University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The effects of advance organizer format and learner personality in the learning and retention of verbal material

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The effects of advance organizer format and learner personality in the learning and retention of verbal material

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Content THE EFFECTS OF ADVANCE ORGANIZER FORMAT AND LEARNER PERSONALITY IN THE LEARNING AND RETENTION OF VERBAL MATERIAL by F r e d e r i c a L i n s l e y G e ig e r A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n t e d t o th e FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA I n P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f th e R e q u ire m e n ts f o r t h e D egree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (E d u c a tio n ) Ju n e 1978 UMI Number: DP24276 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Polishing UMI DP24276 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 UNIVERSITY O F SO U T H E R N CALIFORNIA THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by F r e de r i.c a. „L i n s 1 e x . fie i&e.X................. under the direction of A6.L.. Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of the degree of D 0 C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y Dean E c l M i P ^ _ 0 t d £ 3 M Jls&ST- CONTENTS Page LIST OP TABLES ................................................................................... C h a p te r I . THE PROBLEM . . ......................................................... . . 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n B ackground t o t h e S tu d y S ta te m e n t o f t h e Problem R e s e a rc h H y p o th e ses D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms A ssum ptions D e l i m i t a t i o n s O r g a n iz a t i o n o f t h e Rem ainder o f t h e D i s s e r t a t i o n I I . REVIEW OP THE LITERATURE ............................... . . 17 D e sig n T heory V e rb a l Advance O rg a n iz e r s A l t e r n a t e F o rm ats f o r Advance O r g a n iz e r s A p titu d e - T r e a tm e n t I n t e r a c t i o n Advance O r g a n iz e r S t u d i e s L e a r n e r P e r s o n a l i t y S t u d i e s P e r s o n a l i t y F a c t o r s and Advance O r g a n iz e r F orm ats I I I . METHODOLOGY .................................................................... . . 51 E x p e r im e n ta l D esig n E x p e r im e n ta l Sample I n d e p e n d e n t V a r i a b l e s D ependent V a r i a b l e s E x p e rim e n ta l M a t e r i a l s I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n F i e l d P r o c e d u r e s P r e p a r a t i o n o f D ata S t a t i s t i c a l A n a ly s is i i C h a p te r Page IV. RESULTS AND D IS C U S S IO N ...................................................... 64 R e s u l t s D i s c u s s io n V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . 76 Summary C o n c lu s io n s Rec ommendati ons REFERENCES........................................................................................................ 8 l APPENDICES........................................................................................................ 92 A. V e rb a l Advance O r g a n iz e r ............................................... 93 B. V i s u a l Advance O r g a n iz e r ............................................... 95 C. C o n tr o l P a s s a g e .......................................................................... 98 D. L e a r n in g P a ss a g e . . . . . ........................................... 100 E. C r i t e r i o n P o s t t e s t ................................................................ 106 P. Raw D a t a .......................................................................................... 113 LIST OP TABLES T a b le Page 1. R e l i a b i l i t y C o e f f i c i e n t s and D i r e c t V a l i d i t i e s on t h e B a s is o f M u l t i p l e C o r r e l a t i o n f o r F a c t o r s G and Q3 on Two Form S c a le s o f t h e J r , - S r . High S cho ol P e r s o n a l i t y Q u e s t i o n n a i r e (HSPQ,) i ^ ^ ^ ^ .......................................... 59 2. Means and S ta n d a r d D e v i a t io n s by T re a tm e n t Group .................................................................... 67 3. G e n e r a liz e d R e g r e s s i o n A n a ly s is E x p erim en t I - - F a c t o r G: S uperego S t r e n g t h .............................................................. 68 4. G e n e r a li z e d R e g r e s s io n A n a ly s is E x p erim en t I I - - F a c t o r Q3 : S e l f - S e n t i m e n t ......................................................................... 69 i v CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM I n t r o d u c t i o n I n r e c e n t y e a rs ^ much r e s e a r c h i n i n s t r u c t i o n a l t e c h n o lo g y h a s been d i r e c t e d to w ard d i s c o v e r i n g how to t a i l o r p a r t i c u l a r k in d s o f i n s t r u c t i o n to p a r t i c u l a r k in d s o f l e a r n e r s . I n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o t h i s a r e a m ust c o n s i d e r t h r e e a s p e c t s o f th e l e a r n i n g e n v ir o n m e n t - - t h e k in d o f l e a r n i n g t a s k , th e a p t i t u d e s o f th e l e a r n e r , and th e d e s ig n e le m e n ts o f th e m essage. Many, i f n o t m o st, o f th e l e a r n in g t a s k s w hich c o n c e rn fo rm a l e d u c a ti o n a r e v e r b a l . S t u d e n t s a r e a sk e d to r e a d m a t e r i a l , to u n d e r s t a n d what th e y have r e a d , and to remember i t . The k in d s o f l e a r n e r s who a r e e x p o sed to th e s e v e r b a l t a s k s d i f f e r i n many ways. In a d d i t i o n to such f a c t o r s a s t h e i r IQ s c o r e s , t h e i r s e x e s , and t h e i r a g e s , t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t i e s d i f f e r . W hile num erous s t u d i e s have exam ined IQ, se x , and age a s im p o r t a n t l e a r n e r t r a i t s , p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s have r e c e n t l y emerged a s l e a r n e r t r a i t s w o rth i n v e s t i g a t i n g . In c o n s i d e r i n g how to c o n s t r u c t m a t e r i a l s f o r l e a r n e r s o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s , i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e s i g n e r s have i n v e s t i g a t e d many d e s ig n e l e m e n ts. A m a jo r one o f t h e s e h a s been th e se q u e n c in g and 1 2 a rra n g e m e n t o f th e m a t e r i a l . The e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f i n t r o d u c to r y p a s s a g e s , such a s advance o r g a n i z e r s , h a s been th e fo c u s o f s e v e r a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . W hile no c o n c l u s i v e a n sw e rs have been r e a c h e d r e g a r d i n g th e u t i l i t y o f th e s e i n t r o d u c t i o n s , t h e r e i s a s t r o n g s u g g e s t i o n t h a t such p a s s a g e s may be v a l u a b l e f o r some k in d s o f l e a r n e r s in v o lv e d i n some k in d s o f t a s k s . In view o f t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , t h i s s tu d y was u n d e r ta k e n to exam ine th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tween c e r t a i n l e a r n e r p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s and s p e c i f i c types, o f advance o r g a n i z e r s i n th e l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n o f v e r b a l m a t e r i a l . B ackground to th e S tudy One o f th e f a i l i n g s o f p a s t r e s e a r c h i n i n s t r u c t i o n a l te c h n o lo g y o f t e n commented upon by r e v i e w e r s h a s been th e l a c k o f c o n s i s t e n t , g e n e r a l i z a b l e r e s u l t s ( S a e t t l e r , 19^8; Snow & Salomon, 1 9 6 8; Gordon, 1 97 0j A lle n , 1971; Campeau, 197^; O lson, 197^; C la rk , 1 9 7 5 ). These r e v i e w e r s have found th e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h i s f a i l i n g in th e r e l a t i v e l y g r o s s n a t u r e o f th e s e s t u d i e s . These e a r l i e r s t u d i e s , a s D iV e sta (1975) p o i n t e d o u t , were p r i m a r i l y d e s ig n e d to answ er such q u e s t i o n s a s : Can f i l m each ? I s t e l e v i s i o n b e t t e r th a n l i v e l e c t u r e ? I s c o v e r t r e s p o n s e as e f f e c t i v e a s o v e r t r e s p o n s e ? R e c e n tly , how ever, r e s e a r c h e r s a r e coming to b e 3 l i e v e t h a t th e a t t r i b u t e s o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l m edia a r e n o t a l l - i n c l u s i v e and c a n n o t be g e n e r a l i z e d to a l l l e a r n e r s in a l l l e a r n i n g s i t u a t i o n s . Snow and Salomon ( 1 9 6 8) have a rg u e d t h a t th e v e ry n a t u r e o f th e c l a s s i c a l e x p e r im e n ta l d e s ig n found i n many o f th e e a r l i e r s t u d i e s te n d s to a v e ra g e o u t any s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s . I n l i g h t o f t h i s b e l i e f , th e l i t e r a t u r e o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l te c h n o lo g y i s now s u g g e s t i n g t h a t g r e a t e r a t t e n t i o n be g iv e n to e x p l o r i n g how i n s t r u c t i o n a l s t r a t e g i e s m igh t be t a i l o r e d to i n d i v i d u a l l e a r n e r s engaged i n a c c o m p lis h in g s p e c i f i c k in d s o f l e a r n i n g t a s k s (Snow & Salomon, 1 9 6 8; A l l e n , 1971j 1975; Salomon, 1970; C la r k , 1975; D iV e sta , 1975; P a r k h u r s t , 1 9 7 5 ). A lle n (1971) s u g g e s te d t h r e e a r e a s o f s tu d y to w ard w hich r e s e a r c h e r s sh o u ld d i r e c t t h e i r e f f o r t s i f th e y w ant to i n v e s t i g a t e t h i s p ro b le m . He c a l l e d f o r (a) more th o ro u g h i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f th e i n d i v i d u a l l e a r n e r and th o s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w hich make him d i f f e r e n t from o t h e r l e a r n e r s ; (b) more c a r e f u l e x p l o r a t i o n o f how th e i n d i v i d u a l l e a r n e r i n t e r a c t s w ith th e v a r i o u s m edia s t i m u l i w hich c o m p rise d i f f e r e n t i n s t r u c t i o n a l m ethods and d e v i c e s ; and (c) d i s c o v e r y o f how th e i n d i v i d u a l l e a r n e r re s p o n d s to p a r t i c u l a r k in d s o f l e a r n i n g t a s k s i n r e l a t i o n to th e m edia p r e s e n t a t i o n mode b e in g u t i l i z e d . As a r e s u l t o f t h e s e s u g g e s t i o n s , many c o n te m p o ra ry r e s e a r c h e r s have recommended an a p t i t u d e - t r e a t m e n t i n t e r - 4 a c t i o n (ATI) a p p ro a c h be u s e d to e x p lo r e q u e s t i o n s o f d e s i g n i n g i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s f o r p a r t i c u l a r l e a r n e r s (Snow & Salomon, 1 9 6 8; A l l e n , 1971, 1975; C la r k , 1975; D iV e sta , 1975; P a r k h u r s t , 1 9 7 5 ). An a p t i t u d e - t r e a t m e n t i n t e r a c t i o n e x i s t s when i n d i v i d u a l s a t one end o f an a p t i tu d e v a r i a b l e p e rfo rm a t one l e v e l o f a c r i t e r i o n m easure w h ile i n d i v i d u a l s a t th e o t h e r end o f th e a p t i t u d e v a r i a b l e p e rfo rm a t a d i f f e r e n t l e v e l on th e c r i t e r i o n m easure and th e r e v e r s e t r e n d h o ld s t r u e f o r a seco nd t r e a t m e n t (Snow & Salomon, 1 9 6 8; D iV e sta , 1 9 7 5 ). P a r k h u r s t (1975) s t a t e d t h a t th e t r u e p u rp o s e o f a p t i t u d e - t r e a t m e n t i n t e r a c t i o n m eth o d o lo g y i s " i d e n t i f y i n g d i f f e r e n t t r e a t m e n t s t h a t can f a c i l i t a t e l e a r n i n g f o r d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f i n d i v i d u a l s so t h a t s t u d e n t s may be d i f f e r e n t i a l l y a s s i g n e d to a l t e r n a t i v e i n s t r u c t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t s b a s e d upon e m p i r i c a l e v id e n c e " (p . 1 7 3 ). Working from t h i s t h e o r e t i c a l b a s is ., A lle n (1975) ad v an ced a number o f r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s to be exam ined by a p t i t u d e - t r e a t m e n t i n t e r a c t i o n m eth o d o lo g y . Among t h e s e w as, "How sh o u ld th e c o n t e n t o f t r a n s m i t t e d i n f o r m a t i o n o r m essage be o r g a n i z e d so a s to be m ost i n s t r u c t i o n a l l y e f f e c t i v e f o r d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s ? " A lle n w ent on to s u g g e s t , " I n t r o d u c t o r y p r e s e n t a t i o n s , w hich p r o v i d e an o r g a n i z i n g s t r u c t u r e f o r th e c o n t e n t t h a t f o l lo w s , may en hance th e l e a r n i n g o f t h a t m a t e r i a l and make i t more r e s i s t a n t to f o r g e t t i n g " (p. 1 4 9 ). 5 A number o f ty p e s o f such i n t r o d u c t o r y p r e s e n t a t i o n s have been d e v e lo p e d . O verview s, b e h a v i o r a l o b j e c t i v e s , and s tu d y q u e s t i o n s have been u s e d to f i l l t h i s o r g a n i z i n g f u n c t i o n . D avid A usubel ( i 9 6 0, 1 9 6 3* 1968; A usubel & F i t z g e r a l d , 1 9 6 1 ) h a s adv an ced a c o n s t r u c t w hich he c a l l s th e advance o r g a n i z e r to p r o v id e an i n t r o d u c t o r y o r g a n i z i n g s t r u c t u r e f o r th e l e a r n i n g m a t e r i a l to f o llo w . A usubel h a s d e f i n e d an advance o r g a n i z e r a s a p i e c e o f m a t e r i a l i n t r o d u c e d i n advance o f th e new l e a r n i n g m a t e r i a l i t s e l f , w hich i s p r e s e n t e d a t a h i g h e r l e v e l o f a b s t r a c t i o n , g e n e r a l i t y , and i n c l u s i v e n e s s . The p u rp o s e o f p r o v i d in g an advance o r g a n i z e r i s to g iv e th e l e a r n e r an " i d e a t i o n a l s c a f f o l d i n g " i n t o w hich he can o r g a n i z e new, incom ing i n f o r m a t i o n . A usubel u n d e r to o k s e v e r a l s t u d i e s to i n v e s t i g a t e th e u s e f u l n e s s o f h i s c o n s t r u c t . These s t u d i e s (A u su b el, I 96O; A usubel & F i t z g e r a l d , 1961; A usubel & Y o u s s e f, 1 9 6 3) s u p p o r te d .the e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r s i n th e l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n o f v e r b a l m a t e r i a l . S e v e r a l s u b s e q u e n t s t u d i e s ( S c h u l t z , 1 9 6 6 ; W ulf, 1971; B a rn e s , 1972; M unford, 1 9 7 2 ), how ever, f a i l e d to show s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s f a v o r i n g ad vance o r g a n i z e r s . A ll o f t h e s e s t u d i e s u s e d w r i t t e n v e r b a l adv an ce o r g a n i z e r s . In a t t e m p t i n g to r e c o n c i l e th e c o n f l i c t i n g r e s u l t s o f r e s e a r c h , i n v e s t i g a t o r s began to a l t e r th e form s o f th e 6 advance o r g a n i z e r s th e y u s e d . S can d u ra and W ells (19^7) u s e d a s i m u l a t i o n game a s an advance o r g a n i z e r . They found s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s f a v o r i n g th e u s e o f such ad vance o r g a n i z e r s . F o llo w in g S c a n d u ra and Wells,, P e l l a and T r ie z e n b e r g ( 1 9 6 9 ) u s e d a v e r b a l p a ssa g e* a draw ing* and a w orking model a s advance o r g a n i z e r s . They* too* a c h ie v e d r e s u l t s w hich f a v o r e d th e n o n v e r b a l ad v ance o r g a n i z e r t y p e s . W eis- b e rg (1970)* H a ll (1977)* and Lawton (1977) a l s o found s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r th e u s e o f v i s u a l adv an ce o r g a n i z e r s . However* a l t e r i n g th e form o f ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r s i s n o t a r e c i p e f o r s u r e su c ce ss* a s s e v e r a l i n v e s t i g a t o r s have shown. L i v i n g s t o n (1970)* u s i n g a s i m u l a t i o n game as an advance o r g a n iz e r * found no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e tween th e p o s t t e s t s c o r e s o f s u b j e c t s ex posed to th e game and th o s e ex p o sed to no ad van ce o r g a n i z e r t r e a t m e n t . L ucas and F ow ler (1972) found no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s among t r e a t m e n t g ro u p s ex p o sed to v i s u a l* audio* and w r i t t e n ad v ance o r g a n i z e r s * a lt h o u g h s u b j e c t i v e d a t a from th e su b j e c t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e y f e l t th e adv an ce o r g a n i z e r s had h e lp e d them . B a rro n (1972) t r i e d to d e te rm in e th e e f f e c t s o f g r a p h i c and p r o s e ad v ance o r g a n i z e r s . He c o n c lu d e d t h a t th e f a c i l i t a t i v e e f f e c t s o f adv an ce o r g a n i z e r s a r e n o t g e n e r a l l y a p p li c a b l e * and t h a t l e a r n e r v a r i a b i l i t y p r e c lu d e d u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d u s a g e o f advance o r g a n i z e r s as i n s t r u c t i o n a l t o o l s . I n s te a d * B a rro n s u g g e s te d th a t* "S u b seq u e n t s t u d i e s . . . sh o u ld fo c u s upon th e q u e s t i o n : 7 who, i f anyone, a r e advance o r g a n i z e r s a p p r o p r i a t e f o r ? " (p . 1 4 ). A number o f s t u d i e s have a d d re s s e d t h i s q u e s t i o n o f d e te r m in in g i f s p e c i f i c t y p e s o f l e a r n e r s can p r o f i t from e x p o su re t o ad vance o r g a n i z e r s . G -rotelu eschen and s S j o g r e n s( 3.9 6 8 ) c o n c lu d e d t h a t advance o r g a n i z e r t r e a tm e n t f a c i l i t a t e d l e a r n i n g f o r i n t e l l e c t u a l l y g i f t e d a d u l t s . A lle n (1970) d i s c o v e r e d t h a t ad v ance o r g a n i z e r s enhanced t h e l e a r n i n g o f above a v e ra g e s t u d e n t s b u t h ad no f a c i l i - t a t i v e e f f e c t w ith l e s s a b le s t u d e n t s . N e isw o rth ( 1 9 6 7 ) found t h a t e x p o s i t o r y advance o r g a n i z e r s a id e d i n t e l l e c t u a l l y n orm al s t u d e n t s , b u t d i d n o t h e lp e d u c a b le m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d s u b j e c t s . A s t u d y done by Jo n e s (197^-) b ro u g h t t o g e t h e r b o th l e a r n e r a p t i t u d e and advance o r g a n i z e r t y p e . He s t u d i e d t h e e f f e c t s o f a b s t r a c t and c o n c r e t e advance o r g a n i z e r s on s t u d e n t s o f h ig h and low academ ic a c h ie v e m e n t. Jo n e s found t h a t h ig h ach iev e m e n t s t u d e n t s p e rfo rm e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r a f t e r s t u d y i n g an a b s t r a c t advance o r g a n i z e r , w h ile low a c h ie v e m e n t s t u d e n t s d id s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r a f t e r e x p o s u r e t o a c o n c r e t e advance o r g a n i z e r . T h is s tu d y s u g g e s t s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t b o th l e a r n e r a p t i t u d e s and advance o r g a n i z e r t y p e s s h o u ld be c o n s i d e r e d i n d e s i g n i n g e f f e c t i v e i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s . I n c o n s i d e r i n g t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y , one a r e a w hich n e ed s t o be e x p lo r e d i s d i s c o v e r i n g w hich p a r t i c u l a r 8 l e a r n e r t r a i t s i n t e r a c t s i g n i f i c a n t l y w ith ad v ance o r g a n i z e r t y p e s . J o n e s (1974) found t h a t academ ic a c h ie v e m e n t d i d . M urchison (1975) d i s c o v e r e d i n t e r a c t i o n s betw een a d v ance o r g a n i z e r ty p e and IQ, and b etw een ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r ty p e and m o t i v a t i o n l e v e l . The s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n betw een s t u d e n t m o t i v a t i o n and ad v ance o r g a n i z e r ty p e su g g e s t s t h a t l e a r n e r t r a i t s o t h e r th a n IQ o r academ ic a b i l i t y sh o u ld be i n v e s t i g a t e d . M e irh e n ry ( 1 9 6 2) s u g g e s te d some tim e ago t h a t a t o p i c o f p r o f i t a b l e s tu d y i n l e a r n e r and m edia c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t e r a c t i o n s was p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s . A lth o u g h t h e r e a r e d i f f e r i n g p o i n t s o f view a s to w hat p e r s o n a l i t y i s and how i t can be m ea su re d , t h e r e i s a grow ing number o f s t u d i e s (Doty & D oty, 1964; L u b in , 1965; Snow, T i f f i n , & S e i b e r t , 1 9 6 5; H a s k i l l , 1970; B ald w in , 1975) w hich s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t t h a t p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s may c o n t r i b u t e to a s t u d e n t ’ s s p e c i a l s t y l e o f l e a r n i n g , a n d , i n t u r n , may i n t e r a c t s i g n i f i c a n t l y w ith i n s t r u c t i o n a l s t r a t egy and th e k in d o f l e a r n i n g t a s k . B aldw in (1975) i n v e s t i g a t e d th e r e l a t i o n b etw een l e a r n e r p e r s o n a l i t y and m edia p r e s e n t a t i o n mode i n th e l e a r n i n g o f v e r b a l m a t e r i a l . . U sing th e f a c t o r - a n a l y t i c a l l y d e v e lo p e d J r . - S r . High S chool P e r s o n a l i t y Q u e s t i o n n a i r e , he found s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n betw een th e f a c t o r Superego S t r e n g t h and p r e s e n t a t i o n mode. S u b j e c t s h ig h i n Superego S t r e n g t h p e rfo rm e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r w ith n o n - p i c t o r i a l 9 modes w h ile s u b j e c t s low i n Superego S t r e n g t h p e rfo rm e d b e t t e r w ith p i c t o r i a l modes. T h is f i n d i n g s u g g e s t s th e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t c e r t a i n l e a r n e r p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s may i n t e r a c t w ith v i s u a l and v e r b a l adv an ce o r g a n i z e r t y p e s . T h is s tu d y was u n d e rta k e n to i n v e s t i g a t e t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y by ex am in in g th e r e l a t i o n s h ip among t y p e s o f advance o r g a n iz e r s ,, l e a r n e r p e r s o n a l i t y , and l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n o f v e r b a l m a t e r i a l . S ta te m e n t o f th e Problem The p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y was to i n v e s t i g a t e th e r e l a t i o n b etw een l e a r n e r p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s and v e r b a l and v i s u a l form s o f ad v ance o r g a n i z e r s to d e te r m in e w h e th e r l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n a r e f a c i l i t a t e d by th e advance o r g a n i z e r s , and i f th e adv an ce o r g a n i z e r s a r e d i f f e r e n t i a l l y e f f e c t i v e among l e a r n e r s who d e m o n s tr a te v a ry in g d e g re e s o f th e s e l e c t e d p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s . Thus, t h i s s tu d y was u n d e r ta k e n to a n sw er th e f o llo w in g q u e s t i o n s : 1. What i s th e r e l a t i o n s h i p among S e lf-S e n tim e n t., advance o r g a n i z e r type,, and l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n o f v e r b a l m a t e r i a l by e i g h t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s ? 2. What i s th e r e l a t i o n s h i p among S uperego S tre n g th ., ad v ance o r g a n i z e r type„ and l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n o f v e r b a l m a t e r i a l by e i g h t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s ? 10 R e s e a rc h H y p o th e ses R e l a t i v e to th e r e s e a r c h p ro b lem o f d e te r m in in g th e i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s o f ad v ance o r g a n i z e r ty p e and p e r s o n a l i t y i n th e l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n o f v e r b a l m a t e r i a l s th e f o l lo w in g h y p o th e s e s were a d v a n c e d : H y p o th e s is I On an im m ediate p o s t t e s t d e s ig n e d to m easure l e a r n in g o f v e r b a l m a t e r i a l , t r e a t m e n t g ro up r e g r e s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s w i l l be s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from z e r o . H y p o th e s is I I On an im m ed iate p o s t t e s t d e s ig n e d to m easu re l e a r n in g o f v e r b a l m a t e r i a l , p e r s o n a l i t y r e g r e s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s w i l l be s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from z e r o . H y p o th e s is I I I On an im m ed iate p o s t t e s t d e s ig n e d to m easure l e a r n in g o f v e r b a l m a t e r i a l , i n t e r a c t i o n term r e g r e s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s w i l l be s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from z e r o . H y p o th e s is IV On a se v e n -d a y d e la y e d p o s t t e s t d e s ig n e d to m easure r e t e n t i o n o f v e r b a l m a t e r i a l , t r e a t m e n t g rou p r e g r e s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s w i l l be s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from z e r o . H y p o th e s is V On a s e v e n -d a y d e la y e d p o s t t e s t d e s ig n e d to m easure r e t e n t i o n o f v e r b a l m a te r ia l., t r e a t m e n t g roup r e g r e s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s w i l l be s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from z e r o . H y p o th e s is VI On a s e v e n -d a y d e la y e d p o s t t e s t d e s ig n e d to m easure r e t e n t i o n o f v e r b a l m a te r ia l., i n t e r a c t i o n term r e g r e s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s w i l l be s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from z e r o . D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms D e f i n i t i o n o f th e term s u s e d i n t h i s s tu d y was a s f o l l o w s . Advance O r g a n iz e r An advance o r g a n i z e r i s a p i e c e o f m a t e r i a l p r e s e n te d to th e l e a r n e r p r i o r to h i s e x p o su re to th e l e a r n i n g t a s k . The p u rp o s e o f such a p i e c e o f m a t e r i a l i s to p r o v id e th e l e a r n e r w ith i d e a s w hich can s e rv e a s a n c h o ra g e f o r s u b s e q u e n t l e a r n i n g and p r o v id e g e n e r a l p r o p o s i t i o n s u n d e r w hich s u b s e q u e n t, p a r t i c u l a r i n f o r m a t i o n may be su b sumed. Thus., th e ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r s m ust c o n s i s t o f m a te r i a l p r e s e n t e d a t a h i g h e r l e v e l o f g e n e r a l i t y , a b s t r a c t i o n , and i n c l u s i v e n e s s th a n t h e • s u b s e q u e n t l e a r n i n g p a s s a g e . An ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r can be c o n t r a s t e d w ith 12 o t h e r t y p e s o f i n t r o d u c t o r y p a s s a g e s such a s o v e rv ie w s o r sum m aries. These o t h e r t y p e s a r e o r d i n a r i l y p r e s e n t e d a t th e same l e v e l o f g e n e r a l i t y and a b s t r a c t n e s s a s s u b s e q u e n t l e a r n i n g m a t e r i a l s . They a c h ie v e t h e i r e f f e c t l a r g e l y by s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f l e a r n i n g m a t e r i a l s and by r e p e t i t i o n (Ausubel., I9 6 0 ; A usubel & F i t z g e r a l d , 1 9 6 1 ) . For th e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s s tu d y , two t y p e s o f ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r s were d e v e l o p e d . V e r b a l Advance O rg a n iz e r The v e r b a l ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r c o n s i s t e d o f a 150- word w r i t t e n p a s s a g e w hich d i s c u s s e d th e c o n c e p ts o f e c o l o g i c a l fo o d c h a i n s and n i c h e s . I t was d e te rm in e d t h a t t h e s e c o n c e p ts were more g e n e r a l , a b s t r a c t , and i n c l u s i v e th a n th e c o n t e n t o f th e l e a r n i n g p a s s a g e , and th u s met th e c r i t e r i a e s t a b l i s h e d by A u sub el f o r ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r s . V i s u a l Advance O rg a n iz e r The v i s u a l a d v an ce o r g a n i z e r i n c l u d e d two c h a r t s w hich p r e s e n t e d th e same i n f o r m a t i o n a s th e v e r b a l ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r p a s s a g e . The o n ly v e r b a l m a t e r i a l i n c l u d e d in th e v i s u a l ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r c o n s i s t e d o f l a b e l s i d e n t i f y in g p a r t s o f th e c h a r t s . P e r s o n a l i t y F a c t o r s For th e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s s tu d y two f a c t o r s , S u p e r ego S t r e n g t h and S e l f - S e n t i m e n t , were chosen from among th e 13 14 m easured by th e J r . - S r . High S chool P e r s o n a l i t y Ques t i o n n a i r e (HSPQ). The f a c t o r s a r e d e f i n e d a s f o l lo w s : 1. F a c to r G ( U .I . 7) Superego S t r e n g t h . The c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h i s f a c t o r a t th e p o s i t i v e p o le a r e foun d i n a p e r s o n who i s c o n s c ie n tio u s ,, p e r s i s t e n t . , m o r a l i s t i c ; and s t a i d ; and a t th e n e g a t i v e p o le i n a p e r s o n who i s e x p e d i e n t and d i s r e g a r d s r u l e s ( C a t t e l l & C a t t e l l ; 1 9 6 9). 2. F a c to r ( U .I . 18) S e l f - S e n t i m e n t . The c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h i s f a c t o r a t th e p o s i t i v e p o le a r e fo und i n a p e rs o n who i s c o n t r o l l e d ; s o c i a l l y p r e c i s e ; c o m p u lsiv e ; and e x a c t i n g in w i l l pow er; and a t . t h e n e g a t i v e p o l e i n a p e rs o n who i s u n c o n t r o l l e d ; l a x ; c a r e l e s s o f s o c i a l r u l e s ; and l i k e l y to f o l lo w h i s own u r g e s ( C a t t e l l & C a t t e l l ; 1 9 6 9) . L e a rn in g Task A c o g n i t i v e l e a r n i n g t a s k r e f e r r i n g to th e s p e c i f i c p e rfo rm a n c e b e h a v i o r s r e q u i r e d o f th e l e a r n e r was s e l e c t e d a s th e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e and was d e f i n e d a s f o l lo w s : V e r b a l L e a rn in g (VL). D i s c r i m i n a t e r e c a l l o f p r e v i o u s l e a r n i n g o f s p e c i f i c f a c t s . T h is t a s k c o r r e s p o n d s to " r e c e p t i o n l e a r n i n g " (A usu bel; 1 9 6 3 ) . 14 R e t e n t i o n (R). The p r o c e s s o f " m a in ta in in g th e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f th e r e p l i c a o f th e a c q u i r e d new m eanings"' (A u su b el, 19^3) . A p titu d e - T r e a t m e n t I n t e r a c t i o n {ITT) The r e s e a r c h d e s ig n o f t h i s s tu d y was b a s e d upon an a p t i t u d e - t r e a t m e n t i n t e r a c t i o n model i n w hich a p t i t u d e ( l e a r n e r p e r s o n a l i t y ) i n t e r a c t e d w ith t r e a t m e n t (ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r ty p e ) i n th e l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n o f v e r b a l m a t e r i a l . Such i n t e r a c t i o n i s d e f i n e d a s f o l lo w s : An a p t i t u d e - t r e a t m e n t i n t e r a c t i o n e x i s t s w henever th e r e g r e s s i o n outcom e from one t r e a t m e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d i f f e r s i n s lo p e from th e r e g r e s s i o n outcom e from a n o t h e r t r e a t m e n t on th e same i n f o r m a tio n (C ronbach & Snow, 1 9 7 7 ). A ssu m p tio n s The f o llo w in g a s s u m p tio n s w ere made i n t h i s s tu d y : 1. The sam ple s i z e was s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e to a llo w f o r any d e v i a t i o n from n orm al d i s t r i b u t i o n by each a r r a y o f d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s c o r e s f o r any g iv e n c o m b in a tio n o f in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s c o r e s . 2. A l l d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e a r r a y s had th e same v a r i ance . 15 D e l i m i t a t i o n s The p r e s e n t s tu d y was s u b j e c t to th e f o llo w in g d e l i m i t a t i o n s w hich s e rv e d to n a rro w i t s f o c u s and g e n - e r a l i z a b i l i t y : 1. The study, was l i m i t e d to e i g h t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s i n an i n n e r - c i t y j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l i n th e Los A n g e les a r e a . S tu d e n ts were p r e d o m i n a t e ly B la c k and from a m id d le to lo w e r so c io ec o n o m ic b a c k gro u n d . 2. The s tu d y was l i m i t e d to l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n o f v e r b a l m a t e r i a l i n th e a r e a o f s o c i a l s c i e n c e s . 3. The s tu d y was l i m i t e d to o n ly 2 o f 14 p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s m easured by th e J r . - S r . High School P e r s o n a l i t y Q u e s t i o n n a i r e . O r g a n iz a t i o n o f th e R em ainder o f th e D i s s e r t a t i o n C h a p te r I I p r e s e n t s a re v ie w o f s e l e c t e d l i t e r a t u r e p e r t i n e n t to t h i s s tu d y , i n c l u d i n g t h a t r e s e a r c h w hich e x p l o r e s v e r b a l ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r s , a l t e r n a t e ty p e s o f ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r s , and p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s . C h a p te r I I I d e s c r i b e s th e e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n , sam ple p o p u l a t i o n , e x p e r i m e n t a l v a r i a b l e s , d e v elo p m e n t o f m a t e r i a l s , f i e l d p r o c e d u r e s , d a t a c o l l e c t i o n , and s t a t i s t i c a l d e s i g n . 16 C h a p te r IV r e p o r t s th e r e s u l t s o f th e d a t a c o l l e c t i o n , an a n a l y s i s o f d a t a , and a d i s c u s s i o n o f d a t a r e l a t i v e to th e s t a t e d h y p o th e s e s . C h a p te r V r e v ie w s and sum m arizes th e s tu d y p ro b le m , draw s c o n c l u s i o n s from th e f i n d i n g s , and makes recommenda t i o n s r e g a r d i n g f u t u r e s tu d y . CHAPTER I I REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE I n s t r u c t i o n a l te c h n o lo g y r e s e a r c h h a s r e c o g n iz e d th e l e a r n e r - t a s k - m e s s a g e t r i a n g l e a s an i m p o r t a n t a r e a o f s tu d y . I f p r e s c r i p t i o n s can he d e v e lo p e d f o r s p e c i f y i n g how i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s sh o u ld he d e s ig n e d f o r p a r t i c u l a r l e a r n e r s engaged i n s p e c i f i c k in d s o f task s., th e jo b o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e s i g n e r s w i l l be g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t e d . T h is s tu d y was u n d e r ta k e n to i n v e s t i g a t e t h r e e s e c t i o n s o f t h i s pro b lem : l e a r n e r p e r s o n a l i t y , ad v ance o r g a n i z e r s , and v e r b a l l e a r n i n g . The p u r p o s e s o f t h i s c h a p t e r a r e to e s t a b l i s h advance o r g a n i z e r s a s a d e s ig n e le m e n t w o rth i n v e s t i g a t i o n , to j u s t i f y p e r s o n a l i t y a s a l e a r n e r a p t i t u d e w hich sh o u ld be c o n s i d e r e d , and f i n a l l y , to c o n s t r u c t a c a s e f o r th e s tu d y o f t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p i n l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n o f v e r b a l m a t e r i a l . To a c c o m p lis h t h e s e p u r p o s e s t h i s c h a p t e r h a s been d i v i d e d i n t o s i x s e c t i o n s . The f i r s t s e c t i o n d i s c u s s e s g e n e r a l d e s ig n t h e o r y w hich seems to s u g g e s t th e u s e o f advance o r g a n i z e r s . The second c o n s i d e r s t h a t r e s e a r c h w hich h a s been done on v e r b a l advance o r g a n i z e r s . The t h i r d s e c t i o n i n v e s t i g a t e s s t u d i e s on a l t e r n a t e advance 17 18 o r g a n i z e r fo rm ats* w h ile th e f o u r t h lo o k s a t ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r r e s e a r c h w hich h a s u t i l i z e d an a p t i t u d e - t r e a t m e n t i n t e r a c t i o n a p p ro a c h . The f i f t h s e c t i o n exam ines th e l i t e r a t u r e r e g a r d i n g p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e s . F i n a ll y * th e s i x t h s e c t i o n sum m arizes th e p r e c e d in g s e c t i o n s and s e t s f o r t h a r a t i o n a l e f o r c o n s i d e r i n g a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een c e r t a i n p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e s and c e r t a i n ad vance o r g a n i z e r t y p e s . D esign Theory The a d v e n t o f p rogram ed i n s t r u c t i o n d id much to b r i n g th e p ro b lem o f d e te r m in in g e f f e c t i v e d e s ig n e le m e n ts to th e f o r e . One i s s u e w hich h a s been a d d r e s s e d r e p e a t e d l y i s p ro gram o r g a n i z a t i o n (Klaus* 1 9 6 5 )• H o lla n d ( 1 9 6 5 ) c o n c lu d e d t h a t th e e v id e n c e s u p p o r te d th e im p o rta n c e o f s e q u e n c in g m a t e r i a l s . He c a l l e d f o r " c o n s t r u c t i v e and c r e a t i v e r e s e a r c h w hich w i l l i n d i c a t e when* how much* and in w hat way ite m s may be se q u en c ed " (p. 6 9 ). Newton and H ickey ( 1 9 6 5 ) c o n d u c te d a s tu d y i n t h i s vein* s p e c i f i c a l l y d e s ig n e d to i n v e s t i g a t e seq u en ce e f f e c t s i n p rog ram ed l e a r n in g o f a v e r b a l c o n c e p t. They d i s c o v e r e d t h a t s u b j e c t s were a b l e to p e rfo rm s i g n i f i c a n t l y f a s t e r when p r i n c i p l e s were p r e s e n t e d f i r s t and th e s u b c o n c e p ts f o llo w e d . Also* p o s t t e s t s c o r e s w ere s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r when t h a t ty p e o f s e q u e n c in g was f o llo w e d and s u b c o n c e p ts were p r e s e n t e d i n p r o x i m i t y to t h e i r more g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s . 19 D avid A usubel h a s d e v e lo p e d a t h e o r y o f m e a n in g fu l r e c e p t i o n l e a r n i n g w hich can be u s e d i n e x p l a i n i n g t h e f i n d i n g s o f Newton and H ick ey . A u sub el d e f i n e s r e c e p t i o n l e a r n i n g as l e a r n i n g w here t h e c o n te n t i s p r e s e n t e d t o t h e l e a r n e r s r a t h e r t h a n i n d e p e n d e n t l y d i s c o v e r e d by them. He m a i n t a i n s t h a t * b e g in n in g i n t h e j u n i o r h i g h s c h o o l p e r io d s s t u d e n t s a c q u i r e most new c o n c e p ts and l e a r n most new p r o p o s i t i o n s by d i r e c t l y g r a s p i n g h i g h e r - o r d e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een a b s t r a c t i o n s . They no l o n g e r have t o r e l y on. p r i o r c o n c r e t e - e m p i r i c a l e x p e r i e n c e , b u t can m e a n in g f u l l y learn, th r o u g h e x p o s i t o r y v e r b a l t e a c h i n g . He c o n c lu d e s t h a t a t t h i s s t a g e o f d e v e lo p m e n t, t h e r e f o r e , i t i s h i g h l y i n e f f i c i e n t and p e rh a p s p o i n t l e s s to u s e d i s c o v e r y l e a r n i n g t e c h n iq u e s (A u su b el, 1963; 1 968 ). A u s u b e l 's t h e o r y h o ld s t h a t t h e s t r u c t u r e o f a s t u d e n t ' s e x i s t i n g know ledge i s t h e c r u c i a l f a c t o r i n f l u e n c in g new l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n . H is a s s u m p tio n i s t h a t an. i n d i v i d u a l ' s o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e c o n te n t o f a p a r t i c u l a r d i s c i p l i n e i n h i s own mind c o n s i s t s o f a h i e r a r c h i c a l s t r u c t u r e . The most i n c l u s i v e c o n c e p ts occupy the. apex of t h i s s t r u c t u r e and u n d e r n e a th them f a l l p r o g r e s s i v e l y l e s s i n c l u s i v e and more h i g h l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d s u b c o n c e p ts and f a c t u a l d a t a . A c c o rd in g t o A u su b el, l e a r n e r s i n c o r p o r a t e new i n f o r m a t i o n i n t o t h e i r e x i s t i n g c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e s th r o u g h a p r o c e s s o f su b su m p tio n . T hat i s , as i n f o r m a t i o n 20 i s r e c e i v e d i t i s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o th e l e a r n e r ’ s c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e i n a m anner a n a lo g o u s to th e way a s e c r e t a r y s t o r e s incom ing m essag es i n a f i l i n g sy ste m . B e g in n in g w i t h th e m ost a l l - i n c l u s i v e categ o ry ., a s e a r c h i s made f o r an a p p r o p r i a t e l y l a b e l e d f i l e . I f one i s found th e m essage i s s t o r e d f o r f u t u r e r e t r i e v a l and u s e . I f , on th e o t h e r h a n d , no such f i l e e x i s t s , th e s e c r e t a r y m ust e i t h e r c r e a t e one o r r i s k l o s i n g th e m essag e. A u su b el, t h e n , a rg u e s t h a t new i d e a s and i n f o r m a t i o n can be e f f i c i e n t l y l e a r n e d and r e t a i n e d o n ly to th e e x t e n t t h a t more i n c l u s i v e and r e l e v a n t c o n c e p ts a l r e a d y e x i s t i n th e l e a r n e r ’ s c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e to a c t a s subsum ers o r to f u r n i s h i d e a t i o n a l a n c h o ra g e (A u su b el, 19&3; 1 9 6 8 ). Thus, one m ig h t h y p o th e s i z e t h a t Newton and H ic k e y ’ s f i n d i n g s r e s u l t e d from p r o v i d in g t h e i r s u b j e c t s w ith th e p r i n c i p l e s w hich f u n c t i o n e d a s subsum ers f o r th e s u b c o n c e p ts . Ring and Novak ( l 9 7 l ) c o n d u c te d a s tu d y to t e s t th e v a l i d i t y o f A u s u b e l’ s t h e o r y . T h e i r aim was to lo o k a t s u b j e c t s * c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e s to see i f th e e x i s t e n c e o f r e l e v a n t subsum ers a id e d s u b s e q u e n t l e a r n i n g . A c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e s t e s t was d e v e lo p e d w hich d i s c r i m i n a t e d betw een f a c t s and su b su m e rs. T h is t e s t was a d m i n i s t e r e d to c o l l e g e u n d e r g r a d u a t e s to d e te rm in e w h e th e r th e s t u d e n t s ’ c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e s c o n ta in e d subsum ing c o n c e p ts r e l e v a n t to chem i s t r y . Then, s u c c e s s i n c o l l e g e c h e m is tr y was c o r r e l a t e d 2-1 w ith p r i o r e x i s t e n c e o f r e l e v a n t su b su m e rs. The r e s u l t s showed t h a t th e p o s s e s s i o n o f subsum ing c o n c e p ts i n c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e d i d r e s u l t i n f a c i l i t a t i o n o f a c q u i s i t i o n o f new i n f o r m a t i o n . F u rth e r* Ring and Novak foun d t h a t p r i o r f a c t u a l know ledge d id n o t h e lp i n l e a r n i n g new i n f o r m a tio n u n l e s s a d e q u a te subsum ers w ere a l s o p r e s e n t . They c o n c lu d e d t h a t The te a c h i n g o f f a c t s w i t h o u t o r g a n i z i n g c o n c e p ts f o r c e s th e s t u d e n t to l e a r n th e m a t e r i a l r o t e l y r a t h e r th a n m e a n in g f u l l y . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t th e s t u d e n t s who a r e s u c c e s s f u l u n d e r such i n s t r u c t i o n a r e t h o s e who have b e en a b le to p r o v i d e t h e i r own subsum ers and, h e n c e , o r g a n i z e th e m a t e r i a l w i t h i n c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e w i t h o u t th e b e n e f i t o f i n s t r u c t i o n d i r e c t e d tow ard c o n c e p t l e a r n i n g . (p . 3 3 1 ) Salomon (1970) h a s a m p l i f i e d t h i s c o n c e p t w ith h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f s u p p l a n t a t i o n . He s t a te d * I t h a s been c la im e d in th e p a s t . . . t h a t th e u s e o f a c e r t a i n mode o f p r e s e n t a t i o n w i l l have a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on l e a r n i n g o n ly i f i t a r o u s e s o r s u p p l a n t s a s p e c i f i c t a s k . T h is i s v e ry much i n l i n e w ith A u s u b e l 's i d e a a b o u t e f f e c t i v e t e a c h i n g . (p . 44) Salomon w ent on to e x p l a i n t h a t to s u p p l a n t a men t a l p r o c e s s means to e x e c u te i t e x p l i c i t l y f o r th e l e a r n e r . He s a i d t h a t s u p p l a n t a t i o n o f m e n ta l p r o c e s s e s can s e r v e i n Stwo c a p a c i t i e s : 1. I t can p r o v id e c o m p e n sa tio n f o r w hat th e l e a r n e r c a n n o t e x e c u te m e n t a l l y on h i s own* h e n ce a i d i n g him i n a t t a i n i n g a p a r t i c u l a r i n s t r u c t i o n a l ob j e c t i v e . 2. I t can o f f e r him an image o f a s i t u a t i o n o r o f a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n to be i n t e r n a l i z e d * sto re d * and made a v a i l a b l e f o r l a t e r u s e i n a c o v e r t form . (p . *v) 22 The n o t i o n o f s u p p l a n t a t i o n i n c o m b in a tio n w i t h A u s u b e l 's su b su m p tio n th e o r y can be u s e f u l l y a p p l i e d to th e se q u e n c in g o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s . I f t h e s e two c o n c e p t s a r e v ia b le ,, i t sh o u ld be h e l p f u l to l e a r n e r s who a re u n a b le to p r o v i d e t h e i r own subsum ers i f new i n f o r m a t i o n i s se q u en c ed to f i r s t p r o v id e them w ith a p p r o p r i a t e su b su m ers. On th e o t h e r h an d , l e a r n e r s a b le to o r g a n i z e i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e i r own sh o u ld n o t p r o f i t p a r t i c u l a r l y from h a v in g su b sum ers p ro v id e d f o r them. V e rb a l Advance O r g a n iz e r s In d e v e lo p in g h i s su b su m p tio n model., A usubel a d vanced a c o n s t r u c t he term ed an ad vance o r g a n i z e r . The p u rp o s e o f an ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r i s to p r o v id e th e l e a r n e r w i t h th e subsum ers he w i l l need to i n c o r p o r a t e new in f o r m a t i o n i n t o h i s c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e . Thus., an advance o r g a n iz e r,, by d e f i n i t i o n , i s a p i e c e o f m a t e r i a l i n t r o d u c e d i n advance o f th e new l e a r n i n g m a t e r i a l w hich i s p r e s e n t e d a t a h i g h e r l e v e l o f a b s t r a c t i o n , g e n e r a l i t y , and i n c l u s i v e n e s s th a n th e l e a r n i n g p a s s a g e (A u su b el, i 9 6 0 , 19^3)* A usubel sa y s t h a t o r g a n i z e r s c o n s i s t o f c o n c e p ts and p r o p o s i t i o n s t h a t a r e m ax im ally s t a b l e and d i s c r i m i n a b l e from th e a r ran g e m en t o f c o n c e p ts and p r o p o s i t i o n s a l r e a d y a p a r t o f th e l e a r n e r ' s c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e . Knowledge i n an o r g a n i z e r h a s a s u p e r o r d i n a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p to s u b o r d i n a t e c o n 23 c e p t s and s p e c i f i c f a c t s p r e s e n t e d i n su b s e q u e n t new know l edge (A u su b e l, 1 9 6 3* 1 9 6 8 ). A usubel p o s t u l a t e s t h a t ad vance o r g a n i z e r s p r o b a b ly f u n c t i o n i n t h r e e w ays. F i r s t ., th e y e x p l i c i t l y draw upon any r e l e v a n t subsum ing c o n c e p ts a l r e a d y i n th e l e a r n e r ' s c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e and m o b iliz e them f o r u s e . Second, advance o r g a n i z e r s a t an a p p r o p r i a t e l e v e l o f i n c l u s i v e n e s s p r o v id e o p tim a l a n c h o ra g e . T h is p ro m o te s b o th i n i t i a l l e a r n i n g and s u b s e q u e n t r e t e n t i o n . Third., th e u s e o f a d vance o r g a n i z e r s r e n d e r s u n n e c e s s a r y much o f th e r o t e m e m o riz a tio n to w hich s t u d e n t s r e s o r t b e c a u s e th e y a r e r e q u i r e d to l e a r n th e d e t a i l s o f a d i s c i p l i n e b e f o r e h a v in g a v a i l a b l e a s u f f i c i e n t number o f key subsum ing c o n c e p ts (A u su b el, 1 9 8 3)• A usubel c o n d u c te d th e f i r s t e x p e r i m e n t a l s tu d y o f th e advance o r g a n i z e r c o n s t r u c t to t e s t th e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t th e l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n o f u n f a m i l i a r b u t m e a n in g fu l v e r b a l m a t e r i a l c o u ld be f a c i l i t a t e d by th e advance i n t r o d u c ti o n o f r e l e v a n t subsum ing c o n c e p ts (A u su b el, i 9 6 0 ) . One h u n d red and tw e n ty s e n i o r u n d e r g r a d u a t e s i n an e d u c a t i o n a l p s y c h o lo g y c o u rs e were s e l e c t e d a s th e e x p e r im e n ta l sam p le. The u n f a m i l i a r b u t m e a n in g fu l l e a r n i n g m a t e r i a l c o n s i s t e d o f a 2 ,5 0 0 word p a s s a g e on th e m e t a l l u r g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f c a rb o n s t e e l . Knowledge o f th e s t e e l p a s sage was t e s t e d by a 4 2 - ite m m u l t i p l e c h o ic e t e s t . 24 The s u b j e c t s were m atched on th e b a s i s o f sex,, m a jo r f i e l d , and a b i l i t y to l e a r n s c i e n t i f i c m a t e r i a l . The e x p e r i m e n t a l g ro u p r e c e i v e d th e 5 0 0 -word advance o r g a n i z e r t w i c e . They were a llo w e d to s tu d y i t f o r f i v e m in u te s 48 h o u rs b e f o r e e x p o su re to th e l e a r n i n g p a s s a g e , and once im m e d ia te ly p r i o r to r e a d i n g th e l e a r n i n g p a s s a g e . The c o n t r o l g ro u p was s i m i l a r l y shown a h i s t o r i c a l b a c k g ro u n d i n t r o d u c t i o n . B oth g ro u p s s t u d i e d th e l e a r n i n g p a s s a g e f o r 35 m in u te s and to o k th e m u l t i p l e c h o ic e t e s t t h r e e days l a t e r . The d i f f e r e n c e b e tw een means o f th e e x p e r i m e n t a l and c o n t r o l g ro u p s was s i g n i f i c a n t betw een th e .01 and .0 5 l e v e l s . A usubel and F i t z g e r a l d ( 1 9 6 1) c o n d u c te d a second s tu d y w hich a tte m p te d to r e f i n e th e ad vance o r g a n i z e r c o n s t r u c t . They r e a s o n e d t h a t l e a r n e r s m ig h t have d i f f i c u l t y r e t a i n i n g new i n f o r m a t i o n w hich was s i m i l a r to i n f o r m a t i o n a l r e a d y a p a r t o f t h e i r c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e s . I f t h i s p re m is e were t r u e , th e y a rg u e d , s u b j e c t s would be a id e d i n l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n o f such m a t e r i a l I f th e y were f i r s t p r o v id e d w i t h m a t e r i a l w hich p o i n t e d o u t th e g e n e r a l s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw een th e new i n f o r m a t i o n and t h a t m a t e r i a l a l r e a d y i n t h e i r c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e s . To t e s t t h i s th e y d e v e lo p e d a 2 ,5 0 0 word p a s s a g e on th e p r i n c i p l e s o f Buddhism . They assum ed t h a t t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n , Am erican u n i v e r s i t y u n d e r g r a d u a t e s , would have 25 a s tr o n g know ledge o f th e p r i n c i p l e s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y w hich m ig h t i n t e r f e r e w ith t h e i r l e a r n i n g o f th e Buddhism m a te r i a l . ' The s u b j e c t s were random ly a s s i g n e d to one o f t h r e e t r e a t m e n t g r o u p s , and p r i o r to e x p o su re to th e Buddhism m a t e r i a l th e y w ere a sk e d to s tu d y e i t h e r a c o m p a ra tiv e advance o r g a n i z e r , an e x p o s i t o r y ad v ance o r g a n i z e r , o r a h i s t o r i c a l i n t r o d u c t i o n . The c o m p a ra tiv e advance o r g a n i z e r p o i n t e d o u t e x p l i c i t l y th e d i f f e r e n c e s and s i m i l a r i t i e s o f Buddhism and C h r i s t i a n i t y . The e x p o s i t o r y advance o r g a n i z e r p r e s e n t e d th e p r i n c i p a l B u d d h is t d o c t r i n e s a t a h i g h e r l e v e l o f g e n e r a l i t y * a b s t r a c t i o n * and i n c l u s i v e n e s s th a n th e l e a r n i n g p a s s a g e b u t made no r e f e r e n c e to C h r i s t i a n i t y . The h i s t o r i c a l i n t r o d u c t i o n * w hich was u s e d a s a c o n tr o l* p r e s e n t e d a h i s t o r i c a l o v e rv ie w o f Buddhism . R e t e n t i o n o f th e Buddhism m a t e r i a l was t e s t e d t h r e e days and te n days a f t e r e x p o su re to th e l e a r n i n g p a s sage by means o f e q u i v a l e n t form s o f a m u l t i p l e c h o ic e t e s t . On a t h r e e - d a y b a s i s th e c o m p a ra tiv e o r g a n i z e r was s i g n i f i c a n t l y more e f f e c t i v e (p < . 0 5 ) th a n th e e x p o s i t o r y o r g a n i z e r o r th e h i s t o r i c a l i n t r o d u c t i o n i n f a c i l i t a t i n g th e r e t e n t i o n o f th e Buddhism m a t e r i a l . On a t e n - d a y b a s i s b o th th e c o m p a ra tiv e and e x p o s i t o r y adv an ce o r g a n i z e r s were s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r (p < . 0 2 ; p < . 0 5 ) th a n th e h i s t o r i c a l p a s s a g e f o r s t u d e n t s s c o r i n g below th e m edian on a t e s t o f p r i o r know ledge o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . 26 A usubel and Y o u s se f ( 1 9 6 3) compared th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f an advance o r g a n i z e r and a n o n - i d e a t i o n a l p a s s a g e o f a h i s t o r i c a l and b i o g r a p h i c a l n a t u r e . The l e a r n i n g p a s sag e d i s c u s s e d th e p r i n c i p a l t e n e t s o f Buddhism and Zen Buddhism . One h u n d re d and s i x t y - t w o c o l l e g e s e n i o r s were e x p o sed to th e t r e a t m e n t s w hich l a s t e d f o u r days and i n c lu d e d an im m ed iate p o s t t e s t . A d e la y e d p o s t t e s t was a d m i n i s t e r e d te n days a f t e r c o m p le tio n o f th e t r e a t m e n t s . They r e p o r t e d s i g n i f i c a n c e in f a v o r o f th e ad v ance o r g a n i z e r (p < . 0 1 ) when v e r b a l a b i l i t y was h e l d c o n s t a n t by means o f a n a l y s i s o f c o v a r i a n c e . When know ledge o f C h r i s t i a n i t y was u s e d a s a c o v a r i a n t , th e p e rfo rm a n c e o f th e a d v an ce o r g a n i z e r g ro u p was a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r (p < . 0 5 ) . A ll o f A u s u b e lTs s t u d i e s i n v o lv e d c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s a s s u b j e c t s . Ryan ( 1 9 6 8) t e s t e d th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f v e r b a l a d v an ce o r g a n i z e r s w ith f o u r t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s . R y a n 's s u b j e c t s w ere exp o sed to a l e a r n i n g p a s s a g e on th e s p e c i f i c c l i m a t i c r o l e o f J a p a n 's main ocean c u r r e n t s . P r i o r to r e a d i n g th e l e a r n i n g p a s s a g e , th e e x p e r i m e n t a l t r e a t m e n t g roup was g iv e n an ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r w hich a sk ed th e s t u d e n t s to r e c a l l how th e P a c i f i c Ocean i n f l u e n c e s C a l i f o r n i a ' s c o a s t a l c l i m a t e and m en tio n ed t h a t th e same ocean a l s o i n f l u e n c e s J a p a n 's c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s . S tu d e n ts were g iv e n an im m ed iate and a d e la y e d p o s t t e s t to c h eck f o r l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n . . R e s u l t s o f th e s tu d y i n d i c a t e d 27 t h a t th e advance o r g a n i z e r g ro u p had s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r p o s t t e s t s c o r e s th a n th e c o n t r o l g ro u p . G r o te lu e s c h e n and S jo g re n ( 1 9 6 8) u s e d a c o n t r o l g ro u p and t h r e e e x p e r i m e n t a l t r e a t m e n t g ro u p s i n a s tu d y o f advance o r g a n i z e r s i n program ed i n s t r u c t i o n . They found t h a t ad v ance o r g a n i z e r s do f a c i l i t a t e l e a r n i n g and t r a n s f e r ., e s p e c i a l l y i f th e m a t e r i a l to be l e a r n e d i s o n ly p a r t i a l l y se q u e n c e d . In a d d itio n ., th e y c o n c lu d e d t h a t advance o r g a n i z e r s a r e e f f e c t i v e w ith h ig h IQ a d u l t s who have l i t t l e o r no p r i o r know ledge. Kuhn and Novak (1971) c o n d u c te d two s t u d i e s w hich e x p lo r e d v a r i a t i o n s on th e m ethods o f p r e s e n t i n g v e r b a l advance- o r g a n i z e r s . T h e ir s u b j e c t s were c o l l e g e freshm en and sophom ores e n r o l l e d i n c l a s s e s o f i n t r o d u c t o r y b i o l o g y f o r e le m e n ta r y t e a c h e r s . In th e f i r s t study* s t u d e n t s were g iv e n e i t h e r an ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r o r a h i s t o r i c a l i n t r o d u c t i o n to s tu d y f o r 15 m in u te s one week p r i o r to r e c e i v i n g th e l e a r n i n g p a s s a g e . On th e day th e y r e a d th e l e a r n i n g p a ssa g e* th e y w ere a g a in g iv e n th e advance o r g a n i z e r o r h i s t o r i c a l i n t r o d u c t i o n to s tu d y f o r 10 m in u te s . A 20- q u e s t i o n p o s t t e s t was a d m i n i s t e r e d im m ed iately * t h r e e weeks l a t e r * and f i v e weeks l a t e r . R e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t a c h ie v e m e n t o f th e ad v ance o r g a n i z e r g ro u p was s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r th a n th e c o n t r o l g ro up (p < . 0 l ) b o th im m e d ia te ly and a t th e t h r e e - w e e k p o s t t e s t . R e s u l t s o f th e f iv e - w e e k p o s t t e s t w ere n o t c a l c u l a t e d due to i n t e r v e n i n g v a r i a b l e s . 28 In th e second study,, s u b j e c t s were shown e i t h e r an ad v ance o r g a n i z e r o r a h i s t o r i c a l i n t r o d u c t i o n im m e d ia te ly b e f o r e th e y w ere g iv e n th e l e a r n i n g p a s s a g e . They w ere, how ever, a llo w e d to keep t h e i r i n t r o d u c t o r y p a s s a g e s w h ile th e y r e a d th e l e a r n i n g m a t e r i a l in c a s e th e y w ish e d to . r e f e r to them. The p o s t t e s t was a d m i n i s t e r e d im m e d ia te ly and a t t h r e e - and six -w e e k i n t e r v a l s . R e s u l t s on th e im m e d ia te p o s t t e s t f a v o r e d th e advance o r g a n i z e r g ro u p o v e r th e h i s t o r i c a l i n t r o d u c t i o n c o n t r o l g rou p (p < . 0 1 ) . The d i f f e r e n c e s b etw een g ro u p s on th e t h r e e - and s ix -w e e k p o s t t e s t s a l s o f a v o r e d th e ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r g ro u p , b u t n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y a t th e th r e e - w e e k t e s t . On th e s ix -w e e k t e s t th e d i f f e r e n c e was s i g n i f i c a n t ( p c . O l ) . A ll o f th e s t u d i e s c i t e d th u s f a r s u p p o r te d Ausu b e l 1 s t h e o r y t h a t ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r s f a c i l i t a t e l e a r n i n g . T here have been., how ever, a number o f s t u d i e s o f v e r b a l ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r s w hich do n o t s u p p o r t th e t h e o r y . S c h u ltz ( 1 9 6 6), u s i n g 378 s i x t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s o f above a v e ra g e a b i l i t y * com pared one g ro u p t h a t r e c e i v e d two ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r s w ith a n o t h e r g ro u p w hich d id n o t r e c e i v e advance o r g a n i z e r s . The s u b j e c t m a t t e r was sc ie n c e * and th e t r e a t ment l a s t e d 20 w eeks. The f i r s t advance o r g a n i z e r was p r o v id e d a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e s t u d y > and th e second one 12 weeks l a t e r . No s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were fou nd on th e p o s t t e s t o r on th e d e la y e d p o s t t e s t . However* 29 a s B a rn e s and Clawson (1975) noted., th e ad v ance o r g a n i z e r s i n S c h u l t z ’ s s tu d y were p r o b a b ly sp a ce d to o f a r a p a r t to be a f a i r t e s t o f t h e i r a b i l i t y to f a c i l i t a t e l e a r n i n g . In a d d itio n * S c h u ltz c o n c lu d e d t h a t advance o r g a n i z e r s d id f a c i l i t a t e l e a r n i n g when p u p i l s l a c k e d th e p r o c e s s i n g s k i l l n e c e s s a r y to r e o r g a n i z e i n f o r m a t i o n i n d e p e n d e n t l y i n t o s u i t a b l y c le a r * i n c l u s i v e * and s t a b l e c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e even tho ugh h i s s t a t i s t i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . W ulf (1971) u se d e i g h t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s to s tu d y th e e f f e c t s o f v e r b a l advance o r g a n i z e r s . She g e n e r a t e d a v e r b a l adv an ce o r g a n i z e r and an i r r e l e v a n t p a s s a g e . One t r e a tm e n t g ro u p r e a d th e adv an ce o r g a n i z e r p a s s a g e tw ic e ; one t r e a t m e n t g ro u p r e a d th e i r r e l e v a n t p a s s a g e and th en r e a d th e ad vance o r g a n i z e r ; and th e c o n t r o l g ro u p re a d th e i r r e l e v a n t p a s s a g e b o th tim e s . On b o th im m ed iate and d e la y e d p o s t t e s t s * t h e r e were no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e tween g r o u p s . Munford (1972) u n d e rto o k th e r e p l i c a t i o n o f Ausu- b e l ' s f i r s t s tu d y w ith m e th o d o lo g ic a l p r o c e d u r e s d e s ig n e d to com pensate f o r c e r t a i n d e s ig n l i m i t a t i o n s i n th e o r i g i n a l w ork. He u s e d A u s u b e l r s o r i g i n a l ad v ance o r g a n iz e r * h i s t o r i c a l overview * l e a r n i n g p a ssa g e* and c r i t e r i o n t e s t s . H is s u b j e c t s were random ly d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e t r e a t m e n t g r o u p s . The f i r s t two r e c e i v e d th e advance o r g a n i z e r and 30 h i s t o r i c a l o v e rv ie w i n th e same way A usubel had a d m i n i s t e r e d them . The t h i r d g ro u p , how ever, r e a d th e l e a r n i n g p a s s a g e f i r s t , and th e n was g iv e n th e ad v ance o r g a n i z e r to s tu d y . The c r i t e r i o n m easure was g iv e n im m e d ia te ly upon c o m p le tio n o f th e t r e a t m e n t s and a g a in one week l a t e r . Munford found no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n i n i t i a l l e a r n i n g among th e t h r e e g r o u p s , n o r d id he f i n d any s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e among th e t h r e e g ro u p s on th e r e t e n t i o n t e s t . I t m ust be n o t e d , how ever, t h a t Munford d id n o t g iv e th e s u b j e c t s an o p p o r t u n i t y to s tu d y th e ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r s e v e r a l days b e f o r e e x p o su re to th e l e a r n i n g p a s s a g e a s d id Ausu b e l . I t may be t h a t s u b j e c t s r e q u i r e some tim e to a llo w subsum ers to become e s t a b l i s h e d i n c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e . J e r r o l d s (1972) r e p o r t e d a s tu d y w hich i n v e s t i g a t e d th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f an a d v an ce o r g a n i z e r , a m o d if ie d a d vance o r g a n i z e r , and no ad v ance o r g a n i z e r . He s t a t e d t h a t th e ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r was c o n s t r u c t e d on th e b a s i s o f Ausu b e l r s d e s c r i p t i o n , w h ile th e m o d if ie d ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r c o n s i s t e d o f a s i n g l e e x p l i c i t s t a te m e n t o f th e main i d e a o f th e p a s s a g e . H is s u b j e c t s were 84 n i n t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s . S t u d e n ts who s c o r e d b elow th e f o r t i e t h p e r c e n t i l e i n r e a d in g on th e Iowa T e s t o f B a s ic S k i l l s w ere d ro p p ed from th e sam p le. J e r r o l d s found no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een th e a d v an ce o r g a n i z e r and th e m o d if ie d ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r g ro u p s , n o r w ere th e r e s u l t s f o r e i t h e r o f th e ad v an ce 31 o r g a n i z e r g ro u p s found to d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y from t h a t o f th e c o n t r o l g ro u p . He d id r e p o r t a t r e n d f a v o r i n g th e u s e o f advance o r g a n i z e r s w ith h ig h IQ s tu d e n ts ., b u t i t d id n o t r e a c h a l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . B e r to u , Clasen., and L am bert (1972) e v a l u a t e d th e e f f e c t s o f ad v ance o r g a n i z e r s , i n t e r s p e r s e d q u e s tio n s ., and p o s t o r g a n i z e r s i n im p ro v in g l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n o f n i n t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s from a v i d e o t a p e d l e s s o n . R e s u l t s w ere m easu red by a m u l t i p l e c h o ic e t e s t g iv e n one day a f t e r th e s u b j e c t s view ed th e v id e o ta p e d l e s s o n . S i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s were found f o r i n t e r s p e r s e d q u e s tio n s ., b u t n e i t h e r advance n o r p o s t o r g a n i z e r s r e s u l t e d i n s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s . Sowder, M usser, Flora., and B r i g h t (1973) u s i n g c o l l e g e e d u c a ti o n m ajors., compared ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r s a t two l e v e l s o f a b s t r a c t i o n . The l e a r n i n g m a te r ia l., th e s y s tem o f i n t e g e r s j was p r e s e n t e d v i a f o u r v i d e o t a p e s . Sowder e t a l . r e p o r t e d no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s betw een th e two advance o r g a n i z e r g r o u p s . However, t h e r e was no c o n t r o l g ro up so t h i s s tu d y c a n n o t a d d r e s s th e q u e s t i o n o f w h e th e r adv an ce o r g a n i z e r s , p e r s e , a r e e f f e c t i v e . Also., th e c r i t e r i o n m easure c o n s i s t e d o f sev en q u e s t i o n s a d m i n i s t e r e d two weeks l a t e r a s p a r t o f th e f i n a l e x a m in a tio n i n th e c o u r s e . I t would a p p e a r t h a t seven ite m s a r e p r o b a b ly too few to r e p r e s e n t a f a i r t e s t . 32 The s t u d i e s o f th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f v e r b a l advance o r g a n i z e r s a r e m ixed i n t h e i r f i n d i n g s . A usubel ( i 9 6 0 ), A usubel and F i t z g e r a l d ( 1 9 6 1)* A usubel and Y o u s s e f ( 1 9 6 3 )* Ryan ( 1 9 6 8)* and Kuhn and Novak (1971) found r e s u l t s s u p p o r t i n g th e c o n s t r u c t . On th e o t h e r hand* th e s t u d i e s o f S c h u ltz ( 1 9 6 6 ),, Wulf (1971 )* Munford (1972),, J e r r o l d s (1 9 7 2 ), B e rto u e t a l . (1 9 7 2 ), and Sowder e t a l . (1973) found e v id e n c e r e j e c t i n g th e t h e o r y . W hile many o f th e n e g a t i v e s t u d i e s c o n ta in e d p r o c e d u r a l f la w s , t h e i r r e s u l t s c a n n o t be d is m is s e d o u t o f han d. In a t t e m p t i n g to r e s o l v e th e u n c e r t a i n t y c a u se d by th e m ixed n a t u r e o f th e f i n d i n g s on v e r b a l advance o r g a n i z e r s , r e s e a r c h e r s have tu r n e d to i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f a l t e r n a t e f o r m a ts f o r ad vance o r g a n i z e r s . A l t e r n a t e F orm ats f o r Advance O r g a n iz e r s A usubel ( 1 9 6 3 ) r e c o g n iz e d th e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t o r g a n i z e r s c o u ld ta k e a l t e r n a t e f o r m a t s . He s a i d , " v a r i o u s k in d s o f v e r b a l and n o n v e rb a l p r e t r a i n i n g f a c i l i t a t e l e a r n in g and p r o b l e m - s o l v in g by p r o v i d i n g an o r g a n i z i n g su b - sum er" (p . 8 7 ) . S e v e r a l r e v i e w e r s (B a rn e s & Clawson, 1975; H a r t l e y & D a v ie s, 1978; Lawton & Wanska, 1977) have c a l l e d f o r s t u d i e s w hich would i n v e s t i g a t e n o n w r i t te n form s o f advance o r g a n i z e r s . W hile n o t a d d r e s s i n g th e q u e s t i o n o f advance o r g a n i z e r s d i r e c t l y , a s tu d y by Koenke and O tto ( 1 9 6 9) p r o v i d e s t h e o r e t i c a l u n d e r p in n in g f o r th e u s e o f n o n v e rb a l 33 advance o r g a n i z e r s . Koenke and O tto a tte m p te d to answ er th e q u e stio n ,, W ill p u p i l s ’ a b i l i t y to f o r m u la te and s t a t e th e main i d e a o f a p a s s a g e be enhanced by p r o v i s i o n o f a r e l a t e d p i c t u r e ? They d i s c o v e r e d t h a t p r o v i d in g i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f a g e n e r a l n a t u r e w ith r e a d i n g p a s s a g e s d id s i g n i f i c a n t l y (p < . 0 5 ) im prove th e a b i l i t y o f s i x t h - g r a d e s u b j e c t s to c o r r e c t l y s t a t e th e main i d e a o f p a s s a g e s w hich th e y had r e a d . W eisberg (1970)* B a rro n (1972)* C h r i s t e n s e n (1974)* H a ll (1977)* and Lawton (1977) c o n d u c te d s t u d i e s w hich c a r r i e d th e f i n d i n g s o f Koenke and O tto i n t o th e re a lm o f advance o r g a n i z e r s . W eisberg (1970) e x p lo r e d th e c o n c e p t o f v i s u a l adv an ce o r g a n i z e r s i n te a c h in g e a r t h s c i e n c e c o n c e p t s to e i g h t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s . He e x p o sed one t r e a t m e n t g ro u p to' a v e r b a l adv an ce o r g a n iz e r * one t r e a t m e n t g ro u p to a map ad vance o r g a n iz e r * and one t r e a t m e n t g ro u p to a g ra p h advance o r g a n i z e r . A f o u r t h gro up a c t e d a s a c o n t r o l and s t u d i e d no advance o r g a n i z e r . The l e a r n i n g t a s k to w hich a l l g ro u p s were expo sed was a 1*100 word v e r b a l p a s s a g e on th e f e a t u r e s o f th e N o rth A t l a n t i c Ocean f l o o r a s i l l u s t r a t i o n o f th e t h e o r y o f c o n t i n e n t a l d r i f t . The l e a r n i n g p a s sag e c o n ta in e d no maps* diagram s* o r g r a p h s . B oth v i s u a l ad v ance o r g a n i z e r s were s i g n i f i c a n t l y more e f f e c t i v e th a n th e c o n t r o l ( p < . 0 5 )* a lt h o u g h th e e x p o s i t o r y o r g a n i z e r was not. B a rro n (1972) com pared a c o n t r o l group w hich u s e d 34 no advance o r g a n i z e r w ith a g ro u p u s i n g a v e r b a l advance o r g a n i z e r and a g ro u p u s i n g w hat he term ed a g r a p h i c a d vance o r g a n i z e r . He d e f i n e d a g r a p h i c adv an ce o r g a n i z e r as a v i s u a l and v e r b a l p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e key v o c a b u la r y i n th e l e a r n i n g p a s s a g e a r r a n g e d i n a scheme w hich d e p i c t e d th e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s among c o n c e p ts p a r t i c u l a r to th e l e a r n i n g t a s k . H is d a t a d id n o t s u p p o r t th e s u p e r i o r i t y o f e i t h e r form o f ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r t r e a t m e n t o v e r th e c o n t r o l g r o u p 's t r e a t m e n t . H a ll (1977)* draw ing from th e f i n d i n g s o f W eisberg (1970) and B a rro n (1972),, e x p lo r e d th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f v i s u a l ad v ance o r g a n i z e r s , B a r r o n 's g r a p h i c advance o r g a n i z e r s , and no ad v ance o r g a n i z e r s . U sing n i n t h - g r a d e s t u d e n ts ^ she found t h a t th e v i s u a l ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r s were s i g n i f i c a n t l y more e f f e c t i v e th a n th e g r a p h i c ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r s (p < . 0 5 ) o r no ad vance o r g a n i z e r s (p < . 0 5 ) . At th e same time., Lawton (1977) i n v e s t i g a t e d th e u s e o f advance o r g a n i z e r s i n th e l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n o f l o g i c a l o p e r a tio n s,, a s d e f i n e d by P ia g et., w ith 6 - y e a r - o l d and 10 - y e a r - o ld c h i l d r e n . U sing p i c t o r i a l advance o r g a n i z e r s , he found t h a t e x p e r i m e n t a l g ro u p s l e a r n e d b o th h i g h e r - o r d e r r u l e s o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and h i g h e r - o r d e r s u b j e c t m a t t e r c o n c e p ts s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r th a n d id c o n t r o l g r o u p s . C h r i s t e n s e n (1974) c o n d u c te d a s tu d y w hich exam ined th e u s e o f ad vance o r g a n i z e r s i n c o n t e x t o f a v i s u a l l y 35 p r e s e n t e d l e a r n i n g t a s k . He p r e s e n t e d s u b j e c t s w ith p r o - j e c t e d 35mm s l i d e s i n one o f t h r e e p r e s e n t a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s . One t r e a t m e n t g ro u p saw th e s l i d e s w ith an advance o r g a n i z e r se q u en ce f i r s t ( p r o s p e c t i v e ) ,, one saw th e s l i d e s w ith no o r g a n i z e r ( l i n e a r - e q u a l ) , and th e t h i r d group saw them w ith th e o r g a n i z e r seq uence l a s t ( r e t r o s p e c t i v e ) . C h r i s te n s e n fo und s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r th e s u p e r i o r i t y o f th e a d vance o r g a n i z e r ( p r o s p e c t i v e ) s t r a t e g y (p < . 0 5 ) . L ucas and F ow ler (1975) s t u d i e d th e e f f e c t s o f t h r e e t y p e s o f ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r s i n l e a r n i n g a b i o lo g y c o n c e p t. S e v e n th -g r a d e s u b j e c t s were ex p o sed to a v i s u a l advance o r g a n i z e r , an a u d io ad v ance o r g a n i z e r , a w r i t t e n advance o r g a n i z e r , o r a c o n t r o l t r e a t m e n t . A n a ly s is o f th e d a t a showed no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s among t r e a t m e n t g ro u p s . However, s u b j e c t i v e d a t a i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e su b j e c t s f e l t th e advance o r g a n i z e r s had h e lp e d them. Not a l l o f th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f a l t e r n a t i v e form s o f advance o r g a n i z e r s have u se d p i c t o r i a l f o r m a ts . S can- d u r a and W ells (1967) c o n d u c te d one o f th e f i r s t s t u d i e s w hich u s e d an advance o r g a n i z e r d e s ig n e d i n an a l t e r n a t e f o r m a t. U sing 104 c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s , th e y com pared th e u s e o f an ad vance o r g a n i z e r i n th e form o f a s i m u l a t i o n game w ith a h i s t o r i c a l i n t r o d u c t i o n . The c o n t e n t to be l e a r n e d was m a th e m a tic a l to p o lo g y and g r o u p in g . R e s u l t s s u p p o r te d th e s u p e r i o r i t y o f th e advance o r g a n i z e r o v e r th e h i s t o r i - 36 c a l i n t r o d u c t i o n (p < .05) . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , , th e o r g a n i z e r g ro u p to o k an a v e ra g e o f 12 p e r c e n t l e s s tim e th a n th e g ro u p t h a t u s e d th e h i s t o r i c a l i n t r o d u c t i o n . L iv i n g s t o n ( 1 9 7 0 ) c o n d u c te d t h r e e f u r t h e r s t u d i e s u t i l i z i n g s i m u l a t i o n games a s advance o r g a n i z e r s . He u s e d a game d e s ig n e d to t e a c h econom ic g e o g ra p h y a s an advance o r g a n i z e r and m o t i v a t o r , and com pared th e advance o r g a n i z e r g ro u p s w ith m atched c o n t r o l g r o u p s . In eac h o f th e e x p e r im e n ts , th e c o n t r o l g ro u p s c o r e d h i g h e r , h u t n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r , th a n d id th e adv an ce o r g a n i z e r g ro u p . L i v i n g s t o n ’ s r e s u l t s a r e l i a b l e to th e p r o c e d u r a l s h o rtc o m in g s o f a m atched g ro u p d e s i g n , and y e t th e y c a n n o t be d i s m is s e d . They do th ro w th e q u e s t i o n o f th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f s i m u l a t i o n games a s ad vance o r g a n i z e r s open to d i s p u t e . The e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f a t h i r d k in d o f n o n v e rb a l a d vance o r g a n i z e r — th e w o rk in g m o d e l-- h a s b een exam ined by s e v e r a l r e s e a r c h e r s . P e l l a and T r ie z e n b e r g ( 1 9 6 9) compared a v e r b a l advance o r g a n i z e r , a s k e tc h advance o r g a n i z e r , and a w orking model advance o r g a n i z e r . The p o s t t e s t c o n ta in e d q u e s t i o n s a t th e know ledge, c o m p re h e n sio n , and a p p l i c a t i o n l e v e l s . At th e know ledge and a p p l i c a t i o n l e v e l s , th e model g ro u p o b t a i n e d c o n s i s t e n t l y h i g h e r s c o r e s th a n d id th e v e r b a l o r s k e t c h advance o r g a n i z e r g ro u p s a lt h o u g h n o t a t th e l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . On th e co m p reh en sio n l e v e l q u e s t i o n s , how ever, th e model advance o r g a n i z e r g ro u p was s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r th a n e i t h e r o f th e o t h e r two g r o u p s . Mayer (1976) c o n d u c te d a s tu d y w hich s u p p o r te d th e f i n d i n g s o f P e l l a and T r ie z e n b e r g on th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f w orking m odels a s ad vance o r g a n i z e r s . H is s u b je c ts ., 88 n o n -, program m ers, were ex p o sed to an i n s t r u c t i o n a l seq uence on c om puter program m ing. One e x p e r im e n ta l g ro u p r e c e i v e d a d vance o r g a n i z e r p r e t r a i n i n g w ith a c o n c r e t e m odel o f th e co m p u ter. The c o n t r o l g ro u p r e c e i v e d no such p r e t r a i n i n g . Mayer d i s c o v e r e d t h a t on t e s t ite m s r e q u i r i n g t r a n s f e r th e advance o r g a n i z e r g ro u p s p e rfo rm e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r th a n th e g roup w hich had r e c e i v e d no p r e t r a i n i n g . The r e s e a r c h on a l t e r n a t e form s o f advance o r g a n i z e r s h a s been more i n a g re em e n t th a n th e r e s e a r c h on v e r b a l advance o r g a n i z e r s . Of th e s t u d i e s r e v ie w e d , o n ly Barron,, L ucas and Fowler., and L iv i n g s t o n foun d n o n v e rb a l advance o r g a n i z e r s to be i n e f f e c t i v e . B a r ro n , h i m s e l f , in d i s c u s s i n g h i s f i n d i n g s re a s o n e d t h a t p e rh a p s th e w i t h i n - g ra d e v a r i a b i l i t y o f h i s s u b j e c t s a c c o u n te d f o r h i s f i n d i n g s and t h e r e f o r e p r e c l u d e d l a r g e - s c a l e u sa g e o f advance o r g a n i z e r s a s i n s t r u c t i o n a l t o o l s . He s u g g e s te d t h a t su b s e q u e n t s t u d i e s fo c u s on th e q u e s t i o n : F or w hich ty p e s o f s t u d e n t s , i f any, a r e advance o r g a n i z e r s a p p r o p r i a t e ? T h is q u e s t i o n h a s been a p p ro a c h e d by a number o f i n v e s t i g a t o r s th ro u g h th e u s e o f a p t i t u d e - t r e a t m e n t i n t e r a c t i o n m ethod o lo g y . 38 A p titu d e - T r e a t m e n t I n t e r a c t i o n Advance O rg a n iz e r S t u d i e s In r e c e n t y ears., s e v e r a l r e s e a r c h e r s ( A lle n , 1975; B a rn e s & Claw son, 1975; C h r i s t i e & Schum acher, 1975; H a r t l e y & D a v ie s , 1976) have s u g g e s te d t h a t l e a r n e r a p t i t u d e s be c o n s i d e r e d i n d e s i g n in g s t u d i e s o f adv an ce o r g a n i z e r s . The r a t i o n a l e f o r t h i s a p p ro a c h h a s been e x p l i c a t e d by T oth (1 9 7 5 ): Some e v id e n c e h a s s u g g e s te d t h a t th e e f f e c t o f an ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r may be r e l a t e d to s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e l e a r n e r . The i n t e r a c t i o n b etw een such l e a r n e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and advance o r g a n i z e r t r e a t m e n t may r e s u l t i n s i g n i f i c a n t a p t i t u d e x t r e a t m e n t i n t e r a c t i o n s , (p. 3529A) A usubel and F i t z g e r a l d ( 1 9 6 2 ) r e c o g n i z e d t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y i n one o f th e e a r l y s t u d i e s d e s ig n e d to t e s t th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f th e advance o r g a n i z e r c o n s t r u c t . C o lle g e u n d e r g r a d u a t e s w ere expo sed to e i t h e r an e x p o s i t o r y advance o r g a n i z e r o r a h i s t o r i c a l p a s s a g e and th e n w ere g iv e n a l e a r n i n g p a s s a g e on th e e n d o c r in o lo g y o f p u b e s c e n c e . Com p a r i s o n o f th e t o t a l e x p e r i m e n t a l g ro up w ith th e t o t a l c o n t r o l g ro u p p ro d u c e d n o n s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s ( p < . 0 7 ) . U sing v e r b a l a b i l i t y a s a b a s i s f o r b l o c k i n g , how ever, th e y found s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s f o r th e lo w er o n e - t h i r d g ro u p i n f a v o r o f th e ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r ( p < . O l ) . A usubel and F i t z g e r a l d c o n c lu d e d t h a t th e advance o r g a n i z e r m ig h t have b een e f f e c t i v e w ith th e p o o r v e r b a l a b i l i t y s u b j e c t s b e c a u s e th e y i n i t i a l l y p o s s e s s e d p o o r c o n c e p tu a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , w h ile 39 nigh v e r b a l a b i l i t y s u b j e c t s had th e a b i l i t y to o r g a n i z e new c o n c e p ts on t h e i r own. P r o g e r , Taylor., Mann, C o u lso n , and Bayuk (1970) r e co rded s i m i l a r r e s u l t s from t h e i r s tu d y o f advance o r g a n i z e r e f f e c t i v e n e s s . In a t r e a t m e n t by sex by a b i l i t y l e v e l f a c t o r i a l d e s i g n , th e y d i s c o v e r e d a s i g n i f i c a n t (p < . 0 5 ) i n t e r a c t i o n betw een t r e a t m e n t and a b i l i t y l e v e l . They c o n c lu d e d t h a t s p e c i f i c c o n c e p tu a l f a c i l i t a t i o n o c c u r r e d o n ly f o r t h o s e s u b j e c t s whose c o n c e p tu a l o r g a n i z a t i o n was i n i t i a l l y p o o r . O th er i n v e s t i g a t o r s have a l s o u s e d s c h o l a s t i c a b i l i t y a s a l e a r n e r a p t i t u d e i n s t u d i e s o f ad v ance o r g a n i z e r e f f e c t i v e n e s s . N e isw o rth ( 1 9 6 7 ) compared a 200-w ord a d vance o r g a n i z e r w ith a m o t i v a t i o n a l i n t r o d u c t i o n o f th e same l e n g t h . H is s u b j e c t s were e d u c a b le m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d a d o l e s c e n t s and i n t e l l e c t u a l l y norm al e le m e n ta r y sc h o o l s t u d e n t s . He found t h a t th e ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t a t e d l e a r n i n g f o r th e i n t e l l e c t u a l l y n orm al s t u d e n t s (p < . 0 5 ) b u t d id n o t a i d th e m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d s t u d e n t s . The r e s u l t s o f t h i s s tu d y have b een c i t e d (B a rn e s & Clawson, 1975) a s c o n t r a d i c t i n g th o s e o f A usubel and F i t z g e r a l d (1 9 6 2) . A s tu d y by A lle n (1 9 7 0 ), how ever, s u g g e s t s a p o s - s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h i s seem ing c o n t r a d i c t i o n . A lle n s e t o u t to e x p lo r e th e e f f e c t s o f b o th adv an ce o r g a n i z e r s and l e v e l o f q u e s t i o n on l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n w ith n i n t h - 4o g ra d e s t u d e n t s . In a d d itio n ., he d i v i d e d th e sam ple i n t o h i g h and low a b i l i t y g ro u p s on th e b a s i s o f v e r b a l i n t e l l i g e n c e s c o r e s . In d i s c u s s i n g h i s r e s u l t s , A lle n n o te d t h a t th e advance o r g a n i z e r s a p p e a re d to a f f e c t th e l e a r n i n g o f s t u d e n t s o f d i f f e r e n t a b i l i t i e s i n d i f f e r e n t w ays. W ith th e low a b i l i t y s tu d e n ts ., ad v ance o r g a n i z e r s s e rv e d to m a i n t a i n th e s p e c i f i c f a c i l i t a t i v e e f f e c t o f q u e s tio n s ., b u t had no g e n e r a l f a c i l i t a t i v e e f f e c t . ^With above a v e ra g e s tu d e n ts ., on th e o t h e r hand., th e y d id n o t m a i n t a i n th e s p e c i f i c f a c i l i t a t i v e e f f e c t s o f q u e s t i o n s . Advance o r g a n i z e r s d i d , how ever, r e s u l t i n g e n e r a l en hancem ent o f l e a r n in g f o r th e above a v e ra g e s t u d e n t s a s m easured by a d e la y e d r e t e n t i o n t e s t . I n e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e s e f i n d i n g s , A lle n s u g g e s te d t h a t i t may be t h a t h ig h and low a b i l i t y s t u d e n t s d i f f e r i n th e way new i n f o r m a t i o n i s s t o r e d and s u b s e q u e n t l y r e c a l l e d . He c o n c lu d e d t h a t w h ile b o th c a t e g o r i e s o f s t u d e n t s may u s e h i e r a r c h i c a l l y s t r u c t u r e d c o n c e p ts a s subsum ers f o r new l e a r n i n g , th e l e s s a b le s t u d e n t s may u t i l i z e more c o n c r e t e , s p e c i f i c , and l e s s g e n e r a l i z a b l e o r g a n i z e r s . J o n e s (197^) c o n d u c te d a s tu d y w hich t e s t e d A l l e n 's c o n c l u s i o n . He exam ined th e e f f e c t s o f a b s t r a c t and c o n c r e t e ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r s on h ig h sc h o o l s t u d e n t s o f h ig h and low academ ic a c h ie v e m e n t l e v e l s . Jo n e s found t h a t h ig h a c h ie v e m e n t s t u d e n t s p e rfo rm e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r a f t e r 41 s tu d y in g an a b s t r a c t o r g a n i z e r w h ile low a c h ie v e m e n t s t u d e n t s d id s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r a f t e r e x p o s u re to a c o n c r e t e o r g a n i z e r . He recommended t h a t ad vance o r g a n i z e r s be p r e p a r e d n o t o n ly w i t h r e s p e c t to th e t o p i c o f l e a r n i n g m a te r i a l b u t a l s o w ith r e s p e c t to th e s c h o l a s t i c a b i l i t y o f th e l e a r n e r . A r e l a t e d l e a r n e r a p t i t u d e w hich h a s been c o n s id e r e d i n a p t i t u d e - t r e a t m e n t i n t e r a c t i o n s t u d i e s o f ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r s i s r e a d i n g a b i l i t y . E s t e s (1972) u s e d a v e r b a l a d vance o r g a n iz e r,, a g r a p h i c advance o r g a n i z e r d e v e lo p e d by B a rro n (1 9 7 2 ), and a c o n t r o l g roup to i n v e s t i g a t e th e i n t e r a c t i o n b etw een r e a d i n g a b i l i t y and advance o r g a n i z e r s in t w e l f t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s . He d i s c o v e r e d no s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n s . B a rro n and Cooper (1973) b u i l t from E s t e s 1 f i n d i n g s . They exam ined th e p o t e n t i a l i n t e r a c t i o n s among advance o r g a n i z e r s , r e a d i n g a b i l i t y , and g r a d e l e v e l . They, t o o , found no s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n s . S a r e t s k y (1975) u s e d e i g h t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s to s tu d y th e same p r o b lem . Her f i n d i n g s c o n firm e d th o s e o f E s t e s and B a rro n and Cooper t h a t r e a d i n g a b i l i t y does n o t seem to i n t e r a c t s i g n i f i c a n t l y w ith e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f ad v ance o r g a n i z e r s . P r i o r know ledge i s a n o t h e r l e a r n e r v a r i a b l e w hich h a s been e x p lo r e d . A usubel and F i t z g e r a l d ( 1 9 6 1 ) s u g g e s te d t h a t t h i s f a c t o r m ig h t p l a y some p a r t i n d i f f e r e n t i a l a d vance o r g a n i z e r e f f e c t i v e n e s s . In d i s c u s s i n g th e r e s u l t s o f t h e i r s tu d y , th e y m a in ta in e d t h a t i n l e a r n i n g an u n f a - 42 m i l i a r p a s s a g e on Buddhism,, s u b j e c t s w ith g r e a t e r p r i o r know ledge o f C h r i s t i a n i t y made s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r s c o r e s on th e Buddhism t e s t th a n d id s u b j e c t s o f e q u a l academ ic a p t i t u d e who had l e s s know ledge o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . Kennedy (1974) s t u d i e d th e e f f e c t s o f ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r s and p r i o r know ledge on th e l e a r n i n g o f m e t r i c sy stem c o n c e p ts . Re s u l t s o f th e s tu d y showed no i n t e r a c t i o n . The advance o r g a n i z e r was s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r th a n th e h i s t o r i c a l o v e rv ie w o r c o n t r o l f o r a l l g r o u p s . T oth (1975) a l s o e x am ined th e e f f e c t s o f p r i o r know ledge on th e u s e o f an a d vance o r g a n i z e r . L ik e Kennedy,, he found no s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n s . These s t u d i e s a p p e a r to i n d i c a t e t h a t p r i o r knowledge,, l i k e r e a d i n g a b i l i t y , , does n o t i n t e r a c t s i g n i f i c a n t l y w ith p r e s e n c e o r a b se n c e o f advance o r g a n i z e r s . R e s u l t s from th e te n s t u d i e s re v ie w e d i n d i c a t e t h a t g e n e r a l a b i l i t y may i n t e r a c t w ith th e u s e o f advance o r g a n i z e r s w h ile r e a d i n g a b i l i t y and p r i o r know ledge do n o t . M urch ison (1975) c o n d u c te d an i n v e s t i g a t i o n w hich a g re e d w i t h t h i s c o n c l u s i o n and s e t f o r t h a n o t h e r a r e a o f a p t i t u d e v a r i a b l e s w hich may l e a d to p r o f i t a b l e s tu d y . U sing se x , IQ, and s t u d e n t m o t i v a t i o n a s a p t i t u d e v a r i a b l e s , he e x p l o r e d th e u s e f u l n e s s o f ad v ance o r g a n i z e r s i n t e a c h i n g s c i e n c e c o n c e p ts to n i n t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s . T re a tm e n ts i n c lu d e d a p r e t e s t , a c o n c r e t e ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r , an a b s t r a c t a d v ance o r g a n i z e r , and a c o n t r o l g ro u p . M urchison found 43 s i g n i f i c a n t (p < . 0 1 ) i n t e r a c t i o n such t h a t c o n c r e t e advance o r g a n i z e r s were b e s t f o r h ig h IQ g i r l s and low m o t i v a t i o n s t u d e n t s on a b s t r a c t m a t e r i a l , w h ile a b s t r a c t ad v ance o r g a n i z e r s were b e s t f o r h ig h m o t i v a t i o n boys and second b e s t f o r h ig h IQ boys on a b s t r a c t m a t e r i a l . The s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t p la y e d by m o t i v a t i o n i n t h e s e complex i n t e r a c t i o n s su g g e s t s t h a t th o s e t y p e s o f l e a r n e r a p t i t u d e s g e n e r a l l y l a b e le d t o g e t h e r a s p e r s o n a l i t y may i n t e r a c t w ith ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r ty p e . L e a r n e r P e r s o n a l i t y S t u d i e s B r a c h t (1970) exam ined o v e r 100 a p t i t u d e - t r e a t m e n t i n t e r a c t i o n s t u d i e s i n a c o m p re h e n siv e s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t re v ie w . Of th e t o t a l num ber, o n ly f i v e r e p o r t e d r e s u l t s which showed s i g n i f i c a n t d i s o r d i n a l i n t e r a c t i o n . One f u n d a m e n ta l p ro b lem a p p e a re d to be th e l a c k o f a t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s f o r th e i n d i v i d u a l a p t i t u d e v a r i a b l e s u s e d . I n many o f th e s t u d i e s re v ie w e d by B r a c h t , th e e x p e r i m e n t e r s i d e n t i f i e d a l t e r n a t i v e t r e a t m e n t s and th e n , se e m in g ly th ro u g h t r i a l and e r r o r , t r i e d to f i n d i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e v a r i a b le s to i n t e r a c t w ith th e t r e a t m e n t s . In d i s c u s s i n g h i s f i n d i n g s , B r a c h t s u g g e s te d t h a t th e o f t e n u se d c o g n i t i v e c o n s t r u c t s such a s IQ o r some o t h e r m easure o f g e n e r a l a b i l i t y m ig h t n o t be a p r o d u c t i v e way o f m e a su rin g th e k in d s a f i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s w hich i n t e r a c t w ith d i f f e r e n t I n s t r u c t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t s . 44 In th e e a r l y 1960s s e v e r a l r e s e a r c h e r s b egan i n v e s t i g a t i n g n o n c o g n it i v e v a r i a b l e s i n r e l a t i o n to m ethods o f i n s t r u c t i o n . T h e i r r e s u l t s le n d s u p p o r t to B r a c h t 1s c o n t e n t i o n t h a t c o n s t r u c t s o t h e r th a n c o g n i t i v e ones sh o u ld be e x p lo r e d . Beach ( i 9 6 0 ) found t h a t s t u d e n t s h i g h e r i n i n t r o v e r s i o n d id b e t t e r i n s m a ll- g r o u p s i t u a t i o n s w h ile t h o s e h i g h e r i n e x t r o v e r s i o n d id b e t t e r i n l a r g e l e c t u r e s i t u a t i o n s . Doty and Doty (1964) i n v e s t i g a t e d th e e f f e c t s o f c e r t a i n p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s (need a c h ie v e m e n t, s o c i a l n e e d , c r e a t i v i t y ) i n p rogram ed I n s t r u c t i o n p e rf o r m a n c e . They d i s c o v e r e d t h a t s u b j e c t s who were c h a r a c t e r i z e d by low s o c i a l need and h ig h academ ic a b i l i t y l e a r n e d m o st. Moss and Kagan ( 1 9 6 1) and U h l i n g e r and S te p h e n s ( i 9 6 0 ) found s i m i l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p s . Traweek (1 9 6 4 ), u s i n g e le m e n ta r y sc h o o l s t u d e n t s , d e t e c t e d s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n b etw een c e r t a i n p e r s o n a l i t y m e a su re s ( t e s t a n x i e t y , g e n e r a l a n x i e t y , n e rv o u s symptoms, w ith d r a w a l, s e l f - r e l i a n c e ) and a c h ie v e m e n t on prog ram ed m a t e r i a l s . W ith in th e p a s t decad e an i n c r e a s i n g number o f r e s e a r c h e r s have i n v e s t i g a t e d th e I n t e r a c t i o n betw een p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s and i n s t r u c t i o n a l m eth o d s. Domino, i n two s e p a r a t e s t u d i e s ( 1 9 6 8, 1 9 7 1 )j d e t e c t e d a s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n b e tw een a c h ie v e m e n t o r i e n t a t i o n and t e a c h i n g s t y l e . He found t h a t s t u d e n t s t a u g h t i n a m anner c o n so n a n t w ith t h e i r a c h ie v e m e n t o r i e n t a t i o n ( e i t h e r co n fo rm in g o r 45 i n d e p e n d e n t) o b t a i n e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r s c o r e s on m u l t i p l e c h o ic e item s,, f a c t u a l know ledge r a t i n g s o f e s s a y s , and on t h e i r r a t i n g s t e a c h e r e f f e c t i v e n e s s and c o u rs e e v a l u a t i o n th a n d id t h e i r p e e r s t a u g h t i n a d i s s o n a n t man n e r . T illm a n (1976) r e a c h e d a s i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o n . Dowal- i b y and Schumer (1973) a n a ly z e d th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f an a p t i t u d e - t r e a t m e n t i n t e r a c t i o n betw een m a n i f e s t a n x i e t y and two modes o f c la s s ro o m i n s t r u c t i o n in c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s . They found e v id e n c e o f a s i g n i f i c a n t (p < .0 5 ) d i s o r d i n a l i n t e r a c t i o n such t h a t w h ile a t e a c h e r - c e n t e r e d mode o f i n s t r u c t i o n o p tim iz e d l e a r n i n g f o r h ig h a n x i e t y s t u d e n t s , th e s t u d e n t - c e n t e r e d mode r e s u l t e d i n s u p e r i o r p e rfo rm a n c e f o r low a n x i e t y s u b j e c t s . Trown and L e i t h (1975) d i s c o v e r e d th e same r e l a t i o n s h i p am ongst e le m e n ta r y age s u b j e c t s . H a s k i l l (1 9 7 0 ), com paring i n d i v i d u a l s e l f - p a c e d and l i v e l e c t u r e s i t u a t i o n s , found t h a t s t u d e n t s who w ere i n c l i n e d to be slow and m e th o d ic a l a n d / o r who c o u ld be c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s a g r e e a b l e and e a s y to g e t a lo n g w i t h d id b e t t e r i n an i n d i v i d u a l s e l f - p a c e d e n v iro n m e n t, w h ile th o s e who were more l i k e l y to be c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s a g g r e s s i v e a p p e a r e d to p e rfo rm b e t t e r u n d e r more c o n v e n t i o n a l i n s t r u c t i o n . P a r e n t , F orw ard, C a n te r , and M ohling (1975) c o n s i d e r e d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p among i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l l o c u s o f c o n t r o l and two t e a c h i n g s t r a t e g i e s on s t u d e n t p e r f o r m a n ce and s a t i s f a c t i o n . They found a s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r - 46 a c t i o n (p < . 0 5 ) . S t u d e n ts h ig h on i n t e r n a l c o n t r o l p e r form ed b e t t e r u n d e r a low d i s c i p l i n e s tr a te g y ., w h ile h ig h e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l s t u d e n t s p e rfo rm e d b e t t e r u n d e r th e h ig h d i s c i p l i n e s t r a t e g y . D a n ie ls and S te v e n s (1976)., i n a s i m i l a r study., i n v e s t i g a t e d th e i n t e r a c t i o n b etw een i n t e r n a l - e x t e r n a l l o c u s o f c o n t r o l and t r a d i t i o n a l t e a c h e r - c o n t r o l l e d i n s t r u c t i o n v e r s u s a c o n t r a c t f o r a g ra d e s y s tem. They d i s c o v e r e d a s t r o n g d i s o r d i n a l i n t e r a c t i o n (p < .0001) w ith h ig h i n t e r n a l c o n t r o l s t u d e n t s p e rf o r m in g b e s t u n d e r th e c o n t r a c t system and h ig h e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l s t u d e n ts p e rf o r m in g b e s t u n d e r th e t e a c h e r - c o n t r o l l e d sy ste m . R ey nold s and G e n t i l e (1976) found s i m i l a r r e s u l t s . The e v id e n c e from t h e s e s t u d i e s s u p p o r t s th e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t n o n c o g n it i v e p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e s may have a s tr o n g im p a c t on th e d i f f e r e n t i a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f te a c h i n g m e th o d o lo g ie s . However, in a t t e m p t i n g to i n v e s t i g a t e t h e s e p o t e n t i a l i n t e r a c t i o n s . , d i f f i c u l t i e s a r i s e i n t r y i n g to q u a n t i t a t i v e l y m easure p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e s . T here a re many p o i n t s o f view on w hat p e r s o n a l i t y i s and how i t sho uld be m e a su re d . Often., t h e s e a p p ro a c h e s a r e b a s i c a l l y su b j e c t i v e i n n a tu re ,, and t h e r e f o r e d i f f i c u l t to j u s t i f y u s i n g i n e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h . More o b j e c t i v e m ea su re s o f p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s m ust be u s e d . Over th e p a s t 35 y e a r s such o b j e c t i v e p e r s o n a l i t y m e a su re s have s lo w ly e v o lv e d . Through th e e f f o r t s o f such 47 p e o p le a s C a t t e l l (1946* 1950., 1957., 1966) * T h u rs to n e (1947)^ E ysenck (1953)* anc^ G u i l f o r d (1959) I n s t r u m e n t s have been d e v e lo p e d and v a l i d a t e d w hich q u a n t i t a t i v e l y m easure p e r s o n a l i t y . The t h e o r y upon w hich such o b j e c t i v e p e r s o n a l i t y m ea su re s have been d e v e lo p e d i s b a s e d on th e p re m is e t h a t t h e r e e x i s t u n d e rly in g * u n i t a r y i n f l u e n c e s w hich make th e m s e lv e s f e l t i n a wide v a r i e t y o f a l l b e h a v i o r . The e x p e r i m e n t e r th u s t a k e s a s w ide a sam ple o f b e h a v i o r a s p o s s ib l e * i n t e r c o r r e l a t e s a l l th e m easures* and e x t r a c t s t h e s e u n d e r l y i n g i n f l u e n c e s by f a c t o r a n a l y s i s and r e l a t i o n o f th e f a c t o r s to a u n iq u e sim p le s t r u c t u r e p o s i t i o n * a t w hich tim e he i s c o n c e p t u a l l y d e a l i n g w i t h i n v a r i a n t s o u rc e t r a i t s (Traweek* 1 9 6 4 ). Through a lo n g s e r i e s o f e x p e rim e n ts* r e s e a r c h e r s have d i s c o v e r e d t h a t 21 such f a c t o r s a r e r e a s o n a b l y i n v a r i a n t c o n c e p ts (Hundleby* Pawlik* 8 c C a t t e l l * 1 9 6 5 ). These f a c t o r s have b een coded w ith U.I. ( U n i v e r s a l In d ex ) num bers. T e s ts such a s th e J r . - S r . High S chool P e r s o n a l i t y Q u e s t i o n n a i r e (HSPQ) have been d e v e lo p e d f o r th e form s o f b e h a v i o r m ost s t r o n g l y d i s p l a y i n g a r e l a t i o n s h i p to th e f a c t o r s . P e r s o n a l i t y F a c t o r s and Ad vance O r g a n iz e r F orm ats P a s t a p t i t u d e - t r e a t m e n t i n t e r a c t i o n r e s e a r c h h a s d e m o n s tr a te d t h a t p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s can i n t e r a c t w ith i n s t r u c t i o n a l m eth o d s. F a c to r a n a l y s i s h a s a llo w e d th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f i n s t r u m e n t s to o b j e c t i v e l y m easure p e r s o n - 48 a l i t y t r a i t s so t h a t th e y can he u s e d a s a p t i t u d e v a r i a b l e s i n e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h . And yet., a s D a n ie ls and S te v e n s (1976) c a u tio n * t h i s i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t . T here m ust be a t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s f o r th e u s e o f th e p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e v a r i a b l e s c h o se n . I t i s th e i n t e n t o f t h i s f i n a l s e c t i o n to p r o v i d e t h a t r a t i o n a l e f o r th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . P in e s and J u l i a n (1972) and P i n e s (1973) s t u d i e d th e p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t l o c u s o f c o n t r o l . Locus o f c o n t r o l r e f e r s to th e d e g re e o f c o n t r o l t h a t p e o p le ju d g e th e y have o v e r t h e i r e n v iro n m e n t. I n t e r n a l l o c u s o f c o n t r o l p e o p le p e r c e i v e outcom es to be th e c o n se q u e n c e s o f t h e i r own a c t i o n s . E x t e r n a l l o c u s o f c o n t r o l p e o p le p e r c e i v e o u t comes to be due to o u t s i d e s o u r c e s beyond t h e i r c o n t r o l . I n t e r n a l s te n d to be more c o n t r o l l e d and p r e c i s e i n t h e i r b e h a v i o r w h ile e x t e r n a l s a r e more a p t to be u n c o n t r o l l e d and t r u s t i n g to l u c k . P in e s and J u l i a n i n t e r p r e t e d th e r e s u l t s o f t h e i r s t u d i e s a s showing t h a t p e r s o n s who a r e h i g h l y i n t e r n a l a r e more a c t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s e r s and a r e b e t t e r a b le to u s e p r e v i o u s i n f o r m a t i o n i n d e c i s i o n making t a s k s th a n a r e h i g h l y e x t e r n a l p e o p le . In l i g h t o f su b su m p tio n th e o ry * i t seems r e a s o n a b l e to s u g g e s t t h a t p e o p le d e m o n s tr a tin g h ig h i n t e r n a l c o n t r o l p r o v i d e t h e i r own subsum ers and th u s w i l l p r o f i t l e s s from adv an ce o r g a n i z e r s th a n w i l l p e o p le h ig h on e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l . 49 The i n s t r u m e n t u se d by P in e s and J u l i a n (1972) and P in e s (1973) to d e te r m in e i n t e r n a l - e x t e r n a l l o c u s o f c o n t r o l was th e R o t t e r I - E S c a l e . T h is w id e ly u se d m easure o f l o c u s o f c o n tro l., u n f o r t u n a t e l y , i s n o t a p p r o p r i a t e f o r u s e w ith j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l age s u b j e c t s . However, th e J r . - S r . High S ch ool P e r s o n a l i t y Q u e s t i o n n a i r e , w hich h a s been d e s ig n e d s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r u s e w ith t h i s age g ro u p , do es i n c l u d e m easurem ent o f a f a c t o r — S e l f - S e n t i m e n t - - w hich a p p e a r s to be s i m i l a r to i n t e r n a l - e x t e r n a l l o c u s o f c o n t r o l . A s u b j e c t s c o r i n g h ig h on S e l f - S e n t i m e n t i s d e s c r i b e d a s b e in g c o n t r o l l e d and e x a c t i n g i n w i l l pow er, w h ile a p e r s o n low i n S e l f - S e n t i m e n t i s u n c o n t r o l l e d and l i k e l y to f o l l o w h i s own u r g e s ( C a t t e l l & C a t t e l l , 1 9 ^ 9 ). T h is d e s c r i p t i o n s u g g e s t s t h a t h ig h S e l f - S e n t i m e n t may c o rr e s p o n d to h i g h i n t e r n a l c o n t r o l w h ile low S e l f - S e n t i ment may c o rr e s p o n d to h ig h e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l . A s tu d y by B aldw in (1975) p r o v i d e s a b a s i s f o r th e u s e o f F a c t o r G: S uperego S t r e n g t h i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . U sing HSPQ s c o r e s , he i n v e s t i g a t e d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tween l e a r n e r p e r s o n a l i t y and m edia p r e s e n t a t i o n mode. He found s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n (p < .01) betw een Superego S t r e n g t h and p r e s e n t a t i o n mode. S u b j e c t s h ig h i n Superego S t r e n g t h p e rfo rm e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r w ith v e r b a l modes, w h ile s u b j e c t s low i n Superego S t r e n g t h p e rfo rm e d b e t t e r w ith v i s u a l modes. 50 B ased upon t h e s e c o n s i d e r a ti o n s ,, a s w e l l a s th e i n d i c a t o r s i n b o th ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r and p e r s o n a l i t y r e search., i t was assum ed in t h i s s tu d y t h a t t h e r e was r e a s o n a b l e s u p p o r t f o r th e n o t i o n t h a t th e l e a r n e r p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s Superego S t r e n g t h and S e l f - S e n t i m e n t and ad v ance o r g a n i z e r fo rm a t may i n t e r a c t . T h is s tu d y was u n d e r ta k e n to t e s t t h a t n o t i o n . CHAPTER I I I METHODOLOGY T h is e x p e rim e n t was d e s ig n e d to c o l l e c t d a t a on th e r e l a t i o n s h i p am ongst l e a r n e r p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s , advance o r g a n i z e r f o r m a ts , and l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n o f v e r b a l m a t e r i a l . T h is c h a p t e r d e s c r i b e s th e e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n , s u b j e c t s , e x p e r i m e n t a l v a r i a b l e s , dev elo p m en t o f th e p r e s e n t a t i o n m a t e r i a l s , i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , f i e l d p r o c e d u r e s , p r e p a r a t i o n o f d a t a , and th e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s . E x p e rim e n ta l D esign T h is s tu d y was c o n d u c te d u s i n g p e r s o n a l i t y s c o r e s a s th e a p t i t u d e v a r i a b l e and t h r e e t r e a t m e n t g r o u p s - - v e r b a l ad v ance o r g a n i z e r , v i s u a l advance o r g a n i z e r , and c o n t r o l — a s th e t r e a t m e n t v a r i a b l e . S e v e r a l r e s e a r c h e r s (S c a n d u ra & W e lls , 1967; B a rn e s & Claw son, 1975; Baw & W a lle r , 1976; H a r t l e y & D a v ie s , 1976; Lawton 8 c Wanska, 1 9 7 7 ) have c r i t i c i z e d p a s t ad v ance o r g a n i z e r r e s e a r c h f o r th e k in d s o f c o n t r o l g ro u p t r e a t m e n t s t h a t have b e en u s e d . G e n e r a l l y , th e c o n t r o l g ro u p h a s been g iv e n a n o t h e r , t h e o r e t i c a l l y ' i r r e l e v a n t , i n t r o d u c t o r y p a s s a g e such a s a h i s t o r i c a l o v e rv ie w to s tu d y i n p l a c e o f th e ad v ance o r g a n 51 52 i z e r . These r e s e a r c h e r s have p o i n t e d o u t t h a t w hat s t u d i e s u s i n g t h i s k in d o f c o n t r o l t r e a t m e n t a c t u a l l y show i s t h a t t h e r e e x i s t s some i n t r o d u c t i o n f o r w hich p o s t t e s t s c o r e s a r e p o o r e r th a n f o r th e ad v ance o r g a n i z e r . I t h a s been s u g g e s te d t h a t i d e a l l y th e c o n t r o l g ro u p sh o u ld s tu d y th e l e a r n i n g p a s s a g e f o r a s much tim e a s e x p e r i m e n t a l s u b j e c t s spend on th e o r g a n i z e r and th e l e a r n i n g p a s s a g e t o g e t h e r . In such a design,, any s u p e r i o r i t y o f o r g a n i z e r g ro u p s would i n d i c a t e t h a t l e a r n i n g was f a c i l i t a t e d by a more a d e q u a te u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e m a t e r i a l s r a t h e r th a n j u s t th ro u g h l o n g e r s tu d y tim e (Faw & W aller., 1 9 7 5 ). T h is s u g g e s t i o n was f o llo w e d i n th e c o n d u c t o f t h i s e x p e r im e n t. As t h e r e w ere two p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s u n d e r s tu d y , s e p a r a t e e x p e r im e n ts were c o n d u c te d f o r e a c h o f th e two f a c t o r s , u t i l i z i n g a p o s t t e s t o n ly d e s ig n w ith c o n t r o l g ro up (C am pbell & S t a n l e y , 1 9 6 6) . E x p e rim e n t I c o n s i d e r e d F a c t o r G (S u p ereg o S t r e n g th ) from th e J r . - S r . High S chool P e r s o n a l i t y Q u e s t i o n n a i r e (HSPQ) , and v e r b a l , v i s u a l , and c o n t r o l t r e a t m e n t s . E x p erim e n t I I i n v e s t i g a t e d F a c to r ( S e l f - S e n t i m e n t ) , and v e r b a l , v i s u a l , and c o n t r o l t r e a t m e n ts. L e a rn in g and r e t e n t i o n w ere t e s t e d v i a im m ed iate and se v e n -d a y d e la y e d p o s t t e s t s o f a m u l t i p l e c h o ic e f o r m a t . 53 C o n tr o ls An a t t e m p t was made to c o n t r o l a l l v a r i a b l e s t h a t c o u ld a f f e c t th e outcome o f th e e x p e rim e n t w ith th e e x c e p t i o n o f th e in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s b e in g s t u d i e d . The e x p e r i m e n t a l d esig n * u t i l i z i n g random sa m p lin g p ro c e d u re s * was e x p e c te d to c o n t r o l f o r b o th th e main s o u r c e s o f t h r e a t to i n t e r n a l v a l i d i t y and th e e x t e r n a l i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s betw een th e e x p o su re to th e e x p e r i m e n t a l t r e a t m e n t v a r i a b l e s and th e p o s t t e s t p e rfo rm a n c e m easure (C am pbell & S ta n le y * 1 9 6 6) . E x p e rim e n ta l p r o c e d u r e s and m a t e r i a l s , were s t a n d a r d i z e d to im prove th e d e g re e o f e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n t r o l a f t e r an i n i t i a l f i e l d t e s t y i e l d e d e v a l u a t i o n d a t a from w hich su ch r e v i s i o n s c o u ld be made. E x p e r im e n ta l Sample The p o p u l a t i o n i n v e s t i g a t e d c o n s i s t e d o f e i g h t h - g ra d e s t u d e n t s a t t e n d i n g an i n n e r - c i t y j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l i n Los A ngeles* C a l i f o r n i a . S t u d e n ts were p r e d o m in a n tly B la c k and o f m id d le to lo w e r so c io ec o n o m ic s t a t u s . Due to l o g i s t i c a l c o n s t r a i n t s i t was n o t p o s s i b l e to rando m ly s e l e c t s u b j e c t s from th e p o p u l a t i o n f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n th e s tu d y . I t was p o s s i b l e * however* to rando m ly s e l e c t c la s s r o o m s . The e x p e r i m e n t a l sam ple c o n s i s t e d o f s t u d e n t s e n r o l l e d i n s i x s o c i a l s t u d i e s c l a s s e s . The s i x c l a s s e s were rand om ly s e l e c t e d from among th e 20 e i g h t h - g r a d e s o c i a l s t u d i e s c l a s s e s o f f e r e d i n th e s c h o o l. 54 The s u b j e c t s i n eac h o f th e s i x c l a s s e s w ere r a n domly a s s i g n e d to one o f t h r e e t r e a t m e n t g ro u p s a s f o l lo w s : Group 1 - - V e r b a l ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r Group 2 - - V i s u a l ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r Group 3 __C o n tr o l group I n i t i a l l y , th e sam ple c o n ta in e d 151 s t u d e n t s . How e v e r , due to th e l e n g t h o f th e tim e o v e r w hich th e s tu d y was c o n d u c te d , n o t a l l s t u d e n t s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a l l p h a s e s o f th e e x p e r im e n t. F or p u r p o s e s o f d a t a a n a l y s i s , any s u b j e c t who d id n o t have a s c o re r e p o r t e d on a l l m e a su re s was d ro p p ed from th e s t u d y . Due to th e o p e r a t i o n o f t h i s mor t a l i t y f a c t o r , th e num bers o f s u b j e c t s i n th e t h r e e t r e a t ment g ro u p s w ere n o t even a t th e end o f th e e x p e r im e n t. To c o r r e c t f o r t h i s p ro b le m , rand om ly s e l e c t e d s t u d e n t s were e x c lu d e d from th e sam ple to a llo w f o r e q u a l num bers i n a l l t r e a t m e n t g r o u p s . As a r e s u l t , th e f i n a l e x p e r i m e n t a l sam ple c o n s i s t e d o f 8 l s u b j e c t s . In d e p e n d e n t V a r i a b l e s The i n t e r a c t i o n b etw een two in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s was m easured i n t h i s e x p e rim e n t. The in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s w ere l e a r n e r p e r s o n a l i t y and ad v ance o r g a n i z e r f o r m a t. P e r s o n a l i t y F a c t o r s Two p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s from among th e 14 on th e J r . - S r . High S ch ool P e r s o n a l i t y Q u e s t i o n n a i r e (HSPQ) were s t u d i e d i n t h i s e x p e r im e n t. Each was s e l e c t e d from th e 55 HSPQ b a se d upon p a s t r e s e a r c h e v id e n c e w hich s u g g e s te d i t would be a p p r o p r i a t e . The f a c t o r s ch o sen w ere a s f o llo w s : F a c to r G ( U .I . 7) Superego S t r e n g t h . The c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h i s f a c t o r a t th e p o s i t i v e p o l e a r e found i n a p e rs o n who i s c o n s c ie n tio u s ., p e r s i s t e n t , m o r a l i s t i c , and s t a i d ; and a t th e n e g a t i v e p o le i n a p e rs o n who i s e x p e d i e n t and d i s r e g a r d s r u l e s ( C a t t e l l & C a t t e l l , 1 9 6 9) . F a c t o r Q,, ( U .I . 18) S e l f - S e n t i m e n t . The c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h i s f a c t o r a t th e p o s i t i v e p o le a r e found i n a p e rs o n who i s c o n t r o l l e d , s o c i a l l y p r e c i s e , c o m p u lsiv e , and e x a c t i n g i n w i l l pow er; and a t th e n e g a t i v e p o le i n a p e r s o n who i s u n c o n t r o l l e d , l a x , c a r e l e s s o f s o c i a l r u l e s , and l i k e l y to f o l lo w h i s own u r g e s ( C a t t e l l & C a t t e l l , 1 9 6 9 ). Advance O r g a n iz e r F orm ats Two ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r f o r m a ts were u s e d . Each fo rm a t p r e s e n t e d th e same c o n t e n t i n f o r m a t i o n . The fo r m a ts w e r e : V e r b a l Advance O r g a n iz e r (V r) . The v e r b a l adv an ce o r g a n i z e r c o n s i s t e d o f a 1 8 0-word w r i t t e n p a s s a g e w hich d i s c u s s e d th e c o n c e p ts o f food c h a in s and e c o l o g i c a l n i c h e s . I t was d e te r m in e d t h a t t h e s e c o n c e p ts were more 56 g e n e ra l., a b s t r a c t ., and i n c l u s i v e th a n th e c o n t e n t o f th e l e a r n i n g p a s s a g e , and th u s met th e c r i t e r i a e s t a b l i s h e d by A usubel f o r ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r s (s e e A ppendix A). V i s u a l Advance O rg a n iz e r (V s) . The v i s u a l ad v ance o r g a n i z e r c o n s i s t e d o f a c h a r t and a l i n e d raw in g w hich p r e s e n t e d th e same i n f o r m a ti o n a s th e v e r b a l a d v an ce o r g a n i z e r p a s s a g e . The o n ly v e r b a l m a t e r i a l i n c l u d e d i n th e v i s u a l a d v an c e o r g a n i z e r s c o n s i s t e d o f l a b e l s i d e n t i f y i n g p a r t s o f th e c h a r t s (s e e A ppendix B ) . D ependent V a r i a b l e s The d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s i n t h i s s tu d y w ere v e r b a l l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n a s m easured by a 3 0“ ite m o b j e c t i v e c r i t e r i o n t e s t . The c r i t e r i o n t e s t c o n t a i n e d q u e s t i o n s a t th e know ledge and c o m p reh en sio n l e v e l s . Knowledge i n v o l v e s th e r e c a l l o f s p e c i f i c s and u n i v e r s a l s , th e r e c a l l o f m ethods and p r o c e s s e s , o r th e r e c a l l o f a p a t t e r n , s t r u c t u r e , o r s e t t i n g . The know ledge l e v e l e m p h a siz e s m ost th e p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s o f rem em bering. F or m easurem ent p u r p o s e s , th e r e c a l l s i t u a t i o n i n v o l v e s l i t t l e more th a n b r i n g i n g to mind th e a p p r o p r i a t e m a t e r i a l . A lth o u g h some a l t e r a t i o n o f th e m a t e r i a l may be r e q u i r e d , t h i s i s a r e l a t i v e l y m in o r p a r t o f th e t a s k (Bloom, H a s t i n g s , & Madaus, 1 9 7 1). C om prehension r e f e r s to a ty p e o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g o r a p p r e h e n s io n such t h a t th e i n d i v i d u a l knows w hat i s b e in g 57 com m unicated and can make u s e o f th e m a t e r i a l o r i d e a b e in g com m unicated w i t h o u t n e c e s s a r i l y r e l a t i n g i t to o t h e r m a t e r i a l o r s e e in g i t s f u l l e s t i m p l i c a t i o n s . C om prehension i n c l u d e s t h r e e l e v e l s : t r a n s l a t i o n , , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , and e x t r a p o l a t i o n (Bloom e t a l M 1971)* E x p e rim e n ta l M a t e r i a l s To i n s u r e t h a t f i n d i n g s o f t h i s s tu d y c o u ld be g e n e r a l i z e d to r e a l i s t i c t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g s i t u a t i o n s , th e l e a r n i n g m a t e r i a l s f o r t h i s s tu d y w ere s e l e c t e d from e x i s t i n g c o m m e rc ia lly a v a i l a b l e m a t e r i a l s . C r i t e r i a f o r s e l e c t i n g th e m a t e r i a l w ere a s f o l lo w s : 1. The c o n t e n t waB s u f f i c i e n t l y n o v e l to m inim ize e f f e c t s o f p r i o r know ledge. 2. The c o n t e n t was e x t e n s i v e l y f i e l d t e s t e d and deemed a p p r o p r i a t e to th e l e v e l o f s t u d e n t s em ployed i n th e s tu d y . 3. The c o n t e n t s u f f i c i e n t l y c o v e re d th e l e a r n i n g t a s k b e in g exam ined i n th e s tu d y . 4. The l e s s o n c o u ld be p r e s e n t e d w i t h i n a 50- m in u te p e r i o d o f tim e . The Man: A C ourse o f Study (MACOS) program (E duca t i o n D evelopm ent C e n te r , I n c . , 1970) was s e l e c t e d a s m e e t in g a l l o f th e e s t a b l i s h e d c r i t e r i a . MACOS i s a d i s c o v e r y l e a r n i n g b a s e d p ro g ram d e s ig n e d f o r u s e by u p p e r e le m e n ta r y 58 and j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l age s t u d e n t s . I t h a s been a p p ro v e d by th e S t a t e o f C a l i f o r n i a f o r u s e w ith u p p e r e le m e n ta r y and j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l age s t u d e n t s . The MACOS c u r r ic u lu m in c lu d e s ., among o t h e r th in g s * a s e r i e s o f b o o k l e t s f o r s t u d e n t u s e . The b o o k l e t A nim als o f th e A f r i c a n Savanna was ch o sen from among t h e s e as m ost f i t t i n g th e e s t a b l i s h e d c r i t e r i a . The c o n t e n t i n t h i s b o o k l e t was e d i t e d down to 1*080 w ords to m eet th e tim e c r i t e r i a w h ile s t i l l m a i n t a i n in g c o n t i n u i t y (s e e Appendix D ) . In a d d it i o n * th e e d i t e d p a s s a g e was s u b j e c t e d to r e a d a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s u s i n g th e Lorge r e a d a b i l i t y fo rm u la (Lorge* 1 9 5 9 ). R u s s e l l ( 1 9 6 1) found* a f t e r a s u rv e y o f a l l e x t a n t r e a d a b i l i t y fo rm u las* t h a t th e Lorge f o rm u la was th e m ost a p p r o p r i a t e fo rm u la f o r u s e w ith m a t e r i a l s f o r g r a d e s 4 - 9 . A p p l i c a t i o n o f th e L orge fo rm u la r e s u l t e d i n a r e a d a b i l i t y in d e x o f 5-3* w e ll w i t h i n th e r e a d i n g a b i l i t y o f th e sam ple s u b j e c t s . A p i l o t s tu d y was c o n d u c te d w ith 70 s u b j e c t s n o t a p a r t o f th e e x p e r i m e n t a l sam ple to d e te r m in e w h e th e r th e l e a r n i n g m a t e r i a l s c o u ld be e a s i l y r e a d by th e s u b j e c t s w i t h i n th e s p e c i f i e d tim e l i m i t . I t was d e te rm in e d t h a t th e y c o u ld . I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n The J r . - S r . High S chool P e r s o n a l i t y Q u e s t i o n n a i r e (HSPQ) Form A* d e v e lo p e d by C a t t e l l and C a t t e l l and p u b 59 l i s h e d by th e I n s t i t u t e f o r P e r s o n a l i t y and A b i l i t y T e s t ing., was u t i l i z e d to m easure th e in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s S uperego S t r e n g th and S e l f - S e n t i m e n t . T h is i n s t r u m e n t was a d m i n i s t e r e d to a l l s u b j e c t s . S c o re s w ere t a b u l a t e d f o r e ac h o f th e two p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s . The r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y o f th e HSPQ a r e p r o v id e d i n T able 1 and were c o n s i d e r e d a d e q u a te f o r th e c o n d u c t o f t h i s s tu d y . T able 1 R e l i a b i l i t y C o e f f ic ie n ts and D ire c t V a l i d i t i e s on th e B a sis o f M u ltip le C o rre la tio n f o r F a c to rs G and Q 3 on Two Form S c a le s of th e J r . - S r . High School P e r s o n a lity Q u e stio n n a ire (HSPQ) P e r s o n a lity D ire c t F a c to rs R e l i a b i l i t y V a lid ity G : Superego S tre n g th .86 .81 0,3 : S e lf-S e n tim e n t .88 .72 * - M easurem ent o f th e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s was accom p l i s h e d th ro u g h th e u s e o f a 3 0 - q u e s t i o n , i n v e s t i g a t o r d e v e lo p e d o b j e c t i v e t e s t . The f i n a l v e r s i o n o f th e t e s t c o n ta in e d 18 know ledge l e v e l q u e s t i o n s and 12 co m p reh en sio n l e v e l ite m s (s e e A ppendix E ) . S c o rin g o f each r e s p o n s e was on a b i n a r y b a s i s w ith one p o i n t f o r a c o r r e c t a n sw er and 60 no p o i n t s f o r an i n c o r r e c t a n sw e r. The s e l e c t i o n o f a m u l t i p l e c h o ic e fo rm a t was made "because i t was th e fo rm a t m ost o f t e n u s e d by th e c la s s ro o m t e a c h e r s and was t h e r e f o r e one to w hich th e s u b j e c t s w ere accustom ed,, th u s c o n t r o l l i n g ' f o r a p o s s i b l e t e s t i n g X t r e a t m e n t i n t e r a c t i o n (C am pbell & S t a n l e y , 1 9 6 6) . The 38 o r i g i n a l t e s t ite m s w ere s u b m itte d to a p a n e l o f f i v e s o c i a l s t u d i e s t e a c h e r s f o r judgm ent a s to t h e i r a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s to th e sam ple and t h e i r c o n t e n t v a l i d i t y . F u r t h e r v a l i d a t i o n o f th e c r i t e r i o n t e s t was a c c o m p lish e d w ith 70 s u b j e c t s n o t p a r t o f th e e x p e r i m e n t a l sam p le. R e s u l t s o f th e p i l o t t e s t were s u b j e c t e d to ite m a n a l y s i s . As a r e s u l t , , e i g h t ite m s w ere d e l e t e d from th e i n s t r u m e n t . R e l i a b i l i t y o f th e f i n a l 3 0 - ite m v e r s i o n o f th e c r i t e r i o n t e s t was t e s t e d th ro u g h a p p l i c a t i o n o f th e s p l i t - h a l f m ethod ( S t o r e y , 1 9 7 0 ). D ata y i e l d e d a r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t o f . 9^ 6 . F i e l d P r o c e d u r e s The e x p e rim e n t was a d m i n i s t e r e d by th e r e g u l a r t e a c h e r s i n th e s i x - c l a s s r o o m s . T h is p r o c e d u r e was f o l lowed to m in im iz e r e a c t i v e a rr a n g e m e n ts (C am pbell & S ta n le y , 1966; Faw & W a lle r , 1 9 7 6 ). On th e f i r s t day o f th e e x p e rim e n t th e HSPQ was a d m i n i s t e r e d to a l l s t u d e n t s . In a d d i t i o n , s t u d e n t s were random ly a s s i g n e d to one o f t h r e e t r e a t m e n t g r o u p s - - v e r b a l 61 a d v ance o r g a n i z e r , v i s u a l advance o r g a n i z e r , o r c o n t r o l . At th e c o n c l u s i o n o f th e HSPQ, s t u d e n t s w ere g iv e n th e i n t r o d u c t o r y m a t e r i a l s a p p r o p r i a t e to t h e i r t r e a t m e n t g ro u p to s tu d y f o r 5 m in u te s . The v e r b a l ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r g ro u p r e c e i v e d a 1 8 0-w ord w r i t t e n p a s s a g e on food c h a i n s and e c o l o g i c a l n i c h e s . The v i s u a l ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r g ro u p r e c e iv e d two c h a r t s w hich p r e s e n t e d th e same i n f o r m a t i o n . The c o n t r o l g ro u p was g iv e n a s h e e t w hich i n s t r u c t e d them t h a t th e y would n o t be r e q u i r e d to s tu d y a n y th in g a t t h i s tim e , b u t t h a t th e y would g e t e x t r a tim e to r e a d th e l e a r n in g p a s s a g e (s e e Appendix C ) . No t a l k i n g among s t u d e n t s was p e r m i t t e d , and t e a c h e r s were a sk e d to d i s c o u r a g e q u e s t i o n s and r e s p o n d i n d i v i d u a l l y to th o s e a s k e d . F o r t y - e i g h t h o u r s l a t e r each s t u d e n t was g iv e n an e n v e lo p e c o n t a i n i n g th e m a t e r i a l s a p p r o p r i a t e to h i s t r e a t ment g ro u p . These m a t e r i a l s i n c l u d e d th e ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r and th e l e a r n i n g p a s s a g e f o r th e v e r b a l and v i s u a l ad vance o r g a n i z e r t r e a t m e n t g r o u p s . The c o n t r o l g ro u p r e c e i v e d an i n s t r u c t i o n s h e e t t e l l i n g them to go r i g h t to th e l e a r n i n g p a s s a g e . The t h r e a t o f m o r t a l i t y due to th e 4 8 -h o u r i n t e r v a l b e tw ee n f i r s t e x p o s u re to th e i n t r o d u c t o r y p a s s a g e and e x p o su re to th e l e a r n i n g p a s s a g e was r e c o g n i z e d . However, i t was f e l t t h a t t h i s p r o c e d u r e was c a l l e d f o r by t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . An i n t e r v a l was n e c e s s a r y to a ll o w th e advance o r g a n i z e r i d e a t i o n a l s c a f f o l d i n g to g e l (A u su b el, i 9 6 0 ; A usubel & F i t z g e r a l d , 1 9 6 1 ) . 62 The s u b j e c t s were g iv e n 5 m in u te s to r e v ie w th e ad v ance o r g a n i z e r s and 20 m in u te s to r e a d th e l e a r n i n g p a s s a g e . The c r i t e r i o n t e s t was a d m i n i s t e r e d im m e d ia te ly a f t e r w a r d and a g a in seven days l a t e r . P r e p a r a t i o n o f D ata D ata c o l l e c t e d c o n s i s t e d o f s c o r e s on th e HSPQ f o r th e two p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s and b o th th e im m ed iate and r e t e n t i o n p o s t t e s t s . , a s w e l l a s n o t a t i o n o f t r e a t m e n t g ro u p m em bership f o r a l l s u b j e c t s . In a d d i t i o n , a l l s u b j e c t s were a s s i g n e d an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n code num ber. D a ta p r o c e s s in g on t h e s e s e t s o f i n f o r m a t i o n i n c l u d e d hand s c o r i n g o f t h e HSPQ answ er s h e e t s , m achine s c o r i n g o f th e c r i t e r i o n t e s t an sw er s h e e t s , t r a n s f e r o f p e rfo rm a n c e and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n d a t a ( i d e n t i f i c a t i o n code num bers, p e r s o n a l i t y s c o r e s , g ro u p m em bership, c r i t e r i o n s c o r e s ) to co m p u ter c o d in g s h e e t s , key p u n c h in g and v e r i f i c a t i o n o f d a t a on c a r d s , and s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f th e d a t a . S t a t i s t i c a l A n a l y s i s The d a t a c o l l e c t e d i n t h i s s tu d y w ere s u b j e c t e d to m u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s by u s e o f th e SPSS subprogram REGRESSION. T h is s t a t i s t i c a l m ethod was u s e d due to th e c o n tin u o u s m easurem ent l e v e l o f th e in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s S uperego S t r e n g t h and S e l f - S e n t i m e n t . As s e v e r a l r e s e a r c h e r s have p o i n t e d o u t ( K e r l i n g e r & P e d h a z e r, 1 9 7 3 j K er- 63 l in g e r * 1973; Kim & Kohout* 1975; V a rn e r & U tts* 197 6 )* t h e c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f c o n tin u o u s v a r i a b l e s * as r e q u i r e d by a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e m ethodology* l e a d s t o l o s s o f i n f o r m ation* and t h e r e f o r e ANOVA i s n o t g e n e r a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e f o r u se i n s t u d i e s w hich c o n t a i n c o n tin u o u s v a r i a b l e s . M u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s * however* i s w e l l s u i t e d t o h a n d li n g t h e s e k i n d s o f d a t a . Type I e r r o r r a t e was s e t a t a = .05 and h y p o th e s e s w ere a c c e p t e d o r r e j e c t e d d e p e n d in g upon w h e th e r t h e o b s e r v e d r a t i o s e x c e e d e d t h e l a b e l e d v a l u e . CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In t h i s c h a p t e r th e r e s u l t s from a n a l y s i s o f d a t a f o r s p e c i f i c r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s e s , r e s t a t e d i n n u l l form , a r e r e p o r t e d and d i s c u s s e d . F or t h e s e h y p o t h e s e s , r e s u l t s a r e r e p o r t e d and a n a ly z e d s e p a r a t e l y f o r eac h o f th e two p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . The o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s a n a l y s i s was to a s s e s s th e e f f e c t s o f l e a r n e r p e r s o n - a l i t y and ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r fo rm a t on th e l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n o f v e r b a l m a t e r i a l . K e r l i n g e r and P e d h azu r (1973)* C ronbach and Webb (1975)* and V a rn e r and U t t s (1976) have d e m o n s tr a te d th e v i a b i l i t y o f r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s i n a n a l y z i n g d a t a from e x p e rim e n ts c o n t a i n i n g b o th c a t e g o r i c a l and c o n tin u o u s in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s . However, t h i s m ethod h a s n o t been a s w id e ly u s e d a s o t h e r te c h n iq u e s such a s a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e , and th u s may r e q u i r e some p r o c e d u r a l e x p l a n a t i o n . To b e g in a n a l y s i s , v e c t o r s w ere c r e a t e d w hich i n c lu d e d th e m e a su re s o f th e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s f o r a l l su b j e c t s . Coded v e c t o r s w ere c r e a t e d to i n d i c a t e m em bership i n th e c a t e g o r i e s o f th e c a t e g o r i c a l v a r i a b l e , and v e c t o r s w hich i n c l u d e d th e v a lu e s o f th e c o n tin u o u s v a r i a b l e s f o r 64 65 a l l s u b j e c t s were g e n e r a t e d . New v e c t o r s w ere g e n e r a t e d by m u l t i p l y i n g th e v e c t o r s f o r th e c a t e g o r i c a l v a r i a b l e by th e v e c t o r s f o r th e c o n tin u o u s v a r i a b l e s . These p r o d u c t v e c t o r s r e p r e s e n t e d th e i n t e r a c t i o n te r m s . From t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n f o u r r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s e s w ere p e rf o rm e d . Im m ediate p o s t t e s t s c o r e s were r e g r e s s e d on F a c to r G* a d v an ce o r g a n i z e r t r e a t m e n t g r o u p * , and i n t e r a c t i o n o f F a c t o r G and ad v ance o r g a n i z e r t r e a t m e n t .group; r e t e n t i o n p o s t t e s t s c o r e s w ere r e g r e s s e d on F a c t o r G* t r e a t m e n t group* and i n t e r a c t i o n ; im m ed iate p o s t t e s t s c o r e s were r e g r e s s e d on F a c to r Q^* t r e a t m e n t group* and i n t e r a c t i o n ; and r e t e n t i o n p o s t t e s t s c o r e s were r e g r e s s e d on F a c t o r Q^* t r e a t m e n t group* and i n t e r a c t i o n . The r e s u l t s o f t h e s e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s e s w ere e v a l u a te d f o llo w in g p r o c e d u r e s o u t l i n e d by K e r l i n g e r and P ed- •/ h a z u r (1973^ PP* 258- 259). H y p o th e s is t e s t i n g w ith r e g r e s s io n a n a l y s i s d a t a f o l lo w s a s p e c i f i c p a t h . 'D e p e n d i n g upon th e n a t u r e o f th e r e s u l t s a t eac h s t e p on "the path* th e a n a l y s i s e i t h e r c o n t i n u e s o r t e r m i n a t e s and th e r e s u l t s a r e sum m arized. The e x p e r i m e n t e r f i r s t d e te r m in e s i f th e p r o p o r t i o n o f v a r i a n c e a c c o u n te d f o r by th e r e g r e s s i o n o f th e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e on th e in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s i s s i g n i f i c a n t . I f i t i s not* th e a n a l y s i s i s t e r m i n a t e d . I f th e o v e r a l l t e s t i s s i g n i f i c a n t * th e a n a l y s i s p r o c e e d s to d e te r m in e w h e th e r t h e r e i s a s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n . I f th e 66 i n t e r a c t i o n i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t , th e common r e g r e s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t i s t e s t e d f o r s i g n i f i c a n c e and th e i n t e r c e p t s a r e exam ined to d e te r m in e i f th e y a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t . I f , on th e o t h e r hand., t h e r e i s a s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n , th e s e p a r a t e r e g r e s s i o n l i n e s a re p l o t t e d and th e J o h n s o n - Neyman te c h n iq u e i s a p p l i e d to e s t a b l i s h r e g i o n s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . These p r o c e d u r e s were fo llo w e d i n i n t e r p r e t i n g th e r e s u l t s o f th e d a t a a n a ly z e d i n t h i s s t u d y . T ab le 2 p r e s e n t s summary d e s c r i p t i v e d a t a , c a t e g o r i z e d by 'tr e a tm e n t g ro u p t. T a b le s 3 and 4 p r e s e n t g e n e r a l i z e d r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s r e s u l t s f o r E x p erim e n t I ( F a c t o r G) and E x p erim e n t I I ( F a c t o r Q ^ ). R e s u l t s Im m ediate P o s t t e s t and F a c to r G: Superego S t r e n g t h T hree n u l l h y p o th e s e s were t e s t e d r e l a t i v e to t h i s f a c t o r . They w ere: N u ll H y p o th e s is One. On an im m ed iate p o s t t e s t d e s ig n e d to m easu re l e a r n i n g o f v e r b a l m a t e r i a l , t r e a t m e n t g ro u p r e g r e s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s w i l l be e q u a l to z e r o . N u ll H y p o th e s is Two. On an im m ed iate p o s t t e s t d e s ig n e d to m easure l e a r n i n g o f v e r b a l m a t e r i a l , Table 2 Means and Standard D eviations by Treatment Group V erbal V isual Advance O rganizer Advance O rganizer C ontrol A ll X S D X S D X S D X SD P o ss te st 15.333 6.811 17.741 6.017 15.111 6.829 16.062 6.590 PI* 10.074 4.471 11.259 3.986 10.000 4.649 10.444 4.362 P2* 5.259 3.460 6.481 3.321 5.111 3.490 5.617 3.437 R eten tio n P o s tte s t 15.074 6.6o4 17.185 6.171 14.593 6.715 15.617 6.518 Rl* 9.111 5.876 10.222 3.117 9.407 4.153 9.580 3.724 R2* 5.963 3.311 6.963 3 . 51^ 5.185 3.294 6 .037 3.411 F a c to r G 10.815 2.829 11.815 2.883 11.370 3.152 11.333 2.950 F a c to r Q 3 9.519 2.694 11.778 2.562 10.704 3.208 10.667 2.950 N 27 27 27 81 *P1 = Knowledge le v e l q u estio n s, P o s tte s t; P2 = Comprehension le v e l q u estio n s, P o s tte s t; R1 = Knowl edge le v e l q u estio n s, R etention P o s tte s t; R2 = Comprehension le v e l q u estio n s, R eten tio n P o ss te st -4 Table 3 Generalized Regression Analysis Experiment I— F actor G:. Superego Strength C rite rio n Variable Step Entered P red icto r V ariables B Increase in R 2 Cumulative R 2 F P o stte st 1 F actor G .1135219 .00046 .00046 .03631 2 In te ra c tio n 1 -9359205 (101) .00533 .00579 In te ra c tio n 2 .458595^ .o44oi .04980 1.34507 3 Treatment 1 .3215532 ( 101) .00873 .05853 Treatment 2 -.2172^59 .02559 .08412 1.37769 1 Treatment 1 .3215532 (101) .00012 .00012 Treatment 2 -.2172^59 .01704 .01717 .68119 2 F actor G .1135219 .00000 .OI717 .44631 3 In te ra c tio n 1 .^58595^ .06463 .08179 In te ra c tio n 2 -.9359205 (101) .00233 .08412 1.37769 1 In te ra c tio n 1 -.9359205 ( 101) .00498 .00498 In te ra c tio n 2 . 458595* + .04478 .04976 2.04236 2 Treatment 1 .3215532 (101) .OO813 .15789 Treatment 2 .2172459 .02386 .08175 1.69164 3 F actor G .1135219 .00237 .08412 1.37769 R etention P o sstest 1 F actor G .2353*05 .00809 .00809 .64421 2 In te ra c tio n 1 .4o44oi3 ( 101) .00728 .01537 In te ra c tio n 2 . .2771590 .03032 .04568 I .22870 3 Treatment 1 -.4648786 ( lo 1) .01087 .05655 Treatment 2 -.1111370 .00682 .06337 1.01490 1 Treatment 1 -.4648786 ( 101) .00043 .00043 Treatment 2 -.1111370 .01823 .01866 • 7*H55 2 F actor G .2353*05 .00519 .02385 .62700 3 In te ra c tio n 2 .2771590 .03910 .06295 In te ra c tio n 1 .4o44oi3 ( 1 01) .00042 .06337 1.01490 1 In te ra c tio n 1 .4044013 ( 101) .00582 .00582 In te ra c tio n 2 .2771590 .03369 .03951 1 .60426 2 Treatment 1 -.464-8786 (101) ,00766 .04717 Treatment 2 -.1111370 .00556 .05273 1.05762 3 F actor G .2352435 .01064 .06337 1.01490 * S ig n ifican t a t the .05 le v e l. ♦♦S ignificant a t th e .01 le v e l. Q \ oo Table 4 Generalized Regression Analysis Experiment I I —F actor Self-Sentim ent C rite rio n V ariable Step Entered P red icto r V ariables B Increase in R 2 Cumulative R 2 F Immediate 1 F actor Q 3 .3379795 101) .00086 .00086 .06818 P ostte st 2 In te ra c tio n 1 -.14687102 101) .00359 .00445 In te ra c tio n 2 .2920853 .03089 .03534 .94032 3 Treatment 1 . I 667I 489 101) .OO 33I .03865 Treatment 2 -.IO 7563O .O O 699 .04564 . 7173.3 1 Treatment 1 .16671489 101) .00012 .00012 Treatment 2 -.IO 7563O .01704 .01717 .68119 2 F actor Q 3 .3379795 101) .00001 .01718 .44868 3 In te ra c tio n 2 .2920853 .02794 .04512 In te ra c tio n 1 -.14687102 10' 1) .00052 .04564 .71733 1 In te ra c tio n 1 -.14687102 101) .00284 .00284 In te ra c tio n 2 .2920853 .03249 .03533 1.42316 2 Treatment 1 .16671489 101) .00330 .03862 Treatment 2 .1075630 .00682 .04544 .90444 3 F acto r Q 3 •3379795 101) .00020 .04564 .71733 R etention 1 F actor Q 3 -.8609882 10' l ) .00056 .00056 .04411 P o stte st 2 In te ra c tio n 1 .4105190 101) .00524 ,00580 In te ra c tio n 2 .1766773 .02971 .03551 .94508 3 Treatment 1 “ .5037394 101) .00453 .04004 Treatment 2 -.3165152 101) .00065 .04070 .63635 l Treatment 1 -.5037394 101) .00043 .00043 Treatment 2 -.3165152 101) .01823 .01866 .74-155 2 F actor 03 -.8609882 101) .00337 .02203 .57829 3 In te ra c tio n 2 .1768773 .01825 .04028 In te ra c tio n 1 .4105190 101) .000142 .04070 .63635 1 In te ra c tio n 1 .4105190 101) .OO57I .00571 In te ra c tio n 2 .1768773 .02718 .03289 1.32614 2 Treatment 1 -.5037394 101) .00566 .03855 Treatment 2 -.3165152 101) .00083 .03937 .77371 3 Factor Q 3 -.8609882 101) .00133 ,04070 .63635 ■^Significant a t the .05 le v e l. ^ S ig n ific a n t a t the .01 le v e l. 70 p e r s o n a l i t y r e g r e s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s w i l l be e q u a l to z e r o . N u ll H y p o th e s is T h r e e . On an im m ed iate p o s t t e s t d e s ig n e d to m easure l e a r n i n g o f v e r b a l m a t e r i a l ^ i n t e r a c t i o n term r e g r e s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s w i l l be e q u a l to z e r o . In o r d e r to a n a ly z e th e e f f e c t s o f F a c t o r G, a d vance o r g a n i z e r form at^ and th e i n t e r a c t i o n o f F a c t o r G and advance o r g a n i z e r form at., th e r e g r e s s i o n o f th e c r i t e r i o n v a r ia b le ., p o s t t e s t s c o r e , on t h e s e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s was c a l c u l a t e d . The o v e r a l l t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e p r o p o r t i o n o f v a r i a n c e a c c o u n te d f o r d id n o t r e a c h th e l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . The a n a l y s i s was t e r m i n a t e d and th e n u l l h y p o th e s e s were a c c e p te d a s t e n a b l e . R e t e n t i o n P o s t t e s t and F a c t o r G: Superego S t r e n g t h T hree n u l l h y p o th e s e s were t e s t e d r e l a t i v e to t h i s f a c t o r . They w ere: N u ll H y p o th e s is F o u r . On a se v e n -d a y d e la y e d p o s t t e s t d e s ig n e d to m easure r e t e n t i o n o f v e r b a l m a te r ia l., t r e a t m e n t g ro u p r e g r e s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s w i l l be e q u a l to z e r o . N u ll H y p o th e s is F i v e . On a s e v e n -d a y d e la y e d p o s t t e s t d e s ig n e d to m easure r e t e n t i o n o f v e r b a l 71 m a t e r i a l , p e r s o n a l i t y r e g r e s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s w i l l be e q u a l to z e r o . N u ll H y p o th e s is S i x . On a s e v e n -d a y d e la y e d p o s t t e s t d e s ig n e d to m easure r e t e n t i o n o f v e r b a l m a te r i a l , i n t e r a c t i o n term r e g r e s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s w i l l be e q u a l to z e r o . The o v e r a l l t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e p r o p o r t i o n o f v a r i a n c e i n r e t e n t i o n p o s t t e s t s c o r e s a c c o u n te d f o r by F a c to r G, t r e a t m e n t g ro u p , and i n t e r a c t i o n b etw een t r e a t m ent g ro u p and F a c to r G, d id n o t r e a c h th e l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . The a n a l y s i s was t e r m i n a t e d and th e n u l l h y p o t h e s e s were a c c e p te d a s t e n a b l e . Im m ediate P o s t t e s t and F a c to r Q0 : S e l f - S e n t i m e n t T hree n u l l h y p o th e s e s were t e s t e d r e l a t i v e to t h i s f a c t o r . They w ere: N u ll H y p o th e s is One. On an im m ediate p o s t t e s t d e s ig n e d to m easure l e a r n i n g o f v e r b a l m a t e r i a l , t r e a t m e n t g ro u p r e g r e s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s w i l l be e q u a l to z e r o . N u ll H y p o th e s is Two. On an im m ediate p o s t t e s t d e s ig n e d to m easure l e a r n i n g o f v e r b a l m a t e r i a l , p e r s o n a l i t y r e g r e s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s w i l l be e q u a l to z e r o . 72 N u ll H y p o th e s is T h r e e . On an Im m ediate p o s t t e s t d e s ig n e d to m easu re l e a r n i n g o f v e r b a l m a te r ia l., i n t e r a c t i o n term r e g r e s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s w i l l be e q u a l to z e r o . The o v e r a l l t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e p r o p o r t i o n o f v a r i a n c e i n p o s t t e s t s c o r e s a c c o u n te d f o r by F a c to r t r e a t m e n t group,, and i n t e r a c t i o n betw een t r e a t m e n t group and F a c to r d id n o t r e a c h th e l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . The a n a l y s i s was t e r m i n a t e d and th e n u l l h y p o th e s e s were a c c e p te d a s t e n a b l e . R e t e n t i o n P o s t t e s t and F a c t o r Q0 : S e l f - S e n t i m e n t ^ Three n u l l h y p o th e s e s were t e s t e d r e l a t i v e to t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p . They w ere: N u ll H y p o th e s is F o u r . On a se v e n -d a y d e la y e d p o s t t e s t d e s ig n e d to m easure r e t e n t i o n o f v e r b a l m a te r ia l,, t r e a t m e n t g roup r e g r e s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s w i l l be e q u a l to z e r o . N u ll H y p o th e s is F i v e . On a s e v e n -d a y d e la y e d p o s t t e s t d e s ig n e d to m easure r e t e n t i o n o f v e r b a l m a t e r i a l ; p e r s o n a l i t y r e g r e s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s w i l l be e q u a l to z e r o . N u ll H y p o th e s is S i x . On a se v e n -d a y d e la y e d p o s t t e s t d e s ig n e d to m easure r e t e n t i o n o f v e r b a l 73 m a te r ia l., i n t e r a c t i o n term r e g r e s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s w i l l be e q u a l to z e r o . The o v e r a l l t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e p r o p o r t i o n o f v a r i a n c e i n r e t e n t i o n p o s t t e s t s c o r e s a c c o u n te d f o r by F a c to r t r e a t m e n t group* and i n t e r a c t i o n betw een group and F a c to r d id n o t r e a c h th e l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . The a n a l y s i s was t e r m i n a t e d and th e n u l l h y p o th e s e s were a c c e p t e d a s t e n a b l e . D i s c u s s io n Advance O rg a n iz e r F orm ats The a n a l y s i s o f d a t a from E x p e rim e n ts I and I I d id n o t s u p p o r t th e s i g n i f i c a n t s u p e r i o r i t y o f e i t h e r advance o r g a n i z e r fo rm a t o v e r th e c o n t r o l g ro u p . Some o f th e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h i s may l i e i n th e ty p e o f c o n t r o l g ro up t r e a t m e n t u t i l i z e d i n t h i s s tu d y . As s u g g e s te d by S c an d u ra and W ells ( 1 9 6 7)* B a rn es and Clawson (1975) ,> Faw a ^d W a lle r (1976)* H a r t l e y and D a v ies (1976)* and Lawton and Wanska ( 1 9 7 7 ) th e c o n t r o l g ro u p i n t h i s s tu d y was n o t e x p o sed to an i r r e l e v a n t i n t r o d u c t o r y p a s s a g e . In s te a d * t h i s t r e a t ment g ro u p was a llo w e d to s tu d y th e l e a r n i n g p a s s a g e f o r th e same amount o f tim e a s th e advance o r g a n i z e r t r e a t m e n t g ro u p s s p e n t s tu d y in g th e o r g a n i z e r s and l e a r n i n g p a s s a g e t o g e t h e r . Thus* i t may be t h a t th e l a c k o f s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e betw een g ro u p s i s a r e s u l t o f a llo w in g f o r e q u i v a l e n t s tu d y tim e f o r r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l among g ro u p s 74 and t h a t th e s t u d i e s s u p p o r t i n g th e e f f i c a c y o f advance o r g a n i z e r s a c h ie v e d t h e i r r e s u l t s by., i n e f f e c t * a llo w in g adv an ce o r g a n i z e r t r e a t m e n t g ro u p s l o n g e r s tu d y tim e r a t h e r th a n by p r o v i d i n g a more a d e q u a te u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e m a t e r i a l s . However* as an e x a m in a tio n o f T ab le 2 w i l l demon s t r a t e * t h e r e was a stro n g * a lt h o u g h n o t a s i g n i f i c a n t * t r e n d f o r th e v i s u a l advance o r g a n i z e r g ro up to o u t p e rfo rm th e o t h e r two t r e a t m e n t g ro u p s on b o th im m ediate and r e t e n t i o n p o s t t e s t s . I t may be t h a t had th e sam ple s i z e been l a r g e r t h i s d i f f e r e n c e would have r e a c h e d s i g n i f i c a n c e . P e r s o n a l i t y The d a t a from b o th E x p erim e n t I and E x p erim e n t I I do n o t s u p p o r t th e e x i s t e n c e o f a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n b e tween p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s c o re and l e a r n i n g o r r e t e n t i o n o f v e r b a l m a t e r i a l . In f a c t* e x a m in a tio n o f T a b le s 3 and 4 w i l l show t h a t p e r s o n a l i t y a c c o u n ts f o r th e l e a s t amount o f v a r i a n c e o f any o f th e in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s . Thus* th e r e s u l t s o f t h i s s tu d y do n o t s u p p o r t th e p r e d i c t i v e q u a l i t y o f S uperego S t r e n g t h o r S e l f - S e n t i m e n t on v e r b a l l e a r n i n g o r r e t e n t i o n . A p titu d e - T r e a t m e n t I n t e r a c t i o n A m a jo r c o n c e rn o f t h i s s tu d y was e x p l o r i n g th e p o t e n t i a l i n t e r a c t i o n o f advance o r g a n i z e r fo r m a ts and 75 l e a r n e r p e r s o n a l i t y . R e s e a rc h e v id e n c e s u g g e s te d th e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t s u b j e c t s low i n Superego S t r e n g t h would p e r form b e t t e r w ith a p i c t o r i a l advance o r g a n i z e r , w h ile su b j e c t s h ig h i n S uperego S t r e n g t h would p e rfo rm b e t t e r w i t h a v e r b a l advance o r g a n i z e r . The same r e l a t i o n s h i p was s u g g e s t e d b etw een S e l f - S e n t i m e n t and advance o r g a n i z e r fo r m a t. However, a s th e o v e r a l l t e s t o f th e p r o p o r t i o n o f v a r i a n c e e x p la in e d d id n o t a p p ro a c h s i g n i f i c a n c e , no f u r t h e r t e s t o f th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f i n t e r a c t i o n was c o n d u c te d . I t i s w o rth n o t i n g , how ever, t h a t i n a l l r e g r e s s io r , a n a l y s e s th e i n t e r a c t i o n te rm s a c c o u n te d f o r th e g r e a t e s t i n c r e a s e i n th e amount o f e x p l a i n e d v a r i a n c e r e g a r d l e s s o f th e s t e p on w hich th e y e n t e r e d th e r e g r e s s i o n e q u a t i o n . CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS T h is c h a p t e r p r e s e n t s a summary o f th e p ro b lem , m eth o d o lo g y , and f i n d i n g s . C o n c lu s io n s a r e drawn from th e d a t a and rec o m m en d atio n s a r e made f o r th e c o n d u c t o f f u t u r e s t u d i e s . Summary P u rp o se The p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y was to i n v e s t i g a t e th e r e l a t i o n b etw een l e a r n e r p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s and v e r b a l and v i s u a l form s o f advance o r g a n i z e r s to d e te r m in e w h e th e r l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n a r e f a c i l i t a t e d by th e ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r s , and i f th e advance o r g a n i z e r s a r e d i f f e r e n t i a l l y e f f e c t i v e among l e a r n e r s who d e m o n s tr a te v a ry in g d e g r e e s o f th e s e l e c t e d p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s . M ethodology T h is s tu d y was c o n d u c te d a s a f a c t o r i a l d e s ig n u sin g t h r e e t r e a t m e n t g r o u p s — v e r b a l adv ance o r g a n i z e r , v i s u a l advance o r g a n i z e r , and c o n t r o l — a s th e t r e a t m e n t v a r i a b l e , and p e r s o n a l i t y s c o r e s a s th e a p t i t u d e v a r i a b l e . As t h e r e were two p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s u n d e r s tu d y , s e p a r a t e e x p e r i - 76 77 merits w ere c o n d u c te d f o r each o f th e two f a c t o r s , u t i l i z i n g a p o s t t e s t - o n l y d e s ig n w ith c o n t r o l g ro u p . E x p erim e n t I exam ined F a c to r G: Superego S t r e n g t h , a s m easured by th e J r . - S r . High Sch ool P e r s o n a l i t y Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ( HSPQ) , and v e r b a l , v i s u a l , and c o n t r o l t r e a t m e n t s . E x p erim e n t I I i n v e s t i g a t e d F a c t o r S e l f - S e n t i m e n t a s m easured by th e HSPQ and v e r b a l , v i s u a l , and c o n t r o l t r e a t m e n t s . E i g h t y - one e i g h t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s from an i n n e r - c i t y j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l i n Los A n g e les were rand om ly a s s i g n e d to one o f th e t h r e e ad v ance o r g a n i z e r t r e a t m e n t g r o u p s . L e a rn in g and r e t e n t i o n w ere t e s t e d v i a a 3 0~ ite m m u l t i p l e c h o ic e c r i t e r i o n t e s t a d m i n i s t e r e d im m e d ia te ly and a f t e r a s e v e n -d a y d e la y . D ata from th e e x p e r im e n ts w ere a n a ly z e d th ro u g h u s e o f m u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s . The Type I e r r o r r a t e was s e t a t o; = .0 5 and h y p o th e s e s were r e j e c t e d o r c o n s i d e r e d t e n a b l e a c c o r d i n g to t h a t c r i t e r i o n . F in d in g s A n a ly s is o f daba r e s u l t e d i n th e f o llo w in g m ajo r f i n d i n g s . Advance O rg a n iz e r Form at 1. Advance o r g a n i z e r fo rm a t d id n o t a c c o u n t f o r a s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r t i o n o f v a r i a n c e i n im m ediate p o s t t e s t s c o r e s . 2. Advance o r g a n i z e r fo rm a t d id n o t a c c o u n t f o r a 78 s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r t i o n o f v a r i a n c e i n r e t e n t i o n p o s t t e s t s c o r e s . 3 . T here was a t r e n d f o r th e v i s u a l advance o r g a n i z e r t r e a t m e n t g ro u p to a c h ie v e h ig h er., a lth o u g h n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y h ig h er,, s c o r e s on th e m ea su re s o f l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n th a n d id e i t h e r th e v e r b a l ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r o r c o n t r o l g r o u p s . P e r s o n a l i t y F a c to r s 1. F a c to r G:o S uperego S t r e n g t h d id n o t a c c o u n t f o r a s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r t i o n o f v a r i a n c e i n im m edi a t e p o s t t e s t s c o r e s . 2. F a c t o r G: S uperego S t r e n g t h d id n o t a c c o u n t f o r a s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r t i o n o f v a r i a n c e i n r e t e n t i o n p o s t t e s t s c o r e s . 3 . F a c to r Q^: S e l f - S e n t i m e n t d i d n o t a c c o u n t f o r a s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r t i o n o f v a r i a n c e i n imm edi a t e p o s t t e s t s c o r e s . 4. F a c to r Q^: S e l f - S e n t i m e n t d id n o t a c c o u n t f o r a s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r t i o n o f v a r i a n c e i n r e t e n t i o n p o s t t e s t s c o r e s . A p t i tu d e - T r e a t m e n t I n t e r a c t i o n 1. The i n t e r a c t i o n o f F a c to r G: Superego S t r e n g t h and advance o r g a n i z e r fo rm a t d id n o t a c c o u n t f o r a s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r t i o n o f v a r i a n c e i n im m edi a t e p o s t t e s t s c o r e s . 79 2. The i n t e r a c t i o n o f F a c to r G: Superego S t r e n g th and ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r fo rm a t d id n o t a c c o u n t f o r a s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r t i o n o f v a r i a n c e in r e t e n t i o n p o s t t e s t s c o r e s . 3 . The i n t e r a c t i o n o f F a c to r Q^: S e l f - S e n t i m e n t and a d v an ce o r g a n i z e r fo rm a t d id n o t a c c o u n t f o r a s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r t i o n o f v a r i a n c e i n im m ed iate p o s t t e s t s c o r e s . 4. The i n t e r a c t i o n o f F a c to r Q^: S e l f - S e n t i m e n t and a d v an ce o r g a n i z e r fo rm a t d id n o t a c c o u n t f o r a s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r t i o n o f v a r i a n c e i n r e t e n t i o n p o s t t e s t s c o r e s . C o n c lu s io n s Advance O rg a n iz e r F o rm ats 1. Amount o f tim e s p e n t s tu d y in g v e r b a l i n f o r m a t i o n may be more i m p o r t a n t in l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n o f t h a t m a t e r i a l th a n p r o v i d in g an o r g a n i z i n g s t r u c t u r e . 2. P r o v i s i o n o f v e r b a l advance o r g a n i z e r s w i l l n o t a i d s t u d e n t s i n a c h i e v i n g h i g h e r p o s t t e s t s c o r e s when o t h e r g ro u p s a re g iv e n co m p a rab le tim e to s tu d y m a t e r i a l to be l e a r n e d . 3. ■ P r o v i s i o n o f v i s u a l advance o r g a n i z e r s may r e s u l t i n i n c r e a s e d l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n . 80 P e r s o n a l i t y 1. Superego S t r e n g t h i s n o t a good p r e d i c t o r o f v e r b a l l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n . 2. S e l f - S e n t i m e n t i s n o t a good p r e d i c t o r o f v e r b a l l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n . A p t i tu d e - T r e a t m e n t I n t e r a c t i o n 1. The i n t e r a c t i o n o f S uperego S t r e n g t h and ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r fo rm a t need n o t be c o n s i d e r e d i n d e s i g n i n g i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s . 2. The i n t e r a c t i o n o f S e l f - S e n t i m e n t and advance o r g a n i z e r fo rm a t n eed n o t be c o n s i d e r e d in d e s i g n in g i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s . Recom m endations 1. Expand s t u d i e s to i n v e s t i g a t e th e t r e n d f o r v i s u a l ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r s to a id l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n . 2. Expand s t u d i e s to e x p lo r e a p t i t u d e - t r e a t m e n t i n t e r a c t i o n s w ith o t h e r p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s . 3 . Expand s t u d i e s to i n c l u d e o t h e r l e a r n e r age and so c io ec o n o m ic p o p u l a t i o n s . REFERENCES 81 REFERENCES Allen., D. I . Some e f f e c t s o f advance o r g a n i z e r s and l e v e l o f q u e s t i o n s on t h e l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n o f w r i t t e n s o c i a l s t u d i e s m a t e r i a l . J o u r n a l o f E d u c a ti o n a l P s y c h o lo g y , 1 9 7 0, 6 1 , 3 33-3 3 9 . A l l e n , W. H. I n s t r u c t i o n a l m edia r e s e a r c h : P a s t , p r e s e n t , and f u t u r e . AY Com m unications R eview , 1971* 1 9 * 9 -1 8 . A l l e n , W. H. I n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t i e s and i n s t r u c t i o n a l medis d e s i g n . AY Com m unications R eview , 1975* 23* 139-170 . A u su b e l, D. P. The u s e o f advance o r g a n i z e r s i n t h e l e a r n in g and r e t e n t i o n o f m e a n in g fu l v e r b a l m a t e r i a l . J o u r n a l o f E d u c a ti o n a l P s y c h o lo g y , i 9 6 0 , 5 1 * 267-272. A u su b el, D. P. The p s y c h o lo g y o f m e a n in g fu l v e r b a l l e a r n i n g . New Y o rk : Grune & S t r a t t o n , 1 9 6 3 . A u su b el, D. P. E d u c a ti o n a l p s y c h o lo g y : A c o g n i t i v e v ie w . New York: H o l t , R i n e h a r t & W in sto n , 1 9 6 8 . A u su b el, D. P . , & F i t z g e r a l d , D. The r o l e o f d i s c r i m i n - a b i l i t y i n m e a n in g fu l v e r b a l l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n . J o u r n a l o f E d u c a ti o n a l P s y c h o lo g y , 1 9 6 1, 5 2 , 266-274. A u su b el, D. P . , & F i t z g e r a l d , D. O r g a n iz e r , g e n e r a l b a c k g ro u n d , and a n te c e d e n t l e a r n i n g v a r i a b l e s I n s e q u e n t i a l v e r b a l l e a r n i n g . J o u r n a l o f E d u c a ti o n a l P sy c h o lo g y , 1962, 53, 2 43-249. A u su b e l, D. P . , & Y o u s s e f, M. R ole o f d i s c r l m l n a b i l i t y I n m e a n in g fu l p a r a l l e l l e a r n i n g . J o u r n a l o f E d u c a ti o n a l P s y c h o lo g y , 1 9 6 3* 54* 331 -3 3 6 . B aldw in, C. G. E f f e c t s o f m edia p r e s e n t a t i o n mode and l e a r n e r p e r s o n a l i t y i n t h e t e a c h i n g o f a f a c t u a l l e a r n i n g t a s k ( D o c to r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y of S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 1 9 7 5 ). D i s s e r t a t i o n A b s t r a c t s I n t e r n a t i o n a l 1975* 36, 4337A. ( U n i v e r s i t y M ic r o film s No. DAH75- 2 8 6 1 2 ) 82 83 B a rn e s , B. R. The e f f e c t o f t h e p o s i t i o n of o r g a n i z e r s on t h e l e a r n i n g o f s t r u c t u r e d a n th r o p o lo g y m a t e r i a l s i n t h e s i x t h g ra d e ( D o c to r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , , U n i v e r s i t y of G e o rg ia , 1 9 7 2 ). D i s s e r t a t i o n A b s t r a c t s I n t e r n a t i o n a l , 1973; 33; 5027A-5028A. ( U n i v e r s i t y M ic r o film s No. 7 3 - 5644) B arnes^ B. R . , & Claw son, E. U. Do ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r s f a c i l i t a t e l e a r n i n g ? Recom m endations f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h b a s e d on an a n a l y s i s o f 32 s t u d i e s . Review o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , 1975; 45; 637-659* B a rro n , R. E. E f f e c t s o f advance o r g a n i z e r s and g ra d e l e v e l upon t h e r e c e p t i o n l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n o f g e n e r a l s c i e n c e c o n t e n t . I n E. P. G reene ( E d .) , I n v e s t i g a t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o m a tu re r e a d i n g : T w e n t y - f i r s t y e a rb o o k o f t h e N a t i o n a l R eadin g C o n f e r e n c e . M ilw aukee: The N a t i o n a l R ead ing C o n fe re n c e , 1972. B a rro n , R. E . , & C ooper, R. E f f e c t s o f ad vance o r g a n i z e r s and g ra d e l e v e l upon i n f o r m a t i o n a c q u i s i t i o n from an i n s t r u c t i o n a l - l e v e l g e n e r a l s c i e n c e p a s s a g e . I n P. L. 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Handbook on f o r m a t iv e and sum m ative e v a l u a t i o n o f s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g . New Y ork: M cG raw -H ill, 1971- B r a c h t, G. H. E x p e rim e n ta l f a c t o r s r e l a t e d t o a p t i t u d e - t r e a t m e n t i n t e r a c t i o n s . Review o f E d u c a ti o n a l Re s e a r c h , 1970, 40, 6 2 7 -6 4 5 . C am pbell, D ., & S t a n l e y , J . E x p e r im e n ta l and q u a s i - e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n s f o r r e s e a r c h . C h ic a g o : Rand M cN ally, 19bb. 84 Campeau, P. L. S e l e c t i v e re v ie w o f t h e r e s u l t s o f r e s e a r c h on t h e u s e o f a u d i o v i s u a l m edia t o t e a c h a d u l t s . AV Com m unications R eview , 1974, 2.2., 5 -4 0 . C a t t e l l , R. B. D e s c r i p t i o n and m easurem ent o f p e r s o n a l i t y . New Y o rk : World Book, 1946. C a t t e l l , R. B. P e r s o n a l i t y : A s y s t e m a t i c , t h e o r e t i c a l , and f a c t u a l s t u d y . 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The u s e o f ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r s w ith t h e e d u c a b le m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d ( D o c to r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f P i t t s b u r g h , 1 9 6 7 ). D i s s e r t a t i o n Ab s t r a c t s , 1 9 6 8, 28, 4539A. ( U n i v e r s i t y M ic ro film s No. 68 -7 515 ) Newton, J . M., & H ic k e y , A. E. S equence e f f e c t s i n p r o gramed l e a r n i n g o f a v e r b a l c o n c e p t. J o u r n a l o f Edu- c a t i o n a l P s y c h o lo g y , 1 9 6 5* 5 6 , 140 -1 4 7 . O lson, D. R. I n t r o d u c t i o n . I n D. R. O lso n ( E d .) , NSSE Y earbook: Media and sym bo ls, t h e form s o f e x p r e s s i o n , c o m m unication and e d u c a t i o n . C hicago : C hicago U n i- v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1974. P a r e n t , J . , F o rw ard, J . , C a n te r , R . , & M ohling, J . I n t e r a c t i v e e f f e c t s o f t e a c h i n g s t r a t e g y and p e r s o n a l lo c u s o f c o n t r o l on s t u d e n t p e rfo rm a n c e and s a t i s f a c t i o n . J o u r n a l o f E d u c a ti o n a l P sy c h o lo g y , 1975* 6 7 * 7 4 6-749 . 89 P a r k h u r s t , P. E. G e n e r a tin g m e a n in g fu l h y p o th e s e s w i t h a p t i t u d e - t r e a t m e n t i n t e r a c t i o n . AV Com m unications Review, 1975, 23* 171-184. P e l l a , M. 0 . , & T r ie z e n b e r g , H. J . T h ree l e v e l s o f a b s t r a c t i o n . o f th e c o n c e p t o f e q u i l i b r i u m and i t s u se as an advance o r g a n i z e r . J o u r n a l o f R e s e a rc h i n S c i ence T e a c h in g , 1969, § _ > 1 1 -2 1 . P i n e s , H. A. An a t t r i b u t i o n a l a n a l y s i s o f lo c u s o f c o n t r o l o r i e n t a t i o n and s o u rc e o f i n f o r m a t i o n a l d e p e n d e n c e . J o u r n a l o f P e r s o n a l i t y and S o c i a l P sy c h o lo g y , 3.973, 2b, 252-26 7. P i n e s , H. A ., & J u l i a n , J . W. E f f e c t s o f t a s k and s o c i a l demands on l o c u s of c o n t r o l d i f f e r e n c e s i n i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g . J o u r n a l o f P e r s o n a l i t y , 1972, 4 0 , 4 0 7 -4 1 6 . P r o g e r , B. B . , T a y lo r , R. G ., J r . , Mann, L ., C oulson, J . M., & Bayuk, R. J . , J r . C o n c e p tu a l p r e - s t r u c t u r i n g f o r d e t a i l e d v e r b a l p a s s a g e s . The J o u r n a l o f E d u ca t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , 1970, 6 4 ( 1 ) , 2 8-3 4 . R e y n o ld s, C. H ., & G e n t i l e , J . R. P e rfo rm a n ce u n d e r t r a d i t i o n a l and m a s te r y a s s e s s m e n t p r o c e d u r e s i n r e l a t i o n t o s t u d e n t s ' l o c u s o f c o n t r o l : A p o s s i b l e a p t i t u d e by t r e a t m e n t i n t e r a c t i o n . J o u r n a l o f E x p e r im e n ta l E du ca t i o n , 1976, 4 4 ( 4 ) , 55-605 R ing , D. G ., & Novak, J . D. The e f f e c t s o f c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e v a r i a b l e s on a c h ie v e m e n t i n c o l l e g e c h e m is t r y . J o u r n a l o f R e s e a rc h i n S c ie n c e T e a c h in g , 1971, 8, 3 2 5 -3 3 3 . R u s s e l l , D. A. C h i ld r e n l e a r n t o r e a d . B o sto n : Ginn & Company, 1 9 6 1 . Ryan, E. L. Advance o r g a n i z e r s and t e x t a n x i e t y i n p r o grammed s o c i a l s t u d i e s i n s t r u c t i o n . C a l i f o r n i a J o u r n a l o f E d u c a ti o n a l R e s e a r c h , 1 9 6 8, 1 9 ( 2 ) , 6 7 - 7 6 . S a e t t l e r , P. A h i s t o r y o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l t e c h n o l o g y . New Y o rk : M eG raw -H ill, 1968. Salomon, G. What does i t do t o Johnny? A c o g n i t i v e f u n c t i o n a l i s t i c view o f r e s e a r c h on m edia. Com m entaries on r e s e a r c h i n i n s t r u c t i o n a l m ed ia: An e x a m in a tio n of c o n c e p tu a l schem es. V ie w p o in ts , 1970, 46, 3 1 -6 2 . ( I n d i a n a U n i v e r s i t y , S c h o o l o f E d u c a t i o n . ) 90 S a r e t s k y , A. L. The f a c i l i t a t i v e e f f e c t o f ad v ance o r g a n i z e r s on, l e a r n i n g w ith r e a d e r s o f d i f f e r i n g a b i l i t y l e v e l s f o r t o p i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t p r o s e p a s s a g e s ( D o c to r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , , I n d i a n a U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 7 5 ). D i s s e r t a t i o n A b s t r a c t s I n t e r n a t i o n a l , 1975^ 36, 6047A. ( U n i v e r s i t y M ic r o film s No. DAH76-66344) S c a n d u ra , J . M., & W e lls , J . N. Advance o r g a n i z e r s i n l e a r n i n g a b s t r a c t m a th e m a tic s . American. E d u c a ti o n a l R e s e a rc h J o u r n a l , 1967.? 4, 295-301. S c h u l t z , R. W. The r o l e o f c o g n i t i v e o r g a n i z e r s i n th e f a c i l i t a t i o n o f c o n c e p t l e a r n i n g i n e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l s c i e n c e ( D o c to r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , Purdue U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 6 6 ). D i s s e r t a t i o n A b s t r a c t s , 1967* 27 j 3784A. ( U n i v e r s i t y M ic r o film s No” . 67 -05 495 ) Snow, R. E ., & Salomon, G. A p t i tu d e s and i n s t r u c t i o n a l m edia. AV C om m unications R eview , 1 9 6 8, 16 , 341-357- Snow, R. E ., T i f f i n , J . , & S e i b e r t , W . P. I n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s and i n s t r u c t i o n a l f i l m e f f e c t s . J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l P s y c h o lo g y , 1965 j 5 6 , 3 1 5 -3 2 6 . Sowder, L. K ., M usser, G. L . , F l o r a , B. V ., J r . , & B r i g h t , G. W. Advance o r g a n i z e r s and o b j e c t i v e s i n t e a c h i n g m a th e m a ti c s . P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e a n n u a l m e e tin g o f t h e A m erican E d u c a ti o n a l R e se a rc h A s s o c i a t i o n , New O r le a n s , F e b r u a r y 25-March 1, 1973- (ERIC Document R e p r o d u c tio n S e r v i c e No. ED 075 193) S t o r e y , A. G. The m easurem ent o f c la s s ro o m l e a r n i n g . C h icag o : S c ie n c e R e s e a rc h A s s o c i a t e s , 1970. T h u r s to n e , L. L. M u l t i p l e f a c t o r a n a l y s i s : D evelopm ent and e x p a n s io n o f t h e v e c t o r s of t h e m in d . C h ic a g o : Uni - v e r s i t y o f C hicago P r e s s , 1947- T illm a n , C. E. P e r s o n a l i t y t y p e s and r e a d i n g g a in f o r upward bound s t u d e n t s . J o u r n a l o f R e ad in g , 1976, 19.> 302 - 3 0 6 . T o th , G. P. E f f e c t s o f p r i o r know ledge and c r i t i c a l t h i n k in g on th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f an advance o r g a n i z e r i n t h e l e a r n i n g o f a b i o l o g y u n i t ( D o c to r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , P e n n s y lv a n ia S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , 19 7 5 ). D i s s e r t a t i o n A b s t r a c t s I n t e r n a t i o n a l , 1975^ 3 6 , 3529A3 ( U n i v e r s i t y M ic r o film s No. 7 5 -2 761 9) 91 T raw eek, M. W. The r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een c e r t a i n p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e s and a ch iev e m e n t th r o u g h programmed i n s t r u c t i o n , C a l i f o r n i a J o u r n a l o f E d u c a ti o n a l R e s e a rc h , 1964, 1 5 , 2 1 5- 2 2 0 . Trown, E. A ., & L e i t h , G. 0. M. D e c i s i o n r u l e s f o r t e a c h i n g s t r a t e g i e s i n p rim a ry s c h o o l s : P e r s o n a l i t y - t r e a t m e n t i n t e r a c t i o n s . B r i t i s h J o u r n a l o f E d u c a ti o n a l P s y c h o lo g y , 1975* 4 5 * 130 -1 40. U h l i n g e r , G ., & S te p h e n s , M. The r e l a t i o n of a c h iev e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n t o academ ic a c h ie v e m e n t i n s t u d e n t s o f s u p e r i o r a b i l i t y . J o u r n a l o f E d u c a ti o n a l P sy c h o lo g y , i 9 6 0 , 5 1 , 2 5 9- 2 6 4 . W arner, L ., & U t t s , J . P a r a l l e l p r e d i c t i o n l i n e s : A t e s t f o r i n t e r a c t i o n . J o u r n a l o f E d u c a ti o n a l R e s e a rc h , 1976, 70, 6 3 -6 6 . W eisb e rg , J . S. The u se o f v i s u a l ad v an ce o r g a n i z e r s f o r l e a r n i n g e a r t h s c i e n c e c o n c e p ts . J o u r n a l o f R e s e a rc h i n S c ie n c e T e a c h in g , 1970, 74 161-165• W ulf, K. M. P r o a c t i v e e f f e c t s i n m e a n in g fu l v e r b a l l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n i n e i g h t h g ra d e s t u d e n t s (D o c to ra l d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 1971)* D i s s e r t a t i o n . A b s t r a c t s I n t e r n a t i o n a l , 1971* 3 2 , 3107A. ( U n i v e r s i t y M ic r o film s No. 7 2 -0 0 5 8 5 j APPENDICES 92 APPENDIX A VERBAL ADVANCE ORGANIZER 93 A C O M M U N ITY A ll liv in g th in g s must have energy from th e sun to su rv iv e. There i s in any community of liv in g th in g s a chain of e a tin g and heing eaten through which th e energy from th e sun p asses from one form of l i f e to an o th er. Any community i s made up of m e a t-e a te rs which e a t p la n t- e a te r s which e a t th e many kinds of p la n ts . When a community of liv in g th in g s i s l e f t to i t s e l f , a r e l a tio n s h ip develops between th e p la n t l i f e , th e p la n t- e a te r s , and th e m e a t-e a te rs. Each sp ecies fin d s a sp e c ia l p lace to l iv e , or h a b ita t, and a sp e c ia l way of liv in g . To su rv iv e , each type of anim al must have i t s own ways of fin d in g food and w ater and of p ro te c tin g i t s e l f from danger. For some, s a fe ty i s a f la s h of movement when frig h te n e d . For o th e rs, i t i s to sta y m otionless u n t il th e danger has passed. Some types of anim als lea d s o lita r y liv e s hidden deep in th e woodlands. O thers liv e in a group, surrounded by o th e r members of t h e i r sp e cie s. Because each sp ecies has i t s own sp e c ia l h a b its and h a b ita t, th e re i s room fo r many sp ecies w ith in th e same g en eral environm ent. 94 APPENDIX B VISUAL ADVANCE ORGANIZER 95 A COMMUNITY MEAT-EATERS PLANT-EATERS PLANTS HABITATS OF THE A FRICA N SAVANNA OPEN GRASSLANDS G R A SS, SCATTERED TREES WOODLANDS \o -S I APPENDIX C CONTROL PASSAGE 98 You d o n 't have to read anything today. You can use t h i s p iece of paper to draw on o r w rite on. J u s t t r y not to d is tu rb th e people who do have to read something. Tomorrow or th e next day when you get t h i s envelope back, you w ill be allow ed to s t a r t reading th e sto ry w hile everyone e ls e i s studying th e th in g s th ey had to read today. 99 APPENDIX D LEARNING PASSAGE 100 ANIM ALS O F TH E AFRICAN S A V A N N A The key to th e kind of community of liv in g th in g s found in the A frican savanna i s r a in . Wild g rasse s of many kinds grow h e st where most of th e r a in in a y ear f a l l s w ith in a few months. Trees and hushes grow along th e hanks of stream s and r iv e r s , hut most of th e are a i s covered w ith t a l l g ra sse s. The g re a te s t numbers of anim als are th e p la n t- e a te r s or h e r b iv o re s . Some h erb iv o re s e a t m ainly g ra ss; o th ers e a t le a v e s, flo w ers, h ark , seeds, buds, and sap. There are sm all h erb iv o res lik e w art hogs, r a b b its , v erv et monkeys, and baboons, and huge h erb iv o res lik e g ira ffe s , rh in o ce ro ses, and e le p h a n ts; but m ainly th e re are the m iddle-sized h e rb iv o re s, th e hoofed mammals lik e gnus, g a z e lle s , zebras, w aterbucks, and w ater b u ffa lo e s. Both th e shape of th e anim al and i t s h a b its are connected w ith the kind of food i t e a ts . The h erb iv o res have s p e c ia l body s tru c tu re s th a t s u it them f o r t h e i r way of l i f e . Some, lik e gnus and g a z e lle s , have te e th th a t are s p e c ia lly su ite d f o r e a tin g g ra s s, th a t i s th ey have grin d in g te e th r a th e r th an gnawing or te a rin g te e th . They have th e kinds of hoofs and to e s th a t are w ell adapted to tra v e lin g a long d istan c e in search of food, and w ater, and to running very f a s t . The m e a t-e a te rs, or c a rn iv o re s , a lso have body s tru c tu re s and h a b its adapted to t h e i r ways of l i f e . SIDE B Y SIDE Most anim als on th e g rasslan d s go t h e i r own way w ithout paying 101 102 much a tte n tio n to o th e r sp e cie s. Baboons s i t beside g ir a f f e s , e le phants walk through herds of zebras, w aterbucks drin k w ith rh in o cero ses standing clo se by. Some h erb iv o res help o th e r h erb iv o res to avoid t h e i r p re d a to rs. G ira ffe s, f o r in sta n c e , are cautious anim als and can see f a r away, over bushes and sm all t r e e s . I f g ira ff e s fin d i t safe to drink a t a w ater- h o le, zebras and o th e r anim als quickly jo in them. In t h is way, g i r a ffe s help th e o th ers to avoid p re d a to rs, even though th ey probably do not know th ey are h elp in g them. Baboons and im palas each make use of th e sp e c ia l a b i l i t i e s of th e o th e r in avoiding p re d a to rs. Baboons have keen e y e sig h t, but t h e i r sense of sm ell i s d u ll. Im palas, on th e o th er hand, cannot see c le a rly enough to spot a p re d a to r th a t i s standing s t i l l , b u t th e y have very s e n s itiv e noses. With the keen eyes of one species and th e keen noses of th e o th e r, a p re d a to r cannot e a s ily su rp rise a mixed group of baboons and im palas. But t h is i s only one way in which anim als make use of each o th e r. Between th e r a in s , the g rasslan d s became very dry. A few anim als, lik e G ran t’s g a z e lle s , survive a dry season because th ey can get a l l t h e i r w ater from th e p la n ts th ey e a t. But most anim als must d rin k once a day, or every two or th re e days. Sometimes th e ra in s do not f a l l fo r a y ear or two, and th e riv e r s and w aterholes d isap p ear. At tim es lik e th e s e , elep h an ts su r vive by digging w ith t h e i r tru n k s in a d rie d r iv e r bed u n t il th ey fin d w ater. This opens up sources of w ater f o r o th er t h i r s t y anim als. Other anim als make use of each o th er in even more d ir e c t ways. 103 Oxpeckers are co n stan t companions of w ater b u ffa lo e s, because th ey fee d o ff th e tic k s th a t liv e on the b u ffa lo e s. T his i s a tw o-sided re la tio n s h ip . Water b u ffa lo e s get r id of th e bugs. And th e s h r i l l c a lls of th e e x c ite d , keen-eyed oxpeckers in tim es of danger warn th e b u ffa lo e s, which have very poor ey esig h t. PREDATORS A N D THEIR PREY—COMPETITION O R SHARING? To understand how a canmunity continues over th e y e ars, we must r e a liz e th a t th e carn iv o res hunt when th ey are hungry. G enerally, th ey l i e around doing nothing very a c tiv e . But i f th e carn iv o res k i l l too many of th e p la n t- e a te r s , th e young of th e m ea t-e ate rs w ill sta rv e . There w ill be few er m eat-eaters th en , and a new r e la tio n between h erb iv o res and carn iv o res w ill be e s ta b lis h e d . On th e o th er hand, i f many of th e m ea t-e ate rs in an area were sh o t, th e re would be to o many p la n t-e a te rs e a tin g from th e same amount of g ra s s. Some would die of s ta rv a tio n , and e v e n tu a lly th e re would be th e rig h t number of h erb iv o res fo r th e g rass a v a ila b le . Even w ith m e a t-e a te rs around keeping the p o p u latio n of p la n t- e a te rs down, how can so many d iffe re n t kinds of h erb iv o re s liv e in th e same surroundings, a l l e a tin g p la n ts? Must th ey f ig h t over a nice clump of bushes? Do th ey compete over a p atch of grass? One of th e reasons th a t many sim ila r species can liv e peace f u lly in th e same community i s th a t th ey come in d if f e r e n t s iz e s . P a rtly because of t h i s , each type of anim al liv e s in a c e rta in h a b ita t of th e environment and has a sp e c ia l way of liv in g . W e c a l l th is com b in a tio n of h a b ita t and th e h a b its of a species a n ich e . Because 1 0 4 anim als over tim e have found d if f e r e n t n ich es in th e same environm ent, th ey do not compete w ith each o th er o fte n f o r food and w ater. I f two sp ecies compete fo r a c e rta in kind of food, th a t food d isap p ears and then "both sp ecies must fin d another source of food. Animal sp ecies th a t do not compete f o r food are more lik e ly to survive th an those th a t do. G azelles and w aterbucks are a good example of s im ila r sp ecies w ith d if f e r e n t niches in th e same g en eral a re a . G ran t’s g a z e lle s can liv e w ithout drin k in g w ater, and th ey u su a lly fin d t h e i r food on th e open p la in . Waterbucks liv e close to w ater, e a tin g th e many p la n ts surrounding w aterholes and stream s. In t h i s way, G ran t’s g a z e lle s and waterbucks sta y out of each o th e r’s way, and both species get enough to e a t. Some anim als e a t g rass when i t i s sh o rt, some only when i t i s long. G azelles e a t p la n ts close to th e ground, rh in o cero ses e a t from th e middle le v e l, and g ir a f f e s from the to p s of tr e e s . Because th ese anim als e a t p la n ts of d iff e r e n t h e ig h ts, th ey avoid com petition f o r th e same food. Im palas crop g rass very close to th e ground. T his might leave the g rass e a tin g baboons w ithout enough to e a t in th e dry season, except fo r th e f a c t th a t baboons can th en dig f o r and e a t ro o ts . In t h is way, baboons and im palas can share th e same environment even in th e dry season. P re d ato rs th a t are much a lik e a lso have sp e c ia l niches in th e same environm ent. The g re a t p re d a to rs of th e A frican savanna are lio n s , leo p a rd s, cheetahs, and w ild hunting dogs. Each fin d s i t s food 105 in a sp e c ia l way and each has i t s own way of liv in g . Lions and leo p ard s hunt m ainly in th e evening, hut w ild dogs and cheetahs hunt m ostly during th e day. Com petition f o r food is le s s because some p re d a to rs hunt by day, some by n ig h t. But what keeps the nighttim e h u n te rs, th e lio n s and th e leo p ards, from g e ttin g in each o th e r 's way in th e stru g g le to fin d food? Leopards hunt alone and u su a lly hunt sm all h erb iv o res lik e im palas and baboons. L ions, on th e o th e r hand, o fte n hunt to g e th e r and go a f t e r big g er prey lik e gnus, zebras., and sometimes g ir a f f e s . Leopards u su a lly liv e in th e dense brush along r iv e r s and w aterh o les, w hile lio n s do most of t h e i r hunting in more open country. APPENDIX E CRITERION POSTTEST 1 0 6 ANIMALS O F THE AFRICAN SA V A N N A D ire c tio n s: Mark th e l e t t e r of the r ig h t answer on your answer sh e e t. 1. Gnus and g a z e lle s have a . gnawing te e th h. te a rin g te e th c. grin d in g te e th d. b itin g te e th 2. Baboons have a . a very good sense of sm ell b. e x c e lle n t e y esig h t c. e x c e lle n t hearing d. a l l of th e above 3. G iraffe s e at a . p la n ts which are clo se to th e ground b. in s e c ts and sm all mice c. leav es from th e to p s of tr e e s d. p la n ts from th e middle le v e l E lephants survive dry seasons by a. e a tin g w ater f i l l e d p la n ts b. digging f o r w ater w ith t h e i r tru n k s c. going w ithout w ater d. none of th e above 5. Which of th e follow ing is an example of a m id d le-sized h erbivore of th e A frican savanna? a. ra b b it b . cheetah c. g a z e lle d. g ira ffe 6. H erbivores are anim als which eat m ainly a. p la n ts b. meat c. both meat and p la n ts d. f is h 107 108 7* C arnivores are anim als which e a t m ainly a . p la n t s b . meat c. both meat and p la n ts d. leav es 8. Lions g e n e ra lly hunt a. w ild dogs b. baboons and im palas c. ra b b its and w art hogs d. gnus and zebras 9- Which of th ese is an example of two anim als which make use of each other? a. oxpeckers and w ater b u ffalo e s b. ra b b its and baboons c. zebras and g a z e lle s d. rh in o cero ses and gnus 10. Leopards u s u a lly hu n t a. sm all h erb iv o res b. carn iv o res c. m id d le-sized h erb iv o res d. la rg e h erb iv o res 11. C arnivores spend most of t h e i r tim e a. hunting b. looking f o r w ater c. looking f o r p la c e s to run d. ly in g around doing nothing very a c tiv e 12. Im palas have a. e x c e lle n t ey esig h t b. e x c e lle n t h earin g c. a very good sense of sm ell d. a l l of th e above 1J. Lions do most of t h e i r hunting a. in dense brush b. in open country c. in swamps d. in ju n g les 109 1^-. G azelles and w aterbucks are an example of a. anim als w ith th e same niche in the same area b. anim als w ith d if fe r e n t niches in d iffe re n t areas c. anim als w ith d if fe r e n t niches in th e same area d. anim als w ith th e same niche in d iffe re n t areas 15. Leopards hunt a. w ith one o th e r leopard b. in groups c . alone d. w ith lio n s 16. Oxpeckers are co n stan t companions of w ater b u ffa lo e s because a. th ey e a t th e tic k s th a t liv e on the b u ffa lo e s b. th ey are both h erb iv o res c. w ater b u ffa lo e s liv e near w ater and oxpeckers know th ey w ill always have enough to drink d. the w ater b u ffa lo e s c a n 't see them 1 7 . Lions and leo p ard s u su a lly hunt a. in th e morning b. in th e evening c. in th e e a rly aftern o o n d . a l l day 18. G azelles e a t a. p la n ts which a re clo se to th e ground b. leav es from the to p s of tr e e s c. in s e c ts and sm all mice d. p la n ts from th e middle le v e l 1 9 . W hy would i t be hard f o r a p re d a to r to su rp rise a mixed group of im palas and baboons? a. th ey each have d iffe r e n t ways of p ro te c tin g them selves th a t h elp each o th er survive b. th e baboons could sm ell th e p re d a to r coming c. th e im palas would see th e p re d a to r coming d. th ey are never in a group to g e th e r 110 20. An example of two anim als t h a t have d if f e r e n t n ic h e s in th e same g e n e ra l a re a i s a . g ir a f f e s and d eer b. lio n s and le o p a rd s c . zeb ras and moose d. ch eetah s and g r iz z ly b e a rs 21. ’ What would p ro b a b ly happen i f two k in d s of anim als had th e same n ich e? a . th e y would g e t along w e ll b . th e y would ig n o re each o th e r c. t h e i r young would p la y w ith each o th e r d. th ey would not survive 22. I f an anim al had te a r in g t e e t h and long., sharp claw s i t would p ro b ab ly be a a . h e rb iv o re b. c a rn iv o re c . you c o u ld n 't t e l l d. n e ith e r one 23 . Which o f th e fo llo w in g would p ro b ab ly be a h e rb iv o re a . dog b . c a t c. fo x d. h o rse 2k. I f th e c a rn iv o re s k i l l to o many p l a n t - e a t e r s , th e young o f th e m e a t-e a te rs w i l l s ta r v e . T h is i s tr u e because a . th e r e w o n 't be enough h e rb iv o re s f o r them to e a t b . th e r e w o n 't be enough g ra s s f o r them t o e a t c. th e g ra ss w i l l grow to o t a l l and th e y w ill g e t l o s t from t h e i r m others d. th e r e w i l l be to o many t r e e s 2 5 . Baboons and im palas and oxpeckers and w ater b u ffa lo e s a re exam ples of a . anim als th a t compete f o r th e same food b . p re d a to rs and t h e i r p re y c. anim als th a t h e lp each o th e r su rv iv e d. anim als t h a t hu n t a t d if f e r e n t tim es of day I l l 26. S im ilar kinds of anim als can liv e in th e same community peace f u lly i f a, th ey a l l sta y away from each o th er h. th ey c an T t liv e p e a c e fu lly in th e same community c. th ey each e a t d iffe re n t kinds of food d. th ey never see each o th er 2 7 . Animals th a t have g rin d in g te e th g e n e ra lly e a t a. in s e c ts h. sm all anim als c. tr e e s d. g rass 28. A p re d a to r i s an anim al th a t a. e a ts p la n ts h. liv e s in f o r e s ts c. does not compete f o r food d. h unts o th e r anim als 2 9 . From the way i t was used in th e sto ry , a h a b ita t i s probably a .' th e way an anim al i s b u ilt b. th e food an anim al e a ts c. th e kind of te e th an anim al has d. the p lace an anim al liv e s 30. Which of th e follow ing anim als i s probably a carnivore a. deer b . wolf c. cow d . sheep A N S W E R K EY c\] i — I i — 1 H O J IPvVO IT-00 G \ O I 1 poffloo<;pq<:<jffl H O J lA -d h IPvVO c —00 ( j \ o r H H H H H H r H H H C V j H OJ LT\VO t> - c d C ^ O O J O J O J O J O J O J O J O J O J r A APPENDIX F RAW DATA 113 F actor F actor Treatment Subject G Q 3 Group P ^. Px P2 R^ Ri R 2 002 6 10 Verbal 12 11 1 7 4 005 8 8 Verbal 9 5 4 6 6 006 10 10 Verbal 13 13 0 24 15 007 12 10 Verbal 4 2 2 r j 5 008 8 8 Verbal 19 12 7 14 9 011 14 12 V isual 24 17 7 23 13 012 10 10 Verbal 13 6 7 15 7 013 10 13 Verbal 14 8 6 15 9 015 18 10 Verbal 25 15 10 23 15 018 12 12 V isual 21 12 9 20 11 019 16 12 V isual 28 17 11 30 18 020 14 12 V isual 24 16 8 16 10 021 11 8 Verbal 13 r j 6 12 9 024 15 7 Verbal 14 10 4 11 5 026 8 9 Verbal 26 16 10 22 11 027 15 16 Verbal 1 1 0 13 8 028 13 10 Verbal 23 17 6 17 11 031 14 9 Verbal 15 9 6 14 8 032 11 11 Verbal 19 10 9 11 4 040 12 7 Verbal 24 15 9 26 16 046 14 13 V isual 20 15 5 19 11 047 13 11 V isual 20 11 9 15 11 048 5 7 V isual 21 12 9 23 13 050 14 13 V isual 14 8 6 18 12 052 13 12 Control 6 6 0 7 4 055 9 11 Control 7 6 1 6 4 057 18 10 Control 14 8 6 15 10 058 15 14 Control 17 12 5 17 13 3 0 9 2 5 10 8 6 8 9 12 6 3 6 11 5 6 6 7 10 8 4 10 6 3 2 5 4 P ^. = P o stte st to ta l; P^. = P o stte st knowledge questions; P2 = P o stte st comprehension; R j. = R etention to ta l; Rx = Retention knowledge le v e l; R 2 = Retention comprehension le v e l Subject F actor G Factor Q 3 Treatment Group ? t Pi P 2 Pt Pi R 2 059 12 7 Control 23 13 10 12 10 2 064 14 15 Control 25 8 7 10 8 2 065 8 8 C ontrol 24 17 7 26 14 12 O 67 17 15 Control 27 17 10 28 17 11 070 7 8 Control 24 13 1 13 11 2 072 12 11 Visual 25 8 7 10 9 1 076 13 12 Visual 26 8 8 19 10 9 078 11 12 Visual 10 8 2 16 9 7 079 9 12 Visual 22 15 7 28 16 12 O 85 10 11 Control 24 16 8 21 13 8 086 11 11 V isual 28 17 11 25 14 11 088 11 12 V isual 12 4 8 5 5 0 090 12 12 V isual 21 13 8 11 7 4 092 13 15 Control 15 7 8 15 8 7 095 14 12 Control 11 4 7 7 4 3 094 12 8 Control 10 4 6 19 10 9 096 9 - 3 Control 8 4 4 13 7 6 097 9 11 Control 23 12 11 17 12 5 100 14 10 V isual 23 13 10 20 9 11 101 15 10 Control 12 8 4 15 8 7 102 12 12 Control 11 7 4 11 5 6 105 13 11 C ontrol 10 8 2 11 7 4 108 7 13 Control 10 6 4 6 4 2 109 9 13 Control 14 10 4 6 5 1 110 15 16 Control 11 7 4 12 6 6 119 14 14 Control 16 9 7 8 4 4 125 9 6 Verbal 12 7 5 20 13 7 126 10 8 Control 16 16 0 15 13 2 Pt = P o stte st to ta l; Pi = P o stte st knowledge questions J ?2 = P o stte st comprehension; H I _| Rt = Retention to ta l; Rx = Retention knowledge le v e l; R 2 = R etention comprehension le v e l U 1 Subject Factor G Factor Q 3 Treatment Group pt p i Pa % Pi Pa 133 11 10 Verbal 5 5 0 5 5 0 136 10 9 Verbal 14 7 7 21 10 11 lk-2 9 5 Verbal 13 13 0 19 13 6 152 12 10 Verbal 2 2 0 6 6 0 154 11 13 Verbal 25 17 8 25 Ik 11 156 l4 16 Verbal 23 13 10 23 Ik 9 157 0 11 Verbal 14 12 2 19 10 9 158 6 6 Verbal 25 14 11 9 5 k 159 12 7 Verbal 16 13. 3 17 11 6 - 160 8 8 Verbal 6 3 3 6 3 3 162 7 10 Visual 9 7 2 9 6 3 163 17 14 V isual 12 7 5 14 9 5 164 8 12 Visual 9 4 5 11 5 6 166 8 10 Visual 11 9 2 11 7 k 167 13 4 Visual 16 16 0 21 12 9 169 13 9 Visual 14 8 6 15 10 5 172 13 12 V isual 22 12 10 18 11 7 176 14 14 V isual 7 7 0 9 6 3 177 14 13 V isual 22 15 7 21 10 11 178 13 14 Visual 23 12 11 21 11 10 182 8 13 Visual 14 12 2 11 10 1 191 12 16 Control 19 16 3 25 16 9 193 10 12 Control 27 16 11 27 16 11 194 7 7 Control 26 18 8 27 18 9 195 9 9 Control 6 6 0 8 8 0 197 8 5 Control 26 16 10 23 13 10 198 9 18 Visual 21 12 9 20 12 8 pt = P o stte st to ta l; Pi = P o stte st knowledge le v e l; P2 = P o stte st comprehension le v e l; H Pt = Retention to ta l; Ri = Retention knowledge le v e l; Rs = Retention comprehension le v e l H O N

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Asset Metadata

Creator Geiger, Frederica Linsley (author)

Core Title The effects of advance organizer format and learner personality in the learning and retention of verbal material

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, educational psychology,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-466647

Unique identifier UC11245976

Identifier usctheses-c26-466647 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP24276.pdf

Dmrecord 466647

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Geiger, Frederica Linsley

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA