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The development and construct validation of the Primary Pictorial Self-Esteem Test

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The development and construct validation of the Primary Pictorial Self-Esteem Test

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Content THE DEVELOPMENT AND CONSTRUCT VALIDATION OF THE PRIMARY PICTORIAL SELF-ESTEEM TEST by William Jerry Kirkwood A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Education) J une 19 76 UMI Number: DP24133 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Dissertation Publishing UMI DP24133 Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 C o p y rig h t © by W ILLIAM JE R R Y KIRKWOOD 1976 U N IV E R S IT Y O F S O U T H E R N C A L IF O R N IA TH E G RADUATE SC HO O L U N IV E R S IT Y PARK LOS AN G ELES. C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7 T h is dissertation, w ritte n by ................. W.illiaixi.J.e.j:3:.y-KLrJsw-Qo.d.................. und er the d ire c tio n o f h is..— D isse rta tio n C om m ittee, and app ro ve d by a ll its members, has been presented to and accepted by T h e G raduate School, in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t o f requirem ents o f the degree o f D O C T O R O F P H IL O S O P H Y Dean D a te. a , i'I t * DISSERTATION COMMITTEE - S./ yds Chair n Ph. E>v t_cA >76 K 59 ACKNOWLE DGMENTS I would like to express my appreciation to all the people who contributed to the successful completion of this project. I am especially grateful to my guidance committee chairman, Dr. Paul Boland, for the guidance, friendship, and encouragement he extended to me throughout my work on this project. I am also grateful to Dr. Constance Lovell for her interest and constructive evaluation of the technical writ ing of this report. I am grateful to Dr. Robert Smith for his guidance, support, and special interest in the project. I would like to extend special thanks to Dr. Earl Carnes for his concern and support and for being such a beautiful per son to me. My appreciation is also extended to Drs, Manuel Gallegos and Caroline De Olden and the principals and teach ers of the Downey Unified School District, who were very cooperative in allowing me to develop and validate the test instrument in their school district. Thanks are also due to Dr. John Martois for his special interest and guidance throughout the project. My deep gratitude is expressed to my parents for their constant faith, love, and support which laid the foun dation for my ability to complete my educational objectives Finally, to my wife, Connie, whose unwavering faith and love have been a constant source of strength from the beginning, I express my deepest gratitude. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................ ii LIST OF T A B L E S ..............................................viii Chapter I. THE DEVELOPMENT AND CONSTRUCT VALIDATION OF THE PRIMARY PICTORIAL SELF-ESTEEM T E S T ............................................ 1 Purpose of the Study Significance of the Problem An Analysis of the Nature of Self-Esteem Assumptions Made in Validating the PPSET Limitations of the Study Organization of. Remaining Chapters II.. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE................, . 17 Survey of Assessment Instruments for Measuring Self-Esteem Criterion Measures III. VALIDATION PROCEDURES AND RESULTS OF THE ORIGINAL PRIMARY PICTORIAL SELF-ESTEEM T E S T ....................... . . . 34 The Original Primary Pictorial Self-Esteem Test Design Overview Assessment of the Criterion Measures iv Chapter Page Selection of Sample Studied Administrative Results Reliability Discussion of Test Results Suggestions for Revision of the Primary Pictorial Self-Esteem Test IV. VALIDATION PROCEDURES AND RESULTS OF THE REVISED PRIMARY PICTORIAL SELF-ESTEEM T E S T ................ . ......................... 54 The Reconstruction Process Overview of Validation Procedures Sample Studied Assessment of Criterion Measures Administrative Results t-Test Analysis Item Analysis Percentage of Responses by Subjects to Test Item Options Factor Analysis V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . 79 Summary Subscales Feedback from the Factor Analysis to the Conceptualization of the Criterion Measures Skewness of the Distribution of Responses on the PPSET Recommendations for Future Validation and Normative Studies Conclusion APPENDICES Appendix A: Parental Consent Form ..................... 91 v Page Appendix B: Criterion Assessment Forms and Demographic Status of Students .......... 94 Appendix C: The Original Primary Pictorial Self-Esteem T e s t .............................101 Appendix D: Factor Matrices ......................... 168 Appendix E: The Revised Primary Pictorial Self-Esteem Test .......................... 172 REFERENCES....................................................238 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Grade and Sex of Children Included in Sample ........ ..... 41 2. The t-Test Analysis for PPSET between High and Low Criterion Subjects..................... 44 3. The t-Test Analysis of Differences between Means on the PPSET for Selected Demo graphic Variables............................... 45 4. Item Analysis of Correlation Coefficients of Significant Items to the Total and Percentage of Responses by Subjects to Test Item O p t i o n s ........................... . . 4 8 5. The t-Test Analysis for PPSET between High and Low Criterion Subjects .................. 63 6. Correlation Coefficients of Significant Items to the Total Test . . 65 7. Percentage of Responses by Subjects to Test Item O p t i o n s ........... 66 ' 8. Factor Analysis of Test Items: Free- Varimax Rotation ................................ 68 i 9. Factor Analysis of Test Items: Forced 4- | Varimax Rotation 69 ( i 10. Factor Analysis of Test Items: Forced 3- Varimax Rotation............. 70 vii Table Page 11. Factor Analysis of Test Items: Forced 2- Varimax Rotation ................................ 71 12. Factor Analysis of Test Items: Free- Oblique Rotation................................ 72 13. Factor Analysis of Test Items: Forced 4- Oblique Rotation ................................. 73 14. Factor Analysis of Test Items: Forced 3- Oblique Rotation ................................. 74 15. Factor Analysis of Test Items: Forced 2- Oblique Rotation ....................... 75 CHAPTER I THE DEVELOPMENT AND CONSTRUCT VALIDATION 0F THE PRIMARY PICTORIAL SELF-ESTEEM TEST "Self-esteem" is a construct that has great signifi cance for most educators and professional counselors, A legion of studies, many reviewed in Wylie's (1961) classic compilation, reveal that many persons who seek psychological help acknowledge that they suffer from feelings of inade quacy and unworthiness. These people see themselves as lacking the feelings of personal self-worth that provide the inner resources necessary to deal with the problems and stresses of everyday events. Fromm (1947) observed that persons who are plagued by doubts of their worthiness can neither give nor receive love, apparently fearing that the exposure that comes with intimacy will reveal their inade quacies and cause them to be rejected. Rogers (19 61) has stressed the necessity of an individual's viewing himself positively before he can become a fully functioning person 1 21 or a self-actuated individual. Also, many educational researchers such as Walsh (1956) , Hamachek (1960) , and Campbell (19 66) indicate that learning difficulties may be the result of feelings of inadequacy and lack of a i positive sense of self-esteem rather than a function of intellectual inadequacies. An adequate level of self-esteem is an important ingredient in the formation of a successful, productive individual. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this investigation was to develop a test instrument which validly measures the self-esteem of primary school age children. The Primary Pictorial Self-Esteem Test (PPSET) is a nonreading test composed of both pictorial and verbal de scriptors. The pictorial descriptors are presented in book let form with a separate test item on each page. Contained within each test item is a unique perceptual Likert-type scale. The scaling was created by pairing both high and low » self-esteem pictorial descriptors to form a set. Then, by systematically varying the size of the pictorial descriptors in relationship to each other, five sets were produced which yielded a five-point Likert-type scale. Accompanying the test booklet is a cassette tape 3 ; recording which provides standardized test instructions i and verbal descriptors for each test item. Each verbal \ I descriptor is designed to contain the following three ele- ! I ments: first, a behavioral description of the content of | the pictorial descriptor; second, an affective statement based upon the child’s feelings; and third, a valuative or belief statement made by the child. Each of the three ele- 1 ments contained in the verbal descriptor is designed to be congruent with the other two; i.e., congruence should exist i between the behavioral, affective, and valuative elements. Also, the two verbal descriptors for each test item are i designed to be opposites, with one depicting high self esteem and the other depicting low self-esteem status. In the project, self-esteem is operationally defined in terms of four constructs: relationship to significant others— -parents, relationship to significant others— peer group level of esteem, ability to succeed— academic achieve ment, and ability to act upon the world— physical develop ment. Each of these constructs is measured independently and then serves as a criterion in the construct validation of the test instrument. The content of the pictorial test items is designed to reflect each of the four constructs. A second validation procedure was conducted by ; ; i factor analyzing the test items into subcategories to see [ I if they would produce interpretable factors. Also, an item analysis was made to determine corre lation coefficients of each test item and percentage of responses by subjects to test item options. Finally, the PPSET was readministered after a spe cified period to determine test-retest reliability. It is the belief of this investigator that this process has produced a test instrument with construct validity which can reliably assess the self-esteem of pri mary school age children. Significance of the Problem Ironically, as important a construct as self-esteem is in the formation of personality, not nearly enough re- [Search has been conducted in this area. Perhaps one expla nation for this situation is that very few test instruments are available for assessing self-esteem; in the area of assessing self-esteem of primary school age children, in I fact, few standardized, validated test instruments exist at , the present time. If meaningful research and evaluation in such a vital area as self-esteem are to be conducted, constructu- ally validated test instruments must be developed. Also, if professional educators and counselors are to meet the individual needs of young children, it is imperative that they be given adequate means of assessing these needs. Ideally, such a test instrument would have subscales that would provide specificity and precision in the assessment of self-esteem. Finally, because of the tremendous effort being ex pended in many areas of the country in restructuring the primary grades to make the programs more individual and humanized, there is a real need for standardized test in struments to validly assess self-esteem. This investiga tion is designed to provide such a test instrument, vali dated against four criteria of self-esteem which analysis of the literature indicates to be of major importance. An Analysis of the Nature of Self-Esteem A child's self-concept is a function of his experi ential interaction with the environment. According to Rogers (1951), "as the infant interacts with his environment he gradually builds up concepts about himself, about his environment, and about himself in relation to the environ ment" (p. 498). Rogers also suggests that the self is constantly forming and becoming increasingly differentiated 6 as a function of environmental experiential interaction; out of this interaction process are formed conceptualizations of the self. The self-concept includes all cognitive descrip tors that a person applies to himself, e.g., I am a boy, I am tall, I am a good student, etc. These conceptualizations are a product of his environmental experiences. Included in the self-concept is the construct self esteem. Self-esteem refers to the subjective evaluation a person makes of his personal level of self-worth. While self-concept includes all cognitive descriptors a person applies to himself, self-esteem is restricted to those evaluations that relate to esteem or worthiness. According to Coopersmith (19 67) , . . . by self-esteem we refer to the evaluation which the individual makes and customarily maintains with regard to himself: it expresses an attitude of appro val or disapproval, and indicates the extent to which the individual believes himself to be capable, signifi cant, successful, and worthy. In short, self-esteem is a personal judgement of worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes the individual holds toward himself. It is a subjective experience which the individual conveys to others by verbal reports and other expres sive behavior. (p. 4) A logical analysis of the construct self-esteem reveals two major types of experiential events that have a direct function in developing a child's level of self esteem. Both types of experiences give the child direct feedback in terms of his personal sense of worthiness or esteem. The first general type of experience is the per ceived feedback that a child receives from significant others in his life. From specific experiential events with "significant others," the child is able to conceptualize his self-esteem as a function of the way he perceives their level of esteem toward him. Mead (1934) advanced the theory that one learns to see himself in the same way that he thinks significant others see him. Also, Sullivan (1945) maintains that the "reflected appraisals" of others deter mine how a child feels about himself. Many researchers (Sears, 1957; Samuels, 1969; Medinnus & Curtis, 1963; Rosenberg, 1963; Antonovsky, 1959; Lynn, 1961; and Harris, 1958) indicate that among the pri mary significant others in the formation of a child's self esteem are his parents. Their research indicates that the level of self-esteem of the child is a function of the level of self-esteem of the parents, their degree of involvement with their child, and the qualitative aspects of that rela tionship, defined in terms of understanding, respect, and trust. A second source of significant others becomes opera tive as the child's human contacts are broadened beyond the 8 ! j maternal and familial relationships to include his class- t mates. According to Schmuck (19 6 3) and Long, Henderson, and Ziller (1967), the degree to which a child is esteemed, ;liked or disliked, by his classmates becomes a primary determinant in the formation of the self-esteem of the pri mary school age child. The second general type of experience that provides the child direct feedback in terms of his personal sense of worthiness or esteem is the feedback he receives as a func tion of his own ability to succeed or fail at whatever tasks he defines as important. According to James' (1890) analy sis, if achievement approaches or meets aspirations in a valued area, the result is high self-esteem. The content of the feedback is the evaluation a child places upon his abil ity to succeed or his ability to act upon the world. Functionally, a child's ability to succeed or to act upon the world can be divided into two areas. The first area is mental or academic achievement. According to numer ous researchers (Brookover, Thomas, & Paterson, 1964; Campbell, 1966; Lecky, 194 5; and Wattenberg & Clifford, 1962), a child's ability to succeed academically is directly related to his level of self-esteem. The second specific area of experience that provides the child with direct feedback in terms of esteem or worthi ness is his ability to act physically on the world. It is the position taken here that a child's physical develop mental ability is directly related to his level of self esteem. A structural analysis reveals that self-esteem appears to be composed of both a generalized factor and a legion of specific experiential events. The generalized factor, g, is a product of the individual's abstracting from specific experiential events. As such, it is directly grounded in the various events themselves. The specific experiential events comprise the basic substance of an in dividual's level of self-esteem. These specific experien tial events are composed of the following three elements. The first is the behavioral element, which refers to the cognitive, descriptive image derived from an experience. It provides the structural qualities of the experience. The second is the affective element. A number of possible* emo tional states are available to an individual during a self esteem type of experience. Without the affective element, the experience cannot be deemed to affect the self-esteem of an individual. The third element of an experiential event that has an input into the level of a person's self-esteem 10 is the valuative or belief element. This element provides the judgmental, evaluative aspect of the experience. It answers the question of how the individual interprets the experience in terms of his own personal level of self esteem. All three of these elements are directly interre lated and together form the basic substance of a self esteem experiential event. It should be noted that the content of each person's specific experiential events will be different, but the three elements— behavioral, affective, and evaluative— must be present in order for an event to have an input into the individual's level of self-esteem. As previously stated, the generalized factor, g, is a product of the individual's abstracting from specific experiential events. In a hier archical structure, the generalized factor, g, is the first that comes into awareness. It would most likely be the first awareness a person would have if asked the question, "How do you feel about yourself in a certain area, say for example, academically?" Structurally, g has a generalized affect and value structure, but it does not have a behav ioral structure. The behavioral structure was lost in the abstracting process. The process is revealed when the in dividual is pressed by the question, "Why do you feel that 11 jway about yourself?" To answer the question he must tie the Jgeneralized factor to specific experiential events. It is ionly when this happens that a behavioral descriptive image will appear in consciousness. Such specific experiential events form the basis of a person's level of self-esteem. j i In developing the PPSET, test items have been designed to ! (reflect significant experiential events in the life of a [primary school age child. Each test item is composed of a i i pictorial descriptor which reflects the behavioral element j and verbal descriptors which reflect the behavioral, affec- ; tive, and valuative elements of experiential events that form the basis of self-esteem. j i ! The specific experiential events can be grouped or j i i jcategorized according to the various stages of an individ- j ; i jual's life. A child's specific experiential events cate- ; ! . | igorize themselves differently from those of a person who is i I ! la married adult with children and a profession. An examina-i | ■tion of the theoretical formulations (Mead, 1934; Sullivan, \ i 1945; James, 1890) and research studies (Sears, 1957; i brookover, Thomas, & Paterson, 1964; Long, Henderson, & i i i i | Iziller, 1967) indicate four categories, or constructs, whichi | i lare essential ingredients in the formation of a primary school age child's level of self-esteem. These four , 12 constructs, which are the criteria used for validating the PPSET, are discussed below. Relationship to significant others— parents According to this criterion, the level of self esteem of the child is defined as a function of the level of self-esteem of the parents, their degree of involvement with their child, and the qualitative aspects of that rela tionship which are defined in terms of understanding, re spect, and trust. According to the criterion, parents with high levels of esteem who exhibit high levels of understanding, respect, and trust in an involved relationship will produce a child with a higher level of self-esteem along this criterion than parents who show lower levels of these qualities. Relationship to significant others— peer group level of esteem According to this criterion, a child's level of self-esteem will, in part, be determined by the degree to which he is esteemed by his peer group. A child who is highly esteemed by his peer group will, according to the criterion, have a higher level of self-esteem than a child who is not so highly esteemed. Ability to succeed— academic achievement A child’s ability to succeed is defined as one cri terion for the validation of the test instrument. Specifi cally, academic achievement is defined in terms of standard ized achievement test scores and report card grades. Ac cording to the criterion, a child who scores high on these measures will have a higher level of self-esteem than a child scoring lower on these measures. Ability to act upon the world— physical development A child's ability to act upon the world physically is the final criterion for the validation of the PPSET. According to the criterion, a child who is physically more developed, better coordinated, and more able to do things physically will have a higher level of self-esteem than a ghild who is not so physically endowed. Independent assessments of these four constructs are used as the criteria for the validation of the PPSET. Be cause of the importance of each one of the constructs, a major portion of the next chapter will be devoted to a thorough discussion of them. 14 Assumptions Made in Validating the PPSET The following assumptions were made in the develop ment and validation of the PPSET: 1. While the general constructs used to operation ally define self-esteem are universal in character (i.e., relationship with significant others— parents and peer group, ability to succeed at whatever the culture defines as important, and ability to physically act upon the world), many of the specific experiential events employed in the development of the PPSET are a function of cultural deter minants. It is assumed for validation purposes that all children in the research sample have had an experiential exposure to the specific experiential events which are used in the development of the PPSET. 2. It is also assumed that there are no antitheti cal subcultural values operating within the children of the research sample. Limitations of the Study The PPSET does not take into account many variations in cultural values. Almost all of the pictorial descriptors were developed using Caucasian children as models. Also, the content of the test items reflects dominant cultural values. If there has been a rejection of such values (e.g., 15 academic achievement as important for success) or if the child has not been exposed to many of the specific experien tial events that make up the content of the test items, the PPSET will lose its effectiveness. Organization of Remaining Chapters Chapter II is devoted to a survey of assessment in struments for measuring self-esteem and to an examination of the theoretical formulations and research studies in the area of self-esteem. Originally, the PPSET was developed with.pictorial descriptors presenting a dichotomous choice; i.e., each test item contained two pictorial descriptors, one depicting a high level of self-esteem and the other depicting a low level of self-esteem. The research instrument was used in a validation study with approximately 260 primary school age children. The original PPSET, the validation methodology, and results of the validation study are discussed in Chapter III. It was decided that because of problems with lack of variability, the PPSET should undergo major revision. The discussion of this revision process, validation procedures, and results of the revised PPSET are then discussed in Chapter IV. 16 It was felt that by tracking the developmental process of the PPSET, the reader will best be able to understand the present level of development of the research test instrument. Finally, Chapter V is devoted to summary, conclu sions, and recommendations. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE This chapter is devoted to a survey of assessment instruments for measuring self-esteem and to an examination of the theoretical formulations and research studies in the area of self-esteem. In particular, each of the four cri terion measures used to operationally define self-esteem is discussed at length to indicate its direct relationship to self-esteem. Survey of Assessment Instruments for Measuring Self-Esteem The following is a survey of the major assessment instruments for measuring self-esteem. Coopersmith's (1959) Self-Esteem Inventory consists of 50 short sentences written for use with elementary chil dren. The sentences reflect both high and low self-esteem and relate to the child's perceptions in four areas: peers, parents, school, and self. Instructions ask the child to 17 18 answer each statement according to how he usually feels, checking "Like Me" or "Unlike Me." This inventory can be administered on a group basis. Test-retest reliability after a five-week interval on a sample of 30 fifth-grade children was .88. The validity of the measure is indicated by significant correlations between self-esteem and achieve ment (.36) and between self-esteem and sociometric choice (.37) . Piers and Harris (1964) developed an 80-item inven tory designed to measure favorableness of the self-concept. The 80 statements were distilled from a collection of chil dren's self-evaluation statements. They are written in the simple declarative, e.g., "I am a happy person." At least half the items are negative in content (e.g., "I behave badly at home"). The authors used the inventory in grades 3 through 10. For a sample of boys and girls in grades 3, 6, and 10 the consistency coefficients ranged from .78 to .93. Retest reliability averaged at .72 for all grades over a four-month period. Rosenberg (1965) developed a 10-item Guttman scale for measuring self-esteem. The items are simple declarative statements such as, "On the whole, I am satisfied with my self." Rosenberg dichotomized responses into agreement and 19 disagreement categories and scored 0 for a high self-esteem, 1 for a low self-esteem response. In addition to the face validity of the items, Rosenberg presented evidence that the scale is related in expected directions to depression, psychophysiological indicates of neuroticism, and peer-group reputation. Muller and Leonetti (1974) developed the Primary Self-Concept Inventory for evaluating several aspects of self-concept relevant to school success. The test instru ment is composed of 20 items: two warm-up and 18 scored items. Each item depicts at least one child in a positive role and at least one child in a negative role. There are separate forms of the test for male arid female subjects. The examinee is told a simple descriptive story about each illustration and is instructed to draw a circle around the person who is most like himself. The test is designed to measure six aspects or factors of self-concept. These factors can be clustered into the three major domains of personal-self, social-self, and intellectual-self. The PSCI indicates a test-retest reliability of .91 and .57 on two samples (N = 372, W = 100 respectively). According to the developers, the test factor analyzed into 20 consistent factors. There is no discussion of criterion measures for construct validity. A major problem with the development of most exist ing self-esteem assessment instruments is the lack of con struct validity. Theoretically, a construct such as self esteem should be operationally defined in terms of inde pendent criterion measures. These criterion measures should form the basis for the development of the test items and then each criterion measure should be independently assessed and then compared with the test instrument. Without these validation procedures, it may be asked, "What in fact is the test instrument measuring?" Also, for young children there is a definite need for more test instruments employing nonreading, pictorial test items. This would eliminate reading ability as a con comitant variable. Criterion Measures The following is an examination of the theoretical formulations and research studies for each of the four cri terion measures used to operationally define self-esteem. Relationship with significant others— parents Operationally, the self-esteem of a child can, in 21 in part, be defined in terms of his relationship with sig nificant others. The theoretical literature is replete with writers emphasizing the importance of the significant others in the development of a child's self-esteem. Mead (1934) advanced the theory that one learns to see himself in the same way that he thinks significant oth ers see him. According to Mead, the self develops as an object of awareness through a response to social interac tion. An individual is regarded as an object by other peo ple; consequently, he has an awareness of himself congruent with others1 perception of him. Likewise, Sullivan (1945) maintains that the "re flected appraisals" of others determine how a child feels about himself. The self-concept is influenced by other people. Therefore, Sullivan believes that "significant" people in the child's life exert a strong influence on the self-concept. The parents function as the most significant other in shaping the self-concept, and "the self dynamism is built up out of this experience of approbation and dis approval, of reward and punishment" (p. 178). The experi ences with, and the attitudes of, significant others— namely the parents— are incorporated into the child's self-concept. Also, Sears (1957) stresses the importance of the significant others in the development of a child*s sense of j self-worth. The dyadic relationship between mother and j child is the main force affecting development. Sears sug gests that a child becomes what he is according to how he is reared by his parents. Hence, according to Sears, the role of the parents, especially the mother, is crucial to the development of the child*s self-concept. The self-esteem level of the parents is important not only because it is highly correlated with the level of self-esteem of their child, but because it also provides the qualitative or substantive aspect of the relationship. That is, the level of self-esteem of the mother and father is believed to provide the substantive aspect of a loving rela tionship, in other words, the parents* level of self-esteem provides the basic substance of what they have to give. How this basic substance is channeled is determined by their attitudes or values; these form the structure of the rela tionship. This structure is defined in terms of trust, understanding, and respect. There seems to be a direct relationship between the self-esteem of the parents and the self-esteem of their offspring. Samuels (1969) studied 93 mother- child pairs. She found the child's positive self-concept was directly related to the mother's level of self- 23 esteem. Other positive relationships were found between a child's positive self-concepts and the mother's warmth, per missiveness, and consistency of praise toward the child. Medinnus and Curtis' (1963) study explored the rela tionship between maternal self-acceptance and child accept ance. They found a child's positive self-concept depended upon the extent to which he was accepted by "significant others" in the early years. Their findings also indicated a significant positive relationship between maternal self- acceptance and child's level of self-acceptance. Schwartz's (1966) study explored some of the ante cedents of the preschool child's self-concept. She found that the nature of the parent-child interaction had an effect on the child's self-concept. Children with positive self-concepts had mothers with the following characteris tics: they perceived their child as an individual in his own right, had high self-esteem, accepted their child, were warm and affectionate toward the child, were satisfied with their current status, and had established an adequate emo tional climate in the family. Wylie (19 61) has noted that there was some evidence that a child's self-concept is similar to what he considers to be his parent's view of him. Furthermore, self-regard is 24 related to the level of regard parents hold for themselves, and the like-sex parent's self-concept is seen as more like the child's. Rosenberg (1963) found evidence that the amount of interest parents showed in their children's activities was related to the child's self-esteem. Parental indifference, while seldom reported by the subjects, was related to low self-esteem even more than a punitive parental attitude. He also suggests that the child's report card and his friends are important factors in determining the level of self-esteem. Social learning theorists like Bandura and Walters (19 63) have argued that children model themselves after their parents and significant others by imitating their behavior and attitudes. Also, psychoanalytic theorists like Bronfenbrenner (1960) have dwelt at length on the importance of identification with parents as a mechanism whereby the child incorporates elements of his parents' personalities into his own. There seems to be very well-defined support in the literature for the concept that parental attitudes influence the development of the child's self-esteem. Antonovsky (1959) , Lynn (1961) , and Harris (1958) investigated and p 25 defined the type of environment conducive to a satisfactory and successful parent-child relationships. Results of their investigations suggest that the quality of such a relation ship correlates highly with the degree to which the child shows feelings of both trust and security toward the parents by sharing confidences and looking to them for advice and counsel on perplexing problems. The quality of the rela tionship also correlates highly with the child's opportunity for self-expression and the recognition he received for his work and play activities. They concluded that, above all else, the success of the parent-child relationship was based upon the degree to which the family possessed a bond of mutual loyalty and love. Cole, Shaw, Steneck, and Taboroff (1957) hypothe sized that parental attitudes must be considered in assess ing the consequent behavior and attitudes of the child. The results of their investigation bore out the fact that atti tudes of parents are related to the manner in which the child responds, as well as the attitude the child develops in the situation. They also found that children who are considered to be adjusted most often come from family envi ronments where parental attitudes toward them have been posi tive and where a "wholesome relationship" exists between the 26 parent and the child. The general characteristics these investigators found in such an environment included a home life that was relatively free from anxiety, wherein the child was a constructive, functioning, integral, interde pendent member of the family group. Weiss (1969) investigated home environment factors related to self-esteem. He found that parental evaluations of the child appeared to have a closer relationship to the child's self-image than any other home environmental vari able. Results indicated that mother evaluations of the child appeared to be of much greater importance than father evaluations for both males and females. The importance of mother evaluations is supported by the fact that the per son's views about himself are often a function of the views significant others have about him. Since mother assumes the earliest importance and spends more time with the child than does the father, Weiss concluded that it is not surprising that mother evaluations are most influential in the develop ment of the child's self-image. Therefore, the relationship with significant others — parents is employed as one criterion for the validation of the PPSET. Specifically, this criterion states that parents with high levels of self-esteem who foster a relationship with their child characterized by trust, understanding, and J i I respect produce a child with a higher level of self-esteem ; i on the criterion than parents who do not. I 1 Relationship to significant others— peer group level of esteem Operationally, the self-esteem of a child can, in part, be defined in terms of the level of peer group esteem exhibited toward the child. This significant other becomes operative as the child's human contacts are broadened beyond the maternal and familial relationship to include his class mates. The criterion measure "significant others" likewise needs to be broadened to reflect this wider sphere of in fluence . It seems only logical, as well as supported by research findings (Schmuck, 1963; Long, Henderson, & Ziller, 1967), that the child's classmates form a significant part of the "reflected appraisals" in the formation of his self esteem. In other words, the degree to which a child is esteemed by his classmates— liked or disliked— becomes a primary determinant in the formation of the self-esteem of a primary school age child. Schmuck (196 3) has shown that a child who perceives himself as liked by his classmates has more positive attitudes toward himself and does better in 28 school. According to Long, Henderson, and Ziller's (1967) research study, a child's peer group, his teachers, and others significant in his life have been found to share in the influence parents exert with respect to the child's self-concept. This is to be expected as the child's social group enlarges and the evaluations of himself from others and their characteristics as models take on greater impor tance . Kokenes (1974), in a factor analytic study of the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory using approximately 1,500 students in each of grades 4 through 8, found that, of the three factors produced, one emerged that expressed positive attitudes toward self derived from peers. Therefore, the relationship with significant others — peer group level of self-esteem is a criterion for the validation of the test instrument. It is assumed that a child's level of self-esteem is, in part, determined by the degree to which he is esteemed by his peer group. Specifi cally, the criterion is that a child who is highly esteemed by his peers has a higher level of self-esteem than a child who is not so highly esteemed. ! Ability to succeed— academic achievement The third criterion to be employed in the opera- j j tional definition of self-esteem is ability to succeed. I ; i According to James’ (1890) analysis, human aspirations and values have an essential role in determining whether we ; i regard ourselves favorably. Our achievements are measured against our aspirations for any given area of behavior. If achievement approaches or meets aspirations in a valued area, the result is high self-esteem. According to James, a person achieves a sense of his general worth by employing . communal standards of success and status. A person's sense of "self-feeling" is in part determined by the actual posi tion he holds in the community. A synopsis of James' over all position indicates that self-esteem is directly related jto a person's ability to succeed at whatever task is before i ' 1 him and perceived to be important. It is the position taken here that the ability to master academic materials is a i fundamental task in the development of each child, and that a child's self-esteem is directly related to his ability to succeed at the task of academic achievement. The relationship between self-esteem and academic achievement is well substantiated in the literature. Walsh (1956), in a study of elementary school boys with I.Q.'s over 12 0, found that bright boys who were low achievers had more negative feelings about themselves than did high achievers. As cited by Jasik (1972) , Hamachek (1960) , in a study of elementary school children, found that children classified as high status on mental age, reading age, and education age exhibited a more positive intellectual self- image and achievement self-image. Brookover, Thomas, and Paterson (1964) in a compre hensive study of over 1,000 seventh-grade students found a i significant and positive relationship between self-concept and academic performance. In the second and third parts of their longitudinal research, it was concluded that there was a high correlation between self-concept of ability and grade-point average, supporting the theory that self-concept is a necessary, but not a sufficient condition for achieve ment. They pointed out that practically none of the stu dents with lower self-concepts of ability achieve at a high level. The research also supported the finding that self- concept was significantly and positively related to per ceived evaluations that significant others held of the 31 student. Campbell (1966) found a direct relationship between self-concept and academic achievement in fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-grade children. Lecky's work (1945) on the consistency of the self- concept found that individuals continue to perceive them selves in a consistent fashion and are resistant to changes in their self-pictures. This finding reinforces the obser vations of teachers that the pattern of underachievement is difficult to change. Shaw and Alves (196 3) reported that male achievers have a more positive self-concept than male underachievers. Purkey (1967) concluded that academic underachieve ment in general is related mainly to an inadequate concept of self and that learning was contingent upon self-opinion. Self-evaluations, as well as changes in self- evaluations, take place, according to Festinger (1954) , in situations where it is possible to compare one's performance with the performance of others. Cumming's (1971) research found a definite relation ship between self-concept and reading achievement at the third-grade level. As a result of this finding, he sug gested that there should be a greater awareness of the 32 significance of the classroom teacher's and student teacher's relationships with children and their effects on the chil dren's self-concepts. Wattenberg and Clifford (1962) , in their longitudi nal study of kindergarten, first-, and second-grade chil dren in an effort to determine the relationship of the self- concept to beginning achievement in reading, concluded that self-concept stands in a causal relationship to reading achievement and in fact that progress in reading has a marked effect on the formation of self-concept. Accordingly, a child's ability to succeed academi cally is defined as one criterion for the validation of the test instrument. Specifically, academic achievement is de fined in terms of standardized achievement test scores and report card grades. The criterion is that a child who scores high will have a higher level of self-esteem than a child scoring lower. Ability to act upon the world— physical development The criterion measure "ability to act upon the world— physical development" is developed from the same theoretical foundation as the ability to succeed. Again, a synopsis of James' position indicates that self-esteem is 33 directly related to both a person's ability to succeed and his ability to act upon the world. While the ability to succeed is defined in terms of cognitive development, the ability to act upon the world is defined in terms of physi cal development. It is the position taken here that a child's ability to physically act upon the world is a funda mental task. The degree to which he masters this task operationally defines his level of self-esteem along the criterion. That is, a child who is physically more devel oped, better coordinated, and more able physically to master his environment will have a higher level of self-esteem than a child who is not so well endowed physically. At the present time, there are no research studies in the literature reviewed that relate physical maturation or development to self-esteem or self-concept. Theoreti cally, however, the ability to physically act upon the world is deemed to be an important process in the development of a primary school age child's level of self-esteem. CHAPTER III VALIDATION PROCEDURES AND RESULTS OF THE ORIGINAL PRIMARY PICTORIAL SELF-ESTEEM TEST The following two chapters of the research project are presented from a historical developmental perspective. It is hoped that presentation of the material in this fashion will enable the reader to understand more fully the process of development and revision of the PPSET. For this purpose, Chapter III is devoted entirely to the validation procedures and results of the original PPSET, while Chapter IV discusses the revision process, validation procedures, and findings of the revised PPSET. : I The Original Primary Pictorial Self-Esteem Test The original PPSET consisted of 47 items. Each test item was composed of two pictorial descriptors, one depicting a high state of self-esteem and a second representing a low 34 ' 351 i level of self-esteem. Presented with the pictorial descrip-j tors were verbal descriptors in the form of a cassette tape j recording. Each verbal descriptor was designed to contain j [the following three elements: first, a behavioral descrip- ! tion of the content of the pictorial descriptor; second, an affective statement based upon the child's feelings; and third, a valuative or belief statement made by the child. Each of the three elements contained in the verbal descrip- i tor was designed to be congruent with the other two; i.e., t congruent between the behavioral, affective, and valuative elements. Also, the two verbal descriptors for each test item were designed to be opposites, with one depicting high self-esteem and the other depicting low self-esteem status. i i Design Overview The purpose of this research project was to develop ( and constructually validate a nonreading pictorial self esteem test instrument for primary school age children. A major effort was put forth to operationally define self esteem in terms of four constructs: relationship to signifi- i cant others— parents, relationship to significant others— peer group level of esteem, ability to succeed— academic achievement, and ability to act upon the world— physical development. Each of the four constructs was independently 36 assessed and served as a criterion in the validation proc ess . The criterion measures were used to validate the PPSET in two ways. First, each of the criterion measures was compared by means of a t-test to the total test results to see whether the test instrument differentiated between high and low self-esteem at a significant level. The level of significance, alpha, was set at .05. A second validation procedure was also conducted. In this process the test items were factor analyzed to see if they would divide into subcategories. The plan was that if the test items factor analyzed into subcategories, correlations would be obtained between the subcategories and the constructs being used to operationally define self-esteem. This process was designed to yield subscales tied directly to the criterion measures with a correlation coefficient. An item analysis was also made on the test items to indicate which items did not discriminate and could be dropped from the test instrument. Also, the PPSET was readministered 14 days later to 10 randomly selected children from each of the three grade levels to determine test-retest reliability. It was anticipated that this procedure would produce : 37 a valid test instrument which could reliably be used to i assess the level of self-esteem of primary school age children. [ I Assessment of the Criterion Measures Before the administration of the PPSET, the teachers whose students were part of the sample were asked to fill out two forms. The first was on the demographic status of the student and was designed to provide information on grade llevel, sex, ethnicity, and number of parents living in the home. The second form was on the criterion measures used to validate the test instrument. Procedurally, the teacher was asked to select five children from her entire class whom she considered to be the highest and five children whom she considered to be the lowest in each of the criterion areas used in defining self -esteem. She was instructed that the children need not be ranked and that a child might or might not appear in more than one criterion area. Specifically, for each criterion area the teacher was given the following instructions: Relationship to significant others— parents Please select five children whom you consider to 38 have parents who exhibit high levels of understanding, trust, and respect for their child. These parents should also exhibit high levels of involvement with their child, have a high level of self-esteem themselves, and have con fidence in their ability as parents. Please select five children whom you consider to have parents who exhibit low levels of understanding, trust, and respect for their child. These parents should also ex hibit low levels of involvement with their child, have a low level of self-esteem themselves, and show lack of con fidence in their ability as parents. Relationship with significant others— peer group level of esteem Please select five children whom you believe the other children most want to play with, whom they respect and perhaps look up to. These would be children who are the most outgoing socially, eager to meet and make new friends, and confident in their social abilities. These are the five children most esteemed by the other children. Please select five children whom you believe the other children least want to play with, whom they least respect and least look up to. These would be children who are the social isolates, shy and fearful of meeting and 39 making new friends. They show little confidence in their social abilities. These are the five children least es teemed by the other children. Ability to succeed— academic achievement Please select five children who are performing the best in mastering academic materials. These children should be the most intelligent according to I.Q. scores, have the highest standardized achievement test scores, and get the best report card marks. Please select five children who are performing most poorly in mastering academic materials. These children should be the dullest according to I.Q. scores, have the lowest standardized achievement test scores, and get the poorest report card marks. Ability to act upon the world— physical development Please select five children who are physically the best developed for their age; they do the best in sports, and are the first ones chosen to be on a team; they are the fastest runners, are well-coordinated, and feel good about themselves physically. Please select five children who are physically the least developed for their age; they do most poorly in sports, and are the last ones chosen to be on a team; they are the slowest runners, are poorly coordinated, and do not feel good about themselves physically. Selection of Sample Studied The sample to be studied consisted of first-, second-, and third-graders in two elementary schools in the Downey Unified School District. The two elementary schools ! selected were the Rio Hondo and Alameda elementary schools. Although not selected because of the Early Childhood Pro gram, both of these elementary schools happened to be in cluded in this program. Early Childhood Education is a California state-funded program designed to restructure the primary grades. Its major goal is to make the educational system more individual and humanized. ; Downey is composed of a primarily middle-class popu lation with some lower, lower-middle, and upper-middle socioeconomic groupings. Ethnically, Downey is predomi nantly Caucasian with a minority of Spanish and a very small minority of Oriental peoples. Because of district policy, only children whose par ents signed and returned a parental permission slip were able to participate in the research project. Because of past 41 experience in the district, it was anticipated that of the possible 500 children in the first, second, and third grades in the two elementary schools, approximately 5 0 percent would return the parental permission slips. This proved to be the case. The number of subjects by grade and sex is shown in Table 1. TABLE 1 GRADE AND SEX OF CHILDREN INCLUDED IN, SAMPLE Grade Male Female Total 1 32 46 78 2 37 67 104 3 37 40 77 Total 106 153 259 The figures listed in Table 1 include all who re turned an affirmative parental permission slip and who were in attendance the day of testing. Administrative Results The PPSET was administered to groups ranging in size from 15 to 35. The group size was a function of the size of the testing facilities, The children were all given coded test booklets and pencils, seated, and told that all test instructions and explanations would be provided by the cassette tape record ing. The tape recording was prearranged to stop after the first test item so that any questions could be answered. The children appeared to have no difficulty understanding the explanation of what they were supposed to do. Also, at this time the children were told that anyone who did not want to take this test did not have to; that it was in no way required. However, the children seemed to enjoy the testing experience and said it was fun. Finally, it should be noted that several children at various times indicated that "it was not really one way or the other but that sometimes they felt one way and other times the other." However, these children did appear to select the picture that was more like them and did not leave the item blank. Each of the criterion measures used to operationally define self-esteem was compared by means of a t-test to the total test results to see whether the test instrument differ entiated between high and low self-esteem. The level of significance, alpha, was set at .05. This information is 43 presented in Table 2. As indicated in Table 2, the PPSET instrument dif ferentiated between high and low self-esteem children at a very significant level on three of the four criterion meas ures. The test did not differentiate between highs and lows according to the criterion measure "ability to succeed — academic achievement." This finding is discussed at length later in the discussion. The demographic status of the students was statisti cally analyzed to indicate whether grade level, sex, ethni city, or number of parents living in the family unit made a significant difference. This comparison is shown in Table 3. The statistical analysis of the demographic status of the students addressed itself to several potential prob lems. First, an analysis was made to determine whether grade level made a significant difference. A possible prob lem could have been that self-esteem, as a construct itself, may not be sufficiently developed or stabilized at the first-grade level. According to the statistical analysis, however, grade level did not make a significant difference. A second potential problem involved the construction of the test instrument itself. Since a single test TABLE 2 THE t-TEST ANALYSIS FOR PPSET BETWEEN HIGH AND LOW CRITERION SUBJECTS Criterion Measure Variable Number of Cases Means t Value Degrees of Freedom 2-Tail Test Probability 1. Relationship with significant othe rs— parents Group 1 (Lows) Group 2 (Highs) 21 59 36.0476 41.6441 -3.53 78 0.001** 2. Ability to succeed— academic achievement Group 1 (Lows) Group 2 (Highs) 26 55 38.9615 40.6182 -1.12 79 0.267 3. Relationship with significant others— peer group level of esteem Group 1 (Lows) Group 2 (Highs) 30 53 38.6333 42.1887 -2.85 81 0.005** 4. Ability to act upon the world— physical development Group 1 (Lows) Group 2 (Highs) 35 51 39.0286 42.1373 -2.62 84 0.010** TABLE 3 THE t-TEST ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEANS ON THE PPSET FOR SELECTED DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES Criterion Measures Variable Mean Standard Deviation Number Degrees of Freedom t Value 1 42.000 6.355 78 180 1:2 0.585 Grade level 2 41.481 5.570 104 179 2:3 0.545 3 41.013 5.894 77 153 1:3 1.002 Male 41.085 6.021 106 Sex Female 41.007 5.839 153 257 0.104 Caucasian 41.275 5.695 204 Ethnicity Spanish surname Negro 39.792 40.000 6.866 2.828 48 2 250 Caucasian: Spanish surname 1.558 Oriental 44.000 2.000 5 Number of parents living in family unit Single parent Both parents 41.229 41.010 5.236 6.082 48 208 254 0.2 30 ► f c . ui 46 instrument was developed for use with both boys and girls, it was questionable whether the test would work equally well regardless of sex. An analysis of the results indicated that the test instrument works equally well for both sexes. Sex does not make a significant difference in the way the test items are marked. The third question dealt with whether the test in strument would validly measure self-esteem regardless of ethnicity. A comparison was made between Caucasian and Spanish surnames. According to the analysis, there was no significant difference. However, several notes of caution need to be made. First, the pictorial descriptors were developed using primarily Caucasian children. Also, the content of the test items, while perhaps displaying a high degree of universality, made no attempt to reflect any intricacies of subcultural values. Finally, because of the small sample size in several of the ethnic categories, sta tistical analysis was not attempted in these areas. Finally, a potential problem for the PPSET instru ment was whether it would work equally well regardless of whether the child had one.or both parents living in the family unit. An analysis of the results indicated that the number of parents living in the family unit did not make a significant difference in the way the child marked the test items. An item analysis was also completed to determine which test items were correlating 0.40 or better with the total and which items were not and could be dropped from the test instrument. Also, in the item analysis the percentage of responses by subjects to test item options were deter mined to indicate the degree of variability. The results of this analysis are shown in Table 4. The item analysis produced 22 test items with corre lation coefficients of 0.40 or better. However, an analysis of the percentage of responses by subjects to test item options indicated a major problem for the PPSET. This prob lem was the lack of variability of responses. The range of responses was from 66.0 to 97.7 percent of the test items marked in the box under the high self-esteem descriptor. I Also, there were 25 test items, more than half the total number, that had response percentages of 90 percent or bet ter in the high self-esteem category. These findings indi cated both a lack of range in a distribution of responses and an extreme lack of variability. . This was felt to pre sent a major problem for the test instrument. The test items of the PPSET instrument were factor 48 TABLE 4 ITEM ANALYSIS OF CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS OF SIGNIFICANT ITEMS TO THE TOTAL AND PERCENTAGE OF RESPONSES EY SUBJECTS TO TEST ITEM OPTIONS Test Correlation Relative Test Correlation Relative Item Coefficient Frequency Itejri Coefficient Frequency 1 , 0.3221 29.0 L 71.0 H 25 0.3362 9.7 L 90.3 H 2 0.2979 14.3 L 85.7 H 26 0 .4011* 27.0 L 73.0 H 3 0.2754 7.7 L 92.3 H 27 0.3866 16.2 L 83.8 H 4 0.4450* 6.6 L 93.4 H 28 0.2851 25.9 L 74.1 H 5 0.3722 19.7 L 80. 3 H 29 0.5719* 14.3 L 85.7 H 6 0.3130 10.0 L 90.0 H 30 0.4856* 5.8 L 94.2 H 7 0.4771* 15.1 L 84.9 H 31 0.5059* 12.4 L 87.6 E e 0.3056 5.0 L 95.0 H 32 0.4320* 14 . 7 L 85.3 E 9 0.4690* 22.4 L 77.6 H 33 0.3204 4.6 L 85.4 H 10 0.4470* 27.0 L 73.0 H 34 0.2111 4.6 L 95.4 H 11 0.3940 5.4 L 94 .6 H 35 0.4970* 13.1 L 86.9 H 12 0.3813 10.8 L 89.2 K 36 0.4303* 6.2 L 93.8 E 13 0.3602 10.8 L 89 . 2 H 37 0.4619* 8.9 L 91.9 K 14 0.3812 6.2 L 93. £ H 38 0.4825* 6.9 L 93.1 K 15 0.3757 28.2 L 71.8 H 39 0.4603* 5.8 L 94.2 S 16 0.4712* 6.2 L 93 . 8 H 40 0.5277* 5,8 L 94.2 E 17 0.3696 23.6 L 76.4 H 41 0.4799* 6.9 L 93.1 E 18 0.2642 4.6 L 95. 4 H 42 0.3687 13.1 L 86.9 E 19 0.5487* 15.1 L 84.9 H 43 0 .4971* 8.5 L 91.5 B 20 0.3565 34.0 L 66.0 H 44 0.3112 5.8 L 94.2 H 21 0.2370 2.3 L 97.7 K 45 0.2287 33.2 L 66.8 H 22 0.5674* 12.0 L 88.0 H 46 0.1692 6.6 L 93.4 H 23 0.2148 6.2 L 53.8 H 47 0.5889* 8.9 L 91.1 K 24 0.4804* 8. S L 91.1 H *Tes or t itet* correlates 0.40 better with total. 49 analyzed to see if they divided into subcategories. It was hoped that each one of the subcategories would in turn cor relate with one and only one of the criterion measures; such a process would produce a test instrument with subcategories. A factor matrix was developed using principal factors with iterations. Seventeen factors were produced. This factor matrix was then rotated using the Varimax method. It was also decided to have five factors account for the entire variability; it was hoped that this process would produce five factors which would reflect the criterion measures plus perhaps a general factor. This factor matrix was also ro tated using the Varimax method. (Factor matrices are pre sented in Appendix D.) The results of the factor analysis indicated that although the test items did divide themselves into definite factors, these factors were uninterpretable. Because lack of variability within the test items presented a major problem and indicated need for revision, the results of the factor analysis were taken as not being critical at the time. Reliability After 14 days the PPSET was readministered to 10 randomly selected children from each of the three grade levels to determine test-retest reliability. The test- 50 retest reliability was computed as 0.71. Discussion of Test Results The PPSET differentiated between high and low self esteem on three of the four criterion measures used to oper ationally define self-esteem. The criterion that did not differentiate between high and low self-esteem was ability to succeed— academic achievement. This finding was somewhat perplexing because this criterion involved less subjective judgment and had more objective specificity than the other three criterion measures. However, upon a reanalysis of the criterion measure a plausible explanation appeared. Accord ing to the criterion, I.Q. was used as one of the basis for the selection of high and low criterion students. A con founding occurs if a high I.Q. student is a poor achiever and is designated as a criterion-high. In reality, this student probably would have a low level of self-esteem on this particular criterion. It was felt that if the cri terion were corrected by deleting the I.Q. element alto gether and using only the standardized achievement test scores and report card grades, the PPSET would be able to differentiate significantly between high and low self-esteem children. Another plausible explanation was that since the 51 students were selected from only Early Childhood Education schools, a selection factor may have had an effect upon the criterion. The reasoning was that since one of the objec tives of the Early Childhood Education program is to help the child feel better about himself academically, the test instrument may not be able to differentiate significantly between the highs and the lows according to the criterion. However, because of the newness of the Early Childhood Edu cation programs, it is felt that there would not have been time for the effects of treatment to manifest themselves completely. It is also felt that some variability would still exist between high and low criterion children and that the test instrument would be sensitive enough to reflect this difference. Again, an analysis of the percentage of responses by subjects to test item options indicated a major problem for the PPSET. The problem was both a lack of range in the dis tribution of responses and an extreme lack of variability. This was a major problem. As previously mentioned, the PPSET items were factor analyzed to see if they would divide into subcategories that would correlate highly with the criterion measures. This did not occur. Perhaps one reason this desired result did 52 not occur was the lack of variability in scoring. It was felt that if more variability could be introduced into the test instrument, perhaps the factor analysis would produce more desirable results. Perhaps, also, if oblique rotations were made of the factor matrix, more interpretable factors might result. Suggestions for Revision of the Primary Pictorial Self-Esteem Test After an analysis of the results of the validation procedures of the PPSET, the researcher felt several things could be done to improve the test instrument. First, dropping the I.Q. element from the criterion measure academic achievement, as mentioned previously, would eliminate the confounding effect. It was believed that this correction would enable the test instrument to differentiate high from low self-esteem children at a significant level according to the criterion. Second, the PPSET instrument needed to undergo major revision in order to introduce more variability within the instrument itself. This major revision could be accom plished by introducing some type of perceptual Likert scale into the existing pictorial descriptors. It was the belief of this investigator that if these 53 revisions and corrections were accomplished, a more refined and valid test instrument would be produced. CHAPTER IV VALIDATION PROCEDURES AND RESULTS OF THE REVISED PRIMARY PICTORIAL SELF ESTEEM TEST This chapter is devoted to a discussion of the re vision and subsequent validation of the PPSET. In revising the PPSET a unique perceptual Likert-type scale was devel oped. Constructionally, the scale was created by pairing both high and low self-esteem descriptors to form a set. Then" by systematically varying the size of the pictorial descriptors in relationship to each other, five sets were produced which yielded a five-point Likert-type scale. An example of a revised test item is shown on the next page. The size of the pictorial descriptor relates di rectly to the weighing of the quantitative and qualitative aspects of the specific experiential events. In other words, the larger the picture, the more the person feels that way about himself. 54 55 Varying the size of the pictorial descriptor helps to improve the PPSET by incorporating more of the theoreti cal framework into the test itself. Theoretically, a person does not experience only high or low specific experiential events in a particular content area but a combination of both. Thus the five-point scale enables the student to select from the five possible combinations a set that most closely approximates the way he is/the way he sees himself. Functionally, for the testee the revision should provide more opportunities for congruence between the size weighing of the pictorial descriptor in the test item and the weigh ing of high and low among his own specific experiential events. The testing process would be a matching of the two; ( i.e., a matching of the appropriate set in the test item to his own personal experience. A slight modification was also made in several of the verbal descriptors of the PPSET. This modification was designed primarily to provide more variability within the test. This was accomplished by softening the language of i the low self-esteem verbal descriptor. The change is illus-i trated in the language of the following test item: The picture toward the top of the page is of a per son trying to lead singing in front of the class. She is feeling very upset and scared. She says, 57 "I just hate being up in front of the class." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a person leading singing in front of the class. She is feeling very confident and good inside. She says, "I really enjoy being up in front of the class." Please make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. (Revised version) The first picture is of a person trying to lead sing ing in front of the class. She is feeling kind of upset and a little scared. She says, "I wish I did not have to be up in front of the class." The second picture is of a person leading singing in front of the class. She is feeling very confident and good inside. She says, "I really enjoy being up in front of the class." Look inside and see what is true for you; then make a mark in the box by the set that is most like the way you are. The Reconstruction Process In the development of the revised PPSET, a pilot test was administered to approximately 20 children. The children ranged in grade level from kindergarten through third grade. The pilot was designed to provide information for making decisions in several different areas. First, it was designed to help select the best perceptual scaling of the pictorial descriptors among several alternatives. Second, the piloting enabled test explanations and instruc- 58 tions to be reconceptionalized in such a way that the youngest children could most easily understand them. The children were administered the various possible test items in small groups. After the administration, the children were given an opportunity to discuss their re sponses and the testing procedure individually with the researcher. This process produced a set of test explana- tions and instructions that most kindergarten children could easily understand. The revised perceptual scaling of the pictorial descriptors was also selected as the one that showed the most congruence between the child's response to the test item and his verbal explanation of how he felt about himself in the test item area. Overview of Validation Procedures In setting up the design methodology for the valida tion of the revised PPSET, several specific areas needed to be handled. First was the problem of whether the youngest age group, first graders, for whom the test was specifically i designed, would be able to conceptualize the instructions and make the necessary differentiations in responding to the test items. In order to address this problem adequately, it was decided to use the revised test instrument with kinder- 59 | | garten children. Logically, it was reasoned that if kinder-: garten children were able to understand the test instruc tions and make the necessary differentiations, then first- I I i ^graders should experience no difficulty. | Second, each of the criterion measures used to oper ationally define self-esteem was again compared by means of a t-test to the total test results to indicate whether the test instrument differentiated between high and low self esteem at a significant level. The level of significance, alpha, was again set at .05. The criterion "ability to succeed— academic achievement" was modified to avoid the confounding between I.Q. and achievement. Third, an item analysis was conducted on the corre lation coefficients of the test items to indicate which items did not discriminate and could be dropped from the test instrument. Also, in the item analysis the percentage of responses by subjects to test item options was determined to indicate the degree of variability. Fourth, a factor analysis was conducted to determine' whether the test items would subdivide into interpretable factors. Finally, test-retest reliability was calculated on the kindergarten sample after a period of seven days to determine the level of test stability. Sample Studied The sample studied consisted of two groups. The first group consisted of 30 kindergarteners attending school in the Downey Unified School District. The second group consisted of 97 second- and third-grade children also attending in the same district. The third-grade children who were part of the sample studied in the validation of the original PPSET were again included in this sample be cause parent permission forms were already on file. The remaining sample studied included children in the Downey Unified School District who were also attending the Downey Child Care Center, a private extended day care program, to which the researcher had easy access. Assessment of Criterion Measures As with the validation of the original PPSET, the teachers whose students were part of the sample to be stud ied were asked to fill out the criterion forms before the administration of the test instrument. Again, the teacher was asked to select five children from her entire class whom she considered to be the highest and five whom she considered to be the lowest in each of the 61 criterion areas used in defining self-esteem. She was in structed that the children need not be ranked and that a child might or might not appear in more than one criterion area. Because the specific criterion measures are discussed at length in Chapter III and because the criterion forms are presented in the appendix, they are not enumerated again here. However, because of the possible confounding between I.Q. and achievement, the criterion measure "academic achievement" was rewritten as follows: Please select five children who are performing the best in mastering academic materials. These chil dren should have the highest standardized achieve ment test scores and get the best report card grades. Also, please select five children who are performing the poorest in mastering academic materials. These children should have the lowest standardized achieve ment test scores and get the poorest report card marks. Administrative Results The revised PPSET was administered to groups ranging in size from 10 to 35. The group size was again a function of the size of the testing facilities. The test administration process for the revised PPSET was quite similar to the original. The children were again given coded test booklets and pencils and seated. However, with the revised edition the verbal instructions 62 and verbal descriptors were read rather than played from a cassette recording. This was done at this point in the research in order to make sure the children understood what they were supposed to do. In general, the testing process went quite smoothly. Some kindergarten children appeared to have a brief initial difficulty in conceptualizing what they were supposed to do. Several of them expressed frus tration and were excused from the testing. Also, at the time the tests were scored, it became apparent that several kindergarten children had been unable to conceptualize the task. However, most seemed to respond appropriately. The administration of the test took approximately 35 minutes. t-Test Analysis In the validation of the revised PPSET, each of the criterion measures used to operationally define self-esteem was compared by means of a t-test to the total results. Such an analysis revealed whether the test instrument dif ferentiated between high and low self-esteem. The level of significance, alpha, was set at .05. The results of this analysis are revealed in Table 5. As indicated in the table, the PPSET differentiated between high and low self-esteem children at a very signifi cant level on all four criterion measures. The changes made TABLE 5 THE t-TEST ANALYSIS FOR PPSET BETWEEN HIGH AND LOW CRITERION SUBJECTS Criterion Measures Variable Number of Cases Means t Value Degrees of Freedom Probability 1. Relationship with significant othe rs— parent s Group 1 (Highs) Group 2 (Lows) 17 7 190.71 146.57 3.72 22 0.001** 2. Ability to succeed— academic achievement Group 1 (Highs) Group 2 (Lows) 22 10 196.5 145.6 5.66 30 0.001** 3. Relationship with significant others— peer group level of esteem Group 1 (Highs) Group 2 (Lows) 11 11 193.2 147.1 4.14 20 0.001** 4. Ability to act upon the world— physical development Group 1 (Highs) Group 2 (Lows) 9 8 193.7 158.8 2.49 15 0.02* U > 64 in the criterion measure "academic achievement" eliminated the problem encountered in the original testing. Item Analysis An item analysis was made to determine the degree of correlation between each test item and the total. The re sults of this analysis are presented in Table 6. According to the results of the item analysis, 34 test items correlated 0.50 or better with the total test scores. The 0.50 level was selected because it was felt that test items correlating this high were important. Percentage of Responses by Subjects to Test Item Options The percentage of responses by subjects to test item options was calculated for each test item. These results are shown in Table 7. As indicated by the results, the reconstruction of the PPSET produced much more variability in responses in the range between high and low. Factor Analysis A factor analysis was made on the test items to see whether the items would subdivide into interpretable fac tors. It was hoped that each of these factors could then 65 TABLE 6 CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS OF SIGNIFICANT ITEMS TO THE TOTAL TEST 1. 0 . 36 10. 0.59* 19 . 0.67* 28. 0 . 60* 37. 0.65* 2 . 0.43 11. 0.64* 20 . 0 . 54* 29. 0. 61* 38. 0.56* 3. 0.47 12. 0.51* 21. 0.48 30 . 0.64* 39. 0 .58* 4. 0.27 13. 0.47 22. 0.74* 31. 0.76* 40 . 0.57* 5. 0.61* 14. 0.56* 23. 0.57* 32. 0.45 41. 0.64* 6. 0.44 15. 0.52* 24. 0.63* 33. 0.41 42. 0.37 7. 0.46 16. 0.51* 25. 0.62* 34. 0.60* 43. 0.51* 8. 0.53* 17. 0.54* 26. 0.69* 35. 0.66* 44. 0.62* 9. 0.52* 18. 0.51* 27. 0.64* 36. 0.66* 45. 0.57* *Items that correlate 0.50 or better with total. 66 TABLE 7 PERCENTAGE OF RESPONSES BY SUBJECTS TO TEST ITEM OPTIONS 1 . 4 . 4 1 . 8 . 9 1 . 1 3 . 3 1 . 2 4 . 4 1 . 1 1 . 1 2 . 1 . 1 2 . 1 . 1 2 . 1 0 . 0 2 . 1 1 . 1 2 . 7 . 8 1 . 3 . 3 0 . 0 1 0 . 3 . 5 . 6 1 9 . 3 . 1 5 . 6 2 8 . 3 . 1 0 . 0 3 7 . 3 . 5 . 6 4 . 2 0 . 0 4 . 1 7 . 8 4 . 1 2 . 2 4 . 6 . 7 4 . 1 1 . 1 5 . 4 4 . 4 5 . 66 . 7 5 . 4 8 . 9 5 . 4 7 . 8 5 . 6 4 . 4 1 . 1 7 . 8 ■1 . 7 . 8 1 . 1 2 . 2 1 . 1 4 . 4 1 . " " 1 8 . 9 ; 2 . 1 1 . 1 2 . 3 . 3 2 . 5 . 6 2 . 7 . 8 2 . 6 . 7 | 2 . 3 2 1 . 1 1 1 . 3 . 6 . 7 2 0 . 3 . 7 . 8 2 9 . 3 . 4 . 4 3 8 . 3 . 5 . 6 4 . 1 2 . 2 4 . 2 0 . 0 4 . 1 2 . 2 4 . 1 2 . 2 4 . 1 6 . 7 j 5 . 3 7 . 8 5 . 6 2 . 2 5 . 6 2 .2 5 . 6 1 . 1 5 . 6 2 . 2 1 . 1 0 . 0 1 . 2 3 . 3 1 . 1 4 . 4 1 . 1 6 . 7 1 . 1 3 . 3 2 . 2 . 2 2 . 7 . 8 2 . 3 . 3 2 . 6 . 7 2 . 3 . 3 3 . 3 . 6 . 7 1 2 . 3 . 7 . 8 2 1 - 3 . 7 . 8 3 0 . 3 . 1 0 .0 3 9 . 3 . 1 0 . 0 4 . 1 4 . 4 4 . 1 3 . 3 4 . 1 1 . 1 4 . 1 5 . 6 4 . 1 1 . 1 5 . 6 6 . 7 5 . 4 7 . 8 5 . 6 3 . 3 5 . 5 1 . 1 5 . 6 2 . 2 1 . 2 0 . 0 1 . 1 7 . 8 1 . 2 1 . 1 1 . 1 4 . 4 1 . ! 6 . 7 2 . 1 0 . 0 2 . 4 . 4 2 . 1 3 . 3 2 . 7 . 8 2 . 2 . 2 4 . 3 . 1 3 . 3 1 3 . 3 . 1 1 . 1 2 2 . 3 . 1 4 . 4 3 1 . 3 . 3 . 3 4 0 . 3 . 2 . 2 4 . 1 6 . 7 4 . 1 4 . 4 4 . 1 4 . 4 4 . 8 . 9 4 . 1 1 . 1 j 5 . 4 0 . 0 5 . 5 2 . 2 5 . 3 6 . 7 5 . 6 5 . 6 5 . 7 7 . 8 | 1 . 1 1 . 1 1 . 6 . 7 1 . 1 4 . 4 1 . 1 6 . 7 1 . 1 0 . 0 | 2 . 7 . 8 2 . 3 . 3 2 . 6 . 7 2 . 3 . 3 2 . 2 . 2 5 . 3 . 1 2 . 2 1 4 . 3 . 2 . 2 2 3 . 3 . 6 . 7 3 2 . 3 . 1 1 . 1 4 1 . 3 . 4 . 4 1 4 . 2 0 . 0 4 . 7 . 8 4 . 1 3 . 3 4 . 1 3 . 3 4 . 1 1 . 1 ‘ 5 . 4 8 . 9 5 . 8 0 . 0 5 . 5 8 . 9 5 . 5 5 . 6 5 . 7 2 . 2 i I 1 . 1 6 . 7 1 . 1 5 . 6 1 . 1 3 . 3 1 . 3 6 . 7 1 . ' 3 5 . 6 2 . 7 . 8 2 . 6 . 7 2 . 5 . 6 2 . 4 . 4 2 . 4 . 4 i 6 . 3 . 6 . 7 1 5 . 3 1 3 . 3 2 4 . 3 . . 6 . 7 3 3 . 3 . 1 0 . 0 4 2 . 3 . 1 6 . 7 | 4 . 1 7 . 8 4 . 1 2 . 2 4 . 1 4 . 4 4 . 1 6 . 7 4 . 1 3 . 3 j 5 . 5 1 . 1 5 . 5 2 . 2 5 . 6 0 . 0 5 . 3 2 . 2 5 . 3 0 . 0 j 1 . 1 2 . 2 1 . 7 . 8 1 . 1 1 . 1 1 . 1 4 . 4 1 . ■ 1 i 2 6 . 7 | 2 . 6 . 7 2 . 1 . 1 2 . 1 . 1 2 . 1 . 1 2 . 8 . 9 i 7 . 3 . 1 0 . 0 1 6 . 3 . 6 . 7 2 5 . 3 . 6 . 7 3 4 . 3 . 8 . 9 4 3 . 3 . 7 . 8 ! 4 . 1 8 . 9 4 . 1 8 . 9 4 . 1 1 . 1 4 . 8 . 9 4 . 7 . 8 5 . 5 2 . 2 5 . 6 5 . 6 5 . 7 0 . 0 5 . 6 6 . 7 5 . 4 8 . 9 j 1 1 . 6 . 7 1 . 6 . 7 1 . 1 7 . 8 i . 7 . 8 1 . 1 2 . 8 . 9 2 . 1 0 . 0 2 . 5 . 6 2 . 2 . 2 i 8 . 3 . 1 3 . 3 1 7 . 3 . 8 . 9 2 6 . 3 . 8 . 9 3 5 . 3 . 3 . 3 4 4 . 3 . 1 . 1 1 4 . 2 2 . 2 4 . 1 1 . 1 4 . 1 6 . 7 4 . 1 5 . 6 4 . 6 . 7 | 5 . 4 8 . 9 5 . 7 3 . 3 5 . 4 6 . 7 5 . 6 7 . 8 5 . 8 5 . 6 1 . 10 .0 1 . 2 3 . 3 1 . 1 3 . 3 1 . 1 8 . 9 1 . 1 1 2 . 2 i 2 . 8 . 9 2 . 3 . 3 2 . 4 . 4 2 . 1 2 . 2 2 . 2 . 2 ! 9 . 3 . 7 . 8 1 8 . 3 . 6 . 7 2 7 . 3 . 7 . 8 3 6 . 3 . 5 . 6 4 5 . 3 . 5 . 6 j 4 . 1 4 . 4 4 . 1 2 . 2 4 . 1 8 . 9 4 . 1 2 . 2 4 . 7 . 8 | 5 . 5 8 . 9 5 . 5 4 . 4 5 . 5 5 . 6 5 . 5 1 . 1 5 . 7 2 . 2 I _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1 Scale ranges from a low of 1 for a low level of self-esteem to a high of 5 indicating a high level of self-esteem. 67 be used to differentiate high from low self-esteem children on one of the criterion measures. Such a process would pro duce a test instrument with meaningful subscales tied directly to the criterion measures being used to operation ally define self-esteem. At this point in the research, it was decided to compute as many possible factors as could reasonably be produced. In order to accomplish this, both orthogonal and oblique rotations were made on factor matrices produced by: (1) freely allowing the number of factors produced to be determined by the conventional convergency procedure; (2) forcing the entire variability to be accounted for by four factors: these four factors may correspond to the four cri terion measures, (3) forcing the variability into three fac tors, and (4) forcing the variability into only two factors. The reason for forcing the variability of the test items into two or three factors was that it was felt that with primary school age children the number of possible factors might collapse into two or three interpretable factors, e.g., significant others and ability to act. Tables 8 through 15 i reveal the pertinent data extracted from each of the factor matrices. A review of the test items composing the factors 68 TABLE 8 FACTOR ANALYSIS OF TEST ITEMS: FREE-VARIMAX ROTATION Factor Eigenvalue Percentage of Variance Cumulative Percentage Test Items Loading 39 0 . 77 33 0.71 25 0.71 1 14 . 02 49 . 3 49.3 45 31 40 21 22 0.69 0.68 0.65 0.51 0 . 50 17 0.68 11 0.59 2 2.95 10 . 4 59 .7 38 8 24 30 0 .56 0 .54 0.53 0 .51 29 0.68 3 2.42 8.5 68 . 2 35 44 18 0.63 0.60 0. 51 9 0 .67 4 1.87 6.6 74.8 10 12 6 0 . 64 0 . 52 0.51 5 1.68 5.7 80 . 5 5 16 0 .65 0 . 59 37 0. 69 6 1.31 4.6 85.1 19 36 0 . 62 0. 54 7 0.99 3.5 08.5 20 0 .88 41 0. 66 42 0.63 8 0 . 94 3.3 91.9 47 43 32 0. 61 0. 61 0. 56 9 0.86 3.0 94 . 9 23 0.52 10 0.77 2.7 97.6 11 0 . 68 2.4 100.0 69 TABLE 9 FACTOR ANALYSIS OF TEST ITEMS: FORCED 4 VARIMAX ROTATION Factor Eigenvalue Percentage of Variance Cumulative Percentage Test Items Loading 39 0 .83 33 0.69 40 0.69 32 0 .67 1 13.86 67.2 67.2 25 31 43 22 19 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.60 0.54 18 0.64 37 0.63 19 0.59 2 2.80 13.6 80. 8 13 16 46 10 27 0.55 0.54 0.53 0.52 0.52 24 0.66 3 2.26 11.0 91.7 17 4 0.64 0.63 F 41 0.71 4 1.71 8.3 100.0 42 36 0.55 0.50 70 TABLE 10 FACTOR ANALYSIS OF TEST ITEMS: FORCED 3 VARIMAX ROTATION Factor Eigenvalue Percentage of Variance Cumulative Percentage Test Items Loading 39 0.84 33 0.71 40 0.71 31 0.66 32 0. 63 1 13.82 73.5 73.5 43 0. 61 22 0.61 28 0.53 14 0.53 45 0.50 37 0.67 18 0.66 13 0.62 12 0.61 16 0 . 61 2 2.77 14.7 88.2 29 0 . 61 19 0.60 46 0.60 27 0.58 35 0.52 24 0.68 4 0.64 17 0.56 3 2.23 11.8 100.0 38 0.55 28 0.51 8 0 .51 30 0.50 71 TABLE 11 FACTOR ANALYSIS OF TEST ITEMS: FORCED 2 VARIMAX ROTATION Factor Eigenvalue Percentage of Variance Cumulative Percentage Test Items Loading 39 0.81 32 0.73 33 0.73 40 0.67 28 0.67 43 0.66 25 0.64 1 13.77 83.5 83.5 31 0.64 22 0.61 30 0.59 38 0.59 14 0.56 21 0.56 24 0.54 20 0.51 29 0.72 18 0.65 13 0.62 37 0.61 27 0.61 12 0.59 35 0 .57 2 2.73 16. 5 100.0 7 0 . 57 19 0.55 I 46 0.55 1 1 i 10 0.53 1 36 0.53 i 16 0.52 1 23 0.50 I 72 TABLE 12 FACTOR ANALYSIS OF TEST ITEMS: FREE— OBLIQUE ROTATION Factor Eigenvalue Percentage of Variance Cumulative Percentage Test Items Loading 1 14,02 49.3 49.3 2 2.95 10.4 59.7 29 35 44 18 0.72 0.58 0.54 0.53 3 2 .42 8.5 68.2 8 0.57 4 1.87 6.6 74.8 41 42 -0.71 -0.59 5 1.61 5.7 80.5 9 10 6 0.71 0.58 0.55 6 1.31 4.6 85.1 20 26 -0.98 -0.52 7 0.99 3.5 88.5 5 16 0.57 0.53 i 8 0.94 3.3 91.9 ^ 9 0.86 3.0 94.9 37 36 19 0.78 0.64 0.52 10 0.77 2.7 97.6 7 0.67 i ' ii 0. 68 2.4 100.0 45 25 39 33 31 0. 82 0.73 0.64 0.52 0.51 73 TABLE 13 FACTOR ANALYSIS OF TEST ITEMS: FORCED 4--OBLIQUE ROTATION Factor Eigenvalue Percentage of Variance Cumulative Percentage Test Items Loading 12 0.76 37 0.62 19 0.59 16 0.53 1 13.86 67.2 67.2 13 0.53 10 0.53 46 0.51 27 0.50 15 0.50 39 I o * 00 (J1 40 -0.71 32 -0.67 33 -0.65 2 2.79 13.6 80.8 25 -0 .64 31 -0.63 43 -0.61 22 -0.60 14 -0.54 4 0.65 3 2.26 11.0 91.7 17 0.63 24 0,61 l 41 0.69 4 1.71 8.3 100.0 47 0.52 \ 42 0.52 i 74 TABLE 14 FACTOR ANALYSIS OF TEST ITEMS: FORCED 3 OBLIQUE ROTATION Factor Eigenvalue Percentage of Variance Cumulative Percentage Test Items Loading 18 0.71 37 0.68 16 0.64 12 0.63 13 0.63 1 13.82 73.5 73.5 19 0.63 29 0.61 46 0.61 27 0.59 35 0.58 15 0.53 39 -0.86 40 -0.72 25 -0 . 66 33 -0.66 2 2.76 14.7 88.2 31 -0.65 32 -0.62 22 -0. 61 43 -0.59 14 -0.52 4 0.65 3 2,23 11.8 100.0 24 0.61 17 0.55 75 TABLE 15 FACTOR ANALYSIS OF TEST ITEMS: FORCED 2--OBLIQUE ROTATION Factor Eigenvalue Percentage of Variance Cumulative Percentage Test Items Loading 29 0.77 18 0.72 35 0. 67 13 0.61 27 0.61 37 0.59 12 0.59 1 13.77 83.5 83.5 7 0.56 10 0.55 23 0.53 44 0.53 46 0.52 15 0.50 16 0.50 39 -0.90 32 -0.78 40 -0.73 25 -0.69 43 -0.68 28 -0.68 2 2.73 16.5 100.0 31 -0.66 22 -0.65 30 -0.61 14 -0.60 38 -0.57 20 -0.53 21 -0.51 indicated four reasonably interpretable factors. These factors seem somewhat stable regardless of whether the rota tions conducted were orthogonal or oblique. The first fac tor appears to have a substantial loading on physical devel opment test items; the second factor has a heavy loading on academic achievement test items; the third factor contains a high loading on peer group esteem items; and the fourth factor is composed primarily of test items having an approval-disapproval loading which may reflect the criterion related to parents. These four factors appear to correspond quite closely to the four criterion measures used to opera tionally define self-esteem. However, it should be noted that these factors, while appearing to have heavy loadings on test items that reflect a particular criterion measure, also contain a spattering of items not reflecting the cri terion measures. Because of this fact, and in order to utilize all the data generated in the research project, each of the 2 9 factors that were generated from the factor analy sis of the test items was statistically compared to each of 'the criterion measures. A t-test was calculated between i each of the factors and each of the four criterion measures. Analysis of the results of this procedure revealed that virtually every factor discriminated significantly 77 between high and low self-esteem on all four of the criter ion measures. The fact that most of the factors were dis criminating between highs and lows on each criterion pre sented a problem, i.e., in order to develop subscales a single factor must discriminate on one and only one criter ion measure. A plausible explanation of the problem results from an examination of the assessment procedures for measuring each of the four criterion measures. According to the assessment procedure, the teacher was asked to select five children from her entire class whom she considered to be the highest and five whom she considered to be the lowest in 'each of the criterion areas used in defining self-esteem. A problem could occur in either of two ways. First, the teacher, once having identified a child on a particular criterion, might fail to make the necessary differentiation ; and automatically place a child on one or all of the other ‘ criterion measures. Thus the problem would stage itself if the teacher did not select each child independently on the criterion measures, but did so as a function of one primary i differentiation. Second, the teacher might select a child because of halo effect. Halo effect is apt to work across the criterion measures. The problem is that, because of 78 these two effects and their interaction, a substantial de gree of common error variability is introduced between the criterion measures. As a result, the criterion measures become highly correlated with each other rather than rela tively independent, and thus do not allow the factors gener ated to make the appropriate differentiations. This problem and a possible solution are further elaborated in Chapter V. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RE COMMEN DATIONS Summary This research has been devoted to the development of a nonreading, pictorial test instrument for measuring self esteem of primary school age children. The project has involved research, conceptualization, a validation study, revision, piloting, and another validation study. This process produced the Primary Pictorial Self-Esteem Test (PPSET). The instrument is a nonreading test composed of both pictorial and verbal descriptors. The pictorial de scriptors are presented in booklet form with a separate test item on each page. Contained within each test item is a unique perceptual Likert-type scale. The scaling was cre ated by pairing both high and low self-esteem pictorial descriptors to form a set. Then by systematically varying the size of the pictorial descriptors in relation to each 79 80 other, five sets were produced to yield a five-point Likert- type scale. Accompanying the test booklet is a cassette tape recording that provides standardized test instruction and verbal descriptors for each test item. Each verbal descrip tor is designed to contain the following three elements: first, a behavioral description of the content of the pic torial descriptor; second, an affective statement based upon the child's feelings; and third, a valuative or belief statement made by the child. Each of the three elements contained in the verbal descriptor is designed to be con gruent with the other two; i.e., congruence should exist between the behavioral, affective, and valuative elements. Also, the two verbal descriptors for each test item are designed to be opposites, with one depicting high self esteem and the other depicting low self-esteem status. In this project self-esteem is defined as a con struct that refers to the child's subjective evaluation of his personal level of self-worth. A logical analysis of the construct "self-esteem" reveals two major types of experien tial events that have a direct formative function in devel oping a child's level of self-esteem. Both types of experi ences give the child direct feedback in terms of his per 81 sonal sense of worthiness or esteem. The first general type of experience is the perceived feedback that a child re ceives from significant others in his life. From specific experiential events with significant others, the child is able to conceptualize his self-esteem as a function of the way he perceives their level of esteem toward him. Mead (1934) advanced the theory that one learns to see himself in the same way that he thinks significant others see him. Also, Sullivan (1945) maintains that the "reflected apprais als" of others determine how a child feels about himself. Many researchers (Sears, 1957; Samuels, 1969; Medinnus & Curtis, 1963; Rosenberg, 1963; Antonovsky, 1959; Lynn, 1961; and Harris, 1958) indicate that among the pri mary significant others in the formation of a child's self esteem are his parents. Their research indicates that the level of self-esteem of the child is a function of the level of self-esteem of the parents, their degree of involvement with their child, and the qualitative aspects of that rela tionship which are defined in terms of understanding, re spect, and trust. A second source of significant others becomes opera tive as the child's human contacts are broadened beyond the maternal and familial relationships to include his class mates. According to Schmuck (196 3) and Long, Henderson, and Ziller (1967) , the degree to which a child is esteemed by his classmates— liked or disliked— becomes a primary deter minant in the formation of the self-esteem of the primary school age child. The second general type of experience that provides the child direct feedback in terms of his personal sense of worthiness or esteem is the feedback he receives as a func tion of his own ability to succeed or fail at whatever I projects he defines as important. According to James' .(1890) analysis, if achievement approaches or meets aspira- I 'tions in a valued area, the result is high self-esteem. The content of the feedback has to do with the evaluation a child places on his ability to succeed or his ability to act upon the world. Functionally, a child's ability to succeed or to I act upon the world can be divided into two areas. The first area is mental or academic achievement. According to numer ous researchers (Brookover, Thomas, & Paterson, 1964; Camp bell, 1966; Lecky, 1945; and Wattenberg & Clifford, 1962) , a child's ability to succeed academically is directly related to his level of self-esteem. The second specific area of experience that provides 83 the child with direct feedback in terms of esteem or worthi ness is his ability to act physically on the world. It is the position taken here that a child's physical developmen tal ability is directly related to his level of self-esteem. Therefore, these four criterion measures (relation ship with significant others— parents; relationship with significant others— peer group level of esteem; ability to succeed— academic achievement; and ability to act upon the world— physical development) were used to operationally de fine self-esteem. Functionally each of the criterion meas ures was assessed by having each of the classroom teachers of the sample studied select five children from her entire class whom she considered to be the highest and five whom she considered the lowest in each of the criterion areas. In the final validation study, the PPSET was admin istered to 9 7 second- and third-grade primary school age children. Each of the criterion measures used to opera tionally define self-esteem was compared by means of a t- test to the total test results. The results indicated that the PPSET differentiated between high and low self-esteem children at a very significant level on all four criterion measures. A second validation procedure was also conducted by 84 factor analyzing the test items. The factor analysis pro- duced some interpretable factors. A high proportion of these factors significantly differentiated between high and low levels of self-esteem according to the criterion meas ures . An item analysis was conducted to determine the degree of correlation between each test item and the total. According to the results, 34 test items correlated 0.50 or better with the total test scores. Also, in the item analy sis, the percentage of responses for each response option was tabulated to determine the degree of variability. The results of this analysis indicated considerable variability between high and low responses on the test items, with defi nite skewness toward the high self-esteem descriptors. Finally, a test-retest reliability coefficient was calculated by retesting the kindergarten sample after a period of seven days. The correlation coefficient was 0.71. Subscales It was hoped that the factors produced from the fac tor analysis of the test items could be statistically rela ted to the criterion measures in such a way as to produce subscales. This did not occur. According to the results, the majority of factors were able to significantly differen 85 tiate high from low self-esteem children according to the criterion measures. However, almost all factors made the discrimination on virtually every criterion measure, which would make subscaling impossible at this point. In order to develop subscales, a factor must differentiate between high and low self-esteem children on one and only one criterion measure. One possible explanation for this problem was the effect of acquiescence and halo effect and their interaction on the assessment of the criterion measures themselves. Feedback from the Factor Analysis to the Conceptualization of the Criterion Measures Many of the factors that were interpretable appeared to relate to the criterion measures. Usually the first factor produced from the factor analysis contained a pre dominant proportion of items reflecting specific experien tial events in the physical domain. This factor would seem to correspond to the criterion measure "ability to act upon the world— physical development." Usually the second factor generated contained a high proportion of test items reflect ing specific experiential events in the academic area. This would correspond to the criterion measure "ability to suc ceed— academic achievement." The third factor generated from the factor analysis usually had a substantial number of 86 test items with specific experiential events reflecting peer group acceptance. This factor would appear to correspond to the criterion measure "relationship with significant others— peer group level of esteem." The last factor was loaded with test items containing an adult-child interac tion. The content of the events seemed to reflect an approval-disapproval quality in the relationship. This fac tor may be in line with what Sullivan (1945) asserted when he wrote that "significant people in the child's life exert a strong influence on the self concept, and this self dynamism is built up out of this experience of approbation and disapproval of reward and punishment" (p. 17 8). However, it should be noted that while the fourth factor does appear to relate to the criterion measure "sig nificant others— parents," the original conception of the criterion measure was larger in scope than only an approval- disapproval quality. Also, some of the test items reflect ing this criterion measure were distributed within the other factors. Skewness of the Distribution of Responses on the PPSET An interesting possible property of the construct self-esteem in primary school age children is skewness. 87 When the results of the original PPSET, which was in a di- chotomous choice form, were analyzed, over 5 0 percent of the test items were marked in the high self-esteem category by over 90 percent of the children. Also, when the PPSET was revised by varying the size of the pictorial descriptors to produce a five-point Likert-type scale, there still existed in the distribution a definite skewness toward high self esteem responses. One of the normal assumptions made is that a con struct such as self-esteem is normally distributed within a normal population. Granting the assumption, the resulting skewness of the distribution of responses must be attributed to the PPSET itself. In the revision of the original PPSET, a substantial portion of the skewness was reduced by in creasing the variability of possible responses. One of the problems that arises is that in attempting to create more variability in the instrument by incorporating some type of scale, the test invariably becomes more complicated, and the younger children at the same time are less able to make the necessary differentiations. Recommendations for Future Validation and Normative Studies The PPSET instrument needs to be used in additional 88 major validation and normative studies. These validation studies should have samples that are both sufficiently large and selected in such a fashion as to produce norms. In these studies, the assessment of the criterion measures should be changed so that each criterion is assessed com pletely independently of the others. This could easily occur if, in a sufficient sample size, the teacher made an assessment on one and only one criterion area. Also, the PPSET needs to be Validated and perhaps normed in studies with minority groups and groups in which subcultural values are present. This would help clearly define suitability and limitations of the test instrument with these groups. Conclusion This research project has produced a test instrument that measures self-esteem according to the four criterion measures used to operationally define the construct. The PPSET has several significant and unique charac teristics . First, by combining both high and low self esteem pictorial descriptors, then by systematically varying their size, a unique Likert-type of scale has been produced. The pictorial scale is completely quantitatively perceptual. Thus the difference between an "almost always" and a 89 "usually" is quantifiably, perceptually defined. Young children can see the difference. It is also significant that self-esteem was opera tionally defined in terms of criterion areas derived from the theoretical literature and research studies. The test items themselves were designed to reflect specific experien tial events in a criterion area and collectively the PPSET items were designed to cover the domain of the criterion areas. It is also important to note that the verbal portion of each test item contains a behavioral, an affective, and a valuative element. When the necessary validation and normative studies have been completed, it is anticipated that researchers, educators, and counselors will have a standardized, valid test instrument that they can use to assess accurately the level of self-esteem of primary school age children. A P P E N D I C E S 90 A P P E N D I X A PARENTAL CONSENT FORM 91 92 DOWNEY UNIFIED SCHOOL DISTRICT ALAMEDA SCHOOL February 20, 1975 Dear Parents: As you may know, a substantial part of the District adopted curriculum goals and objectives for elementary education are stated in terms of increasing the level of self-esteem of the students. At present, there are not adequate measures for assessing progress in this area. As a consequence a research project has been approved and will be conducted in Alameda School. This project will produce an assessment tool for measuring self-esteem. Since our school district has a policy of requiring parental consent for testing in this area, we are sending a consent form home for your consideration. Please sign whether your child may or may not participate and return to school with your child by Monday, February 24, 1975. Thank you for your consideration. Please note: The research project will not include any names or information related to your child. My child may participate My child may not participate Student's Name Parent's Signature Approved for Distribution R. Zufall, Principal Alameda School A P P E N D I X B CRITERION ASSESSMENT FORMS AND DEMOGRAPHIC STATUS OF STUDENTS 93 94 DOWNEY UNIFIED SCHOOL DISTRICT Dear Teacher: As you may know, a substantial part of the District adopted curriculum goals and objectives for elementary edu cation are stated in terms of increasing the level of self esteem of the student. At present there are not adequate measures for assessing student progress in this area. As a consequence a research project has been approved and will be conducted in our school. This project will produce an assessment tool for measuring self-esteem. We need your help in selecting the children whose test results can be correlated with the criterion measure in order to validate the test instrument. Procedurally, we would like you to select 5 children who you consider to be the highest and 5 children the lowest in each of the constructed areas used in defining self esteem. The children need not be ranked, just the top 5 and bottom 5 as a group. A child may or may not appear in more than one criterion area. Your time and cooperation is greatly valued. Thank You I. Relationship to Significant Others— ^Parents Please select 5 children whom you consider to have par ents who exhibit high levels of understanding, trust, and respect for their child. These parents should, also, ex hibit high levels of involvement with their children, have a high level of self-esteem themselves, and have confidence in their ability as parents. 1 .__________________________ 2.________________________ 3 ._________________________________ 4 ._________________________________ 5 ._________________________________ Please select 5 children whom you consider to have par ents who exhibit low levels of understanding, trust, and respect for their child. These parents should, also, ex hibit low levels of involvement with their child, have a low level of self-esteem themselves, and show lack of confi dence in their ability as parents. 1.________________________ 2.________________________ 3._________________________________ ! 4.__________________________________ 5.______________________ Please note: Normally we do not conceptually make such judgments, but the criterion of parental relationship is 96 vital to the validation process, and your perceptions are probably pretty accurate, II. Academic Achievement Please select 5 children who are performing the best in mastering academic materials. These children should be the smartest according to I.Q. scores, have the highest stand ardized achievement test scores, and get the best report card marks. 1._________________________________ 2.________________________ 3 ._________ 4 ._________________________________ 5 ._________________________________ Please select 5 children who are performing the poorest in mastering academic materials. These children should be the dullest according to I.Q. scores, have the lowest standardized achievement test scores, and get the poorest report card marks. 1._________________________________ 2.________________________ 3. 4. 97 III. Peer Group Level of Esteem Please select 5 children whom you believe the other children most want to play with, whom they respect and per haps look up to. These would be children who are the most socially outgoing, eager to meet and make new friends and are confident in their social abilities. These are the 5 children esteemed most by the other children. 1._________ 2.________________________ 3 ._________________________________ 4 ._________________________________ 5 ._________________________________ Please select the 5 children whom you believe the other children least want to play with, whom they least respect and least look up to. These would be children who are the social isolates, shy and fearful of meeting and making new friends. They show little confidence in their social abilities. These are the 5 children esteemed least by the other children. 1. _ 2._____________________ 3 ._________________________________ 4 ._________________________________ 5. 98 IV. Physical Development Please select 5 children who are physically the best developed for their age; they do the best in sports, and are the first ones chosen to be on a team; they are the fastest runners, well coordinated and feel good about themselves physically. 1. ____________________ 2. _ 3 .____________________________________ 4 ._________________________________ 5 ._________________________________ Please select 5 children who are physically the least developed for their age; they do the poorest in sports, and are the last ones chosen to be on a team; they are the slow est runners, poorly coordinated and do not feel good about themselves physically. 1._________________________________ 2. . __________________________ 3.________________________________ 4 . Demographic Status of Students Name Grade Level Coding 1,2,3 Keys 1. 2 . 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Sex Ethnicity M,F C-Caucasian S-Spanish Surname N-Negro O-Oriental Parents Living in Home 1.-Single Parent 2.-Both Parents v o VO A P P E N D I X C THE ORIGINAL PRIMARY PICTORIAL SELF-ESTEEM TEST 100 -the primary jrictoriaL setf esteem--test ‘ wUiaaryv j. kirkwoocL a& w tw y, caLUorruoj 102 □ □ 103 □ □ 104 □ □ 105 □ 106 □ Z □ 108 □ 109 Happy V«kn»mc’ & D*j □ □ 110 □ □ Ill □ □ 112 Report Cerd Da-S □ □ 113 □ □ 114 □ □ 115 m □ 116 □ 0 □ 117 □ □ 118 □ □ 119 □ 12? L □ 120 □ □ 121 □ □ 122 □ □ 123 U □ □ 124 □ □ 125 □ □ 126 k l , □ 127 □ □ 128 129 □ □ 130 □ ! 131 □ □ 132 □ □ 133 T« □ 134 □ □ 135 I I - □ 136 □ 137 □ □ 138 □ & H 140 □ □ 141 □ □ 142 □ □ 143 □ □ 144 □ New B I 145 □ □ 146 □ □ 147 □ □ 148 □ MOO* □ Introduction of the Test Instrument and Verbal Descriptors : i i t Hi, Boys and Girls - i Today we are going to have some fun together. You knowj one of the most interesting and important things that each of us can learn is about ourself. i You have all just received a booklet which contains many pictures. Some of the pictures will be like the way you see yourself and others will not. In a minute we will all proceed through the booklet together - I will describe what is taking place in each of the pictures. Your job will be to make a mark in the box under one of the two pictures presented on each page which is most like you. Boys and Girls, remember each one of us is different in our own special way. And these differences make each of us i , an interesting and important person. But this fact means that there are no right or wrong answers. Only answers that are true for each person as an individual. And this is good; and it's fun! Let me repeat the instructions so that we make sure that everyone understands what to do. First, on each page there will be two pictures. I will describe what is taking place in each one of the pictures. Now your job is to make a mark in the box under one of the two pictures that is most like you. This is done after I have described what is happening in each picture. Remember, because each of you is a special person in his own right, there are no right or wrong answers. So mark the picture which is most like the way you are. It's a lot of fun - so enjoy yourself! Now, please open the booklet and turn to the first page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person having trouble playing a game. He is feeling unhappy 150' inside. He says, "Things do not come out the way I would like them to many times." i i The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per- i i son who has just made a high score playing a game. He feelsj i •happy inside. He says, "Things usually come out the way I I want them to." Now, Boys and Girls, please make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. (5-second pause) At this point the teacher will turn ' off the tape recorder and answer any questions you may have as to what you are supposed to do. Are there any questions?1 '(15-second pause) Thank you, now please turn to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person ■reading aloud in his small reading group. He is feeling good and happy with himself as he reads. He says, "I enjoy reading aloud when it is my turn." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a person trying to read aloud in his small reading group. He is feeling upset and unable to do his best. He says, "I just can't read very well, I wish I did not have to read laloud. " Now, please make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Please go to the next page. , The picture toward the top of the page is of a person who has just had an argument with her father. She is feel ing angry and hurt inside. She says, "My father thinks I am stubborn and bad a lot." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a 151 person talking with her father. She is feeling happy and good inside. She says, "My father thinks I am a good per son . " Please make a mark in the box under the picture that is most like you. Please turn to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person eating lunch alone. She is feeling sad and lonely. She says, "For some reason it is hard for me to make friends." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son eating lunch with the other children. She is feeling good and close to the other children. She says, "I like most of the other children." Make a mark in the box under the picture that is most like you. Please go to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person sitting on his mother's lap reading a book. He is feeling warm and loved inside. He says, "I am happy my mother spends a lot of time with me.” The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son who is trying to read. He is feeling empty inside. He says, "I seem to be alone a lot." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. ! Please turn to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is a picture of a person trying to swing on the bar of a jungle gym. She is having trouble and feels kind of weak inside. She says, "I am not very strong." The picture toward the bottom of the page is a picture 152 of a person swinging on the bar of a jungle gym set. She feels strong and capable inside. She says, "I feel pretty strong." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Now go to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person who is painting a picture. He is feeling happy and good. He says, "I have a good imagination and am a pretty good artist." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son who is painting a picture. He is upset inside and feels like tearing the painting up. He says, "I don't seem to be able to think up new things nor do them very well." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Please turn to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a child who did not receive many valentines on Valentine's Day. He feels sad and hurt inside. He says, "I wish I had more friends." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a child who received a lot of valentines on Valentine's Day, He feels good and full of love inside. He says, "I have a lot of friends." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Now go to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person looking at a book. She is feeling warm and good inside. She says, "My parents are involved in the things I do." 153 The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son looking at a book. She is feeling bad and alone. She says, "I wish my parents could spend more time with me." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Please turn to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person who is strong and well built for his age. He is feeling good and strong inside. He says, "I am pretty strong and well built for my age." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son who is not very strong or well built for his age. He feels weak. He says, "I wish I was stronger and bigger." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Go to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person who has received a report card which shows the need to do better in a lot of areas. She feels kind of upset and ashamed. She says, "A lot of times I guess I am kind of dumb. " The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son who has received a good report card. She feels happy and proud. She says, "I am pretty smart." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Please turn to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person who has a messy, disorganized room. She is upset and un happy because she cannot find something she is looking for. She says, "I feel disorganized and messy." 154 The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son who keeps her room organized and clean. She feels happy inside as she puts something back where it belongs. She says, "It feels good to be organized." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Please go to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a child playing a game with the other children. He feels happy and \ friendly inside. He says, "To have a friend, you have to be a friend." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a child not playing a game with the other children. He wants to play but does not know how to be friendly with the other children. He is feeling hurt and lost inside. He says, "I don't have anyone to play with." Please mark the box under the picture which is most like you. Please turn to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person who is trying to keep up with his mother. He is feeling like he is being left behind. He says, "Sometimes it's just too hard to do the things that are expected of me." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son walking alongside his mother. He feels strong and con fident. He says, "My mother does not demand things of me that are too hard for me." Mark the box under the picture which is most like you. Please go to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person standing on her head. She is feeling strong and able. She 155 says, "I am good at doing hard things." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son trying to stand on her head but having difficulty. She is feeling weak and upset. She says, "I wish I was better at doing things like this." Please make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Please turn to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person who is being scolded by his teacher. He is feeling upset and hurt inside. He says, "I wish I did not have to go to school." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son who is being told how good he is by his teacher. He i feels satisfied and good inside. He says, "I like school." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most ■like you. Go to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person who is playing a game with the other children. She feels good inside. She says, "I seem to be the leader in a lot of the games." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per- i son who is playing a game with the other children. She feels a little upset and kind of bad inside. She says, "I wish I could be the leader more." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Please turn to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person getting her own drink. She is feeling good and able to care 156 for herself. She says, "My mother lets me do things for myself." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son getting a drink from her mother. She is feeling bad and a little helpless. She says, "My mother likes to do things that I can really do for myself." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Please go to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person holding another child who is trying to push him down. He is feeling strong and confident inside. He says, "I am good at taking care of myself." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son who is being pushed down by another child. He is feel ing scared. He says, "I am not very good at taking care of myself." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Please turn to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person who has just lost playing tetherball. He feels unhappy and l ' defeated. He says, "I wish I could do better." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son who has just won playing tetherball. He feels good about himself. He says, "I am a pretty able person." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Please go to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person listening to her teacher. The teacher really likes her and 157 this makes her feel good. She says, "I like my teacher very much." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son who is listening to her teacher. The teacher does not seem to like her and this makes her feel bad, She says, VI don't like my teacher very much." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Please turn to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person who wants to play with the other children, but they will not let him. He is feeling sad and hurt inside. He says, "I wish the other children would like me better and let me play with them more." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son who is being invited to play and join in with the other children. He feels very good inside. He says, "Other chil dren like me and want me to play with them." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Please go to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person when it is time to go to school in the morning. He is feel ing upset and a little scared. He says, "I wish I could stay here with you, Mommy." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son leaving for school in the morning. He is feeling good and secure inside. He says, "Goodbye Mother, have a good day. " Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. 158 Please turn to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person trying to explain how the thing got broken to his mother. He is feeling guilty and ashamed because mother does not seem to believe him. He says, "My mother thinks I am bad a lot of the time!" The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son who is explaining to his mother how the thing got broken. He is feeling good and respected inside. He says, "My mother thinks I am a good person." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Please go to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person who is good at skipping rope. She is feeling very good and happy. She says, "It's fun to skip rope, I am very good for' my age." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son who has fallen down while trying to skip rope. She is feeling sad and defeated. She says, "It's really hard for me to skip rope, I am just not very good for my age." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like, you. Please turn to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person who has not been chosen yet to be on the team. He is feel ing a little upset and left out. He says, "Whenever they choose up teams I always seem to be one of the last ones chosen." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son who has just been chosen to be on the team. He feels good and proud inside. He says, "Whenever we choose up teams I am usually one of the first ones chosen." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Please go to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person who has given up trying to shoot a basket. She has tried before to make a basket but was never able. Now she has given up and feels bad. She says, "A lot of times it is just too hard to be a winner." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son who has just made a basket. She has tried a lot before to make a basket but was never able to, but she kept on try ing. Now that she has made the basket she feels great. She says, "To be a winner you have to keep on trying." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Please turn to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person winning a foot race. He is feeling happy and good about himself. He says, "I am a fast runner for my age." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son losing a foot race. He is feeling sad and defeated. He says, "I am not a very fast runner." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most - i like you. ' Please go to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a child whom the teacher asked to do a homework problem on the blackboard for the rest of the class. He knows how to do the problem and feels good about it. He says, "Whenever the 160 teacher calls on me I do pretty well." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a child whom the teacher asked to do a homework problem on the blackboard for the rest of the class. He does not remember how to do the problem and feels bad about it. He says, "Sometimes when the teacher calls on me, I feel too upset inside and don't remember things very well." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Please turn to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person's face; she is feeling sad and hurt inside. She says, "It's too hard to be me, I wish I was someone else." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son's face. She is feeling happy and good inside. She says, "I really like myself; it is nice just being me." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Please go to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a child who is needing help with his project. The child is feeling like he could use a little help. He says, "I wish my father could spend more time with me." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a child and his father working together on a project. The child is feeling good inside. He says, "My father spends a lot of i time with me." i Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Please turn to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person 161 trying to lead singing in front of the class. She is feel ing very upset and scared. She says, "I just hate being up in front of the class." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son leading singing in front of the class. She is feeling very confident and good inside. She says, "I really enjoy being up in front of the class." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Please go on to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person who has fallen down when trying to play hop scotch. She is feeling weak and dumb. She says, "I wish I was not so clumsy." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son playing hop scotch. She is feeling very good inside. She says, "I like to play hop scotch. I am good at it." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Please turn to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person who is kind of messy and feels bad about the way he looks. He says, "I wish I looked better." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son who feels very good about the way he looks. He says, "I am happy with the way I look." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Please go to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person greeting the other children; she feels happy and joyful 162 inside. She says, "It's nice just being me." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son who is being made fun of; she is feeling sad and hurt inside. She says, "I wish I could be different, I do not like myself, I wish I was someone else." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Please turn to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person who has just received his paper back from the teacher. He got a good grade and feels happy and good about himself. He says, "My school work is good, I think I must be pretty smart." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son who has just received her paper from the teacher. She did not do well and feels sad inside. She says, "I wish I could do better, I must not be very smart." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. 1 Please go to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person explaining what happened to her mother. She is feeling good because her mother believes her. She says, "My mother trusts me pretty much." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son trying to explain to her mother what happened. She is feeling bad because she thinks her mother does not believe her. She says, "I wish my mother would trust me more." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. ! Please turn the page. 163 The picture toward the top of the page is of a person who is having trouble building his project. He is a little upset and is getting ready to give up and knock it down. He says, "Things I start to build never seem to turn out the way I want them to; I am just not very good with my hands." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son who is completing a building project; he is feeling happy and good about himself. He says, "I like building things, I am good with my hands." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Please go to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person with her parents. She is feeling sad and alone. She says, "I feel lonely and sad a lot at home." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son with her parents. She is feeling warm and full of love. She says, "I am an important part of my parents' lives." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Please turn to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person with her hand raised. She feels good and strong within her self. She says, "I know the right answer, teacher." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son with her head on her desk; she is feeling upset and sad. She says, "There must be something wrong with me, I just do not seem to know anything." ! Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. i Please go to the next page. 164 The picture toward the top of the page is of a person who is trying to explain things to his father. He feels misunderstood and bad. He says, "I wish they would under stand me more." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son who is talking with his father. He is feeling happy and understood inside. He says, "It1s nice to be understood." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Please turn to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person chinning herself. She tries hard at most things and usually feels like she's done well. She says, "I seem to try hard at most things I do." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a child who is trying to chin herself. She could do it if she really' wanted to but does not care that much. She feels like giv ing up altogether. She says, "I just do not seem to try very hard at anything." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Please go to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of the teacher introducing a new child to the class. The child is feeling shy and kind of scared. He says, "Meeting new peo ple is kind of scary for me." I ; The picture toward the bottom of the page is of the teacher introducing a new child to the class. The child is friendly and eager to make new friends. He says, "I like meeting new people. It's fun making new friends." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most 165 like you. Please turn to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person sweeping in the front. She is feeling strong and good. She says, "Mother says I do a good job." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son sweeping in the front. She is feeling like she is being watched. She says, "I wish mother would not be so critical and hard on me." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Please go to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a person winning the game. He feels good about his ability. He says, "I feel happy with myself." / The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son who is losing the game. He is feeling kind of bad. He says, "I wish I could win more." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Please turn to the next page. The picture toward the top of the page is of a girl not doing her school work; she is feeling upset and sad. She says, "It is hard for me to do my school work, it makes me sad. " ; The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a girl ‘ doing her school work; she is feeling happy and good. She says, "I feel good doing my school work." Make a mark in the box under the picture which is most like you. Please go to the next page. 166 The picture toward the top of the page is of a person who has just been elected as class president. He feels happy and good about himself. He says, "The other kids think a lot of me, I am a good leader." The picture toward the bottom of the page is of a per son who has been turned down by the other kids. He is feel ing lost and hurt inside. He says, "I always seem to lose, I wish other kids would like me more." Please make a mark in the box under the picture that is most like you. Thank you, Boys and Girls, for your cooperation. We hope you have enjoyed this experience. And remember, we are each different and valuable in our own special ways. And each of us as a person is the most important thing in the world. Goodbye and have a nice day. 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In one of the pictures the person is feeling happy and good inside; in the other picture the person is feeling kind of unhappy and sad inside. Does everyone see that? Can you tell which picture is of the person who is kind of sad? (Pause) That's right; it's the picture toward the bottom of the page. Boys and Girls, each one of our lives is made up of happy and unhappy times. Sometimes we feel good and happy inside; and other times we feel sad and unhappy inside. Some of us may feel happy or unhappy more than others. This is because each one of us is different in our own special way, and these differences make each of us an interesting and important person. ; Now, would you please turn the page to the next group of pictures. Look at what's happening to the picture of the happy face. It's getting smaller and smaller and smaller. The smaller the picture the less the person feels that way about himself. The smaller the picture the less times 221 the person feels that way about himself. Can you tell me which picture in this row is of the person feeling happy the most? That's right— the largest picture. What about the least happy? That's right; the smallest— the one at the bottom. Now, look what's happening to the picture of the sad face. It's getting larger and larger and larger. The lar ger the picture, the more the person feels that way about himself. The larger the picture the more times the person feels that way about himself. Which picture in this row is of the person feeling unhappy the most? That's right— the largest. What about the least unhappy? The correct answer is the smallest— the one at the top. Now, our next job is going to be to put the pictures together to make a whole set. This has been done on the next page. Would you please turn there. But first, let me give you one note of caution. Sometimes there is a tendency to see ourselves as only happy and feeling good all the time. And we are just not that way. Sometimes we are sad, too. Our job, and this is the hard part, is to really look inside and see how we really are. And then the job is to select the set of pictures which is most like you and make a mark in the box by that set. Boys and Girls, remember there are no right or wrong answers, only answers that are truthful for each person as ■an individual. i I If you are ready, pay close attention, and we will all proceed through the booklet together. The first picture is of a person's face. She is feel ing happy and good inside. She says, "I am happy." The second picture is of a person's face. She is 222 feeling bad and unhappy inside. She says, "I am unhappy." Now, if you feel happy almost all the time, you would make a mark in the box by set number 1 . However, if you were usually happy but unhappy a little more, you would make a mark in the box by set number 2. Or, if you felt happy sometimes and unhappy sometimes, about equal, you would make a mark in the box by set number 3. But, if you were seldom happy, you would make a mark in the box by set number 4. And finally, if you felt happy just a little of the time, you would make a mark in the box by set number 5. Now, Boys and Girls, look inside and see what is true for you. Then make a mark in the box by the set that is most like that. Please turn to the next page. Page number 4. The first picture is of a person who is not very strong or well built for his age. He doesn't feel very strong. He says, "I wish I were stronger and bigger." The second picture is of a person who is very strong and well built for his age. He is feeling good and strong inside. He says, "I am very strong and well built for my age. " Look inside and see how you are, and then make a mark jin the box by the set which is most like that. Please turn to the next page. Page number 5. The first picture is of a person who is being told how good he is by his teacher. He feels satisfied and good in side. He says, "I almost never get into trouble at school." The second picture is of a person who is being scolded by his teacher. He is feeling a little upset inside. He says, "I seem to get in trouble quite a bit at school." 223 Look inside and see what is true for your situation and mark the box by the set which is most like that. Please turn to the next page. Page number 6 . The first picture is of a person trying to lead singing in front of the class. She is feeling kind of upset and scared. She says, "I just hate being up in front of the class." The second picture is of a person leading singing in front of the class. She is feeling very confident and good inside. She says, "I really enjoy being up in front of the class . " Decide what is true for you and make a mark in the box by the set that is most like that. Please turn to the next page. Page number 7. The first picture is of a person greeting the other children; she feels happy and joyful inside. She says, "It's nice just being me." The second picture is of a person who is being made fun of; she is feeling kind of sad and hurt inside. She says, "I wish I was someone else." Look inside and see what is true for you, then make a mark in the box by the set which is most true for you. Please turn to the next page. Page number 8 . The first picture is of a person who is trying to ex plain things to his father. He feels misunderstood and a little bad. He says, "I wish they would understand me more." The second picture is of a person who is talking with his father. He is feeling happy and understood inside. He says, "It's nice to be understood." Look at your situation, then make a mark in the box by 224 the set which is most like that. Please turn to the next page. Page number 9. The first picture is of a person who is painting a pic ture. He's feeling happy and good. He says, "I have a good imagination and am a very good artist." The second picture is of a person painting a picture. He is a little upset inside and feels like tearing the painting up. He says, "I don't seem to be able to think up new things nor do them very well." Decide how you are, then make a mark in the box by the set which is most like that. Please turn to the next page. Page number 10. The first picture is of a person chinning herself. She is feeling strong inside. She says, "I am good at chinning myself for my age." The second picture is of a child who is unable to chin herself. She is not feeling very strong. She says, "It's hard for me to chin myself for my age." Look inside and see how it is with you and then make a mark in the box by the set that is most like the way you are. ! Please turn to the next page. Page number 11. i ! The first picture is of a person eating lunch alone. i She is feeling a little sad and lonely. She says, "For some reason it is hard for me to make friends." The second picture is of a person eating lunch with the other children. She says, "It is easy for me to make I friends." I What is true for you? Make a mark in the box by the set that is most like the way you are. Please turn to the next page. Page number 12. 225 The first picture is of a person who feels very good about the way he looks. He says, "I am happy with the way I look." The second picture is of a person who is kind of messy and feels kind of bad about the way he looks. He says, "I wish I looked better." De'cide how it is with you, then make a mark in the box by the set which is most like that. Please turn to the next page. Page number 13. The first picture is of a person who has received a good report card. She feels happy and proud. She says, "I am very smart." The second picture is of a person who has received a “ report card which shows the need to do better in a lot of I areas. She feels kind of upset. She says, "A lot of times I guess I am not very smart." Look inside and see what is true for you, then make a mark in the box by the set which is most like that. Please turn to the next page. Page number 14. The first picture is of a person who is trying to read. He is feeling kind of empty inside. He says, "I wish my mother would spend more time with me." t 1 The second picture is of a person sitting on his moth er's lap, reading a book. He is feeling warm and loved in side. He says, "I am happy my mother spends a lot of time jwith me . 1 1 ' Decide how it is for you, then make a mark in the box by the set which is most true for you. Please turn to the next page. Page number 15. The first picture is of a person who has just made a basket. She feels great. She says, "I am good at shooting 226 baskets for my age.” The second picture is of a person who is having a lot of trouble trying to shoot a basket. She is feeling a lit tle upset. She says, "I am just not very good at shooting baskets for my age." Make a mark in the box by the set which is most true for you. Please turn to the next page. Page number 16. The first picture is of a person with her parents. She is feeling warm and full of love. She says, "I am an impor tant part of my parents' lives." The second picture is of a person with her parents. She is feeling kind of sad and alone. She says, "I wish my parents were a little more interested in me." Look inside and decide what is true in your situation, then mark the box by that set. Please turn to the next page. Page number 17. The first picture is of a child whom the teacher asked to do a homework problem on the blackboard for the rest of the class. He does not remember how to do the problem and I feels kind of bad about it. He says, "When the teacher .calls on me, I don't remember things very well." The second picture is of a child whom the teacher asked to do a homework problem on the blackboard for the rest of the class. He knows how to do the problem and feels good about it. He says, "Whenever the teacher calls on me, I do really well.” Decide what is true for you, then make a mark in the box by the set which is most like that. Please turn to the next page. Page number 18. The first picture is of a person who keeps her room 227 organized and clean. She feels happy inside as she puts something back where it belongs. She says, "It feels good to be organized." The second picture is of a person who has a messy, dis organized room. She is upset and unhappy because she cannot find something she is looking for. She says, "I feel dis organized and messy," Decide how it is for you, then mark the box by the set which is most like you. Please turn to the next page. Page number 19. The first picture is of a girl doing her school work. She is feeling happy and good. She says, "I feel good doing my school work." The second picture is of a girl not doing her school work. She is feeling a little upset. She says, "I don't like doing my school work very much." Make a mark in the box by the set which is most true for you. Please turn to the next page. Page number 20, The first picture is of a child who is needing help with his project. The child is feeling like he could use a little help. He says, "I wish my father could spend more time with me." The second picture is of a child and his father working together on a project. The child is feeling good inside. He says, "My father spends a lot of time with me." Look inside and see what is true in your situation, then make a mark in the box by the set which is true for you. Please turn to the next page. Page number 21, The first picture is of a person having trouble playing a game. He is feeling a little unhappy inside. He says, "A lot of games are pretty hard for me." | The second picture is of a person who has just made a j i high score playing a game. He feels happy inside. He says,; ! "Most games are really easy for me." How is it for you? Make a mark in the box by the set which is correct for your situation. Please turn to the next page. Page number 22. The first picture is of a person trying to read aloud in his small reading group. He is feeling a little upset and unable to do his best. He says, "I just can't read very well; I wish I did not have to read aloud." The second picture is of a person reading aloud in his small reading group. He is feeling good and happy with him-’ self as he reads. He says, "I enjoy reading aloud when it is my turn . 1 1 Make a mark in the box by the set which is most true for you. 5 Please turn to the next page. Page number 23. The first picture is of a person holding another child who is trying to push him down. He is feeling strong and confident inside. He says, "I am good at taking care of myself . 1 1 The second picture is of a person who is being pushed down by another child. He is feeling a little scared. He says, "I am not very good at taking care of myself." How is it for you? Make a mark in the box by the set which is true for you. Please turn to the next page. Page number 24. The first picture is of a person who has been turned down by the other kids. He is feeling a little lost and 229 i hurt inside. He says, "I wish other kids would make me the j leader more." The second picture is of a person who has just been ■elected as class president. He feels happy and good about | I ihimself. He says, "The other kids think a lot of me. I am | a good leader." Make a mark in the box by the set which is most true for you. t Please turn to the next page. Page number 25. The first picture is of a person who has fallen down while trying to skip rope. She is feeling kind of bad. She ■says, "It's kind of hard for me to skip rope. I am just not j t very good at it." j The second picture is of a person who is good at skip- I Iping rope. She is feeling very good and happy. She says, "It's fun to skip rope. I am very good for my age." Look inside and see what is true for you, then make a mark in the box by the set which is most like that. Please turn to the next page. Page number 26. The first picture is of a person who has just had an argument with her father. She is feeling hurt and angry 'inside. She says, "My father thinks I am not as good as I should be." The second picture is of a person talking with her father. She is feeling happy and good inside. She says, "My father thinks I am a really good person." Look at your situation, then make a mark in the box by the set which is most like that. Please turn to the next page. Page number 27. The first picture is of a person with her hand raised. She feels good and strong within herself. She says, "I know 2301 ! the right answer, teacher." i I The second picture is of a person with her head on her desk. She is feeling a little upset and alone. She says, "I wish I would know the answers more." j Make a mark in the box by the set which is most true 1 for you. Please turn to the next page. Page number 28. The first picture is of a person who is having trouble 1 .building his project. He is a little upset and is getting ready to give up and knock it down. He says, "Things I start to build never seem to turn out the way I want them to. I am just not very good with my hands." The second picture is of a person who is completing a building project. He is feeling happy and good about him- > !self. He says, "I like building things. I am really good with my hands." Decide how you are, and then make a mark in the box by i the set which is most like that. ■ Please turn to the next page. Page number 29. The first picture is of a child playing a game with the 1 other children. He feels happy and friendly inside. He says, "I have a lot of friends to play with." The second picture is of a child not playing a game with the other children. He wants to play but does not know how to be friendly with the other children. He is feeling a : little hurt and lost inside. He says, "I don’t have many friends to play with." Decide what is true for you, then make a mark in tbe box by that set. Please turn to the next page. Page number 30. The first picture is of the teacher introducing a new 231 child to the class. The child is feeling a little shy and kind of scared. He says, "Meeting new people is kind of scary for me." The second picture is of the teacher introducing a new child to the class. The child is friendly and eager to make new friends. He says, "I like meeting new people." Make a mark in the box by the set which is most like the way you are. Please turn to the next page. Page number 31. The first picture is of a person trying to swing on the bar of a jungle gym. She is having trouble and feels kind of weak inside. She says, "I am not very strong for my age. " The second picture is of a person swinging on the bar I I ! of a jungle gym set. She feels strong and capable inside. She says, "I feel very strong." i Look inside and see what is true for you, then make a mark in the box by the set which is most like that, i Please turn to the next page. Page number 32. The first picture is of a person looking at a book. jShe is feeling a little bad and alone. She says, "I wish my parents could spend more time with me." i I The second picture is of a person looking at a book. ^he is feeling warm and good inside. She says, "My parents are involved in the things I do." | Look at your situation, then make a mark in the box by the set which is most like that. ' Please turn to the next page. Page number 33. The first picture is of a child who did not receive many Valentines on Valentine's Day. He feels kind of sad and hurt inside. He says, "I wish I had more friends." 232 The second picture is of a child who received a lot of Valentines on Valentine's Day. He feels good and full of love inside. He says, "I have a lot of friends . ' 1 How is it for you? Make a mark in the box of the set which is most like the way you are. Please turn to the next page. Page number 34. The first picture is of a person winning a foot race. He is feeling happy and good about himself. He says, "I am a really fast runner for my age." 1 The second picture is of a person not winning a foot race. He is feeling kind of bad. He says, "I am not a very .fast runner." Make a mark in the box by the set which is most true for you. Please turn to the next page. Page number 35. ; The first picture is of a person who has just been ! I 'chosen to be on the team. He feels good and proud inside. He says, "Whenever we choose up teams, I am almost always one of the first ones chosen." 1 The second picture is of a person who has not been cho- 'sen yet to be on the team. He is feeling a little upset and |left out. He says, "Whenever they choose up teams, I always [seem to be one of the last ones chosen." i | Look inside and see what is true for you, then make a mark in the box by that set. Please turn to the next page. Page number 36. The first picture is of a person explaining to her mother what happened. She is feeling good because her mother believes her. She says, "My mother trusts me very much." The second picture is of a person trying to explain to her mother what happened. She is feeling bad because she is not sure her mother really believes her. She says, "I wish my mother would trust me more." Look at your situation, then make a mark in the box by the set which is most like that. Please turn to the next page. Page number 37, The first picture is of a person who has just received his paper back from the teacher. He got a good grade and feels happy and good about himself. He says, "My school work is good; I think I must be very smart." The second picture is of a person who has just received his paper from the teacher. He did not do well and feels i ■kind of bad inside. He says, "I wish I could do better in my school work." Make a mark in the box by the set which is most true 'for you. I j Please turn to the next page. Page number 38. j The first picture is of a person who wants to play with I (the other children, but they will not let him. He is feel- i ing a little sad and hurt inside. He says, "I wish the other children would let me play with them more." I The second picture is of a person who is being invited jto play and join in with the other children. He feels very good inside. He says, "Other children really want me to play with them a lot." Look inside and see what is true for you, then make a mark in the box by the set which is most like that. I Please turn to the next page. Paae number 39. j I The first picture is of a person sweeping in the front. She is feeling like she is being watched. She says, "I wish mother would not be quite so critical and hard on me." 234 The second picture is of a person sweeping in the front. She is feeling strong and good. She says, ’ ’Mother always says I do a really good job.” Decide what is true in your situation and make a mark in the box by that set. Please turn to the next page. Page number 40. The first picture is of a person who has fallen down when trying to play hop scotch. She is feeling a little clumsy. She says, "I wish I was not so clumsy.” The second picture is of a person playing hop scotch. She is feeling very good inside. She says, "I like to play hop scotch. I am good at it for my age." Make a mark in the box by the set which is most true for you. Please turn to the next page. Page number 41. The first picture is of a person who is explaining to his mother how the thing got broken. He is feeling good and respected inside. He says, "My mother always believes me." The second picture is of a person trying to explain howi the thing got broken to his mother. He is feeling a little upset because his mother does not seem to believe him. He says, "I do not think my mother believes me very much." Look inside and see how it is in your situation, then make a mark in the box by the set which is most like that. Please turn to the next page. Page number 42. The first picture is of a person listening to her teacher. The teacher really likes her and this makes her feel good. She says, "My teacher likes me very much." The second picture is of a person who is listening to her teacher. The teacher is a little mad at her and this makes her feel bad. She says, "I don't think my teacher 235 likes me very much." Mark the box by the set which is most true for you. Please turn to the next page. Page number 43. The first picture is of a person getting a drink from her mother. She is feeling a little upset inside. She says, "Sometimes my mother babies me a little too much." The second picture is of a person getting her own drink. She is feeling good and able to care for herself. She says, "My mother always lets me do things for myself." How is it with you? Make a mark in the box by the set which best fits your situation. Please turn to the next page. Page number 44. The first picture is of a person who is the leader playing a game with the other children. She feels.good in side. She says, "I seem to be the leader in a lot of the games." The second picture is of a person who is not the leader. She feels a little upset inside. She says, "I wish I could be the leader more." Look inside, then make a mark in the box by the set which is most like the way you are. Please turn to the next page. Page number 45. The first picture is of a person trying to stand on her head but having difficulty. She is feeling kind of bad. She says, "I wish I was better at doing things like this," ! The second picture is of a person standing on her head. She is feeling very good. She says, "I am good at doing hard things like this." Make a mark in the box by the set which is most true for you. Please turn to the next page. Page number 46. 236 The first picture is of a person walking alongside of his mother. He feels strong and confident. He says, "My mother almost never demands things of me that are too hard for me." The second picture is of a person who is trying to keep up with his mother. He is feeling like he is being left behind. He says, "Sometimes it's just too hard to do the things that are expected of me." Look inside and see how it is for you. Then choose the set which is most like that. Please turn to the next page. Page number 47. This is the last page. The first picture is of a person leaving for school in the morning. He is feeling good and secure inside. He says, "I am glad I am going to school." The second picture is of a person when it is time to go to school in the morning. He is feeling a little upset. He says, "I wish I did not have to go to school." Look inside and see what is true for you, then make a mark in the box by the set which is most like that. Thank you, Boys and Girls! R E F E R E N C E S 237 REFERENCES Anastasi, A. Psychological testing. New York: Macmillan, 1967. Antonovsky, H. F. A contribution to research in the area of the mother-child relationship. Child Development, 1959 , 30.' 37-51. Asch, S. E. Studies of independence and conformity: I. A minority of one against a unanimous majority. Psychol ogy Monograph, 1956, 70^(9) , 1-70. Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. Social learning and personal ity development. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1963. Berenda, R. W. The influences of the group on the judgments of children. New York: King's Crown Press, 1950. Bronfenbrenner, U. Freudian theories of identification and their derivatives. Child Development, 1960 , 3^1, 14-40. Brookover, W., Thomas, S., & Patterson, A. Self-concept of ability and school achievement. Sociology of Education, 1964, 37, 271-278. Campbell, D. T., & Fiske, D. W. Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait multimethod matrix. Psy chology Bulletin, 1959, 5_6, 81-105. Campbell, P. B. Self-concept and academic achievement in middle grade public school children. Dissertation Abstracts, 1966, 27, 1535-1536. 238 239 Cole, N., Shaw, O., Steneck, J., & Taboroff, L. Survey assessment of current parental attitudes and practice in child-rearing. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 1957, 27, 815-822. Combs, A. W. , Soper, D. W., & Courson, C. C. The measure ment of self-concept and self-report. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 1963, 2_3, 493-500. Coopersmith, Stanley. The antecedents of self esteem. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 19 67. Cronbach, L. J. Essentials of psychological testing. New York: Harper & Row, 1960. Cronbach, L. J., & Meehl, P. E. Construct validity in psychological tests. Psychology Bulletin, 1955, 52, 281-302. Crown, D. P., & Stevens, M.. W. Self-acceptance and self- evaluative behavior: A critique of methodology. Psy chology Bulletin, 1961, 5j^, 104-121. Crown, D. P., Stevens, M. W., & Kelly, R. The validity and equivalence of tests of self-acceptance. Journal of Psychology, 1961, 5^1, 101-112. Cummings, R. N. A study of the relationships between self- concepts and reading achievement at third-grade level. Dissertation Abstracts, 1970, 31_, 5195. Dreyer, A. S., & Haupt, D. Self-evaluation in young chil- dren. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 19 6 6, 108, 185- 197. Engel, M. , & Raine, W. J. A method for the measurement of the self-concept of children in the third grade. Jour nal of Genetic Psychology, 1963, 102, 125-137. Farkash, M. E. Self-esteem, authoritarianism, and persuasi- bility. Dissertation Abstracts, 1967, 2j8, 2120. Festinger, L. A theory of social comparison process. Human Relations, 1954, 7, 117-140. Fromm, E. Man for himself. New York: Rinehart, 1947. 240 Goodenough, F. L. Measurement of intelligence by drawings. New York: World Book Co., 192 6. Hamachek, D. E . A study of the relationships between cer tain measures of growth and the self-images of elemen tary school children. Unpublished doctoral disserta tion, University of Michigan, 1960. Hargrove, V. The relationship of race, sex, and nursery school attendance to self-concept of black and white kindergarten children. Unpublished doctoral disserta tion, Northeast Louisiana University, 197 2. Harris, D. B. Parental judgment of responsibility in chil dren and children's adjustments. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 1958 , 92^, 161-166. Henderson, E. H., Long, B. H., & Ziller, R. C, Self-social constructs of achieving and nonachieving readers. The Reading Teacher, 19 65, 19, 114-118. Hereford, C. F. Changing parental attitudes through group discussion. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1963. Horwitz, E. Spatial localization of the self. Journal of Social Psychology, 1954, 18^, 135-137. James, William. Principles of psychology. New York: Holt, 1890. Janis, I. L. Personality correlates of susceptibility to persuasion. Journal of Personality, 1954, 2_2, 504-518., Jasik, M. Exploring efforts to improve self-concepts of pre-kindergarten children in school. Unpublished doc toral dissertation, Columbia University, 1972. Jourard, S. M. Identification, parent-cathexis, and self esteem. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1957, 21, 1 375-380. Kern, P. D. A study of the relationship among anxiety, self-esteem, and achievement. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Northern Illinois University, 197 0. 241 Kokenes, B. Grade level differences in factors of self esteem. Developmental Psychology, 1974 , JLO, 954-958. Lecky, P. Self-consistency: A theory of personality. New York: School Press, 1945. Long, B. H., Henderson, E. H., & Ziller, R. C. Develop mental changes in the self-concept during middle child- hood. School Review, 19 67, 75_, 96-105. Lynn, R. Personality characteristics of mothers of aggres sive and non-aggressive children. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 1961, _99_, 159-164. Machover, K . Personality projection in the drawing of human figure. Springfield, 111.: Charles C. Thomas, 1949. Mead, G. H. Mind, self and society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934. Medinnus, G. R., & Curtis, F. J. The relation between maternal acceptance and child acceptance. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1963, 27^(6) , 542-544. Meyering, R. A. Uses of test data in counseling. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1968. Miller, T. Differential response patterns of parents as they affect the child’s self-esteem. Unpublished doc toral dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1971. Muller, D., & Leonetti, R. The Primary Self-Concept Inven tory . Austin, Texas: Learning Concepts, 1974. Nahinsky, I. D. The relationship between the self-concept and the ideal-self concept as a measure of adjustment. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 1958, 14_, 360-364 . Nahinsky, I. D. The self-ideal correlation as a measure of generalized self-satisfaction. Psychology Record, 1966, 16_, 35-64. Parker, J. The relationship of self-report to inferred self-concept. Educational and Psychological Measure ment , 1966, 26, 691-700. 242 Payne, D. The concurrent and predictive validity of an objective measure of academic self-concept. Educa tional and Psychological Measurement, 1962, 2_2, 773- 780. Payne, D., & Farquhar, W. W. The dimensions of an objective measure of academic self-concept. Journal of Educa tional Psychology, 1962, 53^, 187-192. Perkins, C. W.> & Shannon, D. T. Three techniques for obtaining self-perception in preadolescent boys. Jour nal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1965, 2^, 443- 446. Perkins, H. Factors influencing change in children’s self- concepts. Child Development, 1958, 2_9, 221-230. Phillips, A. S. Self-concepts in children. Educational Research, 1964 , 6_, 104-109. Piers, E., & Harris, D. B. Age and other correlates of self-concept in children. Journal of Educational Psy chology , 1964, 5J5, 91-95. Purkey, W. W. The self and academic achievement. Gaines ville, Fla.: Educational Research and Development Council, 1967. Rogers, C. R. Client-centered therapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1951. Rogers, C. R. On becoming a person. Boston: Houghton Mifflin , 1961. Rosenberg, M. Parental interest and children's self conceptions. Sociometry, 1963, _26_, 35-49. Samuels, S. C. An investigation into some factors relevant to the self-concepts in early childhood of children from middle- and lower-class homes. Unpublished doc toral dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia Univer sity, 1969. Schaefer, E. S., & Bell, R. Q. Development of the Parental Attitude Research Instrument. Child Development, 1958, 29, 339-361. 243j I Schmuck, R. Some relationships of peer liking patterns in j the classroom to pupil attitudes and achievement. j School Review, 1963, 71, 337-359. | I Schwartz, S. G. Parent-child interaction as it relates to j the ego functioning and self-concept of the preschool | child. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Columbia University, 1966. Sears, R. R. Patterns of child rearing. New York: Harper & Row, 19 57. Shannon, D. T., & Shoemaker, D. J. A pictorial identifica tion technique of self-evaluation in children. Unpub lished manuscript, University of Illinois, 1960. Shaw, M. C., & Alves, G. J. The self-concept of bright aca demic underachievers: continued. Personnel and Guid ance Journal, 1963 , A2_, 401-403. Shepard, L. A. S. A multitrait-multimethod approach to the 1 construct validity of seIf-acceptance. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Colorado, 1972. Silbert, E., & Tippett, J. S. Self-esteem: Clinical assessment and measurement validation. Psychological Reports, 1965, lt^ (Monograph Supplement 4), 1017-1071. Smith, P. A. A factor analytic study of the self-concept. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1960, 2A_, 191. Spaulding, R. L. Achievement, creativity, and self-concept correlates of teacher-pupil transactions in elementary ! schools. In C. Standler (Ed.), Readings in Child Be havior and Development (2nd ed.). New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1964. Sullivan, H. S. Conceptions of modern psychiatry. Wash ington, D.C.: The William Alamson White Psychiatric Foundation, 194 5. Sullivan, H. S. The interpersonal theory of psychiatry. New York: Norton Press, 1953. Symonds, P. M. The psychology of parent-child relation ships . New York: Appleton-Century, 1939. 244 Taub, M. An investigation of the relationship between parent and child self-concept measurement. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland, 1972. Walsh, A. M. Self-concepts of bright boys with learning difficulties. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1956. Wattenberg, W. W., & Clifford, C. Relationship of self- concept to beginning achievement in reading. Child Development, 1964, 3_5, 461-467 . Weiss, J. The identification and measurement of home envi ronmental factors related to achievement motivation and self-esteem. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Uni versity of Chicago, 1969. Woolner, R. B. Kindergarten children’s self-concepts in relation to their kindergarten experiences. Unpub lished doctoral dissertation, University of Tennessee, 1966. Wylie, R. C. The self-concept. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1961.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Kirkwood, William Jerry (author)

Core Title The development and construct validation of the Primary Pictorial Self-Esteem Test

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, tests and measurements,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-444935

Unique identifier UC11246698

Identifier usctheses-c26-444935 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP24133.pdf

Dmrecord 444935

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Kirkwood, William Jerry

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA