Educators' attitudes toward goals and theories of art education

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Content EDUCATORS' ATTITUDES TOWARD GOALS
AND THEORIES OF ART EDUCATION
by
Ann S k e r r a t t Richardson
A D i s s e r t a t i o n Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f the
Requi reraentS' f o r the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
( Ed uca t i on)
June 1982
UMI Number: DP24836
All rights reserved
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LO S A N G E L E S . C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7
Tjkis dissertatiorfr'ijvritten by j
J
under the direction of h.&JC. Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of
the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H IL O S O P H Y
/
Dean
Date . A fJgO 'S ir 1.1., 19 82.
11
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES........................................ vi
LIST OF FIGURES.....................................vii
Chapter
I. THE PROBLEM................................. 1
Background of the Problem
The Problem Situation
Importance of the Study
Purpose of the Study
Research Questions
Conceptual Assumptions
Methodological Assumptions
Limitations
Definitions of Terms
Scope and Delimitations of
the Study
Outline for the Remainder of
the Study
II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ............. 19
Report of the NAEA Commission
of Art Education
A Process for Redefinition
Myths of Art Education
Goal Statements
Reasonable Expectations
The National Assessment of
Educational Progress
Goals in Art for Disadvantaged
Youth
Aesthetic Judgment and Popular
- Culture
Transmittal of the Culture/
Cultural Change
Organizational Structure
lii
Chapter Page
III. OUTLINE OF HISTORICAL TRENDS AND
THEORIES IN ART EDUCATION IN THE
UNITED STATES . 62
Early Art Education/Copying
The Mimetic Tradition
Mid-Century Industrial Practice
and Cultural Refinement
Child Study and Kindergarten
Imitative Aspects, Appreciation,
and Moral Force
World's Columbia Exposition
Composition and Formalism
The Objective Tradition
Art as Communication
Dewey and the Experimental
Position
The Pragmatic Tradition
Creativity
Viktor Lowenfeld
The Expressive Tradition
Bauhaus Formalism, Objective
Tradition
Studies of Perception
Barkan and Cognitive Study
Recent Decades
Objective Reason
Social Issues
Humanism, Eclecticism
Anthropological Approach
Cultural/Aesthetic Lag
National Assessment
Definition of Art
Scientific Models
Stylistic Factors
Summary of Chapter
Chapter
IV.
iv
Page
METHODOLOGY............................... 103
Design of the Research
Survey
Development of Questionnaire/
Pilot Process
Selection of Subjects
Graphic Design
Cover Letter
Directions
Distribution of Questionnaire
Return of Questionnaires
Method of Data Treatment
Suggestions for Improving the
Design
Summary of Chapter
THE FINDINGS OF THE STUDY............... 115
Procedure
Respondents
Findings
Transmittal of the Cultural
Heritage
Studio Experiences
Fostering Creativity
All Students to Become Artists
Career Education
Contemporary Art Forms/
Film and Video
Avant-Garde
Quality of Life
Multi-Cultural Education
Beautification
Art as Personal Therapy
Aesthetic Framework
Composite Table and Graph of
Rankings
Discrepancy Score— Real versus
Ideal Rankings
Findings, Curriculum Components/
Course Offerings
Findings, Summary Questions
Findings, Characteristics/
Artists
Research Questions
Interpretation and Evaluation
Summary of Chapter
V
Chapter Page
VI. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS .... 167
Summary
Conclusions
Recommendations in Regard to
Research
Recommendations for Change
BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................... 188
REFERENCE NOTES ........ . . . 201
APPENDIXES ............... . 202-
APPENDIX
A. Questionnaire............. 203
B. Endorsement Cover Letter .................... 207
C. Follow-Up Question (For Administrators) . . . 209
D. Ranking of Goals ........................... 211
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Table of Goals by Item Number
showing Mean Ranking for Real and
Ideal Situations............................. 135
2. Question 6: Transmittal of the
Cultural Heritage .......................... 212
3. Rankings Question 7: Studio
Experiences............... 213
4. Rankings Question 8: Fostering
Creativity .................. 214
5. Rankings Question 9: All Students
to Become Artists . . . . . .............. 215
6. Rankings Question 10: Career
Education ................... 216
7. Rankings Question 11: Contemporary
Art Forms/Film and Video.................... 217
8. Rankings Question 12": Avant-Garde .... 218
9. Rankings Question 13: Quality of Life . . 219
10. Rankings Question 14: Art as’Multi-
cultural Education ........................... 220
11. Rankings Question 15: Beautification . . . 221
12. Rankings Question 16: Art as Personal
Therapy ................... 222
13. Rankings Question 17: Aesthetic
Framework................................... 223
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1. Profile of Mean Rankings .................... 139
2. Percentage of Respondents Offering
Course and Requiring Course ............. 141
1
CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM
Art is a reflection of society. The goals, aspirations, and
style of a culture may be observed in its art. Art education,
involving children in learning about art and culture, makes use of
society's goals and the artist's statements about them. A portion
of the larger field of art, the rhetoric of art education, abounds
in theories and lavish goal statements concerning instruction in art.
The extent to which these theories are practiced in the schools
and the values that educators place upon them offers a description
of the status of art education (Eisner, 1982). The intent of this
study was to collect such data by means of a national survey.
The description of art education provided by this study
should be useful for further research. Little descriptive data are
available concerning this subject. This national survey complements
existing reports on the status of art education.
Attempting to gather data concerning a subject so often
characterized as sensitive, individualistic, and colored by the
imagination may be compared to Samuel Taylor Coleridge's attempts to
analyze the rainbow in order to achieve a romantic aesthetic theory.
The statistical study of data pertaining to so appreciative a sub
ject may alter its description.
2
The concept of taste has seldom been discussed in the litera
ture of art education. The selection of goals and course content
may be seen as representative of taste, perhaps the established
norms of professional preference, perhaps the idiosyncratic taste
of individuals. In aesthetic terms, the descriptive survey repre
sents style in art, a definitive idiom, placing it in time and cul
ture (Sibley, 1977).
Background of the Problem
The decade of the 1970s began with expansion of art educa
tion programs in the secondary schools of the United States. More
students were enrolled in a wider range of art courses than had
previously been recorded (Dorn, Eisner, Hurwitz, Madeja, & Taylor,
1977). A larger percentage of the total secondary school student
population was enrolled in art. However, art courses have been
particularly vulnerable in a social climate of criticism and demands
for accountability (Broudy, 1981). The economic pressures produced
by inflation and declining student enrollments often have led to
reassessment of the value of art in the curriculum. Public dissatis
faction with the educational system, pressure to return to basic pro
grams, and the view (held by some critics) of art as a non-essential,
has caused the curtailment of some art programs (Dorn, et al., 1977).
Art education has never achieved the promise of predictions
for a new, energetic future, predictions such as those made by Barkan
in the early 1960s for a new emphasis on cognitive skills and art
history rather than the pervasive psychological goal of increased
3
creativity (Barkan, 1962b). Regarded by his peers as the substantial
leader of his time, Barkan called for a new model of art education
that included aesthetics and judgments concerning art (Hubbard,
1971). Examination of the content pages of professional journals in
art education since Barkan's call for a new outlook confirmed the
fact that numerous articles about the subject have been written.
Topics ranged from all phases of art history to teaching the arts
"seriously" (Engel, 1982). Proof of implementation of the proposed
changes has been less evident. Knowledge of the status of art pro
grams in the secondary schools, particularly the curriculum content
and intent, is required in order to assess the direction of art
education in the United States. Without descriptive data concerning
curricular programs and goals, the position of art education in the
context of total school curriculum is undefined.
Dorn (1981) observed that there was always a risk that
academicians would believe the articles in their journals to the -
extent that they expected school practices to validate the theories
they had read. His sabbatical visits to 16 high schools from coast
to coast brought the realization that the new emphases advocated in
the professional literature had not been realized. New curricular
concepts, those supported by researchers and authors in the field
of aesthetic studies, were*not implemented nationally (Dorn, 1981).
There is evidence of dissatisfaction with art programs at
both the public and professional level. The lack of articulation
between arts advocacy groups and art educators was apparent in the
4
controversey surrounding the publication of Coming to Our Senses:
The Significance of the Arts for American Education, referred to as
the "Rockefeller Report" (1977). Several authors contested the
ability of professional artists, arts administrators and citizens,
no matter how well-intentioned, to make serious recommendations con
cerning art education (Chapman, 1978b; Lanier, 1978b; Smith, 1978).
Chapman condemned the report for its failure to account for the
viewpoints, aspirations, and expressed needs of art educators. Her
strongest objection to the report derived from her view of its
recommendations as an intervention in the field of art education, a
prescription in disregard of the professional body of knowledge.
Chapman's prediction that the guidelines of the Rockefeller report
would become policy statements for art education has probably been
negated more by political change than by response to general pro
fessional criticism. Skepticism concerning the ability of practicing
artists, administrators, and citizens to assess the needs of art in
the schools and make recommendations concerning programs may be found
throughout the literature of art education, particularly with regard
to the recommendation that artists, rather than art teachers, be
hired to teach in the schools. This issue alone, at the base of much
criticism of federal policy (Eisner, 1974) has become a strong
argument for rejection of the report (Chapman, 1978b).
Smith (1978) analyzed the Rockefeller report as a cultural
document that expressed significant attitudes and values inherent in
contemporary American society. In accord with Barzun's (1974) thesis
5
that art has become the new religion, Smith developed the social
document concept to explain the Rockefeller committee's view of the
power of art as curative and redemptive. He expressed doubt that
art, the production of art, or studio art courses could possibly
accomplish the immoderate claims established in the report. If
Rockefeller can be said to have presented art as the new religion,
he may also be characterized as condemning the theoreticians and
practitioners of art education as a new order of Pharisees according
to this interpretation. Rockefeller and his panel are regarded as
religious zealots extolling the artist, the true apostle, with revi
valist fervor. The few valid recommendations offered by art educa
tors Smith found to be ignored or buried in the text.
One more reaction to the lack of congruity between community
and educational groups focused on the power of the prestigious Rocke
feller panel to influence educational leaders. Lanier (1978b)
reacted with satire. In his opinion, a cabal existed, an organiza
tion at federal level made up of policy-makers whose intention was
not to consult the professional literature or the leadership of art
education. He found it bizarre that the National Art Education
Association honored Rockefeller with an award for distinguished ser
vice to art education. Lanier noted that at the award ceremony,
members of the panel who worked on the report made statements and
answered questions; one questioner raised the issue of why there were
no art(s) educators on the panel. Rockefeller was quoted by Lanier
as having responded that the omission was entirely deliberate; he
6
indicated that, since those presently involved in the various arts
had been unable to expand the position of arts education properly,
another group was required to undertake the task (Lanier, 1978b).
The authors cited admonished art educators to be aware of
their status, to study current trends in the community and to examine
educational recommendations. The strong and immediate reactions of
leaders supposedly united by mutual purpose and access to quality art
programs in the schools, indicated the existence of a situation that
should be studied.
Art educators have been at least as guilty as other members
of the educational community of a practice that obfuscates true pur
pose and denies a realistic image of programs; the practice was
termed "educational inflation" by Jacques Barzun (1978). His criti
cism of art educators was.directed at their grandiose goals and the
impossible scope of such statements as "to develop esthetic poten
tial"; "to transmit the cultural heritage"; "to supply an outlet for
self-expression"; "to enlarge the understanding of man"; or "to fill
out the outline of history." These represent a few of the extravagant
claims made by art educators that Barzun indicated made up a part of
their blatant advertising of unattainable ends. His view of the
status of art education included low credibility and accountability,
the reason for those deficiencies he identified as an excess of cheap
educational coin, verbal inflation, the solution, according to his
rationale, is to reduce the many elements of art education to essen
tials, such as drawing, and to eliminate the excessive claims, very
7
like a zero-base budget. Such suggestions possess a strong appeal
as simple, direct action. They do not solve the complex problems
created by a multiplicity of educational purposes. Barzun's criti
cism may be regarded as a lack of credibility within the profession
for the all-encompassing goals described by art educators.
The Problem Situation
In a climate of public and professional dissatisfaction with
art education, descriptive data concerning attitudes toward the cur
riculum and goals of art are required in order to assess current
conditions. A survey concerned with the importance of goals related
to selected issues and theories of art education offers a basis for
analysis and examination of direction in this field. The evaluation
of the importance of goals for art education by secondary school
curriculum administrators and art educators yields a profile of
attitudes related to issues and theories. The inclusion of specific
courses in the curriculum provides another measure of the parameters
of art education.
Recent studies concerning cultural policy in the arts support
the need for data describing the status of art education (Chapmen,
1978b; Lanier, 1978b; Smith, 1978). The selection of curriculum
content and the ranking of goals by two groups of educators permit
definition of prevalent attitudes. The importance attached to goals
in the current program and attributed to them in an ideal program
demonstrates the extent of present implementation.
8
A comparison of similarities and dissimilarities between the
responses of two groups results in a comprehensive outline of judg
ments. The final profile offers a data base for policy and decision
making. From such data, inferences may be drawn in regard to the
value of specific issues and educational theories. The deterrents to
accomplishment provide a practical list of topics to be overcome in
order to bring about desired change.
Respondents will supply information concerning the perceived
status of art education in the local community and choose artists
representative of their program(s). These items will provide infor
mation for inferences concerning the construct of synthesis (Bloom,
Hastings, & Madaus, 1971), and the element of taste (Sibley, 1977) .
Importance of the Study
The most recent status report provided by the Commission on
Art Education sponsored by the National Art Education Association
(NAEA) (Dorn et al., 1977) presented definitive viewpoints concerning
art education in the United States. This study of the status and
prospects for the art teaching profession was developed through con
ferences with national leaders in the field of art education. The
recommendations, reports, and opinions contained in the document are
useful to the program planner. Included are the principal rationales
and theories of established leaders in art education. The degree to
which theories have been put into practice or even considered for
implementation by teachers is unknown.
9
As a complement to the report of the Commission on Art Educa
tion, the data generated by this study will demonstrate the extent
to which rationales and theories are held to be important in the
secondary schools. Figures supplied by Dr. John Mahlmann, Executive
Director of NAEA, indicated that secondary school teachers of art
represent over 40 percent of the membership of the Association.
Nevertheless, their representation on the Commission on Art Education
was indirect. Descriptive information supplied by the populations
surveyed in this study can be utilized as additional support data
for planning program and curriculum directions.
The "Back-to*-8asics" movement, even where broad goals prevail,
has led to the decrease of art programs (Dorn et al., 1977). Budget
decisions have been made to curtail programs of art education in
spite of an increased interest in the arts on the part of the American
public (National Research Center for the Arts, 1973). The impact
of federal initiatives in the arts that intervene with secondary
school programs has not been assessed. The Alliance for the Arts in
Education encourages the wide use of community resources which may
change the course of school art programs. A profile concerning cur
rent emphases in art education has been needed for the information it
offers as an aid to the educational planner.
10
Purpose of the Study
This study was designed to generate data which would assist
in the analysis of prevalent attitudes concerning selected issues and
theories in art education through:
1. a description of the current status of secondary
school art curriculum in the United States,
2. a description of the prevailing preferences for
selection of goals and curriculum content in
art education in the United States, and
3. a profile of curricular priorities and deter
rents as an aid for planning art curricula.
Research Questions
This study sought to answer the following questions:
1. What were the congruities in the responses of
art educators and school administrators?
2. What were the disparities in the responses of
art educators and school administrators?
3. What was the profile of rankings and selection
by both populations?
4. What did the data indicate were the prevailing
selections concerning art curricula?
11
5. Which goals were ranked highest
a. by art educators?
b. by school administrators?
c. by both groups of educators?
6. Was the ranking of real goals congruent with the
ranking of ideal goals?
7. Which three deterrents to implementation were
most frequently cited?
8. Which artists were most frequently named as:
a. characteristic.of the program?
b. provision for the basis of a course?
9. What was the attitude toward secondary school art
education in most of the districts studied?
10. How was it believed that art education should
be regarded in most of the districts studied?
Conceptual Assumptions
The following conceptual assumptions were postulated:
1. That the goals of a program .are indicative of
the intent and purpose of that program.
2. That the educator's attitude toward program goals
and the choice of curriculum are factors in the
description of program status.
3. That theories of art education support the goals
chosen for implementation.
12
4. That curricular goals may represent issues to
be resolved or changes in progress.
5. That the description of art education obtained
through this survey will be of value in formu
lating policy and planning programs in art
education.
6. That art education is a part of the larger field
of art and, as such, should be studied in rela
tion to society.
Methodological Assumptions
The following methodological assumptions were implicit in
the investigation:
1. The samples of art educators and administrators
included in the survey were sufficiently repre
sentative of the population to permit generaliza
tion of findings.
2. The populations surveyed responded honestly.
3. The research design, data analysis procedures,
and methods selected for this study were appro
priate to the intent of the investigation.
4. The data were accurately recorded and analyzed.
13
5. The structure of the questionnaire was sufficient
to permit accurate inferences regarding the rank
ing of goals and selection of curriculum content
by art educators and administrators.
6. The percentage of response was sufficient to
permit analysis.
Limitations
The following limitations are noted:
1. On a brief questionnaire, extraneous material
must be, eliminated; thus, choices may be limited.
2. Selections represent only broad categories of
curriculum content.
3. The broad scope of trends and theories does
not permit treatment, of specific programs
and objectives.
4. To the degree that methodological assumptions
were not met, the validity of the investigation
is limited.
Definitions of Terms
For the purposes of this study, the following terms are
defined:
Aesthetic education— a program of instruction designed to
develop critical judgment concerning the arts, beginning with the
14
awareness of beauty and leading to a set of values for judging a work
of art.
Art--used to describe the visual arts. (The study itself
represents a definition of the field.)
Art education--education in the visual arts; any form of
instruction in art, whether technical, historical, aesthetic, criti
cal, productive, psychological or therapeutic.
Art educators--teachers, supervisors, and administrators
whose role in a school system is primarily concerned with the art
program. (The population surveyed consisted of secondary school art
teachers and art supervisors.)
Artist--the practicing professional artist, unless otherwise
noted.
Arts education--education concerned with more than one of
several art forms; art, creative writing, dance, drama, film, folk
arts, music, and combinations thereof.
Discrepance.y score--taken as the mathematical difference
between real and ideal, rankings in the survey.
School administrators--instructional directors, superinten
dents, principals, and program directors whose chief function is
management in the school system; used to describe the opposite role
versus that of an instructional supervisor. (The population surveyed
consisted of directors and superintendents of instruction, not school
principals.)
15
Secondary school art education:--visual art taught in grades
six through twelve.
Significance level--for the purposes of this research, all
tests of statistical significance were conducted at a probability
level of .05 or smaller. Probability levels for statistical tests
resulting in probability values larger than .05 were considered
statistically not significant.
Studio art— courses in making and producing art; courses
traditionally concerned with skills and techniques.
Scope and Delimitations of the Study
The study was concerned with aspects of secondary school art
education in the United States. The breadth of its scope precluded
coverage of exemplary programs or specific instructional objectives.
Retrieval of information concerning one particular grade level or a
designated school was not an expected outcome.
There was no intent to generate goals or curriculum content
for art education. Guidelines for curriculum were not an expectation
of the study. The research was designed to provide an outline of
secondary school art education. Detailed information concerning
specific courses was beyond the scope of the study. The art educators
surveyed were all members of NAEA and, therefore, recipients of its
professional benefits.
The goals were reduced to brief statements in order to reduce
extraneous material on a short questionnaire form; thus, choices
16
were limited and explanations were terse. The selections available
to respondents represented only broad categories of curriculum con
tent. Particular course titles and special areas were not listed.
Although provision was made for participants to comment, comments
could not be included in the statistical analysis. Illustrative
information which was provided by participants concerning specific
programs could not be included in the study.
The selection of a professional organization, the NAEA, for
sponsorship was supported by the Association's demonstrated leader
ship in the field of art education, particularly over the past decade.
Such an affiliation may have prejudiced viewpoints. Every effort
was made to remain objective.
Outline for the Remainder of the Study
Having established the problem as a need for descriptive data
concerning secondary school art education in the United States, the
literature pertaining to the status -of art education was surveyed.
Owing to the direct relationship of program goals and curriculum
choices to program status, current literature concerning curriculum
goals and their theoretical bases was examined. An historical chap
ter seeks to define the position of art education in the larger con
text of the school curriculum. This status may also be related to
the emphasis placed by society upon art. Art as a populist property
in a democratic society is discussed (Smith, 1981).
17
A questionnaire, based upon the findings concerning goals
and curricular choices and their theoretical bases, was utilized to
survey two populations, art educators and school administrators.
Administration of the questionnaire served to provide descriptive
data concerning both existing programs and ideal programs; what is
and what ought to be. Impediments to implementation were also noted.
Two final items dealing with personal choices generated data concern
ing the respondents.
It was estimated that the descriptive data collected through
administration of the questionnaire might be directly related to
established theoretical bases in order to draw inferences concerning
the status of art education in the secondary schools. The findings
and conclusions derived from the study should provide a substantive
profile of the status of art education for further utilization in
the formulation of policy and in decision making concerning the .
curriculum.
Chapter II presents a review of the literature pertaining to
the goals of art education. Documents that state purposes and
objectives for the visual arts are analyzed. A critique of textbooks
that reflect cultural change in the interpretation of art history is
offered. A discussion of aesthetic judgment, a growing concern in
the field, is provided in this chapter. A theory of practice is
suggested as an organizational structure to aid in examining trends
in art education.
18
A history of trends and theories in art education in the
United States is presented in Chapter III. The discussion is organi
zed so that a chronological history of art education is interwoven
with a study of four recurring traditions: mimetic, pragmatic,
expressive, and objective. Current trends, including eclecticism,
are summarized. Stylistic factors offer another means of viewing
art education critically. The study of art is categorized according
to both aesthetic and psychological perspectives. Leading figures
in the field are discussed in connection with theories and trends.
The design and implementation of the research methodology is
presented in Chapter IV. Development of the questionnaire, collection
of the data, and specifics concerning distribution are discussed.
The method of data treatment is outlined. Suggestions for improving
the design of the research are offered in this chapter.
The findings of the study are presented in Chapter V. Find
ings are first presented by goal. An analysis of individual goals
is followed by a discrepancy score, the differences in ranking
between real and ideal goals. The courses offered in the curriculum
by the school systems surveyed are presented. Questions concerning
status in local districts and characteristic artists are summarized.
The research questions are answered in this chapter. Interpretation
and evaluation of the findings conclude this part.
Chapter VI presents a summary of the research, conclusions,
recommendations for further research, and recommendations for change.
The study is regarded as a definition of contemporary art education.
19
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Although it would be reassuring to suppose that standards
for public school art programs were established by a set of absolute
ideals, they, like other educational expectations, are subject to
change. Art education has often been organized around rationales
representative of social and political support rather than philosophic
and theoretical bases. Dobbs (1979, p. 8) regarded these "targets
of opportunity" as the explanation of the strong utilitarian and
instrumental justifications often offered for art education. Examina
tion of the literature of the past 15 years reveals a shift of
emphasis in the purposes of art programs. The rationale for teaching
art in the public schools has moved from concentration on self-
expression and the creative process of making art to understanding
art, knowing, and appreciating the visual arts.
The questions to be asked concerning the status of art
education are very like those asked during a program evaluation.
Whether the evaluative model relies upon purposeful inquiry (Bonnet,
1981) or a CIPP (Context, Input, Process, Product) model in a large
system (Webster, 1981), data must be gathered concerning goals of
the program and the extent to which they have been achieved. Evalua
tion may be seen as a process and status, at a given point, is either
a product or a reading of the process.
20
In a climate of change, new directions, and competition for
educational funding, it is important to determine the purposes of
secondary school art programs, what they seek to do, and the theories
that support their existence. Research methods in art education are
drawn from the field of science as well as the humanities. There
is no definitive mode for educational theorizing, support may come
from several areas, all of them valid. Consequently, it was neces
sary to examine status reports, goal statements, criticism, textbooks,
and a theoretical framework in a review of the literature concerning
the emphases in art education.
Three ERIC searches, in 1979, 1980, and 1981, plus three
research reports (Eddy, 1977; Hardiman & Zeknich, 1975; U.S. Depart
ment of Health Education and Welfare, 1976) yielded literature on
the topics of a variety of descriptors pertaining to goals, objec
tives, and art curriculum. The problem itself, focusing on attitudes
and a description of program purposes and components, presupposes
introduction of a variety of materials. The approach used in
organizing this material is that of a case study describing the con
text of the situation. Documents are presented and reviewed briefly.
Similar theses are grouped together. Material that extends beyond a
narrow concept of art education is purposely supplied in support of
some issues. A theory of practice is presented after the range of
material has been demonstrated. This theory will be utilized in the
following historical chapter.
21
Report of the NAEA Commission
on Art Education
The first chapter of the NAEA report (Dorn et al., 1977) is
composed of 10 recommendations made by the NAEA commission in order
to fulfill the purpose of preparing a statement on the state of art
education today and prospects for the future. In its first recom
mendation, the commission acknowledges that there is "a variety of
appropriate rationales which may be equally viable as conceptual bases
for teaching and learning in art within a given school context"
(Dorn et al., 1977, p. 12). This eclectic, contextual approach to
supplying a rationale for contemporary art education is further
expanded in their Chapter 2. "What We Believe and Why." A choice of
purposes for art education is offered so that the planner may examine
them critically and select the most appropriate for the time and
place of a program. The broad, humanistic aims are proposed as a
creed which educators in the field are invited to challenge critical
ly. The beliefs are organized around five statements, each explained
in several paragraphs:
1. Art Education as a Source of Aesthetic Experience: This
statement is interpreted as perceptual aesthetic experience in the
visual arts, involving an art object. It is not to be construed as
an argument against producing art; instead, if is a caution to include
recognition of the aesthetic factors in activities that involve stu
dents in "making, seeing, or understanding art" (Dorn et al., 1977,
pp. 36-37).
22
2. Art Education as a Source of Human Understanding: This
belief relates to art as a form of communication concerning the
human condition. It extends beyond the formal message to intuitive
understanding of an art work (pp. 37-29).
3. Art Education as a Means of Developing Critical Con
sciousness: An injunction to teach.students to evaluate media and
cope with the persuasive powers of the popular arts is the basis for
this belief (pp. 40-41)..
4. Art Education as a Means of Developing Creative and
Flexible Forms of Thinking: The commission believes art education
can be regarded as "the most fundamental aspect of a child's develop
ment, a development concerning with moral as well as academic values"
(Dorn et al., 1977, p. 42). This concludes with a reference to
Whitehead's statement that "style is the ultimate morality of the
mind" (Whitehead, 1957).
5. Art Education as a Means of Helping Students Understand
and Appreciate Art: This belief centers on an understanding of the
cultural heritage and the "arts of the high culture." Through
insights provided by such understanding, the commission aspires to
counteract the influences of the vernacular arts, "T.V. pap" and
aesthetic values displayed in T.V. Guide and the Sears-Roebuck
Catalog (Dorn et al.., 1977, p. 43).
These purposes are ambitious and extravagant in their presump
tuous claims. As a part of the report, they must be considered
evidence of theories developed for art education. As beliefs
23
representative of the aims of the profession, Lanier (1979) has
found significant weaknesses in each statement. He critiqued the
chapter for a lack of order;.no structure or hierachy established in
order to set priorities and no single purpose defined. The choice of
the term "critical consciousness" was unfortunate in that both Friere
and Lanier have used it to express social, rather than artistic,
criticisms. Thus, oppression by society may be seen as the concern
rather than the improvement of aesthetic judgment. Linked to the
concept of critical consciousness is the broad goal of understanding
the cultural heritage and appreciating the fine arts rather than the
vernacular. Lanier, long an outspoken supporter of quality in media
and technology, believed the NAEA had chosen the wrong position to
support (Lanier, 1979).
One author, Eddy (1977), writing in a government publication
in support of arts education, found the NAEA report to be a standard
for the profession. He described the elaboration of the beliefs as
treatment "with considerable verve and some passion." However, strong
criticism of the purposes established by the commission demonstrated
the vulnerability of the lavish claims. As a whole, they appeared
to define a role for education in the visual arts which extended far
beyond any legitimate scope. It was suggested that such unreasonable
and exaggerated claims might serve to weaken the position of art
education in the schools, that such purposes were not the strongest
champions for art in the curriculum (Lanier, 1979). They were repre
sentative of the educational inflation defined by Barzun (1978) as a
24
counter-productive element in contemporary educational practice.
The NAEA beliefs were more extravagant than the goals for art educa
tion cited by Barzun. Their instrumental determination and preten
sions toward universal truth were without parallel.
One might ask how these beliefs can be viewed as a descrip
tion of the status of art education. They were presented as a
status report. The beliefs provided an orientation toward theories
of art education and offered a measure of the eclecticism present in
the field with regard to purpose. Viewed within the situational con
text of time and political pressures, the all-embracing aims pro
posed by the committee supported a view of the association as
aspiring to reach beyond the limits of any subject-matter map of the
field. The difficulty in formulating an aim which can be related to
both goals and instructional objectives has been covered in recent
literature. Efland (1979) pointed out that the most useful goals
were those related to the larger purposes of education and support
able by means of instructional objectives. The intent of the NAEA
commission was to supply a document that would "bolster support for
arts education in the schools" (Dorn et al., 1977). The rhetoric,
the universal claims for art education, can be regarded as an
advocacy effort. This stance must be considered as a part of the
description of art education.
In Chapter 4, "An Agenda for Change," the commission repro
duced a rationale, published in Art Education, the journal of the
NAEA, in 1968, by the Educational Policies Commission of the National
25
Education (NEA) and the American Association of School Administt*ators
(AASA). This document sought to define the role of the fine arts in
education. Art, music, dance, drama, literature, sculpture, photog
raphy, and the cinema were included in the establishment of rationales
for the importance of the arts in education. The rationales stated:
1. Historical Rationale. Art is important because it is a
transmitter of the culture. Education which does not teach art is
deficient because it does not teach the culture.
2. Art for Art's Sake Rationale. Art should be enjoyed in
its own right. Art is a universal phenomenon. People, everywhere
through all times have found joy in their own self-expression and
that of others.
3. Therapy; Rationale. The use of the fine arts is important
and effective in various kinds of therapeutic situations including
mental institutions, prisons, and homes for the aged, and also in
efforts to prevent students from dropping out of school.
4. Creativity Rationale. The arts provide better settings
than do other fields for exercising and stimulating imagination.
5. Acceptance of Subjectivity Rationale. The fine arts deal
with emotional, intuitive, and subjective responses rather than
emphasizing the rational. Humans need a balance of each.
6. End of Work Rationale. The puritan work ethic is no
longer applicable to growing numbers of jobless. Usefulness of one's
efforts in society may be made in the arts and creative expression
for one's own joy (Educational. Policies Commission, NEA & AASA, 1968).
26
The Educational Policies Commission concluded with a recom
mendation that "all educators be made aware of the kinds of justifi
cations and the kinds of usefulness which this document has attached
to art and to education in the arts, particularly the nature of
accepting the validity of subjective responses and the nature of
preparing for a future in which men are primarily valued for things
other than work" (Educational Policies Commission, NEA & AASA, 1968).
Although Barzun might find a degree of ambitious proclamation
in these rationales, the rate of educational inflation may be seen to
have risen considerably in the more recent (1977) statement of
beliefs. Viewed as advocacy statements, the excesses of the aims are
in reverse ratio to the declining support for art programs in the
face of public demands for accountability in education. The commis
sion assessed the position of art education a decade after the
reasonably moderate rationale statements as plagued by "diminishing
awareness of the value of arts in education on the part of adminis
trators who are cutting back on art programs, in response to parents'
back-to-the-basics demands" (Dorn et al., 1977, p. 64).
The NEA/AASA rationales provide a measure of the state of
practice in art education. They are more moderate and more closely
allied with the subject matter field than the beliefs of the associa
tion. This relationship with the definition of art supports their
validity (Efland, 1974). They may be used as organizing structures
in consideration of program goals.
27
The NAEA commission identified the productive, critical, and
cultural aspects of art as essentials in art education. They recom
mended that the goals of the art program should be the following:
T. To impart a thorough knowledge and understand
ing of the discipline of art, concentrating on the his
tory of art from its beginning in prehistory to the
present, and including art not only in the western
world but art from all cultures, time periods, and
geographic areas.
2. To promote the valuing of art for its
aesthetic qualities and its contributions to the
cultural heritage of mankind; to prepare the learners
to make better and more informed aesthetic judgments
about art forms and the environment; to make the
learners knowledgeable about the history of art; and
to enable the learners to analyze, describe, and
appreciate art objects.
3. To develop an understanding of how the visual
arts affect our everyday existence and to make the
visual arts an integral part of everyone's lifestyle.
4. To engage the learners in a variety of art
experiences and to provide opportunities to produce
works of art in situations in which the artist is
the model and the environment created in the artist's
studio, the setting.
5. To assist the learners in acquiring a critical
language in which to talk about, analyze, and judge their
own work and the. works of others. (Dorn et al., 1977,
pp. 49-50)
It should be observed that four of the five goal statements
are concerned with aesthetic values, criticism, and the historical/
cultural heritage. Goal four provides for productivity. Nowhere is
creativity or self-expression suggested as a program goal. This
omission is significant in a study of the current status of art
education.
The aims and goals of the NAEA report have been reproduced
in order that they may be utilized as a frame for the description of
status. These statements represent the viewpoints of leaders in the
28
field of art education. The commission predicted that their concepts
would not apply to all situations and ail systems in every instance.
No effort has been made to suggest the achievement of these goals.
The NAEA commission realized that gaps may occur between scholarly
consensus and practice in the schools.
Data included in the NAEA report are sparse. The reference
tables showing the increase in the number and percentage of secondary
school students enrolled in art courses over a 25 year period and the
titles of courses in which they were enrolled were supplied by the
National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare/Education Division, Washington, D.C. An
unverified statistic states that 89 percent of "local, state, and
national governments and communities, feel the arts are important to
the quality of life in their communities" (Dorn et al., 1977, p. 64).
In presenting the commission's report to the NAEA membership
in April of 1977, Charles Dorn expressed pride in the association's
recent accomplishments. Support for the report was evident in his
observation that standards for program implementation had been sug
gested, it remained only for responsible leadership to insure that
they were applied. Members were told that it was their responsi
bility to articulate the goals of art education to all groups who
held power to influence the schools. The standards themselves became
the instrument of understanding (Dorn, 1977). One year later the
former NAEA president's perspective with regard to eclecticism had
apparently changed. He found the three essentials of art— production,
29
criticism, and history— to be an unrealistic and ineffective means of
organizing art experiences. Lacking knowledge of the sociologist's
techniques, he thought school personnel were unqualified to select
appropriate goals from the eclectic array (Dorn, 1978).
In an open letter of reply to Dorn's critique of eclecticism
and the "anything goes" attitude of school programs, Chapman (1979)
supported her concept of "planned'eclecticism“and a contexlualist
orientation toward program design. She upheld her position with the
statement that programs designed to have substance for children and
youth in a pluralistic society must not restrict the meaning or
experience of art to "that formualist-subjectivist view of art
developed in the early part of this century" (Chapman, 1979, p. 36).
She cited the work of Barkan (1962), Feldman (1970), and McFee and
Degge (1977) in the same vein. Obviously, it is impossible to pre
sent all views of art, but the case for a variety of views has been
established through the NAEA commission's eclectic approach recognized
support for this approach in the literature. The humanistic concept
of reaching students in many contexts and cultures pervades current
literature (McFee & Degge, 1977).
A Process for Redefinition
Art education is not alone in the proliferation of programs
and purposes that make definition so difficult. Cawelti (1981) con
tended that we have "optionalized" the secondary school curriculum to
the extent that any common core of experiences designed to prepare
30
students for life in a democratic society appears to be omitted.
This omission he construed as an avoidance of responsibility, rather
than an oversight. The primary responsibility of general education
in the schools, that of transmitting the political and cultural
heritage, has been neglected, according to his thesis. In his
opinion, attention given, to the attainment of basic skills has
trivialized secondary education in some instances. He referred to
"the patchwork curriculum," a curriculum made up of programs based
upon trends, special interests, federal initiatives, and community
demands. The courses listed included: parenting skills, sex educa
tion, nutrition, death, programs concerning drug abuse, energy,
population, global affairs, the environment, law-related courses,
careers and ethnic studies (Cawelti, 1981, p. 10).
The status of general education, if the direction indicated
by the "patchwork curriculum" is an example, is more difficult to
describe than that of art education which appears to maintain a con
sistent position within the parameters of the visual arts. Although
art educators apparently manage to maintain course descriptions with
in the limits of the discipline, their claims for the value of art
are without limitation. Such exaggerated statements for the value
of art have not advanced its interests in education and such claims
may have completely missed the real potential of art for enhancing
educational experience (Dobbs, 1978).
31
In an effort to impose order on the proliferating programs in
the schools, Cawelti suggested a redefinition of the curriculum. He
offered a design of six curriculum areas: learning skills, emotional-
physical health, career-vocational, cultural studies, science-
techno! ogy, and citizenship-societal studies. Art would be placed in
the cultural studies category. This plan, in draft form only, pro
vides for a redefinition of the curriculum in terms of societal needs
and interaction. The placement of art defines its primary purpose
but does not deny other values (Cawelti, 1981).
Both Lanier (1979) and Barzun (1978) saw a need for redefini
tion and simplification of this order for art education. Barzun
recommended that art educators refrain from the expression of "vague,
vacuous, lofty, and unexamined phrases" and concentrate on the root
disciplines— the basics, the teachables. Originality, he contended,
was not teachable. Art skills would become the content, expectation,
and goals of art education (Barzun, 1978).
Lanier (1979), writing as a critic of the NAEA commission's
position, offered an alternative model based upon:
1. A single purpose, described as the pupil's
aesthetic potential in visual experience. The
purpose of teaching art is the "literate" citizen,
one who is knowledgeable about all the visual arts,
past and present, and of other cultures, and our
own, and how these can be dealt with.
2. The egalitarian view that all visual stimuli,
from natural objects and popular and folk art to
fine arts and mass media, contain the possibilities
for significant aesthetic experience.
32
3. A dialogue curriculum made up of looking
at, talking and reading about the visual stimuli
with which we are concerned. (Lanier, 1979, p. 15)
These redefinitions of purpose appeal to the planner over
whelmed by issues, choices, and the demands of political factions
within the school and community. They would assure ease of evalua
tion. The demands of a complex, multicultural society require compre
hensive solutions. The efforts of these authors at redefinition
represent attempts to impose order upon the proliferation of courses.
Myths of Art Education
A valid means of measurement is to establish what something
is not. This procedure is in keeping with the sculptor's direction
to carve away everything that is not a horse. The horse will emerge.
Eisner (1973-74) employed this method in his description of
the myths of art education. He identified seven myths that might be
termed the "folk wisdom" of art education. In identifying and exam
ining the myths, he employed his own values and beliefs concerning
the field of art. Eisner refuted these myths in terms of the current
purpose of art education.
The following is a summary of the myths identified and des
cribed by Eisner and the rationales by means of which he refuted them:
Myth 1. Children develop best in art if left to their own
resources provided they have plenty of art materials and emotional
support from the teacher (p. 7). This myth is refuted by the need for
structure and planning if learning in art is to take place.
33
Myth 2. The major function of art education is to develop
the child's general creativity through art (p. 9). This myth is
impossible to accomplish. Creativity is not the exclusive province
of art education.
Myth 3. What's important in art education is process not
product (p. 11). The process and the product are seen as tightly
interwoven, inseparable. They cannot be judged as two separate ele
ments in the art experience.
Myth 4. Children see the world more clearly than adults
(p. 11). This view contradicts research in perception.
Myth 5. Teachers should not attempt to evaluate work in art
since the child's mind is qualitatively different from an adult's
(p. 13). Standards should be set and thoughtful criticism offered
for learning to be fostered.
Myth 6. Teachers should not attempt to talk about art since
verbalization usually kills art (pp. 13-14). Learning to talk about
art sensitively is an educational need.
Myth 7. The best curriculum in art for children is one that
provides the widest variety of materials with which they can work
(p. 14). The depth of experience may be mistakenly equated with the
number of materials used. In-depth experience in a few media might
provide a quality experience, whereas the introduction of too many
media might lead to shallow manipulation.
Examining these beliefs from a negative perspective and
refuting the mythology of art education is an exercise in evaluating
34
practice. Much of what has been accomplished in research in art and
in the development of art education focuses on the student as a learn
er (Chapman, 1979). Eisner's approach to beliefs through myths, many
of which center on the child, presents one profile of art education.
Art education, as outlined by these beliefs, is knowledge-based and
learner-centered rather than a mystic, diffuse process. Dispelling
the mythology of art education is a valuable contribution toward
developing an understanding of current theory. Eisner's device
affords a clearer picture of change than sets of goals which usually
seek to incorporate old elements in addition to introducing new con
cepts. The goals themselves are encrusted, eclectic structures.
Goal Statements
The goals of art education are found in prosaic curriculum
guides and compilations of goals sponsored by educational agencies.
Their style is often similar to that developed by the NAEA commission.
Educational aims are frequently written in ponderous and overstated
terms in an effort to express comprehensive expectations. Lanier
(1981) observed that while classroom curriculum and methodologies in
art have remained steadfastly studio in nature, the goals have altered,
both frequently and drastically. These goals are an important state
ment of philosophy and may be used to discern stuatus.
One sophisticated project, sponsored by the United States
Office of Education, is divided into program goals, knowledge and
process goals, course goals, and a taxonomy of art. An elaborate
35
cross-referencing system permits classification according to concepts
and values. Of the seven program goals, one small statement, 2a
represents art production:
2a. The student knows and is able to select and
use art materials that are specifically suited to
requirments for art expression. (Clackamas, Multono-
mah, and Washington Counties, Northwestern Regional
Education Laboratory, 1974, p. xix)
The remainder of the seven goals are concerned with: knowl
edge, skills of adaption, values, language, interpretation, percep
tion, discrimination, the historical and cultural heritage, and the
improvement of "the quality of his personal life and that of society"
(Clackamas et al., 1974). The concept and value words are a short
hand version of the significance of each goal. Value words include:
aesthetic perception, pleasure, beauty, individuality, utility, judg
ment, inquiry, and belief. Concept words include: cultural values,
cultural patterns, environment, needs, technology, symbolism, con
flict, and religion. These terms underscore an affective component.
The sample given illustrates emphasis on values and judgments in
addition to formal art elements. Integration of the goals, values,
and concepts in the context of a taxonomy of art allows the develop
ment of a wide range of art experiences and choices in the categories
of awareness, appreciation, cultural history, use of media, expres
sion, and environmental design. Exploration of careers in art is
provided as a separate section. It is difficult to envision an art
teacher using this multi-level structure as a convenient tool for
curriculum planning. It exists as a comprehensive model of goal
structure.____________________________________
36
Examaination of the broad goals of art education as defined by
state and local education agencies (Maryland State Department of
Education, 1974; Montgomery County Public Schools, Maryland, 1975;
Palm Beach Public Schools, Florida, 1973) reveals a growing concern
for perceptual awareness, cultural heritage, the environment, aesthe
tic judgment, and the related humanities in addition to the tradi
tional goal of expression through art media and the development of
individual creativity. For example, a goal statement that refers to
perception and response to the environment through experiences in the
visual arts is far from the concept of fostering creativity and self-
expression in the individual. Such a goal statement concerning per
ception of the environment extends the definition and parameters of
art and focuses on the learner's situations and surroundings. The
assumption is that the man-made and natural forms in the environment
are characterized by aesthetic features. The total environment is
worthy of concern in the educational process. Comprehensive goals
like this one involving social issues are a measure of changes in
art education.
Goals of the Florida State Assessment Project (Palm Beach
Public Schools, 1973) are economically stated. They may be regarded
as slogans and are readily understood by most teachers of art.
"Value art as an important realm of human experience" is a broad
goal covering a range of life experience. A short, cognitive goal,
tersely stated, "Know about art," is concerned with art history,
style, and vocabulary. One goal states, "Produce art," but does not
37
extoll creativity. A final goal stresses verbal skills, "Make and
justify statements about the aesthetic quality and merit of works of
art" (PBPS, 1973, pp. 1-20). Hastie's thesis (1971) on aesthetic
education is quoted as the rationale for art production. A total
number of five broad goals offers only one which is concerned with the
creative process and that goal is justified as aesthetic education.
The use of slogans represents a common practice in the development of
goals for curriculum guides.
An example of an earlier direction in goal-setting appears in
the Fairfax County Schools, Virginia, Program of Studies (1974). The
guide states that the program is designed to stimulate the student's
"need to create and to express himself in a personal way" (p. 3).
It centers on art experiences, art concepts, and the creative process.
The Oklahoma State Comprehensive Arts Plan (Oklahoma State Department
of Education, 1978) seeks to "answer the need for creative expres
sion" (p. 1).
Study of these goals, written during the 1970s, indicates a
trend toward greater stress on Outcomes other than art products:
aesthetic education, environmental studies, and the development of
values. Concerns about visual discrimination and aesthetic aware
ness have become more important than the production of art for pur
poses of individual expression. The selection and implementation of
curriculum in support of these goals represents a shift in art educa
tion toward verbal activities, criticism, and discussion. Goal
statements define art and-the expectancy for aesthetic judgment.
38
They greatly expand the traditional parameters of art education to
include social factors and the learner's aesthetic perception and
self-expression have been replaced by goals that involve interaction
with the environment in a humanistic, social context.
Reasonable Expectations
In outlining reasonable expectations for a senior high school
art program, in a journal intended for secondary school principals,
Hurwitz (1979), a member of the NAEA commission, referred to the
commission's beliefs as presumably shared by most art teachers. The
lack of serious attention given recently to secondary school art pro
grams he found regrettable. His expectations offered to school
administrators were pragmatic, dealing with more access to programs,
interrelated course content, the importance of the teacher, and
differentiated courses for gifted and vocationally-oriented students.
Hurwitz made three observations that were significant in a profile of
secondary school art: high school art teachers currently display
greater interest in professional development and ideas that merit
attention as well as new media and techniques; current secondary
school art programs are more responsive to the needs of students for
mastery, particularly in the impressive gains made by the development
of courses in art history, photography, and filmmaking; and there is
evidence of more structure in courses covering art fundamentals and
so-called basic skills. His summary stated that art should be
regarded as a sensitizer, a humanistic link to the course of history
and the nature of mankind.______________________________ _________
39
The National Assessment of Educational Progress
The National Assessment of Educational Progress assessed art
programs throughout the country in terms of student achievement. In
order to develop a set of evaluation instruments, the National
Assessment assembled a comprehensive synthesis of desired art educa
tion outcomes. These objectives have served as a base upon which
other sets of goals have been developed (Wilson, 1975). The objec
tives developed by the National Assessment cover the areas of percep
tion and response, valuing art as human experience, production, and
knowledge about art and aesthetic judgment. Outcomes of the National
Assessment include instruments based upon these goals for use in the
evaluation of student learning or competency-based teaching (Wilson,
1975).
Reports of the assessment of student learning in art (Educa
tion Commission of the States, National Assessment of Educational
Progress, 1978) indicate that students in age groups 9, 13, and 17
have an appreciation of art but little understanding of art history
or art as a function of society. They do not frequent museums and
galleries, indicating a paucity of resources for appreciation and the
development of aesthetic judgment. The report concludes with a
statement indicating the need for further development of art appre
ciation and aesthetic awareness. These findings point to a lack of
support for the current goals of art education in the areas of art
history, art and culture, and aesthetic awareness, all areas empha
sized in most of the goal statements studied.
Goals in Art for Disadvantaged Youth
40
In a study comparing the goals of art for disadvantaged
youth as perceived by high school teachers and college professors of
art education, Pack (1975) found that the goals considered to be most
effective for this student population were those that supported the
general educational goals of the school. Goals in this study were
categorized as first or middle level and further separated as they
pertained to cognitive, affective, or psychomotor domains. The first
level goals which were validated by the study were affective, in the
area of self-concept and perception, and cognitive, concerned with
conceptualization and creativity in art (Pack, 1975). The categoriza
tion of goals by domains is precarious to construct in art education
owing to the kinds of difficulties discussed by Eisner (1973-74) in
attempts to separate product from process. The approach proved use
ful in working with the disadvantaged population but was contradictory
to the view of art as integrating perceptual experience, seeing,
knowing, and understanding (Arnheim, 1971).
Aesthetic Judgment and Popular. Culture
The sets of goals examined have included references to art
history, aesthetic awareness, and critical assessment of environmental
factors. Aesthetic judgment is crucial to decision making in these
areas; it is central to the study of art. Every decision made about
art curricula affects the teaching of an aesthetic philosophy. The
courses, materials, and, particularly, the goals of art education
41
provide support for the study of aesthetics. Perhaps the term
"aesthetic judgment" is too close to the concept of "taste." Teaching
the process of making judgments and identifying criteria for them is
the instructional activity that accomodates aesthetic goals in art
education. It can be dangerous to press this question of taste and
teaching. In the 17th century, La Rochefoucauld (1678/1941) pro
claimed that we suffer more impatiently criticism of our tastes than
t
of our opinions (Translated by the researcher: "Notre amour-propre
souffre plus impatiemment la condamna.tion de nos gouts que de nos
opinions" p. 146). His maxim is just as true today.
Sensitive curricular choices affect the taste of a generation.
For example, the visual impact of film in the 20th century is undeni
able. Mass media and the population arts are credited with creating
an aesthetic of "images of images" (Broudy, 1979, p. 349). A visit
to a restoration such as the Smithsonian's Renwick Gallery confirms
changing directions in American art. The aesthetic judgment of a
particular group or period involves a complex system of sources,
technological advances, skills, preferences, mores, and prevalent
ideas. The selections made for art education reflect the taste of the
period.
Broudy warned that recognition of aesthetic judgment might
be an important factor in the survival of art education in the public
schools. He believed that those educators who would minimize the
need for standards of performance and preference would have a diffi
cult time convincing the public that art education was essential and
not more play (Broudy. 1979)._____________________________________
42
Recognition of aesthetic judgment as an appropriate component
of the art program has not always been emphasized in the writings of
art educators. They have been more concerned with objectivity and
with the establishment of art as a discipline. Seeking to define the
status of art in school curricula in 1963, Kaufman stated that art
education was the process of making art. He believed that too much
emphasis had been placed upon the creative process and that there was
little evidence in the art room of the "workings of critical aware
ness, discrimination, meaningful expressiveness, evaluation, judgment,
and aesthetic criteria" (Kaufman, 1963, p. 22). In the years that
have followed Kaufman's statement, a shift in emphasis has occurred.
A movement toward aesthetic education has come to mean an educational
effort to help the learner establish an aesthetic framework (Broudy,
1976). Art educators consider aesthetic development intrinsic to the
study of art. It pervades the goals. Aesthetic judgment, which
legitimately involves imagination as well as intelligence, has become
an essential.
Aesthetic judgment in the classroom may begin with personal
taste. This issue is seldom considered in art education. In a study
of taste in contemporary society, Gans (1974) found that a person's
educational achievement and the kind of school he or she attended
probably was a better predictor than any other single factor of that
person's cultural choices. Since educational achievement and the
kind of school attended are both closely correlated with socio
economic level, taste may be seen as a class function; however, the
43
correlation is not perfect. Art teachers are schooled in aesthetic
decision making. They may represent a sub-category in classification
by educational status. Given the task of teaching aesthetic judgment,
a task derived from contemporary goals, does the art teacher model a
program on community standards, subjective taste or institutional,
scholarly standards? This is a question that curriculum guides do
not answer.
Gans (1974) identified five categories of "taste publics"
based upon class and making no allowance for ethnicity, sex, age,
religion, personality, residence, or other special factors. He
categorized high culture as the property of those who make, create,
and critique art, the culture of the "serious" artist. The "users"
of culture belong in the upper-middle class category. Public school
teachers he placed in the lower-middle category. (As noted, art
teachers, owing to specific aesthetic instruction, may be in another
category.) Lower-middle art he found to be romantic and representa
tive. Low culture preferred action and melodrama, and he character
ized it as "working class." Quasi-folk low culture appeared to be a
simpler version of low culture (Gans, 1974).
The correlation of taste and social class is important to
note in assessing the status of art education and art programs
characterized by goals in aesthetic learning. Teachers must relate
to students and the society in which they teach, which may present
conflicts.
44
Kaplan's thesis that popular art is ."not the degradation of
taste but its immaturity" supports the need for education in the arts
(Kaplan, 1972, p. 50). He contended that popular art was easily
understood and was comfortable. It dealt in stereotypes and expected
outcomes, familiar depictions, fads, fashions, and the glitter of
stars. Characterized by romantic sentimentality, prettiness and
characters who were silhouettes rather than living people, Kaplan's
aesthetic of popular art correlates with Gans' "lower-middle" cate
gory. Indeed, Kaplan referred to the classification of popular art
as "midbrow art" (Kaplan, 1972, p. 49).
Kaplan did not condemn popular art. It served a purpose in
reaching out to the lowest common denominator of society and provided
recognition for the conventions of a common culture. The snobbery of
the aesthetic domain, quick to condemn popular art, he disposed of as
less to be desired than the aesthetic of popular art itself. Kaplan
was willing to predict that television had art in its future, a
statement Lanier (1975) would support. Avators "Oscar and Emmy are
the avators of the muse" (Kaplan, 1972, p. 61).
Kaplan (1972) suggested, in accord with contemporary art
educators, that the values of art could only be analyzed contextually.
"Aesthetic judgment is one thing and personal taste another," he
stated (p. 62). His recognition of the choice of high art or popular
art within the context of a situation extends the meaning of taste
and aesthetic judgment. Kaplan's essay may be regarded as support
for aesthetic education goals.
45
Lanier (1975) would promote the use of the vernacular arts
as important in the curriculum. Contrary to the goals stated by the
NAEA commission (Dorn et al., 1977), Lanier believed that media,
particularly film and television, represented true art forms and were
worthy of study as both message and medium. Their appeal, the easy
appeal of the popular arts according to Kaplan (1972), provides a
ready vehicle for teachers to gain student interest. In Lanier's
(1977) opinion, an egalitarian view of the visual arts is required,
one that includes natural objects, folk art, and mass media with the
fine arts in the aesthetic experience.
It is difficult for art teachers to deny the significance of
the popular visual arts. The contributions of Disney seldom appear
in art history guidelines, whereas Mickey Mouse has been epitomized
as:
the quintessence.' of that which is peculiarly the
motion picture/ He is one with the Great Common
Denominator of the great common art of the common
ality in terms of expression, while in production
he is logarithmic derivation of’the whole of screen
technology. (Ramsaye, 1978, p. 7)
Resolution of divergent views of the popular culture and its
aesthetic must occur in order that the goal of developing aesthetic
judgment in the student may be met.
In a rationale for one of its goals for a secondary school
program in the arts, "to cultivate independent artistic judgment,"
the curriculum guide written by the Fine Arts Division of the Pen
nsylvania Department of Public Instruction (n.d., p. 6) states that,
"all men have- the right to like or dislike discrete works of art."
46
The purpose of the goal is explained as enabling the students to
evaluate the work of art and question their responses to it. The
intent is to develop the analytical faculties of the students so that
they will be able to criticize works of art. This approach, it is
reasoned, will permit individuals to "exercise control" over their
aesthetic environment (Pennsylvania, n.d., p. 6). This goal estab
lishes aesthetic judgment as interaction with the environment. Per
sonal taste appears to be inherent in it.
The means of developing aesthetic judgment is provided for
elementary students by the CEMREL curriculum in aesthetic education
(Madeja, 1979). This curriculum covers many art forms and relies
upon classroom activities involving students in participation in the
arts and in making choices about their outcomes. It is carefully
structured so that students experience and discuss the art forms.
Extension of these concepts to the secondary school art program would
translate roughly as doing the same thing, production or studio art,
but talking about it differently. It might mean more visits to art
exhibits, more reading assignments in criticism and fewer art pro
ducts.
Broudy (1977) argued for an extension of aesthetic education
goals in the secondary school program. Central to his reasoning was
the concept that the imagination must be taught, trained, or developed
with as much care as the intellect (if not more). He believed the
arts offered a direct route to cultural understanding but must be
carefully, skillfully evaluated in order to avoid exploitation and
47
manipulation by mass media. This thesis is close to the NAEA
commission's position on the impact of the mass media and popular
arts. Broudy protested that an aesthetic education should not be
synonymous with elitism, however. He was aware of the pitfall of
snobbery. This thesis suggested a plan of alternatives for secondary
school students, that they be introduced to art criticism and look at
art history in terms of specific themes and styles. Brody's sugges
tions appear reasonable when applied to the visual arts program as a
companion to production. Time spent on the evaluation of art work
would teach aesthetic judgment and develop criteria for quality in
production.
Art criticism, in spite of aesthetic goals, is frequently
lacking in secondary school art programs. Study of criticism might
teach that the set of ideal aesthetic criteria, a glib reference of
art education, is not easily achieved. Battcock (1971) pointed out
that criticism may be inconsistent and illogical according to the
best of critics. Lippard (1971) stated:
I have no critical system . .. Criticism, like
history, is a form of fiction. Moreover, so called
objective criteria always boil down to indefinable
subjective prejudices, which are the plagues of
writing about the immediate present. When cornered,
I describe my own criteria as clarity, directness,
honesty, lack of pretense and prettiness, even a
kind of awkwardness (for which I have been chastised,
since that is supposed to be the worst kind of
romantic Americanism). But then, no one will admit
that the work he likes is muddy, indirect, dishonest,
pretentious, or pretty, so such word lists mean very
little, (p. 12)
48
This may indicate that the contemporary system of criticism
is no system. Nevertheless, the study of criticism appears essential
to the development of aesthetic judgment. Ecker (1976) studied the
evaluations of professional art historian, critic, and child-artist
to assess the practice of the historian and the critic. He substan
tiated his research with analyses of pictures created by chimpanzees
and children. He found the art historian's view to be comparative,
a judgment made in the context of a group of paintings or the history
of painting; the critic's view was characterized as focusing on the
aesthetic quality of the experience afforded by the object perceived.
Making and justifying aesthetic and comparative judgments of art
objects was regarded as a skill distinguishing artists, teachers,
critics, historians, museum and gallery workers and professionals in
the art world from laymen. In an educational program, art criticism
might best be regarded as a developmental process, rather than the
application of absolute criteria.
Transmittal of the Culture/Cultural Change
Changing goals concerning cultural transmittal may be studied
in part through the contents of survey textbooks in art history.
Authors and editors select textbook-content which they believe to be
valuable for the definitive study of art. In a period of changing
goals and humanistic emphases, they have barely kept pace in recording
art history. Art history texts do offer a profile of content that
can be correlated with the stated goals of art education to describe
49
a style or pattern of aesthetic judgment in art curricula. The
organization as well as the subject matter of each textbook serves to
support educational goals. In their development of survey texts, art
historians respond to the goals of art education. Teachers, in turn,
use these texts to define art.
The scope and range of art works studied are established by
the art historian. The comprehensive concept of the transmittal of
the culture that is expressed in the overwhelming majority of goals
is achieved through the study of art history. Although art history
courses in secondary schools grew in number during the past decade
(Dorn et a!., 1977), they represent a minor component of the cur
riculum in art. Most art history is taught in the studio course as
an enrichment of production skills. The cultural/historical goal
includes elements of history, connoisseurship, appreciation, and
museum education. It may be expressed as art appreciation, a response
to forms in the environment or in terms of the visual arts as an
important realm of human experience (Maryland, 1974; Montgomery,
1975).
Feldman (1967) summarized the categories of criticism as
journalistic, pedagogical, scholarly, and popular. Each serves its
own audience, although interdependence exists; the avant-garde could
not protest in a scholarly fashion, were there not a popular culture
to protest. Critical judgment he classifies as: formalism, the
analysis of perceived formal elements marked by disinterested aes
thetic emotion; expressivism, the effective communication of ideas
50
and feelings, characteristically intense, vividly conveyed; instru
mentalism, art as a tool for moral, religious, political, or psycho
logical purpose. Feldman's bias is scholarly. As an art historian,
he demonstrates a means of teaching aesthetic judgment through inter
pretation of significant art works. The categories of criticism
appear valid within the scholarly context. However, one cannot so
readily classify a Barbara Rose: art historian, professor, journa
listic reviewer, and critic (Rose, 1957).
It must be remembered, in assessing the speed with which text
books are changed, that art history refers to a vast library of slides
correlated with the text. These "monuments" in art history are a part
of the educational investment. When new elements are added, slide
libraries require up-dating. The concept of maintaining a linear,
chronological structure and recognized "monuments" within the
established corpus of art history data has been cited as an advantage
by some authors (de la Croix & Tansey, 1980).
The textbook used as a basis for the college courses in art
history frequently becomes the basis for teaching art history in the
classroom. The influence of these authors should not be under
estimated in a study of aesthetic values or the structure of criti
cism. A linear chronology, a thematic approach, or a narrow defini
tion of terms will each influence future classroom practice.
In terms of the changing goals of art education, a sample of
art history textbooks is examined. These books are survey texts.
They do not represent the entire field but have been chosen to
51
illustrate developmental stages. These textbooks are: Stites! The
Arts and Man (1940), Janson's History of Art (1965), Feldman's Art as
Image and Idea (1967), Schinneller's Art, Search, and Self-Discovery
(1968),and Spencer's The Image Maker, Man and His Art (1975).
Although the Stites' book is now out of print, The Arts and Man pro-
vides a comparison for later work and makes predictions which can be
tested. Each textbook represents a definition of art and aesthetics.
Each differs, allowing comparisons and insight concerning aesthetic
values.
Writing in he late 1960s, Schinneller, in Art, Search, and
Self-Discovery (1968), developed a text around specific media. In
doing so, he used the art of several cultures to illustrate his thesis
that art tells us of man's constant interest in nature, his inherent
greatness and his gods, his concern with death, and the events which
contributed toward the birth of society. Schinneller made a strong
case for other viewpoints, partiulearly that of the Orientals who
"viewed nature rather than man as the center of things." This text
was one attempt at an integrated view of world art. Examples are
frequently from the recent past. It contains chapters on the
Aesthetic Environment and Aesthetic Humanism. His statement that
"man remains multi-hued, continuing to exist in a variety of time
zones and diverse geographical locales" is indicative of his social
orientation toward world art (Schinneller, 1968, p. 164). This text
is unique and may be the precursor of future scholarship.
52
In contrast with Schinneller's point of view, The Arts and
Man, by Stites (1940) seeks to integrate its presentation through dis
cussion of a variety of art forms rather than cultures. Stites
included in his Western European art history one chapter on the Arts
of-Asia-East and West. It is significant to note that, writing 40
years ago, he concluded his work with separate chapters on the Art
of the Twentieth Century and the Art of the Americans. In his chap
ter on Americans, Stites predicted the current "golden age" of
American dominance of the art scene. He also included American
Indian art on both continents. Stites* work may be viewed as valid
cultural history. He foresaw the growth of film as an art form,
particularly in documentaries. Although a chronological account, the
text offers an original organizational pattern in the variety of art
forms.
Janson's History of Art (1965) is used by art historians as
a definitive text for comprehensive coverage of the subject. Sub
titled "A Survey of the Major Visual Arts from the Dawn of History
to the Present Day," it covers the major influences in Western Euro
pean art from the cave paintings, "Magic and Ritual--the Art of Pre
historic Man," to the efficient architecture of Le Corbusier,
"Twentieth Century Architecture." A postscript at the end of the
book provides a jumble of images titled, "The Meeting of East and
West." Asked about the other influences in world art, Janson
graciously indicated that he would expand his view of art, were he
writing a text today. Janson's genius lies in careful discussion
53
of the formal elements in a work of art and acknowledgment of its
reflection of time and place, the essence of art history. The pro
portion of material dealing with the Renaissance is high (8 out of 25
chapters). It would be unthinkable for an art historian to deny any
portion of Janson's account of the Renaissance to students. This
definitive work, in terms of formal analysis, thorough research, and
ability to communicate the principles of the visual arts, is unchal
lenged. Its weakness is in recognition of other cultures— and women.
Never does Janson mention a woman artist.
In his text, The Image Maker, Man and His Art, Spencer
(1975) saw the images that man makes as manifestations of his culture.
Throughout the work, he stressed the renewal of tradition through
innovation. The art history was organized according to themes
indicated by the images themselves. Thus, he interpreted religious
images, a major portion of Western European art, as the language of
the sacred institution. Spencer also included examples from other
cultures for contrast and expansion of a theme. He utilized abundant
resources and constantly reminded the reader that the symbolic fac
tors in imagery were only shadows of the substance of its message.
Whether discussing Goya's controversial fantastic art, or the crisp
Bauhaus movement, Spencer applied reason to the humanistic study of
art forms. The insight that results is illuminating. For example,
he cited the playfulness of Calder in unity with the constructional
abstraction of cubism, the result of which was the mobile sculpture
(Spencer, 1975, p. 533).
54
Spencer's work stressed art as a human function. Previously,
many art texts treated the sculpture of a horse-borne soldier as a
four-legged construction project. Spencer saw the soldier on the
horse as an appropriate part of the cult image of the hero. The
difference in aesthetic is obvious: in the former a construction
problem is solved, in the latter a human value extolled. General
Gattamelata, "Honey-Cat," becomes the product of his time, rather
than a bronze problem. The thematic method, centered upon man's
image-making desires and motivation, correlates with the psychologi
cal self-actualization described by Maslow (1968). This approach
appears to be an accurate interpretation of American social psychology
and aesthetic philosophy. It.is in contrast with Stites* treatment of
art forms and Janson's formal analyses.
The last text examined, Feldman's Art as Image and Idea
(1967) best exemplifies the verbal, intellectual treatment of aes
thetics. The contents were organized according to the following:
the functions of art, the styles of art, the structure of art, the
interaction of medium and meaning, and the problems of art criticism.
The criticism chapters, at the conclusion, follow lengthy aesthetic
descriptions such as "Perceiving the Elements: Aesthetics." Feld
man considered aesthetic structure to be a force at work in the
aesthetic experience that binds our separate perceptions together.
He limited his discussion of aesthetics as a specific to questions
about the way perception occurs and is organized in the experience
of art, as opposed to an entire philosophy of art. His concise
55
discussion of aesthetic theory is particularly valuable in the con
text of his visual selections. Feldman, in his elegant, decisive
manner, dismissed "camp" as probable evidence for the loss of contact
with both our intelligence and capacity for feeling (a situation in
which he will never be found). His scholarship exemplified his own
belief that there were principles of organization in art which seemed
to be employed consistently and which served to maximize the effec
tiveness of a work of art, no matter what its function or purpose.
Feldman's work supported Lanier's statement that it is, "hard to meet
a work of art without’{prior} verbal preparation" (Lanier, 1978a,
p. 77). Feldman's survey of art history confirmed the advantages of
a rational, intellectual, and discriminating treatement of the sub
ject. He critiqued aesthetic judgments in order to support the
organization of an aesthetic framework.
Scrutiny of art history textbooks, covering a period from
1940 (Stites) to 1975 (Spencer), indicates that art educators have
traditionally organized the visual arts in a linear manner, a
chronological order. That which they have considered to be a part
of the cultural heritage has been primarily Western European. Recent
textbooks (Feldman, 1967; Schinneller, 1968; and Spencer, 1975)
incorporate new attitudes toward art education and aesthetics, stres
sing humanism and a variety of influences and sources. The Janson
text, History of Art (1965), stands as the mid-point of the texts
discussed. As a chronological frame for the formal elements of art
history, it is superb. Its denial of women artists is a social
.disaste r . __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ______________________________
56
A study of these textbooks shows a growing concern for man
as the producer of art and for art as the reflection of culture.
The earlier textbooks were organized on a time-line, most frequently
paralleling historical events. The later texts used a thematic
approach to permit a wider variety of sources and to define universal
human characteristics. Few art historians are committed to a com
pletely chronological approach. Stylistic comparisons are developed
and the aesthetics of a time and place, periods and styles, are
designated. Art is most frequently pictured as a human process.
Art historians have moved from the presentation of Western
European art as the sole body of content to representation of many
other cultures. As general curricular goals have recognized the
needs of a multi-cultural population, accounts of art history have
changed accordingly. Increasingly, art educators view art in the
context of the humanities, stressing themes in order to develop con
cepts concerning the way in which artists have interpreted society or
a phase of the culture. Such a presentation of the culture, linked
with humanistic goals that support a broad range of studies, repre
sents a departure from the concentration on individual growth and
creativity which formerly characterized art education.
The departure from insistence upon creativity as an end in
itself acknowledges current social concerns. Both curricular goals
and art history texts show a wider range of experiences and sources
as the province of art education. In widening the field and pro
viding more choices, the need for discrimination has increased.
57
Organizational Structure
Most sets of goals establish no priorities. Each statement
is presumably equal in importance. The goals can be regarded as
interrelated parts of one major purpose; indeed, they often overlap.
This breadth of purpose in the face of such a large body of material
and interlocking functions defies the imposition of a hierarchical
structure. Evaluation models prove effective in analysis of many
goals. Stake's (1975) responsive method of evaluation would permit
the gathering of material, a case study of goals, and the determina
tion of priorities based upon context. Eisner (1979) has rejected
analysis in the empirical, scientific method. He has developed a
model for description/evaluation derived from the roles and purposes
of connoisseurship and criticism in art. Just as the art critic
helps others discover that to which they have not been sensitive, the
educational critic illuminates subtle features of classroom practice.
Use of a descriptive narrative interpretation structured to coincide
with anthropological case studies and evaluation, in order to deter
mine status and new directions, are the components of Eisner's design.
Application of these models to information collected concerning pro
grams, approaches, and educational decision making is a means of
shaping inquiry and examining issues. Models derived from the social
sciences and the field of art criticism represent the use of humanis
tic modes of assessment appropriate to the subject.
58
Efland (1979), in a scholarly presentation, correlated aes
thetic precepts developed by Abrams (1953) with schools of psychology,
deriving a matrix that permits classification of teaching and learn
ing experiences in art education. Several steps are proven before
the matrix is constructed. Abrams (1953) saw the aesthetic experience
as composed of four elements encompassing the total situation of a
work of art. They are: the work of art itself; the artist as the
work’s creator; the audience to whom the work is addressed; and the
universe represented in the work, i.e., what the work is about
(p. 21). These elements characterize the direction of aesthetic
theories; the universe is the concern of mimetic theories, the presen
tation of accurate representation; the audience is the organizational
center for pragmatic theories, art that pleases or instructs; an
orientation toward the artists is held by expressive theories, using
concepts of idiosyncratic production; and the work of art itself is
the subject matter of objective theories. Efland related each aes
thetic theory to a school of psychology. He admitted the pattern was
not perfect. However, enough evidence was offered to support each
claim.
1. Mimetic aesthetics correlate with psychological behavior
ism in a relationship wherin the imitation of nature is seen as
corresponding to the learning of behavior from models. Mimicking and
copying are characteristic of this unit.
59
2. Pragmatic aesthetics relate to cognitive psychology in
this model. The aesthetic experience is viewed as a transaction
between the perceiver, representing a complex set of references, and
the work of art. In a similar manner, cognitive psychology explains
human behavior in reference to the knowledge base possessed by the
learner. Symbols refer to the world and become a basis for deriving
rules.
3. Expressive aesthetics correlate with psychoanalytic
psychology owing to a mutual concentration on the expression of feel
ings and emotion. The artist demonstrates emotions and subconscious
desires in sublimated symbolic form. Psychoanalytic psychology views
human behavior as expressive of unconscious needs channeled into overt
behavior by the ego.
4. Objective aesthetics relate to Gestalt psychology as the
aesthetic theory views the object at once in its entirety and Gestalt
psychology considers that in human behavior the whole is greater than
the sum of its parts. Gestalt psychologists have experimented with
perception of good, bad, complete, and incomplete configuration in
support of this kind of a relationship.
Efland (1979) did not claim that these were perfect relation-
ships--that they were bound logically or causally. He did suggest
that an individual working with a given psychological theory might
view art in a definite aesthetic mode. Art education, the teaching
of art, would encompass various sets of behaviors, depending upon
the teacher's orientation.
60
1. In the mimetic-behavioral view, the teacher would present
models for copying and lead the student to new activities when the
copied version was close to the model,
2. In the pragmatic-cognitive view, the teacher would dis
cuss the projected effects on the viewer and outcomes of the work
with the student.
3. In the expressive-psychoanalytic view, the teacher would
bring the learner to a higher awareness of his own self-realization.
No rules would be imposed.
4. In the objective-Gestalt view, the teacher would direct
the student to perceive objectively real qualities in works of art.
Perception would be subject to its own Taws-of development as is form
in art.
These orientations support the historical traditions of art
education. They are utilized to explain the range of theories in the
history of art in the curriculum. The aesthetic element in each
orientation also provides a basis for categorizing styles of art, an
undertaking beyond the range of this study.
Efland (1979) has analyzed relationships and created a
valuable scheme for examining content, instruction, and goals in art
education. He terms this thesis the first step in a theory of
practice.
Through examination of reports, documents, studies, and
recommendations, the literature pertaining to a description of
secondary school art education has been reviewed. Attention has been
61
given to goal statements as a measure of intent and a reflection of
current philosophical base. Issues centering upon the development
of aesthetic judgment and the definition of art have been presented.
A theory of practice has been introduced as an organizational struc
ture for the history of art education.
62
CHAPTER III
OUTLINE OF HISTORICAL TRENDS AND THEORIES IN ART
.EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES
Theories of art education are derived from a variety of
sources. They are specular and practical: aesthetic, psychological,
sociological, academic, or any of a variety of labels distinguishing
valid approaches. The definition applied to current practice is
eslecticism. The development of this viewpoint can be traced through
the history of art education in the United States.
Educational theorists have been forced to function as "wide-
ranging intellectuals with broad humanistic interests" (O'Neill,
1969, preface). In a subject as comprehensive as that of art, this
orientation has been essential as well as desirable. Whether such a
Renaissance outlook has characterized the theorist in art education
can be determined by reviewing the history of art in the school
curriculum.
The resolution of two seemingly opposed purposes for art
education— cultural enrichment through the fine arts, and training in
art for vocational use— are issues throughout the documentation of
art in the schools. Aesthetic judgment, art as a consumer skill,
taste, and discrimination represent a set of values often claimed as
goals but difficult to define with any degree of accord.
63
Theories involve the issue of aesthetics without resolving it for the
teacher.
A theory of art education represents the development of
a network of knowledge, beliefs, values, and opinions
constructed by means of facts and arguments into a
coherent conceptual structure that has as its primary
purpose to provide the members of a profession with
common definitions, terminology, concepts, and patterns
of discourse. (Efland, 1976, p. 67)
This definition of an educational theory contains many of the compon
ents of cultural description. It presents the theory as an instrument
for communicating value and practice. The value of a theory is in
its comprehensive description concerning commonly held problems within
the profession.
Early Art Education/Copying
Early art education theories derived from the field of art as
a discipline. The earliest reference to art education in the United
States comes from Benjamin Franklin's prescription of curriculum for
a new academy in America. He wrote, concerning the Pennsylvania
Academy, that , "All should be taught a fair hand, and swift, as that
is useful to all. And with it may be learned something of drawing
by imitation of prints and some of the first principle of perspective"
(Franklin, 1785/1958, p. 62). Speculation that this recommendation
represented an instrumental, vocational viewpoint';was further sup
ported by Franklin's rejection of aesthetic education in Poor
Richard's Almanack:
64
A Musketo just starv'd, in a sorry Condition,
Pretended to be a most skilful Musician:
He comes to a Bee-hive, and there he would stay,
to teach the Bees Children to sing Sol la fa.
The Bees told him plainly the Way of their Nation,
Was breeding up Youth in some honest Vocation;
Lest not bearing Labour, they should not be fed,
And then curse their Parents for being high bred.
(Franklin, pseud. Saunders, 1793/1964, p. 109)
The pragmatic Quaker wisdom expressed by Franklin, that art
was best regarded as utilitarian, may have been typical of the times.
During the same period the education of Charles Willson Peale was
undertaken by a group of Annapolis and Baltimore businessmen who
supplied the funds to send the young artist to England to study.
Upon return to the United States, Peale opened a museum in Philadel
phia in 1782, housing his 30 portraits of American revolutionary war
heroes in a gallery in his home. Peale is credited with the first
public exhibition of art in America, the first museum (Myron & Sun-
dell, 1969). Thus, two branches of art education may be observed in
the late 18th century: Franklin, the inventor, printer, writer, and
pithy philosopher of art, expressed the utilitarian purposes; Charles
Willson Peale, the artist educated abroad in an English academy,
opened a gallery for appreciation of the fine arts.
The teaching of art throughout this early period in American
history can be categorized within the mimetic tradition identified by
Efland (1979). Art was thought of as drawing, and drawing was taught
by copying from books or models. Drawing guides such as William
Bently Fowle's Principles of Linear and Perspective Drawing of 1824
were designed for use in the public schools and endured throughout
65
the 19th century (Saunders, 1976). The close alliance of penmanship
and drawing identified by Franklin remained a rationale for the study
of art.
The Mimetic Tradition
Art as an imitation of life was condemned by Plato as an
imitation of an imitation. Some of the tradition of the imitative
theory survives in the aesthetic philosophy of Susanne Langer. She
regards works of art as expressions of human feeling in a sensuous
form, presented for perception. For Langer (1953) feeling is the
basis for mental experience, for the functions of perception, mind,
association, imagination, and reason. Heightened feeling can scarcely
be expressed without use of a metaphor, but works of art, wherein
feeling is expressed symbolically, crystallize a feeling so that it
can be contemplated (Dickie & Sclafani, 1977). Langer might appear
to be concerned with expressive characteristics of art; however, her
view of art as a representation of feeling appears to place this
theory in the mimetic category.
Modelling behavior, the copying of techniques, attitudes, and
concepts, is a strong educational force. The master-apprentice
relationship of the Renaissance supported a tradition which can be
observed in some art studios today. It is common practice in art
education to decry copying in all forms. Despite professional
objections to copying as a learning experience, the Wilsons (1977)
found that copying played an important part in the education of
6b
talented students who taught themselves to draw. The mimetic tradi
tion continues, although not always readily identified. Copybooks
and coloring books are extant.
Mid-Century Industrial Practice
and Cultural Refinement
By mid-century, available art curricula in America consisted
of copybooks and geometric forms. Where art was taught it was usually
an attempt at preparation for life in the industrial society.
Minific believed that the acquisition of drawing skills would prepare
his students at Baltimore Boys High School in 1848-49 for industrial
employment. They studied geometric design and mechanical drawing
for this purpose. To a lesser extent, art was also viewed as a
source of social cachet. Young women in private academies were taught
to paint as a mark of refinement. Their exercises offered them the
opportunity to paint on china and velvet as well as to make water-
color sketches. (This early image of female art as a mere cultural
nicety provided inspiration for Judy Chicago's conceptual exhibition
piece, "The Dinner Party," constructed for display in Boston and other
U.S. cities, 1980.) Art education was twofold: vocational for young
men and a cultural enrichment for young ladies from affluent families.
All theories of art were based upon the modelling and copying of
exemplars (Eisner & Ecker, 1970).
67
Art first appeared in the public school curriculum in Mas
sachusetts in 1821 (deFrancesco, 1958). The School Committee of
Boston made it a requirement in 1864. Prior to that, a supervisor of
penmanship who also taught linear drawing had been appointed in the
Cincinnati schools in 1846. These early art education efforts
centered upon skill development. Skills in art were regarded as
essential for the development of industry. Massachusetts required *
in 1870, that any town having more than 10,000 inhabitants make free
drawing classes available to persons over 15 years of age. Maine and
New York passed similar acts (Saunders, 1976).
Massachusetts established art as a required subject in 1864,
and in 1871 hired an English teacher of Industrial Drawing and Crafts,
Walter Smith, to come to the United States to provide leadership for
the Art Normal School. Although he left Massachusetts in 1885, the
impact of his methodology on the teaching of art remained. Drawing
was the sole instructional activity and copying the source of subject
matter (Eisner & Ecker, 1970). The work of Smith's students was
exhibited and admired in the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition of
1876. A portion of this exhibition has been reproduced in the Arts
and Industries building of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
D.C. Its characteristic aesthetic quality is imitation of European
elements, interpreted by American industry. The exhibition was an
attempt to demonstrate the progress of the new country. Exhibitors
took pride in the art, viewing it as competitive with European works.
68
Child Study and Kindergarten
During the last two decades of the 19th century, American
education began to change. The Child Study movement was initiated in
the 1880s under the leadership of G. Stanley Hall at Johns Hopkins
University. The work of European educators, Pestalozzi, Herbart, and
Froebel, prepared the way for the kindergarten movement in the United
States. Instead of focusing upon the discipline or its social pur
poses, education began to focus upon the child, the individual, and
developmental needs. Walter Smith regarded art as a set of copybook
rules, the proponents of child study would regard art as an expres
sive activity (Logan, 1955).
The first German-speaking kindergarten had been opened in
1855 in Wisconsin. The first English language kindergarten was
started in 1860 in Boston by Elizabeth Peabody. Children were
taught drawing, painting, music, and dancing. An innovation indi
cating the beginning of a new direction for art education was the use
of clay, blocks, geometric forms, and balls of worsted in the class
room. These were Froebel1s "gifts” for early childhood. They opened
the way for learning as doing. Cork and sticks, later developed as
“tinker Toys" afforded an experience in construction. A friend of
Elizabeth Peabody's, Milton Bradley, entered the school supply
business by manufacturing Froebel!s gifts and other art materials for
distribution to kindergartens (Saunders, 1976). The influence of
these blocks as a manipulative material was tremendous. Frank Lloyd
Wright has said he became interested in architecture because his
69
mother gave him blocks to play with in support of the Froebelian
theories.
Imitative Aspects, Appreciation,
and Moral Force
The imitative aspects of art education did not disappear at
the turn of the century. Louis Prang, an innovator in the use of
color lithography in art reproductions, held workshops for teachers
in the Boston-Salem area concerned with the use of prints in the
schools. His publications brought prints into the classroom for
copying as well as appreciation. He published the "freehand drawing"
texts of Smith's Art Normal School for many years, continuing the
copybook tradition. The editor of School Arts Magazine (1903-1917),
Henry Turner Bailey, provided study prints for children of subjects
intended to uplift and tell a moralistic story. As a result, grey
and sepia toned reproductions of famous paintings such as Millet's
"The Gleaners" or Raphael's "Sistine Madonna" became the measure of
popular taste. Children were taught that art should tell a story
and lead to a moral (Saunders, 1976). Such "picture study" was a
part of art education until the 1940s according to Eisner and Ecker
(1970). It might have been concerned with impressionist or cubist
movements at that time. It was not. The pictures studied were those
of Renaissance artists or French and Victorian genre painters. The
reproductions were not used to describe art history as much as to
inculcate ethical values. The concept of art as a moral force
remains in some goals of art education today.______________________
70
World's Columbia Exposition
At the World's Columbia Exposition in 1893, hundreds of
portfolios of the art work of American school children were exhibi
ted. The "art of the world," the ambitious title of the work exhibi
ted in the fine arts department at the Columbia Exposition, repre
sented the taste of the times (Hitchcock, 1895). It was a collection
of polished academic works consisting of genre paintings, portraits,
illustrations of dramatic events, picturesque landscapes, and alle
gories. The tone of the exhibit was one of prettiness, pathos, and
sentimentality. The exhibition accomplished its purpose of expres
sing the coming-of-age of American art. It was naively imitative of
European taste in an effort to convince the world that culture was
alive and well on the shores of Lake Michigan. A Beaux Arts city was
constructed for the fair, and leaders in the field of art from Europe
were invited to participate in the exhibit. Social recognition of
American art was begun,
Composition and Formalism
At the turn of the century, Arthur Wesley Dow, Professor of
Fine Arts at Columbia, described a.new method of teaching art. In
the imitative tradition, termed mimetic by Efland (T979), art had
been taught in an academic model of progressive steps ana-tech
niques in the representation of objects. Students began with drawing
in pencil and charcoal and slowly progressed to the use of oil paint.
71
Dow extracted the elements from what he termed "composition." He
sought the expression of beauty, not representation. The elements
studied were line, notan (light and dark), and color. Dow based his
principles in part upon his studies of Japanese painting. His thesis
was illustrated with examples from Greek, Persian, Japanese, Gothic,
and Renaissance art. Dow's study of composition provided an order
for art education based upon formal elements (Efland, 1979"; (de-
Francesco, 1958). Prospective art teachers at Columbia learned Dow's
system and spread it throughout the country. The basis of formal
organization for secondary school curriculum, this system exists in
many curriculum guides today (Saunders, 1976).
Dow's weakest aspect in the theory of composition was that of
color. Until Munsell's red-blue-yellow primary theory was published
in 1913, there existed no theory feasible for school adaptation. The
Munsell color theory was distributed to schools through Prang art
materials. It is noteworthy that many technical advances in art
education have been introduced and disseminated by the art supply
manufacturers. From the invention of wax crayons (1880) to distri
bution of a new color system for artists' acrylic paints (1960s), art
suppliers have worked closely with art educators, offering workshops
and demonstrations for teachers. (Saunders, 1976).
The emphasis that .Dow placed upon the formal elements of
composition had its counterpart in the aesthetic theory of Clive Bell.
Bell argued that "significant form" defines the nature of art. In
stressing that the purely formal, non-representational elements of
72
a work of art were of greatest importance, Bell provided an aesthetic
orientation for acceptance of Post-Impressionist art in America
(Dickie & Sclafani, 1977).
Dow, Bell, and the critic Roger Fry presented an aesthetic
philosophy in a strong contrast to the aesthetic tone of the Columbia
Exposition of 1893.
The Objective Tradition
Efland saw the aesthetic theories of Bell and Fry as closely
related to the study of Gestalt psychology which developed at the
same time. Concerned with perception of the total configuration, the
Gestalt psychologists themselves would also influence art education
with their direct studies. Gestalt theories are in the objective
tradition, centering on the art work.
The objective tradition has strong support in the practice
of art education. Goals may not state that the elements or principles
of art/design are to be taught to students, but curriculum design
frequently treats a sequential development of skills adhering to for
mal elements. When a critique is offered in the classroom, it is
often in terms of similar elements or principles. The aesthetic
orientation that opened the way for Post-Impressionist painting in
America explains much of art education 75 years later.
The phenomenon of the development of formalist aesthetic
theories to explain exemplary art works may also be viewed as a trend
in art. Lacking an aesthetic base, teachers could never have
73
introduced post-impressionist, abstract art. The imitative, repre
sentative, sentimental aesthetic of the era would have mitigated
against art that lacked prettiness and pathos.
Art as Communication
Influenced by the psychological trends of the time, Walter
Sargeant was interested in children's art and the methods that would
help them produce it. He saw drawing as a tool with which to think,
a means of organizing perceptions so that they could be understood.
Sargeant saw the act of drawing as a set of communicative decisions
similar to translating a foreign language. Eisner and Ecker (1970)
regarded Sargeant as fusing the two dominant psychological schools—
the German experimental one of Helmholtz, Fechner, and Wundt and the
English tradition represented in the theories of Thorndike and Watson.
Sargeant's contributions were particularly valuable as indicators of
a new direction at that time. They were a component of the visual
literacy concept.
Dewey and the Experimental Position
The Progressive Education Movement of the late 1920s and
1930s brought with it tremendous impetus for art education. In text
books, studies for teachers of art, no name is more frequently refer
red to than John Dewey (Clarke, 1973). Dewey provided the philosophic
base for experience in the curriculum, and art experience in par
ticular. Activities stemming from life experiences were viewed as
74
meaningful learning. The Experimentalist position looked upon exper
ience as transactions with the environment. The values derived from
the experiences were developed as a result of the experiences. Art
T
was instrumental when used to solve problems, consummatory where the
experience was considered to be good for having occurred (Efland,
1979). Through Dewey's ideological leadership and emphasis on the
role of experience in education, much that was dogmatic, pedantic,
regimented, and institutionalized was eliminated in American schools.
The child was regarded as a whole, not a muscular mind to be trained.
Art played an essential role in the experiential educative process.
Activities were planned for children to become involved in manipula
ting materials, making objects representative of their studies, and
expressing their own ideas. Art was no longer a separate subject—
it was integrated in the curriculum.
The Pragmatic Tradition
The pragmatic tradition includes the work of Dewey and the
Progressive Education Movement (Efland, 1979). Art in everyday life
was emphasized. In defining art, Dewey distinguished between fine
arts and manual arts. Two strands, art and industrial art, prevailed
(Saunders, 1976). Just as the Collingwood-Croce aesthetic theory
(Dickie & Sclafani, 1977) sought to define art as opposed to craft,
throughout the history of art education it has been defined and
redefined in terms of purpose. Despite Dewey's bifold definition,
the influence of the experimentalist position helped to unify the
75
two channels of art education. Previously;^ poor children were taught
art as a vocational skill; children from wealthy families studied art
as cultural enrichment. In the pragmatic tradition, art became a
means of experiencing.
Creativity
During this period, the 1920s and 1930s, the first writings
on the subject of creativity began to appear. Seldom mentioned in
earlier works, as childrcentered curriculum became the model, the
child's creativity demanded the concern of educators. Creativity
quickly became one of art education's major organizing structures
(Eisner & Ecker, 1970).
The Zeitgeist for the study of creativity was in Vienna at the
turn of the century. Freud was evolving the theory of the uncons
cious, Schoenburg developing atonal music, and Landsteiner studying
the properties of blood. An art teacher, Franz Cizek, developed a
revolutionary means of teaching children. He refused to let them
view established art works or visit museums, but instead encouraged
their own expressions. The teacher provided motivation and direction
but felt that preconceived expectations for production should not be
a part of the methodology (Munro, 1929). Cizek was a precursor of
Lowenfeld in his view of the child's self-expression as central to
the art experience.
Viktor Lowenfeld
76
Viktor Lowenfeld represents a unification of the thought of
his time, the psychological advances of Freudian theory, and the
concentration of education upon the child rather than the discipline.
His primary interest was the creative and mental growth of the child.
He saw art as a means of facilitating this growth. Through art, the
development of the child could be traced. Lowenfeld's ideas, prob
ably more than any other art educator's, set the stage for future
practice. His new direction, the emphasis on creativity and self-
expression, was presented in books, articles, and speeches. His work
as a psychologist provided a model of scientific inquiry for the pro
fession of art education (Eisner & Ecker, 1970).
The influence of Freudian psychoanalytic theory can be seen
in Lowenfield's work. The process of self-expression, for Lowenfeld,
was very like that of psychoanalysis. The creative process was a
means of identifying and examining inner drives. Since art supplied
the occasion for self-expression, it also provided the channel for
growth and health. The art of the period when Lowenfeld was develop
ing his theories, German expressionism and surrealism, was closely
related to the psychoanalytical reference. Dreams and fantasies,
explanations for disproportions and distortion, were seen as the sub
ject matter of art. The process that produced them became the
redeeming instrument of health.
77
Efland (1970) believed that Lowenfeld's conception of
artistic development was partially determined by the situation in
Germany and Austria prior to the Second World War. The educational
tenet that children should be free to express themselves was opposed
to the custom of the times. Lowenfeld was quoted in the second
edition of Creative and Mental Growth as stating:
Having experienced the devastating effect of
rigid dogmatism and disrespect for individual dif
ferences, I know that force does not solve problems,
and that the basis for human relationships is usually
created in the homes and kindergartens. I feel
strongly that without the imposed discipline common
in German family lives and schools, the acceptance
of totalitarianism would have been impossible.
Without it, this world might have been saved from
the most devastating of wars. (Lowenfeld, 1952,
P- ix)
Faith in the ability of the child as a psychological being,
belief in the creative process and a humanitarian outlook character
ize Viktor Lowenfeld's work. Art education shifted from concern with
drawing, proper perspective, and the study of sepia prints to the
process of creation. Without a leacler such as Lowenfeld this leap
possibly could not have occurred.
The Expressive Tradition
As the work of Freud became known in the United States, art
educators saw a relationship between the child and the unconscious
drives that shaped behavior. Art was regarded as therapeutic and a
strong force toward mental health (Eisner & Ecker, 1970). The theory
of practice proposed by Efland (1979) linked Lowenfeld and Freud in
78
the expressive tradition. A recent extension of this psychoanalytical
orientation exists in the third force psychology of Abraham Maslow.
Support for this opinion is provided by Maslow's belief, expressed in
a discussion of the benefits of art experiences in education, that
the arts are so close to psychological and biological identity that
"rather than think of these courses as a sort of whipped cream or
luxury, we must let them become basic experiences in our education"
(Maslow, 1971, p. 153). His open recognition of need for the
expressive element in art education aligns Maslow with the proponents
of creativity. Maslow's humanistic psychology encompasses a diversity
of purposes. Aesthetic judgment is a function of motivation and free
choice. Art is the metaphor for learning about both self and subject.
Creativity is the sine qua non characteristic of human endeavor,
rather than a singular goal. For Maslow, creativeness is synonymous
with health itself.
Bauhaus Formalism, Objective Tradition
A new pattern in art education developed in Germany after the
First World War. Established in Weimar in 1919, the Bauhaus School
began serious examination of art related to everyday life. Walter
Gropius sought to integrate studies in the arts with craftsmanship
and production. Johannes Itten provided the curriculum design which
consisted of problem-solving exercises in experimenting with materials
and the properties of materials; studies in composition and plastic
unity; and analyses of masterpieces in formal terms. The student
79
was required to work through a number of exercises in order to lose
the artificial concepts that clouded his own creative perceptions.
The Bauhaus method centered upon the materials of art and their for
mal relationships as components of problematic studies. Crafts were
truly considered as art forms. Each practicing artist worked with
a craftsperson in the school (Bayer, Gropius, & Gropius, 1938).
Prior to the Second World War, the Nazis shut down the Bauhaus
and many faculty members came to the United States. The Yale School
of Design, Black Mountain College, Illinois Institute of Technology,
and Harvard all benefited from the talents of such artists and faculty
members as Moholy-Nagy, Walter Gropius, Klee, Kandinsky, and Albers.
Their influence on American industrial design, architecture, and
crafts is apparent today. Their impact upon art curriculum is
demonstrated in the quotidian practice of the art studio. The
experimental, problem-solving techniques for teaching developed by
the instructors in the Bauhaus are used in art classrooms throughout
the United States. While the Bauhaus teachers sought to provide the
opportunity for self-expression through problem solving, their central
purpose was not the health of the artist but the rational solution
of a problem in terms of formal elements. They are now a part of the
objective tradition (Efland, 1979).
The influence of the "form follows function" dictum of the
Bauhaus can be seen in the architecture of the period (Bayer, Gropius,
& Gropius, 1938). The art deco style derives from this era. A look
at the buildings of the World's Columbia Exposition (Hitchcock, 1895)
80
and the New York World's Fair 1939/1940 (Wurtz, 1977) demonstrates
graphically a radical change of aesthetic orientation in less than
a 50-year period. Each exposition sought to exemplify the best in
the growing industrial democracy. The superlatives of the fairs
provided a sharp contrast in the taste of the times. The art
exhibited ranged from Madeleine LeMaire's "Chariot of the Fairies"
in 1893 to Dali1s controversial "Dream of Venus" 1939.
Studies of Perception
Studies in perception were a contribution of the Gestalt
psychologists. Arnheim (.1971) studied the development of perceptual
concepts and concluded that children should be provided with exper
iences that developed perception and opportunities to work in art
media in order to use the concepts they had developed. Evidence of
Arnheim's work was strong in the drawing tests devised by Florence
Goodenough as a measure of intelligence. Both the drawing act and
the figure drawn were subjects of analysis. Growth stages can be
determined from the configuration (Goodenough, 1954).
Gombrich, Hochberg, and Black (1972) utilized perception
studies in examination of images in art, particularly portraiture.
Linking the art historian's approach with that of a psychologist and
a philosopher provided a three-dimensional concept of perception.
Similar to the graphic presentation of Escher, the triangular analysis
permits flexibility in perception of the many factors involved. A
study of art and technology conceptualized as such an interwoven,
81
convoluted braid provides insights that might otherwise be impossible
(Hofstadter, 1980).
Research with regard to the functions of the two hemispheres
of the brain has led to speculation concerning perception and hemis
pheric specialization. The theory of consciousness and the functions
of intelligence developed by Ornstein (1977) has led to a popularized
version in the press. Art educators, quick to accept the concept as
a new theory, have been cautioned to consider the need for close
communication between science and art (Gainer & Gainer, 1977).
From the perception of visual images to the processing of
imagery by the brain, studies of the psychology of seeing provide
rich material for instruction- in art. The Gombrich et al. studies
(1977) suggest a correlation in visual perception with the Safir-
Whorf hypothesis in linguistics; that the image may affect thought
just as language shapes it. Ornstein's work (1977) suggests the
system through which the perceptual/thought process takes place. To
complete the circle, or configuration, the experiments of Dr. Wilder
Penfield in both language and visual perception suggest that percep
tual experience can occur when the brain is stimulated and no real
image or sound perceived (Penfield, 1953; Penfield & Roberts, 1959).
The meaning of studies in perception is clarified by each new study.
The application of a systems theory, derived from computer science
which mimics the human brain, completes the figure.
82
Barkan and Cognitive Stiidy
The cognitive psychology of Jerome Bruner provides a basis
for the art education theories held by Manuel Barkan. Barkan (1962)
in his "Transition" proposal sought new status for art in the cur
riculum as a cognitive study. He determined that there was a subject
matter in the field of art; that the process of creation in art was
similar to creation with words; and that students needed to develop
artistic judgment through the study of works of art. He suggested
that the curriculum be concerned with the study of art history and
criticism rather than the dominant theme of creativity. Barkan viewed
the art process as the same everywhere. The child, making art, was
an artist. Since that time there has been growing support for
Barkan's position that children should be taught in a course of study
that presented opportunities for developing criteria for judging and
understanding art; learning, through discovery, what is meaningful
in art; and gaining aesthetic sensibility. He regarded art as a
language, an instrument to help the individual become integrated in
society.
Recent Decades
Art education grew as a field of study in the 1950s. Many
of the concepts introduced by Lowenfeld were implemented in the
schools. Much of the research was concerned with the creative pro
cess (Chapman, 1979b). Barkan caused art educators to look at other
aspects of the field. He discussed the content of art history, the
83
structure of studio experience, and the need to look at criticism.
In keeping with the practice of the time, he utilized Bruner's methods
of discovery and stressed cognition.. *
Objective Reason
The works of Smith (1968), Broudy (1981), and Eisner (1972a)
represent a rational, cognitive plan, a logical unfolding of aesthetic
truths, and relates cognitive skills to the objective tradition.
Particularly in his concept of the educational connoisseur and critic,
Eisner's detachment and objective perspective is evident. Eisner
analyzed tasks, content, and performance criteria with clarity. This
reasoned approach may be the second phase of a cognitive/objective
tradition. Eisner identified the productive aspects of artistic
learning as skill in the management of material, the perceiving of
qualitative relationships, the inventing of forms and the creation
of spatial order, aesthetic order, and expressive power. He did not
establish a hierarchy among the skills. He did offer a comprehensive
catalog for use in describing the activity. Emphasis on any one
aspect of production would indicate adherence to a different theory.
Eisner ordered and defined in a formal manner; very like the Bauhaus
objectivists, he succeeds in achieving cognitive status for art
education.
84
Social Issues
The decade of the 1960s was characterized by change, demands
for relevancy, and a focus on social issues. Art courses were well
attended. If traditionalists can be said to have established rules
for art, artists broke them. The demands for aesthetic components
in the art curriculum came during a period of innovation and experi
mentation. Research in the visual arts continued to center on
creativity, the process of making art (Chapman, 1979b). Like children
taking apart a kaleidoscope to discover the magic inside, art educa
tors remained fascinated with the creative process. The problems
presented by social issues have had the strongest impact in changing
art education and forcing a break from preoccupation with creativity.
The war, riots, social unrest, and economic set-backs of the 1960s
and 1970s forced a new outlook.
Humanism, Eclecticism
Working in a humanistic mode Chapman (1978a), Feldman (1970),
and McFee and Degge (1977) represented theories of flexibility and
consideration for context. Chapman called for ''a total rethinking
of the purposes of art" (1978a, p.v.). She strongly supported the
cognitive base suggested by Barkan, advocating art as an essential
subject in the total school curriculum. Children should experience
art by creating and responding to it. This response represents the
aesthetic component of her curriculum. She described what to teach
and why,a body of knowledge and a rationale. Style is described as,
85
"a family resemblance among works by virtue of their common features"
(Chapman, 1978a, p. 41). Chapman accepted the prevalence of art
production but insisted upon the descriptive aesthetic aspect of art
education.
Anthropological Approach
The work of June King McFee may best typify a socio-cultural
theory of art education. Her conception of an appropriate curriculum
for art took into account the assimilation theories of Gordon (1954)
by providing definitions of values and beliefs in terms of ethnicities
and cultures. McFee considered the student in a societal environment
and acknowledges the interaction that must take place (McFee, 1970).
An example of the flexible, anthropological viewpoint of McFee and
Degee follows:
Each segment of society has somewhat different
ideas about what art is and is not and what con
tributes quality to it. People are influenced in
their choices in art by their culture. They also
vary in how much change they will accept. Yet
popular arts, fine arts, and crafts all change as
people's values change, and these in turn affect
styles.(1977, p. 154)
Social issues, ethnicity, the urban environment, a definition
of art pertaining to different cultures are all part of the program
that McFee and Degge (1977) organized. Their theory takes into
account a variety of cultures and aesthetics as well as a number of
student populations. In accounting for several sociological orienta
tions, this theory of art as a flexible, dynamic set of choices, is
related to Maslow's (1968) concepts of varied motivational needs.
86
The anthropological approach invites the art educator to
define the roles of the art historian, the art instructor, and the
cultural anthropologist. Ecker (1976) sought to distinguish between
art historian and art critic. Separating and examining roles in the
evaluation of art could be a valuable means of instruction. Art
courses could well be taught in relation to other secondary school
subjects as an interrelated program.
Cultural/Aesthetic Lag
Eisner and Ecker (1970), writing over 10 years ago, identified
a problem which may still exist in art education. Early in the 20th
century, in spite of exhibits of art in cities in the United States,
"art education in both its aesthetic tastes and its practices seems
to have been well insulated from the then current (and not so current)
artistic movements" (p. 22). They cited examples of limited hand
craft projects that were listed in the journals, projects such as
puppetry, egg coloring, and leather tooling. In their opinion, the
"new" aesthetic of Cubism, Surrealism, or Expressionism did not
catch up with American art classrooms until the 1960s. This can be
seen as a serious weakness. Although visual materials, slides, and
reproductions are available, collections may be limited. One school
system, in a questionnaire that provided data for evaluation, dis
covered that approximately 2,000 senior high school students had
visited 19 museums over a three-year period (Montgomery, 1981). Most
systems do not possess extensive community resources. In such cases,
87
it becomes more important that the art teacher bring contemporary
ideas and criticism as well as current visuals into the art class
room.
National Assessment
Data provided by the most recent National Assessment of
Educational Progress support the opinions held by Eisner and Ecker
(1970) in the past. Although busy-work handcraft projects are no
longer paramount, students in the 1978-79 survey were "less inclined
to view art as important and less willing to tolerate unconventional
art forms at the end of the decade than in the mid-seventies" (NAEP,
1981-82, p. 1). The study found that while students do participate
in art activities and attend art classes in school, their knowledge
of art is not extensive. A substantial number appear to judge a
work of art by how closely it mimics reality, by representation,
rather than qualities such as form, structure, or expressive content.
One art educator stated that
The findings from the assessment indicate that
neither interpretive nor creative skills are being
nurtured at sufficient levels in American schools.
Teachers must be persuaded to move away from free-
expression and imitative art activities toward the
development of specific art-making skills if artistic
literacy is to be developed by a majority of our stu
dents. (Silverman, 1980)
Upper-level students who had taken four to six art courses
possessed superior skills at design, according to the assessment, but
they did not exceed the abilities of students with less training in
their knowledge of art and appropriate use of standards for judging
88
art. Students are visiting museums more frequently than in 1973-74
(NAEP, 1981-82). The cultural Tag, the lack of art resources in the
schools and communities, and the lack of education for aesthetic
judgment were evidenced by student performance according to the NAEP
report. Chapman suggested that schools did not give attention to art
as a subject that must be studied and mastered or the performance
would be higher (NAEP, 1981-82, p. 4). Student performance on the
assessment instrument provided negative data with regard to current
goals.
A brief outline of the history of art education has supplied
a framework for some of the theories held by leaders in the profes
sion. Use of a suggested "theory of practice" (Efland, 1979) derived
from aesthetic philosophy and psychological movements, provided a
structure for organization. In conjunction with this outline, a few
issues must be considered concerning the status of art education.
Definition of Art
The humanistic emphasis proposed in 1962 (Barkan) has been
described in the literature of art education and particularly imple
mented in the curricula. Discussion has, of course, outpaced implemen
tation. Dorn (1981) has suggested that the definition of art, or the
lack of definition, may be the cause of separation between studio
art courses and the historical/critical aspects of art. Learning in
art has been described in terms of vocational roles originally sup
plied by Efland (1968): productive, critical, and historical. The
89
productive element is generally criticized for its dominance. Eisner
(1972a) would establish a balance in the curriculum whereas Lanier
(1981) would regard production as a minor aspect of the total learn
ing experience. The reintegration of all three roles was suggested
by Dorn. He referred to Dewey's observation in 1934:
Since "artistic" refers primarily to the act of
production and "aesthetic" to that of perception and
enjoyment, the absence of a term designating the two
processes taken together is unfortunate. (Dewey, 1958,
P. 46)
He would utilize talk in the classroom/studio concerning the aesthe
tics of art production in order to unify the experience. Dorn con
curred with Lanier in a definition of artistic training as essentially
education in feeling. He based this definition on Langer's two-part
identification of the aesthetic experience, both the specialized
sensuous experience of seeing and the non-specific imaginative
experience. In reintegrating the process of art education, Dorn r
sought to mend the fragmented approach which had led to academic
isolationism (Dorn, 1981).
Ecker's (1966) theory of art education derived from the
problem-solving process of experimental ism. He required six steps
to achieve Dewey's five-step process of reflective thought: a pre
sented relationship; substantive mediation; and determination of
pervasive control; followed by a qualitative prescription, which may
involve experimental exploration; and, finally, the conclusion, the
total quality, the work of art. Ecker rejected the split between
technique and inspiration which was inherent in many prior theories.
90
Ecker (1966) agreed with Dewey that the method of inquiry was the
method of art. He incorporated the work of Champlin and Villemain,
defining intelligence as a process, in an aesthetic theory based
upon the experience of solving problems. Art was expressed, by Ecker,
as a qualitative relationship in aesthetic problem-solving. Artistic
thinking occurred when aesthetic qualities were utilized as the means
of solution. Art and art education occurred when qualitative prob
lems were sought, described, or solved.
Eckerrs theory identifed the solution as a total configuration
the work of art, which involved both the outcome and the experience.
His theory encompassed Dorn's (1981) concept of reintegration and two
components of Efland's (1968) professional roles organization: pro
duction and criticism.
The aesthetic theories of Benedetto Croce and R. G. Colling-
wood are frequently drawn upon as the basis for conceptions of
art as expression. The two philosophical positions differ only in
emphasis (and the language used to explain them). They defined art
as an internal state within the artist, an intuition, which is
organized, unified, and articulated as a work of art, a public expres
sion. Art can be further defined in comparison to craft. Craft has
a preconceived end product and involves a structured process. Art
cannot determine the outcome,such structure is impossible (Wollheim,
1977). Their theory, based upon the intuitive and expressive, is in
accord with the concept of expression as an ideal, closer to truth
than practice. Art teaching based upon this aesthetic theory would
91
contrast with the process orientation of Ecker (1966). Croce and
Collingwood regarded the intuition, the expression, as an inexplicable
quality, Ecker saw the art experience as a problem defined by human
intelligence and reflection.
Weitz (1977) offered a definition of art that allowed no
definition. Instead of an aesthetic theory that sought to treat all
works of art, Weitz (1977) suggested a series of sets or theories that
provided for art works as paradigms. The use of these examples per
mits the application of appropriate criteria and theories. He dis
proved traditional aesthetic theories as sufficient only for certain
periods and properties of art. His taxonomy would include as influen
tial theories: Imitationalism, Expressionism, Emotionalism, Formal
ism, and Organicism. The aesthetic theory must be chosen as appro
priate to, or sufficient for, the properties of a given work of art
or an exemplar, a paradigm of art works. Thus, the aesthetic theory
of Bell and Fry, a formalist doctrine, is best used to explain ab
stract art. Barnes defined aesthetics in terms of color, whereas
Berenson structured an aesthetic theory on the painterly, tactile
elements of pictoral ground (Berenson, 1960; Weitz, 1966). That
Barnes' theory rejected the work of Boticelli, and Berenson's refused
to admit much of medieval art or non-Florentine Renaissance painting.
Weitz presented proof of the limited applicability of some valid
aesthetic theories. He believed art teachers should use art theories
as instruction in art. They should not seek to define the undefin-
able. The aesthetic theories, taken together as a series of. sets,
I Weitz offered as a methodology (Weitz, 1 9 6 6 ) . ______________
92
Weitz1 initial explanation of the indefinite theory of art
held that art was an open-textured concept. As such, the conditions
of its application were constantly changing. Therefore, according to
Weitz, it could not be defined in the traditional, static, manner.
He eliminated the need for a search for definition of art (Dickie &
Sclafani, 1977). Later modifications provide for a theory of sets
or paradigms which may be used to instruct and determine definition
in a given period or style.
Much of Weitz1 theory of art may be applied to current con
cepts of eclecticism in art education. Application of his open-
textured concept allows for flexibility with regard to time and
criteria. Provision for a variety of student populations may also be
a rationale for this application of theories to specific exemplars
and paradigms. The lure of Weitz' theory is not the lack of firm
criteria for definition, it is the flexibility it provides for growth
and accommodation.
Theories of art and aesthetics describe both the process of
making art and the product created. The catalogues of museums and
galleries list and review art objects. Interaction between the.
viewer and the art object is described by the critic. Definition of
art for art education in the secondary schools has advanced beyond
the stages described by Eisner and Ecker (1966) during'the first half
of the 20th century. According to data provided by the National
Assessment (1981-82), further definition is indicated. Lanier (1981)
would redefine both content and process.
Scientific Models
93
Barkan's (1962) charge to reorganize the teaching of art as a
humanistic, cognitive study was supported by the discovery approach of
Jerome Bruner in science. Bruner's work was defined in a period of
national crisis and international competition following the Russian
launch of Sputnik. The Woods Hole conference on the teaching of the
sciences directed the immediate restructuring of curricula in science
and mathematics. The taxonomy of science was examined and the knowl
edge base strengthened in the curriculum.
The suggestion made by Barkan (1962), in his "Transition"
dictum, that art be taught as another language, is a mixed message.
He refers to language as a humanistic study at a time when language
courses throughout the country were being revised in strict behavior-
ist formats. Formerly taught as a reading knowledge of literature,
national demands for spoken language forced a turnabout in foreign
language study. The resultant audio-lingual method was based on the
Army Specialized Training Program (Richardson, 1960). Barkan indi
cated that art must organize a body of knowledge in a humanistic dis
cipline and teach in a verbal tradition. Accommodation of this sug
gestion, over a 20 year period, has been difficult in light of the
visual, expressive tradition. The visual arts do provide a channel
of communication. However, that communication is perceived differ
ently when compared to a linguistic message. The whole graphic mes
sage is perceived rapidly; verbal messages are structured in
94
incremental units (Arnheim, 1971). The difference in the two exper
iences can be illustrated by photo montage versus the reading of a
book.
Further pressures to produce a scientific model for art
education came from acceptance of an industrial model for incremental
learning (Mager, 1962). Behavioral objectives and accountability
became the measure of a well-planned curriculum (Davis, 1976; Popham,
1969). Applied to art experiences, they accounted for skill develop
ment and processes. They were written for the affective domain with
less success. All learning in art was not quantified. For Bloom,
Gagne, and Skinner, curriculum could be constructed as a systematic
plan (Bloom, Hastings, & Madaus, 1971; Clarizio, Craig, and Mehrens,
1977). Outcomes occured in linear sequence. No relativity was
required in an ordered sequence. The scientific model, applied to
art education at a time when a definition of art was undergoing
change, was scarcely a valid map.
It is noteworthy that the imperative continues to appear in
the literature: "The best way to teach the arts is to think of them
as languages:
How are languages taught?
How are languages learned?" (Engel, 1981, p. 24).
Foreign language study has undergone several revisions since
its original barebones audio-lingual approach and now reincorporates
cultural learning (Protano, 1979).
95
Reacting to the failure of objectives models to accommodate
art curriculum, Eisner (1972b) suggested a modification of the
scientific approach to learning in revising the behavioral objective
to include an instructional or performance component and an affective
component. More recently he has stated with regard to basics and
accountability that
we have bottomed out in these areas, and people are
beginning to realize that children cannot live well
on a diet of bread and water and that teachers cannot
teach well in a system modelled after a Lockheed
assembly line. (Eisner, 1979, p. 13)
The breadth of field suggested by Barkan (1962) is evident in
current goals and theories. His determination that the study of art
should provide humanistic background concerning art and the artist
survives. The impact of scientific models has not affected the
humanistic intent of Barkan's concept (Barkan, 1962). Application of
scientific models has yielded information about the extent of the
curriculum and the need to account for a wide variety of factors in
art.
Stylistic Factors
If agreement with regard to methodology is weak, a consensus
concerning content is impossible. At one end of a continuum, Lanier
(1981) believes production is an incidental in curriculum planning*
aesthetic literacy should be the focus of instruction. He would
include the popular arts so that discrimination could be developed
through recognition of excellence in examples-. At the other end of
96
the continuum, the average course guide for the study of art pres
cribes structured lessons in art production (Fairfax County Schools,
1974).
A theory of art education must take into account the popula
tion to be educated, the methods of education, and the expected out
comes as well as the course content. Adjusting all of these factors
raises a social issue. Decisions with regard to content and method
become aesthetic decisions. If all students are to be taught aesthe
tic discrimination in addition to the making of art, a sound plan is
required. Lanier (1981) cited the aesthetic qualities of a work of
art and listed the theories that apply.
Art was viewed as a choice-making activity by Schwartz (1970).
He stated that there was no place for arbitrariness and teacher domi
nation in the art program. Students should be taught the impermanence
of value judgments, the realization that '‘conceptions of the good and
the beautiful are transient within cultures, and the understanding
that society has changed through evolution and revolution throughout
history, p. 123). Art teachers may see their role as that of a
"taste-maker." Art teachers must rely upon galleries, museums,
special collections, and textbooks to develop the standards for
aesthetic judgment. Nunro (1929) suggested:
Examples of other works of art, past and con
temporary, should be shown to the student at the
appropriate moment in his own development when he
has spontaneously shown interest in the sort of
problems with which the other work was concerned.
(P. 228)
97
In this model, art teachers are required to have a broad and detailed
knowledge of art history and its appropriate applications for aes
thetic development.
It is probably impossible for the art teacher to be completely
objective and dispassionate in teaching judgment with regard to a
period or style of art. Undoubtedly, personal preference will be
reflected (Schwartz, 1970). The teachers should identify their
preference as such and suggest that the concept of choice and. pref
erence involved in aesthetic judgment signifies a variety of opinions
If teachers of art do not choose to identify objects or works that
are exemplary, if they do not discriminate, and if they do refuse to
call attention to the excellent, then one item/is as good as the next.
Education in art must involve the cultivation of aesthetic judgment.
Formal aesthetic terminology is the most commonly used to describe
the aesthetic experience to the student (Schwartz, 1970). However,
new theories incorporating greater flexibility may be useful (Clarke,
1973).
Examination of a variety of rationales and theories is neces
sary in order to understand the art of any period. Contemporary
thought is inconsistent with regard to values and beliefs concerning
art. The art teacher cannot work in isolation in the studio, no
matter how strong the urge may be. The critic, the historian, the
artist, all add to the comprehensive definition of art.
Barzun (1974), in his lectures on art, "The Use and Abuse of
Art," came to see the turning point in 20th century art as the
98
development of an aesthetic in accord with abstract art. The theories
of Bell and Fry that permitted Whistler to identify his paintings as
abstract compositions rather than specific landscapes and portraits
divorced art from life for Barzun. After the acceptance of the new
aesthetic in the 1920's, "the dam broke and styles, periods, fashions,
avant-gardes, and retrogressions mingled in one flood" (Barzun, 1974,
p. 130). in a metaphor similar to the medieval Everyman play, Barzun
described the past 500 years as an art period about to collapse for
lack of value structures. He called the latest protagonist of
humanity "Aesthetic Hah" and determined it was an act of mercy to
extinguish him (p. 143). Although Barzun stated that a new period
would develop, a new art evolve, he preferred to retire to the pri
vacy of his personally constructed aesthetic and listen to Mozart
and Berlioz. His likening of art to the Redeemer has proven false.
In an historian's complaint about a loss of identity, Barzun
raised the question of style. He condemned contemporary art for its
lack of style and extended the condemnation to contemporary life as
well. Barzun (1973) stated, "if a period Tacks its own style, as
well as a sense of style, then the sum of art produced will probably
not exert any clear or subtle influence" (p. 129). He expressed a
\
yearning for simplicity and a nostalgia for a consistent aesthetic.
In strong contrast to Barzun, Geldzahler (1969) extolled the
period of 1940-1970 as evidence of a new era in American art. He
cited New York as the dominant center of world art. This period
extends from the formalism of abstract art through periods of
99
surrealism and pop art to minimalism and the aftermath of abstract
expressionism. Geldzahler, Curator of Contemporary Arts at the
Metropolitan Museum of Art, stated:
There are no safe reputations in Modern Art.
The same dialogue that leads so productively to
the constant renewal of tradition makes of each
new departure an adventure and a dare. The art
of the past seems more orderly; critics and his
torians have marshaled the facts for us, and our
sense of quality is aided by perspective. It is
possible to clarify the work of a past, closed
historical period. New work is judged qualitatively
almost as if it were discontinuous with everything
done before. While the critical process in which
the new art is dissected, in which rules change
as fast as new problems and solutions are set, is
exhilarating and rigorous, it is also seemingly
chaotic and shapeless except to the few who are
continually in touch and in sympathy with it.
(Geldzahler, 1969, p.* 26) *
The curator of an outstanding contemporary exhibit finds the
lack of an established aesthetic frame "exhilarating." The historian
sees disorientation and chaos.
Greenberg (1969), critiquing the same period as Geldzahler
and Barzun, found the same truth, a lack of style in the period after
abstract expressionism after Bell and Fry. He viewed stylistic
developments in this aftermath as mere cubistic prettiness. Despite
the lack of style, he confirmed a strength in the artists and their
work, the painterly concepts--which will survive. The critic pre
sents a clearer case for contemporary art and aesthetics than does
the historian.
Reintegration of art education might include both critical
essays and the testimony of the artist. For example, Glaser, dis
cussing his role as a designer and problem-solver, defined creativity
100
and named Picasso as his mentor. Robert Indiana discussed his "Love"
painting which was commercialized as a Valentine and a postage stamp
(Diamonstein5‘ J.979). Interviews with the artists explore the direc
tions and aesthetic bases of contemporary art. J. Carter Brown,
revealing his feelings about "tuning" the spaces in the East Wing of
the National Gallery of Art, or Larry Rivers, discussing his mother's
taste in art, reveal concepts about exhibits and the education of
artists. (Diamonstein's interviews from which these comments are
cited, are on videotape as well as in print.)
In an age of technology, new media and uses of materials are
discovered regularly. Refinement of judgment may grow out of exhibi
tions and the artists' rationales. Aesthetic judgement, criticism,
may also be deferred. A willingness to use technology, to experiment,
is one mode of contemporary art. Related to the Bauhaus craft prin
ciples, some contemporary art is united with technology.
Robert Rauschenberg was the first major American artist to
commit himself to a thorough collaboration with technology. In his
early paintings and later lithographs he created a seemingly unrelatec
set of diverse images. His technological works have been innovative
stagings and displays in much the same mode.
As one of his social goals, Rauschenberg would encourage
artists to create experimental learning environments for children.
In a letter concerning art and technology Rauschenberg stated,
"Technology is contemporary nature. (Not in place of anything, there
like everything else)" (Rauschenberg, 1973, p. 144). Collaboration
101
between science, technology, and art is regarded as the future of
art (Davis, 1976). Technology is the current environment.
These divergent views of art and aesthetics provide a measure
for the scope of art curriculum. Flexibility becomes a requirement.
In the public schools it is believed that all students should
have access to art programs. Too frequently selection of art works
or the teaching of discrimination is seen as an "elitist" practice
(Smith, 1981, p. 5). Within the broad scope of content, students
should be accommodated and instructed with regard to outstanding
examples. All students have the capacity to grow in aesthetic aware
ness and understanding.
In order to provide for the ethnic populations in the schools
and to enrich the experience for all students, art educators stress
a multi-cultural curriculum and examination of a variety of periods
and styles. The multi-cultural frame must be accompanied by a flexi
ble aesthetic approach. Education in this mode permits the study of
a rich and varied cultural heritage (Lovano-Kerr, 1976; McFee &
Degge, 1977).
Summary of Chapter
An outline of trends and theories in the history of art
education has revealed substantial growth since the Colonial period
when Franklin introduced art as an instrumental subject in the cur
riculum of the Philadelphia Academy. With that growth has come a
diversity of purpose established upon intricate foundations in
102
society and divergent theories of art and aesthetics. One means of
examining these theories and trends is Efland's Theory of Practice.
This theory permits classification by means of an aesthetic base and
the establishment of relationships with regard to psychological
beliefs. Each tradition may be observed in art education today: the
mimetic, the pragmatic, the expressive, and the objective.
A definition of art is required as a frame for examination of
curriculum. The flexibility of Weitz' definition allows incorpora
tion of other theories in an eclectic approach. This eclectic
approach from an anthropological perspective is probably also useful
for adoption of a multi-cultural curriculum.
The study of art, concerned as it is with styles, models,
and paradigms, may offer a more appropriate model for curriculum
integration than those scientific models designed and implemented
as a part of national concern for a cognitive base. The imposition
of a behavioral model has required modification in both content and
methodology (Eisner, 1972b).
Historically, when aesthetic philosophy and psychological
basis for instruction were explained by a strong leader, Dow, Dewey,
or Lowenfeld, theories were readily practiced. The close relation
ship of the visual arts and psychological inquiry continues to enrich
both fields. Current curriculum practices may have been subject to
an ambiguous message. Claiming the goals of humanistic study, con
tent may have been trivialized and fragmented beyond meaning in the
behavioral model. The case for reintegration is strong.
103
CHAPTER IV
METHODOLOGY
Design of the Research
In order to study the setting of this concern, the documents,
literature, and history of the problem have been researched. Central
to the acquisition of pertinent new information on the topic is a
survey of professional personnel employed in the field of education.
For this purpose, an instrument was designed that would correlate with
theories and issues in art education. Thus, a basis for judging the
current state of the art could be established through practical means.
Goal statements are close to the purposes and theories of
art education. Course offerings indicate the frame of operation in
the schools, for practice may not always be in direct relationship
to stated theory. These curricular components provided the structure
for the questionnaire. The impediments to implementation represent
problems encountered in turning theory into practice. They are
practical factors necessary for program support. If there are no
impediments, there are no problems. The presence of impediments to
implementation of specific goals may indicate an issue that requires
study. For example, if a Tack of teacher training for a specific
goal, such as career education,is cited, it may point to the emphasis,
or lack of emphasis, that training institutions place on careers in
104
art. Questions concerning the general status of art education should
carry less weight than those that pertain to specifics.
Survey
In order to obtain the required data concerning the current
status of art education in the secondary schools of the United States,
a descriptive study was designed. The survey sought information
pertaining to program goals and curriculum content from two popula
tions: art educators, teachers, and supervisors at secondary school
level; and curriculum directors and assistant superintendents of
instruction. Thus, the educator with specialized knowledge of art
and the educator with knowledge of the total school curriculum were
each asked to respond in the survey. The need for these data for
decision-making purposes has been established. No such current data
exist.
A questionnaire was developed in order to survey educators'
attitudes toward selected goals and issues in art education (Appendix
A). These goals were based upon goals in curriculum guides and
research with regard to the history of art education. The goals
represent a variety of theories of art and stages in the development
of the curricular field. Comparison of the responses of the two
populations sampled permits analysis of attitudes.
Development of Questionnaire/Pilot Process
105
The questionnaire was developed through a pilot process. The
initial instrument of 77 items was administered to selected art
teachers, supervisors, administrators, and curriculum directors in
November 1979. The subsequent revision of 73 items was administered
to the advisory council of the Maryland Art Education Association and
to school administrators in January 1980. The second revision of 78
items was administered to art teachers and school administrators in
April 1980. This revision was reviewed by the doctoral committee in
May 1980. Advice from experts in education was received at the
University of Southern California. In October 1980 the final revision
of 44 items was completed. A format was designed so that the instru
ment was as brief as possible. The majority of items that were
deleted from the original version of the questionnaire addressed
themselves to selection of art history textbooks. Reviewers, both
art educators and administrators, suggested that all respondents would
not be cognizant of all texts. Directions were clarified and ques
tions were reformed. In its initial form, the questionnaire con
tained a direction to rank goals in priority order. This proved to
be a difficult direction. A five-point Likert-type scale was used in
the final instrument (Isaac & Michael, 1979). The executive directors
of the National Art Education Association (NAEA), Dr. John Mahlmann,
and the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Dr.
Gordon Cawelti, reviewed the questionnaire prior to its final revi
sion.
106
In order to avoid an ambiguous response, those sampled were
asked their attitudes toward goals of the program in which they worked
and in an ideal program, "What is" and "What ought to be." Partici
pants were asked to rank goals as: "very important, must be realized,'
"moderately important, should be part of any program," "neither
important nor unimportant," "relatively unimportant," and "very
unimportant," "relatively unimportant," and "very unimportant, should
be eliminated."
If there were differences between the existing program and the
ideal, they were asked to check from a list of impediments to imple
mentation. Seven impediments were listed plus a category for other
comments. The list of impediments was developed by experts in art
supervision, higher education, and secondary school administration.
Impediments to implementation of goals were identified as: lack of
community supports lack of teacher training, little or no adminis
trative support, inflexible curriculum structure does not permit
innovation, lack of adequate staff, lack of necessary materials,
and lack of adequate training in aesthetic theory.
A list of course offerings was compiled from course guides.
Twenty-two categories were identified and a line was provided for
additional titles. Course titles represent a comprehensive compila
tion of instruction available in secondary school programs. They
also may be utilized in support of goals and theories. For example,
the process of filmmaking is listed as part of goal 11, film is named
in item 23 as a course title.
107
Items 40 and 41 cover general attitudes toward art education.
They represent a summary of the status of the program in a given dis
trict and the subject's opinion of an ideal situation.
The last two questions— concerning characterizing the current
program through the work of one artist, and developing a program based
upon the work of one artist— offer the respondent an opportunity to
synthesize all features of the program and use a metaphor derived
from a knowledge of art to express this synthesis. The questions
were constructed with the knowledge that the task would be difficult
for many respondents and that it required imagination as well as
cognition. These questions were piloted with groups of subjects who
were asked to comment. Some subjects could not answer the questions,
an attitude that represents one response. Space was provided for
participants in the survey to comment.
The first page of the questionnaire identified the subjects
by professional position, job title, grades taught or supervised,
professional affiliation, and the student enrollment in the district
in which they worked. This information permitted accurate discrimina
tion between professional populations and identified appropriate sub
jects in terms of job, secondary level of teaching, supervision or
administration, and current employment in a school district.
Subjects were asked to provide descriptive data for a
national survey. Returns were requested as soon as possible. Those
participants who desired a summary report were asked to writo in
their addresses. All recipients were assured of the confidentiality
108
of individual responses. A return address also appeared on the
questionnaire.
The language of the goal statements was reduced to comprehen
sible key phrases and slogans during the pilot process. Suggestions
for clarity and brevity by educational experts resulted in brief
statements representative of goals and theories. Course titles in
art were usually derived from media, history, or criticism. The
Tri-County Goals project (Clackamas,Multnomah, and Washington Coun
ties, Northwestern Regional Education Laboratory, 1974, pp. xxix-xlii)
provided a taxonomy of art by means of which titles were cross-
referenced.
Selection of Subjects
The study surveyed two populations representative of profes
sional personnel knowledgeable about art education and curriculum con
tent. The questionnaire was mailed to 200 secondary school art
teachers and art supervisors who were members of the National Art
Education Association (NAEA). The random sample of 200 names was
obtained by standard procedure using the data processing facilities
and membership rolls of the NAEA. There were 7,786 members of the
Association, of whom 3,321 were secondary school art teachers and 803
were school supervisors.
The questionnaire was sent to 200 curriculum directors and
assistant superintendents for instruction from 6,902 titles distribut
ed throughout the United States. The random sample was obtained by
109
standard procedure using the data processing facilities of Market
Data Retrieval, Westport, Connecticut.
Subjects were all employed in secondary school education.
The art educators, all members of NAEA, had received a core of litera
ture concerning art education for the duration of their memberships.
NAEA members were believed to be a fairly homogeneous population,
primarily concerned with art education. Curriculum directors and
assistant superintendents for instruction were selected for their
knowledge of total school curriculum. This administrative group,
responsible for the design of curriculum, represented another educa
tional viewpoint. The perspectives provided by these two groups
were essential for a valid report of status, one group functioning
as art educators, the other as planners, integrating values in the
curriculum.
Graphic Design
The questionnaire was designed to cover one sheet of paper
only. Once the items were piloted, information was compressed and
ordered so that it would fit opposite two sets of Likert-type scales
and a set of choices. Bold-face type was used fofc ready identifica
tion of columns. Numbers were repeated in each cell to facilitate
responses to the questionnaire. Space in the right-side margin
allowed room for furthur comments. A grid was designed for all other
responses except for the last two questions which were open. The for
mat for the scales and grids was modeled on a questionnaire
n o
developed by the Corporation for. Public Broadcasting and the National
Center for Education Statistics (1976-77).
The response forms were color-coded: white for administrators
and buff for art educators so that returned forms could be readily
sorted according to the population listed. There was only one form
of the instrument. Return envelopes were stamped and printed with
the proper address. Heavy stock was used for the questionnaire.
Cover Letter
A letter from the Executive Director of NAEA, John Mahlmann,
accompanied the questionnaire. Dr. Mahlmann requested that recipients
respond to the questionnaire in order to provide data which would be
helpful in future policy decisions (Appendix B). This letter accom
panied all questionnaires in the initial mailing.
Directions
Brief directions headed each section of the questionnaire.
Where there were three columns, each column was headed by a set of
directions and a set of references for the items.
Distribution of Questionnaire
The questionnaire was mailed to 400 subjects during the month
of February 1981. A follow-up mailing was sent to those who had not
responded by March 1981. The second mailings contained hand-written
notes requesting a response. The questionnaires were numbered end
checked against a master list for responses. _____________ _
m
Return of Questionnaires
As the questionnaires were returned, they were sorted by
color and categorized according to the information provided by
respondents concerning job title, professional position, and profes
sional affiliation. Some of the respondents who had answered the
administrative (white) questionnaire identified themselves as members
of NAEA and art teachers by title. It was assumed that the adminis
trators to whom the form had been mailed had routed it to an art
teacher for response. In order to test this assumption, a brief
question concerning decision making in regard to art education was
framed and sent to a random sample of 50 administrators from the
original list of 200 (Appendix C). Of these, 42 responded. The
response confirmed the assumption: 32 said they usually referred to
an art educator when confronted with a decision in art education; 8
said they did not consult an art educator; and two said it depended
upon the situation. (One negative response was accompanied by a
notation that there was no art educator to consult.)
Data were collected and reviewed during the spring semester
of 1981. There were 54 responses from administrators, 82 from art
educators, and 14 from art educators who had received the form from
administrators. This represented a response of 38 percent of the
total number surveyed or 41 percent of all art educators to whom the
instrument was distributed and 34 percent of the administrators
(including art teachers who received the form from administrators).
112
Data may be meager owing to a somewhat refractory set of subjects.
Surveys requesting this kind of descriptive data have not been a
common practice in art education. Information concerning budgetary
items is frequently requested. It must be assumed that those sub
jects who responded were those who were concerned about art educa
tion. Those who did not respond may have no interest in the topic,
no knowledge about goals and curriculum in art, or an antipathy toward
art education in general. Since the purpose of the survey was to
provide a profile of professional opinions concerning art education,
the data provided by respondents were utilized, however skimpy.
The number of questionnaires distributed, 200 to each sample,
was arrived at in an attempt to assure at least-50 responses for
t
analysis. This represented a large distribution for so small a
return. However, use of,descriptive data in this category"has not
been a practice in the field.
Method of Data Treatment
The data returned from the questionnaire were prepared for
computerized data processing using the Statistical Package for the
Social Sciences (Nie et al., 1980). The data were programmed to
yield the following statistical data:
1. A cross-tabulation (CROSSTAB) showing frequency of selection
and degree of choice by art educators/administrators.
2. A chi-square analysis showing significant differences in
frequency of selection and degree of choice by art
_______ educators /admi n i s trators.____ _____________________________
113
3. Frequency of course offerings and course requirements
expressed as a percentage of the number of responses.
4. A discrepancy score showing the difference between “what is1!
and what “ought to be" indicating the need for change.
All tests of statistical significance were conducted at a
probability level of .05 or smaller.
The data requiring an open response (items 42-43) were
recorded as number of responses and frequency of like responses.
Whether or not a response was made was considered as significant as
the artist(s) named.
Suggestions for Improving the Design
A cover letter from a leader in the Association for Super
vision and Curriculum Development (ASCD) or the American Association
of School Administrators (AASA) should accompany questionnaires sent
to administrators. Although it would be the same form as the instru
ment distributed to art educators, the administrators' questionnaire
should be identified as such. This would keep the two groups separate
and prevent formation of a third category.
Summary of Chapter
This study utilized the methodology of descriptive research,
a survey instrument, in order to obtain information concerning the
attitudes of educators in regard to selected issues and theories in
art education.
114
Samples of two populations, representing two perspectives on
the study of art, were surveyed. It was assumed that generalized
inferences might be drawn from the processed data. This was con
sidered to be the optimum method for researching the problem (Van
Dalen, 1979).
115
CHAPTER V
THE FINDINGS OF THE STUDY
Procedure
Each goal is discussed individually. Information pertinent
to the goal, the mean ranking by each group, and the analysis of the
variance will.be found in Tables in Appendix D. In the discussion
of the goals, reference is made to the cross-tabulation analysis and
the impediments to implementation. Impediments are cited only if
they were supported by 4 percent of the sample. A composite table
and graph follow the treatment of individual goals. Other documents
have been placed in the Appendix section, including the questionnaire.
Xeroxed copies of the complete set of statistical data in support of
the findings are available from the researcher: Mrs. Ann S. Richard
son, Supervisor of Art, Charles County Public Schools, La Plata,
Maryland 20646.)
Course offerings are discussed in terms of support for the
goals and trends in art education. They appear in priority order
according to frequency of offering in a bar graph.
Summary questions concerning attitudes toward art education
are briefly reviewed. Questions that required identification of an
artist characterizing the present program and an artist whose work
could supply a curriculum base are discussed as a willingness to
risk an answer and the kinds of artists named.
116
The research questions asked in Chapter I are partially
answered in the findings. The answers are completed by further
treatment covering each topic of concern. ^
The interpretation and evaluation section draws inferences
concerning programs, theories, and practice from the data supplied by
the survey. The theory of practice utilized in the previous chapter
is used as a means of classifying responses.
Respondents
Three groups of respondents were identified: 82 art educa
tors, 54 school administrators, and 14 art teachers to whom adminis
trators gave the questionnaire. This represents a 38 percent response
or 41 percent of all art educators to whom the instrument was dis
tributed and 34 percent of the administrators (including art teachers),
The responses of art teachers in the administrative category were
treated as one sample although they represented a small percentage,
7 percent, of the questionnaires mailed to administrators.
Findings
Respondents were asked to rate 12 goals of art education as
they would rank them in their current program and as they would
regard them in an ideal program. "What is" and "What ought to be."
The scale for rating provided five categories: (a) very important,
must be realized, (b) moderately important, should be part of any
program, (c) neither important nor unimportant, (d) relatively
117
unimportant, and (e) very unimportant, should be eliminated. The
goals are discussed first as individual goals in terms of their
ranking by each group. A composite table and a graph provide for
comparison of the rankings for each goal.
Participants in the study were asked to indicate impediments
to attainment of the goals. The impediments were given as: lack of
community support; lack of teacher training; little or no administra
tive support; inflexible curriculum, structure does not permit innova
tion; lack of adequate staff; lack of necessary materials; lack of
adequate training in aesthetic theory and other, please specify.
A discrepancy score was taken as the mathematical difference
between the real and ideal ranking of goals, describing the atti
tude toward need for change from current practice. Course offerings
are discussed in terms of the percentage of school systems surveyed
that offer them. Information concerning the final questions and
characteristic artists is summarized.
The research questions are completed after the findings from
the data. The chapter concludes with final interpretation and
evaluation and a summary. '
For the purposes of this study all tests of statistical
significance were conducted at a probability level of .05 or smaller.
Probability levels for statistical tests resulting in probability
values larger than .05 were considered not significant statistically.
Each goal reflects theories and trends in art education
which are only mentioned briefly in the findings. Cqnsideration of
118
theoretical bases and Efland's (1979) traditions are further developed
in the subsequent interpretation and evaluation.
Transmittal of the Cultural Heritage
Question 6 postulates the following goal: "Transmittal of
the cultural heritage, art appreciation through study of art history."
Art history has been stressed in recent years as one of the three
areas of study in art: production, history, and criticism (Dorn et
al, 1977). The study of art history is part of the emphasis suggested
by Barkan (1962) in restructuring art education as a cognitive sub
ject, using a humanistic approach. The goal ranks as "moderately
important" in existing programs (Appendix D, Tanle 1). Cross
tabulation analysis reveals that the largest number of respondents
ranked it as "moderately important" in each instance: Real, 83 and
ideal, 70. However, 66 replied that it ought to be "very important"
versus 30 who indicated that it was "very important" in existing
programs.
Several impediments to implementation of the art history goal
were indicated. Art educators indicated that the following impedi
ments to implementation of the goal of art history existed (Responses
are shown as a percentage of the total population indicated; paren
thetically they are shown as a percentage of the number of respondents
who cited impediments to the goal): lack of community support, 8
percent (16 percent of those responding); lack of teacher training,
7.3 percent (15 percent of those responding); no administrative
119
support, 5.3 percent (11 percent of those responding); an inflexible
curriculum, 6 percent (12 percent of those responding); lack of
staff, 9.3 percent (19 percent of those responding); and miscellaneous
suggestions, 9.3 percent (19 percent of those responding).
In the administrative sample, the only impediment indicated
by over 4 percent of the respondents was a lack of staff, cited by
6 percent (26 percent of those responding).
Art educators considered several variables to be lacking in
what they termed an inflexible curricular situation: both adminis
trative and community support and the staff and teacher training to
achieve the goal. Each sample would rank the goal higher in an
ideal situation. The goal in art history, although ranked as
"moderately important" is impeded by the lack of several factors
crucial to implementation, according to art educators. If these
impediments were removed, the goal in this appreciative, cultural
area might be achieved!
In the ranking of the ideal goal, there is a significant
difference between groups (Appendix D, Table 2). Art educators would
support this goal at a higher level. It represents a professional
approach to art education which has not been fully implemented.
Studio Experiences
Question 7 postulates the following goal: "Studio experience,
the teachnical processes of creating art, manipulating media." Pro
duction refers to the role of the artist, that most frequently
120
treated in art education in spite of efforts to teach aesthetics in
history and criticism (Lanier, 1981). The making of art is central
to school art programs. It was ranked as "very important" by all
groups (Appendix D, Table 1). A cross-tabulation of responses showed
that 102 respondents, or 68 percent of all populations, cited studio
experiences as "very important" in ideal programs. Although the
administrative ranking was high, there was a significant difference
between administrators and art educators who ranked art production
higher (Appendix D, Table 3).
Art educators and administrators viewed impediments to
accomplishment’of this goal differently. The art educators indicated
that an "inflexible curriculum structure" prevented implementation,
according to 4 percent (22 percent of those responding). Adminis
trators, 4 percent (46 percent of those responding), cited a "lack
of materials" as an impediment.
The goal was stated so that the individual, the student, was
not mentioned. The process of making art stands as one of the highest
rankings of goals in art education.
Fostering Creativity
Question 8 postulates the following goal: "Fostering
creativity in the individual, opening a communication channel, the
visual arts, through which students may express themselves." No
goal showed a higher ranking than this one which incorporates the
creativity emphasized by Viktor Lowenfeld and the expressive element
121
of Freudian psychology (Appendix D, Table 4). It represents the
expressive tradition (Efland, 1979) and the effects of strong leader
ship in art education. Art educators ranked it .1.0 "very important,"
as an ideal goal. There was a significant difference in the lower
ranking of the administrators. The mean ranking for the total group
was the highest indicated for any goal. It was designated as "very
important" in ideal programs by 117 of 150 respondents (78 percent)
according to the cross-tabulation analysis.
The impediments to implementation, according to 4 percent of
the art educators (20 percent of those responding), were: a "lack
of community support" and a "lack of adequate staff." Although
administrators made some suggestions, there was no substantial (4
percent) support for any one impediment.
The ranking of this goal, the highest in the series, should
be noted in terms of the trend which was begun in the late 1930s and,
evidently, continues as the primary emphasis of most art programs.
The trends stressed in current literature would refute this finding.
Current emphasis on creativity represents a gap between contemporary
theory and practice (Dorn, 1981).
All Students to Become Artists
Question 9 postulates the following goal: "Educating all
students to become artists." Although there was a trend in the
1950s (D1Amico, 1953) to consider all students as potential artists,
that educational attitude has been reversed. This goal was included
122
in the series as an indicator of the degree of change from the earlier
position. All groups ranked the goal as "neither important nor
unimportant" both as the goal of current programs and as what "ought
to be." There was no significant difference between groups in rank
ing the goal.
Analysis of the cross-tabulation of responses showed the
largest number of respondents, 52 or 34.7 percent, cited the goal
as "relatively unimportant" in present programs. Art educators, 4
percent (33 percent of those responding) indicated a "lack of com
munity support" for the goal.
Since this goal was not supported by current literature, it
might be ranked lower in an ideal program. However, the tendency to
rank all goals higher in an ideal situation prevailed and the "what
ought to be" category for Goal 9 was slightly higher. Art educators
also gave the goal a higher score than did administrators. There
was no significant difference between groups. This goal ranked the
lowest of all goals listed on the questionnaire (Appendix D, Table
5).
Career Education
Question 10 postulates the following goal: "Career educa
tion, practical consideration of varied roles in the field of art,
exploring skills for jobs in art."
Career education was supported by federal initiatives in the
mid 1970s. Funding was provided for studies in career education in
123
art (Silverman, 1980). The infusion model, rather than separate
courses in vocational classes, was adopted by many systems. It
would probably be better termed an emphasis than a goal. In current
programs, career education ranked as "moderately important," in an
ideal program it would be moved up to the "very important" rank
(Appendix D, Table 6). In cross-tabulation analysis, the goal was
viewed as "moderately important" by approximately 50 percent of the
total sample both in real and ideal programs.
Whereas administrators found no substantial (4 percent)
impediments to implementation of career education in art, art educa
tors responded critically. A "lack of community support" was indi
cated by 5.3 percent (20 percent of those responding) of the art
educators. "Lack of teacher training" was identified as an impedi
ment by the largest number of respondents in the art category, 10.7
percent (39 percent of those responding). Art educators also cited
a "lack of staff" and miscellaneous reasons for not accomplishing the
goal.
The lack of community support, teacher training, and staff
are all serious deterrents to achievement of a goal which represents
a new set of attitudes and values applicable to every art course
offered.
If this goal is to be accomplished, staff development and
improved community relationships are preliminary requirements.
Contemporary Art Forms/Film and Video
124
Question 11 postulates the following goal: "Understanding
and utilizing contemporary expressive art forms, such as film and
video." This goal touches upon two controversial areas— the use of
technology and the status of popular art forms. Although there is
support for film and television media in art education (Lanier, 1981),
the NAEA Commission Report (Dorn et al., 1977) indicates that the
mass media is to be criticized as the antithesis of fine art. The
issues have not been resolved. Definition of filmmaking as an art
form is not complete in many school programs, although several states
hold film festivals.
The goal was viewed as "moderately important" in current
programs. It would move up to "very important" in the "what ought
to be" category (Appendix D, Table 7). Only 6 percent of all respon
dents indicated that contemporary media, film, and video, were "very
important" in present programs whereas 25.3 percent would find them
"very important" in an ideal program, according to the cross-
tabulation of responses.
Several impediments to implementation were noted. Both
administrators and art educators indicated that a "lack of materials"
was a problem. Of the art educators, 10.7 percent (24 percent of
those responding),and of the administrators, 9.3 percent (48 percent
of those responding), cited the materials impediment. In this case,
owing to the expense involved in purchasing equipment and maintaining
studios, there is considerable cost involved. A "lack of community
125
support" was identified by 7.3 percent (17 percent of those respond
ing) of the art educators while 4 percent (21 percent of those
responding) of the administrators named "no administrative support"
as a problem in achievement of the goal. Art educators considered
a "lack of staff" (4 percent or 9 percent of those responding) and a
"lack of teacher training" (16 percent or 36 percent of those
responding) to be impediments to implementation of the goal of
understanding and utilizing film and video as expressive art forms.
There were no significant differences between groups in
ranking the goal. The higher ranking in ideal programs and the
indication that several impediments existed revealed a viable goal
that could be accomplished through a change of direction in teacher
training and funds budgeted for required materials.
Avant-Garde
Question 12 postulates the following goal: "Concern for the
avant-garde as an indicator of the future for art and society, the
cutting edge of the culture."
This goal is spurious. While a rationale can be developed
for its inclusion in the set of goals (Hurwitz, 1976), goal state
ments of this sort do not appear in course guides and documents.
Nevertheless, it was ranked as "moderately important" as a real goal
and as an ideal goal. It ranked somewhat higher in the ideal cate
gory. Although only 4.7 percent of the total sample regarded the
avant-garde goal as "very important" in current programs, 12 percent
126
of those responding viewed it as "very important" in an ideal pro
gram. A consistent 3.3 percent of the total number responding indi
cated that the goal was "very unimportant" in both categories,
according to the cross-tabulation of rankings.
Impediments to implementation were identified by the art
educators. No substantial (4 percent) identification of impediments
occurred among the administrators, although several categories were
indicated by a small percentage of respondents. Art educators cited
a "lack of community support" as the greatest impediment (7.3 per
cent of those responding) to achieving the avant-garde emphasis.
They also indicated a "lack of teacher training" (4 percent or 13
percent of those responding) and an "inflexible curriculum, structure
does not permit innovation" (4.7 percent or 16 percent of those
responding) as deterrents to accomplishment of the goal.
There were no significant differences between groups, al
though the small sample of 14 art teachers who received the adminis
trative form ranked the goal as "neither important nor unimportant"
as a real goal (Appendix D, Table 8). It is noteworthy that respon
dents in all groups supported the spurious goal and found impediments
to its implementation.
Quality of Life
Question 13 postulates the following goal: "Developing
appreciation of art and the processes of creating art in order to
improve the quality of the individual's own life, as an aid in
interpretation of the natural and man-made environment."____________
127
This goal represents an expansion of the creativity and ex
pressive elements in Goal 8 to include the affective aspects of the
environment. It is a current version of the creativity goal plus
concern for interaction with the environment. The goal is touched
upon in many curriculum guides (Montgomery, 1975), (Palm Beach, 1973).
Goal 13 belongs to the expressive tradition suggested by Efland
(1979) but includes some of the objective, problem-solving emphasis
in its indication of improvement of the quality of life. This
comprehensive goal was ranked as "very important" as a real and an
ideal goal (Appendix D, Table 9). It was among the top three goals
in rank. Analysis of the cross-tabulation of rankings showed that
the largest number of respondents ranked the goal as "very.important,"
72 (or 48 percent) as a real goal, and 106 (or 70.7 percent) as an
ideal goal.
Responses with regard to impediments to implementation were
minimal. Art educators indicated a "lack of community support"
(4.7 percent or 19 percent of those responding) and an "inflexible
curriculum structure, does not permit innovation" (4.0 percent or
17 percent of those responding) as deterrents to achieving the goal.
There was a significant difference between groups in ranking
the goal as ideal. The small sample of 14 art teachers who received
the form from administrators indicated a lower ranking, 1.50, than
did administrators, 1.41, and art educators, 1.06. All scores were
in the "very important" category (Appendix D, Table 9).
128
The "very important" rank established for this goal combined
with a fairly low incidence of impediments indicates a high level of
support for a goal which is viewed as both desirable and attainable
by all groups. According to these data, consideration should be
given to attainment of this goal.
Multi-Cultural Education
Question 14 postulates the following goal: "The study of
works of art as the products of many cultures in a multi-cultural
society, exposure to the art heritage of a variety of cultures."
This goal is in accord with the multi-cultural emphasis in curriculum
(Banks, 1979) stressed by the literature (McFee & Degge, 1977) and
many departments of education. Art provides a ready means of teach
ing about many cultures.
Art products reflect the cultural values of the societies in
which they were produced. Although examination of art history text
books revealed a lag in educational materials that would support the
multi-cultural goal, more recent texts adhered less to the Western
European tradition, including as they did the art of other ethnici
ties. Obviously, teachers must be educated in this manner in order
to use multi-cultural elements in their own instructional plans.
This predominantly social emphasis was ranked as "moderately impor
tant" in current programs and "very important" for ideal programs
(Appendix D, Table 10). In each ranking, art educators ranked it
higher than did the other two groups. There was a significant
129
difference between groups in the ideal ranking, art educators having
ranked the goal at 1.40 whereas administrators ranked it 1.74 and
teachers who received the administrative form, 2.14. As a real
goal, only 21.3 percent of all respondents ranked the goal as "very
important," as an ideal goal: 42.7 percent of all respondents ranked
it "very important," according to the cross-tabulation of scores.
Art educators viewed "lack of teacher training" (8.7 percent
or 30 percent of those responding) and "lack of community support"
(5.3 percent or 18 percent of those responding) as impediments to
achieving the goal. Administrators did not cite impediments in
substantial (4 percent) numbers.
This goal represents a trend in education. It also would
provide a solution to school systems searching for a means of initia
ting multi-cultural studies. It ranks as desirable and attainable
if staff development and improved community relations occur as pre
liminaries to planned implementation. Social benefits would be
achieved as adjuncts to an expanded aesthetic concept which would be
necessary in studying the art of many cultures.
Beautification
Question 15 postulates the following goal: "Beautification
of the school and community by means of exhibits, murals, super
graphics, etc." This goal is generally unstated. It may occur in
the study guides as part of an environmental objective. It is the
practical application of the art program in the daily use of the
130
school. At best, the environment may be redesigned and enhanced; at
the very least, student art work is put on display. Art educators
are aware of the need to present student work to the community and
administrators usually request such exhibits.
As a real goal, beautification of the school was viewed as
"very important" in the mean score of all groups, 1.97, although
administrators, 2.09, and teachers who received the administrative
form, 2.36, regarded it only as "moderately important." Art educa
tors rated this goal as 1.82 or "very important" in real programs.
In an ideal program, it ranked as "very important" with a mean score
of 1.61. There was a significant difference between groups in ranking
the program both as real and ideal. The art educators gave the goal
the highest ranking and the small sample of 14 art teachers who
received the administrative form gave it the lowest ranking (Appendix
D, Table 11).
The only substantial impediment to implementation cited by
art educators (5.4 percent or 22 percent of those responding) was a
lack of community support.
This was an unusual finding and may depend upon the extent of
beautification desired and the projected expense of implementation.
Analysis of the cross-tabulation of scores showed the largest
number of responses, the mode, for both real and ideal programs to
be in the "moderately important" category. As an ideal goal, 60
respondents or 40 percent of the population, rated it "very important1 . 1
whereas 39 respondents or 26 percent of the population rated it "very
important" in current programs. The goal may be unstated but it was
131
valued and achieved, according to the data collected and analyzed.
Recognition of this goal in curriculum guides might help to
decrease the instances of "lack of community support" cited as an
impediment to implementation. Projects in so-called beautification
may also be projects in public relations.
Art as Personal Therapy
Question 16 postulates the following goal: "Art production
as a form of personal therapy for students." Art therapy is becoming
a separate branch of art education. It indicates the extreme view of
the expressive tradition (Efland, 1979) in which the expression it
self exceeds the value of the object or work created. Depending upon
the orientation of the therapist, Freudian or other analytical
systems may enter into the therapeutic process of art production.
The goal was viewed by all groups, in both categories (real
and ideal) as "moderately important." There was no significant dif
ference between groups in ranking the goal (Appendix D, Table 12).
Art educators regarded "lack of community support" (4 percent
or 20 percent of those responding) and a "lack of teacher training"
(6 percent or 30 percent of those responding) as impediments to
implementation.
As this branch of art education develops, separate training
and certification may become specific requirements. The need for
further education in order to achieve the goal of art therapy is
evident.
132
Recent incentives impel recognition of art for the handicapped
as an emphasis in art education.
Aesthetic Framework
Question 7 postulates the following goal: "The development
of an aesthetic framework by means of which an individual may evalu
ate the visual arts, including environmental design and communication
media." This goal incorporates aesthetic education in the visual
arts and recognition of media in art education. It represents an
evaluation model which is a developmental system rather than a learned
set of absolute criteria. The goal of aesthetic education, with
recognition of media, would be the primary choice of some authorities
(Lanier, 1981). The goal in aesthetics was written to encompass a
variety of aesthetic theories and definitions of art, especially the
eclectic (Chapman, 1978) and the open definition of Weitz (1966).
The mean ranking of the goal by all groups in terms of current
program was 2.05 or "moderately important." As the goal of an ideal
program, it ranked 1.55 or "very important." (Appendix D, Table 12).
However, there was a significant difference between groups in the
ideal category according to analysis of the variance. Art educators
would rank it 1.35 or "very important" in an ideal program versus
teachers who received the administrative form ranking the goal 2.00
or "moderately important". Administrators ranked it 1.74 for the
ideal program, "very important."
133
Analysis of the cross-tabulation of scores showed the mode in
the "moderately important" category in both instances— real and ideal.
The shift in movement toward "very important" occurred among art
educators and administrators in the ideal category. As the goal of
current programs, 26 percent or 11 administrators, 26 art educators,
and 2 teachers who received the administrative form supported the
goal as "very important." As an ideal goal, 46.7 percent or 21
administrators, 45 art educators, and 4 teachers who received the
administrative form ranked the goal as "very important."
Art educators indicated that "lack of teacher training" (6.7
percent or 26 percent of those responding) and "lack of community
support" (5.3 percent or 21 percent of those responding) were impedi
ments to implementation. Administrators cited "lack of materials"
(5.3 percent or 35 percent of those responding) and "lack of adequate
training in aesthetic theory" (4 percent of 17 percent of those
responding) as deterrents to achievement of the goal.
There was support for the goal at a fairly high level, 1.55,
by the entire population in regard to an ideal goal. Teacher train
ing, training specifically in aesthetic theory, improved community
relations, and materials appropriate for aesthetic education are
required in order to realize the ideal goal. In order to implement
this goal, many impediments must be eliminated.
Composite Table and Graph of Rankings
A composite table shows the mean ranking by all groups and
the standard deviation for each goal in current programs and in ideal
134
programs. The highest ranking goals are" the goal which is concerned
with creativity and expression, the one that represents art produc
tion, and the comprehensive goal emphasizing art production and
interaction with the environment (Table 1). Table 1 shows goals
where there was a significant difference between groups marked with
an asterisk (*). Goals where the highest frequency of response
(mode) was recorded in the "very important" category have been marked
with a cross (+).
A bar graph provides a profile of the ranking, by mean score
for all groups, of each goal, both real and ideal. In each instance,
the rank rose in the ideal category (Figure 1). The obsolete goal,
"all students to become artists," and the spurious goal, "the avant-
garde," ranked the lowest. An asterisk indicates goals where there
was a significant difference between groups in the ranking (Figure
1) .
Discrepancy Score— Real versus Ideal Rankings
The data were programmed to yield a need score, the differ
ence between the ranking of "what is" and "what ought to be" for each
goal. The purpose o^ calculating this score was to determine the
need for change indicated by the extent of difference between real
and ideal. Examination of the analysis of the variance for each goal
reveals no significant difference between "what is" and "what ought
to be" within groups or between categories. Therefore, the need for
program change is not severe, according to the data.
Table 1
Table of Goals by Item Number Showing Mean Ranking for
Real and Ideal Situations
Goal
Mean
Ranking, Real
All Groups
Standard
Deviation
Mean
Ranking, Ideal
All Groups
Standard
Deviation
6. Transmittal of the
cultural heritage,
art appreciation
through study of
art history. 2.05 0.9468 1.47* 0.6625
7. Studio experiences,
the technical proces
ses of creating art,
manipulating media. 1.36** 0.6697 • 1.22** 0.6966
8. Fostering creativity
in the individual,
opening a communica
tion channel, the
visual arts, through
which students may
express themselves. 1.32+ 0.5850 1.10*+ 0.4797
9. Educating all students
to become artists. 3.48 1.2246 3.16 1,4521
OJ
cn
Table 1— continued
Goal
Mean
Ranking, Real
All Groups
Standard
Deviation
Mean
Ranking, Ideal
All Groups
Standard
Deviation
10. Career education,
practical considera
tion of varied roles
in the field of art,
exploring skills for
jobs in art. 2.08 0.8022 1.78 0.8182
11. Understanding and
utilizing contemporary
expressive art forms,
such as film and video. 2.58 1.0439 1.82 0.8116
12. Concern for the avant-
garde as an indicator
of the future for
art and society,the
cutting edge of the
culture. 2.64 1.0699 2.22 1.1044
13. Developing appreciation
of art and the processes
of creating art in order
to improve the quality
of the individual's own
life, as an aid in
interpretation of the
136
Table 1--continued
Goal
Mean
Ranking Real
All Groups
Standard
Deviation
Mean
Ranking, Ideal
All Groups
Standard
Deviation
natural and man-
made environment. 1.57+ 0.6985 1.22** 0.6036
14. The study of works
of art as the products
of many cultures in
a multi-cultural
society, exposure to
the art heritage of a
variety of cultures. 2.04 0.8661 1.59* 0.8282
15. Beautification of the
school and community by
means of exhibits,
murals, supergraphics,
etc. 1.96 0.8388 1.60* 0.7763
16. Art production as a
form of personal
therapy for students. 2.34 1.0416 2.05 1.0668
17. The development of an
aesthetic framework by
means of which an
individual may evaluate
the visual arts, including
environmental design
— i
CO
Table 1— continued
Mean Mean
Ranking, Real Standard Ranking, Ideal Standard
Goal All Groups Deviation All Groups Deviation
and communication
media. 2.05 0.9952 1.55*+ 0.8634
* Significant difference between groups.
+ These goals had the highest frequency of response in the
"Very Important" category.
00
00
139
Goal Statements
(abbreviated)
1. Very Important
2. Moderately Important
3. Neither Important nor Unimportant
4. Relatively Unimportant
5. Very Unimportant
5 . . 3 . 2
Studio Experience
Transmittal of the Cultural
Heritage
Fostering Creativity
All Students to Become
Artists
Career Education
Contemporary Art Forms,
Film/Video
Avante-Garde
Multi-Cultural Education
Improved Quality of Life
Beautification
Personal Therapy
Aesthetic Framework
^Significant difference between groups.
Figure 1
Profile of Mean Rankings
Real Ideal
140
Findings, Curriculum Components/Course Offerings
The extent to which courses are offered and required, expres
sed as a percentage of the number of respondents, is shown in a bar
graph (Figure 2). Courses are listed in priority order according to
the frequency of inclusion in the curriculum. Respondents were asked
to indicate level of instruction, "basic" or "advanced" and "required"
or "elective." The data were programmed to show only courses offered,
at any secondary level, and courses required of those taking art.
Study of the raw data resulted in this decision. The term "secondary
school art" has been defined as grades 6 through 12 to include middle,
junior high, and senior high schools.
Course offerings correlate with the goals in art education.
The top ten course titles, those most frequently offered, are pri
marily concerned with skill development and art production. With
the exception of the general survey course in art, they indicate
process arid media involvement. This should not be interpreted as
an emphasis only upon studio production. Certainly aesthetic deci
sions, criticism, and art history are a part of any art course.
Nevertheless, the course titles reveal an orientation toward making
art. Media and processes are used as an organizational framework for
the curriculum. Consequently, the primary expectation for the
courses is concern with media and processes. These courses, focusing
as they do upon art production, confirm the "very important" ranking
of the goal concerning studio experiences, the technical processes
of creating art, manipulating media" (Table 13).
141
COURSE
OFFERING
Offering Course |
10 20 30 40
| Requiring Course
50 60 70 80 90 100
Photography
Art History
Commercial
Art
Art
Appreciation
Figure 2
Percentage of Respondents Offering Course
and Requiring Course
911995
142
COURSE
OFFERING
Offering Course|
10 20 30
| Requiring Course^
50 60 70 80 90 100
Crafts:
Paper
Career Stud
ies/Vocation
al Education
Architecture
Filmmaking/
Video
Art History,
Specific Pe-
riod/Culture
Humanities/
Interrelated
Courses
Environmental
Design
Internships
Other
Figure 2 (Continued)
Percentage of Respondents Offering Course
and Requiring Course
143
Art history shares tenth place in priority order with photo
graphy (Figure 2). In spite of efforts to change the emphasis of art
courses and supply a basis for cognitive, humanistic studies (Barkan,
1962), at least eight media and process courses are offered more
frequently than art history. Almost three-fifths, or 58.7 percent,
of all respondents work in systems that offer art history courses.
Twenty-four percent require art history of students who study art.
Specialized courses, such as Renaissance art or African art, are a
part of the program in 27.3 percent of the school systems represented.
Humanities courses, which may involve interrelated arts programs, are
taught in 26.7 percent of the districts represented. In a similar
category, art appreciation courses are offered by almost as many
school systems, 54.7 percent, as^ those offering art history courses
(Figure 2). These courses may be viewed as the initiating centers
for study of aesthetic theory, although aesthetic awareness is an
essential component in any art course.
Art history must also be considered in terms of the goal in
multi-cultural education. The goal states, "The study of works of
art as the products of many cultures in a multi-cultural society,
exposure to the art heritage of a variety of cultures." This goal
is "moderately important" in current programs but viewed as "very
important" in ideal programs. The emphasis in art history cannot be
determined by a general course offering. However, where specific
courses in a period or culture are provided, in 27.3 percent of the
schools represented, multi-cultural education may occur.
144
Ceramics is the process/media course most frequently offered
after the traditional drawing, painting, and general survey courses.
It is required of students taking art as frequently (57.3 percent) as
the most commonly offered course, drawing. Ceramics courses are
offered by 84 percent of all systems reporting.
Design courses are characterized by studies in composition
and emphasis on problem solving. The analytic structure devised by
Dow or the project format of Bauhaus instruction is often the basis
for the curriculum. Design courses belong in the objective tradition
described by Efland (1979). Eighty-one percent of all those reporting
offered courses in design (Figure 2). This statistic indicates the
strong influence of the objective tradition in current practice.
Although design suggests a process, it is also the organizational plan
for an aesthetic theory.
The goal concerned with the use of technology states, "Under
standing and utilizing contemporary expressive art forms, such as
film and video." Of the number of systems reporting, 28.7 offer
courses in filmmaking and video and 14 percent require that students
take these courses. Photography, similar to filmmaking but not as
recent an addition to course offerings, appears in 58.7 percent of
the schools represented (Figure 2). These data indicate some
incorporation of technology in art education by over a quarter of the
systems represented.
One goal is specifically concerned with the environment and
the individual's interaction with it. It states, "Developing
145
appreciation of art and the processes of creating art in order to
improve the quality of the individual's own life, as an aid in
interpretation of the natural and man-made environment." Studies in
this area would include design, environmental design, and architecture
courses, although humanities courses and art history courses would
also add appreciative elements. A course in environmental design is
offered by 14.7 percent of the respondents and architecture courses
are offered by 29.3 percent (Figure 2). The goal ranks among the
top three, thus it may be diffused throughout the curriculum. Initial
courses in environmental design may indicate an area of growth or may
be subsumed by design courses. Support for the goal is not sub
stantiated by the number of courses in environmental design alone.
Commercial art, career studies/vocational education and
internships all relate directly to career education. The goal in
career education is ranked as "moderately important" in current pro
grams and "very important" in ideal programs. Emphasis on the world
of work is part or demands for accountability in education. Course
offerings in art support career education goals. Of those reporting,
55.3 percent offer commercial art courses and 32.7 percent require
them. Internships are offered in 12.7 percent of the schools sur
veyed. Specific career studies/vocational education courses are
offered by 38.7 percent of respondents and required by 14 percent
(Figure 2).
Courses in skill building, in media and processes, are the
expectation for art curriculum. The goals show that production .
146
skills are not the sole emphasis in these courses. The top-ranked
goal is that of creativity and self-expression (Table 1). Creativity
cannot be defined as a course offering. It should be apparent in all
art offerings very like Maslow's (1968) definition that creativity
is "emitted," or radiated, and hits all life, regard
less of problems, just as a cheerful person "emits"
cheerfulness without purpose or design or even con
sciousness. It is emitted like sunshine; it spreads
all over the place; it makes some things grow (which
are growable) and is wasted on rocks and other ungrow-
able things.
The expressive tradition (Efland, 1979) exists as a component of all
courses through continued emphasis upon the goal of creativity.
Findings, Summary Questions
Summary questions asked participants in the survey how
secondary school art was regarded in the district where they worked
and how it should be regarded ideally. All groups indicated, by a
mean score of 1.38, that art was regarded in current programs as
"an essential element in the curriculum, a requirement." They also
agreed, with a mean score of 1.29, that it should be regarded that
way ideally. There was no significant difference between groups.
Findings, Characteristics/Artists
The last two questions were open-ended. Respondents were
asked, "If you were to provide such a description, which artist, or
artists, would best characterize the art education program for which
you are responsible?" and, "If you were to design an art course using
the work of one artist, whose work would you choose?"_______________
147
Responses were counted with regard to whether or not those
surveyed had answered either question. The key to the question is
the subjunctive structure. It asks the participant to imagine such
a situation. It is not an imperative. Consequently, one desired
outcome was to determine how many respondents in each group could
synthesize the information they possessed and imagine an answer.
Since some knowledge of art was involved, it might be supposed that
the question would be answered more frequently by art educators.
Analysis of the answers reveals that minimal knowledge of art was
required.
Of a total of 54 administrators, 21 or 39 percent, responded.
The art educators answered the questions most frequently with 62
responses or 76 percent of that population. Among art teachers who
received the administrative form, 9 or 64 percent answered. Many from
each group commented concerning the last two questions and their
difficulty in answering them.
The artists listed most frequently as characterizing the
current program were:
Identified by Art Educators
1. Picasso - 15 instances
2. Van Gogh - 7 instances
3. Dali - 5 instances
4. Degas - 4 instances
5. "Myself" - 4 instances
Identified by Administrators
1. Wyeth - 4 instances
2. Michelangelo - 2 instances
3. Da Vinci - 2 instances
Identified by Art Teachers Given Administrative Form
1. Picasso - 4 instances
2. Da vinci - 2 instances
The last question, in which participants were asked to
imagine a course in art designed around the work of one artist;
brought many negative comments concerning the inadvisability of such
a course. The most frequently offered responses were:
Identified by Art Educators
1. Picasso - 23 instances
2. Matisse - 5 instances
3. Da Vinci - 4 instances
Identified by Administrators
1. Picasso - 4 instances
2. Rembrandt - 4 instances
3. Da Vinci - 3 instances
Identified by Art Teachers Given Administrative Form
1. Rembrandt - 4 instances
In neither instance were the responses unusual or unpredict
able. The artists named are established masters, with the exception
of the "myself" category. The responses did vary, both Norman Rock
well and Walt Disney were suggested. The artists selected represented
149
conservative choices. One administrator suggested that Grandma
Moses characterized the local program.
Answering the "what if" questions reveals an openness and
willingness to imagine that might' be requisite for an art teacher.
Unicorns do ‘ riot exist, yet artists draw them. The large number of
responses, particularly by art educators, revealed as much about the
participants as the conservative -selection of artists did.
Those art educators who did not respond to the last two ques
tions concerning artists commented that the questions were difficult
or did not pertain to the survey.' One comment criticized the execu
tive director of NAEA for sponsoring such questions. Everyone does
not learn, teach, or think in the same way. Those who could or would
not answer represent another mode of thinking. Often they revealed
a concrete orientation in that they refused to select one from many
because they would never do so in a real situation. Art is concerned
with diversity and individual viewpoints. Thus, the negative view
also expresses an attitude toward art education.
Research’ Questions
1. Congruities in the responses of art educators and school
administrators.
As the profile of mean rankings for the goals of art education
shows, the art educators and school administrators were usually in
agreement (Table 13, Figure 1). There are few significant differences
and most of those are explained by the very small sample size of 14
art teachers who responded on the administrative form. With regard
150
to the three goals that had the most support (1) art production,
(2) creativity and self-expression, and (3) environmental studies
and improvement of the quality of life for the individual, the art
educators would rank the goals significantly higher than the other
groups. They also would consider multi-cultural education, school
beautification, art history, and the development of an aesthetic
framework to be slightly more important in the ideal program than did
the other groups. However, the lowest rank was indicated’ in all
of the latter cases by the art teachers who received the form from
administrators. The very small sample size may explain the less
congruent findings for that group.
Both groups viewed art as regarded to be "essential" in their
local districts. All groups named Picasso and Leonardo da Vinci
among the artists selected. Choices were generally conservative.
2. Disparities in the responses of art educators and school
administrators.
Art educators cited impediments to implementation more
frequently than did the administrators. Examination of the instances
where 4 percent or more indicated a deterrent showed that art educa
tors responded at this rate 30 times,, administrators 6 times. Art
educators identified a "lack of community support" (11 times), a
"lack of teacher training" (7 times), and a "lack of staff" (5 times)
as the greatest problems. The administrators indicated that a "lack
of materials" (3 times) was the greatest deterrent to implementation.
151
One administrator commented that naming impediments encouraged a
negative attitude on the teacher's part, that the problem could be
within the program. The attitude toward impediments was one of the
greatest differences in the survey. It is worthy of note that the
only substantial (4 percent) citation of "lack of administrative
support" came from the population of administrators, as did the only
such citation of "lack adequate training in aesthetic theory."
Some differences in ranking the goals have been noted.
Generally, administrators were in accord with art educators but lag
ged a few decimal points behind them in score. In only two cases did
administrators assign a higher rank to a goal than art teachers did.
Administrators ranked the goal supporting film and video .10 higher
than art educators on the mean score for real programs. They also
ranked the goal concerning art therapy as-.12 higher in current pro
grams and .05 higher in mean score for ideal programs (Table 13).
(Administrators may be more aware of needs in handicapped and special
education than are art educators.) These differences were not
significant.
More art educators, a total of 76 percent, answered the ques
tions concerning artists than did school administrators who responded
in 39 percent of the cases. This was a probable finding. The quality
of response, the conservative artist selected, was similar in both
groups.
152
3. Profile of rankings and selection by both populations.
The profile of selection (Table 13; Figure 1) was fairly
even with regard to differences between goals and between real and
ideal goals. The outmoded goal, "educating all students to become
artists," was lowest with a mean score of 3.48 in real programs. The
spurious goal, concern for the avant-garde, was next to the lowest
with a mean score of 2.64 in real programs. Art educators ranked the
goal concerning creativity and self-expression significantly higher
for ideal programs with a mean score of 1.0 (Table 13). The profile
as a whole indicates agreement between groups and support at the
"very important" or "moderately important" level for all goals but
the goal that proposes "all students to become artists" (Table 13).
4. Art curricula.
The courses most commonly offered in the schools represented
by the sample were primarily concerned with the process of making
art. A wide range of courses are provided (Figure 2). Although
drawing and painting were at the head of the list in frequency of
occurrence, the general survey course, ranked third, was the one most
often required of students. The "other" category included such
titles as: special projects, fashion design, and calligraphy. The
courses offered were related to the goals in many cases. For example,
28.7 percent of the schools offered courses in filmmaking and video,
which represents the partial accomplishment of the goal in that area.
Ceramics courses were offered more frequently than courses in design.
Nine media/process courses were offered more frequently than art
-history. Fmphasis on environmental design was low but approximately
153
15 percent of the schools represented offered the course and 2 percent
required it.
5. Goals ranked highest.
Both groups supported the ranking of goals with the few
differences noted. The highest mean scores for both real and ideal
program goals (Table 13) were attained by the following goals:
creativity and self-expression; studio experiences, art production;
and appreciation and improvement of the quality of life and interpre
tation of the environment.
6. Congruency of ranking, real and ideal goals.
The need score showed that while the ideal rankings were
higher than those for real programs, there were no significant dif
ferences. This represents congruity to the extent that the differ
ences were not significant between the two programs, "what is" and
"what ought to be" nor between groups.
7. Three deterrents to implementation most frequently cited.
The three impediments most frequently cited were: "lack of
community support" (11 times or 41 percent of frequency), "lack of
teacher training" (7 times or 29 percent of frequency), and "Tack of
staff" (6 times or 25 percent of frequency). This analysis represents
total response by both groups. The highest frequency of response by
administrators was in the category of "lack of materials" (3 times or
12.5 percent of frequency). Only impediments cited by over 4 percent
of the population were considered.
154
8. Artists most frequently named.
The artists most frequently named as characteristic of the
program were: Picasso, Van Gogh, Dali, Da Vinci, Degas * Wyeth,
Michelangelo, and "myself." The artists most frequently named as the
basis for study were: Picasso, Matisse, Da Vinci, and Rembrandt.
They represented a range of conceptions of art from the Renaissance
to the present. Most of the artists were European, most are dead.
All of the artists, except "myself," have established reputations
represented by a large body of work; all are men.
9 and 10. Attitudes toward secondary school art education,
real and ideal.
The groups perceived that secondary school art education was
regarded as "an essential element in the curriculum, a requirement"
in the districts where they worked, both as demonstrated in current
programs and as "should be" in an ideal program. The mean score for
real programs for all groups was 1.38 and it was 1.29 for ideal pro
grams. There was no significant difference between groups.
Interpretation and Evaluation
The data show a broad, even profile of art education. The
only goal which was not supported at a relatively high level was the
obsolete one of "educating all students to become artists." Those
goals that ranked highest offer an opportunity for analysis in terms
of theories of art education.
155
One goal was stated as art production only. It did not men
tion the student nor did it suggest benefits to the individual. In
this approach it was directly related to the pragmatic tradition
(Efland, 1979) of John Dewey, art as experience or art as doing.
The goal represents a simple expectation for both students and
teachers. It probably best characterizes that which is perceived as
the business of art education. In its stress on techniques of pro
duction and manipulation of media, it supports the common parlance
of "doing things with my hands," making art. The outcomes may be far
greater than the goal suggests, the experience of making art inte
grates both the affective and cognitive aspects of learning, offering
applications in life situations. The course titles themselves support
this tradition in their overwhelming process/media concentration,
The goal that supports"Fostering creativity in the individual,
opening a communication channel, the visual arts, through which stu
dents may express themselves" is an updated version of the dual goal
of creativity and self-expression, essentials in the expressive
tradition (Efland, 1979). It also contains elements of visual liter
acy in provision for a communication channel, a concept stressed by
Feldman (1981) in his dictum for NAEA direction. Since there is no
course called "creativity and self-expression," art educators may see
creativity as the sine-gua-non described by Maslow (1968) which
pervades the studio courses described as art production in Goal 7.
The goal of creativity has survived and has become firmly established*
since its inception in the 1930s. At a time when much of the
156
literature indicates a shift toward aesthetic education, this goal
ranks first with educators in the field.
The goal that is third in priority incorporates the creative
aspects of art production and suggests benefits for the individual.
In its statement, "Developing appreciation of art and the processes
of creating art in order to improve the quality of the individual’s
own life, as an aid in interpretation of the natural and man-made
environment," it represents a contemporary version of the expressive
tradition. Interaction with and interpretation of the environment is
suggested; nevertheless, the benefits accrue to the individual. It
is a psychological goal, not a social one, despite the environmental
terminology which could be misinterpreted. This goal may be high in
selection owing to the benefits described as well as the appreciation
for creative processes. The goals on creativity and the quality of
life both indicate that educators rank high those aspects of art that
benefit the student. If the goal concerning studio experience pre
sents art as making and doing, then the goals of creativity and
improvement of the quality of life offer individual growth and
development through the process; These latter goals may be viewed as
part of the expressive tradition (Efland, 1979). The goal concerning
the quality of life and the environment refines and elaborates upon
the creativity goal, introducing some objectivity with regard to
interpretation of the environment. The differences between these two
goals can be seen in the contrast between Freud's psychoanalytic
emphasis and Maslow's third force psychologies (Efland, 1979; Maslow,
157
1968). The Freudian interpretation centered on the psyche, Maslow's
on a structure of needs developed through concepts of society, the
environment, and survival.
Art history and multi-cultural education were ranked as "very
important" in ideal programs. Although art history, humanities, and
art appreciation courses were not high in curriculum priority, the
statistics show 58.7 percent of the schools represented offered art
history, 54.7 percent offered art appreciation, 27.3 percent offered
the art history of a specific period or culture, and 26.7 percent
offered inter-related humanities courses (Figure 2). Possibly com
parable data were prepared by the National Center for Education
Statistics in 1972-1973 (Dorn et al., 1977, p. 29). They show that
78 percent of the high schools in the United States which were sur
veyed offered a course in art.- Of the total number of schools
reporting, 6.9 percent offered art appreciation/history. The two
sets of statistics may not be comparable as those surveyed for this
research were all members of NAEA, representing strong professional
commitment. Nevertheless, it would be safe to say that there has
probably been growth in art appreciation/history course offerings
since 1972-1973. This indicates the trend toward development of the
cognitive aspects of art education. It represents, in the extreme
case, entrance of art, a subject regarded as a playground, a frill,
into the area of studies in the humanities. Academic status has
apparently seldom been achieved. Progress in revision of art as a
cognitive body of knowledge is slow, yet some evidence supports this
direction. ____________ 1____________ ' ________
158
The goal of multi-cultural education in art is determined by
art historical and social incentives. It would satisfy the need for
cognitive structure and the social purpose of understanding a variety
of expressions and valuing many ethnicities (Banks, 1979). The social
and anthropological interpretations of Chapman (1978) and McFee and
Degge (1977) are appropriately encompassed by this goal. As suggested
by the research, further training of all concerned may be required as
well as community involvement in planning. Implemented fully, this
goal would provide many benefits by examining a different dimension
in art education, one particularly applicable in the present social
climate.
Aspects of the problem-solving format of Bauhaus instruction
are apparent in the goal that concerns evaluation standards and
development of an aesthetic framework. Support for this goal in con
junction with the high priority of courses in design demonstrates that
the objective tradition is viable in the current practice of art
education. Problem-solving projects are the instructional method in
many programs of art production based upon the principles of design
and the elements of art which were originally described by Dow
(Saunders, 1976).
Two seemingly unrelated goals are part of the pragmatic tradi
tion (Efland, 1979): beautification of the school and career educa
tion. Both stress art in everyday life. They represent experiences
in art for students, experiences structured around real-life situa
tions and real aesthetic problems to be solved. These goals may be
159
regarded as part of the experiential curriculum, surviving through
accountability demands and societal need. Both are influenced by
community pressures: the need for gainful employment for youth and
the prospect of improving the school environment, however cosmetical
ly. They are evidence of the integrated approach to learning through
breadth of experience advocated by Dewey (1958).
Use of technology and new media as expressive art forms is
described in one goal which is related to the avant-garde emphasis of
another. The avant-garde goal was created as a spurious goal,
infrequently mentioned in the literature and never in the course
guides. It was validated as "moderately important" by the research
(Table 13). These two goals combine to present an image of the
artist as the experimenter, the social interpreter, and the path
finder. The transactional stance suggests a social and cognitive
goal. However, there is a strong link with the objective tradition
(Efland, 1979) in the process of solving problems and developing
ideas through utilization and understanding of new media.
The direction apparent in the goals concerned with technology
and the avant-garde points toward new concepts in art education.
Film and television permit new modes of aesthetic education. Popular
culture, so frequently avoided by school art programs, intersects
with art education in this area. Kaplan's atavars (1967, p. 61) are
with us to stay, finding a way to use their capabilities presents a
challenge to art educators.
160
It is not surprising that the objective tradition is apparent
in discussions of aesthetic criteria. It is natural for teachers in
a democratic system to disdain the role of taste-maker. Consequently,
the aesthetic position that offers objective criteria has become a
popular one (Lanier, 1981; Marantz, 1966). Art analyzed as the
application of principles and the use of elements is manageable in
the classroom. Art as the expression or reflection of feelings
presents difficulties in the classroom (Langer, 1967).
Decades of practice in an expressive mode dictate no copying.
Teachers are taught that all expression should be free. This atti
tude refutes the imitative or mimetic tradition. Behavioral objec
tives, in their step-by-step skill development support the master-
apprentice relationship established by the tradition that seeks to
copy life (Efland, 1979). Examination of the research reveals subtle
evidence of the mimetic tradition in current programs. Some art
educators claimed "myself" as the best characterization of the pro
gram. That choice indicates a master-teacher attitude. Most of the
artists chosen as characteristic of programs or as models for cur
riculum are superior representative painters. With the exception of
Picasso (and even he had his "rose" and "blue" and "classical"
periods) all paint recognizable objects, what is thought of as reality.
Wyeth's work is considered"magic realism." Dali reveals a mental
world, created in the manner of Jan Steen or Vermeer, representative
Dutch masters. Even Dali's distortion is accurately presented. The
aesthetic choices of the populations surveyed establish appreciation
161
for art as representative of life, for the representational. Of
course, this is not true in every case and can only be considered as
a minor indication of the existence of an attitude.
According to the research, art educators and administrators
are practical. They find some value in almost every goal. None
were rejected completely. Each goal is part of the development of a
tradition in art education. Eclecticism has become a necessity in
order to plan and establish emphases for a program in art. Theories
of art education range from the expressive belief in inspiration from
within to the methodological steps prescribed by Dewey (1929) or
Ecker (1966). Several theories or modes of inquiry may be combined
if they are compatible and appropriate. Students asked to express
themselves should not be confined to tight principles of design or
judged by restrictive criteria. If the art object is regarded in the
Gestalt view as a configuration or "whole" that exceeds the sum of
its parts, details concerning the parts may be considered but not
critiqued as crucial.
A different aesthetic exists for a Gothic cathedral which
represents medieval man's aspiration toward heaven, compared to the
mathematical precision of the classical Greek temple structured
according to the proportions of the golden mean. There can be no
one judgmental mode, no one calibrated measure for all occasions.
In an interview covering his book, The Rare Art Traditions, Joseph
Alsop stated:
162
There is no such thing as good taste. Today's
good taste is tomorrow's bad taste. The taste
of educated and thoughtful people in their time
tends to be relatively uniform. There's nothing
permanent about good taste. It's a time phenomenon.
(cited by Watters, 1982, p. 9)
His definition of aesthetic judgment is linked with time or period of
production. An aesthetic attitude for each culture and period must
be developed and understood so that evaluation may take place. To
describe only one aesthetic orientation, or even to suppose that one
set of criteria could suffice, is inadequate instruction.
Art teachers, expecially those who support the goal of art
production alone, may see themselves and their work as existential
evidence of aesthetic conceptions. . Some teachers may act and seldom
or never discuss. Most theoreticians (Dorn, 1981; Lanier, 1981)
would encourage talk about the aesthetic decisions encountered during
art production and the critique afterwards. Developing the verbal
skills that permit discussion is a large part of aesthetic education.
Art educators have indicated that staff development to over
come the frequently cited "lack of teacher training" is a necessity.
This need, combined with the "lack of community support" that they
also perceive, offers a profile of rejection and feelings of inade
quacy. In order to select appropriate components for planning pro
grams and facilitating student learning, an educator must feel
competent and accepted. Staff development to meet these needs is
required.
163
Psychological goals and methodologies have been so closely
tied to art programs and identified with instruction in art and with
art products that it appears they are inseparable. A few terms that
illustrate this alliance are: surrealism with its fantasy furniture
of the mind; German expressionism; dadaism with its infantile naughti
ness; impressionism, developed through the visual perception of light;
and pointillism in which the configuration must be perceived as a
whole. Even minimal art has a psychological, reductive explanation.
The mutual support systems of art and-psychology are firmly inter
twined. Educators believe that goals that support art should also
support psychological purposes and benefits to the individual. There
fore, those goals rank highest.
Social goals of understanding have been fairly remote to the
art teacher. Art production involves students in individual pro
jects. Relating that project to a culture or ethnicity may not have
been a priority for the teacher. The past 25 years, since the Brown
decision, has been an era of social revision, conflict, and evaluation
(Ginzberg & Solow, 1971), yet art education is just emerging as a
true social study. The process involves the redesign of curricula
and materials. New course titles would be one means of reorganization.
The finding with regard to a need score or discrepancy between
the real and ideal may be regarded as the most disappointing in the
study. At a time when programs are being curtailed and there is
evidence, supported by literature in the field (Chapman, 1978b;
Lanier, 1978b; Smith, 1977) that public conceptions of art education
164
are not in accord with professional definitions, it would appear
that educators are self-satisfied with regard to both program goals
and the need for change. The fact that a "lack'of community support"
is frequently cited as an impediment to implementation of goals per
mits speculation that art educators are aware of a need for better
public relations. That improved programs might enhance public
relations, or even that some program improvement might be needed, are
possibilities the majority of those surveyed appear to have ignored.
The data show no determination that change must take place; con
sequently, the conclusion must be made that there is a high degree of
satisfaction with current program status.
The researcher found the same self-satisfaction apparent in
evaluating a secondary school art program in a large suburban dis
trict. Experienced teachers evidently were content to continue
established practices in spite of decreasing enrollment and pressure
to change (Note 2).
It might be argued that programs are so close to "what ought
to be" that there is no need for change. In a discipline that must
fight to eliminate a frivolous image and to maintain a position in
the curriculum, it is difficult to imagine that perfection has been
achieved. This finding must be a consideration in recommending
curriculum change, for resistance would evidently occur if such
attempts at change were made.
165
Summary of Chapter
The goals and courses that rank highest in the survey are
evidence of periods of strong educational leadership, such as that
of Lowenfeld and Dewey, coupled with psychological benefits for the
individual learner. The four traditions suggested by Efland (1979) —
mimetic, pragmatic, expressive, and objective— may all be identified
in conjunction with the goals supported by the survey and the courses
offered according to the data. The artists identified are generally
conservative and representational * Some participants would not
respond and commented negatively concerning the questions.
The impediments to implementation suggest deterrents which
must be eliminated for program improvement. The most frequently
cited impediments indicate that improved public relations and staff
development are requirements for change.
The lack of differences between groups of educators indicates
that the professional community values art education as a whole.
The discrepancy score shows a surprising degree of self-satisfaction
at a time when the profession can least sustain it.
The comprehensive goal that involves appreciation, art pro
cesses, interpretation of the environment, and improvement of the
quality of life, ranks in the top three. It contains elements of
social concern plus an expressive theme of appreciation. It promises
benefits to the individual. This composite goal presents a con
temporary version of previous emphasis on creativity and expression.
166
The top three goals show art education as art production, strong in
the expressive tradition and valuing individual benefits.
167
CHAPTER VI
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS
Sumrna ry
This study was concerned with the status of secondary school
art education in the United States. Little descriptive data were
available concerning practice and the attitudes of educators in regard
to program goals. The problem was defined as a need to provide a
profile of the status of art education for use as an aid in decision
making concerning policy and curriculum. Two groups were surveyed:
secondary school art educators, teachers, and supervisors; and school
administrators, curriculum directors, and assistant superintendents.
Both groups responded to a questionnaire in which they were asked to
rank 12 goals of art education for real and ideal programs and to
cite impediments to the implementation of goals. They were also
requested to cite course offerings, summarize the status of art
education in their school district, and to choose artists charac
teristic of programs and as a basis for a curriculum.
A survey of the literature concerning the purposes of art
education showed extravagant goals, particularly those claimed by the
NAEA Commission (Dorn et al., 1977). These goals were representative
of a condition described by Jacques Barzun as educational inflation
(Barzun,'1978). Examination of several viewpoints provided evidence
of a variety of directions in art education. The problem of a
168
proliferation of programs and purposes is not uniquely associated
with art but applies in other curricular areas as well (Cawelti, 1981).
One means of examining the purposes of art education is to refute
the myths which have surrounded much of the practice for decades
(Eisner, 1973-74). Eisner integrated process with product, a concept
required for a new view of art production, so long considered as
creative process alone.
Art history textbooks were analyzed in terms of changing
emphasis. Formerly records of western European art, they have begun
to include other cultures and other perspectives. Social themes and
the approaches of cultural anthropology occur in current texts
(Spencer, 1975). As the art history courses change, so do the
aesthetic frames they employ. Aesthetic judgment, increasingly
emphasized in art education is very close to taste (Lanier, 1981)
Teachers are understandably reluctant to become taste-makers
(Schwartz, 1970), especially since taste may also be a function of
socio-economic status or class (Gans, 1974). Thus, art educators
search for objective criteria and methodology in this area.
A framework developed by Efland (1979) was introduced in order
to organize the theories and trends in art education. Efland joined
aesthetic theory with psychological orientation in order to identify
four traditions in art education: mimetic, pragmatic, expressive,
and objective. Although this theory was suggested only and has not
been refined, it was used to classify and categorize concepts. Many
of the definitions overlap; nevertheless, structure is provided.
169
A brief history of theories and trends in art education
begins with Franklin's description of drawing and penmanship for the
Pennsylvania Academy (Bigelow, 1887). From two different purposes,
one industrial and vocational, one elitist and exceptionally feminine,
art education developed (Saunders, 1976). The growth of kindergartens
initiated instruction in art for young children. From the beginning,
art suppliers and art educators have worked together in developing
new uses for materials. Some of the first study materials in art
education were copybooks and prints that told a story. The prints
were used to teach art appreciation, an exercise more inclined toward
moral purpose than aesthetic analysis (Saunders, 1976).
At the turn of the century Arthur Wesley Dow of Columbia
University developed the principles of design and elements of art
based upon studies of prints, primarily Japanese. This objective
structure for art education was disseminated by teachers throughout
the country. It prevails today in many curriculum guides. Following
the objective criteria for analyzing art, teachers developed specific
projects in art education. The progressive movement in education
brought with it emphasis on meaningful experiences from everyday life.
John Dewey, in his pragmatic approach to curriculum, viewed art as
doing, making products. During this period many art programs were
begun. Classroom teachers were required to take courses in art
(Eisner & Ecker, 1970).
The leadership of Viktor Lowenfeld brought with it emphasis
upon the process of creating art and upon self-expression. The
170
psychological orientation of this educator led to a singular focus on
creativity. Few theories since have been as appealing to both
teachers and students. Gestalt studies of perception have enhanced
the field (Arnheim, 1971). The work of Maslow (1971) follows the
expressive trend established by Lowenfeld.
Current theories of art education range from the structured
method of Ecker (1966) to Lanier's (1981) aesthetic approach to
Eisner's connoisseurship (1972a). Barkan (1962) suggested a cognitive
approach that would make art a structured, humanistic subject concen
trating upon aesthetics and art history to a greater degree than in
the past. Although many theoreticians have supported the concept,
practice lags behind (Dorn, 1981). Eclecticism and social concern
are the bases of some recent theories (Chapman, 1978a; McFee & Degge,
1977).
Aesthetic theories and definitions correlate with many
approaches to art education. Morris Weitz' (1966) definition of art
as undefinable provides support for flexibility and eclecticism. The
anthropological presentation permits examination of art as the product
of a culture. Attention must be given to current art criticism
(Lippard, 1971) and the dialogues of artists themselves (Diamonstein,
1979).
Each of the traditions developed by Efland applies to some
of the theories of art education. Beginning with the mimetic,
representational style of copybooks and continuing with the objective
trend disseminated by Dow and the expressive creativity of Lowenfeld,
171
the traditions are woven through the fabric of art education. The
theory of practice permits analysis of divergent theories that occur
simultaneously. It appears valid to search for traditions rather
than a linear progression. Instead of a series of incremental steps,
sets of theories lossely linked are evidenced.
Those goals ranked "very important" in the study include
creativity and self-expression; art production; interpretation of
the environment, appreciation and an improved quality of life. The
least restrictive goals were the highest ranking (Figure 1).
Course offerings indicate emphasis upon media and processes.
Many schools require specific courses (Figure 2). Although there are
no comparable data, art history and appreciation courses may have
been offered more frequently in this decade. The goal concerning
provision of an aesthetic framework for individual judgment ranks as
"very important" for ideal programs. Impediments to implementation of
the goals indicate a need for staff development and improved public
relations.
Educators feel that art is regarded as "essential" in their
districts and that it ought to be. There was no significant differ
ence between the ranking of real goals and ideal goals, or no
determination for change. Artists chosen by educators represented a
conservative selection.
Eclecticism is indicated by the broad support for a variety
of goals. Theories that stressed expression, creativity, benefits
for the individual and art production had the greatest support with
172
some emphasis on social concern. A change to aesthetic education
was not indicated by the data.
Conclusions
The top goals selected by educators as both representative
of current programs and essential for ideal programs indicate that
art education remains in a state of transition, a condition described
by Barkan (1962) 20 years ago and discussed recently by Dorn (1981).
Practice has not kept pace with theory. In his "transition" article,
Barkan (1962) urged teachers to change the basis of learning in art
from preoccupation with creativity to art history and aesthetic con
cerns. He suggested the cognitive study of art.
The period during which these suggestions took place followed
the launching of Sputnik and the Wood's Hole conference in education.
Barkan's strategy was to dress art in the cognitive style of science.
Support for this change of direction came from growing dissatisfac
tion with'the universl acceptance of creativity as the goal and pur
pose of art education. Art in the schools had been democratized to
the point where any expressive product might be claimed as a work of
art (Foster, 1975). Art was viewed by some as a frill, as fun. The
doing, the making of art fostered by Dewey and the child study
movement, had become Lowenfeld's expressive, creativity-centered
program, dominating the field in the 1950s. To some educators, art
teachers appeared to be turning students loose to play in the paint
without direction. In a period of sharp revision and the reconstruc-
tion of academic goals, Barkan attempted to structure art education
173
so that it would conform to new cognitive standards. Although his
approach was humanistic, the means he chose, art history, was the
least likely to succeed. Long the branch of art education devoted
to scholarly pursuits, art historians had left the studio for the
library and lecture hall. In the eras of progressive and expressive
education in art, dialogue between art historians and art educators
was infrequent. The establishment of communication was an important
first step. Conferences sponsored by federal incentives led the way
(Hoffa, 1981; Jones, 1980). Attempts to revise the teaching of art
as a humanistic subject began in 1962 with Barkan's article.
In the 1980s educators are still supporting creativity, self-
expression, and art production. Possibly they have not read their
journals. Probably they have not found goals sufficient to replace
those they have chosen as "very important" for effectiveness in the
art classroom. The benefits for the individual that are incorporated
in hands-on art production and self-expression have not been sup
planted by aesthetic discussion of art works. Art history has not
taken the place of art studio, despite serious efforts to incorporate
it in the curriculum..
Educators see art history, multi-cultural education in art
and the development of an aesthetic framework as "moderately impor
tant" in present programs but "very important" in ideal programs.
They list many impediments to implementation of the goal in art his
tory, including a "lack of teacher training." This should not be
considered a lack of training in art history, but a lack of training
174
in the presentation of art history to students. Teachers who have
had art history courses saturated with the religious art of western
Europe and lacking in the necessary aesthetic criteria for judging
contemporary art forms require staff development courses. In some
instances, museums have helped in the educational effort. The
traditional, chronological approach to recognized monuments of art
history is inconsistent with the style needed to reach secondary
school students. It has not replaced art production as the structure
of art education, according to the data (Figure 1).
Dorn (1981) suggests integration-of the studio experience and
aesthetic concerns through talk, classroom discussion. This seemingly
simple method of uniting the philosophic aspects of art with practical
production requires the retraining of teachers. It could be initiated
immediately in many classrooms.
Slogans such as Engel's (1981, p. 24) to "teach art seriously"
and Feldman's (1982, p. 5), "Art means Work" tend to punish the
victim. Art teachers appear to be no less serious than other educa
tors about attaining their goals. In fact, they have supported
elaborate and comprehensive goals in efforts to build programs. They
are aware of the significance of their programs, it is community sup
port that they find to be lacking. They feel scorned in art circles
and snubbed by educators (Foster, 1975).
In order to achieve a new structure in art education (one
which is not indicated by the discrepancy score) the aesthetic and
art historical elements would have to be joined with the expressive
175
and productive ones. This reintegration represents an attempt at
providing a more complete definition of art for the learner. Art
history has long been the field of scholarship, art production the
field of existiential activity.
Barkan (1962) critiqued art education for its concentration
on media. Offering new media * he suggested, had become the hallmark
of good teaching. He condemned art teachers for using media for
activity's sake, without purpose. The extensive list of media became
the curriculum. In this analysis, Barkan may have been too near
sighted. Film, video, and photography are the visual media of the
20th century, yet they are under-utilized in art programs. Educators
argue that a "lack of materials" and a "lack of teacher training"
are deterrents to implementation of curriculum for these media. In
directing their efforts toward the use of film and video, art teachers
would discover a rewarding channel for developing aesthetic criteria.
An outstanding aesthetic learning package developed by the Central
Midwestern Regional Education Laboratory (CEMREL) for use with elemen
tary children in the visual arts is Examining Point of View (CEMREL,
1972). This instructional material teaches . children about perspec
tives and composition by means of photographic techniques. Cameras
are not necessary for learning the concepts involved but may be used.
Involvement at the beginner's level can be kept within a reasonable
budget. Many media centers already own equipment. Film permits
assessment of aesthetic criteria from the first attempts at composi
tion; nevertheless, a minority of art educators recognize the
176
importance of any kind of camera in their programs. The development
of a program of aesthetic criticism concerning filmmaking, video,
and photography would introduce and establish new media and provide
opportunities for the development of a personal viewpoint. Art
educators have remained aloof, concentrating on traditional art forms
while the world is looking at film. At the very least, students
require one course in contemporary media as an orientation to popular
communication. Film, as content and methodology, is a challenging
field for curriculum development.
Efforts to tighten the curricular sturcture of art do not
appear to have been effective. Although thousands of behavioral
objectives have been written for skillful exercises and production in
art education, there is increasing agreement that the affective domain
defies adequate treatment by the behavioristic model (Eisner, 1972b).
Objectives must be changed to expectancies or termed "expressive"
in order to be appropriate for the appreciative aspects of art.
Application of a scientific, behavioristic model to a discipline long
dominated by expressive and wholistic (Gestalt) psychologies presented
a misfit of methodologies.
In the 1960s art teachers were asked to give up the expres
sive mode of teaching and the production of art in exchange for a
scholarly discipline, art history, and a scientific structure for
cognitive learning. Restructuring meant a reversal of attitude.
Many schools do offer art history, humanities and appreciation
courses. Curriculum guides display worthy objectives. And teachers
177
still support the goal of creativity at the highest level. Nothing
has replaced the benefits to the individual of self-expression.
In discussion of aesthetics, art educators would rely upon
the objective criteria established early in he 20th century by Dow,
working with the critic Roger Fry (Eisner & Ec-ker, 1966). Most cur
riculum guides are structured upon the elements of art Dow described,
plus a few elaborations (CMN/NWREL, 1974). The objective criteria
are valued for their very objectivity. They represent security to the
teacher who may not wish to cope with Langer's (1942) understanding
of expression and intuition or even Panofsky's (1977) essay on moving
pictures. Objective criteria deal with concrete, identifiable rules.
Thus, a student may be asked to produce a painting in an expressive
mode only to be critiqued in objective terms. Such mixed messages
confuse the learner and fragment the educational program (Efland,
1979). Evidence of mixed messages exists in the mixture of goals
supported: from art therapy to career education.
The data show an awareness of the need for in-service train
ing or staff development in order for several goals to be implemented.
They indicate that there is a lack of community support for goals
which are difficult to implement. Using the trends supported by the
survey as a basis for planning, a program for implementation can be
outlined. Such a prescribed program, based on the information gained
from practitioners, would incorporate some of the change suggested
20 years ago. It would also maintain a position of support for the
expressive tradition, for the creativity goal.
178
A curriculum plan based upon the research would include more
study in art history and aesthetics as a multi-cultural study. How
ever, art history would not take the place of art production but
become a part of the art experience. In participating in a wider
variety of roles in art, students would learn a more comprehensive
definition of the subject. They would be able to consider career
possibilities as well.
Integration of the art curriculum in this way has been sug
gested by several authors. The development of an adequate vocabulary
of terms for describing works of art and the processes and feelings
involved in creating art would be an initial step in such a venture.
The research supports learning to discuss the art that is produced.
Dorn (1981) stated
for our field to move to new interactive concep
tualization of art curriculum content, we need to
abandon the safe harbors of academic isolationism
and adopt more imaginative and synergistic modes of
thinking. To do so will challenge our isolationist
disciplinary bias, encourage risk in applying experi
mental curricular content, and make new demands for
more relevant educational research, (p. 33)
Efland's (1979) theory of practice permits the coexistence of
traditions within the same program or classroom. The difficulty
appears to occur when the aesthetic orientations are tangled, when
the objective, project-centered program becomes a pragmatic social
experiment or the expressive product is judged by mimetic, represen
tational criteria. A clear outline of purpose and expectancies is
essential for categorizing each strand. To decide that only art
history will be taught in a cognitive mode today and only expressive
179
production tomorrow is an erroneous interpretation of the proposed
program. It defeats integration. Instead, just as styles are learned
and assimilated by the practicing artist, the flow of instruction in
art should acknowledge and utilize the variety of theories and tradi
tions available in the field.
In preserving the expressive tradition and the making of art,
art teachers recognize their strength. Using that strength, they can
build better programs through discourse and aesthetic awareness.
The self-satisfaction apparent in the finding that no heed
for change is perceived leads to the conclusion that the utopian pro
gram described would be difficult to achieve. Retraining would be
required. New materials would not be as great a problem as new
approaches. Many existing textbooks contain elements of the eclecti
cism described (Chapman, 1978; McFee & Degge, 1977). The suggested
trend would require support in the schools and the courage to change
on the part of the art educator, a will that may not exist.
In selecting artists as representative of the programs,
educators revealed a conservatism that might mitigate against innova
tive approaches in art education. It would appear that art education
should follow a style of delivery appropriate to art, to aesthetic
education and the process of making art. Art production is not an
experiment in organic chemistry, nor is it a set of theorems. The
scientific model applies only in the description of a process; the
heuristic moment, the inspiration, the happy accident, must be
included. Broudy (1980) admonishes that the imagination as well as
180
the intellect must be taught. Langer (1953) suggests that training
in the arts is education in feeling. A mode of instruction appropri
ate to the art experience would include the style of the artist as
well as the historian and critic. The artist's feelings and attitudes
about producing art are a valuable part of communication. The style
of communication becomes the model for learning.
Use of community resources was not a concern of the research.
The program suggested would involve use of available resources and
an open attitude toward others who could help in the definition of
art. Originally, the need for delineation of status was evidenced by
controversy concerning the Rockefeller Report and the employment of
artists as teachers. (Chapman, 1978b; Lanier, 1978b; Smith, 1978).
Art educators saw their role as misunderstood and unappreciated when
it was suggested that professional artists be permitted to teach
without certification. The art teacher should serve as coordinator
of any community resources in order to plan and supervise the total
program.
Goal 13, for which there was support at the "very important"
level, presents the components of the other two goals which were
ranked highest. It includes creative processes, appreciation, and the
social purposes of improving the quality of life and interpreting
the environment, all with individual well-being a concomitant condi
tion. Since the research reveals an inclination to maintain the
expressive tradition, rewriting such goals to reflect contemporary
ideas and attitudes should produce effective statements of policy.
181
The either-or position cannot be assumed, a stance that would insist
upon aesthetic education in the objective tradition only or. art his
tory instead of art production. The readiness of educators to sup
port eclectic goals, goals that Barzun (1978) would cite as evidence
of educational inflation, is proof of their belief in comprehensive
benefits. What other subject promises to improve the quality of
life? And means it.
Attempts at deflation, at narrowing goals, at centering on
cognitive skills, would have to counter-balance the wholistic concept
of art and personal benefit that dominates practice.
Recommendations in Regard to Research
The study, representing an attempt to achieve a profile of
current status, covered the broad scope of goals and curriculum in
secondary school art programs. The range of theories, issues, and
general trends was so extensive that no one component could be fully
examined. There is a need for further research to study goals and
issues in depth. Further research suggested by the study would
include both assessment of the status of practice and the history of
correlated trends and theories.
Use of the theory of practice developed by Efland (1979) as
an organizational structure in examination of practice permits
elaboration of the theory plus convenient categories for classifica
tion and the interpretation of relationships. Descriptive data
concerning the status of art education are scarce. Consequently,
182
use of a theory such as Efland’s provides for scrutiny in terms of
traditions and aesthetic orientation. Application of the theory to
future studies would allow greater insight concerning the problem.
Much of the research in art education has been concerned with
child art and the process of making art. It has been dominated by
developmental problems rather than instructional concerns. There are
very few historical studies, research which would benefit the field.
Although philosophic studies have yielded the concept of creativity
and the aesthetic theories prevalent in the art studio, the largest
body of theory and research in art education continues to focus on
the psychology of making art (Chapman, 1979b). The need for des
criptive data and longitudinal studies is evident from the small
sample acquired. Such survey information leads to evaluation of the
distance between theory and practice.
As art educators begin to scrutinize the arts of other cul
tures and introduce a wider variety of viewpoints in the classroom,
it becomes necessary to examine the role of the cultural anthro
pologist versus that of art historian or art teacher. Perhaps the
anthropologist is more concerned with context than aesthetics (Gans,
1974), perhaps the art teacher uses a different value system.
Studies of these roles in art education today would be useful.
The populations sampled in this study were small and those
who did not respond were not contacted after a follow-up note was
mailed. Since both sample populations represented a specific pro
fessional group, those who responded may have been the members of
183
those groups who were highly motivated to support art education.
The largest response came from art educators, all of whom belonged
to NAEA. Future studies might include interviews by telephone with
some of those who do not respond in order to verify their positions.
Tracing the history of one concept in art education and
gathering data about current practice, if undertaken frequently, would
construct an historical chart of the field. Aesthetic decisions as
a function of social status and assessment of the impact of popular
arts on art education are topics that are rarely even touched by the
research (Chapman, 1979b). This study revealed many issues which
have not been thoroughly researched.
The data and the information they yield may best be used to
evaluate the condition of art education. It serves as a measurement
of attitudes toward theories and their practical application. It may
also be used to predict support for a selected theory or to develop
a theory in terms of desired support. From the profile of art
education, an outline of the art teacher emerges. Further studies
could determine teachers' attitudes toward instruction or appropriate
training.
Having examined the attitudes of art educators and adminis
trators, it appears that principals, parents, and students should be
surveyed. A comprehensive sample would yield a more complete defini
tion of status. This survey represents a component of such research.
184
The "what if" questions requiring a psychological construct
also involved an aesthetic choice. Further investigation of aesthetic
judgment, taste, and style would yield a dimension lacking in most
research. Psychological research, correlated with a set of aesthetic
criteria is required in order to determine taste. In this instance,
a new research design is required.
It is important to remember in assessing art programs that
judgments concerning art are qualitative. The mode of evaluation
in the arts should come closer to the process of making art than do
most evaluative models. Stake's (1975) responsive method and
Eisner's (1976) critical one both succeed in providing means of
evaluation derived from experiences in art or the arts. Art criticism
has played an important role in providing aesthetic criteria for the
evaluation of art work. Examination of the critic's work and atti
tude might yield helpful information. Greenberg's (1961) statements
about art after abstract expressionism seek to supply a philosophic
basis for the work itself. Lippard's (1971) analysis of contemporary
art forms defines art. From the work of the critic, new theories may
be derived.
Further research is indicated pertaining to a variety of
topics and with regard to the relationships of many elements of the
situation. All of the problems identified, if investigated, would add
meaning to the study of art and to the broad definition of art in the
secondary schools. Considered in terms of policy analysis, this
extended description is the strongest indicator of change.
Recommendations for Change
185
Those trends and theories supported by the research have been
identified in the findings and in the conclusions. Significant change
does not mean stressing one curriculum goal and limiting another.
Throughout the study two aspects of the problem have been apparent,
one declared and one subtle. The position of art in the curriculum
has not been perceived as secure. In the years following the launch
ing of Sputnik, the reaction that impelled all subject areas to
become cognitive bodies of knowledge forced a new perception of art.
Those educators who tried to shape art education into a humanistic
cognitive study also sought recognition for the subject as a valid
part of the curriculum. These intentions were declared and elaborated
(Barkan, 1962; Dorn, 1981; Efland, 1982). Several art educators pre
dicted a new, aesthetic orientation in art. The debates over the
proper emphasis and adjustment, of values continue. (Efland, 1982;
Lanier, 1981). The purpose remains constant: to shift from a sub
ject perceived as "fun and games," a creativity-centered process, to
a structured, recognized essential in the curriculum (Foster, 1975).
This aspiration for academic recognition is reflected in the findings
that show art to be regarded as essential in the district, a finding
which may be as much a projection as a realization.
Extending beyond the academic status-seeking described, there
is a wholesome trend that permeates the discussions, the scholarly
debates, and political speeches (Chapman, 1978b; Dorn, 1981; Efland,
1982; Hoffa, 1981; Smith, 1978). Following each discussion, some
186
accommodation takes place. The definition of art is being extended
through research, practice, the development of theories and the
presence of controversy.
Formerly identified as a form of instruction that dealt in
narrowly defined projects, a genre of artsy-craftsy objects (Eisner
& Ecker, 1970), art education is still in a state of transition. The
growth in scope is readily perceived. The societal changes of the
past two decades have brought new perspectives concerning the study
of art and have opened the definition of the subject, very like
Weitz‘ conception (Weitz, 1966).
A component of the broader definition of art has been the
demand for integration, a resistance to maintaining the fragmented
and trivialized concept of art that resulted from the separation and
isolation of roles and subjects. For such integration to take place,
trust and credibility must be developed. The eclecticism so fre
quently cited (Dorn, 1978) and the anthropological approach, the
social emphasis, are evidence of the expanded definition of the sub
ject.
In a climate of accountability and criticism of educational
inflation (Barzun, 1978), it would be an accommodation to retract,
to draw back and reject expansion. It is far more appropriate that
art education has become eclectic, choosing to maintain several
traditions and serve a range of purposes.
The recommended change is not a dramatic reversal nor an
aesthetic embellishment, it is the continuation of an increasingly
187
accurate description of art. Furthermore, it would integrate the
study and offer a realistic view of the roles involved: critic,
historian, and artist. Such change represents the validation of new
concepts and the extension of traditions. In the development of a
comprehensive definition of art, the status of art education should be
assured.
188
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189
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201
REFERENCE NOTES
1. Interviewed at a national art history institute held at the
University of Maryland, July 1973, H. W. Janson replied to the
researcher's question.
2. The researcher evaluated the secondary school art program in
Montgomery County (Md.) in April 1981.
202
APPENDIXES
203
APPENDIX A
QUESTIONNAIRE
204
Sec on Gory School A rt C urriculum
G ools/Currlculum Survey
Your response on the ottoched a u es tlo n n o lre Is needed In order to provid e d e s c rip tiv e doto concerning secondary school o r t
education programs In th e U n ited S ta te s . In d lv ld u o l resnonses M ill be kept In s t r i c t confidence. Please re tu rn os soon os
p ossible to : Ann S. Rlchordson
Box 312
W hite P la in s , ftarylond 20695
1 . A codem lc/Professlonal P o s itio n : __________________________________________________
2. Job T it le : ___________________________________________________________________________
3. C ir c le Grades Tought o r Supervised: 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
A. P rofessio n al A f f 11 lo tio n (check o il o p p ro p rlo te ):
N .A .E .A . _____ A .A .S .A . _____ A .S .C .D .___________ _____ A .C .T .E .
N .A .S .S .P . A .C .T .S .S . _____ O th e r________________________________
5. T o ta l Student Enrollm ent in School D is t r ic t (check one):
Under 200 1 ,0 0 0 - 3 ,0 0 0 _____ 6 ,0 0 0 - 10,0 00 20,0 00 - 30,000
200 - 1 ,0 0 0 3 ,0 0 0 - 6 ,0 0 0 _____ 10,000 - 2 0,0 00 30,0 00 ond Over
I f you Mould lik e o sifimory o f th is research, please g ive name and oddress here:
205
PART 1 - Goals
Pleose in d ic a te the Im portance o f each a f th e fo llo w in g g o a ls In your
c u rre n t secondory o r t program ond, In th e n e xt column, the woy you
would ro te th e gool In an Id e a l oro g ran . C ir c le the nunber in the
a o o ro o rlo te colu nn.
W hat Is
P lease use th is colunn to
ro te gools In your c u rre n t
program.
W hat
Ought To Be
P lease in d lc o te In
th is colunn th e way
you wauld r a te the
goal In on Id e a l
proprom.
Im pedim ents
I f th e re ore d iffe re n c e s between th e c u r-
re n t program and an Id e a l program , please
TTSTcote beiaw the fa c to r s th a t p revent
occompllshment o f the Id e a l. P leose rank
o rd e r: 1— v ery lm n o rto n t, 2 — m nderotely
lm oortont . 5 - - r e la t iv e ly u n im p o rta n t.
Goals
6 . T ra n s m itta l a f the
c u ltu r a l h e r ita g e ,
o r t o p p re c lo tio n
through study o f
a r t h is to r y .
7 . S tu d io exp e rien c e s,
the te c h n lc o l p ro
cesses o f c re o tln g
a r t , m a n ip u la tin g
m edio.
8 . F o s te rin g c r e a t iv
i t y In th e ln d l-
v ld u o l, opening o
com nunlcotlon chan
n e l, the v is u a l
o r ts , through which
students may express
them selves
9 . Educating a l 1 s tu
dents ta become
o r t l s t s .
10. C areer e d u ca tio n ,
p r a c tic a l c o n sid e r
a tio n o f v a rie d
ro le s in the f i e l d
o f a r t , e x p lo rin g
s ki It s f a r jo b s In
pq,
1 1. U nderstanding and
u t l 1lz ln g contem
p o ra ry e x p re s s iv e
a r t form s, such os
f ilm ond vid e o .
12. Concern fo r the
o v an t-g a rd e as on
In d ic a to r o f the
fu tu r e fa r a r t
and s o c ie ty , the
c u ttin g edge o f
the c u ltu r e .
1 5. D eveloping a p p re c i
a tio n o f o r t and
the processes o f
c r e o tln g o r t In
o rd e r ta Improve
the a u a llty a f the
In d iv id u a l‘ s own
l i f e , as an o ld
In i n t e r r e l a t i o n
o f the n a tu ra l ond
man-made e n v lro n -
m e n t . ____________
19. The study a f works
a f a r t as the p ro
ducts a f many C u l
tu re s In o m u lti
c u ltu r a l s o c ie ty ,
exposure to the a r t
h e rito g e a f o v a r i -
e tv of c u ltu r e s .
1 5. B e a u tific a tio n a f the
school ond coim iunity
by means o f e x h ib its ,
m urals, suoergronhlcs
e tc
1 6. A rt pro d u c tio n os a
farm o f oersonol
therapy fo r s tu -
dents.___________________
17. The developm ent o f an
a e s th e tic framework
by means a f which an
In d iv id u a l moy e v a l
uate the v is u a l o r ts .
In c lu d in g e n v iro n
m ental d esign ond com-
munica tio n m edio.______
OVER
206
PART 11 - C u rrlc u lin Components
Pleose in d ic a te those courses o ffe re d In the school or d i s t r ic t where
you work. Use a p p ro p riate code:
M - M iddle School
J - Junior High School
S - Senior High School
Courses /
IB . A r t, General Survey Course
1
19. Drawing
i
20. P ointin g
j
21. Design
1
2 2 . G raohics/P rlntm akino
23. Fllm nokina/Video j
2A. PhotoaroDhv |
25. A rt H is to ry , General Survev j 1
26. A rt H is to ry , S p e c ific P eriod or C u ltu re !
27. Hunon ities (In te r r e la te d Courses!
28. A rt ADPreciOtion
29. S culoture
30. Ceramics
31. C ra fts : F ib e r, F a b ric , Leother iweovino)
32. C ro fts : Wood, M e ta l, P la s tic (ie w e lrv )
33. C ro fts: Pooer
3A. Commerciol A rt
35, Career S tu d ie s/V o ca tio n a l Education
36. inte rn sh ip s
37. Environmental Design
38. A rc h ite c tu re
39. Other
Please c ir c le nwt>er in
the a p p ro p riate colim n.
/ T5Z77
7$
AO. Secondory a r t educo
tlo n is.re g o rd ed in
the d i s t r ic t where 1
work os
1 2
I5 !
A l. Id e a lly , secondory
a r t educotlon should
be reaorded os
1 2
I5 ,
PART 111 - Please W rite In Responses
A2. I f you were to p rovid e such o d e s c rip tio n , which
a r t i s t , or a r t is t s , would oest c n a ro c te rlte tne o rt
educotlon program fo r which you ore responsible?
A3. I f you were to design on o rt course using the
work of one a r t i s t , whose work would you choose?
AA. Comnents:
207
APPENDIX B
ENDORSEMENT COVER LETTER
208
January 28, 1981
Dear Colleague:
Please support this research by taking a few minutes to f i l l out the
attached questionnaire. In her doctoral studies, A nn Richardson is
gathering descriptive data concerning secondary school a rt programs.
This information should be helpful and informative fo r future policy
decisions.
Sincerely,
S n J. V fciaK lm ann
Executive Director
JJM/pc
the national art education association, 1916 association drive, reston, Virginia 22091 (703) 860-8000
209
APPENDIX C
FOLLOW-UP QUESTION (FOR ADMINISTRATORS)
FOLLOW-UP QUESTION
210
Box 312
White Plains, Maryland
20695
20 December 1981
Dear Colleague,
Please answer the enclosed question and return it to
me as soon as possible. Your response is needed for the
completion of research. All information is confidential.
Yours truly,
Ann S. Richardson
When I must make a decision concerning art education, I
usually,
(check one)
Resolve it myself I 7
Refer to an art educator £=7
211
APPENDIX D
RANKING OF GOALS
212
Table 2
Question 6: Transmittal of the Cultural Heritage
Sample Mean
Real
Standard
Deviation Mean
Ideal
Standard
Deviation
Administrator 2.13 0.972 1.59 0.533
Art Educator 1.99 0*974 1.33 . 0.721
Administrative
Form by Teacher 2.14 0.663 1.86 0. 535
Entire Population 2.05 0.946 1.47 0.662
Analysis of Variance - "Real" Goal 6
Sum of Mean
Source Squares D.F. Square F Sig.
Between Groups 0,779
Within Groups 132,795
2 0,389
147 0,903
0,431 0,6507
ETA = 0,0764 ETA Squared = 0,0058
Analysis of Variance - "Ideal"
Sum of Mean
Goal 6
Source Squares D.F. Square F Sig.
Between Groups 4,532
Within Groups 60,861
2 2,266
147 0,414
5,473 0,0051
ETA = 0,2633 ETA Squared = 0,0693
Rankings
Table 3
Question 7:
213
Studio Experiences
Real Ideal
Standard Standard
Sample Mean Deviation Mean Deviation
Administrator 1.70 0.838 1.54 0. 840
Art Educator 1.16 0.457 1.01 0.532
Admini strative
Form by Teacher 1.29 0.469 1.29 0.468
Entire Population 1.37 0.669 1.22 0.696
Analysis of Variance - "Real" Goal 7
Sum of Mean
Source Squares D.F. Square F Sig.
Between Groups 9,778 2 4,869 12,59 6 0,0000
Within Groups 57,055 147 0,38 8
ETA = 0,3825 ETA Squared = 0,1463
Analysis of Variance - "Ideal" Goal 7
Sum of Mean
Source Squares D.F. Square F Sig.
Between Groups 9,022 2 4,511 10,481 0/0001
Within Groups 63,271 147 0,430
ETA = 0,3533 ETA Squared = 0,1248
Table 4
Rankings Question 8: Fostering Creativity
214
Real Ideal
Standard Standard
Sample ________Mean_____ Deviation____Mean_____ Deviation
Admini strator 1.43 0.633 1.22 0.462
Art Educator 1.27 0.568 1. 00 0.471
Administrative
Form by Teacher 1.29 0.469 1.29 0.469
Entire Population 1.33 0.585
l —1
1 —1
•
l —1
0. 480
Analysis of Variance - "Real" Goal 8
Sum of Mean
Source Squares D. F. Square F Sig.
Between Groups 0,835 2 0 ,417 1,223 0,2972
Within Groups 50,158 147 0,341
ETA = 0,1280 ETA Squared = 0,0164
Analysis of Variance - "Ideal" Goal 8
Sum of Mean
Source Squares D.F. Square F Sig.
Beteen Groups 2,103 2 1,051 4,801 0,0096
Within Groups 32,190 147 0,219
ETA = 0,2476 ETA Squared = 0,0613
Rankings Question 9:
Table 5
All Students to Become
215
Artists
Real Ideal
Standard Standard
Sample Mean
Deviation Mean Deviation
Administrator 3.54 1.177 3.26 1, 291
Art Educator 3.40 1. 285 3.05 1.563
Administrative
Form by Teacher 3.71 1. 069 3.43 1.399
Entire Population 3.48 1. 224 3.16 1.452
Analysis of Variance - "Real" Goal 9
Sum of Mean
Source Squares D.F. Square F Sig.
Between Groups 1,437 2 0,719 0,476 0,6223
Within Groups 222,003 147 1,510
ETA = 0,082 ETA Squared = 0,0064
Analysis of Variance - "Ideal" Goal 9
Sum of Mean
Source Squares D.F. Square F Sig.
Between Groups 2,556 2 1,278 0,603 0,5485
Within Groups 311,604 147 2,120
ETA = 0,0902 ETA Squared = 0,0081
216
Table 6
Rankings Question 10: Career Education
Real Ideal
Sample Mean
Standard
Dev i at i on Me an
Standard
Deviation
Administrator 2.15
Art Educator 2.09
Administrative
Form by Teacher 1.86
0.
0.
0.
856 1.93
804 1.66
535 1.93
0*797
0.835
0.730
Entire Population 2.09 0. 802 1.78 0.818
Analysis of Variance - "Real" Goal 10
Source
Sum of
Squares D.F.
Mean
Square F S ig.
Between Groups
Within Groups
0,942
94,932
2
147
0,471 0,729
0,646
0,4840
ETA = 0,0991 ETA Squared = 0,0098
Analysis of Variance - "Ideal" Goal 10
Source
Sum of
Squares D.F.
Mean
Square F Sig.
Between Groups
Within Groups
2,669
97,071
2
147
1,334 2,021
0,660
0,1362
ETA = 0,1636 ETA Squared = 0,0268
217
Table 7
Rankings Question 11: Contemporary
Art Forms/Film and Video _
Real Ideal
Standard Standard
Sample Mean Deviation Mean Deviation
Administrator 2. 50 0.129 1. 81 0.702
Art Educator 2.60 1.029 1.77 0.836
Administrative
Form by Teacher 2.86 0.770 2.14 1.027
Entire Population 2.59 1.044 1.82 0.812
Analysis of Variance - "Real" Goal 11
Source
Sum of
Squares D.F.
Mean
Square F Sig.
Between Groups
Within Groups
1,440
160,934
2
147
0,720 0,657
1,095
0,5197
ETA = 0,0942 ETA Squared = 0,0089
Analysis of Variance - "Ideal" Goal 11
Source
Sum of
Squares D.F.
Mean
Square F Sig.
Between Groups
Within Groups
1,680
96,460
2
147
0,840 1,280
0,655
0,2811
ETA = .0,1308 ETA Squared = 0,0171
218
Table 8
Rankings Question 12: Avant-Garde______
Real Ideal
Standard Standard
Sample Mean Deviation Mean. Deviation
Admini strator 2.61 1.106 2.30 1.040
Art Educator 2.60 1.064 2.11 1. 284
Administrative
Form by Teacher 3.00 0..960 2.57 1.341
Entire Population 2.64 1.070 2.22 1.104
Analysis of Variance - "Real" Goal 12
Sum of Mean
Source Squares D.F. Square F Sig.
Between Groups 2,007 2 1,004 0,875 0,4189
Within Groups 168,553 147 1,147
ETA = 0,1065 ETA Squared = 0,0116
Analysis of Variance - "Ideal" Goal 12
Sum of Mean
Source Squares D.F. Square F Sig.
Between Groups 3,040 2 1,520 1,250 0,2894
Within Groups 178,700 147 1,216
ETA = 0,1293 ETA Squared =0,0167
219
Table 9
Rankings Question 13: Quality of Life
Sample Mean
Real
Standard
Deviation Mean
Ideal
Standard
Deviation
Administrator 1.67 1.668 1.41 0.630
Art Educator 1.48 1.476 1.06 0.506
Administrative
Form by Teacher 1.79 1.786 1.50 0.760
Entire Population 1.57 0.699 1.23 0.604
Analysis of Variance - "Real"Goal 13
Source
Sum of
Squares D.F.
Mean
Square F Sig.
Between Groups
Within Groups
1,885
70,808
2
147
0,942
0,482
1,957 0,1450
ETA = 0,1610 ETA Squared = 0,0259
Analysis of Variance - "Ideal" Goal 13
Source
Sum of
Squares D.F.
Mean
Square F Sig.
Between Groups
Within Groups
5,061
49,232
2
147
2,531
0,335
7,556 0,0008
ETA = 0,3053 ETA Squared 0,0932
220
Table 10
Rankings Question 14: Art as
Multicultural Education
Sample Mean'
Real
Standard ,
Deviation Mean
Ideal
Standard
Deviation
Admini strator 2.04 0.823 1.74 0.828
Art Educator * 1. 96 0.8811 1.40 0.751
Administrative
Form by Teacher 2.50 0.855 2.14 0.949
Entire Population 2.04 0.866 1.59 0. 828
Analysis of Variance - "Real" Goal 14
Sum -of Mean
Source Squares D.F. Square F Sig.
Between Groups 3,444 2 1,722 2,337 0,1002
Within Groups 108,316 147 0,737
ETA = 0,1755 ETA Squared = 0,0308
Analysis of Variance - "Ideal" Goal 14
Sum of Mean
Source Squares D.F. Square F Sig.
Between Groups 8,389 2 4,195 6,573 0,0018
Within Groups 93,504 47 0,638
ETA = 0,2865 ETA Squared = 0,0821
Table 11
Rankings Question 15: .Beautification
221
Real Ideal
Sample Mean
Standard
Deviation Mean
Standard
Deviation
Administrator 2.09
Art Educator 1.82
Administrative
Form by Teacher 2.36
0.
0.
1.
807
803
01
1.80
1.44
1. 86
0.762
0.755
0.770
Entire Population 1.97 0.839 1.61 0.776
Analysis of Variance - "Real" Goal 15
Source
Sum of
Squares D.F.
Mean
Square F Sig.
Between Groups
Within Groups
4,826
100,007
2
147
2,413
0,680
3,547 0,0313
ETA = 0,2146 ETA Squared = 0,0460
Analysis of Variance - "Ideal" Goal 15
Source
Sum of
Squares D.F.
Mean
Square F Sig.
Between Groups
Within Groups
5,125
84,669
2
147
2,562
0,576
4,449 0,0133
ETA =0,2389 ETA Squared = 0,0571
222
Table 12
Rankings Question 16: Art as Personal Therapy
Real Ideal
Sample
Standard
Mean Deviation Mean
Standard
Deviation
Administrator 2.26 0.975
Art Educator 2.38 1.129
Administrative
Form by Teacher 2.43 . 0.7 56
2.00
2.05
2.29
1.009
1.154
0.726
Entire Population 2.34 1«042 2.05 1.067
Analysis of Variance - "Real" Goal 16
Source
Sum of Mean
Squares D.F. Square F Sig.
Between Groups
Within Groups
0,581 2 0,290
161,079 147 1,096
0,265 0,7676
ETA = 0,0599 ETA Squared = 0,0036
Analysis of Variance - "Ideal" Goal 16
Source
Sum of Mean
Squares D.F. Square F Sig.
Between Groups
Within Groups
0,911 2 0,456
168,662 147 1,147
0,397 0,8730
ETA = 0,07 33 ETA Squared = 0,0054
223
Table 13
Rankings Question 17: Aesthetic Framework
Real Ideal
Sample
Standard
Mean Deviation Mean
Standard
Deviation
Admini strator
Art Educator
Administrative
Form by Teacher
2.17 1.
1.93 0.
2.36 0.
005
991
929
1.74
1.35
2.00
0.851
0.807
0.961
Entire Population 2.05 - 0.995 1.55 0.863
Analysis of Variance - "Real" Goal 17
Source
Sum of
Squares D.F.
Mean
Square F Sig.
Between Groups
Within Groups
3,298 2
144,275 147
1,649
0,981
1,680 0,1899
ETA = 0,1495 ETA Squared = 0,223
Analysis of Variance - "Ideal" Goal 17
Source
Sum of
Squares D.F.
Mean
Square F Sig.
Between Groups
Within Groups
7,959 2
103,114 147
3,960
0,701
5,673 0,0042
ETA = 0,2677 ETA Squared = 0,0717

Asset Metadata

Creator Richardson, Ann Skerratt (author)

Core Title Educators' attitudes toward goals and theories of art education

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, Art,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-502015

Unique identifier UC11245582

Identifier usctheses-c26-502015 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP24836.pdf

Dmrecord 502015

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Richardson, Ann Skerratt

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA