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The effects of group counseling on the self-concept and achievement of primary grade Mexican-American pupils

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The effects of group counseling on the self-concept and achievement of primary grade Mexican-American pupils

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Content THE EFFECTS OF GROUP COUNSELING ON THE SELF-CONCEPT
AND ACHIEVEMENT OF PRIMARY GRADE
MEXICAN-AMERICAN PUPILS
by
Leona Walters Barnes
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Education)
January 19 77
UMI Number: DP24182
All rights reserved
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and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed,
a note will indicate the deletion.
Publishing
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Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author.
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U N IV E R S IT Y O F S O U T H E R N C A L IF O R N IA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK (k.Jt. £
LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA 90 0 0 7
Ea
'77
B 2 G I
This dissertation, written by / t
Leona-Walters.-Bames.........................................
under the direction of h. f . F . . . . Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of
the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
DISSERTATION C O M M ITTEE
DEDICATION
This dissertation is lovingly dedicated to my
husband, Alfred C. Barnes, Jr., who has repaid manyfold
any indebtedness to me which was incurred in the pursuit
of his doctorate, and whose companionship and patient
encouragement have supported me in this effort.
AC KNOWLEDGMENTS
The major contributors to this study were, of
course, the children! My gratitude and love include them
first. Jorge Covarrubias, who served as counselor and who
made the project work, and Dr. Dan Watson, who served as
statistical consultant, both made major contributions.
Juan Solis, Director of Pupil Personnel Services,
Carlsbad Unified Schools, Carlsbad, California, and
Dr. Martin Gerstein, Director of Pupil Services, La Mesa/
Spring Valley School District, La Mesa, California, gave
both support and active assistance.
My gratitude goes also to the principals, secre
tarial staffs, and bilingual aides for their continued
cooperation through the entire project period.
Special appreciation goes to the teachers of the
children who participated in the study, for their coopera
tion in completing the teacher-rating scales and for their
assistance in scheduling.
Finally, I want to express my gratitude to my
chairman, Dr. Paul Bloland, for all his helpfulness and
for his patience, and to Dr. Earl Carnes, Dr. Tillman Hall,
Dr. James Magary, Dr. Audrey Schwartz, Frank Herrera, and
to the memory of Dr. Bernard Sklar, my deepest appreciation
for their helpfulness and support.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .......................................iii
LIST OF TABLES...........................................vii
Chapter
I. THE PROBLEM.................................. 1
Background of the Problem ................. 2
Statement of the Problem................... 4
Purpose of the Study....................... 5
Significance of the Study ................. 6
Research Questions ..................... . . 7
Theoretical Assumptions ................... 8
Methodological Assumptions . . ............. 10
Statement of the Hypotheses............... 10
Delimitations .............................. 11
Definition of T e r m s ....................... 12
Mexican-American ......................... 12
Academic Achievement ..................... 12
Monolingual Spanish Home............ 12
Self-Concept .............................. 13
Organization of the S t u d y ................. 13
Chapter I ................................ 13
Chapter I I ................................ 13
Chapter I I I ....................... 13
Chapter I V ................................ 14
Chapter V ................................ 14
II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ................. 15
Self-Concept Theories of Behavior ........ 15
The Evolution of Self-Concept Theory . . . 16
Self-Concept Change ..................... 24
Self-Concept and Academic Achievement . . 2 6
Self-Concept Among Mexican-Americans . . . 30
Investigations of Self-Concept and
Academic Achievement Among Mexican-
American Pupils....................... 31
Group Counseling for Young Children .... 40
The Developmental Counseling Model .... 42
Structure of Group Counseling for
Young Children ............... 45
iv
Chapter
The Status of Counseling for Young
Children................................ 47
Summary.................................... 47
III. PROCEDURES.................................... 50
Research Design ............................ 50
Selection of Subjects ..................... 51
Criteria for Selection ................... 51
Identification of Subjects ............... 52
Location of Subjects ........... 53
The Counseling Program ..................... 55
The Counseling Staff . ................... 56
Selection of Instruments ................... 58
The Peabody Individual Achievement Test. . 59
The Primary Self-Concept Inventory .... 61
The Human Figure Drawing T e s t ........... 6 2
The Bender Gestalt T e s t ................. 65
The Behavioral Data Score Sheet .......... 67
The Self-Concept Battery ................. 6 9
Organizational Procedures 7 0
Limitations.............. 72
The Operational Null Hypothesis 7 3
Hypothesis 1 ............................. 74
Hypothesis 2 ............................. 74
Hypothesis 3 ................ 75
Related Questions ....................... 76
Summary 7 6
IV. RESULTS ..... 78
Pretest Data Analysis.................... 7 8
Hypothesis 1 ............................. 78
Analysis of Group Data..................... 84
Hypothesis 2 .............-............... 87
Hypothesis 3 .............................. 97
Related Question 1 ......................... 100
Related Question 2 . . . 104
Discussion.....................................106
Summary.......................................109
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS. . . 112
Summary.......................................112
Purpose of the Study....................... 112
Summary of Procedures .................. 114
Instruments................................ 115
Statistical Treatment . . . 116
v
Chapter ;
Findings and Conclusions .................. 117
Hypothesis 1 ................................117
Hypothesis 2 .................. 118
Hypothesis 3 ................................119
Related Question 1 ...................... . 12d
Related Question 2 . ...................... . 120,
Implications............................. . . 121,
Counselor Involvement in Testing ........ 121;
Developmental Counseling and Academic
Achievement.............................. 12 3
Recommendations ............................. 12 4'
REFERENCES ....'. .....................................126'
APPENDIXES
A. A PROPOSED DEVELOPMENTAL COUNSELING PROGRAM
FOR PRIMARY GRADE MEXICAN-AMERICAN
CHILDREN.......................................139
B. CORRESPONDENCE REGARDING USE OF THE
BEHAVIORAL DATA SCORE SHEET ........ 160
C. THE MODIFIED BEHAVIORAL DATA SCORE SHEET . . . 164
D. THE APPLICATION TO THE LA MESA/SPRING VALLEY
SCHOOL DISTRICT RESEARCH COUNCIL ............ 16 8
E. LETTER TO PARENTS REQUESTING PERMISSION FOR
CHILDREN'S PARTICIPATION .................... 174
vi
80
81
83
85
86
88
90
91
92
93
95
96
98
99
LIST OF TABLES
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficients
Between Pretest Scores on the Primary Self-
Concept Inventory and the Peabody Individual
Achievement Test ..............................
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficients
Between Pretest Scores on the Bender Gestalt
Test and the Peabody Individual Achievement
Test . . . ....................................
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficients
Between Pretest Scores on the Human Figure
Drawing Test and the Peabody Individual
Achievement Test ..............................
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficients
Between Pretest Scores on the Behavioral
A
Data Score Sheet and the Peabody Individual
Achievement Test ..............................
Comparison of the Ages of the Subjects in the
Experimental and Control Groups ...............
Comparison of Numbers of Boys and Girls in
Experimental and Control Groups .............
Means and Standard Deviations of Pre- and Post
test Scores of Experimental and Control Groups
on the Primary Self-Concept Inventory ........
Analysis of Covariance of Experimental and
Control Groups on Primary Self-Concept
Inventory Scores . ............................
Means and Standard Deviations of Pre- and Post
test Scores of Experimental and Control
Groups on the Bender Gestalt Test .............
Analysis of Covariance of Experimental and
Control Groups on Bender Gestalt Test
Scores ........................................
Means and Standard Deviations of Pre- and Post
test Scores of Experimental and Control
Groups on the Human Figure Drawing Test . . . .
Analysis of Covariance of Experimental and
Control Groups on Human Figure Drawing
Test Scores....................................
Means and Standard Deviations of Pre- and Post
test Scores of Experimental and Control
Groups on the Behavioral Data Score Sheet . . .
Analysis of Covariance of Experimental and
Control Groups on Behavioral Data Scores . . .
15. Means and Standard Deviations of Pre- and Post
test Total Test Scores of Experimental and
Control Groups on the Peabody Individual
Achievement Test ..............................
16. Analysis of Covariance of Experimental and
Control Groups on Peabody Individual Achieve
ment Test Total Test Scores ...................
17. Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficients
Between Academic Achievement and Measures
of Self-Concept .... .......................
18. Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficients
Between the Measures of Self-Concept ........
viii'
101
102
I
103
10 5 ,
CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM
The problem of low academic achievement among
Mexican-American pupils in the public schools remains a
timely and relevant issue for elementary school coun
selors. The relationship of self-concept to achievement
among young Mexican-American children is not clearly
established, although previous studies have investigated
this relationship among older Mexican-American pupils.
If such a relationship exists, there is a possi
bility that counselor intervention during the primary
grades may have a positive effect on self-concept develop
ment and academic achievement early in the child's school
career.
The purpose of this study is to investigate the
relationship of self-concept to academic achievement among
a selected population of primary grade Mexican-American
pupils, and to investigate the effects of a program of
group counseling on the self-concept and academic
achievement in this same population.
1
Background of the Problem
According to the United States Civil Rights
Commission (Castro, 1974), our educational system is
inadequate for a minority child and, using the performance
of students as a test of effectiveness, our system is
failing.
The Commission found that 9 percent of Mexican-
American students have already dropped out of school by
the eighth grade and that an additional 4 0 percent will
drop out before graduation. Those remaining until gradua
tion will have reached close to a tenth grade level of
achievement after a 12- to 14-year schooling period.
Relatively similar statistics are reported by
Coleman (1966), Schwartz (1967), Gordon, Schwartz, Wenkert,
and Nasatir (1968), and Evans and Anderson (1973).
Rowan (1970) cites the census statistics of the
population and its characteristics. Four and one-half
million Mexican-Americans reside in the five southwestern
states, with California having the greatest number. The
Mexican-American in the Southwest tends to be worse off
than the non-whites as well as the Anglos. Housing condi
tions are worse, unemployment rates are higher, and the
average educational level is two years below non-whites
and four years below Anglos.
That the educational level is lower than that of
2
! any other group is supported by Nava (1970), who states
that the problem begins with the Mexican-American child's
! first school experience. He falls behind from the start
and tends to stay behind until he voluntarily drops out.
j Several explanations for the phenomenon of low
! achievement have been offered, focusing on: (a) the
problem of Spanish as the primary language; (b) the diffi
culty of accurate assessment of intellectual capacity
using English language or culturally biased instruments
i
jand the consequent implications for planning and placement;
j (c) lower socioeconomic status as a factor; (d) value
i
!structures in the Mexican culture; and (e) lower self-
i
i
esteem, or self-concept, functioning as a deterrent.
i
There is some question as to whether negative
self-concept is characteristic of Mexican-American
children, or whether this is a perspective of the Anglo-
American (Carter, 1970).
The California State Department of Education
(1972) took the position that self-concept is a critical
area for minority children, who, despite massive remedial
efforts, continue their school drop out rate.
The implications of these data for counselors in
the elementary school setting are obvious. Some means of
effective intervention need to be identified and imple-
jmented and the counselor is in a unique position of
i
|opportunity and responsibility.
If there is a relationship between self-concept |
and academic achievement, does it exist in the early
j school years? This study may serve to narrow down the
issue of whether self-concept, if present, is a contribu
tory factor or the result of low achievement.
If an intervention program comprised of counseling j
services designed to strengthen self-concept is feasible,
its form should be explored. Eliminating individual
counseling as being inappropriate due to high counselor-
student ratios and because it fails to provide opportuni
ties for peer interaction and peer models, the question
j arises whether group counseling may be more effective than
i
individual counseling and, if so, which group counseling
i
|model offers the most appropriate perspective.
Statement of the Problem
In light of the concerns regarding the low levels
I of academic achievement among Mexican-American pupils
from their earliest school experience, and the question
iof whether or not low self-concept contributes to the low
achievement, the first part of a twofold problem was
l
formulated: J
J
1. Is there a relationship between academic
achievement and self-concept among young Mexican-American
i
pupils?
This raised the issue of appropriate strategies
I for intervention by school counselors and led to the
\
i
second question:
2. Is group counseling effective in changing
self-concept and academic achievement among young Mexican-
American pupils?
I
!
Purpose of the Study
One of the purposes of the study was to answer
I the question of whether self-concept and academic achieve-
i .
I
ment are related in Mexican-American children in the early
school years.
For this purpose it seemed practicable to identify
i
a population of Mexican-American children most likely to
I
have poor self-concept. These children fell under the
i
category of "disadvantaged," having membership in a low
socioeconomic class, and having some language disability
because of the parents' lack of facility in English.
Then, if within this narrowly defined population— all of
whom might be assumed to have poor self-concepts and low
academic achievement— a relationship between self-concept
and academic achievement could be demonstrated, support
for this hypothesis could be found.
Another purpose concerned counselor intervention.
What might constitute an appropriate intervention program,
given the high pupil-to-counselor ratios in the field and
the demand for counselor time and service? Would group
' counseling'affect the self-concept and academic achievement
of this population?
Additional questions answered in the course of the
i
research were: (a) which self-concept measures best pre-
j dieted academic achievement, and (b) which self-concept
i
i
measures were most closely related to the others? These
questions have relevance for the counselor who is called
I on to quantify observations of self-concept, and who needs
i
|to do so in an economical manner.
I
Significance of the Study
In those geographic areas of the United States in
i
(which there are high concentrations of Mexican-Americans
i
in the population, there is concern for providing appro
priate educational experiences for Mexican-American
children. Despite the organization of various federal and
local programs designed to afford special consideration
for Mexican-American pupils there remains an ongoing
problem of a general lag in their acquisition of academic
skills.
i
Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education j
Act has provided programs which have included many :
Mexican-American children because of their eligibility
based on residence in low-income attendance areas. In
these programs the counseling component ordinarily takes
the form of group counseling led by the classroom teacher.
I 6
However, despite an estimated annual expenditure of
1.8 billion dollars, the effectiveness of the program is
I
in question. According to the Los Angeles Times j
| (December 28, 1976), the General Accounting Office
I
|reported:
i
i The gap between the achievement level of the educa
tionally deprived children and that of the average
children of the same age generally increased while
students were in the program. (p. 2)
If a relationship between self-concept and
academic achievement among Mexican-American pupils could
be supported, and if group counseling utilizing a pro-
;fessionally prepared counselor was effective in improving
I
i
,self-concept and academic achievement in this population,
|then a rationale for advocating such programs could be
established.
| Aside from monetary values and ineffective uses
jof resources, lies a larger issue--the humanitarian
concern for effective intervention early in the school
career, with the possible outcome of making better use
!
iof human potential and educational opportunities.
I
! Research Questions j
I
i The research questions answered in this study were:|
j
1. Does a relationship exist between self-concept
and academic achievement in primary grade Mexican-
I
|American children in this population?
2. Is a program of developmental group counseling
effective in improving the self-concept of the pupils in
j this population?
3. Is a program of developmental group counseling
effective in improving academic achievement in this same
i
I
population?
Additionally, questions related to the instrumenta
tion were: (a) which self-concept measures are most
i
efficient in predicting academic achievement, and (b) which
self-concept measures are most closely related to the
others?
I
i
i Theoretical Assumptions
i
i
This study is based on a theory of self-concept
from the phenomenological point of view (Combs & Soper,
1957; Rogers, 1951). According to the phenomenologists,
the self-concept of the individual emerges from his own
phenomenological field and includes his person, his
characteristics, and his abilities, a patterned gestalt.
Each pupil*s self-concept stems from the way in
which he sees himself in relationship to his peers and
I
to the developmental tasks which he encounters in his 1
i
in-school and out-of-school environment. His responses
to the demands of learning basic skills and of assuming
|
responsibility for learning and for effective group
membership depend upon his perception of his abilities.
8
1 Self-concept in this context is global in nature.
!
| The phenomenon of change in self-concept as a
i result of psychotherapy was documented by Rogers (1951).
I
j He became interested in positive changes in behavior
jwhich could be observed and measured.
i
! A relationship between self-concept and academic
i
| achievement has been postulated by numerous researchers
i
! in studies involving pupils from the elementary grades
to the secondary level. The assumption is that a positive
I
' self-concept affects learning efficiency positively
J (Purkey, 19 70). Therefore, gains in self-concept might
j
be expected to bring about gains in academic achievement.
i
If self-concept does emerge from the individuals
i
perceptions of himself in his phenomenological field and,
if change in self-concept is possible, then a counseling
| program designed to enhance the individuals perceptions
I
j of himself and his abilities to master developmental
i
| tasks should produce a positive change in self-concept if
| that program is effective.
I It follows that, if self-concept is related to
| academic achievement, a counseling program designed to
j enhance self-concept should produce gains in academic
achievement as well.
This study attempted to investigate the applica-
! tion of these theoretical assumptions in a population of
primary grade Mexican-American pupils.
Methodological Assumptions
The following assumptions were considered to be
basic to the study:
1. The pupils in the study were considered to be
i
representative of children with similar characteristics in
other geographic areas with similar concentrations of
Mexican-American pupils.
2. Educational experiences of the subjects were
|assumed to be of comparable relevance and extent regardless
i
of the specific school of attendance.
3. Classroom instruction was assumed to be of
I
I comparable quality for all subjects regardless of specific
j school of attendance or grade placement.
Statement of the Hypotheses
The hypotheses to be tested, stated in research
form, were:
I
1. A relationship exists between self-concept
and academic achievement in the primary grade Mexican-
American pupils in this population.
i 2. Primary grade Mexican-American pupils involved
!in a group counseling program will show greater gains in
self-concept than a comparable group not receiving
counseling.
I 3. Primary grade Mexican-American pupils involved
I in a group counseling program will show greater gains in
academic achievement than a comparable group not receiving
: counseling.
| In addition to the research hypotheses, the
i
i
| following related questions were to be investigated:
I
1. Which of the measures used to evaluate self-
concept best predicted academic achievement?
2. Which of the measures used to evaluate self-
concept appeared to be most closely related to the others?
Delimitations
The following delimitations were imposed on the
i
conduct of the study:
1
i
1. Only those pupils who were of Mexican descent
were included in the study.
! 2. The study was delimited to those pupils from
j
monolingual Spanish speaking homes, or to those from homes
where the parents' facility in the English language was
judged to be nonfunctional.
3. Only those children whose parent or parents
were identified as having unskilled, or semi-skilled,
occupations in nonmanagerial or nonsupervisory positions,
or were receiving public support were included.
4. The subjects included in the study were
|judged to be functioning in the average range of intelli
gence, eliminating those identified as mentally gifted or
I 11
1 mentally retarded.
i
i
i
! Definition of Terms
Throughout the study, the following terms were
defined in the specific sense presented in these
|
|definitions:
j
IMexican-American
For this study, the Mexican-American is defined
as a person of Mexican ancestry, though not necessarily
exclusively Mexican, residing in the United States regard
less of citizenship.
I
Academic Achievement
j
| Unless specific subject matter areas are stated,
academic achievement is interpreted as total achievement
in mathematics, reading recognition, reading comprehension,
spelling, and general information.
Monolingual Spanish Home
In this study, the monolingual Spanish home is
intended to designate the home in which verbal communica
tion with the parents takes place in Spanish except for
those English words and phrases which have been incorpo
rated into the Spanish for lack of direct Spanish
equivalents. This acknowledges that older siblings may
be learning English in the school and community.
I 12
* Self-Concept
For the purpose of this study, self-concept is
defined as the global self-concept, and as the perceptual
concept of the self, as seen from the point of view of
phenomenological psychology (Combs & Soper, 1957).
i
t
Organization of the Study
The study has been organized into the following
chapters:
Chapter I
This first chapter has presented the background,
j
ipurpose, and significance of the study. It presents the
|research hypotheses and associated questions, outlines the
delimitations associated with this investigation, and
defines the terms used.
i
Chapter II
i Chapter II reviews the literature on the theoreti-
j
Ical bases of self-concept, self-concept change, and the
I literature relative to self-concept and academic achieve
ment in the Mexican-American population. Also included in j
this chapter are reviews of the literature regarding group '
counseling and the developmental counseling model.
;Chapter III
i
i
The third chapter presents the research design,
13
' the limitations, the method of identifying and selecting
subjects, the instruments employed in measuring self-
jconcept and academic achievement, and the procedures and
i
l
time-line for organizing and implementing the counseling
I program. The characteristics of the counseling team are
\
i
| described, and a session-by-session outline of the
counseling program is presented.
Chapter IV
Chapter IV presents the findings resulting from
the study.
Chapter V
I The last chapter summarizes the research,
i
i discusses the relevance and implications of the findings,
and offers recommendations.
14
t CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
I
i
I This chapter provides a discussion of the theory
i
j of self-concept and self-concept change, the rationale for
i
|employing this particular population in the research, and
I a review of research relevant to this study. Also
j included in this chapter is a discussion of the choice of
I the developmental counseling model for use in the study.
!
i
1 Self-Concept Theories of Behavior
i
i
Although self-concept as an intriguing aspect of
personality has been extant since the last century with
James (1890) discussions of the self, interest in self-
concept is still current, particularly its relevance to
j education.
Combs (cited in American School Counselor Associa
tion Newsletter, May, 1973) stated: "What happens to a
i
child's self-concept is perhaps more important than the
content or curricula" (p. 4). . He stressed the importance
i
of education in dealing with students' values and feelings,
and declared, "We can get along with a bad reader, but
i
inot with a bigot" (p. 4).
i
Self-concept as a factor in students' attainment
i
i
I 15
was emphasized by Hunter (cited in Wells, 1974). She noted!
i
that good self-concept stems from feelings of competence ,
! and feelings of worth, and underscored the value of |
f
teachers' respect for pupils.
• The evolution of self-concept theory from James'
i
i
| early work to present day phenomenological-existential-
humanistic views includes the thinking of many prominent
psychologists.
i
l
1 The Evolution of Self-
I Concept Theory
Marx and Hillix (1963) offer a definition of ego
which includes self: "ego--l. The self. 2. That part of
, mental activity which is conscious and in close contact
i
with reality" (p. 384). Also, a definition of self which
excludes ego is:
Self— 1. An existing picture of an individual's
past behavior and experiences as perceived by him.
2. A summary name for a set of psychological proc
esses, usually including evaluative and attitudinal
functions, involving an individual and his relation
ship to the world. (p. 395)
I Regarding self theories, the authors state that
| there are three general ways of viewing the operation of j
the self. One is the little man-inside-the-man having j
energy and will. The second view is that of a template
or picture representing past behaviors and experiences,
j possibly resistant to changes from new experiences
representing discrepancies between the existing picture
and the modifications necessary to accommodate new
experiences or behaviors. The third view of the self is
! concerned with psychological processes which act upon
materials governing behavior, thus directing behavior.
In historical perspective, James (1890), in the
i
| psychoanalytic frame, first described the self in terms
of constituent parts: the material self, the social
self, the spiritual self, and the pure ego. He described
the activities of the self as self-feelings, self-seeking,
! and self-preservation.
I
Interest in self theory appeared dormant during
the early part of the century when behaviorists were active
!
! in formulating ideas stressing objectivity and experi-
i
i mentation.
In the 1930s self theory interest was renewed.
Mead (1934), the social philosopher, described a self that
is formed by social interaction. As a consequence of
experiencing others" reactions to him, a person develops
1 attitudes and feelings about himself. Thus, the self-as-
object may comprise many separate selves, according to
the social group memberships held.
I
In 1935, Koffka described the self-as-object as ;
the phenomenal ego. The phenomenal ego was the sum of
conscious experiences. The total ego included unconscious
i
I experiences, tension systems, the executive which
J monitored behavior, and at the nucleus, the self.
In 19 44, Jung rearranged an earlier conception of
the self as being equivalent to the whole psyche, and his
newer conception became a separate system, holding all the
j other systems together and striving for oneness of the
i
1 individual with the psychic systems within and the world
l
without. This was Jung's most important archetype--the
self (Jung, 1953).
Murphy (194 7) described the self-concept in the
framework of the organismic theory. The self-concept
maintains a fundamental continuity throughout life,
although there may be transformations and elaborations
resulting from the interplay between the image one has
i
, of himself and the image others have of him. According
i
to Marx and Hillix (1963) Murphy is to be commended for
the brevity of his definition of self: "The individual
as known to the individual" (p. 342).
In 1942, Karen Horney wrote about unrealistic
| conceptions regarding the self, claiming that discrepancies
between the ideal self and the real self produced neurosis.
As the child grows and interacts with his environment, he
j internalizes levels of aspiration and ethics of others,
! thus developing an idealized self-concept without con- !
sideration of what his own potentialities or limitations
contribute (Marx & Hillix, 1963).
i Rogers (19 51) wrote about the early work of Raimy
j who conducted research regarding attitudes toward the
18
| self. The central construct in Raimy's research was the
i
concept of self as perceived object in the phenomenal
! field. "The self-concept, or self-structure, may be
thought of as an organized configuration of perceptions
of the self which are admissible to awareness" (p. 136).
i
j The determination of an individual's behavior is
i
dependent upon his perception of the experienced world as
available to the consciousness of the individual,
according to Snygg and Combs (1949). This view repre
sented a further departure from traditional views and
|afforded a preview of emerging phenomenological trends.
i
| The self, as real and/or as ideal, comprises the
self-sentiment in Catell's (1950) system of sentiments
i
accounting for personality. He described the self-senti
ment as the most powerful of the sentiments and the one
providing consistency in the individual's behavior.
Rogers' Client-Centered Therapy (1951) contained
his first full presentation of his personality theory.
i
Harper (1959) calls attention to the fact that Rogers
drew from the work of Goldstein, Snygg and Combs,
'Maslow, Angyal, Lecky, and Sullivan, but that the essen
tial contribution of his theory is the concept of the
phenomenological point of view, that the individual's
behavior is determined by his phenomenological field, and
l
I that effective therapy demands that the therapist have
i
|knowledge of the client's phenomenological field.
I
I
i 19
Rogers’ self-concept included perceptions
regarding one's characteristics and abilities, relation
ships to others and to the environment, value qualities j
of experiences and objects, and goals and ideals having
jpositive or negative valence. He specified that "self"
!
i in his thinking was not synonomous with "organism" but
was the awareness of being and of functioning. Thus,
Rogers' view was similar to that of Snygg and Combs.
Jersild (19 52) wrote that self-concept is acquired,
developing as the individual, with his abilities, ten
dencies, and inherent make-up, meets with the experiences
of life.
i
I
( Sullivan (195 6) believed self-concept to be inter-
i
personal in origin, and that it evolves out of reflected
appraisals of other persons. The generalized feeling of
the "good me" and the "bad me" begins in infancy as a
result of the physical communication by the infant's
caretakers, and is confirmed in the period of childhood
when language development permits verbal communication
of approval/disapproval and acceptance/rejection.
When negative appraisals are overwhelming and j
i
i
become internalized, the child develops a negative self- j
concept. In his search for security and feelings of
humanness, the child seeks and finds the negative aspects
|of others' behavior.
j The definition of self-concept offered by Combs
20
| and Soper (1963) is that "the self-concept is the organiza
tion of all that the individual refers to as 'I' or 'me'"
!
I (p. 136). It is a patterned interrelationship of
i
"gestalt" of all the isolated concepts of the self, and
has a degree of stability and consistency which allows for
i
i
i predictions regarding the individual and his behavior.
May (1961) stated that it was necessary to go
behind the ego-id-superego system in order to understand
jthe "being" himself. According to May:
My self, or my being (the two at this point are
parallel), is to be found at that center at which
I know myself as the one responding in these dif-
i ferent ways, the center at which I experience
I myself as the one behaving in the ways described
I by these varied functions. (pp. 47-48)
J Sullivan's "reflected appraisals" was referred to
by Combs (1962) when he said that people learn, who and what
! they are from others in their environment as they are
i
j growing up. The self-concept, then, is the result of the
ways in which people around them treat them. Combs stated
that the key to producing more adequate people was to pro-
i
j vide experiences teaching individuals that they are
i
| positive people.
According to Combs, a positive view of self j
affects learning. Summarizing the views of Kelley, Rogers,
Maslow, and Combs, Combs (1962) stated:
I Our authors state that learning is affected by a
; positive view of self, by openness to experience,
by identification with others, by the student's
goals and values and the process of becoming in
which he is engaged. (p. 183)
Wylie (1968) wrote that self-concept theorists
accorded a central role to conscious perceptions, cogni
tions, and feelings, and have been labeled "phenomenolo-
gists." The prediction of human behavior depends upon the
knowledge of the subject's conscious perceptions of his
environment.
Developments in theoretical formulations of the
self continued out of the phenomenological framework.
Heidegger's Being and Time (1962) outlined his existential-
phenomenological philosophy of man as a being-in-the-
world. According to Hall and Lindzey (1970):
Explanations of man's existence in terms of a
self, or an unconscious, psychic or physical
energy, or forces such as instincts, brain waves,
drives, and archetypes are ruled out. Phenomena
are what they are in all of their immediacy; they
are not a facade or a derivation of something else.
(p. 557)
Existential philosophers agree that man's whole
existence is his being-in-the-worId, his Dasein. He has
no existence apart from the world, and the phenomena which
he experiences are his reality. His existence comprises
his Umwelt, Mitwelt, and Eigenwelt. Depending only upon
his "thrownness" into the world, man is free to become
what he will be. Man chooses himself.
Bledsoe and Garrison (1962) wrote that self-concept
is an outgrowth of experiences and achieved through
jcontact with others. The quality of a pupil's associates
governs the development of his self-concept, according to
'these writers, bringing concern for self-concept into
the school environment.
In 196 3, Combs and Soper referred to a new,
i
:internal frame of reference for understanding behavior as
"the Third Force." Attempting to discover the point of
I
view underlying the accompanying thought and action
represented a new dimension to psychological thought.
The internal frame of reference has sometimes been
called "the Third Force." Among its ranks are
included psychologists calling themselves existen
tial, phenomenological, transactional, perceptual,
personalistic, and self-psychologists. (p. 2)
i
Bernard and Fullmer (1969) stated that self-concept
i
had become "the recipient of a resurgence of interest . . .
counselors find that the self-concept has much pertinence
to their work" (p. 133).
According to La Benne (1969), self-concept is a
construct, a term describing a mechanism allowing us to
! explain behavior. Behavior is observable and measurable,
and from behavior we infer the process, the linking I
i I
I !
mechanism known as a construct.
From James' early description of the self in 1890 j
to the present time, interest in the various theories of
self and in self-concept has persisted, and continued to
!be a subject of special relevance for counselors,
psychologists, and educators.
t
t
23
Self-Concept Change
That it is possible for self-concept to change in
therapy has been documented in various research studies
over approximately the past 40 years.
Although Raimy's early work was not published,
according to Rogers (1951), he was conducting research
in self-perception change in the early 1930s.
Bergin and Garfield (1971) describe Nunnally's
1955 study of Miss Sun which included a pretherapy period
of six months, a therapy period of nine months, and a
posttherapy period of eight months. The therapy was
client-centered, and a factor analysis of Q sorts indi-
!
! cated increased congruence in self-assessments following
I
! therapy.
Rogers (1959) wrote of his discovery of the role
of self-concept change in therapy in the process of working
with his clients. "The self was an important element in
the experience of the client . . . in some odd sense his
goal was to become his 'real' self" (p. 201).
Rogers asked the question regarding client-
i
centered therapy in the context of research: j
i
Does the client's everyday behavior change in such
a way that the changes can be observed, and is the j
nature of these changes positive? . . . The theory !
of client-centered therapy hypothesizes that inner
changes taking place in therapy will cause the
individual after therapy to behave in ways which
j are less defensive, more socialized, more
acceptant of reality in himself and in his social
24
• environment, and which give evidence of a more I
I socialized system of values. (1961, p. 259) I
In a study comparing differential levels of core j
i
i
conditions of empathy, warmth, and genuineness, Truax and
Wargo (1967) found significant differences in improvement
i
in self-concept among 160 hospitalized patients receiving
high levels of these core conditions.
According to Bergin and Garfield (1971), "among j
the traditional therapies, the client-centered approach
has most explicitly emphasized the importance of positive
changes in self-concept" (p. 738).
Behavior therapies, while not dealing specifically
I with self-concept phenomena, do involve changes in
| feelings and attitudes regarding the self. This is borne I
I
out in studies involving reinforcement principles
including conditioning, self-reinforcement, social-
reinforcement, and cognitive-oriented therapy.
Self-concept changes may account for changes in
behavior, attitudes, self-confidence, and mastery
of phobias, and are of critical importance in
I behavior therapy as well as traditional client-
I centered therapy (where changes in self-concept
1 have been regarded as the chief criterion of
successful outcome). (Bergin & Garfield, p. 738)
!
Wylie (1961, 1974) has made exhaustive studies
of research in the area of self-concept and self-concept
change. A major problem in self-concept research which
! she has written about extensively is the problem of
j measurement. She feels that construct validity is the
I 25
j crucial factor in self-concept research, that predictive
and concurrent validity are not sufficient, because while i
i they may discriminate nosologically they fail to explain
i
why the association takes place.
Another problem Wylie (1974) explores at some
length is that of phenomenologists accepting the subject*s
self-report as being determined by his phenomenological
field. She feels that it is naive to take this for
granted, and suggests the possibility that instead the
subject*s responses may be affected by a number of fac
tors, including such factors as selecting that which he
wishes to reveal, claiming attitudes and perceptions not
( his, and resorting to response habits. Situational and
, methodological factors may also exert influences.
It appears to be generally accepted that it is
possible to effect positive changes in the self-concept
through therapy, and that this in itself can be considered
a legitimate goal and outcome of therapy. The measurement
of self-concept and the extent of change in self-concept
jpresents problems to researchers, however, especially in
the necessity for attending to construct validity and for
I
examining the self-report technique. |
Self-Concept and Academic
Achievement
That there is not an inevitable relationship
between self-concept and academic achievement is brought
26
1 out repeatedly by people who cite cases of well loved,
though handicapped, children who are unable to achieve
academically, or of groups of pupils who value what appears
to be an inverse relationship between self-concept and
' academic achievement.
In the general public, these instances are the
exception rather than the rule, according to Purkey (1970).
He concluded that contemporary research had consistently
found a relationship between self-esteem and academic
| achievement, and that parents and teachers could not
afford to ignore that relationship.
An early study by Walsh (1956) compared the self-
!
^ concepts of two groups of bright boys in grades two
| through five using play materials. She found that the
I lower achievers perceived themselves in ways that resulted
i
in difficulties in expressing themselves, and in feelings
of criticism, rejection, or isolation.
The self-images of children in grades three
through seven were compared on such variables as the per-
! ception of physical self-image, social self-image,
achievement self-image, and intellectual self-image in a
study of 100 pupils by Hamacheck (1960). He found mental i
age, reading age, and achievement age to be related to
more positive achievement self-image and intellectual
self-image.
Other supporting contemporary studies were
i 27
performed by Davidson and Lang (1960), Shaw, Edson, and
Bell (1960), Brookover (1960), and Beldsoe and Garrison
(1962). Davidson and Lang found that children's percep
tions of teachers' feelings toward them correlated posi
tively with self-perceptions and achievement. Shaw et al.
I
j found that male underachievers had more negative feelings
toward themselves than male achievers. Studies by
Brookover, at the junior high level, and Bledsoe and
Garrison, at the elementary level, found evidence sup
porting the relationship of self-concept and academic
achievement.
An early study by Fink (19 61) compared high and
I
, low achieving ninth graders on their scores on the
i
i
I California Personality Inventory, Bender Visual-Motor
Gestalt Test, Draw A Person Test, Gough Adjective Check
List, a personal data sheet, and a brief essay. He found
positive relationships between academic achievement and
adequacy of self-concept.
Combs and Soper's (1963) study was designed to
investigate kindergarten, first, and second grade chil
dren's perceptions of themselves as related to achievement j
and behavior. They concluded: •
It would appear tha't-^the-^child who perceives him- !
self as an adequate person is also more likely to
be seen by others as behaving in a fashion that is
1 outgoing, independent, spontaneous, aggressive,
emotionally stable, energetic, and acceptable to
his peers. His behavior is also likely to be seen
28
1 as cooperative, dependable, having low hostility,
i good work habits and the like. (p. 98)
Combs and Soper (1963) conducted a factor analysis j
of children's perceptions and found that of 49 categories
of perceptions, 47 were reduced to a single global factor
designated as a feeling of general adequacy.
i
Self-concept studies continued to proliferate in
the literature, and at this point in the chronological
emergence of self-concept research, investigations of
self-concept with special reference to Mexican-American
pupils began to appear. These studies are reviewed in
this chapter in connection with the characteristics of the
i Mexican-American population.
j Studies by Williams and Cole (1968), Purkey,
Graves, and Zellner (1970), Primavera, Simon, and
Primavera (19 74), and by Simon and Simon (1975) all
investigated the relationship of self-concept to academic
achievement. All reported significant relationships with
1 the exception of the males in the Primavera et al. (1974)
study in which the relationship between self-concept and
academic achievement in the male population was significantj
only in the area of mathematics as measured by the j
New York State Mathematics Achievement Test.
This brief review of experimental studies of
self-concept and academic achievement relationships was
intended to provide a representative, although not
29
exhaustive survey indicating continuing interest in the
I problem.
!
I Self-Concept Among
Mexican-Americans
The Mexican-American subculture is similar in many
.respects to the "culture of poverty" model described by
Oscar Lewis, according to Burma (1970). In describing
j
I the effects of the "cycles of poverty," Johnson (1966)
states that the disadvantaged child possesses all the bad
things in our society--an environment that includes
failure, rejection by society, and inadequacies in school.
I
I
j As a result the child begins to view himself with contempt
I
and to have this attitude continually reinforced.
i
; Stereotyping all Mexican-Americans as having
negative self-concepts is an error caused by failure to
recognize the differences among the Mexican-American popu
lation, according to Dworkin (19 70). He cites the example
of native-born Mexican-Americans who tend to have more
negative self-concepts than the foreign-born. This is
jbecause of the foreign-born recent arrival's comparison of
!his condition with that of his friends or family remaining ;
i
in Mexico, and his resulting optimistic view of his j
situation. In contrast, the native-born tend to have more
negative view of Anglos and of themselves.
i Whether or not Mexican-American children generally
|hold negative self-views is discussed by Carter (196 8).
I 30
1 He pointed out that, while many people believe that
| Mexican-American children have negative views of them-
j i
' selves, this may be the result of stereotyping by the |
i
| members of the dominant society. However, the Mexican-
j
! American children may be less affected by the opinions of
the "significant others" in the dominant society than by
those of the "significant others" in their own adult or
peer society, and thus be successful in maintaining posi
tive views of themselves.
I The report of the Southwest Council on the Educa-
i
j tion of Spanish Speaking People of 1963 stated:
! Self-concept is a subject which, while seldom dis
cussed, is so essential a factor in the lives of
young Mexican-Americans that it is worthy of
j serious consideration. (p. 35)
The Council recommended "extension and enlargement
1 of counseling and guidance services to elementary and
i
junior high schools" (p. 35) for Mexican-American pupils.
While there is lacking universal agreement on
I
I
| whether negative self-concept is a characteristic of
| Mexican-American children, it has remained an area of
»
special concern with regard to this school population over j
I
a period of years and has been an area of interest to
I
1 researchers over the period of the past 10 years.
Investigations of Self-Concept
and Academic Achievement Among
| Mexican-American Pupils
| As early as 196 6, interest was evidenced regarding
I
I 31
|the possible relationship of self-concept to academic
j achievement among Mexican-Americans. In that year, Davis
I investigated authority relationships, peer relationships,
i
moral and social values, school related experiences and
I aspirations, self-concept and interest patterns, and how
jthese factors related to academic status. Her subjects
j were 634 seventh grade Anglo-American and Mexican-American
i
pupils in Los Angeles County. Comparing scores on the
Inventory of Self-Appraisal and sixth grade grade point
averages, she found no significant differences between
average to low achieving pupils, but in high to average
achievers and in high to low achievers, there were sig-
i
!nificant differences in responses to the inventory.
j
Schwartz (1967) investigated the effectiveness
of the Index of Self-Esteem in predicting relationships
between self-esteem and academic success in junior high
and high school pupils. She found that self-esteem, as
measured by this instrument, was not a very powerful
predictor of academic success except in Anglo senior white
collar pupils and in blue collar junior high school
Mexican-Americans. High achieving junior high school
Mexican-American pupils had a strong belief in their own
personal worth and that of others.
Palomares and Cummins (1967) conducted a study
| of Mexican-American pupils in grades one through six in a
i
I
I rural setting near San Diego. The California Test of
i
I 32
I
;Personality was administered to all pupils in the study,
with results ranging from the 10th to 60th percentiles as ;
i
I I
compared to the normative population. The authors con
cluded that the Mexican-American pupils in the San Ysidro
I Schools tended to have self-concepts permeated with
i
i
j feelings of inadequacy and that their low self-esteem
i
extended to both the home and school environments.
Anglo and Mexican-American pupils enrolled in the
j sixth, ninth, and twelfth grades in Los Angeles were
studied by Gordon et al. (1968). The following variables
were identified as sources of influence on pupil per-
j
I formance: family educational level, pupil attitudes and
jvalues, and family economic level. Additional variables
i
relevant to Mexican-American pupils were social context,
and language usage (exclusive use of English for Mexican-
American pupils).
Significant relationships between self-concept
and academic achievement were found in a study of sixth
grade Mexican-American girls in East Los Angeles.
| Hishiki (1969) compared the Los Angeles girls with fourth
and sixth grade children in Clarke County, Georgia, with
i
regard to measures of self-concept, relationships between
self-concept measures and measures of intelligence and
academic achievement, and patterns of self-description.
i
i
Hishiki stated:
33
' The Mexican-American sixth grade girl with a high
self-concept had more success in academic achieve
ment than did the sixth grade girl of similar
background with a low self-concept. (p. 51)
In a study of 126 male and female junior high
school pupils, of whom 87 were Mexican-Americans, Evans
| (1969) found that in this population, depressed achievement
i of Mexican-American pupils was associated with lower self-
concepts of ability, with fatalistic, present-time
orientation, with non-democratic independence training
experiences, and with high religious social distance.
An interview and questionnaire technique were used for
! measuring language background, self-concept of ability,
i
I
I achievement orientation, parental independence training
| practices, parental achievement pressure, social distance,
and socioeconomic status. Standardized tests and grades
in English and mathematics were used as measures of
achievement.
A sample of 428 fourth and sixth grade migrant
pupils with Spanish surnames in New Mexico was compared to
similar groups of white children in Georgia and black
children in Louisiana, using self-concept scores correlated
with measures of intelligence and achievement. The j
New Mexico pupils had generally lower self-concept,
achievement, and total IQ scores than the white students
in Georgia, but rated generally higher than the Negro
pupils in Louisiana participating in this study by
!
34
'Giliman (19 69).
Mexican-American and Anglo pupils were compared
i
on values and achievement in a study by Schwartz (1969).
Findings indicated that Mexican-American pupils at the
ninth grade level manifested a negative self-image and a
I
i
|fatalistic outlook toward their future, and that the gap
|between the self-esteem of Mexican-American pupils and
j that of Anglo pupils tended to be greater at the senior
high school level than at the junior high school level.
In another study involving junior high school age
pupils, Anderson and Evans (1969) drew a large, stratified
sample of Mexican-American pupils. The investigators
i
.concluded that sex, father's education, and socioeconomic
I
level predict achievement in Mexican-American pupils just
as these variables predict achievement in other groups.
The strongest predictors of language and mathematics
achievement measures were the variables of self-concept
of ability and independence training.
Achievement patterns of Mexican-American college
and high school graduates were examined by Godoy (1970)
|in an attempt to determine which variables were significant
I |
|in the sample of 51 high school graduates and 51 college :
graduates, prematched. Critical variables included
mobility, language, socioeconomic situation, civic
i
i
responsibility, religion, self (with regard to Mexican
ancestry, peer relationships, and aspirations), parental
i 35
j influence in regard to education, and related variables J
j regarding encouragement by others. Godoy used a question-
' naire technique. Variables identified as significant were
related to influences and to discrimination on the part of
the subjects.
I
I
Hepner (197 0) concluded that Mexican-American
boys' self-concepts were not affected in either direction
by academic achievement. In this study, underachieving
Mexican-American boys did not perceive themselves more
t
negatively than did their better achieving peers. However,
she reported her study comparing value clusters of
|
I Mexican-American and Anglo-American boys as yielding
significant differences in self-concepts, values, and role
i
, conceptions of the two groups.
Mead's interaction theory of the self was the basis
j for a study of Chicano and Anglo fifth and sixth grade
i
pupils in two Midwestern cities. In this investigation,
Braccio (1972) analyzed the pupils' perceptions of their
own academic ability, and their perceptions of how their
! parents, teacher, and best friend perceived their academic
ability. The sample consisted of 12 0 low socioeconomic ;
pupils from three schools, with boys and girls, fifth and |
sixth grade, Chicanos and Anglos equally distributed.
Braccio found that the Chicano pupils did not have a lower
i
■ self-concept of academic ability than did Anglo peers,
| that .Chicano and Anglo males did not have a lower
36
self-concept of academic ability than female peers, that
language-related activities were not perceived more nega
tively by Chicano than by Anglo pupils, and that educa
tional aspirations were similar for Anglos and Chicanos.
The Chicano pupils tended to choose unskilled or factory
work for their occupations, after completing school, more
frequently than their Anglo peers.
None of the four hypotheses posed by Valenzuela
in his 19 71 investigation was supported with regard to
self-concept in Spanish-American children in Omaha. He
had hypothesized that, controlling for IQ and SES,
Spanish-American children had a significantly lower self-
concept than Anglo children, that Spanish-American children
had a significantly lower grade point average than Anglo
children, that self-concept was related significantly with :
IQ and SES, and that self-concept was related significantly
with grade point average. Subjects were 40 Spanish-
American and Anglo tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grade
pupils, five pupils from each ethnic group from each of
four classifications: high SES, high IQ; high SES, low
IQ; low SES, high IQ; low SES, low IQ.
Anderson and Johnson (19 71) hypothesized that the
structure of the child's home environment would be sig
nificantly related to his school achievement, his achieve
ment values, his self-concept of ability, his plans
following high school, extracurricular activities, and
I attitudes toward teachers and school, in a population of
I i
j 163 junior and senior high school pupils in a Southwestern
t
1 community. The investigators' plan was to examine socio-
| cultural change in three generations of Mexican-Americans,
I
I and to ensure that several generations would be included,
families with children at all three levels of the public
school were stratified with the samples drawn from each
stratum. Each of the 16 3 subjects completed a 140-item
questionnaire.
Results indicated that achievement in English
appeared to be related to the language used in the home,
I
I the educational level of the parents, parents' stress on
; formal education, emphasis on completing high school and
j
, attending college. Achievement in mathematics appeared
related to the parents' desire for their child to attend
i
college and the students' own desire to achieve in school.
However, the most significant factor in predicting
achievement in both English and mathematics was the stu
dents' self-concept of ability.
Probably one of the most significant findings that
! has emerged from this study is the discovery that
Mexican-American children may have less confidence :
in their ability to successfully fulfill the |
expectations of their parents and the school than 1
their contemporaries despite the high educational
expectation of the child and his parents. If this
observation is borne out by future research, it
may be possible to significantly improve the
academic performance of many Mexican-American
children by designing educational programs that
directly attempt to improve the degree of confi
dence that Mexican-American children have in
their ability to succeed in school. (p. 306)
38
Linton (1972) reported a study involving 172
Anglo and 160 Mexican-American students in a southern i
New Mexico city, in an attempt to discover whether Anglo
and Mexican-American students differed in global and
academic self-concepts, and whether a relationship existed
between academic achievement and these self-concepts.
The subjects were sixth grade students from 16 elementary
schools. Measures included teacher-assigned grades, the
i
i Iowa Test of Basic Skills, the Piers-Harris Self-Concept
Scale, and a five-factor analyzed scale which had been
j developed from existing research. Significant differences
| in both self-concept measures were found between socio-
I
economic levels. No other significant differences were
1 found, and relationships between self-concept and
achievement failed to indicate a consistent pattern across
■ i
socioeconomic levels.
Self-concept was one of the variables studied in
a study of achieving and non-achieving Mexican-American
and other college freshmen conducted by Hall (19 72). The
California Inventory of Self-Appraisal was used to
measure self-concept. It was concluded that the personal- \
ity measures distinguished between socioeconomic groups, ■
but failed to distinguish between achievers and
non-achievers.
j
i Leo (1972) investigated the effects of two group
counseling techniques on the academic achievement and
self-concept of 144 Mexican-American pupils from the
fourth, fifth, and sixth grade classes in two elementary
schools. Analysis of covariance yielded no significant
!
I
variances for the treatments variable. The two counseling
programs consisted of: (a) a bicultural group counseling
treatment for developing pride in ethnic background, and
(b) a traditional group counseling treatment emphasizing
adjustment and academic achievement.
Although several studies have investigated the
relationship of academic achievement to self-concept among
Mexican-American students, these have all been concerned
with older elementary children, or students at the junior
i |
high, high school, or college level. Effects of coun- j
'seling on self-concept and academic achievement were
reported in one study of middle grade children.
i
Group Counseling for Young Children
Counseling services for young children are as yet
not universally accepted. Some doubt the ability of
!young children to benefit from counseling; some doubt the
!
necessity for providing personnel and funds for counseling
for little children. !
i
Bergin and Garfield (1971) expressed some of the
differing opinions regarding counseling at the elementary
I
I school level:
i
40
> While some people are uncertain about the wisdom
of providing counseling services at the elementary
school level, others argue that psychological
! assistance with developmental tasks at such an
1 early age could be influential in reducing the
frequency and intensity of difficulties encountered
during the adolescent years. (p. 876)
They cite the commitment to elementary school
i
counseling by the government of the United States through
the extension of the National Defense Education Act in
1964, providing financial support for counseling in
elementary schools.
The ability of very young children to participate
in and benefit from counseling is summarized by Mayer
(1968):
i
We have found that children can and do express
i their feelings and concerns and that children as
young as kindergarten and first grade can enter
and apparently profit from a counseling relationship,
(p. 43)
Howard and Zimpfer (1972) summarized the findings
of research studies concerned with group counseling in
elementary schools. They reported that most studies were
conducted with upper grade subjects and observed that,
while developmental group approaches appeared to be
effective, research regarding developmental counseling
was rarely reported in the literature. They recommended
that counselors should give more attention to primary
grade children because of problems developing prior to
j
school enrollment or during the primary grades.
According to Jeffries (1973) group counseling
j has been used to "deradicalize" young children. He cites
the reports of several researchers who used group coun
seling to adjust the behavior of the children to the needs
of the school. Jeffries states that while children are
safest to change, it may truly be the system that is in
i
need of counseling. He cautions the counselor not to
protect the institution that is in need of change.
Regarding similar abuses of group counseling,
Patterson (1973) writes:
There is some evidence that counselors in the
schools view group counseling as a means to
"shape up" or bring into line nonconforming stu-
| dents. Group pressures are powerful, and the use
i of group pressure to manipulate the behavior of
' students is unprofessional if not unethical.
(p. 296)
i
; However, the goal of developmental counseling is
not to adjust clients to situations or institutions
Blocher (1974) states, the changing personality is not a
primary concern. He writes:
It is possible then to see developmental counseling
as an attempt to help an individual to maximize his
possible freedom within the limitations supplied
by himself and his environment. (p. 5)
i
j Developmental counseling appears to be an appro-
i
pnate counseling model for use with primary grade
children in a public school setting.
The Developmental Counseling
Model
Facilitating growth toward normal developmental
42
j goals has become increasingly accepted as a legitimate
| purpose of counseling.
i
In 1961, Tyler wrote, "The psychological purpose of
counseling is to facilitate development" (p. 17).
Grams (1966) wrote:
The concept of developmental guidance has been
introduced to underscore the need to facilitate
total growth and learning for all participants in
the educational process. (p. 125)
Developing responsibility and self-understanding
are purposes of guidance work at the elementary level,
according to Cottingham (1968), permitting children to
j react with confidence to the demands of their environment,
i and to explore available choices with personal security.
! Self-concept is considered within the framework
of identity formation in developmental counseling as
outlined by Blocher (1966) , but identity goes beyond self-
concept, and identity formation is concerned with
developing many self-concepts according to the number of
roles and relationships in which the individual is
involved.
I
Helping with identity formation from this point of j
view means not only facilitating self-exploration, I
but actively helping an individual to cope with j
environmental demands. It means active problem- ;
solving and tryouts of alternative behaviors. Its
j goal is the formation of an integrated structure
of values and ideals, together with a repertory
I of coping behaviors adequate to implement these
values in a reality-oriented world of affiliations,
commitments, risks, and responsibilities.
Facilitating this kind of identify formation is a
central goal of the developmental counselor in his
j counseling relationships. (p. 9)
I 43
! Instead of having remediative-adjustive-therapeutici
I l
i
'goals, developmental counseling has developmental-
j
I educative-preventive goals (Blocher, 1974) .
i
A developmental group process, Activity Group
Guidance, is described by Hillman, Penczar, and Barr (1975)
i
as suitable for almost all students. The authors were
involved in a project in which 25 groups of boys and girls
from grades two through six, with seven or eight children
in each group, met weekly for one school year. Each
jmeeting was structured to include a warm-up discussion,
|an activity, and a follow-up discussion, and was based on
|a guidance principle, for example, understanding feelings.
I
An evaluation by group leaders trained to observe and
I
,record behavior indicated that:
[Children at all the grade levels involved] made
substantial gains in the quality of their behavior
[when rated on] participation in group activity,
self-assertiveness with peers, respect for others,
valuation by peers, interaction with adult leaders,
and emotional expression. (pp. 765-766)
Programs have been developed for the classroom
teacher to use in structured settings for facilitating
i
social and emotional growth and development. Such pro- j
grams include Developing Understanding of Self and Others j
i
■ (Dinkmeyer, 1970), Methods in Human Development (Bessell |
i
& Palomares, 1970), and Humanizing Learning Potential
(Scanlon, 1972). However, these programs necessarily
involve, ultimately, the entire classroom and are led by
44
! the classroom teacher who is probably not a professionally
i
trained counselor. The depth and quality of this kind of j
; group counseling is not comparable to that attempted in
i
this research.
!
| Structure of Group Counseling
| for Young Children
It is generally recognized that group counseling
with young children requires special structure in terms of
content, group size, and time allotments.
Children's groups must have structure to prevent
| the group from becoming confused, according to Sonstegard
j (1968) .
Ohlsen (1973) stresses that children profit most
I
; from group counseling when they are committed to talk about
something rather than to ramble on about many topics.
However, Muro (19 70) cautions that the emphasis in group
counseling is on personal exploration, not on discussion
of guidance material.
Ohlsen (1973), Muro (1970), and Keat (1974)
advocate the use of play materials during counseling i
I
sessions. According to Ohlsen, play materials facilitate |
i
verbalization for young children.
The recommended size of the counseling group for
primary grade children is less than that for older groups.
Mayer (196 8) states that elementary school children are
I
I
i more dependent, more demanding of attention, and more
45
j I
vulnerable to the influences of social interaction. Their ;
i !
| counseling groups should, therefore, be limited to five j
!
j or less as compared to the eight or more which is usually
recommended for high school and adult groups. Dinkmeyer
!and Muro (1971) state that optimal group size for very
I
I young elementary children is five or less.
Shorter, more frequent sessions are usual for
groups of primary grade children.
|
Although Keat (19 74) states that he has worked
successfully with children aged five to eight for periods
of 40 to 60 minutes, meeting one period per week, other
|authors recommend shorter sessions meeting two or three
times per week. Dinkmeyer and Muro (1971) mention 30- to
’60-minute sessions for young children, based on the
influence of school regulations. Ohlsen (197 3) recommends
20- to 25-minute sessions, three sessions per week for
primary children.
Developmental counseling groups frequently operate
under certain time restraints made necessary because of
!school calendars and the goal of offering counseling to as j
many children as possible. Dinkmeyer and Muro (1971) j
!
advocate that developmental groups meet for a period of
8 to 10 weeks. Wrenn (19 73) recommends a period of
10 weeks.
46
i The Status of Counseling
for Young Children
Although there seems to be support for offering
f
I
developmental group counseling for primary grade children,
there appears to be very little research published in
j this area. Most research in group counseling has been
conducted with students in the middle grades, junior high,
and high school and has been crisis-centered or problem-
centered rather than developmental in nature.
Counseling for young children needs to have
structure in terms of content, group size, and length and
duration of counseling groups. Although recommendations
i vary regarding size of the groups, five or six children
I appear to be the average, with sessions of 20 to 60
i
minutes, meeting two to three times per week for a period
of eight to ten weeks.
Developmental counseling appears especially
appropriate for this particular research, because it is
i
concerned with populations of children dealing with
normal developmental problems, and because of its concern
| for self-concept and identity formation. j
I
!
Summary
Interest in self-concept as a theoretical construct
continues from William James' 1890 discussions of the
I
I
self to the present. During the early 1960s, self-concept
47
1 was particularly emphasized in Third Force psychology
which "included psychologists calling themselves existen
tial, phenomenological, transactional, perceptual, per-
sonalistic, and self-psychologists" (Combs & Soper, 1963,
p. 2) .
Self-concept change has been the subject of many
I
research studies and frequently change in self-concept
has been the single goal and outcome of therapy.
i Problems exist in the measurement of self-concept
because of the lack of construct validity in research
studies and in the instruments used to measure self-
concept and self-concept change.
, The relationship of self-concept to academic
achievement is an area of continuing interest to counselors
and educators and many research studies have reported
positive relationships.
Whether negative self-concepts are general among
Mexican-American children is complicated by stereotyping
and by problems not directly related to Mexican heritage,
such as socioeconomic factors. Because of the lack of
progress in academic achievement and the high dropout
rate among Mexican-American students, the problem of
negative self-concept as a causative factor has been the
subject of various research studies. Research has focused
1
on students in the middle grades, junior high, and high
school, however, and whether low self-concept is related
i
| _____________________________________________________________ _48_
j to low academic achievement in the early school years is
I not clarified in reported research.
I
! The developmental counseling model was chosen as
the appropriate counseling model for this research project
j because it is concerned with self-concept and identity
i
j formation, and with populations of children who are
| coping with normal developmental problems.
i
i
i
49
! CHAPTER III
!
I
PROCEDURES
I
i
i The purpose of this chapter is to describe the
design of the study and the procedures followed in imple
menting the design.
i
i
' Research Design
This research is quasi-experimental in nature,
designed to investigate the relationship of self-concept
to academic achievement in a selected population of
f
primary grade Mexican-American children. In addition, the
effects of a program of group counseling on self-concept
|and academic achievement in this particular population
I were investigated.
i
I
j The method called for the formation of two groups
|of subjects, the treatment group to which the counseling
intervention was applied and the control group. The
j independent variable is the counseling treatment; the
dependent variables are the scores achieved by the subjects
on the five instruments chosen to evaluate academic
achievement and self-concept.
| The questions regarding which of the self-concept
!
jmeasures best predicted academic achievement, and which
I
I 50
self-concept measures were most closely related to each
other were also considered.
The statistical techniques employed included:
(a) analysis of covariance using chronological age and
sex as the covariates, and gain scores of the achievement
subtests and the scales measuring self-concept as
dependent variables; (b) analysis of covariance using
chronological age, sex, and pretest scores as covariates
and scores of the achievement subtests and scales
measuring self-concept as dependent variables; and
(c) Pearson product-moment correlations between the self-
concept scale scores and all other measures. Levels of
significance for all analyses were set at .05.
Selection of Subjects
In locating children eligible for the study, it
became apparent that children who met all of the criteria
for inclusion in the study were not as abundant as chil
dren who met the criteria partially.
Criteria for Selection
The criteria specified that:
1. Children should be judged to be of Mexican
descent as identified by surnames and parent surnames.
2. Children should be from homes where the
language of the parents was Spanish. The deciding factor
51
! was the necessity for conducting parent-teacher conferences
!
in Spanish, either with a bilingual teacher or with the
;aid of an interpreter.
i
| 3. Children should be from homes in which the
I wage-earner was either employed in an unskilled or semi-
!
1 skilled occupation, not on the managerial or supervisory
i
I level, or was receiving public support in the form of
|
i
| disability insurance, unemployment compensation, or aid
j
i to dependent children.
4. Children should be judged to be average in
j intelligence. This was defined as not having been placed
|
; in classes for the gifted or retarded, or not having been
!
referred as possible candidates for placement.
i
5. Children should be enrolled in public schools
and assigned to grades one, two, or three.
j In addition to meeting the foregoing criteria, the
children were to be enrolled in schools in which the
majority of pupils were of middle class, Anglo-Saxon
I
: origin, to ensure the minority group status.
I
I
j Identification of Subjects !
!---------------------- "---- I
| Children were first selected as candidates for the i
i ;
study by Spanish surnames and from these lists, children |
were next screened as to the language of the home.
: Bilingual aides employed in each of the school districts
i
[ assisted in the process of identifying those homes in
52
| which Spanish was the language of the home. j
J The criterion of socioeconomic status was deter- j
j mined by inspection of school records or by personal
knowledge of the classroom teacher or bilingual aide.
| In this search, assistance was provided by school secre- ,
; taries, bilingual aides, and classroom teachers.
i
| Information regarding referrals of potential
| subjects for special placement was provided by classroom
■ teachers, or by secretarial staff members who referred to j
| individual student records.
j
i
t . , .
> Location of Subjects
i
I
It was decided to use all eligible students in
j two elementary schools in the La Mesa/Spring Valley School
I District, La Mesa, California, as members of the experi-
1 mental, or treatment, group. Eligible students in two
elementary schools in Carlsbad Unified School District,
I
• Carlsbad, California, were identified as members of the
I control group. The two school districts are dissimilar
I
I
| in total size and ethnic proportions. However, the four
: individual schools involved in the study were similar in j
; I
| that although there were substantial numbers of Mexican- ;
! American pupils, they were in the minority. The students ,
i !
were similar in that none were in bilingual-bicultural
; programs. All received "English second language"
i instruction from bilingual aides, none of whom were
icredentialed teachers. None of the children's teachers
J were Mexican-American, and none were Spanish speaking. In
! addition to these similarities, the children satisfied
j the criteria for inclusion in the study on the basis of
i socioeconomic factors, language of the home, and level of
t
i
J intellectual functioning.
j In the Carlsbad schools, all eligible students in
|the first grade were used in the control group. Eligible
i
I students in the second and third grades were chosen for
jthe control group by listing all names on cards, placing
'the cards in a box and shuffling them thoroughly, and
I drawing cards until the desired total was reached. The
rationale for this method was that there were relatively
i
.few children in this particular population at the first
grade level. The sampling technique employed was random
j for the experimental group, and stratified random for the
|control group (Guilford, 1965).
I
i
| Because the Mexican-American children had been
|administratively placed at various primary grade levels
|according to length of residence in the United States and
extent of school experience, as well as according to
chronological age, no attempt was made to categorize the
children by grade level, except to select some children
at each level. Thus, all available eligible children were
|used in the treatment group schools, and all available
first grade children, plus eligible second and third grade
children chosen by drawing names, were used in the control :
i
group schools. A total of 2 9 children was located for the
treatment group and 2 9 children were chosen for the control
group. !
I
I
The Counseling Program
!
The developmental counseling model was chosen for
this project because it provides for an approach that is
developmental-educative-preventive, as opposed to an
approach that is remediative-adjustive-therapeutic
(Blocher, 1974), and appears to be the model most appro
priate to the school setting.
Developmental group counseling is characteris
tically conducted for a period of 8 to 10 weeks (Blocher,
1974; Keat, 1974; Wrenn, 1973). A period of nine weeks
was chosen for this project as a mid-value of the recom
mended period. Since these children were very young for
group counseling, it was decided to meet them in two half- .
hour periods each week instead of one one-hour period each
week. Five counseling groups of five to seven children
each were formed at the two treatment group schools.
A session-by-session guide including discussion
topics and suggested activities was developed according
to the nine guidance learnings proposed by Keat (1974).
In general, one guidance learning topic was to be con
sidered in both sessions of each week with the exception
55
of the topic of values and ideals to which one extra
session was devoted, making a total of three sessions for
this topic.
The nine guidance learnings and sessions scheduled
(number of sessions indicated in parentheses following
each topic) are:
1. Understanding and accepting oneself (2).
2. Understanding feelings and emotions (2).
3. Understanding human behavior (2).
4. Developing responsibility for oneself (2).
5. Establishing interpersonal relationships (2).
6. Understanding choices, decisions (2).
7. Demonstrating adjustment capacities (2).
8. Developing appreciation of education and
work (1).
9. Developing values and ideals (3).
A detailed plan for each of the 18 counseling
sessions is included in Appendix A, along with the related
activities and materials.
The Counseling Staff
As the counseling program was being designed, two
Mexican-American counselors assisted as consultants, pro
viding input based on their personal perceptions and their
counseling training and experience. Both counselors were
judged to be well qualified, having the advantage of
56
I ----- ,
j Mexican-American heritage and proficiency in the Spanish j
language, and having already completed a community-based j
i 1
| training program which led to the Master of Arts degree in i
i
counselor education. Both were recommended by the staff j
of the Department of Counselor Education at San Diego
i
State University.
I
i
j Meetings were held during November and December,
! 19 74 for the purpose of reviewing the program content and
!
I
j discussing the counseling model, appropriate counseling
jtechniques and strategies, and session-by-session material.
| In January, it was decided that one counselor
i
i
I would serve as counselor for all groups, the decision being
based on his availability, his opportunity to use this
i
i
experience as an internship through San Diego State
University, and his familiarity with the counseling model
and the specific program as it had evolved. The other
counselor agreed to remain available as a resource person.
Since one counselor would be conducting all the
| group counseling sessions, the problem of providing con
sistency in counselor effectiveness was circumvented, and j
no strategy was necessary for equating group and counselor <
!
access or for assigning counselors to groups on a random
basis. There are precedents in the literature for one-
counselor research projects (Holder, Carkhuff, & Berenson,
1967; Alarcon, 1974). The disadvantages of research
projects involving only one counselor are that the results
57
1 may depend upon the degree of effectiveness of the
i
i
I counselor. A high functioning counselor may successfully
! i
, employ methods or strategies with which a low functioning
i •
i I
I
I counselor may have limited success. However, a one- |
|counselor study may evaluate counselor effectiveness i
; rather than the variables being investigated.
| The experimenter's role during the period of the
jproject was to assist in gathering pre- and post-treatment
i
jmeasurement data; to coordinate the program with the
i
jparticipating school districts; to serve as liaison
jbetween the school districts; the project, and San Diego
I Stage University; and to serve as supervisor and on-going
i
consultant to the project.
i
Selection of Instruments
| As outlined in Chapter I, the hypotheses called
j for investigating the relationship of self-concept and
I academic achievement, and for measuring changes in self-
i
|concept and academic achievement in the treatment and
i
i control groups during the period of the counseling
i
j intervention.
j . i
j The instrument chosen to measure academic achieve- ;
ment was the Peabody Individual Achievement Test. Self-
concept measures included: (a) the Primary Self-Concept
1
t
I Inventory, (b) the Human Figure Drawing Test, (c) the
i
I Bender Gestalt Test, and (d) the Behavioral Data Score
!Sheet, an external teacher-rating scale.
I
l
; The Peabody Individual j
' Achievement Test
I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - i
i
Dunn and Markwardt (1970), authors of the Peabody
| Individual Achievement Test (PIAT), attempted to build
• content and item validity into the test, as well as
internal consistency, by the manner in which the items were
jchosen for inclusion. An original pool of approximately
| 300 items per subtest was reduced to a total of 66 to 84
!
I items per subtest by selecting those items which were
|
|passed by 50% of the subjects at each of the grade levels
jin the field tests, and by selecting items that correlated
j
most highly with the total score on that subtest. A
i
' measure of concurrent validity was obtained by product-
moment correlations of 368 scores of students in kinder
garten, grades one, three, five, eight, and twelve with a
|measure of scholastic aptitutde, the Peabody Picture
JVocabulary Test. The median coefficient of correlation
jwas reported to be .57.
* The format of the PIAT is designed to present the J
I 1
!subject with four possible responses depicted in pictorial
form for each test item, with the exceptions of reading
words in the Reading Recognition subtest and responses to
the specific questions in the General Information subtest.
i
Thus, for most of the test items, the subject may respond
simply by pointing, and a minimum of verbal response is
' required.
i !
i . i
| The authors reported a study correlating the PIAT i
! '
j with the Wide Range Achievement Test, an instrument widely I
| !
used as an individual test, in a population of 46 mentally
| retarded adolescents achieving at approximately the third
grade level. Coefficients of correlation ranged from
!
j .58 to .90 on the comparable subtests (Sitlington, 1970).
| Wetter and French (1973) made a further investiga-
i
I tion of concurrent validity of the PIAT using the Wide
j Range Achievement Test as the criterion measure and
30 children diagnosed as learning disabled as the popula- j
I . . . '
' tion. Product-moment coefficients of correlation were j
I
.79 between the arithmetic subtests, .96 between the I
i !
reading recognition subtests, and .86 between the spelling
subtests, all coefficients being significant at the .01
1
J level.
Lamanna and Ysseldyke (19 73) reported test-retest
reliabilities of .443 to .805, with the total test
j reliability of .757, in a study involving 58 first grade
| students and a time span of six months.
' From the standpoint of validity and reliability, ;
the PIAT appears to be technically adequate. Because of !
its attractive format and the minimal verbal responses
required, it appeared especially appropriate for primary
| grade Mexican-American students involved in English
language instructional programs.
i 60
' The Primary Self-Concept '
1 Inventory j
i ' ]
| According to Wylie (1974), establishing construct !
i
j validity is essential in measuring the phenomenal field
I
| and self-referrent attitudes. Since the subject's atti-
| tudes about himself are private and not available to
j direct observation, it is crucial that the instruments
designed to measure them are based on a theoretical
construct so that there is a rationale for interpretation.
I Muller and Leonetti (1974), authors of the Primary
Self-Concept Inventory, defined the self-concept, as
measured by the PSCI, as "the self-description the indi-
ividual provides of himself" (p. 5).
! Muller and Leonetti (1974) note that negative
self-concept is believed by many educators to be a signifi-
i
j cant contributing factor to low academic achievement.
Their goal in devising this test was to develop an instru
ment appropriate for measuring self-concept in children
f
!of Spanish or Mexican descent:
i
i
i The Primary Self-Concept Inventory was designed to
| provide an economical procedure for evaluating
several aspects of self-concept relevant to school
success. While this test was specifically con- ;
structed for use with the child of Spanish or I
Mexican descent in the Southwest, field testing
has shown it can be used successfully with Anglo-
| American, Indian, and black children. (p. 1)
j Construct validity was evaluated by means of
i
|factor analysis of the Sample I performances (N = 37 2) on
| the pre- and post-testing, and by cross validation using
61
' data from the Sample II pre-testing (N = 100) . In addi-
i
I i
|tion, five doctoral students in counseling and educational |
| I
I psychology at New Mexico State University evaluated the ;
I
|construct by reviewing and placing items in the factor
;categories.
| Content validity was determined by the examination
| of each item by four specialists judged to be expert in
I test construction, counseling, and evaluation of children, j
| i
j Reliability of the final version of the inventory
was assumed by the authors to be adequate, inasmuch as the
original version had test-retest correlation coefficients
of .57 and .91 for Sample I and Sample II, both signifi
cant at the .01 level. The final version differed only in
I
the addition of three new items.
The Primary Self-Concept Inventory was judged to
be appropriate for this study on the basis of its technical
adequacy and its suitability to this particular population.
J
The Human Figure Drawing
Test
I
! The difficulty in locating instruments appropriate
j for measuring self-concept in a population of children as i
young as these suggested using a drawing as an instrument.
However, a search of the literature revealed that there is
some disagreement regarding analyses of children's
|drawings as being valid measures of self-concept.
I
; Schilder (193 5) spoke of the drawing of a human
i
* figure as being representative of the person’s self-concept^
i I
| in the physiological self-image sense. According to i
Schilder, the body image was a "gestalt composed of
i
' physical, organic, and physiological sensations and ;
|
| experiences," (p. 57) and included the reactions of others
t
! to one's appearance and behavior. This view was shared
I
j by Buck (194 8) who referred to the human figure drawing as
i
a "projection" of the self-image.
I
Although Harris (196 3) looks to the drawing of
j the human figure principally as a means of measuring
mental maturity, he states that it is also a means for
| studying personality, finding theoretical justification
in both self-image psychology and in the psychoanalytic
j
!
theory of projection.
Wylie (1974) points out the difficulty in the
i
construct validity of drawings as measures of self-concept
when the investigator fails to specify whether the
concepts are assumed to be conscious or unconscious.
j
j In Koppitz' study (1968), the hypothesis was
!related to Sullivan's theory of interpersonal relation- 1
I |
ships; the human figure drawing can be regarded as a ,
!
portrait of the inner child of the moment. The human
figure drawing reflects his attitudes toward himself and j
his significant others, toward life's stresses and strains
|and his way of meeting them, and reflects also his fears
and anxieties. The manner in which the child draws a
63
I
; figure reveals his inner self-portrait and shows his
i attitude toward himself. "One of the best ways of finding
i
! out how a child feels about himself is to have him make
i
an HFD" (Koppitz, 1968, p. 94).
Koppitz (1966) conducted a validation study
i
j comparing the responses of 76 matched pairs of children on
| the emotional indicators of the Human Figure Drawing Test.
I Half of the children were nominated by their public school
!
I
teachers as having good social, emotional and academic
■ adjustment, and half were patients in a child guidance
clinic. Chi-square analyses of results were significant
at the .001 level indicating that:
Emotional indicators occur more often on the HFDs
| of children with emotional problems than on
drawings of well-adjusted children . . . [and that
HFDs of emotionally disturbed children] show a
greater number of emotional indicators than HFDs
of well-adjusted children. (p. 39)
Reliability of the scale was confirmed by inter
rater reliability established by agreement of 95% on all
i
| 30 items scored by two psychologists (Johnson & Bommarito,
! 1971; Koppitz, 1966).
' Notwithstanding Wylie's reservations regarding
i
construct validity, the decision to employ the Human
Figure Drawing Test utilizing Koppitz's objective scoring
system in this research was based on viewing the test as
i a sample of observable behavior, on the statistical
significance of the presence of emotional indicators with
64
• emotionally disturbed children and absence of indicators
i \
j with children judged not disturbed, on the possibility of I
4 I
; I
replication with the objective scoring, and on the possi- I
I j
bility of making inferences regarding self-concept from
|this observation of behavior (Combs & Soper, 1957).
i
i
i
The Bender Gestalt Test
The Bender Gestalt Test, originally devised by j
Bender (1938), was incorporated into the evaluation of :
i
pupil change in this research on the basis of the
I
|plausibility of inferring information regarding self-
jconcept using Koppitz' (1964) system of scoring emotional
!indicators.
| The rationale for using the Bender in this research
was based on its relative freedom from cultural bias, on
;the lack of any necessity for verbal responses, and on the
I
increasingly widespread use of the Bender. Although the
j Bender is usually employed as a means of evaluating
|visual-motor integration, Koppitz (1964) devised her
jmethod of objective scoring of emotional indicators based
1 I
|on deviations in the subjects' copies of the nine Bender !
i '
designs, adding another dimension to the test's potential i
for evaluation. The emotional indicators are diagnos- |
tically useful because of their ability to discriminate
I between emotionally disturbed patients and well adjusted
jcontrols. This concurrent validity is the only validity
i
I 65
| claimed for the emotional indicators (Koppitz, 1975) .
i I
; Koppitz (1975) cites 24 different studies of inter-j
i i
:scorer reliability on the developmental scoring system of
i
t
| the Bender, with coefficients ranging from .79 to .99, but
j f
1 she offers no data regarding reliability studies of the
r
t scoring system for emotional indicators.
I Because of the many research studies involving
I
|the Bender, the summaries by Ogden (19 67) and Koppitz
: (1964, 1975) are synthesized here. The relationships of
i
! the emotional indicators to emotional states from which
{ self-concept might be inferred include: (a) confused
i j
! order: anxiety, (b) wavy line: emotional instability,
tension, (c) dashes for circles: impulsivity, preoccupa
tion with problems, (d) increasing size: low frustration
tolerance, acting-out, (e) large size: acting-out,
| inadequacy, anxiety, (f) small size: insecurity, anxiety,
' withdrawal behavior, constriction, timidity, (g) fine
i
1 line: timidity, shyness, withdrawal, (h) overwork,
I
I reinforced lines: impulsiveness, aggressiveness,
I
i
■ hostility, (i) second attempt: aggression, impulsiveness,
1 , r i
| anxiety, and (j) expansion: impulsiveness, acting-out. :
i i
j Koppitz warns against attempting to rely on Bender signs
in isolation, and advises using the emotional indicators
in a diagnostic battery, or with additional information.
t
| For the purposes of this study, the sum of the
total emotional indicators is used, not in an attempt to
I
I 66
; diagnose or quantify emotional states but as an attempt
i
j to infer the possibility of problems in self-concept from
* the presence of emotional indicator scores and to explore
j the relationship of the presence of emotional indicator
' scores to academic achievement, other measures of self-
1
• concept, and inferred self-concept.
■ The Behavioral Data
; Score Sheet
i
i
I The importance of using more than one measure and
i
more than one vantage point in studies of self-concept
was noted by Combs et al. (1963), by Coopersmith (1967),
j and by Michael et al. (1973).
Rogers (19 54) described various ways of observing
I
I
and describing behavior as "perceptual vantage points."
He suggested studying responses in standard test situat-
j tions (Rorschach, TAT, MMPI), measuring physiological
i
| changes resulting from increased tension and emotion,
| and making observations of behavior in a natural life
I
| situation.
i
I Combs et al. (1963), favored using trained
observers for making perceptual inferences from behavior
samples. They spoke of the "lack of trustworthy rela-
j
tionships between self-report and self-concept" (p. 440)
as their rationale for using inferential means for
!
measuring self-perception.
A comparison of two methods of measuring
I 67
!self-concept using the same scale was reported by
1
(Michael et al. (1973). They compared the self-report of
I
i
130 sixth grade students with recorded perceptions of two
i
of their teachers. They concluded that self-concept was
a complex entity and supported Coopersmith1s argument
favoring a combination of observer evaluations.
i
!
Combs and Soper (196 3) conducted a study exploring
the relationship of the child's perceptions to his achieve-
i
jment and behavior in kindergarten and first grade. As
!
part of the measurement procedure, trained observers made
'detailed records of children's behavior in a uniform, con-
i
jtrolled environment. In connection with this procedure,
they devised the Perception Score Sheet and the Behavioral
i
Data Score Sheet. The Perception Score Sheet demonstrated
high reliability when factor analyzed. According to
jJohnson and Bommarito (1971), only six of 39 items showed
!communalities less than .70. The use of the Perception
!
|Score Sheet unfortunately calls for trained personnel and
t
a special environmental setting unavailable for this
I research. However, the Behavioral Data Score Sheet
i
I appeared both appropriate and practical, and was adopted
for use in the present study.
Research staff, research consultants, and teachers
were involved in the development of the Behavioral Data
Score Sheet. All possible behavior descriptions were
|ultimately reduced to 29 items each to be scored on a
i
i 68
1 five-point scale by the teacher. Reliability of the
I
j teachers' ratings was established by factor analysis. j
| For the present study, the scoring procedure was j
j i
I changed slightly to provide that, in each instance, the
I
| most positive value of each behavioral dimensions under
j observation would receive the highest score in a five-
! point high-to-low ranking. Permission to make this adjust-
!
i ment was granted by Dr. Combs. (See Appendix C.)
I
I
i
; The Self-Concept Battery I
Because of the difficulties inherent in attempting
! to measure self-concept (Wylie, 1974), the four techniques
! i
*
were chosen to provide different perspectives.
( The Primary Self-Concept Scale serves as a self-
report device, while the Behavioral Data Score Sheet
| provides an external rating scale to measure self-concept
as manifested in the behavioral characteristics observed
■ by the classroom teacher.
Both the Human Figure Drawing Test and the Bender
j Gestalt Test are techniques commonly employed by counselors;
> t
1 and psychologists, although not as predictors of academic !
j 1
i
achievement or as measures of self-concept. However, each j
furnishes a sample of behavior from which self-concept j
i
may be inferred and this sample differs from the self-
report technique in that the subject is not directly aware
I
| of the emotional indicators he is communicating, and so is
j not tempted to respond in a manner he perceives as
l 69
’socially acceptable or self-enhancing.
Organizational Procedures
I I
! Formal application was made to the Research !
| .
i Council of the La Mesa/Spring Valley School District in
i late September, 1974 for permission to conduct the project
| using its eligible students and school facilities. The
! council's approval was delivered by telephone and a first
I
organizational meeting was scheduled with the district's
pupil personnel director, principals of the participating
schools, a bilingual aide representing Mexican-American
| students, and the experimenter. A second organizational
i
meeting was held subsequently with the foregoing personnel
I
and the project counselor, and the actual date for
I
j initiating the project was established.
In the control group schools, permission to use
students as control subjects was secured in conferences
with administrators and staffs of the Carlsbad Unified
School District.
I
! Following the identification of eligible subjects ;
i i
' during November, 1974, letters in Spanish were mailed to i
i i
j parents offering the group counseling experience for their 1
' i
eligible children and requesting parental permission. !
Only one parent refused permission, the refusal being
i
j based on his reluctance to have his child identify with
I
I Mexican-Americans.
} During January, 1975, in-service meetings were j
held with the teachers of those students identified for j
! I
I
I inclusion in both treatment and control groups to explain: !
! I
(a) the nature of the counseling model and treatment; |
I
! (b) the time line in terms of counseling periods, number ;
I
j of sessions, and project duration; and (c) the behavioral
I
j scale requiring teacher ratings of student behaviors both
i
i
j preceding and following the treatment period.
i \
j In the treatment group schools, the bilingual aide
i
j assisted in scheduling the groups. In both treatment and
i
| control group schools, conference rooms were made avail-
i
i
i able for pre- and post-treatment testing, as well as for
!
, the counseling sessions in the treatment group schools,
i i
Pre-intervention testing was carried out in
January, and teacher rating scales were obtained.
Counseling groups were initiated during the fourth week
i
of January. The counseling sessions were terminated the
1
! last week in March, and post-testing was completed during
j the first two weeks in April, and teacher rating scales
| obtained.
i
i >
; The subjects' protocols were scored, and checked :
i
for clerical errors and mathematical accuracy by three
persons— the counselor, the investigator, and a teacher who'
I
was neither otherwise involved with the study nor
; knowledgeable with regard to the identities of the chil-
! dren. The Behavioral Data Score Sheet required the
i
i 71
' teachers to make subjective evaluations of the children's
i
I observable behavior and to assign a number score for each
behavior listed. All other scoring was objective in
i
| nature due to the specificity of the Koppitz (1964, 1966,
!1975) objective scoring criteria, and required no specific
i
i
training in psychological interpretation. After the
completion of a check for accuracy, the data was subjected
to statistical treatment. The IBM 37 0 Computer was
utilized for the data analysis, employing the Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences, Version 6.00.
Limitations
Limitations in the study are acknowledged and
noted as follows:
1. The extent to which these children were repre
sentative of primary grade Mexican-American children in
this and other geographic areas had to be speculative due
|to the great variety of factors such as cultural advan
tages, parent-child relationships, level of communication
i
|in Spanish, value orientation of families, and instruction
j
jin the Mexican school system, which exist within the
i
|Mexican-American population.
2. Standardized instruments for measuring achieve
ment and self-concept in this particular population are
limited. The rationale for using the instruments chosen
i
I for this study was based upon the ease of translating
i
t . !
; directions into Spanish on the part of the examiner, and
I upon the requirement of minimal or no verbal responses in
i
i
1 Spanish or English on the part of the subjects.
I 3. No pilot investigation was conducted. This :
i decision was made due to: (a) the difficulty of organiza- j
■ tion, which would have required extensive involvement at
| both administrative and staff levels and considerable time
! in conducting the pilot program, and (b) the doubtful
| value of conclusions based on a sample smaller than the
i
research sample. Also, the familiarity and competence of
the counselors with regard to the population character-
i
i
. istics, the counseling model and program, and the !
i
measuring instruments and techniques, appeared to make a
pilot program less valuable than it might have been
otherwise.
I 5. No plan was made for a third, or "placebo"
!group, because of the difficulty of locating sufficient
i
i subjects meeting all of the criteria for inclusion in this
study, and because of the geographic isolation of the
j control group from the experimental group.
i
I The Operational Null Hypotheses J
The research hypotheses, stated in null form, and
the statistical treatments used to test them, follow.
73
i Hypothesis 1
There is no significant relationship between
self-concept and academic achievement in the
primary grade Mexican-American pupils in this
population.
a. There is no significant relationship
i between self-concept and academic achievement in
j the primary grade Mexican-American pupils in this
| population as measured by the Primary Self-Concept
j Inventory and the Peabody Individual Achievement
j Test.
i
! b. There is no significant relationship
; between self-concept and academic achievement in
t the primary grade Mexican-American pupils in this
' population as measured by the Bender Gestalt Test
! and the Peabody Individual Achievement Test.
i
]
I c. There is no significant relationship
between self-concept and academic achievement in
! the primary grade Mexican-American pupils in this
population as measured by the Human Figure Drawing
Test and the Peabody Individual Achievement Test.
i
d. There is no significant relationship
between self-concept and academic achievement in
the primary grade Mexican-American pupils in this
( population as measured by the Behavioral Data Score
Sheet and the Peabody Individual Achievement Test.
To test these null hypotheses, Pearson product-
moment coefficients of correlation were computed between
I the scores of academic achievement and each of the self-
!concept measures.
Hypothesis 2
Primary grade Mexican-American pupils involved
in a group counseling program will show no sig
nificant differences in gains in self-concept when
compared to a group not receiving counseling.
I a. Primary grade Mexican-American pupils
involved in a group counseling program will show
no significant differences in gains in self-concept
74
I as measured by the Primary Self-Concept Inventory,
! when compared to a group not receiving counseling.
I b. Primary grade Mexican-American pupils
j involved in a group counseling program will show
no significant differences in gains in self-concept,
as measured by the Bender Gestalt Test scored for
emotional indicators, when compared to a group not
receiving counseling.
I c. Primary grade Mexican-American pupils
! involved in a group counseling program will show no
| significant differences in gains in self-concept,
j as measured by the Human Figure Drawing Test scored
t for emotional indicators, when compared to a group
• not receiving counseling.
! d. Primary grade Mexican-American pupils
i involved in a group counseling program will show no
| significant differences in gains in self-concept,
as measured by the Behavioral Data Score Sheet,
j when compared to a group not receiving counseling.
i
! Mean scores of both groups on both the pre-test and
;post-test administrations of each of the measures of self-
concept were computed to obtain the gain scores. The
!analysis of covariance technique was employed to control
the effects of the pretest scores and the age of the
children in testing the significance of the gains obtained.
Hypothesis 3
j Primary grade Mexican-American pupils involved
; in a group counseling program will show no signifi-
; cant differences in gains in academic achievement
when compared to a group not receiving counseling.
The means of the raw scores of the experimental
and control groups were computed, and the gains were
ianalyzed using the analysis of covariance technique to
i
I
jcontrol for the effects of the pretest achievement scores
75
| and for the age of the children.
i
i
I
Related Questions
i
j 1 . Which of the measures used to evaluate self-
! concept best predicted academic achievement?
I 2. Which of the measures used to evaluate self-
concept appeared to be the most closely related to the
others?
1 To answer both of the related questions, Pearson
t
I . .
; product-moment coefficient correlations were used, first
i
i
i between each of the measures of self-concept and the test
of academic achievement, and then between each of the
measures of self-concept.
I
I
Summary
| This chapter has presented the research design
and the procedures followed in implementing the design,
i
| including the selection of subjects, the design of the
I
i counseling program, the selection and characteristics of
i
i
| the counseling staff, and the choice of the instruments
! employed in measuring academic achievement and self-
i
concept. The procedures followed in obtaining the
cooperation of the participating school districts were
described and a description of the time-line for testing,
| staff in-service meetings, and actual counseling was
j included. Finally, a statement of the operational null
hypotheses to be tested and the statistical procedures j
l employed was provided. j
' i
* The following chapter presents the findings which I
I |
j resulted from the application of the statistical proce
dures to the data produced in the pre- and post-treatment
; evaluations. |
i I
■ i
I
i
i
77
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
The findings resulting from this investigation
of Mexican-American primary grade pupils regarding the
relationship of self-concept to academic achievement and
the effects of a group counseling experience on self-
concept and academic achievement are presented in this
chapter.
Pretest Data Analysis
The relationship of self-concept to academic
achievement was measured by comparing the scores of the
| 53 primary grade Mexican-American pupils' scores on each
I
| of the four measures of self-concept, the Primary Self-
i
, Concept Inventory, the Bender Gestalt Test, the Human
I
I
j Figure Drawing Test and the Behavioral Data Score Sheet
I
| with their scores on the Peabody Individual Achievement
i
i Test.
i
| These data were analyzed to answer the question
posed by the first hypothesis.
Hypothesis 1
The first hypothesis in null form states:
There is no significant relationship between
i self-concept and academic achievement in the
j primary grade Mexican-American pupils in this
! population.
a. There is no significant relationship
! between self-concept and academic achievement in
; the primary grade Mexican-American pupils in this
j population as measured by the Primary Self-Concept
I Inventory and the Peabody Individual Achievement
Test.
i
i To test the null hypothesis, Pearson product-
|moment correlation coefficients were computed, using pre-
i
|test data on the Primary Self-Concept Inventory scores
,and the scores on the total achievement battery, and the
!t ratio was used to test for significance. These data are
I presented in Table 1.
When these correlation coefficients were analyzed
it was evident that there were significant relationships
between all five of the achievement subtest area scores
|as well as on the total test battery score. Therefore,
|the null hypothesis was rejected.
i
I b. There is no significant relationship
j between self-concept and academic achievement in
the primary grade Mexican-American pupils in this
1 population as measured by the Bender Gestalt Test,
scored for emotional indicators, and the Peabody
Individual Achievement Test.
Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients
'were computed using pretest data on the Bender Gestalt
Test, scored for emotional indicators, and the Peabody
Individual Achievement Test battery, and using the t ratio
jto test for significance. Results are presented in Table 2.
79
Table 1
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficients
Between Pretest Scores on the Primary Self-
Concept Inventory and the Peabody
Individual Achievement Test
Peabody Individual
Achievement Testa
Primary Self-Concept
Inventory
Achievement Area
Mathematics . 3446
Significance . 004*
Reading Recognition .2309
Significance . 041*
Reading Comprehension . 3353
Significance .005*
Spelling Significance .2643
. 022*
General Information . 3454
Significance . 004*
Total Test Significance . 3467
.004*
an = 58
*
p < . 05
80
Table 2
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficients
Between Pretest Scores on the Bender Gestalt
Test and the Peabody Individual
Achievement Test
Peabody Individual
Achievement Testa Bender Gestalt Test
Achievement Area
Mathematics .1056
Significance .215
Reading Recognition .2171
Significance . 051
Reading Comprehension .1443
Significance . 140
Spelling Significance .2439
. 033*
General Information .1580
Significance .118
Total Test Significance .1972
.069
The score on the spelling subtest was the only ;
significant relationship observed between the scores on \
the Bender Gestalt Test and the subtest areas of the
Peabody Individual Achievement Test although the scores ,
on reading recognition and total test battery approached ;
significance. Therefore, the null hypothesis failed to be '
rej ected.
c. There is no significant relationship between I
self-concept and academic achievement in the primary !
grade Mexican-American pupils in this population as
measured by the Human Figure Drawing Test, scored
for emotional indicators, and the Peabody Individual
Achievement Test.
To test this null hypothesis, pretest data on the I
Human Figure Drawing Test and the Peabody Individual.
Achievement Test were used to compute Pearson product-
moment correlation coefficients and significance was tested
by use of the t ratio. Table 3 presents these data.
No significant relationships occurred between
any of the achievement subtests or total battery score
and the measure of inferred self-concept, the Human
Figure Drawing Test, scored for emotional indicators.
The null hypothesis failed to be rejected. ;
d. There is no significant relationship j
between self-concept and academic achievement in
the primary grade Mexican-American pupils in this |
population as measured by the Behavioral Data '
Score Sheet and the Peabody Individual Achievement I
Test.
This null hypothesis was tested by computing
Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients between
Table 3
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficients
Between Pretest Scores on the Human Figure
Drawing Test and the Peabody
Individual Achievement Test
Peabody Individual
Achievement Test3 Human Figure Drawing Test
Achievement Area
Mathematics .0906
Significance
.249
Reading Recognition . 0918
Significance . 247
Reading Comprehension . 0566
Significance . 337
Spelling Significance .0791
.278
General Information .1750
Significance . 094
Total Test Significance .1079
. 210
an = 58
83
; pretest scores on the Behavioral Data Score Sheet and the
I
i Peabody Individual Achievement Test and by application of
i
i the t ratio to determine significance. These data are
presented in Table 4.
i Very highly significant relationships occurred
j between all of the subtests of the achievement battery
jand the total test score, and the scores on the Behavioral
jData Score Sheet. Therefore, the null hypothesis is
| rej ected.
i
i
| Analysis of Group Data
!
I In order to test the second and third hypotheses
i
regarding the effects of the group counseling intervention
,on the experimental group as compared to the control
group, a preliminary analysis was performed to investigate
I the comparability of the two groups. Of the total of
i
|53 pupils participating in the study, one group of 29
|children had been identified as the experimental group to
i
j receive the counseling intervention, and another group
i
I of 2 9 children had been chosen to serve as the control
jgroup. The two groups were first compared as to age and
| sex.
i
A t test was performed to investigate the sig
nificance of differences in the ages of subjects, as
i
jillustrated in Table 5.
I
I 84
Table 4
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficients
Between Pretest Scores on the Behavioral
Data Score Sheet and the Peabody
Individual Achievement Test
Peabody Individual
Achievement Testa
Behavioral Data Score
Sheet
Achievement Area
Mathematics . 5612
Significance . 001*
Reading Recognition . 5557
Significance .001*
Reading Comprehension .5031
Significance . 001*
Spelling Significance . 5935
. 001*
General Information .4724
Significance .001*
Total Test Significance . 6196
.001*
Table 5
Comparison of the Ages of the Subjects in the
Experimental and Control Groups
Group n
Mean Age
in Months SD SE
— m
df
t
Value Probability
Experimental 29 93.3448 13.777 2.558
56 -.92 .361
Control 29 96.3103 10.512 1.952
Comparison of the ages of subjects in the experi-
| mental group with the ages of subjects in the control
I
. group indicated that no significant difference existed
! between the two groups on the basis of mean age measured
in months.
i
To investigate the comparability of the two groups
I on the basis of sex, a t test was performed. This
f
j analysis is presented in Table 6.
| The data in Table 6 show that there were more boys
than girls in each of the subject groups. Although the
ratio of boys to girls in the control group was greater
i
; than that of the experimental group, the difference was
i
, not significant.
I
The groups were then compared as to gains in
! self-concept and academic achievement over the period of
i
| the counseling intervention.
I
f
|Hypothesis 2
I
j The second hypothesis in null form states:
I
i
i Primary grade Mexican-American pupils involved
| in a group counseling program will show no signifi-
! cant differences in gains in self-concept when
compared to a group not recieving counseling.
a. Primary grade Mexican-American pupils
involved in a group counseling program will show
no significant differences in gains in self-
concept, as measured by the Primary Self-Concept
Inventory, when compared to a group not receiving
i counseling.
| The pre- and post-test scores of the experimental
87
Table 6
Comparison of Numbers of Boys and Girls in
Experimental and Control Groups
Group n Boys Girls Mean SD SE
— m
df
t
Value Probability
Experimental 29 19 10 1.3103 .471 .087
56 .28 .778
Control 29 21 8 1.2759 .455 .084
and control groups on the Primary Self-Concept Inventory
I
;were computed to obtain the gains in mean scores.
The analysis of covariance technique was then
j
j employed, using the ANOVA Program of the Statistical
I
j Package for the Social Sciences series, controlling for
i
.the pretest scores on the Primary Self-Concept Inventory
I
|and for the age of the children. These data are presented
!in Tables 7 and 8.
| Controlling for the effect of the Primary Self-
i
Concept Inventory pretest scores and the age of the
children, the analysis of covariance indicated that
i although there was more gain in the scores of the experi
mental group (mean gain of treatment group = .5862; mean
.gain of control group = -.4483), the difference was not
significant. The null hypothesis failed to be rejected.
j b. Primary grade Mexican-American pupils
I involved in a group counseling program will show
■ no significant differences in gains in self-
| concept, as measured by the Bender Gestalt Test
, scored for emotional indicators, when compared
I to a group not receiving counseling.
i
I After the gain scores were computed from the pre-
j and post-test scores on the Bender Gestalt Test for both
i
groups, the analysis of covariance technique was applied,
controlling for the effects of the pretest scores and the
age of the children. The results are presented in
I Tables 9 and 10.
Table 7
Means and Standard Deviations of Pre- and Post-test
Scores of Experimental and Control Groups on
the Primary Self-Concept Inventory
Group n
Mean Raw
Score SD SE
— m
Pre-Test
Experimental Group 29 12.2069 2.289 .425
Control Group 29 13.2414 2.182 .405
Post-test
Experimental Group 29 12.7931 1. 989 .369
Control Group 29 12.7931 2. 289 .425
90
Table 8
Analysis of Covariance of Experimental and Control
Groups on Primary Self-Concept Inventory Scores
Source of Variation
Sum of
Squares df
Mean
Square F
Significance
of F
Covariates 63.984 2 31.992 8.997 .001
Primary Self-Concept
Pretest Scores3-
57.675 1 57.675 16.219 .001
Age of Children 26.905 1 26.905 7.566 .008
Main Effects 1.507 1 1.507 .424 .999
Between Groups 65.491 3 21.830 6.139 .001
Within Groups 192.026 54 3.556
Total 257.517 57 4.518
an = 58
Table 9
Means and Standard Deviations of Pre- and Post-test
Scores of Experimental and Control Groups on
the Bender Gestalt Testa
Group n
Mean Raw
Score SD SE
— m
Pre-test
Experimental Group 29 -2.6897 1.137 .211
Control Group 29 -2.9655 . 865 .161
Post-test
Experimental Group 29 -2.5517 1.121 .208
Control Group 29 -3.1379 1. 156 .215
g
Scored for emotional indicators.
Table 10
Analysis of Covariance of Experimental and Control
Groups on Bender Gestalt Test Scores
Source of Variation
Sum of
Squares df
Mean
Square F
Significance
of F
Covariates 7.325 2 3.663 2.974 .058
Bender Gestalt
Pretest Scoresa
7.242 1 7.242 5.880 .018
Age of the Children .150 1 .150 .122 .999
Main Effects 3.767 1 3.767 3.059 .082
Between Groups 11.093 3 3.698 3.002 .038
Within Groups 66.510 54 1.232
Total 77.603 57 1.361
an = 5 8
| When the effects of the pretest and the age of
. the children were eliminated, the analysis of covariance
I indicated that there was a near significant difference
| (p = .08) between the experimental group and the control
! group scores on the Bender Gestalt Test in favor of the
i
j experimental group (mean gain of experimental group =
|-.0379; mean gain of control group = -.1724).
i
i Inasmuch as the difference did not achieve
|
! significance, the null hypothesis failed to be rejected.
i
| c. Primary grade Mexican-American pupils
i involved in a group counseling program will show
I no significant differences in gains in self-
j concept, as measured by the Human Figure Drawing
: Test scored for emotional indicators, when
compared to a group not receiving counseling.
Gains in mean scores of both groups were computed
| from the pre- and post-test performances on the Human
i
|Figure Drawing Test. The effects of the pretest scores
■ and the age of the children were then controlled by the
|analysis of covariance technique to determine the extent
jof differences. These data are presented in Tables 11
i
|and 12.
I Controlling for the effect of the pretest scores
and the age of the children, the analysis of covariance
indicated that a significant difference between the
experimental group and the control group occurred in favor
■ of the experimental group on the Human Figure Drawing
I Scores. (The mean gain of the experimental group was
Table 11
Means and Standard Deviations of Pre- and Post-test
Scores of Experimental and Control Groups
on the Human Figure Drawing Testa
Group n
Mean Raw
Score SD SE
— m
Pre-test
Experimental Group 29 -1.1379 1. 026 .190
Control Group 29 -2.2414 1. 455 .270
Post-test
Experimental Group 29 -1.1724 1. 071 . 199
Control Group 29 -2.3103 1.491 . 277
Scored for emotional indicators.
95
Table 12
Analysis of Covariance of Experimental and Control
Groups on Human Figure Drawing Test Scores
Source of Variation
Sum of
Squares df
Mean
Square F
Significance
of F
Covariates 24.166 2 12.083 ‘7.961 .001
Human Figure Drawing
Pretest Scoresa
24.095 1 24.095 15.874 .001
Age of Children .347 1 .347 .229 .999
Main Effects 6. 991 1 6.991 4.606 .034
Between Groups 31.157 3 10.386 6.842 .001
Within Groups 81.964 54 1. 518
Total 113.120 57 1.985
an = 58
-.0345; mean gain of the control group was .0690.) There- j
' ■ I
I fore, the null hypothesis was rejected. |
I
d. Primary grade Mexican-Amencan pupils |
1 involved in a group counseling program will show |
i no significant differences in gains in self- j
| concept, as measured by the Behavioral Data Score
Sheet, when compared to a group not receiving j
counseling. I
The pre- and post-test scores on the Behavioral '
|Data Score Sheet were computed to obtain the mean gain j
I |
j scores for both groups. The scores were then analyzed, !
' ■ controlling for the effects of the pretest scores and the
I age of the students, by the analysis of covariance j
; • i
i technique. Tables 13 and 14 present these data. ;
i Analysis of covariance, controlling for the
|effects of the pretest and age of the subjects, indicated
that although there was a difference in favor of the
I
| experimental group (mean gain of the experimental group =
; 5.8276; mean gain of the control group = 3.7586), the
j difference was not significant and the null hypothesis
i
i failed to be rejected.
i
| Hypothesis 3
The third hypothesis in null form states:
t
Primary grade Mexican-American pupils involved
! in a group counseling program will show no signifi- |
cant differences in gains in academic achievement i
when compared to a group not recieving counseling.
In order to test the null hypothesis, the mean
I
|raw scores on the pre- and post-test administrations of
Table 13
Means and Standard Deviations of Pre- and Post-test
Scores of Experimental and Control Groups
on the Behavioral Data Score Sheet
Group n
Mean Raw
Score SD SE
— m
Pre-test
Experimental Group 29 60.6552 10.681 1.983
Control Group 29 62.6207 12.835 2.383
Post-test
Experimental Group 29 66.4828 11.051 2. 052
Control Group 29 66.3793 13.203 2.452
Table 14
Analysis of Covariance of Experimental and Control
Groups on Behavioral Data Scores
Source of
Variation
Sum of
Squares df
Mean
Square F
Significance
of F
Covariates 5008.430 2 2504.215 41.514 .001
Behavioral Data
Pretest Scoresa
4796.727 1 4796.727 79.518 .001
Age of Children 28.016 1 28.016 .464 .999
Main Effects 34.320 1 34.320 .569 .999
Between Groups 5042.750 3 1680.917 27.865 .001
Within Groups 3257.418 54 60.323
Total 8300.168 57 145.617
an = 58
; the Peabody Individual Achievement Test were computed, and I
I '
I
■ the gain scores determined. j
i
The analysis of covariance was then applied, con- |
! trolling for the effects of the pretest achievement scores j
j
I I
and the age of the subjects. These data are presented !
I
j
in Tables 15 and 16. j
i
i
| Table 16 illustrates that a significant difference j
I
| in achievement as measured by the total test score was j
j found in favor of the experimental group, when total test
!
I pretest scores and age of the children were controlled
I
! (mean gain of treatment group = 16.10 34; mean gain of
\ control group = 12.2414). The null hypothesis was
, rejected.
I
Related Question 1
The first related question asked:
i Which of the measures used to evaluate self-
I concept best predicted academic achievement?
; To answer the question regarding which of the
instruments or techniques used to measure self-concept
I
; was most efficient in predicting academic achievement,
i
I
the Pearson product-moment coefficients of correlation
were computed between the Peabody Individual Achievement
Test scores and the scores on each of the measures of
self-concept. The t ratio was used to test for
significance. Table 17 presents these data.
100
I
I
Table 15
Means and Standard Deviations of Pre- and Post-test
Total Test Scores of Experimental and Control
Groups on the Peabody Individual
Achievement Test
Group n
Mean Raw
Score SD SE
— m
Pre-test
Experimental Group 29 96.4138 31.398 5.830
Control Group 29 112.6897 27.723 5.148
Post-test ... ? . ■ . _
Experimental Group 29 112.5172 37.964 7.050
Control Group 29 124.9310 30.350 5.636
i
i
101
102
Table 16
Analysis of Covariance of Experimental and Control Groups on
Peabody Individual Achievement Test Total Test Scores
Source of
Variation
Sum of
Squares df
Mean
Square F
Significance
of F
Covariates 64111.289 2 32055.645 456.015 .001
Total Achievement
Pretest Scoresa
50289.336 1 50289.336 715.404 .001
Age of Children 53.050 1 53.050 .745 .999
Main Effects 474.155 1 474.155 6.745 .012
Between Groups 64585.441 3 21528.480 306.259 .001
Within Groups 3795.934 54 70.295
Total 68381.375 57 1199.673
an = 58
Table 17
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficients Between Academic
Achievement and Measures of Self-Concepta
Achievement Area
Primary
Self-Concept
Inventory
Bender
Gestalt
Test
Human Figure
Drawing
Test
Behavioral
Data
Scores
Mathematics . 3445 .1056 .0906 .5612
Significance .004* .215 .249 .001*
Reading Recognition .2309 .2171 .0918 .5557
Significance .041* .051 .247 .001*
Reading Comprehension . 3353 .1443 .0566 .5031
Significance . 005* .140 .337 .001*
Spelling . 2643 .2439 . 0791 .5935
Significance .022* .033* .278 .001*
General Information . 3454 .1580 .1750 .4724
Significance . 004* .118 .094 .001*
Total Test Battery . 3467 .1972 .1079 .6196
Significance .004* .069 .210 .001*
Significant relationships existed between the j
I
| Primary Self-Concept Inventory and each of the subtests
i
; and total test achievement scores, and between the Bender i
| Gestalt Test and the spelling subtest scores. Very highly j
| significant relationships existed between the behavioral j
| data scores and all achievement subtest and total test
| scores. Thus, the behavioral data score sheet was the
, i
! . !
I most efficient predictor of academic achievement of all j
1 |
.of the self-concept measures. j
t
i
|Related Question 2
l |
| Which of the measures used to evaluate self-
: concept appeared to be the most closely related
! to the others?
; Correlation coefficients between the measures of
self-concept, presented in Table 18, indicate that a
|significant relationship existed between the Behavioral
jData Score Sheet and the Bender Gestalt Test, and a near
isignificant relationship occurred between the Human Figure
I
|Drawing Test and the Bender Gestalt Test,
j The conclusion is that the Bender Gestalt Test,
i
Shaving a significant relationship to the Behavioral Data !
!Score Sheet, and a near significant relationship to the !
i
!
Human Figure Drawing Test, was the one test most closely |
i |
related to the others.
104
Table 18
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficients
Between the Measures of Self-Concept
Self-Concept
Measures3
Primary
Self-Concept
Inventory
Bender
Gestalt
Test
Human Figure
Drawing
Test
Behavioral
Data
Scores
Primary Self-Concept
Inventory
1.0000 .0704 .0562 .1772
Significance
---
. 300 .338 .092
Bender Gestalt
Test
.0704 1.0000 .2146 .2181
Significance .300
---
.053 .050*
Human Figure Drawing
Test
.0562 .2146 1.0000 .1634
Significance .338 .053
---
.110
Behavioral Data
Score Sheet
.1772 .2181 .1634 1.0000
Significance .092 .050* .110
---
Discussion
i -------------
i
i
i
The first research hypothesis predicted a sig-
|nificant relationship between self-concept and academic
| achievement in this population. However, the results of 1
,the statistical analyses indicated that there was lack of
I
j agreement among the measures of self-concept. Significant
j
I relationships were found between the achievement test j
scores and the scores on two of the self-concept measures, !
ithe Primary Self-Concept inventory and the Behavioral
i
!Data Score Sheet. With the Bender Gestalt Test, only the ;
i !
'correlations with the spelling subtest scores achieved
i j
‘ i
significance, while the Human Figure Drawing Test showed
;no significance.
Of the four self-concept measures, the self-report
technique and the teachers' reports of observations both
i
j indicated that there was a significant relationship
|between self-concept and academic achievement. Both lend
|support to the hypothesis that this relationship exists.
I !
| However, both measures in which self-concept was j
to be inferred from the presence of emotional indicators j
failed to achieve significance. It is necessary to inter- i
pret those findings as not supporting the hypothesis that j
a relationship exists, but it seems justifiable to i
i
|qualify that with the observation that self-concept is
*
j a multifaceted dimension, and that these tests may simply
I 106
1 measure parameters which are not related to the ability j
! i
! i
I to cope with learning tasks m the school setting. j
Correlations between academic achievement and
ratings of self-concept as measured by teachers' observa-
t !
: tions were very highly significant. This is a fascinating j
i
' finding in light of the possibility of the interpretation j
I
I
that circular interaction or cause-effect relationships j
might be present. It is possible that: (a) teachers' I
!
| observations regarding pupils' self-concepts are biased in
j favor of high-achieving students, or (b) teachers who
I tend to view certain pupils as having positive self-
! concept tend also to favor those children with additional
attention and help with learning tasks.- This is reminis-
i
i cent of the Rosenthal and Jacobson (196 8) study in which
teacher expectation appeared to have dramatic effects on
I
pupils' attainment. Direct comparison of this study with
that of Rosenthal and Jacobson is not possible because
j of the differences in the populations and the nature of
i the research. Accepting the finding at face value, it 1
; I
I appears that self-concept, as inferred from teachers' j
i
ratings of observed behavior, is very highly significantly |
i
related to academic achievement, the strength of which
lends strong support to the hypothesis that such a
relationship exists.
| The conclusion is that the hypothesis that a
j relationship exists between academic achievement and
107
self-concept was supported when self-concept was measured
I by the technique of self-report and by inferences drawn
I
from observations of behavior. However, the hypothesis
i
i
j failed to find support when inferred self-concept was j
, measured by copies of designs and by drawings of the j
i
human figure. j
| The second hypothesis predicted that the pupils !
^ involved in group counseling would show significant gains
i
| in self-concept when compared to a control group not
j receiving counseling. Again, results were variable from
i test to test. Analysis of the Human Figure Drawing scores
I i
I supported the hypothesis, and scores on the other three |
measures showed gains in favor of the experimental group,
i
with scores on the Bender Gestalt approaching significance.
While the hypothesis was not supported, there was evidence
| of gain in favor of the counseling group on all of the
s
i
jmeasures over the nine-week counseling period.
| Possibilities for interpretation include: (a) the
I instruments used were not sufficiently sensitive to
| I
measure actual changes in self-concept which occurred, or j
I \
\
i ;
1(b) the nine-week counseling period was not sufficiently i
!
long to effect more substantial change in self-concept.
Other possibilities which have to be considered include ■
the effectiveness of the developmental counseling model
'and the effectiveness of the counselor. Also, it is
I
|possible that a follow-up study would indicate that growth
'in positive self-concept continued in the counseling group !
i >
land would be reflected in subsequent measures. i
! I
Regardless of whether self-concept and academic j
I achievement are related, and regardless of whether change I
i I
; in self-concept occurred during the experimental period,
;it is evident that there were substantial gains in
academic achievement for the group receiving counseling.
j !
| Summary j
I The purpose of this chapter was to present the
j findings resulting from this investigation of the rela-
|tionship of self-concept to academic achievement and the
effects of a group counseling experience on self-concept
j
,and academic achievement among primary grade Mexican-
American pupils.
I
| The first research hypothesis stated that a rela-
j tionship exists between self-concept and academic achieve-
I
!ment in this population. The pretest data were analyzed
I by means of Pearson product-moment correlations to
i
i
discover whether a significant relationship existed between
i I
!self-concept and academic achievement. Significant
! !
I I
irelationships existed between academic achievement and
i I
|self-concept as measured by the Primary Self-Concept !
Inventory and the Behavioral Data Score Sheet supporting
i
,the hypothesis, while relationships were not significant
j between academic achievement and self-concept as measured
i 109
by the Bender Gestalt Test and the Human Figure Drawing
Test, which findings failed to support the hypothesis.
The second hypothesis, that primary grade Mexican-
American pupils involved in a counseling program would
show greater gains in self-concept than a comparable
group not receiving counseling, was answered by employing
the analysis of covariance, controlling for the effect of
the pretest scores and the age of the children.
The null hypothesis that no significant difference
existed failed to be rejected when gains in self-concept
were measured by the Primary Self-Concept Inventory, the
Bender Gestalt Test and the Behavioral Data Score Sheet,
but was rejected when self-concept was measured by the
Human Figure Drawing Test.
That primary grade Mexican-American pupils
involved in a group counseling program would show greater
gains in academic achievement than a comparable group not
receiving counseling was the third research hypothesis.
It was answered by the analysis of covariance technique
to control for the effects of the pretest scores and the
age of the children. There was a significant difference
in achievement in favor of the experimental group, thus
the hypothesis was supported.
The first related question regarding which of the
self-concept measures best predicted academic achievement
was answered by computing Pearson product-moment
correlations between the pretest academic achievement
i scores and each of the measures of self-concept. The
Behavioral Data Score Sheet was the most efficient pre-
i dictor of academic achievement.
!
The second related question asked which of the
| measures used to evaluate self-concept appeared to be the
| most closely related to the others. Correlation coeffi-
| cients between all the measures of self-concept, using
: pretest data, indicated that the strongest relationship
,occurred between the Bender Gestalt Test and the
Behavioral Data Score Sheet, followed by the relationship
between the Bender and the Human Figure Drawing Test.
A dicussion of these findings followed.
i
111
CHAPTER V 1
i
i
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS \
I
i
i
i
This chapter provides a summary of the investiga- |
tion, presents the conclusions, discusses the implications ; ■
of the findings, and makes recommendations for further
research.
Summary i
Purpose of the Study
According to Castro (1974), Nava (1970), and Rowan
(19 70), Mexican-American children have the highest school
dropout rate and the lowest level of academic attainment
of all school groups in the Southwest.
The relationship of self-concept to academic
achievement in this population has been the subject of
research involving students in the middle school years,
the high school years and beyond, with some studies
finding support for the hypothesis of relationship !
i
(Primavera et al., 1974; Purkey et al., 1970; Williams &
Cole, 1968) and some failing to find support (Braccio,
1972; Hepner, 1970). The literature lacks reports of
research performed in this area with primary grade
children.
112
; Out of these concerns a ^twofold ;problem was |
i ' I
| formulated: (a) Is there a relationship between academic j
' achievement and self-concept among young Mexican-American
; j
1 pupils? (b) Searching for appropriate strategies for |
I !
intervention by counselors in elementary settings suggested|
I
]group counseling as a possibility. Would group counseling j
j be effective in changing self-concept and academic I
i
I
!achievement among young Mexican-American pupils?
! Self-concept as a phenomenological construct was
I
|the underlying theoretical perspective of this investiga-
|tion. Positive change in self-concept continues to be j
l 1
:considered as an appropriate goal and outcome of therapy,
especially as viewed by phenomenologically oriented
t
counselors. Representative research in this area includes
the work of Rogers (1959) and Truax and Wargo (1967).
jWylie (1961, 1974) has made exhaustive studies of research
i
jin the area of self-concept and self-concept change.
| In order to study the effects of a program of
I
:group counseling on the self-concept and academic achieve
ment of young Mexican-American pupils, the following three \
i
I
j research hypotheses were proposed:
I i
j 1 . A relationship exists between self-concept
and academic achievement in primary grade Mexican-American I
pupils.
j 2. Primary grade Mexican-American pupils involved
I
!
;in a group counseling program will show greater gains in
I 113
academic achievement than a comparable group not receiving ;
I i
i i
' counseling.
3. Primary grade Mexican-American pupils involved
i
I
in a group counseling program will show greater gains in |
i
j academic achievement than a comparable group not receiving |
i i
;counseling. |
In addition to answering the hypotheses, the fol
lowing questions were to be considered:
1. Which of the measures used to evaluate self-
!concept best predict academic achievement?
I
j 2. Which of the measures used to evaluate self-
!concept appear to be most closely related to the others?
These questions were seen as relevant for school
i
counselors who are called upon to quantify observations
and would wish to do so in an economical and reliable
!manner.
I
I
iSummary of Procedures
! Subjects for this study were primary grade
j
^Mexican-American pupils enrolled in four different public
!schools in San Diego County, California. A total of
58 pupils were identified as subjects meeting the criteria !
I of: (a) Spanish surname; (b) monolingual Spanish speaking |
i
parents; (c) low socioeconomic status as judged by
occupation of parent(s); and (d) average intelligence.
j
jIn addition, minority group status was assured by the
i
I 114
ethnic composition of the enrollment in the schools which
I
the children attended. Teachers, secretarial staff mem- j
I
bers and bilingual aides assisted in the identification of j
i
pupils eligible for inclusion in the study. Two groups ;
j of pupils were formed, one group to receive the counseling
\
treatment and one group to serve as controls. !
i
A nine-week counseling program was devised by a j
counseling team composed of this investigator and two
Mexican-American counselors following the developmental
counseling model as described by Blocher (1974) and
Dinkmeyer (19 70). The program was developed around the
nine guidance learnings viewed by Keat (19 74) as being
desirable in the development of the child.
The instruments chosen for measuring academic
achievement and self-concept were administered to the
j subjects prior to and following the nine-week counseling
i
j period.
| All of the group counseling sessions were con
ducted by one member of the counseling team, a Mexican-
:American who had completed a community-based counselor
i i
i
I education program leading to the Master's degree. 1
I
j i
iInstruments i
----------------------------------------------------------------------------- I
The selection of instruments was based on: (a) the
i necessity for minimal or no verbal responses, (2) the
possibility of translation into Spanish, or the provision
115
of a Spanish translation, and (c) relative freedom from
cultural bias.
The Peabody Individual Achievement Test (Dunn &
Markwardt, 1970) was chosen as an appropriate measure of
academic achievement for Mexican-American children in
English language instructional programs.
Measures of self-concept or inferred self-concept
included the Primary Self-Concept Inventory designed by
Muller and Leonetti (1974) for primary grade Mexican- or
Spanish-American children, the Bender Gestalt Test, the
Human Figure Drawing Test, and the Behavioral Data Score
Sheet devised by Combs and Soper (1963). Koppitz's
(1964) objective scoring for emotional indicators was
used for scoring the Bender Gestalt and Human Figure tests.
i
Statistical Treatment
Pretest data of all subjects were subjected to
Pearson product-moment correlations to investigate the
relationship between self-concept and academic achievement
in this population.
To investigate whether the experimental and
control groups were comparable with respect to age and sex,
t tests were computed.
The technique of analysis of covariance was used
to equate the experimental and control groups on the basis
of age and pretest scores in analyzing the significance
116
: of gains m self-concept and academic achievement. |
i
: i
1 The extent to which the self-concept instruments !
, i
and techniques predicted academic achievement, and the I
j extent to which the self-concept measures related to each j
i i
'other, were investigated by means of Pearson product- j
t i
moment correlations.
}
I The IBM 370 computer, utilizing the Statistical j
! i
;Package for the Social Sciences, was employed for the I
i
lstatistical treatment.
!
j Findings and Conclusions
i
| This research was conducted to test three research
hypotheses and two related questions. These will be con-
i
sidered first in this summary, followed by a dicussion of
implications prompted by these findings.
i
i
i
1 Hypothesis 1
i
j The first research hypothesis predicted that there
■would be a significant relationship between self-concept
I
jand academic achievement in this population of primary
t ■
I grade Mexican-American children. |
| The scores of all subjects on the pretest adminis- j
Itration of the Peabody Individual Achievement Test and eachi
i
of the measures of self-concept were analyzed by means of
Pearson product-moment correlations. Significant relation-
jships existed between the Primary Self-Concept Inventory
i
land achievement, and between the Behavioral Data Score
i 117
| Sheet and achievement. Nonsignificant relationships were '
I I
| found between the Bender Gestalt Test and achievement, and j
between the Human Figure Drawing Test and achievement. !
[ Thus, the hypothesis of a significant relationship between i
i I
* self-concept and academic achievement was supported when |
, self-concept was measured by the Primary Self-Concept
{
i
| Inventory and by the Behavioral Data Score Sheet, and was
I not supported as measured by the Bender Gestalt Test and
i
| . !
| the Human Figure Drawing Test.
It appears that the extent of the relationship
between self-concept and academic achievement depended ,
t
i
; upon the instrument used to measure self-concept. The
I
. techniques of self-report and external behavioral observa-
I
, tion indicated significant relationships, while the more
limited samples of behavior (the copying of designs and
I
j the drawing of the human figure) did not.
i
| Hypothesis 2
i
| The second research hypothesis was that primary
j
1 grade Mexican-American pupils involved in a group coun-
! seling program would show greater gains in self-concept j
j than a comparable group not receiving counseling. j
I
' Analysis of covariance was used to control for |
i
the effects of the pretest scores and the age of the pupils
, in analyzing the significance of gains in self-concept
j according to the various measures of self-concept used.
i
I 118
The hypothesis was supported on the basis of the evaluation!
i by the Human Figure Drawing Test, but failed to be sup- ;
!
ported by the Primary Self-Concept Inventory, the Bender
I i
1 Gestalt Test and the Behavioral Data Score Sheet. j
i i
<
The conclusion is that, either there were no sub- j
stantial gains in self-concept by the end of the counseling!
t I
! intervention period, or that three of the four tests of j
j i
! self-concept were not sufficiently sensitive to measure
I
I the gain adequately,
j Hypothesis 3
I !
j The last hypothesis stated that primary grade i
Mexican-American pupils involved in a group counseling
t program would show greater gains in academic achievement
than a comparable group not receiving counseling.
The significance of the gains in academic achieve-
I
1 ment was analyzed using the analysis of covariance tech-
I
! nique to control the effects of the pretest and the age
j of the children. Results showed that the experimental
i i
i !
i group made significantly larger gains in academic achieve- |
, ment than the control group, thus supporting the hypothesis.!
, ^
| This finding indicates that the program of i
developmental counseling served as an effective inter
vention resulting in substantive gains in academic
! achievement for those children involved in the counseling
[
program.
; Related Question 1 I
I !
| The first related question asked which of the !
measures used to evaluate self-concept best predicted
; |
| academic achievement. Pearson product-moment correlations |
i
! were computed between each of the measures of self-concept
: i
iand academic achievement, and it was discovered that the
i
1 Behavioral Data Score Sheet was the instrument most
!
j closely related to academic achievement. !
i
i
1 Related Question 2
j The second related question asked which of the j
i
; measures used to evaluate self-concept were most closely
related to the others. Pearson product-moment correlations
were computed between all of the measures of self-concept, j
The strongest relationship occurred between the Bender
j Gestalt Test and the Behavioral Data Score Sheet, followed
j by the relationship between the Bender Gestalt Test and
! the Human Figure Drawing Test.
i
I The attempt to discover if one or more of these
I
: techniques would not only efficiently predict academic
i
| achievement but also predict self-concept as measured by |
i
i
| each other instrument or technique resulted in these I
various findings. The Behavioral Data Score Sheet was i
highly efficient in predicting academic achievement. The
! Bender Gestalt was most closely related to two other
i
i measures of self-concept, the Behavioral Data Score Sheet
i
I 120
i and the Human Figure Drawing Test, but was not as efficient!
!
| in predicting academic achievement as were the Behavioral i
i '
, Data Score Sheet and the Primary Self-Concept Inventory.
Implications j
| !
! !
Counseling in the school setting is often diffi- I
' I
I
i
j cult to defend to administrators and teaching staffs
J unless there is some relationship to improvements in
behavior or gains in achievement. Counseling to improve
ipupils' self-concepts, providing there are associated,
observable gains, may provide the counselor with an
(approach acceptable to many school administrators and yet
permit the counselor to remain responsive to the needs
1 of the individual child.
i
!Counselor Involvement in
|Testing
| The problem of measuring self-concept is complex,
j and the task of locating instruments for measuring self-
!concept in a Mexican-American population is particularly
i complicated due to the language and cultural factors
! i
jpresent. This study would have been more straightforward j
| I
and easily reported if only one measure of self-concept, \
I i
the Primary Self-Concept Inventory, had been used.
However, Wylie (19 74) expressed reservations regarding
jthe self-report technique, as was discussed in Chapter II
|of this study, and Michael et al. (1973) recommended using.
; several measures rather than only one.
i
; Since the decision was made to use several instru-
j
ments for measuring self-concept, it was also decided to
i
I compare the instruments themselves in the hope that
!
counselors might be helped to eliminate duplication of
tests and minimize time spent in testing.
' The relationships between the four measures of
i self-concept suggest that they all measure the same entity
|
j to some extent. In addition to measuring self-concept,
jeach of the tests has different attributes. The Behavioral
I
|Data Score Sheet and the Primary Self-Concept Inventory,
iboth having significant relationships to academic achieve
ment, might serve as predictors of achievement. The
i
,Human Figure Drawing Test may also be used to derive a
measure of cognitive potential, while the Bender Gestalt
i
Test may be employed as a measure of perceptual-motor
development. Depending upon the nature of the quantitative
I
|data desired, it might be possible to extract more
I
I information from one test rather than to administer two
'or more tests. Counselor involvement in developing skills
i
!in interpreting test data in relationship to the coun-
i
selor's experiencing of the child appears to be a better
I use of counselor resources than extensive test
I
administration.
122
Developmental Counseling and
Academic Achievement
i
The goal of providing counseling for all students,
i
; and of counseling young people to assist them with normal
i
| developmental tasks often receive minimal priority in the
| school setting. Realistically, counselor time and
I energies are consumed in activities such as crisis coun
seling, in-service training for staffs, and testing indi
vidual children.
Also, initiating and implementing counseling pro-
i
I
grams which require additional staffing, funding, and
;possibly time away from the academic program for the
i
i
i children involved, is difficult in many schools.
| However, the developmental counseling model is
designed so that it is relatively easy to interpret to
| teachers, administrators, school boards, and parents.
i
jIt appears to facilitate the educational process and is
j non-threatening in terms of invasions of privacy of the
|home.
! In this instance, a nine-week developmental
j counseling program effected significant gains in academic
achievement.
The outcomes of this research offer good evidence
in favor of programs of developmental counseling,
;especially for populations of "high risk" children. The
combination of group approach and definitive time limits
| provided by the developmental counseling model makes
j counseling available to many more pupils than might other
wise have an opportunity to be involved in counseling.
i
| Recommendations
, Upon consideration of the outcomes of this
investigation, the following recommendations appear
appropriate.
j With reference to similar disadvantaged or "high
irisk" groups, counselors are urged to:
1. Acknowledge accountability for facilitating
the social, emotional, and educational growth of these
I
pupils without abandonment of the children's cultural
i
heritage and values.
2. Assist in disrupting the cycle of school
[failure by helping children develop confidence, strengths,
i
I
land coping skills in dealing with institutional structure.
i
| 3. Consider implementing this or a similar
[developmental counseling program designed to aid children
|in assuming responsibility, cultivating their own
'resources, and anticipating developmental goals and tasks.
I
The results of this investigation indicate that
such a counseling approach can be effective even in this
very challenging population. It is assumed that other
|young children without such handicaps as low socioeconomic
jbackground, lack of facility in the language of the
1 124
school, and minority status in the school and community,
i should be able to profit from group counseling. Therefore,
the following recommendations for further research are
> offered:
1. To explore the reliability and generalizability
of these findings a replication of this study is invited
and encouraged.
2. Further investigation of the Primary Self-
Concept Inventory is recommended, particularly on the
reliability of the components or factors measured by the
instrument.
3. An expansion of this research design to include
groups randomly assigned to several counselors is recom
mended to investigate the impact of counselor effectiveness
on the outcome.
4. A study of the effects of extending the time
allotment for the period of the counseling intervention is
recommended for future research. This might answer the
question of whether self-concept change occurs more slowly
than could be observed under the constraints of this
investigation.
125
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137
APPENDIXES
APPENDIX A
A PROPOSED DEVELOPMENTAL COUNSELING PROGRAM FOR
PRIMARY GRADE MEXICAN-AMERICAN CHILDREN
139
APPENDIX A
A PROPOSED DEVELOPMENTAL COUNSELING PROGRAM FOR
PRIMARY GRADE MEXICAN-AMERICAN CHILDREN
This is a design for a program of developmental
counseling for a group of Mexican-American primary grade
children.
The program is planned to encompass the nine
guidance learnings proposed by Keat (1974), and gleaned by
him from sources including Hill and Luckey (1969),
Dinkmeyer (1970), Bessell (1970), and Brown (1971). The
counseling sessions are scheduled for two 30-minute
periods each week for a total of nine weeks. In general,
one guidance learning topic is considered in both sessions
of each week with the exception of the topic of values
and ideals to which one extra session is devoted, making
a total of three sessions.
The nine "guidance learnings" and sessions ,
scheduled include: j
Topic Number of Sesssions 1
1. Understanding and accepting 2 j
oneself
2. Understanding feelings and 2
i emotions
i
I 3. Understanding human behavior 2
I 140
! Topic Number of Sessions
] 4. Developing responsibility 2
1 for oneself
t
* 5. Establishing interpersonal 2
i relationships
i
6. Understanding choices, 2
decisions
{
I 7. Demonstrating adjustment 2
; capacities
i
! 8. Developing appreciation of 1
j education and work
! 9. Developing values and ideals 3
j A plan for each of the sessions has been devised,
jincluding a discussion topic and suggested activities and
materials.
It is recognized that primary grade children's
limited attention span and possible lack of skill in the
|use of discussion techniques impose constraints upon the
use of a traditional counseling hour or class period. For
these reasons, two 30-minute counseling sessions per week
jare proposed.
j For these same reasons, activities are suggested
1 to help involve the children affectively and motorically
in the topic while it is being developed in the
I
discussion.
It is also recognized that a counselor, in working
!with such young children, will need to be sensitive to
such factors as: (a) using appropriate vocabulary level;
(b) providing concrete illustrations and applicatigns of i
abstract ideas; (c) remaining sensitive to the children's ’
need for involvement or activity; (d) maintaining a !
i
flexible stance and sufficient resources of ideas and |
i
materials; and (e) remaining constantly aware of his role j
in modeling attitudes and behavior.
Carkhuff's (1969) "individual dimensions" of
therapeutic relationships are as applicable to counseling
in this setting as to any other. The counselor will need
to actively encourage the children's participation by
communicating his empathy and respect. He will need to
i
help distinguish fantasy and wishful thinking from
reality, and to actively work on problem solving, with
concreteness, confrontation, and immediacy. Hopefully,
he will be able to demonstrate and model authenticity by
his own genuineness.
Finally, the ideal counselor for working with
Mexican-American youth is a "native speaker," a Mexican-
American fluent in Spanish who is a professionally trained !
I
counselor (Maes & Rinaldi, 1974). Realistically, these j
I
persons are relatively scarce. An alternative would be ]
i
a counselor who if fluent in Spanish and knowledgeable
regarding Mexican culture and customs. Regardless of the I
skill level in language, however, the counselor himself,
his person, his competence and his effectiveness, remain
crucial to the success of any counseling program.
Outline of Counseling Sessions
The following outline presents the concepts
■proposed for consideration for each of the group meetings, j
1 It is the responsibility of the counselor to
;propose the topics and to encourage the participation in
j the discussion by all the children. As the children
I contribute basic concepts, the counselor should reinforce;
!if the concepts fail to come from the group, the counselor
!should introduce them.
I Week I
i
|Session I: Understanding and Accepting Oneself
.Topic A:
i
Structure the counseling sessions by explaining
that the group will meet (giving time, day, and place)
twice each week to talk together and to work on projects.
jTopic B;
| 1. Learn and practice each others' names.
I
i 2. Discuss each person's uniqueness— there is
jonly one of each of us in the whole world.
3. We are identified by our physical selves. We
,all are different from each other (involve children in
;discussion of how we are like each other, and how differ-
jent). We are more alike than different.
| 4. Name parts of physical selves in Spanish and
in English, discuss physical characteristics such as
| tallness, left-handedness, etc.
I Suggested Activities:
1. Children make pictures of selves using crayons,
iwith counselor saving pictures for booklet each child will
I compile during counseling sessions.
2. Take snapshots of children for booklet. |
1 3. Play games such as "Head, Shoulders, Knees, andi
; Toes," "Looby Loo," or "Simon Says" for change of pace and j
awareness of physical selves. j
l
i
Session II: Understanding and Accepting Oneself i
i
Topic A: j
Review each others' names. j
Topic B: i
i ,
1 1. Review concepts of Session I briefly for con-
j tinuity and reinforcement.
I 2. Ask each child to name physical characteristics
jor physical abilities he has that he particularly likes.
! (Other children and counselor assist reticent children.)
i
3. Discuss how each of us is different inside,
iin how we feel about things, what we like, and what we
don't like.
4. Discuss each child's uniqueness in terms of
family— who do we live with; and home— where do we live.
'Suggested Activities:
j
i 1. Make pictures of home and family (self in
|context of family).
\
t
! 2. Read Bel Geddes' I Like to Be Me.
i(Bel Geddes, B. I like to be me. New York: Viking Press,
1963.)
Week II
Session I: Understanding Feelings and Emotions
Topic A:
1. Review briefly physical selves and continue
exploration of feeling selves. (Ex., "Remember when we
,talked about how we all look somewhat alike and yet some-
iwhat different, and that this is how we look to each
jother. We are all alike in our feelings inside ourselves,
jtoo, but people can't look at us and tell so easily how
iwe're feeling.)
j ________________________________ 144
2. What are the different ways people feel: !
: (Explore areas of feeling, such as happiness, joy, anger, 1
I annoyance, pride, love, disappointment, impatience.)
; i
I a. Try to involve the children in naming !
; ways of feeling.
b. Ask children to describe how the different i
emotions feel. I
: I
;Topic B:
1. Discuss the physical signs of emotion (smiling,|
frowning, laughing, dancing, shouting, changes in j
coloration). !
i
i 2. Introduce role playing:
!
I a. Children take turns demonstrating a feeling
j they have chosen. Other children take turns
| identifying emotion portrayed.
i
; b. Children draw feeling-label slips from a (
i container and act out that feeling.
Session II: Understanding Feelings and Emotions
Topic A:
I Review briefly the previous discussion of emotions.
!Topic B:
!
1 Discuss the following emotions, their physical
jcomponents and their functional uses:
i
j 1. Fear: our hearts beat faster, we may get pale, |
;we are able to run faster and try harder. 1
i ^
! 2. Love: we feel gentle, and act kindly toward j
those we love. I
; 3. Anger: we may speak more loudly or shout, we
may turn red in the face.
Discuss the possibility of feelings getting mixed
|up, that it is possible to be angry with someone they love,
I and to like some things about people who are not good
: friends, for example.
145
Ask children to contribute kinds of feelings and j
j describe. j
! Suggested Activities: ;
1. Ask children to draw something that makes them
I feel very happy, for example, an activity such as swimming,
| or people they love. j
I 2. Read Munro Leaf's Ferdinand. (Leaf, M. The \
;story of Ferdinand. New York: Viking Press, 1937.) j
. Week III j
! i
jSession I: Understanding Human Behavior
}
!Discussion:
I
| Discuss with the children the universality of |
jfeelings, and the appropriateness of feelings— -feelings are!
iacceptable parts of ourselves (for example, "Is it OK to '
| be afraid sometimes?"). j
I
1. People usually have similar feelings under i
isimilar circumstances. We can sometimes guess how people j
are feeling by thinking how we would feel ourselves.
2. Sometimes people's feelings differ because
!of different experiences— they may be afraid of different
jthings (such as lightning), or may enjoy different
|activities (such as skating).
| 3. Our feelings remain the same even though the
I things we fear or love or enjoy may change. We may enjoy
building a boat more than swimming, for example, when we
I are older.
i
I In the foregoing, encourage children to contribute j
1 situations in which they feel specific feelings, and to j
I check this out with other children. !
I 1
i
Suggested Activity:
Read the story of Chicken Little who was afraid I
because he thought the sky was falling. (A good source is
Galdone, P., Chicken Little. New York: Seabury Press,
'1968.)
Session II: Understanding Human Behavior
i
I Discussion: i
Sometimes we can change the way we feel by changing,
, the way we act. For example, we may learn not to be ;
! afraid by acting as if we are not afraid. (Other examples I
j may be contributed by the group.) |
Suggested Activity: !
!Role Playing:
i
; 1. "Pretend you are late to school and have to
:go to the office." |
i 2. "Suppose you lost your coat at school. What
icould you do?"
3. "Suppose another child is always bothering
|you, or always fighting you. What are some things you
jcould do?"
i 4. "Somebody accuses you of taking something j
that isn't yours. How would you act?"
I
| 5. "You are lost in a place that is new to you,
|and full of people. What would you do?"
i
Give children opportunities to role play these
situations as time permits, so that each child has several
I roles into which he can project himself. Cast children
in the roles of helpers or confronters to provide them
this experience and to allow for interaction.
j Week IV
Session I: Developing Responsibility for Oneself
1 Discussion:
i
i
| The way we are is how we choose to be. We can
1 learn to know how we feel and to decide what we will do
with our feelings. Each person chooses for himself the
person that he will be.
1. Each of us can know himself better than
janyone else can know us.
147
a. .We know if we are feeling happy, sad,
excited, disappointed, or . . . . ?
Exercise: Take a little quiet time for
thinking, right now, and see if you can know how
you are feeling and what your feelings are.
Share them with the group.
b. We know if things are bothering us, and
keeping us from doing what we want to do.
Exercise: Think for a little while, and try
to remember times when something was on your mind,
or something was happening which bothered you,
and caused you to do something you felt you
didn't want to do, or not to do something you
felt you wanted to do. (Counselor may want to
model sharing this.)
c. We know if we are trying or not trying,
or if the task is too hard.
Exercise: What could we do in these cases?
2. There are some things we can do to help us in
dealing with our feelings. (Ask for ideas from the group.)
a. We can take time out to think about how
we feel and how we will act.
b. We can ask for help— from the teacher or
aide at school, or parents or family members at
home, when there is something we don't know how
to do.
c. When we are angry or upset, we can talk
it over with someone who understands. (Counselor
may model this, asking one of the children to
play the role of an understanding friend.)
Session II: Developing Responsibility for Oneself
Discussion:
Sometimes things go wrong. Maybe we get in
trouble, or there is trouble at home or at school. How
do we feel at times like these? How can we choose what
to do?
14 8
Role play the following situations: j
; 1. A friend talks us into playing catch near the j
|windows and a window gets broken. Who is responsible and
what should we do?
i
| I
| 2. The teacher is upset because our reading group |
!is noisy and bothering other people. What should we do? :
i j
; 3. A friend is angry and sad because he was j
I blamed for something and had to sit in the office. How j
I can we help? !
i
j 4. Things keep going wrong, for example, bigger j
!children keep teasing us; we get wet in the rain, etc.
'Ask the children for possibilities and enact possible !
|solutions, assigning roles to children to provide for
i interaction.
1
I
I Suggested Activity:
i Read Piper's The Little Engine That Could. i
! (Piper, W. The little engine that could. New York:
Platt & Munk, 1954.)
I Week V
|Session I: Establishing Interpersonal Relationships
i
Discussion:
i
| We live in the world with many other people— our
jfamilies, our classmates in school, our friends in our
'neighborhoods. We feel better about ourselves if we like
!people and if people like us. Sometimes people like us
because we like them; sometimes people like us because we
|treat them in a way they like. It helps us to be
icomfortable with people if we feel they like us.
i
I
'Suggested Activity: Role Playing
| 1. It helps us to begin being together if we
!greet each other. Some greetings are: "Good morning,
Mother," "Hello, Mrs. Cooper," or "Hi., Miguel." Practice
greetings in specific situations.
j 2. Little words such as "please," "thank you,"
j"you are welcome" make people happier to help you. Ask
ichildren to contribute such situations and enact them.
i
149
j 3. If we have an accident and bump someone or ,
break something, we feel better if we can say, "I'm sorry,"
| or "excuse me," and help to fix it. Structure some '
illustrative situations and assign children to roles.
|
4. Read Anglund's Love Is a Special Way of j
I Feeling. (Anglund, J. Love is a special way of feeling. j
I New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1960.) j
i
;Session II: Establishing Interpersonal Relationships
!Discussion:
When we like other people, we like to be with them.I
I l
| But in our families, we have to share our time with|
iour parents and with our brothers and sisters. Especially
!this happens when there are babies or little brothers
!and sisters at home.
j . i
! In our neighborhood and school we have to share
jour friends with others.
I
! Sometimes we feel jealous and unhappy. Discuss
positive things to do, such as:
1. Spend time with family members by helping
them with work, or doing something nice for them.
2. Let friends know you like them by inviting
|them to your house, sitting with them at lunch, etc.
I 3. Be a good friend by sharing things, by taking
|turns, by not being "bossy."
i I
Children should be encouraged to contribute ideas,
land to discuss problem areas of their relationships.
|Suggested Activity: ;
I i
I
Children might make freehand drawings (crayon or
felt pen) of themselves with their special friends. j
Counselor could assist with writing each friend's name.
150
Week VI
Session I: Understanding Choices and Decisions
Discussion:
Sometimes things happen which make it hard for us j
to decide what to do. How do we decide what to do when we ,
are tempted to:
1. Say something that is not true.
2. Use something that doesn't belong to us without1
permission.
3. Put work papers away without trying to work
them.
4. Other examples contributed by children or
counselor.
Why do we decide to do things that may cause us
trouble later on? What are the feelings that go with
doing what we feel is right or wrong? (Counselor may want
to write group responses on chalk board.)
How can we decide what to do when we have a
problem?
1. Counselor should try to encourage contributions
from the group, but should try to include the solution of
talking problems over with parents, siblings, teachers,
friends, etc.
2. Regardless of advice from others, the respon
sibility of the decision or action is ours alone.
3. Taking time to make a decision is very helpful
if it is not an emergency.
Suggested Activity:
Make collages of magazine pictures of people who
are in helpful relationships to others. Counselor will
need to collect pictures in advance due to time
restrictions.
151
'Session II: Understanding Choices and Decisions j
| Topic A: I
Review briefly the discussion of the previous
;session regarding the problem of making choices and deci-
!sions, and the responsibility for them.
| I
Topic B: j
| i
Structure and role play the following situations I
!along with others that might be suggested by the group. |
|Following each enactment, discuss as many alternative ways i
; of responding as the counselor and children can contribute.j
i !
\ 1. A group of children are going to the corner
;store instead of going home from school. They want you
!to go, too. What will you do?
j
i 2. Two children are calling another child names
I during recess. They want you to join them. What will
‘you do?
I f
3. You and your friend are walking home from
school when you see some little children playing with
imatches beside a fence. What should you do?
4. You have a library book at home that is
overdue but you like it very much. You wish you could
j keep it for your own. What should you do?
I
| Important questions to consider:
| 1. Is it hard or easy not to do what your friends
|want you to do?
1 2. If you do something you think is wrong, how
1 do you feel?
I
i 3. Who decides for you what things you will do? I
' (Who is responsible for your decisions?)
;
Week VII
I
Session I: Demonstrating Adjustment Capacities
|Discussion:
i
j What do we do with our feelings? When we feel
,very disappointed or angry or afraid, how do we act?
j 152
;When some people are mad about something, they act grouchy j
!toward everyone. i
i
How do we express our feelings? (Ask each child I
to respond to the questions.)
; 1. When you are angry, what do you do? >
; 2. When you are afraid, what do you do? j
i
j 3. When you are sad, or disappointed, what do
j you do?
j
i 4. Consider other emotions counselor or children
j feel appropriate.
j What are some other ways of handling strong
jfeelings? Following are some suggestions for ideas; coun-
|selor and group may contribute others:
\ i
! 1. We might tell a person who made us angry what j
,he did. I
i
i
2. We might do something active so that we feel
less tense (take a fast walk, run around the ball field,
:or kick a kickball).
3. We might try to change our thoughts by doing
something we enjoy.
j Suggested Activity:
I
1 Read Zolotow's The Quarreling Book. (Zolotow, C.
|The quarreling book. New York: Harper & Row, 1963.)
|Session II: Demonstrating Adjustment Capacities
IDiscussion: !
t
| I
What kinds of things can we do to make us better :
|able to take care of ourselves? i
! ;
1. Consider physical selves, and the requirements j
of our bodies for good food, enough rest, and exercise for i
health and strength. Include cleanliness to avoid disease
and to be pleasant company.
j 2. Consider learning enough about the world so
we can make good choices. Include:
153
a. Learning to read (for finding out about
things— reading newspapers, instructions, and
signs).
b. Learning to write, so that we can write
down things we want to remember or want other
people to know, so that we can send letters, and
order things by mail.
c. Learning how to work with numbers, so we
can handle money, measure and build, and keep
records.
3. Explore ways of getting along that we learn
in our homes, schools, and neighborhoods.
a. We can plan to ask questions and talk
about things so we understand better.
b. We can try to settle disagreements by
talking and avoid fighting and quarreling.
c. We can do our share, be helpful to other
people, and be a good friend.
Suggested Activity:
Enlist nurse's assistance. Weigh and measure
children to illustrate function and usefulness of numbers
and importance of the physical self.
Week VIII
Session I: Developing Appreciation of Education and Work
Discussion:
Our schools are where we are supposed to begin
learning what we will need to know to have a good life.
People keep on learning even after they are out of school.
The counselor should present the following ideas:
1. The schools are elementary (perhaps including
junior high school), high school, and college.
2. In elementary school we learn about reading,
writing, working with numbers, and the world around us.
3. In high school we learn more about those
! things, and we may also learn about jobs and how to do 1
: work.
! 4. Some people go to college after high school.
People can go to college to learn no matter how old they
!become.
, Chances are, the more we learn in school, the more
|we will know about, and the work we can do will be more !
■ interesting.
J i
i . i
I What would you like to be doing when you are i
I grown? Discuss possible occupations and professions, and
ithose of relatives and friends. '
| i
|Suggested Activity:
i Using a collection of pictures the counselor has
I compiled and starting early in the session, make collages
|of people working in different occupations and
!professions. I
Session II: Developing Values and Ideals
Discussion:
i
I What does it mean if we say we "value" something?
\ If we truly value something, then we will choose
!it for ourselves, and we will let other people know how
!we feel about it. For example, if we value a certain
!friendship, then we choose to be a friend to that person
I and we let other people know of our friendship.
| Sometimes we value people, doing or having certain
1 things, sometimes being who we are.
j
| What are some things that we value? (Counselor
encourages children to share their own. In case the
following do not come from the children, they should be
contributed by the counselor.)
j
1. Ourselves
2. Families
i
; 3. Friendships
4. Skills, abilities
155
5. Heritage
| 6. Things we own
7. School, education
t '
t !
I 8. Things we like to do t
i i
9. Neighborhood, state, country. j
; !
;Suggested Activity: j
| Use the "Value Whip" technique, in which the coun- j
j selor goes quickly around the group, asking each child to '
contribute the name of something they value. j
i j
I Use the "Magic Box" technique in which the j
ichildren pretend there is a magic box into which they can :
j place things they value for safekeeping. J
Week IX
Session I: Developing Values and Ideals
iDiscussion:
Review previous week's discussion of values.
| Discuss how it is that you can decide whether
|something is really a value of yours. Include the fol-
!lowing ideas:
! 1. Is this something you choose freely for
j yourself?
I 2. Is it something you cherish, provide for, and
ikeep safely?
j 3. Is it something with which you are willing to
(spend time?
i
! 4. Is it something you are willing to let other
people know about?
I
Suggested Activity:
i The counselor distributes paper on which he has
;previously drawn the shape of a shield, divided into
[sections. This might be placed on 12" x 18" manilla paper
ito provide as large a space for the children's drawings
! 156
! as possible. In each of the sections, the children draw
the picture of some things which they value, coloring with
j crayon or felt pen. These should be started early in the
session to allow enough time.
Additional Discussion:
I The counselor should begin to terminate the coun-
! seling program. This might be done with a statement:
: "Our next meeting is the last of our regular meetings."
Session II: Developing Values and Ideals
Discussion:
Wouldn't it be nice _if: the world was perfect,
never too hot or too cold, and always pretty; and, if:
people were always kind and friendly, never cross, and
never angry; and, ij :: our work was always just right —
never too hard or too easy. (Ask children for
contributions.)
These are perfect ideals, but we can never have
everything the way we might want it.
Things we can do to make the world a better place
and to make us better people are:
1. We can try to be honest with outselves— admit
to ourselves how we really feel and share our feelings
with other people.
2. We can admit to others what we can do and
can't do, and ask others for help.
i 3. We can look around us, and see who needs our
|help, and be a friend.
i
I 4. We can be responsible for ourselves— for doing
1 our work, for taking good care of our bodies, for making
lour own choices.
|
Suggested Activities:
Compile and assemble materials completed and
collected during the nine-week period. Make colored con-
: struction paper covers, being sure to label each with the
child's name and date.
i
157
Additional Discussion: j
* I
Terminate the program with a statement such as, j
1"This is the last of our regular meetings. I will be j
thinking about you and hoping that you sometimes think 1
;about me." The counselor may wish to name a date on which
-he will return to visit the children in their classrooms.
i
j
Throughout the guide, it will be the counselor's
,discretion which determines the language used to convey |
; i
ithe essential content of the discussions. Even for groups |
* i
i
!fairly comfortable with English, translation of certain |
i
iconcepts into Spanish may facilitate understanding. j
| i
j An attempt has been made to keep "teaching" at a
j J
iminimum, and the sessions are mainly structured by the j
I !
questions of the counselor. Role playing is emphasized I
i
to provide "learning situations in which appropriate |
t I
,patterns of coping and mastery behavior can be achieved"
(Blocher, 1968, p. 172).
: i
i j
|Summary
| This program of developmental counseling is
i
[designed for small groups of primary grade Mexican-American
i
‘children. The plan covers a nine-week period, allowing I
t i
, I
[for two 30-minute counseling sessions per week, based on
iKeat's (1974) nine guidance learnings for children. Each i
session plan includes discussion topics and suggested •
i !
activities to reinforce ideas and to provide the children
!with opportunities for active involvement. Translation
of key concepts into Spanish is encouraged and left to
j
ithe discretion of the counselor.
I 158
REFERENCES
Bessell, H., & Palomares, V. Methods in human development.
San Diego, California: Human Development Training
Institute, 1970.
Blocher, D. H. Developmental counseling. New York:
Ronald Press, 1974.
Brown, G. I. Human teaching for human learning: An
introduction to confluent education. New York:
Viking Press, 1971.
Carkhuff, R. R. Helping and human relations (Vol. 2).
New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1969.
Dinkmeyer, D. C. Developmental group counseling.
Elementary School Guidance and Counseling, 1970, 4,
267-272.
Hill, G. E., & Luckey, E. B. Guidance for children in
elementary schools. New York: Appleton-Century-
Crofts, 196 9.
Howe, L., Kirschenbaum, H., & Simon, S. Values clarifica
tion. New York: Hart Publishing, 1972.
Keat, D. B. Fundamentals of child counseling. Boston:
Houghton-Mifflin, 19 74.
Maes, W. R., & Rinaldi, J. R. Counseling the Chicano
child. Elementary School Guidance and Counseling,
1974, 8, 278-284.
159
APPENDIX B
CORRESPONDENCE REGARDING USE OF THE
BEHAVIORAL DATA SCORE SHEET
160
747 Hygeia
Encinitas, CA 92024
September 20, 197 4
Dr. Arthur W. Combs,
1 Professor of Education
|University of Florida
iGainesville, Fla. 32601
!Dear Dr. Combs:
i
^I am interested in using the Behavioral Data Score Sheet
|developed for your 1963 study, "The Relationship of Child
j Perceptions to Achievement and Behavior in the Early
!School Years," in connection with my doctoral dissertation.I
jMy topic is, "The Effects of Group Counseling on the Self-
'Concept and Academic Achievement of Primary Grade Mexican-
1 American Pupils," (University of Southern California,
Dr. Paul Bloland, Chairman).
The Behavioral Data Score Sheet would be used as a measure
jof each child's classroom teacher's observations of his
:behavior. However, I would like to make slight modifica-
;tions on the scoring sheet format, numbering the items
jconsecutively, and preserving the 1 to 5 scale but
■reversing the order so that the high to low, left to right
jscoring is maintained, with the 5 representing the most
'desirable behavior,* thus reading, for example:
j (1) Secure - Insecure 5 4 3 2 1
;May I have your approval for using the Behavioral Data |
;Score Sheet with this modification in my research? j
My original wish was to use the entire Perception Score i
Sheet system and rating method also, but the facilities and j
counselor time at my disposal will not be adequate for such j
an extensive project. Instead, I will use the Behavioral j
Data Score Sheet if I may have your approval for doing so, ,
along with the Peabody Individual Achievement Test, the
Primary Self-Concept Inventory (Muller & Leonetti, 1973),
^the Bender Gestalt Test, and the Human Figure Drawing Test
jas pre- and post-treatment assessments.
i*(Exceptions: Aggressive - Retiring; Hostility)
161
I would also like to ask Daniel W. Soper for his approval,
but am unable to locate his name in the current University
of Florida catalog. Perhaps you will be kind enough to
advise me of his present location.
I will be waiting anxiously for your reply, and will be
especially grateful for any suggestions you may care to
offer me.
Sincerely yours,
Enclosure
(Mrs.) Leona W. Barnes
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
N 1 v E R S ; T Y OF r L u R ;
i n e s v 1 i C r ;
October 2, 197^
Mrs. Leona W. Barnes
7k7 Hygeia
Encinitas, GA 9202L
Dea r=Mrs. Ba rnes:
I have your letter of September 20 indicating your in
terest in utilizing the behavioral data score sheet which Dr.
Soper and I used our 1963 study of child perceptions.
Please feel free to use this scoring system in any way you
like providing you indicate that you have modified it for your
own purposes. If the sc-ore sheet will be useful to you in your
research I am sure Dr. Soper and I will be pleased to have you
use it. Please take this letter as my permission for you to do
so.
I do not believe it will be necessary for you to get Dr.
SOper's permission. Dr. Soper is now in retirement and his
address, if you would like to write to him, is 1028 Royal Palm
Drive, Ellenton, Florida 33532.
With every good wish for the success of your studies.
S incerely
Arthur W. Combs
Professor of Education
AWC/ls
163
APPENDIX C
THE MODIFIED BEHAVIORAL DATA SCORE SHEET
i
i
164
APPENDIX C
THE MODIFIED BEHAVIORAL DATA SCORE SHEET
Teachers: Respond to items 1 through 2 0 only.
Rater No. Code No.
Date Record No.
General
(1)
Secure - Insecure 5 4 3 2 1
(2) Independent - Dependent 5 4 3 2 1
(3) Emotionally Stable -
Unstable
5 4 3 2 1
(4) Spontaneous - Rigid
Flexible - Defensive
5 4 3 2 1
(5) Aggressive - Retiring 5 4 3 2 1
(6) Energetic - Apathetic 5 4 3 2 1
(7) Attractive - Unattractive 5 4 3 2 1
(3) Outgoing - Withdrawing 5 4 3 2 1
(9) Cooperative-Uncooperative 5 4 3 2 1
(10) Dependable - Undependable 5 4 3 2 1
(11)
Leadership (high - low) 5 4 3 2 1
(12) Cheerful - Sad
Happy - Sullen
5 4 3 2 1
(13) Creativity (high - low) 5 4 3 2 1
(14) Hostility (low - high) 5 4 3 2 1
165
(15) Attention Span
(long - short)
5 4 3 2 1
(16) Acceptable to boys
(high - low)
5 4 3 2 1
(17) Acceptable to girls
(high - low)
5 4 3 2 1
(18) Acceptable to high status
peers (high - low)
5 4 3 2 1
(19) Coordination of small
muscles (good - poor)
5 4 3 2 1
(20) Coordination of large
muscles (good - poor)
5 4 3 2 1
Skills
(21) Reading 5 4 3 2 1
(22) Numbers 5 4 3 2 1
...
(23) Music 5 4 3 2 1
(24) Self-care 5 4 3 2 1
(25) Oral Expression 5 4 3 2 1
(26) Written Expression 5 4 3 2 1
(27) Art 5 4 3 2 1
(28) Handwriting 5 4 3 2 1
(29) Work Habits 5 4 3 2 1
Vital Statistics
(30) Chronological Age months
'
(31) Mental Age months
(32) Weight lbs.
(33) Height inches
166
(34) Absences due to illness days
(January to March)
(35) Sex M F
(Taken from Combs, Arthur W. , and Soper, Daniel W., "The
Relationship of Child Perceptions to Achievement and
Behavior in the Early School Years," University of Florida,
Gainesville, Florida, 1963.)
167
APPENDIX D
THE APPLICATION TO THE LA MESA/SPRING VALLEY
SCHOOL DISTRICT RESEARCH COUNCIL
168
September 29, 1974
|To the Research Council,
La Mesa/Spring Valley School District
iThis research proposal is presented with the hope of
;enlisting the participation of selected staff and students
j of La Mesa/Spring Valley School District in this project.
i
j The research is under the general direction of my disserta-
Ition committee at the University of Southern California,
;Dr. Paul Bloland, Chairman. The research design, model
j for implementation, and assessment instruments and tech-
!niques have been approved by my dissertation committee.
|Actual counseling sessions for the experimental group of
istudents will be conducted by graduates of the counselor
|training program, San Diego State University, who are
recommended by Dr. David Malcolm, and who are acceptable
to Dr. Gerstein and the site principal(s). They will
operate under the on-site supervision of a person
'delegated by the school district. I will provide consulta
tion and all materials necessary.
The proposal embodies two personal concerns of mine. One
!is for the welfare of Mexican-American children whose
j prospects within our school systems are historically dim,
land the other is that counseling be viewed as effective
!for primary grade children. I am hopeful that the
!Research Council will agree that this is meaningful and
|worthwhile research.
I
! Sinerely,
Leona Barnes
Psychologist, Carlsbad
Unified Schools
801 Pine Avenue
Carlsbad, CA 92008
169
I
I
I I
I
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
1 PurP°ses and Nature of the ;
: Research I
i - - - - - - - - j
■ The proposed research is designed to explore the \
I feasibility of small group, developmental counseling as an
| intervention having desirable effects on the academic
| achievement and self-concept of primary grade Mexican- j
! American students. !
;
| Our Mexican-American population continues to
represent our highest school dropout rate, and despite
large expenditures of funds for special programs, lags in
academic achievement persist among all age levels.
I Language, cultural, and socioeconomic factors
!undoubtedly contribute to these conditions, as well as
the young child's perceptions of himself and his problems
iin coping with standards of behavior and performance, and
1 others' expectations. Numerous studies have been con
ducted establishing the relationships of behavior and
academic achievement to self-concept.
I
I If, by short-term counseling intervention early in
ithe child's school career, we can effect gains in his
(repertoire of coping behaviors, assumption of responsi
bility for learning, and positive self-perceptions in
relation to school roles, then we may be able to prevent
|costly losses later. The developmental counseling model
1 is especially appropriate for the counseling treatment
[proposed here. It is distinct from other forms of coun-
|seling and psychotherapy in that it concerns itself with
idevelopmental-educative-preventive goals as opposed to |
|remediative-adjustive-therapeutic outcomes (Blocher, 1966).,
As a counseling model for use in public schools, and I
especially with primary grade children, developmental 1
counseling appears to offer a suitable approach.
i
The research project calls for:
1. Identification of the target population— those
I children who:
| a. are currently enrolled in grades one, two,
or three;
i 9
170
! b. are of lower socioeconomic background; and \
I
c. are from homes in which the primary j
| language is Spanish. j
' 2. Random sampling from that population to select
60 children, 30 of whom will comprise the treatment group,
and 30 the control group.
3. Permission of parents or guardians for the
i participation of the 30 treatment group children.
4. Pretesting by counselors of all 60 children
with designated instruments. (See "Specific Data to be
Collected. 11)
I
| 5. Completion of behavior rating scale by teachers
|of participating children. (See "Specific Data to be
|Collected.")
j i
j 6. Participation by 30 treatment group children
■ in 30-minute, twice-weekly counseling sessions for a
|nine-week period.
7. Post-testing by counselors of all 60 children
|in treatment and control groups.
| 8. Completion of behavior rating scale by
|teachers.
i
1 9. Compilation and analysis of data, and prepara
tion of reports.
The anticipated period of involvement of students,
counselors, and staff will cover a 12- to 14-week period,
I and will be initiated immediately upon securing the
;approval of the research council.
i i
! i
iSpecific Data to be Collected i
! ;
The project requires pre- and post-treatment ;
assessments prior to and following the nine-week counseling'1
i period. The data to be collected include: (a) gains in |
academic achievement, as measured by the Peabody Individual|
Achievement Test; (b) gains in self-concept, as measured
by the Primary Self-Concept Inventory and by the Human
!Figure Drawing Test and the Bender Gestalt Visual-Motor
|tests, and (c) gains in behavior as measured by the
I Behavioral Data Score Sheet.
171
; Inasmuch as the Bender Gestalt and Human Figure
; Drawing techniques are time-honored and standard assess-
; ments, they will not be described here. However, a copy
iof the Bender Gestalt designs, which the children merely
' copy, is included in the Appendix. Both of these will be
scored by the Koppitz scoring system (Koppitz, 1964) to
I provide standards of uniformity to the scoring procedures.
i
; The Peabody Individual Achievement Test (American
' Guidance Service, 1970) was chosen to measure academic
; achievement, since it requires a minimum of verbal
1 responses, and seems especially appropriate for this
|specific population. This test is gaining in use in
j special education programs for measuring individual pupil
progress. The format is similar to that of the familiar
Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test.
The Primary Self-Concept Scale was developed at
; the New Mexico State University in 1972, and is designed
specifically for measuring self-concept in children of
Spanish or Mexican descent. Instructions are provided
(both in English and in Spanish. Copies of the forms and
; manual are included in the Appendix.
t
All of the foregoing instruments are to be
| administered by the members of the counseling team, and
the results shared with each child's classroom teacher.
Following this, the child's name will be detached from
the forms, leaving only code numbers for the purposes of
matching and compiling data, thus protecting the identity
of the children participating.
The Behavioral Data Score Sheet is the only
i measure requiring teacher-rating and provides an external
j assessment of observable behavior in the school and
j classroom setting. The scale was developed by Combs and
j Soper at the University of Florida in 1963, in connection
j with a study of achievement and behavior in early school
I years, and represents a compilation of significant
j behaviors as suggested by teachers.
i
| The data will be analyzed by the analysis of
j covariance technique, using computer facilities at the
■ University of Southern California. Findings will be
shared with the participating school district, along with
any other available information the district may request.
; Number and Amount of Pupil
;Participation
I Five counseling groups of six children per group
!will be involved in meeting with a counselor on a twice
iweekly basis for 30-minute sessions. In addition to the
time spent in actual counseling sessions, an additional
session of approximately one hour preceding and following
I the counseling term will be needed for the individual
\ assessment. For the 30 control group children, the testing
time is all that will be needed.
| The time spent by the treatment group children
;does not represent time lost for instructional purposes.
I While the major content will consist of counseling appro-
!priate material, time will be spent in: (a) language arts
iactivities, including listening and written and verbal
I expression; (b) social studies and math concepts associated
jwith basic survival and coping skills, and (c) some few
j"art" projects.
j
;Number and Amount of Staff
'Participation
j Clerical or teacher aide time is requested for
,assistance in the identification of children so that all
students meeting the criteria for inclusion will have an
equal opportunity for random selection for participating
;in the project.
' Teachers of participating children will be asked
|to complete the Behavioral Data Score Sheet (by circling
jthe appropriate numbers) before the counseling sessions
■ begin and again following the termination of the treatment
1 period. The teachers will be responsible for releasing
;children to attend the counseling sessions. If the
jteachers wish to contribute observations of performance
'and behavior which appear to be appropriate for considera
tion within the counseling sessions, this is viewed as
highly desirable although strictly voluntary.
173
APPENDIX E
LETTER TO PARENTS REQUESTING PERMISSION
FOR CHILDREN'S PARTICIPATION
LA MESA-SPRING VALLEY SCHO O L DISTRICT
4 7 5 0 D ate A v e nu e
L a M esa. C a l i f o r n i a 9 2 0 4 1
P h o n e 4 6 9 -6 1 7 1
J a m e s R . R u n g e
S U P E R IN TE N D E N T O F SC H O O LS
November 21, 1974-
Estimados Padres:
Un programa de grupo consejero para estudiantes
va a empezar pronto en la escuela _______________ .
El proposito del programa del grupo consejero es
asistir a los estudiantes para lograr mas ^xito en
el programa educacional en las escuelas.
Los grupos consejeros se reuniran una o dos veces
a la semana bajo la direccioh del consejero,
Siendo el numero pequeno en los grupos, solamente
un grupo limitado podra partlclpar. Nos gustarla
que su hi jo o hija, ____________. ______________ .
participe en uno de estos grupos.
Por favor, firme la forma y devue'lvala a la escuela
de su hijo c hija los antes posible.
Sinceramente,
Principal
Doy mi conaentimlento para que mi hijo o hija
participe en el grupo consejero de la escuela
Fecha Firma del Padre o
Encargado
175
(Translation)
November 21, 1974
;Dear Parents:
A program of group counseling for children is beginning
soon at __________ ______________ school.
The purpose of the program of group counseling will be
to assist the children in achieving more success in the
educational program in the schools.
I The counseling groups will meet one or two times each week
•under the direction of the counselor, ____________________ .
iBecause of the small number in the groups, only a limited
|group is being asked to participate. We would like your
i child, _______________________ , to participate in one of
'these groups.
iPlease sign the form and return it to your child's teacher
ias soon as possible.
Sincerely,
Principal
I give permission for my child to participate in the group i
counseling at ___________________ school.
'Date Signature of Parent or
Guardian
176

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Asset Metadata

Creator Barnes, Leona Walters (author)

Core Title The effects of group counseling on the self-concept and achievement of primary grade Mexican-American pupils

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, educational psychology,Hispanic American studies,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-451911

Unique identifier UC11245619

Identifier usctheses-c26-451911 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP24182.pdf

Dmrecord 451911

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Barnes, Leona Walters

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA