - r e t e s t c o n trib u te d to th e la c k of s ig n ific a n c e . On th e B ehavioral t e s t only th e R eq u ests sub s c a le s u g g e ste d s ig n ific a n c e . Lack of s ig n ific a n c e on th e o th e r s c a le s m ay be ex p la in e d in se v e ra l w ays: th e sc o re rs on th e B ehavioral t e s t w ere stu d e n ts and m ay not have b e e n a d e q u a te ly tra in e d to record inform ation a s c le a rly and r e l i ab ly a s p o s s ib le . Their sco rin g may have differed a s th e y w ent from one group to an o th e r. R eq u ests a s a v a ria b le is more e a s ily o b se rv ab le and m e a su ra b le . It se e m s p o s s ib le th a t o v e ra ll a s s e r tio n , lo u d n e ss , and a ffe c t are a more d iffic u lt an d su b tle s e t of b e h a v io rs an d more s u b - je c t to in te rp re ta tio n and m ay hav e b een more s u b je c t to c o n se rv a tiv e e s tim a te s of ch an g e a s w e ll-a s error. Another e x p la n a tio n m ay be in th e n atu re of a s s e r tio n tra in in g . 67 Its ro le -p la y in g d y ad s often rev o lv ed aro u n d th e e x p re ssio n of dem ands more in lin e w ith co g n itiv e p e rc e p tio n s, ra tio n a l d isp la y s ra th e r th an in tim a te , open e x p re s s io n s of em o tio n al fe e lin g s , so th a t th e sc o re r had little c h a n c e to reco rd affe c t c h a n g e s . T h ese ro le -p la y in g dem ands are a lso more in lin e w ith th e R eq u e sts s u b s c a le and favor s ig n ific a n c e in th a t a re a . One p o sitiv e note about th e study m ay be th a t the R eq u e sts s ig n ific a n c e w as th e firs t in d ic a to r th a t th e a s s e rtio n tre a tm e n t w as b e g in ning to ta k e e ffe c t but only further stu d y w ould an sw e r th a t p ro p o sitio n . A nother ex p la n a tio n for th e la c k o f sig n ific a n c e on th e a s s e rtio n m e a su re s may be in th e n a tu re of th e group le a d e rs h ip . It may be th a t le a d e rs h ip w as not e ffic a c io u s enough to e ffe c t ch an g e and th a t further study w ith more e x p e rie n c e d le a d e rs may a llo w th e q u e stio n of in n er s e n s e to be stu d ie d . A nother p o s s ib ility for th e la c k of sig n ific a n c e in th is stu d y w as th e n atu re of th e g ro u p s. It may be th a t not enough care w as ta k e n to en su re th a t any one group did not hav e to o m any women who w ere a lre a d y a s s e r tiv e or extrem ely u n a s s e rtiv e . In re tro s p e c t, one area not c o n tro lle d for w as one of m ajo rs. There m ay have been d iffe ren c es in th e p e rs o n a litie s of th e tw o m ajors u s e d for th e stu d y . N ursing and D ental A ssis tin g stu d e n ts were u s e d b u t if an y one group had an N m ade up prim arily of nursin g or d e n ta l a s s is tin g s tu d e n ts , th a t may h av e c o n - 68 founded th e r e s u lts . F inally, th e re is an im plied ..hypothesis in th is study th a t sin c e a s s e rtio n tra in in g is being prom oted in a v a rie ty of w orks and sy ste m s w ithout re s e a rc h te s tin g or ev en form al e v a lu a tio n , a stu d y te s tin g th e e ffic a c y of a p a rtic u la r sy ste m is n e e d e d . This p a rtic u la r stu d y u se d th e sy stem d ev elo p ed by Smith (1975). It may be th a t th e la c k of s ig n ific a n c e sim ply r e fle c ts an a s s e r tio n tra in in g sy ste m th a t d o es not work T e n tativ e c o n c lu s io n s about th e e ffic a c y of e ith e r th e s y s te m a tic or e x p e rie n tia l group cannot be re a c h e d a s a re s u lt of th e la c k of sig n ific a n c e nor can we a n sw e r th e q u e stio n of s e n s e of co n tro l a s it is a ffe c te d by a s s e r tio n tra in in g . Both n eed more stu d y . CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE STUDIES Summary The purpose of th is stu d y w as to in v e s tig a te tw o m odes of a s s e r tiv e n e s s tra in in g — e x p e rie n tia l and s y ste m a tic , to determ ine c h an g e to w ard s in n er s e n s e of co n tro l, and to determ ine w hich of th e s e tw o tre a tm e n ts seem s to be more e ffe c tiv e in fa c ilita tin g c h a n g e in women w ith a c o lle g e -a g e p o p u latio n . Four null h y p o th e se s w ere te s te d : 1. N ull H y p o th esis 1: This h y p o th e sis s ta te d th a t ch an g e s c o re s on th e Rathus A s se rtiv e n e ss S chedule and on th e sub-- s c a le s of a B ehavioral A sse ssm e n t T est would y ie ld no s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s a s a re s u lt of e x p e rie n c e s or tre atm e n t in a s y ste m a tic a s s e r tio n group when com pared w ith th o se in an e x p e rie n tia l a s s e r tio n group. 2. N ull H y p o th esis 2: This h y p o th e sis s ta te d th a t ch an g e sc o re s on th e Rathus A s s e rtiv e n e s s S chedule and th e d iffer ent s u b s c a le s of th e B ehavioral A sse ssm e n t S ch ed u le would y ield no sig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s when both th e e x p e rie n tia l and th e sy ste m a tic groups w ere com pared to a co n tro l group 69 a s a r e s u lt of th e a s s e rtio n tra in in g group e x p e rie n c e s. 3. N ull H y p o th esis 3: This h y p o th e sis s ta te d th a t ch an g e s c o re s on th e Inner D ire c te d n e ss S ca le of th e POI, th e E x is te n tia l sub s c a le of th e POI, an d th e P erso n al I-E S ca le a s m e a su re s of in n e r s e n s e of control w ould y ie ld no sig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s a s a re s u lt of a s s e rtio n tra in in g in an e x p e ri e n tia l group when com pared to a s s e r tio n tra in in g in a s y s te m a tic group. 4. N ull H y p o th e sis 4: This h y p o th e sis s ta te d th a t ch an g e sc o re s on th e Inner and E x iste n tia l S c a le s of th e POI and on th e P ersonal S cale of th e Rotter I-E would yield no s ig n ifi c a n t d iffe re n c e s betw een women p a rtic ip a tin g in th e e x p e ri m en tal groups (sy ste m a tic an d e x p e rie n tial) and th o s e in a co n tro l group. All null h y p o th e se s proved te n a b le a s none of th e m e a su re s, e x c ep t for th e R eq u e sts s u b s c a le , y ie ld e d sig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s. For N ull H y p o th ese s 1 and 2, th e R equests s u b s c a le proved u n te n ab le. A n aly sis of v a ria n c e and S c h e ffe 's procedure su g g e ste d th a t th e s y ste m a tic group w as s ig n ific a n tly different from th e e x p e rie n tia l group at p < . 05. Each of th e tw o ex p erim en tal groups w as sig n ific a n tly different w hen com pared to th e co n tro l group at p ^ .0 5 . 71 In order to t e s t th e s e h y p o th e se s, it w as n e c e s s a r y to s e le c t m easu rem en t in stru m e n ts for a s s e rtio n a n d for in n er s e n s e of co n tro l. After th e p o s tte s tin g , an a n a ly s is of v a ria n c e w as u s e d to t e s t for d iffe re n ce s in ch an g e s c o re s am ong th e tw o tre atm e n t groups and th e control group. S e le c tio n of M easu rem en t In stru m en ts for Inner S en se of C ontrol S hostrom 's P e rso n a lity O rien tatio n Inventory (POI) w as found to be th e only in stru m en t a v a ila b le th a t purported to m easu re self-"actu al iz a tio n by a s s e s s in g s p e c ific v a ria b le s : Inner Support, Time C om pe te n c e , A g g ressio n , and C a p a c ity for Intim ate C o n ta ct. The in v en to ry c o n ta in e d 12 s c a le s m easu rin g tr a its c h a ra c te ris tic of s e lf - a c tu a liz in g p e rso n s . O nly tw o s c a le s of th e POI w ere s e le c te d for u s e in th is study: th e Inner Support and th e E x iste n tia l s u b s c a le . The In n er Support v a ria b le purports to m easu re an a b ility to a c t on o n e 's own p rin c ip le s . E x is te n tia lity m e a su re s ac tin g on o n e 's own p rin c ip le s . The prim ary w e a k n e s s of th e in stru m en t w as th a t it atte m p te d to e v a lu a te p e rso n a lity tra its th a t w ere ex trem ely d ifficu lt to q u an tify , b u t Inner Support h as b een s u g g e ste d a s a "good" m easu re of s e lf - a c tu a liz a tio n . The POI h a s b e e n e x te n s iv e ly u s e d in re se a rc h and h as b ee n reco m m ended for u s e in re se a rc h by th e c ritic a l w riters in th e M en ta l M e a s u rem en ts Yearbook (Buros, 197 4). The purpose of u sin g th e POI In n er and E x iste n tia l s c a le s in th is 72 stu d y w as to provide a d iffe re n tia tin g d e sc rip tio n of ch an g e tow ard in n e r control a s a re s u lt of a s s e rtio n tra in in g . The In n er Support s c a le of the POI purportedly is a m easu re of change in th e a ffe c t v a ria b le . Rotter In te rn a l-E x te rn a l Locus of C ontrol S cale The o th e r in stru m en t s e le c te d for th is stu d y for th e m easurem ent of in n er s e n s e of co n tro l w as th e Rotter In te rn a l-E x te rn a l Locus of C on trol S cale (I-E). The I-E is a 2 3 -item , fo rc e d -c h o ic e s c a le . In te rn al v e rsu s e x te rn a l lo c u s of control re fe rs to a p e rs o n 's e x p e c ta tio n s or p e r ce p tio n s co n cern in g control of h is re in fo rc e m e n ts. For th e purpose of th is study only th o s e item s in th e I-E w hich are b a s e d on firs t person w ere u s e d . T h ese item s have b een nam ed "P erso n al C ontrol" an d a p p e a r c lo s e r to R o tter's c o n c e p t of lo c u s of co n tro l a s a c o n stru c t m easuring th e p e rso n 's a p p ra is a l and p ercep tio n of p erso n a l pow er. Of im p o rtan ce to th is study w as th e s u g g e stio n b y th e lite ra tu re th a t the POI In n er s c a le and th e I-E s c a le s m e a su re c o n c e p tu a lly d iffer ent a s p e c ts of th e v a ria b le s e n s e of co n tro l (W all, 197 0). W hile th e Inner s c a le of th e POI purportedly m e a su res an affe ct v a ria b le of control, th e I-E P ersonal s c a le m ea su re s a co g n itiv e v a ria b le (Rotter, 1966). It w as im portant to th is stu d y to c o n s id e r th e e ffic a c y o f a s s e rtio n on both th e a ffe c t and co g n itiv e v a ria b le s of s e n s e o f co n tro l. 73 S e le c tio n of M easu rem en t In stru m e n ts for A s se rtiv e n e ss The Rathus A s s e rtiv e n e s s S ch ed u le w as s e le c te d a s o n e of th e in stru m e n ts for th e m easu rem en t of a s s e r tio n . The in stru m en t w as c h o s e n b e c a u s e it provided a g ro ss sco re from a p en cil an d paper t e s t for in d ic a tin g th e le v e l of a s s e rtio n of a p e rso n . A lthough th e re are num erous a s s e r tiv e n e s s s c h e d u le s , th e Rathus w as b a s e d on W o lp e 's an d L a z a ru s' s itu a tio n s an d provided a sim ilar th e o re tic a l b ackground to th a t u se d in th e a s s e r tio n tra in in g e x e rc is e s u s e d in th is in v e s tig a tio n . The in stru m e n t w as u s e d a s a p re - and p o st-tre a tm e n t m easu rem en t and h a s a high t e s t - r e t e s t r e lia b ility w hich w as e s ta b lis h e d on undergraduate? c o lle g e s tu d e n ts . The pop u latio n in th is stu d y w as a group of u n d e r g ra d u a te w om en. T estin g and re te s tin g approxim ated th e e ig h t-w e e k t e s t - r e t e s t re lia b ility work of th e R athus. B ehavioral A sse ssm e n t S chedule In order to further t e s t a s s e rtio n an attem p t w as m ade to look a t and m e a su re a c tu a l b eh av io rs of th e s u b je c ts . No t e s t s e x is t w hich attem p t to m easu re a ll th e b eh a v io rs of th e a s s e r tiv e p erso n . That w ould b e an im p o ss ib ility . The b eh av io ral t e s t u s e d for th is in v e s tig a tio n w as d e sig n e d to sim u late re a l life s itu a tio n s . The in te rp e rso n a l s itu a tio n s u s e d in th e a s s e s s m e n t a re sim ila r to th o s e em ployed by E isler, H ersen , and M ille r, an d M cF all and M arsto n . T h e se in v e s tig a to rs e s ta b lis h e d eight b e h a v io ra l com ponents of a s s e r tiv e n e s s . H ersen 74 and M iller found s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s on o nly five of th e eig h t com p o n e n ts. They w ere R eq u ests for new b eh av io r, A ffect, L o u d n ess, and D uration of Reply. For th e p u rp o ses o f th is study, only four of th e com ponents w ere u s e d . Im p licatio n s and L im itations N o n -sig n ific a n t fin d in g s on th e d ep en d en t m easu re of th is in v e s tig a tio n su g g e st further study is n eed ed b efo re th e q u e s tio n of s e n s e of control an d its re la tio n s h ip to a s s e rtio n is b e tte r u n d e rsto o d . The c h an g e tow ard a s s e r tiv e n e s s and in n e r-d ire c te d n e s s by th e s y ste m a tic group may s u g g e st th a t it is a more e ffic a c io u s group but more re s e a rc h and sig n ific a n t fin d in g s are n e e d e d . The d ata may s u g g e st th a t more in te n s iv e tre a tm e n t, and perhaps a different form at, is n e e d e d in order to in c r e a s e e ffe c tiv e n e s s . Further lim ita tio n s of th e study w hich m ay have had an e ffe c t on its outcom e are th e sm all sam ple s iz e , th e sh o rt duration of tre atm en t, th e la c k of control for th e e ffe c ts of cla ssro o m e x p erie n c e , v a ria tio n in le a d e rsh ip sty le b etw een th e tw o groups, and lim itin g th e stu d y to one c o lle g e p o p u latio n , and scoring d iffic u ltie s on th e B ehavioral A s s e s s ment T est. Further d iffic u ltie s m ay h av e a ris e n w ith th e u se of nu rsin g and d e n tal a s s is tin g s tu d e n ts . A hom ogenous p o p u latio n may have y ield ed 75 d ifferen t r e s u lts . If an a n a ly s is of v a ria n c e had b e e n u se d to ch eck for s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s b e tw een nursing and d en tal a s s is tin g stu d e n ts , any d iffere n c e s may have b een s ta tis tic a lly h an d led . R ecom m endations for Future S tu d ies On th e b a s is of th e r e s u lts of th is study, th e follow ing reco m m endations for future stu d ie s are offered: The firs t recom m endation of th is stu d y is d ire c te d to w ard s c o u n se lin g c e n te rs w hich offer v a rie d p e r so n a l grow th e x p e rie n c e s for women as a part o f th e ir s e rv ic e s . The findings of th is study, alth o u g h in c o n c lu siv e , su g g e ste d th a t th e s y s te m a tic group ex p e rie n ce m ay be a v ia b le so u rce of p erso n a l grow th. T herefore, th is group m o d ality sh o u ld be in v e stig a te d further a s to its th e ra p e u tic u tility . Another recom m endation supported by a lite ra tu re s e a rc h is th a t more e x te n s iv e group r e s e a r c h b e c o n d u cted on a s s e r tiv e n e s s an d s e n s e of control w ith men only an d w ith men and women in a m ixed group e x p e rie n c e . Such s tu d ie s w ould provide inform ation a s to the e ffe c ts of se x u a l se g reg a tio n on p e rso n a l grow th an d group b e h av io r. Another recom m endation is th a t a fo llo w -u p study be perform ed w ith a la rg e r N in order to in c re a s e c o n fid en ce in th e fin d in g s. A further recom m endation is a , stu d y of lo n g er duration an d w ith fo llo w -u p group e x p e rie n c e s for both th e sy ste m a tic and e x p e rie n tia l g ro u p s. The s e n s e of co n tro l co n c e p t m ay b e a ffe c te d at th e affect 76 le v e ls first w ith women. How much more a s s e r tio n tra in in g a n d /o r o th er forms of treatm en t are n e c e s s a r y for c o g n itiv e le v e l ch a n g e s to o ccur n e e d s to be r e s e a r c h e d . L ik ew ise, a s s e r tio n tra in in g for men should d eterm ine w hich v a ria b le , a ffe c tiv e or c o g n itiv e , is a ffe c te d . It is recom m ended th a t future re s e a r c h be c o n d u c te d to d ev elo p ad d itio n a l in stru m en ts m easuring a s s e r tio n . B ehavioral in stru m en ts e s p e c ia lly need developm ent and te s tin g . An In te rn a l-E x te rn al Locus of C ontrol S cale d ire c te d for m easu rem en t of a s s e r tio n tra in in g effica c y n e e d s d evelopm ent an d te s tin g . Further te s tin g on th e re lia b ility of th e Inner D ire c te d n e ss S c a le o f th e POI a s an in stru m en t m easuring e ffic a c y of a s s e rtio n is n e e d e d . F in ally , it is recom m ended th a t th e stu d y should be re p lic a te d w ith a d d itio n a l co n tro ls ta k e n to av o id som e of th e d iffic u ltie s e n c o u n t ered by th is in v e s tig a tio n . REFERENCES 77 78 A bram ow itz, S. I. Locus of control and s e lf-re p o rte d d e p re ss io n among c o lle g e s tu d e n ts . P sy c h o lo g ical R e p o rts, 1969, 2_5, 149-150. A bram ow itz, S. I. 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D ifferen tial e ffe c ts of th ree group tre a tm e n ts on s e lf - a c tu a liz a tio n an d a ttitu d e s tow ard th e se x ro le s of wom en. U n p u b lish ed d o cto ral d is s e rta tio n , U n iv ersity of Southern C a lifo r n ia , 197 5. Zim bardo, P. Influ en cin g a ttitu d e s an d changing b e h a v io r. M enlo Park, C alifo rn ia: A d d is o n -W e s le y , 197 0. Zim bardo, P. , M iller, N. E. F a c ilita tio n of ex p lo ratio n by hunger in r a ts . Tournal of C om parative P h y sio lo g ical P sy c h o lo g y , 1958, 51, 4 3 -46. APPENDIX A 91 92 P ersonal O rien tatio n Inventory A Brief D escrip tio n of M ajor S c a le s and S u b -S c a le s* * Symbol D escrip tio n I. Ratio Scores T/T Time Ratio: Time In co m p eten ce/T im e C om petence - m e a su re s degree to w hich one is "p re sen t" o rie n te d . O /l Support Ratio: O th er/In n er - m ea su res w hether re a c tiv ity o rie n ta tio n is b a s ic a lly tow ard o th ers or se lf. II. S u b -S c a le s SAV S elf-A ctu alizin g Value: M e a su re s affirm ation of a primary v alu e of s e lf - a c tu a liz in g p e o p le . Ex E xist e ntia lit y : M e a su re s a b ility to s itu - a tio n a lly or e x is te n tia lly re a c t w ithout rig id a d heren ce to p rin c ip le s. Fr F eeling R eactiv ity : M e a su re s s e n s itiv ity of re sp o n s iv e n e ss to o n e 's own n e e d s and fe e lin g s. S S pontaneity: M e a su re s freedom to re a c t sp o n ta n e o u sly or to be o n e se lf. Sr S elf Regard: M ea su re s affirm ation of se lf b e c a u s e of worth or stren g th . * From Shostrom (1966, p. 6) 93 Sa Self A ccep tan ce: N c N ature of M an: Sy Synergy: A A ccep tan ce of A ggression: C C a p a c ity for Intim ate C o n tact: M e a su re s affirm ation or a c c e p ta n c e of s e lf in sp ite of w e a k n e s se s or d e f ic ie n c ie s . M ea su re s deg ree of th e c o n stru c tiv e view of th e nature of man, m a sc u lin ity, fem ininity. M e a su re s a b ility to be sy n e rg is tic , to tra n sc e n d d ich o to m ies. M e a su re s a b ility to a c c e p t o n e 's n atu ral a g g r e s s iv e n e s s a s o p p o sed to d e f e n s iv e n e s s , d en ial, and re p re s sio n of a g g re ss io n . M e a su re s a b ility to d e v elo p co n tactfu l in tim ate re la tio n s h ip s w ith o th er human b e in g s, unencum bered by e x p e c ta tio n s and o b lig a tio n s . APPENDIX B 94 95 I-E Locus of C ontrol S c a le (P ersonal Control Item s) Below a re som e sta te m e n ts on v ario u s to p ic s . There are no rig h t or wrong a n sw e rs to th e s e q u e s tio n s . For ev ery statem en t th ere are m any p eo p le who ag ree and who d isa g re e . P le a se show w hether you agree or d isa g re e w ith ea c h statem en t a s fo llo w s: C ircle a or b for e a c h q u e stio n , depending on w hich statem en t you b e lie v e is more tru e. P lease read eac h one ca refu lly an d b e su re an d show how you p e rso n a lly feel about ea c h of th e q u e s tio n s . 1. a . C hildren g e t in to tro u b le b e c a u s e th e ir p a re n ts punish them to o m uch. b. » The tro u b le w ith m ost ch ild ren to d a y is th a t th e ir p aren ts are too e a s y w ith them . 2. a . I have often found th a t w hat is going to h appen w ill h ap p en . b. T rusting to fate h as n ever tu rn ed out a s w ell for me as m aking a d e c is io n to tak e a d e fin ite c o u rse of a c tio n . 3. a . Becoming a s u c c e s s is a m atter of hard work, luck h as little or nothing to do w ith it. b. G ettin g a good job d ep en d s m ainly on being in th e right p lac e a t th e rig h t tim e. 4. a. W hen I m ake p la n s, I am a lm o st c e rta in th a t I can make them work. b. It is not alw a y s w ise to plan too far a h e a d b e c a u s e m any th in g s turn out to be a m atter of good or bad fortune anyhow . 96 5. a . It is only w ishful thinking to b e lie v e th a t one can in flu en ce w hat h ap p en s in s o c ie ty a t la rg e . b. People lik e me c a n h av e an in flu e n c e in th e world if we make o u rse lv e s h eard . 6. a . In my c a s e g e ttin g w hat I w ant h as little or nothing to do with lu ck . b. M any tim es we m ight a s w ell d e c id e by flipping a co in . 7. a . There is to o much em p h asis on m oney in th e church to d a y . b. M oney is n eed ed if the church is to grow and g et th in g s d o n e. 8. a . W hat h ap p en s to me is my own doing. b. Som etim es I fe el I have little co n tro l over th e d ire c tio n my life is ta k in g . 9. a . As far a s w h a t's happening in th e w orld, m ost of us are v ictim s of forces we can n e ith e r u n d e rsta n d nor co n tro l. b. By tak in g an a c tiv e part in p o litic s and s o c ia l a ffa irs the people c a n co n tro l w h a t's hap p en in g in s o c ie ty . 10. a . M any tim es I fe e l th a t I have little in flu en c e over the th in g s th a t happen to me. b. It is im p o ssib le for me to b e lie v e th a t c h a n c e or lu ck plays an im portant role in my life . 11. a . The a v e ra g e man can have an in flu en c e in goverm ent d e c is io n s . b . This world is run by the few p eo p le in pow er, and th ere is not m uch the little guy can do ab o u t it. APPENDIX C 97 98 Rathus P erso n ality Schedule D irectio n s: In d ic a te how c h a ra c te ris tic or d e sc rip tiv e ea c h of th e fo l low ing sta te m e n ts is of you by u sin g th e code g iv en below . +3 v ery c h a r a c te ris tic of me, extrem ely d e sc rip tiv e +2 rath er c h a ra c te ris tic of m e, q u ite d e sc rip tiv e + 1 som ew hat c h a ra c te ris tic of m e, slig h tly d e s c rip tiv e -1 som ew hat u n c h a ra c te ris tic of m e, slig h tly n o n d escrip tiv e -2 ra th e r u n c h a ra c te ris tic of me, q u ite n o n d escrip tiv e -3 very u n c h a ra c te ris tic of me, extrem ely n o n d e sc rip tiv e * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 1. I have h e s ita te d to m ake or a c c e p t d a te s b e c a u s e of s h y n e s s . 2. W hen th e food serv ed a t a re sta u ra n t is not done to my s a tis fa c tio n , I com plain about it to th e w aiter or w a itre s s . 3. I am carefu l to avoid hurting o th er p e o p le 's fe e lin g s, ev en w hen I feel th a t I hav e b e e n in ju re d . 4. W hen I am a s k e d to do so m eth in g , I in s is t upon know ing why. 5. To be h o n e st, p eo p le often ta k e a d v a n ta g e of me. 6. I often d o n 't know w hat to say to a ttra c tiv e p erso n s of th e o p p o site se x . 7 . I w ill h e s ita te to m ake phone c a lls to b u s in e s s e s ta b lis h m e n ts and in s titu tio n s . 8. I w ould ra th e r ap p ly for a job or for a d m issio n to a c o lle g e by w rit ing le tte rs th a n by going through w ith p erso n al in te rv ie w s. 9. I find it e m b a rassin g to return m erc h a n d ise . 10. I hav e av o id ed ask in g q u e stio n s for fear of sounding stu p id . 11. During an argum ent I am som etim es a fraid th a t I w ill g e t so u p se t th a t I will sh ak e a ll o v er. 12. I av o id arguing o ver p ric e s w ith c le rk s and sa le sm e n . 13. If som eone h as b e e n spreading fa ls e an d b ad sto ries ab o u t me, I se e him (her) a s soon a s p o s sib le to "have a ta lk " ab o u t it. 14. I often have a hard tim e saying "No. " 15. I te n d to b o ttle up my em otions ra th e r th an m ake a s c e n e . 16. I com plain ab o u t poor serv ic e in a re sta u ra n t and e lse w h e re . 17. Anyone attem pting to push a h e a d of me in a lin e is in for a good b a ttle . 18. I am quick to e x p re ss an opinion. 19. There are tim es w hen I ju s t c a n 't sa y an y th in g . APPENDIX D 99 100 B ehavior A sse ssm e n t T est (Score Sheet) Name: 1. L oudness of S peech: very low low m oderate loud very loud p re te st p o s tte s t 1 2 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 2. R equest for new b e h av io rs: p re te st o ccu rred did not o ccu r p o s tte s t occurred did not occur 3. Affect: p re te st p o s tte s t fla t som e flat 1 2 1 2 m oderate 3 3 live 4 4 very live 5 5 4. A s se rtiv e n e ss: v ery u n a s s e rt. u n a s s t. some a s s t , p re te st 1 2 3 p o s tte s t 1 2 3 very a s s t , a s s t . 4 5 4 5 5. Total Score: P rete st Score: P o stte st Score:

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Creator Vidal, Jose C (author)

Core Title An investigation of the relative contributions of assertion training to sense of control

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Psychology, clinical

Language English

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-514952

Unique identifier UC11245228

Identifier usctheses-c26-514952 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP24682.pdf

Dmrecord 514952

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Vidal, Jose C.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses