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Locus of control as a correlate of the selection of and achievement in instructor-assisted or independent study videocassette courses in a college-level continuing education program

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Locus of control as a correlate of the selection of and achievement in instructor-assisted or independent study videocassette courses in a college-level continuing education program

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Content LOCUS OF CONTROL AS A CORRELATE OF THE SELECTION OF AND ACHIEVEMENT IN INSTRUCTOR-ASSISTED OR INDEPENDENT STUDY VIDEOCASSETTE COURSES IN A COLLEGE-LEVEL CONTINUING EDUCATION PROGRAM by Wanda F. Ross A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Education) May 1989 UMI Number: DP25302 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. DIsssrtaikMt Publishing UMI DP25302 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuesf ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 This dissertation, written by Wanda F. Ross under the direction of hfrT. Dissertation Committee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Graduate School, in partial fulfillm ent of re quirements fo r the degree of D O C T O R O F P H IL O S O P H Y Dean of Graduate Studies D a te.. DISSERTATION COMMITTEE v ) f'l............ * • • I fCfhairperson DEDICATION To all the Bills in my life. 11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Sincere appreciation is expressed to the following persons without whom success at this endeavor never would have been realized: Dr. William B. Michael for his wise counsel, for his endless contribution of time and expertise, and for his genuine devotion to his students far above and beyond the call of duty. His caring, patient manner and thorough analysis should be a model for others. Dr. William F. O'Neill for guiding me toward the Ph.D. program and for doing so much to enable my realization of that goal. Drs. William J. Williams and Alexander McEachern for so graciously and agreeably serving on my committee. Dr. William M. Rideout, Jr. for wisely encouraging me to continue on the dissertation path first established. Dr. Clive L. Grafton for his prompt replies to my many queries from afar and for helping me put the whole thing in its proper perspective, but most of all for setting me on the path to success in this endeavor. Tyson R. Reyes for finding the financial support I needed to continue my studies on campus and for being such a good friend during difficult times. iii Dr. Marlene S. Wagner for believing in me, for providing me with the job I needed right on campus, for listening to me, and for being my friend. Dr. Billy M. Thornton for giving so freely of his time and patience to assist me with the statistical analysis. Les G. McMonagle for constantly providing the encouragement and support I needed to keep striving toward my goal. Dr. E. Clarke Ross for teaching me the value of setting high goals and for showing me the goal was within reach. G. Kay Sullivan for always being such a giving, caring and understanding friend but most of all for accepting me just as I am. My parents for teaching me the high value of education but who never would have believed I would take it this far and who unfortunately cannot be here to share the joy of my achievement of such an honored degree. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page DEDICATION..................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.......... iii LIST OF TABLES.................................................vii Chapter I. THE PROBLEM AND ITS THEORETICAL SETTING............ 1 Background Purposes Importance of the Study Theoretical Setting Research Questions Research Hypotheses Conceptual Assumptions Delimitations Definition of Terms Organization of the Remainder of the Study II. METHOD AND PROCEDURES................................ 26 Research Sample Instrumentation Data Collection Procedures Data Analyses Methodological Assumptions Limitations III. ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS.......................................... 33 Analysis of Findings Interpretation of Data with Reference to Research Hypotheses Discussion v IV. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS........ 59 Summary Selected Findings Conclusions Recommendations REFERENCES.................................................... 67 APPENDIXES.................................................... 73 A. Cover Letter for Questionnaire.................. 73 B. Videocassette Course Questionnaire.............. 74 C. Videocassette Course Interview Questions....... 78 D. Comments............................................. 79 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 1. 2. 3. 4. Page Relationship of Membership in One of Two Subgroups Receiving Different Instructional Approaches to I-E Scale Scores.................... 35 Relationship Between Locus of Control Predispositions and Grades Received in Independent Study (IS) (Data in the Upper Portion) or in Instructor-Assisted (IA) (Data in the Lower Portion) Videocassette Courses............................................... 38 Frequency of Grades Received by Subgroups of Students in Courses Involving IA or IS Instructional Modes Irrespective of Their Locus of Control Orientation...................... 41 Means and Standard Deviations of Self-Report Perceptions of Two Samples of Students in IA and IS Courses on a Five-Item Likert-Type Scale Along with Test of Significance of Difference Between Means........................................ 43 Summary of Replies to Interview Questions....... 45 vi i CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND ITS THEORETICAL SETTING Background For the most part, distance education in the United States does not differ from conventional education in any real sense; it is distinctive only because it employs nonconventional delivery systems. The substantial growth in distance education over the past twenty years has been largely due to a public demand for more educational opportunities for adults at the same time as a significant growth in electronic media has occurred. That video-based telecourses conquer space and time has made education inexpensive enough to be placed within reach of students irrespective of how far they are from the source of instruction (Zigerell, 1984). Distance education has been remarkably versatile in satisfying a wide range of educational needs for adults. In preferring more than one medium for learning, adults desire to control pace and start/stop time (Zemke & Zemke, 1984). Numerous persons enroll in distance education programs because of the convenience of studying at home at their own pace. The tendency for students, however, to procrastinate requires a system to monitor student involvement and progress (Kelly & Adandam, 1979). Much literature exists on distance education and instructional television, even specifically on telecourses. 1 Most of the literature has dealt with scheduled broadcasts of telecourses, not with videocassette courses. Surprisingly little of the evaluation of distance learning has focused on teaching effectiveness (Aversa, 1982). As distance education faces a dramatic shortage of empirical data, information about both student performance and the range of instructional alternatives is needed (Coldeway and others, 1980b). The term "telecourse" is intended to distinguish itself from what is loosely called "TV courses," for telecourses employ a distinctive instructional delivery method. A telecourse is not just a sequence of instructional television programs supplemented by a textbook and other readings. Nor is it simply an illustrated correspondence course or a series of videotaped classroom lecture-demonstrations. A telecourse is an integrated system of instruction employing both video and print media? the key is in the integration of the elements (Zigerell, 1980). Telecourses usually combine high visual interest, a professor/host, print materials, a textbook, and a study guide. The video portion, which typically consists of 26 to 30 half-hour programs, provides the focus of the telecourse (Zigerell, 1984). Newer video technologies, including videocassettes and videodiscs, permit students to schedule "broadcasts" at their convenience. 2 Although many students desire the independence and autonomy of telecourses, research suggests that frequent interaction of some kind with students increases the chances for successful completion. Telecourses require a high degree of motivation, an ability to study independently, and adequate learning and study skills. Students not having these characteristics, whatever their age or socioeconomic status, have difficulty succeeding with telecourses (Purdy, 1983). Telecourse students have been found to fit the general profile for distance learners (Coldeway, Spencer & Stringer 1980a; Johnson, 1969; Julian, 1982; Murray, 1984; Purdy, 1983; Rekkedal, 1981; Spencer, Peruniak, & Coldeway, 1980; Zigerell, 1980); they do not differ significantly from part-time or evening college students (Munshi, 1980). Moreover, several studies have revealed overwhelming student support for telecourses (Aspinwall-Lamberts, 1981; Center for Telecommunications, 1980; Donsky, Vaughn, Burk & Hite, 1979; ITV Center, 1978; Julian, 1982; Zigerell & Chausow, 1974) including completion rates as high as 75 percent (Donsky, Vaughn, Burk & Hite, 1979). In a study of telecourse students in the Dallas County Community College District, professional personnel at the ITV Center (1978) concluded that some of the students lacked the necessary discipline, motivation, or background; others had false expectations regarding the effort 3 required. Nonetheless, the achievement of students in telecourses has compared favorably with that of on-campus students (Johnson, 1969). As a group, telecourse students have been satisfied with the quality of telecourses and have performed at least as well as students in traditional j classes. Although several papers have been written about telecourses and telecourse students, the research, which has been marked by concern with local issues of administration, has reflected promotion rather than disinterested investigation (Zigerell, 1984). Very little has been written about the optimal delivery methods for telecourses. The rare mention of the videocassette approach has manifested itself in brief reports. Purposes The major purpose of this investigation was to determine for a total sample of 157 community college students in a continuing education program the relationship of their standing on a measure of locus of control (internal versus external) to their preference for and achievement in instructor-assisted or independent study videocassette courses. Two secondary purposes of the study were to ascertain, irrespective of an internal or external orientation, whether differences existed between subsamples of students enrolled in independent study and in instructor-assisted videocassette courses in their 4 perceptions of (a) instructional process and (b) instructional outcomes. Importance of the Study Identification of a significant relationship between personal locus of control and academic achievement for students in videocassette courses might assist in improving the accuracy of predicting academic performance, particularly if the degree of relationship between locus of control and course achievement differs between instructor- assisted telecourses and courses offered as independent study. Knowledge of differences, if any, in student attitudes toward videocassette courses afforded by the two different delivery systems might provide information useful for making decisions about the delivery of videocassette courses. Theoretical Setting Overview Locus of control can be viewed as a construct fitting within the framework of motivation theory, especially as it relates to learning. The first major section of this portion of the first chapter dealing with the theoretical setting of this inquiry is concerned with a brief exposition of behavioral and cognitive learning theory. Special attention is given to social learning theory as an outgrowth of behaviors that embody cognitive processing and understandings of reasons for and modes of reinforcement. 5 Expectancies that behavior will lead to particular reinforcements, to personal values of reinforcement, and to ways of controlling influences of reinforcements (locus of control) are considered. Attribution theory also is introduced as a broad conceptual umbrella under which locus of control may be better understood. The second major section is concerned with a somewhat more detailed description of how the locus of control construct fits within social learning theory and with efforts to measure the construct. In the third major division additional discussion of the relationship between locus of control and cognitive processing is developed. The fourth and concluding part addresses the relationship between locus of control and academic achievement with the results of many empirical studies being cited. Alternative Learning Theories Motivation is that which gives direction and intensity to behavior (Gagn£, 1985). It refers to the magnitude and direction of behavior, to the choices that persons make as to which experiences they will approach or avoid, and to the degree of effort they will exert toward these experiences. Motivation is influenced by numerous internal and external characteristics of the organism. Consequently, the term motivation can be interpreted in many ways but, in general, it refers to what a person will do as opposed to what a person can do— the latter activity 6 providing the basis for inferring the presence of a construct known as ability. It is difficult to operationalize the concept of motivation and to develop both an adequate theory and accurate measures of constructs underlying it (Keller, 1983). Two broad approaches to the study of motivation in learning have been behaviorism and cognitivism. Although these two orientations differ in many ways, both are concerned with how learning is activated and maintained. Behaviorists take the position that desired behaviors can be increased by giving rewards and that undesired behaviors can be extinguished by withdrawing rewards or offering punishments. Behaviorists tend to view the individual as a passive recipient of stimuli; they are often viewed as being capable of manipulating behavior; and they do not emphasize individual differences. Typically they employ procedures that can be readily operationalized to reflect underlying constructs being investigated. Cognitivists, by contrast, explain behavior based on scientific study of mental events (Gagn6, 1985). Cognitivists believe that one can learn largely without practice or reinforcement of behavior and that one may learn by actively changing perceptions of experience or by constructing new meanings and interpretations of events (Wittrock & Lumsdaine, 1977). 7 Social learning theory is an outgrowth of behaviorism. In contrast to behaviorism, social learning theorists advocate that mental processes influence behavior (West & Wicklund, 1980). Behaviorists maintain that there must be a response to a stimulus and a reward. Social learning theorists take the position that neither of these two components is necessary; rather, they believe that a person can learn by watching others and that reward has minimal effect on learning. The role of reward is to bring forth the behavior; reward or reinforcement is not effective unless the person understands why and how he is reinforced. Social learning theory attempts to integrate behaviorism and cognitivism. There are four classes of variables in social learning theory: behaviors, expectancies, reinforcements, and psychological situations. The potential for behavior to occur in any specific psychological situation is a function of (a) the expectancy that the behavior will lead to a particular reinforcement in that situation and (b) the value to the individual of that reinforcement. Expectancies are perceived both by experiences in each specific situation and by experiences in other situations which are interpreted by the individual to be similar (Rotter, 1975). Keller presented a theory of motivation in 1979, in the tradition of social learning theory, which distinguishes between effort and performance as categories 8 of behavior. Performance refers to actual accomplishment, whereas effort pertains to whether the individual is engaged in actions aimed at accomplishing the task. Effort is viewed as the direct indicator of motivation. Behavior is considered to be a function of the person and the environment. Consequences affect motivation because they combine with cognitive evaluation to influence changes in a \ person's values or motives. Four motivational determinants are noted: interest, relevance, expectancy, and satisfaction. Interest refers to whether the person's curiosity is aroused and sustained; relevance, to the perceived likelihood of satisfying a personal need; expectancy, to the perceived likelihood of success; and satisfaction, to the combination of extrinsic and intrinsic rewards and their compatibility with the individual's anticipations. Expectancy can be divided into two categories: expectations about others and expectations about oneself (Keller, 1983). A person's expectation about oneself regarding the controlling influences on reinforcements is referred to as locus of control. Locus of control combines the internal attributions of ability and effort with the external attributions of task difficulty and luck. Weiner (1974) proposed that collapsing these four determinants into a single dimension caused confounding in social learning research. In 1974, he incorporated the concept of locus of 9 control into the broader concept of attribution theory by combining two stable elements (ability and task difficulty) and two unstable elements (task difficulty and luck) which permitted comparison of ability-related tasks with luck-related tasks (Keller, Goldman & Sutterer, 1978). Attribution theory places more emphasis on particular causes and argues that these causes cannot be explained by a single internal-external dimension. Attribution theorists postulate that at least two dimensions are necessary: locus of control and stability (Marsh, Cairns, Relich, Barnes & Debus, 1984). Weiner has perceived control as a specific outcome expectancy as opposed to Rotter who has perceived control as a generalized outcome expectancy or trait (Adelman, Smith, Nelson, Taylor & Phares, 1986). Motivation tends to increase with increments in personal expectancies of success, which are influenced by past experience with success or failure at the given task, by locus of control, and by personal causation. A person could have a positive expectancy for success at accomplishing a given task and still have either an internal or an external attitude towards reinforcement or locus of control (Keller, 1983). Although the two concepts are different, there is evidence that they are related. Those with an internal locus of control tend to have a 10 higher initial expectancy for success, especially with an unfamiliar task (Keller, 1983; Rotter, 1966). Locus of Control in Social Learning Theory The theoretical setting for the locus of control construct originates from social learning theory. According to Rotter's (1954) social learning theory, the potential for behavior is determined by the expectancy of goal attainment, by the value of the goal, and by the situation. The probability of the occurrence of a behavior in a specific environment is a function of the individual's expectations that such a behavior will secure an available reinforcement. If persons find no behavior available to them that will help achieve a specific goal, then no relationship between their efforts and the end results is expected (Rosenblatt, 1983). Rotter (1954) described locus of control as the degree to which individuals perceive that the events in their lives are consequences of their own behavior and therefore controllable. Persons characterized as having an internal locus of control believe that reinforcements and events are contingent upon their own actions. The word "locus" means "place" or "location." Thus, persons with an internal locus of control behave as though they have control over their actions (Genstil, 1981). They see their life as open and determined to a great extent by their own attitude, 11 effort, and desire to alter their situation for the better (Knight, 1980 ) . By contrast, persons characterized as having an external locus of control interpret events as being unpredictable because of the complexities of the forces surrounding them. Their general expectancy is one of pessimism, as they believe that they are unable to control or change their life circumstances (Knight, 1980). "Control" refers to control over the reinforcement that results from social interaction (Rotter, 1966). Through life experiences, one develops expectations of the probability of obtaining reinforcement; these expectancies play a part in virtually every social interaction. Expectancy is central to the theory from which the locus of control construct has evolved (Genstil, 1981). Expectancies become generalized from one specific situation to a series of situations which arc perceived to be related or similar. The generalized expectancies and specific expectancies for reinforcement combine to determine the behavior chosen (Rotter, 1966). During a person's life history of reinforcement, a general belief is developed. What results is either a belief in the efficacy of one's own behavior (internal locus of control) or a belief that events are more or less out of one's hands (external locus of control) (Genstil, 1981). Persons who believe that there is no behavior 12 available to them which will help them achieve a specific goal see no relationship between their efforts and the end results of the situation. This perception is an external expectancy or locus of control (Rosenblatt, 1983). The first known attempt to measure the internal- external control factor as a personality trait was a 13- item scale developed by Phares in 1955. This scale was revised by James in 1957 to examine control in relation to personal adjustment. Assessment of internal-external expectancies has consistently been done by questionnaires; the most widely used scale has been Rotter's (1966) 23-item Internal-External Locus of Control Scale (Rosenblatt, 1983). The Relationship Between Locus of Control and Cognitive Processing The locus of control construct has been the subject of extensive research. Generally, it has been found that those with an internal locus of control are better adjusted and function more effectively than those with an external locus of control. Phares (1976) has concluded that persons with an internal locus of control are superior in their efforts at coping with and gaining a measure of control over their environment. They also appear to exhibit greater self-control, as well. As compared with persons with an external locus of control, they acquire more information, retain and utilize it more efficiently, and 13 generally exhibit more effectiveness in the broad realm of cognitive processing. Those with an external locus of control conform to the judgments of others more readily and are less likely to depend upon their inner resources in formulating an independent judgment. Phares also demonstrated that locus of control has both cognitive and motivational aspects. To predict behavior, both cognitive and motivational aspects must be considered (Ross, 1977). Researchers (Crowne & Liverant, 1963; Odell, 1959) have found that subjects with a high external locus of control score showed a tendency to be conforming. Intelligence has been found to have a positive relationship to perceived internal control (Bialer, 1961; Crandall, Katkovsky & Preston, 1962). Hersch and Scheibe (1967) studied locus of control in relation to the traits measured by the California Psychological Inventory (CPI) and the Adjective Check List (ACL). On the CPI, those with an internal locus of control had higher scores on the scales of dominance, tolerance, good impression, sociability, intellectual efficiency, achievement by conformity, and well being. *0n the ACL, those with an internal locus of control were more likely to describe themselves as assertive, achieving, powerful, independent, effective, and industrious. Strickland (1978) noted that those with an internal locus of control in comparison with those exhibiting an 14 external locus of control were more likely to take responsibility for their actions. They seemed more effective, more perceptually alert, and more attentive during tasks that are geared to the gathering and processing of problem-solving information. Lefcourt (1982) found a number of studies showing a correlation between locus of control and alertness, sensitivity, concentration, dogmatic beliefs, and sense of humor. In these studies, individuals with an internal locus of control appeared to be more cognitively alert than those with an external locus of control. The Relationship Between Locus of Control and Academic Achievement. Studies relating locus of control to academic achievement have been conducted for over twenty-five years (Lefcourt, 1976, 1982). Much attention has been given to the degree to which locus of control can be used to predict academic achievement (Nord, Connelly & Daignault, 1974). Several researchers have studied the relationship of locus of control to college performance, especially at the undergraduate level. In findings that personal control tends to predict achievement more accurately than does ideological control, Nord, Connelly and Daignault (1974) concluded that locus of control might be a useful predictor of academic success but that no simple pattern exists. Course content and factors 15 such as teacher behavior may interact with perceived locus of control to determine academic achievement. Other researchers (Kennelly & Kinley, 1975; Kennelly & Mount, 1985; Yates, Kennelly, & Cox, 1975) also noted that locus of control was predictive of academic achievement. Trice, Ogden, Stevens, and Booth (1987) obtained significant correlations between locus of control and (a) class participation, (b) study time, and (c) homework. This set of findings supported the validity of locus of control as a useful indicator of the beliefs of college students in the relationship between their actions and their success or failure in college. In a study of the relationship of locus of control to academic achievement in a noisy environment, Collins- Eiland, Dansereau, Brooks, and Holley (1986) noted that individuals with an internal locus of control outperformed those with an external locus of control in noisy condition^ but that the reverse was true when the conditions were not noisy. The researchers proposed that those with an external locus of control tend to give up under more difficult situations, whereas those with an internal locus of control view the situation as under their control, perhaps even as a challenge. Attribution theorists typically have postulated that the most important perceived causes of academic success and failure are ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck, and 16 that academic achievement cannot be explained by a single internal-external dimension (Marsh, Cairns, Relich, Barnes & Debus, 1984). Weiner (1979) and Keller (1983) have suggested that locus of control is more directly related to attitudes than to achievement. Keller, Goldman and Sutterer (1978) found that locus of control is more related to attitudes than to habits or performance in an academic context. In an analysis and review of the literature on self directed learning, Caffarella and O'Donnell (1987) identified only one study on locus of control. Skaggs (1981) found that the number of hours devoted to self directed learning was not correlated with locus of control measures. Caffarella and O'Donnell (1987) concluded that insufficient research had been completed on locus of control to make any definitive statements about relationships to self-directed learning. In an extensive review of studies linking locus of control and academic achievement, Lefcourt (1982) found that academic achievement is associated with locus of control but not with consistent results. A large majority of the studies revealed a positive relationship between locus of control and academic achievement but a few studies indicated no relationship and at least one yielded a negative relationship. Some of the studies have shown marked sex differences, but again the results were 17 inconsistent. Other studies have demonstrated a greater correlation with locus of control when the academic achievement was highly valued than when its value to the individual was insignificant. In a five-year study of Ph.D. students completed in 1977, Otten (cited in Lefcourt, 1982) found a positive relationship between measures of locus of control and student progress in graduate work. Those with an internal locus of control were more likely to have obtained their Ph.D. degree within five years or to have dropped out, whereas none of those with an external locus of control had completed the Ph.D. degree. Situational variables influence an individual's perceptions of the contingency of reinforcement as does a generalized expectancy that has developed from past experiences in similar situations. A measure of generalized reinforcement such as that of locus of control has the greatest predictive power for behavior in unfamiliar, novel situations than in familiar and routine ones. Therefore, the relationship between locus of control and academic achievement is usually lower for college students than for high school students or elementary school pupils. Achievement situations are less novel and less ambiguous for college students than for those students of lesser maturity. Also, persons with an external locus of control, in comparison with those with an internal locus of 18 control, are less likely to attend college. Those students who maintain an external orientation may be using that as a defense mechanism rather than as a true reflection of their attitudes (Stipek & Weisz, 1981). In a review of causal analyses completed, Stipek and Weisz (1981) pointed to locus of control as a cause of achievement rather than as an effect, but further indicated that such a conclusion must be made cautiously, as the available data offered only tenuous support for locus of control as a cause rather than an effect. Although findings have been mixed, existing evidence has suggested, for the most part, that locus of control may be a useful predictor of academic success in college courses. Studies, however, have focused on traditional classes, not on alternative formats such as telecourses, or alternative delivery systems, such as independent study. Research Questions In this study, answers were sought to the following six research questions: 1. Would students who selected independent study videocassette courses differ both in average level and in pattern of responses (distribution of scores) to a measure of internal locus of control from those who chose instructor-assisted videocassette courses? 2. Would students identified as possessing an internal locus of control predisposition perform at an average level 19 in instructor-assisted videocassette telecourses different from that of those designated as revealing an external locus of control predisposition? 3. Would students classified as having an internal locus of control orientation perform at an average level in independent study videocassette telecourses different from that of those categorized as showing an external locus of control orientation? 4. Irrespective of internal/external stance, would the students in the independent study videocassette course exhibit both an average level and pattern of achievement different from those of students in the instructor-assisted videocassette courses? 5. Irrespective of internal/external tendencies, would students in the independent study videocassette courses provide self-report perceptions on a questionnaire form of both the (a) instructional process and (b) instructional outcomes different from those of students in the instructor-assisted videocassette courses? 6. Irrespective of internal/external preferences, would the students in the independent study videocassette courses afford interview-based perceptions of both the (a) instructional process and (b) instructional outcomes different from those of students in the instructor-assisted videocassette courses? 20 Research Hypotheses Coordinate with the first three research questions just presented, the following three research hypotheses along with rationales were proposed: Hypothesis 1. Statement. Students who selected independent study videocassette telecourses would place higher in a measure of internal locus of control orientation than would those who chose instructor-assisted videocassette courses. Rationale. Students in an independent study videocassette course format would be accepting personal responsibility for completion of the course— responsibility requiring considerable initiative, self-confidence, and independently-formed study strategies. Therefore, they would be anticipated to be more likely to exhibit an internal locus of control. Hypothesis 2. Statement. Students classified as revealing an internal locus of control orientation would perform at a lower average level in instructor-assisted videocassette telecourses than would those categorized as displaying an external locus of control. Rationale. As students with an internal locus of control would tend to be less challenged in an instructor-assisted course than in one involving independent study, it is quite possible that they might be somewhat less highly motivated 21 to perform well in a highly structured course in which they have minimal input in decision-making processes in learning activities. In short, students with an internal locus of control in comparison to those with an external locus of control might expend less effort and study time than they would in an independent study course— a circumstance leading to a reduced opportunity for the acquisition of basic information and concepts underlying the particular discipline being studied. Hypothesis 3. Statement. Students identified as having an internal locus of control orientation would perform at a higher average level in independent study videocassette telecourses than would those classified as possessing an external locus of control orientation. Rationale. As students with an internal locus of control in comparison to those with an external locus of control would be anticipated to accept responsibility for their successes and failures, they would be more likely to achieve at a relatively higher level in independent study videocassette telecourses. Such courses would be expected to afford a challenge that those with an external locus of control would very possibly prefer not to encounter. 22 Conceptual Assumptions The following conceptual assumptions were implicit in this investigation: 1. Locus of control of an individual is a construct pertinent to assessment of one's perception of personal control in relation to academic achievement. 2. Students participating in the study were sufficiently mature to respond to the instruments employed in an effective and meaningful way. 3. Findings of this investigation would be applicable to future studies concerned with academic achievement in telecourses. 4. The results of this investigation would be applicable to future exploration of student attitudes toward telecourses. Delimitations The following delimitations could serve to narrow the focus of this investigation and thus the extent to which its results can be generalized: 1. Only students enrolled in telecourses at the City Colleges of Chicago - Europe, a community college serving the United States military community in West Germany, during summer and autumn 1988 participated. 2. Only one standardized measure pertaining to locus of control was used. 23 3. No attempt was made to analyze the findings on the basis of socioeconomic status. 4. No attempt was undertaken to standardize the course examinations used in the videocassette telecourses in the two different formats. Definition of Terms Locus of Control Locus of control refers to the degree to which individuals perceive that the events in their lives are a consequence of their own behavior and therefore are controllable. Internal Locus of Control Internal locus of control represents "a person's belief that outcomes depend on one's own effort or relatively stable characteristics such as one's own ability" (Marsh et al. 1984, p.4). External Locus of Control External locus of control represents "a person's belief that outcomes depend on causes that are not under one's own control such as luck, task difficulty, and the influence of others" (Marsh et al. 1984, p. 4). Telecourse A telecourse is a college course presented by the television medium which is supplemented with written materials, usually consisting of a textbook and a study guide. 24 Videocassette Course A videocassette course is a telecourse offered on videocassettes rather than by broadcast; it enables students to complete the course either at a viewing center or on a personally owned videocassette recorder. Organization of the Remainder of the Study Chapter II focuses upon the methodology of the study including characteristics of the research sample, instrumentation used, procedures employed to conduct the survey, methodological assumptions, and limitations. Chapter III presents an analysis of the findings within the framework of the six research questions, an interpretation of the outcomes relative to the three research hypotheses, and a brief discussion. Chapter IV provides a summary of the investigation followed by conclusions and recommendations for future research. 25 CHAPTER II METHOD AND PROCEDURES This chapter presents the methodology and procedures used in the study. It is divided into the following six major sections: (a) the research sample, (b) instrumentation, (c) data collection procedures, (d) data analyses, (e) methodological assumptions, and (f) limitations. Research Sample The total sample consisted of 157 students enrolled in videocassette courses at City Colleges of Chicago - Europe, a community college serving the United States military community in Europe. During the summer and autumn of 1988, 68 students enrolled in independent study videocassette courses and 89 enrolled in instructor-assisted videocassette courses in West Germany were surveyed. Although no attempt was initiated to form subgroups on the basis of socioeconomic status, a preliminary effort was undertaken to differentiate the total sample on the basis of sex, age, and ethnicity. The ratios of male to female and of Caucasians to minority members were approximately 10 to 7 and 11 to 4, respectively. More than 90 percent of the participants were under 35 years of age. An additional 30 students, 15 who had taken instructor-assisted videocassette courses and 15 who had taken independent study videocassette courses, were 26 interviewed. Questions pertaining to instructional process and instructional outcome components were posed to members in each of these two subgroups of 15 students. Instrumentation The instrumentation consisted of three major parts: (a) the Rotter Internal-External Locus of Control Scale (henceforth referred to as the I-E Scale) (Rotter, 1966), which is the first part of Appendix B, (b) a questionnaire administered to all students that comprised six items concerning the perceptions that students held regarding instructional process (three items) and instructional outcome (three items) features along with an open-ended portion for comments (the second part of Appendix B), and (c) a set of videocassette course interview questions (seven dealing with instructional process and one with instructional outcome) reproduced in Appendix C and asked of all students in the two previously cited subgroups of 15 members. The I-E Scale Test design. The I-E Scale is a 23-item forced-choice questionnaire. From the statements reflecting an internal and external orientation that are paired, the subject is asked to select the one statement from each pair that he or she more strongly perceives to be true. Modifications were made in the scoring procedures to permit the formation of the bipolar scale. One point was scored for each 27 selected response that was keyed as internal. Scores could range from 0 to 23. High scores suggested an interpretation of an internal locus of control orientation. Rationale. Rotter (1966) developed his scale based on the assumption that individuals differ in the extent to which they perceive that reinforcement is controlled by their own behavior or characteristics (internal), or by luck, fate, chance, or powerful others (external). The I-E Scale was designed as a general measure of locus of control. Although several studies (Gurin, Gurin, Lao, & Beattie, 1969; MacDonald & Tseng, 1971; Minton, 1972; Mirels, 1970; Reid & Ware, 1973, 1974) have revealed a possible multi-dimensionality to the I-E Scale, the assumption still exists that the core factor in one's belief is personal control. When a second factor does emerge, usually it is concerned with one's belief that individuals, in general, have control. A complete description of the I-E Scale with reliability and validity data is presented by Rotter (1966). Although numerous studies have been conducted using the I-E Scale, it has been criticized because no age- related norms have been established for it. Nonetheless, it is probably the most widely used scale for measuring locus of control (Rosenblatt, 1983) and remains the instrument of choice for measurement of personal locus of control in adults. 28 Questionnaire Administered to Students A brief survey form containing six items (three dealing with instructional process and three with instructional outcomes), as indicated previously, was administered to all students to obtain information regarding their perceptions of the videocassette courses. Each of the six items in the survey form required the student to respond on a five-step Likert scale (strongly agree to strongly disagree). In addition, one open-ended question labeled as "Comments" was incorporated. Interview Schedule To gain additional depth in information regarding student perceptions, a short interview schedule was developed specifically for this inquiry. The schedule contained eight open-ended questions. Seven of these questions (1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, and 8) were classified as being concerned with instructional processes; one question (4), with instructional outcomes. Data Collection Procedures Both the I-E Scale and the Questionnaire were administered either by the investigator or by an appropriately trained employee of the City Colleges of Chicago. Following the administration, the forms were immediately collected and stored prior to data processing. All 30 interviews were conducted on an individual basis by the investigator, who had had several practice sessions 29 with persons serving as surrogates. These practice sessions were carried out so that the actual interviews would be reasonably uniform in delivery. Data pertaining to completion of telecourses and to academic grades were obtained from the official records of City Colleges of Chicago. Data Analyses After scores from the I-E Scale and information from the Questionnaire were obtained and entered on large data sheets, descriptive statistics involving frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations were calculated, as deemed appropriate. Both t tests and chi- square tests of independence were completed depending upon whether scores were treated as falling along a continuum or had been categorized by frequencies relative to their belonging to pairs of subgroups. A content analysis was done of responses arising from the interview schedule. Actual comments have been reproduced in Appendix D. Methodological Assumptions The following methodological assumptions were made in this study: 1. The research design, control methods, subject selection, and statistical procedures were appropriate by affording at least reasonably accurate inferences and interpretations. 30 2. The community college students who participated constituted a sufficiently representative sample of those attending two-year institutions of higher education to allow a preliminary basis for tentative generalization of the findings— at least within a military population stationed in Europe. 3. The instruments used were sufficiently reliable and valid for the purposes of this study. 4. The instruments were properly administered and scored correctly. 5. The data were recorded, stored, and analyzed accurately. Limitations The following limitations could serve to restrict the extent to which the results of the study could be generalized: 1. The internal and external validity of the outcomes could have been compromised by the extent to which any one of the methodological assumptions was not met. 2. As the basic cognitive structures of a person cannot be directly observed, the description of a psychological construct such as locus of control must necessarily be a highly speculative and interpretive venture dependent upon the instrument chosen to represent the construct. 3. Great care must be taken in the extent to which the results might be generalized to other institutions, 31 particularly those in either a residential or commuter community on the mainland of the United States. 4. As only 157 subjects took part,, the degree to which the results could be generalized to students at other campuses of the City Colleges of Chicago is restricted. 5. Despite the care taken, the investigator might have introduced some degree of bias in the interview process. 32 CHAPTER III ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS In this chapter, the results of the inquiry are analyzed within the framework of the six research questions posed in Chapter I. Next the statistical outcomes are interpreted within the context of the three research hypotheses also set forth in Chapter I. A brief discussion of the findings is undertaken primarily with reference to certain limitations and shortcomings that were apparent. The absence of directly relevant literature pertaining to videocassette courses largely precludes a meaningful integration of the results of the investigation with those reported by other researchers, who did not have the opportunity to examine the constructs of this study in college settings involving offerings of videocassette telecourses. To facilitate communication in this chapter, the acronyms IS and IA are employed to designate independent study videocassette courses and instructor-assisted videocassette courses, respectively. Moreover, the Rotter Internal-External Locus of Control Scale, the scoring procedures of which were modified for the purposes of this investigation to provide a bipolar continuum, is referred to as the I-E Scale. Those students who chose either IS or IA courses are typically designated as the IS or IA subgroups or subsamples, respectively. It should be 33 emphasized that the relatively small numbers of students in selected academic disciplines precluded in most cases data analysis for sets of courses in Science, Social Science, Business, or Humanities. In other words, the data to be reported are for all students in either IS or IA subgroups irrespective of the placement of a course in a particular Livision of the college. J Analysis of Findings Differences in Average•Level and in Response Patterns to the I-E Scale Between IS and IA Subgroups '(Research Question 1) Difference between mean scores on I-E Scale. For the ■IS and IA subsamples of 68 and 89 students, respectively, the corresponding mean scores on the I-E Scale were 15.76 and 14.70 and the corresponding standard deviations were 0.78 and 4.52. The difference of 1.06 points between means jfailed to yield statistical significance, t (155) = 1.54, p > .05), although the direction of the difference favored the IS subsample. Difference in, pattern of I-E Scale scores. In Table 1, the distributions of scores of the IS and IA subgroups are reported relative to the placement of members in each of three score intervals: 0 to 11 describing an external orientation, 12 to 14 indicating a neutral placement, and 15 to 23 defining an internal predisposition. For the 2 x 3 contingency table, a chi square test of independence Table 1 Relationship of Membership in One of Two Subgroups Receiving Different Instructional Approaches to I-E Scale Scores Course I-E Scale Scores Subgroup 0-11 12-14 15-23 Total IA 24 25 40 89 (27.0) (28.1) (44.9) IS 8 17 43 68 (11.8) (25.0) (63.3) Total 32 42 88 157 Chi Square for 2 x 3 contingency table: X2(2)=6.95, .0 2<p<.05 Chi Square for 2 x 2 contingency table (the middle column corresponding to I-E Scale scores from 12 to 14 having been omitted): X2(l)=5.19/ .01<p<.025 Note: IS stands for the subgroup that elected the independent study videocassette course. IA denotes the subgroup that chose the instructor-assisted videocassette course. Within each of the rows corresponding to IA or IS classifications the numbers in parentheses represent percentages for the frequencies relative to the total numbers of subjects in the row. 35 of the relationship between membership in the IS or IA subgroup and standing on the I-E Scale was completed. A statistically significant relationship was observed, (2) = 6.95, .025 < p < .05. To contrast the subgroups of students categorized as either external or internal in orientation, a 2 x 2 chi square test of independence was calculated for the data in Table 1 (the so-called neutral subgroup earning scores of 12 to 14 having been omitted). This chi square test also was statistically significant, ~X? (1) = 5.19, .01 < p < .025. As in the instance of the means for the IS and IA subsamples, for which the t test failed to achieve statistical significance, the direction of the distribution of frequencies indicated a tendency for the IS subgroup to earn higher scores than the IA subsample on the I-E Scale. Difference in Achievement Level in IA Courses in Subgroups of Students Classified as Internal or External in Orientation (Research Question 2) Difference in mean level of grade received. On a scale in which marks of A, B, C, D, and F were assigned values of 4, 3, 2, 1, or 0, respectively, the means for the subgroups of students classified as internal (n = 39) or external (n = 19) in IA courses only were 3.33 and 2.80 respectively, with corresponding standard deviations of 0.80 and 0.55. Students receiving grades of W (Withdrawal) or I (Incomplete) were excluded in calculation of the 36 means. The difference of .53 between the means was statistically significant, t (56) = 2.13, .02 < 2 < .05. At a descriptive level of reporting, it is apparent that the students classified as internal tended to achieve a higher level than those categorized as external in the IA courses. Differences in patterns of marks received. In the upper portion of Table 2, the configuration of marks received by the subsamples classified as internal, neutral, or external are presented solely in a descriptive fashion, as a matter of general interest. No significance tests are reported, as the research question was directed only to a consideration of a difference in average level of achievement. Difference in Achievement Level in IS Courses of Subgroups of Students Differentiated as Internal or External in Orientation (Research Question 3) Difference in mean level of grade received. For the subsamples of 43 and 8 students in IS courses who were internal or external, respectively, in orientation and who received one of the five grades from A to F, the corresponding means were 2.55 and 2.62; the standard deviations, .93 and .86. The difference between means of -.07 for the two subsamples could not be meaningfully evaluated for statistical significance because the imbalance in the size of the two subgroups— especially the 37 Table 2 Relationship Between Locus of Control Predispositions and Grades Received in Independent Study (IS) (Data in the Upper Portion) or in Instructor-Assisted (IA) (Data in the Lower Portion) Videocassette Courses Orientation in Terms of I-E Scale Scores A B Grade in C IA Courses D F I W Total Internal (Scores 15-23) 21 (52.5) 10 (25.0) 8 (20.0) 1 (2.5) 40 Neutral (Scores 12-14) 5 (20.0) 8 (32.0) 7 (28.0) 1 (4.0) 4 (16.0) 25 External (Sum 0-11) 2 (8.3) 13 (54.2) 4 (16.7) 5 (20.8) 24 Total 28 31 19 1 10 89 Orientation in Terms of I-E Scale Scores A B Grade in C IS Courses D F I W Total Internal (Scores 15-23) 5 (11.6) 19 (44.2) 14 (32.5) 2 2 (4.6) (4.6) 1 (2.3) 43 Neutral (Scores 12-14) 3 (17.6) 3 (17.6) 9 (52.9) 2 (11.8) 17 External (Scores 0-11) 2 (25.0) 1 (12.3) 5 (62.0) 8 Total 10 23 28 4 2 1 60 OJ CO smallness of the group identified as external— could adversely affect the power of the t_ test. Perhaps more meaningful than the small difference between means were the disproportionate numbers of individuals choosing the IS course format who were internal in predisposition (n = 43) relative to the frequency who were external in predisposition (n = 8). Differences in patterns of marks received. As a matter of general interest, the lower part of Table 2 sets forth the frequencies of students classified as internal, neutral, or external who earned each of the possible marks assigned (A, B, C, D, F). The data are presented at only a descriptive level, as the focus of the research question was that of a concern with average level of achievement. (Even if a chi square test had been attempted, the frequency of individuals categorized as external would have made its application highly questionable.) Difference in Average Level and in Pattern of Achievement of Students in IS or IA Subgroups Irrespective of Locus of Control Orientation (Research Question 4) Difference in mean level of grade received. For the IA and IS subsamples of whom 79 and 67 members, respectively received marks of A, B, C, D, or F, the corresponding means relative to the same numerical system of grade conversion as that previously reported were 3.09 and 2.52 with matching standard deviations of 0.79 and 39 0.92. The differences between means of .57 was statistically significant, _t (144) = 3.94, p < .001. At a descriptive level of reporting, it is apparent that students in the IA subgroups tended to receive higher grades than those in the IS subsamples. Difference in pattern of grades received. In Table 3, frequency distributions of marks assigned to the IS and IA subsamples were cited. In addition, a 2 x 3 chi square test of significance was made to ascertain whether a reliable difference was present in the configuration of marks earned by individuals in the two subgroups. A statistically significant outcome occurred, X 2 (2) = 12.48, £ < .005. An inspection of the entries in Table 3 indicates that students in the IA subgroup tended to receive higher grades than those in the IS subsample. Differences in Self-Report Questionnaire Perceptions of Effectiveness of Instructional Processes and Outcomes in IS and IA Courses (Research Question 5) General observations. An inspection of the responses to the self-report form reveals that with the exception of the response category "Disagree" for only two of seven items every alternative was chosen. Thus, considerable variability in alternatives selected was apparent for each one of the six items. In the instance of the self-report perceptions for the items pertaining to instructional 40 Table 3 Frequencies of Grades Received by Subgroups of Students in Courses Involving IA or IS Instructional Modes Irrespective of Their Locus of Control Orientation Course Subgroups A B C Grades Assigned D F I W Total IA 28 (31.5) 31 (34.8) 19 (21.3) 1 (1.1) 10 (11.2) 89 IS 10 (14.7) 23 (33.8) 28 (41.2) 4 (5.9) 2 (2.9) 1 (1.5) 68 Total 38 54 37 5 2 1 10 157 Chi Square for 2 x 3 contingency table: X 2(2)=12.48, P<.005 Note: In the 2x3 contingency table the third column constituted a combination of grades of C, D, and F with the W and I marks being eliminated from the analysis. Within each of the rows corresponding to the IA and IS Classifications the numbers in parentheses represent percentages for the frequencies relative to the total number of subjects in the row. process the range of mean values for students in the IA courses fell between 3.02 and 3.43; for students in the IS courses, between 3.02 and 3.23. Somewhat similarly, the data for the items concerned with instructional outcomes revealed a range of mean values obtained from students in IA courses between 3.20 and 4.96; for students in IS courses, between 2.96 and 3.93. In general, the average response occurred between the middle or neutral category and the agree category. Detailed values are set forth in Table 4. Differences between the means of IS and IA subsamples in the self-report questionnaire perceptions of instructional process. Not one of the three items dealing with instructional process components provided a statistically significant difference. One difference was positive; one, negative; and a third, zero. Differences between the means of IS and IA subsamples in the self-report questionnaire perceptions of instructional outcomes. Only one the three items regarding outcomes yielded a statistically significant difference between means— namely Item 2 concerning having learned something valuable, t (155) = 2.48, .01 <_p < .02 (two tailed test). The respective means for the IA and IS subsamples were 4.25 and 3.93 (the highest and third highest means among all items). The direction of each of 42 T a b l e 4 M e a n s a n d S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s o f S e l f - R e p o r t P e r c e p t i o n s o f F i v e S a m p l e s o f S t u d e n t s i n I A a n d I S C o u r s e s o n a F i v e - S t e p L i k e r t - T y p e S c a l e A l o n g w i t h T e s t o f S i g n i f i c a n c e o f D i f f e r e n c e B e t w e e n M e a n s I t e m S t a t e m e n t I A C o u r s e s X i Sl I S i * 2 C o u r s e s S 2 X i - X 2 £ d f T w o - t a i l e d P r o b a b i l i t y 3. C o m p a r e d w i t h o t h e r c o u r s e s I h a v e t a k e n , t h i s o n e w a s b e t t e r . 3 . 4 8 0 . 9 4 3 . 2 3 0 . 9 0 0 . 2 5 1 . 7 3 1 5 1 E > - 0 5 4. T h e v i d e o c a s s e t t e f o r m a t o f t h e i r c o u r s e w a s b e t t e r t h a n t h e f o r m a t o f o t h e r c o u r s e s I h a v e t a k e n . 3 . 0 3 0 . 9 3 3 . 1 5 0 . 9 8 - 0 . 1 2 - 0 . 7 9 1 4 9 E> . 0 5 6. I p r e f e r t h i s t y p e o f v i d e o c a s s e t t e c o u r s e t o o t h e r c o u r s e s I h a v e t a k e n . 3 . 0 2 1 . 1 0 3 . 0 2 1 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 1 5 1 E > - 0 5 1. T h e c o u r s e w a s i n t e l l e c t u a l l y c h a l l e n g i n g a n d s t i m u l a t i n g . 3 . 9 6 0 . 8 3 3 . 7 3 0 . 6 1 0 . 2 3 1 . 9 0 1 5 4 E > . 0 5 2. I l e a r n e d s o m e t h i n g w h i c h I c o n s i d e r v a l u a b l e . 4 . 2 5 0 . 6 2 3 . 9 3 0 . 9 9 0 . 3 2 2 . 4 8 1 5 5 . 0 1 < E < . 0 2 5. I t w a s e a s i e r t o l e a r n t h e m a t e r i a l i n t h i s c o u r s e t h a n i n o t h e r c o u r s e s . 3 . 2 0 0 . 9 8 2 . 9 6 0 . 9 7 0 . 2 4 1 . 5 0 1 5 1 E> . 0 5 N o t e : O n t h e L i k e r t - t y p e s c a l e r e s p o n s e s o f s t r o n g l y a g r e e , a g r e e , u n d e c i d e d , d i s a g r e e , a n d s t r o n g l y d i s a g r e e w e r e a s s i g n e d v a l u e s o f 5, 4, 3, 2, a n d 1, r e s p e c t i v e l y . I t e m r e s p o n s e s w e r e s c o r e d t o t h e n e a r e s t h a l f p o i n t d e p e n d i n g o n w h i c h p a r t o f t h e r e s p o n s e c o n t i n u u m a c h e c k m a r k w a s p l a c e d . U> the three differences found favored in every case the IA subsample over the IS subsample. Differences in Perceptions of Instructional Process and Outcome Components by IS and IA Subgroups Based on Interviews (Research Question 6) As indicated in the previous chapter, seven of the interview questions (those numbered 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, and 8) were concerned with process components of instruction; one question (Question 4), with an instructional outcome component. In Table 5, a descriptive summary is presented of frequencies with which responses belonging to identifiable categories for the total sample of 30 students as well as for subsamples of 15 in each of the groupings of IA or IS courses (programs). Responses also have been tabulated by broad course categories— Sciences (Sci), Social Sciences (Soc), or Business and Humanities (B&H). It is highly questionable whether these tabulations by the three broad disciplinary areas can lead to any meaningful generalizations because of the small number of respondents. In the paragraphs to follow, the data are highlighted briefly. The reader is urged to consult Table 5 for the precise wording of each question (or of its parts). 44 Table 5 Summary of Replies to Interview Questions 1. Why did you choose to take a videocassette course? Frequency Frequency IA Frequency IS All Data Sci Soc B&H Sci Soc B&H More convenient 20 3 3 3 4 3 4 Course I wanted/needed 6 1 2 1 0 2 0 Faster 6 1 1 1 1 1 1 Likes self-paced format 4 0 0 1 3 0 0 Unable to attend traditional classes 3 0 0 0 1 1 1 Costs less 2 0 0 0 0 1 1 Better than CLEP tests 1 0 0 0 0 1 • 0 2. How did you like the combination of scheduled classes, an instructor, and the videocassette course materials? Frequency Frequency IA Frequency IS All Data Sci Soc B&H Sci Soc B&H Preferred instructor over self-study 7 3 3 1 not applic. Would prefer traditional classes 3 0 1 2 not applic. Liked it 2 0 0 2 not applic. Wants more instructor time 2 1 1 0 not applic. More convenient 1 0 0 1 not applic. Did not like it 1 0 1 0 not applic. Instructor unnecessary 1 1 0 0 not applic. 2. How did you like being responsible for your own study schedule? Frequency Frequency IA Frequency IS All Data Sci Soc B&H Sci Soc B&H Liked it 15 not applic. 5 5 5 More convenient 7 not applic. 2 2 3 Better than a clasr 4 not applic. 2 2 0 Must be self-motivated 1 not applic. 1 0 0 2. How many videocassette courses, if any have you ever taken? Likewise, how many independent study or instructor-assisted courses, if any, have you taken? Which method do you prefer and why? Frequency Frequency IA Frequency IS All Data Sci Soc B&H Sci Soc B&H One 5 0 2 2 0 1 0 Two 10 1 1 2 3 1 2 Three, four or five 10 3 0 1 2 2 2 Six or more 5 1 2 0 0 1 1 All instructor-assisted 9 1 3 5 not applic. All independent study 15 not applic. 5 5 5 Prefer instructor-assisted 5 3 2 0 not applic. Prefer independent study 1 1 0 0 not applic. 45 4. Which features, if any, about the videocassette course helped your learning? Frequency Frequency IA Frequency IS All Data Sci Soc B&H Sci Soc B&H Responsibility for own studying 8 1 2 2 1 1 1 Videotapes 8 1 2 2 0 1 2 Study guide 7 1 1 0 1 1 3 Combination of books and tapes 4 1 0 1 1 0 1 Instructor 3 0 1 2 not applic. Can rewatch tapes 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 Textbook 2 0 0 1 1 0 0 Syllabus 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 Immediate feedback on tests 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 Depends on course 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 5. What, if any, were the shortcomings of the course? Frequency Frequency IA Frequency IS All Data Sci Soc B&H Sci Soc B&H No shortcomings 4 0 0 1 2 1 0 Mismatch between tapes/books/tests 9 2 2 0 1 1 3 Poor tests 8 0 2 1 0 3 2 Syllabus unclear 4 2 0 0 0 1 1 Too little instructor time 3 1 2 0 not applic. No focus for studying 3 0 1 1 0 1 0 Poor tapes 2 0 0 1 0 0 1 Tapes inaccessible 2 0 0 2 not applic. No one to answer questions 2 1 0 0 1 0 0 Poor textbook 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 Tapes unnecessary 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 Too demanding 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 Too easy 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 6. How can this videocassette course be improved? Frequency Frequency IA Frequency IS All Data Sci Soc B&H Sci Soc B&H No improvements needed 6 1 1 0 3 0 1 Improve tests 5 0 1 0 0 2 2 Update tapes 5 1 0 1 1 1 1 Improve match between tapes/books/tests 4 0 1 0 0 2 1 More instructor time 3 1 0 2 not applic. Make tapes accessible 3 0 1 2 not applic. Offer more courses 2 0 0 1 1 0 0 Make it harder 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 Improve syllabus 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 Make it easier 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 7. Would you recommend this type of videocassette course to others? On^what basis? Frequency Frequency IA Frequency IS All Data Sci Soc B&H Sci Soc B&H Yes 27 4 4 5 4 4 6 No 4 1 1 0 0 1 1 Depends on course 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 For convenience 14 1 1 2 4 3 3 Must be self-motivated 12 3 1 3 3 1 1 Need some background 3 1 0 1 0 1 0 If traditional course unavailable 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 If new subject matter 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 4 6 8. Would you take another instructor-assisted videocassette course? Why or why not? Freguencv Freguencv IA Freguencv IS All Data Sci Soc B&H Sci Soc B&H Yes 11 4 4 3 not applic. No 3 1 0 2 not applic. Possibly 1 0 1 0 not applic. If needed course 4 2 2 0 not applic. Likes having instructor 3 1 1 1 not applic. Convenient 2 1 1 0 not applic. Satisfied 2 1 1 0 not applic. Must be self-motivated 2 0 1 1 not applic. Prefers traditional class 1 0 0 1 not applic. Tapes inaccessible 1 0 0 1 not applic. 8. Would you take another independent study videocassette course? Why or why not? Freguencv Freguencv IA Freguencv IS All Data Sci Soc B&H Sci Soc B&H Yes 14 not applic. 5 5 4 Depends on course 1 not applic. 0 0 1 Convenient 6 not applic. 1 3 2 Satisfied 6 not applic. 2 1 3 Wouldn't hesitate to drop 2 not applic. 0 1 1 Interview Question 1 (reason for choosing videocassette course). Twenty of the 30 students surveyed indicated they chose a videocassette course for convenience. This reply was made nearly equally by students in both programs (IS or IA). Six students, evenly distributed between the two types of courses, stated that they took the course because it would be faster than a traditionally-presented class. Another six declared that they elected the course because they needed or wanted the particular offering. Four students, three of whom were in the IS subsample, revealed that they had selected a videocassette course because they liked the self-paced format. Another three students in IS courses indicated that they were unable to attend traditionally offered classes. Two students in the IS subsample made the point that they chose the videocassette course because it was less expensive. Interview Question 2 (liking of selected components associated with independent study or instructor-assisted videocassette courses). The second interview question addressed student satisfaction with the specific instructional process utilized in the type of videocassette course they had chosen. Hence, the wording of the question for students in the IS subsample was different from that for those in the IA subgroup. All students pursuing the IS program who were interviewed indicated that they liked 48 being responsible for their own study schedule. Half of them added the comment that it was convenient; nearly a third noted that they preferred the independent study course over a traditionally taught one. The students in the IA subgroup appeared to be less satisfied than those in the IS subsample relative to the course taken. Only two students actually stated that they liked the format of the videocassette course, and another seven said that they preferred this format with an instructor over independent study. One student indicated a dislike for the instructor-assisted format; two declared that they wanted more time with the instructor; and three revealed that they would prefer a traditional class. Interview Question 3 (previous experience with and preferences for independent study or instructor-assisted videocassette courses). Although 83 percent of students interviewed revealed that they had taken more than one videocassette course, none of the students in the IS subgroup stated that he or she had ever taken an instructor-assisted videocassette course. Hence, the respondents lacked a basis for comparison. Forty percent or six of the students within the IA subgroup also reported having taken independent study videocassette courses. Of these six students, five declared that they preferred the instructor-assisted format; one, the independent study format. 49 Interview Question 4 (features of videocassette courses helpful to learning). In this one question concerned with instructional outcomes, five instructor- assisted students and three independent study students indicated that their responsibility for their own studying helped their learning most. Five students in the IA subgroup and three in the IS subsample stated that the videotapes were the greatest help. Seven students, five of whom were enrolled in the independent study program, declared that the study guide was most useful, and two students, one in each program, declared that the textbook was most useful. Two students in the IA subgroup said that the syllabus was the single greatest aid to learning. Four students, two in each program, noted that the combination of books and tapes helped their learning. Three of the students in the IA subgroup credited the instructor most for helping their learning. Two students in the IS subsample declared that they were most helped by the ability to rewatch tapes, and one stated that immediate feedback on tests was the most beneficial feature. Interview Question 5 (shortcomings of course). Only four of the 30 students interviewed indicated that there were no shortcomings in the course in which they were enrolled. Three of these four students were in the IS subsample. Nine of the students cited a mismatch among tapes, books, and tests. Another eight students revealed 50 that the tests were less than satisfactory, and four declared that the syllabus was unclear. These replies were nearly evenly distributed between the IA and IS subgroups. One-third of the students in the IA subgroup noted either that there was too little instructor time or that there was no focus for studying. One member in the IS subsample stated that the course was too difficult, whereas one student in the IA subgroup indicated that the course was too easy. Interview Question 6 (ways of improving the videocassette course). Only six of the 30 students interviewed declared that no improvements were needed; four of them were in the IS subgroup. Four of the five students who asked for improved tests were those in the IS subsample. Nine of the students, six of whom were in the IS subsample, requested updated tapes or an improved match among components involving tapes, books, and tests. Three of the members in the IS subgroup expressed the need for more instructor time and another three indicated a desire for more accessible tapes. Two students in the IA subgroup declared that the courses should be more difficult. One student in the IS subsample stated that the courses should be easier than they were. 51 Interview Question 7 (willingness to recommend videocassette course taken to others and basis for doing so). Ninety percent of the students, nearly evenly distributed between the IA and IS subgroups, noted that they would recommend videocassette courses to others. Nearly half indicated that they would recommend it for convenience; most of these students were in the IS subsample. Twelve students, nearly evenly distributed between the IS and IA programs, noted that students must be self-motivated to succeed in videocassette courses. Interview Question 8 (willingness to take another independent study or instructor-assisted videocassette course). All but one of the students in the IS subsample who were interviewed indicated that they would take another independent study videocassette course. Most of the students in the IS subsample stated either that they were satisfied with the course or that it was convenient. Two students noted that they would not hesitate to drop a course if they were dissatisfied. Two students in the IA subgroup did state that they were less likely in the future to take another instructor- assisted videocassette course. Only 11 students answered "yes" to this interview question and 3 replied "no." 52 Interpretation of Data with Reference to Research Hypotheses In this section, the data of the investigation are interpreted in terms of furnishing support or lack of support for each of the three research hypotheses. Hypothesis 1 It would appear that the results of the statistical analyses were equivocal relative to providing support for the first research hypothesis that students who selected independent study videocassette courses would place higher on a measure of internal locus of control than would those who chose instructor-assisted videocassette courses. Whereas the t test of significance between the mean scores on the I-E Scale failed to yield significance (although direction on the difference was consistent with the statement of the hypothesis), the two chi square tests afforded support for the research hypothesis. The patterns of frequency of responses in terms of standing within each of three intervals of I-E Scale scores were reliably different for the IA and IS subgroups with the IS subgroup revealing scores indicative of an internal orientation. Hypothesis 2 Evidence and support of the second research hypothesis that students with an internal locus of control would perform at a lower average level in an instructor-assisted videocassette course than those displaying an external 53 locus of control was decidedly negative. If the results of the two-tailed significance test (which was statistically reliable) are interpreted in the context of a one-tailed test consistent with the directional nature of the second research hypothesis, the sign of the t-test value was precisely the opposite of what it should be for confirmatory evidence. An inspection of the frequencies of marks received by students classified as internal, neutral, or external clearly reveals at a descriptive level of reporting a far greater proportion of the internally oriented than of the externally oriented students earning a grade of A. Hypothesis 3) Statistical data were inconclusive relative to support or lack of support for the third research hypothesis that students identified as having an internal locus of control orientation would perform at a higher average level in independent study videocassette courses than would those classified as possessing an external locus of control orientation. The statistical information was of extremely limited value, as it was not statistically feasible to compare the difference between means (or even in the patterns of frequencies with marks of A, B, C, D, or F) that occurred, because only eight individuals with an external orientation elected to take independent study videocassette courses as compared with 43 students with an 54 internal orientation who chose them. It would appear that the decisive statistic in the instance of this third research hypothesis is the marked difference in the frequency with which students with the two orientations chose to enroll in a course involving independent study. Discussion As stated earlier, relatively little research has been done concerning differences either in achievement levels of college students or in their perceptions of instructional process or outcome components in telecourses relative to an internal or external placement in a measure of locus of control. Most investigations have been directed toward elementary or high school students who have been enrolled in traditionally taught classes. Thus in the absence of relevant research to which the data of this investigation may be related, the discussion is directed toward a consideration of why the hypotheses received little or no support. The following points should be noted as possible limiting factors in the general lack of clear-cut support for the research hypotheses: 1. For all three hypotheses, the sample that was studied might not have been representative of college students who have had opportunities to enroll in videocassette courses relative to either format presented (instructor-assisted or independent study). Unfortunately, the total group was not 55 sufficiently large to permit a meaningful breakdown either by broad subject matter areas or by specific courses. It should also be noted that students that come from primarily a military population located in Europe could exhibit interest and motivational levels quite different from those students enrolled in either public or private universities and colleges in the United States. 2. In the instance of the first research hypothesis, the direction of the findings irrespective of statistical approaches employed was favorable, although significance was attained only with use of the chi square statistic. Certainly further research with this hypothesis should be explored with larger and more diverse groups in a variety of different disciplines. In short, the data appeared to be too limited to provide any decisive answer to the tenability of this research hypothesis. 3. For the second research hypothesis, the data, although nonsupportive, actually were not necessarily contradictory. Students with an internal locus of control orientation in comparison with those with an external predisposition might be expected to exhibit superior attainments for either traditionally taught or innovatively taught courses such as those affording videocassette tapes in either an independent study or instructor-assisted format. Additional research may provide a basis for a broad generalization that among college and university 56 students those with an internal locus of control orientation are highly likely to outperform individuals with an external predisposition, even when ability level has been controlled. 4. The lack of sufficient data prevented the attainment of the necessary information for a statement of support or lack of support of the third research hypothesis. The most revealing statistic was that comparatively few students with an external locus of control orientation were likely to chose a course requiring independent study— an outcome consistent with an expectation that such students may well lack the initiative, independence, and risktaking attitudes thought to be associated with those having an internal or ientation. 5. The lack of a standardized achievement test in each of the courses taken irrespective of the format employed constituted a serious weakness. Different professors have different grading standards that in turn reflect marked discrepancies in attitudes and evaluation styles. It is quite conceivable that instructors who evaluated the performance of students in instructor-assisted offerings might be either more demanding in their expectations or at least more conservative in the grades they assign because of their own personal insecurities or unfamiliarity with this relatively unconventional instructional mode. At least in the sample studied, grades in the instructor- 57 assisted courses tended to be higher than those in the independent study offerings irrespective of locus of control orientation. 58 CHAPTER IV SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary Background One approach to distance education has been the comparatively recent introduction of telecourses which are an integrated system of instruction employing a sequence of video lessons coupled with a textbook and study guide. In some instances instructors have assisted students with the use of videocassettes, and in other circumstances, in which instructors may not be conveniently available, students have worked independently with lessons in a videocassette format. One advantage of this format is that students may watch lessons at their own convenience. Relatively little research has been done concerning possible affective correlates of success in telecourses involving different delivery systems. It was thought that a study of differences in the motivational characteristics and achievement levels of students who select an instructor-assisted or an independent study videocassette course might be informative. Within the framework of social learning theory, the construct of locus of control was chosen as the motivational characteristic to be studied, as this construct was thought to be relevant to both affective and cognitive components of learning. 59 Purposes The major purpose of this investigation was to determine for a total sample of 157 community college students in a continuing education program the relationship of their standing on a measure of locus of control (internal versus external) to their preference for and achievement in instructor-assisted or independent study videocassette telecourses. Two secondary purposes of the study were to ascertain irrespective of an internal or external orientation whether differences existed between subsamples of students enrolled in independent study or instructor-assisted videocassette courses in their perceptions of (a) instructional process and (b) instructional outcomes. Research Hypotheses To provide data relevant to the purposes just stated, six research questions were posed, the first three of which afforded information for testing the following three research hypotheses: Hypothesis 1. Students who have selected independent study videocassette telecourses would place higher in a measure of internal locus of control orientation than would those who have chosen instructor-assisted videocassette courses. Hypothesis 2. Students classified as revealing an internal locus of control orientation would perform at a 60 lower average level in instructor-assisted videocassette telecourses than would those categorized as displaying an external locus of control. Hypothesis 3. Students identified as having an internal locus of control orientation would perform at a higher average level in independent study videocassette telecourses than would those classified as possessing an external locus of control orientation. Method and Procedures Research sample. The total sample consisted of 157 students enrolled in videocassette courses at the City Colleges of Chicago - Europe, a community college serving the United States military community in Europe. During the summer and autumn of 1988, 68 students enrolled in independent study videocassette courses and 89 enrolled in instructor-assisted videocassette courses in West Germany were surveyed. Although no attempt was initiated to form subgroups on the basis of socioeconomic status, a preliminary effort was undertaken to differentiate the total sample on the basis of sex, age, and ethnicity. The ratios of male to female and of Caucasians to minority members were approximately 10 to 7 and 11 to 4, respectively. More than 90 percent of the participants were under 35 years of age. An additional 30 students, 15 who had taken instructor-assisted videocassette courses and 15 who had 61 taken independent study videocassette courses, were interviewed. Questions pertaining to instructional process and instructional outcome components were posed to members in each of these two subgroups of 15 students. Instrumentation. The instrumentation consisted of three major parts: (a) the Rotter Internal-External Locus of Control Scale (henceforth referred to as the I-E Scale) (Rotter, 1966), which is reproduced in the first part of Appendix B, (b) a questionnaire administered to all students that comprised six items providing the perceptions that students held regarding instructional process and instructional outcome features along with an open-ended portion for comments (the second part of Appendix B), and (c) a set of videocassette course interview questions (seven dealing with instructional process and one with, instructional outcome) reproduced in Appendix C and asked of all students in the two previously cited subgroups of 15 members. Data analyses. After scores from the I-E Scale and information from the Questionnaire were obtained and entered on large data sheets, descriptive statistics involving frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations were calculated, as deemed appropriate. Both t_ tests and chi-square tests of independence were completed depending upon whether scores fell along a continuum or had 62 been categorized by frequencies relative to their belonging to pairs of subgroups. A content analysis was done of responses arising from the interview schedule. Actual comments have been reproduced in Appendix D. Selected Findings The following results may be highlighted: 1. Although the difference of 1.06 points between the means of 15.76 and 14.70 of the independent study videocassette telecourse subgroup (IS subsample) and the instructor-assisted telecourse subsample (IA subsample) was not statistically significant, t (155) = 1.54, £ > .05, two chi-square tests of independence between placement in the IA or IS subsamples and falling in one of three categories in scores on the I-E Scale were statistically reliable, X2 = 6.95, .025 < £ < .05 and X2(l) = 5.19, .01 < £ < .025, the IS subsample registering higher scores in the direction of internality. 2. The difference of .53 between the mean numbers of grade points on a five-step evaluation scale for grades (A = 4, B = 3, C = 2, D = 1, F = 0) earned of 3.33 and 2.80 in the instructor-assisted telecourses between subsamples of students classified as internal or external respectively was statistically significant, t(56) = 2.13, .02 £ < .05, the higher grade point average being earned by students with an internal orientation. 63 3. In the independent study (IS) videocassette courses, no statistically significant difference was found between the mean numbers of grade points earned by students who had been categorized as either internal or external in orientation. (Whereas only 8 individuals with an external orientation elected to take IS courses, 43 students with an internal orientation chose them.) 4. Irrespective of locus of control orientation, a statistically significant difference of .57 between the means of 3.09 and 2.52 in numbers of grade points earned for students in the IA or IS subgroups, respectively, occurred, t(144) = 3.94, p < .001, the students in the IA subgroup achieving the higher standing. Similarly, the chi-square test of independence between membership in the IA or IS subgroup and grade assigned (A, B, C and all other grades) was statistically significant, X^(2) = 12.48, p < .005, the IA subgroup receiving the higher marks. 5. For the responses to the Questionnaire (self-report survey form) concerned with perception of instructional processes and instructional outcomes in the IA and IS telecourses, considerable variability was present for all questions with the mean typically placing between the neutral and degree categories. Virtually no statistically significant difference occurred between the means assigned by subgroups of students taking IA or IS courses. The only statistically significant difference occurred with respect 64 to the second item concerned with having learned something that was considered valuable (.01 < £ < .02), the IA courses receiving the higher mean. 6. The content analysis of the interview responses yielded what should be interpreted as. mixed perceptions, although the general trend of findings could be considered favorable to telecourses irrespective of whether they were given in an IS or an IA format. Conclusions The data obtained led to the following conclusions: 1. Although equivocal evidence was found in support of the first hypothesis, the second and third directional hypotheses could not be supported. 2. It would seem unlikely that students with an external ,orientation would elect to take IS courses. 3. Irrespective of an internal or external orientation, students who choose to take IA courses are likely to receive higher marks, possibly because instructors are unfamiliar with the IS course format or are fearful of its impact upon their status or job security. 4. Considerable variation can be anticipated in the perception that students hold in their evaluation of both instructional processes and instructional outcomes in either IA or IS courses. 65 Recommendat ions The following recommendations are offered: 1. This study needs to be replicated in a number of different two-year and four-year colleges that offer continuing education programs in which telecourses are offered. 2. Alternative measures of locus of control should be employed in replications of the current investigation. 3. Larger samples should be introduced so that specific relationships in particular course areas can be demonstrated between standing on measures of locus of control and academic achievement. 4. 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Distance education: An information age approach to adult education. Washington, DC: National Institute of Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 246 311) Zigerell, J. J. & Chausow, H. M. (1974). Chicago's TV College: Making the walls fall. In L. E. Purdy (Ed.), Reaching new students through new technologies: A reader. Article 6. Costa Mesa, CA: Coast Community College District. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 238 456) 72 APPENDIX A COVER LETTER FOR QUESTIONNAIRE MEMORANDUM To Chicago Video Students: This research study is designed to determine if there is any relationship between student personality and student success and satisfaction with video courses. The attached survey is in two parts. The first part is a short personality survey; the second part is a survey of your opinion of the video course you have taken. Your responses to this survey will remain completely confidential. Your name and social security number are requested only to enable us to match your survey with the grade you received in the course. Data will be analyzed collectively; no mention will be made of the names of survey participants. Your answers will not be used for any purpose other than that indicated above nor will they in any way affect your status as a Chicago student. Participation in this survey is completely voluntary. Although we encourage your participation, you have the right to refuse to participate if you wish. Thank you very much for your cooperation. Wanda F. Ross Area Coordinator APPENDIX B VIDEOCASSETTE COURSE QUESTIONNAIRE Name_________________________________________ Social Security Number___________________ Course Number and Name_________________________________________________________________ Circle One: Location of Course________________________________________ Indep. Study or Instructor Term/Dates of Course____________________________ Instructor_____________________a ____ Ethnic Group White Black Hispanic-American Asian-American Native American Sex M F Age ______ PART ONE Select the alternative which you personally believe to be more true. I more strongly believe that: 1. Children get into trouble because their parents punish them too 1. a.____ much. The trouble with most children nowadays is that their parents are b.____ too easy with them. 2. Many of the unhappy things in people's lives are partly due to bad 2. a. ___ luck. People's misfortunes result from the mistakes they make. b.____ 3. One of the major reasons why we have wars is because people don't 3. a. ___ take enough interest in politics. There will always be wars, no matter how hard people try to prevent b._____ them. 4. In the long run people get the respect they deserve in this world. 4. a. ____ Unfortunately, an individual's worth often passes unrecognized no b._____ matter how hard he tries. 5. The idea that teachers are unfair to students in nonsense. 5. a.____ Most students don't realize the extent to which their grades are b. influenced by accidental happenings. 6. Without the right breaks one cannot be an effective leader. 6. a. Capable people who fail to become leaders have not taken advantage b. of their opportunities. 74 7. No matter how hard you try some people just don’t like you. 7. a. People who can’t get others to like them don't understand how to b. get along with others. 8. Heredity plays the major role in determining one's personality. 8. a. It is one’s experiences in life which determine what they’re like. b. 9. I have often found that what is going to happen will happen. 9. a. Trusting to fate has never turned out as well for me as making a b. decision to take a definite course of action. 10. In the case of the well prepared student there is rarely if ever 10. a. such a thing as an unfair test. Many times exam questions tend to be so unrelated to course work b. that studying is really useless. 11. Becoming a s.uccess is a matter of hard work, luck has little or 11. a. nothing to do with it. Getting a good job depends mainly on being in the right place at b. the right time. 12. The average citizen can have an influence in government decisions. 12. a. This world is run by the few people in power, and there is not b. much the little guy can do about it. 13. When I make plans, I am almost certain that I can make them work. 13. a. It is not always wise to plan too far ahead because many things b. turn out to be a matter of good or bad fortune anyhow. 14. There are certain people who are just no good. 14. a. There is some good in everybody. b. 15. In my case getting what I want has little or nothing to do with 15. a. luck. Many times we might just as well decide what to do by flipping a b. coin. 16. Who gets to be the boss often depends on who was lucky enough to 16. a. be in the right place first. Getting people to do the right thing depends upon ability; luck b. has little or nothing to do with it. 75 17. As far as world affairs are concerned, most of us are the victims 17. a. of forces we can neither understand, nor control. By taking an active part in political and social affairs the b. people can control world events. 18. Most people can't realize the extent to which their lives are 18. a. controlled by accidental happenings. There really is no such thing as "luck." b. 19. One should always be willing to admit his mistakes. 19. a. It is usually best to cover up one's mistakes. b. 20. It is hard to know whether or not a person really likes you. 20. a. How many friends you have depends upon how nice a person you are. b. 21. In the long run the bad things that happen to us are balanced by 21. a. the good ones. Most misfortunes are the result of lack of ability, ignorance, b. laziness or all three. 22. With enough effort we can wipe out political corruption. 22. a. It is difficult for people to have much control over the things b. politicians do in office. 23. Sometimes I can't understand how teachers arrive at the grades 23. a. they give. There is a direct connection between how hard I study and the b. grades I get. 24. A good leader expects people to decide for themselves what they 24. a. should do. A good leader makes it clear to everybody what their jobs are. b. 25. Many times I feel that I have little influence over the things 25. a. that happen to me. It is impossible for me to believe that chance or luck plays an b. important role in my life. 26. People are lonely because they don't try to be friendly. 26. a. There's not much use in trying too hard to please people, if they b. like you, they like you. 76 27. There is too much emphasis on athletics in high school. Team sports are an excellent way to build character. 28. Vhat happens to me is my own doing. Sometimes I feel that I don't have enough control over the direction my life is taking. 29. Most of the time I can't understand why politicians behave the way they do. In the long run the people are responsible for bad government on a national as well as on a local level. 27. a. b. 28. a. b. 29. a. b. PART TWO 1. The course was intellectually challenging and stimulating. 2. I learned something which I consider to be valuable. 3. Compared with other courses I have taken, this course was better. Strongly Iftii Agrat Neutral I ___ Strongly Dlaagraa JMaagraa 4. The videocassette format of this course was better than the format of other courses I have taken. 5. It was easier for me to learn the material in this course than in other courses I have taken. 6. I prefer this type of videocassette course to other courses I have taken. Comments 77 APPENDIX C VIDEOCASSETTE COURSE INTERVIEW QUESTIONS Name_______________________________ IS or IA Course____________ First/ indicate that the interview is subject to the Privacy Act explaining what I hope to learn from the study, that participation is voluntary and that nothing in the interview will compromise the individual's privacy. 1. Why did you choose to take a videocassette course? 2. How did you like being responsible for your own study schedule? OR How did you like the combination of scheduled classes, an instructor, and the videocassette course materials? 3. How many videocassette courses, if any, have you ever taken? Likewise, how many independent study or instructor-assisted courses, if any, have you taken? Which method do you prefer and why? 4. Which features, if any, about the videocassette course helped your learning? 5. What, if any, were the shortcomings of the course? 6. How can this videocassette course be improved? 7. Would you recommend this type of videocassette course to others? On what basis? 8. ,Would you take another independent study (OR instructor-assisted) videocassette course? Why or why not? APPENDIX D COMMENTS SCIENCES INSTRUCTOR-ASSISTED (7 comments) This is a very good instructor. He made the course simplistic and controversial. I would like to have him for Astronomy next term. (BIO 101, I-E=13, A) Good instructor. Because I am in the military and have a family, it is better for me to spend more time at home then in a stuffy classroom listening to a boring speech by a professor I can barely understand. I had class at my leisure, at 4 a.m. when I couldn't go back to sleep, at midnight, and so forth. It was like having my cake and eating it, too. I welcome the opportunity to take a video course again. (BIO 110, I-E=12, B) Likes self-paced format. The course was very challenging for me but I felt I have learned a lot. (OCE 101, I-E=13, B) Challenging course. This course was too easy. (OCE 101, I-E=16, A) Too easy. The test questions came directly from the study guide. The book and tapes were basically irrelevant except to those students who simply wished to learn beyond the test questions. The exams should be composed from all three sources if we are expected to-purchase/watch them. (OCE 101, I-E=20, A) Poor tests. Super course and staff at the education center. Instructor was interesting, funny, and very informative. (OCE 101, I-E=20, A) Enjoyed course, good instructor. Generally, I enjoy video courses but this one was an exception. (PHY SCI 101, I-E=ll, I) Disliked course. INDEPENDENT STUDY (8 comments) These courses allow us on shift work the chance to attend college, not hide from people. (BIO 102, I-E=21, C) Likes self-paced format. Interesting and challenging course. (MATH 110, I-E=18, C) Challenging course. 79 It was just like being in school. The videocassette was like being in the classroom. (MATH 110, I-E=17, C) Enjoyed course. The video tapes were of poor quality and not correctly labeled. I also feel the workbook contained too many typing errors and "tricks." When taking a quiz, I want to find how much I know not to be teased. Teach me then quiz me not vice versa! But by working at my own pace I was able to get a thorough understanding of the material. (MATH 110, I-E=14, A) Poor tapes, poor tests, likes self- paced format. The professor [on the videotape] was great! The other guy worthless. The study guide should have the answers somewhere in the book. It asks "If you didn't have any problems, go on to unit 7.3." How are you to know if you had a problem if you can't check yourself with the answers? This was a good course! (MATH 110, I-E=19, A) Good instructor, enjoyed course, poor book. The tests were not up to the standard of the course. They were not of a quality equal to the videocourse and the textbook. (OCE 101, I-E=21, A) Poor tests. The videocassette seemed very outdated, almost archaic, when you consider the discoveries made by science in the past ten years. It should be updated. Additionally, the tape centered too much on Texas and the American Southwest. This is supposed to be earth science, not Texas science. (PHY SCI 101, I-E=22, B) Poor tapes, disliked course. More emphasis could be placed on the physics of earth science and not the names of places and which state they're actually in. (PHY SCI 101, I-E=17, B) Disliked course. SOCIAL SCIENCES INSTRUCTOR-ASSISTED (6 comments) I really appreciate the feedback from the instructor in a one hour, two times per week course. There is more time to ask questions. (POL SCI 201, I-E=17, A) Good instructor. This is the only college course I have taken. (PSY 201, I-E=9, B) First college course. 80 I usually feel that the video courses are a waste of money. There is not enough lecture time and the students suffer in retaining what most of them just memorized for the exams. This instructor utilized her 1-1/2 hours each week to try to bring enjoyment as well as help students to learn the material. (PSY 201, I-E=19, A) Prefers traditional courses, good instructor. The instructor was interesting and kept the mind interested in what was being taught or discussed at hand. Class discussions were very well counseled. He also allowed others their opinion regardless of agreement or disagreement on any matter. (SOC 203, I-E=13, B) Good instructor. I like going at my own pace so video courses are good for me. (SOC 203, I-E=19, B) Likes self-paced format. This was my first college course after 15 years so it was difficult to learn to study again! (SOC 203, I-E=16, A) First college course. INDEPENDENT STUDY (4 comments) Material covered was too broad and test expectations too vague. (HIST 112, I-E=17, B) Poor tests. The textbooks were so interesting and the tapes were so boring. The tape seemed so slow and outdated. I really learned a lot from the textbooks. (PSY 201, I-E=18, B) Poor tapes, good books. The course was interesting however not being able to ask questions and receive feedback was frustrating. Too much was covered in each section - should be broken down into 5 or 6 tests. (PSY 201, I-E=15, B) Enjoyed course, prefers traditional courses. The videos and tests are easy compared to the material in the text. I would have enjoyed this class more in a classroom environment. (PSY 201, I-E=16, B) Prefers traditional courses. 81 BUSINESS AND HUMANITIES INSTRUCTOR-ASSISTED (13 comments) Lots of self-discipline required in a videocourse. Quite demanding. I've enjoyed taking this course, although, if I can help it, I will not take another course as this. I prefer the platform environment. (BUS 111, I-E=12, C) Challenging course, enjoyed course, prefers traditional courses. This was my first college course, video or regular. I did find it challenging. (BUS 111, I-E=7, B) First course, challenging course. No self-discipline. (BUS 111, I-E=9, B) Challenging course. The material was interesting. The instructor was excellent. The format (video) was for the birds, I prefer classroom training. (BUS 111, I-E=21, A) Enjoyed course, good instructor, prefers traditional courses. The multiple choice questions are not questions worth remembering for future business person and in order to get maximum knowledge from this course I should of been studying for things that are beneficial. (BUS 111, I-E=ll, B) Poor tests. The only thing I don't like about this course is the time we have with the instructor. I would like the course to be longer and the instructor to have more time to teach the lecture style mood [sic]. (BUS 111, I-E=17, B) Prefers traditional courses.. Instructor was well prepared. Often discuss the materials with the students. It's not like you just come in and leave without getting something out of each class presented. (BUS 111, I-E=ll, B) Good instructor. As a whole, I enjoyed the course and learned many valuable things. (BUS 111, I-E=20, A) Enjoyed course. This is my first videocassette course. I am sure these courses are not for me. I did not enjoy this as a class. (BUS 111, I-E=ll, C) Disliked course. I like this course mainly because of its flexibility. (DP 101, I-E=10, I) Likes self-paced format. 82 I haven't had a chance to view videos or get the education center when I need to. (DP 101, I-E=ll, I) Unable to view tapes. I enjoy classroom activity and instruction better. (ENG 102, I-E=19, B) Prefers traditional courses. I like videocourses but I prefer something more on a traditional basis. It gives me more satisfying sense of accomplishment to complete a traditional class, more so than a video class, because of the quality of the teaching. I guess it could be looked upon as old fashioned but I just believe that a traditional classroom atmosphere breeds a more academically prepared person. (ENG 102, I-E=21, B) Prefers traditional courses. INDEPENDENT STUDY (6 comments) I appreciate the opportunity to take courses at my own pace - I can complete them quickly without having to commit to a schedule of two nights per week. On the other hand, I miss the class discussions so I wouldn't want to take all my classes alone. (BUS 111, I-E=22, B) Likes self-paced format. I really like this course because I could pace myself. Also, I liked the format of the book. (BUS 269, I-E=12, C) Likes self-paced format, good book. This could have been a good course but the tests were terrible - they asked picky questions that were not important instead of asking questions to evaluate conceptual knowledge. (DP 101, I-E=22, W) Poor tests. This course was extremely well organized. The video lessons reinforced and complemented the text. The course was more difficult for me because of my level of interest in the subject not because of the course organization or control. (DP 101, I-E=14, B) Enjoyed course. Very good study guide! (ECON 201, I-E=21, B) Good book. Video courses are the best way I've seen for me personally to complete my college degree. (FL-121G, I-E=10, A) Likes self-paced format. 83

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Asset Metadata

Creator Ross, Wanda F. (author)

Core Title Locus of control as a correlate of the selection of and achievement in instructor-assisted or independent study videocassette courses in a college-level continuing education program

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, adult and continuing,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-535917

Unique identifier UC11245981

Identifier usctheses-c26-535917 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP25302.pdf

Dmrecord 535917

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Ross, Wanda F.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA