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The use of the natal chart in the identification of alcoholism and a comparison of its diagnostic efficacy with the MMPI

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The use of the natal chart in the identification of alcoholism and a comparison of its diagnostic efficacy with the MMPI

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Content THE USE OF THE NATAL CHART IN THE IDENTIFICATION OF ALCOHOLISM AND A COMPARISON OF ITS DIAGNOSTIC EFFICACY WITH THE MMPI by Suzanne Jane M acH arg A D isse rta tio n P resented to th e FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P artial Fulfillm ent o f th e R equirem ents for th e D egree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Education) August 1975 UMI Number: DP24144 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oissertafen Publishing UMI DP24144 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 UNIVERSITY O F SO U TH ERN CALIFORNIA T H E G R A D U A T E S C H O O L U N IV E R S IT Y PA R K L O S A N G E L E S . C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by SU Z A N N E JA N E MacHARG..................... under the direction of hoc.... Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of the degree of Ph.D. L -ci M IH 9 D O C T O R OF P H IL O S O P H Y Dean D a t e ^ X ^ U J ^ M k . 3 .jA S . 3 3 ...... To Rob: In your knowing s e n s itiv ity and g e n tle stren g th Your c a p a c ity for loving is so d e ep . You have given me the ric h e s t of liv e s . ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am in d eb ted to m any people for th e ir support and a s s is ta n c e in j th e production of th is stu d y . | I am deeply a p p re c ia tiv e of th e co o p eratio n and encpuragem ent I i i I rec eiv e d from my do cto ral com m ittee— Earl C a rn es, my chairm an, Don i ! S chrader, and Stephen B erger. Earl d e se rv e s sp e c ia l th a n k s, for he has i I | b een an in sp ira tio n to me throughout my d o cto ral program . | I w ish to e x p re ss g ratitu d e to th o se who a s s is te d me in obtaining : su b je c ts for p a rtic ip a tio n in th e study, p a rticu la rly John H atcher, Joan | | M cC rea, and Karen B ailey . I am e s p e c ia lly g ratefu l to Karma W elch, i w hose a stro lo g ic a l a d v ice and c o n sc ie n tio u s efforts in co n tactin g j a stro lo g e rs were of in v alu ab le h e lp . i ! The c lin ic ia n s and a stro lo g e rs who gave th e ir tim e and effort i I d eserv e th a n k s , a s do th e in d iv id u a ls who ag reed to p a rtic ip a te a s su b je c ts in th e stu d y . I My warm th an k s are extended to Sheila W alsh , my friend and ! ty p is t, who h as b e en so u n d erstan d in g and h e lp fu l. i ^ F inally, I w ish to e x p re ss my re s p e c t and love for my fam ily— i i | to my p are n ts, who im parted th e ir h um anistic v a lu e s to m e— and to my i ' 1 s is te r and my aunt and u n cle and grandm other, who have b een sig n ifi- ; can t and a p p re cia te d in flu e n c e s on my life . TABLE OF CONTENTS C hapter Page I INTRODUCTION............................................................................. 1 Background of th e P r o b l e m ....................................... . 1 S tatem ent of th e P ro b le m ................................................ 5 Purpose of th e S tu d y .......................................................... 6 Im portance of th e S tudy ..................................................... 6 A s s u m p ti o n s ........................................................................ 8 H y p o th e s e s ...................................... ................................... 8 Q uestions to be A n sw e re d ............................................... 9 D efinition of Terms............................................................... 10 L im itations of th e S t u d y ................................................ 11 D elim itatio n s of th e S t u d y ............................................ 12 O rganization of th e Rem ainder of th e Study . . . 12 II SELECTED REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE........................ . 14 The D evelopm ent of A strology and B asic T enets of N atal H oroscope In terp reta tio n . . . . . 14 L iterature P ertaining to A strological R esearch . . 16 The Role of A strology in C ounseling: Free W ill V ersus D e t e r m i n i s m ........................................... 29 O verview of T heories of A l c o h o li s m ........................ 33 The MMPI as a P sy ch o d iag n o stic M easu re of A lcoholism ..........................................................................41 S u m m a ry ........................................................................................ 48 III M ETHODOLOGY................................................................................... 50 O rganization of th e C h a p te r ..................................................50 S electio n and D escrip tio n of th e S am ple..........................50 D esign and Procedure of th e S t u d y ................................... 51 M easuring In stru m en ts U s e d .............................................54 S ta tis tic a l A n a l y s i s ................................................................55 iv ag( 57 57 58 70 75 79 88 88 89 91 92 93 95 96 99 FINDINGS Introduction ........................................... Findings Regarding H y p o th eses . . . . . . . . Q u estio n s to b e A n s w e r e d ........................................... R eliab ility of R aters: C lin ic ia n s and A strologers D isc u ssio n ........................................... SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS I n tr o d u c tio n ...................................... ................................. Review of th e L i t e r a t u r e ................................................ H y p o t h e s e s ........................................................................ M e th o d o lo g y ........................ ............................................... F in d in g s................................................................... . . . D i s c u s s i o n ........................................................................ R e co m m e n d a tio n s............................................................... REFERENCES APPENDICES LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1 Chi Square G o o d n ess of Fit A n aly sis for T otal C orrect P red ictio n s: A s tro lo g e rs ........................................... * 59 2 Chi Square G o o d n ess of Fit A n aly sis for Individual A s tro lo g e rs ............................... 60 3 Com bined R atings of A strologers for S eparate P rediction of A lcoholics and N o n -A lc o h o lic s................ 63 4 Chi Square G o odness of Fit A nalysis for Total C orrect P red ictio n s: C l in i c ia n s ........................................ .. 64 5 Chi Square G o o d n ess of Fit A n aly sis for Individual C l in i c ia n s ................................................................ 65 6 Com bined R atings of C lin ic ia n s for S eparate P rediction of A lcoholics and N o n -A lc o h o lic s................ 68 7 Chi Square G oodness of Fit A nalysis for M acAndrew A lcoholism S cale (Using c u t-o ff score of 2 4 ) .................................................................................... 69 8 Chi Square G o o d n ess of Fit A n aly sis for M acAndrew A lcoholism S cale (Using c u t-o ff sco re of 2 8 ) ............................ 71 9 Chi Square G o o d n ess of Fit A n aly sis: C om parison of C orrect P redictions by A strologers and C l in i c ia n s ........................................................ ... ....................7 3 10 Chi Square G o o d n ess of Fit A nalysis: C om parison of C orrect P redictions by A strologers and M acAndrew A lcoholism S c a l e ........................................ 7 4 1 1 Chi Square G o o d n ess of Fit A n aly sis: C om parison of C orrect P redictions by C lin ic ia n s and M acAndrew A lcoholism S c a l e ........................................ 7 6 vi , Table Page I | 12 A nalysis of In tra c la s s C o rrelatio n C o efficien t | of Rater R eliab ility (A s tro lo g e rs ).......................................... 77 i 13 A nalysis of In tra c la s s C o rrelatio n C o efficien t | of Rater R e liab ility (C lin ician s) ......................... 78 14 Chi Square C ontingency Table for R elatio n sh ip B etw een Type of Rater and Type of R a tin g .................... 83 vii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Background of th e Problem i One of th e m ost p e rs is te n t and d iffic u lt problem s facing so c ie ty 1 to d ay is alco h o lism (K issin, 197 4; M cCord & M cC ord, 1960). Various ■ p h y sio lo g ic a l, p sy c h o lo g ic a l, and so c io lo g ic a l th e o rie s have b e en ! ! ad v an ced to acco u n t for th e e tio lo g y and nature of th e a lc o h o lic p e rso n - I | a lity , y et trea tm e n t m odes b a se d on th e s e th e o rie s co ntinue to be i la rg e ly in e ffe c tiv e (M adsen, 1974). M ost of th e s e th e o rie s concur w ith I th e b e lie f th a t a lco h o lism , as a d is e a s e , e x is ts m ainly in in d iv id u a ls w ith c e rta in p e rso n ality c h a ra c te ris tic s , w hich have b een d e lin e a te d in e x te n siv e re s e a rc h (Barry, 197 4). R esearch in th e field of te s tin g h as fo cu sed its a tte n tio n on m easuring p e rso n ality v a ria b le s in a w ide v a rie ty of w ay s. It has re s u lte d in data w hich supports th e prem ise th a t p e rso n a lity c h a ra c te r i s tic s a s s o c ia te d w ith many b e h av io ral phenom ena can be m easu red . One of th e m ost w idely u se d te s ts of th is sort is th e M in n eso ta M u lti- p h a sic P erso n ality Inventory (MMPI). The MMPI profile and v ario u s s u b s c a le s of th e MMPI have b een u sed to id e n tify a lc o h o lic s . R esearch h as in d ic a te d th a t th ere is a d isc e rn ib le c o rre latio n betw een th e p resen c e of alcoholism and c e rta in p attern s of sc o re s a ch iev e d on th e MMPI (Hoyt & S ed lac ek , 1958; M acA ndrew , 1965; O v erall, 197 3). Although th e MMPI h as th e p o te n tia l for id en tify in g a lc o h o lism , it sh ed s no lig h t on th e re a so n s for th e developm ent of alco h o lism in c e rta in in d iv id u a ls. It is w ell known th a t in d iv id u al d ifferen c e s in re sp o n se te n d e n c ie s e x is t a t b irth . G reat c h an g es o ccu r a s th e in flu e n c e s of th e environm ent b e g in to im pinge on a c h ild 's c h a ra c te r. If d a ta could be o b tain ed w hich illu m in a te s th e p e rso n a lity developm ent of an individual, c o u n selo rs and p sy c h o th e ra p ists would be provided w ith inform ation w hich w ould be helpful in tre a tin g th e ir c lie n ts more e ffe c tiv e ly . For c en tu rie s a stro lo g e rs have claim ed to be a b le to c a s t a n a ta l (birth) c h art for an in d iv id u a l and id e n tify p e rso n a lity c h a ra c te ris tic s w hich, according to th e p o sitio n s o f th e p la n e ts , are more lik e ly to e x is t in one in d iv id u al over a n o th e r. A strologers to d ay subm it th a t an alc o h o lic can be id e n tifie d by an in te rp re ta tio n of h is n a ta l ch art, th u s assum ing th a t a stro lo g ic a l fac to rs a ffe c t th e g e n e s is of alco h o lism (G arrison, 1971; Ja n sk y , 197 3). If th ere is any v a lid ity to th is claim , th e n a ta l ch art could be u se d , sim ilarly to th e MMPI, a s a d ia g n o stic to o l in th e id e n tific a tio n of alc o h o lism . M ore im p o rtan tly , new inform ation about th e etio lo g y of alco h o lism w ould em erge. M odern a stro lo g e rs claim th a t th e p o sitio n s of th e c e le s tia l b o d ies a t th e tim e of o n e 's b irth have sig n ific a n t im pact on an in d iv i d u a l's em o tio n al, in te lle c tu a l, and p h y sic a l functioning (E scobar, 1972; G arriso n , 1971; Tobey, 196 5). M any a stro lo g e rs to d ay do not b e lie v e th a t th e p la n e ts and sta rs c a u se p erso n s to b eh av e in c e rta in w ays, i but ra th e r hold th a t th ere is a re la tio n sh ip b etw een a stro lo g ic a l phenom - i I ena and in d iv id u al d iffe re n c e s in re s p o n se te n d e n c ie s (M orrish, 1952; i ! Rudhyar, 197 2). i C . G . Jung (197 3) b e lie v e d th e re w as v a lid ity to th e a stro lo g ic a l i j prem ise th a t p la n e ta ry co n fig u ratio n s a t b irth h ave som e bearing upon I 1 j human developm ent and b eh av io r. He in clu d ed a stro lo g y a s an exam ple i i of h is th eo ry of sy n c h ro n ic ity , w hich he firs t ad v an ced in 1930. Jung i J j (197 3) term ed sy n c h ro n icity an a c a u s a l co n n ectin g p rin cip le in w hich i i e v e n ts m ay be c o n n ec te d b y sim u lta n eity and m eaning, th u s producing a m eaningful c o in c id e n c e . The configuration of th e sta rs a t th e tim e of a p e rs o n 's b irth w ould th u s be a sim u ltan eo u s ev en t lad e n w ith som e sig n ific a n t m eaning for th e developm ent of p e rso n a lity . Some a stro lo g e rs to d a y lin k th e ir a s tro lo g ic a l sy stem s to th e "third force" p sy ch o lo g y of M aslow , R ogers, and o th e rs . This p e rso n - c e n te re d , h u m an istic view of a stro lo g y (M eyer, 1974; Rudhyar, 1972) . holds th a t th e n a ta l c h art d e sc rib e s a p e rs o n 's p o te n tia litie s , w hat he or sh e m ay becom e if fu lly s e lf-a c tu a liz e d . This s ta n c e h a s th e ; Jungian view point of a stro lo g y a s its c o rn e rsto n e . A ttem pts to v erify a stro lo g ic a l p rin cip le s have produced confusing i and co n flictin g r e s u lts . S tu d ies by Farnsw orth (1939) and by Addey ■ (reported b y G auqueli n, 197 0) re p ort effo rts to re la te m u sica l a b ilitie s 4 i | and p ro fe ssio n s re s p e c tiv e ly to an in d iv id u a l's sun sig n . No s ig n ifi c a n t r e s u lts w ere o b tain ed , b ut c ritic s of th e s e stu d ie s s ta te th a t it | w as an error to u s e only th e sun sign a s a determ inant (W est & Toonder, i i j 1973). j The experim ents of M ichel G auquelin (197 0) re p re se n t th e m ost i | m a ssiv e attem p t to v e rify astro lo g y w ith th e a p p lic a tio n of s ta tis tic a l ! ! p ro ce d u res. G auquelin found sig n ific a n t c o rre la tio n s in th e p resen c e t : of c e rta in risin g p la n e ts in th e b irth c h a rts of prom inent p h y sic ia n s l i and o th er p ro fe ssio n a l g ro u p s. He a ls o found sig n ific a n t c o rre la tio n s i ! b etw een th e sim ila rity of p la n e ta ry c o n fig u ratio n s a t th e tim e of b irth of p aren ts and th a t of th e ir c h ild re n . He c o n clu d ed th a t h is fin d in g s did not support a stro lo g y in th e tra d itio n a l s e n s e , but rath e r in d ic a te d th a t c h ild ren in h e rit a c e rta in c o n stitu tio n from th e ir p aren ts w hich is m erely sig n ifie d by th e p o sitio n of th e p la n e ts a t b irth . S tu d ies by Vernon C lark (1960) su g g e st th a t th e n a ta l ch art can be u se d e ffe c tiv e ly in th e id e n tific a tio n of c e rta in s o c ia l, p sy c h o lo g i c a l, and p h y sic a l a ttrib u te s p re se n t in in d iv id u a ls . A lthough th e re have b een other experim ental stu d ie s on a stro lo g y , m any of them are not p u b lish ed by th e o rig in al au th o r and are re la te d by word of m outh. Very few stu d ie s have fo cu sed on th e a b ility of a stro lo g e rs to c o n s is te n tly p red ict or id e n tify p e rso n a lity c h a ra c te r i s t ic s from th e n a ta l c h a rt. In s p ite of th e p au city of ev id e n c e d eriv ed from w e ll-d e sig n e d a stro lo g ic a l ex p erim en ts, th e p ra c tic e and u sa g e of a stro lo g y a p p ea rs to b e grow ing. The u se of a stro lo g y a s an e x p la n atio n of m a n 's p s y - i ; ch o lo g ica l functioning is gain in g som e a c c e p ta n c e by m ental h e a lth i , p ro fe s s io n a ls . A p s y c h ia tris t and an a stro lo g e r re c e n tly c o llab o ra ted ( on a book w herein th e y sta te d : i I The in e s c a p a b le g e n eral c o n clu sio n is I th a t em otional illn e s s , or a t le a s t s u s - i c e p tib ility to i t , is organic and sy n - ; chronous w ith th e g e n e th lia c ia l a s tro lo g ic a l c h a rt. (D arling & O liver, 197 3, p. 23) ! , An a rtic le in Time (M arch 21, 1969) re fe rs to a p sy c h o lo g ist a t Stanford U n iv e rs ity 's co u n selin g and g u id an c e c e n te r who u s e s a stro lo g ic a l c h a rts for th e id e n tific a tio n of p o ss ib le p sy c h o lo g ic al p re d isp o sitio n s of som e of h is p a tie n ts . The u se of th e n a ta l c h art a s a p sy c h o d iag n o stic in stru m en t h a s b e en only rem otely c o n sid e re d by m ost p s y c h o lo g is ts . The ro le of a stro lo g y in p e rso n a lity developm ent and p sy c h o th era p eu tic te c h n iq u e s rem ains an u n reso lv ed is s u e . S tatem ent of th e Problem The problem lie s in determ ining w hether or n ot a stro lo g ic a l I fa c to rs in th e n a ta l c h art, a s in te rp re te d by p ro fe ssio n a l a stro lo g e rs, are re la te d to th e p sy c h o lo g ic al functioning of hum an b e in g s . P sy ch o - , d ia g n o stic in stru m e n ts a v a ila b le for th e d e te c tio n of p e rso n a lity i v a ria b l e s , such a s th e MMPI, a re not known to e s ta b lis h a re la tio n sh ip 6 b etw een a stro lo g y and p e rso n a lity . A strologers claim th e y can id en tify and p red ict p e rso n a lity v a ria b le s and s u s c e p tib ility to psychopathology ! i (W est & Toonder, 197 3). R esearch is need ed to c la rify th e sta tu s of | astro lo g y a s a p sy c h o d iag n o stic te c h n iq u e . I Purpose of th e Study i The purpose of th is study w as to in v e s tig a te re la tio n sh ip s ! [ b etw een an in d iv id u a l's n a ta l ch art and h is /h e r c o n d itio n of alco h o lism , j S p e c ific a lly , th e in v e s tig a tio n fo cu sed on th e a b ility of a stro lo g e rs to | u tiliz e th e n a ta l ch art to d isc rim in ate b etw een a lc o h o lic s and n o n - ! a lc o h o lic s . The n a ta l ch art w as c o n sid ere d in lig h t of its u se a s a i , m easu re for th e p red ictio n of alco h o lism and a s a d ia g n o stic to o l in c o u n selin g and p sy ch o th erap y . i In order to com pare the e ffic a c y of th e n a ta l ch art w ith current p sy c h o d iag n o stic in stru m e n ts a v a ila b le for th e id e n tific a tio n of a lc o h o lism , th e MMPI w as u tiliz e d to d isc rim in ate b etw een a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s . The study in co rp o rated a tw o -fo ld u sa g e of th e MMPI: 1) th e id e n tific a tio n of alco h o lism v ia in te rp re ta tio n of MMPI 1 pro files by c lin ic ia n s tra in e d in p sy c h o d ia g n o stic s, and 2) th e a c tu a ria l ! p red ictio n of alco h o lism on th e M acA ndrew A lcoholism S c a le . i Im portance of th e Study i | R ecently th ere h a s b een a renew ed in te re s t in th e fie ld of I [ a stro lo g y in w e ste rn cu ltu re (Snyder, 197_4). A stro lo g ical h o ro sco p es are c arried in d a ily n ew sp ap ers and popular books on a stro lo g y abound, j U n iv e rsitie s are beginning to in c lu d e a stro lo g y in th e ir c u rric u la (Tim e, I i j M arch 21, 1969) and som e p sy c h o lo g is ts and p s y c h ia tris ts a re a d v o c a t- i ; ing u se of th e n a ta l ch art for d ia g n o stic p u rp o ses in c o u n selin g and i ! p sy ch o th erap y (D arling & O liv er, 1973; D obyns, 197 0). The p rev ailin g l I | a ttitu d e of m ost p ro fe ssio n a l c lin ic ia n s , how ever, seem s to be th a t | a stro lo g y can n o t co n trib u te to th e u n d erstan d in g of hum an p sy c h o - i i d y n am ics. Before th is a n c ie n t art is c a s t a sid e a s o b so le te , it is : im portant to conduct re s e a rc h to provide sc ie n tific e v id e n ce w hich | c la rifie s th e role of a stro lo g y in hum an b eh av io r. D e sp ite volum inous re s e a rc h on its c a u s e s and trea tm e n t, alco h o lism rem ains one of s o c ie ty 's m ajor so c ia l problem s. As su c h , : i t q u a lifie s a s a d is e a s e w hich m ay req u ire u n iq u e, u n tried re s e a rc h ap p ro ach es to fu lly u n d erstan d and tr e a t. The in v e s tig a tio n of th e in flu e n ce of a stro lo g ic a l phenom ena on alco h o lism is such an ap p ro ach . D isc o v e rie s w hich co n trib u te to our u n d erstan d in g of alco h o lism may provide a b a s is for p rev en tiv e m ental h e a lth program s a n d /o r e arly d ia g n o sis in p sy c h o th era p y . In order to te s t th e p rem ise th a t a person can be id e n tifie d a s an a lc o h o lic through h is /h e r n a ta l c h a rt, a tru stw o rth y m easure of a lc o h o l ism sho u ld be u tiliz e d a s a b a s is of co m p ariso n . It is im portant to determ ine if th e n a ta l ch art can produce a higher le v e l of a c c u ra c y in th e id e n tific atio n of a lc oholism th an e x istin g p sy c h o d ia g n o stic te c h - n iq u e s . The MMPI h as b een se le c te d a s th e com parative m easure of alco h o lism b e c a u se re s e a rc h h as show n i t can b e u tiliz e d to c o rre c tly ! id en tify a high p e rc en ta g e of a lc o h o lic s. t i I I | A ssum ptions | This study pro ceed ed under th e follow ing a ssu m p tio n s: i 1. A bility to p red ic t alco h o lism from th e n a ta l c h a rt re p re se n ts a i fa ir t e s t of one a s p e c t of th e v a lid ity of a stro lo g y . i - 2. P ro fe ssio n a l a stro lo g e rs a re c a p a b le of in te rp retin g th e a s tro - i ; lo g ic a l m eanings of th e n a ta l c h a rt. [ ’ 3. A strologers in te rp re t n a ta l c h a rts on th e b a s is of a stro lo g ic a l j d a ta , ra th e r th an through e x tra -s e n s o ry p ercep tio n or som e o th er unknow n p ro c e s s . ; 4. In d iv id u a ls who p a rtic ip a te in b o n afid e a lc o h o lic treatm en t program s c an be c o n sid e re d a lc o h o lic s . 5. In d iv id u a ls who h a v e no known h isto ry of problem drinking can be c o n sid e re d n o n -a lc o h o lic s . 6. C lin ic ia n s tra in e d in p sy c h o d ia g n o stic s a re c a p a b le of in te rp re t ing th e p sy c h o lo g ic al m eanings of an MMPI p ro file. H y p o th eses The follow ing h y p o th e se s have b een form ulated in lig h t of the study o u tlin ed : , 1. B ased on an in te rp re ta tio n of th e n a ta l c h art, a stro lo g e rs can 9 : c o rre c tly id e n tify a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s in a given sam ple co n tain in g both a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s a t a le v e l sig n ific a n tly ex ceed in g c h a n c e . B ased on an in te rp re ta tio n of an MMPI p ro file , c lin ic ia n s tra in e d in p sy c h o d ia g n o stic s can c o rre c tly id e n tify a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s in a g iv en sam ple co n tain in g both a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s at a le v e l sig n ific a n tly ex ceed in g c h a n c e . B ased on sc o re s on th e M acAndrew A lcoholism S cale of th e M M PI, a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s can be c o rre c tly id e n tifie d in a given sam ple co n tain in g both a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s a t a le v e l sig n ific a n tly ex ceed in g c h a n c e . Q u estio n s to be A nsw ered W ill th e re be a d ifferen ce b etw een th e v a lid ity of th e n a ta l ch art a s in te rp re te d by a stro lo g e rs, and th e MMPI p ro file, a s in te rp re te d by c lin ic ia n s , in th e id e n tific a tio n of a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s ? W ill th e re be a d ifferen ce b etw een th e v a lid ity of th e n a ta l c h a rt, a s in te rp re te d by a stro lo g e rs, and th e M acAndrew A lcoholism S cale in th e id e n tific a tio n of a lc o h o lic s and n o n a lc o h o lic s ? W ill th ere be a d ifferen ce b etw een th e v a lid ity of th e MMPI p ro file, a s in te rp re te d by c lin ic ia n s , and th e M acA ndrew A lcoholism S cale in th e id e n tific a tio n of a lc o h o lic s and n o n a lc o h o lic s ? D efin itio n of Terms A lco h o lic: A p erso n who drinks in a c h ro n ic, co m p u lsiv e, and e x c e s s iv e m anner. A fu rth er q u a lific a tio n in th is stu d y w ill be a person who is a v o lu n tary or in v o lu n ta ry p a rtic ip a n t in a trea tm e n t program for a lc o h o lic s . A lcoholism : E x c e ssiv e , c h ro n ic , and com pulsive u s e of a lc o h o l. A stro lo g er: A p erso n who h a s b e en in p ro fe ssio n a l a stro lo g ic a l p ra c tic e for a minimum of five y e ars and who h a s re c e iv e d c e rtific a tio n for form al tra in in g in a stro lo g y . A strology: The stu d y of th e in flu e n ce of c e le s tia l b o d ies ( i.e . , p la n e ts and sta rs) upon hum an e v e n ts and in d iv id u a l p e rs o n s. C lin ic ia n : A p erso n who h a s p ro fe ssio n a l tra in in g and e x p erien ce in p sy c h o d ia g n o stic s and s p e c ific a lly in th e u s e o f th e MMPI. N a tal c h a rt; a s tr a l c h a rt; b irth c h a rt; h o ro sc o p e : T hese four term s w ill be u se d synonym ously in th is stu d y . The c h art w hich d e s c rib e s th e a stro lo g ic a l sky a t th e m oment of a g iv en in d iv id u a l's b irth , in clu d in g th e p o sitio n s of th e p la n e ts , a s p e c ts , sig n s of th e Z odiac, and th e H o u se s. N o n -a lc o h o lic : A p erso n who d o es not drink a lc o h o l in a c h ro n ic, c o m p u lsiv e, and e x c e s s iv e m anner. Further q u a lific a tio n s in th is study w ill be p erso n s who have 1) n ev er b een a p a rtic ip a n t in a tr e a t- m en t program for a lc o h o lic s; 2) n e v er e x p erien c ed in te rfe re n c e w ith ! w ork, fam ily, or so c ia l life due to problem drinking; and 3) n e v er b e en i ! a rre ste d for any le g a l v io la tio n inv o lv in g th e u se of a lc o h o l. j | S u n -s ig n : The lo c a tio n of th e sun w ithin one of th e tw e lv e sig n s I i j of th e Z odiac—A ries, T aurus, G em ini, e tc .— a t th e tim e of an in d iv i- I ' d u a l's b irth . | 1 L im itations of th e Study I 1. The a stro lo g e rs p a rtic ip a tin g in th is study m ay not h ave th e e x p e rtis e req u ire d to m ake com plex in te rp re ta tio n s o f n a ta l c h a rts , such a s th e id e n tific a tio n of a lc o h o lism . 2. The b irth d a ta provided for th e s u b je c ts in th is sam ple, p a rtic u la rly th e tim e of b irth , m ay b e incorrect.. A stro lo g ers, th e re fo re , m ight be m aking judgm ents on th e b a s is of in c o rre c t in fo rm atio n . 3. The n o n -a lc o h o lic s u b je c ts m ay not h av e provided an a c c u ra te rep o rt of th e ir drinking h a b its and m ay be in c o rre c tly c la s s ifie d a s n o n -a lc o h o lic s . 4. The n o n -a lc o h o lic s in th is sam ple m ay becom e a lc o h o lic s a t som e future tim e and th u s m ay not be re p re se n ta tiv e of a non a lc o h o lic p o p u latio n . 5. The c lin ic ia n s p a rtic ip a tin g in th is stu d y m ay not h av e th e e x p e rtis e req u ired to m ake in te rp re ta tio n s of th e MMPI p ro file s, such a s th e id e n tific a tio n of alc o h o lism . D elim ita tio n s of th e Study 1. There w ere 15 a lc o h o lic and 15 n o n -a lc o h o lic s u b je c ts in th is stu d y . 2. Ten a stro lo g e rs m ay n ot provide a re p re s e n ta tiv e a n d /o r a d eq u ate sam ple of th e a b ilitie s of a stro lo g e rs . 3. S e lec tio n of a lc o h o lic s u b je c ts w as d eriv ed from th re e a lc o h o lic trea tm e n t program s in th e sam e g eo g rap h ic a re a . 4. S e le c tio n of th e pool of n o n -a lc o h o lic s u b je c ts w as m ade by th e in v e s tig a to r and may c o n s titu te a b ia s e d sam p le. 5. The in v e s tig a tio n of th e v a lid ity o f a s tro lo g ic a l p rin c ip le s w as co n fin ed to th e a stro lo g ic a l id e n tific a tio n of a lc o h o lic s . 6. The c lin ic ia n s who in te rp re te d th e MMPI p ro file s m ay not provide a re p re se n ta tiv e a n d /o r a d eq u a te sam ple of th e a b ilitie s of c lin ic ia n s in g e n e ra l. O rg an izatio n of th e R em ainder of th e Study C hapter II w ill p re se n t a rev iew of s e le c te d lite ra tu re and previous re s e a rc h re la te d to th is stu d y . C h ap ter III w ill p re se n t a d e sc rip tio n of th e sam p le, th e d esig n and procedure of th e stu d y , th e in stru m e n ts s e le c te d , and th e s ta tis tic a l trea tm e n t of th e d a ta . C hapter X V w ill p re se n t a d e sc rip tio n of th e fin d in g s of th e stu d y 13 and a d is c u s s io n of th e r e s u lts . C h ap ter V w ill p re se n t a sum m ary of th e fin d in g s, c o n c lu sio n s, and recom m endations for further stu d y . CHAPTER II SELECTED REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE This c h a p te r w ill p re se n t a rev ie w of th e lite ra tu re a s follow s: Part One w ill c o n ta in a b rie f rev iew of th e developm ent of a stro lo g y and b a s ic a s tro lo g ic a l p rin c ip le s. Part Two w ill p re se n t a rev iew of lite r a tu re p ertain in g to a stro lo g ic a l re s e a rc h and a p p lic a tio n . Part Three w ill re fle c t th e a s tro lo g ic a l v iew of m a n 's p sy c h o lo g ic a l fu nctioning in term s of free w ill v e rs u s d eterm in ism . The pu rp o se of th is se c tio n is to c re a te a fram ew ork for th e ro le o f a stro lo g y w ithin a c o u n selin g m odality. Part Four w ill p re se n t a g e n e ra l ov erv iew of th e o rie s of alco h o lism in order to provide a c o n te x tu a l background for th e re s e a rc h on alco h o lism in th is stu d y . Part Five w ill d is c u s s th e u s e of th e MMPI a s a d ia g n o stic m easu re of a lc o h o lism . Part 1 : The D evelopm ent o f A strology and B asic T enets of N a tal H oroscope In te rp re ta tio n . M odern a stro lo g y in th e w e ste rn w orld is d eriv ed from th e system d ev elo p ed in th e a n c ie n t B abylonian em pire around 3000 B .C . C lay ta b le ts w ith a s tro lo g ic a l a d v ic e h ave b e e n d isc o v ere d a t e x c a v a tio n s ite s n e a r B abylon. M odified a s tro lo g ic a l sy ste m s w ere u tiliz e d in th e e a rly E gyptian, G reek, and Roman s o c ie tie s to p red ict and e x p lain both p h y sic a l e v en ts and hum an d e s tin ie s . A strology w as condem ned 14 I 15 ' I i 1 j by th e C hurch in th e M iddle A ges and b eg an to flo u rish ag ain during j th e R e n a issa n c e . It alm o st d isa p p e a re d w ith th e a d v a n c e of sc ie n c e , in th e n in e te e n th cen tu ry b u t b eg an to re c e iv e ren ew ed a tte n tio n in th e i ! tw e n tie th c en tu ry . W ith th e e sta b lish m e n t of tw o a stro lo g y m ag azin es I in 19 32 (D estiny and A m erican A strology) th e public becam e in c re a s in g ly aw are of th e fie ld of a stro lo g y (Tobey, 1965). A lthough th e re have b een I I j num erous c h a n g e s and refin em en ts in a stro lo g y throughout th e a g e s, I I i th e T e tra b ib lo s, com piled by Ptolem y in th e seco n d c en tu ry A .D ., c o n tin u e s to be a so u rce book of tra d itio n a l a stro lo g ic a l p rin c ip le s 1 I | for th e m odern a stro lo g e r. i I There a re an e stim a te d 10, 000 a stro lo g e rs in th e U nited S ta te s , to d a y . A lthough m any hold no c e rtific a tio n , o th ers a re lic e n s e d b y th e , A m erican F ed eratio n of A stro lo g ers or b y v a rio u s c h u rc h -a ffilia te d o rg a n iz a tio n s. In o rder to p ra c tic e a s a p ro fe s sio n a l, m any a stro lo g e rs a re ordained m in is te rs . The p rin c ip le s of n a ta l ch art in te rp re ta tio n a re b a s e d on very com plex m ath em atical c a lc u la tio n s . A sim p lified v e rsio n of th e b a s ic e lem en ts of a stro lo g ic a l in te rp re ta tio n is offered h ere to provide a g e n eral p ictu re of th e p ro c e ss of n a ta l c h art in te rp re ta tio n . The sig n s and nam es of th e zo d ia c w ere e s ta b lis h e d in a n c ie n t tim e s, b a s e d on 12 groups of s ta rs se en in th e sky w hich resem b led an im als or fig u re s. T hese sig n s o f th e z o d ia c —A ries, T aurus, G em ini, C an cer, Leo, Virgo, Libra , S corpio, S a g itta riu s , C apricorn, A quarius, i 16 ! ! i i and P is c e s — a re w idely know n to d a y (E scobar, 197 2). B a sic a lly , an | i j a stro lo g e r c o n stru c ts a n a ta l c h a rt b a se d on th e re la tio n of th e z o d ia c a l ! sig n s and th e su n , m oon, M ercury, V enus, M a rs, Ju p iter, S aturn, l ! ! U ran u s, N ep tu n e, and Pluto a t th e tim e of an in d iv id u a l's b irth . The i ; in n er c irc le of a n a ta l c h a rt i s d iv id ed in to 12 " h o u s e s ," e a c h of w hich j d e p ic ts a c e rta in a s p e c t of life , su ch a s se x , d e a th , or m oney. The | o u ter c irc le of th e c h a rt c o n ta in s th e p o sitio n s of th e su n , m oon, and ■ p la n e ts a t th e tim e of b irth . In te rp re ta tio n of th e m eaning of a ll th e s e | fa c to rs is b a s e d on a v a s t array of m ath em atical p rin c ip le s w hich h ave I ! ' b e en a sc rib e d a stro lo g ic a l s ig n ific a n c e over th e y e a rs . Part 2: L iteratu re P ertaining to A stro lo g ical R esearch A stro lo g ical re s e a rc h h a s b een c h a ra c te riz e d by in a d e q u a te ex p erim en tal d e s ig n . The n atu re of a s tro lo g ic a l d ata m akes it d iffic u lt to co n tro l for in terv en in g v a ria b le s . M any a s tro lo g ic a l p rin c ip le s a re , in fa c t, e m p iric a lly b a se d b u t few h av e b een su b je c te d to te s ts of s ta tis tic a l sig n ific a n c e . In th e la s t d e c a d e , effo rts h av e b e en m ade to o b tain s ta tis tic a l v e rific a tio n of a stro lo g ic a l fin d in g s. Early S tu d ies ! One of th e firs t and m ost w idely re s p e c te d th e o re tic ia n s in the , fie ld of p sy ch o lo g y to in v e s tig a te a stro lo g y w as C .G . Jung. Jung t c o n su lte d a stro lo g ic a l c h a rts of som e of h is p a tie n ts for th e purpose of 1 c a lling a tte n tio n to c e rta in pers o n a lity a ttrib u te s (Tim e, M arch 21,1969). In 19 30 Jung a d v an c ed h is th eo ry of sy n c h ro n ic ity , w hich he d ev elo p ed to ex p lain th e o p e ra tiv e pow ers of th e I C hing (Jung, 197 3). The th eo ry of sy n c h ro n icity d isc la im s a c a u s e -e ffe c t p rin cip le and su b m its th e h y p o th e sis th a t a t any giv en m om ent, e v e n ts in th e u n iv erse p a rtic ip a te through th a t m oment w ith o th er e v e n ts th a t sh a re th e sam e u n it of tim e . Or, a s Jung s ta te d : S y n chronicity th ere fo re m eans th e sim u l ta n e o u s o ccu rren ce of a c e rta in p sy c h ic s ta te w ith one or more e x te rn a l e v e n ts w hich a p p e a rs a s m eaningful p a ra lle ls to th e m om entary su b je c tiv e s ta te — and in c e rta in c a s e s , v ic e - v e r s a . (197 3, P. 25) It w as Ju n g 's co n te n tio n th a t a stro lo g y w as an a p p ro p riate are a in w hich to t e s t h is th eo ry of sy n c h ro n ic ity . Jung co n d u cted a m a ssiv e a stro lo g ic a l experim ent in w hich h e com pared th e c o in c id e n t a s tro lo g i c a l a s p e c ts in c h a rts of m arried c o u p le s to a s p e c ts in c h a rts of unm ar rie d c o u p le s. In a p ilo t stu d y of 180 m arried c o u p le s, and in a su b se q u en t stu d y of an a d d itio n a l 2 20 m arried c o u p le s, Jung fa ile d to find s ta tis tic a l sig n ific a n c e in th e ratio of m utual re la tio n s h ip s of th e Sun, M oon, and A scen d en t among m arried c o u p le s. H ow ever, h is re s u lts did c o rresp o n d w ith a s tro lo g ic a l e x p e c ta tio n s of th e re la tio n s h ip b etw een Sun, M oon, and A scendent c o n ju n c tio n s and Jung fe lt h is experim ent g av e som e c re d en c e to a stro lo g y . In sum m arizing h is re s u lts he concluded: 18 : It is nothing b u t a c h a n c e re s u lt from th e s ta tis tic a l point of v iew , yet it is m eaningful on acco u n t of ' i th e fa c t th a t it lo o k s a s if it I v a lid a te d th is e x p e c ta tio n . It is i ju s t w hat I c a ll a sy n c h ro n istic | phenom enon. (197 3, p. 61) i i Ju n g 's stu d y h a s b e en c ritic iz e d a s a n a iv e an d elem en tary attem p t to v erify a s tro lo g ic a l p rin c ip le s (W est & T oonder, 197 3). W est l and Toonder point o u t, among o th er o b je c tio n s, th a t h e fa ile d to co n sid e r th e m utual re la tio n s h ip s b etw een M ars and V enus, th e p la n e ts c o n sid e re d to in flu e n c e m a le -fe m a le a ttra c tio n . N e v e rth e le s s , Ju n g 's ! ! i experim ent h e lp e d to la y th e groundw ork for future s ta tis tic a l a s tro lo g i- j c a l s tu d ie s and for th e p rem ise th a t a stro lo g y did n ot n e c e s s a rily o p e ra te w ithin th e realm of c a u s e and e ffe c t. An A m erican p ro fe sso r, P. R. Farnsw orth (1939) c o n d u cted an ! a stro lo g ic a l experim ent in w hich he exam ined th e b irth d a te s of 2, 000 fam ous a rtis ts and p a in te rs . From an a stro lo g ic a l v iew p o in t, a rtis tic a b ility is g e n e ra lly lin k e d to V enus, and Venus ru le s th e sig n of L ibra. Farnsw orth re a so n e d th a t ch ild ren bom w ith Libra in th e a s c e n d e n t I w ould h av e su p erio r a rtis tic a b ilitie s . H is r e s u lts , how ever, re v e a le d ; th a t Libra w as not any more prom inent in th e sig n s of m u sic ia n s and p a in te rs th a n any o th er sig n . C ritic s of F a rn sw o rth 's stu d ie s charge I th a t Farnsw orth w as on th e wrong a s tro lo g ic a l tra c k ; he should have in v e s tig a te d th e a p p ea ra n c e of Venus in th e h o u s e s , a s p e c ts and a n g le s i ; of th e c h a rt, in a d d itio n to in v e s tig a tin g th e ro le of th e p la n e t N eptune 19 (M an o lesco , 1973; W est & T oonder, 1973). A lthough th e s e c ritic s w ere w illing to le v e l c h arg es a g a in st th e v a lid ity of th e stu d y , th e y h ave not attem p ted to re p lic a te th e stu d y w ith th e n e c e s s a ry c o rre c tio n s. The E xperim ents of M ich el G auquelin M ich el G auquelin (197 0), a French s ta tis tic ia n , p h ilo so p h er, an d w riter, co n d u cted som e of th e m ost w ell-k n o w n ex p erim en ts in a s tr o l ogy. G au q u elin , who is not an a stro lo g e r by p ro fessio n and who e x p re s s e s g rea t d isd a in for tra d itio n a l a s tro lo g ic a l c la im s, began h is in v e s tig a tio n s in 1950 in an effort to prove th a t a stro lo g y w as nothing more th an a c o lle c tio n of m yths a t b e s t. Throughout th e 1950's and 1960's G a u q u e lin 's stu d ie s re v e a le d sta rtlin g y e t in e x p lic a b le r e s u lts . H is firs t experim ent fo cu sed on an a n a ly s is of th e b irth c h a rts of 576 prom inent French p h y s ic ia n s . He d isc o v e re d th a t th e s e c h a rts c o n s is te n tly show ed M ars or Saturn risin g or a t th e z e n ith a t th e tim e of th e p h y s ic ia n s ' b irth s . He re p e a te d th e stu d y w ith an a d d itio n a l 508 em inent p h y sic ia n s and o b tain ed sim ilar r e s u l t s . This M a rs/S a tu rn e ffe c t, by co m p ariso n , w as d istrib u te d among th e b irth c h a rts of ordinary p e rso n s in a random fa sh io n . G au q u elin th en a n a ly z e d b irth c h a rts of 2 5 ,0 0 0 c e le b ritie s in F ran ce, G erm any, Ita ly , Belgium , and H o llan d . In th is in s ta n c e he d isc o v e re d th a t th e freq u en cy of Jupiter risin g or a t its z en ith in th e b irth c h a rt far e x c e e d e d c h a n c e e x p e c ta tio n s . ! In an effort to e x p lain h is fin d in g s, G au q u elin p o site d a th eo ry j | of p lan e ta ry h e re d ita ry . He d eterm ined th a t a c h ild in h e rite d a c e rta in i : ! c o n stitu tio n from h is p a re n ts, and th e s ta r s , som ehow , a c te d a s a I i re le a s e r of b irth . The c h ild m ight h av e a d isp o s itio n to com e in to th e w orld under c e rta in | co sm ic c o n d itio n s w hich co rresp o n d I to h is b io lo g ic a l c o n s titu tio n . In a ! w ay, th e ch ild would be w aiting for ! th e rig h t tim e to be born, and th is ■ moment w ould m erely b e an in d ic a tio n of h is m ak e -u p . (197 0, p. 166) i In order to support th is th e s is , G au q u elin m atched th e b irth I : c h a rts of 15, 000 p a re n ts w ith th o se of th e ir c h ild re n . R e su lts in d ic a te d i a strong c o rre la tio n b etw een th e b irth sky of p a re n ts and th a t of th e ir c h ild re n . The p ro b ab ility of such an o c cu rren ce is one in 500, 000. G auquelin co n clu d ed th a t th e s e fin d in g s su p p o rted h is b e lie f th a t c h il dren in h e rite d a c e rta in c o n stitu tio n from th e ir p a re n ts, w hich w as th en sim ply sig n ifie d by th e p o sitio n of c e rta in p la n e ts a t b irth . He in s is te d th a t h is re s u lts did not su g g e st th a t th e s ta rs a c tu a lly in flu e n ce d th e future p ro fe ssio n s of h is s u b je c ts . G a u q u e lin 's th eo ry of p la n e ta ry h e re d ity i s sim ila r to Ju n g 's ; prem ise th a t a stro lo g y may be an exam ple of sy n c h ro n ic ity . Both su g - i g e s t th e sta rs do n o t c a u s e e v e n ts , but th a t th e ir c o n fig u ratio n a t b irth m ay have som e m eaning for th e in d iv id u a l. The th e o rie s of p lan e ta ry h e re d ity and of sy n c h ro n icity are both a b s tra c t and le a v e m any q u e s tio n s u n a n sw e red . Proponents of a stro lo g y (M an o lesco , 197 3; W est & j Toonder, 197 3) co n ten d th a t G a u q u e lin 's fin d in g s sup p o rt tra d itio n a l j j a stro lo g y and th a t h is rea so n in g ab o u t th e sig n ific a n c e of h is re s u lts I ! w as due to h is u n w illin g n e ss to le t any e v id e n ce p e rsu ad e him th a t i I 1 a stro lo g y w as v a lid . At th e v ery l e a s t, G a u q u e lin 's ex p erim en ts su g g e s t th a t th e re m ay be som e co n n ec tio n b etw een co sm ic and hum an j e v e n ts . i i i ! A stro lo g ical S tu d ies on P e rso n a lity D iso rd ers | A strologers h ave sp e n t y e ars c o lle c tin g a s tro lo g ic a l d a ta comm on ly found in th e n a ta l c h a rts of p e rso n s w ith v a rio u s p e rso n a lity d is orders or d iffic u ltie s . This inform ation g e n e ra lly e x is ts a s a c a ta lo g u e of a s tro lo g ic a l c h a ra c te r tr a its and h as ra re ly b e en su b je c te d to te s ts ■ of sig n ific a n c e or u tility , such a s w hether th e n a ta l ch art c an be u se d e ffe c tiv e ly a s a d ia g n o stic or p red ic tiv e in stru m e n t. The a s tro lo g ic a l c o n fig u ratio n s su g g e stin g a lco h o lism have b een enum erated by se v e ra l a stro lo g e rs (G arrison, 1971; Jansky, 1973). G arrison l i s t s th e a s tro lo g ic a l a ttrib u te s of alco h o lism w ith som e c o n v ic tio n , w h ereas Jan sk y c a u tio n s th a t although th e re are c le a r in d ic a - | tio n s of alco h o lism in th e n a ta l c h a rt, further in v e s tig a tio n is n e c e s s a ry before reach in g d e fin itiv e c o n c lu s io n s . The a ttrib u te s lis te d by th e s e : a stro lo g e rs a re d eriv ed from th e ir own em pirical o b se rv a tio n s and th o se ! of o th er a stro lo g e rs of th e n a ta l c h a rts of a lc o h o lic s . The a stro lo g ic a l 22 ' j in flu e n c e s are lis te d here sin c e th e y a re d ire c tly re la te d to th e p re se n t ■ i study: i I a) 9 d e g re es and 25 d e g re e s of Fixed sig n s b) 11 d e g re e s o f C ard in al sig n s c) N eptune ill- a s p e c te d an d te n a n tin g th e Sixth H ouse p re d is p o se s th e n a tiv e to both a lc o h o l and drug a d d ic tio n d) A prom inent and a fflic te d S aturn in th e Fifth H ouse (e s p e c ia lly if ill- a s p e c te d by N eptune in P isc e s) in c lin e s th e su b je c t to s e c re t in d u lgence e) The a d d itio n a l fac to r of sev ere a fflic tio n to one or both of th e L um inaries i s a ls o n e c e s s a ry to produce a problem d rin k er. (G arrison, 1971, pp. 190-192) G a rris o n 's l i s t of th e a s tro lo g ic a l a ttrib u te s of alco h o lism i s not in c lu s iv e . M any o th er fa c to rs in th e n a ta l c h art may be c o n sid e re d for a d ia g n o sis of a lc o h o lism . The lite ra tu re , how ever, does not re fle c t any ex p erim en tal s tu d ie s d e sig n e d to t e s t th e a b ility of a stro lo g e rs to id e n tify a lc o h o lic s from a n a ta l c h a rt w ithout prior know ledge of w hether an in d iv id u a l is an a lc o h o lic . In a book e n title d A stro p sy c h ia try , D arling and O liver (197 3) have b len d ed th e ir e x p e rtise a s p s y c h ia tris t and a stro lo g e r re s p e c tiv e ly in order to d e lin e a te th e a s tro lo g ic a l c h a ra c te ris tic s of se v e ra l p e rso n a lity d iso rd e rs . In an a n a ly s is of e le v e n c a s e s of su ic id e , th e au th o rs 23 d e p ic t th e a stro lo g ic a l com m onalities p re se n t in th e b irth c h a rts of j i th e ir s u b je c ts . G arriso n (1971) and Jan sk y (197 3) p re se n t sim ilar j i a stro lo g ic a l d ata for su ic id a l s u b je c ts . An a n a ly s is of th e c h a rts of j six m ale m urderers show ed th a t a ll had n a ta l p la n e ts a fflic te d by m id- ! p o in ts of M a rs/S a tu rn , M a rs/U ra n u s, or M a rs/N e p tu n e (D arling & | O liver, 197 3). In a stu d y of h o m o sex u ality , D arling and O liver (197 3) w ere a b le to c o rre c tly d istin g u is h 2 3 h o m o sex u als from 2 3 h e te ro - i se x u a ls on th e b a s is of an in te rp re ta tio n of th e ir n a ta l c h a rts .* J The s tu d ie s by D arling and O liv er do not provide su ffic ie n t | I j e v id e n ce for a re la tio n s h ip b etw een a s tro lo g ic a l in flu e n c e s a t b irth and j su b seq u e n t p e rso n a lity d is o rd e rs . There is no in d ic a tio n , for in s ta n c e , j of w hether or not c e rta in a s tro lo g ic a l fa c to rs e x is t only, or prim arily, ! in th e c h a rts of m urderers and su ic id a l p e rso n s. The study involving a stro lo g ic a l d iffe re n tia tio n of h o m o sex u als and h e te ro se x u a ls show s more prom ise for a p o s s ib le re la tio n s h ip , b u t th e fa c t th a t only one a stro lo g e r w as re s p o n sib le for th e d eterm in atio n r a is e s th e q u e stio n of w hether or not th is experim ent co u ld b e s u c c e s s fu lly re p lic a te d by j oth er a s tro lo g e rs . * T his w riter d o e s not c o n sid e r h o m o sex u ality per se to be in d ic a tiv e of a p e rso n a lity d iso rd e r. The exam ple is given h ere sin c e D arling and O liv er in c lu d e d it, along w ith v io le n c e and d e p re ss io n , in th e ir overview of th e a stro lo g ic a l d e lin e a tio n of p sy c h ia tric d iso rd e rs . 24 i i The E xperim ents of Vernon C lark R eports of ex p erim en tal in v e s tig a tio n s of th e a b ility of astro lo g ers! to id e n tify p e rso n a l, s o c ia l, or p h y sic a l tr a its of in d iv id u a ls from a n a ta l c h art are in d e e d s c a r c e . Three s tu d ie s done by Vernon C lark (1960), an Am erican p sy c h o lo g is t, re p re se n t th e only c o n tro lle d e x p e ri m ents of th is ty p e rep o rted in th e lite ra tu re . In h is firs t experim ent tw en ty a stro lo g e rs w ere a sk e d to m atch te n n a ta l c h a rts w ith te n c a s e h is to rie s d e scrib in g o c c u p a tio n s of th e s u b je c ts . A co n tro l group of tw en ty p sy c h o lo g ists and so c ia l w orkers who p o s s e s s e d no a s tro lo g ic a l know ledge w ere g iv en th e sam e ta s k u sin g id e n tic a l m a te ria ls . It w as p red icted th a t th e a s tro lo g e rs ' a b ility to c o rre c tly m atch n a ta l c h a rts and o c c u p a tio n s w ould be sig n ific a n t a t a le v e l ex ceed in g c h a n c e . R esu lts show ed th a t th e perform ance of th e a stro lo g e rs a s a group w as sig n ific a n t in th e p red ic te d d ire c tio n (p = < . 01). The m ean of th e o v e ra ll perform ance of th e co n tro l group, how ever, w as alm o st e x a c tly a t a ch an c e le v e l. C la rk 's se co n d experim ent in v o lv ed p resen tin g tw enty a stro lo g e rs w ith 10 p airs of n a ta l c h a rts . Each p air c o n ta in e d one c h a rt of an a c tu a l su b je c t and one c h a rt e re c te d on th e b a s is of a b irth d a te c h o se n a t random . A strologers w ere g iv en a h isto ry of th e im portant e v e n ts in th e a c tu a l s u b je c ts ' liv e s and w ere to ld th a t th e com panion c h art in each p air b elo n g ed to a p erso n of th e sam e se x , ab o u t th e sam e a g e , and born in th e sam e p lac e a s th e su b je c t, but w hose life p attern had b een d ifferen t from th e one d e sc rib e d in th e c a s e h is to ry . A strologers w ere a sk e d to id e n tify th e c h art in e a c h p air w hich re fle c te d th e life e v e n ts d e sc rib e d in th e c a s e h isto ry . The perform ance of th e a stro lo g e rs in m aking c o rre c t id e n tific a tio n s re s u lte d in a high le v e l of sig n ific a n c e (p = ^ .001). A breakdow n of in d iv id u a l perform ances show ed th a t eig h tee n a stro lo g e rs sco red above c h a n c e and tw o sco red a t a le v e l eq u al to c h a n c e . Three of th e e ig h te e n a c h ie v e d p erfect s c o re s . In th e fin al experim ent th irty a stro lo g e rs w ere giv en te n p airs of n a ta l c h a rts . O ne ch art in e ac h p air b elo n g ed to a person who w as h an d icap p ed from b irth w ith c e re b ra l p a ls y . The o th e r c h art belonged i to a perso n of su p erio r in te llig e n c e who had n ev er su ffered any se rio u s i lln e s s . A stro lo g ers w ere a sk e d to id e n tify th e c h a rt in e ac h p air belonging to th e person w ith c e re b ra l p a ls y . R esu lts w ere ag ain s ig n ific a n t (p = ^ . 01) in th e p red ic te d d ire c tio n of c o rre c t id e n tific a tio n . C lark co n clu d ed th a t th e re s u lts of h is ex p erim en ts in ferred th a t such a th in g a s an a s tro lo g ic a l te c h n iq u e d o es e x is t and w as w orthy of further re s e a rc h . C la rk 's d a ta su g g e sts th a t th e a stro lo g e rs in h is stu d ie s w ere a b le to m ake b e tte r th an c h a n c e id e n tific a tio n s of p erso n al and p h y sic a l a ttrib u te s of p e rso n s on th e b a s is of an in te rp re ta tio n of n a ta l c h a rts . Although th e m ajo rity of h is a stro lo g e rs perform ed a t a le v e l ex ceed in g c h a n c e , th e d a ta show s th a t sc o re s of a s tro lo g e rs ' perform ance ran g e from slig h tly above c h an c e to v ery sig n ific a n tly above c h a n c e . C lark a ttrib u te d th is to th e p rin cip le of a norm al d istrib u tio n of s k ills among a s tro lo g e rs , i . e . , som e are more sk ille d a t n a ta l c h a rt in te rp re ta tio n th a n o th e rs . A lthough th is m ay be a re a so n a b le a ssu m p tio n , it d o es not provide a s a tis fa c to ry e x p la n a tio n of th e v a ria b le s in v o lv e d in a stro lo g ic a l in te rp re ta tio n . A stro lo g ers w ith more y e ars of e x p e rie n c e , for in s ta n c e , did not perform sig n ific a n tly b e tte r th a n th o se w ith few er y e a rs of ex p erien c e (C lark, 1960), th u s elim in atin g th is fac to r a s a re a so n for d ifferen c e s in s c o re s . Since C la rk 's stu d ie s have not b een re p lic a te d it is d iffic u lt to determ ine th e re lia b ility o f h is re s e a rc h m ethod. H is r e s u lts , th e re fo re , m ust be in te rp re te d in a c a u tio u s m anner. In v e s tig a tio n s of N o n -A stro lo g ical P rin cip les A pplied to A strology It h a s b e en su g g e ste d th a t th e p e rc eiv e d re la tio n sh ip b etw een n a ta l a stro lo g y and an in d iv id u a l's a c tu a l life c irc u m sta n c e s m ay be due to a ten d e n c y for peo p le to b e lie v e w hat th e y w ant to b e lie v e or to a stro lo g e rs te llin g people w hat th e y w ant to be to ld (S ech rest & Bryan, 1968; Snyder, 197 4). A strologers have o ften a c c e p te d a c lie n t's corro b o ratio n of an a s tro lo g ic a l d e sc rip tio n of h is /h e r p e rso n a lity a s v e rific a tio n of th e a s tro lo g ic a l m ethod. A stu d y by Snyder (197 4) in d ic a te s th a t an in d iv i d u a l's ag reem en t w ith h is /h e r c h a rt d e sc rip tio n is not s a tis fa c to ry proof of th e v a lid ity of a stro lo g y . Snyder random ly a s s ig n e d tw e n ty - one fem ale c o lle g e stu d e n ts to th re e ex p erim en tal c o n d itio n s in w hich th e y w ere to ld th a t th e n a ta l ch art in te rp re ta tio n th e y re c e iv e d w as 1) "G en erally tru e of p eo p le, " 2) d eriv ed for them acco rd in g to th e y e ar and m onth of th e ir b irth , or 3) d eriv ed for them a cco rd in g to th e y ear, m onth, and day of th e ir b irth . All s u b je c ts w ere g iv e n an id e n tic a lly w ritten h o ro sc o p e . R esu lts show ed th a t maximum a c c e p ta n c e of th e a stro lo g ic a l in te rp re ta tio n occu rred in s u b je c ts who w ere to ld th a t th e h o ro sco p e w as s p e c ific a lly m ade for th em . The p re d ic te d order of a c c e p ta n c e of a c c u ra c y (y ea r-m o n th -d a y h ig h e s t, y ear-m onth seco n d h ig h e s t, an d "g e n e ra lly tru e of p eople" lo w e st) w as hig h ly sig n ific a n t (p = < . 0001). Snyder co n clu d ed th a t a c c e p ta n c e of th e a c c u ra c y of a stro lo g ic a l in te rp re ta tio n s is d eriv ed from s itu a tio n a l fa c to rs rath e r th an from an a c tu a l re la tio n s h ip b etw een n a ta l a stro lo g y and o n e 's o b se rv ed p e rs o n a lity . A nother stu d y by S e c h re st and Bryan (1968) s u g g e s ts th a t a s tr o l o g ers m ay m ake in te rp re ta tio n s on th e b a s is of p e rc eiv e d c lie n t e x p e c ta tio n s . In th e ir stu d y , e ig h te e n a stro lo g e rs who a d v e rtis e d providing m arital a d v ic e by m ail w ere se n t tw o of th re e le tte r s , pur p ortedly from c o u p le s seek in g a d v ic e a s to w h eth er or not th e y sho u ld g et m arried . The firs t le tte r (neutral) c o n ta in e d only th e b irth d ata of th e tw o p e o p le . The seco n d le tte r (p o sitiv e) ad d ed a sta te m e n t about how w ell th e c o u p le g ot along to g e th e r. The th ird le tte r (negative) a d d e d a s tatem en t th a t a lth o ugh t he co u p le w as in lo v e , th e y had ! m any arg u m en ts. Each a stro lo g e r re c e iv e d one n e u tra l and one sla n te d le tte r . It ap p ea re d th a t m any a stro lo g e rs w ere in flu e n c e d b y th e sla n t I | of th e le tte r . The n e u tra l le tte r s e lic ite d eig h t fa v o ra b le , six q u a lifie d , t : and th re e u n fav o rab le re s p o n s e s for m arriag e. The e ig h t p o sitiv e I j j le tte r s e lic ite d six fa v o ra b le , one q u a lifie d , and one un fav o rab le re s p o n s e s . The e ig h t n e g a tiv e le tte r s e lic ite d one fav o ra b le, five i q u a lifie d , and tw o u n fav o rab le re s p o n s e s . i The S e c h re st and Bryan stu d y did not attem p t to in su re th a t th e a stro lo g e rs w ere b o n afid e or a t le a s t com petent p ro fe s s io n a ls . It may I be th a t som e a stro lo g e rs who s o lic it c lie n ts by a d v e rtisin g m ail order m arital a d v ic e a ssu m e th a t p ro sp e c tiv e c o u p le s w ish to re c e iv e a t le a s t p a rtia lly encouraging new s about th e ir p la n s . O nly th re e of th e e ig h te e n a stro lo g e rs , for in s ta n c e , g av e n e g a tiv e re p lie s to th e n e u tra l le tte r . C o n sid e ratio n sh o u ld b e g iv en to th e p o s s ib ility th a t som e a stro lo g e rs who offer th is ty p e of se rv ic e m ay be more co n cern ed w ith p ro fitab le com m ercial e n te rp ris e th a n w ith providing c an d id a stro lo g ic a l in te rp re ta tio n s . Summary S tu d ies p ertain in g to a s tro lo g ic a l ex p erim en tatio n have b een lim ite d in sco p e and re s e a rc h d e sig n . E arlier stu d ie s (Farnsw orth, 19 39; Jung, 197 3) did n ot provide s ta tis tic a lly sig n ific a n t support for a re la tio n s h ip b etw een a stro lo g y and hum an e v en ts or c h a ra c te ris tic s . 29 O ther stu d ie s id en tify in g a re la tio n sh ip b e tw ee n p e rso n a lity d iso rd e rs , and a stro lo g y a re te n u o u s due to in a d e q u a te re s e a rc h d e sig n (D arling j & O liv er, 1973; G a rriso n , 1971; Jan sk y , 197 3). R esu lts of se v e ra l ! s tu d ie s , how ever, su g g e st th e p o s s ib ility of a re la tio n s h ip b etw een a stro lo g ic a l in flu e n c e s and a p e rs o n 's life s itu a tio n (C lark, 1960; i : G au q u elin , 197 0). i In sp ite of th e la c k of d e fin itiv e re s e a rc h , th e p ra c tic e of a s tr o l- | qgy c o n tin u e s to flo u rish and is g ain in g in c re a s e d re c o g n itio n from i | p ro fe ssio n a ls in aca d em ic fie ld s (D obyns, 197 0; Los A ngeles T im e s. | January 15, 1975). Future re s e a rc h w hich a tte m p ts to c la rify th e I re la tio n sh ip b e tw ee n a stro lo g y and hum an life m ust provide ev id en ce ; w hich is supported by rig id s ta tis tic a l a n a ly s is . ! ' Part 3: The Role of A strology in C o u n selin g : Free W ill Vs. D eterm inism I i | If a stro lo g y is to h av e a ro le in c o u n selin g and p sy c h o th era p y , it is im portant to c o n sid e r th e a stro lo g ic a l v iew p o in ts reg ard in g th e n atu re i of m an. The c o u n s e lo r's b e lie f ab o u t th e n a tu re of m an a ffe c ts h is /h e r ! approach and e x p e c ta tio n s in th e th e ra p e u tic p ro c e s s . A b a s ic is s u e i 1 in th e a p p lic a tio n of a stro lo g y to p sy ch o th erap y is th a t of free w ill t j v e rsu s d eterm in ism . j W ithin th e fie ld of p sy ch o lo g y th e re is a w ide range of b e lie fs 1 p ertain in g to m an 's c o n d itio n a s a free or d eterm ined b e in g . The j b e h a v io ris tic m odel h o ld s th a t man is re g u la te d by e x te rn al co n tro ls and re sp o n d s to th e s e c o n tro ls in a m a c h in e -lik e m anner. D ia m e tric ally o p p o sed to th is p o sitio n is th e e x is te n tia l m odel, w hich p resu m es man i s to ta lly free ; th a t h is a c tio n s are n o t determ ined by e x te rn a l fa c to rs I and h e is fu lly re s p o n sib le for a ll c h o ic e s he m a k e s. ] I One a s p e c t of th e is s u e of free w ill v e rs u s determ inism in v o lv e s | I th e q u e stio n of w hether m an i s in h e re n tly good or e v il. B e h av io rists and e x is te n tia lis ts do n ot b e lie v e man p o s s e s s e s a n in h e re n t in c lin a tio n tow ard good or e v il. The F reudian s ta n c e i s p re d ic a te d on th e i i b e lie f th a t m an i s a v ictim of irra tio n a l and a g g re s s iv e in s tin c tu a l ! im p u lse s w hich he m u st c o n tin u a lly stru g g le a g a in s t in order to av o id | bein g overw helm ed by d e stru c tiv e in s tin c tu a l fo rc e s. A th ird m odel is j re fle c te d in th e h u m an istic p sy ch o lo g y of M aslo w , R ogers, and o th e rs . ' i M aslo w re g a rd s m a n 's in h e re n t n a tu re a s b a s ic a lly good, p o s s e s s in g j an in n a te te n d e n c y tow ard grow th and s e lf-a c tu a liz a tio n (M aslow , 1954). Rogers (1951) a ls o e x p re s s e s fa ith in m a n 's b a s ic te n d e n c y to en h an ce and a c tu a liz e h im se lf. He sa y s th a t th e in d iv id u a l "h as th e c a p a c ity to d e al c o n stru c tiv e ly w ith a ll a s p e c ts of h is life w hich can p o te n tia lly i com e in to h is c o n sc io u s a w a re n e s s ." (1951, p . 133) i i In its tra d itio n a l form a stro lo g y in co rp o ra te d an e v e n t-o rie n te d j I ap p ro ach w hich assu m ed th a t th e s ta rs and p la n e ts e x erted th e ir in flu e n c e over man and c a u se d e v e n ts to occu r (M eyer, 197 4). U n d er- j lying th is ap p ro ach is th e b e lie f th a t man m ust stru g g le to free h im se lf from v a rio u s m alev o len t e ffe c ts of th e s ta r s . In c o u n se lin g and p sy c h o - 31 th e ra p y th is o rie n ta tio n to a stro lo g y w ould b e sim ila r to th e F reudian m odel. If th e in d iv id u a l co u ld be m ade aw are of how a s tro lo g ic a l in flu e n c e s determ ined th e n e g a tiv e a s p e c ts of h is life he m ight, through j th is in s ig h t, follow a c o u rse of a c tio n d e sig n ed to overcom e n e g a tiv e or th re a te n in g a s tro lo g ic a l fa c to rs . The e v e n t-c e n te re d ap p ro ach to j a stro lo g y i s e s s e n tia lly d e te rm in istic ; m an 's prim ary m ode of changing j i h is c irc u m sta n c e s is to a v o id or th w a rt th e n e g a tiv e in flu e n c e s and to c u ltiv a te and c a p ita liz e on th e p o sitiv e in flu e n c e s . | Ju n g 's v iew of a stro lo g y a s an a c a u s a l phenom enon c o n trib u te d j to th e b e lie f of som e fu tu re a stro lo g e rs th a t th e p o sitio n of th e s ta rs j did not n e c e s s a rily c a u s e m en to b e h av e in a f a ta lis tic w ay (Tobey, : 1965). In th e e a rly 1950's a stro lo g e r Furze M orrish sub m itted th e ‘ i opinion th a t th e b irth c h a rt " in d ic a te s th e p o te n tia litie s in h ere n t in a i g iv en m oment of tim e, and it d ep en d s on th e c a p a c ity of th e e n tity c o n cern ed to w hat e x te n t th e p o te n tia litie s w ill be a c tu a liz e d . " (1952, p. 282) j M o rrish 's p o sitio n h a s sin c e b een ex p an d ed in to a h u m a n istic , 1 ! p e rs o n -c e n te re d ap p ro ach to a stro lo g y . P roponents of th is ap proach i (M eyer, 197 4; Rudhyar, 197 2) c o n sid e r it to be an a stro lo g ic a l p a ra lle l , I to th e "Third force" p sy ch o lo g y of M aslo w , R ogers, and o th e rs . Rudhyar b e lie v e s th e b irth c h a rt c an be u se d in a c o n sc io u s w ay to prom ote th e p ro c e ss of in d iv id u a tio n . He s ta te s : 32 The b irth ch art is a s e t of in s tr u c tio n s . I re p e a t th a t its e s s e n tia l m e a n in g .lie s NOT in giving you an a n a ly tic a l diagram of w hat your c h a ra c te r and o rg an ic body stru c tu re a re , b ut in show ing how in your p a rtic u la r c a s e , th e te n b a s ic e n e rg ie s of hum an n a tu re sho u ld b e u se d to th e b e s t a d v a n ta g e . (197 2, p. 24) M eyer a ls o e m p h a siz e s th e c o n ce p t of u tiliz in g th e b irth ch art to prom ote s e lf -a c tu a liz a tio n ; In o th er w ords, th e b irth ch art d e s c rib e s w hat should b e and w hat e x p e rie n c e s a re n eed ed to bring about th e a c tu a liz a tio n of w hat is a t th e moment of b irth o n ly a s e t of p o te n tia ls . (197 4, p. 13) The p e rs o n -c e n te re d approach to a stro lo g y in c lu d e s th e b e lie f th a t nothing in th e b irth ch art is se e n a s in n a te ly b ad or good. In th is re s p e c t it i s sim ilar to th e e x is te n tia l p o sitio n th a t man alo n e is re s p o n sib le for w hat he d o es and w hat he b e c o m e s. H ow ever, th e prem ise th a t man e n te rs th e w orld w ith a given se t of p o te n tia litie s , a lb e it not y e t a c tu a liz e d , i s a n tith e tic a l to th e e x is te n tia l p o sitio n . The p o sitiv e e m p h a sis on th e a c tu a liz a tio n o f in h e re n t p o te n tia litie s is c lo s e r to th e o rie n ta tio n of M aslo w and R ogers. The u s e of per s o n -c e n te re d a stro lo g y in c o u n se lin g and p sy c h o th era p y m ight b e m a n ife ste d in se v e ra l w a y s. In one s e n s e it a p p ea rs th a t th e th e ra p is t m ight a c t a s a gu id e in th e c lie n t's s e lf-a c tu a liz in g p ro c e s s . Rudhyar (197 2) e n v isio n s th e b irth c h a rt a s "th e b lu ep rin t of th e p ro c e ss of in d iv id u a tio n for th is p a rtic u la r in d iv id u a l. " (1972,p . 12) 33 A nother g o a l w ould b e th e in te g ra tio n of s e lf through an u n d e rstan d in g of o n e 's p o te n tia litie s (M eyer, 1974). A lthough per s o n -c e n te re d a stro lo g y a d v a n c e s th e b e lie f th a t p o sitio n of th e s ta rs in flu e n c e s any one p e rs o n 's p o te n tia litie s , man is s till c a p a b le of being s e lf -d e te r m ining. A nother a s p e c t of th e ra p y , th e n , w ould be to fo cu s on th e , in d iv id u a l's re s p o n s ib ility for th e c h o ic e s he m a k e s. The underlying : a ssu m p tio n , w hich is sim ilar to R ogers' p o sitio n , is th a t th e more a s p e c ts of h is life m an h a s in c o n sc io u s a w a re n e s s, th e more a b le h e is to m ake p o sitiv e and c o n stru c tiv e c h o ic e s . i ! i Part 4: O verview of T heories of A lcoholism 1 In 1957 th e A m erican M e d ica l A sso c ia tio n o ffic ia lly d e sig n a te d j i a lco h o lism a s a d is e a s e . It is c o n sid e re d to d a y to b e one of th e j g re a te s t problem s in A m erican so c ie ty (M adsen, 1974). P atti son n o te s : i | The trea tm e n t o f th e ch ro n ic a lc o h o lic h a s b e en one of th e m ost m uddled and c o n tro v e rsia l a re a s of hum an se rv ic e , b e s e t by com peting id e o lo g ie s and c o n flic tin g m e th o d o lo g ie s. (197 4, p. 587) M a s s iv e re s e a rc h h a s b e e n co n d u cted on a lc o h o lism . T heories } I of alc o h o lism e n co m p ass p h y sio lo g ic a l, p sy c h o lo g ic a l, so c io lo g ic a l, f I 1 \ and c u ltu ra l p e rs p e c tiv e s . Due to th e extrem e co m p lexity and c o n - ! i ^ -flictin g r e s u lts of a lc o h o lic re s e a rc h , som e re s e a rc h e rs to d ay do not b e lie v e it is p o s s ib le to form ulate a d e fin itio n of an "a lc o h o lic person-* a lity " w hich c an e x p la in th e developm ent of th e d is e a s e (Law lis & 34 R ubin, 1971; L isa n sk y , 1967; T rice, 1966). Prom inent re s e a rc h e rs in a lco h o lism to d a y g e n e ra lly a d v o c a te a m u lti-c a u s a l th eo ry o f th e origin of alco h o lism (C an tan zaro , 1967; F o x , 1967; M a d se n , 1974). M ad sen fu rth er b e lie v e s th a t sin c e th e ra p ie s for alco h o lism h av e b e e n la rg e ly u n s u c c e s s fu l, th e re is s till a fa ilu re to fu lly u n d e rsta n d th e n a tu re of th e d is e a s e . The p re se n t stu d y is co n cern ed w ith a p o s s ib le c o rre la tio n b e - | I tw e e n a s tro lo g ic a l fa c to rs and a lc o h o lism . It is re le v a n t, how ever, to rev ie w som e of th e m ajor th e o re tic a l p o sitio n s and in v e s tig a tio n s on | I alco h o lism in order to g a in a p e rs p e c tiv e on th e c u rren t s ta tu s of j j a lc o h o lic re s e a rc h . j i i P h y sio lo g ica l P e rsp e c tiv e s on A lcoholism | E. M . Je llin ek (1960) g a in e d w id e sp rea d re c o g n itio n for h is j re s e a rc h on h e re d ity and a lc o h o lism . Je llin ek su b m itted th a t p erso n s in h e rit a n o n sp ecific " in s ta b ility " w hich, u n d er c e rta in c o n d itio n s, j re s u lts in a lc o h o lism . He c o n te n d s th a t th is p h y sio lo g ic a l X fa c to r 1 i o p e ra te s along w ith p s y c h o -c u ltu ra l d eterm in an ts in th e developm ent of a lc o h o lism . , There is som e support in th e re s e a rc h for th e p o s tu la te s th a t | i h e re d ita ry fa c to rs a re re la te d to a lc o h o lism . G oodw in, S c h u lsin g e r, H erm ansen, G u ze, and W inokur (1973) c o n d u cted re s e a rc h on c h ild re n : who w ere se p a ra te d from th e ir p a re n ts a t b irth . They found th a t th e 35 p re se n c e of a lc o h o lism in one or both of th e b io lo g ic a l p a re n ts w as of g re a te r sig n ific a n c e in determ ining future a lc o h o lism in th e c h ild th an i i w as th e p re se n c e of a lco h o lism in one or bo th o f th e fo s te r p a re n ts. j i C ontrary to th e G oodw in e t a l. stu d y , Roe an d Burks (1945) rep o rted j th a t in a stu d y of fo s te r ch ild ren w hose n a tu ra l p a re n ts w ere a lc o h o lic s , ' none becam e a lc o h o lic s . Further support for a g e n e tic fa c to r h a s b e en found, how ever, in stu d ie s of tw in s (E ysenck, 197 0) an d of h a lf-s ib lin g s ! (S chukit, G oodw in, & W inokur, 1972). in w hich a p o sitiv e c o rre la tio n ! I b etw een h e re d ity an d alc o h o lism w as o b ta in e d . i O ther stu d ie s re fle c t a h ig h er ra te of alc o h o lism among re la tiv e s I ! i of a lc o h o lic s th a n is found in th e g e n e ra l p o p u latio n (G regory, 1960; W inokur & C lay to n , 1968). R esu lts w ere in te rp re te d a s supporting a ! th eo ry of g e n e tic p re d isp o sitio n tow ard a lc o h o lism . M cC ord and j j M cC ord (1960) d id n ot find co n v in cin g e v id e n ce for a h e re d ita ry e x p la n atio n of a lc o h o lism . They point out th a t c h ild ren m ay im ita te , ra th e r th a n in h e rit, th e ir p a re n ts ' a lc o h o lism . Findings on th e h e re d ita ry b a s is of a lc o h o lism are in c o n c lu s iv e 1 i a t th is p o in t. A lthough th e re is re s e a rc h w hich su p p o rts th is p o s tu la te , ; it h a s b e en d iffic u lt to id e n tify p re c is e ly w hat g e n e tic fa c to rs may be in v o lv e d . j O th er th e o r is ts h av e fo c u se d on m e ta b o lic , n u tritio n a l d e fic ie n c ie s a s th e so u rce of a lc o h o lism . Roger W illiam s (1959) re a s o n s th a t th e a lc o h o lic in h e rits a m etab o lic d e fe c t w hich p ro d u ces n u tritio n a l 36 d e fic ie n c ie s and re s u lts in a crav in g for a lc o h o l. R esearch c ite d a s support for th is th e s is in c lu d e s stu d ie s w here vitam in su p p lem en ts w ere found to red u c e th e d e sire for a lc o h o l (Smith., D ardin, & Brown, 1951). M cC ord and M cC ord (1960) argue th a t th e re s e a rc h on m etab o lic d e fic ie n c ie s m ay b e co n fu sin g c a u s e and e ffe c t. It is p o ss ib le th a t j i i a lco h o lism m ay c a u s e m etab o lic d y sfu n c tio n . P sy ch o lo g ica l P e rsp e c tiv e s on A lcoholism P sy ch o lo g ical th e o rie s of alc o h o lism a re abundant in th e lite r a tu re . H ow ever, th e re is little ag reem en t on w hat p e rs o n a lity c h a ra c te r-j i s t ic s produce alco h o lism (M adsen, 1974). j ! P sy ch o a n aly tic th e o ris ts id e n tify se v e ra l u n c o n sc io u s te n d e n c ie s j u n d erlying th e developm ent of a lc o h o lism . M en n in g er (1938) p la c e s i prime e m p h asis on s e lf-d e s tru c tiv e u rg es and l i s t s la te n t hom osexuality; and o ral fix a tio n a s a d d itio n a l fa c to rs . F en ich el (1945) su p p o rts th e th eo ry th a t o ral fix a tio n , c h a ra c te riz e d by p a s s iv e , d ep en d en t, and n a r c is s is tic u rg e s , u n d e rlie s a lc o h o lism . Rado (1957) s u g g e s ts th a t i th e a lc o h o lic a ttem p ts to retu rn to a s ta te of in fa n tile com fort. As ! f M ad sen (1974) p o in ts o u t, th e s e th e o rie s do not e x p la in why th e problem drinker c h o o se s a lc o h o l in s te a d of, for in s ta n c e , m ilk. Among th e p sy c h ia tric i lln e s s e s , d e p re s s iv e or m a n ic -d e p re s siv e ! i p sy c h o sis is th o u g h t to b e m ost c lo s e ly a s s o c ia te d w ith alco h o lism (W inokur, R eich, Rimmer, & P itts, 197 0; S ch u k it, P itts, R eich, King, 37 & W inokur, 1969; M a y field < 5 c C olem an, 1968). S chukit e t a l. (1969), in a study of fem ale a lc o h o lic s , found th a t 27% su ffered from d e p re ssiv e * d iso rd e rs prior to th e o n s e t o f a lc o h o lism . Of th a t group, 66% h ad b een in v o lv ed in su ic id e a tte m p ts. R esearch by G oodw in (197 3) re v e a ls a c lo s e re la tio n s h ip b e tw ee n alc o h o lism and s u ic id e , su g g e stin g th e : p re se n c e of d e p re ss io n in m any a lc o h o lic s . A lcoholism h a s a ls o b e e n a s s o c ia te d w ith a n tis o c ia l b e h a v io r. j G uze, G oodw in, and C rane (1969) and G oodw in, C ran e, and G uze (1971) ' i i found a high in c id e n c e of a lc o h o lism am ong fe lo n s . The a lc o h o lic | I l fe lo n s w ere m ore freq u e n tly c h a ra c te riz e d by so c io p a th y th a n w ere th e j n o n -a lc o h o lic fe lo n s . A stu d y on w h ite, u rban, te e n a g e d e lin q u e n ts | I I rep o rte d a high ra te of drinking problem s (Barry, B arry, & B lane, 1969). / V 1 Barry (197 4 ) , in a sum m ary of th e re s e a rc h on p sy c h o lo g ic a l | fa c to rs in a lc o h o lism , c o n c lu d e s: A lcoholism i s a p a th o lo g ic a l b e h a v io r and te n d s to o c cu r to g e th e r w ith or a s a s u b s titu te for o th er form s of p sy c h o p ath o lo g y . In p a rtic u la r, a high pro portion of a lc o h o lic s are c o m p u lsiv ely a n tis o c ia l, p sy c h o p ath ic p e rs o n a litie s or su ffer from se v e re d e p re ssio n w ith risk of s u ic id e . (197 4, p. 96) In a rev iew of th e re s e a rc h on p sy c h o lo g ic a l tr a its of a lc o h o lism , j i C an tan zaro (1967) com piled a l i s t of th o se w hich a re m ost freq u en tly | I c ite d a s h ig h ly sig n ific a n t in a lc o h o lism . T hese are: 1) a high le v e l of a n x ie ty in in te r p e rso n a l re la tio n s ; 2) em otional 38 im m aturity; 3) am b iv alen ce tow ard a u th o rity ; 4) lo w fru stra tio n to le ra n c e ; 5) g ra n d io sity ; 6) low s e lf-e s te e m ; 7) fe e lin g s of is o la tio n ; 8) p e rfe c tio n ism ; 9) g u ilt; 10) c o m p u lsiv e n e ss; 11) angry o v erd ep en d en cy ; 12) s e x ro le co n fu sio n ; 13) in a b ility to e x p re ss angry fe e lin g s a d e q u a te ly . (1967, p. 38) A lthough re s e a rc h e rs h av e b e e n a b le to id e n tify num erous p sy ch o -| i lo g ic a l c o rre la te s of a lc o h o lism , th e re is no g e n e ra l agreem ent on a I i co n fig u ratio n of tr a its w hich w ould c le a rly d e lin e a te an a lc o h o lic | p e rs o n a lity . Furtherm ore, th e id e n tific a tio n of p sy c h o lo g ic a l c h a ra c - ! te r is tic s in a lc o h o lic s fa ils to e x p la in why th e com pulsion to drink j i i d e v elo p s in som e peo p le and not in o th e rs . j l S o c io lo g ic al and C u ltu ral P e rsp e c tiv e s on A lcoholism | ! i S o c io lo g ic al th e o rie s of a lco h o lism g e n e ra lly fo cu s on how « drinking p a tte rn s are c u ltu ra lly d e te rm in e d . E vidence e x is ts to show th a t ra te s of a lc o h o lism are re la te d to v a rio u s so c ia l stru c tu re s, in cluding e th n ic group and s o c ia l c la s s v a lu e s . E x ten siv e re s e a rc h on e th n ic group v a lu e s and a lc o h o lism h a s ! I b een c o n d u cted by R. F. B ales (1946). B ales in v e s tig a te d ra te s of ! ! alco h o lism am ong th e Jew ish and th e Iris h . R e su lts show ed th a t firs t , I I g e n e ra tio n orthodox Jew s had a v ery low in c id e n c e of a lc o h o lism , j w h ereas very high ra te s of a lc o h o lism e x is te d am ong firs t and second g e n eratio n Irish im m ig ran ts. B ales d eterm ined th a t Jew s a s s o c ia te drinking w ith v a rio u s re lig io u s ritu a ls and a s s o c ia te a lc o h o l w ith a 39 sa c re d sym bol. From th is sta n d p o in t d ru n k en n e ss w ould be reg ard ed a s a re p re h e n s ib le c o n d itio n . By co m p ariso n , drinking i s c o n sid e re d to be an am iab le p astim e in Ire la n d , and Iris h im m igrants u se d a lc o h o l a s a j m ethod of re lie v in g ad ju stm en t d iffic u ltie s in A m erica. R esearch by Snyder (1958) h as confirm ed B a le s' fin d in g s on drinking p a tte rn s among j Jew s. Skolnick (1954) exam ined a rre s t rec o rd s in N ew H aven to id e n tify th e d istrib u tio n of e th n ic group in e b rie ty . R esu lts show ed th a t th e h ig h e st ra te s of alco h o lism w ere am ong Irish , B lack, S la v ic , and N ativ e A m erican g ro u p s. Low ra te s of a lco h o lism w ere found among Jew s, Ita lia n s , G erm ans, and S c a n d in a v ia n s. R esearch by M cC ord and ; M cC ord (1960) confirm ed re s u lts of p a s t stu d ie s on e th n ic g roups and ■ | ra te s of a lc o h o lism . They d isc o v e re d th a t e th n ic groups w ith high ra te s I of alco h o lism "had a g re a te r d eg ree of p a re n ta l c o n flic t, tw ic e th e pro portion of a lc o h o lic fa th e rs , and a h ig h er ra te of o th er k in d s of d e v ia n c e ." (1960, p . 39) In a study on th e re la tio n s h ip b etw een so c ia l c la s s and a lc o h o l ism , M cC ord and M cC ord (1960) rev iew ed ra te s of a lc o h o lism am ong I th e m iddle c la s s , lo w er-m id d le c la s s , u p p e r-lo w e r c la s s , and lo w e r- j low er c la s s . R esu lts show ed th a t th e m iddle c la s s and lo w er-m id d le c la s s had sig n ific a n tly h ig h er a lc o h o lism ra te s th a n did th e lo w e r- lo w er c la s s (p c . 025). They h y p o th e siz e d th a t th e d ifferen c e m ay be a ttrib u te d to le s s s o c ia l co n tro l o v er drinking h a b its in th e m iddle c la s s e s . The M cC o rd s' sam ple of m iddle c la s s p e rso n s (N=28) and o f 40 lo w er-m id d le c la s s p e rso n s (N=36) w as ra th e r sm a ll, p a rtic u la rly com pared to th e ir sam ple for th e lo w e r-lo w e r c la s s (N=138). The sm aller sam p les m ay not have provided an a c c u ra te re p re s e n ta tio n of m iddle c la s s drinking h a b its . Summary i I The stu d y of th e n atu re of a lco h o lism h a s b e e n ap p ro ach ed from a v a rie ty of d is c ip lin e s . The re s e a rc h on alc o h o lism is form idable in its sh e e r q u a n tity and c o n tra d ic to ry in its fin d in g s. The v a rie ty of fa c to rs I th a t h av e b e en d e m o n strab ly a s s o c ia te d w ith alc o h o lism su g g e st th a t a | m u lti-c a u s a l th eo ry is n eed ed to e x p la in its e tio lo g y . Yet, no sin g le | th eo ry to d a te h a s fu lly a cc o u n te d for th e m any v a ria b le s w hich h av e j i b e en found to c o n trib u te to th e developm ent of th e problem d rin k er. I i i M ad sen co m p lain s th a t th e a lc o h o lic h a s not b e en stu d ie d a s a w hole ; person: T hus, th e a lc o h o lic is v iew ed by th e a n th ro p o lo g ist a s a product of an an x ie ty -p ro d u c in g c u ltu re , by th e so c io lo g ist a s a s ta tis tic a l d e v ia tio n from a norm , by th e p sy c h o lo g is t a s an in a d e q u a te ego, and b y th e b io lo g ic a lly -o rie n te d a s a m alfunctioning bo dy. (1974, p. 17) I i I The fo cu s of th e p re se n t stu d y — a stro lo g ic a l in flu e n c e s and a lc o h o lism — pro v id es an o th er d im ension of a lc o h o lic re s e a rc h . 41 Part 5: The MM PI a s a P sy ch o d ia g n o stic M e asu re of A lcoholism The M in n e so ta M u ltip h a sic P e rso n a lity In v en to ry (MMPI) i s a w idely u s e d d ia g n o s tic t e s t d e sig n e d prim arily to d e te c t p sy c h o p a th o l ogy. E x ten siv e re s e a rc h h a s b e en co n d u cted on i t s u s e a s a p sy c h o - d ia g n o stic m easu re of a lc o h o lism . Two b a s ic a p p ro a c h e s for d e te c tio n of alco h o lism h av e b e e n ex p lo red : 1) c lin ic a l p red ic tio n of a lco h o lism j I by in te rp re ta tio n of th e e n tire MM PI p ro file, and 2) a c tu a ria l p red ic tio n i of a lco h o lism acco rd in g to s p e c ific s c a le s d eriv ed from th e MM PI. The MM PI p roduces sc o re s on four v a lid ity s c a le s and 10 c lin ic a l s c a le s , in a d d itio n to v a rio u s ex p erim e n tal s c a le s . The v a lid ity and j i c lin ic a l s c a le s a re g iv en b elo w for re fe re n c e in th e follow ing lite ra tu re i V alidity S c a le s can n o t sa y L F K ? C lin ic a l S c a le s S c a le 1 H y p o c h o n d ria sis (Hs) S cale 2 D e p re ssio n (D) S cale 3 H y ste ria (Hy) S c a le 4 P sy ch o p ath ic D e v iate (Pd) S cale 5 M a sc u lin ity -F e m in in ity (Mf) S cale 6 Paranoia (Pa) S c a le 7 P sy c h a sth e n ia (Pt) S cale 8 S ch izo p h ren ia (Sc) S cale 9 H ypom ania (Ma) S c a le 0 S o cial In tro v e rsio n (Si) 42 F indings on th e MM PI P rofile and A lcoholism Among th e m ost common MM PI fin d in g s on a lc o h o lism h ave b een a strong p sy c h o p a th ic tre n d , re fle c te d in e le v a tio n s on S cale 4 (Pd) and e v id e n ce of d e p re s s io n , re fle c te d in e le v a tio n s of S cale 2 (D) (O verall, i i 1973; H am p to n , 1951; H oyt & S e d la c e k , 1958; M acA ndrew & G e ertsm a , j 1963; Roth, R osenberg, & L ev in so n , 1971). In a stu d y of MM PI p e rso n a lity p a tte rn s of a lc o h o lic s and n a rc o tic a d d ic ts , O v e rall found th a t both groups h ad e le v a te d Pd s c a le s , b u t th e a lc o h o lic s had s u b s ta n tia l ly m ore D , H y, Pt, Pa, and Sc com ponents th a n th e n a rc o tic a d d ic ts . | The a lc o h o lic w as ty p ifie d by a 2 -4 -7 high point c o d e , w hich O v erall j i c h a ra c te riz e d a s a d e p re s s iv e in d iv id u a l w ith p a s s iv e -a g g re s s iv e i p e rs o n a lity fe a tu re s . H oyt and S ed lacek found th a t a lc o h o lic s sc o red ! above norm als b ut lo w er th a n n e u ro tic s and p sy c h o p a th s on both th e i I i Pd and D s c a le s . Roth e t a l. (1971) found e le v a te d sc o re s on both s c a le s am ong a lc o h o lic and n o n -a lc o h o lic fe lo n s . A lcoholic felo n s te n d e d to sc o re som ew hat h ig h er on both s c a le s , though th e d ifferen c e b etw een th e tw o groups w as n ot a t a sig n ific a n t le v e l. In a com parison; i among a lc o h o lic s , n a rc o tic a d d ic ts , and c rim in a ls, H ill, H a ertze n , and; ) D avis (1962) found th a t a ll th re e groups a c h ie v e d th e ir h ig h e s t sc o res on th e Pd and D s c a le s . A fa c to r a n a ly s is o f th e d a ta su g g e ste d th a t th e a lc o h o lic s te n d e d to b e n e u ro tic , w h ereas th e o th er groups w ere m ore lik e ly to b e p sy c h o p a th ic . M acA ndrew an d G eertsm a stu d ie d a lc o h o lic and n o n -a lc o h o lic p sy c h ia tric p a tie n ts an d found th a t 43 a lc o h o lic s a tta in e d th e ir h ig h e s t sc o re s on th e Pd and D s c a le s , s u p porting th e fin d in g s of prev ious re s e a rc h . They d id not find any d ifferen c e b etw een th e tw o groups on th e D s c a le , b u t found th a t th e a lc o h o lic group w as sig n ific a n tly h ig h er th a n th e c o n tro l group on th e Pd s c a le (p < . 001). H ow ever, th e y d isc o v e re d th a t th e sig n ific a n t m ean d iffe re n c e b e tw ee n th e tw o p a tie n t g roups d isa p p e a re d w hen th e th re e m ost d isc rim in atin g ite m s w ere rem oved. A fa c to r a n a ly s is show ed th a t ev en w ith th e rem oval of th e th re e ite m s, th e a lc o h o lic s i s till w ere h ig h er in fa c to rs of so c ia l d e v ia n c e and rem orseful in tr a - | i I p u n itiv e n e s s . „ j i A lthough th e s e s tu d ie s c o n s is te n tly d em o n strate e le v a tio n s on 1 i s c a le s 4 and 2 of th e MMPI am ong a lc o h o lic s , se v e ra l is s u e s n eed j i i further c la rific a tio n . The stu d ie s by O verall and by H ill e t a l. im ply j th a t a lc o h o lic s a re c h a ra c te riz e d by n e u ro s is , w h ereas n a rc o tic a d d ic ts d isp la y p sy c h o p a th ic t r a i ts . The Hoyt and S ed lacek stu d y sh o w s, how ever, th a t a lc o h o lic s do not sc o re a s high a s e ith e r n e u ro tic s or p sy c h o p ath s on s c a le s Pd and D . It is th e re fo re u n c le a r a s to w hether ! i or not an a lc o h o lic c a n b e d is tin g u is h e d from a n o n -a lc o h o lic n e u ro tic j on th e b a s is of sc o re s on th e Pd and D s c a le s . i i In th e stu d y b y O v e ra ll, 85% of e ac h group (a lc o h o lic s and n a r c o tic a d d ic ts ) w ere c o rre c tly c la s s if ie d on th e b a s is of MMPI profile j I p a tte rn s . The 15% o v e rla p b e tw ee n th e groups is not e x p la in e d . A dditional re s e a rc h should b e c o n d u cted in order to c la rify th e d isc rim - 44 in a to ry fu n ctio n s of th e MMPI p ro file for a lc o h o lic s and n a rc o tic a d d ic ts . Findings on MMPI Alcoholism S cales Several resea rch e rs have d ev ised specific sc a le s on th e MMPI for the differentiation of a lco h o lics from n o n -alc o h o lic s (Hampton, 1953; J Holmes ^rep o rted by Button, 1 9 5 0 ; Hoyt & S edlacek, 1958; M a c - | Andrew, 1965). The MacAndrew Alcoholism S cale, which is u se d in th e ! i i p resent study, will be d isc u sse d in a separate su b sec tio n . j ! Hampton developed the A1 sc a le by comparing 100 members of I A lcoholics Anonymous with a group of univ ersity vocation al guidance j c lie n ts m atched on age and in te llig e n c e . The sc a le was c ro s s - v a li- \ i dated on several groups, including so cial drinkers and to ta l a b sta in e rs , j Holmes (reported by Button, 1956) d evised th e Am sc a le by com - j i i paring 7 2 alco h o lics comm itted to a sta te in stitu tio n with the M innesota; norm ative group. He found 59 item s which were sign ificant in d is tin - i guishing th e two groups. Tw enty-tw o percent of th e s e item s were on | i th e Pd sc a le and 13.5% were on the D sc a le . i Hoyt and S edlacek developed the Ah sc ale by comparing 98 | i h o sp italize d a lc o h o lic s with the M innesota norm ative group. Normals I scored sig nificantly low er on th e sc a le than a lc o h o lic s, but a group of j psychiatric patients could not be differentiated from a lc o h o lic s. These three sc a le s (Al, Am, Ah) contain some m ethodological problem s. They were derived by contrasting a population of alco h o lics 45 I with a population of norm als. A study by MacAndrew and G eertsm a ! i (1964) found th at none of th e sc a le s could d istin g u ish betw een alcoholic j | psychiatric and n o n -alco h o lic p sy chiatric p a tie n ts. They concluded j that the s c a le s were sim ply m easuring g eneral m aladjustm ent a s opposed ! to alcoholism . Several other stu d ies confirm th e findings of MacAndrew! and G eertsm a. Rotman and Vestre (1964) found only sm all, in sig n ifican t differences betw een alcoholic and n o n -alco h o lic psychiatric patien ts on a ll three s c a le s . Panton (1972) te s te d the Al, Am, and Ah sc a le s j I for their a b ility to differentiate betw een alcoholic and non -alcoholic | .! im prisoned so c io p ath s. He a lso com pared th e alco h o lics with n on- j I I alcoholic norm als. The Al sc ale correctly c la s s ifie d 65.8% of the 1 im prisoned alc o h o lic s and n o n -alc o h o lic s and 9 0% of the n o n -alco h o lic I norm als. The Ah sc a le presented an alm ost id en tical distribution of [ i raw sco res for a ll th ree groups, with each group mean higher than the m eans of th e alcoholic groups originally u se d to v a lid ate th e sc a le . The Am sc a le failed to d istin g u ish betw een the alcoholic and non alcoholic so c io p ath s. The MacAndrew Alcoholism Scale The problem s inherent in th e Al, Am, and Ah s c a le s led M ac Andrew (1965) to develop a sc ale .which would d istin g u ish betw een alco h o lics and a ll other groups. He te s te d 300 alcoholic psychiatric p atien ts and 300 n o n -alco h o lic psychiatric p a tien ts (N=600), dividing 46 th e two patient groups into a standardization group and a c ro s s - valid atio n group. A chi square yielded 51 item s which were significant at th e . 01 lev el in differentiating th e alcoholic and n o n -alco h o lic groups. Using a c u t-o ff score of 24, the sc a le correctly c la s s ifie d ! j 81.75% of th e patien ts in th e standardization group and 81. 5% of th o se in th e c ro ss-v a lid a tio n group. The two MMPI q u estio n s on alcoholic u sa g e (#215 and #460) were not u se d in th e sc a le developm ent. A | i | rep licatio n of the te s t, with the two item s included, did not produce j i I ap preciable discrim inatory power in th e s c a le . | I i Several stu d ies lend support to the discrim inatory ab ility of the j MacAndrew Alcoholism S cale. Kranitz (1972) com pared the sco res of ! 200 m ale alcoholic and 220 m ale n o n -alco h o lic p sy ch iatric o u tp atien ts j i from the MacAndrew study with th e scores of an in stitu tio n a liz e d sampl^ of 100 m ale heroin a d d ic ts, 50 n o n -alc o h o lic m ale p sy ch iatric p a tien ts, and 50 m ale a lc o h o lic s. He found th at th e sc a le d istin g u ish ed betw een alcoholic and n o n -alco h o lic p sy ch iatric o u tp atien ts, but th a t th e dif ferential sco res of alco h o lics and heroin a d d ic ts were not significant, i i suggesting th a t th e latter two groups may share an addictive propensity : which prevents th e sc a le from separating them . Rhodes (1966) also found th at the MacAndrew Alcoholism S cale discrim inated betw een alco holic and n o n -alco h o lic p sy ch iatric o u tp atien ts. A study by W hisler and Cantor (1966) in d icated th at the sc a le may have some lim itation in g en erality . In a study of alcoho lic and 47 n o n-alco h o lic psychiatric in p a tie n ts, th eir re s u lts in d ic ate d th e sc ale was a good predictor of alcoholism . However, on an individual b a s is , th e accuracy of c la ss ific a tio n of th e two groups was not as efficient as M acAndrew's report of 81.5% correct c la s s ific a tio n s . W hisler and Cantor noted th at th ey may have had some unknown a lco h o lics in the | j n o n -alco h o lic group and a lso discovered th at raisin g the c u t-o ff point | to 28 improved the c la ss ific a to ry accu racy . ! I The MacAndrew Alcoholism Scale yielded a v ariety of c h a ra c te r- j 1 I is tic s a s s o c ia te d with the alcoho lic person. These included: "assertions) I of independence, so c ia b ility , confidence, and liking for excitem ent and j i gam bling; bodily com plaints, b lack o u ts, low sex concern; and religious | o rien tation, including b e lie f in m ira c le s. " (Barry, 197 4, p. 75) Another j l content a n a ly sis of th is sc a le rev ealed th a t a lco h o lics tend to be bold, j uninhibited, re b e llio u s, drawn to religion, and se lf-c o n fid en t (Finney, Smith, & S k eeters, 1971). Summary on the MMPI and Alcoholism R esearch in d ic a te s th a t th e MMPI profile and several MMPI sc a le s can be u se d to d istin g u ish a large proportion of alco h o lics from : | n o n -a lc o h o lic s. Of the sc a le s derived for alcoholism detection, the j MacAndrew Alcoholism Scale is clearly superior in its predictive v a lid ity . Studies by M eehl (1954) on s ta tis tic a l or actu arial prediction v s. 48 c lin ica l prediction have su ggested th a t s ta tis tic a l predictions are generally equal or superior to predictions made by c lin ic ia n s . In the c a s e of prediction of alcoholism by the MMPI, it would appear th at clin ical in terp retatio n of the profile is about as a cc u ra te as actu arial j j prediction from th e MacAndrew Alcoholism S cale. Studies on c lin ic a l j i I interpretation, how ever, have generally relied upon elev atio n s of the j Pd and D sc a le s and may be con sidered to in clude an actu arial com ponent . The MMPI is not an in fallib le instrum ent for th e prediction of alcoh olism . The b e s t reports of c la ss ific a to ry accu racy betw een alco h o lics and narcotic ad d icts (85%) (Overall, 197 3) and betw een l alcoholic and n o n -alco h o lic p sy ch iatric p a tien ts (81.7 5%) (MacAndrew, J I l 1965), su g g est th at either it is not p o ssib le to c o n siste n tly d istin g u ish I betw een certain groups or th at th e MMPI fails to pick up subtle differ en ces which may be p resen t. A third p o ssib ility is th at there is a lack of generality in th e c h a ra c te ristic s of a lc o h o lic s. I SUMMARY | i This chapter has e sta b lis h e d th e following points: 1) alcoholism i is generally seen a s a d is e a s e which h as been correlated with certain j p ersonality tra its ; 2) th e s e tra its have been m easured by th e MMPI profile and m ost a cc u ra tely by the MacAndrew Alcoholism Scale; 3) id en tificatio n of alco h o lics from m easurem ents of th e MMPI have been made; 4) personality tra its can be m easured by astrologers using the n atal chart; 5) id en tificatio n of a lco h o lics from interpretation of the n atal chart have been m ade. j i [ The following chapter will compare th e MMPI and the n atal chart j in their ab ility to correctly identify a lc o h o lic s, a ta s k each claim s it CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY O rganization of the C hapter The m ain o b jec tiv e s of th is chapter are to d isc u ss: 1) selectio n and description of the sam ple; 2} design and procedure of th e study; 3) instrum ents used; 4) s ta tis tic a l a n a ly s is . i i S election and D escription of the Sample | i i The sam ple c o n siste d of fifteen alc o h o lic s and fifteen non- \ alco h o lics (N=30). Alcoholic su b jects were random ly se le c te d from a j pool of 25 alco h o lics who were in treatm ent programs for alcoholism . j The pool of alco h o lics was drawn from th ree treatm ent programs in ! Southern California: the Venice Alcoholism Service C enter, the A lcohol- I ism C linic of the Southern C alifornia Perm anente Group, and the Long j i Beach Alcohol R ehabilitation Service of th e N aval H osp ital in Long ! B each. Coordinators of the th ree treatm ent programs identified alcohol-! | ic s who were willing to p articip ate in the study. N on-alco holic su b jects j were random ly se le c te d from a pool of 23 n o n -a lc o h o lic s . Ten colleagues! of th e in v estig ato r were each a sk ed to recommend three m ales betw een j i the ages of 25 and 40 who, to th eir personal know ledge, would be c o n - i i i sidered n o n -a lc o h o lic s. This approach w as u se d to obtain verification ■ from a secondary source th at prospective n o n -alco h o lic su b je c ts w ere, j 50 51 in fact, not a lc o h o lic s. All 30 recom mended su b je cts were willing to j participate in the study and were given a standard interview by the in v estig ato r (see Appendix A). Only th o se indiv idu als who answ ered in the neg ative to all interview q u estio n s were included in the subject j I i pool. Seven of the prospective su b jects were elim inated for answ ering | i one or more of th e interview item s in the affirm ative. Since alco h o lics appear to share some common c h a ra c te ristic s with chronic drug u se rs (Overall, 1973), several interview item s w ere d e v ised to insure that I f drug u se rs were not in the n o n -alco h o lic sam ple. It was felt th at in advertent in clu sio n of chronic drug u se rs among th e n o n -alco h o lic \ I su b jects would contam inate the sam ple. i i All su b je cts were m ales and were voluntary p articip an ts in the J study. Alcoholic su b je cts ranged in age from 26-37, with a mean age | i i of 3 0 .7 . N on-alcoholic su b je c ts ranged in age from 26-37, with a mean age of 3 0 .5 . D esign and Procedure of the Study The study w as concerned with the id en tificatio n of alco h o lics and n o n -alc o h o lic s by m eans of 1) the n a ta l chart, a s interpreted by astrologers; 2) the MMPI profile, a s interp reted b y c lin ic ia n s; and 3) the MacAndrew Alcoholism Scale of the MMPI. Ten astro lo g ers were given the n atal charts of each of the 3 0 su b je c ts. Each ch art included the p erso n 's sex and tim e, date, and place of birth. Each astrolo ger receiv ed a s e t of w ritten in stru ctio n s (see Appendix B) requesting th at they identify alc o h o lic s and non a lco h o lics on the b a s is of th eir interpretation of the n atal c h a rts. They were told th a t som e, none, or a ll of the su b je cts were a lc o h o lic s. j i A strologers were a sk ed to participate in the study by an astro lo g er affiliated with the Foundation for the S cientific Study of the M anticA rts, a non-profit organization in Southern C alifornia. All astrologers had a minimum of five y ears of p ractical experience in the field of astrology and had receiv ed formal training in advanced a stro lo g ica l tec h n iq u e s. Ten c lin ic ia n s were given th e MMPI profiles for each of the 30 I su b je c ts, including the p e rso n 's sex and ag e, and a se t of written in stru ctio n s (see Appendix C) requesting them to identify a lco h o lics ; | and n o n -alc o h o lic s on the b a s is of th eir interpretation of th e MMPI j I profile. They were told th at some, none, or all of the su b jects were a lc o h o lic s. C lin ician s were a sk ed to particip ate in the study by a professor in the departm ent of Psychology at the U niversity of Southern C a lifo rn ia ; i I who has e x p ertise in the interpretation of the MMPI. Five of the 1 c lin ician s p o s s e s s e d P h.D . 's and five p o s s e s s e d M .A. 's . All were ; working a s counseling p sy ch o lo g ists or c lin ic a l p sy ch o lo g ists and had a minimum of one year of psych odiagno stic experience with th e MMPI subsequent to rec eip t of th eir advanced d e g re es. A strologers and clin ician s receiv ed no inform ation about the 53 su b jects other than th a t w hich h as been d escrib ed . All ch arts and MMPI profiles had been randomly a ssig n e d a number code for id en tificatio n so th at astro lo g ers and c lin ic ia n s would not know the nam es of th e su b jects j i This w as done to insure anonym ity for the su b je cts and to remove the p o ssib ility th at c lu e s regarding ethnic or cultural background of the i su b je cts might influence th e d e c isio n s. j Scores on th e MacAndrew Alcoholism Scale of the MMPI were j derived for each of th e 30 su b je c ts. Subjects were then c la s s ifie d a s I I i i either alcoh olic or n o n -alco h o lic on the b a s is of th eir sc a le sco re. | The MMPI was adm inistered to th e alcoholic su b je cts by the re sp e c tiv e coordinators of th e th ree alcoholic treatm ent program s. The MMPI w as adm inistered to th e n o n -alco h o lic su b je cts by th e in v e s ti- ! gator. All su b je cts were a ls o given a brief inform ation sh eet in which I i th ey lis te d the d ate, tim e, and place of th eir birth. I i The M M PI's were h a n d -sc o re d by th e author and re -s c o re d se p a ra tely by two co-w orkers to check a g a in st errors in scoring. The same ' scoring procedure w as u sed for th e MacAndrew Alcoholism S cale. All n atal ch arts were c alc u la te d and con stru cted by th e same astrologer and re -c h e c k e d by a second astro lo g er for a ccu racy in th e m athem atical c a lc u la tio n s. 5 4 i M easuring Instrum ents Used j i l M innesota M ulti phasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) j i The MMPI is a 566-item te s t designed to provide an a sse ss m e n t | l of some of th e major person ality c h a ra c te ristic s th a t are rela te d to j social and personal ad justm ent. The Form R Answer Sheet for th e MMPI j i was used in th is study and scores w ere com puted on th e shortened j i version of the te s t, utilizing the first 399 ite m s. The shortened v ersion| i perm its scoring of th e te n b a sic c lin ica l sc a le s and th e th ree v alid ity j i sc a le s (see C hapter II, p. 41 ) which were u sed for the profiles in th is j I study. Subjects com pleted th e entire MMPI, how ever, so th at sco res for th e MacAndrew Alcoholism Scale could be derived. MMPI profiles : i i given to c lin ician s in cluded th e raw score for each of th e c lin ica l and ■ valid ity s c a le s and the T sco re, including th e K factor which is added j to th e raw scores of five c lin ic a l sc a le s (Hs, Pd, Pt, Sc, M a). MacAndrew Alcoholism Scale The MacAndrew Alcoholism Scale developed by MacAndrew (1965) ' is designed to differentiate betw een alcoholic and n o n -alco h o lic groups. The sc a le is com posed of 51 MMPI item s (see Appendix D). MacAndrew e sta b lish e d a c u t-o ff score of 24 on th e sc a le to differentiate betw een th e two groups. Individuals obtaining a score of 24 or higher ( i . e . , answ ered 24 or more of the 51 item s in th e sam e d irection, True or F alse, a s known alco h o lics) are c la s s ifie d a s a lc o h o lic s. Using th is 55 c u t-o ff score, the sc a le correctly c la s s ifie d 81.75% of the p atien ts in j M acAndrew's standardizatio n group and 81. 5% of th o se in his c ro s s - j I validation group. W hisler and C antor (1966) found th at raisin g the c u t- | off score to 28 im proved the c la ss ific a to ry accu racy of th e sc a le , i i though im plications of th is finding have not been reported in th e lite ra - j tu re. Both the 24 and 28 c u t-o ff points were u tilize d in this study to I a sc e rta in c la ssific a to ry a ccu racy of th e sc a le . j N atal C harts j The n atal charts of th e su b je cts were derived according to standard astro lo g ical procedures b a se d on th e tim e, date, and place of | an in d iv id u a l's birth. Since the e x act tim e of birth can be a c ritic a l i i factor in constructing an acc u ra te chart, the birth tim es of a ll su b jects i | in th is study were verified by eith er a birth c ertifica te or by records on ' file in various governm ental a g en c ie s holding v ital s ta tis tic s on birth tim e. S ta tistic a l A nalysis In order to determ ine if sig nifican t deviation from chance pre diction occurred for th e predictions of either the astro lo g e rs, c lin ic ia n s , i i or MacAndrew Alcoholism S cale, a chi square goodness of fit te s t was com puted. The expected frequ encies were se t at a chance lev e l of . 5 1 and were com pared a g a in st th e observed re s p o n s e s . The a n a ly sis was done for each of the three m ethods of a s s e s s m e n t (astrologers, c lin i- c ia n s, and MacAndrew Alcoholism Scale) for overall predictive ab ility and for predictive a b ility sep arately on alco h o lics and on n o n -a lc o h o lic s. The mean number of correct re sp o n se s for astro lo g ers and c lin i- i i cian s was computed in order to m ake com parisons betw een th e three ! I i types of predictive m easures (astrologers, c lin ic ia n s , and th e M a c - j i j Andrew Alcoholism Scale) and a chi square goodness of fit te s t was run. j Since the MacAndrew Alcoholism Scale produced a single score, it was i not n e c e ssa ry to com pute a m ean score for purposes of com parison. j i S ta tistic a l sig n ifican ce for a ll chi square goodness of fit te s ts was set at a minimum lev el of p < .0 5 . In ter-rate r re lia b ility for a stro lo g ers and clin ician s w as calculated! j by an a n a ly sis of v arian ce for in tra c la ss correlation co efficien t of rater | I re lia b ility . This was done in order to a s s e s s the degree of c o n siste n c y among astro lo g ers and among c lin ic ia n s in th eir prediction of each su b - ; je c t as either alcoholic or n o n -alc o h o lic . : CHAPTER IV FINDINGS Introduction The purpose of th is study was to a sc e rta in th e a b ility of a stro lo gers to u tiliz e th e n atal chart to discrim inate betw een alc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s. In order to com pare th e efficacy of the a stro lo g e rs' u se of the n a ta l chart with an e x istin g psychodiagn ostic instrum ent, the MMPI was u tiliz e d to discrim inate betw een a lc o h o lic s and non a lc o h o lic s. Two se ts of data were derived from th e MMPI: 1) the id en tificatio n of alco h o lics and n o n -alc o h o lic s by c lin ic ia n s ' in te r pretation of the MMPI profile, and 2) th e a ctu arial id en tificatio n of alc o h o lic s and n o n -alc o h o lic s by th e MacAndrew Alcoholism S cale. Three hy potheses were developed in C hapter I regarding th e ab ility of the a stro lo g e rs, th e c lin ic ia n s , and the MacAndrew Alcoholism S cale to correctly identify a lco h o lics and n o n -a lc o h o lic s. The findings re garding th e s e hypo theses are presented in th is chapter. Three q u estio n s to be answ ered were developed in C hapter I r e garding the com parative ab ility of the a stro lo g e rs, the c lin ic ia n s , and the MacAndrew Alcoholism S cale in th e iden tificatio n of a lco h o lics and n o n -a lc o h o lic s. Findings regarding th e s e q u estio n s are presented in th is chap ter. 57 58 This chapter a lso in clu d es findings regarding in te r-ra te r reliab ility among astro lo g ers a s a group and among c lin ic ia n s as a group. i A section for d isc u ssio n of the findings concludes the chapter. j i Findings Regarding H ypotheses j i H ypothesis O ne: Based on an interpretation of the natal chart, j astrologers can correctly identify a lco h o lics and n o n -alc o h o lic s in a j given sam ple containing both alco h o lics and n o n -alc o h o lic s at a lev el j I sign ificantly exceeding c h an ce. Table 1 presen ts the chi square g oodness of fit a n a ly sis for | ! a stro lo g ers, comparing observed resp o n se s a g a in st the expected chance j distribution of 0 .5 . H ypothesis 1 is re je c te d . The com bined ratings of j t astrologers did not deviate from a chance lev el of prediction of a lco h o lics| I and n o n -a lc o h o lic s. I Table 2 presen ts a breakdow n of the chi square good ness of fit ; a n a ly sis for each astro lo g er. This procedure w as computed sep arately 1 for a lc o h o lic s , n o n -a lc o h o lic s, and to ta l correct r e s p o n s e s . The breakdown of resp o n se s contained in the 2 x 2 ta b le s is included to ! I * clarify the direction of the significant chi sq u a res. For exam ple, j although astro logers #3, #6, and #7 were able to correctly identify the i alcoholic su b jects at le v e ls sig n ifican tly exceeding chance (p < .02 i and pc. .01), astrolog er #10 incorrectly identified alc o h o lic s at a lev el significantly deviating from chance (p<^.05). The tab le a lso shows , TABLE 1 CHI SQUARE GOODNESS OF FIT ANALYSIS FOR TOTAL CORRECT PREDICTIONS: ASTROLOGERS Expected Observed 150 150 150 150 60 TABLE 2 CHI SQUARE GOODNESS OF FIT ANALYSIS FOR INDIVIDUAL ASTROLOGERS ASTROLOGERS #1 - 5 : A strologer Alcoholic X2 Values Non-A lcoholic Total Correct i #1 0.60 0.60 1.20 ; #2 i 3.26 (8. 06)** 0.53 : #3 5.40* 3.26 0.13 #4 3.26 0 .60 0.53 #5 0.6 0 0.06 0.13 2 x 2 Tables A strologer's Predictions S ubj e c ts A N #1 A N A 6 9 A 11 13 N 9 6 N 4 2 #2 #3 #4 A N A N A N A 12 11 A 11 9 A 9 8 N 3 4 N 4 6 N 6 7 #5 A = A lcoholic * = p < . 05 N = N on-A lcoholic ** = p < . 01 ( ) = ch i sq u are v a lu e s in p a re n th e s e s in d ic a te s ta tis tic a lly s ig n ific a n t in c o rre c t pre d ic t i o n s ___________ 61 TABLE 2 CONTINUED C H I SQUARE GOODNESS OF FIT ANALYSIS FOR INDIVIDUAL ASTROLOGERS ASTROLOGERS #6 - 10 A strologer Alcoholic Values N on-A lcoholic Total C orrect #6 8.06 (8.06)** 0 .0 0 #7 8.06** 1.66 1.20 0 0 1.66 0.60 0.13 #9 0.60 0. 06 0.13 #10 (5.40)* 0. 06 2.13 2 x 2 Tables S u b jects A N #6 A N A strologer's A 13 13 A 13 10 Predictions N 2 2 N 2 5 #7 #8 #9 A N A N A N A 10 9 A 9 8 A 3 7 N 5 6 N 6 7 N 12 8 #10 A = A lcoholic N = N on-A lcoholic * = p . 05 ** = P . 01 ( ) = ch i sq u a re v a lu e s in p a re n th e s e s in d ic a te s ta tis tic a lly sig n ific a n t in c o rre c t p re d ic tio n s 62 th a t th o se astrolo gers who achieved s ta tis tic a l sig n ifican ce in the correct id en tificatio n of a lc o h o lic s, did not ach iev e s ta tis tic a l sig n ifi- I can ce in th eir prediction of n o n -a lc o h o lic s. None of the astrologers I achieved s ta tis tic a l sig n ifican ce at the p c . 05 lev e l in th eir id e n tifi cation of the to ta l group (both a lco h o lics and n o n -a lc o h o lic s). Table 3 shows th e com bined ratin g s of astro lo g ers sep arately for th e prediction of a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s . The resulting data was analyzed to determ ine the predom inant source of error in overall i I I predictions made by a stro lo g e rs. Although a stro lo g e rs correctly id e n ti- I i fied alco h o lics a t a s ta tis tic a lly significant lev e l (p«e .001), they a lso J i incorrectly id en tified n o n -alc o h o lic s a t a s ta tis tic a lly sig nifican t lev e l | i ( p ^ .0 0 1 ). The significant prediction of a lco h o lics alone w as due to ! i i o v e r-c la ss ific a tio n of su b je cts a s a lc o h o lic s. j H ypothesis Two: B ased on an interpretation of an MMPI profile, j i c lin ician s trained in p sy ch o d iag n o stics can correctly identify alcoholicsj and n o n -alc o h o lic s in a given sam ple containing both a lc o h o lic s and j n o n -alc o h o lic s a t a lev el significantly exceeding c h an c e. ! j Table 4 p resen ts the chi square goodness of fit a n a ly sis for ; c lin ic ia n s , comparing observed resp o n se s a g a in st th e expected chance | distribution of 0 .5 . H ypothesis 2 is a c c e p te d . The com bined ratings J I of c lin ic ia n s in th e correct prediction of a lco h o lics and n o n -alc o h o lic s j ! was s ta tis tic a lly significan t at a lev el exceeding chance (p ^ .0 5 ). \ Table 5 p resen ts a breakdow n of the chi square go odness of fit 1 TABLE 3 COMBINED RATINGS OF ASTROLOGERS FOR SEPARATE PREDICTION OF ALCOHOLICS AND NON-ALCOHOLICS Expected O b serv e d Correct Wrong 75 97 75 53 X2 = 12.90* ALCOHOLICS Expected O bserved Correct Wrong 7 5 75 53 X2 = (12.90)* NON-ALCOHOLICS i * = p4. . 001 ( ) = ch i sq u are v a lu e s in p a re n th e s e s in d ic a te s ta tis tic a lly sig n ific a n t in c o rre c t p re d ic tio n s 64 TABLE 4 CHI SQUARE GOODNESS OF FIT ANALYSIS FOR TOTAL CORRECT PREDICTIONS: CLINICIANS Expected O bserved 150 150 168 132 X2 = 4.3 2 * TABLE 5 65 C HI SQUARE GOODNESS OF FIT ANALYSIS FOR INDIVIDUAL CLINICIANS CLINICIANS # 1 - 5 C linician Alcoholic Values N on-A lcoholic Total Correct ' #1 (8. 06)** 15.00*** 0.5 3 #2 0.06 1.66 1.20 i #3 3.26 0.60 0 .5 3 #4 0.60 3.26 0 .5 3 i #5 0 .6 0 3.26 0 .5 3 C lin ic ia n 's Predictions 2 x 2 Tables S ubjects #1 A N A N A 2 0 A 8 5 N 13 15 N 7 10 #2 #3 #4 A N A N A N A 4 6 A 6 4 A 6 4 N 11 9 N 9 1 1 N 9 11 #5 N = N on-A lcoholic A = Alcoholic * = p C .01 ** = p < . 001 ( ) = ch i sq u a re v a lu e s in p a re n th e s e s in d ic a te s ta tis tic a lly s ig n ific a n t in c o rre c t p re d ic tio n s 66 TABLE 5 CONTINUED CHI SQUARE GOODNESS OF FIT ANALYSIS FOR INDIVIDUAL CLINICIANS CLINICIANS # 6 - 1 0 1 1 i i C linician Alcoholic X2 Values N on-A lcoholic Total Correct i #6 0.60 1.66 2.13 #7 1.66 8.06** 1.20 #8 0.06 0.06 0.13 #9 0.06 3.26 1.20 #10 (15. 00)*** 15.00*** 0.00 2 x 2 T ables S u b jects AN AN C lin ic ia n 's A 9 5 A 5 2 P redictions N 6 10 N 10 13 #6 #7 A N A N A 8 7 A 7 4 A 0 0 N 7 8 N 8 11 N 15 15 #8 1& + 140 A N N = Non-A lcoholic ** = p < £ . 01 A = Alcoholic *** = p < . 001 ( ) = c h i sq u are v a lu e s in p a re n th e s e s in d ic a te s ta tis tic a lly s ig n ific a n t I in c o rre c t p re d ic tio n s 67 a n a ly sis for each c lin ic ia n . This procedure w as com puted sep arately for a lc o h o lic s , n o n -a lc o h o lic s, and to ta l correct r e s p o n s e s . Three c lin ician s correctly id entified n o n -alc o h o lic s a t s ta tis tic a lly sig nifi cant le v e ls (p-£ .001 and p-=. . 01). However, two of th e s e th ree c lin i cian s (#1 and #10) a ls o inco rrectly id en tified a lc o h o lic s at sta tis tic a lly j i j significan t le v e ls (p-c . 001 and p . 01) and th e third c lin ic ia n 's (#7) ; ! prediction of a lc o h o lic s did not deviate from ch an ce at a s ta tis tic a lly j I I i significant lev e l in either directio n . None of the c lin ic ia n s achieved j l sta tis tic a l sig n ifican ce at th e p < . 05 lev el in th e ir id en tificatio n of i th e to ta l group (both a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s). j Table 6 p resen ts th e com bined ratin g s of c lin ic ia n s sep arately fori the prediction of a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s. The tab le rev e als th a t; i although th e c lin ic ia n s correctly iden tified n o n -alc o h o lic s at a s ta tis - | tic a lly significant le v e l (p < .0 0 1 ), th ey a lso incorrectly identified ! I a lc o h o lic s at sta tis tic a lly sign ificant level (p< .01). The highly s ig - j I n ificant id en tificatio n of n o n -alc o h o lic s w as larg ely due to o v er- j c la ss ific a tio n of su b je cts a s n o n -a lc o h o lic s . I H ypothesis T hree: B ased on sco res on th e MacAndrew Alcoholism i I i Scale of th e MM PI, a lc o h o lic s and n o n -alc o h o lic s can b e correctly j j identified in a given sam ple containing both a lc o h o lic s and non alc o h o lic s at a le v e l sig n ifican tly exceeding ch an ce. Table 7 p resen ts the chi square goodness of fit a n a ly sis for the j i MacAndrew Alcoholism S cale, comparing observed re s p o n se s a g ain st ' TABLE 6 COMBINED RATINGS OF CLINICIANS FOR SEPARATE PREDICTION OF ALCOHOLICS AND NON-ALCOHOLICS C orrect Wrong Expected 75 75 O bserved 55 95 x 2 = (10.66)* Correct Wrona E x pected 75 75 O bserved 113 37 X PO I I 38.50*** ALCOHOLICS NON-ALCOHOLICS * = p 4 . 01 ** = p c . 001 ( ) = c h i sq u a re v a lu e s in p a re n th e s e s in d ic a te s ta tis tic a lly sig n ific a n t in c o rre c t p re d ic tio n s 69 ; i TABLE 7 CHI SQUARE GOODNESS OF FIT ANALYSIS FOR MACANDREW ALCOHOLISM SCALE (Using c u t-o ff score of 24) Alcoholic N on-A lcoholic Total C orrect 15,00* 3.26 16.13* * = p <•. 0 01 Scale Prediction Subjects A N A N A = A lcoholic ,N = N on-A lcoholic 70 th e e x p e c te d c h a n c e d istrib u tio n of 0 .5 . H y p o th e sis 3 is a c c e p te d . The M acA ndrew A lcoholism S cale (u tilizin g th e c u t-o ff point of 2 4) j i c o rre c tly p re d ic te d a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s a t a le v e l s ig n ific a n tly j e x ceed in g c h a n c e (p -^ .0 0 1 ). W hen p re d ic tio n of a lc o h o lic s and n o n - i a lc o h o lic s i s c o n sid e re d s e p a ra te ly , how ever, th e s c a le fa ile d to j I a c h ie v e c o rre c t p re d ic tio n of n o n -a lc o h o lic s a t th e p-^r.05 le v e l of s ig - ; n ific a n c e . All a lc o h o lic s w ere c o rre c tly id e n tifie d b u t four n o n -alc o h o l-j i ic s w ere in c o rre c tly c la s s if ie d a s a lc o h o lic s . W h isler and C an to r (1966) rep o rte d th a t th e c la s s if ic a to ry a c c u ra c y of th e M acA ndrew A lcoholism S c a le is im proved by ra is in g th e c u t-o ff point to 28. T able 8 show s th e chi sq u a re g o o d n e ss of fit a n a ly s is for ' | th e M acA ndrew A lcoholism S cale in th is stu d y w hen th e c u t-o ff point ! of 28 is u s e d . The fin d in g s v e rify th e r e s u lts o b ta in e d by W h isle r and C an to r. The s c a le c o rre c tly id e n tifie d a lc o h o lic s (p -^ .0 0 1 ), and n o n - \ a lc o h o lic s ( p c .0 0 1 ) a t le v e ls sig n ific a n tly ex ce ed in g c h a n c e . The | to ta l c o rre c t id e n tific a tio n m ade by th e s c a le w ere h ig h ly s ta tis tic a lly j i sig n ific a n t (p -^ .0 0 1 ). All n o n -a lc o h o lic s w ere c o rre c tly p red ic te d and ' i only one a lc o h o lic w as in c o rre c tly c la s s if ie d a s a n o n -a lc o h o lic . i I i Q u e stio n s To Be A nsw ered j Q u estio n O n e : W ill th e re b e a d iffe re n c e b e tw ee n th e v a lid ity of | i th e n a ta l c h a rt, in te rp re te d b y a s tro lo g e rs , and th e MM PI p ro file , in te rp re te d b y c lin ic ia n s , in th e id e n tific a tio n of a lc o h o lic s and n o n - 71 j TABLE 8 I ! CHI SQUARE GOODNESS OF FIT ANALYSIS FOR j MACANDREW ALCOHOLISM SCALE j (U sing c u t-o ff sc o re of 28) i I A lcoholic_______N on-A lcoholic_____ T otal C o rrect 11.26* 15.00* 26.13* * = p < . 001 A N A S c a le P re d ic tio n N 14 0 1 15 A = A lcoholic N = N o n-A lcoholic 72 a lc o h o lic s ? Table 9 p re s e n ts th e ch i sq u a re g o o d n e ss of fit a n a ly s is for th e | i co m parison of m ean num ber of c o rre c t p re d ic tio n s by a s tro lo g e rs and j I m ean num ber of c o rre c t p re d ic tio n s by c lin ic ia n s . The m ean num ber of j f c o rre c t re s p o n s e s for e a c h group w as com puted and com pared a g a in s t th e e x p e c te d c h a n c e d istrib u tio n of 0 .5 . The d a ta d o es not re fle c t a s ta tis tic a lly sig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e b e tw ee n th e a b ility of th e a stro lo g e rs and c lin ic ia n s in c o rre c tly id e n tify in g a lc o h o lic s and n o n - a lc o h o lic s . It is of in te r e s t to note th a t a lth o u g h th e o v e ra ll p re d ic tio n s of the I c lin ic ia n s sig n ific a n tly e x c e e d e d a c h a n c e le v e l, th e c lin ic ia n s w ere J s till not sig n ific a n tly b e tte r (or more v a lid ) th a n th e a s tro lo g e rs in th e ! c o rre c t id e n tific a tio n of bo th a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s . ' i i Q u e stio n Two: W ill th e re be a d iffe re n c e b e tw ee n th e v a lid ity of | i th e n a ta l c h a rt, in te rp re te d b y a s tro lo g e rs , and th e M acA ndrew A lcohol-j i ism S c a le in th e id e n tific a tio n of a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s ? 1 T able 10 p re s e n ts th e c h i sq u a re g o o d n e ss of fit a n a ly s is for th e j co m p ariso n of c o rre c t p re d ic tio n by a s tro lo g e rs and by th e M acA ndrew A lcoholism S c a le . The ta b le in c lu d e s a co m p ariso n w ith th e s c a le for i * b o th th e 24 point an d 28 p o in t c u t-o ff s c o re s . In bo th in s ta n c e s th e j M acA ndrew A lcoholism S c a le is show n to be s ig n ific a n tly more v a lid j ! I th a n th e a s tro lo g e rs in m aking c o rre c t p re d ic tio n s (p^>. 01 and p-*? .001 j re s p e c tiv e ly ). 73 TABLE 9 CHI SQUARE GOODNESS OF FIT ANALYSIS: COMPARISON OF CORRECT PREDICTIONS BY ASTROLOGERS AND CLINICIANS A stro lo g ers C lin ic ia n s E xpected O b serv ed 15 15 15 16.8 X2 = 0.21 74 i CHI SQUARE GOODNESS OF FIT ANALYSIS: COMPARISON OF CORRECT PREDICTIONS BY ASTROLOGERS AND MACANDREW ALCOHOLISM SCALE E xpected O b serv ed A stro lo g ers S c a le 15 15 15 26 X 2 = 8 .0 6 * A stro lo g ers S c a le X2 = 13.06** (c u t-o ff sc o re = 2 4 ) E xpected 15 15 O b serv ed 15 29 (c u t-o ff sc o re = 2 8 ) , * = p < . 01 i ** = p < . 001 75 Q u estio n T h ree : W ill th e re be a d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e v a lid ity of th e MMPI p ro file , in te rp re te d by c lin ic ia n s , and th e M acA ndrew A lcoholism S c a le in th e id e n tific a tio n of a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s ? I T able 11 p re s e n ts th e c h i sq u a re g o o d n e ss of fit a n a ly s is for th e | ! com parison of c o rre c t p re d ic tio n s by c lin ic ia n s and th e M acA ndrew j t A lcoholism S c a le . A gain, th e ta b le in c lu d e s a co m parison w ith th e [ sc a le for bo th th e 24 point and 28 point c u t-o ff s c o re s . In bo th in - j i ! s ta n c e s th e M acA ndrew A lcoholism S cale is show n to be sig n ific a n tly i more v a lid th a n th e c lin ic ia n s in m aking c o rre c t p re d ic tio n s ( p < . 01 ! i and p « .001 re s p e c tiv e ly ). j I R e lia b ility of R aters: C lin ic ia n s and A stro lo g ers J T able 12 p re s e n ts an a n a ly s is of th e in tr a c la s s c o rre la tio n I ! c o e ffic ie n t of ra te r re lia b ility for th e a s tro lo g e rs , in w hich th e w ithin ( v a ria b le is th e s u b je c ts and th e b e tw ee n v a ria b le i s th e a stro lo g e rs . i The o b ta in e d m ean re lia b ility in d e x in d ic a te s th e d e g re e of c o n s is te n c y J am ong a stro lo g e rs in th e ir id e n tific a tio n of e a c h su b je c t a s e ith e r ; | a lc o h o lic or n o n -a lc o h o lic . The m ean r e lia b ility of a ll te n a stro lo g e rs ’ l I w as .6 7 , w hich f a lls w ithin th e low er end of an a c c e p ta b le ran g e of | re lia b ility . It in d ic a te s th a t th e a stro lo g e rs h ad only m oderate a g re e - j m ent on th e c rite ria u tiliz e d for id en tify in g in d iv id u a l a lc o h o lic s and I n o n -a lc o h o lic s . ! T able 13 p re s e n ts an a n a ly s is of th e in tr a c la s s c o rre la tio n TABLE 11 CHI SQUARE GOODNESS OF FIT ANALYSIS: COMPARISON OF CORRECT PREDICTIONS BY CLINICIANS AND MACANDREW ALCOHOLISM SCALE C lin ic ia n s S c a le E xpected 15 15 O bserved 16.8 26 l i < N I X 8 .2 8 * C lin ic ia n s S c a le E xpected 15 15 O b serv ed 1 6.8 29 (c u t-o ff sc o re = 2 4) (c u t-o ff sc o re = 28) X 2 = 13.28** * = p < . 01 ** = p < .. 001 TABLE 12 ANALYSIS OF INTRACLASS CORRELATION COEFFICIENT OF RATER RELIABILITY (ASTROLOGERS) Source df Sum of S quares V ariance S u b je c ts 29 18.40 .63448 A stro lo g ers 9 1.53 R em ainder 261 5 5 .0 7 .21100 T otal 2 99 7 5 .0 0 df = d e g re e s of freedom R e lia b ility of sin g le a stro lo g e r = .16715 ~ M ean r e lia b ility of 10 a s tro lo g e rs = . 66744 = r 1010 78^ TABLE 13 ANALYSIS OF INTRACLASS CORRELATION COEFFICIENT OF RATER RELIABILITY (CLINICIANS) Source df Sum of S q u ares V ariance S u b je c ts 29 2 5 .4 7 .87828 C lin ic ia n s 9 9 .5 0 R em ainder 261 3 9 .7 0 .15211 T otal 299 7 4 .6 7 df = d e g re e s of freedom R e lia b ility of sin g le c lin ic ia n = .'32113 = -j ^ M ean re lia b ility of 10 c lin ic ia n s = 182681 = r^g^Q c o e ffic ie n t of ra te r re lia b ility for th e c lin ic ia n s , in w hich th e w ithin v a ria b le is th e s u b je c ts and th e b e tw ee n v a ria b le is th e c lin ic ia n s . The m ean r e lia b ility of a ll te n c lin ic ia n s w as .8 3 . The m ean re lia b ility re fle c ts a s u b s ta n tia l am ount of ag reem en t am ong c lin ic ia n s on th e d ire c tio n of p re d ic tio n s, alth o u g h th is d o es not in d ic a te th a t th e j d ire c tio n o f th e ir p re d ic tio n s w as n e c e s s a r ily c o rre c t. j D isc u ss io n The g e n e ra l purpose of th e stu d y w as to determ ine w h eth er or not I a s tro lo g e rs , b a se d on th e ir in te rp re ta tio n of th e n a ta l c h a rt, co u ld dem -j i o n stra te a re la tio n s h ip b e tw ee n a s tro lo g ic a l fa c to rs an d th e co n d itio n of* i a lc o h o lism . The u n d erly in g a ssu m p tio n w as th a t th e c o rre c t id e n tific a - j tio n of a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s by a stro lo g e rs w ould provide j e v id e n c e for th e e x is te n c e of su ch a re la tio n s h ip . A n aly sis of th e d ata i o ffers n e g lig ib le support for th is c o n te n tio n . The com bined perform ance j of th e a stro lo g e rs in th e id e n tific a tio n of a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s j ! did n ot d e v ia te from c h a n c e . * i F urther a n a ly s is of th e d a ta re v e a ls th a t w hen judging a lc o h o lic s j i s e p a ra te ly , a stro lo g e rs a c h ie v e d s ta tis tic a l sig n ific a n c e in th e ir id e n tific a tio n of th is g ro u p . H ow ever, a stro lo g e rs a ls o in c o rre c tly id e n tifie d n o n -a lc o h o lic s a t a s ta tis tic a lly s ig n ific a n t le v e l. This finding stro n g ly in d ic a te s th a t a stro lo g e rs w ere n ot a b le to d e te c t i i a s tro lo g ic a l c h a ra c te ris tic s of a lc o h o lism . If such c h a ra c te ris tic s e x is t, th e y a re c le a rly not su ffic ie n t to d isc rim in a te b e tw e e n a lc o h o lic s j and n o n -a lc o h o lic s . The m o d erate le v e l of in te r - r a te r re lia b ility o b tain ed \ i by th e a stro lo g e rs s u g g e s ts th e y do not ev en c o n s is te n tly a g re e on th e j c rite ria for d isc rim in a tin g ju d g m e n ts. This fa c t fu rth er w eak en s support! for th e id e a th a t a s tro lo g ic a l c h a ra c te r is tic s of a lc o h o lism a re re a d ily ! I d e te c ta b le . | The p ro b ab le e x p la n a tio n for th e a s tro lo g e rs ' s ta tis tic a lly s ig n ifi c a n t p red ic tio n of a lc o h o lic s a lo n e is th a t th e y id e n tifie d th e m ajo rity i I of s u b je c ts a s a lc o h o lic s . Out of 300 p o s s ib le re s p o n s e s (10 a stro lo g e rs x 30 s u b je c ts ), 194 w ere c la s s if ie d a s a lc o h o lic s . S ince th e re is no j j in d ic a tio n th a t th e a s tro lo g e rs c o u ld re c o g n iz e d iffe re n c e s b e tw ee n j i i a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s , it seem s c le a r th a t th e sh e e r num ber of 1 a lc o h o lic p re d ic tio n s a c c o u n te d for th e ir s u c c e s s on th is d im en sio n . ! It is a ls o im p o rtan t to n o te th a t only th re e of th e te n a s tro lo g e rs i m ade c o rre c t p re d ic tio n s of a lc o h o lic s a t a s ta tis tic a lly sig n ific a n t i le v e l. The sc o re s of th e s e th re e a stro lo g e rs had th e e ffe c t of in fla tin g j th e le v e l of perform ance a tta in e d by th e to ta l group of a stro lo g e rs on | I c o rre c t p red ic tio n s of a lc o h o lic s a lo n e . T his le v e l of s ig n ific a n c e must) b e v iew ed c ritic a lly l e s t i t be in te rp re te d to m ean th a t e a c h a stro lo g e r j perform ed a t a s ta tis tic a lly s ig n ific a n t le v e l, w hich w as n o t th e c a s e . By w ay of e x p la n a tio n for th e ir poor o v e ra ll p erform ance, se v e ra l a stro lo g e rs fe lt th a t tim e re s tric tio n s o f th e stu d y (2 w eeks for n a ta l i I ch art a n a ly s is ) p rev en ted them from doing a thorough a n a ly s is of th e 81 c h a rts , th e re b y red u cin g th e e ffe c tiv e n e s s of a s tro lo g ic a l te c h n iq u e . Four of th e a stro lo g e rs e x p re s s e d th e o pinion th a t n o n -a lc o h o lic s m ay be a c tin g out in m odes o th er th a n a lc o h o lism , su ch a s o v e r-e a tin g . If j i th is re a so n in g h a s an y v a lid ity , it w ould s till m ean th a t sp e c ific d i s - J i o rd ers c an n o t b e re lia b ly d ia g n o se d by an in te rp re ta tio n of th e n a ta l | i [ c h a rt. The fa c t th a t a lc o h o lic c h a ra c te ris tic s a re d e te c te d in th e n a ta l [ t c h a rt, for in s ta n c e , w ould not n e c e s s a rily m ean th a t a lc o h o lic s w ould j i becom e a m a n ife st c o n d itio n . The im p lica tio n m ade by th e s e a stro lo g e rs th e n is e ith e r th a t 1) d e te c ta b le problem a re a s in a n a ta l c h a rt m ay em erge in th e form of sym ptom s u b s titu tio n ( i .e . , o v e r-e a tin g for a lco h o lism ) o r, 2) d e te c ta b le problem a re a s in a n a ta l c h a rt m ay not j em erge a t a ll. T his pro b lem atic is s u e m akes it d iffic u lt to a s c e rta in ! under w hat c o n d itio n s, if an y , th e n a ta l c h a rt c o u ld be e ffe c tiv e ly u se d I ! i a s a d ia g n o s tic to o l. i T here is a p o s s ib ility th a t th e unknow n in c lu s io n of a lc o h o lic s in i th e n o n -a lc o h o lic sam p le c o n trib u te d to erro rs in th e id e n tific a tio n | j p ro c e s s . H ow ever, th e high ra te of c la s s ific a to ry a c c u ra c y a c h ie v e d ; by th e M acA ndrew A lcoholism S c a le provided in s u ra n c e th a t th e tw o j I t groups w ere re p re s e n ta tiv e of an a lc o h o lic and n o n -a lc o h o lic population. The fin d in g s do not n e c e s s a rily re je c t th e p o s s ib ility of a r e la - j tio n s h ip b e tw ee n a s tro lo g ic a l fa c to rs an d a lc o h o lism . It m ay be s a id , j how ever, th a t in th is stu d y a stro lo g e rs fa ile d to u s e th e n a ta l c h a rt a s , an e ffe c tiv e d ia g n o s tic to o l in th e id e n tific a tio n of a lc o h o lic s . ! 82 The perform ance of th e c lin ic ia n s c a n be a n a ly z e d sim ila rly to th a t of th e a s tro lo g e rs . A lthough th e to ta l c o rre c t p re d ic tio n s of th e i 'C lin ic ian s w ere a t a s ta tis tic a lly sig n ific a n t le v e l/ th e ir o v e ra ll s ig n if- i iic a n c e le v e l w as stro n g ly in flu e n c e d by th e high num ber of n o n -a lc o h o lic s | w hich th e y c o rre c tly id e n tifie d / ra th e r th a n by th e c o rre c t p re d ic tio n of b o th a lc o h o lic s an d n o n -a lc o h o lic s . In fa c t, c lin ic ia n s in c o rre c tly j c la s s if ie d a lc o h o lic s a t a s ta tis tic a lly s ig n ific a n t le v e l. i i I In th e p red ic tio n of a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s se p a ra te ly , i J c lin ic ia n s w ere s u c c e s s fu l in th e la tte r b ut not in th e form er. C om pared I * jto th e 19 4 a lc o h o lic p re d ic tio n s m ade by th e a s tro lo g e rs , c lin ic ia n s Im ade on ly 92 a lc o h o lic p re d ic tio n s . T herefore, th e c lin ic ia n s ' a b ility to c o rre c tly p re d ic t n o n -a lc o h o lic s w as prim arily a fu n ctio n o f th e le s s e r |num ber of a lc o h o lic p re d ic tio n s . In order to c la rify th e co m parison of |ty p e s of p re d ic tio n s m ade by a s tro lo g e rs and c lin ic ia n s , a 2 x 2 c h i i | sq u are c o n tin g en c y ta b le w as d e v elo p ed an d a n a ly z e d for a re la tio n s h ip i ■betw een ty p e of ra te r (a stro lo g e rs or c lin ic ia n s ) an d ty p e of ratin g I (alc o h o lic or n o n -a lc o h o lic ). T his a n a ly s is , p re se n te d in T able 14, ! \ j show s th a t th e re is a h ig h ly s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e b e tw ee n a stro lo g e rs « J and c lin ic ia n s in th e ty p e o f p re d ic tio n (alco h o lic and n o n -a lc o h o lic ; re s p e c tiv e ly ) th a t e ac h ten d e d to m ake ( p c .0 0 1 ) . i It sh o u ld b e n o ted th a t only th re e c lin ic ia n s a c h ie v e d s ta tis tic a l i » | sig n ific a n c e in th e c o rre c t pr e d ic ti on of n o n -a lc o h o lic s . T his co n trib u te d i s u b s ta n tia lly to th e sig n ific a n c e le v e ls a tta in e d by a ll te n c lin ic ia n s , 83 TABLE 14 CHI SQUARE CONTINGENCY TABLE FOR RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TYPE OF RATER AND TYPE OF RATING RATING C lin ic ia n s RATER A stro lo g ers 92 206 194 106 X = 69.51* * .001 84 both in c o rre c t p re d ic tio n s of n o n -a lc o h o lic s and in to ta l c o rre c t p re d ic tio n s . ! A lthough th e low num ber of a lc o h o lic p re d ic tio n s a lo n e co n trib u te d to th e c lin ic ia n s ' s u c c e s s in to ta l c o rre c t p re d ic tio n s an d in c o rre c t j p re d ic tio n s of n o n -a lc o h o lic s , i t a ls o a p p e a rs th a t c lin ic ia n s did d em - , o n s tra te som e fa c ility for id e n tify in g th e ty p e of MM PI p ro file produced i | by th e n o n -a lc o h o lic s . The p ro file s of th e n o n -a lc o h o lic s had far | few er T sc o re s e x ce e d in g 70 on th e c lin ic a l s c a le s th an did th o se of th e | a lc o h o lic s . In th o s e in s ta n c e s w here a n o n -a lc o h o lic had m arked i ■ e le v a tio n s on e ith e r th e D , Pd, Sc, or M a s c a le s (or a com bination I j th e re o f), c lin ic ia n s te n d e d to h ave a low ra te of ag reem en t on th e j a p p ro p ria te id e n tific a tio n . A lthough fla t p ro file s w ere g e n e ra lly id e n ti- I : fie d a s n o n -a lc o h o lic , i t did n ot a p p e a r th a t c lin ic ia n s w ere sim ply i i ! d istin g u ish in g b e tw ee n norm al and p sy c h o p a th o lo g ic a l p ro file s, s in c e a num ber o f e le v a te d p ro file s w ere a ls o id e n tifie d a s n o n -a lc o h o lic . ; H ow ever, th e d a ta do n ot support th e a b ility of c lin ic ia n s to in te rp re t ; th e p ro file c o n fig u ra tio n of a lc o h o lic s . It a p p e a rs e ith e r th a t th e ; c lin ic ia n s in c o rre c tly in te rp re te d th e s c a le s c o re s or th a t th e c lin ic a l : s c a le s of th e MM PI, for d ia g n o s tic p u rp o se s, a re not s u ffic ie n tly ; s e n s itiv e to th e c h a ra c te r is tic s of a lc o h o lic s . It m ay a ls o be th a t ! , th e re is lim ite d g e n e ra lity in th e c h a r a c te r is tic s of a lc o h o lic s . i ; A ppendix E p ro v id es th e MMPI p ro file d istrib u tio n s for a lc o h o lic s u b - i I je c ts and for n o n -a lc o h o lic s u b je c ts . S ev eral c lin ic ia n s e x p re s s e d co n cern th a t th e ir in te rp re ta tio n of th e MM PI s c a le s w as ham pered by th e a b s e n c e of inform ation on th e i 1 e d u c a tio n a l an d o c c u p a tio n a l s ta tu s of th e s u b je c ts . They w ere n ot i j provided w ith th a t inform ation in th is stu d y sin c e ev ery effort w as m ade to in su re th a t a stro lo g e rs m ade p re d ic tio n s so le ly on th e b a s is of 1 ' a s tro lo g ic a l d a ta . It w as not c o n sid e re d e q u ita b le to provide a d d itio n a l i I i 'in fo rm a tio n to c lin ic ia n s w hich w as n o t a c c e s s ib le to a s tro lo g e rs , i H ow ever, th e o b je c tio n r a is e d b y th e c lin ic ia n s is a v a lid o n e . For | in s ta n c e , s c a le s 4, 8, an d 9 on th e MM PI te n d to b e e le v a te d in h ig h ly e d u c a te d in d iv id u a ls . E lev atio n in th e s e s c a le s m ay be m isin te rp re te d ; if e d u c a tio n a l le v e l i s not ta k e n in to c o n s id e ra tio n . I ■ F uture re s e a rc h m ight in c lu d e a stu d y in w hich one group of ' c lin ic ia n s is g iv en bo th th e MM PI p ro file a n d th e b io g ra p h ic a l d a ta and ; th e o th er group o f c lin ic ia n s h a s a c c e s s o n ly to th e p ro file s . Both ' groups w ould b e a sk e d to d is tin g u is h b e tw e e n a lc o h o lic s and n o n a lc o h o lic s and th e ir perform ance w ould be co m p ared . • The in te r - r a te r r e lia b ility of th e c lin ic ia n s w as q u ite h ig h , in d i- i e a tin g th a t th e y w ere c o n s is te n t in th e u s e of th e ir c rite ria , p a rtic u la rly ' for th e id e n tific a tio n of n o n -a lc o h o lic s . The m ost common c rite rio n j ! u s e d by c lin ic ia n s for th e d e te c tio n o f a lc o h o lic s w as a 2 -7 -4 high point c o d e . A ttention w as a ls o g iv en to e le v a tio n s on s c a le s 8 and 9 ! an d th e F s c a le . I [ It sh o u ld b e n o ted th a t s ta tis tic a l sig n ific a n c e for to ta l c o rre c t p re d ic tio n s w as not a c h ie v e d by an y sin g le a stro lo g e r or c lin ic ia n . R ater re lia b ility for a sin g le ra te r w as low for both g ro u p s (se e T ab les i :i2 and 13). I t i The s ta tis tic a lly sig n ific a n t p re d ic tio n s of a lc o h o lic s and n o n - I a lc o h o lic s m ade by th e c lin ic ia n s m u st b e v iew ed in th e ap p ro p ria te ! ! p e rs p e c tiv e . T heir a ch iev e m e n t w as b a s e d la rg e ly on th e c o rre c t p re - | d ic tio n of non -a lc o h o lic s alo n e and d id n ot re fle c t a c a p a c ity for d iffe r- | e n tia l d ia g n o s is . Of p erh ap s g re a te r im port is th e fa c t th a t c lin ic ia n s i w ere n o t sig n ific a n tly m ore v a lid in th e ir to ta l p re d ic tio n s th a n th e t a s tro lo g e rs . In o v e ra ll r e s p o n s e s , th e a stro lo g e rs c o rre c tly c la s s if ie d | ! 50% of th e s u b je c ts and th e c lin ic ia n s c o rre c tly c la s s if ie d 56% of th e ! s u b je c ts . T h ese le v e ls of c la s s ific a to ry a c c u ra c y do n o t c o n s titu te a i ; d e p e n d a b le m easu re of a lc o h o lism for a p p lie d d ia g n o s tic p u rp o se s. I i An im portant finding in th e d a ta is th e d e m o n stra te d su p e rio rity of ; th e M acA ndrew A lcoholism S c a le over th e perform ance of a stro lo g e rs and ‘ c lin ic ia n s in th e c o rre c t id e n tific a tio n of a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s , ; R e su lts o b ta in e d from th e s c a le are in acco rd w ith M e e h l's (1954) . s tu d ie s su g g e stin g th a t a c tu a ria l p re d ic tio n is g e n e ra lly eq u al or su p erio r to c lin ic a l p re d ic tio n . The n a ta l c h art is d eriv ed from sta n d ard i i m ath em a tica l c a lc u la tio n s b u t th e m eaning of th e d a ta in th e c h a rt, for ! ; d ia g n o s tic p u rp o se s, w as su b je c t to in te rp re ta tio n by e a c h a s tro lo g e r. A sim ila r p ro c e ss w as em ployed b y c lin ic ia n s in th is stu d y s in c e th e y w ere re q u ire d to m ake s u b je c tiv e ju d g m en ts ab o u t th e m eaning o f th e 87 p sy ch o m etric d ata c o n ta in e d in th e MM PI p ro file . Both o f th e s e m ethods of a s s e s s m e n t a re in a c c o rd w ith M e e h l's d e fin itio n of c lin ic a l p re - i i d ic tio n sin c e th e d a ta w ere in te rp re te d in a n o n m ec h an ica l ( e . g . , non | | s ta tis tic a l) m anner. If e ith e r th e n a ta l c h a rt or th e MM PI p ro file had j i b e en u s e d in a m ec h an ica l w ay, th e re w ould h av e b e en no v a ria tio n i among a s tro lo g e rs or am ong c lin ic ia n s in th e ir p re d ic tio n of s u b je c ts a s i e ith e r a lc o h o lic or n o n -a lc o h o lic . The c la s s if ic a tio n of s u b je c ts a s i i : e ith e r a lc o h o lic or n o n -a lc o h o lic by th e M acA ndrew A lcoholism S c a le , I in c o n tra s t, w as produced by th e m e c h an ica l co m bination of p sy c h o - i I j m etric d a ta . T his p rocedure s a tis f ie s M e e h l's d e fin itio n of a c tu a ria l i 1 p re d ic tio n . The co m parison of a c tu a ria l v e rs u s c lin ic a l p red ic tio n in ! th is stu d y , h o w ev er, m ust be v iew ed c a u tio u s ly a s p re d ic tio n s by th e ; th re e m odes o f a s s e s s m e n t w ere not b a s e d on id e n tic a l d a ta . i : R e su lts of th is stu d y confirm e a rlie r fin d in g s on th e M acA ndrew i A lcoholism S c a le . In th e p re se n t in v e s tig a tio n th e s c a le c o rre c tly ! c la s s if ie d a ll a lc o h o lic s and e le v e n of th e 15 n o n -a lc o h o lic s w hen a 1 c u t-o ff sc o re of 24 w as u s e d . W hen th e c u t-o ff sc o re w as ra is e d to ! 28, a ll s u b je c ts w ere c o rre c tly c la s s if ie d e x c e p t for one a lc o h o lic . f j The m ean sc o re of the. a lc o h o lic s w as 32. 3 w ith a ran g e of 2 4 -3 8 . The m ean sc o re of th e n o n -a lc o h o lic s w as 2 1 .8 , w ith a ran g e of 13-27. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS I | In tro d u ctio n j A re s u rg e n c e of in te r e s t in th e fie ld of a stro lo g y is e v id e n t in w e ste rn c u ltu re to d a y . The in c lu s io n of a stro lo g y in th e c u rric u la of ■ u n iv ersities an d its u s e a s a p sy c h o d ia g n o stic to o l by c e rta in c lin ic ia n s i j s u g g e s ts a lim ite d b u t grow ing a c c e p ta n c e of a stro lo g y a s a le g itim a te i i | a re a of s c ie n tific re s e a rc h . I | A stro lo g ers to d a y subm it th a t th e n a ta l c h a rt c a n b e u s e d to d e te c t l a v a rie ty of p e rs o n a lity tr a its an d p sychodynam ic p a tte rn s . Among J th e s e c la im s is th e a b ility to u s e th e n a ta l c h a rt for th e id e n tific a tio n ! | of a lco h o lism in a g iv en in d iv id u a l (G arrison, 1971; Jan sk y , 1973). I i ‘ A lcoholism is c o n sid e re d to be one of th e m ost p e rs is te n t and l i ; e lu s iv e problem s in contem porary s o c ie ty . Its e tio lo g y and tre a tm e n t i a re n e ith e r fu lly u n d e rsto o d nor s u c c e s s fu l. The p o s s ib ility th a t a s tr o - i lo g ic a l fa c to rs a ffe c t th e g e n e s is of a lco h o lism m ay be ex p lo red by I ! c o n sid erin g th e u s e of n a ta l c h a rts a s a d ia g n o s tic to o l in th e d e te c tio n I | of a lc o h o lism . | A concom m itant q u e stio n for c o n sid e ra tio n i s w h eth er th e n a ta l ‘ c h a rt c a n provide com parable d ia g n o s tic a c c u ra c y w ith e x is tin g p sy c h o - ! d ia g n o s tic te c h n iq u e s u tiliz e d for th e d e te c tio n of a lc o h o lism . One of i ; 88 89 ' th e m ost w id ely u s e d in stru m e n ts for th is pu rp o se h a s b e e n th e M M PI. R esearch h a s in d ic a te d th a t th e re is a d is c e rn ib le c o rre la tio n b e tw ee n j j th e p re se n c e of a lc o h o lism an d c e rta in p a tte rn s of sc o re s a c h ie v e d on I th e MMPI (Hoyt & S e d la c e k , 1958; M acA ndrew , 1965; O v e rall, 197 3). i ! I This in v e s tig a tio n fo c u s e s on th e u s e of th e n a ta l c h a rt a s a d ia g - t i ' n o s tic to o l in th e id e n tific a tio n of a lc o h o lic s and a co m p ariso n of its t f I e ffic a c y w ith th e M M PI. The stu d y in c o rp o ra te d a tw o -fo ld u s a g e of | th e MMPI: 1) th e a c tu a ria l p red ic tio n of a lc o h o lism on th e M acA ndrew I A lcoholism S c a le , an d 2) th e id e n tific a tio n of a lc o h o lism by c lin ic a l i | in te rp re ta tio n of MMPI p ro file s . | i R eview o f th e L iteratu re i ' E xperim ental re s e a rc h in th e fie ld of a stro lo g y i s s p a rs e . The i i ! m ajo rity of s tu d ie s c o n d u c te d h av e not b e en s u b je c te d to s ta tis tic a l tre a tm e n t and a re c h a ra c te riz e d by lo o s e ly c o n tro lle d re s e a rc h d e sig n . A ttem pts to v e rify a re la tio n s h ip b e tw ee n a s tro lo g ic a l fa c to rs and p e rs o n a lity p a tte rn s h av e produced in c o n c lu s iv e r e s u lts . S tu d ies by Jung (1973), F arnsw orth (1939), and Addey (reported by G a u q u elin , 1970) ! fa ile d to provide e v id e n c e for a re la tio n s h ip . G au q u elin (197 0) d is - ' co v ered c e rta in c o rre la tio n s b e tw ee n a s tro lo g ic a l phenom ena and • o c c u p a tio n a l s ta tu s b u t co n clu d ed th e re w as no e v id e n c e for a c a u s e - i : e ffe c t re la tio n s h ip . C lark (19 60) found th a t a stro lo g e rs c o u ld c o rre c tly ! m atch n a ta l c h a rts and o c c u p a tio n s a t a le v e l e x ce ed in g c h a n c e . 9 0 . i C la rk 's s tu d ie s a ls o produced sig n ific a n t r e s u lts in th e a b ility of a stro lo g e rs to id e n tify th e n a ta l c h a rts of p e rso n s w ith c e re b ra l p a ls y . R e su lts o f se v e ra l o th er s tu d ie s id e n tify in g a re la tio n s h ip b etw een i I j p e rs o n a lity d iso rd e rs and a stro lo g y a re te n u o u s due to in a d e q u a te j re s e a rc h d e sig n (D arling < S c O liv er, 197 3; G a rriso n , 1971). i I In sp ite of th e la c k of d e fin itiv e re s e a rc h , th e p ra c tic e of a s tr o l- j | ogy is w id e sp re a d and is g ain in g in c re a s e d re c o g n itio n from p ro fe s s io n - i I a ls in aca d em ic fie ld s . The fo cu s of th e p re s e n t stu d y — a s tro lo g ic a l ! in flu e n c e s and a lc o h o lism — p ro v id es a n o th e r d im en sio n of re s e a rc h jb n i i a lc o h o lism . I > j i R esearch on alc o h o lism is a b u n d a n t, y e t th e re is s till a fa ilu re to j fu lly u n d e rsta n d th e c a u s e s of a lc o h o lism (M ad sen , 197 4). T heories of a lc o h o lism h a v e b e e n d e v elo p ed from p h y sio lo g ic a l, p sy c h o lo g ic a l, 1 s o c io lo g ic a l, and c u ltu ra l p e rs p e c tiv e s , b u t none of th e th e o rie s provide a co m p lete d e fin itio n o f th e " a lc o h o lic p e rs o n a lity . " (Law lis & Rubin, 1971). Prom inent re s e a rc h e rs in a lc o h o lism to d a y g e n e ra lly a d v o c a te a 1 m u lti-c a u s a l th e o ry of th e orig in of a lc o h o lism (C an tan zaro , 1967; j Fox, 1967). ! In order to a s s e s s th e r e la tiv e v a lu e o f th e n a ta l c h a rt a s a d ia g - I n o s tic to o l in th e id e n tific a tio n of a lc o h o lism , th is study u tiliz e d th e ; MMPI a s a co m p arativ e m e a su re . R esearch in d ic a te s th a t th e MMPI } , p ro file and s e v e ra l MMPI s c a le s can b e u se d to d istin g u is h a la rg e | proportion of a lc o h o lic s from n o n -a lc o h o lic s . Of th e s p e c ia l s c a le s d eriv ed for a lc o h o lism d e te c tio n , th e M acA ndrew A lcoholism S c a le is c le a rly su p erio r in i ts p re d ic tiv e v a lid ity (M acA ndrew , 1965). R esearch l on th e c lin ic a l s c a le s of th e MMPI in d ic a te s th a t th e a lc o h o lic is ;ty p ifie d by a 2 -4 -7 high p o in t co d e (M acAndrew & G e ertsm a , 1963; I 'O v e ra ll, 1973; R oth, R osenberg & L ev in so n , 1971). N e ith e r th e MMPI I p ro file nor th e M acA ndrew A lcoholism S cale a re in fa llib le in stru m e n ts for th e p red ic tio n of a lc o h o lism . N o n -a lc o h o lic s , for in s ta n c e , m ay I I a ls o o b ta in 2 -4 -7 high p o in t c o d e s . The fa ilu re to a c h ie v e 100% I i c la s s ific a to ry a c c u ra c y b e tw ee n a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s s u g g e s ts th a t e ith e r it is n o t p o s s ib le to c o n s is te n tly d is tin g u is h b e tw ee n th e i I ! tw o groups or th a t th e M M PI fa ils to d e te c t su b tle d iffe re n c e s w hich i , m ay be p re s e n t. i I : H y p o th e ses H y p o th e sis O n e: B ased on an in te rp re ta tio n o f th e n a ta l c h a rt, . a s tro lo g e rs can c o rre c tly id e n tify a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s in a g iv en sam ple c o n ta in in g b o th a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s a t a le v e l I ! sig n ific a n tly e x ce ed in g c h a n c e . i I H y p o th e sis Tw o: B ased on an in te rp re ta tio n of an MMPI p ro file , | c lin ic ia n s tra in e d in p s y c h o d ia g n o s tic s c a n c o rre c tly id e n tify a lc o h o lic s i | and n o n -a lc o h o lic s in a g iv en sam p le co n ta in in g b o th a lc o h o lic s and i ! n o n -a lc o h o lic s a t a le v e l sig n ific a n tly ex ce ed in g c h a n c e . i i I H y p o th e sis T h ree: B ased on s c o re s on th e M acA ndrew A lcoholism 92 S c a le of th e MM PI, a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s c a n b e c o rre c tly id e n tifie d in a g iv en sam ple c o n tain in g both a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o l ic s a t a le v e l s ig n ific a n tly e x ce ed in g c h a n c e . M ethodology j The stu d y w as co n ce rn e d w ith th e id e n tific a tio n of a lc o h o lic s and j n o n -a lc o h o lic s b y m eans of: 1) th e n a ta l c h a rt, a s in te rp re te d b y a s tr o l- i jo g ers; 2) th e MMPI p ro file , a s in te rp re te d by c lin ic ia n s ; an d 3) th e i - i iM acA ndrew A lcoholism S c a le of th e M M PI. The sam p le c o n s is te d of fifte e n a lc o h o lic s and fifte e n n o n - ! a lc o h o lic s (N=30). A lcoholic s u b je c ts w ere random ly s e le c te d from a ; pool of 25 a lc o h o lic s draw n from th re e tre a tm e n t program s for alco h o lism . 'N o n -a lc o h o lic s u b je c ts w ere draw n from a pool of 23 n o n -a lc o h o lic s ; who had b e en id e n tifie d by th e in v e s tig a to r b y m ean s of a sta n d a rd in te rv ie w . All s u b je c ts w ere m ale and ran g ed in a g e from 26 to 37. M ean ag e of th e a lc o h o lic s u b je c ts w as 3 0 .7 and m ean a g e of th e n o n a lc o h o lic s u b je c ts w as 3 0 .5 . Ten a s tro lo g e rs w ere g iv en th e n a ta l c h a rts o f e ac h of th e 30 i s u b je c ts . The a s tro lo g e rs w ere g iv en a s e t of w ritte n in s tru c tio n s re q u e stin g th a t th e y id e n tify a lc o h o lic s on th e b a s is o f th e ir in te rp re ta tio n : of th e n a ta l c h a rt. They w ere to ld th a t som e, n o n e , or a ll of th e su b - ! je c ts w ere a lc o h o lic s . Ten c lin ic ia n s w ere g iv en th e MMPI p ro file s for e a c h of th e 30 93 s u b je c ts . The c lin ic ia n s w ere g iv en a s e t of w ritte n in s tru c tio n s re q u e stin g th a t th e y id e n tify a lc o h o lic s on th e b a s is of th e ir in te rp re ta tio n of th e MMPI p ro file . They w ere to ld th a t som e, none, or a ll of th e su b je c ts w ere a lc o h o lic s . ! S co res on th e M acA ndrew A lcoholism S c a le w ere d eriv ed for e a c h i iof th e 30 s u b je c ts . S u b je c ts w ere th e n c la s s if ie d a s e ith e r a lc o h o lic or i { [n o n -a lc o h o lic on th e b a s is of th e ir s c a le s c o re s . i 1 ! A ch i sq u are g o o d n e ss of fit t e s t w as com puted in o rd er to d e te r- i i 'm ine if s ig n ific a n t d e v ia tio n from c h a n c e p re d ic tio n o c c u rre d . An i ‘a n a ly s is w as done for e a c h o f th e th re e m ethods of a s s e s s m e n t (a s tro l- i i io g e rs, c lin ic ia n s , and M acA ndrew A lcoholism S cale) for o v e ra ll p re - ; d ic tiv e a b ility and for p re d ic tiv e a b ility s e p a ra te ly on a lc o h o lic s and on n o n -a lc o h o lic s . A chi sq u are g o o d n e ss of fit te s t w as a ls o run to com - \ j pare d iffe re n c e s in p re d ic tiv e a b ility b e tw e e n th e th re e g ro u p s. S ta tis tic a l sig n ific a n c e for a ll c h i sq u are g o o d n e ss of fit t e s t s w as s e t a t a ; minimum le v e l of p*£ . 05. In te r-ra te r re lia b ility for a s tro lo g e rs an d for c lin ic ia n s w as c a l - i c u la te d by com puting an in tr a c la s s c o rre la tio n c o e ffic ie n t of ra te r \ ! r e lia b ility . I I I I | F indings H y p o th e sis one w as re je c te d . The ra tin g s of a s tro lo g e rs did not i t d e v ia te from a c h a n c e le v e l of p re d ic tio n for com bined a lc o h o lic s and 94 i n o n -a lc o h o lic s . The a n a ly s is of a s tro lo g e rs ' id e n tific a tio n s e p a ra te ly ( i of a lc o h o lic s and of n o n -a lc o h o lic s , show ed th a t a s tro lo g e rs c o rre c tly I i i id e n tifie d a lc o h o lic s a t a s ta tis tic a lly sig n ific a n t le v e l (p c .O O l). | |H ow ever, th e y a ls o in c o rre c tly id e n tifie d n o n -a lc o h o lic s a t a s t a t i s t i c a l l y sig n ific a n t le v e l (p -£ .0 0 1 ). i H y p o th e sis tw o w as a c c e p te d . The ra tin g s of c lin ic ia n s in th e i i ;c o rre c t p red ic tio n of a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s com bined w as i ! i s ta tis tic a lly s ig n ific a n t (p < c .0 5 ). C lin ic ia n s a c h ie v e d s ta tis tic a l s ig - i jn ific a n c e (p*«c .001) in c o rre c t p re d ic tio n of n o n -a lc o h o lic s a lo n e . H ow - l | ev er, th e y a ls o in c o rre c tly id e n tifie d a lc o h o lic s a t a s ta tis tic a lly s ig n if- l l lic a n t le v e l (p<^. 01). j H y p o th e sis th re e is a c c e p te d . The M acA ndrew A lcoholism S c a le i I c o rre c tly p re d ic te d com bined a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s a t a high i i le v e l of s ta tis tic a l s ig n ific a n c e (p-s .001). The 24 point c u t-o ff sc o re : on th e s c a le produced s ig n ific a n t p red ic tio n of a lc o h o lic s s e p a ra te ly i (100% c o rrect) b u t n ot of n o n -a lc o h o lic s . W henthe c u t-o ff sc o re w as I r a is e d to 28, th e s c a le w as s ta tis tic a lly sig n ific a n t in c o rre c t p re - l ' d ic tio n of a lc o h o lic s a lo n e and of n o n -a lc o h o lic s a lo n e . i C lin ic ia n s and a s tro lo g e rs did not d iffer s ig n ific a n tly in th e ir i | o v e ra ll p red ic tio n of a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s . The M acA ndrew ! .A lcoholism S c a le w as sig n ific a n tly m ore v a lid in i ts p re d ic tio n th an e ith e r a s tro lo g e rs or c lin ic ia n s (p < .01). i ! _ _ _ __ The m ean j.n te r-ra te r r e lia b ility for a stro lo g e rs w as .6 3 an d th e 95 m ean in te r - r a te r re lia b ility for c lin ic ia n s w as .8 3 . I D is c u s s io n ! ! I The fin d in g s of th is stu d y do not su p p o rt th e h y p o th e sis th a t i a s tro lo g ic a l te c h n iq u e s c an b e u tiliz e d to id e n tify a lc o h o lic s and n o n a lc o h o lic s . T here is lim ite d support for th e h y p o th e sis th a t th e MMPI 1 1 iprofile, a s in te rp re te d by th e c lin ic ia n s , can b e u se d to id e n tify j •alco h o lics and n o n -a lc o h o lic s . E vidence for th is h y p o th e s is , how ever, i ,is prim arily b a s e d on th e a b ility of c lin ic ia n s to c o rre c tly id e n tify n o n - l ■ a lc o h o lic s ra th e r th a n a lc o h o lic s and d o e s n o t re fle c t a c a p a c ity for i |tru e d iffe re n tia l d ia g n o s is . There is strong support for th e h y p o th e sis j 'th a t th e M acA ndrew A lcoholism S c a le c an b e u s e d to id e n tify a high I i proportion of a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s . i ; Of th e th re e p ro c e s s e s u se d in th is stu d y for th e id e n tific a tio n of a lc o h o lic s and n o n -a lc o h o lic s , th e M acA ndrew A lcoholism S c a le i s c le a rly su p e rio r. A co m p ariso n b e tw ee n a s tro lo g e rs and c lin ic ia n s show ed th a t th e y did n ot d iffer a t a sig n ific a n t le v e l in to ta l num ber of c o rre c t p re d ic tio n s. ! The s u c c e s s of a stro lo g e rs in th e c o rre c t id e n tific a tio n of a lc o h o l i lie s a lo n e a p p e a re d to b e m ainly a fu n c tio n .o f th e high p e rc e n ta g e of i i I a lc o h o lic id e n tific a tio n s m ade. A d d itio n ally , a sm all num ber (3) of | ■ a s tro lo g e rs w ere la rg e ly re s p o n s ib le for ra is in g th e s ig n ific a n c e le v e l I I i a tta in e d by th e e n tire gro u p . S ince a s tro lo g e rs w ere not s u c c e s s fu l in | 96 i lidentifying n o n -a lc o h o lic s, it was concluded th at astro lo g ers in th is study were not able to u tiliz e th e n a ta l chart as an effective d iagnostic tool for the differentiation of a lco h o lics and n o n -a lc o h o lic s. The s ta tis tic a lly significant achievem ent of the c lin ic ia n s in the correct id en tificatio n of n o n -a lc o h o lic s alone appeared to have been at i ;le ast p artially attrib u tab le to the high percentage of n o n -alco h o lic j i I se le c tio n s m ade. M ost n o n -a lc o h o lic s and many a lc o h o lic s were id e n - I ItifLed a s n o n -a lc o h o lic s. How ever, u n elev ated profiles were gen erally i I !id entified a s n o n -alc o h o lic , thus ind icatin g th a t th o se correct p red ic- I itions were not due solely to th e ten d en cy tow ard rating m ost profiles as ( ! in o n -alco h o lic. Profile configurations of alco h o lics were not recognized ■by c lin ic ia n s with any degree of c ertain ty . A sm all number of clin ician s r | were larg ely resp o n sib le for raisin g th e significance le v e ls attain e d by th e entire group. It was concluded th a t the u se of the MMPI profile by the c lin ic ia n s in th is study did not provide a dependable m easure of alcoholism for d iag n o stic p u rp o ses. ; Recommendations l l Although the s u c c e s s of a stro lo g ers in correctly identifying ! a lco h o lics alone w as attributed to th e large number of alco h o lic id e n ti fica tio n s m ade, other p o ssib le exp lan atio n s for th is finding should not be ruled out. A rep lica tio n of th is study should include ex ten siv e b io - ; g raphical inform ation on the su b je c ts in order to determ ine other v a ria 97 b les which may account for th e d iscrep an cy in correct predictions betw een alco h o lics and n o n -a lc o h o lic s. For exam ple, n o n -alc o h o lic s j identified a s a lc o h o lic s may be over-indulgent or a d d ictiv e in areas i I other than alcohol consum ption. The p o ssib ility th a t th e mere w eighting of alco h o lic id en tificatio n ' (by astrologers) and of n o n -alc o h o lic id en tific atio n s (by c lin ician s) j contributed to the a ttain e d sig n ifican ce le v e ls should be exam ined. In i ‘ ' ; order to in su re th at th is w as not a spurious in flu en ce on th e outcom e, astro lo g ers and c lin ic ia n s might be told how many a lc o h o lic s and non- i alco h o lics are in the sam ple in a rep licatio n of the study. ! J Previous re sea rch h as dem onstrated a correlation betw een alcohol ; ism and elev atio n s in certain c lin ic a l sc a le s of the MMPI. The c lin i- i cian s in th is study had a low er rate of c la ss ific a to ry accuracy than i j reported in other re se a rc h stu d ies on th e u se of the MMPI profile in the ; detectio n of alcoho lism . Future rep lica tio n s should attem pt to provide : re a so n s for th is difference and to determ ine whether the current sam ple ! of c lin ic ia n s or th o se u se d in other stu d ies were performing norm atively j The MacAndrew Alcoholism Scale appears to be a very reliab le j \ m easure of alco holism . More re se a rc h is needed to in v e stig a te the j l | p o ssib ility th at th e accu racy of the sc a le is im proved by raisin g th e ! c u t-o ff score to 28. The sam ple siz e of th is study was too sm all to arrive a t any co n clu sio n s about the m ost appropriate c u t-o ff sco re. ! The fact th at the n atal chart could not be u sed to discrim inate 98 1 betw een a lc o h o lic s and n o n -alc o h o lic s in th is study should not d is courage re s e a rc h e rs from in v estig atin g rela tio n sh ip s betw een astrolog y iand other ty p es of psychodynam ics. The re s u lts of th is study offer little i j ; support for the v alid ity of a stro lo g ica l tech n iq u e in the id en tificatio n of i alcoholism . However, th is does not imply th at astro lo g ical principles 'in g en eral have little v a lid ity . i I ! A strological re se a rc h is ex cep tio n ally com plex since there are so ! I jmany v a ria b le s involved. Future resea rch on rela tio n sh ip s betw een i | psychological phenomena and a stro lo g ica l factors would probably be |m ost efficien tly conducted by com bined efforts of p sy c h o lo g ists and !a s tro lo g e rs . The ex p ertise of each group is n eeded to enhance both f ^research d esig n and a n a ly sis of th e d a ta . I i i i i L________ REFERENCES 99 REFERENCES Astrology: Fad and phenomenon. Tim e. M arch 21, 1969, 47-48. Astrology: Skies are th e lim it. Los A ngeles T im es, January 15, 1975, 94, Part I, 1 & 16. B ales, R. F. C ultural d ifferences in ra te s of alcoholism . 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I A bstinence and normal drinking: An a s s e s s m e n t of ch anges in | drinking p atterns in a lc o h o lic s after treatm ent. Q uarterly Tournal I of Studies on A lcohol, 1968, 29, 610-633. ! Rado, S. N arcotic bon dage. American Tournal of P sy ch iatry , 19 57, 114, 165-170. Rhodes, R. J. The MacAndrew Alcoholism Scale: A rep lica tio n . Journal! of C linical P sychology, 1966, .25, 189-191. Roe, A ., & Burks, B. Adult adjustm ent of foster children of alcoholic and psychotic parentage and the influence of th e fo ster home. M emoirs of th e Section on Alcohol S tudies, Yale U niversity, No. 3. Q uarterly Journal of Studies on A lcohol, New H aven, 1945. Rogers, C. C lient cen tered th e ra p y . Boston: Houghton M ifflin, 1951. Roth, L. H . , Rosenberg, N. , & L evinson, R. B. Prison adjustm ent of alco holic felo n s. Q uarterly Tournal of Studies on A lcohol, 1971, 32, 382-392. Rotman, S. R ., & V estre, N. D. 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Q uarterly Tournal of Studies on j A lcohol, 1951, 12, 381-385. j Snyder, C. R. Alcohol and the Tews: A cultural study of drinking and I so b rie ty . G lencoe, Illin o is: The Free P ress, 1958. I | Snyder, C . R. Why h o rosco pes are true: The e ffe cts of sp e cificity on a cc e p ta n c e of a stro lo g ica l in te rp re ta tio n s. Tournal of C lin ical 105 P sychology, 1974, 30, 577-580. Tobey, C. P. An astrolog y primer for the m illio n s. Los Angeles: Sherboum e P ress, 1965. Trice, H. M . Alcoholism in A m erica. New York: M cG raw -H ill, 1966. W est, J . A. , & Toonder, J . G. The c a s e for a stro lo g y . Baltimore: Penguin Books, 197 3. W hisler, R. H. , 6c Cantor, J. M. The MacAndrew Alcoholism Scale: A c ro s s-v a lid a tio n in a dom iciliary se ttin g . Tournal of C lin ical Psychology, 1966, 2_2, 311-312. \w illiam s., R. J . A lcoholism : The nutritional a p p ro ach . Austin, Texas: U niversity of Texas P ress, 1959. Winokur, G. , 6c C layton, P. J . Family h isto ry stu d ies: I V . Com pari son of m ale and fem ale a lc o h o lic s. Q uarterly Journal of Studies on A lcohol, 1968, 29, 885. W inokur, G. , Reich, T . , Rimmer, J . , 6c Pitts, F. Alcoholism: I I I . D iagnosis and fam ilial p sy ch iatric illn e s s in 259 alcoho lic probands. A rchives of G eneral P sy c h ia try , 1 0 ^ 7 0, 23, 104. APPENDIX A 106 INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR SELECTION OF NON-ALCOHOLIC SUBJECTS Have you ever participated in a treatm ent program for alcoholism or problem drinking? Have you ever experienced sig n ifican t in terference in your work, fam ily or so cial life due to e x c e ssiv e drinking ? Have you ever been a rre sted for any leg al violation involving th e u se of alcoho l? Do you u su a lly have a drink (a c o c k ta il, b eer or wine) every evening (or every day)? Do you norm ally have a drink more than four days of th e week ? If you go to a co ck tail party or so c ial gathering where liquor is being served, do you u su a lly drink a sufficient quantity to becom e in to x ic a te d ? If you are in a situation where you are drinking, do you custom arily have more than two drinks? If you go out to lunch, do you u su a lly have one or more c o c k ta ils ? Do you u su a lly feel lik e having a drink when you are d e p re ssed or feeling down? Do you drink by yo urself very o ften ? Do you co nsider yourself, in any way, to be dependent on alcoh ol? Do you u su a lly smoke m arijuana on a regular b a s is ? 13. Do you u su a lly smoke m arijuana more than three tim es a w eek? 14. Do you u se any drugs, including hallucin ogen s, on a regular b a s is (except for m edical purposes)? 15. Do you u su ally u se any drugs (such a s LSD, m escalin e, cocaine, e tc .) more than once a m onth? Note: The q u e stio n s contained in th is interview were designed to in c re a se the certain ty of including only true n o n -alc o h o lic s in th e study and are not intended to be u sed as a general te s t for alcoholism . It is quite p o ssib le th a t many non a lc o h o lic s would answ er in the affirm ative to one or more of th e above q u e stio n s. APPENDIX B 109 I INSTRUCTIONS FOR ASTROLOGERS i I I ! E nclosed in th is packet are th e n a ta l charts of thirty m ales. Some, i | .none, or all of th e s e individuals are a lc o h o lic s. P lease make the fo l- i ; lowing a s s e s s m e n t for each individual: Based on your interpretation of the natal chart, would you identify th is person as , an alcoholic or a n o n -alc o h o lic . It is im portant th a t you identify a ll thirty sub- ! je c ts a s either alcoholic or n o n -alc o h o lic . ' In th e cen ter of each chart there is a number code. W hen you I I have id en tified a chart as belonging to either an alcoholic or a non- I i | alco h o lic, enter your d ecisio n in th e sp ace provided on the en clo sed , "Identification S heet. " P lease be sure th at the chart number you are entering corresponds with th e number on th e Id en tificatio n Sheet. Please briefly sta te the astro lo g ical rea so n s for any chart you identify a s b e longing to an a lco h o lic. This can be done on th e Identification Sheet or you may a ttac h extra sh e e ts , providing you identify the number of th e chart. I have en clo se d a se lf-a d d re s se d , stam ped envelope for you to return th e data d irectly to m e. P lease return th e com pleted Id en tific a- I tion Sheet to me by June 2 0. I am conducting th is rese a rc h for my doctoral d isse rta tio n in C ounselor Education. I know you are all b u sy with your own projects l and I am deeply ap p reciativ e of your w illin g n ess to give your tim e and effort in a s s is tin g me in th is re se a rc h . When th e re su lts are com piled, I will be p leased to share and d isc u ss them with you. P lease do not h e sita te to c o n ta ct me a t any tim e if you have any q u e stio n s. Thank you very much. APPENDIX INSTRUCTIONS FOR CLINICIANS i E n clo sed in th is p ack et a re th e MMPI p ro file s of th irty m a le s, in - I I eluding th e age of each person. Some, none, or a ll of th e s e individuals i are a lc o h o lic s. Please make the following a s s e s s m e n t for each in d iv i- i ' dual: i j | Based on your interpretation of the MMPI I profile, would you identify th is person a s | an alcoholic or a n o n -alc o h o lic . It is I im portant th at you identify a ll thirty su b - | je c ts a s either alcoholic or n o n -alc o h o lic . 1 In th e sp ace for "Signature" a t th e bottom of each MMPI profile, there is a c ircled id en tificatio n number for the profile. When you have identified a profile a s belonging either to an alcoholic or a n o n -alc o h o l ic , enter your d ecisio n on the e n clo se d Identificatio n S heet. P lease be I sure th a t th e number of the MMPI profile you are entering corresponds with th e number on the Identification S heet. P lease in d ic a te , briefly, the criteria you u se d in any profile you identify a s belonging to an alc o h o lic . This can be done on th e Id en tifi- , cation Sheet or you may a ttac h extra s h e e ts , providing you identify the , number of th e profile. I ! P lease return the Identification Sheet and the profiles in th is envelope by June 23. If you w ish to receiv e individual feedback on your re s u lts but prefer to rem ain anonym ous, p le a se remember the le tte r | a ssig n e d on the front of your envelope. If anonym ity is not im portant, sim ply write your name on the front of th e envelope. I am conducting th is re se a rc h for my doctoral d isse rta tio n in 1 I C ounselor Education. I know you are all busy with your own projects |and I am deeply ap p reciativ e of your w illin g n ess to give your tim e and ! : effort in a s s is tin g me in th is re s e a rc h . When th e resu lts are com piled, i ' l will be p leased to share and d isc u ss them with you. j i Please do not h e s ita te to c o n ta ct me a t any tim e if you have any | q u e stio n s. Thank you very m uch. APPENDIX THE MACANDREW ALCOHOLISM SCALE L isted below are th e 51 M M PIitem s which com prise th e MacAndrew Alcoholism S c a le . Each item is follow ed by the designation T (True) or F (False), indicating th e direction in which an item is scored a s an alco holic resp o n se . 6. I like to read new spaper a rtic le s on crim e. (T) 27. I feel th a t it is c ertain ly b e s t to keep my mouth shut when I'm in , tro u b le . (T) . 34. I have a cough m ost of th e tim e. (T) 50. My soul som etim es le a v e s my body. (T) 56. As a youngster I was suspended from school one or more tim es for cutting up. (T) 57. I am a good m ixer. (T) 58. Everything is turning out ju s t lik e the prophets of th e Bible said it w ould. (T) 61. I have not lived th e right kind of life . (T) 81. I think I would like the kind of work a forest ranger d o e s . (T) 86. I am certain ly lacking in se lf-c o n fid e n c e . (F) 94. I do many things which I regret afterw ards (I regret things more or more often than others seem to). (T) 116. I enjoy a rac e or gam e b etter when I bet on i t . (T) 118. In school I was som etim es sen t to th e principal for cutting up.(T) 120. My ta b le m anners are not quite a s good a t home as when I am out in com pany. (F) 127. I know who is resp o n sib le for m ost of my tro u b le s. (T) 117 128. The sight of blood n eith er frightens me nor m akes me sic k . (T) 130. I have never vom ited blood or coughed up blood. (F) 140. I like to cook (T) 149. I used to keep a diary. (F) 156. I have had periods in which I carried on a c tiv itie s without la te r knowing what I had been<g/oing. (T) 17 3. I liked school. (F) 179. I am worried about sex m atters. (F) 186. I frequently no tice my hand sh ak es when I try to do som ething. (T) 215. I have u sed alcohol e x c e ssiv e ly . (T) 224. My parents have often ob jected to th e kind of people I went around w ith . (T) 235. I have been quite independent and free from family ru le. (T) 243. I have few or no p a in s. (T) 2 51. I have had blank sp e lls in which my a c tiv itie s were interrupted and I did not know w hat w as going on around me. (T) 263. I sw eat very e a sily even on cool d ays. (T) 278. I have often felt th a t strangers were looking at me c ritic a lly . (F) 283. If I were a reporter I would like very much to report sporting n ew s. (T) 294. I have never been in trouble with th e law . (F) 309. I seem to make friends about a s quickly a s others do. (T) 320. M any of my dream s are about sex m atters. (F) 335. I cannot keep my mind on one th in g . (F) 118 356. I have more trouble concentrating than others seem to hav e. (F) 37 8. I am em barrassed by dirty sto rie s. (F) 413. I d eserve severe punishm ent for my s in s . (T) 419. I played hooky from school quite often a s a youngster. (T) 426. I have at tim es had to be rough with people who were rude or ann oyin g. (T) 445. I was fond of excitem ent when I was young (or in childhood). (T) 446. Policem en are u su a lly h o n e st. (T) 460. I have u sed alcohol m oderately (or not at all). (F) 477. If I were in trouble with sev eral friends who were equally to blam e I would rather tak e th e whole blam e than to give them aw ay. (T) 482. My plans have frequently seem ed so full of difficulties th a t I have had to give them up. (T) 483. C hrist performed m iracles such as changing w ater into w ine. (T) 488. I pray several tim es every w eek. (T) 500. I readily becom e one hundred per cen t sold on a good id e a . (T) 507. I have frequently worked under people who seem to have things arranged so th at th ey get cred it for good work but are able to p a ss off m istak es onto th o se under them . (T) 529. I would lik e to w ear expensive c lo th e s . (T) 562. The one to whom I was m ost a ttac h ed and whom I m ost adm ired as a child was a woman (mother, sis te r, aunt, or other woman). (T) APPENDIX 12 sjl 57 61 64 36 63 48 51 64 44 47 47 53 41 50 58 52 MM PI PROFILE DISTRIBUTION FOR SUBJECTS Alcoholic Subjects L F K Hs D £ 2 Pd Mf Pa Pt #1 43 62 57 47 63 53 67 65 67 71 #2 43 82 35 67 60 55 65 75 79 73 #3 42 85 31 53 65 53 70 61 75 76 #4 45 77 47 53 62 60 71 61 59 69 #5 42 72 41 52 77 49 75 57 76 73 #6 46 55 44 49 58 53 67 65 58 52 #7 40 62 41 55 65 56 64 69 57 60 #8 53 57 51 ' 49 60 51 55 65 65 60 #9 43 70 55 47 62 63 86 84 65 73 #10 46 64 55 65 57 69 83 77 53 65 #11 42 58 49 37 51 46 79 59 45 55 #12 55 60 49 47 70 60 71 72 62 63 #13 43 52 62 48 51 56 69 71 67 56 #14 52 60 52 62 57 65 80 98 59 58 #15 40 70 46 52 72 55 90 67 74 75 M ean 45 66 48 52 62 56 73 70 64 65 MM PI PROFILE DISTRIBUTION FOR SUBJECTS ! Non- Alcoholic Subjects L . F JL Hs D Hy Pd Mf Pa ZL §c Ma Si #1 44 53 61 49 58 56 65 65 59 62 59 65 35 #2 53 58 67 49 51 65 68 74 65 52 55 63 51 #3 40 58 62 70 51 67 74 62 47 65 68 87 46 #4 50 50 63 47 53 55 55 67 38 50 45 63 40 #5 40 55 53 47 45 57 60 69 50 50 77 75 41 #6 42 94 47 93 95 85 74 55 58 79 98 57 65 #7 43 47 55 43 63 53 47 71 50 50 47 70 43 #8 53 57 51 57 89 60 55 61 47 81 71 53 68 #9 50 60 55 57 50 55 54 71 53 62 57 67 49 #10 47 52 61 54 46 65 57 86 57 50 61 60 41 #11 43 53 53 40 48 45 50 69 53 48 50 65 50 #12 40 62 35 69 75 69 69 90 52 73 69 58 56 #13 47 48 62 47 48 64 67 71 58 50 53 68 66 #14 60 63 55 70 103 80 77 83 75 89 85 48 81 #15 40 55 63 52 55 60 71 72 56 58 61 65 47 i _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ — T _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ! I M ean 46 58 56 56 62 62 63 71 54 61 64 64 52

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Asset Metadata

Creator MacHarg, Suzanne Jane (author)

Core Title The use of the natal chart in the identification of alcoholism and a comparison of its diagnostic efficacy with the MMPI

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,psychology, personality

Language English

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-446019

Unique identifier UC11245969

Identifier usctheses-c26-446019 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP24144.pdf

Dmrecord 446019

Document Type Dissertation

Rights MacHarg, Suzanne Jane

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA