A comparison of leader structured and group structured counseling to improve academic achievement with community college students

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Content A COMPARISON OF LEADER STRUCTURED AND
GROUP STRUCTURED COUNSELING TO IMPROVE
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT WITH COMMUNITY
COLLEGE STUDENTS
by
Robert Forsstrom Myers
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Education)
August 197 6
UMI Number: DP24227
All rights reserved
INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed,
a note will indicate the deletion.
Dissertation Publishing
UMI DP24227
Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author.
Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC.
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unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code
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Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA 90007
This dissertation, w ritte n by
Robert J, Myers
under the direction of Dissertation C om
mittee, and approved by a ll its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The G raduate
School, in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t of requirements o f
the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
ACKNOWLE DGMENTS
I am particularly grateful for the patience and
direction of my committee. The encouragement and help of
Dr. Earl Carnesf Dr. Frank Fox and Dr. Edward Bodaker made
the completion of this dissertation a very valuable learning
experience
I wish to thank the members of the faculty and staff
at Los Angeles Harbor College for their assistance and
encouragement. A special thank you to Dr. Eliot Mason for
his participation in the study as the second counselor.
Finally, I wish to acknowledge my graditude to my
wife, Pam, for her patience, understanding and encouragement
through the entire doctoral program.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ....... ii
LIST OF TABLES................ v
Chapter
I INTRODUCTION .................................. 1
Statement of the Problem ................... 6
Importance of the Problem ........... 6
Definition of Terms U s e d ................ . 10
Hypothesis.....................................11
Scope and Limitations of the S t u d y ...........14
Methods ................................ 15
Organization of the Research . 15
II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE........................16
Intellectual Characteristics of Low
Achievers ............ 16
Non-Intellective Characteristics of
Low Acnievers................................ 19
Counseling Methods Applied to Low
Achievement.................................. 31
Summary ..... 50
III RESEARCH METHODS .............................. 51
Population and Sample ....................... 51
Research Design.......... 51
Treatment Procedures ....................... 54
Measurement Instruments ..................... 63
Analysis of the D a t a ..........................68
IV FINDINGS...................................... 6 9
Introduction ................................ 69
Academic Achievement ....................... 70
Self-Concept.............. 76
Study Habits and Attitudes....................87
Summary of the Findings........................90
iii
Chapter Page
V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . ............. 99
Summary.................................... 99
Discussion of the Findings............... 100
Conclusions .............................. 105
Implications .............................. 106
Recommendations for Further Study .......... 107
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................... . . . 109
APPENDICES........................................ 126
A Definition of Terms for EPPS and SSHA .. 127
B Materials Used in Leader Structured
Groups.............. ................. 130
iv
LIST OF TABLES
Table
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Page
Demographic Data for Experimental Groups . . . 52
Comparison of Posttest Scores for Measures
of Academic Achievement Between Group
Structured and Leader Structured Counsel
ing (GPA - Semester of Counseling)...........71
Comparison of Posttest Scores for Measures
of Academic Achievement Between Group
Structured and Leader Structured Counsel
ing (GPA - Semester Following Counseling) . . 72
Comparison of Posttest Scores for Measures
of Academic Achievement Between Group
Structured and Leader Structured Counsel
ing (Units - Semester of Counseling) .... 74
Comparison of Posttest Scores for Measures
of Academic Achievement Between Group
Structured and Leader Structured Counsel
ing (Units - Semester Following Counsel-
lng) 75
Comparison of Posttest Scores on Selected
EPPS Scales Between Group Structured
and Leader Structured Counseling (Achieve
ment) ..................... .. ...........
Comparison of Posttest Scores on Selected
EPPS Scales Between Group Structures and
Leader Structured Counseling (Deference) .
Comparison of Posttest Scores for Selected
EPPS Scales Between Group Structured and
Leader Structured Counseling (Order) . .
Comparison of Posttest Scores on Selected
EPPS Scales Between Group Structured and
Leader Structured Counseling (Autonomy)
. 78
. 79
80
. 81
v
Table
Page
10. Comparison of Posttest Scores on Selected
EPPS Scales Between Group Structured
and Leader Structured Counseling
(Affiliation) ............................ .
82
11. Comparison of Posttest Scores on Selected
EPPS Scales Between Group Structured
and Leader Structured Counseling (Intra-
ception) ................................ .. .
83
12. Comparison of Posttest Scores on Selected
EPPS Scales Between Group Structured and
Leader Structured Counseling (Succor-
ance)
84
13. Comparison of Posttest Scores on Selected
EPPS Scales Between Group Structured and
Leader Structured Counseling (Dominance) . .
85
14. Comparison of Posttest Scores on Selected
EPPS scales Between Group Structured and
Leader Structured Counseling (Abasement) . . 86
15. Comparison of Posttest Scores on the SSHA
Between Group Structured and Leader
Structured Counseling (Delay Avoidance) . . 88
16. Comparison of Posttest Scores on the SSHA
Between Group Structured and Leader
Structured Counseling (Work Methods) .... 89
17. Comparison of Posttest Scores on the SSHA
Between Group Structured and Leader
Structured Counseling (Teacher Accept
ance) ........................... .. 91
18. Comparison of Posttest Scores on the SSHA
Between Group Structured and Leader
Structured Counseling (Education Accept
ance) • ....................................
92
19. Comparison of Posttest Scores on the SSHA
Between Group Structured and Leader
Structured Counseling (Study Orientation)• •
93
20. Hypothesis and General Findings Relating to
Differences in Posttest Scores Between
Leader Structured and Group Structured
Treatment Groups for Academic Achievement
96
vi
Table Page
21. Hypothesis and General Findings Relating
to Differences in Posttest Scores Between
Leader Structured and Group Structured
Treatment Groups for Self-Concept and
Achievement Motivation ................. 9 7
22. Hypothesis and General Findings Relating
to Differences in Posttest Scores Between
Leader Structured and Group Structured
Treatment Groups for Study Habits and
Attitudes................................ 98
vii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Frank decides to attend a community college. He
has average intelligence but has made a poor showing in
high school. He begins his first semester with 15 units.
However, by the end of the semester Frank has completed
only 3 units with a B. He re-enrolls but still only com
pletes another 3 units and decides to drop out.
Hal has an IQ over 140. He got by in high school
with little effort. He wants to become a computer scien
tist but doubts that he can make it. His parents are
worried about his future. Hal starts out strong in his
classes but then begins to procrastinate. By the end of
the term he has only a C+ average. He wonders whether he
will make it.
Mary is 35; she is married and has two children.
She decides she would like to become a nurse and enrolls
at her local community college for pre-nursing courses.
Mary takes only one class as she is afraid that she will
not even be able to pass that class. She studies hard
night and day and receives an^A+ but thinks maybe she was
just lucky. So again, Mary only enrolls in one class.
The above student situations represent actual
examples of the type of student problems encountered each
day in the office of a community college counselor. They
have scholastic motivation problems. Each of them, in his
own way, is a low achiever.
The problem of low achievement is not new to the
community college or to higher education in general. Much
has been written concerning the extent and the nature of
the problem. The most apparent manifestation of this
problem is the attrition rates found for both two year and
four year institutions (Chansow & Resnick, 1959; March,
1966; Roueche, 1968; Thornton, 1966).
The problems of low academic achievement and high
attrition are most prominant in the two year community
college due to the open door admissions policy which
allows anyone to enter the institution, regardless of pre
vious academic achievement. The great hope is that these
institutions do offer a second chance for individuals to
achieve in the academic world. However, the statistics
indicate that the open door may actually be a revolving
door in that at least half of the students entering a com
munity college drop out prior to completing two years of
study (Thornton, 1966). Among the low achieving students
for which the community college is supposed to be a second
^chance, the attrition rate is even higher. As many as 75%
2
of these students drop out during the first year of college
(Roueche, 1968).
Recent reviews of the literature indicate the
need for increased^ research efforts to develop and eval
uate treatment programs (Bower, Boyer & Scheirer, 197 0;
Marsh, 1966; Mitchell & Piatowska 1974; Montgomery, 1964).
According to Bower and his associates:
Programs for the motivation of underachievers and
the rehabilitation of dropouts continue to be ap
plied sporadically and with only occasional suc
cess. The need for more action research was never
more apparent. (p. 41)
One major shift in the role of the college coun
selor may have direct implications for programs to improve
academic achievement. There is a growing trend for the
counselor and other student personnel workers to get out
of their offices and into the classroom by offering
courses in human development (Brown, 1974; Ivey & Alschu-
ler, 1973; O'Banion, 1971). It is the opinion of the
American College Personnel Association that:
The teaching approach has the potential to 'aca
demically legitimize' many valuable out-of-class
developmental experiences by making them avail
able to all students and by giving them academic
recognition. (ACPA, 1974, p. 3).
Ivey and Alschuler (1973) "anticipate that psycho
logical education will become one of the most important
3
roles of the counselor in the next five years"(p. 589).
The offering of courses to improve academic '
achievement would provide opportunities for both the pre
vention and alleviation of low achievement according to
the individual requirements of the students enrolled.
Within the setting of the classroom the counselor would be
free to develop an approach that is directly related to
the needs of each student.
This setting also lends itself to the type of group
counseling developed by Healy (1974) for vocational gui
dance. He advocates the development of replicable models
designed to treat specific target problems or to facilitate
growth in specific areas. According to Healy "in repli
cable counseling the focus is on what the counselor does"
(p. 4). Basically the development of a replicable coun
seling model requires the counselor to define:
(1) the goals and subgoals,
(2) the components, and
(3) the indicies by which a counselor can regu
late the programs occurrence. (Healy, p. 4)
The lack of specific treatment goals has long been
a criticism of group counseling with low achievers as well
as group counseling in general (Bergin & Garfield, 1971;
Maloney, 1968; Mitchell & Piatkowska, 1974; Ohlsen, 1970).
Bergin and Garfield state: "it is essential that the
_entire therapeutic enterprise be broken down into speci-
: _________________________________________________________ _4_
fic sets of measures and operations, or in other words, be
dimensionalized"(p. 253). In summarizing their review of
treatment programs for low achievers Mitchell and Piat-
kowska (1974) conclude that research concerned with treat
ment programs could be improved by allowing "replica
tions by more specific descriptions of client and coun
selor characteristics and of treatment operations"
(p. 500).
This criticism holds true especially for the group
counseling research of the non-directive counselors such as
that conducted by Hart (1964), Sheldon and Landsman (1950),
Spielberger and Weitz (1964), Whitaker (1962) and Winborn
(1962). It is very difficult to apply the procedures
evaluated in these studies since they are not stated in
specific terms.
Another area of concern related to group coun
seling in general as well as to counseling of low
achievers is the lack of the use of eclectic approaches in
developing treatment programs. The extensive research
conducted by Berenson and Carkhuff (1967) into the ef
ficacy of various methods of counseling have lead them to
the conclusion that, "no one school or technique of
therapy has demonstrated its efficacy with all or even a
significant number of patient populations"(p. 1). Fur
thermore/ Slavson (1970) insists that:
5
Eclecticism is more crucial to group therapy than
to individual treatment. Because of the multipli
city of phychic factors in an assembly of persons,
a unitary approach cannot but fail with a signifi
cant number of the participants. (p. 11)
Healy (1974) also advocates an eclectic approach when de
veloping replicable counseling models.
Statement of the Problem
The problem considered in this study is whether a
replicable counseling model can be developed that will
be effective in improving academic achievement with com
munity college students.
Importance of the Problem
As has been previously noted, low achievement con
tinues to be a problem for community colleges as well as
four year institutions. There seems to be some agreement
among writers in the field as to the solution for the
problem. Some type of group counseling appears to be the
treatment of choice (Bednar and Lawlis, 1971; Bednar and
Weinberg, 1970; Mac Mi11an, 1970; Shuman, 1956). However,
there is considerable disagreement as to the specific type
of group counseling to be employed.
The main focus of the disagreement concerns the
-structure applied to the group experience. More specific-
ally, how much structure and what type of structure should
be employed by the counselor? The determination of the
structure of the group is what Lieberman, Yalom and Miles
(1973) refer to as the "social engineering function" of
the counselor "in which he indirectly contributes to out
come by helping to construct a group which is an effective
agent of change"(p. 429).“ The goal setting function of
the counselor (Gazda, 1968; Ohlsen, 1970) is also included
in the concept of structure as Well as leadership style
(e.g. autocratic or democratic) and the school of thought
to which the counselor ascribes (e.g. non-directive, ex
periential, behavioral, eclectic).
Research into the effectiveness of various ap
proaches has yielded mixed results. For instance, studies
concerned with group structured counseling for low
achievers (democratic, non-directive, experiential) have
shown this approach to be effective in some instances
(Ofman, 1964 (a); while ineffective in others (Brown, 1969;
Christensen, 1963; De Weese, 1960; Maroney, 1963; Whtaker,
1966) .
A number of different methods have been used to
give structure to counseling experiences for low achievers.
Again, the results are inconclusive. Topic centered coun
seling in which the counselor selects a specific topic for
the group to discuss at'each session (e.g. Achievement
^-Motivation, Study Skills Improvement, Goal Setting) has
______________________________________________________________ 7
shown itself to be successful in some applications (Lieb
and Snyder, 1967; Otto, 1967; Smith, 1963; Whittier, 1970).
Teaching study skills has also been effective in improving
academic achievement (Bates, 197 3; Silverman and Riordan,
1974). Behavioral techniques such as desensitization and
reciprocal inhibition have shown themselves to be useful
in reducing general anxiety related to school as well as
test anxiety (Allen, 1970; Graff, Mac Lean and Loving, 19711;
Kathan, Strenger and Cherry, 1966; Suin, 1968). Groups
lead by audio tape using a topic centered approach have
also proven to be of benefit in improving academic
achievement (Taylor, 1975; Weiner, 1971).
ZStudies comparing group structured counseling with
leader-structured counseling have also proven to be incon
clusive. While Hart (1964) found group structured counsel
ing to be more effective, other studies found no signifi
cant differences between the two treatment methods
(Brown, 1969; Nothman, 1964; Trotzer and Sease, 1971).
Gilbreath (1967 and 1968) found certain personality
characteristics of the student may determine which coun
seling approach will be effective.
Research into the effectiveness of group coun
seling with underachievers as well as group counseling in
general has been fraught with a number of problems. Ac
cording to several researchers these include lack of ade
quate experimental design (Maloney, 1968; Marsh, 19 66;
' ' 8
Mitchell, 1974), lack of sufficient evaluative criteria
(Bergin and Garfield, 1971; Maloney, 1968; Mitchell and
Piatkowska, 1974), and lack of specificity in stating the
counseling procedures employed (Maloney, 196 8; Mitchell
and Piatkowska, 197 4).
It is also difficult to generalize from the data
presented by these studies since the populations included
in each varied widely on such characteristics as sex, I.Q.,
year in school, type of institution, and major. Further
more, most of these studies dealt with students in four
year colleges rather than community colleges. Since the
admission standards of these two types of institutions
differ significantly (Thornton, 1966), it is difficult to
determine the applicability of the results to the community
college.
The counseling methods employed in the studies
reviewed for this project tended to be either non-specific
and non-directive or directed toward only one aspect of
the cause of low achievement (e.g. test anxiety, study
skills deficiency, low self-concept). Also they tended to
draw on only one counseling theory (e.g. non-directive,
behavioral, rational-emotive, etc.) rather than applying a
number of techniques directed toward the change of a number
of specific target behaviors and the facilitation of
^growth based on specific goals.
9
The purposes of this study were:
(1) To develop a replicable counseling model designed
to improve academic achievement by focusing on
the modification of specific behaviors and
(2) To experimentally assess the efficacy of the model.
Definition of Terms Used
Academic Achievement. Normal achievement is de
fined as attaining a 2.00 (C) grade point average (GPA) in
all units completed while completing at least 50% of the
units attempted during the semester.'*'
Self-Concept. Self-concept refers to the traits
measured by the following scales of the Edwards Personal
Preference Schedule (EPPS): Achievement, Deference, Order,
Autonomy, Affiliation, Intraception, Succorance, Dominance,
and Abasement. For a complete description of each scale
see Appendix A.
Study Habits and Attitudes. Study habits and at
titudes refers to the traits measured by the following
scales of the Survey of Study Habits and Attitudes (SSHA):
■*"The procedure of allowing students to withdraw
from a class up to the final exam has made the percentage
of units completed an important indicator of academic
achievement. The Los Angeles Community College District
uses both of these criteria in assessing the probationary
status of students (LACCD Board Rule 8202) .
10
Delay Avoidance, Work Methods, Teacher Acceptance, Educa
tion Acceptance, Study Orientation; For a complete des
cription of each scale see Appendix A.
Group Structured Counseling. Group structured
counseling (GS) refers to group counseling in which the
topics for discussion emerge as part of the group process.
The leader serves as a facilitator of the group process
but does not impose topics for discussion or other exer
cises upon the group.
Leader Structured Counseling. Leader structured
counseling (LS) refers to group counseling in which the
leader provides topics for discussion and exercises to be
done in the group sessions and at home by the group mem
bers .
Hypotheses
The research hypotheses tested were as follows:
1. Post treatment measures of academic achievement
will show significantly higher scores for students
receiving leader structured counseling when com
pared with students receiving group structured
counseling.
2. Post treatment measures of self-concept and
achievement motivation will differ significantly
11
between students receiving leader structured coun
seling and those receiving group structured coun
seling.
3. Post treatment measures of study habits and
attitudes will show significantly higher scores
for students receiving leader structured coun
seling when compared with students receiving group'
structured counseling.
There hypotheses stated in the null as they relate
to the specific outcome measures used to test them are as
follows:
1. Statistical hypotheses related to academic
achievement:
1.1 There will be no significant differences in the
posttest scores for GPA between treatment categor
ies .
2. Statistical hypotheses related to change in self-
concept and achievement motivation as measured by
the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule;
2.1 There will be no significant differences in the
posttest scores for Achievement between treatment
categories.
2.2 There will be no significant differences in the
posttest scores for Deference between treatment
categories.
2.3 There will be no significant differences in the
posttest scores for Order between treatment
categories.
2.4 There will be no significant differences in the
posttest scores for Autonomy between treatment
categories.
2.5 There will be no significant differences in the
posttest scores for Affiliation between treatment
categories.
2.6 There will be no significant differences in the
posttest scores for Intraception between treatment
categories.
2.7 There will be no significant differences in the
posttest scores for Succorance between treatment
categories.
2.8 There will be no significant differences in the
posttest scores for Dominance between treatment
categories.
2.9 There will be no significant differences in the
posttest scores for Abasement between treatment
categories.
3. Statistical hypotheses related to study habits and
attitudes as measured by the Survey of Study Habits
and Attitudes:
13
3.1 There will be no significant differences in the
posttest scores for Delay Avoidance between treat
ment categories.
3.2 There will be no significant differences in the
posttest scores for Work Methods between treatment
categories.
3.3 There will be no significant differences in the
posttest scores for Teacher Approval between
treatment categories.
3.4 There will be no significant differences in the
posttest scores for Education Acceptance between
treatment categories.
3.5 There will be no significant differences in the
posttest scores for Study Orientation between
treatment categories.
Scope and Limitations of the Study
This study was limited to 59 students who volun
tarily enrolled in Personal Development 3 "Motivation for
Study" at Los Angeles Harbor College during the Spring
1974 and Spring 1975 semesters. Results of the study may
be generalized to other community colleges and possibly
four year institutions where course work or group coun
seling to improve academic achievement is offered on a
voluntary basis.
14
Methods
Each section of Personal Development 3 was randomly
designated as either a leader structured or group struc
tured group. A non-randomized 2 x 2 factorial design
was employed in this study. Treatment methods (2 levels)
and counselor (2 levels) served as the independent vari
ables. The main effects and the interaction effects of
these variables upon the dependent variables were evaluated
by an analysis of covariance performed on the posttest
scores using pretest scores as covariates.
Organization of the Research
Chapter II is a review of the literature pertinent
to this study. Chapter III outlines the research methods
used in conducting the study. Chapter IV presents the
results of the experimental research. Chapter V presents
conclusions and draws implications for further research
based on the results of this study.
15
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
In reviewing the literature pertaining to this
study, two major categories were researched. The first
dealt with the intellective and non-intellective correlates
of academic achievement. The second was concerned with a
review of the research evaluating treatment programs that
have been applied to the problem of low academic achieve
ment .
Intellectual Characteristics of
Low Achievers
Much of the research; pertaining to low achievement
has been concerned with the correlation between various
ability and achievement measures and academic success as
measured by such variables as GPA, retention and gradua
tion. Some investigators have found a high correlation
between rank in a high school graduation class and reten
tion. Iffert (1956) found that students in the top 5th
of their graduating class survived twice as long as those
in the bottom 5th. Using a discriminant analysis pro-r
cedure, Ivey (1966) found when compared with scores on the
16
Scholastic Aptitude Test and the Personality Record that
high school rank was the best single predictor of continua
tion.
In a study of 127, 212 National Merit Scholarship
students, high school grades were significantly related to
completing four years of college (Panos and Astin, 1968).
Both Roueche (1962) and Astin (1972) found that low
achievers in high school (less than a C average) were more
likely to drop out of junior college during the first year
than students with a C average or better. As many as 75%
of the less than C average students may be expected to drop
out during the first year.
In one study the mean percentile rank for college
persistors on the SAT was at the 41st percentile while the
mean for dropouts was at the 15th percentile (Mac Millan,
1970). Hannah (1971), in a study of 2,854 students from
13 private colleges, using ACT and SAT scores as aptitude
measures, found that "those who remain in college reflect
higher aptitude levels than those who withdraw"(p. 18).
The School and College Ability Test, widely used by the
community colleges, has also been found to be correlated
with retention (Daniel, 1967).
The relative merits of several predictors has also
been studied.in a review of numerous studies, Waller
(1964) found the following range of correlation coeffi
cients between several independent variables and first
17
semester GPA:
High School Rank
i
r - "
•
I I
U
.60
High School Grades r = .40 - .70
Achievement Tests r = .41 - .49
Achievement Tests X H.S. Grades 4 - .64 - .71
While of use in identifying potential low
achievers, ability and achievement indices account for only
a part of the characteristics of low achievement. Some
of those entering college with high academic abilities be
come low achievers by attaining low GPAs or by dropping
out. These cannot be predicted by grades or achievement
scores. In summarizing his review of the literature,
Marsh (1966) concluded that:
Ability and achievement ratings seem to be useful
primarily for spotting only those students on the
low end of the scale who will clearly drop out
due to academic failure alone. (p. 478)
This conclusion is further advanced by the find
ings of Zaccaria and Creaser (1971) when they state:
The results of the present study suggest that
research relating to attrition among college stu
dents should take into consideration the intellec
tual and personal attributes of the entering stu
dents within the environmental context. (p. 29 0)
Similar conclusions were reached with regard to predicting
GPA by Wellingham (1965) and Waller (1964). Both indi-
18
cated that non-intellective traits must be considered in
the prediction of academic success.
Non-intellective Characteristics
of Low Achievers
In a recent review of the literature Bower, Boyer,
and Sheirer (1970) found two general factors, individual
perception of anxiety and self-concept, to be most impor-.
tant in understanding the dynamics of low achievement. In
a somewhat broader context, Roth and Meyersburg (1963) des
cribe what they call the "Non-achiemenent Syndrome."
Based on their clinical observation of non-achievers they
outline the following characteristics as symptoms of this
syndrome:
1. Poor academic achievement.
2. General self-depreciation; lack of recognition
of pleasure at 'being.'
3. No clear system of personal goals or values.
4. Vulnerability to disparagement by others.
5. Immature relations with parents.
6. Frequent depression.
7. Lack of insight about self and others.
8. Free— floating anxiety. (p. 538)
These symptoms seem to indicate that the low
achiever somehow fails to develop along the lines theorized
by psychologist Robert W. White. He formulated a list of
a number of developmental tasks which he saw as being
necessary for the normal psychological growth of high
_______________________________________ 19
school and college students. These tasks included the
following:
1. Stabilizing ego identity by growth toward a
sharper and clearer personal identity relatively
consistent and free from the multitude of tran
sient influences which invade daily life.
2. Freeing of personal relationships, dropping
stereotyped responses tied to past relationships,
and increasing the ability to respond to people
according to their actual traits.
3. Deepening of interests with an increasing sense
of doing something for its own sake, independent
of outside support or praise. (Darlymple, 1967,
p. 12)
In reviewing the experimental research conducted to
examine the relationship of non-intellective traits to
academic achievement, the following topics were considered:
Anxiety, Self-concept, Goal Orientation and Role Accept
ance, and Study Skills. What follows is a cross-section of
that body of research.
Anxiety
A number of researchers have found anxiety to be an
inhibiting factor in academic achievement. Rose (1966),
Grace (1957) and Hannah (1971) found dropouts to be more
anxious about their environment and themselves than stay-
ins . Grace indicated that a linear relationship seems to
exist so that "attrition increases as anxiety increases"
(p. 39) .
20
High Manifest anxiety was found to interfere with
prediction of GPA from scores on the Scholastic Aptitude
Test (Malnig, 1964) . Roth and Meyersburg (1963) and Taylor
(1964) found free-floating anxiety to be negatively cor
related with academic achievement. More recent research'
conducted by Lin and McKeachie (1970) cast some doubt on
the validity of previous research in this area. They
found that when aptitude (SAT and ACT scores) were held
constant through analysis of covariance that anxiety was
not correlated with achievement.
Other research indicates that the relationship be
tween anxiety and academic achievement is more complex
than the linear correlation indicated by the above studies.
For example, Spielberger (1962) has shown that the degree
anxiety inhibits achievement is related to the ability
level of the student. Anxiety seems to interfere more with
the academic performance of students with moderate ability
than with students with high or low ability. Pulvino and
Hansen (1972) found sex to be a factor in determining how
anxiety effects academic achievement. Their data indicated
that for males GPA decreases as anxiety increases until a
high plateau of anxiety is reached. At that point, GPA
begins to show a decrease. While most of the above
studies indicate that manifest anxiety is significantly
correlated with academic performance, Alpert and Haber
(1960) discovered specific anxiety, in this case test
anxiety, had a higher correlation with academic performance
than manifest anxiety. Alpert and Haber along with Walsh
(1969) also support the theory that there is both facili
tating and debilitating anxiety.
For the moment, we may conclude that research does
support the view that anxiety does correlate with academic
achievement and that the relationship is linear in nature.
However, a comprehensive explanation for the causal rela
tionship between anxiety and achievement is yet to be
developed. It appears that further research in this area
is still needed.
Self-concept
The general construct of self-concept and its
relation to academic achievement and persistence has gen
erated considerable attention from researchers during the
60s and continues into the 70s. Fairchild (1966) in an
investigation involving 600 community college students
found a stable self-concept to be significantly correlated
with high achievement. Employing the Thematic Appercep
tion Test, Combs (19 64) found that underachieving high
school juniors tended to see themselves as less adequate,
less acceptable to others, having less freedom and
adequacy of emotional expression than their peers. Based
on clinical observation during group counseling sessions
22
with college students, Roth and Meyersburg (196 3) found low
achievers to show a general self-depreciation and a lack of
recognition of pleasure at "being." Similar conclusions
regarding lack of a positive self-concept and its con
tribution to low achievement were reached by Bower, Boyer
and Scheirer (1970) , Gough (19 53), Taylor (1966) and
Willingham (1965).
Morgan (1952) noted that persisters had a stronger
need to achieve than dropouts. Using the EPPS, Bendig
(1958) found need achievement to also be correlated with
GPA and using the same measure Papalia (1969) found need
achievement to be related to both retention and achieve
ment. However, other research indicates that "increasing
the strength of a student*s achievement motivation will
not necessarily lead to better grades in school"
(Alschuler and Irons, 1973, p. 326). Martire (1956) also
discovered that high achievement need may actually lead
to a greater discrepancy between a student*s ideal and
actual self-concept. In other words, low achievers may
either over-estimate or under-estimate their abilities.
In an analysis of Rorschach responses, Steinzor
(1965) concluded that "the nonachiever may have a poorer
evaluation of his capabilities and seems to be less realis
tic in his concept of what he can do "(p. 361) . Borislow
(1965) also found that "those who turn out to be under
achievers possess a more pessimistic picture of themselves
23_
as students than do achievers both prior to and subsequent
to academic performance"(p. 33). The concept of internal
versus external locus of control also appears to be in
volved with a student's evaluation of his potential for
academic success. According to Rotter (196 6), individuals
who perceive a learning situation in which outside forces
determine the reinforcement are less likely to raise their
expectations of future reinforcement even following
success. They are likely to lower their expectations less
after failure.
College dropouts and low achievers appear to be
more impulsive and less orderly than other students.
Evidence supporting this is presented by several investi
gators using different measuring instruments. The dropout
is seen as likely to "let his feelings become involved
with his judgement"(Chambers, 1965, p. 515) or that he
"acts on feelings rather than on measured consequences"
(Hannah, 1971, p. 19). Diener (1960) using the EPPS found
overachievers to be significantly higher on Order than low
achievers.
There appears to be some disagreement among re
searchers on how the dimension of socialization relates to
academic performance. Based on analysis of data using
either the California Psychological Inventory or the
Omnibus Personality Inventory,tthree investigators found
dropouts and low achievers more likely to be shy or with-
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________24.
drawing than achieving students (Gough, 1953; Hannah, 1971;
Rose, 1966). Also, Pulvino and Hansen (1972) found that
among 11th grade students, alienation was accompanied by
lower student GPA. However, Chambers and his associates
(1965), using the Picture Identification Test, found that
the male dropout sees himself as being aggressive and
sociable. Zaccaria and Creaser (1971) also found male
dropouts to be more aggressive as measured by the EPPS.
Gough (1953) found that students with low GPAs are
more rigid than students with high GPAs. Similarly, for'
dropouts, Bucklin (1970) in a survey of recent research,
concluded that when compared to persisters, the leaver
"tends to be rigid, inflexible, (and) opinionated"(p. 12).'
However, Morrisey (1971) found that junior college persist
ers tended to be more liberal than dropouts.
Hannah (1971) concluded that dropouts:
sense a need for independence and seek ways to
test that need, possibly because they feel that
it might disappear if not utilized.(p. 19)
However, the data collected by Morrisey (19 71) and
Chambers (1965) seems to conflict with Hannah1s study.
They concluded that the dropout is less independent than
the persister. Chambers concluded that the dropout lacks
independence and that "he finds it difficult to resist re
quests or demands from others"(p. 15). Research by
25
Maynard (1975) also tends to show that autonomy is related
to persistence rather than leaving.
Possession of a positive and consistent self-
concept appears to be related to high achievement, while
the reverse is true for low achievement. Self-control is
also positively correlated with academic achievement.
There continues to remain some disagreement as to how
socialization and independence interact with achievement.
We may say then that, in general, self concept is related
to academic achievement. Two other areas, goal orienta
tion and study habits also appear to have some relevance
to the understanding of low achievement.
Goal Orientation and Role Acceptance.
Being able to adjust to the requirements of college
work and to value education and to be somewhat self-direc
tive all seem to be valuable assets for a college student.
In a correlational study Wellingham (19 65) found that
willingness to work had a positive (r = .48) linear rela-
tionship with first year- GPA. Burgess (1956) found that
low achievers didn't enjoy the school situation and were
unable to see the value of education.v They saw their own
neighborhood environment as more desirable than the college
atmosphere. Apparently students that feel at home or at
least go along with the system are more likely to stay in
26
college.
Knopp^ (1967) discovered college students who com-
plied with institutional conceptions of the student role
received positive feedback"" which produced enhanced self-
v‘ s„(
concept and discouraged dropping^o.ut. Along similar lines,
-s'atis faction with the amount of input required relative to
desired academic-personal outcomes seems to lead to high
academic achievement (Starr, 19 72) . The importance of the
need to see school work related to personal goals was
echoed by Berman and Eisenberg (1971) when they stated:
"achievement was related to the degree to which a student
expected success in the world through education rather than
to his assessment of his interest in the curriculum"(p.
414). Likewise Bucklin (1970) noted that the leaver "is
less sure of the role college will play in his future"
(p. 14) . Also, low achieving community college students
were found to be more likely to have an undecided major
(Abel, 1966; Shore and Leiman, 1965)\and to make more
changes of major than their peers (Fairchild, 1966) which
indicated an inability to make firm goal decisions.
Fear of failure may also lead to inappropriate
goal determination. Beery (197 5) theorized that "to insure
success, some individuals take ridiculously easy courses,
ones that are below their ability level ..." There are
also the overshooters "who set their goals so unrealistic-^-
ally high that when they fail to reach them they are
_____________ 27_
spared much of the dishonor"(p. 197).
GoaT determination and role acceptance then appear
to be important factors in academic achievement. The
degree to which a student achieves, seems to be at least
somewhat related to the congruence of the school tasks and
environment with the student1s own life style and life
goals.
Study Habits and Study Skills.
Based on multiple interviews with dropouts, Sarnoff
and Raphael (1955) concluded that dropouts tend to have
poor study habits. Popham and Moore (1960) found that the
study orientation scale.of the SSHA was moderately pre-
dictive of first semester GPS (r = .48). In a study com
paring male over-achievers and under-achievers, Diener
(1960) found significant differences between their total
score on the SSHA.
Through the use of analysis of covariance, Lin and
McKeachie (1970) were able to hold academic aptitude con
stant (ACT and SAT scores) while investigating the effect
of study habits (20 items on the SSHA) on achievement
(objective and essay test in an introductory psychology
course). They concluded, "student study habits con-
tributed to academic achievement independently of college
aptitude, particularly for women "(p. 309). '
©
28
Weinstein and Gipple (1974) indicated that for the
first two years of medical school, study skills scores are
more highly related to achievement than ability scores.
Further^support for the view that study skills and habits
are a significant factor in academic achievement is sup
plied by the results ” of various correlational studiesousing
the SSHA with various indicies of academic achievement
(Brown and Dubois, 1964; De Sena, 1964; Kearney, 1966;
Khan, 1970; Weigel and Weigel, 1967).
In at least one study the Delay Avoidance scale of
-the -SSHA-*was*~found to be most predictive of GPA (Brown,
1964). One explanation for the occurrence of delay
avoidance among low achievers is offered by Beery (1975).
Procrastination is a strategy that defends against
more than the failure experience itself, although
it certainly does have a failure— avoidant element
in it. It does insure that ability is never com
pletely tested: if students after putting off ef
fort until.' the last minute, finally perform at a
'mediocre' level, they can always say it was a last-
minute job, certainly not representative of their
true capabilities. (p. 2 01)
WK'ile fear of failure may lead to poor study habits
it also appears the converse may also be true. A low
evaluation of study habits and skills may lead to high
anxiety levels (Murphy, 1964)xwhich could account for the
X..
positive correlations found between the SSHA and meas-
"“ ’•V
'V.
ures of anxiety (Murphy, 1964; Desider'afo and Koskinen,
29
1969) .
The ability to cope with distraction has also been
' X
shown to be a study skill factor related to achievement.
Baker and Madell (1965 (3 ) and (b)) found that low
In summary, a review of the literature has shown
that the non-intellective traits of anxiety, self-concept,
goal orientation and role acceptance, and study skills
are definitely related to academic achievement. In a
review of this type it is important to keep in mind,
while attempting to draw conclusions, that some investi
gators used retention as a measure of academic achieve
ment while others used GPA or some other measure as a
dependent variable. Also, measures of independent vari
ables included various standardized tests, personal inter
views, and check lists. Therefore, caution must be exer
cised when attempting to summarize and draw conclusions.
KeepiThg. these issues in mind, Taylor (19 64) drew a number
pared with low achievers, high achievers are seen as more
likely to:
1. Be better able to handle anxiety;
2. Value their own self-worth;
of conclusions~'~regarding personality traits and academic
achievement. In light"of those conclusions, when com-
3. Ber accep±'ing of authority;
4. Have positive relationships with peers;,
5. Have less conflict over independence and
dependence;
6. Be engaged in activities which center around
academic interests;
7. Possess realistic goals.
The literature reviewed in this study tends to
support the above conclusions. Further research is still
necessary in each area in order to adequately explain the
causal relationships between the various non-intellective
as well as intellective factors and academic achievement.
Certainly further information in this respect will help
the counselor to more fully understand the phenomenon of
low achievement and to develop counseling and treatment
methods to cope with it.
Counseling Methods Applied to
Low Achievement
A number of solutions to the problem of low aca
demic achievement have been proposed. Some have been
directed toward the institution such as curriculum re
vision, improving teaching methods, and changing teacher
attitude. Other approaches have been more student
centered. According to Shumkq. (1956), an ideal program
31
would:
Select students more carefully, orient them
more fully, counsel them more effectively
and, in the event o’ f N withdrawal, interview
them and attempt to did in their future ad
justment. (p. 350) , \
One of the findings of the Research Conference on
College Dropouts held at the University of Tennessee in
19 64 was that:
One avenue which seems too long neglected in
practice, though preached ad nauseum, is the
provision of extensive, fully-professional counself
ing services for college students. Counseling ser
vices which are widely recognized and acclaimed as
essential, frequently receive little support finan
cially or otherwise from a college. (Montgomery,
1964, p. 8)
Individual Counseling.
Garner (19 70) found that individual counseling
based on Caplan's crisis intervention model, which was
mandatory for dropouts, proved to be successful in pre
venting students from completely withdrawing from college.
\
Oetting\(1964) suggests that individual counseling using
\
auto-hypnotic suggestion can be useful in improving con-
\
centration andNs.tudy.
In an experimental study, 6 individual counseling
sessions over a 12 week period proved to be effective in
preventing freshmen from leaving college (Rose, 1965) .
Individual counseling (3-4 sessions) with high
\
ability but underachieving students yielded a significant
difference in GPA when counseled students were compared
with uncounseled students (Ewing and Gilbert, 196 7) .
Golburgh and Penney (1965) also found that short-term
individual counseling with low achievers focusing on
spcecific study problems and feelings related to school
success to be both appropriate and effective. In a study
conducted by Searles (1962) only 3 interviews with fresh
men assigned to counseling brought about an improvement
in GPA. One study comparing individual counseling with
group counseling found that 1 - 4 sessions with under-
achieving freshmen resulted in a higher GPA than those
receiving group counseling or no counseling.
However, Richardson (1960) found that individual
counseling had no effect in improving academic achieve
ment with engineering students. At least one study indi
cates that traditional education--vocational counseling
had no effect on GPA (Goodstein and Crites, 1961). In a
study using a matched control group Richardson (1964) found
no difference on GPA for students receiving 10 sessions of
individual counseling and those receiving no counseling.
While experimental evaluations of individual coun
seling with low achievers indicate that at least in some
instances it may be effective, the efficacy of this
approach is not fully supported by the research. Probably
due to the expense involved in individual counseling,
________________________________________ 33
group counseling has been more often used as the treatment
of choice with low achievers, especially in dropout pre
vention programs. Individual counseling is more likely to
be employed in crisis situations in which counseling is
sought by an individual student.
In providing counseling for low achieving stu
dents, group counseling of some sort seems to be the most
economical and perhaps the most effective approach. This
conclusion was advanced by investigators in a cooperative
approach to the study of dropouts engaged in by 22
Northern California community colleges. They asserted
that:
given the assumption that the impact must be
greater within a limited time if motivation is to
be affected, the major interest may be in the area
of group-centered counseling techniques. (Mac
Millan, 1970, p. 31)
Group Counseling
Group counseling is a broad term encompassing
many different therapeutic approaches. The laymen prob
ably associates group counseling with encounter groups.
Carl Rogers (1967) describes some of the shared charac-
'N.
\
teristics of encounter groups:
' " V
\
The group m almost every case is small (from
eight to eighteen Members) is relatively un
structured, and chooses its own goals and per
sonal direction. TheNgroup experience usually,
though not always, includes cognitive input,
some content material which is presented to
the group. In almost all instances the
34
leader’s responsibility is primarily the facili
tation of the expression of both feelings and
thoughts on the part of the group members. Both
in the leader and in the group members there is
some focus on theKprocess and the dynamics of
the immediate personal interaction. (p. 262),
x
Group counseling also has been taking place in
schools under the title of group guidance. Whether or not
groupscounseling and group guidance represent two
\
dichotomOus concepts seems debatable. Many writers, how-
\
ever, have attempted to define them as being rather dis
tinct approaches. For example, Kirby (1971) states that
group guidance is "designed to offer a structure for as
sistance to a large number of people in a wide variety of
settings"(p. 593). .He further states that "guidance
connotes a positive and preventive view; counseling and
therapy connote a concern with the correction or removal
of a present handicap or illness"(p. 59 3). This distinc
tion is also advanced by Mahler (19 71) when he writes that
\
"although the same topics discussed in group counseling
may also be discussed in group guidance, the major re
sponsibility in guidance remains with the teacher "(p.
60 3). Thus, leader structured counseling would tend to
\
be seen as guidance while group structured counseling
\
might be seen more as counseling or psychotherapy.
Both group structured and leader structured group
counseling have been used in programs to improve academic
achievement and improve retention. The literature con-
_______________________ _ _______ ; ___________________ 35_
cerned with the experimental evaluation of these two ap-
V
proaches will now be Considered.
In any situation in which constructive personality
change is the end result, regardless of the specific
technique or approach used by the counselor, research has
indicated that certain core conditions must be present.
These core conditions are labeled by Carkhuff (1969) as
(1) Empathic Understanding, (2) Communication of Respect,
(3) Facilitative Genuineness, (4) Facilitative Self-Disclo
sure, (5) Personally Relevant Concreteness or Specificity
of Expression, (6) Confrontation, (7) Immediacy of Rela
tionship, (8) Helple Self-Exploration. Five point scales
have been developed to rate the degree to which each of
these variables are present in a counseling situation.
Dickehson and Truax (1966) examined the importance
of the core conditions to counseling underachievers. The
experimental study used 24 students divided among 3 treat
ment groups and 24 matched students as an uncounseled con
trol group. Using improvement of GPA as their dependent
variable, they found that the two groups which were
counseled under high conditions of '.Accurate Empathy, Un
conditional Positive Regard, and Therapist Genuineness
showed more gain in GPA than a third group which received
only a moderate degree of the core conditions.
De Weese (1960) defines group structured coun
seling as "permissive free discussion of topics emanating
36
from the subjects1 own wishes and needs"(3192). A number
of attempts to employ this method in counseling low <
achievers have met with mixed results.
Spielberger and W^itz (19 64) used group structured
counseling with highly anxious freshmen (high scores on the
Taylor Manifest Anxiety Test) ,who volunteered for counsel
ing. No differences on posttest measures of GPA and drop
out rate existed between experimental and control groups
though trends for improvement did emerge for the coun
seled students. However, in another study, group struc
tured counseling when combined with a study methods class
did show a significant difference in dropout rate between
counseled and uncounseled students (Sheldon and Landsman,
1950) .
Winborn and Schmidt (1962) conducted a study in
volving potentially superior (80th percentile on the
American Counsel of Education Psychological Examination)
but under-achieving (below a C average on first semester
GPA) freshmen students. They found that six two hour
sessions spread out over a two month period resulted in
significant differences in GPA between counseled and un
counseled students. The treatment consisted of group
structured counseling.
In another study, students receiving group struc
tured counseling showed improvement on a measure of per
sonal adequacy. However, no difference was found between
__________________________________________________________ 37
treatment^and control groups on gain in GPA or on the
\
SSHA (Whitaker, 19 66).
Purely group structured counseling was found to be
' N ,
ineffective in improving GPA by Christensen (1963), De
Weese (1960),Nand Maroney (1963). When a group centered
approach was combined with instruction in study skills
\
(as a response to topics evolving from the group dis-
cussion), significant improvement in academic achieve-
ment resulted (Ofman, 1964 (b) ) . However, the change in
\
GPA did not result until the 3rd semester. The results
of this study indicate that both process and content are
important in group counseling designed.to improve academic
ach ievement.
Various methods of providing structure to group
counseling of dropouts and underachievers have been de-
vised. Sheldon (1950) found that nondirective group
therapy combined'with a study methods class was effective
in reducing attrition among students on scholastic pro
bation. Bates (197 3) suggests that the use of model re
inforcement (as developed by Bandura) can be effective in
improving time management.
Ritter (19 71) found that a twor - week study skills
course covering listening and taking notes, underlining,
skimming, making study sheets, and how to take exams
brought about a significant change in the subjects GPAs
when their first year GPA was compared with their second.
38
Silverman and Riodan (1974) investigated the effectiveness
of a 12 week noncredit course in study skills and atti
tudes in improving academic achievement with high-risk
freshmen. The counseled students showed a significant gain
in the study orientation scale on the SSHA (p. < 05). The
difference in posttest scores between counseled students
and controls was also significant (p < .05). There was no
significant difference in Fall term GPA between the two
groups. In another study, group counseling focusing on
study skills improvement yielded a higher GPA for coun
seled students when compared with controls for high ability
students while the opposite was true for low ability stu
dents (Le May and Weigel, 1966).
Maxwell (1971) believes that instruction in read
ing and study skills is not enough. He describes low
achievers as the "paralyzed generation.1 1 He states that
he is "doubtful that exposure to a reading improvement
course, to a pacer or tachistoscope or to study tech
niques— without intensive counseling--will change these
students' habits or enhance their chances of succeeding
academically "(p. 36) .
Using upper classmen having 40 hours of training
\
as peer counselors to lead group counseling sessions
dealing with the topics of personal adjustment, study
\
skills, and academic adjustment proved to be successful
\
\
with entering freshmen students at a four year institution.
39
\
Significant differences were found between counseled and
\
uncounseled groupsv^on first semester GPA. Also pre-and
\
posttest differences were found between the counseled and
\
uncounseled groups on the, SSHA (Brown, 1965) .
Mandatory counseling for low achievers through a
psychology course, "Psychological Factors in Academic
Underachievement" at Ithaca College improved both GPA and
study habits (Whittier, 1970). A leader guided discussion
group covering the following topics: Motivation, Negative
Effects of Underachieving, Positive Aspects of Achieving
Independence from Conformity and Merits of Self-direction.
Efficient Use e r f . Time was found to be successful with
voluntary withdrawals from a reading and study skills
\
course (Lieb and Snyder, 1967) . They concluded that a
\
planned counseling approach "might be accomplished and
confirmed 1 1 (p. 285).
While many counseling programs appear to be
geared to students identified as high risk, Smith (1963)
devised a program open to all students. Randomly selected
freshmen were invited to participate in an orientation
program. Ten weekly meetings of an hour in duration were
conducted on an informal basis. Students decided on the
topics for discussion. While no satistical tests of sig
nificance were applied to the data, results indicated that
attendance at this type of program increases the chance
that a student will enroll for a second semester. 4Q
\Otto (1967) has applied what he terms the Minerva
Experience to educational discussion groups. He defines
\
the Minerva ^Experience as a:
\
network of\highly formative and growthful experi
ences, having strongly positive affective compon
ents and playing a dominant role in the genesis of
personality resources, and thus significantly af
fecting personality development. (p. 179)
These experiences are similar to Maslow's peak ex-
\
periences. In reportingxon the potential value of this
procedure to group counseling and guidance, Otto discusses
an analysis of taped group meetings:
Evaluation to data reveals that the ME method holds
considerable promise for the identification and
development of latent strengths'. Participants re
call strong interests and skills which were present
in childhood and much enjoyed but., which for one
reason or another, were forgotten or not utilized
during subsequent life experience. (p. 123)
An approach, similar to this in which students
\
shared personal experiences that were inspirational for
them was used along withstopic centered group counseling
\
in a guidance course titledX"Grow." This course was
\ '
offered for college credit andXmet 2 hours twice a week
\ .
for ten weeks. Enrollment was limited to 12 students in
\
each section. Students contracted to attend all sessions
\
\
to write a comprehensive autobiography>vand to share a
Vt
creative endeavor. Topics discussed included The First
Day on Campus, Achievement Motivation, Goals, and Study
41
\
Skills. Though no experimental evaluation of this approach
Y
\
was undertaken, students, stated that the course was of
value to them and felt it helped them in adjusting to
\
college (Felker, 1973).
Downing (1971) reported that brief relaxation
. . Y .
training combined with dydactic counseling can help to re-
duce anxiety and promote self-confidence among students.
He found that this approach "does have value with the
Y.
reasonably well-adjusted individual whose primary need is
one of encouragement and direction and whose goal is per
sonal growth”(p. 1 1).
^ Both group reactive inhibition and reciprocal in
' s
hibitiori\therapies have been found to be effective in re
ducing school related anxiety with college students
(Graff, Mac Lean and Loving, 1971; Suinn, 1968). Allen
(19 70) and Deffenbacher (1974) found an increase in GPA
accompanying the reduction of anxiety, however no control
group was used in the research designs. Emery and Krum-
% ^
boltz (1967) found no significant increase in GPA when a
control group was employed "though there was a trend toward
\
increased GPA for counseled students. Katahn and his
associates (1966) noted that:
While students felt that the relaxation training
and systematic desensitization were helpful, all
considered the advice and discussion to have played
the more important role in the reduction of their
anxiety and their increased academic effective
ness. (p. 544). y
42
\
\
\
A\ replicable model based on Albert Ellis's Rational
\
Emotive Therapy used to remove study blocks (procrastina-
\
tion) with college students did improve GPA (Taylor,
\ ■
1975). Howeverf \ no control groups were used in the analy-
\
sis of the results^ Miller and Sloane (1974) found the use
\
v
v
of verbal reinforcement changed the verbal responses of the
clients within the group setting but did not change their
study behavior.
One of the few studies dealing with the community
college dropout problem was conducted by Werner (1971).
He selected students with less than a C average on their
high school GPA. The treatment consisted of 10 two hour
counseling sessions, utilizing a leaderless, audio-taped
format. Students counseled by this method were more likely
to complete the first semester of college than those in
the uncounseled control group. While he found this method
to be of value, Werner recommended that the same approach
with topics more closely related to academic achievement
may be even more effective. A.;similar approach (Taylor,
1975) was found to be effective in promoting personal
growth. \The students, however, found the personal inter-
action to be more important than the content of the tapes. \
\ .
In a study involving male students who failed
■
science courses at the University of South Wales (Mitchel,
\
Hall and Piatkowska, 1975)four types of leader struc
tured counseling were used in\a unique research design.
_________________________________ 43
All students were exposed to phase I which consisted of an
orientation session concerned with goal setting and test
interpretation. During phase II, groups were exposed to
various combinations of three treatment methods: Test
Anxiety Reduction, Academic Anxiety Reduction and Study
V
Habits and Skills, Training. The SSHA, GPA and attrition
\
rate were used as dependent variables. They found that
"for each group of students effective changes occurred
%
only in those phase two targets treated directly . . ."(p.
311). They also found that "decreasing the number of
phase two targets treated also decreases the level of im
provement in academic performance and the proportion of
\
students who changed from failing to succeeding in their
\
. ' i
courses "(p. 311). The results of this study indicate
\
that the use of more than one treatment method increases
\
\
the success rate and lends empirical ^support to the
\
efficacy of an eclectic approach to counseling low
\
achievers.
Though the^research reported thus far has been con
cerned with either lekder structured or group structured
\
\
counseling, research has \been conducted which experimental-
\
ly compare the two methods.\ For example, Leib and Snyder
(1967) found that when students are placed in a special
group just for them, they will show positive changes in
inner support as measured by the Personal Orientation
Inventory, regardless of whether they received a ^
cognitive or affective approach to counseling. Subjects
\
for this study were voluntary withdrawals from a reading
and study skills course. None of the three counseling
\
methods (Personality Counseling, Study Skills Counseling
and Tutorial Assistance) employed by Nothman (1964) im-
X
\
proved academic achievement significantly. An uncounseled
\
control group was used as well as analysis of covariance
\
(CEEB scores were the covariates) in the research design.
X.
The effectiveness of three methods of applying
group counseling to academic performance was evaluated by
Jones (1970). His subjects were 89 students who volun-
\
teered for counselling. Students were randomly assigned
to treatment and control groups. Three types of coun-
\
seling were employed: \(1) Model Reinforcement, (2) Desen-
\
sitization, and (3) Group^Centered. Two types of control
groups were also utilized: \(1) one group received copies
v
of the Effective Study Model to read but no counseling,
and (2) a group that received no counseling. At the con
clusion of the experimental period all subjects completed
the Study Habit Inventory, the SSHA,,and the Test Anxiety
\
Scale. The counselor structured group's* scores on the
\
\
Study Habit Inventory, were significantly different than
\
those of the control group, however, the difference be-
\
tween the counselor structured group and the, group cen-
>
tered group was not significant nor were there significant
differences between the two structured treatments. Thus,
45
the results of the study were inconclusive. The authors
indicated that measurement and sampling procedures may
have contributed to the lack of conclusive results.
Hart (19 64) compared a cognitive approach centering
on intellectual problems with an affective approach em
phasizing personal problems as methods for treating under
achievers. While the affective approach had an immediate
effect in improving academic achievement, the continued
increase after termination of treatment was questionable.
Somewhat at variance with the results reported by
Hart were those of Chestnut (1965). He compared counselor
structured and group structured counseling with a control
group. The subjects were male underachievers at a state
university. The subjects' scores on the College Qualifi
cation Test were at or above the 50th percentile but they
received a fall term GPA at 2.00 or below on a 4 point
scale.
Both treatments were affectively oriented, but
differed in that the counselor structured group
was more guided, uncovering and integrating in
approach while the group structured approach was
primarily open discussion of a more supportive,
cathartic nature. (p. 398)
When compared with the group structured and control groups,
the counselor structured group appeared to have the most
positive effect on the GPA of the students. There were no
significant differences between the three groups on the
46
SSHA or on the Stern Activities Index. Results tended to
support the effectiveness of a counselor structured
method of working with college underachievers.
Using a posttest design, Trotzer and Sease (1971)
compared group centered and topic centered methods as to
their effect on self-concept of volunteer college students.
The Tennessee Self-Concept Scale, Roklach's Dogmatism
Scale, and Bell’s Index of Adjustment and Values were
used as measures. No differences on outcome variables
were found among any of the three groups which included a
basic encounter group, a discussion group, and a no treat
ment control group.
The results of another comparison of structured
and unstructured group counseling:
suggest that high-anxious underachieving college
students benefit more from an unstructured ap
proach in a group experience than do low anxious
students. There is even the possibility that for
high anxious students a structured group experi
ence or classroom approach has a negative impact on
growth and academic progress. (Brown, 196 9, p.
213)
Gilbreath (1968) tested the hypothesis that stu
dents showing above average dependency on the Stern
Activities Index function best in a structured group while
those showing more dependence, function best in an un
structured group. Out of 537 underachievers, 97 responded
to a letter of invitation. Students were randomly as-
_____________________________________ 47
signed to appropriate and inappropriate group settings.
The results indicated that students placed in an appropri-
\
ate group improved their GPA immediately after treatment.
However, ho significant differences were found 3 months
\
after the treatment.
In a review of 31 studies conducted from 1955
\
through 1967 to^evaluate group counseling m higher educa*
\
\
tion, Maloney (1968) reached two conclusions:
First, the reported experimental research reviewed
and analyzed in this study neither proved nor dis
proved the efficacy of group counseling. Secondly,
the research was not in toto strictly disciplined-
controlled research. (p. 1 0).
The above criticism still appears to be a fairly
\
valid assessment of present research concerning group
counseling in higher education dealing with dropouts and
\
underachievers, although more \recent research seems to be
\
more supportive of group counseling as being effective in
curbing the problems of attrition and low achievement.
Also, much of the more recent research reveals a more dis-
\
ciplined approach to methodology. Trie counseling methods
\
used seem to be important factors in determining the ef
fectiveness of a particular treatment prc^gram.
Bednar and Weinberg (1970) reviewed the results
of 23 programs for the treatment of college underachievers.
The results of the survey indicate that programs associated
with improved academic performance were characterized
48
as :
(a) structured rather than unstructured, (b) lengthy
rather than brief, (c) counseling aimed at the dynam
ics of underachievement used in conjunction with an
academic studies program, (d) having high levels of
therapeutic conditions (empathy, warmth, and genui-
ness), and (e) appropriate to the needs of the stu
dents. (p. 1).
The conclusions reached by Mitchell and Piatkowska
\
X
(1974) in a review of 31 studies were somewhat in disagree
ment with those of Bednar and Weinberg. They found that
%
X -
the success rates were low. The outcome of the studies
they reviewed favored unstructured counseling rather than
structured counseling. They also noted that improvement
\
• • X
m grades did not consistently follow improvement m
target behaviors. This last conclusion, however, is con
tradicted by later empirical research efforts conducted by
the above authors (Mitchell, Hall and Piatkowska, .
A majority of the research reviewed here tends to
favor the use of leader structured counseling. However,
the degree to which structure is therapeutic still seems to
be in question. One reason for this may be that in most
studies the degree of facilitative core conditions pre
sent may have varied along with the amount of structure
utilized. Therefore, some of the differences noted in
outcomes from structured or unstructured counseling may be
related to the presence of the core conditions rather than
the amount or type of structuring applied to the counsel-X
49
7
ing sessions.
Another point of interest to this particular study
x
is that most of the research was conducted with four year
“ S
college and University populations. This means that the
results may or may not be applicable to two year com-
\
munity college populations. As Thornton (1969) has noted,
\
a much different admissions process exists for two year
\
colleges than for four year schools. Thus the entering
\
characteristics of the students including both intellec-
\
tive and non-intellective may be quite different.
Summary
This review of the literature was concerned with
two major areas of interest. First, literature examining
the psychodynamic and intellectual characteristics of col
lege dropouts and academic underachievers was surveyed.
Second, counseling methods aimed at improving academic
achievement were considered.
50
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODS
Population and Sample
Subjects for this study were 59 students at Los
Angeles Harbor College who voluntarily enrolled in Per
sonal Development 3, "Motivation for Study." There were
34 males and 25 females in the study representing 59% and
4 3% of the population respectively. Subjects ranged in
age from 18 to 64 years of age with the average age being
28. The ethnic composition of the sample was as follows:
Caucasian (71%), Black (10%), Spanish Surname (10%),
Asian (8%). The composition of the sample in terms of sex,
age, and ethnicity reflected closely the general popula
tion of the campus. Table 1 displays the demographic data
for each experimental group.
Research Design
For this experimental study a Nonrandomized,
2 x 2 Factorial, Pretest - Posttest Design was used
(Van Dalen, 1966, p. 275). The form used in this study is
as follows:
51
TABLE 1
DEMOGRAPHIC DATA FOR EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS
GROUP N= SEX
M E
MEAN
AGE CAUCASIAN BLACK
ETHNIC
SPANISH
SURNAME
ASIAN
TREATMENT
TYPE
COUNSELOR
A 6 5 1 27 5 1 G C 1
B 6 2 4 39 5 1 L C 1
C 7 4 3 21 6 1 G C 1
D 6 2 4 39 5 L C 1
E 9 6 3 27 3 3 3 G C 1
F 7 4 3 26 6 1 L C 1
G 7 5 2 26 4 2 G C 2
H 11 6 5 25 8 2 1 1 L C 2
Total 59 34 25 28 42 6 6 5
Percentage 57% 43% 71% 10% 10% 8%
Ui
Ni
Pretest Treatment Posttest
T E X1 T E
T1 E2 X2 *2 E2
In order to assess the possible effects of coun
selor characteristics upon the outcome of the experiment,
as well as to help establish the replicability of the model
and therefore enhance the external validity of the experi
ment, two levels of counselor along with two levels of
treatment were considered in the analysis of the data. The
matrix resulting from the crossed classification of these
two factors is as follows:
Group Structured Leader Structured
Counseling________________ Counseling___
Counselor 1 X2
Counselor 2 X^ X^
While subjects were allowed to select a class sec
tion that best fit their schedule, treatment was randomly
assigned to the groups. There were 4 LS groups with 30 Ss
and 4 GS groups with 29 Ss. An effort was also made to re
duce the possibility of the occurrence of an interaction
effect of selection and maturation upon the study. This
was accomplished by including all the sections of Personal
Development 3 for Spring semesters 1974 and 1975 in the
study and by randomly designating the sections of the
course as GS or LS treatment groups. This procedure also
helps to control another possible source of invalidity,
statistical regression. An analysis of covariance was con
ducted to determine the main and interaction effects of the
53
two independent variables (treatment method and counselor)
upon the dependent variables (the posttest scores for GPA,
ratio of units completed, SSHA scales and EPPS scales).
Analysis of covariance was used in order to provide a sta
tistical control for the effects of pretesting and the non-
randomization of the assignment of subjects to treatment
groups. The statistical procedure for the analysis of co-
variance used here was program BMD 10V, Dixon (1974), one
of the Biomedical Computer Programs developed at the Univer
sity of California, Los Angeles.
Treatment Procedures
All the treatment groups completed 20 audio— tutor
ial lessons on study skills. They completed all ten les
sons in Mathews and Oaksford (1973), Surviving in College;
An Audio— Tutorial Approach to Study Skills and they
selected an additional ten lessons from Farrar (1969) ,
Listen and Read MN. All treatment groups met for two hours
one day per week for nine weeks. The two counselors in
volved in the study were (l)the author (M.S. in counseling,
6 years experience as a counselor and student personnel
worker;) and (2)another staff counselor (PhD. in Phychology,
5 years experience in counseling and psychotherapy).
As an attempt to assure that the basic core con
ditions necessary for effective counseling as described by
Carkhuff (1969) were operating within each group, the
following procedure was used during the first meeting of
_________________________________ 54
all treatment groups. With the help of flip cards, the
counselor explained a number of elements which are impor
tant for effective group counseling. This procedure was
used by Nelson (1971) and found to be effective. This is
also in keeping with a recommendation by Yalom (19 70)
that a brief orientation to group counseling be given be
fore treatment begins in order to reduce early termination
of clients and increase the likelihood of the presence of
curative factors during the early life of a group. The
list of process variables used to orient the groups (as
outlined by Nelson) were as follows:
1. Deep Listening. Deep listening involves hearing
what the person is saying deep inside, this
means really thinking about what is being said
rather than what could be said in response.
Helping One Another Talk. 'Maybe you mean . . .
Are you telling us . . . Is what you're worried
about . . .' are some good beginnings to help
another person talk.
3* Helping Discussing Problems or Concerns. When
individuals discuss things that worry them they
can get help with these matters. At least some
of the group time should be spent on this.
4. Discussing Feelings. Sometimes an individual
doesn't know whether a problem is large or small
until he discusses his feelings about it. 'That
really bothers me . . . I wonder if you really
feel all that good about . . . Are you worried
that . . .' are some ways of presenting or asking
about feelings.
The group is told that a few minutes will be saved
at the end of each session to check whether or not
these things were done to some extent by group mem
bers . . .
There are two additional goals that may be added at
the end of the first session or whenever they are
exhibited:
5. Cohifronting. Sometimes an individual hears things
that don't sound right to him, or he may not think
a person is being honest or fair. Some examples
of confronting would be: 'I think you're just try
ing to boss people and you did just then. Why
________ don't you try listening first?1 ___________________55
6. Planning. Plans may either be large or small.
Not all plans succeed, but if the individual
hopes for change it is helpful to plan and
then see if the plans work out. Some plan
ning statements begin: 'I'm going to . . .
I think I'll talk to . . . about that.
(Nelson, 1971, pp. 27-28)
Group Structured Counseling
De Weese (1960) defines group counseling as "per
missive free discussion of topics emanating from the sub
jects' own wishes and needs"(p. 3192). This is an ac
curate depiction of the type of counseling employed in the
group structured groups in this research study with the
exception that the counselor at times did instruct (e.g.,
explain the use of a study method in response to a speci
fic problem) as utilized by Ofman (1964 (b)) . Therefore,
the topics and the order in which they were discussed
varied among the group structured treatment groups.
Leader Structured Counseling
Leader structured counseling in this study refers
to the use of a replicable model in which the specific
treatment goals and treatment methods to attain them are
stated prior to the commencement of the group counseling.
As stated by Healy (1974) "counseling is replicable to
the extent that persons with comparable goals and ob
stacles are exposed to the same idea in equivalent at-
56
atmospheres"(p. 3). According to Healy the steps in
volved in developing a replicable model are as follows:
(1) Stating the goals and subgoals;
(2) Developing the components;
(3) Selecting the indicies by which a counselor
can regulate the program's occurrence.
(Healy, p. 4)
The over-all counseling goals for the Leader
Structured Groups in this project were:
(1) Students will assess their scholastic strengths
and weaknesses and formulate goals to maximize
strengths and improve weaknesses.
(2) Students will acquire coping skills to reduce
anxiety as it relates to academic achievement.
(3) Students will learn and apply study skill tech
niques and habits associated with academic
success.
(4) Students will develop insight into the nature of
motivation and concentration and learn behavioral
techniques to improve their own individual
motivation for study and their ability to con
centrate .
(5) Students will analyze and state their life goals.
The specific treatment components were as follows:
57
Session 1 Introduction and Orientation
A. Presentation of the course outline.
B. Explanation of the six key elements as described
above.
C. Brief Relaxation Training (10 minutes). This con
sisted of the teaching and the practicing of pro
gressive deep muscle relaxation techniques coupled
with instruction on how to use them in reducing
anxiety in given situations (e.g., before exams,
while studying). This approach is described in
detail by Downing (19 71).
D. The group was then divided into pairs. The pairs
interviewed each other as to background and why
they were taking the class. They then introduced
each other to the group.
Session 2 Getting to Know My Self
A. Brief relaxation training was conducted.
B. Students completed a self-evaluation of study
habits (Appendix B).
C. The class was again divided into pairs to discuss
their self-evaluation and their individual goals
with each other.
58
D. Each student then shared the results of his
evaluation with the counselor and the group. The
group was encouraged to help each other in de
fining individual goals.
E. The students were instructed in the use of the
Study Behavior Rating Scale to be completed each
week.
Session 3 Improving Study Habits and Skills
A. Brief relaxation training was conducted.
B. Students were instructed in the use of several
eyesight improvement techniques. (See Appendix
B, also Corbet, 1953). These were used primarily
for their usefullness in promoting relaxation and
concentration during study sessions.
C. The SQ3R method for reading and studying text
books was discussed in detail. Handouts were dis
tributed describing the technique. (See Appendix
B) .
D. Students discussed how they might use the tech- 7
nique. They were encouraged to try it as home
work .
59
Session 4 Improving Study Habits and Skills (Con
tinued)
A. Brief relaxation training was conducted.
B. The eye exercises were reviewed and practiced.
Students were encouraged to share their experi
ence in using them during the week.
C. Students were instructed in the use of mental
imagery to achieve relaxation. (See Appendix B).
D. The SQ3R method was reviewed. Students were asked
to share their experiences in applying the tech
nique. Resistence to systematic studying was also
discussed when encountered.
E. Materials describing techniques for note-taking
and preparing for exams were reviewed. (See
Appendix B).
Session 5 Inspiration Day
A. Brief relaxation training was conducted.
B. Students were asked to share: (1) an experience
they had which made them feel good about them
selves; (2) some art object, music selection,
poem, scripture passage, etc., which has special
meaning to them. (This task had been assigned
during session 4).
60
C. The value of recalling these experiences when
feeling "down" was discussed. The concept of the
"Minerva Experience" (Otto, 1967) was also dis
cussed.
Session 6 Motivation
A. The PAC model was discussed (James and Jongeward,
1971).
B. Causes for lack of motivation were discussed.
(1) Adapted child feelings. Feelings of inade
quacy .
(2) Passive— resistence to authority (teachers).
(3) Fear of failure.
(4) Fear of success.
C. Students were encouraged to respond to each topic
of discussion.
D. Techniques for improving motivation were discussed.
(1) Time management principles.
(2) Engaging the Adult when Child or Parent tapes
are sources of interference (James and
Jongeward, 1971).
(3) Steps to take in eliminating external sources
of irritation.
D. Descriptions of additional techniques were elicited
from the students.
61
Session 7 Motivation (Continued)
A. The concepts of PAC were reviewed.
B. Students were encouraged to describe steps they
were taking to change their study behavior.
C. The concept of resistence was again explained and
resistence worked through, if possible, when
encountered.
Session 8 My Goals.
A. Students shared and discussed collages they made
depicting the various life goals they have set
for themselves.
B. The concept of goal formulation was discussed.
(1) The need for individuals to have life goals.
(2) The need for tying educational experience to
life goals.
C. Students were made aware of the career guidance
services available on the campus.
Session 9 Closing Session
A. Each student was asked to share his evaluation of
his progress made during the group experience.
B. Students were encouraged to share with each other
the positive feelings they had toward group mem-
62
ber s.
Measurement Instruments
One problem often encountered with counseling and
psychotherapy outcome research is that only one dependent
variable is used. This has prompted a number of writers
to point out the need for use of multiple measures of
outcome (Garfiled, 1971; Gasda, 1971; Nichols and Beck,
1960). Therefore, several measurement devices were used
in evaluating outcome in this study.
GPA
The studentsf GPA for three semesters (pre-coun-
seling, counseling, post-counseling) was collected. Grades
for personal development (guidance) classes and physical
education activity classes were not considered in com
puting GPA. This measure was used as an indication of
academic achievement. While imprecise and global in
nature it is still one measure which has been shown to be
effected by therapy (Ohlsen, 1970).
Ratio of Units Completed
In assessing the retention of community college
students the use of enrolling for a second semester has
63
been shown to be inappropriate. In fact it is in conflict
with the purpose of the community college. Some students
may only want to attend for one or two semesters to attain
a specific goal (Chausow and Resnick, 1959). Therefore,
the ratio of units completed (Units Completed/Units
Attempted X 100) was used as an additional indicator of
academic achievement.
Edwards Personal Preference Schedule
The EPPS was selected as a measure of personality
characteristics related to self-concept and achievement.
It was selected because it measures characteristics of
normal individuals as opposed to measures of pathology
such as the MMPI. Reliability and validity data from the
test manual follows:
Reliability. Split-half reliability coefficients or
coefficients of internal consistency were determined
for the 15 personality variables. These coefficients
were obtained by correlating the row and column scores
for each variable over the 1509 subjects in the col
lege normative group. The internal consistency coeffi
cients, corrected by the Spearman-Brown formula, (are
as follows: Achievement .74, Deference .60, Order
.74, Exhibition .61, Autonomy .76, Affiliation .70,
Intraception .79, Succorance .76, Dominance .81,
Abasement .84, Nurturance .78, Change .79, Endurance
.81, Heterosexuality .87, Aggression .84).
Test-retest reliability or stability coefficients are
also given . . . These coefficients are based upon
the records of a group of 89 students at the University
of Washington who took the EPPS twice with a one-week
interval separating the two administrations. The
coefficients were: Achievement .74, Deference .78,
64
----------------------------------------------------------- . j
Order .87, Exhibition .74, Autonomy .83, Affiliation j
.77, Intraception .86, Succorance, .78, Dominance i
.87, Abasement .88, Nurturance .79, Change .83, En- i
durance .86, Heteroxexuality .85, Aggression .78. |
(Edwards, 1959, p. 19) j
Validity. (Criterion Validity) involves the investi
gation of the relationships between the variables of
the inventory and other variables which should, in
theory, be related to the inventory variables in spe
cified ways . . . Some evidence along these lines is
available from a study involving 106 students at the
University of Washington who were given the EPPS and
then some weeks later were given the Guilford-Martin
Personnel Inventory and the Taylor Manifest Anxiety
Scale . . . The product-moment correlations of the
three scales of the Guilford-Martin Personnel Inven
tory and the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale with the
EPPS variables are . . . in general, in the expected
directions, although it is possible that at least a
partial explanation for the correlations of the
Guilford-Martin and Taylor scales with Succorance
and Endurance can be found in a common factor of
social desirability . . . (Edwards, 1959, p. 20)
Additionally, the validity of the EPPS in the as
sessment of characteristics related to academic achievement
has been given support by further research studies. A
number of studies have shown various scales to be sig
nificantly correlated with GPA. Examples include Achieve
ment , and Endurance (Bradshaw, 1969); Order and Abasement
(Stallings, 1976; Achievement (Bendig, 1958; Hoffman,
19 66); Achievement, Intraception, Endurance (Robinson,
D'Amico, Manos, 1961); Dominance (Dielmon and Wilson, 1970).
Also, the EPPS has been found to be correlated
with a number of other measures which have been used
successfully in the assessment of achievement motivation
and academic achievement. These include (Bouchard 19 68
65
Adjective Check List); (Hoffman 1966 Thematic Apperception
Test); (Walsh, 1969 Alpert and Haber Achievement Anxiety
Test).
Survey of Study Habits
and Attitudes
The SSHA was selected as a measure of both study
skills as well as study attitudes and motivation. Relia
bility and validity data from the manual follows:
Reliability. The internal consistency measure of
the SSHA was computed using the Kuder-Richardson
Formula 8 for estimating test reliability from the
variance of total scores and the sum of the item
variances. For the 465 freshmen tested at South
west Texas State College in the fall of 1960, re
liability coefficients obtained for the basic SSHA
subscales ranged from .87 to .89.
Additional evidence concerning the reliability of
SSHA— Form C is provided by the results of two
test-retest studies: one on a sample of 144 fresh
men with a four-week interval between the two ad
ministrations and the other on a sample of 51 fresh
men with a fourteen-week interval were .93, .91,
.88, and .90, respectively, for the Delay Avoidance,
Work Methods, Teacher Approval, and Education
Acceptance scales. The corresponding coefficients
for the fourteen-week interval were .88, .83, and
.85, respectively. (Brown and Holtzman, 1967, p.
23).
Validity. During the fall of 1960, Form C of the
SSHA was administered to 3,054 freshmen in nine
colleges. Criterion data later became available in
six of these colleges, providing a total of 1,773
cases for analysis . . .
The validity coefficients vary from .25 to .45, with
a weighted average of .36. The correlations between
SSHA-SO scores and grade point averages are statis
tically significant and positive for all schools.
To determine the extent to which the SSHA makes a
66
unique contribution to the prediction of academic
achievement coefficients of correlation were com
puted between SO scores, as well as between aptitude
test scores and grade point averages for all students.
In addition, coefficients of multiple correlation were
obtained for the prediction of grades from total
scores on both the SSHA and the specified aptitude
test . . .
The correlation between the SSHA-Form C and measured
scholastic aptitude is consistently low. Further
more, in the six freshmen groups studied, the multi
ple correlation of grades with SSHA and aptitude test
scores is .07 to .16 higher than the correlation of
grades with scholastic aptitude scores alone.. . .
When Fisher's Z- function is used to obtain weighted
averages for the six college samples, the correla
tions with grades average .31, .32, .25, and .35, re
spectively, for the Delay Avoidance, Work Methods,
Teacher Approval, and Education Acceptance scales.
The averaged correlations with measured scholastic
aptitude are .08, .30, .16, and .14, respectively,
for these same SSHA scales. Thus it may be concluded
that each of the four basic SSHA subscales measure
traits that play an important role in academic achieve
ment, only the Work Methods scale being appreciably
related to measured scholastic aptitude.. (Brown and
Holtzman, 1967, pp. 16-18).
In addition several recent studies have also shown
scores on the SSHA to be significantly correlated with
measures of academic achievement. Popham and Moore (1960)
found a correlation of .48 between the SSHA and first year
GPA. Other studies have also found significant correla
tions between the SSHA and GPA (Brown, 1964; Brown and
Dubois, 1964; Kearney, 1966; Khan, 1970; Weigel and Weigel,
1967). Diener found a significant difference (p < .05) on
SSHA scores between college over-achievers and under
achievers. Also, several researchers have found signifi
cant differences on posttest scores on the SSHA between
67
treatment and control groups (Brown, 1965; Silverman and
Riordan, 1974; Spielberger and Weitz, 1960).
Analysis of the Data
All hypotheses were tested by an analysis of post
test scores through the use of analysis of covariance.
Pretest scores were used as the covariates with posttest
scores serving as the dependent variable for each
analysis.
68
CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS
Introduction
In this chapter the findings that resulted from
measures used to assess the efficacy of the two methods for
counseling low achievers are presented.
The sample used in the study consisted of 59 stu
dents who voluntarily enrolled in Personal Development 3,
"Motivation for Study" at Los Angeles Harbor College during
the Spring 1974 and 1975 semesters.
The findings are described under the following
three major headings related to the hypothesis listed in
Chapter I: (1) academic achievement; (2) self-concept and
achievement motivation; (3) study habits and attitudes.
In order to test the null hypothesis presented in
Chapter I, a factorial analysis of covariance, having two
levels of treatment methods (leader structured and group
structured) and two levels of counselors, was computed
separately for each dependent variable (posttest scores).
Corresponding pretest scores for each variable were used
as covariates in order to control for any differences in
pretest scores between the groups. This method was used
because treatment was randomly assigned to intact groups
69
rather, than randomly assigning subjects to treatment
groups. The difference in between group variance was con
sidered to be significant if it reached the .05 level of
confidence.
Academic Achievement
The first null hypothesis states that there will be
no significant changes in the posttest scores for GPA
between GS and LS groups. Tables 2 and 3 present findings
related to that hypothesis. Table 2, indicates that there
are significant differences between the two groups in their
GPAs for the semester of counseling. It also indicates a
significant main effect for both treatment method and
counselor upon GPA and also a significant interaction ef
fect upon GPA. However, Table 3, indicates that no
such effects are found for GPA for the semester following
counseling. An inspection of the predicted means for the
two semesters indicates that an improvement in the GPA for
the GS group lead by counselor 2 may be the main contrib
uting factor for this change from one semester to the next.
For the semester of counseling the GPA for LS groups lead
by both counselors was higher than for G S This did not
hold true for the semester following counseling.
Tables 4 and 5 contain findings related to the
second null hypothesis which states that there will be no
70
TABLE 2
COMPARISON OF POSTTEST SCORES FOR MEASURES OF ACADEMIC
ACHIEVEMENT BETWEEN GROUP STRUCTURED AND
LEADER STRUCTURED COUNSELING
GPA - Semester of Counseling
(Spring ’74 or Spring *75
Predicted Group Means
Counselor 1
Counselor 2
Group
Analysis
Structured
2.61
1.34
of Covariance
Leader Structured
2.71
2.71
Source df SS MS F SIG
Counselor 1 3.50 3.50 5.20 P< . 05
Treatment 1 4.11 4.11 6.10 P<. 05
CXT 1 3.51 3.51 5.22 P<. 05
Within 38 25.56 .67
Total 43 36.68 11.79
[GPA for semester preceding counseling (Fall '73 or Fall '74) was used as
covariate].
TABLE 3
COMPARISON OF POSTTEST SCORES FOR MEASURES OF
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT BETWEEN GROUP STRUCTURED
AND LEADER STRUCTURED COUNSELING
GPA - Semester Following Counseling
(Fall '74 or Fall '75)
Predicted Group Means
Counselor 1
Counselor 2
Group
Analysis
Structured
2.64
2.93
of Covariance
Leader Structured
2.72
2.65
Source df SS MS F SIG
Counselor 1 .07 .07 .22 NS
Treatment 1 .05 .05 .15 NS
CXT 1 .19 .19 .62 NS
Within 28 8.77 .31
Total 33 9.09 .62
[GPA for semester preceeding counseling (Fall '73 or Fall '74) was used as
covariate].
significant differences in the posttest scores for the
ratio of units completed between GS and LS counseled
groups. Again, as for GPA, there were significant main
effects for both counselor and treatment (P < .01) as well
as interaction effect (P < .05) upon the ratio of units
completed during the semester of counseling. For both
counselors the LS groups had a higher ratio of units com
pleted than the GS groups. However, there were no sig
nificant differences between the LS and GS groups on ratio
of units completed for the semester following counseling.
An increase in the ratio of units completed by the GS
group lead by counselor 2 along with a decrease in the
units completed for both groups lead by counselor 1 con
tributed to the lack of significant differences between
groups in the second semester under observation.
The findings related to the hypothesis concern
ing academic achievement show significant differences be
tween GS and LS groups for both GPA and units completed
with the LS groups have higher posttest means on both vari
ables for the semester of counseling. However, no sig
nificant differences were found between the groups for the
semester following counseling.
73
TABLE 4
COMPARISON OF POSTTEST SCORES FOR MEASURES OF
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT BETWEEN GROUP STRUCTURED
AND LEADER STRUCTURED COUNSELING
Units - Semester of Counseling
(Spring '74 or Spring '75)
Predicted Group Means
Counselor 1
Counselor 2
Group Structured
80.79
40.21
Analysis of Covariance
Leader Structured
83.08
80.57
Source *df SS MS F Sig
Counselor 1 4503.34 4503.34 7.81 P<.01
Treatment 1 4428.59 4428.59 7.68 P<.01
CXT 1 3583.53 3583.53 6.21 P<.05
Within 45 25956.47 13092.27
Total 50 38471.94
[Units for semester preceding counseling (Fall '73 or Fall'74) was used as
covariate].
TABLE 5
COMPARISON OF POSTTEST SCORES FOR MEASURES OF
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT BETWEEN GROUP STRUCTURED
AND LEADER STRUCTURED COUNSELING
Units - Semester Following Counseling
(Fall '74 or Fall '75)
Predicted Group Means
Group Structured
Leader Structured
Counselor 1
52.75
52.22
Counselor 2
64.53 79.11
Analysis of Covariance
Source df SS MS E Sig
Counselor 1 2720.16 2720.16 2.48 NS
Treatment 1 346.72 346.72 .32 NS
CXT 1 415.59 415.59 .38 NS
Within 36 39450.84 1095.86
Total 41 42933.31 4578.33
[Units for semester preceding counseling (Fall '73 or Fall '74 was used as
covariate].
ui
Self-Concept
The second set of null hypothesis (2.1 >2.9) dealt
with differences in self-concept and achievement motiva
tion as measured by the following scales of the EPPS:
Achievement; Deference; Order; Autonomy; Affiliation;
Intraception; Succorance, Dominance, and Abasement.
Tables 6 through 14 present the findings related to each
hypothesis.
Table 6 indicates that the posttest group mean for
achievement was higher for LS than GS for both counselors.
However, the analysis of covariance revealed no signifi
cant main or interaction effects for the independent
variables upon this dependent variable.
Likewise/Table 7 indicates that the posttest
group mean for Deference was higher for LS than GS for both
counselors. However, no significant main or interaction
effects were found.
The data related to the Order scale presented in
Table 8, indicate that a significant main effect exists
for treatment upon the Order scale (p < .05). The LS
groups have higher group means for both counselors though
a larger difference between the two groups exists for
counselor 2.
Table 9, displays the findings related to autonomy.
While the LS group had a slightly higher mean than GS for
76
counselor 1 the opposite was true for counselor 2. Also,
the difference between the two groups was greater for coun
selor 2 than counselor 1. However, no significant main
effects or interaction effects were found.
The data in Table 10 indicates that no significant
main or interaction effects were found for treatment or
counselor upon the affiliation scale. The LS groups lead
by Cl had a lower group mean than the GS groups while the
converse was true for the groups lead by C2.
The findings summarized in Table 11 reveal that no
significant main or interaction effects were found for
treatment or counselor upon the scale for Intraception.
There was no difference between the LS and GS groups lead
by Cl while the LS group lead by C2 had a higher group mean
score than did the GS group.
Table 12 displaying the data related to the Suc-
corance scale again shows no significant main or interac
tion effects. The LS groups lead by Cl had a lower group
mean than the GS group while no difference existed between
the two groups lead by C2.
Table 13 shows that no significant main or inter
action effects were found for the Dominance Scale.
Table 14 indicates that the LS groups lead by Cl
had a higher group mean on the Abasement scale than did
the GS while the opposite was true for the groups lead by
C2. However, no significant main or interaction effects
________ 77
TABLE 6
COMPARISON OF POSTTEST SCORES ON SELECTED EPPS SCALES
BETWEEN GROUP STRUCTURED AND
LEADER STRUCTURED COUNSELING
Achievement
Predicted Group Means
Group Structured Leader Structured
Counselor 1 16.00 16.68
Counselor 2 14.48 15.05
Analysis of Covariance
Source vdf \SS ‘ MS F Sig
Counselor 1 28.60 28.60 1.87 NS
Treatment 1 4.69 4.69 .31 NS
CXT 1 827.15 15.32
Total 59 860.48 48.65
[Pretest scores used as covariate].
*■*4
00
TABLE 7
COMPARISON OF POSTTEST SCORES ON SELECTED EPPS SCALES
BETWEEN GROUP STRUCTURED AND
LEADER STRUCTURED COUNSELING
Deference
Predicted Group Means
Counselor
Counselor
1
2
Group Structured
11.12
12.62
Analysis of Covariance
Leader Structured
11.53
12.79
Source df SS MS F Sag
Counselor 1 22.72 22.72 2.22 NS
Treatment 1 1.00 1.00 .10 NS
CXT 1 .17 .17 .02 NS
Within 54 552.71 10.123
Total 59 576.60 34.12
[Pretest scores were used as covariate].
COMPARISON
TABLE 8
OF POSTTEST SCORES FOR SELECTED
BETWEEN GROUP STRUCTURED AND
LEADER STRUCTURED COUNSELING
Order
Predicted Group Means
EPPS SCALES
Group Structured Leader Structured
Counselor 1 12.41 12.80
Counselor 2 9.41 13.00
Analysis of Covariance
Source df ‘SS 'MS ' F *Sig
Counselor 1 23.49 23.49 2.39 NS
Treatment 1 47.44 47.44 4.83 P<.05
CXT 1 30.75 30.75 3.13 NS
Within 54 529.92 9.81
Total 59 631.60 111.49
[Pretest scores were used as covariate].
CO
o
TABLE 9
COMPARISON OF POSTTEST SCORES ON SELECTED EPPS SCALES
BETWEEN GROUP STRUCTURED AND
LEADER STRUCTURED COUNSELING
Autonomy
Predicted Group Means
Group Structured Leader Structured
Counselor 1 13.52 13.97
Counselor 2 19.80 13.60
Analysis of Covariance
Source df SS k MS F Sig
Counselor 1 102.11 102.11 1.44 NS
Treatment 1 99.20 99.20 1.40 NS
CXT 1 133.55 133.55 1.89 NS
Within 54 3817.85 70.70
Total 59 4152.71 405.56
00
[Pretest scores were used as covariate].
TABLE 10
COMPARISON OF POSTTEST SCORES ON SELECTED
BETWEEN GROUP STRUCTURED AND
LEADER STRUCTURED COUNSELING
Affiliation
Predicted Group Means
EPPS SCALES
Group Structured Leader Structured
Counselor 1 14.92 12.80
Counselor 2 14.59
Analysis of Covariance
14.75
Source df SS MS’
» /
F . Sig
Counselor 1 7.81 7.81 .49 NS
Treatment 1 11.25 11.24 .70 NS
CXT 1 15.31 15.31 .95 NS
Within 54 867.76 16.07
Total 59 902.13 50.43
[Pretest scores were used as covariate].
00
NO
TABLE 11
COMPARISON OF POSTTEST SCORES ON SELECTED EPPS SCALES
BETWEEN GROUP STRUCTURED AND
LEADER STRUCTURED COUNSELING
Intraception
Predicted Group Means
Group Structured Leader Structured
Counselor 1 14.88 14.81
Counselor 2 13.73 17.36
Analysis of Covariance
Source df SS MS
*
F Sig
Counselor 1 5.57 5.57 .43 NS
Treatment 1 36.95 36.95 2.85 NS
CXT 1 40.92 40.92 3.11 NS
Within 54 700.06 12.96
Total 59 783.60 96.46
[Pretest scores were used as covariate].
00
CO
TABLE 12
COMPARISON OF POSTTEST SCORES ON SELECTED EPPS SCALES
BETWEEN GROUP STRUCTURED AND
LEADER STRUCTURED COUNSELING
Succorance
Predicted Group Means
Group Structured Leader Structured
Counselor 1 12.93 10.89
Counselor 2 11.96 11.91
Analysis of Covariance
Source df SS MS
F Sig
Counselor 1 .01 .01 .00 NS
Treatment 1 13.15 13.15 .60 NS
CXT 1 11.67 11.67 .53 NS
Within 54 1180.27 21.86
Total 59 1205.10 46.69
[Pretest scores were used as covariate].
00
COMPARISON
TABLE 13
OF POSTTEST SCORES ON SELECTED EPPS
BETWEEN GROUP STRUCTURED AND
LEADER STRUCTURED COUNSELING
Dominance
Predicted Group Means
SCALES
Group Structured Leader Structured
Counselor 1 13.00 13.06
Counselor 2 15.52 14.00
Analysis of Covariance
Source df 9S MS F Srg
Counselor 1 35.00 35.00 1.50 NS
Treatment 1 6.32 6.32 .27 NS
CXT 1 7.57 7.57 .32 NS
Within 54 1255.41 23.23
Total 59 1304.30 142.12
[Pretest scores were used as covariate].
00
U1
COMPARISON OF
TABLE 14
POSTTEST SCORES ON SELECTED
BETWEEN GROUP STRUCTURED AND
LEADER STRUCTURED COUNSELING
Abasement
Predicted Group Means
EPPS SCALES
Group Structured Leader Structured
Counselor 1 10.75 12.95
Counselor 2 14.11 11.70
Analysis of Covariance
Source df SS MS 'F Sig
Counselor 1 13.32 13.32 .78 NS
Treatment 1 .13 .13 .01 NS
CXT 1 63.16 63.16 3.70 NS
Within 54 920.83 17.05
Total 59 997.44 93.66
[Pretest scores were used as covariate].
00
< T >
S S V w .
were found.
Tables 6 - 14 presented the findings relating to
differences between scores on nine scales of the EPPS.
The data indicate that a significant main effect was found
for treatment upon the Order scale. However, no signifi
cant main or interaction effects were found for the other
eight scales.
Study Habits and Attitudes
Null hypothesis 3.1 through 3.5 state that there
will be no significant differences in the posttest scores
between LS and GS groups on the following scales for the
SSHA: Delay Avoidance, Work Methods, Teacher Approval,
Education Acceptance, Study Orientation. Tables 15 through
19 present the findings related to each hypothesis.
Table 15 shows that a significant main effect
(p < .05) (counselor X treatment) was found for the Dalay
Avoidance scale. While the LS groups lead by CL had a
group mean of less than one point higher than the GS
groups a much larger difference was found between the
groups lead by C2.
Table 16 indicates that significant main effects
for counselor (p < .05) and for treatment (p < .01) on the
Work Method scale were found. For both counselors the LS
groups had higher group means than did the GS groups.
87
TABLE 15
COMPARISON OF POSTTEST SCORES ON THE '
SSHA BETWEEN GROUP STRUCTURED AND
LEADER STRUCTURED COUNSELING
Delay Avoidance
Predicted Group Means
Group Structured Leader Structured
Counselor 1 23.21 23.91
Counselor 2 15.16 26.25
Analysis of Covariance
Source df SS ' MS
f t
F Sig
Counselor 1 97.85 97.85 1.52 NS
Treatment 1 388.00 388.00 6.02 P<. 05
CXT 1 318.97 318.97 4.95 P<. 05
Within 54 3480.52 64.45!
Total 59 4285.34 869.27
[Pretest scores were used as covariate].
00
00
TABLE 16
‘ COMPARISON OF POSTTEST SCORES ON THE
SSHA BETWEEN GROUP STRUCTURED AND
LEADER STRUCTURED COUNSELING
Work Methods
Predicted Group Means
Counselor 1
Counselor 2
Group Structured
25.49
14.51
Analysis of Covariance
Leader Structured
28.62
25.90
Source * df - SS MS ' F Sig
Counselor 1 537.35 537.35 6.59 P<. 05
1 603.45 603.45 7.40 P<. 01
CXT 1 203.38 203.38 2.49 NS
Within 54 4405.04 81.57
Total 59 5749.22 1425.75
[Pretest scores were used as covariate].
00
The difference between the two groups was larger for C2
than for Cl.
Table 17 shows that a significant main effect for
treatment (p < .05) was found on the Teacher Acceptance
scale. The LS groups had higher group means than the GS
groups for both counselors.
Table 18 indicates that a significant main effect
for treatment (p < .01) was found on the Education Accept
ance scale. The LS groups had higher group means than the
GS groups for both counselors.
Table 19 indicates that a significant main effect
for treatment (p < .05) was found on the Study Orientation
scale. The LS groups had higher group means than the GS
groups for both counselors.
Summary of the Findings
Findings have been systematically presented in this
chapter for each of the hypothesis to be tested. The first
hypothesis to be tested involved the difference in posttest
GPA between LS and GS groups. Analysis of covariance re
vealed that significant main effects for counselor and
treatment as well as a significant interaction effect
(counselor x treatment) were found for GPA for the semester
in which counseling was conducted. However, no significant
90
TABLE 17
COMPARISON OF POSTTEST SCORES ON THE
SSHA BETWEEN GROUP STRUCTURED AND
LEADER STRUCTURED COUNSELING
Teacher Acceptance
Predicted Group Means
Counselor 1
Counselor 2
Group Structured
28.30
21.89
Analysis of Covariance
Leader Structured
32.03
32.31
Source df SS MS F, S'ig
Counselor 1 107.45 107.45 1.40 NS
Treatment 1 544.21 544.21 7.10 P.05
CXT 1 130.64 130.64 1.70 NS
Within 54 4137.16 76.61
Total 59 4919.46 858.91
[Pretest scores were used as covariate].
TABLE 18
COMPARISON OF POSTTEST SCORES ON THE
SSHA BETWEEN GROUP STRUCTURED AND
LEADER STRUCTURED COUNSELING
Education Acceptance
Predicated Group Means
Group Structured Leader Structured
Counselor 1 26.53 29.83
Counselor 2 19.95 32.27
Analysis of Covariance
Source df 'SS ' MS F Sag
Counselor 1 50.69 50.69 .74 NS
Treatment 1 718.27 718.27 10.48 P<.01
CXT 1 245.29 245.29 s. 58 NS
Within 54 3700.69 68.53
Total 59 4714.94 1082.78
[Pretest scores were used as covariate].
TABLE 19
COMPARISON OF POSTTEST SCORES ON THE
SSHA BETWEEN GROUP STRUCTURED AND
LEADER STRUCTURED COUNSELING
Study Orientation
Predicated Group Means
Counselor
Counselor
1
2
Group
Analysis
Structured
103.97
76.06
of Covariance
Leader Structured
113.24
113.51
Source df SS J f l s
F Sig
Counselor 1 2232.82 2232.82 2.61 NS
Treatment 1 5854.57 5854.57 6.83 P<.05
CXT 1 2347.73 2347.73 2.74 NS
Within 54 46254.86 856.57
Total 59 56689.98 11291.69
[Pretest scores were used as covariate].
VO
u>
differences were found between the groups for GPA for the
semester following counseling.
The second hypothesis dealt with the difference in
posttest scores on the ratio of units completed between
the treatment groups. Again, as for GPA, significant main
effects for counselor and treatment along with a signifi
cant interaction effect (counselor x treatment) were found
for the semester in which counseling was conducted. No
significant differences were found between the groups for
ratio of units completed for the semester following coun
seling.,.
The next set of hypothesis were concerned with
differences between treatment groups in self-concept and
achievement motivation as measured by nine scales of the
EPPS. A significant main effect for treatment was found
for the Order scale. No other significant findings were
found for the EPPS scales.
The final set of hypothesis related to differences
in study habits and attitudes as measured by five scales
of the SSHA. The findings indicate that significant main
effects for treatment were found for all five scales. A
significant main effect for counselor was found to exist
for the Work Method scale and a significant interaction
effect (counselor x treatment) for the Delay Avoidance
scale.
94
A complete summary of all the findings related to
the null hypothesis tested in this study are presented in
the tables which follow. In the final chapter the implica
tions of the findings and recommendations for further
research are discussed, as well as the presentation of a
summary and conclusions of the study.
95
TABLE 20
HYPOTHESIS AND GENERAL FINDINGS RELATING TO
DIFFERENCES IN POSTTEST SCORES BETWEEN
LEADER STRUCTURED AND GROUP STRUCTURED
TREATMENT GROUPS FOR
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
HYPOTHESIS FINDINGS
1.1 There will be no significant
differences in the posttest
scores for GPA between LS
and GS treatment groups.
(Semester of Counseling)
Ho
Rejected
(Semester following Counseling) H
O
Accepted
1.2 There will be no significant
differences in the posttest
scores for ratio of units
completed between LS and GS
treatment groups.
(Semester of Counseling) H
o
Rejected
(Semester following Counseling) H
O
Accepted
V.D
< J \
TABLE 21
HYPOTHESIS AND GENERAL FINDINGS RELATING TO
DIFFERENCES IN POSTTEST SCORES BETWEEN
LEADER STRUCTURED AND GROUP STRUCTURED
TREATMENT GROUPS FOR
ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
HYPOTHESIS FINDINGS
2. There will be no significant differences
in the posttest scores between LS and
GS treatment groups for:
2.1 Achievement H
o
Accepted
2.2 Deference H
o
Accepted
2.3 Order H
o
Accepted
2.4 Autonomy H
o
Accepted
2.5 Affiliation
H
o
Accepted
2.6 Intraception
H
o
Accepted
2.7 Succorance
H
o
Accepted
2.8 Dominance H
o
Accepted
2.9 Abasement
H
o
Accepted
vo
TABLE 22
HYPOTHESIS AND GENERAL FINDINGS RELATING TO
DIFFERENCES IN POSTTEST SCORES BETWEEN
LEADER STRUCTURED AND GROUP STRUCTURED
TREATMENT GROUPS FOR
STUDY HABITS AND
ATTITUDES
HYPOTHESIS FINDINGS
3 There will be no significant differences
in the posttest scores between LS and
GS treatment groups for:
3.1 Delay Avoidance H
o
Rejected
3.2 Work Methods H
o
Rejected
3.3 Teacher Acceptance H
o
Rejected
3.4 Education Acceptance H
o
Rejected
3.5 Study Orientation
Ho
Rejected
vo
00
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Summary
Purposes
This study was undertaken in an attempt to develop
a replicable counseling model that would be effective in
improving academic achievement with community college
students. This study also attempted to experimentally
compare the effectiveness of the model developed with
group structured counseling.
Procedure
The sample used in this investigation consisted of
59 students at Los Angeles Harbor College who voluntarily
enrolled in Personal Development 3 - "Motivation for
Study" during the Spring 1974 and 1975 semesters.
Two levels of treatment (group structured coun
seling and leader structured counseling)' were randomly
assigned to the eight class sections. The two counselors
conducted nine two hour counseling sessions with their
99
respective groups. Each LS group followed the same course
outline described in Chapter III. In the GS groups the
topics for discussion were generated by the group members
according to the needs and interests of the members.
A 2 x 2 factorial design was employed having two
levels of treatment and two levels of counselor. The
following outcome measures were employed in evaluating the
results: GPA, ratio of units completed, nine scales of
the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule, and five scales
of the Brown-Holtzman Survey of Study Habits and Attitudes.
A factorial analysis of covariance was used in the
analysis of that data. The posttest scores for each vari
able were analyzed for significant main and interaction
effects. The corresponding pretest scores served as
covariates.
Discussion of the Findings
Three major hypothesis were presented in detail in
Chapter I. A discussion of the findings relate to each of
these hypothesis as follows.
Null hypothesis number ]^. This hypothesis pre-..
dieted that there would be no significant differences be
tween LS and GS treatment groups on two measures of
academic achievement (GPA and ratio of units completed).
100
The findings supported the rejection of this hypothesis for
data collected at the end of the semester of counseling.
However, the null hypothesis must be accepted for data
collected at the conclusion of the semester following the
counseling. Thus, while significant differences did exist
between the LS and GS categories for both GPA and ratio of
units completed for one semester, they did not continue to
exist after a period of seven months. An inspection of
the group means indicate that an improvement in GPA contin
ued for both treatment categories. An increase between
the observation periods for the GS groups reduced the dif
ference between the two treatment categories to the point
of insignificance.
Significant differences were also found to exist
between the two treatment categories on the ratio of units
completed for the semester of counseling. Again, as was
true for GPA, no significant differences were found for
data collected at the end of the semester following coun
seling. However, with the exception of the GS group
counseled by C2, all groups showed a decline in the ratio
of units completed between the two observation periods.
The decrease in the ratio of units completed by
both GS and LS treatment groups during the semester fol
lowing counseling after an increase during the semester of
„ counseling may be due to the lack of effect of the treat
. 101
ment procedure over a longer follow up period.
One possible explanation for the lack of signi
ficant differences in the second observation period, other
than a lack of effect by the treatment procedure upon the
dependent variable, is the attrition of the sample popula
tion between observation periods. Fewer subjects were
available for evaluation in the semester following coun
seling than in the semester of counseling due to gradua
tion, transfer to another institution or other reasons for
not re-enrolling at the college.
Finally, it should be noted that in addition to the
existence of a significant main effect for treatment upon
the variables, a significant main effect for counselor
along with a significant interaction effect were also
found. This may be attributed to differences in group
norms (not analyzed in this study) as well as differences
in individual characteristics of the two counselors.
However, where significant differences were found to exist
between treatment categories, the LS groups had higher
posttest scores irrespective of which counselor lead the
group.
Null hypothesis number _2. The second hypothesis
predicted that there would be no significant differences
between treatment categories on self-concept and achieve-
ment motivation as measured by posttest scores on nine
102
scales of the EPPS. The null hypothesis was accepted for
the following scales: Achievement, Deference, Autonomy,
Affiliation, Intraception, Succorance, Dominance and
Abasement. A significant difference was found to exist
between treatment groups only for the Order scale. The
difference was due to significantly higher post treatment
levels on the variable exhibited by the LS groups.
According to the author this scale measures the
need to "have written work neat and organized, to make
plans before starting a difficult task, to have things
organized, to keep things neat and orderly . . ." (Edwards,
1949, p. 11). Since time management along with study
organization was taught in the LS groups, the higher
scores by the LS groups on this scale were in the desired
direction.
While differences between the treatment categories
on the other eight variables did not reach levels of
significance to warrant the rejection of the null hypothe
sis, an inspection of the group means for the posttest
scores did reveal ar.trend in the desired direction for one
of the scales. The LS groups did have slightly higher
scores (less than one point) on the achievement motivation.
However, the results for the remaining seven scales indi
cated no apparent consistency in results between treatment
categories or counselors.
103
The lack of significant differences between the
two treatment categories on eight of the nine scales of the
EPPS may indicate that the two counseling methods bring
about similar changes in self-concept. Since both methods
attempted to help the clients explore feelings related to
scholastic achievement, the results might be expected.
However, since the LS groups did stress the improvement
of achievement motivation and the development of independ
ence it is somewhat disappointing that no significant dif
ferences were found on the achievement and autonomy scales.
Null hypothesis number 3_. This hypothesis pre
dicted that there would be no significant differences be
tween treatment categories on study habits and attitudes
as measured by posttest scores on the following scales of
the SSHA: Delay Avoidance, Work Methods, Teacher Accept
ance, Education Acceptance, Study Orientation. The null
hypotheses was rejected for all five scales.
Since the high scores on each scale indicate the
presence of desired study habits and attitudes, the dif
ferences between treatment categories on all five scales
were in the desired direction. In each instance the LS
groups had higher posttest means than the GS groups.
For Delay avoidance a significant interaction
effect (counselor x treatment) was found to exist. Also,
a significant main effect for counselor on the Work
104
Method scale was found. The significantly higher scores
on each scale obtained by the LS groups indicate the
possibility that the LS approach may have directly resulted
in significant changes in target behaviors. These in
cluded a reduction in procrastination and increased moti
vation (Delay Avoidance), enhanced study skills, (Work
Methods), appropriate study attitudes (Teacher Approval),
and adequate goal orientation (Education Acceptance).
Conclusions
1. Leader structured counseling appears to be more
effective in improving academic achievement than
group structured counseling.
2. Differences in the effectiveness of the two
methods may be short lived since significant dif
ferences between treatment categories on GPA
and ratio of units completed did not exist follow
ing a seven month follow-up period.
3. A replicable counseling model for improving
academic achievement can be developed which pro
duces similar results when applied by different
counselors.
4. Post treatment differences in target behaviors
(Delay Avoidance, Work Methods, Goal Orientation)
and attitudes (Achievement Motivation, Order, and
105
Teacher Acceptance) are in the same direction as
outcome criteria (GPA and ratio of units com
pleted) .
5. Counseling to improve academic achievement did not
result in significant differences in self-concept
as measured by the EPPS.
Implications
In the introduction to this study the importance of
the college counselor becoming involved in teaching human
development was discussed. Both the review of the
literature and the findings of this investigation support
the view that involvement of the counselor in a teaching
role may lead to improved study behavior and attitudes
among college students.
Both the review and the empirical research indicate
that both process and content are important in promoting
improvement in academic achievement. It is important for
the counselor to be aware of how these two concepts are
related to client behavior and to counseling outcome.
Previous research as well as the results of this
study indicate that the adoption of an eclectic approach
to counseling may be beneficial. The counselor needs to
be aware of the goals for counseling, the individual dif
ferences of the clients, the skills and background of the
106
L
counselor, and the treatment methods most likely to pro
duce the desired results. In regard to counseling to
improve academic achievement, it appears that a number of
causes may exist for low achievement and that counseling
methods should be directed toward etiology as well as
symptoms.
It would appear that college counselors should be
exposed to the literature concerning the nature of low
achievement. They should also be prepared to identify
symptoms of low achievement and understand the dynamics
related to the development of the "low-achievement
syndrome." The college counselor also should be able to
employ a variety of counseling techniques to be effective
in improving academic achievement.
Recommendations for Further Study
1. Further studies might assess the results of in
creasing the amount of time devoted to group
counseling e.g., twice weekly, or for 18 weeks
instead of 9 weeks upon outcome.
2. The importance of group norms along with the
effects of selection and grouping of clients to
maximize results might also be considered.
3. Other measures of self-concept should be employed
to further investigate relationship between
107
change in self-concept and change in academic
achievement.
4. A comparison of the effectiveness of several re
plicable counseling models with both elective
and required guidance (orientation) classes would
be of value in refining counseling and teaching
methods.
5. A compilation of assessment devices, counseling
models, and learning materials related to the
improvement of academic achievement would provide
a valuable resource for college counselors.
108
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125
126
APPENDIX A
DEFINITION OF TERMS FOR EPPS AND SSHA
Terms related to the
Edwards Personal Preference
Schedule (EPPS):
1. ach Achievement: To do one's best to be suc
cessful, to accomplish tasks requiring skill and
effort, to be a recognized authority, to accom
plish something of great significance, to do a
difficult job well, to solve difficult problems
and puzzles, to be able to do things better than
others, to write a great novel or play.
2. def Deference: To get suggestions from
others, to find out what others think, to follow
instructions and to do what is expected, to praise
others, to tell others that they have done a good
job, to accept the leadership of others, to read
about great men, to conform to custom and void
the unconventional to let others make decisions.
3. ord Order: To have written work neat and or
ganized, to make plans before starting on a dif
ficult task, to have things organized, to keep
things neat and orderly, to make advance plans when
taking a trip, to organize details of work, to keep
letters and files according to some system, to have
meals organized and a definite time for eating, to
have things arranged so that they run smoothly with
out change.
4. aut Autonomy: To be able to come and go as
desired, to say what one thinks about things, to be
independent of others in making decisions, to feel
free to do what one wants, to do things that are un
conventional, to avoid situations where one is ex
pected to conform, to do things without regard to
what others may think, to criticize those in posi
tions of authority, to avoid responsibilities and
obligations.
127
5. aff Affiliation; To be loyal to friends, to
participate in friendly groups, to do things for
friends to form new friendships, to make as many
friends as possible, to share things with friends,
to do things with friends, rather than alone, to
form strong attachments, to write letters to
friends.
6. int Intraception: To analyze one's motives and
feelings, to observe others, to understand how
others feel about problems, to put one's self in
another's place, to judge people by why they do things
rather than by what they do, to analyze the behavior
of others, to analyze the motives of others, to pre
dict how others will act.
7. sue Succorance: To have others provide help
when in trouble, to seek encouragement from others,
to have others be kindly, to have others by sympa
thetic and understanding about personal problems, to
receive a great deal of affection from others, to
have others do favors cheerfully, to be helped by
others when depressed, to have others feel sorry
when one is sick, to have a fuss made over one when
hurt.
8. dom Dominance; To argue for one's point of view,
to be a leader in groups in which one belongs, to be
regarded by others as a leader, to be elected or ap
pointed chairman of committees, to make group deci
sions, to settle arguments and disputes between
others, to persuade and influence others to do what
one wants, to supervise and direct the actions of
others, to tell others how to do their jobs.
9. aba Abasement: To feel guilty when one does
something wrong, to accept blame when things do not
go right, to feel that personal pain and misery suf
fered does more good than harm, to feel the need for
punishment for wrong doing, to feel better when giv
ing in and avoiding a fight than when having one's
own way, to feel the need for confession of errors, to
feel depressed by inability to handle situations,
to feel timid in the presence of superiors, to feel
inferior to others in most respects. (Edwards, 1959,
p. 11)
10. end Endurance: To keep at a job until it is
finished, to complete any job undertaken, to work
hard at a task, to keep at a puzzle or problem until
it is solved, to work at a single job before taking
on others, to stay up late working in order to get a
job done, to put in long hours of work without dis
traction, to stick at a problem even though it may
seem as if no progress is being made, to avoid being
128
interrupted while at work. (Edwards, 1959,
p. 11).
Terms related to the
Brown-Holtzman Survey of Study
Habits and Attitudes (SSHA)
(DA) Delay Avoidance - (a student's) promptness
in completing academic assignments, lack of pro
crastination, and freedom from wasteful delay and
distraction.
(WM) Work Methods - (a student's) use of effective
study procedures, efficiency in doing academic as
signments, and how-to-study skills.
(TA) Teacher Approval - (a student's) opinion of
teachers and their classroom behavior and methods.
(EA)Education Acceptance - (a student's) approval
of educational objectives, practices, and require
ments. (Brown and Holtzman, 1967, p. 17).
129
APPENDIX B
MATERIALS USED IN LEADER STRUCTURED GROUPS
Eye and Concentration Exercises
You should do these exercises at least once a day.
Palming.- Cup both palms gently over your eyes. Do not
squeeze. While you are doing this try one or more of
the following:
a. Imagine you are at a place you enjoy (e.g., beach,
mountains, etc.). Try to not only picture being
there but try to feel it. Feel the warmth of the
sun, be involved. Enjoy yourself.
b. Try to picture a blank blackboard. Now print each
letter of the alphabet, erasing the previous
letter before writing the next.
c. Try the blackboard exercise but write the alphabet.
2. Nose Writing - Close your eyes. Use your nose to
write your name, alphabet etc., in the air. Move your
head and neck freely.
3* Sunning - Sit in an area where there is both sun and
shade. Close your eyes. Gently shift from side to
side .exposing your closed eyes to sun and then shade.
After a while you should be able to sit and expose
your closed eyes only to the sun. (NEVER LOOK DIRECTLY
INTO THE SUN EVEN WITH YOUR EYES CLOSED).
4. Relaxation - Sit up straight. Gently move your head
from side to side. Take a deep breath when you reach
each side. Repeat several times for each side.
5. Visual Shifting - Hold a pencil about 6 inches from
your nose. Practice focusing on the pencil and then
shifting focus to a distant object.
(All the above exercises should be done with your glasses
removed).
130
A FEW DONT'S
Don’t rub your eyes.
Don't park the eyes on a spot while on a mental journey
elsewhere. If you wish to meditate, close the
eyes or at least blink them frequently.
Don't duck your head and look up at the world. Look
straight ahead.
Don't hold your breath while using your eyes. Breathe
often and freely.
Don't force vision. If an object is not clear close your
eyes, relax and take a deep breath again.
Don't blink hard when you blink.
Don't stare at a person or object. Constantly shift
(slightly) your point of focus.
HOW TO USE MENTAL PICTURES TO RELAX
From: M. Maltz, Psycho-Cybernetics p. 61-62,
Practice Exercises: (To be practiced for at least 20
minutes daily).
Seat yourself comfortably in an easy chair or lie down on
your back. Consciously "let go" the various muscle groups
as much as possible without making too much of an effort
of it. Just consciously pay attention to the various parts
of your body and let go a little. You will find that you
can always voluntarily relax to a certain degree. You
can stop frowning and let your forehead relax. You can
ease up a little on the tension in your jaws. You can let
your hands, your arms, your shoulders, legs, become a
little more relaxed than they are. Spend about five min
utes on this and then stop paying any attention to your
muscles. This is as far as you are going to try to go by
conscious control. From here on you will relax more and
more by using your creative mechanism to automatically
bring about a relaxed condition. In short, you are going
to use "goal pictures," held in imagination and let your
automatic mechanism realize those goals for you.
Mental Picture No. 1
In your mind's eye see yourself lying stretched out upon
the bed. Form a picture of your legs as they would look if
made of concrete legs sinking far down into the mattress
from their sheer weight. Now picture your arms and hands
131
as made of concrete. They also are very heavy and are
sinking down into the bed and exerting tremendous pressure
against the bed. In your mind's eye see a friend come into
the room and attempt to lift your heavy concrete * legs. He
takes hold of your feet and attempts to lift them. But
they are too heavy for him. He cannot do it. Repeat with
arms, neck, etc.
Mental Picture No. 2
Your body is a big marionette doll. Your hands are tied
loosely to your wrists by strings. Your forearm is con
nected loosely by a string to your shoulder. Your feet,
calves, thighs, are also connected together with a single
string. The strings which control your jaw and hold your
lips together have slackened and stretched to such an ex
tent that your chin has dropped down loosely against your
chest. All the various strings which connect the various
parts of your body are loose and limp and your body is
just sprawled loosely across the bed.
Mental Picture No. 3
Your body consists of a series of inflated rubber balloons.
Two valves open in your feet, and in the air begins to
escape from your legs. Your legs begin to collapse and
continue until they consist only of deflated rubber tubes,
lying flat against the bed. Next a valve is opened in
your chest and as the air begins to escape, your entire
trunk begins to collapse limply against the bed. Continue
with arms, head and neck.
132
LOS ANGELES HARBOR COLLEGE
Personal Development 3 - Motivation for Study Bob Myers
SELF AS SESSMENT
Use this check list to determine your areas of strength and
areas where you would like to
you, to^add items to the check
ACADEMIC SKILLS
Mathematics
Reading Comprehension
Reading Speed
Natural Science (Biology,
Chemistry)
Social Science (History,
Psychology)
Humanities (Art, Music)
Writing
STUDY SKILLS
Note Taking
Library Research
Time Organization
Concentration
Test Taking (Anxiety)
Preparing for Objective Exams
Preparing for Essay Exams
improve (The blanks are for
list).
Strength ? Needs Improvement:
5 4
3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
133
LIFE SKILLS
Clear Life Goals
Clear Educational Goals
Asking Questions in Class
Getting Help from Others*
Speaking in Front of Groups
Self-Confidence
Making Friends
List your five major strengths:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
List the five areas in which you would like to see the most
i mp ro ve ment.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Try to list several specific goals you would like to
achieve during this course, based on your areas for im
provement. (e.g., (1) I will increase the amount of time
I spend studying by 50%; (2) I will attempt to meet more
people; (3) I will increase my reading comprehension by
30%) .
134
THE SQ3R METHOD
This method was devised by Francis Robinson and has been
successfully used by secondary, college, and adult students
to improve reading speed and comprehension. Like any other
skill, it must be practiced regularly and directions fol
lowed exactly to make progress. If effects increase in
rate and comprehension for both recreational and study-type
reading.
Two important factors: 1)progress will be faster if you
can practice about 15 minutes a day for the first 6 weeks;
and 2) practice must be on materials that are fairly easy
reading for you. As with any other skill, your rate will
gradually decrease after you stop the daily practice un-
less you continue to use the techniques you have learned.
SQ3R ABCD
S = Survey: (look it over: read title, subtitles, 1st
and last sentences, questions)
Q = Question (think what it will be about, what you should
learn)
R — Recite (write the answers to ABCD questions with
out looking back. Record your time from
starting reading to finishing questions)
R = Review (check back to see if answers are fight)
ABCD Questions:
A. Who or what was it mainly about?
B. When and where did it happen?
C. What was the main problem or situation?
D. How was it solved, or how did it end?
SQ3R-EFGHI
SQ3R = same as above, except that you answer EFGHI ques
tions
EFGHI Questions:
E. Author*s Purpose - What was he trying
to explain, get you interested in,
persuade you to do, get you to buy,
make you believe?
135
F. Fact/Opinion - Which statements are
opinions (the author"s or some-one
else's)? Which are facts which can be
proven?
G. Authority - What training or profess
ional standing does the author have?
What qualifications have other authori
ties that are quoted?
H. Emotional Appeal - What words are used
to scare or flatter you, make you feel
angry or sympathetic, arouse your
curiosity or desire for a bargin, give
you a feeling of special status?
I. Inference - What word or expressions
are used to make you feel that some
thing is low-class, inferior, not
liked? What words make you feel that
something is liked by most people,
superior in some way?
What would the author have you infer
from the article?
SQ3R Textbook
SQ3R = same as above with these questions
1. What is it mainly about?
2. What kind of important details are
given?
3. What is the conclusion or summary
statement?
136
LOOKING AT TESTS
Taking short tests and long examinations involves
more than simply a period of preparation and a short period
of thinking and writing. The good student begins to pre
pare for his period of testing the first day he enters the
classroom/and he continues his attack on the test after it
is over and his mark is in. There may be periods when the
activities of preparing for examinations are more intense
than other periods and there may be times when a student
will be forced to hurry to make up for his past failure to
do his work.
However, sooner or later and probably only after
some difficult experience, a studnet will realize that
there are certain important suggestions he might follow
with profit.
BEFORE THE EXAMINATION ...___
1. Begin at the beginning of the course and do your work
daily. Don't get behind. Get ahead, and stay there.
2. Understand what you do. It's difficult to learn and
remember nonsense.
3. Review intelligently. Set aside a regular part of your
study period for reviewing earlier material. You for
get rapidly but relearn easily. Work logically. Re
view your notes and your returned papers. Do not skip
over any part of your work, either putting it off or
taking it for granted. If you really understand cer
tain parts of your work, don't waste time on those
parts. However, don't fool yourself into thinking
that you understand something when you really do not.
Be sure you can tell it to someone else so they under
stand it, or write it down so that it makes sense.
4. Test yourself before the teacher tests you. Don't wait
to be surprised! Get ready for what's coming.
After you have done your work on your own, work with
others. This isn't charity. It makes sense because
the one who is teaching inevitable learns more than
the student.
Look at the material from what you think might be the
teacher's point of view. If you were teaching the
class, what questions would you ask? Often students
try to outguess the teacher and "spot" questions. This
_____________________________ 137
is a practice of long standing and it represents a
valuable and practical technique. Don't rely on this
to get you through tests or examinations however. The
teacher knows what he wants to cover and his questions
will be so arranged that the student will be required
to answer on the teacher's terms and not on his own.
In short, while you may make up your own examination
room, you should include most of the course material in
it. Your teacher will.
5. Come to the examination with a sharp mind which has not
been dulled by too much last-minute studying. Be sure
that you also bring to the examination all the materi
als you need so that you will be ready to work when
you receive the paper.
138
GENERAL PROCEDURES FOR TAKING
STANDARDIZED TESTS
1. Directions should be read carefully. Pay close at
tention to the sample exercises which accompany each
test. Know the proper scoring procedure.
2. Initially each selection should be read for the general
idea and supporting details.
3. Eliminate the alternatives in each item which show the
least merit. Then reread the questions and the re
maining choices. Select the best answer.
4. Return to the selection when necessary. Use a skim
ming/scanning technique. Read for concepts.
5. Keep test booklet and answer sheet together. It saves
time and lessens chance of possible recording errors.
6. By keeping the answer sheet on the side next to writing
hand, the necessity of reaching over the booklet to
mark the answer is eliminated. In this way, thought
will not be disrupted.
7. Avoid unnecessary retracing of answers. One bold, de
liberate mark is sufficient. Save artistic expression
for another time.
8. When planning to return to an item for further consid
eration, make a mark on the test booklet margin, not
on the answer sheet. Marks on the answer sheet may be
scored as incorrect responses,
9. Avoid unnecessary clock watching. It breaks concentra
tion and heightens anxiety.
„10. Don't expect to complete all the sections of the test.
Guessing nullifies any possible value obtained from
the results.
HOW TO TAKE TESTS
Central Thought
Central thought, or main idea, items are generally
worded as follows:
139
The best name of this story would be . . .
The best title for this selection is . . .
The chief topic discussed is ... .
The main idea of this selection may be
expressed . . .
Both main points are related to the idea . . .
How to Answer a Central Thought Item
1. Read the entire selection first.
2. Turn to the central thought or title question.
3. Try to answer the question, "What is the main
idea of this selection?"
4. Reread the passage, if necessary. Eliminate the
choices which are definitely incorrect.
5. After you have selected the answer, quickly re-
; read the paragraph to see whether your choice
covers each of the ideas in the selection.
140
Note Making
Learning to make notes effectively will help you to im
prove your study and work habits, and to remember impor
tant information. Often, students are deceived into
thinking that because they understand everything that is
said in class they will therefore remember it. This is
dead wrong*. Write it down I
As you make notes, you will develop skill in selecting im
portant material and in discarding unimportant material.
The main secret to developing this skill is practice.
Check your results constantly. Strive to improve. Notes
enable you to retain important facts and data and to de
velop an accurate means of arranging necessary information.
Here are some hints on note making. After reading you*ll
be asked to write them from memory, so as you read, try to
picture yourself actually going through the steps des
cribed.
1. Don*t write down everything that you read or hear.
Be alert and attentive to the main points. Con
centrate on the "meat" of the subject and forget
the trimmings.
2. Notes should consist of key words, or very short
sentences. As a speaker gets sidetracked it is
often possible to go back and add further informa
tion .
3. Take accurate notes. You should usually use your
own words, but try not to change the meaning. If
you quote directly from the author, quote correctly.
4. Think a minute about your material before you start
making notes. Don't take notes just to be taking
notes' .
Take notes that will be of real value to you when
you look over them at a later date.
5. Have a uniform system of punctuation and abbrevia
tion that will make sense to you. Use a skeleton
outline, and show importance by indenting. Leave
lots of white space for later additions.
6. Omit descriptions and full explanations. Keep your
notes short and to the point. Condense your material,
so you can grasp it rapidly.
141
7. Don't worry about missing a point. Leave space and
try to pick up the material you miss at a later date,
either through reading, questioning, or common
sense.
8. Don't keep notes on oddly shaped pieces of paper.
Keep notes in order and in one place.
9. Shortly after making your notes, go back and re
work (not recopy' . ) your notes by adding extra
points, spelling out unclear items, etc. Remember;
we forget rapidly. Budget time for this vital step
just as you do for the class itself.
10. Review your notes periodically. This is the only
way to achieve lasting memory.
142

Asset Metadata

Creator Myers, Robert Forsstrom (author)

Core Title A comparison of leader structured and group structured counseling to improve academic achievement with community college students

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, educational psychology,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-458709

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