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The role of education in the rehabilitation of the Prussian Empire

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The role of education in the rehabilitation of the Prussian Empire

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Content THE ROLE OF EDUCATION IN THE REHABILITATION OF THE PRUSSIAN EMPIRE A D i s s e r t a t i o n P re s e n te d t o th e F a c u lty o f th e G rad u ate S chool The U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a I n P a r t i a l F u lf illm e n t o f th e R eq u irem en ts f o r th e D egree D o cto r o f P h ilo s o p h y t>y A lle n Mark S ch m u ller Ju n e 1949 UMI Number: DP23990 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Djssmtatkm Publishing UMI DP23990 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 -EJLSsst This dissertation, written by A L y ,N ..M R K ..S M M U L 3 ^ R ........................... under the guidance of h.X.$... Faculty Committee on Studies, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Council on Graduate Study and Research, in partial ful fillment of requirements for the degree of D O C T O R OF P H IL O S O P H Y ~ «\ E. S . BOG-ARDUS Dean D ate- June ±9^9' Committee on Studies : . a & . rman G l)£d/_..... \ TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I . THE PROBLEM A N D DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED. . . . 1 The p ro b le m ................................................................................. z S ta te m e n t o f th e p r o b l e m ...................................... . 2 Im p o rta n c e o f th e s tu d y ................................................ 3 D e f in iti o n s o f te rm s u s e d . ............................ 8 The s t a t e ................................................................................. 8 S o c ie ty ...................................................................................... 9 N a tio n a lis m . . . 9 The P r u s s ia n E m p ire......................................................... 10 Scope o f th e s t u d y .............................................................. 10 H i s t o r i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s ................................................ 10 P h ilo s o p h ic a l l i m i t a t i o n s ........................................... 12 L im its o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ........................................... 15 O rg a n iz a tio n o f th e s tu d y ................................................ 15 I n tr o d u c to r y c h a p te r s ..................................................... 15 C e n tr a l c h a p t e r s . 16 G en eral i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ................................. 16 Summary........................................................ 17 I I . PROCEDURE A N D REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE................................................................................. 18 I n t r o d u c t i o n ............................................................................ 18 P ro c e d u re ....................... • • • C o lle c tio n o f d a t a ......................................................... 19 i l l CHAPTER PAGE C r itiq u e o f th e d a t a ............................................. 20 E x te r n a l c r i t i c i s m .................................................. 20 S eco n d ary m a t e r i a l s ........................................... . . . 22 I n t e r n a l c r i t i c i s m .................................................. 22 I n t e l l i g i b i l i t y ........................................................... 23 Review o f th e l i t e r a t u r e ................................. • • . 24 P rim a ry s o u r c e s ..................................... 25 B a rn a rd ’s J o u r n a l ....................... 25 C o u sin ’ s R e p o rt on th e S ta te o f P u b lic I n s t r u c t i o n i n P r u s s ia .................................. 27 D in te r ’ s A u to b io g rap h y . . . . . . . . . . 28 P i c h t e ’ s A d d resses to th e German N a tio n . . 29 P i c h t e ’ s S& m atliche W erke............................... 32 A phorism s on E d u c a t i o n ............................... 33 P a t r i o ti s m and i t s O p p o s ite ..................... 34 The System o f E th ic s A ccording to th e P r i n c i p l e s o f P h i l o s o p h y ...................... 35 U n iv e r s ity E d u c a t i o n .................................... 36 Mann’ s The S ev en th A nnual R e p o rt . . . . . 38 S tow e’ s R e p o r t ...................................................... 39 B ackground l i t e r a t u r e ............................................. 41 B a rra c lo u g h ’ s The O rig in s o f M odern Germany. ......................................................... . 42 C u b b e rle y ’ s The H is to r y o f E d u c a tio n . . . 43 i v CHAPTER PAGE Dimock’ s M odem P o l i t i c s and A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ......................................................... 44 H en d erso n ’ s S h o rt H is to r y o f Germany . . . 44 H ay es’ The H i s t o r i c a l E v o lu tio n o f M odem N a tio n a lis m . . . . . . . . . . . 45 H e rtz * s N a t i o n a li t y i n H is to r y and P o l i t i c s ....................................................................... 46 L o e w e n s te in ’ s The Germans i n H is to r y ... . . 46 P a u ls e n ’ s Gorman E d u c a tio n P a s t and P re s e n t and The German u n i v e r s i t i e s and U n iv e r s ity S t u d y ........................................... 48 R e is n e r ’ s N a tio n a lis m and E d u c a tio n S in ce 1789 ......................................................... . . 49 T r e i t s c h k e ’s H is to r y o f Germany i n th e N in e te e n th C e n t u r y ................................................ 50 R e la te d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s ................................... . . 51 B e l l ’ s i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n 1935 . . . . . . . 51 E n g e lh r e c h t*s i n v e s t i g a t i o n in 1933. . . . 52 N u l l ’ s i n v e s t i g a t i o n in 1936 . . . . . . . 53 M aupin’ s i n v e s t i g a t i o n in 1933 ... ... 54 Summary. ....................... 55 I I I . ASSUMPTIONS A N D HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY................... 56 A ssum ptions o f th e s tu d y ............................. 56 H y p o th eses o f th e s tu d y .......................... ......................... 57 V CHAPTER PAGE Summary............................................................. 59 IV . HISTORICAL BACKGROUND....................... 60 I n t r o d u c t i o n ............................................... 60 P r u s s ia i n th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y . .................... 61 P r u s s ia n e m e r g e n c e ......................................................... 61 The P r u s s ia n u n i t y ................... . ................................. 62 The H o h e n z o lle m s ........................................................ . . 63 F re d e r ic k th e F i r s t .............................................................. 65 F re d e ric k I f s c h a r a c t e r ................................................ 66 F re d e r ic k W illia m 1 .............................................................. 67 F re d e r ic k and th e p e o p le ........................ 68 F re d e r ic k I I ............................................................................ 71 F re d e r ic k I I a s l e g i s l a t o r ..................................... 72 F re d e ric k I I a s r u l e r ................................................... 73 F re d e r ic k W illia m I I ..................................... 75 P r u s s ia w eak en s................................................................... 76 F re d e ric k W illia m I I I ............................................... 77 D efea t o f P r u s s i a . ........................ 78 Summary........................................................ 81 V. PRUSSIA IN 1 8 0 8 ........................................................................... 82 I n t r o d u c t i o n ............................................................................ 82 T re a ty o f T i l s i t ................................................................... 82 Baron vom S te in and th e N ap o leo n ic re fo rm s . . 85 N apoleon f s a i m ................................................................... 86 v i CHAPTER PACE S te in * s g o a l ........................................................................ 88 S te in f o rc e d o u t ............................................... 89 P r u s s ia b e g in s to change . ........................................ 89 E d ic t o f 1 8 0 7 ........................................................................ 90 The o th e r l e a d e r s ................................................................... 92 E rn s t M o ritz A r n d t ......................................................... 92 A ugust W ilhelm Anton von G n e is e n a u ...................... 93 W illia m von H u m b o ld t..................................................... 96 F r ie d r ic h M arw ritz.................... ......................................... 98 The l i t e r a r y and i n t e l l e c t u a l p o s i t i o n . . . . 99 Von K l e i s t ............................................................................ 100 The u n i v e r s i t i e s .......................................... 100 F ic h te a s co s m o p o l i t a n ................................................ 101 Summary........................................................................................... 102 7 1 . THE SCHOOLS OF GERMANY......................................................... 104 I n tr o d u c tio n ............................................................................ 104 B ackground s k e tc h ................................................................... 104 The C h u r c h ............................................................................ 105 The sc h o o l R e g u la tio n s o f 1763 .................................... 106 F u n c tio n s o f th e R e g u l a t i o n s .................................. 106 M eth o d o lo g y ............................................................................ 108 N a t i o n a l i z a t i o n ........................................................................ 109 A llgem eine L a n d r e c h t ..................................................... 110 G rad u al re s u rg e n c e ......................................................... I l l v i i CHAPTER PAGE E f f e c t on sc h o o ls o f P ru s s ia n d e f e a t and th r e a te n e d n a t io n a l e x t i n c t i o n . . . . . . . 113 S ta tu s o f sc h o o l sy stem — 1808. . . . . . . . 113 Change in o u tlo o k .............................................................. 113 S ch o o ls l a g ............................................................................ 114 S ch o o ls fo rc e d in to p r o m in e n c e ....................... . 115 R eform s b r in g c h a n g e .................................................... 117 L e a d e rs em phasize s c h o o ls . .................................. 118 The s c h o o ls b e g in to c h a n g e ........................................... 119 I n f lu e n c e o f P e s t a l o z z i ................................................ 130 The s c h o o ls ’ r e a c t i o n ............................................... 133 Lower s c h o o ls ............................................................. 134 U n iv e r s ity o f B e r l i n ..................................................... 135 Summary.......................................................................................... 137 V II. JOHAHH GOTTLIEB FIC H T E ......................................................... 139 I n t r o d u c t i o n ............................................................. 139 B io g ra p h ic a l s k e tc h .............................................................. 139 Youth and p h ilo s o p h ic a l s t u d i e s ............................. 131 Y ears a s a t u t o r .................................................... 133 P r o f e s s o r s h ip a t J e n a ..................................................... 134 B e r lin d a y s ............................................................. 135 L a s t d ay s and d e a th . ...................................... 136 F i c h t e ’ s p h ilo s o p h y . .......................................... 137 E s s e n t i a l p r i n c i p l e s o f F i c h t e ’ s p h ilo s o p h y . 138 CHAPTER PAGE The E g o ................................................................................. 140 F ic h t e 1 s m e ta p h y s ic s ..................................................... 142 F ic h t e ’ s th e o r y o f k n o w led g e.......................... 144 O v e ra ll v ie w ........................................................ 144 Aim o f e d u c a tio n . .......................................... 145 F i c h t e ’ s e p is te m o lo g y ................................................... 147 D evelopm ent o f k n o w led g e........................................... 147 A b so lu te c o n te n t o f know ledge . . . . . . . 149 The Ego and th e D ing an S ic h .................................. 150 Power o f k n o w led g e......................................................... 151 A ll th o u g h t em an ates from one p r i n c i p l e . . 152 F i c h t e ’ s e t h o s ................................................ 154 I n n e r m o r a l i t y ............................ 155 Im p o rta n ce o f m o r a l i t y ................................................ 156 M o r a lity i n e d u c a t i o n ................................................ 156 Aim o f e t h i c s ................................................................... 157 The s i g n i f ic a n c e o f F i c h te ’ s e d u c a tio n a l t h e o r i e s . ....................................................................... 158 D em ocratic i d e a l .............................................................. 159 D em ocratic e d u c a tio n ................................. 160 S ig n if ic a n c e o f h i s sy stem o f m o r a li ty . . . 161 A ll-a ro u n d d e v e lo p m e n t................................................. 162 S um m ary.......................................................................................... 152 T i l l . THE SCHOOLS ARE REFORMED.................................................... 164 i x CHAPTER PAGE I n t r o d u c ti o n . . ................................. 164 G en eral n a tu r e o f th e A d d r e s s e s ............................ 164 Reden an d ie D eu tsch e N a tio n . . . . . . . . . 167 F i r s t A d d r e s s ........................ . . ............................ 167 Second A d d re ss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 T h ird A d d ress . • • . • • • • * • • • . . . 169 F o u rth A d d re ss.................................................................. 170 F i f t h A d d r e s s ................................................................... 171 S ix th A d d ress 172 S ev en th A d d ress •••••••• ••• •• • 175 E ig h th A d d re ss ................................................................... 174 N in th A d d r e s s ................................................................... 175 T enth A d d r e s s ................................. 177 E le v e n th A d d re ss....................... 178 T w e lfth A d d ress .......................................... . 179 T h ir te e n th A d d re ss.......................................... 180 F o u rte e n th A d d re ss. . 181 E f f e c t o f th e A d d re sse s ................... 182 ftie s c h o o ls a re r e o r g a n i z e d ....................... 183 N a tio n a li z a t io n o f th e s c h o o ls . .. ... . 184 P la c e o f r e l i g i o u s e d u c a tio n . . . . . . . . 185 The r e o r g a n iz a tio n o f P r u s s ia n e d u c a tio n . . . 186 O v e r a ll p la n . . • • • . • • • . • • • • • • 187 The a d m in is tr a tiv e c o u n tie s . . . . . . . . 188 X CHAPTER PAGE S ch o o l in s p e c tio n and c i r c l e s ..................... 189 P a r is h o r s c h o o l d i s t r i c t ............................... 190 The e le m e n ta ry s c h o o ls . ................................. 191 E d u c a tio n made c o m p u ls o r y ................................. . 191 S u p p o rt f o r th e p rim a ry s c h o o l s ................. 193 S e le c tio n o f t e a c h e r s ............................................... 194 C u rric u lu m ................................. • • • 194 S eco n d ary e d u c a t i o n ............................................................. 196 B u r l ie r s c h o o l s ............................................... 197 The G y m n a s ie n ................................. 199 New c u rric u lu m f o r G ym nasien.......................... 200 The Norm al s c h o o ls .................................................................. 202 P u rp o se o f th e s e m i n a r i e s ............................... 203 The u n i v e r s i t i e s ....................................................................... 204 M iddle a g e s ..................................................... 205 U n i v e r s i t i e s c h a n g e d ............................................. 206 New u n i v e r s i t i e s ....................................................... 206 S u m m ary.......................................................................................... 207 IX . H O W THE SCHOOLS MODIFIED THE SOCIAL ORDER . . . 208 I n t r o d u c t i o n ......................................................................... 208 The m o d if ic a tio n o f s o c i e t y ............................ 209 N a tu re o f th e P r u s s ia n s o c i e t y ..................... 209 M onarchy l i b e r a l i z e d ........................................... .... . 211 S to w e 's R e p o rt...........................................• • • • • 212 x i CHAPTER PACE B arn ard and h i s J o u r n a l ........................................... 215 Mann’ s R e p o rt ................................................................... 216 C o u sin ’ s R e p o r t ..................................... 217 P a u ls e n ’ s R e p o rts ......................................................... 219 T r e its c h k e ’ s R e p o r ts ..................................................... 220 The m eans by w hich th e s c h o o ls m o d ifie d th e s o c i a l o r d e r .............................................................. 221 N a tio n a lis m th e k e y ..................................................... 222 The u se o f F i c h t e ’ s t h e o r i e s .................................. 223 N a tio n a lis m th e s lo g a n o f th e new s c h o o l s .................................................... 225 S ta te f u r n is h e s th e p u r p o s e ....................... 226 O rg a n iz a tio n o f s c h o o ls in s tr u m e n ta l in p ro m o tin g n a t i o n a l i s m ........................................... 227 The s c h o o l m a s t e r s ......................................................... 229 The s c h o o lm a s te rs a re in d o c tr i n a te d . . . . 231 E d u c a tio n a s an in s tru m e n t f o r n a t i o n a l i s m ............................................................. • 232 The q u e s tio n o f n a t i o n a l i s m .................................. 233 P r u s s ia n dom inance......................................................... 234 The c o u rse o f m o d if ic a ti o n ........................................... 236 End o f em ergency. . ................................................ 237 The m o d if ic a tio n e n d s .......................................... . 239 F re d e ric k W illia m I I I ............................ 240 x i i CHAPTER PAGE S um m ary.......................................................... . . . . . 242 X. PHILOSOPHICAL INTERPRETATION........................................... 2 4 5 I n t r o d u c ti o n . ..................................................... £ 4 3 The m odern c o n tr o v e r s y ..................................................... 243 E d u c a tio n a s c o n s e r v a tiv e ........................................... 245 A dvantage s ............................................................................ 247 E d u c a tio n a s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n ....................................... 249 The t e l i c c o n c e p t .............................................................. 251 The t e l i c c o n c e p t in e d u c a tio n ............................. 253 Need f o r p l a n n i n g ......................................................... 255 C o n s ta n ts o f e d u c a tio n ....................... 256 F ic h te an d th e t e l i c c o n c e p t.................................. 258 In d e p e n d e n t p la n n in g n o t f e a s i b l e .................... 259 E d u c a tio n and n a tio n a lis m in i t s t e l i c c o n n o ta tio n ..................................................... 260 The s c h o o ls a s c o o p e r a tiv e ........................................... 263 N atu re o f i n t e g r a t i v e e d u c a tio n ........................ 267 What th e stu d y h a s r e v e a l e d ...................................... 268 A m e etin g p o i n t .............................................................. 268 A t e n t a t i v e p a t t e r n .................................................... 269 Why th e German re a rra n g e m e n t f a i l e d . . . . 269 L ogic a l d e d u c tio n s . . ........................................... 270 The m o d if ic a tio n o f s o c ie ty by th e s c h o o l s ............................................................................ 271 x i i i CHAPTER PAGE The d e f e a t a t J e n a g a lv a n iz e d P r u s s ia in to a c t i o n . . • . ............................ . . . 272 D i s a s te r h i ^ i l i g h t e d th e s c h o o ls .......................... 273 Johann G o ttli e b F ic h te and h i s A d d re sse s. . 274 O th e r f a c t o r s h e lp e d rem o ld s o c i e t y . . . . 276 The men who le d th e P r u s s ia n r e h a b i l i t a t i o n . . ............................. 276 The P r u s s ia n s r e o r g a n iz e d t h e i r s c h o o ls i n t o an e f f e c t i v e m echanism . . . . . . . 278 The P r u s s ia n s c h o o l sy stem w as n o t d e m o c ra tic ............................................... 279 The P r u s s ia n d e b a c le i n f e r s o th e r m eans f o r m o d if ic a tio n .................................................... 280 A dom inant p a t t e r n .................................................... 281 S u m m ary.................................................................... 283 X I. THE EVALUATION OF HYPOTHESES...................................... 285 The s c h o o ls h e lp e d m o d ify th e German s o c i a l o r d e r o f th e e a r l y and m id d le n in e te e n th c e n tu ry in to so m eth in g o th e r th a n i t had b e e n ........................................................................... 285 The d i s a s t e r o f th e P r u s s ia n m i l i t a r y by N apoleon s e rv e d a s a m o tiv a tio n f o r r e g e n e r a tio n o f th e s o c i a l o r d e r ................... 286 x iv CHAPTER PAGE The m i l i t a r y d i s a s t e r fo c u s s e d a t t e n t i o n upon th e s c h o o ls .............................................................. 287 The A d d re sse s o f Jo h an n F ic h te w ere a prim e m over in th e s o c i a l re f o rm ........................ 288 F i c h t e ’ s t h e o r i e s w ere g e a re d n a t i o n a l i s t i c a l l y .......................................... 288 O th e r f a c t o r s a ls o o p e r a tiv e i n a g iv e n s o c i e t y ........................................................................... 289 The o th e r r e f o r m e r s .......................................................... 290 C e n tr a l o r g a n i z a t i o n ......................................................... 290 E d u c a tio n w hich i s n o t t r u l y r e p r e s e n ta ti v e f a i l s in i t s p u rp o s e . . . . ............................. 291 I n t e g r a t i v e e d u c a tio n form s one s o lu tio n f o r a d v a n c e m e n t.............................................................. 291 S u m m ary ...................................................................................... 292 X II. SUM M ARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . 294 S u m m ary ..................................* ............................................... 294 S ta te m e n t o f t h e p ro b le m ........................................... 294 Im p o rta n ce o f th e s t u d y ........................................... 295 T e r m in o lo g y ........................................................................ 295 P ro c e d u re . . . . . . . . ...................................... 296 The l i t e r a t u r e ................................................................... 296 P rim a ry s o u r c e s .............................................................. 297 S eco n d ary m a t e r i a l s ..................................................... 298 XV CHAPTER p m & E S o c i o - p o l i t i c a l t r e a t i s e s ............................ • . 300 E d u c a tio n a l h i s t o r i e s ................... * ....................... 300 R e la te d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s ................................................ 301 F a c tu a l d a t a ........................................................................ 302 H i s t o r i c a l b ack g ro u n d ................................................ 502 Johann G o ttli e b F i c h t e ................................................ 305 The c o n te m p o ra rie s o f F i c h t e .................................. 304 The s c h o o ls o f Germany.......................................... . . 305 P h ilo s o p h ic a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .......................... 307 C o n c lu sio n s from t h i s s t u d y ...................................... 307 The h y p o th e s e s o f th e s t u d y .................................. 308 M o d if ic a tio n o f th e s o c i a l o r d e r .................... 308 C a ta s tro p h e f u r n is h e d th e m o tiv e .................... 508 The s c h o o ls a r e em p h asiz ed . . ....................... 308 The A d d r e s s e s . . 309 F ic h te a s a n a t i o n a l i s t ....................................... 309 The o th e r f o r c e s ......................................................... 309 The o th e r l e a d e r s ..................................................... 309 The r e o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e s c h o o ls . . . . 310 L oss o f d e m o c ra tic aim ........................................... 310 I n t e g r a t i o n ................................................................... 310 R e c o m m e n d a tio n s........................................ ......................... 310 E d u c a tio n a s a b u lw ark f o r dem ocracy. . . . 311 Common aim o f e d u c a t o r s ........................................... 312 x v i GHAPTIH PAGE R e sta te m e n t o f p u rp o se o f e d u c a tio n . . . . 313 R e a f firm a tio n o f a i m s ...................................................... 314 S u m m ary .................................................................................... 315 C o n c l u s i o n . .....................................• • • • • • • • 316 BIBIiOGRAPHT................................................................................................... 317 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM A N D DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED One o f th e m ost p e rp le x in g p ro b lem s c o n f r o n tin g edu c a tio n to d a y i s th e r e l a t i o n o f s c h o o l and s o c ie ty . T h is v i t a l is s u e h a s p e r s i s t e d th ro u g h o u t th e e n t i r e h i s t o r y o f e d u c a tio n . Numerous p la n s have b een s u g g e s te d f o r th e r e s o l u t i o n o f t h i s com plex p ro b lem . These p r o p o s a ls h av e b een many tim e s b a se d upon m ere o b s e r v a tio n r a t h e r th a n upon s c i e n t i f i c d a ta . H i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h a p p e a rs a s one e f f e c t i v e m eans in th e s o lu t io n o f t h i s s t i l l u rg e n t dilem m a. I n h i s e p o c h a l w o rk , Democracy and E d u c a tio n . Dewey s t a t e s : H i s t o r i c a l know ledge . . . i s an o rg a n f o r a n a l y s i s o f th e w arp and woof o f th e p r e s e n t s o c i a l f a b r i c , o f m aking known th e f o r c e s w hich have woven th e p a t t e r n . . . The u se o f h i s t o r y f o r c u l t i v a t i n g a s o c i a l i z e d i n t e l l i g e n c e c o n s t i t u t e s i t s m o ra l s i g n i f i c a n c e . The a s s i s t a n c e w hich may be g iv e n b y h i s t o r y to a more i n t e l l i g e n t sy m p a th e tic u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s o f th e p r e s e n t i n w hich i n d iv i d u a ls s h a re i s a p erm an en t and c o n s tr u c tiv e m o ral a s s e t . 1 I t w ould seem t h a t th e f u l l co m p reh en sio n so e s s e n t i a l t o any r e a l ap p ro ach to th e p ro b lem i s u n l i k e l y w ith o u t th e sy m p a th e tic u n d e rs ta n d in g o f s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n s . I n t e l l i g e n t i n s i g h t i n t o t r a n s c r i b e d e x p e rie n c e s o f th e p a s t a p p e a rs n e c e s s a r y f o r c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f sc h o o l ^ Jo h n Dewey, Dem ocracy and E d u c a tio n (New Y ork: The M acm illan Company, 1 9 1 6 ), p p . 2 5 4 -5 5 . z and s o c ie ty , I . THE PROBLEM S ta te m e n t o f th e p ro b le m . The p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y w as to d e term in e th ro u g h h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h th e e x te n t t o w hich th e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e o f P r u s s ia o f th e e a r l y and m id d le n in e te e n th c e n tu r y was m o d ifie d by th e s c h o o ls , th e m eans u se d t o e f f e c t t h i s m o d if ic a tio n , and t h e perm anent s i g n i f ic a n c e o f th e o u tco m es. I n o t h e r w o rd s, th e s tu d y a tte m p te d to an sw er th e fo llo w in g q u e s tio n s : 1 . What w as th e s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n o b ta in in g i n P r u s s ia a t th e P eace o f T i l s i t , 1807? 2 . What w ere t h e e v e n ts le a d in g up t o t h i s s i t u a t i o n ? 3 . What w ere th e f o r c e s w hich b ro u g h t th e s c h o o ls in to sh a rp fo c u s a s an in s tru m e n t o f refo rm ? 4 . What w ere th e t h e o r i e s o f Jo h an n G o ttli e b F ic h te w ith r e f e r e n c e t o th e r e l a t i o n o f th e s c h o o ls to th e p o l i t i c a l s t a t e o f th e p e rio d ? 5 . What o th e r men w ere a c tiv e a t th e tim e o f F ic h te and in s tr u m e n ta l in t h i s refo rm ? 6 . What m eans w ere u t i l i z e d t o e f f e c t t h i s refo rm ? 7 . What w ere th e outcom es o f t h i s s o c i a l m o d if ic a tio n th ro u g h th e s c h o o ls ? 8 . What c o n c lu s io n s an d im p lic a tio n s can be p r e s e n te d a s h av in g p erm an en t s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r e d u c a tio n ? 3 Im p o rta n c e o f th e s tu d y . T h is s tu d y i s im p o rta n t f o r th e fo llo w in g re a s o n s : (1) th e d e te r m in a tio n o f th e e x a c t r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een sc h o o l and s o c ie t y i s a m a tte r o f g rav e co n c ern t o e d u c a tio n * As B ru b ac h e r so w e ll s t a t e s t h i s g r e a t i s s u e : B a sic and fu n d a m e n ta l i s th e q u e s tio n a s to th e r e l a t i o n o f th e sc h o o l to th e s o c i a l o rd e r* S hould th e sc h o o l ta k e i t s c o l o r a t io n from th e s o c i a l o r d e r a s i t i s ? Or sh o u ld th e sc h o o l be view ed a s an in s tru m e n t o f s o c i a l p r o g r e s s ? 2 (2) E d u c a tio n a l c i r c l e s a r e v e ry much co n c ern ed w ith t h i s p ro b lem to d a y a s e v id e n c e d by th e fo llo w in g p e r t i n e n t q u o ta tio n : The hope f o r a dem ocracy, i t s a b i l i t y to m a in ta in and e n la r g e i t s l i b e r t i e s m u st r e s t fu n d a m e n ta lly upon th e e d u c a tio n a l e x p e rie n c e o f i t s c i t i z e n s , h en ce upon te a c h e rs * W ith am ple r e s p e c t f o r j u r i s t s , p o l i t i c a l f i g u r e s , s o c i a l w o rk e rs , and econom ic e x p e r t s , th e i n i t i a t i v e h a s p a s se d o u t o f th o s e s e c t o r s , and a r e - « c r e a ti o n o f p u rp o se d ep en d s upon le a d e r s i n e d u c a tio n * (3) T here i s much d o u b t and c o n fu s io n e x t a n t a s r e g a r d s th e p o s i t i o n s c h o o ls sh o u ld ta k e to w ard s o c i e t y . S p e c i f i c a l l y , a Supreme C o u rt J u s t i c e a s k s t h i s q u e s tio n c o n c e rn in g th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s t h a t u n i v e r s i t i e s sh o u ld assum e: Who w i l l deny t h a t P r o f e s s o r W hitehead was r i g h t i n h i s b e l i e f t h a t th e f a t e o f th e i n t e l l e c t u a l c i v i l i z a tio n o f th e w o rld to d a y i s t o no in c o n s id e r a b le 2 Jo h n S . B ru b a c h e r, M odern (Hew Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Gompan, . 3 F r i t z L . K unz, E d i t o r i a l , M ain C u rre n ts i n M odern T h o u g h t. 6 : 9 , S p rin g , 1 948. 4 e x te n t i n th e k e e p in g o f o u r u n i v e r s i t i e s . . . What a r e th e y d o in g w ith t h e i r pow er and t h e i r dutjr? But u n i v e r s i t i e s a r e n o t a lo n e in r e s t a t i n g t h e i r g o a ls in s o c i e t y and s e e k in g new er v a lu e s . A le a d in g sc h o o l sy stem s t a t e s to i t s e le m e n ta ry p e rs o n n e l: The g o a ls o f e d u c a tio n i n a dem ocracy a r e u n d e rg o in g th e m ost e x a c tin g s c r u t i n y to w hich th e y h av e e v e r been s u b je c te d . The s c h o o ls a r e u n d e rta k in g w ith an augm ented s e r io u s n e s s th e ta s k w hich t h e i r s u p p o r te r s and p a tr o n s have a s s ig n e d to them , n am ely , th e p r e p a r a t io n o f y o u th f o r p r e s e r v in g o u r dem ocracy, f o r s e l f s u p p o r t, f o r i n t e l l i g e n t c i t i z e n s h i p , f o r co m p eten t hom e-m aking and f o r g r a c io u s s a t i s f a c t o r y l i v i n g . T hese h ig h g o g ls , k e e n ly r e a l i z e d , demand a c a r e f u l a s s a y in g . • . 5 (4) T here i s an u r g e n t n e e d in view o f p r e s e n t e v e n ts f o r d a ta c o n c e rn in g s c h o o l and s o c i e t y . S tu d e n ts o f e d u c a tio n sh o u ld f i n d i t o f v a lu e to exam ine h i s t o r y c r i t i c a l l y f o r i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f a tte m p te d s o c i a l re fo rm s th ro u g h e d u c a tio n . As r e g a r d s F ic h te and h i s e r a th e r e i s much t h a t can be h e lp f u l i n th e r e s o l u t i o n o f m odern e d u c a tio n a l p ro b le m s . T u rn b u ll, an em in en t E n g lis h c r i t i c o f F i c h te , and h im s e lf a le a d in g B r i t i s h e d u c a to r , sa y s c o n c e rn in g th e v a lu e o f s tu d y in g F ic h te : What i s c e r t a i n i s t h a t he b e lo n g s to th e c l a s s o f c r e a t i v e s p i r i t s , and t h a t many o f h i s e d u c a tio n a l p r i n c i p l e s a r e s t i l l p e r f e c t l y sound. T hese p r i n c i p l e s 4 L e t t e r o f J u s t i c e F e lix F r a n k f u r te r to th e Hew York T im e s, J a n u a ry 7, 1 9 4 8 . 5 E liz a b e th D. Woods, "E d u c a tio n L i f t s I t s S i g h t s ," G uidance in E le m e n ta ry S ch o o ls (Los A n g e le s, C a l i f o r n i a : S chool ^ P u b lic a tio n No. 5 9 8 , 1 9 4 4 ), p . 7 . a r e o f v a lu e now a s th e y w ere i n 1 8 08, and a re a p p l i c a b le n o t to one c o u n try a lo n e , b u t to an y n a t i o n • I n th e s e d a y s , t h e r e f o r e , when e d u c a tio n i s th e s u b je c t o f so much d is c u s s io n and c r i t i c i s m , such v iew s a s a r e s e t f o r t h by F ic h te m e r it c lo s e s c r u t i n y and c a r e f u l con s i d e r a t i o n . 6 (5) The e d u c a tio n a l movement i n P r u s s i a a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e f i r s t h a l f o f th e n in e te e n th e e n tu r y , g iv e s one o f t h e m ost lu c i d p o r t r a i t s o f an a tte m p te d re fo rm o f s o c i e ty th ro u g h e d u c a tio n . I t w as a p e r io d when th e i s s u e s w ere c l e a r , th e id e a s o f th e le a d e r s f r e e l y e x p re s s e d , and th e su b se q u e n t outcom es a m a tte r o f h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h . The n o te d p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t , G a t l i n , w r i te s w ith r e f e r e n c e to t h i s e r a , ” . . . t h e agony o f F i c h t e ’ s d o u b ts and ch an g es e x p re s s e s m ore c l e a r l y th a n i t i s e x p re s s e d i n any o th e r 7 w r i t e r th e c r i s i s i n c i v i l i z a t i o n f o r h i s a g e .” F i c h t e ’ s A d d re sse s to t h e German H a tio n a r e s t i l l lan d m ark s b ecau se o f t h e i r in f lu e n c e upon a p e o p le . T h at an a d d r e s s co n c ern ed w ith e d u c a tio n sh o u ld so sway an e n t i r e p e o p le i s a phenomenon w o rth y o f f u r t h e r s tu d y . E n g e lb re c h t w r i t e s , ”The Re den w ere a v e ry g r e a t in f lu e n c e i n t h e i r day d e f i n i t e l y t r a c e a b l e in th e re fo rm s o f S te in and in th e W ars 8 o f L i b e r a t i o n .” I t i s w ith t h i s in f lu e n c e t h a t t h i s s tu d y 6 G. H. T u r n b u ll, The E d u c a tio n a l T h eo ry o f J . G. F ic h te (L iv e rp o o l: U n iv e r s ity P r e s s L im ite d , ± 9 3 6 )7 3 4 . ^ G eorge G a tl in , The S to ry o f th e P o l i t i c a l P h ilo s o p h e rs (New Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, 1934) , p . 48 0 . 8 Helm uth C. E n g e lb r e c h t, Jo h an n G o ttli e b F ic h te (New Y ork: C olum bia U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1933) , p . I T l i s c o n c e rn e d . F o r i t may p o s s i b ly p r e s e n t a c lu e to s o lv in g some o f o u r p ro b lem s a s r e g a r d s e d u c a tio n and s o c i e t y . G u b b e rle y , i n h i s H is to r y o f E d u c a tio n . sa y s o f F ic h te : Qhe p h ilo s o p h e r F i c h t e , 'whose A d d re sse s (1807-1808) on th e c o n d itio n o f th e German p e o p le , a f t e r t h e i r h u m ilia tin g d e f e a t b y N ap o leo n , d id much t o r e v e a l to P r u s s ia th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f n a t i o n a l r e g e n e r a tio n by m eans o f e d u c a tio n . . . 9 The m ost n o ta b le e v e n t i n E uropean p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y d u rin g th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y , a c c o rd in g t o Eby and A rrow w ood,^0 was th e fo rm a tio n o f th e German U npire and i t s r i s e a s a pow er i n w o rld a f f a i r s . T h is em ergence a s an i n t e r n a t i o n a l pow er was i n g r e a t p a r t due to th e d ev elo p m en t o f P r u s s i a , and th e r o l e i t p la y e d a s b u i l d e r o f th e German E m pire. E d u c a tio n w as a ls o d e c is iv e in sh a p in g th e new Germany. I t w as F ic h te who gave t h i s g r e a t im p e tu s to edu c a tio n when P r u s s ia l a y p r o s t r a t e b e fo re th e c o n q u e ro r N ap o leo n . I t was h e who th u n d e re d t h a t th e o n ly hope f o r s a l v a t i o n f o r th e dow ntrodden Germans w as th e n eed f o r a d o p tin g th e P e s ta lo z z ia n system o f e d u c a tio n . "As a r e s u l t 9 E llw ood P . C u b b e rle y , The Hi s t o r y o f E d u c a tio n (B o sto n : H oughton M i f f l i n Company, 1 9 2 0 ), p . 545. 10 F re d e r ic k Eby and C h a rle s FI in n Arrowwood, The D evelopm ent o f M odem E d u c a tio n (New Y ork: P r e n tic e H a ll, I n c . , T634T, P* 6 5 . 7 th e P r u s s ia n s became a n a tio n o f s c h o o lm a s te rs and p u p i l s . W ith in t h r e e d e c a d e s , th e P r u s s ia n s c h o o ls became th e m o d els 1 1 f o r th e e n t i r e w o r l d .” (6 ) F i n a l l y , a h i s t o r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n su ch a s t h i s su p p l i e s d a ta f o r a d i r e c t a t t a c k on th e g e n e s is o f e d u c a tio n a l p ro b lem s th ro u g h th e h i s t o r i c a l a p p ro a c h . I t i s a tr u is m t o s t a t e t h a t c l a r i f i c a t i o n i s n ee d ed on c u r r e n t i s s u e s . The s o c i a l o r d e r d e te rm in e s in g r e a t p a r t th e r o l e w hich s c h o o ls s h a l l p la y , and th e s c h o o ls i n t h e i r tu r n have a g r e a t e f f e c t upon th e s o c i e t y from w hich th e y em an ate. Ho p ro b lem e x i s t s in and o f i t s e l f a lo n e . W ith o u t some a n te c e d e n t d a ta , a tte m p ts a t c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f c u r r e n t i s s u e s i n t h i s s tu d y w ould be ham pered. I n a d e m o c ra tic s o c ie t y s c h o o ls m u st r e s t upon a fo u n d a tio n o f p u b lic w i l l . An exam ple o f w h at h ap p en ed when th e o u tlo o k o f an e n t i r e p e o p le w as tra n s fo rm e d by e d u c a tio n sh o u ld be o f some h e l p . F u r th e r , a s tu d y su ch a s t h i s , w hich exam ines th e e d u c a tio n o f a n o th e r c o u n tr y , c o u ld p o s s i b ly a i d to w a rd more co m p lete u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e l a r g e r s o c i a l i s s u e s . S a r a f ia n sums up t h u s : The p r e s e n t- d a y i d e a l s o f h u m a n ity f o r th e e s t a b l i s h m ent o f a b e t t e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l u n d e r s ta n d in g , and a m ore sy m p a th e tic r e l a t i o n s h i p among t h e n a tio n s o f th e w o rld , n e c e s s i t a t e a th o ro u g h s u rv e y o f th e e d u c a tio n a l th e o r y I b i a . , p . 680 8 and p r a c t i c e o f a l l n a t i o n s in th e w o rld , w h ile a f i r s t hand and a s c i e n t i f i c k n o w led g e, s e c u re d i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n , i s th e o n ly fo u n d a tio n upon w hich th e human r a c e can r e s t i t s h o p es o f b ro th e rh o o d , and b a se i t s c o n s tr u c tiv e p l a n s . I t w ould seem , th e n , t h a t th e r e s o l u t i o n o f c u r r e n t e d u c a tio n a l p ro b lem s a s c o n c e rn s th e a p p ro a c h t o s c h o o ls and s o c i e t y w ould be made s im p le r by exam ining r e l a t e d and p r e v io u s p r a c t i c e s . A tte m p ts a t a s o l u t i o n , such a s th e German n a t i o n o f th e F ic h te a n e r a m ade, may o f f e r a c o n t r i b u t i o n b y c l a r i f y i n g l i k e s i t u a t i o n s and t h e i r c o n c o m ita n t r e s u l t s . B ecause o f th e s e o b s e r v a tio n s , t h e r e f o r e , t h i s i n v e s t i g a t o r b e l ie v e s t h a t a h i s t o r i c a l s tu d y such a s t h i s one can make a d i r e c t c o n t r i b u t io n to p r e s e n t- d a y e d u c a tio n . O nly by c r i t i c a l r e s e a r c h can h i s t o r i c a l d a ta be u n e a rth e d . S u b j e c t i v i t y i n h i s t o r y o f f e r s no v a l i d f o u n d a tio n f o r th e / s o lu t io n o f m odem e d u c a tio n a l p ro b le m s. T h is s tu d y i s an a tte m p t a t h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h and a s such sh o u ld assume some im p o rta n c e . I I . DEFINITIONS OF TEBMS USED The s t a t e . I n an y i n v e s t i g a t i o n such a s t h i s o n e , a few te rm s , u n le s s d e fin e d f o r p u rp o s e s o f c l a r i f i c a t i o n , w ould p o s s i b ly r e s u l t i n c o n f u s io n . F o r, a s B ru b aeh er p u ts ^ K evork A vedis S a r a f ia n , " H is to r y o f E d u c a tio n i n A rm en ia," (u n p u b lis h e d D o c to r’ s d i s s e r t a t i o n , The U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e le s, 1 9 2 9 ), p . 1 . 9 i t , " In sp e a k in g o f th e r e l a t i o n o f th e s t a t e to e d u c a tio n , one sh o u ld he l u c i d l y c l e a r a s to th e m eaning he a t t a c h e s t o 13 th e te rm s t a t e . " F o r th e p u rp o se s o f t h i s s tu d y , Dimock’ s d e f i n i t i o n o f th e s t a t e w i l l be em ployed. He d e f in e s a s t a t e in th e fo llo w in g m an n er: The s t a t e lik e w is e i s a c o n c e p tu a l c r e a tio n r a t h e r th a n so m eth in g c o n c re te t h a t no one can p u t o n e ’ s h an d s on and w atch o p e r a t e . I t i s no m ore im a g in a ry , how ever, th a n s o c i e t y o r com m unity. I t i s p ro b a b ly even m ore n e c e s s a r y f o r o u r th in k in g and u n d e rs ta n d in g . The s t a t e h a s suprem e a u t h o r i t y o v e r th e p o p u la tio n on a d e t e r m in a te p o r tio n o f th e e a r t h ’ s s u r f a c e , and o p e r a te s th ro u g h g o v ern m en ts to c a r r y o u t th e w is h e s and common a s p ||a t i o n s o f th e com munity and th o s e who g o v ern f o r S o c ie ty . T h is term i s u se d in te r c h a n g e a b ly w ith "The S ta te " a lth o u g h Dimock d e f in e s i t somewhat d i f f e r e n t l y . He s a y s , " S o c ie ty c o n s i s t s o f a l l th e p e o p le and a l l th e i n s t i t u t i o n s and a c t i v i t i e s on a g iv e n p o r tio n o f th e e a r t h ’ s 15 s u r f a c e ." S o c ie ty i s a l o o s e r t e m , and u s u a lly c o n n o te s th o s e p e o p le s fo rm in g a c o r p o r a te s t a t e . F o r co n v e n ien c e i n t h i s s tu d y , s t a t e and s o c ie ty w i l l be u sed c o te rm in o u s ly . N a tio n a lis m . B ru b a e h er g iv e s th e fo llo w in g conno t a t i o n o f n a tio n a lis m : "The v i r u s o f n a tio n a lis m g iv e s a 1 B ru b a e h e r, o £ . c i t . . p . 1 94. 14 M a rs h a ll 1 . Dimock, M odem P o l i t i c s and A dm inis t r a t i o n (New Y ork: A m erican Book Company, 1 9 5 7 ), p . 15V ^ L oc. c i t . 10 com plexion t o th e r o l e o f th e s t a t e i n e d u c a tio n w hich o th e rw is e i s q u ite la c k in g . n a tio n a lis m b in d s a p e o p le t o - 16 g e th e r in a s o r t o f c o r p o r a te l i f e * * T h at i s t o s a y , t h a t n a tio n a lis m may be d e f in e d a s an o rg a n iz e d s o c i e t y w ith a c h a r a c te r p e c u l i a r t o i t a lo n e an d w h ich le n d s c o n t i n u i ty to a p e o p le , r e n d e r in g th em , p s y c h o lo g ic a lly s p e a k in g , a s one p e r s o n . The P r u s s ia n E m p ire. I n t h i s s tu d y th e em p h asis w as upon P r u s s ia n h i s t o r y c o rre s p o n d in g to th e r e ig n o f F r e d e r ic k W illia m I I I (1 7 9 7 -1 8 4 0 ). More s p e c i f i c a l l y , i t was th e P r u s s i a o f th e p e r io d o f re fo rm s , c i r c a 1 8 0 7 -1 8 2 0 , when th e l i b e r a l te n d e n c y w as p ro m in e n t; 1 8 2 0 -1 8 4 0 , when C o u sin , S tow e, and o th e r s v i s i t e d P r u s s ia t o r e p o r t a b o u t th e g r e a t sc h o o l r e o r g a n iz a tio n and th e re fo rm s w hich w ere d y in g o u t . P r u s s ia w as th e le a d in g German S ta te a t t h a t t im e , th e German E n p ire h av in g n o t y e t b een fo u n d ed by O tto von B ism arck . F ic h te d e liv e r e d h i s A d d re sse s to a l l th e German p e o p le and th e r e i s no d o u b t a l l o f th e German S t a t e s w ere a f f e c t e d . F or th e p u rp o s e s o f t h i s s tu d y P r u s s i a r e c e iv e d th e m a jo r e m p h a sis . I I I . SCOPE OF THE STUDY H i s t o r i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s . T h is s tu d y was p r im a r i l y ^ B ru b a e h e r, o £ . c i t * , P* 2 1 3 . 11 c o n c e rn e d , a s h a s b een s t a t e d , w ith th e re fo rm e f f e c t e d by e d u c a tio n upon Germ any, o r m ore s p e c i f i c a l l y P r u s s i a , d u rin g th e P ic h te a n e r a . A m a s te r h i s t o r i a n ack n o w led g es th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f h i s t o r i c a l d a ta th u s : H i s t o r i a n s g e n e r a l ly i l l u s t r a t e , r a t h e r th a n c o r r e c t th e id e a s o f th e co m m u n ities w ith in w hich th e y l i v e an d wo lie, and th e developm ent in th e l a s t few c e n t u r i e s , and more p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h e l a s t few g e n e r a tio n s , o f th e w ould be s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t n a t i o n a l s o v e re ig n s t a t e h a s le d h i s t o r i a n s t o ch o o se n a tio n s a s t h e norm al f i e l d s o f h i s t o r i c a l s tu d y . But no s i n g l e n a t i o n , o r n a t io n a l s t a t e can show a h i s t o r y vdiich i s i n i t s e l f s e l f - e x p l a n a t o r y . 17 A t r u e u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e p r e s e n t r e q u i r e s a se n se o f th e s i g n i f ic a n c e o f th e p a s t and i t s r e l a t i o n s to th e p r e s e n t . I t i s re a s o n a b le t o assum e t h a t th e a s p e c ts o f c u r r e n t e d u c a tio n in t h i s s tu d y can be m ore f u l l y com pre hended by some i n s i g h t in to w hat h a s gone b e f o r e . As Adams s t a t e d : To u n d e rs ta n d th e e d u c a tio n a l th e o r y o f th e p r e s e n t we m ust r e g a r d i t i n th e lig g it o f w h at h a s gone b e fo re and w hat i s l i k e l y t o come a f t e r . . * we may a c t i n th e l i v i n g p r e s e n t , w ith o u t r e f e r e n c e to e i t h e r th e p a s t o r th e f u t u r e . But when i t comes t o u n d e rs ta n d in g , th e p r e s e n t owes i t s s ig n i f ic a n c e t o i t s r e l a t i o n to th e r e s t o f th e s e r i e s o f w hich i t fo rm s a p a r t . 18 I t i s w ith t h i s fo re g o in g a d v ic e i n v ie w , a s r e g a r d s th e n e c e s s i t y o f a t o t a l p a t t e r n , t h a t th e s tu d y was A rnold J . T oynbee, A S tu d y o f H is to r y (New York and London: O xford U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1 9 4 7 ), p . 1 . Jo h n Adams, The E v o lu tio n o f E d u c a tio n a l T heory (London: M acm illan and Company, 5.9227, p . 72. 12 d e lim ite d . T h a t i s t o sa y , th e h i s t o r i c a l e r a t r e a t e d i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n w as done so w ith a co m p lete fram e o f r e f e r e n c e . I n o r d e r t o m ore f u l l y i n t e r p r e t th e l i m i t e d p e r io d , any d a ta w h e th e r i t was p a s t o r p r e s e n t was b ro u g h t in f o r added co m p re h en sio n . To u n d e rs ta n d th e p e o p le o f F ic h te a n Germany, c e r t a i n f a c e t s o f th e n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r w ere a n a ly z e d and t r a n s c r i b e d . The e v e n ts d u rin g t h i s p e r io d w ere no ch an ce h a p p e n in g s . B ecause o f th e R eform , th e r e w as a n u n d e rly in g m eaning t h a t gave th e o c c u rre n c e s deep s i g n i f i c a n c e . The P r u s s ia n tr a n s f o r m a tio n was n o t a s e r i a l s t o r y w hose m eaning w as l a t e r c o m p le te ly l o s t . To sum m arize, th e n , th e lo c u s o f t h i s s tu d y w as t h a t e r a o f P r u s s ia n h i s t o r y d u rin g w hich K ing F re d e ric k I H r u l e d , and d u rin g w hich Jo h an n G o ttli e b F ic h te h ad h i s g r e a t e s t in f lu e n c e . The y e a rs 1808-1840 s e t th e s ta g e f o r th e c r i t i c a l e x a m in a tio n o f th e e d u c a tio n a l sy ste m , i t s u se a s a t o o l o f re fo rm , and th e e f f e c t s o f th e re fo rm a t t h a t ti m e . Some l a t e r in f lu e n c e and p erm an en t s ig n i f ic a n c e a r e t r e a t e d in th e c h a p te r s a s s ig n e d t o t h i s p h a s e . P h ilo s o p h ic a l l i m i t a t i o n s . S in c e t h i s s tu d y e n t a i l s p h ilo s o p h ic a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , i t w as deemed a g a in n e c e s s a r y t o d e lim it t h i s s tu d y p h i l o s o p h i c a l ly . L im ita tio n s i n p h ilo s o p h y b e a r a d u a l m ean in g . One l i m i t a t i o n h a s b e a rin g upon th e n a tu r e o f s p e c u la tio n i t s e l f , an d th e o th e r l i m i t a t i o n r e f e r r i n g t o a fram e o f r e f e r e n c e , so t o sp e a k . The 13 f i r s t b o undary i s a s y e t a v e ry moot q u e s tio n , and f o r th e p u rp o s e s o f t h i s s tu d y n eed n o t be d is c u s s e d . I t i s th e second l i m i t a t i o n , i . e . , th e b ra n d o f p h ilo s o p h y im p lie d i n an y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t h a t c o n c e rn s t h i s s tu d y . The Germany o f t h i s stu d y was e s p e c i a l l y u n iq u e i n t h a t i t was a p e r io d o f t r a n s i t i o n . To u n d e rs ta n d th e Germany w hich h ad b een re n d e re d h o rs de co m b at, and r e v iv e d th ro u g h a p h ilo s o p h y propounded by F ic h te i s in d e e d a p ro b lem . M ost o f German p h ilo s o p h y h ad been re n d e re d i n a r t i c u l a te b e c a u se o f th e n a t i o n a l d i s a s t e r . The g r e a t German g e n re o f tr a n s c e n d e n ta lis m i n p h ilo s o p h y a t t h i s tim e h ad a new and e lo q u e n t a d v o c a te . F ic h te f s p h ilo s o p h y h ad made th e m o ra l w i l l th e c ru x o f h i s e d u c a tio n a l d o c t r in e . T h at t h i s p h ilo s o p h y was ex p re s s e d th ro u g h th e s c h o o ls i s now w e ll known. How t o i n t e r p r e t t h i s p h ilo s o p h y c l e a r l y i s th e p ro b lem . F ic h te w as p r im a r il y a p h ilo s o p h e r , h i s t h e o r i e s i n e d u c a tio n b e in g e x p r e s s io n s o f h i s th in k i n g . I s i t p o s s ib le to d e c ip h e r t h i s th e o ry w ith a minimum o f p e r s o n a l b ia s ? T h is s tu d y a tte m p te d t o do s o . To f u l l y u n d e rs ta n d th e p e r io d , t h i s s tu d y li m ite d i t s e l f p r i m a r i l y to an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f F i c h t e 's t h e o r i e s in e d u c a tio n p r o p e r , u s in g o n ly t h a t p a r t o f F i c h t e 's p h ilo s o p h y c o n d u c iv e to a co m p reh en sio n o f h i s e d u c a tio n a l th o u g h t. I n th e c a se o f F i c h t e , i t w as f o r tu n a t e t h a t h i s 1 4 e d u c a tio n a l t h e o r i e s w ere p u t to th e t e s t . T h ere w as, t h e n , a p h ilo s o p h ic a l p a t t e r n o f th e o ry and p r a c t i c e , and th e d ich o to m y u s u a lly o b ta in in g i n many p h ilo s o p h ie s d o es n o t e x i s t . Of c o u rs e t h e r e s t i l l rem a in ed th e d i f f i c u l t y o f s e p a r a tin g th e tw o , b u t i n t h i s r e g a r d F ic h te w as u n iq u e . Bode w r i t e s o f th e o r y and p r a c t i c e a p ro p o s to th e s i t u a t i o n i n t h i s s tu d y : I t h a s lo n g b ee n r e c o g n iz e d , th o u g h u s u a lly i n a vague w ay, t h a t e d u c a tio n a l t h e o r y , o r p h ilo s o p h y o f e d u c a tio n , i s somehow d i f f e r e n t from s c ie n c e . The n a tu r e o f th e d if f e r e n c e h a s j u s t b een in d ic a t e d by th e s ta te m e n t t h a t e d u c a tio n a l th e o ry h a s t o do w ith a t t i tu d e s o r v a lu e o r p r o g r e s s . The s c ie n c e s f u r n is h u s b o d ie s o f o rg a n iz e d and e s t a b l i s h e d f a c t . F o r w h at en d s th e v a r io u s s c ie n c e s h a l l be u s e d , i s a s e p a r a te and in d e p e n d e n t q u e s tio n , f o r w hich e d u c a tio n a l th e o r y m ust p ro v id e a g e n e r a l a n s w e r. The t a s k o f e d u c a tio n a l th e o r y i s n o t d is c o v e r y o f f a c t , b u t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . I t ta k e s th e f a c t s f u r n is h e d by th e s c ie n c e s , and c o n se q u e n tly h a s no te c h n iq u e o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f i t s own. When c o n d itio n s change so a s to r e q u ir e a r e v i s i o n o f e d u c a tio n a l i d e a l s , i t h a s t o b e g in a l l o v e r a g a i n .19 To sum m arize, th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s e d u c a tio n a l s i t u a t i o n w as li m it e d b y th e n a tu r e o f p h ilo s o p h ic th o u g h t c u r r e n t in any one p e r io d ; and se c o n d , by th e d i f f i c u l t y o f re n d e rin g i t i n t e l l i g i b l e . T h is s tu d y li m i t e d i t s e l f t o ex p ounding F ic h te * s p h ilo s o p h y a s im p l i c i t l y and e x p l i c i t l y e x p re s s e d i n h i s e d u c a tio n a l t h e o r i e s . 1 9 ! Boyd H. Bode, M odern E d u c a tio n a l T h e o rie s (New Y ork: The M acm illan Company, 1927) , p p . 3 4 0 -4 1 . 15 L im its o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n * I n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r i n v e s t i g a tio n w h e re v e r p o s s i b l e , th e p rim a ry m a t e r i a l s w ere u se d o r d i r e c t l y q u o te d to a v o id th e sh o rtc o m in g s o f th e i n t e r p r e t a t i v e te c h n iq u e . By l i m i t i n g i t s e l f to a s l i t t l e e x t r a p o la tio n a s was n e c e s s a r y , th e p i c t u r e became m ore o b j e c t i f i e d . B ru b aeh er d is c u s s e s a t some le n g th th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f m is u n d e rs ta n d in g h i s t o r i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . I n th e f o llo w in g q u o ta tio n he s t r e s s e s th e n eed o f c l a r i f i c a t i o n i n h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h : To g iv e a w e l l - i n t e g r a t e d a c c o u n t o f t h e s e f a c t o r s i n each p e r io d ta k e s many p ag e s and much i n s t r u c t i o n a l tim e . I t ta k e s up so much sp a ce and tim e in d e e d t h a t th e s tu d e n t h a s t o p o stp o n e r e a c h in g t h e p r e s e n t so lo n g t h a t he l o s e s c o n ta c t b etw een th e p a s t and th e p r e s e n t . He e a s i l y la p s e s in to th e h a b i t o f th in k in g t h a t i t i s a know ledge o f th e p a s t a s th e p a s t t h a t h e i s a f t e r , r a t h e r th a n a know ledge o f th e p a s t a s g e n e s is o f th e p r e s e n t . 20 T h is i n v e s t i g a t i o n l i m i t e d i t s e l f a s f a r a s was p o s s i b l e to f a c t s a s th e y w ere b e s t e x p r e s s e d . S u b j e c t i v i t y i n so f a r a s w as p o s s ib le w as a v o id e d , a lth o u g h , w ith some o f th e m a t e r i a l , th e s u b je c tiv e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c o u ld n o t be av o id ed * IV . ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY I n tr o d u c to r y c h a p t e r s . T h is s tu d y , a s r e g a r d s 20 Jo h n B ru b a e h e r, A H is to r y o f th e P ro b lem s o f Edn c a t i o n (New Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, 1 9 4 7 ), p p . 16 o r g a n iz a tio n , f a l l s l o g i c a l l y in to t h r e e p a r t s . P a r t X in c lu d e s th e f i r s t s i x c h a p te r s w hich s e rv e a s a g e n e r a l backg ro u n d and i n t r o d u c t i o n to t h i s s tu d y . S p e c i f i c a l l y , i t in c lu d e s C h a p te r I , The P roblem and D e f i n i ti o n s o f Terms U sed; C h a p te r I I , P ro c e d u re and Review o f th e R e la te d L i t e r a t u r e ; C h a p te r I I I , A ssum ptions and H y p o th eses o f th e S tu d y ; C h a p te r IV , H i s t o r i c a l B ackground; C h a p te r V, P r u s s ia i n 1808; C h a p te r V I, The S c h o o ls o f Germany. C e n tr a l c h a p t e r s . C h a p te rs V II , V I I I , IX , a re th e c o re o f th e e n t i r e s tu d y an d s e rv e a s th e f o c i o f e m p h a sis . S p e c i f i c a l l y , P a r t I I in c lu d e s C h a p te r V I I , Jo h an n G o ttlie b F ic h te ; C h a p te r V I I I , The S c h o o ls a r e T ransform ed* and C h a p te r IX , How th e S ch o o ls M o d ifie d th e S o c ia l O rd e r. These c h a p te r s in c lu d e a c o m p lete c r i t i q u e o f th e m ain p ro b lem . C h a p te r V II s e t s f o r t h m in u te ly th e c r i t i c a l p h ilo s o p h ic a l and e d u c a tio n t h e o r i e s o f F ic h te w hich so in f lu e n c e d th e re fo rm o f th e s c h o o ls . C h a p te r V II I t r e a t s o f th e re m a rk a b le tr a n s f o r m a tio n o f th e s c h o o ls fro m an i n e f f i c i e n t an d a r c h a ic sy stem t o one t h a t becam e a m odel f o r th e w o rld , and C h a p te r IX g iv e s an a n a l y s i s o f th e m ethod u se d t o e f f e c t th e s o c i a l re fo rm . G e n e ra l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . C h a p te r X, P h ilo s o p h ic a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , and C h a p te r X I, E v a lu a tio n o f th e Hypo t h e s e s , a r e in c lu d e d u n d e r t h i s h e a d in g ; C h a p te r X p r o v id e s 17 g e n e r a liz e d e x p r e s s io n s o f th e d a ta w hich w ere d is c lo s e d * I t i s a n a tte m p t a t p r e s e n tin g some s p e c i f i c and c o h e re n t d a ta w hich co u ld c o n t r ib u t e to e d u c a tio n a l th e o r y and p r a c t i c e . C h a p te r X X i s an e v a lu a tio n o f th e h y p o th e s e s w hich w ere p o s it e d i n C h a p te r I I I . Summary. C h a p te r X II i s th e f i n a l c h a p te r , and i s c o n c e rn e d w ith th e summary, c o n c lu s io n s , an d reco m m en d atio n s o f th e s tu d y . I t h a s b een s e t f o r t h i n C h a p te r I t h a t th e b a s ic c o n s id e r a tio n o f t h i s s tu d y w as t h r e e f o l d : (1) th e h i s t o r i c a l tr e a tm e n t o f a s t r i k i n g e p is o d e w h ereb y th e s c h o o ls tra n s fo rm e d th e P r u s s ia o f th e e a r l y and m id d le n in e te e n th c e n tu r y ; (2) th e e x p o s itio n o f th e c e n t r a l c h a r a c te r i n th e u n iq u e e p is o d e , Jo h an n G o t t l i e b P i c h t e , w ith em p h asis upon h i s e d u c a tio n a l th e o r y ; (3) th e m eth o d s u se d to e f f e c t th e re fo rm and i t s p erm an en t s i g n i f i c a n c e t o e d u c a tio n . I t w as o b s e rv e d t h a t th e s tu d y assum es some im p o rt ance b e c a u s e i t o f f e r s d a ta n eed ed f o r c o r r e c t h i s t o r i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n an d a s s i s t a n c e in s o lv in g m odern e d u c a tio n a l p ro b le m s . Such d a ta may p ro v e u s e f u l i n o p e n in g up some new e v id e n c e a s r e g a r d s t h e d e te r m in a tio n o f e d u c a tio n a l p ro b le m s . C h a p te r I I w i l l s e t f o r t h th e p ro c e d u re and th e s o u rc e s em ployed t o d e r iv e th e d a ta f o r t h i s s tu d y . CHAPTER I I PROCEDURE AND REVIEW OP THE RELATED LITERATURE I n t r o duo t i o n . The l a s t c h a p te r s t a t e d th e p ro b le m , gave i t s im p o rta n c e , and d e f in e d some o f th e m ore fu n d a m e n ta l te rm s . F u r th e r , th e c h a p te r d e lim ite d th e s tu d y , p r e s e n te d i n b r i e f i t s fo rm a t, and in g e n e r a l, s e rv e d a s an in tr o d u c t o r y s u rv e y . T h is c h a p te r e x p la in s th e p ro c e d u re an d re v ie w s th e l i t e r a t u r e . And s in c e th e l a t t e r i s th e s in e qua non o f t h i s ty p e o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n , i t h a s been deemed a p p r o p r ia te t o com bine th e tw o , and b o th w i l l be p r e s e n te d i n d e t a i l i n t h i s c h a p te r . I . PROCEDURE Good, B a rr , and S c a te s s t a t e c o n c e rn in g t h e h i s t o r i c a l m ethod: T h re e m a jo r p r o c e s s e s a r e in v o lv e d i n th e h i s t o r i c a l m ethod: (1 ) c o l l e c t i o n o f d a t a , w ith c o n s id e r a ti o n o f docum ents and r e l i c s , o f p rim a ry and se c o n d a ry s o u r c e s , o f b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l p ro c e d u re and o r g a n iz a tio n o f m a t e r i a l s ; (2) c r i t i c i s a o f d a ta c o l l e c t e d in c lu d in g th e p r o c e s s e s o f e x t e r n a l ( o r lo w er) c r i t i c i a a and i n t e r n a l o r (h ig h e r) c r i t i c i s m , and (5) th e p r e s e n ta t i o n o f th e f a c t s i n r e a d a b le foxm , in v o lv in g p ro b lem s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n , c o m p o s itio n , e x p o s itio n , and i n t e r p re ta tio n .^ * C a r te r V. Good, A lex a n d er S . B a r r , and D ouglas E . S c a te s , The M ethodology o f E d u c a tio n a l R e sea rc h (New Y ork: D* A p p le to n -C e n tu ry Company, 1 9 3 6 ), p . 241. 19 C o lle c tio n o f d a t a * The above p ro c e d u re was c l o s e l y a d h e re d to i n t h i s s tu d y . F i r s t , th e d a t a w ere a l l c o l l e c t ed and a n a ly z e d a s to p rim a ry and se c o n d a ry s o u r c e s . A propos o f t h i s e f f o r t , t h e s tu d y w as f a c i l i t a t e d by th e e x te n s iv e am ount o f f i r s t - h a n d m a t e r i a l . A ll th e m ore im p o r ta n t w o rk s o f t h e f i r s t an d se c o n d -h an d s o u rc e s w ere re v ie w e d c a r e f u l l y . A ll o f th e s o u rc e s u se d w ere l i s t e d i n good o r d e r in th e b ib lio g r a p h y o f th e s tu d y . The m a t e r i a l s w ere a l l o rg a n iz e d a s to l o g i c a l seq u en ce and c o n s id e re d i n t h e i r im p o rta n ce i n v ie w o f th e o v e r a l l p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y . F o r c o l l e c t i n g th e d a ta th e tw o c r i t e r i a o f c o n t r a s t and g e n e tic developm ent w ere u t i l i z e d . The h i s t o r i a n , th e s o c i o l o g i s t , th e e c o n o m is t, th e l e g a l t h e o r i z e r , th e p h i l o l o g i s t , a l l make use o f th e g e n e tic and c o m p a ra tiv e m eth o d s in t h e i r r e s e a r c h . B ut th e y s y n th e s iz e and f u s e them t o g e t h e r i n t o a s p e c i a l m ethod o f r e s e a r c h . T h is i s th e h i s t o r i c a l m ethod. U nique e v e n ts w hich m ay n e v e r r e c u r i n human e x p e rie n c e a r e t h u s d e a l t w ith s c i e n t i f i c a l l y . T h e ir g e n e s is i s t r a c e d and th e y a r e com pared and c o n t r a s te d w ith e v e n ts in o t h e r c u l t u r e s o r c i v i l i z a t i o n s . A ll o f t h i s e lu c i d a t e s t h e i r m e a n in g s , b r in g s t o l i g h t t h e i r o r g a n ic r e l a t i o n s , and m akes c l e a r t h e i r com plex r a m i f i c a t i o n s . H ence th e h i s t o r i c a l m ethod i s a b a s ic in s tru m e n t o f th e s o c i a l s c ie n c e s . I n im p o rta n c e i t m u st be ra n k e d a lo n g s id e th e s t a t i s t i c a l m eth o d , th e s e two m ethods h a v in g made p o s s ib le th e e x c e p tio n a l grow th and e x te n s io n o f th e s o c i a l s c ie n c e s d u rin g th e l a s t h a l f c e n t u r y .8 The s o u rc e s c o l l e c t e d w ere s i f t e d c a r e f u l l y and D a n ie l S . R o b in so n , I l l u s t r a t i o n s o f th e M ethods o f R easo n in g (Hew Y ork: D. A p p leto n and Company, 1 9 2 7 ), p p . 2 2 3 -2 4 . 20 ch o sen on th e b a s i s o f t h e i r g e n e tic and c o m p a ra tiv e w o rth . V ery l i t t l e o f a n y f i r s t - h a n d d a ta w ere o m itte d , and th e re m a in d e r c a r e f u l l y a n a ly z e d . The i n v e s t i g a t o r r e a l i z e d t h a t u n le s s th e s e d a ta w ere t r e a t e d g e n e t i c a l l y v e ry l i t t l e w ould e n s u e . G e n e ra liz e d f a c t s , when th e y a r e ta k e n to be i n d i v id u a l e v e n ts co m p lete i n th e m s e lv e s , le a d t o a p i c t u r e o f th e u n iv e r s e i n w hich o c c u rre n c e s a r e e x a c t l y l i k e one a n o th e r . T here i s r e p e t i t i o n b u t no d ev e lo p m e n t; m e c h a n ic a l p r o d u c tio n , b u t n o t c u m u la tiv e movement to w a rd an i n t e g r a t e d c o n se q u e n c e . We ta k e o u t o f o u r l o g i c a l p ack ag e w hat we have p u t i n t o i t , and th e n con v e r t w h at we drew o u t in to a l i t e r a l d e s c r i p ti o n o f th e a c t u a l w o rld . T h in g s l o s e t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l i t y and a r e " i n s t a n c e s ’* o f g e n e r a l la w .3 C r itiq u e o f th e d a t a . The seco n d p h a se o f th e p r o - 4 c e s s e s o u tli n e d b y Good, B a rr , and S c a te s , n am ely , t h e i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l c r i t i c i s m o f th e d a t a , w as g iv e n c lo s e a t t e n t i o n . The e x t e r n a l and i n t e r n a l e v a lu a tio n o f th e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f so u rc e m a t e r i a l a r e o f one p a t t e r n . The fo rm e r, th e e x t e r n a l , h ow ever, em p h a siz e s th e g e n u in e n e s s o f th e m a t e r i a l s a s m a t e r i a l s ; and th e second p r o c e s s , th e i n t e r n a l , t r e a t s o f th e m eaning o f th e same d a t a . The seco n d p h a se i s u s u a l l y much m ore d i f f i c u l t . E x te r n a l c r i t i c i s m . I n th e c a s e o f t h i s s tu d y , t h e r e 3 Jo h n Dewey, The Q.uest f o r C e r t a in ty (New Y ork: M in to n , B alch and Company, 1 9 2 9 i, p . 297. ^ Good, B a rr, and S c a te s , ojd. c i t . , p . 2 4 1 . £1 i s no d o u b t o f th e v a l i d i t y o f th e f i r s t - h a n d m a t e r i a l s , a s to t h e i r b e in g th e g e n u in e docum ents is s u e d b y th e a u t h o r s . F i c h t e f s w o rk s i n th e o r i g i n a l w ere a c c e s s ib le t o th e w r i t e r and th e r e i s no r e a s o n to q u e s tio n such m a t e r i a l . As t o th e in d i v i d u a l R e p o rts s e t f o r t h c a r e f u l l y l a t e r i n t h e c h a p te r , th e y h av e b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d f o r many y e a rs a s tr u s tw o r th y s o u rc e s in e d u c a tio n . They a r e p a r t o f e v e ry f i r s t - r a t e e d u c a tio n a l l i b r a r y . The R e p o rts o f Stowe an d Mann a re p a r t o f th e a n n a ls o f th e S ta te s o f Ohio an d M a s s a c h u s e tts , r e s p e c t i v e l y , and can e a s i l y be v e r i f i e d . C o u sin * s R e p o rt w as made t o th e M in i s te r o f E d u c a tio n i n F ra n c e i n 1831, r e c e iv in g w ide a t t e n t i o n and a c c la im . The R ep o rt p ro v ed t o be th e b a s i s f o r F ren ch e d u c a tio n a l R eform s in th e Law o f 1 8 3 7 . T h is f a c t i s acknow ledged b y f i r s t - c l a s s h i s t o r i a n s . As one o f them w r i t e s : I t was l a r g e l y due t o th e in f lu e n c e o f C o u s in ’ s R e p o rt t h a t th e F re n c h law o f 1853 w as e n a c te d . . . T h is a c t became th e f o u n d a tio n upon w hich a n a t i o n a l g sy stem o f e le m e n ta ry e d u c a tio n w as d e v e lo p e d i n F ra n c e . As f o r B a rn a rd ’ s J o u r n a l o f A m erican E d u c a tio n . th e num bers have lo n g b een a c c e p te d a s c l a s s i c s i n e d u c a tio n , b e in g r e f e r r e d a s la n d m ark s i n A m erican e d u c a tio n . The v a l i d i t y o f th e s e w o rk s a r e a c c e p te d by m o st m odern 5 E dgar K n ig h t, e d i t o r , R e p o rts on E uropean E d u c a tio n (New Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, lW O ), p . I l 6 . zz e d u c a to r s . S eco n d ary m a t e r i a l s . As r e g a r d s t h e b ack g ro u n d l i t e r a t u r e , such w r i t e r s a s T r e its e h k e , H en d erso n , and L o e w e n ste in a re on e v e ry l i s t o f h i s t o r i c a l w r i t e r s . T r e its e h k e i n p a r t i c u l a r h a s lo n g h ad an i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e p u t a tio n a s a German s c h o la r and h i s t o r i a n . L o ew en stein h a s been a fo rm e r p r o f e s s o r i n th e le a d in g u n i v e r s i t i e s o f Germany. As r e g a r d s th e s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l w r i t e r s , G a tlin and Dimock a r e among th e le a d in g w r i t e r s i n t h e i r f i e l d and a r e re c o g n iz e d a s s u c h . I n th e e d u c a tio n a l f i e l d , G u b b erley h a s lo n g been a c c e p te d a s a u t h o r i t a t i v e , and R e is n e r* s w orks a r e a l l w ell-k n o w n by e d u c a to r s . P a u ls e n w as a le a d in g German e d u c a tio n a l h i s t o r i a n , and h i s w o rk s a r e r e f e r e n c e s f o r many w r i t e r s in c lu d in g Dewey and B ru b a e h e r. The m ore im p o rta n t w orks o f a l l th e s e men w ere re v ie w e d i n t h i s c h a p te r . The o t h e r se c o n d a ry m a t e r i a l s w ere a l l d u ly n o te d and may be r e f e r r e d to in th e b ib lio g r a p h y . I n t e r n a l c r i t i c i s m . As t o th e m ethod o f t h i s s tu d y in i n t e r n a l c r i t i c i s m , th e r e a r o s e some d i f f i c u l t y . The p e r t i n e n t w orks o f F ic h te w ere t r a n s l a t e d and a n a ly z e d . The German p h ilo s o p h ic a l s t y l e , p e d a n tic a s i t w a s, d o es n o t le n d i t s e l f e a s i l y to m e a n in g fu l e x p r e s s io n i n E n g lis h . Add t o t h a t th e i n t r i c a c i e s o f th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l te rm in o lo g y and a r e a l p roblem p r e s e n te d i t s e l f . The Heden w ere im p a ssio n e d 23 and e x p o s tu la to r y . T h is e x a g g e r a tio n o f s t y l e h ad t o be ta k e n in to acco u n t and i n t e r p r e t e d th ro u g h th e u se o f com m e n ta r ie s on each A d d re ss. The R e p o rts a l r e a d y in E n g lis h , o r , a s i n th e c a se o f C o u sin , a d e q u a te ly t r a n s l a t e d , p r e s e n te d no p a r t i c u l a r d i f f i c u l t y , and e x p o s itio n w as th u s e a s i l y f a c i l i t a t e d . I n t e l l i g i b i l i t y was p o s s ib le when some o f th e p r a i s e and s t i l t e d la n g u a g e w ere a n a ly z e d . I n t e l l i g i b i l i t y . The t h i r d p r o c e s s u se d by t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f f a c t s in an i n t e l l i g i b l e fo im , p r e s e n te d a s e r io u s c o n c e rn th ro u g h o u t th e e n t i r e s tu d y . T h is p h ase o f th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n a tte m p te d to re d u c e p e r s o n a l b i a s t o i t s lo w e s t p o s s ib le d e n o m in a to r. I n t h i s p h ase o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n , th e p u rp o se w as a c a r e f u l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e f a c t u a l d a t a , and n o t th e m aking o f e x c e s s c o n je c tu r e s c o n c e rn in g t h e s e same d a t a . T h is s tu d y m ar s h a l le d th e f a c t s i n a s e q u e n tia l p a t t e r n , and s e t them f o r t h a c c o rd in g t o th e can o n s o f l o g i c . A h i s t o r i c a l s tu d y , b e c a u se o f i t s n a t u r e , m u st be e s p e c i a l l y aw are o f th e con c e p t o f c l a r i f i c a t i o n . I n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w as g iv e n a c h a p te r t o i t s e l f . F o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , i n s p i t e o f i t s h a n d ic a p s , i s th e g r e a t e s t t a s k o f an y h i s t o r i c a l s tu d y . W ith o u t a p h ilo s o p h y o f h i s t o r y , th e r e can be no r e a l m e a n in g . TJnless t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n h a s 2 4 some co h e re n c e f o r th e p r e s e n t , i t i s n o t im p o r ta n t. I n t h i s c a s e th e e x p o s itio n o f an ex tre m e form o f n a tio n a lis m , and i t s c o n t r a s t w ith d em o cracy , i s ta n g e n t t o to d a y ’ s p ro b lem , and i n a c c o rd w ith th e fu n d a m e n ta l aim o f t h i s s tu d y . The g o a l o f h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h i n e d u c a tio n i s w e ll s t a t e d i n The M eth o d o lo g y o f E d u c a tio n a l R e s e a rc h : The e d u c a ti o n a l h i s t o r i a n i s n o t so much i n t e r e s t e d i n th e p u r e ly u n iq u e a s p e c ts o f p a s t e x p e rie n c e a s in th e e le m e n ts w hich may s e rv e a s a b a s i s f o r t e n t a t i v e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n i n a n a ly z in g c u r r e n t i s s u e s . 6 I n c o n c lu s io n , t h i s s tu d y em p h asized i n i t s p ro c e d u re th e co m p a ra tiv e and g e n e tic m ethod a s a b a s i s f o r c o l l e c t i o n , c r i t i c i s m , an d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e d a t a . A ll th ro u g h o u t, th e id e a w as t o l i n k th e p a s t w ith th e p r e s e n t i n an i n t e l l i g i b l e and r a t i o n a l p a t t e r n . T h is s tu d y a tte m p te d to a v o id a d e t a i l e d r e c o u n tin g o f th e f a c t s w ith o u t r e f e r e n c e to t h e i r f u n c tio n a l and dynam ic a s p e c t s . The p u rp o se h e re w as n o t c o l l e c t i o n an d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f d a t a , p e r s e . I I . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE T here h a s been no d e a r th o f l i t e r a t u r e d e v o te d to th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s c h o o l and s o c i e t y . Hot to o m uch, h o w ev er, h a s been w r i t t e n c o n c e rn in g th e u se o f s c h o o ls a s a s p e c i f i c i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y f o r s o c i a l re fo rm . And a s r e l a t e s d i r e c t l y 6 Good, B a r r , and S c a te s , o p . c i t . , p . 248. 25 to th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . o f Germany i n th e e a r l y and m id d le n in e te e n th c e n tu r y , th e em p h asis have b een h i s t o r i c a l and p h ilo s o p h ic a l r a t h e r th a n d i r e c t l y e d u c a ti o n a l. The r e l a t e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f th e re fo rm e f f e c t e d by e d u c a tio n i n Germany d u rin g th e E ic h to a n e r a h av e b ee n some-what s k e tc h y . T hese w i l l be t r e a t e d l a t e r in th e c h a p te r . A. PRIMARY SOURCES T hese b a s ic s o u rc e s a r e th e avenue by w hich th e p ro b lem m u st f i r s t be a p p ro a c h e d . T hese p rim a ry s o u r c e s , s o - c a l l e d , a re th e d a t a w hich r e n d e r su ch a s tu d y c o m p le te . T hese d a ta a r e th e f i r s t - h a n d a c c o u n ts o f th e m a t e r i a l em ployed i n t h i s s tu d y , and f o r e x a c ti tu d e a s much a s I s n e c e s s a r y was t r a n s l a t e d fro m th e German. A ll o f E ic h t e f s m ain w o rk s and t r a n s l a t i o n s w ere l i s t e d i n th e b ib lio g r a p h y . B arnard* s J o u r n a l . The fam ous s e r i e s o f J o u r n a ls e d i te d by B a rn a rd , an d e n t i t l e d , The A m erican J o u r n a l o f 7 E d u c a tio n , a r e a r e p o s i t o r y o f e d u c a tio n a l l o r e from many o t h e r c o u n t r ie s o t h e r th a n A m erica. They a r e among th e c l a s s i c s o f A m erican e d u c a tio n a l l i t e r a t u r e . I n V o l. X X II, t h e r e i s an e n t i r e s e c t i o n d e v o te d to Germany. T h is s e c tio n 7 H enry B a rn a rd , e d i t o r , The A m erican J o u r n a l o f Edu c a t i o n (SB V o ls .; H a r tf o r d : H enry B a rn a rd , 1 8 5 6 -8 2 ). 26 c o n ta in s e x t r a c t s from t r a v e l l e r s i n Germany from E ngland and F ra n c e , w hose r e p o r t o f c o n d itio n s showed German ed u ca t i o n and s o c i a l w e lf a r e i n a much b e t t e r l i g h t th a n th o s e o f t h e i r own c o u n t r ie s . T hese il l u m in a tin g e x t r a c t s w ere i n - 8 e lu d e d in B a rn a rd ’ s own "R e p o rt on P r u s s ia n E d u c a tio n .* A q u o ta tio n from i t i s v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g , show ing a s i t d o e s , th e g e n e ra l n a tu r e o f P r u s s ia n e d u c a tio n . S t i l l d i s c e r n ib l e a r e th e e f f e c t s o f th e 1808 s c h o o l re fo rm s . The fo llo w in g q u o ta tio n i s i l l u s t r a t i v e o f th e e d u c a tio n a l tr a n s f o r m a tio n w hich h ad o c c u rre d : The s c h o o l, s h a l l th e r e f o r e b e tim e s , se c o n d , and co m p lete th e f i r s t d o m e stic t r a i n i n g o f th e c h i ld to p i e t y . P ra y e r and e d if y in g r e f l e c t i o n s , s h a l l commend and te r m in a te th e d ay ; and th e m a s te r m u st b ew are, t h a t t h i s m o ra l e x e r c is e do n e v e r d e g e n e ra te i n t o a m a tte r o f r o u t i n e . O b ed ien ce t o th e la w s , l o y a l t y and p a t r i o t ism to be in c u lc a te d . . . The p u p i l s a s th e y advance i n a g e , t o be em ployed i n th e m a in te n a n c e o f good o r d e r i n th e s c h o o l, an d th u s b e tim e s h a b i tu a t e t o re g a rd g th e m s e lv e s a s a c t i v e and u s e f u l m em bers o f s o c ie ty . A lso in c lu d e d i n t h i s Volume a r e e x c e r p ts from D i n t e r , p p . 8 3 3 -3 4 , a t r a n s l a t e d v e r s io n o f th e fam ous G e n e ra l R e g u la tio n s o f E le m e n ta ry S c h o o ls and T e a c h e rs , p p . 8 6 1 -7 7 . T hese R e g u la tio n s w ere is s u e d d u rin g t h e r e ig n o f F re d e r ic k t h e G r e a t, A ugust 1 2 , 1 7 6 3 . F i n a l l y t h e r e a r e r e a d in g s from S to w e’ s and M ann’ s fam ous R e p o rts . 8 I b i d . , X X H , 7 4 5 -6 6 . 9 I b i d . . p . 7 5 3 . 37 C o u sin * s R e p o rt on th e s t a t e o f p u b lic i n s t r u c t i o n i n P r u s s i a . T r a n s la te d by A u s tin i n K n ig h t* s R e p o rts on E uro p ean E d u c a tio n .10 T h is r e p o r t came a s a r e s u l t o f C o u s in ’ s t r i p to Germany in 1851 t o s tu d y th e p u b lic s c h o o l sy stem o f t h a t c o u n tr y . The s tu d y was p u b lis h e d in 1851 u n d e r th e t i t l e , "R ap p o rt s u r I ' e t a t de 1*i n s t r u c t i o n p u b liq u e en P r u s s e .n C o u s in ’ s r e p o r t d e a l t p a r t i c u l a r l y w ith e le m e n ta ry e d u c a tio n , t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g , and th e o r g a n iz a tio n and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f p u b lic e d u c a tio n o b ta in in g a t t h a t tim e i n P r u s s i a . I t h a s s p e c i a l r e le v a n c e f o r t h i s s tu d y b e c a u se h i s su rv e y c a s t l i g h t upon th e r e v i t a l i z e d P r u s s ia n e d u c a t i o n , w hich owed so much to th e F ic h te an re fo rm . C o u sin made t h i s r e p o r t to th e Count de M o n ta liv e t, M in i s te r o f P u b lic I n s t r u c t i o n and E c c l e s i a s t i c a l A f f a i r s o f F ra n c e , and i t was one o f th e m o st im p o rta n t docum ents d u rin g th e f i r s t h a l f o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y . C o u sin , i n t h i s r e p o r t , seem ed t o h av e re a d y a c c e s s t o a l l s o u rc e s o f in f o rm a tio n c o n c e rn in g th e s c h o o ls o f P r u s s i a . By h i s own o b s e r v a tio n s , he w as a b le to v e r i f y th e in f o rm a tio n g iv e n him b y th e P r u s s ia n e d u c a tio n a l o f f i c i a l s . He p ro c u re d and became th o ro u g h ly f a m i l i a r w ith a l l th e law s 10 K n ig h t, 0 £ . c i t . , p p . 1 1 5 -3 5 8 . 28 and r e g u la t i o n s d e a lin g w ith e d u c a tio n i n P r u s s i a , and th e n so u g h t to v e r i f y th e s e by a c c u r a te an d e x h a u s tiv e in s p e c ti o n . The B e p o rt i s made in t h r e e s e c t i o n s : (1) g e n e r a l o r g a n iz a tio n o f p u b lic i n s t r u c t i o n ; (2) p rim a ry i n s t r u c t i o n ; (5) se c o n d a ry i n s t r u c t i o n (th e gymnasium and th e u n iv e r s i t i e s ) . The f o llo w in g q u o ta tio n fro m th e r e p o r t shows how m e tic u lo u s C o u sin was in h i s o b s e r v a tio n s : I n P r u s s i a , th e m i n i s t e r o f p u b lic i n s t r u c t i o n e n jo y s a r a n k and a u t h o r i t y e q u a l t o th o s e o f any o f h i s c o lle a g u e s . . . th e h ig h ra n k a s s ig n e d t o th e h e a d o f p u b lic i n s t r u c t i o n m arks th e r e s p e c t i n w h ich e v e ry th in g r e l a t i n g t o t h a t im p o rta n t s u b je c t i s h e ld by th e g o v ern m e n t, h en ce s c ie n c e assum es h e r p r o p e r p la c e i n th e s t a t e c i v i l i z a t i o n , th e i n t e l l e c t u a l an d m o ra l i n t e r e s t s o f s o c i e t y have t h e i r a p p o in te d m i n i s t r y . H ot o n ly w as C o u sin o b s e r v a n t, b u t he a l s o became e n t h u s i a s t i c o v e r w h a t he saw and h i s r e p o r t in f lu e n c e d F ren ch an d -American e d u c a tio n * H is r e p o r t , a lth o u ^ i i n th e m ain s u b j e c t i v e , i s y e t a m a s te r p ie c e i n i t s i n c l u s i v e d e t a i l , i t s co m p reh en sio n o f th e s u b j e c t , and i t s n i c e t y o f e x p r e s s io n . P i n t e r ♦ s Auto b io g ra p h y . T h is fra g m e n t ta k e n from h i s own "Leben von ibm s e l b s t b e s e h r ie b e n ,” o f w h ich t r a n s l a t e d m a t e r i a l s may be fo u n d i n The A m erican J o u r n a l o f E duca- 12 t i o n . i s an a c c o u n t o f th e s t a t e o f d e s p a ir in to w hich th e 11 I b i d . . p . 123. 1 O ___ B a rn a rd , o p . c i t . * X X II, 8 3 4 -3 5 . 29 German s c h o o ls h ad f a l l e n . He w as a v o lu m in o u s w r i t e r i n th e f i e l d o f e d u c a tio n , an d h i s w orks a t t r a c t e d g r e a t fame f o r h i s tim e . He w as a P r u s s ia n fro m L e ip z ig , ^diere h e w as h o rn i n 1760. D in te r w as a t one tim e S ch o o l C o u n s e lo r f o r E a s te r n P r u s s i a . But i t w as h i s c r i t i c i s m o f P r u s s ia n s c h o o ls t h a t i s b ro u g h t t o th e f o r e b y th e A m erican J o u r n a l o f E d u c a tio n . I n sp e a k in g o f w h at th e s c h o o ls had b een b e f o r e th e y w ere refo rm ed d u rin g th e F ic h te a n e r a , a q u o ta tio n from D i n t e r ’ s own b io g ra p h y i s t y p i c a l : A m i l i t a r y man o f g r e a t in f lu e n c e once u rg e d D in te r to recommend a d is a b le d s o l d i e r i n whom he w as i n t e r e s t e d a s a sc h o o l t e a c h e r . ”1 w i l l do s o , ” s a y s D in te r , ”i f he s u s t a i n s th e r e q u i s i t e e x a m in a tio n .” ”0 , ” s a y s th e e o l o n e l, ”he d o e s n ’t know much a b o u t s c h o o l te a c h in g b u t he i s a g o o d , m o ra l s te a d y man and I hope you w i l l r e commend him to o b lig e me.** D. ”0 , y e s C o lo n e l, to o b lig e you i f i n y o u r t u r n w i l l do me a f a v o r . ” C o l. irWhat I s t h a t ? ” D. ”G et me a p p o in te d d ru m -m ajo r i n y o u r re g im e n t. True I can n e i t h e r b e a t a drum , n o r p la y a f i f e ; b u t I am a good m o ra l, s te a d y man a s e v e r l i v e d . ”1® 14 F i c h t e ys A d d re sse s t o th e German N a tio n . (Reden an d ie D eu tsch e N a tio n .) As r e g a r d s F ic h te , th e p rim a ry m a t e r ia l f o r t h i s s tu d y was d e riv e d from h i s own w r i t i n g s , th e m ost im p o rta n t and p e r t i n e n t o f w hich i s h i s A d d re sse s d e a lin g s p e c i f i c a l l y w ith e d u c a tio n i n Germany. A 13 I b i d . . p . 834. 14 Jo h a n n G o ttli e b F i c h t e , Reden an d ie D eu tsch e N a tio n ( S t u t t g a r t : A lfre d K ro n e r, 1 9 5 8 ), 249 p p . 30 t r a n s l a t i o n from t h i s s o u rc e o c c u rs i n B a rn a rd ’ s A m erican J o u r n a l o f E d u c a tio n . V o l. IV , p p . 150-51, and a l s o a r e p r i n t 15 i n C u b b e rle y ’ s H ead in g s i n th e H is to r y o f E d u c a tio n . G u b b erley s a y s o f th e A d d re sse s t h a t th e y : . . • s t i r r e d th e t h i n k e r s among th e German p e o p le a s th e y h ad n o t b e e n s t i r r e d s in c e th e d ay s o f th e R e fo rm a tio n , an d a n a t i o n a l r e o r g a n iz a tio n o f e d u c a tio n w ith n a t i o n a l e n d s in v ie w now to o k p l a c e . 16 T hese A d d re sse s w ere i n th e form o f a p le a t o th e l e a d e r s o f P r u s s i a to t u r n to e d u c a tio n a s a m eans o f r i s i n g fro m th e s lo u g h o f d esp o n d en cy in to w hich Germany h ad sunken b e c a u se o f th e c ru s h in g d e f e a t o f N ap o leo n . B ecause o f t h e s e A d d re sse s Germany w itn e s s e d a k in d o f p o l i t i c a l r e n a s c e n c e . To q u o te G u b b erley a g a in , "The l e a d e r s o f P r u s s ia now c r e a t e d a new n a t i o n a l s p i r i t by t a k in g o v e r th e s c h o o l fro m t h e C h u rch , and f o r g in g i t in to 17 one o f th e g r e a t e s t in s tr u m e n ts o f t h e S t a t e . " And F ic h te d e l iv e r e d h i s u r g e n t p le a s i n B e r lin w h ile th e F re n ch s o l d i e r s su rro u n d e d him t h e r e . In th e s e A d d re s s e s , he a s k s h i s h e a r e r s t o c a s t o f f th e F re n ch yoke and renew and r e a f f ir m t h e i r p a t r i o t i s m . I t i s th ro u g h e d u c a tio n , F ic h te a p p e a le d to h i s l i s t e n e r s , t h a t d e liv e r a n c e can com e. And 15 E llw ood G u b b e rle y , R e ad in g s i n th e H is to r y o f E d u c a tio n (New Y ork: H oughton M i f f l i n Company, 19SO ), p . 56 7 . 1 6 I M S . * » p - 5 6 8 * ^ L o c. c i t . 31 f o r th e k in d o f e d u c a tio n r e q u ir e d to r e v iv e Germ any, F ic h te p ro p o se d th e c o u rs e o f i n s t r u c t i o n w hich P e s t a l o z z i had even th e n made so fam ous* To cpiote fro m th e R eden: I t f o llo w s th e n , t h a t th e s a l v a t i o n w hich I h ad p ro m ise d t o d e m o n stra te p r e v io u s l y , l i e s in th e f o rm u la tio n o f an e n t i r e l y new s e l f ( Ausnahme b e i e i n z e ln e n ) —w hich may have e x i s t e d a s an e x c e p tio n h e r e t o f o r e i n e d u c a tio n s , b u t n e v e r i n th e e d u c a tio n o f a n a t i o n , and a s a u n i v e r s a l and n a t i o n a l s e l f . . * i n one w o rd , i t i s a c o m p le te ch an g e o f th e p r e v io u s sy stem t h a t I p ro p o s e a s th e one m eans o f p r e s e r v in g th e e x is te n c e o f th e d e u ts c h e N a tio n - . A lth o u g h i t i s t r u e t h a t some w r i t e r s h av e c a s t d o u b t upon t h e d i r e c t in f lu e n c e o f th e R eden, i t i s , n o n e t h e le s s , a re c o g n iz e d f a c t t h a t th e y a r e a la n d m ark a s r e g a r d s t h e i r p la c e in e d u c a tio n . As to t h e i r in f lu e n c e upon Germ any, th e g r e a t German h i s t o r i a n , K a rl von Raum er, s a id t h a t th e ’♦A ddresses had a g r e a t e f f e c t upon th e f e e l i n g s o f th e 19 c u l t i v a t e d c l a s s e s . w And T u r n b u ll, F i c h t e ’ s g r e a t e s t m odern c r i t i c , s a y s , " I t i s c e r t a i n t h a t th e A d d re sse s w ere a p o w e rfu l f a c t o r in th e c r e a t i o n o f th e n a t i o n a l s p i r i t w hich a p p e a re d f o r th e f i r s t tim e i n t h e War o f L ib e r a t io n 20 o f 1 8 1 3 -1 5 .« F i c h t e , o £ . c i t . . p . 1 2 . 19 B a rn a rd , o £ . c i t . . IV , 151. 20 G eorge H. T u r n b u l l, The E d u c a tio n a l T heory o f £ . G ^ F ic h te (L iv e rp o o l: U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , L td .', I926T , 32 The Reden a n d ie Deut sc he N a tio n . f o u r te e n i n num ber, w ere d e l iv e r e d by F ic h te d u r in g t h e w in te r o f 1 8 0 7 -0 8 i n th e v a s t h a l l o f t h e Academy o f S c ie n c e s i n B e r lin b e f o r e la r g e a u d ie n c e s and w ere p u b lis h e d i n A p r i l , 1808. T h at th e y p la y e d a g r e a t p a r t i n G erm any’ s p o l i t i c a l l i f e i s w e ll known to d a y , b u t i t i s w ith r e f e r e n c e t o e d u c a tio n t h a t T u rn b u ll re m a rk s: Nor i s i t p o s s i b le h e re to do j u s t i c e t o t h e i r t r e m endous e f f e c t on th e d ev elo p m en t o f e d u c a tio n i n Germany. S te in w as c e r t a i n l y in f lu e n c e d , e s p e c i a l l y by th o s e A d d re sse s w hich d e a l m a in ly w ith e d u c a tio n • • . More im p o rta n t s t i l l , h o w ev er, i s th e f a c t t h a t th e A d d re sse s in f lu e n c e d W ilhelm von H um boldt w hose id e a s and p la n s f o r German e d u c a tio n w ere c a r r i e d in to e f f e c t i n 1809 and 1810. H um boldt’ s w ork l a i d th e r e a l f o u n d a tio n s o f mod e r a German e d u c a t i o n . " The p r i n c i p l e s em bodied i n F i c h t e ’ s A d d re sse s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y m odern i n o u tlo o k b e c a u se th e y a d v o c a te many o f th e re fo rm s a d v o c a te d b y p r e s e n t- d a y p h ilo s o p h e r s . The A d d re sse s d e a l w ith th e p ro b lem o f d u ty and o b l i g a t i o n , a n d , i n r e g a rd to th e e d u c a tio n a l p r i n c i p l e s th e y embody, a r e a s p e r t i n e n t to th e p ro b lem o f e d u c a tio n to d a y a s when th e y w ere f i r s t d e l i v e r e d . ^ o O F ic h te * s S am m tliche W erke. T hese v o lu m es, e i g h t i n 21 I b i d . . p . X X II. 22 Johann. G o t t l i e b F i c h t e , S am m tliche W erke (8 V o l s .; Z w eite A b th e ilu n g ; B e r lin : V e rla g von V e it und Company, 1 8 4 5 -1 8 4 6 ). 33 num ber, a r e a compendium o f a l l o f F ic h te V s p h ilo s o p h y . T h is s tu d y , w h ile ta k in g i n t o f u l l a c c o u n t F ic h te * s u n iq u e p h ilo s o p h y , n e v e r t h e le s s s t r e s s e d o n ly h i s e d u c a tio n a l t h e o r i e s . F o r th e p u rp o se o f c o h e re n c e , f o u r m a jo r s e c tio n s i n th e volum es a l l o t t e d to e d u c a tio n w i l l be re v ie w e d . F ic h te * s sy stem o f e d u c a tio n was o p t i m i s t i c , t o sa y th e l e a s t . He b e lie v e d t h a t i f th e s c h o o ls c o u ld be s e t upon th e r i g h t p a t h , th e n a l l th e o th e r m a jo r I s s u e s c o n f r o n tin g m ankind w ould be much s im p le r t o r e s o l v e . The sy ste m o f e d u c a tio n a d v o c a te d b y F ic h te i n h i s w r i t i n g i s a scheme d e s ig n e d to b r in g f o r t h an e n t i r e new o r d e r o f t h i n g s . T h is new o r d e r , so to s p e a k , w ould be in s tr u m e n ta l i n d e v e lo p in g a new ty p e o f man q u i t e d i f f e r e n t fro m vfoat th e y h ad p r e v io u s l y b e e n . F or F ic h t e , th e u lti m a te p u rp o se o f s o c i e t y i s th e r e g e n e r a tio n and e v e r - in c r e a s in g en n o b lem en t o f th e human s p e c ie s th ro u g h a m o r a lity - p e rm e a te d e d u c a tio n . From t h i s e d u c a tio n e n s u e s a h ig h e r r e a s o n , and w ith i t a common p u rp o se f o r th e w o rld . E d u c a tio n f o r F ic h te i s a p p lie d m o r a l i t y , o r i t f a i l s a t b e in g e d u c a tio n . 1 . A phorism s on E d u c a tio n . 25 (A pborism en fib er E rz ie h u n g .) I n t h i s fra g m e n t, F ic h te b r in g s f o r t h c l e a r l y h i s id e a o f e d u c a tio n f o r m o r a l i t y . He expounded t h u s : 23 I b i a . . I l l , 3 5 3 -6 0 . 3 4 To e d u c a te a man m eans; t o g iv e him th e m eans o r r a t h e r th e pow er t o become u n d is p u te d m a s te r o f h im s e lf and a l l h i s p o t e n t i a l i t i e s . H is e n t i r e p o w ers, I s a y , f o r th e n th e pow er o f man i s a o n e n e ss a n d a ta n g ib le w h o le . 24 T h is o n e n e ss ( e i n h e i t ) i s a m o ra l r e l a t i o n w i t h i n , and w ith th e g r e a t m o r a lity F ic h te p o s it e d i n t h i s w o rld . I n t h i s s e c t i o n F ic h te b r in g s o u t t h a t one can n o t d e l i b e r a t e l y a tte m p t t o e d u c a te d i r e c t l y f o r v i r t u e , f o r th e n th e m o ra l s e n s e from w ith in i s d e s tro y e d . I t i s o n ly th ro u g h e x t e r n a l s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w hich aw akens m o r a li ty t h a t e d u c a tio n becom es e f f e c t i v e . I n t h i s v ie w h e w as fo llo w in g P e s t a l o z z i , t o whom F ic h te was g r e a t l y in d e b te d f o r many o f h i s e d u c a ti o n a l t h e o r i e s . P a t r io t i s m and I t s O p p o site (1807) These a r e two p a t r i o t i c d ia lo g u e s i n V o l. I l l o f th e N a c h g e la sse n e W erke. T hese w orks w ere p u b lis h e d p o sth u m o u sly , and e d i t e d b y Im m anuel F i c h t e . T here i s a n e x c e l l e n t t r a n s l a t i o n o f th e se co n d d ia lo g u e i n T u r n b u l l 's The E d u c a tio n a l T h eo ry o f 20 ( J . G. F i c h t e . T hese p a r t i c u l a r p ie c e s a r e a f u r t h e r e l u c i d a t i o n and c r i t i q u e o f P e s ta lo z z i* s e d u c a tio n a l sy ste m . I n th e s e d ia lo g u e s , F ic h te e x p re s s e d h i s own o p in io n s 24 I b i d . . p . 3 3 5 . Jo h an n F i c h t e , N a c h g e la sse n e W erke (3 V o l s .; L e ip z ig : I . H. F i c h t e , 1 8 3 4 -1 8 3 5 ). 26 T u r n b u l l, o p . c i t . . p . 283. 35 r e g a r d in g P e s t a l o z z i . He i n s i s t e d t h a t m o ra l e d u c a tio n a lo n e w as th e rem edy f o r th e i l l s t h a t b e s e t m ankind, and t h a t Germany s h o u ld le a d t h e w ay i n t h i s r e g a r d . I n th e D ia lo g u e s , th e c h a r a c t e r r e p r e s e n te d b y "B* i s q u ite o b v io u s ly th e spokesm an f o r F i c h t e ’s own th e o r y , w h ile «GW i s s e t up a s a s tra w man r e p r e s e n tin g th e o p p o s itio n . "B* o f c o u rs e d e m o lish e s w ith th e f o r c e f u l n e s s o f h i s l o g i c . The f o llo w in g e x c e r p t i s i n d i c a t i v e : B- Much w as s a id o f n a t i o n a l e d u c a tio n b e fo re t h e r e w as an a r t o f e d u c a tio n . We have t h i s a r t now. G ive i t t o th e c i t i z e n s and you w i l l g e t a n a t io n a t th e same tim e and t h i s e d u c a tio n w i l l have p ro v e d i t s e l f a n a t i o n a l e d u c a tio n in th e h ig h e s t s e n s e o f th e w o rd . C- I f t h e s e w ere to o c c u r, m ankind w ould be r i d f i r s t o f a l l t h e i r f o o lis h n e s s an d o f a l l th e v ic e s t h a t p ro c e e d th e re fr o m an d m o reo v er some o f them w ould be c a p a b le o f h a v in g s c ie n c e and a r t a s th e s u re g u a r a n to r o f r e g u l a r and u n i v e r s a l p r o g r e s s . 27 3* ffh® S ystem o f E th ic s A cco rd in g to th e P r i n c i p l e s po o f P h ilo s o p h y . (Das System d e r S i t t e n l e h r e nach den P r i n c i p i n d e r W i s s e n s c h a f t s l e h r e .) T h is w ork was p u b lis h e d i n 1799. A p a r t o f i t i s d i r e c t l y c o n c e rn e d w ith e d u c a tio n and i s in V o l. IV o f th e W erke, p p . 3 3 3 -4 3 . An e x c e l l e n t t r a n s l a t i o n o f th e e n t i r e w ork h a s b een p u b lis h e d by K ro e g e r who c a l l e d i t , "The S c ie n c e o f E t h i c s . " I t w as p u b lis h e d i n London in 1907. C h a p te r I I I o f th e E th ic s d e a ls w ith th e 27 i f e ia . . p * i® 9 - F i e h t e , Smnmtliche W erke. IV , 1 -3 6 5 . 36 d u t i e s o f man a s r e g a r d s h i s n a t u r a l s t a t e . I t f u r t h e r d e l i n e a t e s th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a husband h a s to w ard h i s . w if e , and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p and c o n c o m ita n t d u t i e s w ith t h e i r c h i ld r e n . I t i s w ith i n t h i s d is c u s s io n o f th e fa m ily l i f e t h a t th e q u e s tio n o f e d u c a tio n i s b ro u g h t up and a n a ly z e d . To q u o te : T h is i s t h e f i r s t i d e a a s r e g a r d s e d u c a tio n a lo n g th e l i n e s o f u p b r in g in g . I t i s th e d u ty o f th e p a r e n ts to lo o k a f t e r t h e i r c h i l d r e n and ta k e c a re o f t h e i r l i b e r t y i t i s t h e i r d u ty to see t h a t t h i s l i b e r t y i s u sed f o r i t h ig h e s t p u rp o se and n o t t o i n j u r e e d u c a tio n , t h a t i s t o sa y , t h a t b r in g in g up i s t h e i r d u ty . ( P f l i c h t ) Soon t h e r e e v o lv e s th e d u ty o f a h ig h e r e d u c a tio n , o f ed u c a t i o n t o m o r a l i t y . 29 The e n t i r e fra g m e n t f o llo w s t h i s p a t t e r n , w h ich i s th e r a t i o n a l e to F ic h te * s e t h i c s and h i s e d u c a tio n a l t h e o r i e s . To F ic h te , m o r a l i t y m ust be th e l e i t m o t i f o f any te a c h in g and a l l s o c i e t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . H is e n t i r e sy stem o f e t h i c s i s d e v o te d to an e x p o s itio n o f d u ty to w a rd s th e com m unity, i . e . , m o ra l o b l i g a t i o n . 30 4 . U n iv e r s it y E d u c a tio n . T h is e s s a y ( D e d u c ir te r e i n e r zu B e r lin zu e r r ic h te n d e n h o h e re n L e h r e n s t a lt) was w r i t t e n in 1807 when th e p r o j e c t f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g th e uni v e r s i t y o f B e r lin w as i n f u l l f o r c e . F ic h te was i n v i t e d to su b m it h i s p la n f o r such a U n iv e r s ity . I n t h i s p la n he s e t 29 I b i a . . p . 3 3 5 . 30 I b i d * , v m . 9 7 -2 0 4 . 37 up an e l a b o r a t e and m in u te scheme f o r th e New U n iv e r s it y . The M in i s t e r o f I n s t r u c t i o n , Beyme, gave F ic h te g r e a t l a t i tu d e i n h i s p la n . F ic h te w ro te t h i s "D educed Scheme f o r an Academy to be E s ta b lis h e d in B e r lin " w ith o u t an y h in d r a n c e . I n t h i s w ork he c r i t i c i z e d th e e r r o r s o f th e a c c e p te d U n iv e r s ity e d u c a tio n and o f f e r e d a r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t sy ste m . The M in i s te r was p le a s e d w ith th e p l a n , b u t p o l i t i c a l c o n d itio n s d id n o t p e rm it i t s e x e c u tio n . The U n iv er s i t y w as e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1809 w ith F ic h te a s one o f i t s f i r s t p r o f e s s o r s . H is schem e, h o w ev er, was n o t a c c e p te d . F ic h te w ro te o f h i s i d e a l u n i v e r s i t y : What i n th e se n se o f t h i s h ig h e r o b l i g a t i o n upon i t s — e x isten c e th e academ y c o u ld b e , a n d , i f i t i s t o b e , th e n m u st b e ; a p p e a rs soon when man p o n d e rs upon th e c o n n e c tio n b etw een e v e ry d a y l i f e and s c ie n c e ( w i s s e n s e h a f t s l e h r e ) . One s t u d i e s n o t a lo n e alw ay s d u rin g h i s l i f e so t h a t h e may be re a d y f o r e x a m in a tio n s and t o r e p e a t i n w ords w hat a l r e a d y h a s been le a r n e d , b u t b e c a u se i t can be u se d when n e e d a r i s e s i n l i f e , and to tr a n s f o r m le a r n i n g in to a c t s n o t o n ly to r e p e a t , b u t t o c o n s tr u c t t o g e t h e r so m eth in g e ls e * Hero a l s o t h e f i n a l aim i s n o t know ing a lo n e , b u t r a t h e r th e a r t o f em p lo y in g t h i s k n o w le d g e .31 T h ro u g h o u t h i s w orks and w h a te v e r p h a se o f e d u c a tio n h e w ro te upon, F ic h te s t r e s s e d r e g e n e r a tio n th ro u g h a m o ra l e d u c a tio n ; m o r a lity t h a t com es from w ith o u t b y u s in g ex t e r n a l s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , v i z . , r e s p e c t f o r o t h e r s , k in d n e s s 51 I b i d . . p p . 1 0 1 -1 0 2 . 38 and so f o r th * F ic h te s a id t h a t e d u c a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s a id i n th e p r o c e s s o f m o ra l d ev elo p m en t b y show ing c l e a r l y th e d i f f e r e n c e b etw een m ere l e g a l i t y , o r o b e d ie n c e to la w , and tr u e m o r a l i t y w hich c o n s i s t s o f v o lu n ta r y s e l f s a c r i f i c e f o r t h e w e lf a r e o f a l l . 32 Mann* s The S ev en th A nnual R e p o rt* T h is R e p o rt i s H orace Mahnt s m o st fam ous in a s e r i e s o f tw e lv e a n n u a l r e p o r t s t h a t w ere d e l iv e r e d to th e M a s s a c h u s e tts S ta te B oard o f E d u c a tio n d u rin g t h e y e a rs b etw een 1 8 5 8 -185Q. T h is S e v en th R e p o rt w as p u b lis h e d i n 1843 when Mann w as a t th e h e ig h t o f h i s fame a s S e c r e t a r y o f th e M a s s a c h u s e tts B oard o f E d u catio n * I t s t i l l i s a m odel o f i t s k in d . I t c o n ta in s th e r e s u l t s o f h i s s tu d y o f E uropean s c h o o l s y s te m s , g iv in g a d e t a i l e d and c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f th e F re n c h , B r i t i s h (E n g lis h and S c o t t i s h ) , D u tch , an d P r u s s ia n s c h o o l s y s te m s . Mann, i n h i s s tu d y , com pared s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e m eth o d s o f te a c h in g la n g u a g e , m o r a ls , a n d th e d i s c i p l i n e m a in ta in e d i n f o r e ig n s c h o o l sy stem s w ith th e c o n d itio n s th e n o b ta in in g i n h i s own c o u n tr y . T h is s tu d y w as made w h ile on a t r i p to Europe f o r h i s h e a l t h , and f o r a s u rv e y o f th e E uropean e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m s . T h is R e p o rt w as g iv e n a f t e r f i v e m onths o f o b s e r v a tio n . H is h ig h com m endation o f German 32 B a rn a rd , o £ . e i t . , X X II, 7 7 8 -9 2 , 8 2 3 -2 9 . 39 s c h o o ls was i n t e r p r e t e d a s to o c r i t i c a l o f s c h o o ls in th e B h ite d S t a t e s . B ut t h a t t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w as n o t t r u e i s shown by Mann h im s e lf . He m e re ly a tte m p te d t o g iv e a c a r e f u l a p p r a i s a l o f E u ro p e f s s c h o o l sy ste m i n o r d e r to im prove th e M e r ic a n . As he s a id : . . . I f P r u s s i a can p e r v e r t th e b e n ig n in f lu e n c e o f e d u c a tio n to th e s u p p o rt o f a r b i t r a r y p o w er, we s u r e l y can em ploy them f o r th e "su p p o rt and p e r p e t u a tio n o f r e p u b lic a n i n s t i t u t i o n s . A n a t i o n a l s p i r i t o f l i b e r t y can be c u l t i v a t e d m ore e a s i l y th a n a s p i r i t o f b o n d ag e, and i f i t may be made one o f th e g r e a t p r e r o g a tiv e s o f e d u c a tio n to p e rfo rm t h e u n n a tu r a l and u n h o ly w ork o f m aking s l a v e s , th e n s u r e l y i t m u st be one o f t h e n o b le s t i n s t r u m e n t a l i t i e s f o r r e a r i n g a n a t io n o f fre e m e n .33 Mann showed g r e a t i m p a r t i a l i t y i n t h i s r e p o r t , f o r w h ile h e o p e n ly a d m itte d th e e r r o r o f o u r own s y s te m , he d id n o t avow t h a t th e E uropean s c h o o ls w ere p e r f e c t . R a th e r he c r i t i c i z e d th e E uropean s c h o o ls i n h i s R e p o rt. He o n ly s t r i v e d to show th e im p e r f e c tio n s i n th e A m erican sy stem o f e d u c a tio n b y co m p arin g i t w ith th e E u ro p ean . H is S ev e n th A nnual R e p o rt re m a in s an e d u c a tio n a l lan d m ark i n c o m p a ra tiv e e d u c a tio n a s w e ll a s i n e d u c a tio n a l th e o r y . 34 S tow ef s R e p o rt. T h is r e p o r t d e l iv e r e d to th e T h ir ty - S ix t h G e n e ra l A ssem bly o f Ohio on Decem ber 1 9 , 1 8 3 7 , 33 I b i d . . p . 8 2 4 . 3^ C alvin. S tow e, "R e p o rt on E le m e n ta ry P u b lic I n - s t r u c t i o n , ” The A m erican J o u r n a l o f E d u c a tio n ( H a rtfo r d : H enry B a rn a rd , 1 8 7 1 ), X X II, 7 6 7 -8 1 8 . 40 i s a d e t a i l e d e x p o s itio n o f th e s c h o o ls o f P r u s s ia a s Stow© saw them . He d e s c r ib e d e v e r y th in g he w itn e s s e d i n m e tic u lo u s f a s h io n even o b s e rv in g sc h o o l re q u ire m e n t su ch a s th e fo llo w in g : The w hole c o u rs e c o m p rise s e i g h t y e a r s , and in c lu d e s c h i ld r e n fro m th e a g e s o f s i x to f o u r t e e n ; and i t i s d iv id e d in to f o u r p a r t e o f two y e a r s e a c h . I t i s a f i r s t p r i n c i p l e t h a t th e c h i ld r e n be w e ll accom m odated a s to h o u se and f u r n i t u r e . The s c h o o l room m u st be w e ll c o n s tr u c te d , th e s e a t s c o n v e n ie n t, and th e s c h o la r s made c o m fo rta b le and k e p t w e ll i n t e r e s t e d . 35 I n g r e a t d e t a i l i s s k e tc h e d a l l t h e c o u r s e s ta k e n by th e c h i l d r e n and th e m an n er in w hich th e y a r e g iv e n . Along w ith r e a d in g , w r i t i n g , and a r i t h m e t i c , th e s tu d e n ts to o k su ch c o u rs e s a s " E x e r c is e s i n o rn a m e n ta l w r i t i n g , p r e p a r a t o r y d ra w in g , r e l i g i o u s and m o ra l i n s t r u c t i o n i n s e l e c t B ib le n a r r a t i v e s , d o c tr in e o f sp a ce and fo rm , o r g eo m etry 36 and o th e r such s u b j e c t s . I n h i s e n t i r e a c c o u n t, Stowe w ro te w ith g r e a t p r a i s e o f t h e s c h o o l sy stem b u t i n s i s t e d t h a t th e s c h o o ls a r e o n ly p a r t o f th e g r e a t e r s o c i a l m i l i e u . He q u o te d th e P rim e M i n i s t e r , B a rd e n b u rg , a s s t a t i n g : . . . th e new sy stem i s b a s e d upon th e p r i n c i p l e t h a t e v e ry s u b j e c t , p e r s o n a l l y f r e e , be a b le t o r a i s e h im s e lf , and d e v e lo p h i s pow ers f r e e l y , w ith o u t l e t o r h in d ra n c e from an y one . . . t h a t th e governm ent be 35 I b i d . , p . 7 67. 36 I b i d . . p p . 7 6 7 -6 8 . 41 c a r r i e d on w ith u n i t y , o r d e r , and p o w er; t h a t by th e e d u c a tio n o f th e p e o p le , and th e s p i r i t o f t r u e r e l i g i o n , t h e g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t s and a n a t u r a l s p i r i t be prom oted* a s th e o n ly s e c u re b a s i s o f th e n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t . 37 T h is a c c o u n t o f Stow e p r a i s e d th e P r u s s ia n s c h o o l sy stem and p e o p le s j u s t a f t e r th e F ic h te a n r e fo rm s . H is R e p o rt, h o w ev er, s t r e s s e d th e n eed f o r c o n s ta n t im provem ent i n any s c h o o l sy ste m , p a r t i c u l a r l y em p h asiz in g t h e s c h o o ls i n .A m erica. He d e c la r e d t h a t no s c h o o l sy stem c a n su c c e e d i f i t ig n o r e s i t s s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , no m a tte r how good i t s te c h n iq u e s may b e . The German s c h o o ls h ad f a i l e d in p a r t b e c a u s e , a s Stowe re m a rk e d , th e y h ad w ith d raw n them s e lv e s from th e r e a l n e e d s o f t h e i r s o c ie ty . B. BACKGROUND LITERATURE T h is m a t e r i a l w hich s e r v e s a s a k in d o f b ack d ro p t o th e p ro b lem in c lu d e s n o t o n ly e d u c a tio n a l d o c u m e n ta tio n b u t fid.so a l l th o s e k in d re d f i e l d s c o n d u c iv e t o m ore f u l l y u n d e r s ta n d in g th e p ro b lem o f s c h o o l and s o c i e t y . A s tu d y such a s t h i s one in v o lv e s much m ore th a n th e f i e l d o f e d u c a tio n . F or c o m p re h en sio n , l i t e r a t u r e i n th e f i e l d s o f h i s t o r y , p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e , an d p h ilo s o p h y w ere ex am in ed . Many bo o k s have b een w r i t t e n in a l l th e s e f i e l d s , b u t f o r th e p u rp o s e s 37 I b i d . . p . 7 67. 42 . o f t h i s s tu d y o n ly th e m ore p e r t i n e n t and r e l e v a n t t o t h i s s tu d y w i l l be re v ie w e d . A co m p lete l i s t o f th e books u se d in t h i s s tu d y w i l l be ap p en d ed in th e b ib lio g r a p h y . 30 B a rra c lo u g h y s The O r ig in s o f M odern G erm any. B a rra c lo u g h g iv e s a s c h o l a r l y tr e a tm e n t o f th e h i s t o r y o f Germany from C h a rle s th e G re a t t o m odem tim e s . B a rra c lo u g h , a p r o f e s s o r i n th e U n iv e r s ity o f L iv e r p o o l, t r e a t s h i s sub j e c t i n a sw eeping f a s h io n . The book t r e a t s o f th e o r i g i n and r i s e o f m odem Germany w ith p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e to th o s e o r i g i n a l f a c t o r s g o v e rn in g German h i s t o r y . B a rr a c lo u ^ i m akes a n e a r n e s t a tte m p t t o e s t a b l i s h a p r o p e r p e r s p e c tiv e o f German h i s t o r y i n o r d e r t h a t l i g h t may be c a s t on t h e p e r p le x in g p ro b lem o f German n a tio n a lis m and p o l i t i c s . T h is w id e tr e a tm e n t o f Germany a s a p o l i t i c a l e n t i t y i s o f e s p e c i a l b e n e f i t to t h i s s tu d y a s i t f u r n i s h e s d a ta f o r c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f th e German V b lk s g e is t. T h a t i s to s a y , i t b r in g s e v id e n c e to b e a r a s to th e r i s e and p e c u l i a r i t y o f German N a tio n a lis m . I n h i s s e c tio n c a l l e d , "The B n p ire and th e P e o p le i n M odern G erm any,* p p . 4 0 6 -4 6 5 , B a rra c lo u g h g iv e s a c l e a r a c c o u n t o f th e m any in d ig e n o u s f a c t o r s o p G e o ffre y B a rra c lo u g h , The - O r ig in s o f M odern Germany (New Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, 194?) f 481 pp;. 43 c o n c e rn e d w ith n a tio n a lis m t h a t F ic h te w as so w e ll a b le t o r e v i v e . <ZQ C u b b e rle y * s The H is to r y o f E d u c a tio n * T h is s tu d y p r e s e n t s one o f th e m o st co m p reh en siv e o f e d u c a tio n a l h i s t o r i e s . I t i s n o t so much a s t r a i g h t h i s t o r y o f e d u c a tio n a s an e x p o s itio n o f th e p r a c t i c e an d o r g a n iz a tio n o f ed u c a tio n i t s e l f . I t d e a ls s p e c i f i c a l l y i n t e r n s o f an ed u c a tio n co n c e rn e d w ith th e d ev elo p m en t o f m an. I n c l e a r s t y l e i t p r e s e n t s a h i s t o r y o f th e e f f o r t s o f man to e l e v a t e h im s e lf and h i s h in d th ro u g h th e medium o f e d u c a tio n . The book e v a lu a t e s m odern e d u c a tio n i n t h e l i g h t o f i t s a n te c e d e n t in f l u e n c e s . T ra c in g t h e s o u rc e s o f o u r c i v i l i z a t i o n fro m th e e a r l i e s t tim e s to th e p r e s e n t , C u b b e rle y o u t l i n e s a v i v i d p i c t u r e o f th e in f lu e n c e and r a m i f ic a ti o n s o f edu c a t i o n upon s o c i e t y in t r a n s i t i o n . T h ere i s an e n t i r e c h a p te r d e v o te d t o t h e e r a i n w h ieh F ic h te l i v e d . I n h i s " N a tio n a l O rg a n iz a tio n i n P r u s s i a , " he show s how Germany was en c o u ra g e d to s t a r t anew by F ic h te an d how t h i s N a tio n a l i s t i c movement s u c c e e d e d . I n p a r t i c u l a r * C u b b e rle y n o te s th e r i s e and f l o u r i s h i n g o f th e German U n iv e r s it y and i t s in f lu e n c e on " l e h r h e i t . " E llw ood P . C u b b e rle y , The H is to r y o f E d u c a tio n (New Y ork: The H oughton M i f f l i n Company, 1 9 3 0 ), 849 p p . 44 40 Dim ock* s M odern P o l i t i c s and A d m in is tr a tio n * Dimock g iv e s i n c o n c is e f a s h io n a f u n c t i o n a l and a n a l y t i c a l tr e a tm e n t o f th e n a tu r e o f th e s t a t e . I n t h i s b o o k , g o v ern m e n ts a r e c o n s id e r e d i n te rm s o f t h e i r re s p o n s e to th e im m ediate w a n ts an d p e r s i s t e n t d e s i r e s o f i n d i v i d u a l s and g ro u p s . I n s t i t u t i o n a l o r g a n iz a tio n and p ro c e d u re s a r e exam ined fro m t h i s p o in t o f v ie w . An e f f o r t i s made to com b in e th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l, l e g a l , and i n s t i t u t i o n a l a p p ro a c h e s . G overnm ent i s shown to be d iv id e d in t o two b ro a d f u n c t i o n s , i . e . , th e f o rm u la tio n o f p o lic y and i t s e x e c u tio n . The j u d i c i a r y i s a p r o lo n g a tio n o f t h e a d m in i s t r a t i v e b ra n c h w hich a ls o s e r v e s i n th e advancem ent o f p u b lic p o lic y . L e g i s l a t i v e , a d m i n i s t r a t i v e , an d j u d i c i a l o f f i c e r s a t one tim e ta k e p a r t in p o lic y m aking and on o t h e r o c c a s io n s in th e d ev elo p m en t o f p u b lic p ro g ra m s. T h is book f u r n i s h e s a g r e a t d e a l o f i n s i g h t i n t o th e n a tu r e o f a s t a t e and i t s r e l a t i o n t o e d u c a tio n . 41 H e n d e rs o n ^ S h o rt H is to r y o f Germ any. H enderson s k e tc h e s i n m in u te d e t a i l th e g ro w th o f P r u s s i a from C harlem agne t o 1 8 0 6 , and th e German n a t io n from th e p e r io d M a rs h a ll Dim oek, M odern P o l i t i c s and A dm inis t r a t i o n (Hew Y ork: A m erican Book Company, 1 9 3 7 ), 394 p p . E r n e s t H e n d e rso n , S h o rt H is to r y o f Germany (2 V o l s . ; New Y ork: The M acm illan Company, 1 9 1 9 ). 1806-1815 t o 1 8 6 6 . I t t r e a t s i n n a r r a t i v e s t y l e th e p e r io d s o f w ar an d p e a c e d u rin g F r e d e r ic k t h e G r e a t’ s r e ig n up u n t i l th e F a l l o f P r u s s i a . I n s c h o l a r l y f a s h io n i s d e p ic te d t h e d o w n fa ll o f P r u s s i a a f t e r i t s o verw helm ing d e f e a t by B o n a p a rte . A u s t e r l i t z , F r ie d la n d , and th e B a t t l e o f J e n a a r e d e p ic te d c a r e f u l l y a s b ack g ro u n d f o r t h e d e f e a t . I n h i s t o r i c a l p r o s e , H en d erso n d e s c r ib e s th e s p i r i t o f d e f e a t i n Germany up u n t i l 1808. He shows th e im p a c t o f F re n c h tr o o p s on th e Germans d u rin g t h e i r o c c u p a tio n and th e r e s u l t a n t e f f e c t . Then comes th e r e v i v a l o f n a tio n a lis m u n d e r th e g r e a t German l e a d e r s von H um boldt, S tow e, F i c h t e , e t a l . ) who a r e i n s p i r e d by t h i s n a t i o n a l i s t i c r e b i r t h . H a y e s’ The H i s t o r i c a l E v o lu tio n o f M odern N a tio n a l- 42 is m . T h is s tu d y p r e s e n t s a d is c u s s io n o f th e h i s t o r i c a l e v o lu tio n o f m odern n a tio n a l is m . I t t r e a t s o f n a tio n a lis m a s a body o f d o c t r i n e s , a s a p o l i t i c a l p h ilo s o p h y , so t o s p e a k . The s u c c e s s iv e s c h o o ls o f n a t i o n a l i s t th o u g h t w h ich h av e h ad im p o rta n t p o p u la r f o llo w in g s a r e a l l d e s c r ib e d m ore w ith r e f e r e n c e to t h e i r l e a d e r s th a n t o th e movement a s su c h . The p e r io d w ith w hich t h i s s tu d y i s c o n c e rn e d i s p la c e d u n d e r th e s e c t i o n , w T r a d it i o n a l N a tio n a lis m " and 42 C a r lto n H ayes, The H i s t o r i c a l E v o lu tio n o f M odem N a tio n a lis m (New Y ork: R ic h a rd S m ith , I n c . , 1 9 3 7 ), 327 p p . 46 in c lu d e s n o t o n ly F ic h te b u t a l s o S c h le g e l a s w e l l . 43 H e r tz T s N a t i o n a l i t y i n H is to r y and P o l i t i c s . T h is i s a s tu d y o f human s o c i e t y an d w hat f o r la c k o f a b e t t e r te rm i s known a s human n a t u r e . I t s tr e a tm e n t i s n o t o n ly h i s t o r i c a l b u t a l s o p s y c h o lo g ic a l and s o c i o l o g i c a l a s w e l l . I t d e a ls w ith t h e s t r u c t u r e an d fo rm o f n a t i o n a l c o n s c io u s n e s s , i . e . , n a t i o n a l i t y w ith r e f e r e n c e to la n g u a g e , r e l i g i o n , t e r r i t o r y , c h a r a c t e r , and s o c i a l b a c k g ro u n d . The s e c tio n on p o l i t i c a l th o u g h t and n a t i o n a l id e o lo g y i s e x c e p t i o n a ll y w e ll d o n e. F ic h te i s p o r tr a y e d a s a l e a d e r i n th e movement to w a rd s n a t io n a l is m who e x h o rte d th e German p e o p le to r i s e . But i t w as n o t o n ly th e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f th e German n a t i o n w hich F ic h te had in m in d . H is p h ilo s o p h y w en t d e e p e r . To F ic h te th e German p e o p le h ad a g r e a t s p i r i t e d and m o ra l m is s io n to f u l f i l l f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f m an k in d ; and e d u c a tio n m ust a g a in be th e t o o l o f t h i s r e h a b i l i t a t i o n . 44 L o ew en stein * s The Germains in H i s t o r y . L o e w e n ste in p r e s e n t s a n e x h a u s tiv e t r e a t i s e o f German h i s t o r y from th e ^ F r e d e r ic k H e r tz , N a t i o n a l i t y i n H is to r y and P o l i - t i c s (London: K. P a u l, T re n c h , T rtlb n e r and Company, L td .', 1 3 4 4 ), 417 p p . P r in c e H u b e rtu s zu L o e w e n s te in , The Germ ans i n H is to r y (New Y ork: C olum bia U n iv e r s it y , 1 9 4 5 ), 5 8 4 p p . s o c i o l o g i c a l and p s y c h o lo g ic a l v a n ta g e p o i n t . A fo rm e r p r o f e s s o r a t th e U n i v e r s i t i e s o f M unich, Hamburg, and B e r l i n , L o e w e n ste in shows r e a l i n s i g h t i n t o th e p e r p le x in g K u ltu r g e s h ic te o f th e German p e o p le s . T h is w ork p r e s e n t s M a co m p re h en siv e p i c t u r e o f th e s p i r i t o f E urope and th e 45 German i n h i s t o r y . n The a u th o r d e s ir e d to p r e s e n t a c l e a r e r v i s i o n i n to th o s e s o c i o - r e l i g i o u s f o r c e s w hich h av e g iv e n fo rm and s u b s ta n c e to th e h i s t o r y o f th e l a s t tw e n ty c e n t u r i e s . I n th e s e c t i o n d e a lin g w ith F i c h t e , L o e w e n ste in i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i l l u m i n a t i n g . He m a in ta in s , i n c o n t r a s t to so many o th e r h i s t o r i a n s , t h a t F ic h te h a s b e e n w id e ly m is u n d e r s to o d . To L o e w e n s te in , F i c h t e , w h ile b e in g r e s p o n s ib le i n g r e a t m e asu re f o r th e r e b i r t h o f Germ any, w as n o n e th e le s s d e f i n i t e l y n o t a n arro w n a t i o n a l i s t . F ic h te w as a d v o c a tin g a w o rld m o r a l i t y , n o t a n arro w p e r v e r te d n a tio n a lis m . L o e w e n ste in w r i t e s o f th e A d d re sse s: T h ere i s n o t one w ord in them a d v o c a tin g n a t i o n a l s e l f i s h n e s s a t th e ex p en se o f t h e n a t i o n a l r i g h t s o f o t h e r s o r r a v in g n a t i o n a l a g g r e s s iv e n e s s . They a r e i n s p ir e d b y th e c o n c e p t o f "H u m a n itS t," m o ral m ankind c a p a b le o f e d u c a tio n — th e c o r r e l a t e o f th e p o l i t i c a l l y c o s m o p o lita n a t t i t u d e o f th e p r e - J e n a d a y s .* 6 L o e w e n ste in b e r a t e s o t h e r h i s t o r i a n s f o r m is u n d e r s ta n d in g t h e H eden. F o r h e m a in ta in s t h a t F ic h te w as 45 I b i d . . p . V II . 46 I*>ia-. P. 285. 48 a c c u s e d o f a g g r e s s iv e n a tio n a lis m o n ly th ro u g h s h e e r i g n o ra n c e o f h i s s ta n d o r th ro u g h w i l f u l n e s s on th e p a r t o f th e a c c u s e r s . To L o e w e n s te in , F ic h te w as a g r e a t p h ilo s o p h e r e x tre m e ly b ro a d i n h i s we I t en s ch au u n g . L o ew en stein * s e n t i r e t r e a t i s e i s e x c e l l e n t l y h a n d le d and o f f e r s g en u in e b ack g ro u n d f o r t h i s s tu d y . 47 P a u ls e n * s German E d u c a tio n P a s t and P r e s e n t , and 48 The German U n i v e r s i t i e s and G h iv e r s ity S tu d y . T hese two t r e a t i s e s a r e a c c e p te d a s f i r s t - r a t e a c c o u n ts o f German edu c a tio n th ro u g h o u t t h e c e n t u r i e s . The f i r s t volum e i s a h i s t o r i c a l tr e a tm e n t o f th e r i s e and d ev elo p m en t o f a l l German e d u c a tio n a s one g r e a t m ovem ent. He w r i t e s w ith r e g a rd to f a e t s , an d s p a r e s no c r i t i c i s m o f an y o f th e f a u l t s he r e l a t e s . The t r e a t i s e w as w r i t t e n i n 1912 so he h a s n o th in g o f th e tw o g r e a t w ars t h a t fo llo w e d , an d o f how edu c a tio n had become d eb au ch ed b etw een th e two c o n f l i c t s . But h i s t r e a t m e n t o f th e F ic h te a n e r a i s sound an d i l l u m i n a t i n g . The seco n d t r e a t i s e i s an e x c e l l e n t s o u rc e book o f t h e g e n e s is o f th e German U n iv e r s it y . The p e r io d o f t h i s A rt F r i e d r i c h P a u ls e n , German E d u c a tio n P a s t and P r e s e n t (Hew Y ork: G h a rie s S c r ib n e r * s S o n s, 1 9 l 2 ) , SuLO p p . T r a n s la te d b y T. L o re n z . 48 F r i e d r i c h P a u ls e n , The German U n i v e r s i t i e s and U n iv e r s ity S tu d y (Hew Y ork: C h a rle s S c r ib n e r * s S o n s, 1 9 0 6 ), 249 p p . T r a n s la te d b y F fan k T h i l l y and W illia m W. E lw ang. 49 s tu d y w hich P a u ls e n w ro te a b o u t showed how g r e a t a change h a s o c c u rre d a s a r e s u l t o f th e P r u s s ia n re f o rm s . P a u ls e n * s g r e a t e n th u s ia s m a t th e d e m o c r a tiz a tio n o f th e u n i v e r s i t i e s i s n o te d . L a te r i n th e s tu d y , t h i s l i b e r a t i o n o f th e u n i v e r s i t i e s , so p r a i s e d b y P a u ls e n , w ill, be n o te d . 49 R e is n e r ys N a tio n a lis m and E d u c a tio n S in c e 1 7 8 9 . T h is w ork i s a t r e a t i s e c o n c e rn e d w ith t h e b a s ic im p li c a t i o n s o f s o c i a l , eco n o m ic, and p o l i t i c a l l i f e a s th e y i n f lu e n c e e d u c a tio n . More s p e c i f i c a l l y c o n s id e r a ti o n w as g iv e n t o th e o v e r a l l c o n d itio n s o b ta in in g i n F ra n c e , P r u s s i a , E n g la n d , an d th e IM ite d S t a t e s . T re a te d a r e th e p rim a ry con d i t i o n i n g p h a s e s o f th e p e r io d s in c e 1 7 8 9 , n am ely , n a t i o n a l ism and d em o cracy . " P r u s s ia and th e German E m p ire” i s th e t i t l e g iv e n to th e s e c t i o n d e a lin g w ith th e r e s u rg e n c e o f n a tio n a lis m in P r u s s i a . I t i s d iv id e d in to two c h a p te r s f o r c o n v e n ie n c e , b u t b o th a re c o n c e rn e d w ith th e d ev elo p m en t o f R e is n e r ’ s t h e s i s . The e m p h a sis i s upon e d u c a ti o n ’s p la c e i n th e P r u s s ia n E m p ire. R e is n e r t r a c e s th e s t a t e s o f e d u c a tio n from 1716 when F r e d e r ic k W illia m I p u b lis h e d a r e s c r i p t m aking a tte n d a n c e a t v i l l a g e s c h o o ls co m p u lso ry f o r a l l c h i l d r e n n o t o th e rw is e g iv e n some s c h o o lin g . R e is n e r m ain t a i n s t h a t t h i s e d i c t by F r e d e r ic k W illia m I w as th e 49 Edward R e is n e r , N a tio n a lis m and E d u c a tio n S in c e 1789 (New Y ork: The M acm illan Company, 1 9 2 9 ), 575 p p . b e g in n in g o f t h e n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f e d u c a tio n i n P r u s s i a . He shows how lo n g b e f o r e T i l s i t , i n 1763 t o be e x a c t, F r e d e r ic k th e G re a t is s u e d h i s " G e n e ra l R e g u la tio n s f o r V illa g e S c h o o ls ." T h is e d i c t r e p e a te d th e e a r l i e r o r d e r f o r co m p u lso ry a tte n d a n c e and d e f i n i t e l y o r g a n iz e d th e s c h o o l d ay and term a s r e g a r d s c u r r ic u lu m s u p e r v is io n and o t h e r s c h o o l m a t t e r s . But R e is n e r a d m its i t w as F ic h te who more o r l e s s c r y s t a l l i z e d th e n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f German s c h o o ls th ro u g h h i s A d d re s s e s . T r e i t s c h k e ’ s H is to r y o f Germany i n th e N in e te e n th 50 C e n tu ry . T h is s tu d y a l r e a d y h a s become a c l a s s i c and a c c e p te d a s su ch by a l l s c h o l a r s . The p r e s e n t s tu d y o n ly u se d h i s seco n d volum e w h ich was a m a s t e r f u l s u rv e y o f th e b e g in n in g o f th e G erm anic F e d e r a tio n w hich a r o s e from th e r u i n s o f th e N a p o le o n ic w a rs to becom e r e o r d e r e d and r e c o n s tr u c te d . W hile th e e n t i r e volum e i s e x c e l l e n t , th e p e r t i n e n t ( t o t h i s s tu d y ) d a ta a r e i n p a g e s 4 4 5 -8 7 , i n t h e s e c t i o n c a l l e d th e " R e c o n s tru c tio n o f th e P r u s s ia n S t a t e . " W h ile t h i s s e c t i o n t r e a t s th e e n t i r e r i s e o f P r u s s i a a s a co m p le te p a t t e r n , t h e r e i s enough a b o u t e d u c a tio n to show i t s im p o rta n c e . Some o f th e s e e x t r a c t s w ere u se d i n th e H e n ric h G o tth a rd von T r e its c h k e , H is to r y o f Germany i n th e N in e te e n th C e n tu ry (7 V o l s . ; New Y ork: M cB ride ,~“ f a s t Company, 1 9 1 6 ). t r a n s l a t e d b y Eden and C edar P a u l. 51 s tu d y . About t h i s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f e d u c a tio n T r e its e h k e w r i t e s : What w as n eed ed w as to c a r r y f u r t h e r t h e w ork begun w ith t h e f o u n d a tio n o f th e B e r lin T k iiv e r s ity , to r e a l i z e i n i t s c o o ip le te n e s s th e o ld P r u s s ia n i d e a o f u n iv e r s a l co m p u lso ry e d u c a tio n , to i n s p i r e th e lo w e r and m id d le s c h o o ls w ith th e s p i r i t o f th e new s c ie n c e , and th u s to a c q u ir e f o r th e s t a t e o f F r e d e r ic k a p o s i t i o n i n th e i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e o f th e n a t i o n t h a t w ould b e w o rth y o f P r u s s i a ’ s renow n i n a im s .51 P r u s s i a ’s r e g e n e r a tio n i s d e p ic te d in a l l i t s m a n i f o l d r a m i f i c a t i o n s . The p e r s o n a l i t i e s and p a r t i e s a t C o u rt, th e many je a lo u s f a c t i o n s , and th e b e g in n in g s o f th e s tr u g g l e f o r c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l i b e r t i e s a r e a l l o u tl i n e d i n s h a rp d e t a i l b y th e pen o f a m a s te r . C. RELATED INVESTIGATIONS T h ere i s no g r e a t am ount o f t h i s m a t e r i a l . T hose few s t u d i e s w h ich w ere c a r e f u l l y exam ined a r e s e t f o r t h b e c a u se th e y fo llo w e d m ore o r l e s s th e same c h a n n e ls a s d o e s t h i s s tu d y . 53 B e l l ’ s i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n 1 9 5 5 . B e ll made an i n v e s t i g a t i o n w hich a tte m p te d t o r e v e a l in f o rm a tio n c o n c e rn in g * 5 1 I b i d . , I I , 5 0 8 . Raymond O r v i l l e B e l l , tfThe E d u c a tio n a l P h ilo s o p h y o f lam es M a d iso n ,” (u n p u b lis h e d M a s te r ’ s t h e s i s , The U ni v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e le s, 1 9 3 5 ), 75 p p . 52 t h e e d u c a tio n a l p h ilo s o p h y o f Jam es M ad iso n , h i s a t t i t u d e to w a rd e d u c a tio n a s r e f l e c t e d i n h i s w r i t i n g s ; some n o tio n o f h i s p o l i t i c a l c a r e e r a n d i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e t o e d u c a tio n i n im e r ic a . B e ll m a in ta in s t h a t : M adison was a s i g n i f i c a n t f i g u r e i n e a r l y .American e d u c a tio n a l h i s t o r y , a lth o u g h l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n h a s b ee n g iv e n t o h i s w ork an d t o h i s in f lu e n c e Jby w r i t e r s o f te x tb o o k s i n th e h i s t o r y o f e d u c a tio n . ^ T h is s tu d y o f B e l l 's p u r p o r te d t o e x p la in M ad iso n * s a tte m p ts t o a s s i s t e d u c a tio n th r o u g h h i s p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e , a lth o u g h th e w r i t e r m a in ta in s t h a t M adison*s d i r e c t i n f lu e n c e upon e d u c a tio n w as n o t to o g r e a t . I t w as i n M adison* s p h ilo s o p h y o f d e m o c ra tic p r i v i l e g e s f o r a l l t h a t B e ll saw e d u c a tio n a l im p lic a tio n s * 54 E n g e lb re c h t* s in v e s t i g a t i o n i n 1 9 33. E n g e lb re c h t * s d i s s e r t a t i o n , Jo h an n G o t t l i e b F i c h t e , i s r e a l l y a re v ie w o f F i c h t e 's p o l i t i c a l w r i t i n g s a s th e y p e r t a i n to h i s n a t i o n a l ism . The w ork i s d e v o te d t o F i c h t e 's w r i t i n g s , n o t p e r s e , b u t a s th e y r e l a t e t o th e p o l i t i c a l p i c t u r e . F i c h t e 's im p o r ta n c e a s an e d u c a to r i s subm erged and h i s s t a t u s a s an im p o r ta n t p o l i t i c a l f i g u r e i s h i g h l i g h t e d . F i c h t e 's p o l i t i c a l p h ilo s o p h y i s d e e p ly r o o te d in h i s g e n e r a l p h ilo s o p h ic sy stem . . . F ic h te w as a 53 I b i a . . p p . 6 5 -6 6 . ^ Helmmth E n g e lb r e c h t, Jo h an n G o t t l i e b F lo h te (New Y ork: C olum bia U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1 9 3 3 ), 221 p p . d i s c i p l e o f K a n t, K ant h ad i n s i s t e d on th e u n i t y o f e x p e rie n c e b u t he h a d n o t deduced th e v a r io u s c a t e g o r i e s from a s i n g l e s o u r c e . F ic h te w as l o g i c a l an d p o s i t e d a s in g l e so u rc e w h ich h e fo u n d in th e f r e e s p i r i t o f m an .55 To E n g e lb r e c h t, F ic h te i s a n e t h i c a l o p t im is t who hoped f o r a triu m p h o f r i g h t , when th e m o ra l o r d e r i n th e w o rld i s re c o g n iz e d by a l l o f m an k in d . Through d u ty i n s p ir e d by t h i s v e ry r e a l m o ra l o r d e r o f th e u n i v e r s e , a b e t t e r Germany and th e r e b y a b e t t e r w o rld u n i ty w i l l em erg e. E n g e lb re c h t v e ry c a r e f u l l y t r a c e s F ic h te * s in f lu e n c e in th e r e s u r g e n t German n a t io n a l is m . N u l l ’ s i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n 1 9 5 6 * N u l l ’s**6 s tu d y h a s a s i t s p u rp o se th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a co m p reh en siv e and c o n c is e resum e o f th e h i s t o r y o f e d u c a tio n an d n a t io n a l is m i n F ra n c e , G erm any, E n g lan d , and th e U n ite d S t a t e s from 1 7 8 0 . to d a s th e a u th o r s a y s , **to p r o j e c t a r e a s o n a b le p i c t u r e o f human 57 . p r o g r e s s . * * More s p e c i f i c a l l y th e w r i t e r a tte m p te d t o re v ie w th e f a c t s a s r e g a r d s e d u c a tio n an d n a tio n a lis m i n th e p r e v io u s l y m e n tio n e d n a t i o n s . H u l l ’ s p u rp o se w as t o c l a r i f y th e e d u c a tio n a l im p l ic a tio n s w ith r e f e r e n c e t o th e s o c i a l o r d e r . More s p e c i f i c a l l y , he e x p lo re d t h e r o l e o f e d u c a tio n 55 I b i d . , p . 2 8 . 56 V oid B odkin H u ll, "Resume and R e c a p itu la tio n — A S tu d y o f N a ti o n a li s e and E ducation,** (u n p u b lis h e d M a s te r ’s t h e s i s , The U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e le s, 1 9 3 6 ), 182 p p . 57 ifria.. p. 3. i n th e n a tio n a lis m o f th e v a r io u s c o u n t r i e s i n th e s tu d y . C oupled w ith h i s h i s t o r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n th e r e i s a t y p i c a l tr e a tm e n t o f th e tim e s i n w hich he w r o te , i . e . , 1 9 3 3 . R e g ard in g th e h i s t o r y o f Germany a s r e g a r d s n a tio n a lis m H u ll w r i t e s : I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to n o te d u r in g th e l a t t e r p a r t o f th e e i g h te e n th c e n tu r y ( b e fo re th e T r e a ty o f T i l s i t ) i d e a l i s t i c p h ilo s o p h y p r o j e c t i n g a ty p e o f c o s m o p o lita n i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s m w as w r i t t e n , p re a c h e d , and recom mended by K a n t, G o e th e , S c h i l l e r . . . I t w as d u rin g th e f i r s t tw o d e c a d e s o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y t h a t B aron von S t e i n , th e k i n g ’ s m i n i s t e r , b ro u g h t a b o u t l e g a l ch an g es i n th e -e c o n o m ic an d s o c i a l c o n d itio n o f P r u s s i a . 58 And f u r t h e r H u ll p o i n t s o u t how e d u c a tio n w as a m eans o f t h i s re fo rm . 59 M aupin*s i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n 1 9 3 3 . M au p in ’s s tu d y d e s c r ib e d F r a n k l i n ’ s u t i l i t a r i a n p h ilo s o p h y , h i s e d u c a tio n a l t h e o r i e s and p u b lic s e r v i c e . H is c o n c e p tio n o f e d u c a tio n w as s e t f o r t h a s r e v e a le d i n h i s w r i t i n g s w hich w ere among th e o u ts ta n d in g e d u c a tio n a l t h e o r i e s t h a t c o n t r ib u t e d to e a r l y A m erican s c h o o ls . The w r i t e r s a y s o f F r a n k l i n ’ s e d u c a tio n a l i d e a l : He ( F r a n k lin ) w as c o n v in c e d t h a t i t w as p o s s i b le by 58 I b i d . , p . 3 7 . 59 M ary M aurene M aupin, ’’The E d u c a tio n a l T h e o rie s o f B enjam in F r a n k l i n ,” (u n p u b lis h e d M a s te r ’ s t h e s i s , The U ni v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e le s , 1 9 3 3 ), 91 p p . 55 t h e s e m eans to b o l s t e r th e o f t e n i n e r t , b u t i n h e r e n t p ow ers i n e a c h human b e in g , so t h a t he m ig h t be a b le t o c r e a t e n o t o n ly f o r h im s e lf , b u t a ls o f o r h i s fe llo w men | a l i f e d e d ic a te d t o t h e s e r v ic e o f m an k in d , w ith e d u c a tio n p la y in g a d e f i n i t e c o n s c io u s p a r t in h e lp in g to r e a l i z e t h i s i d e a l , Tsfaieh was t h e c r i t e r i o n F r a n k lin a d v o c a te d f o r each i n d i v i d u a l t o a c h ie v e .60 M aupin t r a c e d th e m ethods F r a n k lin u se d t o a t t a i n h i s i d e a l , i . e . , a n o rm al l i f e . F o r h im s e lf , F r a n k lin ad v o c a te d s t r i c t s e lf- im p o s e d r u l e s , an d o u t l i n e d th e s e i n o r d e r t h a t o t h e r s m ig h t h a v e th e b e n e f i t o f h i s e x p e r ie n c e s . From s tu d y in g h i s f e llo w men F r a n k lin e v o lv e d u n d e rs ta n d in g o f m ankind*s many f o i b l e s . Summary. T h is c h a p te r h a s d e a l t w ith th e p ro c e d u re an d th e s o u rc e s o f d a t a a s p a r t o f one p r o c e s s . The me c h a n ic s o f h i s t o r i c a l m eth o d o lo g y w ere e x p la in e d i n t h e i r r e l a t i o n to t h i s s tu d y . The m ore im p o rta n t w orks fro m w h ich t h i s s tu d y d e r iv e d i t s d a ta w ere re v ie w e d and s e t f o r t h in t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s . The t h r e e ty p e s o f l i t e r a t u r e su rv e y e d w ere c h o se n b e c a u se th e y w ere th e fo re m o s t o f t h e i r k in d . The n e x t c h a p te r p r e s e n t s th e a s su m p tio n s and hypo th e s e s o f th e s tu d y . 60 I b i d . . p . 8 6 . CHAPTER I I I ASSUMPTIONS AND HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY T h is s tu d y may p e rh a p s he m ore c l e a r l y com prehended i f th e im p lie d a s s u m p tio n s and h y p o th e s e s in s tr u m e n ta l i n i t s ev o lv em en t a r e s e t f o r t h . Upon t h e a s su m p tio n s s e t f o r t h t h i s s tu d y j u s t i f i e s i t s e l f . The h y p o th e s e s a r e m ore o r l e s s t e n t a t i v e i n s t r u m e n t a l i t i e s e n s u in g fro m th e a s su m p tio n s and u se d f o r v a l i d a t i o n p u rp o s e s . A ssu m p tio n s o f th e s tu d y . T h is s tu d y in v o lv e s c e r t a i n b a s ic t h e o r i e s w h ic h w ere f i r s t p o s i t e d and th e n ta k e n f o r g r a n te d . The f o llo w in g a s s u m p tio n s a r e some o f th e m ore fu n d a m e n ta l o n e s b a s ic to t h i s s tu d y : 1 . E d u c a tio n i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s i s v e r y much co n c e rn e d w ith th e p ro b lem o f s c h o o l and s o c i e t y . 2 . A r a t i o n a l c o n c lu s io n a s to th e p la n e d u c a tio n sh o u ld ta k e i n r e f e r e n c e to an y g iv e n s o c i a l o r d e r i s n e c e s s a r y f o r e d u c a tio n a l ad v an ce m en t. 3 . H i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h in to th e a p p ro a c h o f a n o th e r c o u n tr y to w a rd s th e p ro b lem o f s c h o o l and s o c i e t y may o f f e r d a ta h e l p f u l to p r e s e n t- d a y e d u c a to r s i n t h e i r a tte m p t a t r e s o lv in g th e same p ro b le m . 4 . Jo h an n G o t t l i e b F ic h te and h i s e r a o f f e r a u n iq u e phenom enon in th e m o d if ic a tio n o f s o c i e t y by th e s c h o o ls . 57 5 . The in f o rm a tio n d e r iv e d from t h e h i s t o r i c a l s o u rc e s o f t h i s s tu d y i s a u t h e n ti c and le n d s i t s e l f i n t e l l i g i b l y t o th e p u rp o se o f th e s tu d y . 6 . The h i s t o r i c a l m eth o d o lo g y i s e x tre m e ly u s e f u l i n d i s c l o s i n g in f o rm a tio n p e r t i n e n t to th e s tu d y o f e d u c a tio n a l p ro b le m s. 7 . H is to r y i s a n e x p e r i e n t i a l co n tin u u m , and no s t r i c t o n e - f o r- o n e c o r r e l a t i o n i s p o s s i b l e . T h is s tu d y p o s t u l a t e d th e c o n n e c te d n e s s o f a l l p a s t e v e n ts i n a com plex c h a in , a llo w in g o f none c o m p le te ly d i s c r e t e and in d e p e n d e n t o f i t s e l f . 8 . L o g ic a l p a t t e r n s en su e from h i s t o r i c a l i n q u i r y , i f i t i s c o n t r o l l e d . T hese p a t t e r n s , w h ile n o t f i n a l and f i x e d , a r e n o n e th e le s s c o g e n t and p r a c t i c a b l e f o r th e s o l u t i o n o f e d u c a tio n a l p ro b le m s . 9 . A ll h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h in v o lv e s s u b je c ti v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ; h ence i t i s im p o s s ib le t o a v o id some e r r o r , and m a in ta in s t r i c t o b j e c t i v i t y . 1 0 . The f i n d i n g s an d c o n c lu s io n s o f t h i s s tu d y a r e s i g n i f i c a n t f o r m odern e d u c a tio n . H ypothe se s o f th e s tu d y . I n o r d e r to r e n d e r th e s tu d y m e a n in g fu l an d r e l e v a n t t o p r e s e n t- d a y e d u c a tio n , c e r t a i n co m p reh en siv e and t e n t a t i v e h y p o th e s e s w ere fo rm u la te d and p r e s e n te d . T h ese h y p o th e s e s f u r n i s h th e fram e o f r e f e r e n c e 58 th ro u g h w h ich t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n p r o j e c t e d i t s t h e s i s . The i n v e s t i g a t o r fo rm ed th e s e h y p o th e s e s from th e l i t e r a t u r e o f th e s tu d y ( p r i m a r i l y th e f i r s t - h a n d s o u rc e ) and h i s own edu c a t i o n a l and p h il o s o p h i c a l b a c k g ro u n d . The f o llo w in g h y p o th e s e s w ere d e r iv e d f o r th e e x e c u tio n o f t h i s s tu d y : 1 . The s o c i a l o r d e r o f P r u s s i a o f th e e a r l y and m id d le n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y was ch an g ed in g r e a t m e asu re by th e s c h o o ls . 2 . The d i s a s t e r o f m i l i t a r y d e f e a t b y N apoleon s e rv e d a s a m o tiv a tin g f o r c e f o r th e r e g e n e r a tio n o f th e s o c i a l o r d e r . 3 . The s c h o o ls w ere b ro u g h t i n t o fo c u s b y th e m i l i t a r y d i s a s t e r to th e s o c i a l o r d e r . 4 . Jo h a n n G o t t l i e b F i c h t e , th ro u g h h i s e d u c a tio n a l t h e o r i e s and h i s A d d re s s e s , w as a g r e a t f a c t o r i n b r in g in g th e tw o t o g e t h e r . 5 . The d ev elo p m en t o f n a tio n a lis m p ro v e d th e m eans w h ereb y th e s c h o o ls in f lu e n c e d th e re fo rm o f s o c i e t y . 6 . O th e r f a c t o r s a ls o sh ap ed th e c o u rs e o f P r u s s ia n s o c i a l and e d u c a tio n a l re fo rm . 7 . O th e r le a d e r s a l s o p la y e d a g r e a t r o l e i n th e e x e c u tio n o f th e s o c i a l re fo rm s and th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f F i c h t e ’s e d u c a ti o n a l d o c t r i n e . 8 . N a tio n a l r e g u l a t i o n s and c e n t r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n 59 tra n s fo rm e d th e s c h o o ls a s t o p u rp o s e , m e th o d o lo g y , and c u r r ic u lu m . 9 . E d u c a tio n w h ich d o e s n o t r e p r e s e n t th e w i l l o f a l l t h e p e o p le u s u a l l y f a i l s o r t u r n s i n t o an in s tru m e n t g u id e d b y th e few . 1 0 . The i n t e g r a t i n g o f s c h o o l and s o c i e t y demo c r a t i c a l l y seem s one m eans f o r th e g e n u in e advancem ent o f b o th . Summary. The p r e c e d in g c h a p te r s have g iv e n th e h i s t o r i c a l and p h il o s o p h i c a l i m p l i c a t io n s o f t h i s s tu d y a s w e ll a s th e l i t e r a t u r e . T h is l i t e r a t u r e may a l s o be c o n s id e r e d a s h a v in g p r o c e d u r a l c o n n o ta tio n s , f o r th e s tu d y , b e in g h i s t o r i c a l , d epended upon a p p ro v e d h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h m e th o d s. T hese m eth o d s em ploy a l l p e r t i n e n t and r e l e v a n t d a t a , and th e n s u b je c t them t o l o g i c a l i n q u i r y . T h is ch ap t e r h a s g iv e n i n o u t l i n e fo rm th e p rim a ry a s s u m p tio n s and h y p o th e s e s o f th e s tu d y . The fo llo w in g c h a p te r b e g in s th e m ain p a r t o f th e s tu d y i n t h a t i t in tr o d u c e s th e lo c a le and f u r n i s h e s th e b ac k g ro u n d f o r th e g r e a t re fo rm s o c c a s io n e d l a t e r . CHAPTER IV HISTORICAL BACKGROUND I n t r o d u c t i o n . W h ile t h i s s tu d y to o k i n t o r e c o g n i t i o n t h e ch a n g es e f f e c t e d i n a l l Germany th ro u g h th e s c h o o l r e fo rm s , th e p o in t o f e m p h a sis w as c e n te r e d a ro u n d P ru s s ia * T h is c h a p te r w i l l p r e s e n t in a b b r e v ia te d h i s t o r i c a l p a t t e r n th e P r u s s i a o f th e n i n e te e n th c e n tu r y . The l e i t m o t i f o f t h i s c h a p te r w i l l be th e d e p ic ti n g o f th e g ro w th o f w hat i s commonly known a s th e P r u s s ia n V o lk s g e is t > T h is s p i r i t , o r u n i t y o f p u rp o s e , made p o s s i b le th e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f th e German S n p ire a f t e r N apoleon h ad co n q u e re d i t . Jo h an n G o t t l i e b F i c h t e ^ A d d re sse s w ere r e c e iv e d by a p e o p le co n d i t i o n e d h i s t o r i c a l l y to a p p r e c ia t e i t . T h is p h a se o f th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n w i l l d e v o te i t s e l f to th e u n fo ld in g o f t h i s u n i t y . F o r th e sak e o f co g en cy t h i s c h a p te r o m itte d some o f th e m ore s t r i c t h i s t o r i c a l r e c o u n t in g , and w i l l s e t f o r t h o n ly th o s e s a l i e n t f e a t u r e s c o n t r i b u tin g t o t h e co m p reh en sio n o f th e V o l k s g e i s t. The o v e r a l l m o tif w i l l be t h e e x p o s it i o n o f th e c e n t r a l th e m e , v i z . , th e c h a r a c te r o f th e P r u s s ia n p e o p le w h ich re n d e r e d them so u n iq u e . The s p i r i t made p o s s i b le th e e d u c a tio n a l phenom enon i n s t i g a t e d by F ic h te . I . PRUSSIA IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 61 P r u s s ia # em erg en ce. The r i s e o f P r u s s i a a s a f i r s t - r a t e pow er i n t h e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y was a phenom enon t h a t d i r e c t l y in f lu e n c e d a l l o f E u ro p e . I t l a i d th e groundw ork f o r th e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f Germany a f t e r th e N a p o le o n ic d e b a c le . I n o r d e r t o m ore c l e a r l y u n d e rs ta n d th e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f P r u s s i a , i t i s n e c e s s a r y to i n t e r p r e t th e g r e a t w ork o f w hat i s now known h i s t o r i c a l l y a s th e " F r e d e r ic i a n T r a d i t i o n . " The em ergence o f P r u s s ia a s a E u ro p ean pow er w ould have been h ig h ly im p ro b a b le , w ith o u t th e i n t e r n a l s o l i d i f i c a t i o n so a b ly b ro u g h t a b o u t b y F r e d e r ic k W illia m I and F r e d e r ic k th e G re a t. T h ere w ere o t h e r f a c t o r s w hich e n te r e d in to th e P r u s s ia n em erg en ce, b u t th e F r e d e r ic k s to o k th e l e a d in g r o l e . P r u s s i a , a s a p e o p le , w as d i s t i n g u i s h e d fro m th e r e s t o f i t s s i s t e r German s t a t e s b y a m ore f e r v e n t n a t i o n a l c o n s c io u s n e s s . T h is c o h e s iv e s p i r i t ( G e is t) among th e p e o p le r e n d e re d P r u s s ia u n iq u e . F or i n P r u s s i a , s u b o r d in a tio n t o k in g and c o u n try was a solem n o b l i g a t i o n . F or m ore th a n any o t h e r E u ro p ean m o n a rc h s, th o s e o f P r u s s i a b e lie v e d i n th e p r i n c i p l e o f n o b le s s e o b l i g e . The fam ous c red o o f M ach iav elli^ * t h a t th e p r in c e i s th e s e r v a n t o f th e s t a t e w as ^ N ic c o lo M a c h ia v e lli, The P r in c e (O x fo rd : The C la re n d o n P r e s s , 1 8 9 7 ), 148 p p . T r a n s la te d b y S i r Thomas M o re. 6 Z i m p l i c i t i n th e r u l e o r th e P r u s s ia n F r e d e r ic k s . The P r u s s ia n r u l e r s , a s B a rra c lo u g h re m a rk s , wco n - s c r i p t e d th e l i v e s o f t h e i r p e a s a n t s , and t h e s e r v i c e s or p t h e i r n o b le s , b u t th e y a l s o c o n s c r ip te d th e m s e lv e s .* U nder th e P r u s s ia n m o n a rc h s, th e p e o p le d e v e lo p e d th e r e s o u r c e s o r th e la n d , rorm ed a w e l l d i s c i p l i n e d arm y, and gave a t r a d i t i o n o r s e r v ic e w hich i n g r e a t m e asu re s u p p la n te d T ree p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y . T h ere w as a u n i t y and a c o h e s io n i n P r u s s i a la c k in g in th e o t h e r German s t a t e s . The P r u s s ia n u n i t y . U nder t h i s c o h e s iv e e i n h e i t . or r o y a l l e a d e r s h i p and b e n e v o le n c e , th e p e o p le s or P r u s s i a d e v e lo p e d a c l o s e t i e w ith th e S t a t e . T h is r e l a t i o n s h i p w as S p a rta n in i t s m a n i r e s t a t i o n , r ig o r o u s and s t e m , and i t s : . . . s u b s ta n c e w as th e o b l i g a t i o n o r e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l , low and e x a l t e d , r i c h and p o o r , to s e rv e th e s t a t e w ith body and s o u l i n l i r e and d e a th . B u t, i n c o n t r a s t w ith th e a im le s s n e s s and a r b i t r a r i n e s s o f p o l i t i c a l l i r e e ls e w h e r e , e v e n t h i s r ig o r o u s d o c t r in e o r s e ir - a b n e g a ti o n c a u g h t h o ld , and i t s s t e r l i n g v a l u e s w ere p ro v e d i n th e Seven Y ears War when th e in d o m ita b le r e s i s t a n c e p u t up b y F r e d e r ic k th e G re a t i n r a c e o r an overw helm ing c o m b in a tio n o r th e p o w e rs, w as made p o s s i b l e by th e s o l i d s u p p o r t and s a c r i r i c e s o r h i s p e o p le . How a b s o lu te t h a t s u p p o rt w as i s i l l u s t r a t e d by th e r a c t t h a t , i n th e c o u n ty o r R a v en sb u rg , s o l d i e r s who d e s e r te d w ere d e n ie d th e b e n e r i t s o r c o n r e s s io n an d « h o ly communion an d r e r u s e d a d m itta n c e t o t h e i r hom es. 2 G e o rrre y B a rr a c lo u g h , She O r ig in s o f M odern Germany (New Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, 1 9 4 7 ), p . 40 0 . 3 I b i d . . p . 4 01. 63 T h is w as in d e e d an u n u s u a l exam ple o f th e s p i r i t w h ich p la y e d so p ro m in e n t a p a r t i n P r u s s i a . I n g r e a t m e a s u re , t h i s u n i f i e d o u tlo o k , t h i s V o lk s g e is t w as re s p o n s i b l e f o r th e re fo rm o f Germany by th e s c h o o ls i n F i c h t e ^ tim e . ? /ith o u t su ch c o h e s io n and u n i t y , th e s c h o o ls a s an in s tru m e n t o f s o c i e t y w o u ld have b e e n i n e f f e c t u a l . I t w as th e F r e d e r ic k s , a s m onarchs o f th e E m p ire, who h e lp e d f u s e t h i s f e e l i n g among th e p e o p le , so t h a t when F ic h te d e liv e r e d h i s R eden t h e r e e x i s t e d a l r e a d y an a u d ie n c e im bued w ith th e P r u s s ia n m o r a le . The H o h e n z o lle m s . I n 1 7 0 1 , a t K o e n ig s b e rg , F r e d e r ic k I crow ned h im s e lf K ing o f P r u s s i a . The a p p e l l a t i o n , P r u s s i a , h o w ev e r, d id n o t become o f f i c i a l l y re c o g n iz e d u n t i l th e r e ig n o f F r e d e r ic k W illia m I , th e son o f F r e d e r ic k I . P r u s s i a w as th e f i r s t P r o t e s t a n t kingdom w ith i n Germ any, an d i t owes much to B ran d en b u rg , a n o th e r and l e s s e r kingdom o f Germ any. A c tu a lly , th e r i s e o f P r u s s i a a s a g r e a t German S t a t e , i s due t o th e m a rg ra v e s o f B ran d e n b u rg , o r a s th e y a r e b e t t e r known, th e H b h e n z o lle m s . I n 1415, t h i s House o f H b h e n z o lle ra o r i g i n a l l y r u l i n g i n s o u th e rn G erm any, becam e th ro u g h i n v i t a t i o n th e M a rg rav es o f B ra n d e n b u rg . W ith t h i s h o n o r th e y a ls o r e c e iv e d th e t i t l e o f " E l e c t o r ." The " E le c to r s " w ere sev en p r i n c e s , who ch o se th e S a p e ro r o f th e H oly Roman f ia p ir e . 6 4 The H o h e n z o lle m s became an im p o rta n t d y n a s ty i n th e Em pire o f Germany and b y 1 6 1 8 , th e y h ad i n h e r i t e d th e d uchy o f E a s t P r u s s i a . The T r e a ty o f W e s tp h a lia i n 1648 gave th e H o h e n z o lle m s e a s t e r n P o m e ra n ia . I n 1 6 5 5 , F r e d e r ic k W illia m o f H o h e n z o lle m a t ta c k e d P o la n d w h ile t h a t n a t i o n w as e n g aged i n a w ar w ith Sweden. The H o h e n z o lle m s w ere r e l a t i v e new com ers i n G erm any, b u t a f t e r th e a t t a c k on P o la n d th e y became fam ous th ro u g h o u t E u ro p e . T h e ir la n d grew a s th e y ad d ed p o s s e s s io n a f t e r p o s s e s s io n , b u t th e s e a c c r e t i o n s l e n t a f o r e i g n a i r to P r u s s i a . T h e ir d o m in io n w as i n e s s e n c e non-G erm an, and when L eo p o ld a c c e d e d to F r e d e r ic k th e F i r s t ’ s s e l f c o r o n a tio n , i t w as w ith some e m b a rra ssm e n t. As E b e n s te in w r i t e s : The em p ero r th e r e f o r e made F r e d e r ic k ’’K ing o f P r u s s i a , ” a s t h a t p ro v in c e h a d n e v e r b ee n a p a r t o f th e e m p ire . P r u s s i a l a y on th e f a r s id e o f P o la n d . I n t h e German Em pire p r o p e r , F r e d e r ic k r e t a i n e d h i s s t a t u s a s m a rg rav e and e l e c t o r o f B ran d en b u rg . T h is i s th e h i s t o r i c a l r e a s o n why S la v o n ic P r u s s i a , i n s t e a d o f th e m ore German B ra n d e n b u rg , became th e r o y a l sym bol o f th e H o h e n z o lle m s , a s k in g s o f P r u s s i a and l a t e r a s em p e ro rs o f G erm any.4 But w h a te v e r th e r a c i a l a d m ix tu re o f P r u s s i a , th e F r e d e r i c i a n k in g s su c c e e d e d in w e ld in g t o g e t h e r a homo g en e o u s p e o p le , u n i f i e d i n t h e i r o u tlo o k . The H o h e n z o lle m s 4 W illia m E b e n s te in , The German R e co rd —A P o l i t i c a l P o r t r a i t (Hew Y ork: F a r r a r and R h in e h a r t, I n c . , 1 9 4 5 ), p . 6 5 . 65 e n d u re d u n t i l th e end o f W orld War X, when K a is e r W ilhelm a b d ic a te d h i s th r o n e a t P o tsd am , and f l e d t o D oom i n H o lla n d . X I. FREDERICK THE FIRST The P r u s s ia o f th e e i g h te e n th c e n tu r y w as r e a l l y , a s h a s b een a l r e a d y n o te d , th e P r u s s i a o f th e ” F r e d e r ic ia n T r a d i t i o n . ” The f i r s t o f t h e fam ous F r e d e r ic k s w as F r e d e r ic k I (1 7 0 1 -1 7 1 3 ), who a n o in te d h im s e lf K ing o f P r u s s i a i n a r e g a l cerem ony w ith th e r e l u c t a n t c o n s e n t o f t h e Ifeiperor L eo p o ld I . F r e d e r ic k w as th e f i r s t to g a in r o y a l ra n k f o r th e H o h e n z o lle m s . L e o p o ld , Em peror o f t h e German E m p ire, h a d m e re ly b esto w ed th e ra n k o f K in g upon t h e f i r s t F r e d e r ic k , b e c a u se he s to o d i n d e s p e r a te n e e d o f P r u s s ia n m i l i t a r y a s s i s t a n c e a t t h a t tim e (The War o f th e S p an ish S u c c e s s io n ) . L e o p o ld , a s m onarch o f a l l G erm any, h ad th e pow er w i t h i n h im s e lf t o b e s t owe su c h an h o n o r upon an y r e ig n in g s o v e re ig n he c h o s e . L eo p o ld w as i n d i r e s t r a i t s , b e c a u se o f th e w a r i n w hich he w as th e n en g ag ed , an d i n r e t u r n f o r th e p ro m ise o f h e lp fro m F r e d e r i c k s p o w e rfu l l e g i o n s , he c o n f e r r e d k in g ly ra n k upon h im . F r e d e r ic k c o u ld n e v e r h av e a t t a i n e d th e t h r o n e , i f i t w ere n o t f o r t h e s e f o r t u i t o u s c ir c u m s ta n c e s . I t w o u ld h a v e a v a ile d him n o th in g t o crow n h im s e lf w ith o u t t h e a s s e n t o f L eo p o ld I . Thus w as a k in g made th ro u g h 66 e x p e d ie n c y . As H en d erso n r e l a t e s : On J a n u a ry 1 8 th to o k p la c e th e c o r o n a tio n i t s e l f , th e c e re m o n ia l o f w hich was c o p ie d from t h a t o f t h e im p e r ia l c o r o n a tio n a t F r a n k f o r t, w ith th e e x c e p tio n , h o w ev er, t h a t th e r e l i g i o u s e le m e n t w as k e p t i n th e b a c k g ro u n d . By a h ap p y c o n c a te n a tio n o f c irc u m s ta n c e s F r e d e r ic k had b een a b le t o r a i s e th e p r e s t i g e o f h i s s t a t e , and t o p e rfo rm a s e r v i c e f o r h i s h o u se w hich l a i d th e fo u n d a t i o n f o r i t s f u t u r e g lo r y . . . 5 F r e d e r ic k I ys c h a r a c t e r . F r e d e r ic k I w as n o t a s s tr o n g a s h i s s o n , n o r g ra n d s o n . I n many r e s p e c t s a f t e r h i s c o r o n a tio n h e p ro v e d a w e a k lin g , l i v i n g m e re ly f o r th e p r e s e n t , and s e e m in g ly la c k in g a s e n s e o f d e s t i n y . H is f o r e i g n p o lic y w as d i c t a t e d by h i s m i n i s t e r s ; and h i s d o m e stic a f f a i r s a ls o s u f f e r e d from la c k o f l e a d e r s h i p . F r e d e r i c k ’ s f in a n c e s w ere alw a y s i n a s t a t e o f d i s r e p a i r , and a s a n a t u r a l r e s u l t th e governm ent w as a lw a y s i n d e b t. A s tr o n g e r and m ore e f f e c t u a l m onarch th a n F r e d e r ic k I c o u ld h av e g a in e d a g r e a t d e a l m ore i n th e w ay o f a c q u i s i t i o n s , i n th e w a rs i n w hich h i s tr o o p s to o k p a r t . F r e d e r i c k ’ s i n t e r e s t s , h o w ev er, l a y i n t h e en co u rag em en t o f l i t e r a r y an d a r t i s t i c e n d e a v o rs . F r e d e r ic k I d ie d i n 1715, b e q u e a th in g th e n ew ly em b a rk e d kingdom to h i s son F r e d e r ic k W illia m I , known to p o s t e r i t y a s th e " s o l d i e r k i n g . ” W hile F r e d e r ic k I w as n o t 5 E r n e s t H en d e rso n , A S h o rt H is to r y o f Germany (New Y ork: Ih e M acm illan Company, 1 9 1 9 ), I I , 5 8 . 67 t h e g r e a t e s t o f th e F r e d e r ic k s , w ith him h o w ev er, b e g in s th e " T r a d i t i o n ." P r u s s ia b eg a n t o ta k e on t h a t o v e r a l l c h a r a c te r , w hidh became so fam ous i n E u ro p e . W ith him , P r u s s i a became a m i l i t a r y p o w er, and w h ile h i s r e i g n w as n o t s p e c t a c u l a r , i t n o n e th e le s s f u r n is h e d t h e i n i t i a l im p e tu s . F r e d e r ic k u s h e re d i n n o t o n ly a new c e n tu r y w ith h i s s e l f - c o r o n a t i o n , b u t a new e r a i n S t a t e s . I H . FREDERICK WILLIAM I (171 3 -1 7 4 0 ) L o e w e n ste in d e s c r i b e s F r e d e r ic k W illia m I t h u s : . . . t h e d u t i e s o f th e s t a t e a lw a y s came f i r s t . I n h i s r e ig n P r u s s i a w as th e f i r s t German s t a t e to a b o l is h w itc h t r i a l s . The e x e m p la ry P r u s s ia n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , w ith i t s i n c o r r u p t i b l e c i v i l s e r v i c e , and i t s u n i f i e d o f f i c e r s c o rp s (th e f i r s t i n E u ro p e ), owes m uch t o him . . . H is p e r s o n a l h a p p in e s s w as s a c r i f i c e d f o r th e m is s io n s l a i d upon him b y h i s t o r y : t o p r e p a r e th e p a th f o r h i s g r e a t s o n , F r e d e r ic k I I , who m i^ i t n e v e r have a t t a i n e d to fam e, h ad i t n o t b ee n f o r th e s o l i d fo u n d a t i o n s l a i d b y h i s s t e m f a t h e r f o r th e s t a t e and i n F r e d e r ic k h im s e lf.® U nder F r e d e r ic k W illia m I , th e arm y in c r e a s e d t h r e e f o l d , from r o u g h ly 3 5 ,0 0 0 t o 8 5 ,0 0 0 t r o o p s . F r e d e r ic k W illia m I lo v e d th e arm y, and u s e d a l l h i s e f f o r t s to im p ro v e i t . He r u l e d P r u s s i a a s he d id h i s arm y, somewhat l i k e a l a r g e e s t a t e , c o n s o lid a t in g i t s p o s s e s s io n s and i t s e s ta b li s h m e n ts . I n 1 7 2 0 , sev en y e a r s a f t e r h i s a c c e s s io n , P r in c e H u b e rtu s z u L o e w e n s te in , The German i n H is to r y (Hew Y ork: The C olum bia U n iv e r s it y P r e s s , 1 9 4 5 ), p . 1 9 5 . 68 he an n ex ed w e s te r n P o m eran ia t o h i s t e r r i t o r i e s . F r e d e r ic k W illia m I im p re s s e d a t r a d i t i o n in l i n e w ith P r u s s i a ’ s c i r c u m s ta n c e s , p o l i t i c a l l y and g e o g r a p h ic a l ly . T h is t r a d i t i o n , f o u n d a tio n o f a l l t h a t s to o d f o r P r u s s i a , h e l d t h a t P r u s s ia w as t o be r u l e d w ith an i r o n h a n d , th ro u g h i t s a d m in is t r a t i o n and i t s arm y. D u rin g F r e d e r ic k W illia m I ’s r e ig n th e r e w as a s y e t no u n ity o f common t r a d i t i o n w hich c o u ld s e rv e a s la w . The m o res h ad n o t became h a rd e n e d en o u g h , and i t w as o n ly a t th e en d o f t h e e i g h te e n th c e n tu r y t h a t t h e r e o b ta in e d a common body o f la w , in d ig e n o u s t o a l l hom ogeneous n a t i o n s . F r e d e r ic k and th e p e o p le . T hrough F r e d e r ic k W illia m t h e r e d id a r i s e , h o w ev er, a f e e l i n g o f com m onalty. F o r he a d o p te d th e p la n o f r a i s i n g t r o o p s from h i s own p e o p le . F re d e r ic k W illia m I r e a l i z e d t h a t a n arm y o f th e p e o p le i s alw ay s bound w ith d e e p e r t i e s t o a la n d th a n a band o f m er c e n a r ie s f i g h t i n g o n ly f o r p a y . Tow ards th e end o f h i s re g im e , some h a l f o f h i s arm y , aro u n d f o r t y th o u s a n d m en, h ad b e e n r e c r u i t e d a t home. Such an arm y h ad a common u n i t y , u n f a m il ia r t o th e s o l d i e r y o f E urope i n th e e i g h te e n th c e n t u r y . B ecau se t h e r e w as no common r e p r e s e n t a t i v e body i n P r u s s i a a t t h a t tim e , th e u n i t y a s e x p re s s e d th ro u g h th e arm y and th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n assum ed l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n s . From 69 th e s e tw o s o u rc e s F r e d e r ic k k e p t a l i v e th e P r u s s ia n o u tlo o k (A n sc h au u n g ). A common p u rp o se and a m u tu a lit y o f i d e a l s f o rg e d t o g e t h e r a p e o p le who la c k e d o t h e r b o n d s . A gain i t w as t h i s e n g e n d e re d s p i r i t f o s t e r e d by th e F r e d e r ic k s w hich made P r u s s i a u n iq u e . I t w as t h i s com m onalty, a s P r u s s i a n s , w hich l a t e r made i t a much s im p le r t a s k f o r F ic h t e . A p e o p le jo in e d t o g e t h e r b y an am or l a p a t r i e w i l l re s p o n d much m ore q u ic k ly th a n when c o h e s io n i s l a c k i n g . F ic h te * s p le a s f o r r e g e n e r a tio n th ro u g h s c h o o lin g w as h e a rd b y a p e o p le s te e p e d i n .a common t r a d i t i o n . As su ch i t d id n o t f a l l upon d e a f e a r s . B a rra c lo u g h w r i t e s o f F r e d e r ic k W illia m I * s r e i g n : The f r u g a l i t y , th e r ig o r o u s c h e c k s on e x p e n d itu r e , and th e c a r e f u l m anagem ent w hich p ro d u c e d t h i s r e s u l t w ere th e m arks o f P r u s s i a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . H ere a g a in t h e r e i s a m ark ed c o n t r a s t w ith th e l a v i s h e x p e n d itu r e and th e overgrow n b u re a u c ra c y o f th e a v e ra g e p r i n c e l y h o u s e h o ld ; p r a c t i s i n g a s e v e re economy b o th a t c o u r t and i n th e c o s t o f th e p u b lic a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , th e P r u s s ia n m onarchy d i s c i p l i n e d i t s e l f to s a c r i f i c e th e re v e n u e s o f th e crown to th e o v e r r id in g re q u ir e m e n ts o f t h e s t a t e . 7 T h is o b e is a n c e t o th e S t a t e and s u b o r d in a tio n o f th e i n d i v i d u a l to t h e commonweal i s an ech o o f th e P r u s s ia n p h ilo s o p h y , w hich w as l a t e r made so a r t i c u l a t e by W ilh elm G eorge H e g e l an d h i s f o l l o w e r s . F r e d e r ic k W illia m I I l a i d a sound g ro u n d w o rk , f o r h i s a rm ie s w ere made u p , a s h a s b e e n ^ B a rra c lo u g h , o p . c i t . , p . 4 0 0 . 70 s a i d , o f men r e c r u i t e d fro m th e hom eland. H is a d m in is t r a t i o n was s e l f - c e n t e r e d , and fro m i t is s u e d a common s e t o f p r i n c i p l e s . F re d e r ic k W illia m I I w as a sound e c o n o m ist u n lik e h i s f a t h e r , and h e r e a l i z e d o n ly to o w e ll th e n e e d f o r a s o lv e n t s t a t e a s a n e s s e n t i a l b a s i s f o r n a t i o n a l d e v e lo p m e n t. He b r e a th e d new l i f e in to P r u s s ia n commerce and a g r i c u l t u r e . Prom h i s r i g i d l y c e n t r a l i z e d a a m in i s t r a t i on F r e d e r ic k r a n th e g o v ern m e n t, an d d i r e c t e d h i s b u r e a u c ra c y an d h i s arm y. T h is arm y w as a s B a rra c lo u g h w r i t e s : . . . p r o p o r ti o n a te t o th e p o p u la tio n on w hich he c o u ld c a l l , i t w as f a r l a r g e r — a s w e ll a s b e t t e r d r i l l e d and d i s c i p l i n e d — th a n a n y o t h e r arm y i n E u ro p e . M ore o v e r, i t w as m a in ta in e d , u n lik e th e m e rc e n a ry a rm ie s o f th e o t h e r p r i n c i p a l i t i e s , w h ich w ere p a id f o r b y f o r e ig n s u b s i d i e s , fro m th e r e s o u r c e s o f t h e P r u s s ia n s t a t e . 8 H ere i t w as t h a t th e f o u n d a tio n s o f th e P r u s s ia n m i l i t a r y c a s t e w ere l a i d . " I n 1 7 3 3 , f o r th e f i r s t tim e i n a n y E u ro p ean c o u n tr y , th e p r i n c i p l e o f u n i v e r s a l m i l i t a r y 9 c o n s c r i p t i o n w as l a i d dow n." When F r e d e r ic k W illia m I d ie d he l e f t P r u s s i a i n a much d i f f e r e n t c o n d i tio n th a n he h ad fo u n d i t a t th e o n s e t o f h i s r e i g n i n 1 7 1 3 . H is w ork a s a p lo d d in g p u r p o s e f u l m onarch w as p u t t o b e t t e r u se b y h i s m ore b r i l l i a n t s o n , b u t i t w as t h e f a t h e r , who i n a g r e a t o l o c . c i t . 9 Rohan D. B u t l e r , The R o o ts o f N a tio n a l S o c ia lis m (New Y ork: E . P . D u tto n an d Company, 19 4 2 } , p . 1 3 . 71 m e a s u re , i n s p i r e d th e so n , th e n e x t an d g r e a t e s t o f F r e d e r ic k s , F r e d e r ic k th e G re a t. IV . FREDERICK I I (1 7 4 0 -1 7 8 6 ) F r e d e r ic k I I , o r F r e d e r ic k th e G r e a t, a s he i s known i n t h e German t r a d i t i o n , r u l e d f o r f o r t y - s i x e v e n tf u l y e a r s , fro m 1 7 4 0 -1 7 8 6 . From h i s f a t h e r h e r e c e iv e d an arm y o f n i n e t y th o u s a n d m en, c o n s id e r e d immense f o r th e tim e . P r u s s i a , i n 1 7 40, w as th e t h i r t e e n t h E u ro p e an c o u n try a s re g a r d e d s i z e , b u t h e r aim y w as th e f o u r t h l a r g e s t . T hrough t h i s arm y, F r e d e r ic k I I w as a b le to b r in g P r u s s i a up i n t o th e ra n k s o f th e g r e a t p o w e rs. H is s u c c e s s began w ith h i s s e iz u r e o f S i l e s i a fro m th e H ap sb u rg , M a ria T h e r e s a , i n 1740. B ecause h e w as c u n n in g , a s w e ll a s d ip lo m a ti c , h i s p o l i c y su c c e e d e d en o rm o u sly i n th e E u ro p ean c a p i t a l s . i The P r u s s ia n arm y w as n o t o r i o u s l y l o y a l , and o b ey ed h i s commands w ith o u t c a u se o r q u e s tio n . F o r a l l p r a c t i c a l p u rp o s e s th e arm y w as th e S t a t e . T a y lo r com m ents on t h i s s i t u a t i o n : . . • n o th in g e l s e e x i s t e d : th e sy stem o f c i v i l ad m i n i s t r a t i o n w as a s u b -d e p a rtm e n t o f th e m i l i t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n , and p r a c t i c a l l y a l l th e r e s o u r c e s o f th e S t a t e ( f i v e - s i x t h s i n 1 7 4 0 ; t h r e e - q u a r t e r s i n 1786; , Q f i v e s e v e n th s in 1806) w en t on th e upkeep o f th e arm y. 10 A lan J . T a y lo r , The C ourse o f German H is to r y (New Y ork: Coward McCann, I n c . , 1946) , p . 2 8 . 73 F r e d e r ic k I I a s l e g i s l a t o r . F r e d e r ic k th e G re a t l i t e r a l l y f o r c e d P r u s s i a i n t o th e ra n k s o f th e le a d in g n a t i o n s o f E u ro p e . He d id t h i s , h o w ev er, w ith no th o u g h t o f u n if y in g Germ any, h i s w ork p ro d u c in g l i t t l e change i n th e e s t a b l i s h e d o r d e r . He m ade P r u s s i a a f i r s t - r a t e E u ro p ean pow er and h im s e lf a r a n k in g s o v e re ig n . B hder F r e d e r ic k I I P r u s s i a b eg an to assum e th e l e a d e r s h ip o f Germ any. F r e d e r ic k lo v e d d u ty r a t h e r th a n p e o p le , to d i t w as t h i s id e a o f d u ty t o th e s t a t e t h a t h e a tte m p te d t o in f u s e i n t o h i s p e o p le . He h ad a t h e a r t th e P r u s s ia n s lo g a n , o f a p r in c e b e in g th e s e r v a n t o f t h e s t a t e , and th ro u g h t h i s h e c r e a te d an e n d u rin g sy stem o f c i v i l s e r v i c e . F r e d e r ic k th e G re a t w as m ore th a n a w a r r i o r , f o r h e made a m odel sy stem o f c i v i l s e r v a n t s , o f ju d g e s , c o u r t s , and la w y e rs . As L o e w e n ste in w r i t e s : F r e d e r ic k h a s b een h a i l e d c h i e f l y a s a d a r in g s t r a t e g i s t (^ A tta q u e z done to u jo u r s .,ff) , a m i l i t a r y g e n iu s o f th e f i r s t m a g n itu d e . T h is m an, who i n h i s y o u th , h ad h a te d a l l t h i n g s m i l i t a r y and h a d , a g a i n s t t h e w is h e s o f h i s s o l d i e r f a t h e r , grow n up a c o n v in c e d c i v i l i a n , m ain t a i n e d h im s e lf a g a i n s t th e t h r e e g r e a t m i l i t a r y p ow ers o f th e C o n tin e n t, R u s s ia , F ra n c e , an d A u s t r i a . But h i s a c h ie v e m e n ts a s l e g i s l a t o r , a r e p e rh a p s a t l e a s t a s re m a rk a b le . The c o d i f i c a t i o n o f c i v i l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and c r im in a l la w , th e A llg e m e in e s L a n d re c h t f u r d ie P r e u s s is c h e n S t a a t e n , w as begun on h i s i n i t i a t i v e and u n d e r h i s a d m o n itio n to th e j u r i s t s t h a t th e y s h o u ld o r d e r e v e r y th in g " a c c o r d in g t o r e a s o n , j u s t i c e , and e q u i t y . ^ L o e w e n s te in , o £ . c i t . . p . 19 7 . 73 I t w as d u rin g I T e d e r i c k s r e i g n , t h a t Germany p ro d u ced h e r g r e a t l i t e r a r y g i a n t s . Jo h an n W olfgang G oethe w ro te many o f h i s g r e a t w o rk s d u rin g t h i s r e i g n . A lso w r i t i n g d u rin g t h i s e r a w ere men l i k e H e rd e r, L e s s in g , and K an t t o m e n tio n h u t a few . F r e d e r ic k h im s e lf w as m ore i n t e r e s t e d i n r u l i n g P r u s s i a th a n in i n t e l l e c t u a l p u r s u i t s p e r s e , a lth o u g h he w as v e r y r e c e p t i v e to a n y new and u s e f u l i d e a s . F r e d e r ic k I I a s r u l e r . F r e d e r i c k s g r e a t n e s s w en t beyond th e b o u n d a rie s o f h i s own P r u s s i a . He w as k e e n ly aw are o f th e w o r ld 1 s n ee d f o r p o l i t i c a l in te r d e p e n d e n c e . H is W e lte n sch a u u n g w as t r u l y c o s m o p o lita n f o r h i s d a y . One o f th e f i r s t a c t s o f F r e d e r ic k w hen he came i n t o h i s r e ig n h a d b e e n to i s s u e i n v i t a t i o n s to f o r e ig n c e l e b r i t i e s , i n th e v a r io u s f i e l d s o f a r t s and s c ie n c e s to v i s i t h i s c o u r t . F r e d e r ic k I I w as w o r ld ly enough i n o u tlo o k t o r e a l i z e t h a t P r u s s i a 1 s K u ltu r w as i n n e e d o f t r a n s f u s i o n fro m th e o u t s i d e , i n o r d e r t h a t she c o u ld grow g r e a t . Many o f h i s d i s tin g u i s h e d v i s i t o r s w ere re w a rd e d by S T e d e rie k f o r a s s i s t i n g him i n o p e n in g up new v i s t a s h e r e t o f o r e unknown i n h i s c o u n try . Among th e h i s t o r i a n s , t h e r e h a v e b e e n many d e t r a c t o r s o f F r e d e r ic k t h e G r e a t. He h a s b ee n v a r i o u s l y a c c u s e d o f u n lim ite d d e s p o tis m , u n b r id le d s a v a g e ry , an d n a rro w 74 p r o v in c ia lis m . Some o f t h e s e a c c u s a tio n s may be g ro u n d e d i n f a c t , b u t i t m u st be a l s o a d m itte d t h a t P r u s s i a f l o u r i s h e d u n d e r him . H is w as a p a t e r n a l g o v ern m en t u n u s u a lly e f f e c t i v e f o r h i s tim e . As H en d erso n s a y s : When i t so p le a s e d h im , F r e d e r ic k t r a n s a c t e d th e m o st im p o rta n t b u s in e s s — is s u e d m a n if e s to e s o r t r e a t e d co n c e r n in g w ar an d p e a c e — w ith o u t c o n s u ltin g o r ev en i n fo rm in g h i s m i n i s t e r s . I t w as p a t e r n a l go v ern m en t c a r r i e d to i t s u tm o st le n g t h s . . * T h ere w as no m ere r o u t i n e w ork a b o u t i t , f o r F r e d e r ic k w as a b o rn re fo rm e r , n e v e r c o n te n te d w ith e x i s t i n g c o n d i tio n s . H is a c t i v i t y e x te n d e d i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s — t o c r im in a l and c i v i l J u s t i c e , t o th e arm y , t o th e f i n a n c e s , t o th e b e tte r m e n t o f s o c i a l c o n d i ti o n s , to th e im provem ent o f • a g r ic u ltu r e and t r a d e . 12 F u l l J u s t i c e c a n n o t be g iv e n to F r e d e r ic k th e G r e a tf s g e n iu s and h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o P r u s s i a i n summary f a s h i o n . Such a w ork w ould e n t a i l to o much e x p o s i t i o n . N o n e th e le s s , some p o r t r a i t o f h i s e f f e c t upon German m o ra le can be drawn* T h is p i c t u r e v iew ed i n p e r s p e c t i v e i s a panoram a o f m i l i t a r i s m an d u n i f i c a t i o n . F r e d e r ic k and h i s a rm ie s made P r u s s i a g r e a t b y c o n q u e s t, an d b y h i s u n i f i c a t i o n , he p ro d u c e d a P r u s s ia n S t a t e w hose p e o p le w ere J o in e d t o g e t h e r i n a common p u rp o s e . I n summing up F r e d e r ic k th e G re a t* s re g im e , i t may be s a id t h a t w ith a l l h i s m i l i t a r i s m , P r u s s i a grew g r e a t a s a n a t i o n , a n d th e p e o p le w ere g iv e n a common p a t r i o t i s m . ^ H e n d e rso n , o £ . c i t . , I I , 1 9 4 . 75 F r e d e r ic k w as a b e n e v o le n t d e s p o t who p u sh e d P r u s s i a in t o th e f o r e f r o n t o f E urope th ro u g h th e u se o f h i s arm y, and h i s own e x c e l l e n t v i r t u e s . When he d ie d on A ugust 1 7 , 1 7 8 6 , a new e r a had dawned f o r P r u s s i a . V. FH1DERIGK WILLIAM I I (1 7 8 6 -1 7 9 7 ) F r e d e r ic k W illia m I I , K ing o f P r u s s i a , a t th e tim e o f th e second an d t h i r d p a r t i t i o n o f P o la n d , w as a man o f v e r y d i f f e r e n t c a l i b r e fro m h i s u n c le F r e d e r ic k th e G r e a t. He w as a r a t h e r w eak c r e a t u r e , u n s k i l l e d i n e i t h e r w ar o r g o v ern m e n t, in c a p a b le o f r u l i n g P r u s s i a o r h im s e lf . He knew n o th in g o f h a n d lin g an arm y, o r o f t h e t r i c k s o f d ip lo m a c y . B ut th e f a u l t was n o t e n t i r e l y h i s . P r u s s i a , s tr o n g u n d e r th e p a t e r n a l d e s p o tis m o f F r e d e r ic k I I , w eakened l i k e a l l such g o v ern m en ts do when th e d e s p o t w as g o n e. F r e d e r ic k I I k e p t h i s nephew , F r e d e r ic k W illia m I I , so n o f h i s y o u n g er b r o t h e r A u g u stu s W illia m , in ig n o ra n c e an d i d l e n e s s . More th a n m ost d e s p o ts , F r e d e r ic k I I h ad ta k e n u n to h im s e lf t h e c o n t r o l o f e v e ry s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t. H is arm y and i t s o f f i c e r s , th e g r e a t b u r e a u c ra c y he h ad f a s h io n e d , w ere a l l s u b j e c t t o F r e d e r i c k s im m ed iate b eck an d c a l l . I n d i v i d u a l i n i t i a t i v e and in d e p e n d e n c e o f c h a r a c t e r w ere v i r t u e s n o t e n c o u ra g e d i n an y one o f h i s sub j e c t s b y th e " G re a t F r e d e r i c k ." I t i s no w o n d er, th e n , t h a t th e nephew , r a i s e d u n d e r 76 such a f o r b id d in g a e g i s , p ro v e d t o be so i n e p t when t h e n e e d f o r h i s s e r v i c e s a r o s e a s K ing o f P ru s s ia * A young mAn b ro u g h t up i n a n atm o sp h e re o f s e r v i l i t y i s n o t l i k e l y to t u r n i n t o a m a s te r o f a rm ie s an d s t a t e c r a f t . F r e d e r ic k W illia m H w as a y o u th o f m e d io c re a t t a i n m e n t s , and n o t th e p a ra g o n n e e d e d t o r u l e P r u s s i a a f t e r F r e d e r ic k th e G re a t. When F r e d e r ic k W illia m XI d ie d , th e e n t i r e m a c h in e ry o f g overnm ent he h ad so m e tic u lo u s ly and p a i n s ta k i n g l y e r e c t e d , w ent down w ith h im . G overnm ents by d i c t a t o r s h i p , u n lik e d e m o c ra tic i n s t i t u t i o n s , depend to o much upon one m an. D e s p o tic re g im e s a r e u s u a l ly doomed to f a i l u r e when th e d e s p o t d i e s . P r u s s i a h a d no one to ta k e F r e d e r ic k I I f s p l a c e . P r u s s i a w e a k e n s. U nder t h e new m o n arch , P r u s s i a e n te r e d in t o a s e r i e s o f m e s - a l l i a n c e s t h a t l a t e r p ro v e d f a t a l . W ith th e U n ite d P ro v in c e s and G re a t B r i t a i n , F r e d e r ic k W illia m I I e n te r e d i n t o a T r i p l e A llia n c e , t o m a in ta in th e House o f G range i n H o lla n d i n th e y e a r 1 7 88. W ith Ita p e ro r L eo p o ld I I , h e s ig n e d a s e r i e s o f o th e r t r e a t i e s s u b o r d in a tin g P r u s s ia n p o l i c y t o t h a t o f A u s tr ia (1 7 9 0 -1 7 9 2 ). As H earnshaw d e s c r ib e s t h i s l a t t e r fa u x p a s : The co n seq u en c e o f th e s e i n j u d i c i o u s u n d e r ta k in g s w as t h a t w hen, i n 1 7 9 2 , th e F re n ch warmo n g e rs o f th e G iro n d e c o m p e lle d th e unhappy L o u is XVI to d e c la r e w ar on A u s t r i a , P r u s s i a fo u n d h e r s e l f , much a g a i n s t h e r w i l l d ra g g e d i n . H er h a l f - h e a r t e d i n t e r v e n t i o n i n th e 77 R e v o lu tio n a ry War w as d i s a s t r o u s b o th to L o u is XVI and h e r s e l f . 1* The d e f e a t a t Valmy w as th e end r e s u l t o f th e s e h ap l e s s u n d e r ta k in g s , and th e P r u s s i a t h a t t h e fo rm e r F r e d e r ic k s h ad t o i l e d s o h a rd and lo n g to b u i l d , b eg an t o t o t t e r u n d e r t h i s w e a k lin g . The arm y ^ h ic h had e n jo y e d th e p r e s t i g e o f F re d e r ic k t h e G re a t w as doomed to d i s s o l u t i o n f o r th e la c k o f t h e c o m p e te n t and v i r i l e l e a d e r s h ip I t o n ce knew . P e rh a p s th e f ia s c o a t Valmy c o u ld have b een a v o id e d b y m ore c o u ra g e o u s t a c t i c s , b u t F r e d e r ic k W illia m I I w as no s o l d i e r , n o r w as h e a b le t o e n l i s t an y o t h e r s o l d i e r f i t to l e a d h i s aim y. H is r e i g n w as m a rre d b y v a c i l l a t i o n and I n d e c i s io n , i n v a r i a b l y t h e m ark s o f an u n f i t r u l e r . When he d ie d i n 1 7 9 5 , he l e f t a much w eak er P r u s s i a th a n he h ad i n h e r i t e d . V I. FREDERICK WILLIAM I I I (1 7 9 7 -1 8 4 0 ) T h is son o f F r e d e r ic k W illia m I I i n h e r i t e d th e th r o n e o f P r u s s i a a t ebb t i d e . The new k in g w as o f a m ild d i s p o s i t i o n , and I t i s a c u r io u s anom aly i n P r u s s i a ’ s h i s t o r y t h a t isiien i t n e e d e d a " P r u s s ia n " m o st, i t w as b le s s e d w ith th e m ild u n - w a rlik e F r e d e r ic k W illia m H I . H is to r y h a s i t s 1 3 F o sse y Jo h n Cobb H eam sh aw , Germany th e A g g re sso r (London: W. and R. C ham bers, L t d ., 1940) , p . 1 3 8 . 78 m oments o f q u ix o ti c hum or, w hen, a s i n P r u s s i a , a n a t i o n become fam ous o r in fam o u s th ro u g h i t s a r m ie s , n eed ed a w a r r i o r , i t was s e rv e d a p a c i f i s t . P e rh a p s a l l t h i n g s w ork o u t f o r th e b e s t , and t h i s p e a c e f u l man s e rv e d h i s p u rp o s e , s tr a n g e though, i t may h av e b ee n a t th e tim e . The new k in g f a v o r e d h i s m o th e r, t h e e r s tw h il e L o u is a o f H e s s e -D a rm s ta d t. F r e d e r ic k W illia m I I I h ad none o f th e m i l i t a r i s m and b r u t a l i t y o f F r e d e r ic k th e G re a t, i and su ch a man w as n ee d ed to f a c e th e c o n q u e ro r o f a l l H u ro p e, th e l i t t l e C o r p o r a l, N ap o leo n B o n a p a rte , l a t e o f th e I s l a n d o f C o r s ic a . F or t h i s p u r p o s e , F r e d e r ic k W illia m I I I was m a rk e d ly i n e p t . He c o u ld n o t q u a l i f y f o r th e ty p e o f p o l i t i c s n ee d ed t o d e a l w ith th e new M a rs h a ll o f F ra n c e . S c a r c e ly one m onth p r e v io u s t o h i s a c c e s s io n , i n t h e Autumn o f 1 7 9 7 , N apoleon h ad d i c t a t e d to a v a n q u is h e d A u s tr ia th e T r e a ty o f C am po-Form io. By th e te rm s o f t h i s T r e a ty N ap o leo n w as to a c q u ir e : • • • ia fr e r a l i a , n o t o n ly t h e A u s tr ia n N e th e rla n d s (B elgium ) b u t a l s o a lm o st th e w hole o f th e R h in e la n d , w e st o f t h e g r e a t r i v e r . She w a s, in d e e d , t o be p la c e d i n p o s s e s s io n o f th e a n c ie n t f r o n t i e r s o f Roman G au l— th e R h in e , th e A lp s , and th e P y re n e e s . . . The c e s s io n o f t h e R hine f r o n t i e r t o F ra n c e o f c o u rs e i n v o lv e d a n immense d is t u r b a n c e . . D e fe a t o f P r u s s i a . T h is d is tu r b a n c e p r e c i p i t a t e d 14 I b i d . . p . 1 4 5 . 79 d u r in g F r e d e r ic k W illia m 111*8 s u c c e s s io n b y t h e N a p o le o n ic v i c t o r i e s , o c c a s io n e d h i s c a l l i n g a C o n g re ss o f t h e German E m pire to c o n s id e r th e s t a t e o f th e n a t i o n . N ever s in c e th e T h i r t y Y ears* War h ad t h e r e b een so g r e a t an u p h e a v a l. P r u s s i a w as r e q u i r e d b y th e v i c t o r i o u s N apoleon t o ced e la n d on th e l e f t bank o f th e R h in e. T h is c e s s io n t h e C o n g ress w as f o r c e d to a c c e p t , a l t h o u ^ i much la n d w as r e g a in e d by Germany on th e r i g h t b an k o f t h e R h in e . N ap o leo n * s b r i l l i a n t v i c t o r i e s f u r t h e r ro c k e d th e t e n o r o f F r e d e r ic k W illia m I l l ’ s r e i g n . N ap o le o n , by v i r t u e o f h i s g r e a t m i l i t a r y s u c c e s s e s , h ad become v i r t u a l m a s te r o f th e E u ro p ean c o n t i n e n t . F r e d e r ic k W illia m I I I w as f o r c e d t o a c c e d e m ore an d m ore to N a p o le o n ’ s r e q u e s t. N ap o leo n h ad a l r e a d y d e f e a te d A u s tr ia and h e r R u s s ia n a l l i e s i n th e d e c is iv e b a t t l e b f A u s t e r l i t z . F r e d e r ic k W illia m I I I w as l e f t a f t e r t h i s b a t t l e to f a c e th e g r e a t B o n a p a rte by him - s e l f . He w as no m atch f o r th e l i t t l e C o r s ic a n , who i n th e f i r s t w eek o f O c to b e r, 1 8 0 6 , in v a d e d P r u s s i a a t th e h ead o f an arm y o f 1 9 0 ,0 0 0 m en. To g iv e b a t t l e t o t h i s fo rm id a b le arm y, F r e d e r ic k m a r s h a lle d a l i k e num ber d iv id e d i n t o tw o f o r c e s , one com m anded b y P r in c e H ohenlohe and th e o t h e r b y t h e Duke o f B ru n sw ic k . H o h en lo h e, s i x t y y e a r s o f a g e , and B ru n sw ic k , s e v e n ty - o n e , w ere s tra w men i n t h e i r b a t t l e a g a i n s t th e y o u th f u l N ap o le o n . They w ere d e f e a te d s im u lta n e o u s ly on O c to b e r 1 4 , 1 8 06, f i r s t a t J e n a by N ap o leo n i n p e r s o n , and f i n a l l y a t A u e r s ta d t b y D av o u t. P r u s s i a 's c o l la p s e w as q u ic k an d c o m p le te . The g r e a t b a s t i o n s e r e c te d b y F r e d e r ic k th e G re a t t o g u a rd Germany a g a i n s t in v a d e r s , c a p i t u l a t e d one by o n e , w ith o u t o f f e r i n g much r e s i s t a n c e . B e r l in i t s e l f was f i n a l l y c o n q u e re d , and N ap o leo n e n t e r e d i n triu m p h th e 2 7 th o f O c to b e r, j u s t t h r e e d ay s a f t e r J e n a and A u e r s ta d t. F r e d e r ic k W illia m I I I and h i s c o n s o r t f l e d t o K o e n ig s b e rg , and th e n t o R u s s ia , f o l low ed by a r e t i n u e o f noblem en an d o t h e r f a i t h f u l s u b j e c t s , in c lu d in g F i c h t e . F ic h te and h i s f r i e n d , H u fe la n d , f l e d B e r lin a f t e r i t s f a l l , t o f o llo w th e f o r tu n e s o f t h e i r k in g . F ic h te , h o w e v e r, f e l t i t h i s bounden d u ty , i n t h i s tim e o f n a t i o n a l d o w n fa ll, t o r e t u r n an d p re a c h s a l v a t i o n th ro u g h e d u c a tio n . T h is c a p tu r e o f B e r l in by N ap o leo n l a i d t h e sc e n e w h ereb y F ic h te c o u ld e n t e r and p r e s e n t h i s A d d re sse s to th e German N a tio n . A w e a k lin g a t P r u s s i a 's h elm , when s tr e n g t h w as n e e d e d m o s t, s e rv e d to lo s e in one f e l l sw eep, a l l t h a t f o r w hich P r u s s ia n k in g s h a d la b o r e d th ro u g h a c e n tu r y . Germany w as now a s u b je c te d p e o p le , and i n n ee d o f s u c c o u r. One t h i n g N apoleon h ad n o t c o n q u e re d , an d t h a t w as th e n a t i o n a l K u ltu r i n s t i l l e d th ro u g h th e y e a r s i n a P r u s s ia n p e o p le . The P r u s s ia n a rm ie s had been d e f e a te d , b u t t h e m o ra le o f th e 81 p e o p le re m a in e d . The p e c u l i a r P r u s s ia n c o n s c io u s n e s s w as v e r y much a l i v e , and p ro v e d m o st r e c e p t i v e f o r an e v a n g e l i s t i c F ic h te . Summary. T h is c h a p t e r b r i e f l y s k e tc h e d th e P r u s s i a o f th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y ; i t s m o n a rc h s, F r e d e r ic k I ; F r e d e r ic k W illia m I ; F re d e ric k , I I (The G re a t) ; F r e d e r ic k W illia m I I ; an d f i n a l l y F r e d e r ic k W illia m I I I . I n o u t l i n e f a s h i o n , t h e r e w as p r e s e n te d th e r i s e and g ro w th o f P r u s s i a ’ s m i l i t a r y pow er an d th e d e f e a t o f Germ any. T hrough i t a l l , t h e r e was b ro u g h t o u t t h e o v e r to n e s o f th e P r u s s ia n b ra n d o f p a t r i o t i s m . The n e x t c h a p te r w i l l p r e s e n t th e F re n c h O c c u p a tio n o f 1806 an d th e t u r n o f e v e n ts i n Germ any, a b o u t th e tim e o f F i c h t e ’ s Reden an d ie D eu tsch e R a tio n . CHAPTER V PRUSSIA IN 1808 I n t r o d u c t i o n * I n C h a p te r IV , t h e r e w as p r e s e n te d a resum e o f e i g h te e n th c e n tu r y Germany and t h e c o n d i tio n s l e a d in g up t o P r u s s ia * s d e f e a t a t th e h an d s o f N apoleon* T h is c h a p te r w i l l d e a l w ith c o n d i tio n s i n P r u s s i a , a s th e y ob t a i n e d , when F ic h te d e l i v e r e d h i s fam ous A d d re s s e s . The e v e n ts , th e m ore im p o rta n t p e rs o n a g e s o f t h e tim e , and th e mood o f th e p e o p le w i l l be d e s c r ib e d , a l l w ith th e p u rp o s e o f g iv in g s u b s ta n c e and m eaning t o t h e h i s t o r i c a l p r e s e n t a t i o n . W ith o u t some c o n c e p tio n o f th e a t te n d a n t c irc u m s ta n c e s b r in g in g F ic h te in to p ro m in e n c e , a c l e a r p i c t u r e can n o t be h a d , s in c e F ic h te w as o n ly p a r t o f a g r e a t m ove m ent o f re fo rm . The e v e n ts an d c o n d i ti o n s p u sh ed him i n t o t h e f o r e f r o n t , an d e tc h e d him i n b a s - r e l i e f so to speak* B ut h e to o k h i s i n s p i r a t i o n fro m th e r u b r i c m aking up t h e t o t a l p a t t e r n . T h is c h a p te r w i l l o n ce m ore em p h asize th e b u ild in g up o f t h a t m o ra le , w h ich p la y e d so g r e a t a r o l e i n t h e p e o p l e ’ s re s p o n s e to F i c h t e ’ s m essag es* I . TREATY OF T IL SIT (1807) As a r e s u l t o f th e F r a n c o - P r u s s ia n War o f 1 8 0 6 , an d t h e c a t a s t r o p h i c d e f e a t a t J e n a and A u e r s ta d t, th e P r u s s ia n 83 s t a t e w as d e s tr o y e d . B o n a p a rte an n ex ed m o st o f w e s te r n Germany i n r e t r i b u t i o n . The p r e l i m i n a r i e s o f th e T r e a ty o f T i l s i t b eg an so o n a f t e r N ap o leo n * s c r u s h in g v i c t o r y o v e r th e ag e d P r in c e von H o h en lo h e, and t h e Duke o f B ism ark . N ap o leo n op en ed up n e g o t i a t i o n s w ith th e v a n q u is h e d n o b le m en, an d a s H en d e rso n w r i t e s : The f i n a l doom o f P r u s s i a w as sp o k en a t T i l s i t , where in te r v i e w s betw een N apoleon and h i s tw o r o y a l a n t a g o n i s t s w ere h e l d i n t h e m o st ro m a n tic o f t r y s t i n g p l a c e s - - a p a v i l i o n e r e c t e d on a r a f t i n t h e r i v e r N iem en .1 U hder t h e te rm s , m ore f o r m a lly s t a t e d a t th e P eac e o f T i l s i t , P r u s s i a l o s t a l l h e r p r o v in c e s w e s t o f t h e E lb e , and a lm o s t a l l t h a t sh e h a d a c q u ir e d a s a r e s u l t o f th e l a s t tw o P o lis h p a r t i t i o n s . A lso c e d e d t o P ra n c e w ere th e i s o l a t e d p r o v in c e s o f B a ie r u th and E a s t F r i e s l a n d . I n a c t u a l s q u a re m i l e s , a s w e l l a s i n p o p u la tio n , F r e d e r ic k W illia m I I I h ad t o re n o u n c e m ore th a n h a l f o f h i s fo rm e r e m p ire . When th e T r e a ty o f T i l s i t w as s ig n e d on J u l y 7 , 1 8 0 7 , b etw een P ra n c e and R u s s ia , P r u s s i a c o u ld n o t do o th e rw is e b u t su b m it t o t h e s i t u a t i o n th u s c r e a t e d , and th e s u b je c ti o n o f P r u s s i a w as c o m p le te . B ut t h e t r e a t y h ad an e f f e c t n e v e r e n v is io n e d by N a p o le o n . B e fo re 1 8 0 6 , one d id n o t r e g a r d P r u s s i a a s a u n i f i e d n a t i o n . The p e o p le o f P r u s s i a , w h ile 1 E r n e s t H e n d e rso n , A S h o rt H is to r y o f Germany (New Y ork: The M a cm illan Company, 1 9 1 9 ), I I , B68. 84 p a r ta k in g o f t h e P r u s s ia n n a t i o n a l c o n s c io u s n e s s , n o n e th e l e s s h ad n o t showed a s u f f i c i e n t l y u n it e d f r o n t t o be r e g a rd e d a s a n a t i o n . But now, a s a German h i s t o r i a n w r i t e s : T h e re w as a German n a t i o n and a n a t i o n a l s p i r i t , and i t w as d u e t o th e s e new f o r c e s t h a t t h e d i s a s t e r w as r e p a i r e d , t h a t l i b e r t y w as r e s t o r e d to Germany i n f u l l e r m e a s u re , th a n e v e r b e f o r e , an d t h a t th e p a th to u n i t y w as opened up.*3 And th o u g h P r u s s i a w as now no lo n g e r a n a t i o n p o l i t i c a l l y , t h e r e a r o s e a n a t i o n a l u n it y b a s e d upon common a s p i r a t i o n s and i d e a l s . F r e d e r ic k W illia m I I I h ad f l e d , le a v in g a d is m a n tle d c o u n tr y b e h in d h im , a f t e r b e in g f o r c e d to a c c e p t th e d iaaem berm ent o f h i s s t a t e . I n a fo rm a l p r o n o u n cem en t, he r e l e a s e d fro m t h e i r a l l e g i a n c e t o h im , th o s e s u b j e c t s r e q u ir e d to le a v e P r u s s i a b e c a u se o f N ap o le o n . B ut th o u g h , p o l i t i c a l l y s p e a k in g , th e y w ere no lo n g e r an e n t i t y , t h e r e s t i l l re m a in e d t h e i r G le ic h s c h a ltu n g . th e P r u s s ia n id e o lo g y w h ich h ad p e n e t r a t e d i n t o a l l f i e l d s o f n a t i o n a l l i f e . An e x c e r p t fro m H en d erso n i s e lo q u e n t i n i t s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i s n a t i o n a l e t h o s . He w r i t e s o f th e p r o c la m a tio n on a l l e g i a n c e is s u e d b y J ^ e d e r ic k W illia m I H : T h a t w h ich c e n t u r i e s an d w o rth y f o r e f a t h e r s , t h a t w hich t r e a t i e s , l o v e , an d c o n fid e n c e once bound t o g e t h e r m u st now be s u n d e re d . F a te commands, th e 2 Jo h a n n e s H a l l e r , The E pochs o f German H is to r y (New Y ork: H a r c o u r t, B race and Company, I n c . , 1 9 3 0 ), p . 1 8 4 . T r a n s la te d by E . W. D ic k e s . 85 f a t h e r p a r t s fro m h i s c h i l d r e n ; no f a t e , no p o w er, can t e a r y o u r memory fro m th e h e a r t s o f me and m ine.® And i n r e p l y to th e a b o v e , fro m t h e i r b e lo v e d m onarch th e p e a s a n ts o f t h e c o u n ty o f Marie a n s w e re d , "O ur h e a r t s a lm o s t b ro k e when we r e a d y o u r m essage o f f a r e w e l l ; so t r u l y 4 a s we a r e a l i v e , i t i s n o t y o u r f a u l t ! " I I . BARON TOM STUN (1 757-1813) AND THE NAPOLEONIC REFORMS ’ The c o n d itio n s o f t h e T r e a ty o f T i l s i t made N apoleon suprem e a r b i t e r o f P r u s s i a 's , a s w e ll a s o f a l l G erm an y 's d e s t i n y . He re d u c e d P r u s s i a from n i n e t y th o u s a n d s q u a re m ile s t o 4 5 ,0 0 0 s q u a re m i l e s . He made h e r p a y enorm ous r e p a r a t i o n s , and a s a f i n a l c r u s h in g b lo w , N ap o leo n q u a r t e r e d 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 men upon th e P r u s s i a n s . He made B e r lin h i s h e a d q u a r te r s f o r a w h ile , and t h e r e is s u e d h i s fam ous Con t i n e n t a l S y stem , th e p r o p o s a l w here a l l o f E urope w ould h e lp s t a r v e E n g lan d in t o s u b m is s io n b y a n o - tr a d e a g re e m e n t. But N apoleon r e a l i z e d o n ly to o w e l l t h a t a d i s o r g a n iz e d P r u s s i a w as a l s o a P r u s s i a u n a b le to f u l f i l l h e r d e b ts t o h im . So he c a l l e d i n to r e o r g a n iz e P r u s s i a , a man f o r whom h e h a d g r e a t r e s p e c t ; a lth o u g h t h e P r u s s ia n K ing 5 H en d e rso n , o g . c i t . , I I , 269. 4 L o c. c i t . 8 6 d e t e s t e d t h i s same m an. B aron vom S t e i n , a t th e tim e o f T i l s i t , w as one o f th e l a s t o f th e few re m a in in g , f r e e K n i^ i t s o f th e German E m p ire. He h ad s e rv e d a s a t r u s t e d m i n i s t e r u n d e r F r e d e r ic k t h e G r e a t, an d h ad r e tu r n e d to w ork u n d e r F r e d e r ic k W illia m I I I a s m i n i s t e r o f com m erce. S h o r tl y a f t e r J e n a , K in g F r e d e r ic k W illia m I I I h ad d is m is s e d S t e i n c a l l i n g him : . . . a r e b e l l i o u s , a r r o g a n t , an d d is o b e d ie n t s e r v a n t , w ho, s w o lle n w ith h i s g e n iu s and t a l e n t , w as f a r from d e s i r i n g th e good o f t h e s t a t e , b u t , r a t h e r , w as g u id e d o n ly b y c a p r i c e , an d a c te d o n ly o u t o f p a s s io n , p e r s o n a l h a t r e d and s p i t e . 5 N a p o le o n f s a im . B ut i n s p i t e o f h i s K in g ’ s d i s l i k e , S te in was a v e r y c a p a b le f i n a n c i e r . A f te r th e P ea c e o f T i l s i t ( J u l y , 1 8 0 7 ), N apoleon p e r s o n a l l y r e q u e s te d th e k in g to r e c a l l vom S t e i n . N ap o leo n c o n s id e r e d S te in o n ly a s am in s tru m e n t t o r e f a s h i o n P r u s s ia * s f i n a n c e s . And h e b e l ie v e d t h a t S t e i n w as th e o n ly man i n P r u s s i a co m p eten t enough to b r in g o r d e r o u t o f c h a o s . S t e i n , , a lth o u g h n o t to o e a g e r t o r e t u r n a s N a p o le o n ’ s f lu n k e y , n o n e t h e le s s f e l t i t h i s d u ty a s a P r u s s ia n to com ply. S t e i n ad m ire d N apoleon a s an o r g a n iz e r an d a l e a d e r , an d th e y g o t a lo n g w e l l f o r a w h ile . P r u s s i a b e g a n t o r e p a i r h e r e x c h e q u e r, an d N apoleon r e c e iv e d P r in c e H u b e rtu s Zn L o e w e n s te in , The G erm ans i n H is to r y (New Y ork: The C olum bia U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 7 ), p . 2 1 9 . 87 h i s r e p a r a t i o n s . S t e i n , h o w ev er, h ad P r u s s i a ’ s i n t e r e s t s a t h e a r t , and he r e a l i z e d o n ly to o w e ll t h a t n o t o n ly w as S ta n c e d e t e r m ined t o b le e d P r u s s i a o f h e r r e s o u r c e s , b u t she m ean t a l s o to g r a d u a l ly t h r o t t l e a l l o f P r u s s i a ’ s autonom ous n a t i o n a l f o r c e s . N apoleon was a s t u t e enough t o r e a l i z e t h a t u n le s s P r u s s i a was c o m p le te ly d e m o ra liz e d , h e w ould h av e a p o t e n t i a l enem y, e v e r r e a d y to r i s e an d a t t a c k h im . F or above a l l , B o n a p a rte w is h e d t o c o n s o lid a t e h i s n ew ly won p o s i t i o n and p r o t e c t h i s f l a n k s . A h a l f - b e a t e n P r u s s ia w ould n e v e r l e t him r e s t . M ean w h ile, S t e i n b eg an t o c a s t a b o u t f o r w ays and m eans to th ro w o f f th e F re n ch y o k e . As L o e w e n s te in w r i t e s o f S t e i n ’ s h o p e s : The e m a n c ip a tio n o f th e p e o p le , a lw a y s h i s c h e r is h e d aim , now assum ed a new a s p e c t , f o r o n ly a f r e e p e o p le w ould b e a b l e t o f i g h t b r a v e l y . The p r i z e o f v i c t o r y o u g h t n o t t o be o n ly n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n , b u t a l s o l i b e r a t i o n fro m n a t i v e o p p r e s s io n a s w e ll.® W ith th e h e lp o f N ap o leo n , who w as a l s o in th e n a tu r e o f a r e f o r m e r , vom S t e i n w as a b le t o h av e p a s s e d th e fam ous e d i c t o f O c to b e r 9 , 1 8 0 7 , w h ereb y a l l fo rm s o f s e r v it u d e w ere a b o lis h e d . The e d i c t s t a t e d : ” A f t e r S t . M a r tin ’ s day 1 8 10, t h e r e w i l l be o n ly f r e e men ( i n P r u s s i a ) . ” L e g a l d i s t i n c t i o n s b etw e en th e 88 p r o p e r ty o f th e n o b le s , and t h a t o f commoners w ere e ra se d * S e r f s on p u b lic and p r i v a t e dom ain w ere f r e e d fro m th e l a s t f e u d a l r e s t r i c t i o n s and w ere to become f r e e men an d o w n ers o f t h e i r la n d * 7 S te in * s g o a l * S t e i n ’ s u l t i m a t e p u rp o s e , th ro u g h t h i s f i r s t g r e a t r e f o rm , an d h i s l a t e r o n e s , was t o h a v e P r u s s i a u n i t e w ith th e r e s t o f G erm any, th ro u g h t h e common w ish o f a f r e e e l e c t o r a t e . More and m ore m e a su re s d e s ig n e d t o e r a d i c a t e o ld a b u s e s , an d i n i t i a t e new l i b e r t i e s f o r t h e p e o p le is s u e d fro m t h i s re m a rk a b le man* A r e p r e s e n t a t i v e c o n s t i t u t i o n w as ev en p ro m is e d . Qhe S ta d te o rd n u n g . th e new o rd in a n c e f o r t h e c i t i e s an d to w n s, w as p r e s e n te d by S t e i n . T h is s t a t u t e c r e a t e d to w n s and c i t i e s , w h ic h s e rv e d a s m o d e ls a l l o v e r E u ro p e . I t w as r e a l l y t h e re fo rm g e n iu s o f B aron vom S t e i n , ■which l i b e r a t e d th e P r u s s ia n v o l k . And i t w as w ith N a p o le o n ’ s c o n s e n t t h a t a l l th e s e re fo rm s w ere i n s t i t u t e d , w hich m akes S t e i n ’ s w ork a l l th e m ore c r e d i t a b l e . H is re fo rm s p r o g r e s s e d i n P r u s s i a t o an e x c e p tio n a l e x t e n t . The re fo rm s o f vom S te in c a n be s e p a r a t e d in to f o u r n a t u r a l d i v i s i o n s . F i r s t , S te in d e a l t w ith s o c i a l r e f o r m s ; a f t e r t h a t h e tu r n e d t o th e a d m in is t r a t i v e n e e d s ; t h i r d , t h e r e r e s u l t e d c h a n g e s i n t h e arm y; f i n a l l y h e ch a n g ed p u b lic s e n tim e n t. And a l l o f th e s e s a l u t a r y re fo rm s came p e a c e a b ly , th ro u g h th e m ere is s u a n c e 7 I b i d . , p p . 2 2 2 -2 3 . 89 o f e d i c t s . . As H en d erso n sums i t up: F e u d a l ty r a n n y w as t o be done away w ith , th e s p i r i t o f c a s t e e x o r c i s e d , l o c a l s e lf-g o v e rn m e n t in tr o d u c e d , t h e arm y to be c le a n s e d and r e ju v e n a te d ; a wave o f p a t r i o t i s m , f i n a l l y , w as to be a r o u s e d , t h a t w o u ld sweep away a l l th e s in s a n d e r r o r s o f t h e p a s t.® S t e i n f o r c e d o u t . But vom S t e i n made many en em ies th ro u g h h i s c h a n g e s . R e fo rm e rs a r e n o t u s u a l l y in g r e a t p o p u l a r i t y , and h i s en em ies c o n s p ir e d t o rem ove him . S te in te n d e r e d h i s r e s i g n a t i o n to th e k in g , and N ap o leo n o u tla w e d h i s once c h e r is h e d a l l y . S t e i n f l e d t o A u s t r i a , an d f i n a l l y to R u s s ia a t t h e b e h e s t o f C z a r A le x a n d e r. As f a t e w o u ld hav e i t , h e p la y e d a n o t to o i n s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n th e f i n a l d o w n fa ll o f N ap o leo n . I n p a s s in g , i t may be s a id t h a t S t e i n w as th e l i b e r a t o r o f P r u s s i a . I I I . PRUSSIA BEGINS TO CHANGE The much n ee d ed r e fo rm s o f vom S t e i n p ro v e d th e le a v e n f o r P r u s s i a ’ s r e s u r g e n c e . The g r e a t m is f o r tu n e s , w h ich h a d d e sc e n d e d upon P r u s s i a a s a r e s u l t o f th e o v e r w helm ing r e p a r a t i o n s , w eld e d t o g e t h e r a p e o p le i n common m is e r y , an d p av ed th e way f o r vom S t e i n and h i s c h a n g e . The ig n o m in io u s d e f e a t o f P r u s s i a d id r e s u l t i n t h e e n d in g o f i t s m e d ie v a l se rfd o m . S te in r e a l i z e d t h a t a n a t i o n c o u ld 0 H e n d e rso n , o£ . c i t . . I I , 2 7 5 . 90 n o t f i g h t h a l f - s l a v e and h a l f - f r e e , ev en th o u g h t h e r e w as a common f e e l i n g i n t h e la n d . P a t r i o t i s m o f th e few i s n o t en o u g h . The f a t e o f a l l Germany h in g e d on t h e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f P r u s s i a . Ho one b u t P r u s s i a c o u ld assum e th e r e i n s o f l e a d e r s h i p . The am ount o f P r u s s ia * s in d e m n ity w as g a l l i n g t o th e P r u s s i a n s , and alw a y s re m a in e d a s a p ro d to s t i r p e o p le i n t o a c t i o n . D i f f i c u l t a s i t i s to r e a l i z e , n e a r l y a l l o f P r u s s i a ’ s re v e n u e w en t in to r e p a r a t i o n s f o r P ra n c e . Such a c o n d i tio n c o u ld o n ly r e s u l t i n tr a g e d y , a s vom S te in h ad c l e a r l y s e e n . S o, u n d e r n a p o le o n * s f r i e n d l y a e g i s , an d w ith h i s c o n s e n t, S t e i n h a d f r e e d t w o - t h i r d s o f th e p o p u la tio n from one form o f o p p r e s s io n o r a n o th e r . T hese p e o p le h ad n o t been s la v e s i n th e a c c e p te d c o n n o ta tio n o f t h a t te rm , b u t th e y w ere i n some m e asu re bound to s e r v i t u d e . The P r u s s ia n Icin g s, p r i m a r i l y F r e d e r ic k t h e G re a t, h a d b ee n c o g n iz a n t o f t h e e v i l s o f su c h a c o n d i t i o n , b u t t h e y d id n o t i n t e r f e r e . T hey b e lie v e d t h a t i n t e r f e r e n c e w ould u p s e t th e f i n e e q u i l i b r i u m o f a n y o r g a n i z a ti o n . E d ic t o f 1 8 0 7 . The E m a n c ip a tin g E d ic t o f O c to b e r 9 , 1807 w as jo y o u s ly r e c e i v e d a s th e German m agna c h a r t a . Jn d i n t r u t h i t w as a g r e a t docum ent i n s o c i a l r e f o rm , f o r i t en d ed a l l se rfd o m , and f r e e d a l l th e p e o p le o f Germ any. 91 A cc o rd in g t o H en d erso n : . . . I n th e o t h e r p a ra g ra p h s o f t h e e d i c t , th o s e r e l a t i n g t o fre ed o m o f ex ch an g e i n la n d , an d t o f r e e c h o ic e o f o c c u p a tio n a r e a lm o s t e q u a l l y I m p o r ta n t, an d a id e d e q u a l ly i n tr a n s f o r m in g a ground-dow n n a t i o n i n t o one o f jo y o u s p a t r i o t s . 9 T h is e d i c t w as a f o r c e f u l and c l e v e r o n e , f o r i t aw akened i n e v e r y P r u s s ia n a d e s i r e t o f i g h t f o r h i s new fre e d o m . T h at i s w h at vom S t e i n h a d re c k o n e d on* N ap o leo n , w h ile h e h e ld h im s e lf a r e f o r m e r , w as p r i m a r i l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e s e c h a n g e s , o n ly b e c a u se a r e o r g a n iz e d P r u s s i a w o u ld make a w i l l i n g v a s s a l . N ap o leo n h ad n o t c o n s id e r e d th e m o ra l r e g e n e r a tio n o f t h e P r u s s ia n E m p ire. B ut N ap o leo n c o n tin u e d t o h o ld P r u s s i a down by m eans o f th e g r e a t in d e m n ity he h a d im posed upon h e r . He r e p e a te d l y i n t e r f e r e d w ith t h e c o m p o s itio n o f th e c o a l i t i o n m i n i s t r y fo rm ed b y vom S t e i n , and im p re s s e d h i s r u l e i n h i s h ig h -h a n d e d f a s h io n . I n s p i t e o f a l l t h i s , a s A tk in so n w r i t e s : . . . d e s p i t e th e h o s t i l i t y and s u s p ic io n w ith w h ich N ap o leo n r e g a r d e d th e c o u n tr y h e h a d i n j u r e d so s o r e l y , P r u s s i a s h o u ld h av e c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e s e y e a r s o f d i s t r e s s s o c i a l a n d m i l i t a r y re fo rm s o f t h e u tm o st im p o r ta n c e m akes th e a c h ie v e m e n t a l l th e m ore re m a rk a b le . 9 I b i d . . p p . 2 7 5 -7 6 . G. T . A tk in s o n , A H is to r y o f Germany (171 5 -1 8 1 5 ) (London: M ethuen and Company, 1908T7 P* 5 5 8 . XT. THE OTHER LEADERS 93 W h ile S t e i n ’s name i s m o st p ro m in e n t f o r th e re fo rm in Germ any, a num ber o f o t h e r fam ous l e a d e r s w ere a s s o c i a t e d w ith him i n th e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f P r u s s i a . S tr a n g e ly enough th e s e o t h e r l e a d e r s w ere n o t P r u s s i a n s , b u t t h e y a r e l i n k e d w ith t h e P r u s s ia n r e s u r g e n c e . A summary o f some o f th e s e men w i l l now be p r e s e n te d i n c o n n e c tio n w ith t h e re fo rm m ovem ent. E r n s t M o ritz A rn d t. (1 7 6 9 -1 8 6 0 ) T h is p a t r i o t i c p o e t c a l l e d w th e m o st German o f a l l G erm ans”^ w as b o rn th e son o f Sw edish p e a s a n ts * At a c o m p a r a tiv e ly young age he h ad a lr e a d y a t t a i n e d th e p o s i t i o n o f a h i s t o r y p r o f e s s o r i n one o f th e U n i v e r s i t i e s . H is w o rk s , w h ile w e l l w r i t t e n , h av e no g r e a t l i t e r a r y m e r i t , a c c o r d in g t o h i s c r i t i c s . A rn d t, h o w ev er, w as th e a p o s tle o f th e u p r ig h t and s t a l w a r t G erm an. H is uncom p ro m isin g s p e e c h e s an d w r i t i n g s a g a i n s t N apoleon b ro u g h t him e x i l e i n Sweden and R u s s ia . L udw ig, n o te d b io g r a p h e r , w r i t e s o f A rn d t: He w as B aron vom S t e i n ’ s b e s t d i s c i p l e ; a l l h i s l i f e h e r e t a i n e d so m e th in g o f th e p r e a c h e r - - t h e c a r e e r f o r w h ich he w as o r i g i n a l l y in te n d e d ; an d h i s s u l l e n , some w hat n arro w -m in d e d e x p r e s s io n n e v e r q u i t e seem s t o h av e l o s t i t s s t i f f n e s s . But t h i s o b s tin a c y gave r i s e t o an 11 Rohan D. B u t l e r , The R o o ts o f N a tio n a l S o c ia lis m (New Y ork: E . P . D u tto n and Company, 1942) , p . 5 4 . 93 a lm o s t h e r o i c t e n a c i t y — f o r th e man h a d a r e a l p a s s io n f o r G erm any.12 A rn d t w as among th e f i r s t to g iv e v o ic e t o t h e new id e a o f a G r e a te r G erm any. H is poem , Des D e u tsc h e n Y a te r - l a n d , w as a p a t r i o t i c German l i e d o f th e f i r s t r a n k . N ot o n ly d id A rn d t p r a i s e Germ any i n poem s, b u t h e w as an a r d e n t p o le m is t . As B u t l e r com m ents: I n 1 8 0 7 , in th e r a t h e r c u r i o u s l y e n t i t l e d P r ie d e n s r e d e e i n e s D eu tsch e (P e ace A d d re ss o f a German) , h e w as p r o - c la im in g t o h i s b e a te n p e o p le , tfWe a r e Germ ans . . . We a r e t h e n a v e l o f th e E u ro p ean e a r t h , th e m id d le p o in t b etw een n o r th an d s o u th . You know t h a t th e G reek s s e t t h e i r D e lp h i i n t h e m id s t . . . W here a r e o u r o r a c l e s and p r o p h e c ie s ? . . . The f i g h t e r s an d th e a v e n g e rs w i l l com e; l e t t h i s be th e new o r a e l e . tfl< 3 A r n d t 's v ie w s a r e n o te w o rth y i n t h a t he w as vom S t e i n T s s e c r e t a r y and sp o k e f o r h im . He p en n ed a w h o le s e r i e s o f p a t r i o t i c o u tp o u r in g s , an d a c h ie v e d a r e p u t a t i o n a lm o s t e q u a l t o t h a t o f F i c h t e 's a t t h a t tim e . Such a m an, p o e t and p r o p a g a n d is t, s e rv e d a s a v o ic e o f p ro p h e s y f o r th e P r u s s ia n p e o p le . Men l i k e him made v o c a l th e dream s and w is h e s o f a w hole n a t i o n , an d i n s p i r e d t h e r i s e o f P r u s s i a . A ugust W ilh elm A nton v o n G n e is e n a u . (1 7 6 0 -1 8 3 1 ) Among th o s e em in en t i n th e P r u s s ia n r e g e n e r a t i o n , w as th e s o l d i e r G n e ise n a u . A nderson d e s c r i b e s him t h u s : ^ E m il L udw ig, The Germ ans (B o sto n : L i t t l e , Brown and Company, 1941) , p . 2 6 0 . 13 B u tle r , 02- e i t . , p. 55. 94 W ith in t h e l i m i t s o f h i s p o w er, G n e is e n a u w as a l r e a d y p r a c t i c i n g th e i d e a l s o f th e P r u s s ia n e r a o f re fo rm even b e f o r e N ap o leo n c o m p e lle d a t J e n a th e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f c h a n g e s . The e v id e n c e a v a i l a b l e te n d s t o show t h a t h e f e l t d e e p ly h i s o b l i g a t i o n to w a rd s o c i e t y , a t f i r s t to w a rd p a r tic u la r .m e m b e r s o f s o c i e t y , th e n i n tim e to w a rd th e w h o le .14 G n eisen au * s b ac k g ro u n d i s o b s c u r e , h i s fame s p r in g in g fro m h i s d i s p l a y o f m i l i t a r y acum en a t J e n a . He came fro m a Sw abian f a m ily w hich s e t t l e d i n S axony. G n eisen au h ad some m i l i t a r y d u ty i n C anada, b e f o r e s e t t l i n g down w ith th e P r u s s ia n arm y. A f te r J e n a , G n e ise n a u m a in ta in e d t h a t s t u p i d i t y and f a l t e r i n g i n h ig h p l a c e s , h ad c a u s e d G em an y * s c o l l a p s e . He becam e a n a r d e n t n a t i o n a l i s t a f t e r J e n a , an d w orked c e a s e l e s s l y f o r r e g e n e r a t i o n . T hrough th e h e lp o f vom S t e i n , he a tte m p te d a r e f o r m a tio n o f t h e P r u s s ia n am ay. G n e ise n a u c r i t i c i z e d n o t o n ly t h e arm y b u t a l l th e e v i l s he saw in th e P r u s s ia n s t a t e and i n i t s s o c i e t y . He c e n s o re d th e governm ent f o r n o t h a v in g made th e n e c e s s a r y re fo rm s i n c i v i l l i f e , p r i o r t o N ap o leo n * s o n s la u g h t. As re g a r d e d th e arm y i t s e l f , G n e ise n a u w as in s t r u m e n ta l i n b r in g in g sw eep in g c h a n g e s to th e r e c r u itm e n t o f s o l d i e r s . He b e r a te d th e m ethod o f s e l e c t i n g an d p ro m o tin g o f f i c e r s . N o th in g e s c a p e d h i s e a g le e y e . He ch an g ed a s A nderson r e l a t e s : ^ Eugene A n d erso n , N a tio n a lis m an d th e C u l t u r a l C r i s i s (New Y ork: F a r r a r and E h i n e h a r t , i n c . , 1 9 3 7 ), p . 1 6 2 . 95 . . . th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f th e arm y, th e m ethod o f f i g h t i n g . He w as d is g u s te d w ith th e f a i l u r e t o b r in g th e arm y to p a r t y w ith t h a t o f N ap o le o n , an d to r e o r g a n iz e th e s t a t e an d s o c i e t y so t h a t m i l i t a r y im p ro v e m ent c o u ld be m ade. 5 G n e ise n a u w as a r d e n t i n h i s b e l i e f t h a t o n ly th ro u g h b e n e f i c i a l ch an g e c o u ld s o c i e t y an d th e arm y be im p ro v ed . R e g e n e ra tio n o n ly o c c u rs th ro u g h th e w i l l o f th e p e o p le , an d r e a l i z i n g t h i s , G n e ise n a u a d v o c a te d th e a b o l i t i o n o f s e r f dom. W ith S t e i n , h e f e l t t h a t i n v o lu n t a r y s e r v it u d e h a d no p la c e in a r e ju v e n a te d P r u s s i a o r G erm any. He w ish e d to c r e a t e s e lf-g o v e rn m e n t in a l l th e to w n s an d v i l l a g e s , an d becam e a d e f e n d e r o f a p r o p o s a l t o e s t a b l i s h a P r u s s ia n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a s s e m b ly . T h is a s s e m b ly , a c c o r d in g t o G n e is e n a u , w as to be g r a n te d w id e a d v is o r y p o w e rs, an d w ith f u l l d i s c r e t i o n o v e r th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f th e f i n a n c e s . S tr a n g e ly enough f o r a m i l i t a r i s t , G n eisen a u s t r o n g l y u rg e d t h e rem o v al o f c a s t e p r i v i l e g e s i n b o th th e arm y an d c i v i l l i f e . He r e a l i z e d t h a t o n ly a t r u l y l i b e r a t e d v o lk , p a t r i o t i c b y v i r t u e o f t h e i r i n c l u s i o n i n a f r e e s t a t e , had a n y in c e n ti v e to f i ^ i t * G n e isen au w as an a r d e n t n a t i o n a l i s t , b u t h e w as p h ilo s o p h e r enough t o r e a l i z e t h a t a t r u e n a t i o n a l s p i r i t d ep en d ed upon th e u n i t y o f th e p e o p le , and t h e i r f e e l i n g f o r t h e i r la n d . 15 I b i d * , P* 8 2 . 96 A f t e r th e wax a g a i n s t N ap o leo n , w h ich l i b e r a t e d G erm any, G n e ise n a u r e t i r e d fro m a c t i v e s e r v i c e . He d ie d i n 1831 a f t e r sp e n d in g h i s l a s t y e a r s i n c o m p a ra tiv e s e c l u s i o n . As a p a t r i o t and a r e f o r m e r , h i s e f f e c t upon P r u s s i a ’ s r e g e n e r a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y upon th e arm y, w as g r e a t enough t o h av e him c l a s s e d w ith vom S t e i n . W illia m von H u m b o ld t. (1 7 6 7 -1 8 3 5 ) I n o r d e r to s e c u re t h e c o n t i n u i t y an d s u c c e s s o f S t e i n ’ s r e f o r m s , a man w ith a se n se o f s t a b i l i t y w as n e e d e d , and t h i s man was von H um boldt. I t w as o f no a v a i l t o b r in g up c h a n g e s , no m a t t e r how s a l u t a r y , u n le s s th e p r o p e r o r g a n iz a tio n w ere made f o r men t o o p e r a te e f f i c i e n t l y , an d P r u s s i a w as e x tre m e ly f o r t u n a t e i n h a v in g su c h a man a s von H um boldt. As an e m in en t h i s t o r i a n re m a rk s: I t h a d n o t b een th e m a c h in e ry b u t th e m o ra le o f P r u s s i a w h ich h a d f a i l e d h e r i n 1 8 0 6 , and one o f th e m ost p r e s s i n g n e e d s w as a th o ro u g h re fo rm o f th e sy ste m o f e d u c a tio n , b o th p rim a ry an d s e c o n d a ry . The r i s i n g g e n e r a tio n m u st be ta u g h t th e n e c e s s i t y o f p a t r i o t i s m and c i v i c d u ty , th e g y m n asia m u st b e re fo rm e d , an d so m e th in g m u st be done to r e p a i r th e l o s s i n f l i c t e d i n P r u s s ia n e d u c a tio n by th e c e s s io n o f H a lle an d i t s u n i v e r s i t y to W e s tp h a lia . W ith t h i s b ra n c h o f t h e r e g e n e r a tio n o f P r u s s i a , th e name o f W illia m von H um boldt w i l l alw ay s be a s s o c i a t e d . 16 I n 1809 von H um boldt w as made M in i s te r o f P u b lic I n s t r u c t i o n , and he w as i n g r e a t p a r t r e s p o n s i b le f o r th e 1 6 A tk in s o n , o £ . c i t . » p . 5 6 3 . 97 f o u n d a tio n o f t h e IB a iv e rs ity o f B e r lin i n A ugust o f t h a t y e a r . As h a s b ee n m e n tio n e d , F ic h te h a d s u b m itte d a b lu e p r i n t f o r su c h a X M iv e rs ity , i n h i s D e d u o ir te r P la n e i n e r z u B e r l in zu e r r i e h t e n d e n h o h e re n L e h r e n s t a l t . T h is p la n w as n o t a c c e p te d , a lth o u g h i t r e c e iv e d f a v o r a b le r e c o g n i t i o n . The U n iv e r s it y o f B e r lin u n d e r H um boldt w as s t a t e s u p p o r te d , n o t a u s u a l p ro c e d u re i n th o s e d a y s . B e r l in U n iv e r s it y p la y e d no s m a ll p a r t , h o w ev er, i n k e e p in g a l i v e th e f e e l i n g a g a i n s t f o r e i g n r u l e and I t r e p a i d P r u s s i a many tim e s . And i t w as von H um boldt, p h i l o l o g i s t an d man o f l e t t e r s , who d i d so much f o r th e O liv e r s i t y o f B e r l i n . Ton H um boldt w as th e b r o th e r o f A le x a n d e r H um boldt, th e g r e a t n a t u r a l i s t , an d he h im s e lf w as a man o f g r e a t d i s t i n c t i o n . W illia m h a d s t u d i e d law a t F r a n k f u r t and G o ttin g e n , and a t th e same tim e h a d d e v o te d e q u a l a t t e n t i o n t o a e s t h e t i c s and p h ilo s o p h y . I n 1801 h e w as m i n i s t e r i a l r e s i d e n t a t Home, an d fro m 1 8 0 6-1808 w as M i n i s t e r P l e n i p o t e n t i a r y t h e r e . I n 1809 h e w as a p p o in te d P r iv y - C o u n c illo r o f S t a t e , an d th ro u g h t h i s o f f i c e , h e to o k c h a rg e o f e d u c a t i o n . I t w as d u r in g h i s s t a y a s m i n i s t e r o f e d u c a tio n t h a t i s im p o r ta n t f o r t h i s s tu d y . F i r s t , a s M i n i s t e r o f t h e I n t e r i o r , i n c o n n e c tio n w ith e c c l e s i a s t i c a l an d e d u c a tio n a l m a t t e r s , and th e n a s M i n i s t e r o f E d u c a tio n , he h a d a m o st im p o r ta n t s h a re i n t h e e d u c a ti o n a l p r o g r e s s P r u s s i a m ade. 98 I t was g r e a t l y th r o u g h l e a d e r s su c h a s G n e ise n a u i n th e arm y, vom S t e i n i n th e S t a t e , and von H um boldt i n e d u c a tio n t h a t r e g e n e r a t i o n o c c u r r e d . F r i e d r i c h M a rw itz . (1 7 7 7 -1 8 3 9 ) -Another l e a d e r i n P r u s s ia * s r e g e n e r a ti o n w as th e a r i s t o c r a t F r i e d r i c h A u g u st Ludwig von d e r M a rw itz , b o ra on May 3 9 , 1777 i n B e r l i n . T ra in e d in th e P r u s s ia n axmy, M arw itz e a r l y f e l t th e u rg e f o r re fo rm . He tr a n s f o r m e d h i s own la n d i n t o a m odern fa rm , an d e m a n c ip a te d h i s s e r f s a s e a r l y a s 1 8 0 8 . A n d erso n r e l a t e s c o n c e rn in g t h i s : M a rw itz h ad r e a d P e s t a l o z z i , and a p p ro v e d o f h i s i d e a s ; h e n c e i n s p i t e o f th e v ig o r o u s o p p o s itio n o f th e l o c a l p a s t o r , he a ls o e s t a b l i s h e d s c h o o ls f o r th e p e a s a n t c h i l d r e n . 17 When N ap o leo n was o v e rru n n in g E u ro p e , M arw itz d e c l a r e d t h a t he m ust be d e f e a te d an d th e w o rld s a v e d . And th e o n ly n a t i o n to do th e s e t h i n g s w as P r u s s i a . M arw itz d e s i r e d t h a t th e p a t r i o t i s m o f th e P r u s s ia n p e o p le be a ro u s e d t o i t s h i g h e s t p i t c h i n t h e i r b a t t l e a g a i n s t t h e i r c o n q u e ro r. B ut e n th u s ia s m a lo n e can n o t w in a w a r, and P r u s s i a w as d e f e a te d , w ith M arw itz b e in g ta k e n p r i s o n e r b y th e F re n c h . A f te r h i s r e l e a s e , M arw itz r e t u r n e d to P r u s s ia t o w ork f o r t h e d a y o f a w a k e n in g . He blam ed th e P r u s s ia n ^ A n d erso n , o|>. c i t . , p. 3 3 3 . 99 d e b a c le a t J e n a upon th e d e c lin e o f m o ra ls o f th e p e o p le , and th e f a i l u r e o f t h e i n e f f e c t u a l le a d e r s h i p to re fo rm th e arm y . B ecau se h i s h o u se h a d b e e n b u rn e d , w h ile h e w as a p r i s o n e r o f w a r and h i s la n d s p i l l a g e d , H a rw itz grew i n t e n s e l y b i t t e r . Added to t h a t g r i e f w as a n o th e r , an d g r e a t e r ; th e F ren ch h ad q u a r te r e d t r o o p s on h i s la n d . As a r e s u l t o f h i s a g i t a t i o n , e n th u s ia s m w as in v o k e d , an d re fo rm s i n c i v i l l i f e i n s t i t u t e d . M a rw itz w as q u i t e n a rro w i n h i s o u tlo o k , h i s aim b e in g to p r e s e r v e th e P r u s s ia n a r i s t o c r a c y . B ut i n s p i t e o f h i s s h o rtc o m in g s h e w as e f f e c t i v e i n P r u s s ia n n a t io n a l is m an d a s s u c h b e lo n g s w ith th e o t h e r c o n t r i b u t o r s . V. THE LITERARY AND INTELLECTUAL POSITION D u rin g th e s e g r e a t c h a n g e s , when th e o p p o s ite e x tre m e s o f p r o v i n c i a l i s m and c o s m o p o lita n is m w ere b e in g b le n d e d i n t o one n a t i o n a l f e e l i n g , a g r e a t s t i r w as b e in g f e l t i n l i t e r a r y c i r c l e s . They t o o , e n t e r e d i n t o th e new w o rld o f h o p e , w ith g r e a t v e rv e and e n th u s ia s m . A tk in s o n com m ents on t h i s r e v i v a l : The p e r io d i s one o f th e u tm o st im p o rta n c e i n German l i t e r a t u r e . . . The T ugenbund fo u n d ed i n K o e n ig s b e rg i n 1808 f o r t h e r e v i v a l o f M o r a l i t y , r e l i g i o n , an d p u b lic s p i r i t / * and s u p p re s s e d a t N ap o leo n * s in s t a n c e i n th e f o llo w in g y e a r , w as i n t h e m ain th e w ork o f t h e s e same " i n t e l l e c t u a l s ’ * who h a d h i t h e r t o h e l d a l o o f fro m p o l i t i c s . 1* * A tk in s o n , o p . c i t . , p . 5 6 9 . 100 Ton E l e i s t . W h ile F ic h te s ta n d s p re e m in e n t i n t h i s m ovem ent, t h e r e w ere o t h e r s who p re a c h e d a g o s p e l o f s e l f - s a c r i f i c e so t h a t th e n a t i o n may be b e n e f i t t e d . T h ese men w ere c o u ra g e o u s i n a d i f f e r e n t s e n s e th a n th o s e h e r o e s o f th e arm y. L if e i t s e l f had i t s own p a r t i c u l a r d e f i n i t i o n s o f c o u ra g e . Ho l e s s d a u n t l e s s i s a F i c h t e , th a n ’ t h e d a s h in g s o l d i e r u n d e r f i r e i n some b a t t l e . A w r i t e r , who h a d g r e a t p o p u la r sw ay, w as th e p o e t H e in r ic h von K l e i s t , who e x e r c is e d a g r e a t i n f lu e n c e o v e r h i s f e llo w P r u s s i a n s . Von K l e i s t , am ongst o t h e r s , r o u s e d th e P r u s s ia n s to a se n se o f t h e i r m u tu a l n e e d s a n d th e s u f f e r i n g s common to a l l . He w a s, a s A tk in s o n r e l a t e s : . . . k e e n ly a l i v e t o t h e d e g r e d a tio n and h u m i l i a t i n g p o s i t i o n o f G erm any, he r e a d th e p r e s e n t in to th e p a s t ; h i s H erm anns S c h la c t i s r e a l l y p r o p h e t i c , n o t h i s t o r i c ; a n t i- G a llic o n is m i n s p i r e s i t ; t o him th e Romans a r e Frenchm en an d Frenchm en o n l y .19 The u n i v e r s i t i e s . The u n i v e r s i t i e s p la y e d a g r e a t p a r t i n th e r i s e o f th e n a t i o n a l f e e l i n g . I t w as d u rin g t h i s tim e t h a t German u n i v e r s i t i e s d e v e lo p e d so g r e a t l y . H e id e lb e r g U n iv e r s it y i n p a r t i c u l a r , th r o u g h i t s th e o l o g i c a l f a c u l t y , p la y e d a l a r g e r o l e i n aw akening th e n a t i o n a l c o n s c io u s n e s s . As h a s b e e n m e n tio n e d , von H um boldt and th e U n iv e r s it y o f B e r l in c o n t r i b u t e d much t o t h e new 19 I b id . , p . 570. 101 e n lig h te n m e n t. And a n o th e r phenom enon o c c u rr e d i n German th o u g h t. Up u n t i l now th e g r e a t m in d s o f Germ any h a d b e e n i n th e m a in , u ltr a - c o s m o p o lit a n i n t h e i r v ie w s , a n d n o t to o co n c e rn e d w ith n a t i o n a l i s m , p e r se* The g r e a t su rg e o f n a t i o n a l i s e , e n s u in g a s a r e s u l t o f N ap o le o n 1 s v i c t o r y , w as e v in c e d by th e l e a d e r s o f th e i n t e l l i g e n t s i a . . G o e th e , g r e a t e s t o f German i n t e l l e c t s , K ant th e g r e a t p h ilo s o p h e r o f th e C r i t i q u e s . L e s s in g , H e r d e r , and o t h e r s , h ad a l l b een avow ed i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s t s i n t h e i r t h i n k i n g . They h ad a l l a lo n g d e c r i e d n a t io n a l is m a s p r o v i n c i a l and n a rro w . K an t dream ed o f p e r p e t u a l p e a c e an d th e u n i v e r s a l i t y o f b r o t h e r h o o d . H is c a t e g o r i c a l im p e r a tiv e o r u n i v e r s a l m o ra l law i m p l i c i t w i t h in a l l hum ans, w as t o be th e k e y t o t h i s e n d u r in g and p a c i f i c m o r a l i t y . A ll t h i s w as t o ta k e p la c e on a wo r id - w id e l e v e l . F ic h te a s c o s m o p o lita n . F ic h te h im s e lf w as no n a t i o n a l i s t i n h i s e a r l y y e a r s o f w r i t i n g . Even t h e man who h a s b een a c c u s e d a s th e a r c h - n a t i o n a l i s t o f them a l l , W ilh elm G eroge H e g e l, a p p e a re d w h o lly i n d i f f e r e n t to P r u s s i a ’ s p l i g h t a f t e r J e n a . T h is i s a s tr a n g e com m entary in d e e d , f o r t h e H e g e lia n p h ilo s o p h y h a s b ee n b o th h a i l e d and a t t a c k e d , a s t h e v e r y f o u n d a tio n o f th e n a t i o n a l i s t i c s t a t e . But now th ro u g h H um boldt and o t h e r s , German K u ltu r 102 w as b ro u g h t i n t o a id th e s t a t e , by r e n d e r in g th e i n t e l l e c t u a l movement p a t r i o t i c . As H en d erso n s a y s : P o e t s , p r e a c h e r s , and p h ilo s o p h e r s k e p t u r g in g th e i n n e r r e v o l u t i o n t h a t a lo n e c o u ld sav e th e s t a t e . O ld F a th e r Ja h n in v e n te d m odem g y m n a s tic s ; a p p a r a tu s w as p u t up i n p a rk s an d p u b l i c p l a c e s ; m o ra l and p o l i t i c a l te a c h in g acco m p an ied t h e e x e r c i s e s , a n d a m o st w h o le some change w as im m e d ia te ly a p p a re n t i n th e y o u th o f th e la n d . E r n s t H o r i t z A rn d t, th e m o st s t i r r i n g p o e t o f th e tim e , th re w a l l h i s t a l e n t s i n t o f u r t h e r i n g th e c a u s e ; w h ile Jo h a n n G o t t l i e b F ic h te h e ld d i s c o u r s e s i n th e Academy, i n t h e same b u ild i n g a s th e F re n c h g a r r i s o n , and d w e lt upon th e o p p r e s s io n o f t h e f o r e i g n yoke an d t h e shame o f th e p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n . s0 I n su c h a f a s h io n d id th e i n t e l l e c t u a l w o rld o f Germany j o i n th e f e r m e n t. W ith th e m i g h t i e s t w eapon o f them a l l , th e p e n , th e i n t e l l e c t u a l s fo u g h t th e b a t t l e o f P r u s s i a . I t w as t h e y , who th r o u g h th e medium o f l e t t e r s , s p re a d th e w ord am o n g st th e p e o p le o f th e g r e a t w ork done by vom S t e i n , G n e is e n a u , e t a l . W ith o u t t h i s l i t e r a r y p ro p a g a n d a , P r u s s i a w ould n o t h av e b e e n q u it e so aw are o f th e new s u rg e o f r e fo rm sw eep in g t h e n a t i o n . Summary. I n t h i s c h a p t e r , t h e r e w as shown i n h i s t o r i c r e t r o s p e c t , th e s t a t e o f a f f a i r s o b ta in in g a t th e tim e o f F i c h t e ’ s R eden (1 8 0 8 ). The e p o c h a l s o c i a l c h a n g e s e f f e c t e d b y vom S t e i n w ere d e s c r ib e d a s p a r t o f an o v e r a l l m ovem ent. S t e i n in a u g u r a te d a s e r i e s o f im p o r ta n t s o c i a l r e f o r m s , a s w e l l a s a new s y ste m o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , w h ich ^ H e n d e rso n , o|>. c i t .« I I , 2 6 5 . 103 h ad a s a l u t a r y e f f e c t on P r u s s ia * G neisenau* s w ork i n tr a n s f o r m in g a d e c a d e n t arm y, and von H um boldt * s g r e a t ed u c a t i o n a l in f l u e n c e w ere a ls o s t r e s s e d . M arw itz and A rn d t w ere b ro u g h t i n a l s o . The fo rm e r b e c a u se w h ile h e r e p r e s e n t e d th e a r i s t o c r a c y , was n o n e th e l e s s e f f e c t i v e i n r e f o r m s ; a n d th e l a t t e r , b e c a u se i n p a t r i o t i c p o e t r y , he e x p re s s e d th e w i l l o f a p e o p le . F i n a l l y th e l i t e r a r y an d i n t e l l e c t u a l movement w as p o r tr a y e d . T h e ir e f f e c t upon P r u s s ia n r e s u r g e n c e w as n o t q ,u ite a s s p e c t a c u l a r a s th e c i v i l o r th e m i l i t a r y , b u t i t w as a p o te n t f a c t o r n o n e t h e le s s . A ll th e s e f a c t o r s t o g e t h e r c o n t r i b u t e d to th e g r e a t s o c i a l m ovem ent, and e x p l a in why th e o c c a s io n w as r i p e f o r t h e A d d re s s e s . F ic h te c o u ld n o t h av e b e e n so e f f e c t i v e , i f t h e r e w ere no s i t u a t i o n i n ra p p ro a c h m e n t w ith t h i s v ie w s . Much w as due t o th e o t h e r r e f o r m e r s , who d i d su ch yeoman w ork i n p r e p a r in g an e n t i r e n a t i o n f o r t h e g r e a t F ic h te a n phenom enon. The n e x t c h a p te r w i l l d e a l w ith th e s t a t u s o f th e s c h o o ls i n 1 808. The c o n d i t io n th e y w ere i n j u s t b e f o r e t h a t tim e , an d how th e N a p o le o n ic v i c t o r y a f f e c t e d th em , w i l l be th e s u b j e c t o f th e n e x t p h a s e . T h e ir r e a c t i o n w i l l be d e l i n e a t e d i n some d e t a i l , and how t h i s e d u c a ti o n a l r e a c t i o n in f lu e n c e d a l l o f G erm any, a s w e l l a s P r u s s i a , fo rm s th e c e n t r a l c o re o f th e f o llo w in g c h a p t e r . CHAPTER 7 1 THE SCHOOLS OF GERMANY I n t r o d u c t i o n . The l a s t c h a p te r , a lo n g w ith C h a p te r IV , h a d f o r t h e i r p u rp o s e th e b ro a d o v e r a l l p r e s e n t a t i o n o f P r u s s i a i n th e e i g h te e n th c e n tu r y up t i l l th e y e a r 1 808. T h is c h a p te r w i l l c o n c e rn i t s e l f w ith an e x p o s i t i o n o f t h e P r u s s ia n S c h o o l sy ste m d u r in g th e same p e r i o d . A b r i e f r e v iew o f th e m ore im p o r ta n t s c h o o l la w s p a s s e d b y th e F r e d e r ic k s w i l l be re v ie w e d , a s w e ll a s th e s t a t u s o f t h e s c h o o ls i n 1808. The P r u s s ia n d e f e a t f o r c e d th e s c h o o ls i n to th e f o r e f r o n t , and aw akened t h e l e a d e r s to a s e n s e o f n a t i o n a l u rg e n c y . F o r t h e f i r s t tim e e d u c a tio n b eg an t o p la y a p ro m in e n t r o l e i n P r u s s ia n l i f e . How t h e s c h o o ls r e a c te d to t h i s c h a lle n g e w i l l ta k e up th e l a s t p a r t o f t h i s c h a p te r . I . BACKGROUND SKETCH E d u c a tio n a l ly , P r u s s i a w as d o m in a te d by M a rtin L u th e r in th e s e v e n te e n th a n d e i g h te e n th c e n t u r i e s , h i s in f lu e n c e e n d u rin g u n t i l t h e N a p o le o n ic w a rs . B e fo re th e d e f e a t a t J e n a , P r u s s i a w as i n th e m ain an a g r a r i a n s t a t e r u l e d b y a la n d e d g e n t r y . T h is a r i s t o c r a c y r e ig n e d b y th e g ra c e o f f e u d a l p r i v i l e g e s made s a c r o s a n c t b y t r a d i t i o n . The k in g s o f P r u s s i a w ere a b s o lu te m o n arch s w ith g r e a t pow er o v e r t h e i r s u b j e c t s . P r u s s i a , th e l a r g e s t and m o st p o w e rfu l o f th e German s t a t e s , u s u a l l y l e d a l l th e r e s t o f Germany i n d o m e stic and f o r e ig n p o l i c y . As a r e s u l t , h e r e d u c a t i o n a l sy ste m w as u s u a l l y i n ad v an ce o f th e o t h e r G erm anic n a t i o n s . T h ese German p r i n c i p a l i t i e s w ere a l l bound t o g e t h e r by m u tu a l t i e s E ach o f th e s t a t e s in f lu e n c e d one a n o t h e r , and a l l w ere jo in e d by a common la n g u a g e and l i t e r a t u r e . Added t o t h i s w as th e w id e in f lu e n c e o f th e L u th e ra n c h u rc h , and t h u s when one s t a t e c h a n g e d , i t r e a c t e d upon a l l th e o t h e r s . A propos o f t h i s , i s th e f o llo w in g q u o ta tio n fro m B a rn a rd 1 s J o u r n a l : To Germany a s a w h o le , a s one p e o p le , and n o t t o a n y p a r t i c u l a r s t a t e o f G erm any, a s now r e c o g n iz e d on th e map o f E u ro p e , b e lo n g s t h e c r e d i t o f f i r s t th o r o u g h ly o r g a n iz in g a sy ste m o f p u b lic e d u c a tio n , u n d e r th e ad m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e c i v i l pow er . . . But n o t t o Germ any, o r t o an y one p e o p le o r a n y c i v i l a u t h o r i t y an y w h ere, b u t t o th e C h r i s t i a n C h u rch , b e lo n g s th e h ig h e r c r e d i t o f f i r s t i n s t i t u t i n g t h e p u b lic s c h o o l , o r r a t h e r th e p a r o c h i a l s c h o o l, f o r th e e le m e n ta ry edu c a t i o n o f th e p o o r , w hich w as t h e e a r l i e s t fo rm w h ich t h i s m ig h ty e le m e n t o f m odern s o c i e t y a s su m e d .1 The c h u r c h . F o r tw o c e n t u r i e s a f t e r th e P r o t e s t a n t R e fo rm a tio n , th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f th e s c h o o ls o f P r u s s i a w as i n th e h a n d s o f t h e c h u rc h . F r e d e r ic k W illia m I w as th e f i r s t o f th e F r e d e r ic k s t o make e d u c a tio n c o m p u lso ry i n H enry B a rn a rd , e d i t o r , M emoirs o f E m inent T e a c h e rs and E d u c a to rs w ith C o n tr ib u tio n s t o th e H i s t o r y o f E d u c a tio n i n Germany ( H a r tf o r d : Brown an d G ro s s , 1 8 7 1 ), p . 5 0 4 . 106 1 7 3 6 . A ll c h i l d r e n b etw een th e a g e s o f s i x t o tw e lv e w ere r e q u e s te d b y e d i c t t o a t t e n d th e p u b lic s c h o o ls , w h ic h w ere i n r e a l i t y p a r o c h i a l s c h o o ls . W hile th e la w o f 1648 h ad s t a t e d th e s c h o o ls w ere u n d e r th e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f t h e s t a t e , n o n e t h e l e s s , th e a c t u a l e x e c u tio n re m a in e d i n th e h a n d s o f th e c h u rc h . F r e d e r ic k W illia m I , a s h a s b e e n n o te d , w as a p r o g r e s s i v e m onarch h a v in g th e w e lf a r e o f h i s s u b j e c t s a t h e a r t . He e s t a b l i s h e d tw o te a c h e r s * s e m in a r ie s , i n 1735 an d 1 7 3 6 , a s w e ll a s many e le m e n ta r y s c h o o ls . T h is w as a g e n u in e a tte m p t a t th e b e tte r m e n t o f e d u c a ti o n , b u t l a c k o f f u n d s , p u b lic a p a th y , and th e la c k o f a n y c e n t r a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n n u l l i f i e d F r e d e r i c k 's e f f o r t s . I I . THE SCHOOL REGULATIONS OF 1763 The n e x t i n th e F r e d e r i e i a n T r a d i t i o n to im p re s s h i s stam p upon P r u s s ia n e d u c a tio n w as F r e d e r ic k t h e G re a t. I n 1 7 6 3 , t h i s b e n e v o le n t d e s p o t i s s u e d t h e now m em orable G e n e ra l Land S c h u l Re e le m e n t. T h ese G e n e ra l S ch o o l Regu l a t i o n s i n e f f e c t n a t i o n a l i z e d th e s c h o o ls , and rem oved some o f th e p ow ers o f th e c h u r c h , w h ich w as a g r e a t s te p i n th o s e d a y s . F u n c tio n s o f t h e R e g u la tio n s . T h ese r e q u i r e d b y law t h e a tte n d a n c e o f c h i l d r e n b etw e en th e a g e s o f f i v e and 107 t h i r t e e n o r f o u r t e e n , o r a t l e a s t u n t i l th e y h a d shown t o th e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t h e a u t h o r i t i e s t h e i r a b i l i t y i n r e a d in g , w r i t i n g , and r e l i g i o n . I n a d d i t i o n , th e y w ere r e q u ir e d t o become p r o f i c i e n t i n n o t o n ly r e a d i n g , w r i t i n g , and th e p r i n c i p l e d o c t r i n e s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y , b u t **also a b le t o an sw e r q u e s tio n s on th e know ledge im p a rte d t o them o u t o f S th e a p p ro v e d m a n u a ls o f i n s t r u c t i o n . n The R e g u la tio n s w ere a re m a rk a b le w ork f o r t h e i r tim e s , i n t h a t t h e y c o v e re d e v e ry p h a s e o f e d u c a tio n . T h ere w as p r o v is io n f o r th e e x a m in a tio n and l i c e n s i n g o f t e a c h e r s th ro u g h i n s p e c t o r s a p p ro v e d by t h e s t a t e . The R e g u la tio n s d e te rm in e d th e am ount o f s c h o o l f e e s , an d f o r th o s e u n a b le t o p a y , i t m ade p r o v is io n o u t o f a fu n d r a i s e d b y c h u rc h c o l l e c t i o n . As r e g a r d e d th e te a c h e r s p e r s o n a l l y , u n d e r th e new law th e y h ad t o be o f u n q u e s tio n e d c h a r a c t e r , and z e a lo u s i n t h e i r r e l i g i o u s o b l i g a t i o n s . The c u r r ic u lu m o f th e s c h o o ls , a s p r e s c r i b e d by th e R e g u la t io n s , r e q u i r e d th e s in g in g o f hym ns, r e a d in g fro m th e B ib le , r e c i t a t i o n s o f p r a y e r , and o f c o u rs e t h e m e m o riz a tio n o f th e L u th e ra n c a te c h is m . F u r th e r fro m P a u ls e n : I n th e P r u s s ia n R e g u la tio n s o f 1763 th e s u b s ta n c e o f te a c h in g w as s t i l l r e s t r i c t e d to r e a d i n g , w r i t i n g , F r i e d r i c h P a u ls e n , German E d u c a tio n P a s t and P r e s e n t (New Y ork: C h a rle s S c r i b n e r ’ s S o n s, 1 9 1 6 ), p . 1 3 8 . T r a n s la te d by T . Lorenz.* % 108 r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n , s in g in g and a l i t t l e a r i t h m e t i c . Beyond t h i s o n ly a B e r l in re a d in g -b o o k w as m e n tio n e d , g iv in g " g e n e r a l in f o r m a tio n a b o u t God, t h e w o rld , and m ankind" t o g e t h e r w ith a s m a ll b o o k le t d e s t i n e d f o r th e i n s t r u c t i o n o f v i l l a g e c h i l d r e n in v a r io u s n e c e s s a r y and u s e f u l k n o w le d g e .3 M e th o d o lo g y . E ven th e m e th o d s t o be u se d by th e t e a c h e r to im p la n t th e p r e s c r i b e d k now ledge w as w r i t t e n i n t o t h e R e g u la tio n s . I t w as t y p i c a l l y a t r a d i t i o n a l m e th o d o lo g y , i n t h a t i t s t r e s s e d d u l l , r o t e l e a r n i n g , and th e o t h e r m e c h a n ic a l t a s k s o f t h i s ty p e o f s c h o o l. The s tu d e n t w as an "em pty v e s s e l " t o be i n d o c t r i n a t e d by t h e t e a c h e r . A few p a s s a g e s fro m th e R e g u la tio n s a r e e lo q u e n t i n t h e i r d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i s m e th o d o lo g y : F i r s t : s in g a humn, th e w o rd s b e in g s lo w ly p r o n o u n ced b y th e s c h o o lm a s te r , and sung by t h e c h i l d r e n a f t e r h im . E v ery m o n th , b u t one hymn, d e s ig n a te d by t h e clerg y m an and n o t to o lo n g o r u n f a m i l i a r , s h a l l be le a r n e d and su n g , i n o r d e r t h a t th e o ld and young may rem em ber th e w o rd s and tu n e b y f r e q u e n t r e p e t i t i o n . W hile s in g i n g , th e t e a c h e r m u st s e e t h a t a l l p a r t i c i p a te , an d no c h i l d s h o u ld be p e r m itte d to h o ld open t h e humnbook and s in g fro m i t , b u t a l l sh o u ld be r e q u ir e d t o f o llo w h im . S eco n d : a f t e r th e hymn, a p r a y e r s h a l l be o f f e r e d , e i t h e r by th e m a s te r , o r one o f th e p u p i l s may be a llo w e d t o r e a d s lo w ly and d i s t i n c t l y a p r e s c r ib e d p r a y e r , w h ile th e r e s t j o i n i n s i l e n c e . 25ien a l l s h o u ld d i r e c t l y o f f e r up a common p r a y e r , l e a r n e d b y h e a r t ; an d a f t e r t h e r e a d in g o f t h e p salm f o r t h e m onth by one o f th e p u p i l s , t h e d e v o tio n a l e x e r c is e s h o u ld c lo s e w ith t h e L o rd ’ s p r a y e r . Any t a r d y c h i l d r e n m u st 3 I b i d . . p p . 1 3 9 -4 0 . w a it a t th e d o o r u n t i l p r a y e r i s e n d e d , i n o r d e r n o t to d i s t u r b th e o t h e r s . 4 As can be s e e n fro m th « c h u rc h s t i l l p la y e d a g r e a t r o l e i n e d u c a tio n * I t s r e a l p o w er, h o w ev er, l a y in th e f a c t t h a t i t h a d b ee n a s s ig n e d th e im p o r ta n t jo b o f s e l e c t i n g th e s c h o o l i n s p e c t o r s . T hese i n s p e c t o r s , n a t u r a l l y w ere a lw a y s p a s t o r s , f a v o r a b le u s u a l l y t o any t h i n g s e c u l a r . As B ru b a c h e r w r i t e s , " I n P r u s s i a f o r i n s t a n c e , th e s t a t e a p p o in te d t h e c l e r g y to e x e c u te th e f u n c tio n s o f s u p e r v i s i o n . H en ce, th e c h u rc h t o g e t h e r w ith 5 th e s t a t e w as th e f o r c e ♦ . .* The R e g u la tio n s w ere a move away fro m t h e c h u rc h , an a tte m p t so t o s p e a k , t o make th e s c h o o l sy ste m n o n - s e c t a r i a n B ut t h i s w as in d e e d d i f f i c u l t , a s th e R e fo rm a tio n h a d ta k e n g r e a t h o ld o f th e German p sy c h e and L u th e ra n is m w as th e o r d e r o f th e d a y . W ith th e s c h o o ls so in f lu e n c e d by th e s e c u l a r , a n y g e n u in e n a t i o n a l r e f o rm s th r o u g h th e s e h o o l w ere h am p ered . B ut i n 1 7 8 7 , a r e a l s te p w as ta k e n i n th e d i r e c t i o n o f n a t i o n a l i z i n g e d u c a tio n . R e is n e r t e l l s o f E d u c a tio n (New Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, I n c . , 1 9 4 7 ), p . 5 2 0 . I l l . NATIONALIZATION 4 B a rn a rd , ©£. c i t . , p p . 5 9 6 -9 7 . 5 Jo h n S . B ru b a c h e r, H is to r y o f th e P ro b lem s o f no t h i s : . . . t h e d i r e c t i o n o f s c h o o l a f f a i r s w as ta k e n o u t o f th e h a n d s o f th e c o n s i s t o r i e s o f t h e c h u rc h and p la c e d i n th e h a n d s o f a n Q b e rs c h u lk o lle g iu m . a b o a rd c o n s i s t i n g o f a g ro u p o f s t a t e o f f i c i a l s c h a rg e d w ith th e d u ty o f s c h o o l c o n t r o l . 6 B ut t h i s l e g a l a tte m p t a t n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n p ro v e d i n e f f e c t i v e w hen F r e d e r ic k W illia m IX re a c h e d th e t h r o n e . He d i s l i k e d n a t io n a l is m an d n o n - s e c u l a r i z a t i o n , and b y c o n t r o l l i n g th e p e r s o n n e l o f th e O b e rs c h u lk o lle g iu m . he p ro lo n g e d th e in f lu e n c e o f th e c h u rc h i n P r u s s ia n e d u c a tio n , d e s p i t e th e l e g a l e m e n d a tio n . No c o n c e p t c a n be l e g i s l a t e d , u n le s s i t h a s th e w i l l o f a l l th e p e o p le . F r e d e r ic k W illia m I I n u l l i f i e d a l e g a l d e c r e e , b y m e re ly s e l e c t i n g th o s e o p p o sed to r a t i f i c a t i o n . A llg em ein e L a n d r e c h t. But n a t io n a lis m fo rg e d ah e ad i n s p i t e o f th e se c o n d W illia m F r e d e r ic k and i n 1 7 9 4 , th e A llg e m e in e s L a n d re c h t ( th e c o d i f i c a t i o n o f P r u s s ia n c i v i l law ) w as p a s s e d a s la w . T h is e s t a b l i s h e d once and f o r a l l th e p r i n c i p l e o f s t a t e c o n t r o l i n e d u c a tio n . Thus w ere l a i d th e f o u n d a tio n s o f a n a t i o n a l e d u c a tio n . As R e is n e r s p e a k s c o n c e rn in g t h i s : Not o n ly fro m th e s ta n d p o in t o f l e g a l e n a c tm e n ts b u t fro m t h a t o f unam biguous e d u c a ti o n a l th o u g h t, th e 6 Edw ard H. R e is n e r , N a tio n a lis m and E d u c a tio n S in c e 1789 (New Y ork: The M acm illan Company, 1& 33), p . I s l . I l l n a t i o n a l c o n c e p tio n o f e d u c a tio n had b een f o s t e r e d i n P r u s s i a , y e a r s b e f o r e F ic h te sp o k e i n B e r l in o n th e same th e m e . 7 The A llg e m ein e L a n d r e c h t. i n th o s e p a r a g r a p h s a l l o t t e d t o e d u c a tio n , s t r e s s e s th e suprem acy o f s t a t e ed u c a t i o n . The code re -e m p h a s iz e d co m p u lso ry a t te n d a n c e , an d s e t up th e m a in te n a n c e o f p u b lic s c h o o ls a s a d u ty o f th e s c h o o l p a t r o n s . As a c o n c e s s io n to th e c h u rc h , w h ich was s t i l l p o w e rfu l, th e l o c a l o f f i c i a l s o f th e c h u rc h w ere g iv e n t h e t a s k o f s u p e r v is in g t h e s c h o o ls o f t h e i r p a r i s h e s . S u r p r i s i n g l y enough f o r t h e tim e s , t h e code s t a t e d t h a t no p u p i l s h a l l be d is c r i m in a te d ^ g a i n s t , on th e g ro u n d s o f r e l i g i o n . The p o t e n t i a l i t i e s o f a n a t i o n a l fo rm o f e d u c a tio n w as c l e a r l y r e c o g n iz e d b y F r e d e r ic k th e G r e a t. T h is quo t a t i o n a g a in fro m R e is n e r i s i l l u m i n a t i n g . He s t a t e s : F r e d e r ic k th e G re a t h ad se e n i n e d u c a tio n an im p o rt a n t m eans o f Im p ro v in g t h e econom ic c o n d i t i o n o f h i s c o u n tr y . He a ls o saw t h e v a lu e o f a g e n e r a l d i f f u s i o n o f e le m e n ta r y i n s t r u c t i o n i n th e p r e p a r a t i o n o f n o n co m m issio n ed o f f i c e r s f o r t h e i r d u t i e s i n h i s arm y. He no l e s s r e c o g n iz e d th e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f b r in g in g a l l h i s dom ains u n d e r a u n ifo rm l e g a l and a d m i n is t r a ti v e s y s te m , w ith o u t th e m ore g e n e r a l d i f f u s i o n among h i s s u b j e c ts o f a b i l i t y t o r e a d th e o f f i c i a l German la n g u a g e .9 G ra d u a l r e s u r g e n c e . The e d u c a ti o n a l sy stem o f P r u s s i a 7 I b i d . , p . 1 2 8 . 8 I b i d . , p . 1 2 3 . 113 b e f o r e th e N a p o le o n ic w a rs w as a m a t t e r o f l o c a l c o n c e r n . E ach p a r i s h saw t o t h e m anagem ent o f i t s own l i t t l e s c h o o ls . The s c h o o l re fo rm s o f th e F r e d e r ic k s w ere s t a t u t e s acknow le d g e d by m any, and u s e d b y v e r y fe w . P r u s s i a ’ s e n t i r e s o c i a l sy ste m h ad b e e n , b e f o r e th e a g r a r i a n re fo rm s o f vom S t e i n an d h i s c o h o r t H a rd e n b u rg , i n a h a rd e n e d c o n d i tio n . B e fo re T i l s i t , e d u c a tio n w as c o n c e iv e d a s a m eans o f m a in t a i n i n g th e s t a t u s q.uo, and n o t a s a m eans o f s o c i a l r e fo rm . I t w as th e d i s a s t e r o f T i l s i t , w h ich r e v i t a l i z e d e d u c a tio n , and a n e x c e r p t fro m R e is n e r ’ s e x c e l l e n t h i s t o r y d e s c r ib e s i t t h u s : The trem e n d o u s d e v e lo p m e n ts w hich to o k p la c e i n P r u s s ia n l i f e , f o llo w in g th e P e a c e o f T i l s i t , a r e o f t e n d e s c r ib e d a s a r e s u r r e c t i o n . I n v iew o f w h a t w as a c c o m p lis h e d i n a few y e a r s in th e w ay o f p r a c t i c a l r e fo rm s and ch an g e o f s p i r i t u a l a t t i t u d e s , th e u se o f su ch la n g u a g e d o es n o t seem e x t r a v a g a n t .9 IV . EFFECT ON SCHOOLS OF PRUSSIAN DEFEAT AND THREATENED NATIONAL EXTINCTION S ta tu s o f s c h o o l sy stem — 1 8 0 8 . The s c h o o l sy stem o f P r u s s i a i n 1808 w as r e a l l y , a s h a s b een n o te d , a m a t t e r o f s t a t u t e , r a t h e r th a n p r a c t i c e . E d u c a tio n r e f l e c t e d th e s t a t u s o f th e p e o p le , an d t h e p e o p le w ere la n d lo c k e d i n a m e d ie v a l s o c i e t y . P r u s s i a , i t m u s t be rem em bered, w as an 9 I b i a . , p . 1 2 5 . 113 a b s o lu te m o n arch y , an d u n d e r su ch a re g im e , s c h o o ls e x p r e s s th e w i l l o f th e m o n a rc h , n o t th e p e o p le . P r u s s i a , u n t i l vom S t e i n 1 s r e f o r m s , h ad b ee n a s o c i a l l y and p o l i t i c a l l y b ackw ard n a t i o n . The F r e d e r ic k s h a d c r e a t e d a n k t i o n a l c o n s c io u s n e s s , an d t h e i r s c h o o ls r e f l e c t e d t h i s . , ' C hanges i n o u tlo o k . The s c h o o ls w ere t o e d u c a te t h e i r c l i e n t e l e f o r p i e t y an d m o r a l i t y , w ith em p h asis upon s o c i a l o b l i g a t i o n s , i . e . , a l l e g i a n c e to th e m o n arch y . The T r e a ty o f T i l s i t ch an g ed t h i s c o n c e p tio n . N ap o leo n h ad made P r u s s i a a v a s s a la g e i n e f f e c t , and F r e d e r ic k W illia m X X X h a d d e s e r t e d h i s c o u n tr y . The re fo rm s o f vom S t e i n and t h e o t h e r s c r e a te d a new s o c i a l o u tlo o k , and th e s c h o o ls assum ed a n o th e r h u e . The i n t e l l e c t u a l l e a d e r s , w ith F ic h te a t t h e i r h elm , saw i n e d u c a tio n , t h e m eans f o r s a l v a t i o n . I t i s re m a rk a b le t h a t a lo o s e s lip s h o d s y s te m , su ch a s th e P r u s s i a n , c o u ld be tr a n s f o r m e d l i t e r a l l y o v e r n ig h t i n t o an e f f i c i e n t m o d a lity f o r r e f o rm . F o r a s K n ig h t re m a rk s , an y p r e v io u s a tte m p ts a t re fo rm w ere f u t i l e . He w r i t e s : The la w o f 1763 m et w ith w ide o p p o s it io n ; fro m th e p e a s a n t s , who s a id th e y n e e d e d t h e i r c h i l d r e n to w ork; fro m t e a c h e r s , many o f whom c o u ld n o t m eet th e r e q u i r e m e n ts o f th e la w ; fro m th e w e l l - t o - d o , who f e a r e d t h a t e d u c a tio n w ould c a u s e u n r e s t among t h e u n d e r p r iv ile g e d ; an d fro m t h e e c c l e s i a s t i c s , who r e s i s t e d th e te n d e n c y to w a rd s s t a t e c o n t r o l . 10 10 E d g ar K n ig h t, T w enty C e n tu r ie s o f E d u c a tio n (B o sto n : G inn an d Company, 1 9 4 0 ), p . 5 2 6 . 114 I n 1 8 0 8 , t h e r e w as a s y e t no u n i f i e d s e h o o l s e tu p , an d no a d m i n i s t r a t i v e m a c h in e ry . The s c h o o ls w e re eo n - s id e r e d a d i s c r e t e p h a s e o f l i f e , h a v in g l i t t l e o r n o th in g t o c o n t r i b u t e to s o c i a l p r o g r e s s . When th e German f e d e r a t i o n w as c ru s h e d by N ap o leo n , th e s c h o o ls o f Germany w ere subm erged i n t h e i r p a r i s h e s , p la y in g no v i t a l p a r t i n t h e s o c i e t y ^foich th e y s e rv e d . I t w as F ic h te and h i s c o h o r ts who sh o o k t h e s c h o o ls o u t o f t h e i r l e t h a r g y . F o r th e s c h o o ls n o t o n ly la c k e d o r g a n i z a t i o n , th e y w ere w ith o u t a d e q u a te l e a d e r s h i p . S c h o o ls l a g . M odern s c h o o l sy ste m s w ith t h e i r e f f i c i e n t and o r d e r e d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s w ere a t h i n g unknown to P r u s s i a b e f o r e 1 8 0 8 . I t i s d i f f i c u l t i n th e l i g h t o f m odem p r a c t i c e t o c o n c e iv e th e a n t i q u i t y and i n e p t i t u d e o f su c h a sy s te m . I t s d ev elo p m en t i n so s h o r t a tim e , a s a n i n s t r u m ent o f n a t i o n a l r e f o r m , i s in d e e d one o f th e g r e a t e s t o f e d u c a ti o n a l phenom ena f o r a s S l i g h t w r i t e s o f t h i s d e v e lo p m en t: W ith in a g e n e r a tio n t h e s c h o o ls o f P r u s s i a came t o be c o n s id e r e d a s m o d e ls, and a t t r a c t e d v i s i t o r s an d o b s e r v e r s fro m m any c o u n t r i e s . I n th e e a r l y 1 8 5 0 f s F ra n c e , th e c o n q u e ro r o f P r u s s i a , was s e n d in g V ic to r C o u sin to th e la n d o f t h e v a n q u is h e d t o l e a r n a b o u t e d u c a tio n . H is r e p o r t t o t h e F re n c h m i n i s t r y o f ed u c a t i o n was t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g lis h and p u b lis h e d i n E n g lan d and t h e U n ite d S t a t e s ; and w hen H orace M ann, S e c r e t a r y o f t h e M a s s a c h u s e tts S ta te B oard o f E d u c a tio n , made h i s fam ous s e v e n th r e p o r t t o t h a t b o a rd i n 1 8 4 5 , on h i s E u ro p ean o b s e r v a t i o n s , he p r a i s e d th e P r u s s ia n 115 11 s c h o o ls an d t e a c h e r s . A ll p h a s e s o f th e e d u c a ti o n a l sy ste m w ere i n a s t a t e o f d i s r e p a i r . The g r e a t U n i v e r s i t y o f B e r lin h a d n o t y e t b ee n fo u n d ed by von H um boldt, an d th o s e i n s t i t u t i o n s ©f h i ^ i e r l e a r n i n g t h a t w ere i n e x i s t e n c e a t th e tim e o f T i l s i t w ere n o t fam ous f o r t h e i r fre ed o m o f th o u g h t o r e n l i g h t e n m e n t. Even t h e k in g r e a l i z e d th e n e e d f o r e d u c a tio n a l t r a n s i t i o n . He i s q u o te d b y O u b b erley a s s t a t i n g : Though we h a v e l o s t m any sq u a re m ile s o f l a n d , th o u g h th e c o u n try h a s b ee n ro b b e d o f i t s i n t e r n a l pow er and s p le n d o r , y e t we s h a l l and w i l l g a in i n i n t r i n s i c pow er a n d s p le n d o r , and t h e r e f o r e i t i s my e a r n e s t w is h t h a t th e g r e a t e s t a t t e n t i o n be p a id t o p u b lic i n s t r u c t i o n . . . The s t a t e m u st r e g a i n i n m e n ta l f o r c e w h a t i t h a s l o s t i n p h y s ic a l f o r c e . 12 Thus th e a d v e n t o f F ic h te w as a p e r io d w h e re in th e s c h o o ls w ere a r c h a i c i n form a s w e ll a s i n m e th o d . S te e p e d i n th e o ld t r a d i t i o n , ev en b e h in d tim e s t h a t w ere n o t o v e r l y p r o g r e s s iv e , th e s c h o o l sy ste m s p r e s e n te d a c ru d e f a c a d e . B ehind i t w ere in c o m p ete n ce an d s t u p i d i t y , an am algam t h a t h a s doomed m any o t h e r s y s te m s . B ut i n t h e c a s e o f P r u s s i a , th e s c h o o ls s p u r r e d b y a c a l l t o a c t i o n , r e a c t e d i n s u r p r i s i n g f a s h io n . S c h o o ls f o r c e d i n t o p ro m in e n c e . As a r e s u l t o f th e 11 I b i d . , p p . 5 3 6 -8 7 . * ^ 2 E llw o o d P . C u b b e rle y , The H is to r y o f E d u c a tio n (B o sto n : H oughton M i f f l i n Company, 1920V, p . 5 6 7 . 116 n a t i o n a l i s t i c su rg e o f f e e l i n g ru n n in g th ro u g h th e e n t i r e n a t i o n , th e s c h o o ls w ere l i t e r a l l y c a t a p u l t e d i n t o th e l i m e l i g h t . And th e y w ere f a r fro m r e a d y f o r t h e i r new r o l e . The l e a d e r s o f th e re fo rm t a l k e d g l i b l y , a s i s u s u a l l y th e c a s e , a b o u t th e p o w ers o f e d u c a tio n ; w ith o u t f i r s t r e a l i z i n g t h a t th e s e s o - c a l l e d po w ers m u st be on a s u b s t a n t i a l b a s i s . An u n o r g a n iz e d , a im le s s e d u c a tio n a l s y ste m p ro v e s m ore o f t e n a h in d ra n c e t o p r o g r e s s th a n i t s h an d m aid en . The P r u s s ia n sc h o o l sy ste m h a d f o r so lo n g b een n e g l e c t e d , t h a t i t w as im p o s s ib le f o r them t o r e a c t e f f e c t i v e l y a s a u n i t o f r e form * I n 1 8 0 8 , th e s c h o o ls o f a l l G erm any, n o t o n ly o f P r u s s i a , w ere to a l l p r a c t i c a l e x t e n t s i n t h e same m old o f a c e n tu r y , o r even tw o c e n t u r i e s e a r l i e r . A ll th e p r i o r a tte m p ts a t re fo rm , a s h a s b ee n s e e n , w ent f o r n a u g h t i n th e fa c e o f th e o p p o s i t i o n . And y e t i t w as to t h e s e s e l f same s c h o o ls t h a t P ie h te and th e o t h e r l e a d e r s tu r n e d , a s a m eans f o r th e r e g e n e r a t i o n o f P r u s s i a . As Oompayre r e m a rk s: P ic h te p ro c la im e d th e n e c e s s i t y o f a n a t i o n a l ed u c a t i o n t o s e c u r e th e r e g e n e r a tio n o f h i s c o u n tr y on i t s r e s t o r a t i o n t o i t s fo rm e r s ta n d in g . The a d v o c a te o f a p u b lic and common e d u c a ti o n , b e c a u s e h e w o u ld f i g h t a g a i n s t th e s e l f i s h n e s s w hich f a m ily l i f e en c o u r a g e s , he c o n t r i b u t e d b y h i s e lo q u e n t a p p e a ls t o r e s t o r e th e i n t e l l e c t u a l and m o ra l g r a n d e u r , an d con s e q u e n tly t h e i n t e r n a l g ra n d e u r o f G erm any.13 13 G a b r ie l G om payre, H is to r y o f P edagogy (B o sto n : D. G. H eath Company, 1 8 9 0 ), p p . 5 5 6 -3 7 . T r a n s l a t e d b y W. H. P ay n e. 117 R eform s b r in g c h a n g e . I t w as o n ly a s a r e s u l t o f t h e c h a n g e s c a u s e d b y th e r e f o r m e r s , t h a t th e d i r e c t i o n o f e d u c a tio n came u n d e r th e a e g i s o f t h e g o v e rn m e n t, th ro u g h a r e s p o n s i b l e m i n i s t e r . P r i o r t o 1 8 0 8 , e a c h p a r i s h z e a lo u s l y g u a rd e d i t s s c h o o ls , and w as je a l o u s o f a n y i n f r a c t i o n o f t h i s p r e c io u s p r e r o g a t i v e . T h ere w a s, o f c o u r s e , some d i r e c t i o n fro m t h e c e n t r a l g o v e rn m e n t, b u t t h i s w as u s u a l l y so c u r s o r y a s t o be l i t e r a l l y v a l u e l e s s . I t w as o n ly a f t e r th e re fo rm s c a r r i e d o u t b y vom S t e i n , t h a t t h e M i n i s t e r o f P u b lic I n s t r u c t i o n i n P r u s s i a e x e r c is e d t h e d i r e c t i o n and s u p e r v is io n o f a l l t h e s c h o o ls . W ith th e M i n i s t e r , th e r e w as p ro v id e d a c e n t r a l c o u n c il and a c o r p s o f i n s p e c t o r s f o r th e p r o v in c e s . I n P r u s s i a , a s a r e s u l t o f vom S t e i n , e v e ry d e g re e o f i n s t r u c t i o n w as p r o v id e d f o r by s p e c i a l l e g i s l a t i o n , and f in a n c e d th r o u g h g o v ern m en t a p p r o p r i a t i o n s s e t a s id e { s p e c if ic a lly f o r t h a t f u n c t i o n . The c h a n g e s w ro u g h t b y t h e sweep o f p r o g r e s s io n a f t e r J e n a w ere a l l th e m ore re m a rk a b le , when i t i s seen t h a t : . . . t h e sy stem o f p u b lic e le m e n ta ry i n s t r u c t i o n i n Germany d id n o t o r i g i n a t e i n a n y one s t a t e , an d i s n o t t h e g ro w th o f a n y one p e r i o d . I n i t s i m i t i v e fo rm i t i s a s o ld a s t h e C h r i s t i a n C h u rch . Such a p r i m i t i v e e d u c a tio n , on th e m o st im p o rta n t 14 B a rn a rd , oj>. c i t .. p. 6 4 1 . 118 l e v e l o f i n s t r u c t i o n , th e p r im a r y , w as a v e r y d u l l t o o l w ith w hich t o b e g in a n y sw eep in g c h a n g e s . S tra n g e a s i t may seem , Germ any i t s e l f , b ack w ard a s i t w a s, w as s t i l l f a r a h e a d o f i t s s c h o o ls . E urope h a d b een s t i r r e d anew b y th e " E n lig h te n m e n t , w and Germ any h a d c a u g h t th e f e v e r . L e a d e rs em p h asize s c h o o l s . I n s p i t e o f t h e i r d e s e u tu d e . th e s c h o o ls w e re c a l l e d upon by th e l e a d e r s tim e and a g a in . And m ore s u r p r i s i n g l y , th e s c h o o ls w ere aw akened i n t h i s s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t a b s o r p t i o n b y P ra n c e . W ith su d d en n e s s t h a t c o u ld be c a l l e d d r a m a tic , t h e r e o c c u rr e d a r e n a is s a n c e b e g in n in g w ith P r u s s i a , and s p r e a d in g th ro u g h o u t G erm any. Men l i k e F i c h t e , von H u m b o ld t, e t a l . , s u c c e e d e d i n r e v iv in g Germ any an d m aking h e r g r e a t . I n s p i r e d them s e l v e s b y t h e n e e d o f e d u c a tio n w hen P r u s s i a f e l l , th e s e men s e t th e m s e lv e s w ith o u t h e s i t a t i o n t o f a s h io n n o t o n ly a new e d u c a tio n , b u t th ro u g h i t , a new s o c i e t y . As Boyd r e l a t e s : E d u c a tio n came f i r s t , an d her© th e p h ilo s o p h e r Jo h a n n G o t t l i e b F ic h te l e d th e w ay i n h i s A d d re sse s t o t h e German P e o p le d e l i v e r e d i n B e r l in w h ile th e F re n c h w ere s t i l l i n p o s s e s s i o n . Up t o t h e tim e o f N a p o le o n 's c o n q u e s t o f P r u s s i a , F ic h te l i k e m any o f h i s contem po r a r i e s , had b een c o s m o p o lita n i n h i s s y m p a th ie s , an d h a d lo o k e d fo rw a rd t o th e m e rg in g o f s e p a r a te n a t i o n a l i t i e s i n a g r e a t E u ro p ean S t a t e . Now he c o m p le te ly re n o u n c e d h i s c o s m o p o lita n is m an d c a l l e d on h i s co u n try m en t o w ork f o r th e r e c r e a t i o n o f Germany . . . To t h a t e n d , he c a l l e d a t t e n t i o n to th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f e d u c a tio n a s a m eans t o t h e m o ra l r e g e n e r a t i o n w h ich w as n e c e s s a r y f o r th e r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h i s i d e a l . Edu c a t i o n , h e p o in te d o u t , w as t h e o n ly dom ain i n -which 119 th e F re n ch h ad l e t them T re e t o a c t . L e t th em ta k e a d v a n ta g e o f t h e i r fre ed o m , to r a i s e up a g e n e r a tio n o f men a n d women m ore o r i g i n a l , m ore i n t e l l i g e n t , an d m ore p a t r i o t i c th a n t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s .15 T h ere i s , h o w ev e r, some d o u b t i f t h e s c h o o ls w ould have aw akened t o F ic h te • s A d d re s s e s i f i t h a d n o t b e e n f o r th e e x ig e n c i e s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n . A t su ch a tim e o f n a t i o n a l c r i s i s , t h e r e w as a u n i v e r s a l a n d e a g e r w i l l i n g i e s s on th e p a r t o f t h e P r u s s ia n l e a d e r s t o a c c e p t a n y and a l l su g g e s t i o n s t h a t c o u ld be o f a s s i s t a n c e to w a rd s au g m e n tin g n a t i o n a l s o l i d a r i t y . T . THE SCHOOLS BEGIN TO CHANGE F r i e d r i c h W ilh elm von H um boldt, m e n tio n e d i n C h a p te r I T , w as t h e i n d i v i d u a l m ost d i r e c t l y r e s p o n s i b le f o r m aking th e e d u c a tio n s e tu p m ore e f f i c i e n t . I t w as h e who t r a n s l a t e d th e t h e o r i e s o f F ic h te in to p r a c t i c e . H um boldt, th e man o f a c t i o n , l e d th e w ay i n t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f th e e d u c a tio n d e s t i n e d to p ro d u c e a b e t t e r c i t i z e n r y f o r th e n a t i o n ’ s ad v a n ce m en t. H im se lf a g r e a t s c h o l a r , h e b ro u g h t t o h i s H e rc u le a n ta s k so much o f th e l e a r n i n g and u n d e r s ta n d in g n e c e s s a r y . As d i r e c t o r o f P u b lic I n s t r u c t i o n f o r o n ly a s h o r t e i g h te e n m o n th s, h e n o n e th e le s s so a f f e c t e d t h e new e d u c a tio n t h a t f o r a lo n g tim e i t b o re h i s stam p . 15 W illia m Boyd, The H i s t o r y o f W e s te rn E d u c a tio n (London: A. and G. B la c k , L t d . , 1933} , p* 3 5 3 . 120 H um boldt, a lo n g w ith F i c h t e , b e lie v e d t h a t a m ore e n lig h te n e d a n d o r g a n iz e d sy ste m o f e d u c a tio n w ould h e lp u p l i f t th e m a sse s o f t h e p e o p le , and to t h i s p u rp o se he i n s t i t u t e d h i s r e f o r m s , w hich w i l l be p r e s e n te d l a t e r on i n C h a p te r V I I I , th e p h a se co m m itted to th o s e d i r e c t c h a n g e s i n th e s c h o o ls . The g e n e r a l i d e a w as to aw aken th e s c h o o ls , f i r s t t o s e e t h e i r n e e d , and th e n to o r g a n iz e them a lo n g s c i e n t i f i c l i n e s . But t h e a c t u a l c h a n g e s d id n o t come w ith o u t oppo s i t i o n to t h e s e P e s t a l o z z i a n t h e o r i e s . A t t h i s c r u c i a l p e r i o d , von H um boldt w as r e l i e v e d o f h i s p o s i t i o n and s e n t i n t o r e t i r e m e n t . Much o f h i s w ork w as th w a r te d a t tim e s by th e K in g h i m s e l f , and a t o t h e r i n s t a n c e s b y a n o b i l i t y who fro w n ed upon e d u c a tio n f o r t h e p e o p le . I n f lu e n c e o f P e s t a l o z z i . A s e r i o u s a tte m p t w as made b y v o n H um boldt t o i n s t i l l some o f P e s t a l o z z i * s m ore fu n d a m e n ta l p r i n c i p l e s . I n l i n e w ith t h i s , Boyd d e s c r i b e s th e e f f o r t : A num ber o f young men w ere s e n t to s tu d y P e s ta lo z z i* s w ork a t Y v erd u n , and t h e s e on t h e i r r e t u r n , w ere s e t to r e c o n s t r u c t th e p rim a ry s c h o o l s y s te m . As p a r t o f th e p o l i c y , s e v e r a l t r a i n i n g c o l le g e s w ere e s t a b l i s h e d u n d e r d i s c i p l e s o f P e s t a l o z z i , i n w hich a t h r e e y e a r s c o u rs e o f t r a i n i n g w as g iv e n t o th o s e p ro p o s in g t o beeome p rim a ry t e a c h e r s . A v e r y v a lu a b le outcom e o f t h i s w as th e re m a rk a b le d ev e lo p m e n t o f e d u c a ti o n a l t h e o r y , m a in ly , an d f o r a tim e e x c l u s i v e l y , b a s e d on th e p e d a g o g ic a l d o c t r i n e s o f H e r b a r t. 6 16 I b i d . , p . 3 5 7 . 121 H e in r ic h P e s t a l o z z i w as a f o llo w e r o f J e a n J a c q u e s R o u sse a u , th e a r d e n t an d e r r a t i c p r o t a g o n i s t o f th e " r e t u r n t o n a t u r e ." B ut P e s t a l o z z i w as som ew hat m ore d o m e stic m in d e d , an d w h ile h i s g e n e r a l v ie w o f e d u c a tio n w as l i k e t h a t o f R o u s s e a u , h i s e m p h a sis w as m ore upon t h e f a m ily a s i in f l u e n c i n g e d u c a tio n . He b e l ie v e d t h a t e d u c a tio n s h o u ld be p r i m a r i l y c o n c e rn e d w ith t h e i n d i v i d u a l , and n o t w h at w as to be ta u g h t th e i n d i v i d u a l , a s h ad b ee n t h e c a s e . To P e s t a l o z z i , th e b a s i s o f e d u c a tio n w as to have th e t e a c h e r so d i r e c t and g u id e th e p u p i l , so t h a t h i s g r e a t e s t p o t e n t i a l i t i e s and c a p a b i l i t i e s w ere ed u ced i n a n a t u r a l f a s h i o n . And i t w as t h i s e s s e n t i a l p r i n c i p l e o f a c t i v i t y t h a t w as ta k e n o v e r b y th e German s c h o o l r e f o r m e r s , and w ith su c h e x c e l l e n t r e s u l t s . As B a g le y e l o q u e n t l y w r i t e s : The h i s t o r y o f e d u c a tio n i s so m etim es r e g a r d e d a s a r a t h e r d u l l s u b j e c t o f s tu d y . Y et i t i s r e p l e t e w ith d ra m a tic e p i s o d e s , an d among th e m o st d r a m a tic , i s t h a t w h ich i s a s s o c i a t e d w ith P e s t a l o z z i * s in f lu e n c e upon th e u n i v e r s a l s c h o o l i n Germany . . . i t w as h i s p r a c t i c a l id e a li s m t h a t d e te rm in e d th e d ev e lo p m en t o f German e d u c a tio n d u r in g a p e r io d t h a t c u lm in a te d i n t h e d e c id e d p red o m in an ce o f German c u l t u r e , w h ich m arked th e seco n d an d t h i r d q u a r t e r s o f th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , and i n some m e a su re t h e f o u r t h q u a r t e r . 1” The dram a w as t o u n f o ld w ith P e s t a l o z z i and h i s d o c t r i n e s a s im p o r ta n t a c t o r s . The G erm ans f o llo w in g h i s 17 W illia m B a g le y , A C e n tu ry o f th e U n iv e r s a l S ch o o l (Hew Y ork: The M a cm illan Company, 1 9 3 7 ), PP* 122 le a d no lo n g e r w ere t o t r e a t th e c h i l d r e n i n t h e s c h o o ls a s r o b o ts b u t t o c o n s id e r them a s i n d i v i d u a l s who l e a r n e d b e s t b y v i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith e x p e r ie n c e . I t was t o be a new i n s t r u c t i o n f i t t e d to th e c h i l d a s a p e r s o n , n o t a s an autom aton* As R e is n e r t e l l s o f t h i s : Even b e fo re th e n a t i o n a l d i s a s t e r a t J e n a , P r u s s i a h a d s e n t a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e t o B u rg d o rf t o o b s e rv e P e s t a l o z z i 1 s m eth o d s . . . I t w as t h u s s e e n t h a t a t th e tim e o f t h e g r e a t e s t n a t i o n a l e n th u s ia s m and o f th e m ost l i b e r a l p o l i t i c a l th o u g h t t h a t e v e r e x i s t e d i n P r u s s i a th e in f lu e n c e o f P e s t a l o z z i w as b ro u g h t i n t o th e P r u s s ia n p rim a ry s c h o o l s y s te m . T h is P e s t a l o z z i a n in f lu e n c e can n o t be u n d e r e s t i m a te d , f o r h i s th e o r y w as a r a d i c a l d e p a r tu r e fro m th e a c c e p te d e d u c a t i o n a l s ta n d a r d s o f h i s m i l i e u . H is b e l i e f t h a t e d u c a tio n w as t h e f u l l a n d h a rm o n io u s d ev elo p m en t o f th e e n t i r e c h i l d p h y s i c a l l y , m o r a lly , an d i n t e l l e c t u a l l y w as i n d i r e c t c o n t r a d i c t i o n to th e p s y c h o lo g y o b ta in in g i n t h e P r u s s ia n s c h o o ls o f th e p e r io d o f J e n a . T h e re , th e "em pty v e s s e l " c o n c e p t w as i n v o g u e, w h e re in e a c h c h i l d w as t o be p o u re d f u l l o f p r e c e p t . B ut P e s t a l o z z i ch a n g ed a l l t h i s , and so g r e a t a p a r t d id he p la y t h a t e v e n F ic h te d e c la r e d , " I t i s fro m t h e i n s t i t u t e o f P e s t a l o z z i t h a t I 19 e x p e c t th e r e g e n e r a t i o n o f th e German p e o p l e ." 18 R e is n e r , o £ . c i t .. p. 157. C om payre, o £ . c i t . . p. 4 4 5 . 123 And i t w as f o r t u n a t e f o r th e aw ak en in g s c h o o l sy ste m t h a t th e y c o u ld g e t t h i s in v a lu a b le d o c t r i n e b y F ic h te when th e y n ee d ed i t m o s t. P e s t a l o z z i f s w as an e d u c a tio n o f r e - f o m , h en c e i t w as a f o r t u i t o u s c irc u m s ta n c e t h a t he c o u ld be u s e d so a d v a n ta g e o u s ly a t t h e tim e when P r u s s i a w as u n d e rg o in g so g r e a t a c h a n g e . V I. THE SCHOOLS* REACTION W ith th e new s p i r i t o f th e tim e s i n f u s i n g l i f e i n t o th e s c h o o ls , a new e r a i n German e d u c a tio n b e g a n . An e n t i r e new w ay o f l i f e , a new p h ilo s o p h y , h ad p e rv a d e d th e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e and w ith i t t h e s c h o o ls . From an a u t o c r a t i c m o n arch y w ith d e c a d e n t s c h o o ls la g g in g f a r b e h in d , t h e r e sp ra n g i n to b e in g a new P r u s s i a , l i b e r a l i n o u tlo o k , w ith i t s s o c i a l sy ste m o v e r h a u le d and i t s s c h o o ls so m e th in g e n t i r e l y new. R e is n e r s a y s : F ic h te th u s i s se e n t o have com bined . . . th e tw o do m in an t c o n c e p tio n s o f n i n e te e n t h c e n tu r y p o l i t i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t— n am ely , n a t io n a l is m and dem ocracy* The n a t i o n , he t a u g h t , i s to be a c c e p te d a s th e u n i t o f s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . I t m u st h av e and know i t s c h a r a c t e r and d e s t i n y . I t m u st a c h ie v e t h a t c h a r a c t e r an d d e s t i n y th r o u g h th e c o n s c io u s c o n t r o l o f th e edu c a t i o n o f a l l i t s y o u th . T h a t e d u c a tio n m ust l i b e r a t e i n ea c h son o f a l l th e p e o p le th e p o t e n t i a l i t i e s f o r n a t i o n a l s e r v ic e t h a t e x i s t w i t h in h im .^ ° A lth o u g h many r e p a i r s h a d b een i n s t i t u t e d i n th e O A R e is n e r , o p * c i t . . p. 12 8 . 134 eco n o m ic, p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l , and m i l i t a r y f i e l d s , m o st w as e x p e c te d from th e r e fo rm s i n e d u c a tio n . F o r e d u c a tio n w as t o s e e t o i t t h a t a l l th e s a l u t a r y e f f e c t s r e s u l t i n g fro m th e o t h e r re fo rm s w ere p ro lo n g e d , to d f u r t h e r , by r e a l l y e d u c a tin g f o r p r o g r e s s , n ew er and b e t t e r c h a n g e s w ere to e n s u e . F ic h te an d h i s a s s o c i a t e s r e a l l y e x p e c te d g r e a t t h in g s fro m e d u c a ti o n . E d u c a tio n w as t o be made o v e r a c c o r d in g t o th e t h e o r i e s o f P e s t a l o z z i . The n a t i o n a l c o n s c io u s n e s s w as g e a re d t o a c c e p t th e s e c h a n g e s , an d t h i s f a c t h e lp e d sm ooth th e w ay. Low er s c h o o l s . The e n t i r e s c h o o l sy ste m w as o v e r h a u le d fro m th e p rim a ry s c h o o ls up th r o u g h th e u n i v e r s i t i e s . The new sy ste m w as i n d o c t r i n a t e d c o m p le te ly w ith th e new q u a s i - l i b e r a l p h ilo s o p h y . H ow ever, t h e c h a n g e s i n th e p rim a ry s c h o o ls m et w ith i n d i f f e r e n t s u c c e s s , b e c a u se o f t h e d e te rm in e d o p p o s i t i o n . L a te r o n , a c o m p le te re fo rm to o k p la c e i n th e e le m e n ta r y s c h o o ls , due t o th e h e r c u le a n e f f o r t s o f t h e new M i n i s t e r o f E d u c a tio n , von H um boldt. I t w as h i s e f f o r t s w h ich l a i d t h e groundw ork f o r th e f u t u r e s u c c e s s o f a l l th e s c h o o ls . As r e g a r d s th e s e c o n d a ry s c h o o ls , Boyd re m a rk s : They w ere re fo rm e d b y von H um boldt, and h i s im m ed iate s u c c e s s o r s , in th e same l i b e r a l s p i r i t . A c e r t a i n num ber o f th e o ld gram m ar s c h o o ls w ere s in g l e d o u t a s g y m n a sie n . t o p r e p a r e s t u d e n t s f o r th e u n i v e r s i t i e s , and v a r io u s c h a n g e s w e re made i n t h e i r c o n s t i t u t i o n . 125 To e n s u re w o rth y t e a c h i n g , a s p e c i a l e x a m in a tio n , th e examen p ro f a c i l i t a t e d o c e h d i. w as i n s t i t u t e d f o r t e a c h - e r s i n t h e s e s c h o o ls , and s e c o n d a ry t e a c h i n g , w h ic h h ad p r e v io u s l y b e e n a s id e p u r s u i t o f th e c l e r g y becam e an in d e p e n d e n t p r o f e s s i o n . A new c u r r ic u lu m w as draw n u p , f o r th e s c h o o ls in te n d e d to p r o v id e an a l l - a r o u n d e d u c a t i o n .21 T hese new g y m n asien r e a c t e d a s p r o g r e s s i v e l y a s c o u ld be d e s i r e d , They h a d c u r r i c u l a w h ich s t r e s s e d t h e c l a s s i c s a s v e h i c l e s f o r t h e e x p r e s s io n o f th e g r e a t w r i t e r s o f a n t i q u i t y , and n o t a s m o d els o f fo rm a l c o m p o s itio n i n L a ti n a s h a d p r e v io u s l y b een th e c a s e . More and m ore a t t e n t i o n w as p a id to th e r e q u ir e m e n ts o f t h e s tu d e n ts who up t i l l now c o u ld n o t a t t e n d . S p e c ia l p r o v i s i o n w as made f o r th e s e s tu d e n ts i n s p e c i a l h ig g le r s e h o o ls w i t h a s i x - y e a r c o u r s e . Some o f t h e s e new s p e c i a l s e h o o ls c a l l e d p ro g y m n asien h a d th e same c u r r ic u lu m a s t h e g y m n asien w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f G re ek . O th e rs r e q u i r e d s c ie n c e an d t h e s tu d y o f F re n c h and o m itte d th e c l a s s i c s e n t i r e l y . d i v e r s i t y o f B e r l i n . At t h e same tim e th e d i v e r s i t y o f B e r l in began t h e fam ous German "L e h r-u n d l e m - f r e i h e i t . " T h is l e a r n i n g and fre ed o m f o r le a r n i n g t o b e come so fam ous a s th e m odel f o r A m erican u n i v e r s i t i e s w as i n k e e p in g w ith th e tim e s . Von H um boldt h a d e s t a b l i s h e d t h e U n iv e r s ity o f B e r l i n w ith th e h e l p o f F ic h te an d P l Boyd, o p . c it.* , P* 3 5 0 . 186 S c h le ie r m a c h e r i n th e f a c e o f o v erw h elm in g o d d s . B e r l in U n iv e r s it y w as n o t in te n d e d t o become a n o th e r h ig h e r p la c e o f l e a r n i n g , even th o u g h su ch a s c h o o l w as b a d ly n e e d e d . I t , i n s t e a d , w as fo u n d ed t o i n s t i t u t e a new t r e n d i n s c i e n t i f i c th o u g h t. The e m p h a sis w as upon fre e d o m o f r e s e a rc h r a t h e r th a n i n te a c h i n g an d e x a m in in g , and i t w as t h i s te n d e n c y w hich madeu B e r l in so fam o u s. The p r o f e s s o r s w ere ch o sen f o r t h e i r a b i l i t y t o make n ew er a n d g r e a t e r c o n t r i b u t i o n s b y t h e i r r e s e a r c h , and n o t t o be t e a c h e r s , p e r s e . M ost n o te w o rth y o f a l l t h e a d v a n c e s , h o w ev e r, w as th e f a c t t h a t t h e U h iv e r s it y w as g iv e n c o m p le te j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r i t s own a f f a i r s . Von H um boldt e a r n e s t l y b e l ie v e d t h a t th e u n i v e r s i t i e s c o u ld b e s t s e rv e th e n a t i o n b y b e in g s e l f s u f f i c i e n t , i n s t e a d o f b e in g s u b o r d in a te to t h e S t a t e . Star h e b e l ie v e d t h a t i n th e lo n g r u n , u n le s s a u n i v e r s i t y h a d su c h fre ed o m o f i n t e r n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , t h e advancem ent o f l e a r n i n g w i l l be h in d e r e d . He h e l d a l s o t h e b e l i e f t h a t a u n i v e r s i t y i s d e d ic a te d to p u r s u in g T r u th , and a n y th in g w h ich h am p ered su ch p u r s u i t m u st p ro v e d e t r i m e n t a l . O nly b y fre ed o m o f r e s e a r c h c o u ld t h e r e be an y advancem ent o f l e a r n i n g . As T u rn b u ll w r i t e s o f th e r e a c t i o n o f th e u n i v e r s i t i e s : To t h e i n f lu e n c e e x e r t e d on p e o p l e ’s m in d s b y F i c h t e ’s w r i t i n g s on e d u c a ti o n , we may a l s o j u s t l y a t t r i b u t e i n - - l a r g e m e asu re t h e r e v i v a l o f t h e U n i v e r s i t i e s , w h ich 137 b eg an t o p ay m ore a t t e n t i o n t o t h e i r im p o rta n t f u n c tio n s i n t h e s o c i a l o rg a n is m an d t o become e s s e n t i a l o r g a n s i n th e n a t i o n a l l i f e . 22 N ot o n ly th e u n i v e r s i t i e s , b u t a l l th e l e v e l s o f th e s c h o o ls w ere re s p o n d in g t o th e new s p i r i t o f l i b e r t y . Due t o th e tim e s , P r u s s i a b e g a n i n e a r n e s t t o o r g a n iz e a n a t i o n a l sy ste m o f e d u c a tio n . The e n t i r e sy ste m w as r e vamped and o v e r h a u le d . As a r e s u l t o f th e r e a c t i o n , th e S t a t e g a v e i t s e l f p rim a ry j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r t h e p rim a ry s c h o o ls sy ste m an d l a i d down t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t t h e f i r s t b u s in e s s o f th e s c h o o ls i s t o t r a i n t h e ju d g m e n t, a n d d e v e lo p th e m o ra l and r e l i g i o u s s e n s e , th e r e b y show ing i t s d e s i r e t o in tr o d u c e a new s p i r i t i n t o th e s c h o o l. The s c h o o ls r e o r g a n iz e d and in f u s e d w ith t h e new d o c t r in e began to make q u ic k h ead w ay , an d f o r a w h ile seem ed d e s tin e d f o r c o n s i s t e n t s u c c e s s . B ut a wave o f r e a c t i o n s e t i n , and t h e y n e v e r q u i t e d e v e lo p e d a s F ic h te h ad h o p e d . N o n e th e le s s , t h e s c h o o ls show ed th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f aw ak en in g i f th e n e e d w ere g r e a t en o u g h . And th e s e s u b s e q u e n t r e a c t i o n s p ro v e d a s a l u t a r y in f lu e n c e i n s p i t e o f t h e i r l a t e r s e tb a c k . Summary. T h is c h a p t e r g av e a tr e a tm e n t o f th e s c h o o ls o f P r u s s i a s p e c i f i c a l l y , an d Germany g e n e r a l l y . The s t a t u s 22 G eorge H. T u r n b u ll, The E d u c a tio n a l T h eo ry o f G. F ic h te ( L iv e r p o o l: U n iv e r s it y P r e s s , L td ., 1 9 3 6 ), p . 8 7 . 1 2 8 q u o , th e im p e tu s th e y r e c e iv e d fro m th e d o w n fa ll o f P r u s s i a an d t h e i r r e a c t i o n w ere re v ie w e d a s a t o t a l g e s t a l t . The n e x t c h a p te r w i l l p r e s e n t i n d e t a i l t h e man m o st a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e g r e a t s c h o o l r e f o r m s , th e p h ilo s o p h e r Jo h an n G o t t l i e b F i c h t e . The v a r io u s p h a s e s o f h i s l i f e and p h i l o so p h y w i l l be shown i n r e f e r e n c e to h i s e d u c a ti o n a l t h e o r y . CHAPTER V I I JOHANN GOTTLIEB FICHTE I n t r o d u c t i o n . T h is c h a p te r w i l l be c o n c e rn e d p r i m a r il y w ith t h e e x p o s itio n o f F i c h t e ’ s e d u c a tio n a l t h e o r y . H ow ever, no t h e o r y c a n be a d e q u a te ly p r e s e n te d w ith o u t some i n s i g h t in to i t s a n te c e d e n t f e a t u r e s . A b r i e f resu m e o f F i c h t e ’ s l i f e , an d a p r e c i s o f h i s p h ilo s o p h y w i l l , t h e r e f o r e , be p r e s e n te d . T h is w as d one to c l a r i f y th o s e p r e d is p o s in g i n f l u e n c e s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o F i c h t e ’ s e d u c a tio n a l p h ilo s o p h y . W ith o u t su c h c l a r i f i c a t i o n , no c o g e n t a p p re c i a t i o n o f F i c h t e ’ s t h e o r i e s i s p o s s i b l e . F o r c o n v e n ie n c e , a l i s t o f F i c h t e ’ s m ore im p o r ta n t w o rk s w i l l be l i s t e d i n th e b i b li o g r a p h y r a t h e r th a n i n t h i s c h a p t e r . I . BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Jo h a n n G o t t l i e b F ic h te w as b o rn May 1 9 th , 1 7 6 8 , a t Rammenau, i n S axon L u s a t i a . He w as one o f e i g h t c h i l d r e n b o ra t o C h r i s t i a n F ic h te and h i s w i f e , t h e d a u g h te r o f Jo h a n n S e h u r ic h , a le a d in g m e rc h a n t i n t h e to w n . C h r i s t i a n F ic h te w as a d e s c e n d a n t o f one o f th o s e s o l d i e r s , who h ad fo llo w e d G u sta v u s A dolphus fro m Sw eden, when G u sta v u s i n v a d e d S axony d u r in g th e g r e a t r e l i g i o u s w a r s . F ic h te w as s o r e l y w ounded i n one o f th e m any s k ii m is h e s , so Im p o rta n t a t th e tim e , and so m e a n in g le s s n o t lo n g a f t e r . L e f t f o r 1 3 0 d ead i n Rammenau, F ic h te s u r p r i s e d th e to w n s f o lk b y r e c o v e r i n g , and th e n s e t t l i n g down am ongst th e m . The fo rm e r enemy w as now a n a t i v e o f Rammenau, and a s s u c h , p a s s e d down th e p a tro n y m ic w h ich Jo h a n n w as l a t e r t o make so fam o u s. Jo h a n n G o t t l i e b w as C h r i s t i a n F ic h te * s f i r s t b o m , a n d a s i s u s u a l l y t h e c a s e , p e r m itte d g r e a t l i b e r t y i n h i s c h ild h o o d . As a b o y , h e w as an e x c e l l e n t s c h o la r , re s p o n d in g e a g e r l y t o h i s f a t h e r * s t e a c h i n g . A c c o rd in g to h i s t o r y , F i c h t e , when h e w as e i g h t o r n i n e , a t t r a c t e d t h e ey e o f F r e i h e r r von M i l t i t z , who a d o p te d him a s h i s own c h i l d . M i l t i t z grew i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e young F ic h te b e c a u s e o f h i s p r o d ig io u s memory, a n d w it h th e c o n s e n t o f h i s p a r e n t s r e moved Jo h a n n t o S ev en o a k s (S ie b e n e io h e n ) , an e s t a t e on th e E lb e b e lo n g in g t o th e F r e i h e r r . I n F ic h te * s t w e l f t h y e a r a f t e r a h ap p y b o y h o o d , h e w as s e n t by F r e i h e r r M i l t i t z t o th e tow n s c h o o l o f M e isse n an d so o n a f te r w a r d s to th e p u b l i c s c h o o l o f P f o r t a n e a r Raum burg. I t may b e n o te d i n p a s s in g , t h a t a n o th e r German p h ilo s o p h e r , t h e e r r a t i c g e n iu s F r i e d r i c h W ilh elm N ie tz s c h e , a l s o a t t e n d e d t h i s s e h u le a t a l a t e r tim e . S m ith , fam ous b io g r a p h e r o f F i c h t e , d e s c r i b e s t h i s s c h o o ls The s c h o o l a t P f o r t a r e t a i n e d m any t r a c e s o f i t s m onkish o r i g i n ; th e t e a c h e r s and p u p i l s l i v e d i n c e l l s , and t h e boys w ere a llo w e d t o le a v e th e i n t e r i o r o n ly o n ce a w e e k , and th e n u n d e r s u p e r v i s i o n , to v i s i t a p a r t i c u l a r p la y -g ro u n d i n t h e n e ig h b o rh o o d . . . When h e w as s c a r c e l y t h i r t e e n y e a r s o f a g e , F ic h te 1 3 1 e n t e r e d t h i s s e m in a ry ; and h i s p r o t e c t o r M i l t i t z d y in g so o n a f te r w a r d s , he w as h e n c e fo rw a rd a lo n e i n t h e w o rld , e a s t upon h i s own r e s o u r c e s , t r u s t i n g to h i s own s t r e n g t h an d g u id a n c e . So soon w as h e c a l l e d u p o n , t o e x e r c i s e t h a t p o w e rfu l and c l e a r - s i g h t e d in d e p e n d e n c e o f c h a r a c t e r b y w h ich h e w as a f te r w a r d s so much d i s t i n g u i s h e d . 1 I t w as a t P f o r t a t h a t F ic h te f i r s t becam e a c q u a in te d w ith th e new s p i r i t o f f r e e i n q u i r y th e n s t i r r i n g th e German w o rld . The new b o o k s, c o n ta in in g w h at w as th e n h e r e t i c a l t h i n k i n g , w ere s e c r e t l y o b ta in e d b y J o h a n n , an d i n s p i t e o f th e s t r i c t e s t p r o h i b i t i o n s w ere a v i d l y r e a d . The w o rk s o f W ie la n d , L e s s in g , an d e s p e c i a l l y G oethe w ere e x p r e s s ly f o r b id d e n by th e a u t h o r i t i e s a t P f o r t a . I t w as t h e s e w r i t e r s , among o t h e r s , who im p re s s e d th e young F ic h te so much t h a t in l a t e r y e a r s he m ade e x p l i c i t t h e i r i n f l u e n c e . Y outh an d p h i l o s o p h i c a l s t u d i e s . I n 1780 F i c h t e , th e n e ig h te e n y e a r s o f a g e , e n t e r e d th e u n i v e r s i t y a t J e n a . H ere he e n r o l l e d i n t h e d e p a rtm e n t o f th e o lo g y a t t h e b e h e s t o f h i s p a r e n t s a n d h i s p r o t e c t o r von M i l t i t z . But th e o lo g y d id n o t im p re s s th e young s c h o l a r to o m uch, b e c a u se h e b eg an t o p ro b e i n t o p h ilo s o p h y an d he even beeam e w e l l v e r s e d i n th e W o lff ia n b ra n d o f m e ta p h y s ic s . C h r i s t i a n W o lff, th e g r e a t German r a t i o n a l i s t w as th e n h e l d i n g r e a t e s te e m , and W illia m S m ith , L . L . D ., Jo h a n n G o t t l i e b F i c h t e »s P o p u la r W orks (L ondon: T ru b n e r and Company, 1889) I , p p . 5 - 6 . t r a n s l a t e d b y th e a u t h o r . 132 i t w as u n a v o id a b le t h a t F ic h te s h o u ld come i n t o c o n t a c t w ith h i s t h e o r i e s . B e s id e s W o lff, F ic h te im m ersed h im s e lf i n B aruch S p in o z a 1 s magnum o p u s , th e E th i c a , w h ich s u b s e q u e n t ly made a deep im p r e s s io n upon him . B ut S m ith p i c t u r e s F i c h t e ’ s p h i l o s o p h i c a l nonage a s one o f s p e c u l a t i o n an d r e f l e c t i v e p r o b in g , f o r a s he re m a rk s : P ro lo n g e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n , h o w ev e r, re n d e re d him d i s s a t i s f i e d w ith th e s e v ie w s — th e i n d e s t r u c t i b l e f e e l i n g o f i n t e r n a l in d e p e n d e n c e an d fre e d o m , r e n d e r e d d o u b ly p o w e rfu l b y th e e n e rg y o f h i s own c h a r a c t e r , c o u ld n e i t h e r b e rem o v ed , n o r e x p la in e d on an e x c l u s i v e l y d e t e r m i n i s t i c th e o r y . . . Hie o r i g i n a l te n d e n c y o f h i s m ind p r e p a r e d him f o r th e s u b s e q u e n t e n t h u s i a s t i c r e c e p t i o n o f th e d o c t r i n e s o f K a n t, an d i s i n f a c t , t h e v e r y r o o t o f h i s own " W is s e n s e h a f ts le h r e " w h ich i n t h i s r e s p e c t s ta n d s o p p o se d t o t h e d o c t r in e o f S p in o z a , a lth o u g h t h e r e i s , n o tw ith s ta n d i n g , an e s s e n t i a l a f f i n i t y ^ b etw een th e s e tw o g r e a t sy ste m s o f m odern p h i l o so p h y . B ut p h i l o s o p h i c a l p u r s u i t s h a d t o c e a s e s u d d e n ly f o r F ic h te when h i s p r o t e c t o r , th e p r e v io u s l y n o te d F r e i h e r r von M i l t i t z , s u d d e n ly d ie d and l e f t him to h i s own r e s o u r c e s . From 1784 t o 1788 F ic h te e a rn e d a p r e c a r i o u s l i v i n g by a c t in g a s a t u t o r i n v a r io u s hom es i n S axony. H is own s t u d i e s w ere i n t e r r u p t e d b e c a u s e he c o u ld h o t p u rc h a s e th e n e c e s s a r y v o lu m e s. H ow ever, h e n e v e r d e s p a ir e d , an d w h en ev er he c o u ld , F ic h te r e a d a v i d l y , n o t o n ly fro m b o rro w ed p h i l o s o p h i c a l to m e s b u t w h a te v e r e l s e he c o u ld l a y h i s h a n d s u p o n . T h is c o n d i tio n e x i s t e d u n t i l 1 7 8 8 , when th ro u g h a f r i e n d , he 2 Ibid. , p. 10* 1 3 3 s e c u r e d a p o s i t i o n a s a t u t o r a t a w e a lth y home i n Z u r ic h , S w itz e r la n d . Y ea rs a s a t u t o r . Jo h a n n F ic h te a r r i v e d a t Z u ric h on th e f i r s t o f S e p te m b e r, in th e y e a r 1 7 8 8 , and im m e d ia te ly s e t o u t upon h i s t u t o r i a l d u t i e s . H is e m p lo y e r w as a w e a lth y c i t i z e n o f t h i s c o s m o p o lita n S w iss c i t y , a n d he b e sto w ed upon Jo h a n n th e c a r e o f a b o y o f t e n , and a g i r l o f s e v e n . I t w as h e r e a t t h i s home t h a t F ic h te b e g a n t o r e f l e c t s e r i o u s l y upon e d u c a tio n a n d fo rm ed some o f th o s e t h e o r i e s he l a t e r p ro p o u n d ed so a b ly . H ere a l s o he m e t h i s f u t u r e w i f e , Jo h a n n a M a ria Raum. B ut h i s a tte m p ts a t i n s t i l l i n g a l i b e r a l e d u c a tio n i n t o h i s two w a rd s en d e d in f a i l u r e . I n 1 7 5 0 , he to o k o f f f o r L e ip z ig , w here he s p e n t h i s tim e i n s p o r a d ic t u t o r i n g . A g ain , fro m S m ith e s e x c e l l e n t b io g ra p h y I s draw n a s h o r t b u t l u c i d q u o ta tio n a b o u t t h i s p e r io d i n F i c h t e ’ s e x i s t e n c e , ”a t one tim e he g iv e s a le s s o n i n G reek t o a young man b etw een e le v e n and tw e lv e o ’ c lo c k , 3 an d sp e n d s th e r e s t o f t h e d a y i n s tu d y an d s t a r v a t i o n . ” I n L e ip z ig F ic h te a l s o t r i e d tr a g e d y an d n o v e l w r i t i n g , b u t w as n o t to o s u c c e s s f u l i n t h i s m e d ia o f e z p r e s s i o n . D u rin g t h e s e le a n y e a r s , F ic h te u n d erw en t much t r a v a i l and s u f f e r in g . And i t w as t h e s e p r i v a t i o n s t h a t l a t e r c o lo u re d h i s 3 I b i a . , p. 25. 1 3 4 p h ilo s o p h y . P r o f e s s o r s h i p a t J e n a . I n 1794 he w as g r a n te d a p r o f e s s o r s h i p a t J e n a . T u r n b u ll com ments on h i s c a r e e r a t t h a t fam ous i n s t i t u t i o n : H is s u c c e s s a s a U n iv e r s it y l e c t u r e r a t J e n a w as im m ed iate an d re m a rk a b le . The v ig o u r o f h i s th o u g h t, h i s m o ra l i n t e n s i t y and p r a c t i c a l e a r n e s t n e s s com bined w ith h i s s k i l l i n o r a t o r y t o make him a s t i m u l a t i n g and c o n v in c in g t e a c h e r . He w a s, h o w ev e r, much m ore th a n an acad em ic t e a c h e r i n th e o r d in a r y s e n s e o f th e w o rd . He l i v e d h i s p h ilo s o p h y , and n e v e r b e l ie v e d m e re ly , i n a b s o rb in g h im s e lf i n th o u g h t, w ith o u t e x p r e s s in g him s e l f e n e r g e t i c a l l y i n a c t i o n . H is p h ilo s o p h y in f lu e n c e d h i s v ie w s on e d u c a tio n , and s u p p lie d th e m o tiv e f o r h i s a c t i v i t y a s a t e a c h e r . 4 D u rin g th e tim e F i c h t e w as a p r o f e s s o r a t J e n a , Germany w as e x p e r ie n c in g a p o l i t i c a l f e r m e n t. The r e v e r b e r a t i o n s o f th e F re n c h R e v o lu tio n an d i t s a f t e r e f f e c t s w ere: b e in g h e a rd a l l o v e r E u ro p e . Such an u p h e a v a l c o u ld n o t h e l p b u t b e s t i r men t o t h i n k , to d F ic h te w as v e r y much c o n c e rn e d w ith t h i s p ro b le m . G row ing m ore and m ore i n h i s th in k i n g w as th e p o l i t i c a l s ta g n a t i o n o f Germany i n 1 7 9 4 . I t w as F ic h te f s d e te r m in a tio n t o sp e a k h i s m ind no m a t t e r w h at t h e s u b j e c t t h a t en d e d h i s c o n n e c tio n i n an a b r u p t f a s h i o n . I t w as b e c a u se F ic h te dem anded th e f u l l r i g h t o f ex p o u n d in g h i s p h ilo s o p h ic o p in io n t h a t h e w as 4 G eorge T u r n b u ll, The E d u c a tio n a l T h e o ry o f J . G. F ic h te (L ondon: H odder an d S ta u g h to n , L t d . , 1940TV PP« 1 8 . 1 3 5 d is m is s e d . He c o u ld h a v e re m a in e d i f he h a d w is h e d t o r e t r e a t fro m h i s p o s i t i o n , "but h e r e f u s e d t o do s o , an d a s a r e s u l t w as o r d e r e d e x p e lle d b y th e J e n a a u t h o r i t i e s . B e r l i n d a y s . F i c h t e , who i n t h e m ean w h ile h a d m a r r ie d Jo h a n n a Raum, l e f t J e n a f o r B e r l in w h ere he w as w arm ly r e c e iv e d h y S c h le g e l who in tr o d u c e d him t o a c i r c l e o f f r i e n d s . I t w as i n B e r l i n t h a t F ic h te w as draw n i n t o t h e w o rld o f b e l l e s - l e t t r e s , f o r h i s f r i e n d s w e re draw n m a in ly from th o s e who d e r iv e d t h e i r l i v i n g fro m t h e i r l i t e r a r y e f f o r t s . As Adamson r e l a t e s c o n c e rn in g t h i s p e r io d o f F i c h t e ’ s l i f e : T h u s, when F ic h te e n te r e d B e r l in s o c i e t y , t h e r e a p p e a r e d , a s t h e two m o st im p o r ta n t c u r r e n t s o f t h i n k i n g , th e o ld r a t i o n a l i s t i c te n d e n c y , w ith a t l e a s t a s u b s tra tu m o f s o l i d p o l i t i c a l f e e l i n g , r e p r e s e n t e d b y N i c o l a i , and th e new ro m a n tic l i t e r a t u r e o f w h ich t h e 5 m a n if e s to h a d j u s t b e e n made i n S c h le g e l* s "L u c in d e .* 1 At f i r s t , F ic h te w as a t t r a c t e d to S c h le g e l b u t l a t e r s p l i t w ith him an d S c h le irm a e h e r. I t w as d u r in g t h i s y e a r i n B e r l i n t h a t F ic h te w ro te m any o f h i s g r e a t w o rk s . I n a d d i t i o n h e d id much l e c t u r i n g . I n 1 8 0 6 , F ra n c e a n d P r u s s i a w en t t o w a r w ith th e e n s u in g t e r r i b l e c a l a m i t i e s o f J e n a and A u e r s ta d t sh o c k in g a l l P r u s s i a . The German a m y w as 5 R o b e rt Adamson, F ic h te { E d in b u rg h : W illia m B lackw ood and S o n s, 1 8 8 1 ), p . 7 0 . 1 36 s h a t t e r e d and B e r l in l e f t w ith o u t a d e f e n s e . F i c h t e , w ith h i s f r i e n d , H u fe la n d , f l e d beyond t h e O der to f o llo w th e f o r t u n e s o f th e d e f e a te d P r u s s i a n s , an d t o a w a it t h e d e v e lo p m en t o f t h e s t r u g g l e i n E a s t P r u s s i a w h ere H u ssia n a i d w as e x p e c te d . F ic h te f e l t t h a t h e s h o u ld r e t u r n t o B e r l in t o h e lp i n t h e s t r u g g l e , f o r a s Adamson r e l a t e s : The c a l l o f a c t i o n w as ev en s tr o n g e r now, th a n f o r m e rly , a n d a t a l l h a z a r d s i t w as o b e y e d . On s u c c e s s iv e S unday e v e n in g s , fro m t h e 1 3 th o f D ecem ber 1807 t o th e 2 0 th o f M arch 1 8 0 8 , h e d e l i v e r e d i n th e g r e a t h a l l o f t h e Academy o f S c ie n c e s , b e f o r e a crow ded a u d ie n c e , h i s fam ous " A d d re s s e s t o th e German N a ti o n ." 6 H is schem e o f n a t i o n a l e d u c a tio n a s a m eans o f m o ra l r e g e n e r a t i o n b ro u g h t F ic h te * s fame t o i t s p e a k . As a r e s u l t o f t h e s e A d d r e s s e s . F ic h te w as a p p o in te d a p r o f e s s o r a t B e r l in U n iv e r s i t y , w here he l a t e r becam e R e c to r . I n 1 8 1 2 N ap o leo n w as d e f e a t e d , and a l l E urope l i b e r a t e d fro m h i s y o k e . By t h i s tim e F ic h te w as i n i l l h e a l t h , an d h a d r e s ig n e d a s R e c to r , a lth o u g h h o ld in g on to h i s p r o f e s s o r s h i p . L a s t d a y s and d e a t h . On t h e 1 9 th o f F e b ru a ry 1 8 1 3 * F ic h te c lo s e d h i s w i n t e r c o u r s e o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l l e c t u r e s w ith a n im p a s s io n e d a d d r e s s t o th e s t u d e n t s , e x h o r tin g them to d e fe n d G erm any. s m ith r e l a t e s th e s t o r y o f F i c h t e f s l a s t d a y s : 6 I b i d . , p . 8 4 . 157 I t I s s a i d t h a t t h i s , h i s l a s t c o u rs e o r a c a d e m ic a l l e c t u r e s , w as d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y u n u s u a l f r e s h n e s s and b r i l l i a n c e o f th o u g h t, a s i f h e w ere a n im a te d o n ce m ore by th e e n e rg y o f y o u th f u l e n th u s ia s m , ev e n w h ile h e s to o d u n c o n s c io u s ly on th e t h r e s h o l d o f a n o th e r w o rld . He h a d now a c c o m p lis h e d t h e g r e a t o b j e c t o f h i s l i f e — th e c o m p le tio n , i n h i s own m in d , o f t h a t schem e o f k n o w led g e, b y w h ich h i s nam e w as to be known t o p o s t e r i t y . ” F i c h t e ’ s d e a th r e s u l t e d fro m a n e rv o u s f e v e r he con t r a c t e d fro m h i s w i f e , Jo h a n n a Raum, who h a d o f f e r e d h e r s e r v i c e s i n th e h o s p i t a l s o f B e r lin d u r in g t h e W ars o f L i b e r a t i o n . F ic h te n e v e r l e f t h e r s i d e w hen sh e w as i l l , e x c e p t d u r in g t h e tim e o f h i s l e c t u r e s . She r e c o v e r e d , how e v e r , a n d he i n t u r n w as s t r i c k e n . The en d came on th e e le v e n t h d ay o f h i s I l l n e s s , i n t h e n ig h t o f J a n u a r y 2 7 th , 1 8 1 4 a t th e ag e o f f i f t y - t w o . He l e f t a h e r i t a g e t h a t r e m a in s s i g n i f i c a n t t o t h i s d a y . I I . FICHTE’S PHILOSOPHY F i c h t e ’ s e d u c a ti o n a l th e o r y i n g r e a t m e a su re w as an o u tg ro w th o f h i s b a s ic p h ilo s o p h y . I t i s n o t th e p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e rn o f t h i s s tu d y a s h a s b e e n s t a t e d , t o p r e s e n t a n e x p o s i t i o n o f F i c h t e ’s. e n t i r e p h ilo s o p h y . F o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s s tu d y a p r e c i s w as made o f F i c h t e ’ s p h ilo s o p h y , and w i l l be p r e s e n te d i n r e l a t i o n t o h i s e d u c a ti o n a l t h e o r i e s . S m ith , c i t . , p . 1 4 1 . 1 3 8 E s s e n t i a l p r i n c i p l e s o f F ic h te * s p h ilo s o p h y . Jo h an n F i c h t e , a s C a t l i n so w e ll p u ts i t , **is p r e e m in e n tly th e 8 p h ilo s o p h e r o f th e t r a n s i t i o n o f t h o u g h t ." F ic h te w as i n f lu e n c e d g r e a t l y b y Im m anuel K a n t*s a t t a c k upon m e ta p h y s ic s . K ant h a d m a in ta in e d p r e v i o u s l y i n h i s c r i t i c a l p h ilo s o p h y t h a t t h e d i n g - a n - s i c h ( t h i n g - i n - i t s e l f ) w as o u t o f t h e g r a s p o f human c o g n i t i o n . K an t a tte m p te d t o r e c o n c i l e r a t i o n a l i s m an d e m p iric is m t o form an i n t e g r a t e d e p is te m o lo g y . F ic h te * s work: w as a p r o t r a c t e d e f f o r t to im prove th e K a n tia n p o s i t i o n , b y d e m o n s tra tin g t h a t a l l t h e n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n s o f know ledge ca n be d ed u ced fro m a s i n g l e s o u r c e . T h is a l l - i n c l u s i v e p r i n c i p l e , t h e n , by w h ich a l l know ledge w as d e d u c e d , g av e r i s e to a com plex sy ste m o f r e a s o n , v i z . , a s c ie n c e o f k n o w led g e, o r a s h e te rm e d i t W i s s e n s c h a f t s l e h r e . F i c h t e 's p h ilo s o p h y w as d o m in a te d b y h i s e p is te m o - l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n . H is W i s s e n s c h a f t s l e h r e , he made th e k ey t o h i s b a s ic p h i l o s o p h i c a l t e n e t s , f o r b y i t , t h e th e o r e t i c a l an d p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n w ere shown t o c o i n c i d e . F ic h te b e l ie v e d t h a t t h e fu n d a m e n ta l p ro b le m o f p h ilo s o p h y w as d e f i n i n g c o g n i t i o n . He s t a t e d i t t h u s : . . . t h a t i n c o n t r a s t w ith t h e i d e a s o f i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c io u s n e s s , w hich may come an d go i n a v o l u n t a r y and c o n tin g e n t m an n er, a n o th e r s e t o f o u r i d e a s m a in ta in ^ G eorge G a t l i n , The S to r y o f t h e P o l i t i c a l P h ilo - s o p h e rs (Hew Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, 1 9 3 6 ), p . 4 7 6 . 1 3 9 th e m s e lv e s t h e r e , an d t h e s e l a t t e r a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a f o o l i n g o f n e c e s s i t y t h a t can b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d w ith e n t i r e c e r t a i n t y . ^ T h is i s t h e p s y c h o lo g y o f F i c h t e ’ s p h ilo s o p h y , so t o s p e a k . T h a t i s t o s a y , t h a t a l l o u r " m e n ta l" p r o c e s s e s , when a n a ly z e d w i H p ro d u c e a p a t t e r n o f l o g i c , a r t i c u l a t e and u n i v e r s a l . P s y c h o l o g i c a l l y , W illia m T i t c h e n e r ’ s s c h o o l o f s t r u c t u r a l i s m shows e v id e n c e o f t h i s k in d o f t h i n k i n g . T ite h e n e r and h i s f o llo w e r s a tte m p te d t o b r e a k down th e c o g n i tiv e p r o c e s s e s , exam ine them c r i t i c a l l y th ro u g h i n t r o s p e c t i o n , and t h u s b e a b le t o d e f in e an d u n d e r s ta n d human b e h a v io u r . The t a s k o f p h ilo s o p h y , to F i c h t e , was t o e x p l a in r a t i o n a l l y , t h e tw o f o ld n a tu r e o f c o n s c io u s n e s s by p o r t r a y in g i t s em erg en ce fro m th e p r e v i o u s l y m e n tio n e d u n i t a r y p r i n c i p l e . But F i e h t e ’ s dilem m a i s th e same t h a t p u z z le s m odern p s y c h o lo g y . F o r th e o n ly m eans b y w h ic h t h i s may be a c c o m p lis h e d i s b y r e f e r r i n g t o th e v e r y c o n s c io u s n e s s w h ich i s to be e x p la in e d . How d id F ic h te a n sw e r t h i s a p p a r e n t im p a sse ? T a lb o t s t a t e s t h a t F ic h te w o u ld h av e a n sw e re d a s f o llo w s : . . . t h a t by an a c t o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l r e f l e c t i o n we m u st make a n a n a l y s i s o f e x p e r ie n c e , m u st s e p a r a te th e e le m e n ts w hich a r e u n it e d i n i t . When we do t h i s we ^ W ilh elm W in d e lb a n d , A H is to r y o f P h ilo s o p h y (New Y ork: The M a cm illan Company, 1926) , p . 5 7 9 . T r a n s la te d b y Jam es T u f t s . 1 4 0 s e e t h a t e x p e r ie n c e h a s tw o a s p e c t s , t h e o b j e c t i v e and s u b j e c t i v e , th e t h i n s t h a t i s know n, an d t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e t h a t k n o w s.10 The E g o . I n F i c h t e ’ s p h ilo s o p h y th e c o n s c io u s n e s s , o r r a t h e r c o n s c io u s n e s s i t s e l f , i s th e s o u rc e o f a l l know le d g e , f o r i t i s i n c l u s i v e o f e v e r y th in g we know . T hus th e f a c t s o f o u r i n t e l l e c t u a l e x p e r i e n c e s , i . e . , c o g n i t i o n , p o s s e s s th e r e a l i t y w h ic h we come t o know. P h ilo s o p h y i t s e l f ste m s fro m t h i s c o n s c io u s n e s s , t h i s "m ind" a c c o r d in g t o F i c h t e . F ic h te fo u n d h i s s t a r t i n g p o i n t i n t h e ax io m , (A=A). T h is axiom i s , o r m u st be a d m itte d to h o ld e v e ry w h e re and a l l ti m e s , t r u e . B ut i n th e a f f i r m a t i o n o f t h i s a b s o lu te an d u n i v e r s a l p r o p o s i t i o n , t h e r e i s th e r e b y a f f ir m e d t r u e e x i s t e n c e , f o r a s F i c h t e p o s t u l a t e d , th e a f f i r m a t i o n i t s e l f i s c a u s e d b y c o n s c io u s n e s s . And i f c o n s c io u s n e s s th e n show s t h a t i t i s aw are o f u n i v e r s a l i t y , th e n i t m u st be i n e x i s t e n c e i t s e l f . F o r i f i t w ere n o t a b le e v e ry w h e re and un c o n d i t i o n a l l y t o a f f i r m t h e axiom th e n t h e r e c o u ld be no c o n s c io u s n e s s . T h is r e a s o n in g i s som ewhat s i m i l a r t o th e C a r t e s ia n c o g ito e rg o sum , o r , I t h i n k , t h e r e f o r e I am. Rene D e s c a r te s , t h e F re n c h p h ilo s o p h e r , a l s o b eg an w ith d o u b t ^ E lle n B l i s s T a lb o t, The F u n d am en tal P r i n c i p l e o f " F i c h t e ’ s P h ilo so p h y -(N e w Y ork: The M ac m illan Company, 1 9 0 6 ), p . 3 3 . 14 1 t h a t r e s u l t s i n a f f ir m in g e x i s t e n c e . F o r, re a s o n e d D e s c a r te s , i f I d id n o t t h i n k , I c o u ld n o t b e , b u t I do t h i n k , t h e r e f o r e I am. A lth o u g h F ic h te h e l d t h a t D e s c a r te s s h o u ld h av e f i r s t b egun w ith c o n s c io u s n e s s , v i z . , I am, t h e r e f o r e I t h i n k . F ic h te * s p a r a l l e l r e a s o n in g a l s o l e d him i n t o a f f i r m a t i o n . F o r h e w en t o n , t h e axiom (A=A) m ay be ch an g ed i n t o (E go= E go). But t h i s new p r o p o s i t i o n p o s i t s th e n ee d f o r a p r e d i c a t e . T h a t i s t o s a y o u t o f t h e : . . . a f f i r m a t i v e axiom (A?A) t h e r e a r i s e s th e n e g a tiv e p r o p o s i t i o n (-A n o t= A) o r a s b e f o r e , {Non-Ego n o t srSgo) . I n t h i s a c t o f n e g a tio n th e m ind assu m es th e e x i s te n c e o f a Non-Ifeo o p p o se d t o i t s e l f , an d fo rm in g a l i m i t a t i o n t o i t s own e x i s t e n c e . T h is o p p o s itio n o c c u rs i n e v e r y a c t o f c o n s c io u s n e s s ; an d i n t h e v o l u n ta r y an d s p o n ta n e o u s l i m i t s w h ich th e m ind th u s s e t s to i t s own a c t i v i t y , i t c r e a t e s f o r i t s e l f an o b j e c t i v e w o r ld . H To F i c h t e , th e e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r o f f i n i t e b e in g i s t h i s E go. The s u p p o s i tio n o f i t s e l f , # i i c h f i n i t e b e in g h a s , he c a l l s t h e s i s ; an d o f so m e th in g o p p o se d , a n t i - t h e s i s . T hese tw o c o n c e p ts a r e i n t e r r e l a t e d , th e one i m p l i c i t i n th e o t h e r , an d b e c a u se o f t h i s i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p , may be p resu m ed i d e n t i c a l , o r a s F ic h te named i t s y n t h e s i s . T h is s y n t h e t i c t h i n k i n g w as a l s o u se d b y W ilh elm G eorge H eg al i n h i s p o s t u l a t i o n o f t h e u n i v e r s e . F i c h t e , a lo n g w ith th e o t h e r I d e a l i s t s , seem s d e te rm in e d t o e r e c t a m e tic u lo u s S m ith , o £ . c i t . , p . 6 4 . 142 a r c h i t e c t o n i c . T h e ir p h ilo s o p h y h a s a m a th e m a tic a l n i c e t y a b o u t i t t h a t show s a common th r e a d , v i z . , th e p r i n c i p l e o f u n i v e r s a l i t y . F i c h t e • s E g o , a r i s e s th ro u g h n e c e s s i t y fra m c o n s c io u s n e s s , and i s d ed u c ed b y th e c a n o n s o f l o g i c . T h is Ego i s th e s in e q u a non o f e x i s t e n c e . The Ego a f f i r m s an d i s a f f ir m e d i n tu r n by t h e H on-E go. But th e Ego i s th e o n ly r e a l e x p l a n a t io n o f , and f o r e x i s t e n c e ; an d t h e N on-E go, a s w e ll a s th e v a r i e d p h a s e s im p lie d i n i t , a r e b u t d iv e r g e n t fo rm s o f t h i s a c t i v e E go. F i c h t e f s E go, th e n , i s h i s p o in t o f d e p a r tu r e f o r h i s p h ilo s o p h y . I t , h o w e v e r, i s em braced i n an i n f i n i t e a l l co m p reh en d in g u n i t y , and a s Thompson d e s c r i b e s i t , t h i s u n i t y i s w an A b s o lu te o f F re e W i ll, a p o t e n t i a l P r i n c i p l e 1 2 w hich f r e e l y becom es th e s o u r c e o f a c t u a l e x i s t e n c e . ” F i c h t e ys m e ta p h y s ic s . The n a t u r e o f u l t i m a t e r e a l i t y to F ic h te l i e s i n h i s n o t i o n o f God. To F ic h te a s w ith a l l th e o t h e r I d e a l i s t s , a c t u a l e x i s te n c e i s th e m ere r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a n u n d e r ly in g r e a l i t y . He b e lie v e d t h a t change o r e x i s t e n c e a s we know i t , i s m e re ly t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f th e a b s o lu te an d u n c o n d itio n e d E go, w h ic h a s h a s b e e n show n, Anna B oynton Thom pson, The U n ity o f F i c h t e * s D o c tr in e o f K now ledge (B o sto n : G inn and Company, 1 8 9 5 ), p . 9 . 1 4 3 re m a in s i n v i o l a b l e an d u n c o n d itio n e d . B n p i r ie a l o b s e rv a t i o n g av e F ic h te a f o u n d a tio n f o r h i s t h i n k i n g . H is v ie w i s e p ito m iz e d b y Thompson a s f o llo w s : . . . t h a t i n th e known s e n s e - w o r ld , th e s t u f f o f e v e ry o b j e c t show s i t s e l f t o b e upon e x a ia in a tlo n ^ to be e g o - s t u f f , f o r th e ego p e r c e iv e s th e o b j e c t o n ly b y b ecom ing c o n s c io u s o f c e r t a i n s t a t e s o f s e l f . . . The fo rm s o f e v e ry known o b j e c t m u s t, b e f o r e th e p e r c e p tio n o f th e o b j e c t , l i e , a t l e a s t a s l a t e n t , i n t h e e g o , f o r th e ego c o u ld n o t r e c e i v e th e s e fo rm s i n t o i t s e l f , i f i t s n a t u r e h ad no p r o v i s i o n f o r t h e i r r e c e p t i o n . 1* The n a t u r e o f th e w o rld i n t h e F ic h te a n p h ilo s o p h y i s m olded by u n a l t e r a b l e la w . I t i s n o t th e c r e a t i o n o f e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l , c a p r i c i o u s a n d u n p la n n e d , b u t r a t h e r t h i s w o rld i s f i x e d w ith n i c e t y and d e t a i l . I n F i c h t e 's p h ilo s o p h y t h e r e i s f i r s t a n a c c e p ta n c e and th e n a s p i r i t e d d e fe n s e o f t h i s t h e s i s , v i z . , t h e r e i s o r d e r an d p u rp o s e i n t h i s u n i v e r s e . T h at i s t o s a y , th e l e a s t o f a n y phenom ena i s , and m u st b e , a n d e v e r y human i s f o r c e d t o r e c o g n iz e t h i s im m u ta b le la w . The o u ts i d e w o rld , t h e w o rld o f th e n a t u r a l i s t , i s a f a c t b u t i t i s m e re ly t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h e r e a l i t y b e h in d i t . And th e g r e a t e s t r e a l i t y i s God who em b o d ies a l l r e a l i t y . As Thompson s t a t e s o f F i c h t e 's c o n c e p t o f God: God i s an a b s o l u t e se co n d t h in k i n g w h ich m u st a p p e a r i n a l l i n d i v i d u a l s w i l l i n g t o t h i n k , th u s u n if y in g them i n t h e one a b s o l u t e b e in g , g iv in g r e a l i t y t o t h e i r i m a g e - l i f e , j u s t i f y i n g t h e i r r i g h t t o e x i s t i n t h a t th e y 13 I b i d . , p . 6 . 144 a r e t: s a r y m eans f o r th e c o m p le te e x p r e s s io n o f b y t h o u ^ i t , and i n no o t h e r w ay i s a p p ro a c h a b le by m an. I t i s th e v e r y n a t u r e o f Man th ro u g h th e E go, t h a t he s e e k f o r u l t i m a t e t r u t h i n th e G r e a te r E go. God i s c o n c e rn e d a s an e x p l a n a t io n o f o u r s e lv e s and o f t h i s w o rld . I n God i s fo u n d th e w e l l - s p r i n g s o f r e a l i t y . God i s t h e r e a s o n w h ereb y a l l t h i n g s have come in to e x i s t e n c e , and i n God i s e s s e n t i a l n a t u r e , a s we a r e f o r c e d t o c o n c e iv e i t , c o n ta in in g th e c a u s e why a l l t h i n g s e x i s t a s t h e y a r e . H I . FICHTE * S THEORY OF KNOW LEDGE O v e r a ll v ie w . F ic h te * s b a s ic p h ilo s o p h y h a s b ee n p r e s e n te d i n sum m arized fo rm . W h ile i t ca n n o t be r e n d e r e d c o m p le te ly i n t e l l i g i b l e b y s u m m a riz a tio n , t h e r e i s n o n e th e l e s s a r a t i o n a l e w hich m akes F i c h t e 's w ork a r t i c u l a t e . T h a t i s t o s a y , F ic h te h e ld t h a t th e W is s e n s c h a f ts le h r e i s t h e u n if y in g p r i n c i p l e o f a l l p h ilo s o p h y . H is e p is te m o lo g y , w hich w i l l be d e a l t w ith i n t h i s c h a p te r i s a d i r e c t o u t g ro w th o f t h i s th e o r y o f s c i e n c e . H is sy ste m o f m o r a l i t y w hich i s i m p l i c i t i n h i s e d u c a ti o n a l th e o r y i s a l s o em bodied i n t h i s W i s s e n s c h a f ts l e h r e . t h i s F ic h te h e ld t h a t th e E te r n a l may o n ly be a p p re h e n d e d 14 I b i d . . p . 7 7 . 145 Aim o f e d u c a ti o n . To F i c h t e , th e u l t i m a t e p u rp o s e o f e d u c a tio n w as t o he th e u p l i f t i n g o f th e human r a c e u n t i l i t became im bued w ith t h e h i g h e s t m o r a l i t y , an d a c te d w it h i n th e d i c t a t e s o f r e a s o n . T h is c o u ld o n ly b e a c h ie v e d , when t h e man i s made o v e r i n t o a n o b le an d l o y a l c i t i z e n , who a c t s v i r t u o u s l y an d a lw a y s f o r t h e g o o d . I n su c h f a s h io n th r o u g h e d u c a tio n , m an k in d w i l l c o n c e iv e i t a s i t s b e h o ld e n d u ty t o t r a n s m i t th e c u l t u r e o f th e a g e s . T hrough m aking o t h e r s w i s e r , h a p p i e r and b e t t e r , man r e a c h e s h i s own h ig h e s t f u l f i l l m e n t a s a m o ra l c i t i z e n an d p l e a s e s God. F ic h te w ro te i n h i s D ie S t a a t s l e h r e o d e r fib e r d a s V e r h a l t n i s s d . T T rstaates zum V e r n u n f t r e ic h e : The fu n d a m e n ta l la w i n t h i s u n iv e r s e i s t h a t men a r e b o ra w ith in c o m p le te p o w ers o f u n d e r s ta n d in g . From th e p a s t t h e r e i s p r o o f t h a t t h i s u n d e r s ta n d in g d o e s n o t grow b y i t s e l f , (b u t i n a c c o rd a n c e w ith a n a t u r a l p r i n c i p l e a s th e b o d y d e v e lo p s i n t o human fo rm ) in to th e r i g h t a p p re h e n s io n o f t h e w i l l o f God, and f o r t h i s p u rp o s e an a r t i s n e c e s s a r y , w h ich h a s so f a r h e lp e d b u t a few . I t i s c l e a r , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f su c h a sy ste m p re s u p p o s e s t h a t a l l a r e e d u c a te d t o be p e r m it te d t o b e h o ld God’ s w i l l c l e a r l y ; and b e c a u s e a l l w ith o u t e x c e p tio n a r e b o rn t o be e d u c a te d t o t h i s a p p r e h e n s io n , w ith o u t a n y d i f f e r e n c e , w ith o u t p re s u p p o s in g a n y p a r t i c u l a r g i f t s o r a f f i n i t y w ith th e s u p e r - s e n s u o u s , i t i s th e n o b v io u s t h a t t h e r e m u st be a s u r e i n f a l l i b l e K unst o f t h i s human e d u c a tio n w hich f u l f i l l s i t s p u rp o se w ith e v e r y g iv e n i n d i v i d u a l . 15 F i c h t e ’ s o v e r a l l id e a o f e d u c a tio n i s t h e te a c h in g o f m o r a l i t y , w hich i s t h e u lt i m a t e p u rp o s e o f th e w o rld p la n 15 Jo h a n n G o t t l i e b F i c h t e , S lm m tlic h e W erke ( B e r lin : V e rla g von V e it und Company, 1846) , IV , p . 5 8 S T T 146 and t h e h ig h e s t v o c a tio n o r man* E d u c a tio n i n o r d e r to s u c c e e d , m u st c r e a t e men and women who a r e good w i t h i n th em s e l v e s , and good t o o t h e r s i n th e t r u e s e n s e o f t h e w o rd . The we 1 1 -d e v e lo p e d and m a n y -s id e d c h a r a c t e r m u st n o t be l e f t to c a p r i c e . E d u c a tio n i s th e m eans w h e re b y m o r a l i t y i s d e f i n i t e l y i n s t i l l e d . p e r a t i v e , o r th e b e l i e f t h a t w i t h i n a l l o f m ankind t h e r e i s a g iv e n u n i v e r s a l a p p r e c i a t i o n o f th e m o ra l la w , f l a v o r e d h i s e n t i r e th e o r y o f e d u c a tio n . To F i c h t e , m o ra l e d u c a tio n w as n o t w h o lly on t h e t h e o r e t i c a l l e v e l , b u t p r a c t i c a l a s w e l l . E d u c a tio n w as to te a c h b y p r a c t i c e , so t h a t th e t r u t h w ould b e sp o k en and o b e y e d . F o r i t b eh o o v ed t h e e d u c a to r some d a y t o p r o c la im th e m o ra l la w . la w o f t h i s w o rld , v i z . , men come i n t o t h i s w o rld w i t h l a t e n t u n d e r s ta n d in g , and can be e d u c a te d b y an i n f a l l i b l e a r t , F ic h te w r o te : So lo n g a s th e w o rld i s u n d e r t h i s r u l e , so lo n g w i l l t h e r e be d e a th a n d b i r t h : darum d ie N o th w e n d ig k e it d e r E rz ie h u n g d e r N a e h g e b o re n e n . T h e re m u st t h e r e f o r e be an u n b ro k en e n d u r in g i n s t i t u t i o n f o r t h i s e d u c a tio n . . . The e d u c a tio n m u st o f a n e c e s s i t y h av e th e a r t o f b r i n g in g t o g e t h e r a l l men w ith o u t e x c e p tio n u n f e h lb a r to t h i s v ie w , and i n o r d e r t h a t t h i s may come t o p a s s , o f m aking men fro m t h e s t a r t w h at i s common t o a l l , i n su c h a w ay t h a t t h i s know ledge m ay be g iv e n them w ith c e r t a i n t y . . . r"‘ * * em eine w h at e v e ry o n e m u st r e c e i v e th r o u g h F i c h t e ’ s a c c e p ta n c e o f th e K a n tia n c a t e g o r i c a l im - I n a c c o rd a n c e w ith h i s p r i n c i p l e o f t h e fu n d a m e n ta l 16 I b i d . , p p . 5 ® - 8 4 IV . FICHTE * S EPISTEMOLOGY 147 F i c h t e ’ s e p i s te m o lo g ic a l p o s i t i o n i s t h e v e r y h e a r t o f t h i s e d u c a ti o n a l t h e o r y . F i c h t e m a in ta in e d t h a t th e i n d i v i d u a l came b y h i s k now ledge o f , an d a m ore c o m p le te un d e r s ta n d in g o f t h e e x t e r n a l w o rld th ro u g h h i s own a c t i v i t y . D h c o n s c io u s ly s t r i v i n g f o r f u l f i l l m e n t , t h i s a c t i v i t y p ro d u c e d th e w o rld o f s e n s a t i o n , w h ich a c c o r d in g t o F i c h t e , i s an a s s u m p tio n due t o n a t u r a l e r r o r . F o r t h i s w o rld o f s e n s a t i o n i s e x t e r n a l t o o u r s e l v e s . A c tiv e r e f l e c t i o n on s e n s a t i o n i s t h e m eans b y w h ic h p e r c e p tio n a r i s e s . The a c t i v i t y o f u n d e r s ta n d in g d e te r m in e s th o s e o b j e c t s w h ich a r e p e r c e iv e d , an d th e n , t h e s e o b j e c t s i n t u r n c a u s e t h e a c t i v i t y o f ju d g m en t to r e f l e c t . And t o F i c h t e , t h e r e a s o n i s t h e u l t i m a t e i n a b s t r a c t i v e p o w e r. D evelopm ent o f k n o w le d g e . From t h i s m eth o d o f p e r c e iv in g an d a b s t r a c t i n g k now ledge th ro u g h a c t i v i t y , t h e r e r e s u l t s a d ev elo p m en t o f k n o w le d g e . T h is k now ledge i s d e p e n d e n t upon a p r o g r e s s iv e a l t e r n a t i o n o f a c t i v i t y w h ic h i s a t once p r o d u c tiv e an d r e f l e c t i v e . I n th e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , a l l know ing becom es know ing o n e s e l f . As T u r n b u ll w r i t e s c o n c e rn in g F i c h t e ’ s e p is te m o lo g y : I n t e l l e c t u a l e d u c a tio n m u st s t a r t , t h e r e f o r e , fro m th e s e l f , w hich i s to b e e x p e r ie n c e d a s th e s u p p o r t o f th e s im p le s t c o n t e n t s o f c o n s c io u s n e s s ; th e l a t t e r a r e f o r F i c h t e t h e s e n s a t i o n s w h ich a r e g iv e n d i r e c t l y to 148 t h e s e l f . The c h i l d b e g in s b y r e f l e c t i n g on t h e s t a t e s o f h i s own i n n e r l i f e ; h e h a s t o r e c o g n iz e and e x p r e s s th e im p r e s s io n s w h ich a r i s e i n him an d th e n e e d h e f e e l s . I n t e l l e c t u a l e d u c a tio n m u st g u id e th e p u p i l to p e r c e p tio n and r o o t him i n i t . so t h a t h i s m ind i s e v e r a l e r t and s e l f - p o s s e s s e d . 1 ' Knowing th e n i s a c r e a t i v e i n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t y w hich i s t o be f o s t e r e d a lo n g c e r t a i n g iv e n s e t o f r u l e s . T hese r u l e s g r a d u a l l y become known a s th e l e a r n e r g o e s o n . A c t i v i t y t h u s , m akes known th e g e n e r a l and i n v i o l a b l e la w s o f n a t u r e a n d l i f e . K now ledge, o r r a t h e r how we l e a r n , i s a s e c o n d a ry p r o d u c t, s u b j e c t t o d ev elo p m en t o f t h e w i l l . As F ic h te w ro te c o n c e rn in g k n o w led g e: Knowing i s n o t d o in g , i s n o t c h e e r f u l a c q u ie s c e n c e w h ich w a n ts n o th in g e l s e . How s h a l l w © make c e r t a i n o f t h e i r w i l l ? I sa y t h i s q u e s t i o n i s w h o lly j u s t i f i a b l e i n o u r w o rld an d i n o u r e d u c a ti o n , i n w h ich no know ledge can e v e r be p ro d u c e d w ith c e r t a i n t y , b u t th e u s u a l know in g i s o n ly a le a v in g u n d e c id e d , b e c a u s e o n e h o ld s n o th in g a g a i n s t i t , w ith o u t an y g e n u in e s u b m is s io n o f th e w i l l to i t , f o r know ledge i s n o t c o n tin u e d a s f a r a s u n i t i n g w ith t h e w i l l . 18 To F ic h t e , t h e w o rld i s th e v e h i c l e i n w h ich th e w i l l f i n d s e x p r e s s io n th r o u g h k n o w in g . The w o rld i s w hat i s known t o u s , and t h a t i s a s f a r a s o u r s e n s e s w i l l g o . T h is i s i n a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e K a n tia n e p is te m o lo g y i n t h a t we g e t o u r s e n s e d a t a fro m th e w o rld . T h is i s th e e m p ir i c a l p o s i t i o n o f F i c h t e * s , and i n t h i s h e w as c o n s i s t e n t w ith th e 1 ^ T u r n b u l l, o p . c i t . . p . 4 8 . 18 F i c h t e , o p . c i t . , I l l , 58E . 149 K a n tia n s ta n d t h a t o u r s e n s a ti o n s a r e th e s p r in g b o a r d f o r o u r k n o w in g . A b s o lu te c o n te n t o f k n o w led g e. B ut w here K ant f lo u n d e r e d on th e s h o a ls o f h i s r a t i o n a l i s t i c - e m p i r i c i s t i c d ic h o to m y , F ic h te p o s i t e d t h a t kn o w in g , o r s e n s e im p r e s s io n i n o r d e r t o be i n t e r n a l l y c o n s i s t e n t , h a s t o g e t one form o n ly . T h is fo rm m u st b e d e te rm in e d b y th e s y s te m o f p h i l o so p h y w h ich shows o t h e r fo rm s to be s e l f - c o n t r a d i c t o r y . And th e know ing, when i t g e t s t h i s one u lti m a t e fo rm , w i l l h a re an a b s o lu te c o n t e n t . Royee s t a t e s t h a t t h i s a b s o lu te c o n te n t o f a b s o lu te know ing i s a s f o llo w s : . . . th e a b s o lu te kno w in g when fo u n d , i s f i r s t t o be d e f in e d a s a L i f e — s e l f c o n ta in e d , c o m p le te , s im p le , y e t i n f i n i t e l y f u l l . T h a t t h i s i s w h a t know ledge a lo n e c a n know , i . e . , c a n e x p e r ie n c e an d t h i n k , i f know ledge i s t o be c o n s i s t e n t w ith i t s e l f , t h i s th e sy ste m i s t o p r o r e b y e x p e rim e n t, v i z . , by t r y i n g t o know t h a t i s p r i m a r i l y g iv e n , and th e n b y f i n d i n g w h at th e know ing o f t h i s p rim a ry datum i m p l i e s . 19 F ic h te m a in ta in e d t h a t i f one w ere to ta k e an y e x p e r im e n ta l datum and a n a ly z e i t , th e m ean in g o f i t w ould r e a d i l y become know n. T h ere i s a c o n s i s t e n t u n i t y a b o u t a l l e x p e rie n c e n o t a p p a r e n t upon s u p e r f i c i a l o b s e r v a t i o n , b u t made o b v io u s upon a n a l y s i s . At th e e n d , a s i n th e b e g in n in g o f a l l e x p e r ie n c e , t h e r e i s o n ly one p o in t o f v ie w , w hich o f i t s e l f i s c o n s t i t u t i v e o f i t s c o n t e n t s . Royee s t a t e s i n h i s 19 Thom pson, o p . c i t . . p . XVX. 150 " I n t r o d u c t i o n 1 1 t o Thom pson’ s The U n ity o f F i c h t e ’ s D o c trin e o f K now ledge : To be s u r e , F ic h te d i s t i n g u i s h e s , i n th e a b s o lu te p o in t o f v ie w , b etw een w h at i s c o n te n t o f d i r e c t ex p e r ie n c e , o r a n s c h a u u n g . an d w hat i s c o n te n t f o r th o u g h t, Denken . . . The te rra s o f th e a b s o lu te p o i n t o f v iew a r e th u s in d e e d th e E go, a s th e s u b j e c ti v e a s p e c t o r p r i n c i p l e o f know ing, and i t s o b j e c t t h e W o rld , a s t h a t w h ich i s k n o w n . 2 0 The Ego and t h e D ing a n S i c h . F ic h te s t a t e d t h a t th e Ego was n o t t h e e m p i r i c a l i n d i v i d u a l , b e c a u s e t h i s i n d i v i d u a l i s b u t an o b j e c t o f th e e x t e r n a l w o r ld . The Ego i t s e l f i s n o t th e K a n tia n D ing a n S i o h . f o r i f made th e o b j e c t o f k n o w le d g e , i t m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f a s th e w i l l . K now ing, t h e n , i n i t s a l l h i g h e s t form i s c e n te r e d i n God, t h e w o rld i t s e l f b e in g b u t H is m a n i f e s t a t i o n . God i s th e in c o m p re h e n s ib le , fro m w h ich a l l co m p re h e n sio n s te m s . God i s known th ro u g h c o m p re h en sio n o f a l l t h i n g s t h a t make up l i f e , and i t i s He who g iv e s t h e u n if y in g p r i n c i p l e , r e n d e r in g com p re h e n s io n i n t e l l i g i b l e . F ic h te w as o b s e s s e d w ith th e d e te r m in a tio n t o d e m o n s tra te once and f o r a l l i n h i s e p is te m o lo g y , t h a t n o t o n ly d o es a l l know ledge stem fro m th e A b s o lu te ; b u t t h a t know ing a l s o i s p a r t o f t h i s a s w e l l . He m a in ta in e d t h a t o ne p r i n c i p l e u n d e r la y a l l k n o w in g . He d e s c r ib e d th e 20 I b i d . , p p . X 7 I-X 7 II. 151 S c ie n c e o f K now ledge, a s h e c a l l e d i t , a know ledge o f know le d g e , so t o sp eak * To h im , th e p r o c e s s o f know ing w as n o t o n ly p e r c e p tio n o f t h e w o r ld , h u t a s o r t o f t r a n s c e n d e n t a l c o n te m p la tio n w h e re in know ing becam e c o g n iz a n t o f know ledge i t s e l f , w hich i s one w ith th e A b s o lu te . As h e w ro te co n c e r n in g t h i s i n th e D a r s te llu n g d e s W i s s e n s c h a f t s l e h r e : The S c ie n c e o f K now ledge i s , a s th e te rm e x p r e s s e s , a th e o r y o f k n o w le d g e , w h ich th e o r y i s w ith o u t a n y d o u b t, g ro u n d e d on a k now ledge o f K now ledge, and w h ich g e n e r a te s k n o w led g e , o r i n w ord— i t i s k n o w led g e. T h is know ledge o f K now ledge i s f i r s t , a s th e w o rd s show , a know ledge i n i t s e l f , a g r a s p in g ( o r i n - t a k i n g ) o f th e m a n ifo ld (M a n n ig f a lte n ) w ith o n e g l a n c e . 21 Pow er o f k n o w le d g e . To F ic h te k n o w led g e , o r k n o w in g , m u st i t s e l f h av e t h e pow er to ta k e h o ld o f , and c r i t i c a l l y a n a ly z e i t s e l f , i f a r e a l S c ie n c e o f K now ledge w ere to be p o s s i b l e . T h is f o llo w s l o g i c a l l y th e p a th o f h i s r e a s o n in g a s r e g a r d s w h at to d a y i s te rm e d th e " c o n s c io u s n e s s ." F ic h te p o s i t e d t h e th e o r y t h a t c o n te m p la tio n o f th e c o n s t i t u e n t s o f know ledge w o u ld , o r r a t h e r m u st le a d to a r e a l d e f i n i t i o n o f k n o w led g e . H ie e x p la in e d t h i s i n t h e f o llo w in g m a n n er: O b v io u s ly , i t i s c l e a r , t h a t su c h an a b s o lu te co n te m p la tio n (to sc h a u u n g ) o f a b s o lu te k n o w led g e , an d co n s e q u e n tly th e t r u e d e f i n i t i o n o f th e l a t t e r m ust be p o s s i b l e i f t h e r e i s t o be a t r u e S c ie n c e o f K now ledge. T h e r e f o r e , K nowledge m u st be c o n te m p la te d a s one p o in t o f v ie w , i n w hich i t i s one and th e same k n o w led g e, i . e . , th e a b s o lu te K n o w l e d g e . 21 F i c h t e , o £ . c i t *, IX , 7 . 22 X b id . . p . 1 5 . 152 T h a t su ch a th e o r y to d a y i s u n te n a b le h a s b een c l e a r l y d e m o n s tra te d b y m odern p s y c h o lo g y . Jo h a n n G o t t l i e b F i c h t e , h o w ev er, w as n o t a p s y c h o lo g is t i n th e s e n s e o f t h a t te r m . H is e p is te m o lo g y w as b a s e d upon h i s p h ilo s o p h y , and w as n o t a r e s u l t a n t o f an y p s y c h o lo g ic a l e n d e a v o u r. He e r r e d i n a tte m p tin g to f o r c e h i s e p is te m o lo g y t o c le a v e to a r i g i d p a t t e r n a l r e a d y subsum ed by h i s p h ilo s o p h y . An e r r o r i n t o # i i c h i n f l e x i b i l i t y f a l l s a n a t u r a l p r e y . A ll th o u g & t e m a n a te s fro m one p r i n c i p l e . F i c h t e ’ s p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n s t a t e d , a s h a s b een n o te d , t h a t a l l th o u g h t, an d w ith i t a l l t h i n k i n g , e m a n a te s fro m one p r i n c i p l e , one a b s o l u t e , i n v i o l a b l e la w . I t f o llo w s th e n t h a t th e p r o c e s s o f know ing i s i n d i s s o l u b l y l i n k e d w ith t h i s u n i v e r s a l la w . And h e n c e th e m ain p u rp o se o f know ing i s to know t h i s A b s o lu te , o r a s F ic h te p o s t u l a t e d , t o know God. He s a i d : I t i s c l e a r t h a t know ledge (W isse n ) i n so f a r a s i t i s n o t j u s t know ledge a l o n e , b u t a b s o lu te k n o w led g e , d o e s n o t s t a y c lo s e d up w ith i t s e l f , r a t h e r d o es i t r i s e above i t s e l f , an d lo o k s down upon i t s e l f . . . know ledge i s n o t lo c k e d up w it h i n i t s own s e l f , b u t p o s s e s s e s th e pow er o f e x p a n d in g i t s e l f i n t o th e i n f i n i t e . I t i s e x tr e m e ly d i f f i c u l t to s e t down i n m odem te rm in o lo g y t h i s i d e a o f how know ledge o c c u rs a c c o r d in g to 23 ib i a .• P ' 18 153 F i c h t e . A long w ith t h e o t h e r G om an p h ilo s o p h e r s o f h i s m i l i e u , h i s w r i t i n g i s h e a v y an d aw kw ard, t h e s t y l e p e d a n tic and o f t t i m e s la b o u r e d . I t i s n o t e n t i r e l y p o s s i b l e f u r t h e r to do j u s t i c e t o F i c h t e ’ s " I d e a l i s t i c * c o n c e p tio n s . The s e t o f te rm s u se d b y F ic h te an d th e o t h e r I d e a l i s t s h av e no m ean in g t o th o s e u n a c q u a in te d w ith t h e i r c o n n o ta ti o n s . N o n e th e le s s , F ic h te d id h a v e a r a t i o n a l e and i f h i s o r i g i n a l a s s u m p tio n t h a t a l l know ing ste m s fro m an A b s o lu te s o u rc e i s a c c e p te d a s v a l i d , th e n h i s e p is te m o lo g y i s l o g i c a l l y c o h e s iv e . As he summed i t up i n th e Neue W e lt: T h is co m p reh en d in g ( v e r s ta n d ) n e e d n o t e x i s t i n a l l m en, f o r th e n e v e ry o n e w o u ld h av e i n t h i s r e s p e c t , one and t h e same u n d e r s ta n d in g , b u t i t s u f f i c e s i f i t a lw a y s e x i s t s i n t h e w o rld w h ile th e w o rld i s u n d e r t h i s r u l e . A ll th e po w ers o f th e i n d i v i d u a l a r e r e q u ir e d t o g e t t h e i r d i r e c t i o n fro m i t s p la n (N ach s e in e P la n e a b e r m ussen a l l e K r a f t e d e r E in z e ln e n d ie B ic h tu n g e r h a l t e n ) Thus we may sum m arize F i c h t e ’ s e p is te m o lo g ic a l p o s i t i o n b y s a y in g : know ing o c c u rs th ro u g h e m p ir i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n . The s e n s e d a ta i s g o t t e n fro m th e e x t e r n a l w o rld . T h is e x t e r n a l w o rld , c a p r i c i o u s a s i t seem s, i s an o v e r t m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f God fro m whom a l l know ing s te m s . Knowing h a s a u n i t a r y p r i n c i p l e , w hich ’ when a n a ly z e d b e com es a p p a r e n t. The w o rld i s d e f in e d a s a p o i n t o f v ie w , w h ich o f i t s e l f i s l e g i s l a t i v e , an d w h ich d e te rm in e s 24 F i c h t e , 0£ . c i t . , IV , 5 8 5 . 154 w h a te v e r a p p e a r s to e x p e r i e n c e . The s e l f i s an e m p ir i c a l e n t i t y and i s t h e o b j e c t o f a c o n s c io u s n e s s w h ich p a r t a k e s o f th e A b s o lu te w h ich i s God. V. FICHTE’ S ETHOS An i n t e g r a l p a r t o f F ic h t e 1 s e d u c a ti o n a l sy ste m i s h i s p a r t i c u l a r b ra n d o f m o r a l i t y . I n h i s fam ous L e c tu r e s , U e b e r-d a s We s e n , d e s G e le h rte n und s e in e E rs c h e in u n g e n im O K G e b ie te d e r F r e i h i e t , d e l i v e r e d i n 1 8 0 5 a t E r la n g e n , he d e a l t w ith th e id e a o f m o r a l i t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e s c h o l a r . T h is M o r a l i t a t , to F i c h t e , i s th e h i ^ i e s t p in n a c le to w a rd s w h ich a l l i n d i v i d u a l s s h o u ld s t r i v e ; b u t a p o s i t i v e d u ty f o r th e s c h o l a r . F o r i t i s t h e s c h o l a r who m u st be th e t o r c h b e a r e r f o r h i s f e l lo w m an. T hro u g h him i s th e i n n e r m o ra l la w b e s t e x p r e s s e d . Each human h a s w ith in him t h i s m o ra l la w , o r i n n e r n a t u r e . F ic h te b e l ie v e d w ith K an t t h a t m o r a l i t y i s a u n i v e r s a l c o n c e p t, g iv e n to e a c h hum an, and w i t h i n e a c h hum an. I t i s th ro u g h e d u c a tio n t h a t t h i s m o r a l i t y i s b ro u g h t to i t s h i g h e s t f r u i t i o n . He w r o te : The f ix e d c h a r a c t e r an d w ays o f b e h a v io u r , o r i n a w o rd , th e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e g e n u in e s c h o l a r , from th e h i g h e s t p o i n t o f v ie w , c a n o n ly be p r o p e r l y d e s c r ib e d , n o t o r d e r e d o r im p o sed b y a n y m ean s. On t h e c o n t r a r y : t h i s o b v io u s and e x t e r n a l c h a r a c t e r o f th e t r u e G e le h rte n ( s c h o la r ) , i s b a s e d upon t h a t w h ich i s a l - r e a d y i n Ih is own We se n ( n a t u r e ) , in d e p e n d e n tly o f a l l F i c h t e , o|> . c i t . » 7 1 , 3 4 9 -4 4 7 . 155 m a n i f e s t a t i o n , and b e f o r e i t i s m a n if e s te d ; an d i t i s , o f a n e c e s s i t y , p ro d u c e d and f i x e d b y t h i s i n n e r N a tu r e . And i f we w ish t o d e s c r ib e h i s c h a r a c t e r we m u st f i r s t u n f o ld h i s We s e n — o n ly fro m th e i d e a o f th e l a t t e r c a n th e fo rm e r be c e r t a i n l y and f u l l y d e d u c e d . The r e a l p u rp o s e o f t h e s e l e c t u r e s i s t o make su c h a d e d u c tio n from t h i s p ie - s u p p o s e d N a tu r e . The o b j e c t o f t h e s e l e c t u r e s may t h e r e f o r e be b r i e f l y s t a t e d : t h e y a r e an d s h o u ld b e , e in e B esuchung d e s W esens d e s G e le h r te n , and d e r E rs c h e in u n g d e s s e lb e n 1m G e b ie t d e r F r e i h e i t (A d e s o r i p t i o n o f th e N a tu re o f th e S c h o la r , and o f th e 26 m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f t h i s n a t u r e i n th e re a lm o f F re ed o m ). I n n e r m o r a l i t y . F ic h te expounded on t h i s id e a o f th e in n e r m o r a l i t y o f t h e s c h o l a r , a l l th ro u g h h i s l e c t u r e s . The w hole o f t r a i n i n g and e d u c a tio n was r e a l l y o n ly a m e th o d o lo g y w h ereb y a know ledge o f th e G o ttli c h e n I d e e . {D ivine I d e a ) , may be a t t a i n e d . The d u ty o f e d u c a tio n , t h e r e f o r e , w as to b r in g f o r t h th e i n n e r m o r a l i t y o f man to u n d e r s ta n d t h i s D iv in e I d e a , v i z . , a n o th e r m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f th e g r e a t Ego a lr e a d y m e n tio n e d . A cc o rd in g t o F i c h t e , a s c h o l a r m u st be ta u g h t w ith r e l a t i o n t o t h e t r u t h . T e a c h in g by m ere i n t e n t i o n , and w ith o u t m o r a l i t y i s u s e l e s s . He s t a t e d f u r t h e r i n h i s L e c t u r e s : I n each i n d i v i d u a l , th e E t e r n a l D iv in e I d e a t a k e s up i t s h a b i t a t , a s t h e i r s p i r i t u a l n a t u r e ; t h i s in d w e llin g D iv in e I d e a c i r c l e s i t s e l f w i t h i n them w ith u n sp e a k a b le lo v e , an d th e n we s a y , i n th e v e r n a c u l a r , t h i s man lo v e s t h e I d e a , and l i v e s i n th e I d e a , when i n r e a l i t y i t i s th e I d e a , i t s e l f , w h ic h , i n h i s p e r s o n , i s b u t th e s e n s ib le a p p e a ra n c e o f th e e x i s t e n c e o f t h i s I d e a , an d p o s s e s s e s , i n and f o r i t s e l f a l o n e , n e i t h e r s i g n i f i c a n c e n o r l i f e • . • I n th e T ru e S c h o la r th e I d e a 26 I b i d . . p . 3 5 1 . 15 6 h a s a c q u ir e d a p e r s o n a l e x i s t e n c e , w h ich h a s e n t i r e l y s u p e rs e d e d h i s own, an d a b s o rb e d i t i n i t s e l f . He lo v e s th e I d e a ; n o t p r i o r t o a l l e l s e , he lo v e s i t a lo n e . I t a lo n e i s th e s o u rc e o f a l l h i s jo y s o f t h i s p l e a s u r e ; i t .a lo n e i s t h e s p r in g o f a l l h i s th o u g h ts an d e f f o r t s ; f o r i t a lo n e d o e s he lo v e , an d w ith o u t i t l i f e w ould be t a s t e l e s s an d h a t e f u l . 217 Im p o rta n c e o f m o r a l i t y . M o ral c u l t u r e , t h e n , w as o f p rim a ry im p o rta n c e f o r e d u c a tio n . The i n d i v i d u a l s c h o l a r ’ s e n t i r e s c h o o lin g i s t o be g e a re d f o r m o r a l i t y . T h is w as th e c r i t e r i o n o f v a lu e s i n so f a r a s a c t i v i t y i n l i f e i s co n c e rn e d . M o r a lity was b e s t ed u c ed th ro u g h a c t i v i t y , o r r a t h e r s e l f - a c t i v i t y . I t w as i n th e u se and d ev e lo p m e n t o f s e l f - a c t i v i t y t h a t th e s c h o l a r s h o u ld e x c e l . T h is e x e r c i s e an d d ev e lo p m e n t w ere t o b e th e s in e qua non o f e d u c a ti o n a l m e th o d . I n t e l l e c t u a l t r a i n i n g m ust e n c o u ra g e c l e a r p e r c e p ti o n , and a s p e r c e p tio n d e v e lo p s m ore a b u n d a n tly , s e l f - a c t i y i t y . F o r t h i s r e a s o n i n t e l l e c t u a l p u r s u i t s h av e v a l u e , n o t a s e n d s in th e m s e lv e s , b u t a s m eans to th e e v e r - i n c r e a s in g d ev e lo p m e n t o f m o r a l i t y . M o r a lity i n e d u c a t i o n . Jo h a n n F i c h t e ’ s id e a o f m o r a l i t y i n e d u c a tio n w as o b j e c t i v e , f i n d i n g i t s g r e a t e s t o u t l e t in s e r v i c e t o th e com m unity. Once m o r a l i t y h a s b een g a in e d th ro u g h e d u c a tio n , i t m u st be p u t t o u s e i n s e r v i c e f o r th e com m onweal. The 1 1 T ru e S c h o la r ” w i l l be one who 27 I b i a . , p p . 3 5 6 -5 7 . 157 w i l l d e d ic a te h i s l i f e t o th e t a s k o f r e g e n e r a ti n g an d e n n o b lin g s o c i e t y u n t i l i t i s a n im a te d b y t h e h i g h e s t m o r a l i t y . When t h i s r e g e n e r a t i o n i s a c c o m p lis h e d , t h e s e l f i s h a s p e c t o f human a c t i v i t y w i l l c e a s e , and n o b i l i t y o f p u rp o s e and common b ro th e rh o o d w i l l o b t a i n . Aim o f e t h i c s . P e o p le tra n s fo rm e d b y m o r a l i t y w i l l c o n c e iv e i t t h e i r bounden d u ty t o c a r r y on th e g r e a t o b l i g a tio n b e q u e a th e d th em b y th e e d u c a to r s and t h e human r a c e , and th e y i n t u r n w i l l w ork b y m aking th o s e a ro u n d th em b e t t e r p e o p le . Each i n d i v i d u a l h a s a d u ty to w a rd s s o e i e t y . T h is i s th e h i g h e s t m o r a l i t y f o r F i c h t e . E d u c a tio n i s a t o o l o f s o c i e t y , and th ro u g h i t , s o c i e t y w o u ld a d v a n c e i t s e l f . T h is i s th e l e i t m o t i f o f F i c h t e ’ s e t h i c a l s y s te m , a s w e ll a s o f h i s e d u c a tio n . W ith in ea ch human t h e r e i s an in n e r n a t u r e w h ich c la m o rs f o r e x p r e s s io n . E d u c a tio n b r in g s o u t t h i s n a t u r e , i . e . , m o r a l i t y . C o n c e rn in g t h i s n a tu r e Thompson w r i t e s : And above and beyond a l l , a s th e c o n d i tio n o f e f f e c t i v e l i v i n g and f o r c e f u l a c t i o n , we m u st w ake, s a y s F i c h t e , t o th e c o n s c io u s n e s s o f o u r t r u e n a t u r e . W e a r e Godf s pow er t o do God * s w o rk . Each h a s t h e I n f i n i t e upon w h ich to d ra w . E ach i s w h o lly an d s o l e l y to blam e i n so f a r a s he f a l l s s h o r t o f t h e h i g h e s t , f o r h i s p o s i t i o n i n t h e u n iv e r s e d ep e n d s upon h i s w i l l . • .2 8 The i n d i v i d u a l , a c c o r d in g to F i c h t e , h a s th e pow er 29 Thom pson, o £ . c i t . . p . 5 5 . 158 t o b r in g h im s e lf up “ to th e h ig h e s t p la c e i n m a n 's c o n c e p tio n * B ut v e r y o f t e n h e d o e s n o t do s o . T h ere i s som ewhat o f a p ro b le m h e r e , f o r man i s unaw are o f h i s c a p a b i l i t i e s . How c a n he be aw akened? The i n d i v i d u a l b e l i e v e s h im s e lf w eak and h e l p l e s s , doomed b y a je a l o u s w o rld o f n a t u r e t o be i n e f f e c t u a l . B ut he h a s a g r e a t t a s k , i . e . , to h e lp s o c i e t y t o th e m ore a b u n d a n t l i f e , th r o u g h a m o ra l e d u c a tio n . V I. THE SIGNIFIQ j& N G E OF FICHTE'S EDUCATIONAL THEORIES Jo h an n F ic h te w as n o t a f o u n d e r o f a n y s c h o o l, n o r an e d u c a to r i n t h e s t r i c t s e n s e o f t h e w o rd . H is s i g n i f i c a n c e l i e s i n h i s h a v in g b ee n i n s p i r e r o f e d u c a ti o n a l r e f o rm , and a c r e a t o r o f new e d u c a tio n a l t h e o r y . As a b io g r a p h e r o f h i s w r i t e s : F ic h te m ay be th u s r e g a r d e d a s th e o r i g i n a t o r o f th e w ell-k n o w n P r u s s ia n sy ste m o f e d u c a ti o n . B aron vom S t e i n , th e g r e a t M i n i s t e r o f P r u s s i a a t t h i s tim e , no d o u b t to o k th e f i r s t s t e p s to w a rd i t s p r a c t i c a l r e a l i z a t i o n ; b u t i t i s n o t th e l e s s t r u e t h a t to F ic h te a lo n e b e lo n g s t h e h o n o r o f h a v in g f i r s t g iv e n u t t e r a n c e to t h e g r e a t i d e a o f a common E d u c a tio n a s th e b a s i s o f a common N a t i o n a l i t y among th e German p e o p l e .29 H is p r i n c i p l e s a n e n t d e m o c ra tic e d u c a tio n and m o r a li t y a r e s t i l l v a l i d ; and a r e t o p i c s v e r y p r e s s i n g to d a y . H is p s y c h o lo g y and s c i e n t i f i c m e th o d o lo g y , o r r a t h e r la c k o f S m ith , o£ . c i t . . p . 13 0 . 159 t h i s l a t t e r , a r e n o t i n k e e p in g w ith to d a y ’ s d i s c o v e r i e s n o r w ith d e v e lo p m e n ts s in c e h i s d e a th . But a s a p h ilo s o p h e r F ic h te d id n o t c o n c e rn h im s e lf w ith th e a c t u a l c a r r y in g o u t o f h i s t h e o r y . T h is p h a s e he l e f t t o o t h e r s . A r e f o rm e r h a s a m essag e t o d e l i v e r ; t h i s F ic h te d id , an d w ith g r e a t r e s u l t s . T h a t h e n e g l e c t e d t o s p e c i f y i n m in u te d e t a i l s h i s t h e o r i e s , d o e s n o t d e t r a c t fro m t h e i r o v e r a l l s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r e d u c a tio n . D em o c ra tic i d e a l . F o re m o st among th e l a s t i n g v a lu e s F ic h te b e q u e a th e d t o p o s t e r i t y i s h i s c o n c e p t o f e d u c a tio n a s d e m o c ra tic i n n a t u r e , and u n i v e r s a l l y m a n d a to ry f o r a l l o f th e p e o p le . T h ere i s h a r d l y a d o u b t b u t t h a t h i s i n te n s e n a t io n a l is m i n s p i r e d t h i s d e m o c ra tic c o n c e p t. Y et i t c a n n o t be s a i d t h a t h i s p a t r i o t i c f e r v o r o b s c u re d h i s v i s i o n a s to th e d e m o c ra tic i d e a l . T u r n b u ll c l a r i f i e s F i c h t e ’s p o s i t i o n t h u s : Y et i t i s no o n e - s id e d n a rro w n a t i o n a l i s m w hich F ic h te p r e a c h e s a s th e aim o f e d u c a tio n . I n v ie w o f th e s u b s e q u e n t d e v elo p m e n t o f e d u c a tio n an d th e r u t h l e s s n e s s w h ich th e p u r e ly n a t i o n a l aim w as p u r s u e d , t h i s p o in t c a n n o t be o v e r-e m p h a s iz e d i n j u s t i c e t o .him . R a th e r do we f i n d i n h i s w r i t i n g s an i d e a l o f h u m a n ity . . .3 0 F ic h te a v o id e d b o th th e e v i l s o f n arro w n a t io n a l is m and o n e - s id e d p r o v i n c ia li s m . H is e d u c a tio n w as d e m o c r a tic , a s r e g a r d e d th e g o v ern m en t and a s r e g a r d e d th e in d iv id u a l* 30 T u r n b u ll, o £ . c l t . , p . 1 0 7 . 160 He d id n o t s t r e s s e i t h e r c i v i c e d u c a tio n o r in d i v i d u a l d e v e lo p m e n t, p e r s e . H is g o a l w as r a t h e r t h e e v o l u tio n th ro u g h s c h o o lin g o f th e a b le an d i n t e l l i g e n t c i t i z e n f o r th e ad v an cem en t o f s e l f and s o c ie ty * T h is w as and i s a t r u l y d e m o c ra tic aim , f o r th e d e m o c ra tic s o c i e t y c o n s id e r s b o th t h e s o c i a l o r d e r an d t h e c i t i z e n a s p a r t s o f an i n t e g r a l u n i t . D em o c ra tic e d u c a tio n * E d u c a tio n t o F ic h te w as a s he so o f t e n d e c la r e d , th e v e r y f o u n d a tio n o f a S t a t e . W ith o u t a d e m o c ra tic p ro g ra m o f e d u c a tio n , n o S t a t e c a n a t t a i n i t s tr u e aim , Yfaich i s th e w e lf a r e o f a l l i t s c i t i z e n s . As an e d u c a to r h e v iew ed th e s c h o o ls a s a n a s s e t to a n a t i o n , and a s an i n d i s s o l u b l e p h a s e o f th e w h o le . F ic h te d e s i r e d th e s c h o o ls t o s te p o u t i n f r o n t an d show t h e w ay to w a rd s p r o g r e s s . He w o u ld h a v e e d u c a to r s become l e a d e r s o f s o c i e t y , and n o t m ere r e f l e c t o r s o f i t s c u l t u r e . I n l i n e w ith m odern p h ilo s o p h y , F ic h te p o s i t e d th e n e e d o f n o t o n ly in d i v i d u a l d e v e lo p m e n t th r o u g h th e P e s t a l o z z i a n s y s te m o f h a rm o n io u s s e l f - a c t i v i t y , b u t th e n e e d f o r i n s t i l l i n g th e s o c i a l c o n c e p t. E d u c a tio n w h ic h d e v e lo p e d i n d i v i d u a l s , a s m ere i n d i v i d u a l s w as n o t t r u e ed u c a t i o n . F ic h te d e s ir e d i n d i v i d u a l s t r a i n e d f o r th e w e lf a r e o f s o c i e t y . On th e o t h e r h a n d , i n a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e d e m o c ra tic a im , th e s y ste m o f e d u c a tio n s h o u ld be so o r d e r e d 161 t h a t th e i n d i v i d u a l w i l l b e m o tiv a te d t o w ork and s u c c e e d . I n d i v i d u a l i n i t i a t i v e an d c r e a t i v i t y w i l l be re w a rd e d by th e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f h a v in g h e lp e d o t h e r s . I t seem s i n t h i s r e s p e c t t h a t F ic h te h a s l e f t a d e m o c ra tic h e r i t a g e w h ich i s a s l o f t y an aim to d a y a s when he f i r s t w ro te i t . S ig n if ic a n c e o f h i s s y s te m o f m o r a l i t y . C lo s e ly lin k e d t o h i s d e m o c ra tic i d e a l i s h i s E th o s . As h a s b een show n, th e v e r y c ru x o f F i c h t e f s e d u c a ti o n a l d o c tr in e w as h i s schem e o f m o r a l i t y i n t e r p e n e t r a t i n g a l l i t s p h a s e s . The id e a o f m o ra l t r a i n i n g i s p a r t and p a r c e l o f h i s e n t i r e p l a n . He g ro u n d e d h i s m o r a l i t y i n t h e p u p i l ’ s ’’i n s t i n c t ” o f r e s p e c t . And w h ile " i n s t i n c t s ” a r e no lo n g e r a c c e p te d b y p s y c h o l o g i s t s , t h e r e i s a g ro w in g r e c o g n i t i o n o f th e p r o m in e n t r o l e ego s t a t u s o r s e l f - r e s p e e t p la y s i n m a in ta in in g n o rm al p s y c h ic a l e q u i lib r iu m . From T u rn b u ll we g e t th e f o llo w in g c o n c e rn in g F i c h t e ’s p la n o f m o ra l e d u c a ti o n . He d e s c r i b e s i t t h u s : E d u c a tio n i s t o b e th e d e l i b e r a t e an d s u re a r t o f p ro d u c in g i n t h e p u p i l a s t a b l e an d i n f a l l i b l e good w i l l . A ll e l s e , t h e d ev elo p m en t o f h i s b o d y , th e t r a i n i n g o f h i s m ind and th e know ledge t h a t w i l l r e s u l t th e r e f r o m i s s u b o r d in a te t o t h i s . He w i l l h av e th e e d u c a to r go r i g h t down to t h e r o o t s an d s p r in g s o f a c t i o n s i n l i f e , i . e . , t o th e i n s t i n c t s an d im p u ls e s , an d t r y t o m old t h e s e a s th e y g r a d u a l l y d e v e lo p . The p la c e he th u s a s s ig n s t o m o ra l e d u c a tio n i n t h e w h o le sy ste m a n d h i s i d e a s i n i t a r e w o rth c o n s id e r in g .31 31 I b i d . . p . 1 0 8 . 162 A ll- a ro u n d d e v e lo p m e n t. A lth o u g h m o ra l e d u c a tio n i s th e m a in s p r in g an d s o u r c e o f h i s e d u c a ti o n a l p o l i c y , F ic h te d e s i r e d , a lo n g w ith i t , o t h e r v i t a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , such a s an a l l - a r o u n d d e v e lo p m e n t. He d e c r i e d n a rro w i n t e l l e c t u a l - ism an d book l e a r n i n g . M ere t r a i n i n g o f th e m ind a s an en d i n i t s e l f w as a b s u r d . I n t e l l e c t u a l p u r s u i t s w e re t o be s u b o r d in a te d t o th e l a r g e r e t h i e a l p u r p o s e . To F i c h t e , in f o r m a tio n d e r iv e d fro m l e a r n i n g i s m e re ly a w ay o f p ro m o tin g m o r a l i t y . From h i s d e m o c ra tic I d e a l and h i s i d e a o f e t h i c a l t r a i n i n g , h e l e f t m odern e d u c a tio n w ith b a s e s f o r c i v i c r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a n d c h a r a c t e r f o r m a tio n . T hese p ro b le m s w h ich a r e s t i l l so much i n e v id e n c e ca n r e f e r to F i c h t e f s c o n c e p tio n s r e g a r d in g t h e s e , and d e r iv e much t h a t i s v a l u a b l e . H is p r i n c i p l e s o f d em o cracy and e t h i c s a r e a s v a l i d to d a y a s when he f i r s t p o s i t e d th em . Summary. T h is c h a p te r w as c e n te r e d a b o u t Jo h a n n G o t t l i e b F i c h t e , a s a m an, a p h ilo s o p h e r and ab o v e a l l an e d u c a to r . The e d u c a ti o n a l t h e o r y was h i g h l i g h t e d b y b r i n g in g i n th e l i f e o f t h e m an, and h i s b a s ic p h ilo s o p h y . The e d u c a t i o n a l sy ste m i t s e l f i s a m o sa ic p a t t e r n e d fro m F ic h te * s e n t i r e l i f e an d m i l i e u . F ic h te * s e p is te m o lo g y and e t h i c s w e re s k e tc h e d i n d e t a i l , a s th e y a r e th e b ac k bone o f t h e t h e o r y o f e d u c a tio n . I t may be s a id th e n , t h a t 163 F ic h te b e lie v e d t h a t th e s c h o o ls w ere an I n s t r u m e n t a l i t y o f s o c i e t y , and t h a t t h e i r p rim a ry t a s k w as t o r e h a b i l i t a t e s o c i e t y , th ro u g h a d v a n c in g t h e g iv e n m o r a l i t y o f e a c h i n d i v i d u a l . The n e x t c h a p te r w i l l p r e s e n t f u r t h e r tr e a tm e n t o f F i c h t e ^ th e o r y o f e d u c a tio n . T h is w i l l be b ro u g h t o u t b y an e x p o s i t i o n o f h i s fam ous A d d re s s e s t o a German N a tio n and h i s e f f e c t upon N a tio n a lis m i n G erm any. F i n a l l y th e m ore o r l e s s p erm a n en t in f lu e n c e o f Jo h a n n G o t t l i e b F ic h te w i l l be s e t f o r t h . CHAPTER V I I I THE SCHOOLS ARE REFORMED I n t r o d u c t i o n . The l a s t c h a p t e r d e a l t w ith Jo h a n n G o t t l i e b F ic h te a s a m an, a p h ilo s o p h e r , and f i n a l l y a s an e d u c a ti o n a l t h e o r i s t . T hese t h r e e p h a s e s o f a m an’s l i f e w ere t r e a t e d i n an d o f th e m s e lv e s . H is e d u c a ti o n a l th e o r y w as t r e a t e d w ith t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h a t a l l o f th e m an, i . e . , h i s b a c k g ro u n d an d h i s p h ilo s o p h y fo rm ed an d w ere r e s p o n s i b le in g r e a t p a r t f o r h i s v ie w s on e d u c a tio n . I n t h i s c h a p t e r , F i c h t e ’ s in f lu e n c e upon th e re fo rm s i n s t i t u t e d b y Germany and above a l l , t h e P r u s s i a n s , w i l l fo rm th e k e y n o t e . H is A d d re s s e s a s th e m o st fam ous o f h i s w o rk s w i l l be c r i t i c a l l y a p p ro v e d an d s e t f o r t h . T h ese A d d re s s e s a r e a lan d m ark i n e d u c a tio n b o th a s a m eans o f re fo rm in g th e s c h o o l, an d a s a p ro d t o s o c i a l c h a n g e . The f i n a l p a r t o f th e c h a p te r w i l l be d e v o te d to a n e x p o s i t io n o f th e s o c i a l re fo rm s o c c a s io n e d i n g r e a t p a r t by F ic h te an d h i s A d d re s s e s . I . GENERAL NATURE OF THE ADDRESSES F ic h te f i r s t d e l i v e r e d th e f o u r t e e n Reden an d ie D eu tsch e N a tio n d u r in g t h e w i n t e r o f 1 8 0 7 -1 8 0 8 i n t h e g r e a t h a l l o f th e Academy o f S c ie n c e s i n B e r l i n , and th e y w ere p u b lis h e d i n 1 8 08. F ic h te b e lie v e d t h a t b y d e l i v e r i n g t h e s e R eden t o h i s l a r g e and e n t h u s i a s t i c a u d ie n c e s , h e w as 165 f u l f i l l i n g a g r e a t an d p a t r i o t i c o b l i g a t i o n t o h i s f a l l e n V a t e r l a n d . C u r io u s ly enough he w as a b le t o e x h o r t h i s l i s t e n e r s a g a i n s t th e F re n c h r i g h t u n d e r t h e i r v e r y n o s e s . As H en d erso n d e s c r ib e s th e d e l iv e r a n c e o f t h e A d d re s s e s : So l o f t y w ere h i s i d e a s , in d e e d , and c l o th e d i n su c h p h i l o s o p h i c a l la n g u a g e , t h a t th e F re n ch c e n s o r saw i n them no h arm , an d a llo w e d th e l e c t u r e s t o be p u b lis h e d * The s t u p i d man n e v e r d re a m t w h at a b u g le c a l l th e y w ere t o n a t u r a l r e v o l u t i o n , n o r t o w h at d e p th s t h e y w ere to s t i r th e German n a t i o n . I t w as a cam p aig n o f e d u c a tio n t h a t F ic h te a d v o c a te d ; and he lo o k e d f o r r e s u l t s a t t h e en d o f t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s . "No m an, a n d no God, an d no p o s s i b l e e v e n t c a n h e lp u s ,* he d e c l a r e d , *w @ m u st ^ h e lp o u r own s e lv e s i f we a r e t o be h e lp e d a t a l l . ” A t t h e o u tb re a k o f th e w a r , F ic h te h a d r e q u e s te d th e p r i v i l e g e o f accom panying th e arm y a s a l a y p r e a c h e r , and h a d r e c e iv e d th e p e r s o n a l th a n k s o f h i s k in g f o r t h i s p a t r i o t i c o f f e r . B ut h e c o u ld n o t f o llo w h i s w is h , and i t re m a in e d f o r d e f e a t to b r in g o u t m ore e l o q u e n tl y th a n e v e r , h i s a b i l i t i e s a s a p r e a c h e r o f p a t r i o t i s m r a t h e r th a n r e l i g i o n . On s u c c e s s iv e S unday e v e n in g s , fro m th e 1 3 th o f D ecem ber 1807 t o M arch 2 0 th o f th e f o llo w in g y e a r , h e p r e s e n te d h i s s t i r r i n g a p p e a l. W hat d id th e A d d re s s e s c o n t a in t h a t made so g r e a t an e f f e c t upon Germ any an d s t i l l a r e n o te w o rth y ? They w ere a d i r e c t e x h o r t a t i o n to a l l G erm any, a lth o u g h g iv e n i n B e r l in t o P r u s s ia n s m a in ly , a n d i t w as th e P r u s s i a n s w ith whom 1 E r n e s t H e n d e rso n , A S h o rt H is to r y o f Germany (New Y ork: The M a cm illan Company, 1909) , I I , 2 8 2 . 166 F ic h te w as p r i m a r i l y c o n c e rn e d . T hese A d d re s s e s may f i r s t o f a l l he s a i d t o he d i r e c t a p p e a ls t o th e German g e i s t t o * r i s e an d be v i c t o r i o u s . I n many r e s p e c t s i t i s a b l a t a n t a p p e a l t o a n a t i o n a l c o n s c io u s n e s s . Two d i s t i n c t p a t t e r n s o r r a t h e r l i n e s em erge fro m t h e A d d re s s e s w h ich a r e c l e a r . One i s th e a p p r a i s a l o f th e German s p i r i t o r n a t i o n a l f e e l in g a s to i t s e le m e n ts f o r th e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f th e new s t a t e . And th e seco n d i s th e m ethod by w h ic h th e s e n a t i o n a l e le m e n ts p e c u l i a r to a l l a r e t o b e u t i l i z e d . T hrough t h e s e e le m e n ts an d th e m ethod f o r t h e i r em p lo y m en t, a new Germany m u st r i s e P h o e n ix - lik e fro m th e a s h e s o f th e o ld . As F ic h te p r e s e n te d t h e id e a i n h i s A d d re s s e s ^ th e m o ra l r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f an y p e o p le i s o n ly p o s s i b l e w hen e v e r t h e r e i s a com m onalty o f p u r p o s e , u n i f i e d an d c o h e s iv e . T h en , and th e n o n ly , c a n e a c h i n d i v i d u a l c o m p ris in g t h i s u n i t y be e d u c a te d to s e rv e th e g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t . And o f c o u rs e no p e o p le b u t th e Germans h a s p ro v e d i t s a b i l i t y t o p ro b e i n t o th e d e e p e s t o f su c h p h i l o s o p h i c a l s p e c u l a t i o n s . I n i t s r e l i g i o u s f e e l i n g , i t s la n g u a g e , i t s pow er o f p h i l o so p h y , i n s h o r t , i n i t s e n t i r e K u ltu r Germany p ro v e s i t s e l f a f r e e an d l i v i n g n a t i o n . The A d d re s s e s a r e one lo n g p o le m ic a g a in s t o p p r e s s i o n , an d f o r Germ any a s a g r e a t V o lk . F o r F i c h t e , Germany i s w ith o u t a n y d o u b t th e le a d in g n a t i o n o f th e w o rld , h a v in g p ro v e d i t s e l f th r o u g h h i s t o r y . B ut w h ile t h e r e w as much 167 t h a t w as b o m b a st, and a g r e a t d e a l m ore u n te n a b le , th e A d d re s s e s w ere c l e a r and f o r c e f u l enough to command r e s p e c t fro m th e German l e a d e r s . T h ere w as a g r e a t d e a l o f p r a c t i c a l 'w isdom and shrew d p s y c h o lo g y i n t h e R ed en . And above a l l th e y w ere g e a re d to th e tim e s . T h ere i s a l o g i c a l c o n s i s t e n c y a b o u t t h e A d d re sse s fro m th e b e g in n in g t o e n d , v i z . , th e a p p e a l t o p r id e a n d th e a lm o s t im p e rio u s o r d e r f o r a c t i o n . I I . REDEN m DIE DEUTSCHE NATION2 F i r s t A d d re s s . T h is i n i t i a l a d d r e s s e n t i t l e d , I n t r o d u c tio n a n d G e n e ra l S u rv e y (V o re rin n e ru n g e n und T Je b e rsic h t 3 d e s G anzen) c o n c e rn s i t s e l f w ith 'what F ic h te c a l l e d th e " C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e P r e s e n t A g e ." I n t h i s l a t t e r a l l u s i o n , F ic h te i n 1805 i n a s e r i e s o f l e c t u r e s g iv e n i n B e r l i n , h ad shown h i s e r a a s one o f c o m p le te d s i n f u l n e s s , and h a d r e f e r r e d t o t h i s s p e c i f i c m i l i e u a s th e t h i r d g r e a t ep o ch i n t h e lo n g and v a r i e d h i s t o r y o f m a n k in d . D u rin g t h i s e p o c h , R eason w as b e g in n in g t o f r e e i t s e l f from i t s a g e - o ld d e l u d e r s , i n s t i n c t an d a u t h o r i t y . By th e v e r y n a t u r e o f t h e u p h e a v a ls , t h i s t h i r d g r e a t age o f h u m a n ity h a d come t o a c lim a x , f o r c e f u l l y , y e s ev en v i o l e n t l y . I n d iv id u a lis m w h ich h ad b ee n p aram o u n t d u r in g t h i s p e r io d h a d 2 Jo h a n n G o t t l i e b F i c h t e , "R eden an d ie D eu tsb h e N a ti o n ," Sflm m tliche W erke ( B e r l i n : V e rla g von V e it und Company, J.846) , v ill, 2 5 9 -7 9 9 . 3 I b i d . , p p . 8 6 4 -7 9 . 168 b een c r u s h e d by i t s own f o r c e , th e r e b y l i b e r a t i n g o t h e r , and g r e a t e r p o w ers f o r t h e r e g e n e r a t i o n o f P r u s s ia * As he s t a t e d : T hus I s a id a t t h e b e g in n in g o f my R eden, s e l f - s e e k in g h ad d e s tr o y e d i t s e l f . . . The d e s t r u c t i o n o f s e l f - s e e k i n g now a c c o m p lis h e d c o n s t i t u t e s b o th t h a t p r o g r e s s o f th e ag e w hich X h av e a l r e a d y m e n tio n e d , an d th e w h o lly new e v e n t w hich t o me h a s made a c o n tin u a t i o n o f t h a t ag e b o th p o s s i b l e and n e c e s s a r y . . The new age h a d now dawned an d i t s le itm o tifs -w a s * th e c o n s c io u s a w a re n e s s o f u n b h a c k le d R easo n a s a pow er f o r s a l v a t i o n . T h is new ag e so d r a m a t i c a l l y in a u g u r a te d w as th e s i g n a l f o r Germ any t o th ro w o f f i t s yoke an d become th e l e a d e r o f a new w o r ld . F ic h te a s k e d h i s l i s t e n e r s i f th e y w ere r e a d y by v i r t u e o f f i t n e s s and n e c e s s i t y f o r t h i s g r e a t t a s k o f r e h a b i l i t a t i n g Germ any. S econd A d d re s s . The G e n e ra l N a tu re o f t h e New E du- c c a t i o n (Vom W esen d e r Neuen E rz ie h u n g im A llg e m e in e n ). I n t h i s se c o n d A d d re s s . F ic h te f o llo w e d h i s m o tif o f p a r t s u p p l i c a t i o n an d p a r t h a r a n g u e , and d id i t v e r y l o g i c a l l y . H ere h e d e a l t w ith e d u c a tio n a s a n a t i o n a l a f f a i r on th e s e v e r a l l e v e l s o f i n f a n t t r a i n i n g , o f s e c o n d a ry s c h o o ls and u n i v e r s i t y d i s c i p l i n e . He d e v e lo p e d th e id e a o f su c h a n a t i o n a l e d u c a tio n i n l i n e w ith th e n a t i o n a l p a t r i o t i s m o f I b i d . , p . 2 7 0 . 5 I b i d . , p p . 2 8 0 -9 5 . 169 ea ch G erm an. A g ain , h e r e h e show ed th e P e s t a lo z z i a n i n f lu e n c e by e m p h a s iz in g t h e n e c e s s i t y o f s t a r t i n g e d u c a tio n w ith th e g e n u in e i n t u i t i v e p o w ers e a c h i n d i v i d u a l p o s s e s s e s , r a t h e r th a n w ith w o rd s an d sy m bols a s h e r e t o f o r e . He p a r t e d com pany, h o w ev er, from th e d o c t r i n e o f P e s t a l o z z i , and s u b s t i t u t e d h i s own t h e o r i e s a n e n t th e e x a c t a n a l y s i s o f th e e le m e n ts o f s e n s e e x p e r ie n c e . T h is a g a in f o llo w s t h e l a r g e r scheme o f h i s W i s s e n s c h a f t s l e h r e . a s he w o u ld h av e th e i n d i v i d u a l t r a i n e d f o r t h e a c c u r a te d i s c r im i n a ti o n o f w h at c o n s t i t u t e s e x t e r n a l r e a l i t i e s , f e e l in g s a n d b o d ily m ovem ents. T h is t r a i n i n g f o r d is c r i m i n a t i o n w as t o s t a r t , p e r h i s e p is te m o lo g y , i n s e l f - a c t i v i t y . Of t h i s he d e c la r e d : The s e l f - a c t i v i t y (T & tig k e it) o f t h e p u p i l i s f i r s t t o be s ti m u l a t e d i n so m e th in g t h a t we a l r e a d y know , and t h i s i s th e f i r s t r u l e i n t h e a r t o f e d u c a tio n . I f t h i s i s s u c c e s s f u l , t h e n i t i s s im p ly a q u e s tio n o f b e g in n in g fro m t h i s p o i n t an d o f m a in ta in in g th e aw akened a c t i v i t y o f t h e e v e r new l i f e . . .6 T h ird A d d re s s . ( P o r ts e tz u n g d e r S c h ild e ru n g d e r 7 n e u e n E rz ie h u n g .) T hese t h i r d A d d re sse s a r e an a m p li f i c a t i o n o f th e seco n d an d a re t r a n s l a t e d a s t h e D e s c r i p tio n o f th e Hew E d u c a tio n . I n t h i s , F ic h te b ro u g h t t o t h e f o r e th e id e a t h a t a common e d u c a tio n in c lu d in g a d e q u a te $ I b i d . , p . 2 8 6 . ^ I b i d . , p p . 2 9 6 -5 1 1 . 170 t e c h n i c a l t r a i n i n g , a s w e l l a s c u l t u r a l p u r s u i t s , m u st be p ro v id e d f o r a l l . T hrough t h i s m edium ca n a r i s e th e su b lim e e th o s w h ich was so r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f German n a t i o n a l u n i t y . T h is i n t a n g i b l e , y e t p o w e rfu l e t h i c a l f e e l i n g p o s s e s s e d i n common b y th e German Y olk m u st be e n c o u ra g e d and made p r o d u c tiv e . On t h i s s c o re h e w as e l o q u e n t : Though t h e e le m e n ts o f o u r s p i r i t u a l l i f e may be j u s t a s d e s s i c a t e d , and ev en th o u g h th e bo n d s o f o u r n a t i o n a l u n i ty m ay be t o r n a p a r t , and be s tre w e d a b o u t a s th e b o n es o f th o s e s l a i n i n p ro p h e c y ; th o u g h th e y may h av e b le a c h e d and d r i e d f o r e e n t u r i e s , th ro u g h S to rm s , T e m p e sts, an d th e B u rn in g S u n s h in e — t h e q u ic k e n in g b r e a t h o f t h e s p i r i t u a l w o rld h a s n o t c e a s e d t o b lo w . I t w i l l t a k e h o ld o f t h e d ead b o n es o f o u r n a t i o n a l b o d y , so t h a t th e y may s ta n d f o r t h a s m a s te r s i n a new and g l o r i o u s l i f e . 8 The la n g u a g e w as p o e t i c a l an d f e r v i d , b u t t h e r e re m a in s a s u r p r i s i n g p r a c t i c a l i t y i n t h e t h i r d o f th e A d d re s s e s . F ie h te a d ju r e d h i s l i s t e n e r s to a c t , a n d n o t m e re ly t o t h i n k . H is e d u c a ti o n a l p o l i c y w as s e t f o r t h i n g e n e r a l te rm s . The s te p s w ere e a s y t o f o llo w a s th e y w ere u n u s u a lly c o h e r e n t. He to o k P e s t a l o z z i *s w e a k n e sse s to t a s k , an d s t r e s s e d w h at h e c o n s id e r e d P e s t a l o z z i f s s tr o n g p o i n t , v i z . , id e a o f e d u c a tio n b e g in n in g i n s e l f - a c t i v i t y , and a s a h a rm o n io u s d e v e lo p m e n t. F o u rth A d d re s s . T h is A d d re s s , The C h ie f D if f e r e n c e B etw een t h e Germ any and th e O th e r P e o p le s o f T e u to n ic 8 I b i d . , p . 311 171 D e sc e n t ( H a u p tv e r s c h e id e n h e it z w isc h e n d en D e u tsc h e n und den u b r ig e n V o lk e rn G erm an isch en A b k u n ft) , 9 w as one i n w h ich F ic h te e x t o l l e d th e G erm ans a s p u re an d u n d e r i l e d by m is c e g e n a tio n , p h y s i c a l an d m o r a l. The h i s t o r y o f th e G erm ans, h e w en t a lo n g t o s a y , w as th e d ev e lo p m e n t o f a p e o p le fro m a p u re s to c k . The g r e a t German la n g u a g e w as a lo n e enou^fcL to p ro v e th e German p e o p le u n iq u e an d o f p rim e im p o rta n c e to th e w o r ld , o r so F ic h te s a i d . As r e g a r d e d t h e la n g u a g e s o f th e o t h e r T e u to n ic f o l k an d th e N e o - I a tin r a c e , w hen t h e y w ere c o n t r a s t e d w ith t h e p u re German to n g u e , th e y becam e m e c h a n ic a l and l i f e l e s s . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h i s s t a r t l i n g e v id e n c e , t h e r e w as a l s o th e p o e tr y o f th e la n d w hich w as d e v e lo p e d fro m th e la n g u a g e . From a l l t h i s F ic h te d ed u ced t h a t Germany w as c a p a b le o f th e h i g h e s t e d u c a tio n . F i f t h A d d re s s . The C o n seq u en c es o f th e D if f e r e n c e t h a t h a s b een I n d i e a t e d (F o lg e n a u s d e r a u f g e s t e l l t e n V e r s c h i e d e n h e it) 10 w as a p r o lo n g a ti o n o f num ber f o u r w h e re i n he e x t o l l e d th e G erm ans. I n t h i s F i f t h A d d re ss h e b ro u g h t th e O eim ans in to c o n t r a s t w ith th e o t h e r T e u to n ic V o lk . He w r o t e : 9 I b i d . , p p .. 3 1 1 -2 7 . 10 I b i d . . p p . 3 2 8 -4 4 . 172 . . . On th e o t h e r h a n d , th e German s p i r i t w i l l open up new s h a f t s and b r in g i n th e l i g h t o f d a y i n t o t h e i r a b y s s e s , and a l s o c a s t up ro c k y m a sse s o f th o u g h ts o u t o f w h ich a g e s t o come, w i l l e r e c t t h e i r h o u s e s . . . th e German s p i r i t i s an e a g l e , w hose m ig h ty body t h r u s t s i t s e l f i n t o th e Em pyrean re a lm on p o w e rfu l w in g s , so t h a t i t may r i s e h e a r e r th e su n upon w h ich i t d e l i g h t s to g a z e .11 To F ic h t e , th e o t h e r non-G erm an c o u n t r i e s w ere m e re ly th e e a r t h fro m w hich f r u i t f u l v a p o rs a r i s e t o t h e c lo u d s when t h e y a r e d e ta c h e d . B ut th e m o th e r c o u n t r y , i n h i s a l l e g o r y , w as th e e t e r n a l sk y i n w h ic h t h e r e l e a s e d v a p o rs fro m t h e e a r t h w ere s h a t t e r e d and s e n t b a c k t o e n l i g h t e n th e p e o p le o f t h e e a r t h . He r e i t e r a t e d , b e c a u s e o f a l l t h i s d iv in e g r e a t n e s s , G erm any w as f i t f o r th e h i g h e s t o f a l l e d u c a tio n s t o r e g e n e r a t e P r u s s i a . S ix th A d d re s s . T h is one w h ich F ic h te c a l l e d , German G h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s E x h ib ite d i n H is to r y (D a rle g u n g d e r x 12 d e u ts c h e n G rundzuge i n d e r G e s h x c te ) , w as a d is c o u r s e show ing t h a t o n ly G erm any, among a l l th e p e o p le s o f th e w o rld , h a d f u l f i l l e d i t s d e s t i n y . I t w as f u r t h e r , an e x p o s i t i o n o f t h e re fo rm o f t h e c h u rc h th r o u g h L u th e r and th e G erm ans. Ho o t h e r p e o p le c o u ld h av e p ro d u c e d an d d e v e lo p e d th e g r e a t id e a o f t h e R e fo rm a tio n . F ic h te e x t o l l e d th e Germans t h u s : 11 I b i d . , p p . 3 3 9 -4 0 . 12 I b i a . . PP- 3 4 4 -3 6 . 173 We c o n tin u e to d a y tlie f u l f i l l m e n t o f o u r p ro m is e ; an d we p ro v e w h at we h a d s t a t e d , f i r s t o f a l l , by th e l a t e s t g r e a t , a n d i n a c e r t a i n s e n s e , c o m p le te d a c h ie v e m e n t o f th e German p e o p le , sin ac co m p lish m e n t o f w o rld w ide im p o r ta n c e , th e r e f o r m a tio n o f th e C h u rc h .13 O nly a g r e a t V olk endowed w ith th e h i g h e s t o f p o t e n t i a l i t i e s c o u ld h a v e e f f e c t e d so m ig h ty an d r e v o l u t i o n a r y a movement a s th e k i r c h l i c h e n He f o rm a tio n and t h i s c h u rc h R e fo rm a tio n was i n tu r n p r o o f o f G erm an y 's g r e a t n e s s . A l e s s e r n a t i o n , F ic h te w ent on t o s a y , w o u ld n o t h av e b ee n e n t r u s t e d w ith t h i s w o rld -s h a k in g t a s k . And th e German p e o p le h av e n e v e r b e l i e d t h i s s a c r e d t r u s t . They f u l f i l l e d t h e i r o b l i g a t i o n once b y a c h ie v in g th e R e fo rm a tio n and c a n do so a g a in b y u p l i f t i n g P r u s s i a and a l l o f G erm any. S e v e n th A d d re s s . A G lo s e r S tu d y o f th e O r i g i n a l i t y and C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a P e o p le (Noch t i e f e r e E in f a s s u n g d e r U r s p r f in g lic h k e it und D e u ts c h e it e i n e s V o lk e s) T h is A d d re ss d i s t i n g u i s h e d b etw een p u re German p h ilo s o p h y and th e f o r e i g n b ra n d t h a t h a s i n f i l t r a t e d and d i l u t e d i t . The Germ ans w ere a u n iq u e p e o p le , F ic h te d e c la r e d , and t h e i r p h ilo s o p h y m u st re m a in u n d e f i l e d b y a n y f o r e i g n dogma. F o r th e p h ilo s o p h y o f t h e f o r e i g n e r (A u s la n d e r) w as r i g i d an d f i x e d , even a d ea d p h ilo s o p h y . And when i t m a n if e s te d 13 I b i d . , p . 3 4 0 . 14 I b i d . . p p . 3 5 9 -7 7 . 174 i t s e l f among th e p u re German V o lk , i t f o r c e d them t o ab an d o n l i f e and h o p e . B ut i n c o n t r a s t , th e o r i g i n a l u n b e sm irc h e d p h ilo s o p h y made th e G erm ans m a s te r s o f h u m a n ity , and i n u n ity ev en w ith th e A b s o lu te . F ic h te d e c la r e d : And h e n c e l e t t h e r e a p p e a r b e f o r e you i n a l l o f i t s c l e a r n e s s , w h at we h av e u n d e rs to o d to be G erm ans, a s we h av e t h u s f a r d e p ic te d them* The t r u e c r i t e r i o n l i e s i n t h i s : w h e th e r you b e l i e v e i n so m e th in g a b s o l u t e l y F i r s t an d O r i g i n a l i n man h i m s e l f , i n F reedom , i n en d l e s s B e t t e r m e n t i n t h e e v e r l a s t i n g Im provem ent o f o u r r a c e , o r do you h o t b e l ie v e i n a l l t h i s , b u t r a t h e r do you As G en aan s, t h e n , t h e y w ere o r i g i n a l m en, " th e y a r e when r e g a r d e d a s a p e o p le , a n o r i g i n a l p e o p le (U rv o lk ) th e y 16 a r e t o p u t i t s im p ly , G erm an s." The o t h e r n o n -G erm an ic r a c e s w e re so m e th in g d e r i v a t i v e and s e c o n d a ry , doomed to be m ere f o llo w e r s o f m en, an d n o t l e a d e r s . But i n Germany th e U rv o lk h ad shown th e m s e lv e s c a p a b le o f c r e a t i n g new t h i n g s and t h i s w as t h e l e i t m o t i f o f German p h ilo s o p h y . T h at i s t o s a y , i t w as l i v i n g and u n iq u e , an d p o s s e s s e d th e pow er o f o r i g i n a l i t y . E ig h th A d d re s s . W hat i s a P e o p le i n th e H ig h e r S en se o f t h e W ord, and What i s Love o f F a th e r la n d ? (Was e i n V olk s e y , i n d e r h o h e re n B edeutung d e s W o rts , und w as ■*- - ■ - - 15 I b i d . , p . 3 7 4 . L o c. c i t . 175 *17 Y a te r l a n d s li e b e ? ) I n t h i s h e a rg u e d : P e o p le and F a th e r la n d i n t h i s M eaning, a s a s u p p o r t an d a s s u r a n c e o f e a r t h l y E t e r n i t y , an d a s t h a t w h ich ca n be e t e r n a l b elo w ; g o e s f a r beyond th e S t a t e , t h e u s u a l S en se o f t h a t Word— th e s o c i a l o r d e r a s c o n c e iv e d by m ere i n t e l l e c t u a l co m p re h e n sio n . . • T h at i s why th e lo v e o f F a th e r la n d m u st i t s e l f g o v e rn th e S t a t e , and be t h e h i g h e s t , l a s t an d a b s o lu te A u th o r ity . . . Germans m u s t, th ro u g h t h e i r h ig h r e g a r d f o r t h e i r Y a te r l a n d , become a g r e a t and e x c lu s iv e n a t i o n . T h e ir p a t r i o t i s m m u st s e rv e a s t h e m a in s p rin g o f t h e i r a c t i o n . F ic h te im p lo re d h i s l i s t e n e r s i n t h i s A d d re ss t o k e e p them s e l v e s a l o o f fro m d e g r a d a tio n ; and th r o u g h e d u c a tio n f o s t e r th e g r e a t a n d a l l - p o w e r f u l lo v e i n s t i l l e d in e a c h G e rm a n ^ b r e a s t . T hrough e d u c a ti o n , and e d u c a tio n a lo n e , can th e c o n c e p tio n o f th e German p e o p le a s a n e t e r n a l p e o p l e , be made p o s s i b l e . N in th ' A d d re s s . The S t a r t i n g P o in t t h a t A c tu a lly E x i s t s f o r th e New N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n o f th e G erm ans (An w e lc h e n i n d e r W i r k li c h k e i t v o rh a n d e n e n P u n c t d ie n eu e 19 N a tio n a le r z ie h u n g d e r D e u tsc h e n anzuknQ pfen s e y ) . T h is A d d re ss w as d e d ic a te d to th e new e d u c a tio n g ro u n d e d on t h e t h e o r y o f P e s t a l o z z i , who w as a c c o r d in g t o F ic h te one o f th e 17 I b i d . , p p . 3 7 7 -9 6 . 18 I b i d . , p . 38 4 . 19 I b i d . . p p . 3 9 6 -4 1 1 . 176 d eep t h i n k i n g G erm ans so r e s p o n s i b le f o r G eim any’ s g r e a t n e s s . The r e g e n e r a t i o n o f Germany w as t o b e e f f e c t e d th ro u g h e d u c a tio n . T h is e d u c a tio n w as t o a d o p t t h a t w h ich w as above a l l t r u e and o r i g i n a l in P e s t a l o z z i * s d o c t r i n e . P e s t a l o z z i * s fu n d a m e n ta l c o n c e p tio n s , b e l ie v e d F i c h t e , w as h i s e x p r e s s d e te r m in a tio n t o make o f e d u c a tio n a d e f i n i t i v e and d e l i b e r a t e a r t . Up t i l l t h e n , i t h a d b e e n i n th e n a t u r e o f a h a p h a z a rd g r o p in g , and F ic h te a g r e e in g w h o le h e a r te d ly w ith t h i s p a r t o f P e s t a l o z z i * s w is h e s , d e s i r e d th e new German e d u c a tio n t o s t i m u l a t e and t r a i n th e f r e e a c t i v i t y o f th e p u p i l ’ s i n t e l l e c t . As he re m a rk sd : . . . I n t h i s rem edy o f P e s t a l o z z i * s t o le a d th e p u p i l to d i r e c t p e r c e p ti o n (A nschauung) t h e r e i s a s i m i l a r i t y t o o u r p u rp o s e o f s t i m u l a t i n g t h e m e n ta l p r o c e s s e s to th e c r e a t i o n o f Im a g e s, an d t o l e t th e p u p i l l e a r n e v e r y th in g th ro u g h t h i s f r e e F o rm a tio n ; f o r o n ly th ro u g h f r e e c r e a t i v e p e r c e p tio n i s t r u e p e r c e p tio n p o s s i b l e . . . fro m th e B e g in n in g k e e p e x a c t p a c e w ith th e d e v e lo p in g P ow ers o f t h e c h i l d . 20 T h is s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f s e l f - a c t i v i t y w as to be th e k e y n o te o f t h i s new k in d o f e d u c a tio n le a d in g to w a rd f u t u r e s a l v a t i o n . The b e g in n in g s t u d e n t s m u st n o t o n ly be d e v e lo p e d i n t e l l e c t u a l l y , b u t t h e r e m u st be a l s o a p h y s i c a l ev o lv em e n t t o k ee p p a c e . T h is i s i n a c c o rd w ith th e G reek m axim , i n m ens s a n a , i n c o rp o re s a n o . F ic h te w as w is e enough to r e a l i z e t h a t i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o g r e s s i s h in d e r e d by 20 I b i d . . p p . 4 0 3 -4 0 4 . 177 p h y s i c a l r e g r e s s i o n , and t h a t one m ust be e q u a l t o th e o t h e r . T h is new ty p e e d u c a tio n w as to be fo u n d e d on e t h i c a l p r i n c i p l e s , so a s to p r o v id e t h a t common s p i r i t n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e d e liv e r a n c e o f th e S t a t e . T e n th A d d re s s . F u r th e r D e f i n i t i o n o f t h e German N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n (Z u r N ah ern Bestim m ung d e r d e u ts c h e n 21 N a tio n a l e r z i e h u n g ) . I n t h i s A d d re s s . F ic h te made m ore e x p l i c i t h i s c o n c e p t o f th e new e d u c a tio n . The s c h o o ls w ere now n o t o n ly to im p ro v e th e p u p i l ’ s i n t e l l e c t u a l an d phy s i c a l c a p a c i t i e s , b u t t o d e v e lo p i n him a s t r i c t se n se o f d u ty . I n o r d e r to do t h i s , e d u c a tio n m u st f o s t e r w h at F ic h te te rm e d th e i n s t i n c t o f m u tu a l r e s p e c t , f o r on i t s e x i s te n c e a lo n e w as b a s e d th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a l l i n s t r u c t i o n f o r G erm any’ s y o u th . The t e a c h e r s o f th e s e y o u th w ere t o be made c o g n iz a n t o f t h i s i n s t i n c t b e c a u se i t w as th e fo u n d a t i o n o f a l l m o ra l e d u c a tio n .. And m o ra l e d u c a tio n , a s h a s b e e n d u ly n o te d , i s t h e s in e qua n o n , th e v e r y e s s e n c e o f F i c h t e ’ s w h o le e d u c a ti o n a l p o l i c y . As r e g a r d s th e c u r r ic u lu m , F ic h te m a in ta in e d t h a t i t w as n o t th e p u rp o s e o f th e A d d re sse s t o s e t f o r t h a n y s p e c i f i c s u b j e c t s . I t w as o n ly th e p u rp o s e o f t h e s e A d d re s s e s t o s t r e s s th e o v e r a l l a s p e c t s o f e d u c a ti o n . B ut 21 I b i d . , p p . 4 1 1 -2 7 . 178 th e p r o p e r s u b j e c t s w o u ld be ch o se n a s a m a t t e r o f f a c t , when th e new p o l i c y w as in a u g u r a te d . As soon a s th e p r e p a r a t o r y d i s c i p l i n e s o f l e a r n i n g th e common know ledge th ro u g h s e l f - a c t i v i t y w ere c o m p le te , i t w o u ld become n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e p u p i l t o be rem oved fro m h i s home e n v iro n m e n t. E ic h te b e l ie v e d t h a t t h e home w as a c o r r u p t i n g i n f lu e n c e i n many w a y s. I t n u l l i f i e d t h e e f f o r t s o f t h e b e s t i n s t r u c t o r s b y b in d in g th e young t o t h e i r p rim a ry d u ty a s c i t i z e n s . The e d u c a tio n o f t h e young s c h o l a r f o r m anhood w as to p ro c e e d a lo n g p a r a l l e l l i n e s w ith th e u n i v e r s a l n a t i o n a l e d u c a tio n . O nly su c h an e d u c a tio n , l e d an d i n s p i r e d b y th e S t a t e , c o u ld in d u c e th e young o f t h e n a t i o n s t o ta k e up t h e i r r o l e s a s c i t i z e n s and n o t a s s e l f i s h i n d i v i d u a l s . E le v e n th A d d re s s . Who W ill Be Be s p o n s i b le f o r th e E volvem ent o f t h i s N a tio n a l P la n o f E d u c a tio n ? (Wen d i e s e s tt A u sfu h ru n g d i e s e s E rz ie h u n g s p la n e s a n h e im f a lie n w erd e? ) E ie h te s t a t e d t h a t i t d e v o lv e d upon t h e S t a t e t o c a r r y o u t t h e schem e f o r n a t i o n a l e d u c a ti o n . T h is e le v e n th A d d re ss s t r e s s e d th e p o i n t t h a t e d u c a tio n was s i n g u l a r l y a n a t i o n a l a f f a i r , an d a s s u c h , m u st be u s e d a s a n in s tr u m e n t f o r th e common w e l f a r e . As a u n iq u e m o d a lity f o r p ro m o tin g th e 22 I b i d . , p p . 4 2 8 -4 4 . 179 g e n e r a l w i l l , i t b eh o o v ed th e n a t i o n to c o n d u c t th e a f f a i r s o f e d u c a tio n , and t o p ay f o r i t o u t o f th e n a t i o n a l e x p e n s e . I n a d d i t i o n to t h i s and to augm ent th e p ro g ram th e S t a t e w as r e q u ir e d to s u p p o r t a body o f t e a c h e r s , m any o f “ whom w ere to be t r a i n e d i n t h e P e s t a l o z z i a n d o c t r i n e . T h is e m e rg in g e d u c a tio n w as to be s t r i c t l y G erm anic i n n a t u r e , and a s s u c h w ould p ro d u c e a new r a c e o f m en, o r so F ic h te a v e r r e d . E v e ry German S t a t e , h o w ev e r, w as to be in d e p e n d e n t o f one a n o th e r i n i t s c o n d u c t o f th e common e d u c a ti o n a l p o l i c y . P r u s s i a , ab o v e a l l , w ould h av e to lo o k to h e r s e l f a s a n in d e p e n d e n t and s o v e r e ig n n a t i o n . W h ile i t was th e p u rp o s e to r a i s e a l l G erm any, e a c h o f th e S t a t e s m u st f o llo w i t s p a r t i c u l a r p a t h . The h o n o u r an d g r a t i t u d e o f a l l Germ any w ould go to t h a t s i s t e r S t a t e w hich w as f i r s t i n i n s t i t u t i n g t h e new e d u c a tio n . T w e lfth A d d re s s . C o n c e rn in g th e M eans f o r O ur P r e s e r v a t i o n U n t i l We B each O ur M ain P u rp o s e (U eb er d ie M i t t e l u n s b i s z u r E rre ie h u n g u n s e r s B au p tzw eck s a u f r e c h t z u 25 e r h a l t e n s ) . F ic h te h ad a l r e a d y d w e lt upon t h e s a l i e n t f e a t u r e s o f h i s new m o ra l e d u c a tio n i n t h e p r e v io u s A d d re s s e s , a n d now he p o n d e re d w ith h i s l i s t e n e r s th e m eans o f s u r v iv a l u n t i l th e o b j e c t i v e s w ere a t t a i n e d . H is an sw e r 25 I b i d . , p p . 4 4 4 -5 8 180 w as to ta k e r e f u g e in th e German G e i s t . and a s c i t i z e n s o f so g r e a t a la n d be c o n s t a n t l y aw are o f o n e ’ s d u t i e s . He d e c la r e d : I f you a s k me how t h i s i s t o be d o n e, th e o n ly com p l e t e a n sw e r i s t h i s : we m u st s p e e d i l y r e a l i z e t h a t we can be o n ly G erm ans. We a r e n o t to lo se o u r s p i r i t ; h e n c e we m u st f i r s t o f a l l make f o r o u r s e lv e s a f ir m and s u re s p i r i t . . . we m u st e r e c t f o r o u r s e lv e s l a s t in g and im m ovable P r i n c i p l e s , w h ich w i l l s e rv e a s a c e r t a i n G uide f o r o u r T h o u g h ts an d A c tio n s . L if e and T hought m u st be f o r u s i f one p ie c e an d a s o l i d and i n t e r r e l a t e d W hole . * . we m u s t, i n one W ord, p r o v id e o u r s e lv e s w ith a C h a r a k te r . f o r t o h a v e C h a r a k te r and t o be German m eans w ith o u t d o u b t th e same I I 721 T h i r t e e n t h A d d re s s . F u r th e r E x p o s itio n Upon th e Same S u b je c t ( F o r ts e tz u n g d e r a n g e fa n g e n B e t r a c h t u n g ) T h i s A d d re ss w as a f e r v e n t p l e a t o t h e G erm ans t o k e e p th e m s e lv e s a l o o f from th e e n e m ie s who h ad in v a d e d t h e i r c o u n tr y . Gone w as th e c i t i z e n o f th e w o rld , a s F i c h t e d e r i d e s t h e u n i v e r s a l id e a o f m o n arch y s e t f o r t h b y B o n a p a rte a s a d e c e p tiv e v i s i o n . I t w as n e c e s s a r y , h e avow ed, t h a t e a ch p e o p le be l e f t to i t s e l f to d e v e lo p and ta k e sh ap e i n a c c o rd a n c e w ith i t s own u n iq u e q u a l i t i e s . T hen, and th e n o n ly , w i l l th e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f d i v i n i t y b e made p o s s i b l e . The l i b e r a t i o n w as t o b e g in w ith P r u s s i a b u t t h i s w as n o t to be a n a t io n a l i s m s t r i c t l y l i m i t e d t o t h e n a t i o n a l co n c e p t . P r u s s i a w o u ld h a v e t o l i b e r a t e G erm any, b u t Germany 24 I b i d . , p . 4 4 6 . 25 I b i d . . p p . 4 5 9 -8 0 . 181 m u st th e n be r e q u i r e d to l i b e r a t e t h e w o r ld . The aim w as freedom * n o t d o m in a tio n . The German V olk h a s p ro v e d th r o u g h o u t h i s t o r y t h a t i t m u st w ork o u t i t s own m a n if e s t d e s t i n y , l e t t h e German p e o p le now go a b o u t q u i e t l y , ig n o r in g b o th t h e c o n q u e ro r and h i s d i s p l a y o f pomp a n d cerem o n y . W ith a t r u e s p i r i t o f u n d e r s ta n d in g l e t t h i s be a d e d i c a t io n o f t h e Germ ans t o t h e i r new g r e a t n e s s , t h r u s t upon them by m is f o r tu n e ; and p o s t e r i t y w i l l be t h e f i n a l a r b i t e r b etw een c o n q u e ro r and c o n q u e re d . T h is w as th e p l e a o f t h e t h i r t e e n t h A d d re s s . F o u r te e n th A d d re s s . C o n c lu s io n (B e s c h lu s s d e s PR G a n z e n ). T h is l a s t o f th e A d d re s s e s w as i n sum m ation o f h i s e n t i r e p l e a . H ere a g a in he e m p h asiz ed th e g r e a t German h e r i t a g e . The q u a l i t i e s o f th e G erm ans w e re su ch t h a t i f h i s co u n try m en h e e d e d h i s p le a d in g , t h e y w o u ld y e t become g r e a t a g a in . He ad m o n ish ed them to ta k e h e a r t , an d e x p l a in ed t h a t g r e e d an d s e l f i s h n e s s h ad p lu n g e d thesm i n t o t h e i r th e n w eak an d p o w e rle s s c o n f u s io n . B ut now t h a t t h e y h ad b een a r o u s e d to t h e i r tre m e n d o u s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , F ic h te knew t h a t t h e y w ould r i s e and s t r i k e o f f t h e s h a c k le s o f t h e in v a d e r . He b eg g ed a l l c l a s s e s , a l l t y p e s t o becom e one i n 26 I b i d . . p p . 4 8 1 -9 9 . 182 G erm an y 's s t r u g g l e f o r r e v i v a l . They m u st a l l become a s one i n u n i t y o f th o u g h t* f o r i f Germany w ere to go u n d e r, a l l o f h u m a n ity m u st th e n f o llo w . Hot o n ly d o es p a s t h i s t o r y , b u t f u t u r e g e n e r a tio n s a l s o demand t h a t th e y f u l f i l l t h e i r common F a te . I t w as t h e i r g r e a t an d solem n d u ty t o k eep a l i v e th e s p a rk o f l i b e r t y and fre e d o m . A ll Germ ans m u st e n t e r w h o le - h e a r t e d ly i n t o th e f r a y . Ho one c o u ld o r s h o u ld be s p a re d fro m h i s j u s t and a l l o t t e d s h a r e o f t h i s awesome ta s k o f r e g e n e r a t i o n . T h e ir a g e , he w arn ed them a g a in , w as th e a g e w h ic h m u st assum e th e n o b le b u rd e n o f a d v a n c in g t h e German K u ltu r t h a t h a s a l r e a d y so in f lu e n c e d t h e w o rld , and w h ic h w i l l o n ce a g a in r e g a i n G erm an y 's p o s i t i o n . I I I . EFFECT OF THE ADDBESSES The A d d r e s s e s , a s a f e r v e n t p l e a t o awaken th e p a t r i o t i s m o f th e m a s s e s , h ad a m om entous e f f e c t upon P r u s s i a and t h e r e s t o f th e s h a t t e r e d German E m p ire. Some s c h o la r s a r e n o t q u i t e a g r e e d a s t o t h e i r im m ed iate e f f e c t , b u t i n t h e m a in , th e h i s t o r i a n s a r e unanim ous enough in t h e i r o p in io n a s to t h e i r o v e r a l l i n f l u e n c e . An e d u c a ti o n a l h i s t o r i a n w r i t e s t h a t t h e A d d re s s e s w. . . s e rv e d to a r o u s e an a lm o s t a p o s t o l i c s p i r i t o f n a t io n a lis m i n G erm any, and t o l e a d t h e way to th e c r e a t i o n o f a h i ^ i l y o r g a n iz e d and 27 e f f e c t i v e s y ste m o f n a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n .” T h ere i s no s e c u r e m eth o d o f m e a s u rin g t h e e f f e c t o f t h e A d d re s s e s e x c e p t b y w h a t r e s u l t e d . To ju d g e s o l e l y by r e s u l t s i s e x tre m e ly d i f f i c u l t b e c a u s e to o many c a u s e s e n t e r in to one e f f e c t . N o n e th e le s s , i n t h e c a s e o f Germ any th e r e w as a g r e a t r e a c t i o n to t h e A d d re s s e s . The tim e s w ere r i p e , and F ic h te h ad a p r e p a r e d a u d ie n c e . O th e r men h a d done yeoman w ork i n a l l t h e o t h e r f i e l d s . But i t seem s a s i f th e A d d re s s e s w ere th e c u lm in a tio n and th e r a t i o n a l e o f th e r e f o r m s . They sp o k e f o r a p e o p le d e te rm in e d t o r i s e and shake o f f an a g g r e s s o r . XV. THE SCHOOLS ARE REORGANIZED Jo h an n F ic h te an d h i s A d d re s s e s s e t i n t o m o tio n many o f t h e g r e a t s c h o o l r e f o r m s . I t i s n o t q u i te p o s s i b l e h i s t o r i c a l l y to t r a c e down h i s e x a c t in f lu e n c e a s a m o u ld e r o f th e f u t u r e German an d P r u s s ia n e d u c a tio n w h ich f o llo w e d h im . But t h a t h e d i d in f lu e n c e t h e g r e a t vom S t e i n i s a m a t t e r o f r e c o r d . A lre a d y m e n tio n e d w as F i c h t e ^ in f l u e n c e on th e U n iv e r s it y o f B e r l i n , w h ich w i l l be d e a l t w ith l a t e r i n t h i s c h a p te r on th e p h a se d e a lin g w ith th e U n i v e r s i t i e s . Von H um boldt, th e g r e a t e d u c a to r , w as v e r y much sw ayed b y p 1 7 E d g ar K n ig h t, T w enty C e n tu r ie s o f E d u c a tio n (B o sto n : G inn and Company, 1 9 4 0 ), p . 5 1 3 . 184 F i c h t e ’ s th i n k i n g , and he d id much g r e a t -work i n e d u c a tio n a s a r e s u l t . N a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f th e s c h o o l s . F i c h t e ’ s b u rn in g a d v o c a c y o f th e n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f th e s c h o o l sy ste m , s e t t l e d f o r h i s d a y , th e is s u e o f C h u rch an d S t a te a s co n c e r n s e d u c a tio n . H e, h im s e lf , w as a r e l i g i o u s m an, and r e g a r d e d th e C hurch m o st h i g h l y . He m a in ta in e d , h o w ev er, t h a t e d u c a tio n w as d e f i n i t e l y a c i v i c r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , and a s s u c h , i t w as th e o b l i g a t i o n o f th e S t a t e . F ic h te w o u ld p e rm it r e l i g i o u s t r a i n i n g i n th e s c h o o ls , h o w ev e r, a lth o u g h he i s e x p l i c i t upon e d u c a tio n becom ing n o n - s e c t a r i a n , and a s r e g a r d s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w h o lly u n d e r th e S t a t e . The C h u rc h , he i n s i s t e d , h a d f o r i t s d o m ain , th e s a l v a t i o n o f men f o r H eav en ; b u t F ic h te d e c la r e d t h a t th e S t a t e m u st lo o k to m an’ s w e lf a r e h e r e on e a r t h . The C h u rch , i n h i s tim e , r e g a r d e d i t s e l f a s a p a r t fro m th e c a r e s o f e a r t h , an d th u s a s F ic h te s a i d , " A ll o t h e r D evelopm ent o f man was l e f t to th e b l i n d a n d c a s u a l I n f lu e n c e o f th e 28 S o c ie ty t o w h ich t h e y w ere r a i s e d ; and t o e v e ry d a y l i f e . " B ut now t h e new e d u c a tio n f o s t e r e d by th e S t a t e w as t o change a l l t h a t , a n d a s h e c o n tin u e d : . . . i f now f o r t h e F u tu r e , an d fro m t h i s ^ v e r y h o u r i t s e l f , we a r e t o h av e a m ore d e s i r a b l e hope i n t h i s 88 F i c h t e , 0£ . e i t . , V I I , 4 2 9 . 185 m a tte r o f th e S t a t e , i t w i l l h av e to a l t e r i t s b a s ic c o n c e p tio n o f t h e aim s o f e d u c a tio n (zw eeke d e r E rz ie h u n g ) i t h a s h ad up u n t i l now, f o r so m e th in g a l t o g e t h e r d i f f e r e n t . I t m u st s e e t h a t i t h a d b een r i g h t i n n o t b e in g o v e r l y a n x io u s o v e r th e e t e r n a l s a l v a t i o n o f i t s c i t i z e n s , b e c a u se f o r t h i s S e l i g k e i t no s p e c i a l t r a i n i n g i s n e c e s s a r y . . . On th e o t h e r h an d t h e r e i s g r e a t n ee d o f E d u c a tio n f o r t h i s L i f e on E a r th , an d th e n fro m t h i s th o ro u g h e d u c a tio n , t r a i n i n g f o r H eaven w i l l e n s u re a s an e a s y su p p lem en t.2 9 P la c e o f r e l i g i o u s e d u c a t i o n . R e lig io u s e d u c a tio n , h o w ev er, o f w hich F ic h te h ig h ly a p p ro v e d , w as t o be l e f t to th e m i n i s t e r s and p r i e s t s o f t h e v a r i o u s d e n o m in a tio n s t o whom h e w o u ld g r a n t p e r m is s io n f o r t e a c h i n g , d u rin g c e r t a i n h o u rs a t th e s c h o o ls , t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r d o c t r in e to t h e f o llo w e r s o f t h e i r own s p e c i f i c f a i t h . B ut F i c h t e ’ s id e a w as t o k ee p m a t t e r s o f t h e S t a t e f o r t r a i n i n g b y th e s t a t e th ro u g h i t s e d u c a ti o n ; an d m a tt e r s o f f a i t h w ere t o be r e s e r v e d f o r t h e G h u rch . T h is m ark s an e r a i n e d u c a tio n , b e c a u s e h e r e i n w as s t a t e d a d e f i n i t e v ie w p o in t on t h i s c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e , and f o r Germany i t m ark ed a tu r n i n g p o i n t i n i t s h i s t o r y . Now P r u s s i a and a l l o f Germany w ere to h av e a sy ste m o f s e c u l a r e d u c a tio n . As S m ith w r i t e s : I n th e s e A d d re s s e s he f i r s t an n o u n ced th e p la n an d d e l i n e a t e d a l l t h e c h i e f f e a t u r e s o f t h a t c e l e b r a t e d sy ste m o f P u b lic E d u c a tio n w h ich h a s s in c e c o n f e r r e d su ch in e s tim a b le b e n e f i t s i n P r u s s i a and r a i s e d h e r , 29 I b i d . . P- 43 0 . 186 i n t h i s r e s p e c t , to a p ro u d p re e m in e n c e among th e n a t i o n s o f E u ro p e .30 As a r e s u l t o f F i c h t e f s t h e o r i e s , t h e s c h o o ls o f P r u s s i a w ere ch an g ed fro m t h e i r o r i g i n a l s t a t u s t o a m o d el s y ste m . From u n d e r t h e a e g is o f t h e c h u r c h , th e y em erged a s a S t a t e f u n c t i o n , r e s p o n s i b le o n ly to th e S t a t e . Un ham pered by to o many r e s t r i c t i o n s , t h e y f o r g e d th e m s e lv e s i n t o a n e f f i c i e n t in s tr u m e n t and h e lp e d a lo n g th e new e r a o f r e f o rm . F ic h te d id n o t l a y down a n y s p e c i f i c m ethod f o r a d m in is t e r in g t h e s c h o o ls . T h is p h a s e w as w o rk ed o u t by von H um boldt and o t h e r s who w ere a c t i n g on F i c h t e f s t h e o r i e s . V. THE REORGANIZATION OF PRUSSIAN EDUCATION C h a p te r IT show ed t h e g e n e s is o f P r u s s ia n e d u c a tio n fro m i t s o r i g i n a l s t a t u s a s a q .u a si-C h u rc h i n s t i t u t i o n to i t s b e in g ta k e n o v e r b y t h e s t a t e and made a n a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n . I n 1 8 1 7 , a s e p a r a t e D ep artm en t o f E d u c a tio n h a d b een c r e a te d an d e d u c a tio n was f o r m a lly on i t s w ay. B ut ev en e a r l i e r re fo x m s h a d s e t i n . R e is n e r s a y s t h a t a s e a r l y a s 1811: w. . . I n s t r u c t i o n f o r th e F o rm a tio n and M anagem ent o f G ity S c h o o l D e p u ta tio n s ” w ere i s s u e d , a c c o rd in g t o w h ich l o c a l b o a rd s o f o v e r s i ^ i t and c o n t r o l f o r p rim a ry e d u c a tio n w ere g iv e n a g r e a t d e a l o f a u t h o r i t y i n s c h o o l m a t t e r s i n tow ns and c i t i e s . The g e n e r a l i n t r o d u c t i o n 30 Y/iixiam. S m ith , P o p u la r W orks o f Jo h a n n G o t t l i e b F ic h te (L ondon: T ru b n e r an d Company, 1889) , p . 1 1 8 . T r a n s l a t e d b y th e a u t h o r . 187 o f l o c a l s c h o o l a u t h o r i t i e s in th e r u r a l d i s t r i c t s to o k p la c e a f t e r 1812 th r o u g h th e r e s c r i p t o f t h e r o y a l D ep artm en t f o r R e lig io n and P u b lic I n s t r u c t i o n d a te d O c to b e r 28 o f t h a t y e a r . T hrough r e g u l a t i o n s is s u e d i n 1817 a n d i n 1825 t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e sy ste m i n th e p r o v in c e s and th e c o u n t ie s (R e g ie r u n g s b e z irk e ) w as e s t a b l i s h e d . 31 I n 1 8 1 9 , t h e E d u c a tio n a l M in i s t e r becam e an o f f i c i a l p a r t o f th e K in g 's C o u n c il o f M i n i s t e r s . The d e p a rtm e n t w as e n t i t l e d th e M in is te r!u m d e s o f f e n t l i c h e s O h te r r e c h ts d e s g e i s t l i c h e n und m e d ic in a l A n g e le g e n h e it, w h ich made th e M i n i s t e r r e s p o n s i b l e , n o t o n ly f o r P u b lic I n s t r u c t i o n , b u t o f E c c l e s i a s t i c a l an d M e d ic a l A f f a i r s a s w e l l . F o r a d m i n i s t e r i n g t h i s new n a t i o n a l s c h o o lin g , th e M in i s tr y a r b i t r a r i l y d iv id e d P r u s s i a in to te n s c h o o l p r o v in c e s . T h is w as done b y r o y a l d e c re e a n d f a c i l i t a t e d s u p e rin te n d e n c e an d s u p e r v is io n . P r u s s i a h ad now becom e an e d u c a ti o n a l h i e r a r c h y , f i n a l a u t h o r i t y stem m ing fro m t h e h i g h e s t e e h e lo n ( th e M i n i s t e r and h i s C o u n c il) an d e x te n d in g t o th e lo w e s t p a r i s h s c h o o l. O v e r a ll p l a n . To e x p e d ite th e h i e r a r c h a l p a t t e r n , ea ch m a jo r p r o v in c e w as s u b d iv id e d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l y i n t o th e l e s s e r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o u n t i e s . T h ese a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o u n t ie s o r R e g ie r u n g s b e z ie r k e « w ere a g a in c u t up i n t o c i r c l e s ( K r e i s e ) , and f i n a l l y i n t o c o m m u n itie s (G em ein d en ). Edward R e is n e r , N a tio n a lis m and E d u c a tio n (New Y o ik : The M a cm illan Company, 1929) , p . 1 50. 188 R e is n e r d e s c r ib e s th e m eth o d o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n a l l o f th e p r o v in c e s . He d e s c r i b e s i t t h u s : The c i v i l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f e a c h p r o v in c e w as i n th e h a n d s o f a c o n s i s t o r y , p r e s id e d o v e r b y an 0b e r p r e s i d e n t , and e a c h c o n s i s t o r y w as d iv id e d i n t o t h r e e s e c t i o n s c o r r e s p o n d in g t o th e t h r e e f i e l d s c o v e re d by th e M i n i s t r y o f R e lig i o n , E d u c a tio n , an d P u b lic H e a lth . The s e c t i o n o f th e c o n s i s t o r y i n c h a rg e o f e d u c a tio n w as c a l l e d th e S c h u lk o lle g iu m . o r s c h o o l b o a rd . I t w as l a r g e l y l a y i n p e r s o n n e l and I t s s p i r i t w as c i v i l r a t h e r th a n e c c l e s i a s t i c a l . The m em bers o f th e c o n s i s t o r y , in c lu d in g th e m em bers o f th e s c h o o l b o a r d , w ere nom in a t e d d i r e c t l y by th e M i n i s t e r . A ll c o rre s p o n d e n c e d e a l in g w ith e d u c a tio n M w as c a r r i e d on f o r th e s c h o o l b o a rd th ro u g h t h e O b e r p r a s id e n t. The m ain b u s in e s s o f th e s c h o o l b o a rd w as w ith se m in a ry e d u c a tio n , a lth o u g h i t w as a l s o r e s p o n s i b le f o r t h e e s ta b lis h m e n t and m a in te n a n c e o f t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s f o r th e p rim a ry s c h o o ls a n d h a d a v o ic e i n a l l th e m ore im p o rta n t d e c i s i o n s c o n c e rn in g p rim a ry e d u c a t i o n .32 The s c h o o l b o a rd o f th e s e v e r a l p r o v in c e s a ls o h ad u n d e r i t s j u r i s d i c t i o n t h e e x a m in a tio n co m m issio n in c h a rg e o f th e s ta n d a r d s f o r a c h ie v e m e n t and e n tr a n c e o f gym nasium s t u d e n t s i n t o th e v a r io u s u n i v e r s i t i e s . I t w as a l s o r e s p o n s ib le f o r t h e e x a m in a tio n co m m ittee on th e p ro c u re m e n t and s e l e c t i o n o f t e a c h e r s f o r th e s e c o n d a ry s c h o o ls . The c o n s i s t o r y h a d w id e l a t i t u d e i n t h e i r e x e c u tio n o f s t a t e p o l i c y , b u t t h e y , t o o , w ere a s t e p i n t h e e d u c a ti o n a l e c h e lo n and w ith i n t h i s l a t i t u d e , h ad t o hew t o th e a c c e p te d d i c t a is s u e d fro m a b o v e . The a < 3 m in is tra tiv e c o u n t i e s . G oing down th e l i n e , 32 rbld., p. 131. 189 t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o u n t ie s w ere n e x t s e p a r a te d i n t o se m i- autonom ous u n i t s , each h a v in g a c o u n c il an d p r e s i d e n t . The S c h u lr a th n o m in a te d b y t h e M i n i s t e r o f E d u c a tio n w as t h e c o u n c i l l o r o f f i c i a l l y r e s p o n s i b le f o r t h e c o n d u c t o f p u b lic e d u c a ti o n . The c l o s e l y - k n i t o r g a n i z a t i o n o f th e P r u s s ia n s c h o o l s y s te m c a n be h e r e a g a in n o te d , when i t i s r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e S c h u lr a th h e ld o f f i c e a l s o a s a member o f th e I n t e r i o r D e p a rtm e n t, a s w e ll a s i n P u b lic E d u c a tio n . I t w as h i s d u ty t o h a n d le t h e c o rre s p o n d e n c e o f th e c o u n c il th r o u g h i t s p r e s i d e n t . T h is c o rre s p o n d e n c e c o n c e rn e d m a t t e r s o f e d u c a tio n ta k e n up w ith th e h ig h e r an d lo w e r e c h e lo n s o f th e P r u s s ia n s c h o o l h ie r a r c h y . S c h o o l i n s p e c t i o n and c i r c l e s . To f a c i l i t a t e th e i n s p e c t i o n o f t h e s c h o o ls , t h e c o u n t i e s w ere f u r t h e r s p l i t up i n t o C i r c l e s , and e a c h C i r c l e o r K r e i s , h ad i t s K r e i s s c h u l i n s p e c t o r w hose jo b i t was to k eep a s t r i c t w a tc h o v e r a l l o f t h e p rim a ry s c h o o ls i n h i s a r e a . The C h u rch * s i n f lu e n c e now e n t e r e d th r o u g h t h e s e i n s p e c t o r s . F o r a s h a s b ee n e x p la in e d p r e v i o u s l y , m o st o f th e s e p rim a ry s c h o o l i n s p e c t o r s w ere u s u a l l y men o f th e c l o t h . I n P ro t e s t a n t r e g i o n s , th e c i r c l e i n s p e c t o r w as u s u a l l y s e l e c t e d b y th e p r o v i n c i a l c o n s i s t o r i e s , and t h e i r s e l e c t i o n r a t i f i e d by t h e M i n i s t e r o f P u b lic E d u c a tio n . F o r th e C a th o lic a r e a , t h e b is h o p s s e l e c t e d a d ea n o f th e C h u rch , and s e n t 190 h i s name f i r s t in to th e c o n s i s t o r i e s f o r a p p r o v a l, and th e n to th e M i n i s t e r . P a r i s h o r s c h o o l d i s t r i c t . The lo w e s t ru n g i n th e new l a d d e r - l i k e sy ste m e x te n d in g i n a l l i t s r a m i f i c a t i o n s fro m one end o f P r u s s i a to th e o t h e r w as t h e G em einde o r p a r i s h s c h o o l. E ach G em einde w as r e q u ir e d th ro u g h due p r o c e s s o f law t o k ee p a t l e a s t one p rim a r y s c h o o l. T h ese c o u n ty d i s t r i c t s w ere a d m in is te r e d b y a s m a ll co m m ittee com posed o f t h e : . . . s c h o o l p a t r o n , t h e c h u rc h , th e c le rg y m e n o f th e p a r i s h to w h ich t h e s c h o o l b e lo n g e d , th e m a g i s t r a t e o f t h e G em einde. and one o r tw o h o u s e h o ld e r s who w ere m em bers o f th e S c h u lv e r e in o r s c h o o l a s s o c i a t i o n . 53 The d i r e c t o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e s e c o m m itte e s w as t r u l y d e m o c r a tic , a s e a c h r e l i g i o u s s e c t w as r e p r e s e n t e d p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y . I n th e c i t i e s , w ith one o r m ore s c h o o ls , t h e r e w as i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e m an ag in g c o m m itte e , a s c h o o l co m m issio n w h ich h ad g e n e r a l p o w ers o v e r th e p r im a r y s c h o o ls . As re g a r d e d i n t e r n a l an d e x t e r n a l a f f a i r s , i t w as th e c h u rc h m em bers a lo n e , who h a d a u t h o r i t y o v e r th e fo rm e r w hich i n c lu d e d s u p e r v i s i o n , an d d i r e c t i o n o f t h e t e a c h i n g s t a f f . T h is f a c t g av e th e c h u rc h q u i t e some p o w e r, b u t n o t enough t o be c o m p le te . The f i n a l i s s u e s w ere a l l l e f t t o th e e n t i r e 33 Ibid. . pp. 132-33. 191 co m m ittee t o d e c id e . T h is made th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n n a t i o n a l l y d o m in a te d . F o r th e b a s ic e d u c a ti o n a l com m andm ents, m a n d a to ry f o r a l l a t t h e i r d i s c r e t i o n , w as is s u e d fro m th e t o p . And s in c e a l l t h e c o m m ittee m em bers w ere a p p ro v e d and c o n firm e d b y th e p r o v i n c i a l c o n s i s t o r i e s f o r t h e i r p o s i t i o n s , th e u l t i m a t e c o n t r o l w as o u t o f th e h a n d s o f th e l o c a l com m i t t e e s . So lo n g a s th e y o b ey ed t h e b a s i c r e q u ir e m e n ts th e m em bers c o u ld do a s t h e y w is h e d . B ut t h e f i n a l w ord w as w ith th e P r u s s ia n c e n t r a l o f f i c e . vi. The e le m e n ta r y s c h o o ls P rim a ry i n s t r u c t i o n was i n e s s e n c e , p a r o c h i a l and d e p a r tm e n ta liz e d , b u t i t w as r e s p o n s i b l e i n a l l o f i t s g r a v e r i s s u e s , t o t h e M i n i s te r o f P u b lic I n s t r u c t i o n . Be c a u s e th e S c h u lr a th w as a t one and t h e same tim e i n th e c o u n c il o f th e D ep artm en t o f E d u c a tio n and an o f f i c i a l i n th e M in i s tr y o f th e I n t e r i o r , h e w as a b le t o s u p e r v is e th e l o c a l a f f a i r s o f t h e s c h o o l and r e c o n c i l i a t e th em w ith th e c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t i e s . Such a l i a i s o n b etw een tw o d e p a r t m e n ts sm oothed th e way f o r much o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d e t a i l . E d u c a tio n made c o m p u ls o ry . P rim a ry e d u c a tio n w as made c o m p u lso iy b y t h e is s u a n c e o f s e v e r a l e d i c t s . C o u sin q u o te s fro m th e b e s t o f t h e s e , th e Law o f 1 8 1 9 . He w ro te 193 i n h i s fam ous " R e p o rt on th e S t a t e o f P u b lic I n s t r u c t i o n i n P r u s s i a , " a s f o llo w s : P a r e n t s o r g u a r d ia n s a r e bound t o sen d t h e i r c h i l d r e n o r w ard s t o th e p u b li c s c h o o l; o r to p ro v id e i n some o t h e r m an n er t h a t t h e y r e c e i v e a c o m p e te n t e d u c a t i o n • P a r e n t s , o r th o s e on whom c h i l d r e n a re d e p e n d e n t (an d u n d e r t h i s h e a d a r e com prehended m a s te r s o r m anu f a c t u r e r s who h av e c h i l d r e n a s s e r v a n t s o r a p p r e n t i c e s , a t an a g e when th e y s h o u ld go t o s c h o o l) s h a l l be bound t o g iv e them a s u i t a b l e e d u c a tio n fro m t h e i r s e v e n th y e a r t o t h e i r f o u r t e e n t h i n c l u s i v e . . . A c h i l d who s h a l l h a v e gone th ro u g h t h e w h o le c o u rs e o f e le m e n ta r y i n s t r u c t i o n b e f o r e th e ag e o f f o u r t e e n , c a n n o t be ta k e n away fro m t h e s c h o o l b y i t s p a r e n t s w ith o u t th e p e r m is s io n o f t h e c o m m itte e , n o r t i l l a f t e r t h e m em bers o f th e co m m ittee c h a rg e d w ith th e i n s p e c t i o n o f t h e s c h o o ls s h a l l h av e p ro c e e d e d t o a n e x a m in a tio n o f t h e p u p i l , w hich m u st be f u l l y s a t i s f i e d a s to m o ra ls an d h e a l t h . P a r e n t s an d m a s te r s who do n o t se n d t h e i r c h i l d r e n , o r th o s e e n t r u s t e d to t h e i r c a r e , t o a p u b lic s c h o o l, m u st p o in t o u t to th e m u n ic ip a l a u t h o r i t i e s o r s c h o o l c o m m itte e s , w h en ev er th e y a r e r e q u ir e d , w h at m eans th e y p r o v id e f o r t h e e d u c a tio n o f su c h c h i l d r e n . 34 T h is p r o v i s i o n f o r c o m p u lso ry a tte n d a n c e a n t e d a t e s m odern law by o v e r a c e n tu r y . I t i s a la w t h a t i n su b s ta n c e c o u ld be u s e d a s a p r o to ty p e to d a y . The r e g u l a t i o n s f o r s c h o o l a tte n d a n c e a r e s t r i c t , j u s t , an d c l e a r . The law c a t e r e d t o a l l t h e c h i l d r e n o f p rim a ry s c h o o l a g e , and r e s t r i c t e d n o n e . I n o r d e r to e x p e d it e t h i s la w , v i t a l s t a t i s t i c s w ere c a r e f u l l y c o m p ile d i n a l l t h e p a r i s h e s . D e lin q u e n t c h i l d r e n w ere b ro u g h t i n t o th e co m m ittee f o r V ic to r G o u sin , " R e p o rt on th e S ta te o f P u b lic I n s t r u c t i o n i n P r u s s i a , " R e p o rts on E u ro p e an E d u c a tio n (New Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, 1 9 3 0 ), p p . 1 5 2 -5 3 . T r a n s l a t e d by S a ra h A u s tin . 193 d i s c i p l i n a r y a c t i o n b y t h e s c h o o l a u t h o r i t i e s . V ery seldom w ere th e c h i l d r e n re p rim a n d e d , i n s t e a d o r th e p a r e n t s ; f o r th e law c l e a r l y s t a t e d t h a t t h e b u rd e n w as th e p a r e n t s ’ . S u p p o rt f o r th e p rim a ry s c h o o ls . To f in a n c e th e s c h o o ls , r e g u l a t i o n p r o v id e d t h a t a l l p a r i s h e s be o r g a n iz e d i n t o a u to h o iio u s f i n a n c i a l u n i t s o f th e c o u n ty s c h o o l a s s o c i a t i o n . And t h i s g ro u p w ere r e s p o n s i b le f o r th e upkeep o f t h e i r own s c h o o l o r s c h o o ls . A ll p e r s o n s who owned la n d i n c lu d in g th e unw ed, t h e c h i l d l e s s , an d a l l th e h o u s e h o ld e r s l i v i n g i n th e p a r is h com posed th e l o c a l c o u n ty s c h o o l a s s o c i a t i o n . T h is m em b ersh ip w as n o t a m a t t e r o f c h o i c e , b u t a l e g a l r e q u ir e m e n t. A ll t h e m em bers w ere ta x e d , an d th e y a l l p a id i n t h e i r f e e s , w ith o u t d i s t i n c t i o n , i n d i r e c t p ro p o r t i o n t o t h e am ount and v a lu e o f t h e i r r e a l a s s e t s w i t h i n th e p a r i s h . A member c o u ld ta k e c a r e o f h i s f i n a n c i a l ob l i g a t i o n s b y o f f e r i n g w ork o r p ro d u c e . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e t a x in co m e, e a c h c h i l d a t t e n d i n g s c h o o l was r e q u i r e d to p ay a f e e . T hose who c o u ld n o t p ay w ere ta k e n c a r e o f o u t o f a g e n e r a l fu n d f o r t h e p u r p o s e . I n t h i s m an n er th e b u rd en o f s u p p o r t, a lo n g w ith th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , becam e i n e s s e n c e a l o c a l a f f a i r . The G overnm ent s e t up th e o r g a n iz a t i o n fro m a c e n t r a l o f f i c e , l a i d down c e r t a i n b a s ic t e n e t s r e q u ir e d o f a l l ; b u t th e e x e c u tio n o f th e la w s an d t h e f in a n c in g o f th e s c h o o ls w as 1 9 4 s t r i c t l y a m a tte r o f l o c a l c o n c e rn . The P r u s s ia n o f f i c i a l s knew t h a t a c h a in i s n e v e r s t r o n g e r th a n i t s w e a k e s t l i n k , to u s e an a n a lo g y , an d th e y t r i e d t o make a s tr o n g s e l f - s u s t a i n i n g u n i t o u t o f a l l th e com ponent p a r t s o f t h e i r s y s te m . S e l e c t i o n o f t e a c h e r s . From C o u s in ’ s e x c e l l e n t f i r s t h and r e p o r t , t h e r e i s p o s s i b le t o g e t a p i c t u r e o f th e P r u s s ia n s c h o o l sy stem i n 1830 w h ich h a s b e e n a c c e p te d a s v a l i d . He w as so f a v o r a b ly im p re s s e d t h a t he p r a i s e d th e w h o le sy ste m i n h i s r e p o r t . He w ro te o f th e m eth o d o f a p p o in tin g t e a c h e r s t h u s : As a g e n e r a l r u l e , a n y man o f m a tu re a g e , o f i r r e p r o a c h a b le m o ra ls an d s i n c e r e p i e t y , who u n d e r s ta n d s t h e d u t i e s o f t h e o f f i c e he a s p i r e s to f i l l , and g iv e s s a t i s f a c t o r y p r o o f t h a t he d o e s , i s f i t f o r t h e p o s t o f p u b lic t e a c h e r . F o r e ig n e r s who s a t i s f y a l l th e s e con d i t i o n s , a r e e l i g i b l e a s p u b lic t e a c h e r s i n P r u s s i a . 55 To k eep p a c e w ith th e new e d u c a tio n , e x c e l l e n t n o m a l s c h o o ls w ere e s t a b l i s h e d . The s c h o o ls , i n s e tu p , w ere u n ifo rm th r o u g h o u t P r u s s i a , so t h a t a n o rm al s c h o o l g r a d u a te h a d no d i f f i c u l t y w h e re v e r he a c c e p te d a p o s i t i o n . M ore d e t a i l w i l l be p r e s e n te d l a t e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r , i n th e p h a se d e d ic a te d to th e n o rm al s c h o o ls . C u rric u lu m . C o u s in ’ s s u p e rb r e p o r t d e s c r i b e s th e 35 I b i a •. P- 173* 195 ty p e o f i n s t r u c t i o n and s u b j e c t s o f f e r e d i n t h e e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l. He s e t s f o r t h a t g r e a t le n g th th e new c o n te x t o f th e c u r r ic u lu m , and g iv e s th e m ethod b y w h ich i t i s to be p u t a c r o s s t o th e p u p i l s . I n th e l i g h t o f m odern p r a c t i c e s , a g r e a t d e a l o f th e s u b j e c t m a t t e r an d th e m e th o d o lo g y a r e o u tw o rn . B ut c o n s id e r in g t h e c u r r ic u lu m a s a t r i a l e f f o r t t o r e o r i e n t a t e p rim a ry i n s t r u c t i o n , i t i s a c r e d i t a b l e a t t e m p t . The c u r r ic u lu m i s p r e s e n te d fro m C o u s in ’ s ob s e r v a t i o n s i n th e fo llo w in g m an n er: 1 . R e lig io u s i n s t r u c t i o n , a s a m eans o f fo rm in g th e m o ra l c h a r a c t e r o f c h i l d r e n a c c o r d in g t o th e p o s i t i v e t r u t h s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . 2 . The German la n g u a g e , a n d , i n p r o v in c e s w h ere a f o r e i g n la n g u a g e i s sp o k e n , th e la n g u a g e o f th e c o u n tr y , i n a d d i t i o n to th e Germ an. 3 . The e le m e n ts o f g e o m e try , t o g e t h e r w ith th e g en e r a l p r i n c i p l e s o f d ra w in g . 4 . C a lc u l a ti o n and p r a c t i c a l a r i t h m e t i c . 5 . The e le m e n ts o f p h y s i c s , g e o g ra p h y , g e n e r a l h i s t o r y an d e s p e c i a l l y th e h i s t o r y o f P r u s s i a . C are m u st be ta k e n t o in tr o d u c e an d com bine th e s e b ra n c h e s o f know ledge w ith t h e r e a d in g and w r i t in g l e s s o n s , a s much a s p o s s i b l e , in d e p e n d e n tly o f th e i n s t r u c t i o n w h ich s h a l l be g iv e n i n th o s e s u b j e c t s s p e c i a l l y . 6 . S in g in g ; w ith a v ie w t o im p ro v e t h e v o ic e s o f t h e c h i l d r e n to e l e v a t e t h e i r h e a r t s and m in d s , t o p e rfo rm and e n n o b le th e p o p u la r so n g s and c h u rc h m u sic o r p sa lm o d y . 7 . W r itin g an d g y m n a stic e x e r c i s e s , w hich f o r t i f y a l l th e s e n s e s and. e s p e c i a l l y t h a t o f s i g h t . 8 . The s i m p l e s t m a n u a l l a b o r s , an d some i n s t r u c t i o n i n h u s b a n d ry , a c c o r d in g t o th e a g r i c u l t u r e o f th e r e s p e c t i v e p a r t s o f t h e c o u n tr y . 196 The in s tin a c tio n s i n r e l i g i o n , r e a d in g , w r i t i n g , a r i t h m e t i c , an d s in g in g a r e s t r i c t l y i n d is p e n s a b le i n e v e ry s c h o o l. No s c h o o l s h a l l be c o n s id e r e d a s a com p l e t e e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l, u n le s s i t f u l f i l l s t h e w hole schem e o f i n s t r u c t i o n j u s t m arked o u t . 36 I t can be se e n th e n t h a t t h e e le m e n ta r y sy ste m th ro u g h i t s o r g a n i z a t i o n , a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , an d c u r r ic u lu m w as made i n t o a w o rk in g u n i t , e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t fro m w h a t i t h ad f o r m e r ly b e e n . P r i o r to th e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , th e p rim a ry s c h o o l s y s te m s o p e r a te d d i s c r e t e l y , an d w ith o u t p u r p o s e . Now, th ro u g h a d o v e t a i l i n g o f f u n c t i o n s , made e x p l i c i t in th e Law o f 1 8 1 9 , p rim a ry s c h o o lin g w as f a s h io n e d i n t o a w eapon p l i a b l e t o m a n ip u la tio n and am enable t o th e p u r p o s e • So lo n g a s th e aim s re m a in e d d e m o c r a tic , th e f u n c t i o n in g w as e x c e l l e n t , b u t when r e a c t i o n s e t i n , a s i t l a t e r d id , th e sy ste m w as in c a p a b le o f in d e p e n d e n t a c t i o n . Too g r e a t a s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n d e f e a t s i t s own p u rp o s e i n th e lo n g r u n , and l e a d s i t s e l f t o a b u r e a u c ra c y w h ich s t i f l e s i n i t i a t i v e . When th e s c h o o ls w ere f a c e d w ith th e c r i s i s o f s ta g n a ti o n th e y p ro v e d h e l p l e s s . 7 1 1 . SECONDARY EDUCATION The c h a r a c t e r o f th e l o c a l e le m e n ta ry s c h o o ls w as f o r m u la te d by l e a d e r s , su ch a s E i c h t e , f o r a n a t i o n a l and p o l i t i c a l p u r p o s e . The s e c o n d a ry s c h o o ls , w h ich h ad t h e i r 36 IWd., pp. 160-61. 197 own p r e p a r a t o r y d e p a rtm e n ts , w ere im bued w ith t h e same p r i n c i p l e s o r p a t r i o t i c n a t io n a l i s m , b u t th e y c a te r e d t o a d i f f e r e n t l e v e l o f P r u s s i a n . As M u lh e m re m a rk s a b o u t t h e s e s e c o n d a ry o r B u rg h e r s c h o o ls : . . . th e s c h o o ls o f th e m id d le and u p p e r c l a s s e s , and w ere pay s c h o o ls beyond th e f i n a n c i a l re a c h o f th e p o o r . I n th e s e p r e p a r a t o r y d e p a r tm e n ts , th e c u r r ic u lu m w as d i f f e r e n t fro m t h a t o f t h e f o l k - s c h o o l s , a f a c t w hich made i t a lm o s t im p o s s ib le f o r a p u p i l who h ad s p e n t a few y e a r s i n th e l a t t e r to t r a n s f e r t o a s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l .37 C o u sin a l s o d e s c r ib e d th e s e B u rg h e r s c h o o ls . He s a i d : B u rg h e r s c h o o ls , w h ic h , i n to w n s o f some s i z e and c o n ta in in g a m id d le c l a s s , f u r n i s h an e d u c a tio n s u f f i c i e n t l y e x te n s iv e and l i b e r a l to a l l who do n o t in te n d to e n t e r th e l e a r n e d p r o f e s s i o n . The P r u s s ia n la w , w h ich f i x e s a minimum o f i n s t r u c t i o n f o r t h e e le m e n ta r y s c h o o ls , lik e w is e f i x e s a minimum o f i n s t r u c t i o n f o r th e b u rg h e r s c h o o l s .38 B u rg h er s c h o o l s . The s e c o n d a ry s c h o o ls w ere m ore f l e x i b l e th a n th e e le m e n ta r y s c h o o ls , b e c a u s e th e y h ad b een d e s ig a e d f o r a c l i e n t e l e who v a r i e d so g r e a t l y fro m r e g io n to r e g io n . The e le m e n ta r y s c h o o ls w ere d e s ig n e d f o r th e la b o r in g c l a s s e s and a s su ch c o u ld be made u n ifo rm . B ut th e m id d le c l a s s o f P r u s s ia n com posed so many ty p e s o f p u r s u i t s , t h a t th e s c h o o ls v a r i e d so g r e a t l y a s to have Jam es M u lh e rn , A H is to r y o f E d u c a tio n (New Y ork: The R onald P r e s s Company, 1946) , p p . 4 3 3 -3 4 . 38 Cousin, op* o i t .« pp. B 1 5 -1 6 . 1 9 8 l i t t l e re s e m b la n c e to one a n o th e r i n m any in s ta n c e s * I n m any c a s e s , th e b u rg h e r s c h o o ls o f some t o m w ere so s i m i l a r to t h e gym nasium , o r p r e p a r a t o r y s c h o o l f o r t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s t h a t t h e y w ere c a l l e d p ro g y m n aslu m s. I n th e pro gymna s i urns. th e s t u d e n ts o b ta in e d l i b e r a l e d u c a tio n , a lth o u g h th e c l a s s i c a l a n d s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u c t i o n w as l i m i t e d . The gym nasium d e s c r ib e d f o llo w in g t h i s , w ere a l s o s e c o n d a ry s c h o o ls , b u t th e y w ere t r a i n i n g s c h o o ls f o r th e u n i v e r s i t i e s , an d u s u a l l y r e s e r v e d f o r th e u p p e r c l a s s e s . T h e ir c u r r ic u lu m c o n s is t e d o f c l a s s i c a l and s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u c t i o n e x c l u s i v e l y and a s a r u l e th e s t u d e n ts d id n o t t r a n s f e r , a s th e c u r r i c u l a w ere v e r y much d i f f e r e n t . H e re w ith i s a n e x t r a c t o f th e c u r r ic u lu m and m ethod o f i n s t r u c t i o n f o r t h e B u rg h e r S ch o o l p r o v id e d by th e R e p o rt: E v e ry b u r g h e r s c h o o l s h a l l a f f o r d i n s t r u c t i o n on th e f o llo w in g h e a d s : 1 . R e lig io n and M o ra ls . 2 . The German la n g u a g e , an d a t th e same tim e th e la n g u a g e o f t h e c o u n tr y i n th e p r o v in c e s n o t German, r e a d i n g , c o m p o s itio n , e x e r c i s e s i n s t y l e , s tu d y o f th e n a t i o n a l c l a s s i c s . I n a l l th e German p a r t o f t h e c o u n tr y , t h e m odern f o r e i g n la n g u a g e s a r e an a c c e s s o r y b ra n c h o f s tu d y . S. L a ti n i s ta u g h t to a l l th e c h i l d r e n , w i t h i n c e r t a i n l i m i t s , a s m eans o f e x e r c i s i n g t h e i r f a c u l t i e s an d t h e i r ju d g m e n ts , w h e th e r t h e y be o r be n o t t o e n t e r t h e h i g h e r s c h o o ls . 4 . The e le m e n ts o f m a th e m a tic s , and e s p e c i a l l y a th o ro u g h c o u rs e o f p r a c t i c a l a r i t h m e t i c . 199 5 . P h y s ic a l s c ie n c e , a s f a r a s s u f f i c i e n t t o e x p la in th e m o st re m a rk a b le phenom ena o f n a t u r e . 6 . G eography a n d h i s t o r y co m b in ed , i n o r d e r t o g iv e some know ledge o f th e e a r t h , o f th e g e n e r a l h i s t o r y o f t h e w o r ld , o f th e p e o p le who i n h a b i t i t , and th e e m p ire s in to w h ich i t i s d iv id e d . P r u s s i a , i t s h i s t o r y , la w s , an d c o n s t i t u t i o n s h a l l fo rm t h e s u b j e c t o f a s p e c i a l s tu d y . 7 . The p r i n c i p l e s o f d ra w in g s h a l l be ta u g h t t o a l l , c o n c u r r e n t ly w ith t h e le s s o n s i n p h y s ic s , n a t u r a l h i s t o r y , and g e o m e try . 8 . W r itin g m u st be c a r e f u l l y a tte n d e d t o , a n d th e hand t r a i n e d to w r i t e d i s t i n c t l y an d n e a t l y . 9 . The s in g i n g l e s s o n s s h a l l be a t te n d e d by a l l th e p u p i l s , n o t o n ly w ith a v ie w t o fo rm th em t o t h a t a r t , b u t t o q u a l i f y them t o a s s i s t i n th e s e r v i c e s o f t h e c h u rc h w ith p r o p r i e t y and so lem n i t y , by s in g in g th e p sa lm s o r c h o r a l m u sic w ith c o r r e c t n e s s a n d ju d g m e n t. 1 0 . G ym nastic e x e r c i s e s , a d a p te d t o t h e age an d s t r e n g t h o f th e s c h o l a r . T h is e n t i r e c o u rs e o f i n s t r u c t i o n i s in d is p e n s a b le t o c o n s t i t u t e a b u r g h e r s c h o o l. I f th e fu n d s o f th e s c h o o l re n d i t p o s s i b l e t o r a i s e i t a s te p h i g h e r i n t h e s c a l e , so a s t o p r e p a r e th e b o y s f o r th e le a r n e d p r o f e s s i o n s , and q u a l i f y them t o e n t e r t h e g y m n asia im m e d ia te ly , su ch s c h o o l th e n t a k e s th e t i t l e o f h She r e S ta d t s c h u le ( h ig h e r to w n sc h o o l) , o r P ro g y m n asiu m .39 The G ym nasien. G ym nasien may be d e f in e d i n th e f o llo w in g m a n n er: G ym nasien w ere s c h o o ls (s e c o n d a ry ) i n w h ich e m p h a sis w as p la c e d upon th e s tu d y o f a n c i e n t o r c l a s s i c a l la n g u a g e s . G ra d u a tio n fro m su c h s c h o o ls a f t e r n in e y e a r s o f i n t e n s i v e c o n c e n tr a t e d s tu d y e n t i t l e d th e 39 Ibid. . pp. 161-62 s tu d e n t to e n t e r th e U n i v e r s i t a t . and th o s e who p a s s e d th e e x a m in a tio n f o r th e s e v e n th y e a r c l a s s (o h e rs e c u n d a ) w ere p e r m it te d t o e n t e r t h e v o lu n ta r y one y e a r s e r v i c e i n th e arm y. I n G erm any, th e o r i g i n a l s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l w as t h e s e c l a s s i c a l G ym nasien e s t a b l i s h e d d u r in g th e m id d le a g e s to p r e p a r e f o r th e l e a r n e d p r o f e s s i o n s . The Gymnasium d e v e lo p e d i n th e s c a t t e r e d , h u t c l o i s t e r e d sy ste m s o f German c h u rc h e d u c a tio n d u r in g t h e m id d le a g e s . T hey e v o lv e d in to a n i n s t i t u t i o n s o l e l y f o r th e u p p e r c l a s s e s , h u t th e g e n e s is o f th e Gymnasium i s n o t t h e c o n c e rn o f t h i s s tu d y . S u f f i c e i t t o s a y , th e y w ere th e s c h o o ls f o r th e a r i s t o c r a c y . The n i n e te e n th c e n tu r y saw a d e m o c r a tiz a tio n o f th e Gymnasium. New e d i c t s w ere p la c e d i n t o e f f e c t , and new r e g u l a t i o n s is s u e d c o n c e rn in g th e t r a i n i n g o f t e a c h e r s i n 1810. The b e t t e r t r a i n i n g c a u s e d th e s e c o n d a ry t e a c h e r s t o he r a i s e d t o th e r a n k o f a p r o f e s s i o n by t h e P r u s s ia n p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t i e s . No m ore w as th e a v e ra g e t e a c h e r o f th e c l a s s i c a l s c h o o ls a clerg y m an who lo o k e d upon h i s Jo b o n ly a s a s te p p in g s to n e t o a m ore re m u n e ra tiv e l i v i n g . New c u r r ic u lu m f o r G ym nasien. The new c u r r ic u lu m f o r t h e Gymnasium d u r in g i t s r e o r g a n i z a t i o n in c lu d e d f o u r s u b j e c t s o f c o l l a t e r a l im p o rta n c e . T hese w ere L a t i n , G reek , G erm an, and M a th e m a tic s . W ith th e e x c e p tio n o f G re e k , th e SOI i n s t r u c t o r s i n t h e s e s u b j e c t s e x te n d e d o v e r t h e w h o le c o u rs e o f t e n y e a r s . The a g g r e g a te num ber o f h o u r s i n t h e i r c o u r s e s p e r w eek w ere s t a g g e r i n g , an d i t w as n o t u n t i l 1840 and J o h a n n e s S c h u lz e t h a t t h e g r e a t t a s k o f c o n s o l i d a t i n g t h e new o r d e r o f s t u d i e s w as a c c o m p lis h e d , an d th e " le a v in g E x a m in a tio n * w as f i n a l l y s e t t l e d upon a s th e o n ly way o f e n t e r i n g th e u n i v e r s i t i e s . The r e h a u l i n g o f th e h ig h e r s c h o o ls i n P r u s s i a i n 1 8 1 2 , l e d t o t h e G ym nasium 's p e rm a n e n t e s ta b li s h m e n t a s th e o n ly ty p e o f s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l w h ich c o u ld become an E i n h e i t s - S c h u l e , a s o r t o f u n i v e r s a l p r e p a r a t o r y i n s t i t u t i o n f o r a l l b r a n c h e s o f U n i v e r s i t y s t u d i e s . T h is new ty p e o f em p h asis w as d e s ti n e d t o e d u c a te m ore p e o p le , f o r i t w as a n a tte m p t t o b ro a d e n th e p u rp o s e s o f t h e c l a s s i c a l Gym n a s iu m . P a u ls e n t e l l s o f t h i s : I n 1 8 1 8 , J o h a n n e s S c h u lz e e n t e r e d th e m i n i s t r y . He w as h e a d o f th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f s e c o n d a ry s c h o o ls u n t i l 1 8 4 0 . H is g r e a t t a s k w as t o c o m p le te an d co n s o l i d a t e th e new O rd e r o f S tu d ie s f o r t h e Gymnasium i n e v e r y d i r e c t i o n by a c o n s id e r a b le num ber o f f u r t h e r r e g u l a t i o n s . He c a r e f u l l y d e f in e d t h e m e th o d s an d aim s o f te a c h in g i n e v e ry s u b j e c t an d e n d e a v o u re d t o e n s u re c o m p lia n c e and s u c c e s s b y e n t r u s t i n g th e P r o v i n c i a l B o ard s o f E d u c a tio n (w hich w ere s e p a r a te d fro m th e C o n s i s t o r i e s a s in d e p e n d e n t p u b l i c b o d ie s i n 1825) w ith t h e r e g u l a r i n s p e c t i o n o f t h e s e c o n d a ry s c h o o ls , an d by s t r i c t l y c a r r y in g t h e r e g u l a t i o n s c o n c e r n in g th e L e a v in g E x a m in a tio n s i n t o e f f e c t . The i d e a l o f " a l l a ro u n d e d u c a tio n " n a t u r a l l y fo u n d a n u n co m p ro m isin g cham pion i n t h i s d i s c i p l e o f H e g e l. He r e g a r d e d th e v a r io u s s u b j e c t s a s p a r t o f one o r g a n ic w h o le , n one o f w hich c o u ld be l e f t o u t w ith o u t s e r i o u s l y im p a ir in g i t s 2 0 2 40 e q u i lib r iu m an d e f f i c i e n c y . The new gym nasium w as a d i r e c t o u tg ro w th o f th e s o c i a l p h ilo s o p h y o f H um boldt, F i c h t e , and H e g e l. W h ile i t w as g e a re d to p r e p a r e s t u d e n ts f o r th e S t a t e , n o n e th e le s s i t s im m ed iate e f f e c t w as s a l u t a r y , i n t h a t f a r m ore s tu d e n ts w ere now a b le to ta k e a d v a n ta g e o f i t s o p p o r t u n i t i e s . P ro g r e s s com es s lo w ly , and t h i s e f f o r t w e n t q u i t e a w ay to e n l i g h t e n th o s e who w o u ld h av e o r d i n a r i l y re m a in e d i n i g n o ra n c e . V I I I . THE NORMAL SCHOOLS R e is n e r w r i t e s : A v e r y im p o r ta n t a s p e c t o f th e n a t i o n a l e d u c a tio n r e v i v a l i n P r u s s i a i n th e f i r s t q u a r t e r o f th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y w as th e s tr o n g e f f o r t made t o im prove t h e te a c h in g p e r s o n n e l . . . I n a d d i t i o n P r u s s i a l e d th e way i n i t s e f f o r t to p r o v id e a th o r o u g h ly t r a i n e d an d p r o f e s s i o n a l l y e n t h u s i a s t i c c o r p s o f p r im a r y t e a c h e r s th ro u g h t h e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f S c h u lle h r - s e m in a r ia n . o r p rim a ry n o rm al s c h o o l s .41 Many o f t h e s e t e a c h e r - t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s w ere e s t a b l i s h e d d u rin g th e u p su rg e o f n a t i o n a l i s m , a s a p r o t e s t a g a i n s t th e f o r e ig n y o k e . S in c e th e y r e c r u i t e d in g r e a t p a r t m any o f th e f i n e s t young men o f t h a t p e r i o d , i t w as 40 F r i e d r i c h P a u ls e n , German E d u c a tio n P a s t and P r e s e n t (New Y ork: C h a rle s S c r i b n e r ’ s S o n s, 1 9 1 2 7 , PP* 2 0 2 - 2 0 3 . t r a n s l a t e d b y T. L o re n z . 41 R e is n e r, op. c i t . , p. 1 3 6 . 203 o n ly n a t u r a l t h a t th e s e m in a r ie s w ere h o tb e d s o f e n th u s ia s m f o r th e n a t i o n a l c a u s e . T hey f u r n is h e d m any o f th e s o l d i e r s f o r th e War o f L i b e r a t i o n , a s a t e a c h e r w as a fr e e c i t i z e n , and f r e e c i t i z e n s a r e u s u a l l y m ore z e a lo u s t o d e fe n d and s a f e g u a r d th e i n s t i t u t i o n s w h ich v o u c h s a fe them t h i s p r i v i le g e . P u rp o se o f th e s e m i n a r i e s . T h ese s e m in a r ie n f o s t e r e d a n a w a re n e ss o f e v e n ts . P o r th e y w ere c o n d u c te d and a r r a n g e d w ith s p e c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s g iv e n t o p r e p a r in g th e s t u d e n t s f o r t h e i r f u t u r e p o s i t i o n s . E re q u e n t e x a m in a tio n s w ere g iv e n to w eed o u t th o s e n o t e x tre m e ly f i t t e d by i n c l i n a t i o n o r q u a l i f i c a t i o n f o r th e jo b . And t h e r e w as a r e a l e f f o r t to i n c i t e e n th u s ia s m , a s t h e f o llo w in g quo t a t i o n p o r t r a y s : A f t e r le a v in g th e i n s t i t u t i o n s , th e a p p o in tm e n t t o a p o s i t i o n i s s t r i c t l y g u a rd e d , and e v e r y p r e c a u tio n i s ta k e n to p r o t e c t t h e in c u m b e n ts o f o f f i c e a g a i n s t th e d a n g e r o f a m onotonous o c c u p a tio n and t o s u rro u n d th em w ith a i d s to s e l f an d p r o f e s s i o n a l im p ro v em en t th ro u g h l i f e . Books an d p e r i o d i c a l s , f r e q u e n t c o n f e r e n c e s , an d a s s o c i a t i o n s b y w h ich th e young an d o b s c u re t e a c h e r i s made p a r t a k e r i n a l l th e im p ro v em en ts o f th e m ost e x p e r ie n c e d an d em in en t m em bers o f th e p r o f e s s i o n , l i v i n g o r d e a d , i n h i s own and o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , a r e p ro v id e d i n e v e ry s t a t e . 42 I n a d d i t i o n , th e t e a c h e r e n jo y e d l e g a l r e c o g n i t i o n a s s H enry B a rn a rd , e d i t o r , M em oirs o f E m inent T e a c h e rs and E d u c a to rs w ith C o n tr ib u tio n s t o th e H is to r y o f E d u c a tio n i n "Germany ( H a r tf o r d : Brown an d G ro s s , 1871} , p . 6 4 5 . 2 04 a member o f t h e c i v i l s e r v i c e , m i l i t a r y e x e m p tio n , o ld ag e and s ic k n e s s p r o v i s i o n . I n s h o r t , th e a tte m p t w as to make te a c h in g an i n v i t i n g and g e n u in e p r o f e s s i o n . I t t r i e d to a t t r a c t t h e b r i g h t e r and m ore c a p a b le m em bers o f s o c i e t y so t h a t th ro u g h e d u c a tio n th e y c o u ld s e rv e a s g u id e s an d l e a d e r s f o r s o c i a l ad v a n ce m en t. i x . the; u n iv e r s it ie s I t w ould ta k e v o lu m e s, and a p e n c h a n t b e s id e s f o r i n f i n i t e s i m a l d e t a i l , to e v o lv e a p u r e l y l o g i c a l s y n t h e s i s and c o r r e l a t i o n o f t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e German u n i v e r s i t i e s fro m t h e i r i n c e p t i o n to t h e i r r e o r g a n i z a t i o n u n d e r von H um boldt. A c o m p lete an d n o n -se g m e n te d v ie w i s o u ts id e th e c o n f in e s o f t h i s s tu d y . A summary o f th e c h a n g e s , h o w ev er, w i l l be p r e s e n te d . P a u ls e n w r i t e s o f t h e i r f o u n d a tio n s a b o u t t h e second h a l f o f t h e f o u r t e e n t h c e n tu r y summing i t 43 up t h u s : The German u n i v e r s i t i e s d id n o t grow up g r a d u a l l y , l i k e th e e a r l i e r o n e s i n P ra n c e an d I t a l y , b u t w ere e s t a b l i s h e d a f t e r a scheme a l r e a d y e x t a n t and i n o p e r a t i o n . The s p i r i t u a l an d te m p o ra l p ow ers c o n t r i b u te d t o t h e i r f o u n d a tio n . The P o p e , by an e n c y c l i c a l b u l l , fo u n d e d th e i n s t i t u t i o n a s a te a c h in g e s t a b l i s h m e n t, an d endowed i t w ith th e p r i v i l e g e o f b e s to w in g d e g r e e s , w h ereb y i t becam e a stu d iu m g e n e r a le o r p r i v i l e g i a t u m f o r a c c o r d in g t o m e d ie v a l c o n c e p tio n s ^ F r i e d r i c h P a u ls e n , The German U n i v e r s i t i e s — T h e ir C h a r a c te r a n d H i s t o r i c a l D evelopm ent (New Y ork: The M a cm illa n Company, 1 8 9 5 } , p . 2 1 1 . T r a n s l a t e d b y Edward D elav an P e r r y . 205 t e a c h in g h ad i t s p r o p e r s o u rc e an d o r i g i n i n t h e C iiurch a l o n e . G ra d u a lly , h o w ev e r, th e im p e r ia l pow er e n t e r e d in to c o m p e titio n w ith th e p a p a l . M id d le a g e s . The m e d ie v a l u n i v e r s i t i e s w ere m o s tly t h e o l o g i c a l , a lth o u g h some few h a d f a c u l t i e s o f j u r i s t s an d p h y s i c i a n s . The c o u rs e o f i n s t r u c t i o n w as c e n te r e d m a in ly a b o u t th e a r t s ; an d th e p u rp o se w as t o i n s t i l th e young s c h o la r s w ith a good c l a s s i c a l e d u c a tio n . T hrough th e c e n t u r i e s t h i s p u rp o s e re m a in e d d o m in a n t. The ch an g e b e g a n to w a rd t h e end o f th e M id d le a g e s b e c a u s e o f th e n e e d f o r r e a d in g and w r i t i n g i n t h e c i t i e s , f o r b y th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y a l l th e l e a d e r s o f Germany b eg a n t o r e q u i r e a m ore l i b e r a l t r a i n i n g . But u n i v e r s i t y e d u c a tio n , by and l a r g e , w as l e f t t o th e s c h o l a r s . But a s P a u ls e n i l l u m i n a t i n g l y w r i t e s : I t w as i n th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y t h a t u n i v e r s i t y e d u c a tio n f i r s t r o s e t o su c h im p o rta n c e a s t o e n t i t l e i t s p o s s e s s o r t o c la im s o c i a l e q u a l i t y . T h is change i s c o n n e c te d w ith th e g r e a t s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l ch a n g es w h ich h av e ta k e n fro m t h e n o b i l i t y t h e c h a r a c t e r o f r u l i n g c l a s s p o s s e s s e d by th e m . The n o b i l i t y i s no lo n g e r a p r i v i l e g e d c l a s s o f l o r d s w h ich h a s a h e r e d i t a r y c la im upon a l l p u b l i c o f f i c e s w h ich a p p e a r d e s i r a b l e , th e y a r e o b l i g e d , l i k e a n y o t h e r c l a s s , to p a s s th ro u g h th e s c h o o ls an d th e e x a m in a tio n s , and th e n t o ta k e t h e i r p l a c e s in th e same l i n e w ith o t h e r a s p i r a n t s . . . Even th e s c io n s o f r e ig n in g h o u s e s a r e n o t w a n tin g ; th e y s i t i n th e same fo ru m s w ith r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f th e e x tre m e b o u r g e o is , and t h e s e same c o n t r a s t i n g ty p e s come t o g e t h e r a g a in on th e b e n c h e s o f th e I J n iv e r s it y . . . th e s c h o o lm a s te r , a s w e ll a s an y o t h e r , i s an o f f i c e r o f t h e R e se rv e and may become a P r iv y C o u n c ill o r . So c o m p le te ly h a s c u l t u r e g a in e d th e m a s te r y o v e r b o th t h a t th e o ld id e a o f m e s a llia n c e 44 h a s c o m p le te ly d ie d o u t. 206 U n i v e r s i t i e s c h a n g e d . T hus d id an a lm o s t s a c r o s a n c t t r a d i t i o n o f h i g h e r l e a r n i n g change fro m f e u d a l p r i v i l e g e to c o m p a ra tiv e e q u a l i t y i n one s h o r t p e r i o d . The u n iv e r s i t i e s no lo n g e r c o n c e rn e d th e m s e lv e s e x c l u s i v e l y w ith th e d e a d e n in g p u r s u i t o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l r a t i o n a l i s t i c p h i l o so p h y . In s te a d , o f c u r r i c u l a c e n te r e d a ro u n d t h e c l a s s i c a l s t u d i e s c a r r i e d o v e r from m e d ie v a l d a y s , th e y becam e f o c i o f r e s e a r c h , g e a r e d t o a l i b e r a l a t t i t u d e . The e r a o f R efoim saw t h e fo u n d in g o f s e v e r a l fam ous u n i v e r s i t i e s . The l e a d , a s we have s e e n , was ta k e n by B e r l i n , t h e c a p i t o l c i t y o f P r u s s i a . U nder v o n H um boldt th e U n i v e r s i t y fo u n d e d i n B e r l in w as d e s tin e d to become t h e c e n t e r o f fre ed o m i n l e a r n i n g ( l e h r und l e h r - f r e i g e i t ) . New u n i v e r s i t i e s . Bonn U n iv e r s it y was e s t a b l i s h e d soon a f t e r N ap o leo n f e l l . B r e s la u u n i t i n g w ith t h e a n c ie n t V io d rin e becam e a n ew er and g r e a t e r u n i v e r s i t y . M unich w as fo u n d e d in 1 8 2 6 , b u t n o te w o rth y a s t h e s e new i n s t i t u t i o n s w e re , i t w as B e r l i n w h ic h s e t th e p a e e . P a u ls e n d e s c r i b e s i t s p u rp o s e th u s : E s t a b lis h e d u n d e r th e m o st d e p r e s s in g p o l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s , b u t — c o n s id e r in g th e p r e v a i l i n g p o v e r ty — m u n i f i c e n t l y e q u ip p e d , i t h ad b een in te n d e d , fro m th e 44 Ibid. . pp. 115-16. 207 f i r s t , t o become a c e n t e r o f German s c ie n c e s and l e a r n in g — an im p e ris h a b le nomument o f t h e s t r e n g t h and s e l f - r e l i a n c e w h ich e n a b le d th e p r o s t r a t e s t a t e t o r i s e a g a in . . . The U n iv e r s it y o f B e r lin w as, a t th e same tim e , th e e a r l i e s t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a new t y p e , th e le a d in g i d e a l o f i t s f o u n d a tio n b e in g t h a t t h e u n i v e r s i t y s h o u ld b e , above a l l , t h e w orkshop o f f r e e s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h .4 5 Summary. T h is c h a p t e r d e v o te d i t s e l f to a c r i t i c a l e x p o s i ti o n o f th e A d d re s s e s , an d i t s e f f e c t upon th e s c h o o ls . The re fo rm o f th e s c h o o ls i n s t i g a t e d b y th e Reden w as th e m a jo r i s s u e . But no e v e n t o c c u r s by an d o f i t s e l f . I t w as se en t h a t th e s c h o o ls w ere e n t i r e l y revam ped an d made i n t o so m e th in g a l t o g e t h e r d i f f e r e n t from w h at th e y h a d b e e n . Such a ch an g e w as due t o s e v e r a l c a u s e s , a n d w as p a r t o f a g r e a t e r re fo rm e n v e lo p in g a l l o f P r u s s i a . The n e x t c h a p t e r w i l l p r o v id e a c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e c e n t r a l them e o f th e s tu d y , v i z . , th e m o d if ic a ti o n o f th e German s o c i a l o r d e r by th e s c h o o ls . P a u ls e n , German E d u c a tio n P a s t an d P r e s e n t , o p . c i t . , p . 1 8 5 . CHAPTER IX H O W THE SCHOOLS MODIFIED THE SOCIAL ORDER I n t r o d u c t i o n . The l a s t c h a p te r d is c u s s e d t h e e f f e c t o f F i c h te m a in ly th r o u g h h i s fam ous A d d re s s e s upon t h e r e fo rm o f th e P r u s s i a n s c h o o ls . T h is c h a p t e r , t h e f i n a l o n e o f t h e t h r e e m aking up th e h e a r t o f t h e s tu d y , w i l l s u rv e y t h e s u b s e q u e n t m o d i f i c a t i o n o f th e P r u s s ia n s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . A ll o f Germany w as a f f e c t e d , b u t P r u s s i a l e d th e w ay . T h is m o d if ic a ti o n can n o t be t r e a t e d i n a d i r e c t c a u s e and e f f e c t se q u e n c e , b e c a u s e to o m any f o r c e s o p e r a te d i n t h e s o c i a l a d ju s tm e n t, b e s id e s t h e s c h o o ls . E d u c a tio n , h o w e v e r, w as th e v e r y c o r e o f th e tr a n s f o r m a t i o n ; and a s su c h i t s i n f lu e n c e ca n be a p p r a i s e d i n some m e a s u r e . T h is m o d if ic a ti o n b y th e s c h o o ls o f th e s o c i a l o r d e r w as done th r o u g h t h e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f th e s c h o o ls . The s c h o o ls a r e a v i t a l p a r t o f t h e body p o l i t i c , i n t h a t th e y a r e a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e tim e s . I n r e t u r n th e s c h o o ls le a v e t h e i r im p re s s upon s o c i e t y . The d e l i c a t e e q u i lib r iu m e x i s t i n g a t a n y g iv e n tim e b e tw e en e d u c a tio n and th e s o c i a l o r d e r i s o f t t i m e s u p s e t b y e x tra n e o u s c ir c u m s ta n c e s . The r e l a t i o n w hich an y s c h o o l sy ste m sh o u ld h o ld i n i t s m i l i e u i s a s y e t a p o in t in c o n t e n ti o n . T h is c h a p te r p r e s e n te d an e p is o d e i n h i s t o r y , w h e re b y t h e s c h o o ls f o r g e d a h e a d o f s o c i e t y f o r th e tim e b e in g , and a id e d i n i t s m o d i f i c a t i o n . 209 I t s s i g n i f i c a n c e may f u r n i s h a c lu e f o r th e p r e s e n t - d a y c o n t r o v e r s i e s b e s e t t i n g e d u c a tio n . I . THE MQDIFIGATXQN OF SOCIETY S c h o o ls do n o t o p e r a te i n a vacuum . The m o d if ic a ti o n o f t h e P r u s s ia n s c h o o l sy ste m h ad a c o n c o m ita n t e f f e c t upon th e s o c i e t y o f w hich i t w as a p a r t . To d e te rm in e p r e c i s e l y th e am ount and e x t e n t o f th e m o d if ic a tio n c a u se d by th e s c h o o l sy ste m i s o b v io u s ly im p o s s ib le . A ll o f c o n jo in e d h u m a n ity upon t h i s e a r t h i s a c o n tin u u m , so t o s p e a k , and one p a r t o f i t i s in v o lv e d i n a l l th e o t h e r s . I n one g iv e n s o c i e t y a l l th e p h a s e s a r e i n t e r l o c k e d and enm eshed, an d no p a r t o f i t re m a in s u n to u c h e d b y th e o t h e r s . The h ig h e r th e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f th e s o c i e t a l g ro u p , t h e m ore i n t r i c a t e an d d e l i c a t e th e in v o lv e m e n t. P r u s s i a , b e c a u s e o f i t s g e o g r a p h ic a l p o s i t i o n , p r e s e n te d i n 1808 a n e x tre m e ly i n t e r a c t i n g s o c i e t y . A ll o f th e f a c t o r s w h ich com posed th e m o n arch y w ere h i g h l y i n t e r r e l a t e d , ea c h r e a c t in g upon t h e o t h e r . So. i t i s w ith th e h ig h e r c i v i l i z e d g r o u p s , u s in g t h e te rm e i v i l i z e d a s m ean in g s o c i a l i z e d , n o t n e c e s s a r i l y d e m o c r a tic a l ly . N a tu re o f th e P r u s s i a n s o c i e t y . The P r u s s ia n s o c i a l o r d e r w as a n i n t r i c a t e m echanism i n 1 8 0 8 . I t s h i s t o r y h ad f o r g e d a com m onalty u n iq u e among c o u n t r i e s o f th e w o rld . 2 1 0 T h a t i s why i t w as p o s s i b l e to so r e o r g a n iz e th e s c h o o l sy ste m , an d t h a t i s w hy th e s c h o o l o r d e r c o u ld i n t u r n m odi f y th e s o c i e t y . A n o th e r c o u n t r y , w ith o u t t h e same p r e d i s p o s in g p r e s s u r e s so c o n d u c iv e to n a t i o n a l i s m , w o u ld p e rh a p s n o t have b een so a b le to r e a c t . Be i t a s i t m ay, th e A d d re s s e s f e l l upon f e r t i l e s o i l , m ade so b y th e f o r c e s o f t h e p a s t . As th e P r u s s ia n s c h o o l sy ste m began t o f o rg e a h e a d , t h e r e fo llo w e d im p a lp a b ly a ch an g e i n th e s o c i a l o r d e r . I t c o u ld n o t be o th e r w is e . F o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l s com p r i s i n g a n y s c h o o l sy ste m a r e a t one and th e same tim e mem b e r s o f t h a t s c h o o l an d o f t h e s o c i e t y w h ich s u rro u n d s i t . I n h i s fam ous R e p o rt, Stow e d e s c r i b e s th e P r u s s ia n r e g e n e r a ti o n an d th e sc h o o ls * s h a re i n i t . He w ro te : B ut I w ish t o d i r e c t y o u r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e in f l u e n c e w hich t h e s e w id e s p re a d sy ste m s o f e d u c a tio n i n th e s o v e r e i g n t i e s o f E u ro p e , e m a n a tin g fro m P r u s s i a , m u st e x e r t on o u r own i n s t i t u t i o n s . The s o v e r e ig n s t o whom I h av e a l l u d e d , a r e n o t o n ly e d u c a tin g t h e p e o p le , b u t th e y a r e la y in g a s id e t h e pomp, th e t r a p p i n g s and th e l a v i s h e x p e n se o f r o y a l t y , and by s i m p l i c i t y , by r i g i d econom y, by a n e n e r g e tic an d i m p a r t i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f th e governm ent a r e e n d e a v o u rin g t o e s t a b l i s h t h e i r th r o n e s i n t h e h e a r t s o f t h e i r p e o p l e .1 As a r e s u l t o f th e new e d u c a tio n , P r u s s i a becam e f a r m ore o f a l i b e r a l m o n arch y . W h ile m o st o f t h e o ld c l a s s sy stem y e t re m a in e d , e d u c a tio n b eg an t o p e rm e a te among th e 1 G a lv in E . S to w e, " R e p o rt on E le m e n ta ry P u b lic I n s t r u c t i o n i n E u ro p e ," R e p o rts on E u ro p ean E d u c a tio n (New Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Company,"T 9 3 0 ) , p . 2 5 5 . 2 1 1 m a s s e s . They re s p o n d e d w ith a z e a l w h ich i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g , an d in t h e i r t u r n com bined t o e r a d i c a t e a good d e a l o f th e o ld e v i l s w h ic h a r e so a n t i t h e t i c a l to a d em o cracy . P r u s s i a became a m odel f o r o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . T h a t i s n o t t o s a y t h a t i t became an e n l ig h te n e d R e p u b lic . But i t s p r o g r e s s w as on a sound b a s i s , e . g . , th e e n f r a n c h is e m e n t and e d i f i c a t i o n o f th e b u lk o f i t s c i t i z e n r y . M onarchy l i b e r a l i z e d . B ecau se o f th e aw akened a t t i tu d e , th e p e o p le a t l a r g e becam e m ore an d m ore i n t e r e s t e d i n m a t t e r s c o n c e rn in g t h e i r w e lf a r e a s r e g a r d s t h e m a c h in e ry o f t h e S t a t e . And b e in g in fo rm e d f o r t h e f i r s t tim e , th e y w ere th e r e b y m ore a b le to p a r ta k e i n t e l l i g e n t l y i n t h e i r g o v e rn m e n t, i n s t e a d o f p a s s i v e l y s ta n d in g by and a w a itin g th e b e h e s t o f th e fe w . The f o llo w in g i s a q u o ta tio n from S to w e: I n e v e r y s ta g e o f i n s t r u c t i o n i t i s made a p ro m in e n t o b j e c t , and one w h ic h i s r e p e a t e d l y and s tr e n u o u s ly i n s i s t e d on i n a l l th e la w s p e r t a i n i n g t o e d u c a tio n , to aw aken a n a t i o n a l s p i r i t — t o c r e a te i n th e y o u th f u l m in d , a warm a tta c h m e n t t o h i s n a t i v e la n d and i t s i n s t i t u t i o n s , and t o f i x i n h i s a f f e c t i o n s a d e c id e d p r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s o f h i s own c o u n t r y .2 Stow e w as so im p re s s e d b y th e c h a n g e s w ro u g h t i n P r u s s i a t h a t he r e p o r te d e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y on e v e ry p h a s e o f i t t o t h e O hio L e g i s l a t u r e . H is e n t i r e R e p o rt w as r e p l e t e 2 I b i d - . PP» 355-56. 318 w ith encom ium s f o r th e new o r d e r i n P r u s s i a . B ut he w as a c u t e l y aw are t h a t th e r e f o rm s w ere o n ly te m p o ra ry , b e c a u se w h ile th e s o c i a l o r d e r h a d ch a n g ed i t was o n ly i n s u b s ta n c e and n o t in e s s e n c e , m ore a m a t t e r o f d e g re e r a t h e r th a n i n k in d . By t h e n , F i c h t e 's d e m o c ra tic i d e a l h a d b eg u n to f o u n d e r on t h e s h o a ls o f r e a c t i o n . A d e m o c ra tic e th o s m u st be c a r e f u l l y p i l o t e d th ro u g h th e r e a c t i o n o f C h a ry b d is , and th e l i c e n s e o f S c y l l a , e d u c a t i o n a l l y s p e a k in g . S to w e' s B e p o r t. S to w e 's v i s i t w as b u t t h r e e s h o r t d e c a d e s a f t e r th e P r u s s ia n d e f e a t a t J e n a . No w o n d er t h a t h e was am azed a t th e t r a n s f i g u r a t i o n t h a t he e n c o u n te r e d . So f a v o r a b ly w as h e in f lu e n c e d by th e s a n g u in a r y e f f e c t s o f th e c h a n g e s t h a t h a d t r a n s p i r e d , t h a t h e s t r o n g l y u rg e d O hio, and ev en th e r e s t o f .Am erica t o a d o p t t h e b e t t e r a s p e c t s o f th e P r u s s ia n s c h o o l sy ste m a s a m o d e l. B ut Stow e w as from a f r e s h new w o rld , an d a k e e n and i n t e l l i g e n t o b s e r v e r . He r e a l i z e d t h a t P r u s s i a h ad done a th o ro u g h and com mendable jo b , b u t t h e d e m o c ra tic i d e a l was m is s in g , and h en c e th e s a l u t a r y e f f e c t s c o u ld be n o th in g e l s e th a n te m p o ra ry . B ut he a d m ire d w h at w as good i n su c h a s y s te m . W ith a d a p t a t i o n s f o r a d em o cracy he w ould have th e U n ite d S t a t e s f a s h io n i t s own sy stem l i k e w i s e . He w as e n t h u s i a s t i c a s he d e s c r ib e d th e d i f f e r e n c e i n th e s o c i a l s t a t i o n a s a r e s u l t o f th e le a r n i n g r e s u r g e n c e . A b ack w ard n a t i o n , o n ce e n t i r e l y 213 r u l e d b y a d e s p o t, h ad now grown r e l a t i v e l y l i b e r a l . He com m ented o f t h i s m o d if ic a ti o n th u s : A new e r a in th e h i s t o r y o f c i v i l i z a t i o n h a s e v i d e n t l y commenced. A d e s p o tic k in g o f th e P r o t e s t a n t f a i t h . . . h a s now f o r f o r t y y e a r s b een p u r s u in g a c o u rs e o f i n s t r u c t i o n f o r h i s w h o le p e o p le , m ore c o m p le te , b e t t e r a d a p te d to d e v e lo p e v e ry f a c u l t y o f th e s o u l, and t o b r in g i n t o a c t i o n , e v e r y c a p a b i l i t y o f e v e r y k in d t h a t m ay e x i s t , e v e n i n th e p o o r e s t c o t ta g e o f th e m o st o b s c u re c o r n e r o f th e kingdom , t h a t h a s e v e r b e f o r e b e e n im a g in e d . Men o f th e h i p e s t o r d e r o f i n t e l l e c t and m ost e x t e n s iv e a t ta i n m e n ts a r e e n c o u ra g e d t o d e v o te th e m s e lv e s t o t h e b u s in e s s o f te a c h i n g : th e b e s t p la n s f o r t h e f u r t h e r a n c e o f t h i s , o b j e c t a r e im m e d ia te ly r e c e iv e d , an d g e n e ro u s ly re w a rd e d ; t a l e n t and i n d u s t r y , w h e re v e r t h e y e x i s t , a r e so u g h t o u t and p ro m o ted ; and n o th in g i s l e f t undone t h a t c a n h e lp to w a rd t h i s g r e a t d e s i g n .3 T h is w as in d e e d a h ig h t r i b u t e fro m an A m erican who came o v e r fro m a l i b e r a l d em ocracy t o s u rv e y a m o n arch y . Stow e r e a l i z e d o n ly to o w e l l t h a t b e f o r e vom S te in * s R efo rm s, th e p e a s a n t s a s a r u l e h a d no r i g h t s a n d p r i v i l e g e s su c h a s th o s e e n jo y e d b y th e c i t i z e n s o f h i s own c o u n tr y . They d id n o t own t h e la n d th e y so i n d u s t r i o u s l y t i l l e d , and m any o f them w ere in s e m i-b o n d a g e . Now, when h e v i s i t e d P r u s s i a , he saw a la n d o f e n f r a n c h is e d c i t i z e n s ; an d i t w as e d u c a tio n w h ic h h a d so g r e a t l y s ti m u l a te d a l l t h i s . He w ro te t h a t th e P r u s s ia n l e a d e r s had b ee n : . . . e n l ig h te n in g and e d u c a tin g t h e i r p e o p le , and t h a t to o w ith b e t t e r p la n s o f i n s t r u c t i o n , and a m ore e f f i c i e n t ac co m p lish m e n t i n p r a c t i c e th a n th e w o rld h a s 3 Ibid. , p. 251 814 4 e v e r b e f o r e w itn e s s e d . But Stow e e n t e r e d a solem n n o te o f w arn in g i n b i s R e p o rt. He a d m itte d t h a t a l l o f th e s e c h a n g e s i n P r u s s i a w ere re m a rk a b le and a d v a n ta g e o u s , b u t th e y w ere b a s e d on a f a l s e p re m is e . S o c i a l re fo rm to be e n d u r in g , h e i n s i s t e d , can n o t depend on t h e whim o f one i n d i v i d u a l , o r s e v e r a l , c a p a b le a s th e y may b e . P o r th e n n o th in g i s l e f t t o r e p la c e th e m , when th e y i n e v i t a b l y d i e . But a s o c i a l o r d e r fo u n d e d on t h e w i l l o f a l l th e p e o p le w i l l rem a in a s lo n g a s do th e p e o p le . D em ocracy r e q u i r e s a p a r t i c u l a r ty p e o f e d u c a tio n t o e n d u re . He w ro te : R e p u b lic a n is m ca n b e m a in ta in e d o n ly b y u n i v e r s a l i n t e l l i g e n c e and v i r t u e among th e p e o p le . . . to d do n o t p a t r i o t i s m and th e n e c e s s i t y o f s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n c a l l upon u s to do m ore and b e t t e r f o r th e e d u c a tio n o f th e w h o le p e o p le , th a n an y d e s p o tic s o v e r e ig n c a n do f o r h i s . 5 S to w e’ s R e p o rt, a n ey e w itn e s s a c c o u n t o f P r u s s i a i n 1 8 3 7 , i s a c c e p te d to d a y a s u n im p e a c h ab le e v id e n c e o f th e c h a n g e s w hich h ad t r a n s p i r e d . I n h i s own d ay t h e R e p o rt w as w id e ly c i r c u l a t e d and a c c la im e d . He m u st h av e b e e n aw are o f th e g r e a t c o n t r a s t o f th e P r u s s i a h e v i s i t e d , and th e P r u s s i a o f a q u a r t e r c e n t u r y e a r l i e r , a s m any o f h i s a l l u s i o n s a r e o f a c o m p a ra tiv e n a t u r e . H is R e p o rt b e a r s 4 I b i d . , p . 2 5 4 . 5 I b i d • . P- 2 5 6 . 215 w i t n e s s t o one o f th e h y p o th e s e s o f t h i s s tu d y , n am ely , th e P r u s s i a n s o c i a l o r d e r b e in g a f f e c t e d b y th e s c h o o ls . S to w e’ s R e p o rt d o e s n o t s e t f o r t h a n y id e a a s t o how g r e a t a c h a n g e , b u t he i s e m p h a tic in h i s a s s e r t i o n s t h a t th e s o c i a l o r d e r h ad b een ch an g ed , an d t h a t th e s c h o o ls w ere one o f t h e p rim e m o d ify in g a g e n ts . B a rn a rd an d h i s J o u r n a l . 6 Volume x n r o f th e s e fam ous la n d m a rk s i n e d u c a tio n h a s one w h o le s e c t i o n d e d i c a t e d t o t h e sy ste m o f i n s t r u c t i o n i n G erm any. T h ese J o u r n a ls a r e a c c e p te d w ith o u t q u e s tio n a s p o r tr a y in g re a s o n a b le f a c s i m i l e s o f s i t u a t i o n s o b ta in i n g i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . I n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r volum e t h e r e i s a n e x t r a c t e n t i t l e d , " S o c ia l C o n d itio n an d E d u c a tio n o f th e P e o p le ." T h is t r e a t i s e , co n tem p o ran e o u s w ith S to w e’ s R e p o rt, d e a l t w ith th e im p ro v ed c o n d i tio n s in P r u s s i a a s com pared w ith th o s e o f E n g lan d a t th e same p e r i o d . K ay s t a t e s : L e t t h e c o n t r a s t b etw e en th e s t a t e o f t h e e d u c a tio n and s o c i a l c o n d i tio n o f th e p o o r in E n g lan d and Germany be th e a n s w e r. I n E n g lan d i t i s w e l l known t h a t one h a l f o f th e c o u n tr y i s p r o p e r l y s u p p lie d w ith good s c h o o ls and t h a t many o f th o s e w hich do e x i s t , a r e u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n o f v e r y i n e f f i c i e n t and so m etim es o f a c t u a l l y im m oral te a c h e rs T I n Germ any and S w itz e rla n d e v e r y p a r i s h i s s u p p lie d w ith i t s s c h o o l b u i l d i n g s , an d e a c h s c h o o l i s d i r e c t e d by a t e a c h e r o f h ig h p r i n c i p l e s , and s u p e r i o r e d u c a ti o n , and i n t e l l i g e n c e . Such a s p le n d id s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n h a s n o t A H enry B a rn a rd , e d i t o r , The A m erican J o u r n a l o f Edu c a t i o n (32 Y o l s .; H a r tf o r d : H enry B a rn a rd , 1 8 5 6 -8 2 ). 2 1 6 e x i s t e d w ith o u t e f f e c t i n g m a g n if ic e n t r e s u l t s , and th e G erm ans and S w iss m ay now p r o u d ly p o in t t o th e c h a r a c t e r and c o n d i tio n o f t h e i r p e a s a n t r y .? A c c o rd in g to B a rn a rd , t h i s r e p o r t w as w id e ly h e r a ld e d i n E n g la n d , r e a c h in g th e v e r y g o v ern m en t i t s e l f . B a rn a rd h im s e lf a c c e p te d th e s u rv e y o f c o n d i tio n s w ith o u t q u e s t i o n , and t h e J o u r n a l d id n o t d e a l i n h a p h a z a rd r e p o r t s . B a rn a rd * s J o u r n a l i s to d a y fam ous a s a f o u n ta in o f a u t h e n t i c knov/ledge on e d u c a tio n a l a f f a i r s . 8 Mann * s R e p o r t. B a rn a rd ’ s J o u r n a l i s t h e r e p o s i t o r y o f m any fam ous d o cu m en ts. Among t h e s e a r e e x t r a c t s fro m th e A nnual R e p o rts o f th e fam ous e d u c a to r , H orace M ann. As S e c r e t a r y o f th e B oard o f E d u c a tio n i n M a s s a c h u s e tts , he p r e s e n te d an a c c o u n t t o th e B oard i n 1843 o f h i s t o u r th ro u g h G erm any. I n t h i s e x t r a c t Mann w as t a l k i n g o f t h e s c h o o l m a s te r s o f G enaany, to whom h e r e f e r r e d a s b e in g f u l l o f z e a l and e n th u s ia s m f o r t h e i r jo b a s r e f o r m e r s . He w ro te in g lo w in g te r m s : Whence come t h i s b e n e f i c i a l o r d e r o f men s c a t t e r e d o v e r t h e w h o le c o u n tr y , m o ld in g t h e c h a r a c t e r o f i t s p e o p l e ; and c a r r y in g them fo rw a rd on a c a r e e r o f c i v i l i z a t i o n m ore r a p i d l y th a n an y o t h e r p e o p le i n th e w o rld a r e now advan cin g .* * 7 I b i d . , XXIX, 74 8 . 8 I b i d . . p p . 7 7 8 -9 2 , 8 2 3 -2 9 . 9 I b i d . , p . 4 1 . 217 S tro n g w o rd s in d e e d fro m a man a s c a r e f u l l y o b s e rv a n t a s H o race Mann. T h is w as no f i g u r e o f sp e e c h b u r s t i n g f o r t h in a f i t o f m om entary r a p t u r e , f o r Mann w as a c a p a b le schoolm an o b s e rv in g a n o t h e r c o u n try a s he saw i t , and much o f h i s w h o le R e p o rt i s o f an a d m irin g n a t u r e . And y e t Mann d id n o t w h o lly a p p ro v e o f th e German sy ste m o f p u b li c i n s t r u c t i o n , n o r t h e ty p e o f re fo rm s e n g e n d e re d by i t . He im m e d ia te ly r e c o g n iz e d th e i n h e r e n t w ea k n ess i n a h ig h ly c e n t r a l i z e d a u t o c r a t i c e d u c a ti o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . H is c r i t i c i s m w as c o g e n t and to th e p o i n t . He re m a rk e d : I do n o t m ean t o sa y t h a t Germany h a s r e c e iv e d a l l o f h e r b e n e f i t s . I t i s im p o r ta n t t o o b s e rv e t h a t th e r e fo rm s i n e d u c a tio n i n t h e c o u n tr y , go o u t fro m t h i s g o v e rn m e n t, n o t fro m th e p e o p le th e m s e lv e s , who r a t h e r p a s s i v e l y su b m it t o i t s o p e r a t io n , t h a n a c t u a l l y co o p e r a te i n g iv in g i t e f f i c a c y . 3-° 1 1 C ousin* s R e p o r t. T h is R e p o rt a l r e a d y q u o te d fro m , and ack n o w led g ed , a l s o h a s some s tr o n g te s tim o n y t o b e a r w itn e s s upon t h e s o c i a l re fo rm u n d erg o n e by G erm any, and so in f lu e n c e d b y i t s s c h o o ls . C o u sin s t a t e d i n h i s R e p o rt: I n P r u s s i a , a l l p u b l i c s e r v a n t s a r e p a i d ; an d a s no p o s t w h a te v e r c a n be o b ta in e d w ith o u t p a s s in g th ro u g h th e m ost r ig o r o u s e x a m in a tio n s , a l l a r e a b le and e n l i g h t e n e d m en. And a s , m o re o v e r, t h e y e r e ta k e n fro m 10 Ibia.. p. 48. ^ V ic t o r C o u s in , " B e p o r t on P u b lic I n s t r u c t i o n i n P r u s s i a , ” R e p o rts on E u ro p ean E d u c a tio n (New Y ork: McGraw- H i l l Book Company ,~ T 930}, p p . 1 1 5 -2 4 0 . T r a n s la te d by S a ra h A u s tin . 818 e v e ry c l a s s o f s o c i e t y , t h e y b r in g to t h e e x e r c is e o f t h e i r d u t i e s t h e g e n e r a l s p i r i t o f t h e n a t i o n , w h ile i n t h a t e x e r c i s e , th e y c o n t r a c t h a b i t s o f p u b lic b u s in e s s r * 2 C o u s in ’ s R e p o rt h a d a g r e a t e f f e c t upon th e p e r io d i n 1 3 w h ic h he w r o te . K n ig h t, i n h i s p r e f a c e t o C o u s in ’ s R e p o rt, t e l l s o f how p e o p le a l l o v e r E n g la n d r e a c te d to h i s o b s e r v a t i o n s . H is R e p o rt w as f a v o r a b ly com m ented upon b y th e m o st r e p u ta b le s o u r c e s o f t h a t day* E v id e n tly th e P r u s s ia n s o c i a l r e f o r m a tio n im p re s s e d h i s r e a d e r s . K n ig h t w r i t e s : Such c h e e r in g symptoms o f a g e n e r a l te n d e n c y o f th e p u b lic m ind o f E n g lan d to w a rd s th e s u b j e c t o f N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n , h av e b een w atch ed w ith s o l i c i t u d e an d h a i l e d w ith d e l i g h t by a l l who a r e im p re s s e d w ith i t s im p o rt a n c e . M o reo v er t h e F a c to r y C om m ission, t h e P o o r Law C om m ission, and o t h e r p u b lic an d p r i v a t e i n q u i r i e s a n d r e p o r t s h ad te n d e d m ore and m ore t o r e v e a l t h e e x tre m e u rg e n c y o f o u r own i n t e l l e c t u a l and m o ra l w an ts* E s p e c i a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t w ere t h e f a v o r a b le o p in io n o f a sy ste m o f f u l l a c t i v i t y among a w h o le p e o p le . . T h is e f f e c t upon E n g lan d o f th e R e p o rt, i s c o n c lu s iv e e v id e n c e t h a t c h a n g e s i n P r u s s i a c a l c u l a t e d t o c a u s e r e s p e c t , h ad o c c u rr e d a s a r e s u l t o f th e s o c i a l u p h e a v a l. When an e n lig h te n e d m o n arch y s e e s i n a n o th e r an d fo rm e r d e s p o tic n a t i o n c h a n g e s so s a l u t a r y t h a t sh e w is h e d t o a d o p t some o f them f o r h e r s e l f , i t i s o b v io u s t h a t so m e th in g u n iq u e h a s ta k e n p la c e i n th e o t h e r c o u n tr y . No d o u b t t h e fe rm e n t o f 12 I M - PP- 1 2 8 -3 9 . 1® E d g a r K n ig h t, H e p o rts on E u ro p ean E d u c a tio n (Hew Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Company, 1930T , 328 p p . 14 I b i d . , p . 1 1 9 . F i c h t e 's i d e a s w as s t i l l w orking* 219 P a u ls e n 1s R e p o r ts * P a u ls e n w as n o t a f i r s t - h a n d ob s e r v e r o f th e German r e g e n e r a t i o n , b u t h e w as one o f h e r g r e a t e s t h i s t o r i a n s and w as f a m i l i a r enough w ith th e p a s t t h a t m ost o f o u r e d u c a ti o n a l h i s t o r i a n s to d a y q u o te h im . From him we g e t a n i d e a a l s o o f th e German re fo rm i n d i c a t i v e o f how t h e s c h o o ls w ere ch an g ed a n d how th e y i n t u r n , in f lu e n c e d th e s o c i a l sy ste m . He w r i t e s o f one p h a s e o f e d u c a tio n , th e u n i v e r s i t i e s an d t h e i r g r e a t c h a n g e . He s a y s : I t i s th u s t h a t we m ay sp e a k o f th e d e m o c ra tic c h a r a c t e r o f t h e German U n iv e r s it y , in asm u ch a s i t e x c lu d e s nobody by r e a s o n o f h i s b i r t h , and m akes e q u a ls o f a l l i t s m em bers. T h is w as a d m ira b ly esq p ressed by E r n s t M o ritz A rn d t i n 1815 i n h i s m ag azin e P e r W a c h te r. nAs a c i t i z e n o f th e u n i v e r s i t y , th e so n o f th e p o o r e s t and m ost o b s c u re p a r e n t s , i f he be a c t i v e and w e l l - e q u ip p e d i n b o d y and m in d , may e n t e r t h e l i s t s w ith th e n o b le s t a n d p r o u d e s t, and he who i s th e b o ld e s t i n s p i r i t , i n w i l l and i n c o u ra g e , m ay, i f h e w ish p ro c e e d th ro u g h in b o rn n o b i l i t y . ” 15 No d o u b t t h i s e n th u s ia s m w as e n g e n d e re d b y th e c h a n g es s e e n by A rn d t. A rn d t a s we h av e se e n w as a D i c h t e r , a man who u s e d p o e t ie l i c e n s e . But n o n e t h e le s s a l i t e r a t u r e many tim e s r e f l e c t s an a g e , an d th e e v e n ts w h ich t r a n s p i r e d w ere m om entous enough f o r A rn d t t o s e e v i s i o n s o f a f u l f i l l e d 15 F r i e d r i c h P a u ls e n . The German U h i v e r s i t i e s — T h e ir C h a r a c te r and D evelopm ent (New Y ork: The M a cm illan Com p a n y , 1 8 9 5 ), p p . 1 1 7 -1 8 . T r a n s la te d by Edw ard D elav an P e r r y . 2 2 0 d ream . E r n s t M o ritz A rn d t was a p o e t o f th e p e o p le , an d a s su ch w as v e r y m uch a f f e c t e d by t h e n o b le s o c i a l r e f o r m s . P a u ls e n sa y s o f t h i s d e m o c r a tiz a tio n p r o c e s s c a u se d i n s o c i e t y b y th e u n i v e r s i t i e s : F i n a l l y , a s r e g a r d s th e ra n k s o f s o c i e t y from w hich p ro c e e d th e p o s s e s s o r s o f acad em ic c u l t u r e , we m ay s a y t h a t t h e y came fro m a l l c l a s s e s o f s o c i e t y . I n th e gym nasium and th e u n i v e r s i t y we f in d t h e so n s o f p e a s a n ts and m e c h a n ic s , o f v i l l a g e s c h o o lm a s te rs and p e t t y o f f i c i a l s , b y th e s i d e s o f th e so n s o f t h e a r i s t o c r a c i e s o f b i r t h and w e a lth . As a m a tte r o f p r i n c i p l e a l l "acad em ic c i tiz e n s * ' f e e l th e m s e lv e s t o be t h e e q u a ls , and h o n o r e a c h o t h e r a c c o r d in g ly . . . On t h e w hole t h i s p r i n c i p l e p r e v a i l s : W hoever h a s e a rn e d t h e r i g h t s o f acad em ic c i t i z e n s h i p h a s g a in e d t h e r e b y th e p r i v i l e g e o f tr e a tm e n t a s an e q u a l . . T r e its o h k e * s R e p o r ts . The R e p o rts o f S to w er C a lv in , C o u s in , M ann, an d B a rn a rd w ere o f a f i r s t - h a n d n a t u r e and above a l l e d u c a t i o n a l . Among th e p u r e l y h i s t o r i c a l a n d s e c o n d a ry s o u r c e s , th o s e r e c o g n iz e d a s m o st a u t h e n t i c , a r e th e w o rk s o f t h e g r e a t German h i s t o r i a n G o t t f r i e d T r e its c h k e . H is r e p o r t i n g and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h i s t o r y a r e s c i e n t i f i c i n a p p ro a c h . He w r i t e s o f th e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n th e P r u s s ia n S t a t e . He s a y s : The id e a o f u n i v e r s a l m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e o r i g i n a t e d i n a p o l i t i c a l i d e a l i s m w h ich re m in d s u s o f th e e n e rg y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e id e a o f t h e s t a t e i n c l a s s i c a l d a y s . The same f r e e a n d b ro a d c o n c e p tio n o f th e s t a t e w as m a n if e s te d i n th e s p h e re o f e d u c a tio n . Among a l l th o s e who k e p t t h e i r m in d s a l e r t d u rin g th e e x p e r ie n c e s o f r e c e n t y e a r s , th e c o n v i c ti o n h a d become f ir m ly 16 I b i d . , p . 117 2 2 1 e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t th e r e c o n c i l i a t i o n o f t h e P r u s s ia n s t a t e w ith t h e new c u l t u r e o f t h e n a t i o n , a r e c o n c i l i a t i o n a t l e n g t h r e a l i z e d , m u st be s e c u re d a s a p e m a n e n t re q u ire m e n t . . . The s t a t e w hich i n t h e h a r d s t r u g g l e f o r e x i s t e n c e , h ad a s a r u l e a llo w e d s c ie n c e t o s t a r v e , g r a d u a l l y came t o u t i l i z e i t s r e s o u r c e s m ore e f f e c t i v e l y on b e h a lf o f p o p u la r e d u c a tio n th a n d id a n y o t h e r g r e a t p ow er o f t h e d a y , so t h a t t h e e d u c a ti o n a l i n s t i t u t e s o f P r u s s i a m ig jit be com pared w ith th e b e s t i n E u ro p e . 17 T h is a c c o u n t i s p la c e d i n 1 8 1 7 , n in e y e a r s a f t e r F i c h t e ’ s A d d re s s e s . I t may be s e e n how t h e id e a o f th e s c h o o ls a s a m eth o d o f re fo rm o c c u p ie d th e m in d s o f a l l th e l i b e r a l m en; and how e d u c a tio n i n t u r n th e n became a p a t t e r n f o r t h e w o r ld . T h is w as q u i t e a ch an g e fro m th e o l d m o n a rc h ia l P r u s s i a o f th e F re d e r ic k s * c lo s e r u l e . I I . THE MEANS BY WHICH THE SCHOOLS MODIFIED THE SOCIAL ORDER I t h a s b een n o te d i n C h a p te r T i l l how c o m p le te ly t h e s c h o o ls h a d b e e n r e o r g a n iz e d . The s u p e r v is io n and d i r e c t i o n o f a l l e d u c a tio n w as e x e r c i s e d by th e g o vernm ent th ro u g h th e M i n i s t r y o f H e a lth a n d P u b lic E d u c a tio n . The M i n i s t e r w as a s s i s t e d i n h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d u t i e s by a c e n t r a l c o u n c il and p r o v i n c i a l c o r p s o f i n s p e c t o r s . I n e v e ry S t a t e t h e r e w ere a t l e a s t t h r e e l e v e l s o f i n s t r u c t i o n , p ro v id e d f o r b y l e g i s l a t i o n , a n d a id e d by a p p r o p r i a t i o n s e s p e c i a l l y s e t a s id e by th e g o v ern m en t f o r t h a t p u rp o s e . 17 I b i d . , p p . 5 0 7 -5 0 8 . 2 2 2 The s c h o o ls w ere so p la n n e d and a d m in is te r e d t h a t th e y a f f e c t e d a l l c l a s s e s o f p e o p le s . C om pulsory e d u c a tio n f o r c e d e v e r y c h i l d u n t i l t h e ag e o f f o u r te e n to come u n d e r th e in f lu e n c e o f t h e s c h o o ls . The sy ste m o f t r a i n i n g w as su ch t h a t a u n if o r m ity in c e r t a i n m a t t e r s p e r t a i n i n g t o n a t i o n a l i s t i c en d s w as made p o s s i b l e th r o u g h o u t th e le n g t h an d b r e a d th o f th e l a n d . E f f i c i e n t and z e a lo u s s c h o o l m a s te r s im bued w ith h ig h i d e a l s came from th e p a t r i o t i c s e m in a r ie s t o in f u s e t h e i r id e a s o f t h e German K u l t u r . N a tio n a lis m th e k e y . The m a tr i x a ro u n d w h ic h a l l t h i s re v o lv e d w as n a t i o n a l i s m . I t h a s a l r e a d y b ee n shown how a n a t i o n a l c r i s i s p r e c i p i t a t e d t h e R eform . As B a rra c lo u g h p u ts i t : The g e n e r a tio n b etw e en 1790 and 1815 w itn e s s e d a r e v i v a l o f th e German n a t i o n a l s p i r i t so s t r o n g , t h a t n e i t h e r th e s e t tl e m e n t o f 1 8 1 5 , n o r th e r e p r e s s i v e re g im e w hich f o llo w e d , w as a b le t o expunge i t . F u r th e r m o re, t h i s n a t io n a l is m b o m o f t h e r a n c o u r-e n g e n d e re d by F re n ch r u l e an d F re n c h p o l i t i c a l d o m in a tio n an d i n s p i r e d b y th e c o n s c io u s n e s s o f a g r e a t German p a s t , tr a n s c e n d e d th e a c c r e d i t e d sy ste m o f p a r t i c u l a r i s t s o v e r e i g n t i e s , and lo o k e d bey o n d th e e x i s t i n g s t a t e s , none o f w hich f u l f i l l e d i t s a s p i r a t i o n s , t o a Germ any r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e German p e o p l e .18 T h o se i n pow er r e a l i z e d t h a t u n l e s s th e p u b lic w as g iv e n an i n t e r e s t i n p u b l i c a f f a i r s , i t w ould be im p o s s ib le t o r e v iv e th e l a t e n t German p a t r i o t i s m . The s t a t e had t o 18 G e o ffre y B a rra c lo u g h , The O r ig in s o f M odem Germany (New Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, 1947) , p p . 4 1 1 -1 2 . 223 be p o l i t i c a l l y m o d e rn iz e d aro u n d th e r a l l y i n g p o i n t o f V a te r la n d s - l i e b e . And t h e w ay to do a l l o f t h i s w as th r o u g h p u b l i c e n l i ^ i t e n m e n t , i . e . , e d u c a tio n . B ut th e s c h o o ls h ad t o be b ro u g h t up t o an e f f i c i e n t l y o p e r a t in g m echanism . F o r a s T r e its e h k e w r i t e s : When th e P r u s s ia n s to o k o v e r t h e c o u n tr y , Jo h a n n e s S c h u lz e fo u n d th e s c h o o ls ” i n a c o n d i tio n o f h o p e le s s n e g l e c t . ” S in c e th e F re n c h s t a t e h a d n e v e r g iv e n an y s u p p o r t t o th e e le m e n ta r y s c h o o ls , i n m ore th a n a t h i r d o f t h e com m ines t h e r e w e re no s c h o o ls a t a l l . I n many h a m le ts th e p e a s a n ts c o n s id e r e d th e y d id a l l t h a t w as n e c e s s a r y when f o r f o u r m o n th s i n w i n t e r t h e y fo u n d room i n a b a rn f o r a v a g r a n t t e a c h e r . T h r e e - f i f t h s o f th e c h i l d r e n grew up w ith o u t a n y i n s t r u c t i o n a t a l l . Even t h e lo w e r e d u c a ti o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s o f t h e to w n s w ere r a r e l y a n y b e t t e r th a n th o s e n o t o r i o u s s c h o o ls o f t h e o ld e p i s c o p a l d a y s , w h ich b o re t h e d i s t i n c t i v e name o f S i l e n t i u m .1 * * The u s e o f F i c h t e f s t h e o r i e s . From su ch a c o n d itio n j u s t d e s c r ib e d , how d i d t h e s c h o o ls become r e o r g a n iz e d ? How d id th e l e a d e r s re fo rm th e s c h o o ls so t h a t t h e y i n t u r n c o u ld in f u s e t h e b r e a t h o f n a t io n a l is m i n t o t h e p e o p le ? To re fo rm th e s c h o o ls w as t h e f i r s t t a s k o f t h e l e a d e r s a f t e r th e War o f L i b e r a t i o n . F o r t h i s r e o r g a n i z a ti o n th e y a l r e a d y h a d a p la n s e t f o r t h b y F i c h t e . H is t h e o r i e s w ere a d m ira b ly s u i t e d t o t h e i r p u rp o s e a lth o u g h th e y sm acked p e r h a p s to o much o f d em o cracy , b u t i t w as n a t i o n a l i s t i c enough t o s e r v e . As R e is n e r w r i t e s o f F ic h te * s e d u c a ti o n a l o b j e c t i v e : 1 9 H e in r ic h von T r e i t s c h k e , H is to r y o f Germ any i n th e N in e te e n th C e n tu ry (New Y ork: M cB ride N a s t an d Company, 1 9 1 5 ), I l 7 PP* 5 6 5 -6 6 . T r a n s l a t e d by Eden a n d C ed ar P a u l. 224 To e d u c a te © very i n d i v i d u a l t o h i s f u l l e s t p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n o r d e r t h a t th e s t a t e m ig h t e n jo y th e s e r v i c e o f s u c h u n r e s t r i c t e d p o w e rs, w as F ic h te * s e x tre m e ly d e m o c ra tic i d e a . M in g le d w ith a s tr o n g p a t r i o t i c e le m e n t, t h i s d e m o c ra tic i d e a l seem ed t o be i n f l u e n t i a l i n th e e a r l i e s t r e v i v a l o f P r u s s ia n p u b lic e d u c a t i o n .20 F i c h t e ’s p la n o f e d u c a tio n so a b l y s e t f o r t h i n h i s R eden, th e n - became th e o p e n in g wedge f o r t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f th e s c h o o ls . From th e b e g in n in g , i t w as p la n n e d t h a t th e s c h o o ls be r e o r g a n iz e d a lo n g n a t i o n a l i s t i c l i n e s . T r e its e h k e q u o te s one o f th e e a r l i e r M i n i s te r s o f E d u c a tio n , S u v e ra , s a y in g a ro u n d 1817 t h a t : The s t a t e . . . i s i t s e l f a g r e a t e d u c a ti o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n , w hose c h i l d r e n r e c e i v e a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c stam p i n r e s p e c t a l i k e o f i n t e l l i g e n c e and s e n tim e n t; th e m o tiv e pow er o f th e P r u s s i a n s t a t e i s d e r iv e d , n o t fro m th e d ea d f o r c e s o f n a t u r e , b u t fro m t h e l i v i n g e n e r g i e s o f th e human s p i r i t , e n e r g i e s c a p a b le o f e t e r n a l i n c r e a s e a n d d e v e lo p m e n t. 21 S a a l l w o n d er th e n t h a t F i e l i t e 's d o c t r i n e w as so w elcom e t o th e p u r p o s e . F i c h t e ’ s c o n c e p tio n o f e d u c a tio n w a s, h o w ev e r, a t r u l y d e m o c ra tic o n e , b e c a u s e a s h a s b een r e i t e r a t e d , i t s t r e s s e d e d u c a tio n f o r a l l G erm ans, r e g a r d l e s s o f c l a s s d i s t i n c t i o n s . E d u c a tio n f o r a l l G erm ans, n a t i o n a l i s t i c in s p i r i t a s i t may h av e b e e n , w as th e l e i t m o ti f o f F i c h t e ’ s p r o p o s a ls . T hrough e d u c a tio n , F ic h te ^ Edw ard R e is n e r , N a tio n a lis m and E d u c a tio n S in c e 1879 (New Y ork: M acm illan Company, 1 9 2 9 ), p . 1 2 8 . 21 T r e i t s e h k e , o £ . c i t . , p . 5 1 5 . 225 d e s i r e d t o r a i s e th e l e v e l o f a l l G erm any, The A d d re sse s s i n g l e d o u t th e i s s u e o f e d u c a tio n n o t o n ly a s a t o o l f o r P r u s s i a ’ s r e v i v a l a s a s o v e r e ig n ty , h u t a l s o a s a w eapon to l i b e r a t e a l l th e p e o p le . And F r e d e r ic k W illia m I I I r e c o g n iz e d t h i s . F or a s T r e its c h k e s a y s : The k in g d i d n o t f a i l to r e c o g n iz e t h a t t h e ed u c a t i o n a l p ro b le m , c o n c e iv e d i n t h i s l o f t y s p i r i t , to u c h e d t h e v e r y f o u n d a tio n s o f th e e n t i r e l i f e o f th e s t a t e , a n d c o n s e q u e n tly t h e co m m ittee w h ich w as a p p o in t ed t o d r a f t t h e e d u c a tio n law w as com posed o f m em bers o f a l l t h e m i n i s t r i e s — n o t e x c lu d in g th e m i n i s t r y o f w ar . . .2 2 N a tio n a lis m th e s lo g a n o f th e new s c h o o ls . T h ere h a s b e e n a l r e a d y r e c o u n te d th e m ain p r o v i s i o n s o f t h i s c a r e f u l l y c o n s id e r e d sch em e. T h is s e c t i o n i s d e s ig n e d t o p o r t r a y how n a tio n a l is m w as th e m eans b y w h ich th e s c h o o ls d id t h e i r s h a re i n re fo rm in g t h e s o c i a l s y s te m . F i c h t e ’ s i d e a s , w hich w e re d e m o c ra tic i n th e e x tre m e , w ere d e b a se d an d m is u s e d . F or a s B ru b a c h e r w r i t e s , ’’T r u ly n a t i o n a l edu c a t i o n s h o u ld l i b e r a t e th e m o r a l, i n t e l l e c t u a l , an d p h y s i c a l p o t e n t i a l i t i e s o f a l l men j u s t b e c a u s e t h e y a r e human b e in g s The P r u s s ia n h i e r a r c h y r e a l i z e d t h a t e d u c a tio n w as u s e l e s s f o r th e m , u n le s s i t in f lu e n c e d th e p e o p le t o 22 I b i d . . p p . 5 1 5 -1 6 . 23 Jo h n S . B ru b a c h e r, A H is to r y o f th e P ro b lem s o f E d u c a tio n (New Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, 1947) , p . 3 8 . 2 2 6 r e g e n e r a t i o n . They f e l t , and r i g h t l y s o , t h a t e d u c a tio n m ust be s y s t e m a t i c a l l y a d j u s t e d to th e s o c i e t y . O nly i n t h i s way c o u ld i t r e c o v e r and m a in ta in t h e l o s t p o l i t i c a l i n t e g r i t y and p o s s e s s io n s . The p e o p le w ere weak and d iv id e d . H nder th e P r u s s ia n s ta te s m e n th e y made e d u c a tio n a t o o l f o r n a t i o n a l i s m , g e a re d t o r e c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e s o c i a l o r d e r . They knew t h a t t h i s w as. th e o n ly w ay , so th e y d e v e lo p e d an e x t e n s iv e and th o r o u g h ly i n t e g r a t e d sy ste m o f p u b lic e d u c a t i o n . S ta te f u r n i s h e s th e p u r p o s e . How th e s t a t e c o u ld , th ro u g h i t s s c h o o ls , im bue t h e m a sse s w ith p a t r i o t i c f e r v o r t o r e s t o r e th e g l o r i e s o f t h e m o n arch y . The s t a t e n o t o n ly p ro v id e d th e sy stem w ith i n s t r u m e n t a l i t i e s , b u t a l s o i t s p u r p o s e . The s c h o o l c o u ld be c e r t a i n t h a t fro m i t w o u ld em erge c i t i z e n s s u b o r d in a te d to th e s t a t e and p le d g e d t o th e s t a t e . Germ any w as t h e f i r s t g r e a t m odern pow er to u n d e r ta k e a c o m p u lso ry p u b lic e d u c a ti o n , b u t c o n d i t i o n s w ere su c h t h a t she c o u ld do t h i s . As P a u ls e n w r i t e s : N ev er h a v e th e s o u ls o f men b een so d e e p ly s t i r r e d b y th e id e a o f r a i s i n g t h e w h o le e x i s te n c e o f m anking t o a h ig g le r l e v e l . S o m eth in g l i k e th e e n th u s ia s m o f th e m in d s a t th e o u tb r e a k o f th e F re n c h He v o l u t i o n w as a g a in a t w o rk , th e o n ly d i f f e r e n c e b e in g t h a t th e s tr o n g c u r r e n t o f n a t i o n a l f e e l i n g d i r e c t e d i t to w a rd s an aim w hich i f m ore l i m i t e d , w as f o r t h a t r e a s o n m ore p r a c t i c a b le an d m ore r e f i n e d . . . i t w as a c a s e o f r e j u v e n a t i n g th e German n a t i o n a p p a r e n tly doomed beyond re d e m p tio n b y r e j u v e n a t i n g i t fro m w ith in th e in m o s t d e p th s o f i t s n a t u r e , th e r e b y e n a b lin g i t t o r e s t o r e i t s 227 24 own e x t e r n a l an d p o l i t i c a l e x i s t e n c e . The v e r y e s s e n c e o f th e m eans u s e d b y th e P r u s s ia n s i n t h e i r s c h o o ls t o change t h e s o c i a l o r d e r w as n a t i o n a l i s m . U sin g i t a s a r a l l y i n g p o i n t , t h e e n t i r e s c h o o l sy ste m w as r e o r g a n iz e d in to an u l t r a - e f f i c i e n t t o o l f o r t h e i n d o c t r i n a t i o n o f t h e m a s s e s . F i c h t e ’ s t h e o r i e s w ere i n th e m ain d e m o c ra tic , b u t th o s e who e x e c u te d t h e p o l i c i e s o f th e s c h o o ls d i s t o r t e d t h e i r m e a n in g . M o r a lity i n i t s conno t a t i o n o f d u ty to w a rd s th e F a th e r la n d r e c e iv e d th e m a jo r e m p h a s is . The p e o p le h a d a l r e a d y b ee n aw akened to n a t i o n a l ism by th e o t h e r r e f o rm s ; now e d u c a tio n w as t o ta k e th e l e a d . O r g a n iz a tio n o f t h e s c h o o ls in s t r u m e n ta l i n p ro m o tin g n a t i o n a l i s m . The e n t i r e s c h o o l sy ste m becam e m e re ly a v o ic e f o r th e m o n arch y . W ith th e s c h o o l, fro m th e p rim a ry s c h o o ls up th ro u g h th e u n i v e r s i t i e s now t u r n i n g o u t th e new c i t i z e n and f u t u r e s o l d i e r , th e c o l le g e p r o f e s s o r an d th e f u t u r e l e a d e r s , i t i s n o t to o d i f f i c u l t t o se e how th e s o c i a l o r d e r w as m o d if ie d . W ith th e p e o p le so c o n d itio n e d , i t w as n o t to o d i f f i c u l t t o i n c u l c a t e id e a s f o r s o c i a l t r e n d s deem ed d e s i r a b l e b y th e p o l i t i c a l few i n s t i g a t i n g t h e r e fo rm s . And a s Stow e w ro te o f t h i s schem e o f n a t i o n a l ed u c a t i o n : 24 F r i e d r i c h P a u ls e n , German E d u c a tio n P a s t and P r e s e n t (New Y ork: C h a rle s S c r i b n e r 1s S o n s, 1 9 1 2 ), p . 1 8 3 . T r a n s la te d by T . L o re n z . 228 A lre a d y h a s t h i s p la n so f a r s u c c e e d e d , t h a t t h e r e i s e v i d e n t l y i n th e s e c o u n t r i e s a g row ing d i s r e g a r d f o r th e fo rm s o f f r e e g o v e rn m e n t, p ro v id e d th e s u b s ta n c e be e n jo y e d i n th e s e c u r i t y and p r o s p e r i t y o f th e p e o p l e . 25 I t i s s e e n t h a t i n a s h o r t tim e an e d u c a t i o n a l sy ste m w as r e c o n v e r te d by a s o v e re ig n s t a t e i n t o a n e f f e c t i v e o rg a n f o r t h e w i l l o f th e s t a t e , i . e . , th e m o n a rc h . T h a t e d u c a t i o n s h o u ld r e f l e c t th e s o c i e t y i s n o th in g n o v e l o r r a r e , b u t t h a t a g iv e n sy ste m s h o u ld so be o r g a n iz e d a s t o a f f e c t t h e s o c i e t y i s new an d u n iq u e . E d u c a tio n i n P r u s s i a u n t i l t h i s tim e la g g e d f a r b e h in d i t s s o c i e t y . Now i t r e v e r s e d i t s p o s i t i o n th ro u g h th e c o n n iv a n c e o f a p a r t o f s o c i e t y , an d h e lp e d m o d ify a l l o f s o c i e t y f o r t h i s p a r t . As Dewey w r i t e s : I n E u ro p e , in th e c o n t i n e n t a l s t a t e s p a r t i c u l a r l y , th e new id e a o f th e im p o rta n c e o f e d u c a tio n f o r human w e lf a r e an d p r o g r e s s w as c a p tu r e d by n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s and h a r n e s s e d to do a w ork w hose s o c i a l aim w as d e f i n i t e l y n a rro w and e x c l u s i v e . The s o c i a l aim o f ed u c a t i o n and i t s n a t i o n a l aim w ere i d e n t i f i e d , and th e r e s u l t w as a m ark ed o b s c u rin g o f th e m ean in g o f a s o c i a l aim . No d o u b t a l l t h i s w as b ro u g h t on b y t h e w hole p a t t e r n o f e v e n ts . P e rh a p s t h e r e w ere o t h e r a g e n c ie s m ore e f f e c t i v e i n m o d ify in g t h e German s o c i a l o r d e r , b u t a s Dewey s a y s , th e n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s saw and u se d e d u c a tio n a s one g r e a t f a c t o r . A ll o f t h e l e a d e r s w e re c o n v in c e d , and t h e re fo rm s 25 S to w e, o £ . c i t . , p . 2 56. 2 6 Jo h n Dewey, D em ocracy and E d u c a tio n (New Y ork: The M a cm illan Company, 1916) , p . 115* • 229 th e m s e lv e s em p h asiz ed e d u c a tio n a s a b a s ic f a c t o r f o r t h e c o n v e rs io n o f s o c i e t y . A P r u s s i a , w h ich w as a n c h o re d in r e a c t i o n , m anaged i n good p a r t th ro u g h i t s s c h o o ls t o c r e a t e a l i b e r a l ( f o r i t s tim e s ) s o c i a l sy ste m , a lth o u g h th e u l t i m ate aim w as n o t s o . The s c h o o lm a s te r s . The German t e a c h e r s h av e b een a l r e a d y t r e a t e d in some d e t a i l i n C h a p te r V I I I , b u t t h i s c h a p te r e m p h a siz e s them a s m e d ia r ie s o f th e n a t i o n a l i s t i c e t h o s . S in c e a p la n o f e d u c a tio n m a in ly d e v o lv e s upon i t s p e r s o n n e l, d ep en d in g on them f o r s u c c e s s o r f a i l u r e , th e P r u s s ia n h i e r a r c h y p a i d p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n to th o s e who w ere t o be th e m eans o f p ro m o tin g and p r e s e r v in g th e s p i r i t o f n a t io n a l is m . The n a t i o n a l governm ent r e a l i z e d o n ly to o w e ll how e s s e n t i a l t o s u c c e s s , and how im p o r ta n t w ere th e s e c a r r i e r s o f th e common c u l t u r a l s t a n d a r d s . The c i t i z e n s o f th e c o u n tr y w ere a l l fo rm e r s t u d e n ts u n d e r th e g u id a n c e o f t h e s e s p e c i a l l y p r e p a r e d s c h o o lm a s te r s . On th e t e a c h e r s d ep en d ed th e t r a i n i n g o f a l l th e c i t i z e n s , u n d e r th e new co m p u lso ry s c h o o l s t a t u t e s . And th e n w ith a p a t r i o t i c and z e a lo u s c o rp s o f t e a c h e r s th e c h a r a c t e r o f th e n a t i o n w as i n s a fe h a n d s . As go th e t e a c h e r s , so go th e s c h o o ls i s a many tim e s r e p e a te d maxim* P e rh a p s tr a n s p o s e d i n a c o u n tr y l i k e P r u s s i a i t c o u ld be w r i t t e n , a s g o e s th e s c h o o lm a s te r , so g o e s th e p a t r i o t i c s t u d e n t . 230 And P r u s s i a loiew w e ll t h a t i n o r d e r to make h e r p la n n e d sy stem m ore e f f e c t i v e , i t n ee d ed men c o m p e te n t and w i l l i n g , so t h e p r o f e s s i o n o f te a c h in g w as made i n v it in g * And a l l t h i s w as done i n q u ic k tim e . B a rn a rd o b s e rv e d t h a t : . . . th e a r t o f t e a c h i n g , a s now p r a c t i s e d i n th e p rim a ry s c h o o ls o f P r u s s i a , w as b u t im p e r f e c tly u n d e r s to o d b y t h e s c h o o lm a s te r o n ly a q u a r t e r o f a c e n tu r y ag o , an d t h a t a know ledge o f good m eth o d s w as d i f f u s e d th r o u g h o u t t h e kingdom o n ly b y t h e w e ll d i r e c t e d e f f o r t s o f t h e g o v ern m e n t, s u s t a i n e d b y th e s e lf - d e n y in g and p e r s e v e r in g l a b o r s o f s c h o o l o f f i c e r s . 27 The s c h o o lm a s te r s became th e hub aro u n d w h ich th e s c h o o ls r a d i a t e d , and a l l o f th e p la n s d e r iv e d by th e M in i s tr y r e v o lv e d in tu r n a ro u n d th e s e same t e a c h e r s , who re a c h e d in t o e v e ry h a m le t o f P r u s s i a . B a rn a rd r e l a t e d : U nder t h i s sy ste m o f o r g a n i z a t i o n an d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y w ith t h e s e a rra n g e m e n ts t o s e c u re th e em ploy m ent o f o n ly p r o p e r ly q u a l i f i e d t e a c h e r s , th e P u b lic S c h o o ls o f P r u s s i a h a v e b e e n m u l t i p l i e d t o an e x t e n t , an d h a v e a t t a i n e d w i t h in th e l a s t q u a r t e r o f a c e n tu r y a d e g re e o f e x c e lle n c e w hich h a s a t t r a c t e d th e a t t e n t i o n o f i n t e l l i g e n t e d u c a to r s in e v e r y p a r t o f C h riste n d o m . I n th e p r o v in c e s w h ere th e im p ro v ed sy ste m h a s gone in t o o p e r a t io n w ith th e h a b i t s o f th e p e o p le in i t s f a v o u r , i t h a s a l r e a d y re a c h e d e v e ry human b e in g , an d ev e n i n th e o u t e r p r o v in c e s , i t a s f a s t a s tim e sw eeps a lo n g new g e n e r a t i o n s , r e p l a c i n g th e a d u l t p o p u la tio n w ith a r a c e o f men and women who h a v e b ee n s u b je c te d t o a c o u rs e o f s c h o o l i n s t r u c t i o n f a r m ore th o ro u g h and co m p re h en siv e th a n h a s e v e r b ee n a tte m p te d i n an y o t h e r c o u n t r y .28 H enry B a rn a rd , e d i t o r , M em oirs o f E m inent T e a c h e rs and E d u c a to rs w ith C o n tr ib u tio n s t o th e H i s to r y o f E d u c a tio n i n Germany ( H a r tf o r d : Brown and G ro s s , 1 8 7 1 ), p . 651” . 28 H enry B a rn a rd , N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n i n E urope (New Y ork: C h a rle s B. N o rto n , 1 8 5 4 ), p . 87* 231 The s c h o o lm a s te rs a r e i n d o c t r i n a t e d . I t w as t h e s c h o o lm a s te r s , who th ro u g h u n if o r m ity o f t r a i n i n g and p u r p o s e , h e lp e d t o in f u s e t h i s p a t r i o t i s m o f th e new e d u c a tio n . T h e re i s no d o u b t t h a t r e g im e n ta tio n and u n i f o m i t y a r e e f f e c t i v e . I t i s t h e i r r e s u l t s w h ich a r e so s a d . As a m eans o f c a r r y in g o u t t h e k i n g ’ s w is h e s , th e s e o r g a n iz e d s c h o o lm a s te r s w ere e x c e l l e n t p u r v e y o r s . But t h e i r i n s t r u c t i o n a f t e r a w h ile became i n d o c t r i n a t i o n i n t o t o and d e f e a te d i t s e l f . As B a rn a rd so b r i l l i a n t l y w ro te : But th e s y ste m aim s a t m u c h .h ig h e r r e s u l t s — w ith n o th in g s h o r t o f d e v e lo p in g e v e r y f a c u l t y b o th o f m ind and b o d y , o f c o n v e r tin g c r e a t u r e s o f im p u ls e , p r e j u d i c e and p a s s io n , i n t o t h i n k i n g an d r e a s o n in g b e in g s , an d o f g iv in g th em o b j e c t s o f p u r s u i t and h a b i t s o f c o n d u c t f a v o r a b le to t h e i r own h a p p in e s s , and t h a t o f t h e com m u n ity i n w hich th e y l i v e . The r e s u l t w h ich may be r e a s o n a b ly a n t i c i p a t e d from th e sy ste m — when th e e n t i r e a d u lt p o p u la tio n h a v e b e e n s u b je c te d to t h i s o p e r a t i o n , an d w hen th e i n f l u e n c e s o f th e home an d s t r e e t , o f th e b u s in e s s an d r e c r e a t i o n o f s o c i e t y a l l u n i t e w ith th o s e o f t h e s c h o o l—h a v e n o t a s y e t b een r e a l i z e d i n an y s e c t i o n o f th e kingdom . E v eryw here t h e l e s s o n s o f th e s c h o o l room a r e w eak en ed , and i n a m e asu re d e s tro y e d by th e d e g ra d in g n a t i o n a l c u s to m s, and th e i n e v i t a b l e r e s u l t s o f a g o v ern m en t w h ich r e p r e s s e s l i b e r t y o f th o u g h t, s p e e c h , and p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n . B ut th e s c h o o l i s l e f t a s good and th o ro u g h a s i t i s now, m u st i n e v i t a b l y change th e g o v e rn m e n t, o r t h e g o v ern m en t m u st change th e s c h o o l. And ev en i f th e s e h o o l s h o u ld be made l e s s th o ro u g h th a n i t now i s , no g o v ern m en t i n t e r f e r e n c e c a n t u r n b ac k th e i n t e l l i g e n c e w h ic h h a s a l r e a d y m in g le d w ith th e w a te r s o f e v e r y r i s i n g s p r in g o r re a c h e d th e r o o t s o f e v e r y young p l a n t . 29 B a rn a rd ’ s o b s e r v a tio n a b o u t th e s c h o o ls i n e v i t a b l y 29 i b i a . . p * 8 7 . 2 3 2 ch a n g in g th e g o v e rn m e n t, i f made th o ro u g h and c o m p e te n t, "bears o u t th e b e l i e f o f th e i n v e s t i g a t o r t h a t th e s c h o o l sy stem c a n m o d ify a s o c i a l o r d e r . E d u c a tio n a s an in s tr u m e n t f o r n a t i o n a l i s m . D u rin g th e y e a r s o f r e f o im , when th e l i b e r a l s p i r i t w as s t i l l d o m in a n t— t h e p e r io d o f th e V o ile ssc h u le n — n a tio n a l is m w as subm erged t o th e common aim o f e l e v a t i n g G erm any. T h ere w as r e a l i z e d th e n t h a t o n ly a new ty p e o f e d u c a tio n w ith a c e n t r a l i z e d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n an d a k ee n c o rp s o f s c h o o lm a s te rs c o u ld h e lp s p re a d t h e re fo im so v i t a l to r e g e n e r a t i o n . The t h e o r i e s o f P e s t a l o z z i w ere a l l a p p r o p r ia te d b y a S t a t e , w h ich i n i t s d e s i r e t o r i s e o n ce a g a in , saw i n them a pow er f o r r e g e n e r a t i o n . P e s t a l o z z i * s s u b je c t m a t t e r , m e th o d o lo g y , and aim s w ere a l l em ployed f o r th e p u rp o s e o f i n d o c t r i n a t i o n . I t h a s b ee n shown t h e c u r r ic u lu m o f t h e s c h o o ls w as so g e a re d t h a t t h e V a te r la n d w as g iv e n s p e c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n e v e ry p h a se o f l e a r n i n g . The new s c h o o lm a s te r n o t o n ly t a u g h t , h e i n d o c t r i n a t e d . As an e x am p le, m u sic w as ta u g h t so t h a t t h e c h i l d r e n c o u ld p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e p a t r i o t i c s o n g f e s t s . A ll o f th e s u b j e c t s w ere t i n g e d w ith a s tr o n g n a t i o n a l i s t i c f l a v o r . As C u b b e rle y d e s c r ib e s t h i s : C l e a r ly p e r c e iv in g d e c a d e s a h e a d o f o t h e r n a t i o n s , th e pow er o f such t r a i n i n g t o n a t i o n a l i z e a p e o p le an d th u s s tr e n g t h e n th e S t a t e , th e P r u s s ia n l e a d e r s , i n th e f i r s t two d e c a d e s o f th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y , l a i d th e f o u n d a tio n o f t h a t t r a i n i n g f o r th e m a s s e s , and o f t e a c h e r s f o r th e m a s s e s , w hich m ore t h a n an y o t h e r 233 s i n g l e ite m , p av e d th e way f o r th e d ev elo p m en t o f a n a t i o n a l German s p i r i t , t h e u n i f i c a t i o n o f German la n d s i n t o an I m p e r i a l German E m p ire, and t h a t b l i n d t r u s t and o b e d ie n c e to a u t h o r i t y w h ich h a s r e c e n t l y l e d t o a se co n d n a t i o n a l h u m i l i a t i o n .3 0 The d is p la c e m e n t o f th e C hurch b y th e P r u s s ia n S t a t e h a s a l r e a d y b e e n s e t f o r t h . By 1825 t h i s s e p a r a t i o n w as c o m p le te a s t o u l t i m a t e j u r i s d i c t i o n . The b u lk o f th e p e o p le w ere s t i l l r e l i g i o u s , b u t th e id e a o f p a t r i o t i s m w as p re e m in e n t. Even t h e C hurch w as subm erged to t h i s i d e a l . The c i t i z e n r y had become e n l ig h te n e d , b u t th e e n lig h te n m e n t w as d i l u t e d w ith o b l i g a t i o n s to th e s t a t e . The Y o lk s s c h u le n s e rv e d a s th e p rim a ry s o u rc e o f i n d o c t r i n a t i o n f o r Y a te r - l a n d s l i e b e , f o r s u b s e r v ie n c e , and f o r d u ty , w hen c a l l e d . As B a rn a rd q u e s tio n e d : I t w as d i f f i c u l t t o d e c id e w h e th e r th e s c h o o ls d e r i v e d t h e i r im p o rta n c e fro m th e l i f e w hich s u rg e d a ro u n d th e m , o r w h e th e r t h e i r im p o rta n c e w as due t o t h e i r i n t r i n s i c pow er, c a r e f u l l y f o s t e r e d by th e s c h o o l a u t h o r i t i e s . 31 The q u e s tio n o f n a t i o n a l i s m . I n th e d ev elo p m e n t o f t h e German n a t i o n a l s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e r e i s m a n if e s t th e id e a s w h ich now d i s t r e s s p r e s e n t- d a y e d u c a to r s . I s s o c i e t y a g ro u p f o m e d f o r th e common w e l f a r e , and i s 30 E llw ood C u b b e rle y , The H i s t o r y o f E d u c a tio n (New Y ork: H oughton M i f f l i n Company, 1920')', p . 5 7 2 . 3* ^ H enry B a rn a rd , The A m erican J o u m a l o f E d u c a tio n , X X II, 5 6 5 . 234 e d u c a tio n to be u se d to p rom ote t h e w e lf a r e o f th e p o l i t i c a l few ? P r u s s i a w as a c l a s s i c exam ple o f how t h i s l a t t e r q u e s tio n w as a n sw e re d . T h is n a t i o n a l c o n s c io u s n e s s w h ich u se d t h e s c h o o ls a s a m eans o f e x p r e s s io n , w as so m e th in g new o p en ed up w h o le new v i s t a s o f th o u g h t. X t w as so m eth in g d e s tin e d t o c r e a t e sy ste m s o f e d u c a tio n m a n ip u la te d e x c l u s i v e l y f o r n a t i o n a l e n d s . C u b b e rle y w r i t e s o f t h i s new e r a i n th e a n n a ls o f l e a r n i n g th u s : To aw aken a n a t i o n a l s e l f c o n s c io u s n e s s , t o a c q u ir e n a t i o n a l u n i t y , a n d to i n f u s e i n t o a l l , a common c u l t u r e h a s s u p p la n te d th e h u m a n is tic c o s m o p o lita n is m o f th e e i g h t e e n t h c e n tu r y and becom e th e d o m in an t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f n in e te e n th c e n tr p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y . I n t h i s P r u s s i a , b e c a u se o f h e r u n iq u e s i t u a t i o n and th e co n d u c iv e e x t r i n s i c i n f l u e n c e s , to o k th e l e a d i n t h i s n a t i o n a l i a n a s C u b b e rle y h a s j u s t p o in te d o u t. A lth o u g h a l l o f Germany w as a f f e c t e d , i t w as m a in ly P r u s s i a who b e c a u se o f a h ap p y c o m b in a tio n o f l e a d e r s an d e v e n ts who became th e m odel f o r th e o t h e r German s t a t e s to f o llo w . T hrough F ic h te and h i s A d d re s s e s , t h e r e w as p ro v id e d th e im p e tu s n e e d e d to ta k e up t h e r e i n s o f l e a d e r s h i p . P r u s s ia n d o m in a n c e . P r u s s i a c o u ld n o t h av e e x i s t e d u n d e r N ap o le o n . A ll sh e c o u ld lo o k fo rw a rd to u n d e r th e i n e d u c a tio n . I t ch an g ed t h e c o u rs e o f th e s c h o o ls , and P r u s s i a l e d th e w ay . C u b b e rle y , o cit. . p . 57 9 . 235 h e e l o f th e c o n q u e ro r w as to e x t i n c t i o n a s a n a t i o n a l e n t i t y , ■because she h a d no p r o s p e c ts f o r s u s t a i n i n g h e r fo rm e r s o v e r e ig n ty , a s a v a s s a l s t a t e . P r u s s i a w as f a c e d w ith e i t h e r o f two c h o i c e s . O ne, sh e c o u ld s e e k to r e g a i n h e r l o s t t e r r i t o r i e s b y o r g a n iz in g r e s i s t a n c e , and a t t a c k i n g th e F re n c h ; o r tw o , i f she w o u ld n o t , o r c o u ld n o t r i s e i n r e b e l l i o n , th e n she m u st succum b an d lo s e h e r n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y . F aced w ith t h i s l a t t e r p r o s p e c t , P r u s s i a ch o se t o f i g h t . Thus th e f o r c e o f c irc u m s ta n c e s made h e r , among a l l th e German s t a t e s , e s p e c i a l l y e a g e r t o em ploy a n y m eans a s a w ay to w a rd l i b e r a t i o n . E v e ry German h a d tu r n e d h i s h ope and f a i t h upon P r u s s i a n l e a d e r s h i p . As h a s b ee n re c o r d e d , P r u s s i a a f t e r 1808 w as f a r a n d away i n f r o n t o f a l l th e r e s t i n s o c i a l , eco n o m ic, and p o l i t i c a l re fo rm and i t now w as th e tim e f o r e d u c a tio n . The P r u s s i a n e d u c a ti o n a l sy ste m w as th e r e s u l t . Begun in d e s p e r a tio n , f o s t e r e d i n s e c r e t h o p e , th e new s c h o o l sy ste m w as d e s tin e d f o r g r e a t t h i n g s . B ut once th e d a n g e r was o v e r r e a c t i o n s e t i n , an d th e n a rro w n a t i o n a l i s t i c s p i r i t had a l r e a d y b egun i t s d r y r o t . As Dewey sums up t h i s m ovem ent fro m th e v ie w p o in t o f a p h i l o s o p h e r: The s o - c a l l e d in d iv id u a lis m o f t h e e i g h te e n th c e n t u r y e n lig h te n m e n t was fo u n d t o in v o lv e th e f o rm a tio n o f a s o c i e t y a s b ro a d a s h u m a n ity , o f w hose p r o g r e s s 236 th e i n d i v i d u a l w as t o be th e o r g a n . B ut i t la c k e d an y a g e n c y f o r s e c u r in g th e d ev elo p m en t o f i t s i d e a l a s w as e v id e n c e d by i t s f a l l i n g b ack upon N a tu r e . The i n s t i t u t i o n a l i d e a l i s t i c p h ilo s o p h ie s o f t h e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y s u p p lie d t h i s la c k b y m aking th e n a t i o n a l s t a t e th e a g e n c y , b u t i n so d o in g n arro w e d t h e c o n c e p tio n o f th e s o c i a l aim t o th o s e who w ere m em bers o f th e same p o l i t i c a l u n i t , and r e in tr o d u c e d th e i d e a o f th e su b o r d i n a t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o th e i n s t i t u t i o n . 33 I I I . THE COURSE OF MODIFICATION One o f th e h y p o th e s e s o f t h i s s tu d y was t h a t an ed u c a t i o n g e a re d to w a rd s a c h ie v in g n a rro w n a t i o n a l i s t i c e n d s m u st e i t h e r b re a k down b e c a u s e o f i t s u n n a tu r a l s t r u c t u r e ; o r e l s e t u r n in to a s u p in e t o o l o f th e few . I n t h e e a s e o f P r u s s i a , th e l a t t e r a l t e r n a t i v e becam e a g rim r e a l i t y . At f i r s t , a s w as p o in te d o u t , th e new e d u c a tio n w as i n s p i r e d w ith d e m o c ra tic v i s i o n s , b u t a n e le m e n t o f P r u s s ia n s o c i e t y o p p o sed t h i s , and l a t e r f o r c e d p r e s s u r e upon th e s c h o o ls so t h a t t h e s c h o o ls p ro d u c e d a n a rro w ty p e o f c i t i z e n , r a t h e r th a n t h e f u l l y d e v e lo p e d o n es a s b o th P e s t a l o z z i and F ic h te h ad h o p ed . As C u b b e rle y w r i t e s : The g r e a t ch an g e w as r a t h e r i n th e s p i r i t and d i r e c t i o n o f th e i n s t r u c t i o n . The e a r l y te n d e n c y t o em p h asize n a t io n a l is m and r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n w as now s t r e s s e d , and th e l i b e r a l a s p e c t s o f P e s ta lo z z ia n is m w ere i n c r e a s i n g l y s u b o r d in a te d t o th e m ore fo rm a l i n s t r u c t i o n and to n a t i o n a l i s t i c e n d s . The s o l d i e r and th e p r i e s t jo in e d h a n d s i n d i v e r t i n g t h e s c h o o ls to th e c r e a t i o n o f i n t e l l i g e n t , d e v o u t, p a t r i o t i c , an d above 53 Dewey, o £ . c i t . , p p . 1 1 5 -1 6 . 237 *XA a l l e l s e , o b e d ie n t G erm ans. By 1 8 3 0 , th e r e a c t i o n h ad a l r e a d y s e t i n , a lth o u g h i t d id n o t become m a n if e s t u n t i l t e n y e a r s l a t e r . M ann’ s 35 R e p o rt i n 1 8 4 3 , a s c o v e re d p r e v i o u s l y , w as d is c e r n in g enough t o r e c o g n iz e t h e s e w e a k n e sse s and he re m a rk e d a b o u t th e m . D u rin g th e m ore e n lig h te n e d y e a r s from a b o u t 1 8 1 0 - 1 8 3 0 , l i b e r a l i s m w as on th e a s c e n d e n c y . F i c h t e , H um boldt, and vom S te in h a d i n s t i g a t e d d e m o c ra tic m ovem ents, and th e k in g i n h i s e x t r e m ity p e r m itte d th o s e c o n c e p ts t o be e x p r e s s e d a s a m eans o f r e g e n e r a t i n g P r u s s i a . End o f e m e rg e n c y . But w hen t h e em erg en cy w as o v e r t h in g s began t o c h a n g e . N apoleon h a d ta k e n h i s p la c e i n h i s t o r y , a s a man who had once ch an g ed th e d e s t i n y o f a w o rld . Now he w as b u t a memory f o r P r u s s i a . F r e d e r ic k W illia m H I w as n e v e r a t r u e l i b e r a l , and a f t e r th e C o n g re ss o f V ie n n a , when he saw t h a t P r u s s i a w as f r e e a g a in he d ro p p ed much o f h i s fo rm e r t o l e r a n t a t t i t u d e . F or a p e r i o d , i t seem ed a s th o u g h th e e d u c a ti o n a l re fo rm w o u ld m o d ify th e s o c i a l o r d e r d e m o c r a tic a lly . S e r f dom h ad b ee n done away w i t h , p e a s a n ts began to own t h e i r la n d , an d f e u d a lis m w as a b o l is h e d . The p rim a ry s c h o o ls 34 C u b b e rle y , o£♦ c i t .„ p p . 5 8 1 -8 2 . 33 H enry B a rn a rd , The A m erican J o u r n a l o f E d u c a tio n « X X II, 7 7 8 -9 2 , 8 2 3 -2 9 . 238 becam e so e n l ig h te n e d and ad v a n ce d t h a t F re n c h and A m erican e d u c a to r s w ere s e n t t o r e p o r t on them* H ow ever, a s B u tts w r i t e s : By 1830 th e tw o - tr a c k sy ste m o f e d u c a tio n w as f ir m l y e s t a b l i s h e d , th e e le m e n ta r y s c h o o ls o f t h e common p e o p le (T o lk s s c h u le n ) s e r v in g o v e r 90$ o f th e p o p u la tio n an d th e s e c o n d a ry s c h o o ls s e r v i n g l e s s th a n 1 0 $ . L ik e w is e th e r e p r e s s i v e C a rls b a d d e c re e o f 1819 t r i e d t o stam p o u t l i b e r a l i s m among t h e f a c u l t i e s and s tu d e n t b o d ie s o f th e u n i v e r s i t i e s . 36 When th e f i n a l t e s t cam e, th e c o n c e p t o f dem ocracy was e x t in g u is h e d b e c a u s e th e s c h o o l sy ste m w as u n d e m o c ra tic . I t s h i e r a r c h y sw ayed b y th e m onarch and h i s s a t e l l i t e s h a d no i n t r i n s i c pow er t o r e s i s t . I t h ad become s u b s e r v i e n t t o th e s t a t e , and th e n a t i o n a l i s t i c s p i r i t h a d e x tin g u is h e d th e s o c i a l , and become d e b a se d in t o a c re d o to be i n d o c t r i n a t e d in to t h e c h i l d w i l l y - n i l l y . The h i $ i e r l e v e l s o f th e s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n w ere no r e s p e c t o r s o f th e p e o p le , b u t draw n fro m a s e l e c t e d g ro u p to c a r r y o u t th e w is h o f th e k in g . As R e is n e r so a b l y com m ents: I t i s e a s i l y se e n t h a t a n a t i o n a l sy stem o f e d u c a tio n im posed upon a p e o p le w ith o u t a n y p r a c t i c a l r i g h t s o r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i n s t i t u t i o n s , c o u ld w ith a change i n th e k i n g s h i p , r e s u l t i n an i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y o f r e p r e s s i o n o r i n a n a g e n c y m aking f o r t h e s p i r i t o f e n lig h te n m e n t and i n d i v i d u a l fre e d o m . I n t h i s r e s p e c t , P r u s s i a s ta n d s o u t i n s h a rp c o n t r a s t w ith F ra n c e , w h ere th e N a p o le o n ic a m b itio n s t o im pose a n a tio n a l* sy ste m o f e d u c a tio n upon th e F re n c h p e o p le in th e i n t e r e s t s o f h i s own pow er, w as 36 R. Freem an B u t t s , A C u l t u r a l H i s to r y o f E d u c a tio n (New Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, 1 9 4 7 ), p . 418. 239 d e f e a te d b y re a s o n o f th e ev e n d i v i s i o n o f r e s p o n s i b le and i n f l u e n t i a l p u b lic o p in io n . I n a c o u n tr y w h ere th e p e o p le a r e e n lig h te n e d w ith th e p u rp o se o f d e v e lo p in g t h e i r p o t e n t i a l i t i e s and c a p a b i l i t i e s f o r th e m s e lv e s and f o r s o c i e t y , th e s c h o o l sy stem w ould n o t h a v e so s i g n a l l y f a i l e d i n h o ld in g on to i t s g a in s a s d id th e P r u s s i a n . A f t e r a l l , i t d id s t a r t w ith th e demo c r a t i c e th o s i n s p i r e d b y p a t r i o t i s m . The m o d if ic a ti o n e n d s . I t i s d i f f i c u l t to r e a l i z e how th e e d u c a tio n o f F ic h te becam e so d i s t r a c t e d . F ic h te h a d p o s i t e d th e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f P r u s s i a upon t h e e d u c a tio n o f a l l i t s c i t i z e n s . A ll o f th e s e i d e a l i s t i c v i s i o n s b u r s t i n a b u b b le o f d is a p p o in te d h o p e . The P r u s s ia n s c h o o ls , so r e s p o n s i b le t o F i c h t e , became o u tw a rd ly an i n s p i r a t i o n f o r th e w o rld , b u t a s B ru b a c h e r r e v e a l s : U n h a p p ily th e s e d e m o c ra tic n o tio n s o f e d u c a tio n d id n o t h av e t h e i r o r i g i n among t h e m a sse s o f p e o p le them s e l v e s . They w ere a c o n c e s s io n from t h e a r i s t o c r a t i c J u n k e r c l a s s . When th e d e m o c ra tic le a v e n o f F ic h te an d P e s t a l o z z i ex p an d ed so a s to e n c ro a c h upon t h e i r p r e r o g a t i v e s , th e J u n k e rs w ith d re w w h at th e y h a d con c e d e d . 38 Thus i t m ay be s e e n t h a t i f a n y d e m o c ra tic m odi f i c a t i o n i s to e n d u re i t m u st be b a s e d upon t h e w i l l o f t h e e n t i r e p e o p le , and n o t o f a n y s e l e c t e d few . O nly when t h e r e R e is n e r , ojd. c i t . , p . 15 0 . 38 B ru b a c h e r, o £ . c i t . , p . 3 0 . 240 i s a c o n c e n su s among a l l th e c i t i z e n r y , i s t h e r e a n y hope o f c o n tin u in g s a l u t a r y in n o v a tio n s . F r e d e r ic k W illia m I I I . I t i s t r u e t h a t F r e d e r ic k W illia m I I I n e v e r w h o le h e a r te d ly p a r t i c i p a t e d to o g r e a t l y i n th e re fo rm s d e s ig n e d t o l i b e r a t e h i s p e o p le . As h a s b een n o te d , h e a c t u a l l y had o p p o sed th e a p p o in tm e n t o f vom S t e i n , who h ad done so much f o r t h e m a s s e s . W hile i t h a d b e e n e x p e d itio u s t o g iv e i n , he w as t o l e r a n t , b u t a f t e r th e e x trem e u rg e n c y h ad p a s s e d , he w en t i n th e o t h e r d i r e c t i o n . He was e n c o u ra g e d i n h i s i n t o l e r a n c e by th o s e o f h i s f o llo w e r s who saw i n p u b lic e n lig h te n m e n t a s o c i a l o p e r a t io n in i m ic a l t o t h e i r own s e l f i s h i n t e r e s t s . G o u sin , i n h i s 39 R e p o rt, h a s shown how g r e a t th e re fo rm s i n th e p ro p o s e d law o f 1879 h ad b e e n , b u t i t n e v e r w as d e s t i n e d to ta k e h o ld . F o r P a u ls e n s a y s t h a t i n 1840: The s t a g n a t i o n and r e a c t i o n , w hich a t t h i s p e r io d c h a r a c t e r i z e d th e w hole l i f e o f th e S t a t e d id n o t f a i l to h a v e t h e i r e f f e c t s i n th e s p h e re o f p rim a ry e d u c a t i o n . . . The e d u c a ti o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w as m arked by a p ro n o u n ced d i s t r u s t o f th e t e a c h e r s , and a p ro fo u n d a v e r s io n to ” o v e r - e d u c a t i o n .1 1 The c l o s i n g o f th e t r a i n in g c o l le g e o f B r e s la u , and th e d is m i s s a l o f D ie s te rw e g fro m h i s o f f i c e a s h e a d m a s te r o f th e m u n ic ip a l t r a i n i n g c o lle g e o f B e r l i n (1847) w ere sym ptom s o f th e s p i r i t . B i t t e r re p r o a c h e s w ere ev e ry w h e re h e a p e d upon th e e l e m e n ta ry t e a c h e r s . They w ere a c c u s e d o f h a l f - e d u c a t i o n , r a t i o n a l i s t i c c o n c e i t , u n b e l i e f , a r r o g a n c e , an d i n s u b o r d in a t io n . I n d e e d , F r e d e r ic k W illia m IV th o u g h t h e 39 G o u sin , o £ . c i t . , p p . 1 2 8 -3 5 . 241 h ad found h e r e th e r o o t o f a l l e v i l . I n a c o n fe re n c e o f m a s te r s o f P r u s s ia n t r a i n i n g c o l l e g e s , h e l d i n 1849 he u n b u rd en ed h i s s o u l: **You an d you a lo n e a r e to blam e f o r a l l th e m is e r y w h ich th e l a s t y e a r h a s b ro u g h t upon P r u s s i a ! The i r r e l i g i o u s p s e u d o -e d u c a tio n o f th e m a sse s i s to be blam ed f o r i t , w h ich you have b een s p re a d in g u n d e r th e name o f t r u e w isdom , and by w h ich you have e r a d i c a t e d r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f and l o y a l t y fro m th e h e a r t s o f my s u b j e c t s and a l i e n a t e d t h e i r a f f e c t i o n s from my p e r s o n . T h is sham e d u c a tio n , s t r u t t i n g a b o u t l i k e a p e a c o c k , h a s a lw a y s b een o d io u s to m e. I h a te d i t a l r e a d y fro m th e b o tto m o f my s o u l, b e f o r e I came to th e th r o n e , and s in c e my a c c e s s io n I have done e v e r y th in g X c o u ld do to s u p p r e s s i t . I m ean to p ro c e e d on t h i s p a t h , w ith o u t ta k in g h e e d o f a n y o n e , an d in d e e d , no pow er on e a r t h s h a l l d i v e r t me fro m i t I *40 T h ese a r e s tr a n g e w o rd s in d e e d , ibid t h i s o c c u rr e d no m ore th a n f o u r d e c a d e s a f t e r t h e Re d e n . Vlfhere now was th e h ig h d i s t i n c t i o n p a id to e d u c a ti o n , th e e x t o l l i n g o f i t s v i r t u e s a s a m eans o f r e g e n e r a tio n ? Now i t h ad become a h in d r a n c e . What d id i t la c k t h a t i t c o u ld no lo n g e r m o d ify s o c i e t y d e m o c r a tic a lly ? I t a p p e a r s t h a t i t la c k e d th e d e m o c ra tic e th o s w hich w o u ld h av e made i t f l e x i b l e an d c a p a b le o f r e s i s t i n g e n c ro a c h m e n t. I f t h e w h o le sy ste m h ad b e e n a t tu n e d t o t r u e e n lig h te n m e n t, w h ereb y th e p e o p le w ere d e v e lo p e d f o r and i n th e m s e lv e s a s m em bers o f a common s o c i e t y , an d n o t a s t o o l s f o r a d e s p o t, i t w ould h a v e r e s i s t e d f a r m o re, an d p e rh a p s ch an g ed th e w h o le c o u rse o f P r u s s ia n h i s t o r y . I n s t e a d i t f a i l e d and w as r e l e g a t e d once m ore t o th e in o c u o u s p o s i t i o n i t once h e l d b e f o r e th e R ed en , 40 P a u ls e n , 0 £ . c i t . , p. 2 4 5 . 242 b r in g in g t h i s c y c le t o an ig n o m in o u s c l o s e . Y ea rs l a t e r , i n o u r tim e , th e s c h o o ls a g a in w ere u se d f o r n a t io n a lis m and t h i s tim e b ro u g h t d i s a s t e r upon th e h e a d s o f th o s e Germans who u se d i t . Summary* T h is c h a p t e r , one o f th e t h r e e com posing th e h e a r t o f th e s tu d y showed how an u n d e m o c ra tic s c h o o l sy ste m f a i l e d t o p e rm a n e n tly m o d ify a s o c i a l o r d e r . W h ile i t w as d e m o c r a tic , i t e f f e c t e d g r e a t r e f o r m s , b u t when i t tu r n e d t o a n a rro w p u rp o se i t f a i l e d . But i t w as se en t h a t th e s c h o o ls c o u ld an d d id m o d ify a s o c i a l o r d e r . W h ile much o f t h i s s t o r y h a s b een d e l e t e d th r o u g h n e c e s s i t y , and a p i c t u r e o f th e re fo rm d e p ic te d w hich i s p e rh a p s som ewhat o v e r s i m p l i f i e d , t h e r e i s y e t enough a u t h e n t i c e v id e n c e to p ro v e t h a t th e s o c i a l o r d e r h a d b een m o d ifie d by th e s c h o o ls . Thus th e p u rp o se o f t h i s c h a p te r w as f u l f i l l e d i n i t s c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f th e German s o c i a l R eform . The German m o d if ic a ti o n w as i n d i c a t i v e o f th e f a c t t h a t a s c h o o l sy stem c a n h e lp tr a n s f o r m a s o c i a l o r d e r . T h is m o d if ic a tio n h a s b een p r e s e n te d w ith i t s q u a l i f i c a t i o n i n h i s t o r i c a l p a t t e r n . The n e x t c h a p te r w i l l f u r n i s h th e p h i l o s o p h i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e s tu d y i n o r d e r to r e n d e r i t m e a n in g fu l f o r p r e s e n t- d a y e d u c a tio n . CHAPTER X PHILOSOPHICAL INTERPRETATION I n t r o d u c t i o n * The p r e v io u s c h a p te r s d e p ic te d h i s t o r i c a l l y th e f o r c e s o p e r a t iv e i n a s o c i e t y a t a g iv e n tim e , w hich tr a n s f o r m e d a s c h o o l sy ste m , a s w e ll a s t h e s o c i e t y i t s e l f . The p r e s e n t c h a p t e r I s p h i l o s o p h i c a l i n n a t u r e , an d a s su ch d e p a r t s from s t r i c t h i s t o r i c a l r e c o u n tin g . The en t i r e s tu d y h a s p ro d u c e d d a t a w h ich n e e d s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a c c o r d in g t o t h e f a c t s . M ere s u b j e c t i v e c o n j e c t u r e i s n o t th e p u rp o s e h e r e . T h is c h a p t e r , th e c a p s to n e t o C h a p te rs V I I I and IX , w i l l p r e s e n t a m e th o d ic a l e x a m in a tio n and a n a l y s i s o f th e e n t i r e s tu d y , so t h a t some c o g e n t m ean in g may th u s be e v o k e d . A th o ro u g h co m p reh en sio n o f th e s i g n i f ic a n c e o f su ch a movement a s j u s t r e l a t e d i s n e c e s s a r y t o p r o v id e a b a s ic p a t t e r n f o r a s s i s t a n c e i n t h e s o l u t i o n o f l i k e p ro b le m s . The raw d a t a o f a n y h i s t o r i c a l s tu d y m u st be c o n v e rte d i n t o m e a n in g fu l f i n d i n g s , o r p a t t e r n s , w h ich c a n f a c i l i t a t e t h e r e s o l u t i o n o f m odem e d u c a ti o n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s . I . THE MODERN CONTROVERSY E d u c a tio n a l p h ilo s o p h e r s have a t a l l tim e s c o n s id e r e d t h e s c h o o l a s a b a s ic ag e n c y f o r s o c i a l p r o g r e s s . B ut th e q u a n d a ry a r o s e , a n d s t i l l c o n f r o n ts e d u c a tio n , a s t o how t h i s p r o g r e s s c a n b e s t b e e x p e d ite d b y th e s c h o o ls . The 244 d is a g re e m e n t l i e s i n th e m a tte r o f t h e r o l e t h e s c h o o ls s h o u ld ta k e o r h o ld . Out o f a l l t h e s e , t h i s s tu d y w i l l d is c u s s t h r e e m ore o r l e s s fu n d a m e n ta l c o n c e p tio n s a s t o th e c o u rs e th e s c h o o ls s h o u ld ta k e • A g r e a t d e a l o f o v e r la p p in g o f c o u rs e e x i s t s i n a l l t h r e e p o s i t i o n s . And i n one p h a s e , t h e m ean s, t h e r e i s a w id e c o n c u rr e n c e , a s W egener d is c o v e r e d i n a n a tio n - w id e s tu d y o f th e p h i l o s o p h i c a l b e l i e f s o f A m erican e d u c a to r s . He fo u n d t h a t : C o n c ern in g d em o cracy a s a m eans i t i s c o n c lu d e d t h a t p r a c t i c a l l y a l l e d u c a to r s a r e i n f a v o r o f th e f u n c t i o n a l c o n c e p t o f dem o cracy a s a m eans t o an end r a t h e r th a n a s an en d i n i t s e l f . 1 B ut t h e r e s t i l l r a g e s a v i o l e n t s t r u g g l e a s t o how d e m o c ra tic m eans can b e s t s e r v e : I s e d u c a tio n to c o n s e rv e th e c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e , p la n a new s o c i a l o r d e r , o r im p ro v e s o c i e t y by c o o p e r a tio n w ith a l l o t h e r f o r c e s o f s o c ie ty ? A ll t h r e e p o s i t i o n s h av e t h e i r a r d e n t p r o t a g o n i s t s , e a c h c o n v in c e d t h e i r s i s r i g h t . I t i s n o t t h e p r o v in c e o f t h i s p a p e r to ju d g e a l l t h e s e p o s i t i o n s . A summary o f t h e i r p o s i t i o n i s enough f o r t h e p u rp o s e s o f t h i s s tu d y . The p o s i t i o n t h i s w r i t e r t a k e s i s t h a t a l l t h r e e h av e t h e i r f u n c t i o n a n d t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n s . The f a c t s o f t h e s tu d y b e a r o u t th e c o o p e r a tiv e f u n c t i o n o f e d u c a tio n a s a m eans ^ F ra n k C o r l i s s W egener, "The P h il o s o p h i c a l B e l i e f s o f L e a d e rs i n A m erican E d u c a tio n ," ( u n p u b lis h e d D o c to r’ s d i s s e r t a t i o n , The U n iv e r s it y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e le s , 1 9 4 6 ), p . 3 7 5 . 245 t o s o c i a l ad v a n ce m en t. IX . EDUCATION AS CONSERVATIVE I n t h i s f u n c t i o n , e d u c a tio n i s to he th e p r e s e r v e r o f th e s o c i a l h e r i t a g e , th e d e p o s ito r y o f a l l t h e fo re g o n e c u l t u r e . From t h i s v a n ta g e p o i n t , e d u c a tio n w ould p e r p e t u a te th e v a lu e s o f a n y g iv e n s o c i e t y . The aim w ould he i n d o c t r i n a t i o n , o r a t l e a s t f o r c e f u l e d u c a tio n a s t o th e v a lu e s o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a c c r e t i o n s . D e m ia sh k e v ic h , p o s s i b l y h e s t o f a l l , s t a t e s th e v ie w : B ut when a l l i s t o l d , i t re m a in s t r u e t h a t a s i g n i f i c a n t r e s i d u a l f u n c tio n o f t h e s c h o o l i n o u r tim e . . . i s t o e d u c a te c h i l d r e n f o r t h e r e s p e c t and p r e s e r v a t i o n o f fu n d a m e n ta l s o c i a l v a lu e s . 2 T h is i s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c o n c e p t grown a lo n g s id e o f t h e d iv in e r i g h t id e a . T hose who e s p o u s e t h i s c o n c e p tio n w ould te a c h th e c l a s s i c a l v a l u e s o f t r a d i t i o n . As F in n e y w r i t e s : E d u c a tio n i s th e r e p r o d u c tiv e p r o c e s s o f s o c i e t y a s we have s e e n . I t r e p r o d u c e s th e s o c i a l h e r i t a g e i n t o th e i n d i v i d u a l ; an d so im p a rts t o him th e s u b s ta n c e o u t o f w h ich h i s p e r s o n a l i t y i s m ade. By t h u s t r a n s m i t t i n g th e m e n ta l c a p i t a l o f e a c h g e n e r a tio n to t h e n e x t , ed u c a t i o n f u r n i s h e s th e f o u n d a tio n upon w hich each new g e n e r a tio n i s b u i l t . I t c o n s e r v e s t h e s o c i a l h e r i t a g e g by re p r o d u c in g i t i n t o th e m in d s o f th e r a c i a l p ro g e n y . M ic h a e l D e m iash k e v ic h , An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o th e P h ilo s o p h y o f E d u c a tio n (New Y ork: A m erican Book Company, 1 9 5 5 ), p . 33 8 . 3 R o ss L . F in n e y , A S o c io lo g i c a l P h ilo s o p h y o f Edu c a t io n (New Y ork: The M acm illan Company, 1 9 2 9 ), p . 1 0 0 . 346 T h ese two q u o ta tio n s s h o u ld f u r n i s h some i n s i g h t i n t o th e c o n s e r v a tiv e p o s i t i o n . I n t h i s p o s i t i o n , e d u c a tio n i s t h e r e a r g u a r d , c a r e f u l to f i g h t o f f th e o n s la u g h ts o f th e to o e a g e r arm y o f r e f o r m e r s i n f u l l p u r s u i t t o d e m o lish th e p r e c io u s c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e . P r o t a g o n i s t s o f t h i s c a u s e lo o k upon r e f o rm e rs a s d e lu d e d w ith f a l s e c o n c e p tio n s o f th e e t e r n a l v e r i t i e s . To th e c o n s e r v a t i v e , t h e r e f o r m e r s a r e o b s e s s e d w ith Z e i t g e i s t , th e s p i r i t o f th e t i m e s , w h ic h p ro v o k e s c h a n g e , b u t i s r e a l l y a d e l u s io n . F o r a s th e I d e a l i s t h o ld s , u n d e r ly in g a l l n o v e l ty i s so m e th in g r e a l and e n d u r in g , w hich i s to be c o n s e rv e d an d g iv e n t o p o s t e r i t y . As D em iash k ev ich w r i t e s : . . . The s c h o o l o f p e d a g o g ic a l th o u g h t w h ich i n s i s t s t h a t e d u c a tio n be f o r a c h a n g in g c i v i l i z a t i o n , n e g l e c t s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n u n c h a n g in g e le m e n ts i n c i v i l i z a t i o n w hich h av e n e c e s s a r i l y b een o p e r a t i v e w h e re v e r an d w h en ev er c i v i l i z a t i o n h a s e x i s t e d . 4 T h is c o n c e p t o f p r e s e r v in g th e t r a d i t i o n a l v a lu e s w as th e one w h ich F r e d e r ic k W illia m I I I w is h e d t o s e e o p e r a te i n h i s s c h o o l sy s te m . I n h i s e a s e , t h e K u ltu r o f G erm any, d i s t i n c t and p o te n t w ere a t h a n d . I t w as d e m o n s tra te d how o v e r - c o n s e r v a tis m an d n a t i o n a l i s t i c aim s h e lp e d c a u se t h e P r u s s ia n s c h o o l sy ste m to f a i l o f i t s l i b e r a l p u r p o s e s . 4 D em iash k e v ic h , o|>. c i t . , p . 3 5 1 . 247 A d v a n ta g e s. But c o n s e r v a tiv e e d u c a tio n i s n o t t o be d is c a r d e d so e a s i l y , f o r t h e r e w i l l a lw a y s be a d i f f e r e n c e o f o p in io n a s to w h ic h e le m e n ts o f human e x p e rie n c e a r e w o rth c o n s e r v in g . I t i s o n ly when th e p a s t i s u se d t o i n d o c t r i n a t e f o r s e l f i s h e n d s t h a t i t l o s e s p e r s p e c t i v e , b u t th e f a c t i s t h a t man c a n n o t l o s e ?diat h a s gone b e f o r e h im . One o f t h e a s s u m p tio n s o f t h i s s tu d y h e ld t h a t l i f e a s we know i t , i s a c o n tin u u m . To b e a r o u t t h i s c o n te n tio n Edw ards and R ic h e y s t a t e : Man c a n n o t e s c a p e h i s p a s t ; c i v i l i z a t i o n i s a con tin u u m ; no new g e n e r a tio n ca n s t a r t de novo w ith o u t r e l a p s e in t o b a rb a ris m and s a v a g e ry . The a c c u m u la te d c a p i t a l o f human e x p e rie n c e c a n n o t b e w r i t t e n o f f i n one way o r a n o t h e r , i t m u st be made an e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f a n y s u c c e s s f u l p ro g ram o f e d u c a t i o n .5 I t i s o n ly i n th e m isu se o f t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l h e r i t a g e t h a t t h e d a n g e r l i e s . I n P r u s s i a i t s t i f l e d th e n ew ly grow in g l i b e r a l e le m e n ts . I t h y p o s ta s iz e d t h e o ld m y th s o f n a t io n a l is m i n to a r i g i d m o n arch ist! c r e d o , d e s ig n e d to p r o - m ote o n ly th e n a rro w aim s o f F r e d e r ic k W illia m I I I . Had th e e x p r e s s io n o f G erm any’s p a s t b e e n d e m o c r a tic a l ly p r e s e n te d , and n o t a s h a rd e n e d d i c t a , th e c h a n c e s a r e t h a t th e s c h o o ls w o u ld n o t h a v e f a i l e d . The c o n s e r v a tiv e p o s i t i o n c a n be d e fe n d e d , h o w ev er, 5 Newton Edwards and Herman G. R ich ey , The S ch o o l in th e American S o c ia l Order (B o sto n : Houghton M i f f l i n Com pany, 194777 P* 85 2 . 248 a s E dw ards an d R ieh ey d e c l a r e : E v ery s o c i e t y i s h e ld t o g e t h e r by th e a c c e p ta n c e on th e p a r t o f i t s m em bers o f a b o d y o f c o re v a lu e s . A s o c i e t y i s p o s s i b l e , o n ly b e c a u s e th e i n d i v i d u a l s t h a t form i t , h a v e a common se n se o f r e a l i t y and a r e bound t o g e t h e r b y common l o y a l t i e s . I t i s im p o r ta n t t o re c o g n i z e t h a t s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e made p o s s i b le b y th e e x i s t e n c e i n th e s o c i e t y o f a body o f c o re v a lu e s and common t r a i t s . S y stem s o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s a t t a i n th e s t a t u s o f i n s t i t u t i o n s , o n ly when t h e y a r e a c c e p te d a s b e in g in c o n fo rm ity w ith t h e e s s e n t i a l v a lu e p re m is e s o f th e s o c i e t y . 6 T h ese c o re v a lu e s a r e th e o n e s w h ich th e c o n s e rv a t i v e s w ould s e t f o r t h a s p r im a r y . T h is i s a s tr o n g p o i n t , b e c a u s e a s o c i a l o r d e r i s i n f lu e n c e d , and a c t s in a c c o rd w ith i t s a c c e p te d v a l u e s , w h ic h a r e a b e q u e s t fro m th e p a s t . I t i s t h i s common f e e l i n g , t h i s u n i t y o f c o n s c io u s n e s s w h ich m akes a s o c i e t y w h at i t i s , and n o t a c h a o tic g ro u p o f i n d i v i d u a l s ru n n in g lo o s e . S o c ie ty n e e d s o r g a n i z a t i o n and p u r p o se t o e x i s t . The t h i n g s w hich made them a s o c i e t y , u n i t e them a l s o . To be one o f a s o c i e t y i s to p a r ta k e o f i t s e s s e n c e , e l s e one i s n o t a m em ber. T hese v a lu e s w h ich b in d t o g e t h e r a s o c i e t y , t h e s e common a s p i r a t i o n s , b e l i e f s , a n d aim s w o u ld be p r e s e r v e d by t h e c o n s e r v a tiv e s an d be h an d e d fro m one g e n e r a tio n to a n o t h e r . Now t h i s o f i t s e l f i s com m endable. The t r o u b l e w ith i t l i e s , a s we h av e, se e n i n P r u s s i a , i n t h a t i f p la c e d i n t o th e w rong h a n d s , t h e c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e o f a n y one 6 M i . . P . 8 5 5 . p e o p le ca n be u s e d f o r th e w rong p u rp o s e s 249 I I I . EDUCATION AS RECONSTRUCTION S in c e t h i s s tu d y r e l a t e s o f an o r g a n iz e d a tte m p t by a s c h o o l sy stem to m o d ify i t s s o c i e t y , t h i s s e c t i o n w i l l em p h asize t h i s c o n c e p t o f e d u c a tio n a s an in s tr u m e n t o f s o c i e t y . The r e c o n s t r u c t i v e c o n c e p t p o s t u l a t e s t h a t e d u c a t i o n i s t o be a p la n n e d o r p la n n in g sy ste m i n o r d e r to m o d ify t h e s o c i a l o r d e r . T h is t e l i c c o n c e p t i s a s o ld a s P l a t o 1s R e p u b lic , b u t s t i l l a dream o f c e r t a i n e d u c a to r s to d a y . I t s p r in g s p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y fro m a t e l e o l o g i c a l e t h i c s t h a t i s : . . . a s p e c ie s o f a x i o l o g i c a l e t h i c s w h ich m akes th e d e te r m in a tio n o f an a c t i o n w h o lly d e p e n d e n t on an e s tim a te o f i t s a c t u a l o r p ro b a b le p r o d u c tiv e n e s s , d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y , o f th e maximum g o o d .” I t h a s b een d e m o n s tra te d t h a t th e German e d u c a tio n w as f i r s t fo u n d e d upon m o r a l i t y i n th e K a n tia n s e n s e , w h ich w as c o n c e rn e d w ith th e w e lf a r e o f th e i n d i v i d u a l an d n o t o f th e s t a t e . F ic h te d e r iv e d h i s e t h i c s from K a n t. C o n cern - 8 in g K a n tf s v ie w s o f n a t i o n a l i s t i c e d u c a tio n , P a u ls e n s t a t e s t h a t K an t w o u ld have v o ic e d h i s d e c id e d a p p r o v a l o f an y ^ D ag o b e rt R u n es, e d i t o r , D ic t io n a r y o f P h ilo s o p h y (New Y ork: The P h ilo s o p h ic a l L ib r a r y , 1 9 4 2 ), p . 3 l £ . ® F r i e d r i c h P a u ls e n , Im m anuel K an t— H is L if e and D o c trin e (New Y ork: C h a rle s S c r i b n e r fs & ons, 1 9 0 2 }, 289 p p . T r a n s l a te d by J . E . C re ig h to n and A lb e r t L e f e v r e . s t a t e i n s p i r e d e d u c a tio n . F or K ant h e ld t h a t th e aim o f e d u c a tio n w as th e im provem ent o f a l l m an k in d , and n o t an e x c lu s iv e g ro u p . T o d ay , m any e d u c a to r s a r e a d v o c a tin g t h a t s c h o o ls be d e f i n i t e l y co m m itted to t h e m o d if ic a ti o n o f t h e s o c i a l o r d e r . As one o f them w r i t e s : The s c h o o ls , a l l a lo n g t h e l i n e , b u t p a r t i c u l a r l y th e s e c o n d a ry and h ig h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s m u st r e c o n s t r u c t t h e i r c u r r i c u l a t o g iv e p r o p e r e m p h a sis t o : (1) th e u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e u n s ta b le econom ic b a se o f o u r co n te m p o ra ry c i v i l i z a t i o n ; and (2) c r e a t i n g d e s i r e and d e te r m in a tio n t o r e d e s ig n t h e sy stem t o a c h ie v e th e m a t e r i a l and s p i r i t u a l b e n e f i t s w h ich em an ate fro m o u r c o o p e r a tiv e c o n q u e s t.9 O th e rs go s t i l l f u r t h e r c o n c e rn in g e d u c a tio n a s a p r o c e s s o f i n t e r a c t i o n e v o lv e d a s an in s tr u m e n t f o r r e f a s h io n in g s o c i e t y . T hese p a r t i c u l a r e d u c a to r s b e lie v e t h a t s o c i e t y i s com posed o f i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e i r r e l a t i o n s , and a s su c h e d u c a tio n s h o u ld be m e asu re d s o l e l y i n te rm s o f c o n s e q u e n c e s a s to t h e i r s o c i a l v a l u e s . K i l p a t r i c k s t a t e s : • • * f o r th e s a k e o f i n d i v i d u a l d e v e lo p m e n t. ed u c a t i o n m u st p ro m o te some fo rm s o f a s s o c i a t i o n and com m u n ity l i f e and m u st w ork a g a i n s t o t h e r s . • . Admit t h a t e d u c a tio n i s c o n c e rn e d w ith a d ev elo p m en t o f i n d i v i d u a l s * p o t e n t i a l i t i e s and you a r e co m m itted t o t h e c o n c lu s io n t h a t e d u c a tio n c a n n o t be v e r t i c a l and i n d i f f e r e n t t o th e k in d o f s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n w h ich e x i s t s . I n d i v i d u a l s d e v e lo p n o t i n a re m o te e n t i t y ^ H a ro ld Rugg, E d u c a tio n an d S o c ie ty (New Y ork: The D ryden P r e s s , 1 9 4 2 ), p . 5 3 . 251 c a l l e d " s o c ie t y " a t l a r g e b u t in c o n n e c tio n w ith one a n o t h e r .±u S h is v ie w may be e p ito m iz e d a s f o llo w s : t o th e " R e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s t ," e d u c a tio n m u st be c o n c e rn e d w ith th e d ev elo p m en t o f th e p o t e n t i a l i t i e s and c a p a b i l i t i e s o f e a c h i n d i v i d u a l in a g iv e n s o c i e t y . E d u c a tio n m u st be co m m itted to th e b e l i e f t h a t th e s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n m ust be so ch a n g ed t h a t t h i s i n d i v i d u a l d ev elo p m en t i s p o s s i b l e . IV*. THE TELIC CONCEPT P r u s s i a a s we h av e s e e n , gave an e x c e l l e n t exam ple o f an e d u c a ti o n a l sy ste m i n l i n e w ith t h e t e l i c f u n c tio n * I t t r i e d t o r e c o n s t r u c t th e s o c i a l o r d e r th ro u g h e d u c a tio n , u n t i l i t no lo n g e r w as deemed u s e fu l* What i s th e t e l i c c o n c e p t w h ic h so te n d e d to w a rd an aim o f p u rp o s e ? An ex p a n s io n o f t h i s so v i t a l c o n c e p t w i l l be a p ro p o s to c o - €» h e r e n c e . The m ethod o f t h e w o rld o f n a t u r e i s t o e v o lv e g e n e t i c a l l y , i n c o n t r a s t to t h e d ev elo p m en t o f homo s a p ie n s , who i s endow ed w ith th e h ig h e r m e n ta l p r o c e s s e s , so t o sp e a k . I n t h i s f a s h io n i t h a s b ee n t h e d e s ig n o f many p h ilo s o p h e r s , a s w e ll a s e d u c a to r s , t o f o rm u la te l i f e i n W illia m H. K i l p a t r i c k , The A m erican F r o n t i e r (New Y ork: D. A p p le to n C e n tu ry Company, 1 9 3 3 ), PP- 290- 9 1 . 252 te rm s o f p a t t e r n s . I n o t h e r w o rd s , t o u se r e a s o n t o f a c e h i s p ro b le m s . Some h av e made i n t e l l i g e n c e th e summum bonum. As S p in o z a w ro te i n h i s H De I n t e l l i e t u s E m e n d a tio n e -E th ic a " : T h e r e f o re w ith o u t i n t e l l i g e n c e , t h e r e i s n o t r a t i o n a l l i f e , an d t h i n g s a r e o n ly g o o d , i n so f a r a s t h e y a i d man in h i s en jo y m en t o f t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e , w h ich i s d e f in e d b y i n t e l l i g e n c e . C o n tr a r iw is e , w h a te v e r t h i n g s h in d e r m an’ s p e r f e c t i n g o f h i s r e a s o n , and c a p a b i l i t y t o e n jo y t h e r a t i o n a l l i f e a r e a lo n e c a l l e d e v i l . 1^ T h is i s th e d i f f e r e n c e b etw e en man and th e o t h e r c r e a t u r e s on e a r t h . I n t h e w o rld o f n a tu r e th e r e i s a b l i n d r e l e n t l e s s s t r u g g l e f o r s u r v i v a l , th e w e a k e r b e in g c ru s h e d by th e s t r o n g e r i n t h e m e le e . I n t h e w o rld o f man t h e r e d e v e lo p e d , a l b e i t i m p e r f e c t l y , a p u r p o s e f u l, o r t e l i c m e th o d , th ro u g h h i s r e a s o n . W hereas a n im a ls do r e a c t t o g iv e n s t i m u l i , t h e r e i s n o n e t h e le s s , no seem in g r a t i o n a l e , no p a t t e r n , t o t h e i r e x i s t e n c e . Man h a s c r e a t e d a m ore o r l e s s o r d e r e d w o rld f o r h im s e lf , b e c a u se o f h i s p r o c e s s e s o f c o g n i t i o n . A p r o c e s s w h ich a s y e t no o t h e r c r e a t u r e seem s t o p o s s e s s . D e fin e d i n a n o th e r w ay , t e l i c d ev elo p m en t i s th e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t a h o s t i l e en v iro n m e n t e x i s t s , an d t h a t c o h e r e n t a d a p t a t i o n o f s o c i a l f o r c e s i s th e m eans by w h ich t o cope w ith i t . The e s s e n c e h a s b e e n c o n s t r u c t i v e , r a t h e r 11 R o b e rt E lw e s, The C h ie f W orks o f B e n e d ic t De S p in o z a (L ondon: G eorge B e ll Sons Company, 1884) , 1 x 7 3 9 5 . T r a n s la te d b y th e a u t h o r . 253 th a n d e s t r u c t i v e , a s i n th e w o rld o f n a tu r e * T h is t e l i c e v o l u t i o n , so d e f in e d , i s a g a in th e re a s o n e d m eans w h ereb y man b an d s t o g e t h e r i n a s o c i a l g ro u p f o r common p u rp o s e s o f s u r v i v a l . T h ere i s c o n s c io u s p la n n in g h e r e , an i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e , and a c o o p e r a tio n o f a l l th o s e c o n c e rn e d f o r a g iv e n o b j e c t i v e . I t i s s o c i a l l y d i r e c t e d , an d w h ile s t i l l i n d i v i d u a l i s t , y e t h o ld s t h e w e lf a r e o f a l l a s p r im a r y . I n su c h a g ro u p , a c t i o n becom es p r i m a r i l y t e l e o l o g i c a l . Any f u n c tio n i s m e asu re d b y th e e n s u in g r e s u l t . One o f th e d i s t i n g u i s h i n g m ark s o f c i v i l i z e d men i s t h i s s o c i a l p la n n in g . Even i n w a r, man h a s jo in e d t o g e t h e r t o c a r r y o u t h i s p u rp o s e . As man h a s e v o lv e d , th e r e h a s b een f o r c e d upon him t h e n e c e s s i t y o f a s s ig n in g m ore and g r e a t e r im p o rta n c e t o th e s p h e re o f re a s o n e d an d c o n s c io u s e f f o r t f o r s o c i a l ad v a n ce m en t. S im p le s o c i e t i e s c o u ld a c t a s a u n i t w ith o u t to o much re a s o n e d e f f o r t . C i v i l i z a t i o n i s fa c e d w ith th e n e c e s s i t y o f com plex o r g a n i z a t i o n . The t e l i c c o n c e p t i n e d u c a ti o n . The p u rp o s e o f th e f o r e g o in g d is c u s s io n h a s b ee n t o d e v e lo p th e i d e a o f o rg a n iz e d e d u c a ti o n , an d th e r e a s o n f o r i t s p ro m in e n c e . I s e d u c a tio n t o be a l e a d e r o r a r e f l e c t o r o f t h i s o rg a n i z a t i o n ? S o c ie ty w h ich i s n o th in g m ore n o r l e s s th a n a body o f p e o p le w ith a h ig h d e g re e o f in te rd e p e n d e n c e and a m u t u a li t y o f i n t e r e s t , c a n n o t move fo rw a rd w ith o u t r a t i o n a l 254 p l a n n in g . Xs th e s c h o o l to h e lp d i r e c t th e p la n n in g o r do th e p la n n in g f o r s o c ie ty ? Dewey and C h ild s s t a t e c a te * g o r i c a l l y t h e i r a n sw e r: Upon one t h i n g we ta k e o u r s ta n d . We f r a n k l y a c e e p t t h e d e m o c ra tic t r a d i t i o n i n i t s m o ra l and human Im p o rt . . . We b e l ie v e p r o f o u n d ly t h a t s o c i e t y r e q u i r e s p la n n in g , t h a t p la n n in g i s th e a l t e r n a t i v e t o c h a o s , d i s o r d e r , and i n s e c u r i t y . B ut t h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e en a s o c i e t y w h ic h i s p la n n e d an d a s o c i e t y w hich i s p la n n in g —n am ely , t h e d i f f e r e n c e b etw een a u to c r a c y and d em o cracy , b e tw e e n dogma a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e i n o p e r a t i o n , b etw een s u p p r e s s io n o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y and t h a t r e l e a s e an d o b l i g a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y w h ich w i l l b r in g i t t o f u l l m a t u r i t y . 13 I t m u st be e m p h a siz e d , h o w e v e r, t h a t th e t e l i c con c e p t , u n le s s one a c c e p ts th e id e a o f d iv in e t e l e o l o g y , i s s t i l l v e r y f a r fro m p e r f e c t i o n . The P r u s s ia n s c h o o l sy ste m w as p o s s i b l e o n ly b e c a u s e o f o t h e r f o r c e s t o r e f a s h i o n th e s o c i e t y . The human e le m e n t m i t i g a t e d a g a i n s t i t s e v e r b e in g c o m p le te ly s u f f i c i e n t u n to i t s e l f . F b r t h e g r e a t e r p a r t , th e P r u s s ia n sy ste m w as in f lu e n c e d b y ch an ce and c irc u m s t a n c e s . When i t w as d e s p e r a t e l y n e e d e d , i t w as p la n n e d l i b e r a l l y ; w h en ev er i t h a d o utw orn i t s u s e f u l n e s s , i t s e n t i r e p la n n in g w ent f o r n a u g h t, and m o st o f i t w as d i s c a r d e d . But th e P r u s s i a n sy ste m w as o r g a n iz e d l a t e r f o r u n d e m o c ra tic p u r p o s e s . F in n e y w r i t e s : I f s o c i e t y i s t o be e n g in e e r e d on th e b a s i s o f a s c e r t a i n e d know ledge an d g e n e r a l e n lig h te n m e n t, i n s te a d o f on th e b a s i s o f s u p e r s t i t i o n , s e n tim e n t, and 1 g K i l p a t r i c k , o p . c i t . , p . 7 2 . 255 p e r s o n a l a m b itio n , th e s c h o la r s and ©due a t o r s m u st p r o c e e d t o ta k e t h e i r p l a c e s a t th e w h e e l. I t i s th e b u s in e s s o f t e a c h e r s n o t t o ru n th e s c h o o l, b u t th e w o rld . And th e w o rld w i l l n e v e r be t r u l y c i v i l i z e d u n t i l th e y assum e t h a t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . Such i s th e t e l i c f u n c tio n o f e d u c a tio n . Heed f o r p la n n in g . I n e d u c a tio n , e f f e c t i v e m e th o d s m u st by t h e i r v e r y n a t u r e be b a s e d upon a r a t i o n a l sch em e, em erg in g fro m t h e e x p e r i e n t i a l m il ie u w h ich fo rm s th e s c h o o ls . The re a s o n f o r t h i s i s a p p a r e n t, f o r e x p e rie n c e i s th e s t a r t i n g p o in t f o r a l l le a r n in g * How t h i s e x p e rie n c e i s n o th in g b u t th e s o c i e t y we l i v e i n , and o f t h e w o rld o f w h ic h i t i s a p a r t . Hence a l l o f o u r d e d u c tio n s , a s K ant s a i d , stem fro m o u r e x p e rie n c e w h ich i s s o c i e t y . Thus i t f o llo w s l o g i c a l l y t h a t e d u c a tio n d e r i v e s i t s f i r s t p r i n c i p l e s fro m i t s s u r r o u n d in g s , i . e . , s o c i e t y . B ecause o f t h i s , a l l i n s t r u c t i o n i s g ro u n d ed on i n d iv id u a l e x p e rie n c e stem m ing fro m r a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s d e p e n d e n t upon t h e s o c i a l o r d e r . The i n d i v i d u a l c a n n o t s u p e rs e d e t h e e d u c a tio n w h ich f a s h io n s h im , b e f o r e he l e a r n s fro m w hence he i s f a s h io n e d . I n t h i s w ay, e a c h i n d i v i d u a l ’ s e x p e rie n c e w h ile u n iq u e o f i t s e l f , i s a lo n g w ith i t , a p a r ta k i n g o f t h e common c u l t u r e . B ecause o f t h i s , g e n u in e p r o g r e s s i s n o t q u i t e p o s s i b l e , u n le s s th e s ta n d a r d s common to a l l i n a g iv e n s o c i e t y a r e p la n n e d f o r t h e w e lf a r e o f 13 F in n e y , o £ . c i t . . p p . 1 1 6 -1 7 . 256 a l l . As Dewey w r i t e s : As a s o c i e t y becom es m ore co m p lex , h o w e v e r, i t i s fo u n d n e c e s s a r y t o p ro v id e a s p e c i a l s o c i a l e n v iro n m e n t w hich s h a l l e s p e c i a l l y lo o k a f t e r n u r t u r i n g t h e c a p a c i t i e s o f th e im m atu re. T h re e o f th e m ore im p o r ta n t f u n c tio n s o f t h i s s p e c i a l e n v iro n m e n t a r e : s im p lif y in g and o r d e r in g th e f a c t o r s o f th e d i s p o s i t i o n i t i s w ish e d to d e v e lo p ; p u r i f y i n g an d i d e a l i z i n g t h e e x i s t i n g s o c i a l c u s to m s; c r e a ti n g a w id e r a n d b e t t e r b a la n c e d e n v iro n m ent th e n t h a t b y t h e young w ould be l i k e l y , i f l e f t t o th e m s e lv e s , be i n f l u e n c e d .14 Dewey1 s t h e s i s a s r e g a r d s p la n n in g i s s ta u n c h ly d e fe n d e d by th o s e who u p h o ld th e t e l i c f u n c t i o n , b e c a u se e a c h i n d i v i d u a l e x p e rie n c e a lth o u g h u n iq u e , i s o f t h e w arp and w oof o f th e s o c i e t a l p a t t e r n . B ut w ith each i n d i v i d u a l e x p e rie n c e th e o p p o r tu n ity f o r i t s a p p l i c a t i o n d o e s n o t a l w ays p r e s e n t i t s e l f * B ecause o f t h i s t h e r e re m a in s o n ly th e a c c r e t i o n s o f s u c c e s s iv e s o c i a l e x p e r ie n c e s . I t i s th e s e a c c r e t i o n s t h a t a r e e s s e n t i a l t o c o n s id e r t e l e o l o g i c a l l y , b e c a u s e th e s e a r e th e c o n s t a n t s o f p e d a g o g y , common to a l l an d d e r iv e d a s a r e s u l t o f e x p e r ie n c in g i n th e s o c i a l schem e. C o n s ta n ts o f e d u c a tio n * T hese " c o n s ta n ts * a c c o rd in g to t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s t s f u r n i s h a m e a n in g fu l p a t t e r n f o r th e t e l i c a p p ro a c h i n e d u c a tio n . W h ile th e s e a r e n o t th e " u n d e rly in g r e a l i t y " o f e d u c a tio n i n t h e s e n s e o f th e i d e a l i s t s , th e y a r e n o n e t h e le s s , a k in d o f c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e by Jo h n Dewey, D em ocracy and E d u c a tio n (EFew Y ork: The M a cm illan Company, 1916) , p* 2 7 . 257 w hich e d u c a tio n i s a b le t o in f lu e n c e s o c i e t y one w ay o r a n o th e r* U h le s s t h e s e common id e a s w ere p r e s e n t e d u c a ti o n a l p la n n in g w ould he u s e l e s s , P r u s s i a u s e d i t s K u ltu r to w o n d e rfu l a d v a n ta g e i n o r g a n iz in g i t s e d u c a tio n ; and th e m odern p la n n e r s w o u ld a l s o u s e common h o p e s an d a s p i r a t i o n s t o p la n t h e i r e d u c a ti o n a l i d e a l . AS one p h ilo s o p h e r w r i t e s : S c h o o ls a r e n o t , h o w e v e r, m ere t o o l s , m ere p a s s iv e in s tr u m e n ts f o r th e r e g i s t r a t i o n an d e x p r e s s io n o f an e x t e r n a l s o c i a l w i l l . They th e m s e lv e s r e p r e s e n t a p a r t o f th e g e n e r a l a c t i v i t y o f s o c i e t y , one o f i t s i n s t i t u t i o n s , one mode o f e x p r e s s io n o f th e s o c i a l c o n s c io u s n e s s . A cco rd in g t o t h i s c o n c e p tio n , i t i s n o t th e f u n c tio n o f e d u c a tio n a l p r o c e s s e s s im p ly t o r e g i s t e r s o c i a l p r o g r e s s , e d u c a tio n a l f o r c e s may q u i te l e g i t i m a te ly ta k e an a c t i v e and c o n s c io u s p a r t i n th e g e n e r a l s tr u g g le upw ard. But t h e m odem e d u c a to r s w o u ld n o t h av e m ere m echan iz e d p r o c e d u r e s a s d id th e l a t e r P r u s s i a n s c h o o l sy ste m i n e d u c a tin g f o r s o c i a l p r o g r e s s . To th e m , t h e t e l i c f u n c t i o n s w ould n o t be a t o d d s w ith t h e t e n e t o f o rg a n is m ic g ro w th . The fo rm a lis m u se d b y t h e G erm ans, th e y h o l d , i s an o u tw o rn r e l i c o f th e p a s t . H ow ever, t h i s outm oded fo rm a lis m w h ich s t i l l ig n o r e s th e a d v a n c e s o f th e s c i e n t i f i c w o rld i s a f a c t o r w h ich h in d e r s t h e g ro w th an d d e s ig n o f e d u c a tio n . I t r e s t r i c t s an d i n h i b i t s p la n n in g , th e r e b y c a u s e s t h e d ic h o tom y b e tw e e n sc h o o l and s o c i e t y . The t e l i c c o n c e p t d e a ls w ith th e f u t u r e , n o t th e p a s t . 15 I r v i n g K in g , S o c ia l A s p e c ts o f E d u c a tio n (New Y ork: The M acm illan Company, 1917) , P- 2 2 l . 250 F ic h te and th e t e l i c c o n c e p t* The t e l i c f u n c tio n i n i t s n arro w u t i l i t a r i a n c o n c e p t w as # i a t t h e e d u c a tio n o f F ic h te im p lie d . H is schem e f o r e d u c a tio n w as to be t e l e o - l o g i c a l l y u n fo ld e d f o r th e b e tte r m e n t o f a l l . But a s h a s b een shown i n C h a p te r F I , F ic h te * s e t h i c s w ere h u m a n ita r ia n , and i n l i n e w ith K a n t* s fam ous p h r a s e , "Two t h i n g s f i l l th e m ind w ith e v e r new and i n c r e a s i n g a d m ir a tio n and aw e, th e o f t e n e r an d m ore s t e a d i l y we r e f l e c t i n th e m ; th e s t a r r y 16 h e a v e n s above and th e m o ra l la w w i t h i n . ” F ic h te f e l t a s d id K an t a b o u t e d u c a tio n . P a u ls e n s a y s t h a t K ant w as a g a i n s t s t a t e e d u c a ti o n . He w r i t e s t h a t K an t h e ld t h a t : T h is m u st n o t p ro c e e d fro m th e s t a t e o r fro m th e p r i n c e . F o r th e s e h a v e i n m ind o n ly t h e im m ed iate p u r p o se o f th e s t a t e o r t h e d y n a s ty . They w o u ld a t b e s t d i r e e t e d u c a tio n to d e v e lo p s k i l l " m e re ly i n o r d e r to be a b le b e t t e r t o em ploy th e s u b j e c t s a s t o o l s f o r r e a l i z i n g t h e i r own p u r p o s e s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e e s t a b l i s h m ent and d i r e c t i o n o f th e s c h o o ls s h o u ld be l e f t e n t i r e l y to th e ju d g a e n t o f t h e s c h o l a r s . The s c h o o ls , t o F i c h t e , w ere an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f s o c i e t y ; and a p la n n e d s c h o o l sy ste m l i b e r a l i n n a t u r e , w as a d e f i n i t e re q u ire m e n t o f th e s o c i a l o r d e r i f i t w ere t o a d v a n c e . E d u c a tio n w as an i n t e r e s t w h o lly i n t h e h a n d s o f ^ Thomas K in g s m ill A b b o tt, K ant * s C r iti q u e o f P r a c t i c a l R eason (L ondon: Longmans G reen and Company, 1 9 2 3 ), p . 2 6 0 . T r a n s la te d b y th e a u t h o r . P a u ls e n , o £ . c i t . , p. 3 7 4 . 259 th e g o v ern m e n t. S o c ia l aim s w ere t o be ta u g h t r i g h t i n th e c la s s ro o m . I t h a s b e e n b ro u g h t o u t how he th u n d e re d t h a t t h e s c h o o ls be th e p u rv e y o rs o f th e n a t i o n a l e t h o s , th e c a r r i e r s o f th e K u l t u r . T h a t th e y w ould im prove s o c i e t y he h ad no d o u b t, f o r F i c h t e ’ s schem e w as s h re w d ly c o n c e iv e d f o r tr a n s p o s in g th e common w i l l . To F i c h te , e d u c a tio n w as an i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y w h ereb y Germany c o u ld r i s e , b u t an u n p la n n e d s c h o o l sy stem w as a u s e l e s s s c h o o l s y s te m . The s c h o o ls c o u ld n o t l a c k aim and d e v e lo p g e n e t i c a l l y a s d id t h e o t h e r c r e a t u r e s o f n a t u r e . Such a n e d u c a tio n w ith o u t scheme o r p u rp o s e w as doomed t o f a i l u r e a c c o r d in g t o F i c h t e . The s c h o o ls m u st be p u t on a r a t i o n a l b a s i s , w h ereb y th e y c o u ld f a c i l i t a t e t h e s p re a d o f th e s o c i a l aim . T h is much can be d ed u ced fro m h i s t h e o r i e s . He a d v o c a te d a p la n n e d e d u c a tio n so t h a t th e p u rp o s e s o f P r u s s i a c o u ld be r e a l i z e d . In d e p e n d e n t p la n n in g n o t f e a s i b l e . The r e g e n e r a ti o n o f P r u s s i a th ro u g h th e s c h o o ls w as an e x tre m e c a s e o f th e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n th e o r y . But i t w as a l l p a r t o f an e n t i r e p an o ram a, ea ch p a r t i n t e r l o c k e d w ith th e o t h e r . F i c h t e ’ s re fo rm s w ould n o t have b een p o s s i b l e h ad n o t th e tim e s b een r i p e , and th e o t h e r f o r c e s n o t o p e r a t i n g . I n t h i s c a s e a t h r e a t t o n a t i o n a l s u r v i v a l i n s t i g a t e d a m ovem ent f o r r e fo rm o f th e s c h o o ls . The s o c i e t y w is h e d t o o r g a n iz e i t s 2 6 0 s c h o o ls , so t h a t th e y c o u ld f i r s t overcom e th e d i s a s t e r w h ich h ad b e f a l l e n th e m , an d th e n go on t o make a b e t t e r s o c i e t y . T h is w as th e g r a n d io s e p la n o f i t s d e s ig n e r s . E v ery f e a t u r e o f th e new s c h o o l sy stem w as form ed so a s to e x p e d ite th e o b j e c t i v e s . X t w as a l l p la n n e d to th e v e r y l a s t d e t a i l . The aim was s u p p lie d b y F i c h t e , t h e m e th o d o lo g y and c u r r ic u lu m by P e s t a l o z z i , and th e m a c h in e ry b y th e P r u s s ia n g o v e rn m e n t, in d i t w as an e f f i c i e n t m echan ism m o d ify in g a g o v ern m en t from f e u d a l i t y t o s e m i- e n lig h te n m e n t. But i t w as doomed t o f a i l u r e , b e c a u s e i t c o u ld n o t tr a n s c e n d i t s s o c i a l o r d e r enough to a l t e r i t c o m p le te ly . As s u c h , i t p ro v e d a n e a s y v i c t i m when i t w as no lo n g e r n e e d e d . The l e s s o n f o r m odern e d u c a tio n i s t h a t s o c i a l e f f i c a c y v i a th e s c h o o l i s u s e l e s s , u n le s s i t i s d e m o c r a tic . A n a rro w s o c i a l aim f a i l s o f i t s p u rp o s e . E d u c a tio n and n a tio n a lis m i n i t s t e l i c c o n n o ta ti o n . E d u c a tio n a s a r e s u l t o f F ic h te and th e o t h e r s w as c o m p le te l y r e o r g a n iz e d , and a m a g n if ic e n t s t a t e sy ste m e s t a b l i s h e d u n d e r e f f i c i e n t l e a d e r s h i p . The d e t a i l s o f th e o r g a n iz a ti o n h av e a l r e a d y b ee n g iv e n . Two g r e a t p r i n c i p l e s w ere th e con t r o l l i n g m o tiv e s : t h e f i r s t w as a new c o n c e p tio n o f th e S t a t e a s a n o r g a n i z a t i o n o f th e p e o p le t o p rom ote p u b lic w e lf a r e an d r e a l i z e a m o ra l and p o l i t i c a l i d e a l ; th e se co n d m o tiv e w as th e u t i l i z a t i o n o f th e s c h o o ls a s s t a t e 2 6 1 i n s t i t u t i o n s to p rom ote n a t i o n a l e n d s , and t o u n if y and n a t i o n a l i z e p eo p le* I n a d d i t i o n t o th e above p r i n c i p l e s and n o t i n o p - p o s i t i o n t o th e m , F ic h te saw e d u c a tio n a s a m eans o f human d e v e lo p m e n t. As R e is n e r w r i t e s : To e d u c a te e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l t o h i s f u l l e s t p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n o r d e r t h a t th e s t a t e m ig jit e n jo y t h e s e r v ic e o f su ch u n r e s t r i c t e d p o w ers . . . t h a t w as F i c h t e ’ s e x tre m e ly d e m o c ra tic i d e a l . 18 As a r e s u l t o f a l l t h e s e r e f o rm s , t h e c o n s e r v a tiv e e le m e n ts h ad b een o v e rb o rn e . The c r i t i c a l n a t u r e o f t h e s i t u a t i o n h a d r e n d e r e d them s i l e n t , a lth o u g h f a r from i n e f f e c t i v e . B ut c o n s e r v a ti v e s h av e t h e i r v a lu e s i n t h e i r s a v in g f u n c t i o n s , and th e y p ro v id e d t h e le a v e n f o r th e n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f t h e s c h o o ls . T h e ir p u rp o s e , h o w e v e rt w as n o t q u i t e th e same a s F ic h te * s * A cc o rd in g t o F i c h t e ’ s t h e o r y , th e S t a t e n o t o n ly w as th e b e n e f a c to r o f m an, i t w as t o be h i s e d u c a to r , and a s B ru b a c h e r s t a t e s o f su ch a v ie w : I n t h i s way th e s t a t e m anages to p e r p e t r a t e i t s e l f . I t i n s u r e s t h e t r a d i t i o n o f t h e v i t a l know ledge and s k i l l s w h ic h h a v e made th e s t a t e w h at i t i s . I f ed u c a t i o n i s su ch a c r u c i a l e n t e r p r i s e t h e s t a t e c a n h a r d l y l e t i t h an g on u n c e r t a i n b e n e v o le n c e . R a th e r w o u ld i t be a n e c e s s i t y . . . C e r t a i n l y 'where p o p u la r e d u c a tio n i s so im p o rta n t no ag e n c y l e s s u n i v e r s a l i n i t s pow er and a u t h o r i t y t h a n th e g o v ern m en t may be c o u n te d upon t o s e c u re th o s e e n d s . T h is i s c h i e f l y b e c a u s e th e 18 Edw ard H. R e is n e r , N a tio n a lis m an d E d u c a tio n S in c e 1789 (New Y ork: The M acm illan Company, 1929) , p . 146« 262 s t a t e h a s th e m eans a t i t s d is p o s a l t o p a s s o v e r th e a c c i d e n ts o f b i r t h an d t o a d j u s t e d u c a ti o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o th e i n d i v i d u a l t a l e n t . 19 T h is c o n c e p tio n o f F i c h t e , t h a t n a t i o n a l en d s i n . t h e l a r g e r s e n s e , w ere t o be t h e c r i t e r i o n o f e d u c a ti o n , was so m e th in g new up u n t i l h i s tim e . H ere w as th e t e l i c f u n c tio n w ith a v e n g e a n c e . Up u n t i l t h e n , s o c i e t y and e d u c a tio n h a d b een on a h i t and m is s b a s i s , th e p la n n in g n e v e r f u l l y ta k in g e f f e c t . B ut h e r e w as a g e n u in e a tte m p t t o m old th e l i v e s o f men on a r a t i o n a l b a s i s . By c o n s t a n t l y r e p la n n in g th e s c h o o l, th e i n d i v i d u a l w as b e in g sh ap ed a c c o r d in g t o i n t e l l i g e n t sc h em in g . B ut th e w h o le p la n becam e subm erged i n n a t i o n a l i s m , p e r s e . The i n d i v i d u a l was n o t w h o lly e n l ig h te n e d ; he w as o n ly p r e p a r e d f o r h i s t a s k i n p ro lo n g in g and s tr e n g th e n in g n a t io n a l is m b y a p r o c e s s o f c o n f o r m ity . I n i t i a t i v e u n d e r su ch a p la n i s s t i f l e d a s t h e r e i s no i n t e l l i g i b l e d i r e c t i o n . T h ere i s no d o u b t t h a t F ic h te * s p o l i c y o f n a t io n a lis m w as a l i b e r a l o n e . B ut th e p u rp o s e an d th e m eth o d s u se d w ere d e s tin e d to make i t a u t o c r a t i c . I t co u ld n o t be o th e r w is e , f o r t h e v e r y b a s i s o f t h e sy ste m w as i t s e n c o u ra g em e n t o f V a t e r l a n d s l i e b e . As s u c h , u n le s s c o n s t a n t l y on th e a l e r t , i t w o u ld h a v e become n a rro w e r an d n a r r o w e r . I f th e b a s ic Jo h n S . B ru b a c h e r, M odern P h ilo s o p h ie s o f E duca t i o n (New Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, 1934) , p . £01 • a s s u m p tio n s o f e d u c a tio n a r e u n so u n d , th e e n t i r e a r c h i t e c t o n i c b u ild e d th e r e f r o m w i l l t o p p l e . The e d u c a tio n t h a t i s n o t c o n s tr u c t e d on d e m o c ra tic p r i n c i p l e s c a n n o t lo n g en d u re . V. THE SCHOOLS AS COOPERATIVE T h is t h e o r y i s n o t d i s t i n c t , i n f a c t b o th th e f i r s t tw o p a r ta k e f r e e l y o f i t , b u t t h e i r p o in t o f e m p h a sis d i f f e r s . I n t h e f i r s t h y p o th e s is , e d u c a tio n w as t o c o n s e rv e t h a t w hich w as good i n t h e h e r i t a g e , and im p re s s i t upon th o s e t h a t f o llo w e d . The se c o n d c o n c e p t w as i n t e n s e l y s o c i a l i n n a t u r e , b u t i t f e l t t h a t e d u c a tio n c o u ld and s h o u ld show th e w ay to s o c i a l re fo rm . T h is c o n c e p t h o ld s t h a t th e s c h o o ls a re b u t p a r t o f t h e s o c i a l o r d e r . As two e d u c a to r s w r i t e : E d u c a tio n b e g in s a t b i r t h and e n d s a t d e a th . I t i s a c o n t in u a l p r o c e s s . The w h o le o f s o c i e t y n o t o n ly i s i n t e r e s t e d in e d u c a tin g th e i n d i v i d u a l b u t a c t u a l l y e n t e r s in t o th e p r o c e s s . I n g e n e r a l , th e l a r g e s t s h a r e o f t h i s e d u c a tio n com es fro m th e n o n -s c h o o l a g e n c ie s . To s e c u re th e c o n fo rm ity o f th e young to th e g ro u p i s t h e g e n e r a l p u rp o se o f t h e s e n o n -s c h o o l a g e n c ie s . T hus th e human i s e d u c a te d i n one w ay o r a n o th e r w h e th e r h e w is h e s i t o r n o t . 20 One o f th e b a s ic h y p o th e s e s o f t h i s s tu d y s t a t e d t h a t i n t e g r a t i o n , o r r a t h e r i n t e g r a t i n g , I s an an sw er f o r p r e s e n t - 20 A berdeen 0 . Bowden an d I r v i n g E . M elbo, S o c ia l P sy c h o lo g y o f E d u c a tio n (New Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, 1 9 3 7 ), pV 1 § 7 364 d ay e d u c a tio n , and so f a r th e s tu d y h a s b o rn e t h i s o u t, ev e n i f n e g a t i v e l y . F o r t h e Genaan s c h o o l sy ste m f a i l e d i n g r e a t m e asu re b e c a u se i t d id n o t k ee p p a c e w ith th e o t h e r f o r c e s , r a t h e r i t l a t e r becam e e n t i r e l y subm erged. When a s o c i a l sy stem l a g s to o f a r b e h in d , i t becom es an a p p e n d a g e , an d a s su ch o f no v a l u e . The d a t a o f t h i s s tu d y showed t h a t a s c h o o l sy stem c a n n o t s te p o u t i n f r o n t o f th e s o c i a l s y ste m , b e c a u se i t d ep en d s upon t h e s o c i a l sy ste m f o r i t s s u s te n a n c e . T h is i s i n l i n e w ith th e t h e o r y t h a t th e s o c i a l o r d e r and e d u c a tio n a r e one and th e same t h i n g , i n t h a t th o s e who make up e d u c a tio n a r e m em bers o f t h e same s o c i e t y . One c a n n o t move w ith o u t th e o t h e r . The s o l u t i o n seem s to l i e in co o p e r a t io n ; o r r a t h e r , a f u l l e r te rm , i n t e g r a t i o n . As H u tc h in s w r i t e s : The p ro b le m s o f e d u c a tio n a r e m ore com plex an d b a f f l i n g th a n th e y h av e e v e r b een b e f o r e . The e l a b o r a t e s t r u c t u r e t h a t h a s b een r a p i d l y e r e c te d i s i n d a n g e r fro m m is u n d e r s ta n d in g w ith o u t an d d is a g re e m e n t w i t h in . Much o f th e m is u n d e r s ta n d in g w ith o u t r e s u l t s fro m th e d is c o r d w i t h i n . I f we c a n e n v is a g e an e d u c a ti o n a l sy stem i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s , b u i l t on c o o p e r a tiv e an d n o t on r i g i d s e l f - c o n t r o l , i f we c a n g r a n t t o e a c h o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t in d e p e n d e n c e w h ich i t s f u l l d e v e lo p m ent r e q u i r e s , we s h a l l i l l u m i n a t e t h e e d u c a ti o n a l scheme f o r o u r p e o p le , and o u r s e l v e s , an d i n th e l i g h t o f a new day p e rfo rm o u r common ta s k . 21 T h is p r i n c i p l e o f i n t e g r a t i o n i s t a c i t ack n o w led g e m ent o f th e f a c t t h a t s o c i e t y i s a c o n jo in e d e n t e r p r i s e R o b e rt M aynard H u tc h in s , No F r ie n d ly V oice {C hicago: The U n iv e r s it y o f C h icag o P r e s s , 1936), p . 99. 265 w h ich i s i n i t s n a t u r e , a c o o p e r a tiv e g ro u p . Ohe p h a se o f i t c a n n o t move w ith o u t th e o t h e r . The f u t u r e o f a l l i s th e c o n c e rn o f a l l . -Any o t h e r r e a s o n in g i s n o t i n l i n e w ith l o g i c a l d e d u c tio n . I n t e g r a t i o n , from th e L a tin i n t e g r a r e . m ean in g t o make w h o le , i s an o rg a n is m ie c o n c e p tio n . H opkins d e f i n e s i t f o r e d u c a tio n : I n t e g r a t i o n i s a s h o rth a n d w ord u se d t o d e s ig n a te i n t e l l i g e n t b e h a v io r . I n t e g r a t i n g r e f e r s t o c o n tin u o u s i n t e l l i g e n t i n t e r a c t i v e a d j u s t i n g . E ach i n d i v i d u a l i s h o rn in to a c u l t u r e com posed o f a g r e a t v a r i e t y o f a s p e c t s — e c o n o m ic , a e s t h e t i c , p h y s i c a l , r e l i g i o u s , an d th e l i k e - - a l l o f w h ich a r e m ore o r l e s s com plex and i n t e r r e l a t e d . I n d e v e lo p in g t o m a t u r i t y an d o ld a g e , h i s l i f e i s c o n d itio n e d by h i s g ro w th n e e d s and th e a c c u m u la te d e x p e r ie n c e o f th e c u l t u r e i n m e e tin g t h e s e n e e d s . T h is m eans t h a t t h e c u l t u r e a f f e c t s h im , and he i n tu r n a f f e c t s t h e c u l t u r e . Or i n o t h e r w o rd s , h e I s c o n s t a n t l y i n th e p r o c e s s o f i n t e r a c t i n g w ith h i s e n v iro n m e n t . . . S in c e l i f e i s an o n g o in g p r o c e s s , an d s in c e e d u c a tio n i s c o n c e rn e d w ith th e im provem ent o f l i f e and l i v i n g , i t w o u ld seem t h a t e d u c a tio n m u st be c o n c e rn e d w ith im p ro v in g th e o n g o in g , i n t e r a c t i n g , a d j u s t i n g p r o c e s s . £2 The s tu d y showed t h a t F ic h te w as c o g n iz a n t o f t h i s i n t e g r a t i v e th e o r y p e r h a p s n o t i n nam e, b u t i n p u r p o s e . But h i s e n v iro n m e n t w as to o g r e a t f o r h im . E d u c a tio n i f g e a re d to a d e m o c ra tic s o c i e t y , i n t u r n becom es d e m o c r a tic . F ic h te * s s o c i e t y w as i n g r e a t p a r t f e u d a l , and h i s e d u c a t i o n n e v e r becam e t r u l y d e m o c r a tic . F in n e y , who h a s b een (Quoted b e f o r e , i s one who p p L . Thomas H o p k in s and o t h e r s , I n t e g r a t i o n , I t s M eaning and A p p lic a tio n (Hew Y ork: D. A p p le to n C e n tu ry Company, 1 § 5 7 ] , p p . 1 - 2 . 266 b e l i e v e s i n th e p r i n c i p l e o f s o c i a l p a r a l l e l i s m , a s h e c a l l s i t . T h is i s r e a l l y a n a lo g o u s t o i n t e g r a t i o n . As he w r i t e s o f t h i s p ro p o se d schem e o f e d u c a tio n : W ith o u t e d u c a tio n e a c h new g e n e r a tio n o f human a n i m a ls w o u ld h av e t o b e g in a t th e b o tto m o f th e l a d d e r o f s o c i a l e v o l u t i o n . B ut th e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s k e e p s th e a c c u m u la te d m a t e r i a l e x t a n t , so t h a t th e i n s t i t u t i o n s o f c i v i l i z e d s o c i e t y can be o p e r a te d on th e c i v i l i z e d l e v e l b y ea ch new p h a la n x o f th e p h y lo n ic p r o c e s s io n . Hence th e p a r a l l e l i s m b e tw e en e d u c a tio n an d c i v i l i z a t i o n . T h ere i s r e a l l y no o t h e r s u b s ta n c e o u t o f w h ich e d u c a t i o n , in an y v i t a l se n se o f th e w o rd , can b e m ade, e x c e p t th e m a t e r i a l c a p i t a l on w hich th e c i v i l i z a t i o n in w h ich i t f u n c tio n s i s d o in g b u s in e s s . And w h ich i s m ore im p o r ta n t, no c i v i l i z a t i o n c a n c o n tin u e e x c e p t a s th e s o c i a l h e r i t a g e b y th e u se o f w hich i t o p e r a t e s i s t r a n s m i t t e d from g e n e r a tio n t o g e n e r a t i o n , and no s o c i e t y can a c h ie v e and m a in ta in a h i ^ i e r l e v e l o f c u l t u r e e x c e p t a s th e r i c h e r m e n ta l w h e re w ith a l o f t h a t h i g h e r c u l t u r e i s r e n d e r e d c u r r e n t among th e p e o p le by an e d u c a tio n a l p ro g ram t h a t p a r a l l e l s i t . T h ere c a n be no p erm an en t s o c i a l p r o g r e s s w ith o u t a c o r r e s p o n d in g e d u c a ti o n a l p r o g r e s s . 23 Such a t h e o r y , h o ld in g a s i t d o es t h a t an e d u c a ti o n a l sy ste m p la n n e d t o m eet i t s o b l i g a t i o n s , i s one in i/diich p r o g r e s s h a s a r e a l c h a n c e . F b r e d u c a tio n i s a r e c i p r o c a l ag en cy i n s o c i e t y , a t once i n f lu e n c in g and b e in g in f lu e n c e d . I t s p rim a ry f u n c tio n i s t h e e v o lv e m e n t o f th e i n d i v i d u a l a s a f u n c tio n in g u n i t in a p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l e n v iro n m e n t w h ich h a s g iv e n aim t o th e s c h o o ls . The s c h o o ls can th e n by v i r t u e o f t h e i r a d v a n ta g e s , v i z . , th e u se o f r e a s o n , im prove th o s e w ith whom th e y come i n c o n t a c t . Then c a n th e s e p e o p le ^ F in n e y , o £ . c i t . . p p . 1 0 0 -1 0 1 . 267 d e m o c r a tic a lly e d u c a te d an d w ith t r u e s o c i a l p u rp o s e go o u t and in t h e i r t u r n im p ro v e s o c i e t y . Such a n e d u c a tio n fo u n d ed i n l i f e i t s e l f , a s i t e x i s t s , and c o n c e iv e d i n e n lig h te n m e n t may be th e a n sw e r. N a tu re o f i n t e g r a t i v e e d u c a tio n . I n v ie w o f th e s c i e n t i f i c d a ta t h a t t h e r e i s a u n ity o b ta in in g i n a l l o r g a n ic m a t t e r , an d o f th e s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s t h a t c i v i l i z a t i o n m eans l i v i n g and s h a r in g t o g e t h e r , no one a g e n c y can w ork w ith o u t i n some w ay to u c h in g th e o t h e r s . Thus i n t e g r a t i o n i s on an a p p a r e n t l y sound f o u n d a tio n . H o p k in s sums up t h e c a s e f o r i n t e g r a t i o n : The e d u c a to r who u t i l i z e s th e c o n c e p t o f i n t e g r a t i o n i s th u s b ro u g h t f a c e t o f a c e w ith a p rim a ry q u e s tio n , n am ely w h at i s th e r e l a t i o n b etw een e d u c a tio n an d s o c i a l p r o g r e s s ? . . . E d u c a tio n d o e s n o t s e e k t o p ro d u c e i n t e g r a t e d p e r s o n s who may f u n c t io n s a t i s f a c t o r i l y in an i n t e g r a t e d s o c i e t y , b u t r a t h e r i n t e g r a t i n g p e r s o n s l i v i n g d y n a m ic a lly i n an i n t e g r a t in g s o c i e t y . 2^ To H o p k in s, t h e r e m u st be a c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f th in k in g a s r e g a r d s th e p u rp o s e o f e d u c a tio n i n a dynam ic s o c i e t y . I n t e g r a t i o n i s th e an sw e r f o r h im . N ot a n i n t e g r a t i o n i n i t s s t a t i c s e n s e . Such an i n t e g r a t i o n c o u ld e a s i l y beccm e h y p o s ta s iz e d and l o s e i t s f l e x i b i l i t y . C o m p le te ly i n t e g r a te d p e o p le , a c c o rd in g t o H o p k in s, a r e n o t th e g o a l . Such p e o p le w ould be l i f e l e s s . To r e a c h i t s g o a l e d u c a tio n m u st 24 H o p k in s, o £ . c i t ., p p . 2 2 -2 3 . 268 s e t up a s e r i e s o f g o a l s , F o r t h e r e i s no one f ix e d un c o n d itio n e d e n d - i n - a l l f o r t h e i n t e g r a t i o n i s t . R a th e r th e v i t a l p o in t i s th e r e a l i z a t i o n o f a sm o o th ly f u n c tio n in g e d u c a tio n in a dynam ic s o c i e t y , V I. W H A T THE STUDY HAS REVEALED A m e e tin g p o i n t . The summary re v ie w s o f th e t h r e e m odern a p p ro a c h e s t o s c h o o l and s o c i e t y b ro u g h t o u t th e p o in t t h a t a l l a r e a g re e d a s t o dem o cracy b e in g th e r a t i o n a l e , b u t th e w ay by w hich t h i s d em ocracy can b e s t be u t i l i z e d i s s t i l l i n c o n t e n ti o n . B ut a l l t h r e e p o s i t i o n s have t h u s so m e th in g t o c o n t r i b u t e . The c o n s e r v a tiv e s a r e an e x c e l l e n t ch eck r e i n on t h e to o a r d e n t r e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s t s . Somewhere b etw een t h e two l i e s th e h ap p y medium* I t i s a g re e d t h a t e d u c a tio n c a n no lo n g e r be s t a t i c * A dynam ic e d u c a tio n , j o i n i n g w ith t h e o t h e r a g e n c ie s i n a d e m o c ra tic e n d e a v o u r, seem s to f i t m o st c l o s e l y to th e p a t t e r n . Dewey’ s d e f i n i t i o n o f a d e m o c ra tic e d u c a tio n w i l l s u f f i c e : S in c e e d u c a tio n i s a s o c i a l p r o c e s s and t h e r e a r e m any k in d s o f s o c i e t i e s , a c r i t e r i a f o r e d u c a ti o n a l c r i t i c i s m an d c o n s t r u c t i o n im p lie s a p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l i d e a l . The two p o i n t s s e l e c t e d by w hich to m easu re th e w o rth o f a form o f s o c i a l l i f e a r e th e e x t e n t i n w h ich th e i n t e r e s t s o f a g ro u p a r e s h a re d b y a l l i t s m em bers, and th e f u l l n e s s an d freed o m w ith w hich i t i n t e r a c t s w ith o t h e r g r o u p s . 25 ^ Dewey, o p . c i t * . p . 2 4 7 . 269 A t e n t a t i v e p a t t e r n . From a l l t h i s em erges a p a t t e r n o f an i n t e g r a t e d e d u c a tio n a s a n ag en cy u n iq u e ly endow ed w ith s p e c i a l a d v a n ta g e s , em p lo y in g th e s e a d v a n ta g e s f o r t h e w e lf a r e o f a l l . W ith th e d e m o c ra tic i d e a l no m odern ed u c a t o r c a v i l s . T h ere i s r e a l l y no a b s o lu te a n s w e r, n o r d o e s a dynam ic s o c i e t y se e k o n e . But a s a m eans o f s o c i a l e f f i c i e n c y and s o c i a l w e l f a r e , s c h o o l sy ste m may r e a l i z e i t s i d e a l p la c e i n s o c i e t y . Why th e German r e a rra n g e m e n t f a i l e d . From t h e f o r e g o in g p a t t e r n , an d th e e v id e n c e p ro d u c e d b y th e s tu d y , i t i s se e n t h a t s o c i e t y m u st o r g a n iz e a p e o p le , f o r th e p e o p le . The s c h o o l sy ste m o f P r u s s i a w as b o th e x tre m e ly c o n s e r v a tiv e and r e c o n s t r u c t i v e . T h is s i t u a t i o n a p p e a rs p a r a d o x ic a l b u t i s n o t beyond u n d e r s ta n d in g . The Germ ans a tte m p te d t o tr a n s m i t th e c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e by a p r o t r a c t e d e f f o r t . E v e ry movem ent h a s many p h a s e s . The s c h o o l sy stem w as an in s tru m e n t o f s o c i e t y t o p e r p e t u a t e th e i d e a l o f t h a t so c i e t y . As su c h an d a s a s id e i s s u e i t h e lp e d b e t t e r th e s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s . B ut th e P r u s s ia n sy ste m f a i l e d b e c a u se i t was^ to o h i g h l y o r g a n iz e d , to o r i g i d an d i n f l e x i b l e . I t became s t a t i c and l o s t i t s o r i g i n a l p u r p o s e s . F o r th e b u ild i n g o f a p erm an en t d e m o c ra tic e d u c a tio n ev en w ith th e b e s t o f i n t e n t i o n s a s F ic h te h a d , t h e s o c i a l e le m e n t m u st become th e 270 c r i t e r i o n o f v a l u e . I f t h e p e o p le a r e n o t in c lu d e d i n a l l th e common p u r p o s e s , a s Dewey s a i d , i t i s n o t a d e m o c ra tic s o c i e t y . The s o c i a l e le m e n t i s a l l im p o r ta n t. And t h i s s o c i a l e le m e n t i s n o th in g l e s s th a n t h e f i r s t p r i n c i p l e o f a d e m o c ra tic s o c i e t y . The Germ an, and e s p e c i a l l y th e P r u s s ia n e d u c a tio n , e f f e c t i v e a s i t w a s, f a i l e d to p e rm a n e n tly m o d ify th e s o c i a l o r d e r b e c a u s e i t n e v e r r e a l l y r e p r e s e n te d th e p e o p le . I t w as m e re ly a t o o l f o r th e m o n arch y , and a s su c h a u s e f u l a d ju n c t f o r c o n t r o l l i n g t h e th o u g h ts and a c t i o n s o f i t s c o n s t i t u e n t s . U n le s s a n a t i o n a l sy stem o f e d u c a tio n i s t r u l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , v i z . , o f , b y , an d f o r th e p e o p le , i t w i l l o f a n e c e s s i t y f a i l . L o g ic a l d e d u c tio n s . The u n f o ld in g o f t h i s h i s t o r i c a l s tu d y h a s d i s c l o s e d f i n d i n g s i n a c c o rd w ith th e h y p o th e s e s an d le n d in g i t s e l f t o a b r o a d e r p a t t e r n i n g . One o f th e a s s u m p tio n s h e ld t h a t l o g i c a l p a t t e r n s e n s u e fro m c o n t r o l l e d i n q u i r y , an d t h a t th e y w ere c o g e n t en o u g h , w h ile n o t i r r e v o c a b le , to be in s t r u m e n ta l i n t h e s o l u t i o n o f m odem p ro b le m s c o n f r o n tin g e d u c a tio n . T h is a s s u m p tio n i s i n l i n e w ith Dewey’ s th e o r y t h a t : . . . a l l l o g i c a l fo rm s (w ith t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p r o p e r t i e s ) a r i s e w ith in th e o p e r a t io n o f i n q u i r y , and a r e c o n c e rn e d w ith t h e c o n t r o l o f i n q u i r y so t h a t i t may y i e l d w a r r a n te d a s s e r t i o n s . T h is c o n c e p tio n im p lie s much m ore th a n t h a t l o g i c a l fo rm s a r e d is c l o s e d o r come t o l i ^ b t w hen we r e f l e c t upon p r o c e s s e s o f i n q u i r y t h a t 271 a r e i n u s e . Of c o u rs e i t m eans t h a t , h u t i t a l s o m eans t h a t t h e fo im s o r i g i n a t e i n o p e r a tio n s o f i n q u i r y . The p ro b le m re d u c e d to i t s lo w e s t te rm i s w h e th e r i n q u i r y can d e v e lo p i n i t s own o u tg o in g , t h e l o g i c a l s ta n d a r d s and fo rm s t o w h ich f u r t h e r i n q u i r y s h a l l su bm it* One m ig h t r e p l y by s a y in g t h a t i t c a n .26 " W a rra n te d a s s e r t i o n s , ” h o w ev er, a r e u s e f u l and n e c e s s a r y f o r p ro b lem s o l v i n g . A h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h , su c h a s t h i s , h a s p ro v id e d c e r t a i n in f o r m a tio n w h ich can be s e t f o r t h a s a s s e r t i o n s , f i t f o r em ploym ent i n p r e s e n t- d a y e d u c a ti o n a l d ilem m as. The v o ic e o f th e p a s t m o d if ie s th e l i f e o f th e p r e s e n t o r i t h a s no m essage f o r h i s t o r y . I n o r d e r t o cope w ith th e p r e s e n t m i l i e u , s i t u a t i o n s su ch a s r e c o r d e d by t h i s s tu d y p r e s e n t p o s s i b le a l t e r n a t i v e s . H is t o r y i s n o t m e re ly a r e c o r d o f e v e n t s . T h is s tu d y empha s iz e d t h a t i t i s a p a t t e r n w h ereb y we a r e b e t t e r a b le to i n t e r p r e t th e p r e s e n t . The f a c t o r s i n f lu e n c in g t o d a y ’s e d u c a tio n stem fro m th e p a s t , and t h i s i s h i s t o r y . W ith o u t a c o g e n t a p p r a i s a l o f th e panoram a o f th e p r e c e d in g y e a r s , th e p ro b le m s o f m odern e d u c a tio n a r e in c a p a b le o f co m p lete r e s o l u t i o n . The m o d if ic a ti o n o f s o c i e t y b y th e s c h o o ls . I t h a s b e e n d e m o n s tra te d t h a t th e German s o c i a l o r d e r was g r e a t l y ch an g ed by a rem ade s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n . B ut i t h a d tu r n e d 26 Jo h n Dewey, L o g ic . The T h eo ry o f I n q u i r y (New Y ork: H en ry H o lt an d Company, 1938), PP* 3 -4 . 272 r e a c t i o n a r y , and f a i l e d i n t h e lo n g r u n . The r e a s o n f o r t h i s i s b e s t e x p r e s s e d by a q u o ta tio n fro m Edw ards and R ich ey : Men m u st be a c c o rd e d i n t e l l e c t u a l fre ed o m i n th e i n t e r e s t b o th o f th e i n d i v i d u a l and o f s o c i e t y . T y ran n y o v e r th e m ind o f man i s ty r a n n y a t i t s w o r s t. D em ocracy i s an i d l e dream i f " f o rb id d e n " s ig n s a r e to be e r e c t e d a lo n g a n y o f t h e h ig h w ay s an d byw ays t h a t le a d th ro u g h a l l th e d e p th and b r e a d th o f human e x p e r ie n c e . The q u e s t f o r t r u t h m u st b e u n tram m eled and men m u st be f r e e to sp e a k th e t r u t h a s th e y s e e i t . 27 The P r u s s ia n s c h o o l sy ste m tu r n e d r e a c t i o n a r y and f a i l e d b e c a u se i t w as u n d e m o c ra tic i n s p i r i t . B ut i t d id m o d ify th e s o c i a l o r d e r w hen, and o n ly w hen, i t becam e p a r t o f i t . I t , a lo n g w ith th e o t h e r r e f o r m s , h e lp e d tr a n s f o r m a f e u d a l s o c i e t y in t o a q u a s i - l i b e r a l m o n arch y , a tre m e n d o u s advancem ent f o r t h a t d a y . So lo n g a s th e p e o p le h a d a s ta k e in t h e i r s o c i e t y , and w ere e n lig h te n e d f o r t h i s p u r p o s e , t h e r e w o u ld be p r o g r e s s . I n t h i s w ay, th e s c h o o ls by p r o d u c in g a l e r t c i t i z e n s d id m o d ify th e s o c i a l o r d e r . Unedu c a te d c i t i z e n s c a n n o t i n t e l l i g e n t l y a l t e r t h e i r s c h o o ls o r t h e i r s o c i e t y . The d e f e a t a t J e n a g a lv a n iz e d P r u s s i a i n t o a c t i o n . A n a t i o n a l d i s a s t e r h e lp e d s e t i n t o m o tio n th o s e f o r c e s w h ic h r e g e n e r a te d P r u s s i a . The d o cu m en ta ry e v id e n c e o f t h i s s tu d y h a s f o r c e f u l l y c o r r o b o r a te d t h i s f a c t . P r u s s i a o f th e Edw ards an d R ic h e y , o £ . c i t •, p. 8 4 2 . 873 F r e d e r ic ia n t r a d i t i o n h a d la b o r e d a lo n g a s a f e u d a l m on arch y , u n t i l N apoleon h a d i n f l i c t e d an o verw helm ing d e f e a t upon th e P r u s s ia n a im s. As she l a y p r o s t r a t e , h e r l e a d e r s b e s e e e h e d t h e p e o p le t o r i s e and e a s t o u t th e in v a d e r* F ic h te * s A d d re sse s re m a in w r i t t e n e v id e n c e o f t h e a p p e a ls to r i s e . An e v e n t o f su ch c a ta c ly s m ic p r o p o r tio n s a f f e c t e d e v e ry o n e , and h en ce e m p h asiz ed th e d i r e n e e d f o r u n i t y . T hrough t h i s common d i s a s t e r , th e l e a d e r s saw a w o rth y w eapon f o r s u r v i v a l . W ith n a tio n a lis m a s a w a r c r y , t h e r e f o r m e r s began t o w o rk . W ith o u t th e s h a t t e r i n g d e f e a t to u n i f y th e p e o p le , i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e P r u s s ia n s c o u ld h av e b e e n a r o u s e d . P a t r i o t i s m u n d e r th e F r e d e r ic k s w as no n a t i o n a l s e n tim e n t. I t w as t r u e , t h e r e was a V o l k s g e i s t . b u t t h i s w as a f e e l i n g o f b e lo n g in g n e s s r a t h e r th a n a p u r e l y n a t i o n a l i s t i c f e r v o r . T h is s e n s e o f com m onalty w as th e s p r in g b o a r d b y w h ich r a t i o n a l i s m w as aw akened. The p e o p l e , u n d e r th e s e m i- fe u d a l s t a t e , d id n o t p o s s e s s an y r e a l p a t r i o t i c f e e l i n g s . I n f a c t th e m odem n a t i o n a l S t a te h ad n o t e v e n b eg u n . I t w as th e re fo rm s o c c a s io n e d b y th e d e f e a t and t h e p ro m ise o f a b e t t e r l i f e t h a t f i n a l l y a ro u s e d t h e p o p u la c e to r e s i s t B o n a p a rte . D i s a s t e r h i g h l i g h t e d th e s c h o o ls . I t h a s a lr e a d y b een d e s c r ib e d i n C h a p te r V I I I , how th e Re den b ro u g h t th e s c h o o ls in to su c h a p ro m in e n t p o s i t i o n . And e v e n t h e f o r c e s o p p o sed t o l i b e r a l i z i n g P r u s s i a w ere m o m e n ta rily s t i l l e d i n 274 t h e i r e a g e r n e s s to g r a s p a t a n y m eans to r e s t o r e t h e i r fo rm e r p o w er. I n e d u c a tio n t h e r e r e s i d e d a p o te n t w eap o n , f o r e d u c a tio n f r e e s a p e o p le , an d p ro m p ts them t o g r e a t e r i n t e r e s t and e f f o r t . The s c h o o ls w ere th e n m o b iliz e d f o r re fo rm a lo n g w ith a l l th e o t h e r a g e n c ie s . But e d u c a tio n w as p u sh e d o u t i n f r o n t to s e rv e a s a v a n g u a rd f o r t h e r e fo rm s . Even th e m onarch h im s e lf , F r e d e r ic k W illia m I I I , g ra s p e d a t th e id e a o f e d u c a tio n to h e lp r e s t o r e h i s l o s t kingdom . I n h i s e n th u s ia s m a t h a v in g a m eans o f a r o u s in g th e p e o p le , h e o v e rlo o k e d th e d e m o c ra tic a s p e c t s o f th e p r o p o sed e d u c a tio n a l schem e. The p e o p le , n ew ly f r e e d , and s tim u la te d b y th e p ro m ise o f g r e a t e r t h i n g s t o com e, r e s ponded w ith an u n d e r s ta n d a b le z e a l . No d o u b t t h e r e w ere many d i s a f f e c t e d e le m e n ts i n P r u s s i a . No g r e a t movement i s w ith o u t i t s lukew arm a d h e r e n ts ; n o r w ith th e s u p p o r t o f a l l th e p e o p le . H ow ever, a l l e le m e n ts o f a n y g iv e n s o c i e t y a r e in some m e asu re to u c h e d b y t h e m ovem ent. Be t h a t a s i t m ay, in th e m ain t h e b u lk o f th e p e o p le w ere s p u r re d i n t o a c t i o n , a c c o rd in g to th e h i s t o r i a n s , and fo u g h t a g a i n s t th e in v a d e r s . Jo h an n G o t t l i e b F ic h te an d h i s A d d re s s e s . T hrough t h e im p a ct o f h i s A d d re s s e s . F ic h te e x e c u te d a g r e a t i n f lu e n c e upon th e German n a t i o n s . As h a s b ee n s e e n , th e 275 A d d re sse s p ro v e d th e s p u r and th e g o a l t o r e g e n e r a tio n * F ic h te * s e d u c a ti o n a l t h e o r i e s p r e s e n t a p a ra d o x . C o n s tru e d i n one w ay, th e y a r e i n t e n s e l y n a t i o n a l i s t i c ; i n a n o th e r se n s e th e y a r e t h a t , b u t t h e y a r e a l s o h u m a n is tic . T h at i s t o s a y , t h a t F ic h te *s c o n c e p tio n o f n a tio n a l is m w as m ean t i n a d i f f e r e n t se n se th a n th e n arro w V a te r l a n d s li e b e w h ich f i n a l l y d e b a se d h i s p e d a g o g ic a l t h e o r i e s . F ic h te w as a t h e o r e t i c i a n w hose g r e a t e s t f o r m u la tio n w as h i s m o ra l la w . E d u c a tio n w as t o be th e m eth o d o f le a d in g man t o h ig h e r and h ig h e r l e v e l s th ro u g h m o r a l i t y . The w h o le w o rld w as to b e n e f i t , b u t b e c a u se Germany w as endowed w ith u n iq u e ad v a n ta g e s , sh e w as to le a d t h e w ay. F ic h te a d v o c a te d th ro u g h t h e A d d re sse s th e u s e o f P e s t a l o z z i * s d o c t r i n e s , t h a t : E d u c a tio n i s e v e r much b r o a d e r th a n th e s c h o o l, an d e d u c a tio n th u s becom es a s o c i a l a s w e ll a s a n i n d i v i d u a l p r o c e s s , one w h ic h i s c a r r i e d on b y a v a r i e t y o f i n s t i t u t i o n s . E d u c a tio n i s th e p r o c e s s a s w e ll a s th e m eans o f b e t t e r i n g s o c i e t y ; e d u c a tio n i s e v e r t o p e rfo rm m ore f o r th e i n d i v i d u a l th a n t o g iv e t h e ru d im e n ts o f l e a r n in g ; f o r i t i s to a s s i s t him to be so m e th in g f o r him s e l f an d t o do so m e th in g f o r o t h e r s . 28 Such an e d u c a tio n , i t w as t r u e , c o u ld be c o n c e iv e d o f a s n a t i o n a l , i n t h a t i t c o u ld be a p p lie d to a p a r t i c u l a r s t a t e , b u t a c t u a l l y i t was b r o a d e r th a n t h a t . The n a t i o n a l i s t i c a s p e c t s o f F ic h te * s t h e o r i e s w ere a p p r o p r ia te d b y o t h e r s , and blow n up to w here th e y no lo n g e r w ere h i s b a s ic 90 P a u l M onroe, A T ex tb o o k i n th e H is to r y o f E duca t i o n (New Y ork: The M acm illan Company, 1918) , p . 7 0 8 . 876 c o n c e p ts . O th e r f a c t o r s h e lp e d rem o ld s o c i e t y . T h is s tu d y b ro u g h t o u t th e in f o r m a tio n t h a t a s e r i e s o f r e l a t e d e v e n ts to u c h e d o f f t h e P r u s s ia n re fo rm . The tr a g e d y Tsfoich b e f e l l P r u s s i a , t h e n ee d f o r common a c t i o n , th e s e n s e o f u n i t y , w ere a l l d e c id e d f a c t o r s i n th e P r u s s ia n r e g e n e r a t i o n . The m o d if ic a tio n by th e s c h o o ls w o u ld h a v e b een u n l i k e l y h ad t h e r e n o t e n te r e d in t o th e s i t u a t i o n o t h e r c o n tin g e n t f o r c e s . The s c h o o ls r e c e iv e d t h e i r im p e tu s from th e c a t a s tr o p h e w hich h a d e n g u lfe d P r u s s i a . A f t e r th e y h ad been f o r c e d i n t o p ro m in en ce by th e A d d re s s e s , o r g a n iz a tio n w as n e c e s s a r y t o make th em e f f e c t i v e . L e f t t o th e m s e lv e s th e s c h o o ls h a d up u n t i l th e n i n f lu e n c e d t h e s o c i a l o r d e r v e r y l i t t l e . A c o n c a te n a tio n o f e v e n ts , f o r t u i t o u s i f you w i l l , p e m i t t e d th e s c h o o l to h e lp m o d ify i t s e l f , and th e n th e s o c i a l o r d e r . G h a p te r V s k e tc h e d th e g r e a t s o c i a l re fo rm s o f vom S t e i n , th e m i l i t a r y c h a n g e s i n s t i g a t e d b y von G n eisen h au and o t h e r s , and th e re s u r g e n c e o f n a t i o n a l c o n s c io u s n e s s w e ld e d t o g e t h e r by Jo h an n F ic h te . I t w as th e c o m b in a tio n o f a l l th e s e i n f l u e n c e s w h ich sh ap ed th o s e e v e n ts le a d in g t o th e re fo rm o f th e s o c i a l o r d e r by t h e s c h o o ls . The men who le d th e P r u s s ia n r e h a b i l i t a t i o n . To e x e c u te th e re fo rm s o c c a s io n e d by t h e T r e a ty o f T i l s i t , and 277 t o b r in g them in to f r u i t i o n , c a p a b le l e a d e r s w ere r e q u i r e d . And i n th e P r u s s ia n e x t r e m i t y , th e s e men w ere f o r t u n a t e l y on h a n d . F ic h te w as a p h ilo s o p h e r and n o t a man o f a f f a i r s . W ith o u t a von H um boldt, h i s t h e o r i e s w o u ld p o s s i b l y h av e alw ay s re m a in e d a s s u c h . W ith o u t a vom S t e i n , s o c i a l re fo rm w ould m ore th a n l i k e l y n e v e r h a v e b e e n so e f f e c t i v e l y b eg u n . I t h a s b ee n d e m o n s tra te d th ro u g h o u t h i s t o r y t h a t when i n c a p a b le l e a d e r s w ere a t th e h elm d u rin g a c r i s i s , i t h a s q u i t e o f te n p ro v e d f a t a l . I n th e c a s e o f P r u s s i a , sh e w as lu c k y i n h a v in g th o s e who p ro v e d o f g r e a t s e r v i c e t o h e r i n h e r h o u rs o f n e e d . A ll th e s e m en, G n e ise n a u , H um boldt, A rn d t, an d above a l l vom S t e i n and F ic h te d id much to r e g e n e r a te P r u s s i a . I n a d d i t i o n t h e r e w ere many o t h e r s o f whom h i s t o r y d o es n o t r e l a t e . S u f f ic e i t t o s a y good l e a d e r s a r e r e q u ir e d f o r e f f i c i e n t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . The s c h o o ls o f P r u s s i a w ere e s p e c i a l l y f o r t u n a t e i n t h a t th e y w ere s t a r t e d on t h e i r way by a man who w as b o th a t h i n k e r an d a d o e r , a r a r e c o m b in a tio n . Von H um boldt tra n s fo rm e d t h e P r u s s ia n s c h o o ls and im p re s s e d h i s p e c u l i a r g e n iu s upon th em . He d id n o t ru n them lo n g , b u t ev en i n a s h o r t tim e h e p erfo x m ed a re m a rk a b le t a s k . I n t h i s he w as h e lp e d by h i s c o n te m p o ra rie s who e n c o u ra g e d e d u c a tio n a l s o . I t i s t r u e men a r e g u id e d by f o r c e s , b u t th e y to o may h a r n e s s th e s e t o a p u rp o s e i f th e y h av e th e a b i l i t y . P r u s s i a h a d t h e a b le m en. 278 The P r u s s ia n s r e o r g a n iz e d t h e i r s c h o o ls i n t o an e f f e c t i v e m ech an ism * T h is i n v e s t i g a t i o n p o r tr a y e d th e r e m a rk a b le m eth o d i n w hich t h e s c h o o ls w ere tr a n s f o r m e d . I t w as s e e n t h a t t h e y w ere f a s h io n e d i n t o an e f f e c t i v e m ach in e b e c a u se o f t h e i r u t i l i t y v a l u e . F ic h t e , th r o u g h h i s A d d re s s e s , had h an d ed th e G erm ans a read y -m ad e schem e. And i t w as a c c e p te d w ith a l a c r i t y . The s c h o o l sy ste m w as o r g a n iz e d , a s many o f o u r s c h o o ls a r e y e t , on th e l i n e and s t a f f fo rm u la . And i n a s h o r t tim e t h e r e a r o s e a p o te n t ag en cy f o r t h e e x p r e s s io n o f t h e i r K u l t u r . T h is c u l t u r e o f th e Germans c o lo u re d th e sy ste m and bound i t t o g e t h e r . I t c o u ld h a r d l y be o th e r w is e , f o r a s Edw ards and R ich e y s t a t e : E d u c a tio n a t an y g iv e n tim e o r p la c e i s i n la r g e m e asu re th e p r o d u c t o f th e c i v i l i z a t i o n o f w h ich i t i s a p a r t ; h o w ev er, much o f i t may be in f lu e n c e d by custom and t r a d i t i o n , i t i s alw ay s s e n s i t i v e t o c o n te m p o ra ry s o c ie ty . . . s o c i a l f o r c e s b e a tin g in on th e s c h o o l fro m w ith o u t i n th e lo n g ru n d e te rm in e th e e s s e n t i a l t e n e t s o f i t s p h ilo s o p h y , th e d e g re e an d k in d o f edu c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s t h a t w i l l be a f f o r d e d by th e v a r io u s s o c i a l c l a s s e s , th e c o n te n t and o r g a n i z a t i o n o f th e c u r r ic u lu m , th e p r e p a r a t i o n and s t a t u s o f t e a c h e r s , th e so u rc e o f f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t, th e a g e n c ie s o f ad m i n i s t r a t i o n , ah d th e fo rm s o f s t r u c t u r a l o r g a n iz a tio n w hich th e e d u c a ti o n a l sy ste m t a k e s . 29 T h is q u o ta tio n i s a s u r p r i s i n g sum m ation o f a s i t u a t i o n o c c u r r in g w e ll o v e r a c e n tu r y a g o . The P r u s s ia n h ie r a r c h y p a s s e d s t r i n g e n t n a t i o n a l r e g u l a t i o n s a s to t h e f o r m u la tio n o f th e new e d u c a tio n sy stem t h a t w as t o b e . 2 9 E dw ards an d R ic h e y , o £ . c i t . , p . XL. 379 C h a p te r V III showed how each p h a s e w as c a r e f u l l y d i r e c t e d so t h a t th e n a t i o n a l aim was t o he a c h ie v e d . O nly i n t h a t way w as i t p o s s i b l e to change t h e s c h o o ls . Had th e y n o t b e e n o r g a n iz e d , c h a n c e s a r e th e y c o u ld n o t have m o d ifie d th e s o c i a l o r d e r q u i t e a s much a s th e y d i d . O r g a n iz a tio n and p u rp o se a r e n e c e s s a r y a d j u n c ts f o r s u c c e s s , b u t th e y m ust be dynam ic and g ro u n d ed i n a d e m o c ra tic e t h o s , a s a l r e a d y d e f in e d . The P r u s s ia n s c h o o l sy stem w as n o t d e m o c r a tic . I t h a s b e e n r a t h e r c o n c lu s iv e ly d e m o n s tra te d t h a t P r u s s i a ’ s s c h o o l sy ste m when i t w as d e f l e c t e d from i t s d e m o c ra tic p u r p o se becam e a w eapon f b r th e s p e c i f i c u se o f th e m o n arch . F r e d e r ic k W illia m I I I and h i s s u c c e s s o r , F r e d e r ic k IV , d e r id e d th e s c h o o ls an d t h e i r p u rp o se a l t o g e t h e r . I f i t h ad re m a in e d d e m o c ra tic i t w ould h av e b ee n f a r l e s s l i k e l y to f a i l . The le s s o n t o be le a r n e d i s t h a t to d a y ’ s e d u c a tio n m ust b e c o n c e rn e d w ith w e lf a r e o f a l l , and e x p r e s s in g th e 30 w i l l o f a l l . As Dewey s t a t e s i t : . . . t h a t a f t e r a l l t h e c a u s e o f dem ocracy i s th e m o ra l c a u s e o f t h e d i g n i t y an d th e w o rth o f th e i n d i v i d u a l . T hrough m u tu a l r e s p e c t , m u tu a l t o l e r a t i o n , g iv e and t a k e , th e p o o lin g o f e x p e r ie n c e s , i t i s u l t i m a te ly th e o n ly m ethod b y w hich human b e in g s can su c c e e d i n c a r r y in g on t h i s e x p e rim e n t i n w hich we a r e a l l e n g a g e d , w h e th e r we w ant t o be o r n o t , th e g r e a t e s t e x p e rim e n t o f h u m a n ity — t h a t o f l i v i n g t o g e t h e r i n w ays i n w hich th e l i f e o f e a c h o f u s i s a t once p r o f i t a b l e 30 Jo h n Dewey, P ro b le m s o f Men (New Y ork: The P h ilo -r s o p h ie a l L i b r a r y , 1 9 4 6 ), p p . 4 4 -4 5 . i n th e d e e p e s t s e n s e o f th e w o rd , p r o f i t a b l e t o h im s e lf , and h e l p f u l i n th e b u ild in g up o f th e i n d i v i d u a l i t y o f o t h e r s . T h is h y p o th e s is o f dem ocracy b e in g in d is p e n s a b le to e d u c a tio n was in th e m ain b o rn e o u t b y t h e f i n d i n g s . F o r a w h ile th e P r u s s ia n s c h o o l sy ste m w as r u n sm o o th ly and e f f i c i e n t l y , b u t b e in g i n f l e x i b l e and i t s p u rp o se d i s t o r t e d , i t h a rd e n e d in t o a m ere i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y . The P r u s s ia n d e b a c le i n f e r s o t h e r m eans f o r m odi f i c a t i o n . The P r u s s ia n s c h o o l sy ste m f a i l e d i n p a r t to p e rm a n e n tly and d e m o c r a tic a lly m o d ify i t s s o c i e t y , b e c a u se i t d id n o t r e p r e s e n t a l l th e p e o p le . I t becam e a n o rg a n f o r th e p o l i t i c a l p a r t y i n p o w er, b u t when i t h a d o u tw o rn t h i s u s e f u ln e s s i t w as d is c a r d e d by th em . I t d id n o t i n t e g r a t e and a s a r e s u l t l o s t c o n ta c t w ith th e p e o p le . The o t h e r s o c i e t a l a g e n c ie s p ro v e d to o s tr o n g f o r i t . Had i t J o in e d i n a common aim , and a tte m p te d t o te a c h l i b e r a l l y , t h i s p e rh a p s w ould n o t h av e b een th e c a s e . The p u rp o s e o f an i n t e g r a t i n g s c h o o l sy ste m w ould be th e r e a l i z a t i o n o f th e f a c t t h a t s o c i e t y i s an i n t e r r e l a t e d , d y n am ic, p r o c e s s and t h a t to u n i t e w ith t h e s e i n a common g o a l i s one m eans o f advancem ent f o r b o th . H o p k in s sums i t up: I t a p p e a r s . . . t h a t th e n ee d on e v e ry s id e i s f o r i n t e g r a t i o n . M o ral d i s c r i m i n a t i o n and d e c is io n a re a lw a y s th e f u n c tio n o f an i n t e g r a t i v e p r o c e s s . T h is i s th e o n ly way th e i n d i v i d u a l c a n s u s t a i n i n t e l l e c t u a l and e m o tio n a l i n t e g r i t y w ith in and e q u ilib r iu m o f s o c i a l a d ju s tm e n t w ith o u t. I n t e g r a t i o n i s b o th 281 i n d i v i d u a l and s o c i a l a t th e same tim e . But m ost o f a l l p e r h a p s , th e w id e r s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n c a l l s f o r a fu n d a m e n ta l i n t e g r a t i v e p r o c e s s .33. A dom in an t p a t t e r n * Prom th e fram e o f r e f e r e n c e f u r n is h e d by t h i s s tu d y , th e i n v e s t i g a t o r a tte m p te d t o i n t e r p r e t th e f in d i n g s i n t o m e a n in g fu l p a t t e r n s f o r p r e s e n t - day e d u c a tio n . The a s s u m p tio n o f t h e fram e o f r e f e r e n c e h e ld t h a t l i f e i s a dynam ic i n t e r a c t i n g p r o c e s s , and t h a t h i s t o r y h a s a m essage f o r t h e p r e s e n t . To q u o te Dewey on t h i s p o i n t: H is to r y i s e q u a lly a v a i l a b le a s te a c h in g th e m eth o d s o f s o c i a l p r o g r e s s . I t i s commonly s t a t e d t h a t h i s t o r y m ust be s tu d i e d from th e s ta n d p o in t o f c a u se and e f f e c t . The t r u t h o f t h i s s ta te m e n t d ep en d s upon i t s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . S o c ia l l i f e i s so com plex an d t h e v a r io u s p a r t s o f i t a r e so o r g a n i c a l l y r e l a t e d to ea c h o t h e r and to th e n a t u r a l e n v iro n m e n t, t h a t i t i s im p o s s ib le t o s a y t h a t t h i s o r t h a t th in g i s th e c a u se o f some o t h e r t h i n g . But w hat th e s tu d y o f h i s t o r y c a n e f f e c t , i s t o r e v e a l th e m ain in s tr u m e n ts i n th e w ay o f d i s c o v e r i e s , in v e n t i o n s , new m odes o f l i f e , e t c . , w h ich h a v e i n i t i a t e d t h e g r e a t ep o c h s o f s o c i a l a d v a n c e . 3 2 The aim i n t h i s c h a p te r w as to a r r i v e a t some syn t h e s i s by ex am in in g th e v a r io u s t h e o r i e s w h ich h av e b e e n a d v o c a te d a s a s o l u t i o n to w a rd s th e p ro b lem o f s c h o o l and s o c i e t y . Each sc h o o l o f th o u g h t h ad so m eth in g to c o n t r i b u te t o t h i s s tu d y , an d fro m a l l th e s e t h e r e em erge c e r t a i n 31 H o p k in s, o £ . e i t . , p . 6 2 . 32 Jo h n Dewey, " E t h i c a l P r i n c i p l e s U n d e rly in g Edu- c a tio n ,* 1 T h ird Y earbook o f th e n a t i o n a l H e r b a r t S o c i e t y . P a r t I ( Chicago": U n iv e r s it y o f C h icag o P r e s s , 1 9 0 8 ), P* 2 2 . b a s ic c o n c e p ts le a n in g to w a rd th e i n t e g r a t i v e h y p o th e s is . The f in d in g s showed t h a t th e P r u s s ia n s c h o o l sy stem f a i l e d . A ll e v id e n c e t o d a te f a v o r s a dynam ic and f l e x i b l e e d u c a t i o n a l sy stem . Hence t h i s s tu d y s u g g e s ts a s a re a s o n f o r th e f a i l u r e , th e i n f l e x i b i l i t y o f th e P r u s s ia n s c h o o l sy stem . What seem s n e c e s s a r y f o r advancem ent seems to be i n l i n e w ith th e i n t e g r a t i v e a p p ro a c h . As De Garmo w ro te : The s c h o o l m ust become a s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n , h a v in g a s i t s c h i e f f u n c tio n s (1) th e u n fo ld in g o f s o c i a l i d e a l s , (2) th e developm ent o f s o c ia l d i s p o s i t i o n s , and (3) th e fo rm a tio n o f s o c i a l h a b i t s . 33 S o c ie ty n e e d s to c o n s e rv e th e s o c i a l h e r i t a g e ; i t r e q u i r e s o r d e r and p la n n in g ; and above a l l i t m ust become i n t e g r a t e d . A ll o f th e p o s i t i o n s s t a t e d i n t h i s s tu d y have t h e i r ad h e r e n t s . T h ere a r e o th e r id e a s a s r e g a r d s th e p ro b lem o f s c h o o l and s o c i e t y , b u t t h i s s tu d y a r b i t r a r i l y u se d th o s e m ost m et w ith i n th e l i t e r a t u r e . E d u c a tio n i s in th e n a tu r e o f a co n tin u u m . To q u o te Dewey once a g a in : T h ere i s much th e same d i f f i c u l t y i n i s o l a t i n g an y e d u c a tio n a l to p ic f o r d is c u s s io n th a n th e r e i s in th e c a se o f p h ilo s o p h y . The i s s u e s a r e so in te rd e p e n d e n t t h a t a n y one o f th em can be s e l e c t e d o n ly a t th e r i s k o f ig n o r in g im p o rta n t c o n s id e r a ti o n s , o r e l s e b e g g in g th e q u e s tio n by b r in g in g th e p ro b lem u n d e r d is c u s s io n in th e g u is e o f same o th e r s u b j e c t . Y et l i m i t s o f tim e and sp ace r e q u i r e t h a t someone f i e l d be e n te r e d and o c c u p ie d b y i t s e l f . U nder such c irc u m s ta n c e s , 33 C h a rle s De Garmo, 1 1 S o c ia l A sp e c ts o f M oral E duca t i o n , ” T h ird Y earbook o f th e N a tio n a l H e rb a rt S o c ie ty , P a r t I I (C h icag o : U n iv e r s ity o f C h icag o P r e s s , 1908 J , p . 5 . 283 a b o u t a l l one ca n do i s to p u rs u e a m ethod w hich s h a l l a t b e s t c a l l a t t e n t i o n to th e p ro b le m s in v o lv e d , and th e i n d i c a t i o n o f th e m ain r e l a t i o n s o f th e m a t t e r s d i s c u s s e d i n r e l e v a n t t o p i c s . 34 M odem e d u c a to r s d i f f e r w ith one a n o th e r i n d e g re e r a t h e r th a n i n k in d , a s t o th e q u e s tio n s o f s c h o o l and s o c i e t y , and i t s h o u ld be t h e t a s k o f e a c h s c h o o l o f th o u g h t t o s e e k c o n c i l i a t i o n . E ach p o s i t i o n , h o w ev er, f u r n is h e d th e m odem r u b r i c by w hich t h i s s tu d y c o u ld draw i t s p a t t e r n . T h at i s to s a y , t h a t fro m a l l th e s e p o s i t i o n s , i f th e P r u s s ia n e p is o d e i s t o be th e c r i t e r i o n , t h e r e seem s to em erge a m ore o r l e s s i n c l u s i v e p a t t e r n . I n s h o r t , by com b in in g i t s p a r t i c u l a r a d v a n ta g e s a s an i n t e l l e c t u a l a g e n c y , and by th e n j o in i n g i n u n is o n w ith a l l th e o t h e r f o r c e s o f s o c i e t y , i t can f u l f i l l i t s t r u s t m ore a d e q u a te ly . T h e re i s no n ee d t o c o m p le te ly d is c a r d th e c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e ; i t i s a d m itte d t h a t o r d e r an d p la n n in g a r e a p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r s u c c e s s . A p p a re n tly t h e an sw e r l i e s i n t h e c o n c e p t o f i n t e g r a t i o n a s one m eans o f s o lv in g th e p ro b le m o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s c h o o l an d s o c i e t y . Summary. T h is c h a p te r w as an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e f in d i n g s d iv u lg e d b y th e e n t i r e s tu d y . Out o f i t em erged rz A Jo h n Dewey, " I n t e r e s t in R e la tio n t o T r a in in g o f th e W i l l , rt F i r s t Y earbook o f th e n a t i o n a l H e r b a r t S o c i e t y . Second S upplem ent (C h ic a g o : U n iv e r s it y o f C h icag o P r e s s , 1 9 0 8 ), p . 5 . 884 s e v e r a l c o n c e p ts , th e d o m in an t one b e in g th e th e o r y o f i n t e g r a t i o n ♦ I t was d e r iv e d n e g a t i v e l y i n t h a t th e P r u s s ia n sc h o o l sy ste m w as o r g a n iz e d and e f f i c i e n t and y e t f a i l e d . Hence t h e r e w as i n f e r r e d th e i n t e g r a t i v e c o n c e p t a s a r e a s o n f o r i t s f a i l u r e . The n e x t c h a p te r w i l l e v a lu a t e th e hypo t h e s e s o f th e s tu d y . CHAPTER XL THE EVALUATION OF HYPOTHESES C h a p te r X o f f e r e d th e p h il o s o p h i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f th e s o c i a l re fo rm s e f f e c t e d by th e s c h o o ls o f Germany d u rin g th e e a r l y an d m id d le n i n e te e n th c e n tu r y . The p r e s e n t c h a p te r w i l l e v a lu a te in summary f a s h io n each o f th e te n h y p o th e s e s p r e s e n te d i n C h a p te r I I I and some o f th e A ssu m p tio n s, H y p o th e s e s , an d Q u e s tio n s o f t h i s h i s t o r i c a l s tu d y . H y p o th e se s may o r may n o t be p ro v e d by su b se q u e n t r e s e a r c h . T h e ir p u rp o s e i s t o h e lp i n s e t t i n g up t h e fra m e w ork f o r p u rp o s e s o f v a l i d a t i o n . The c r i t e r i o n f o r t h e e v a lu a t io n o f th e h y p o th e s e s h a s b e e n w h e th e r o r n o t th e f in d i n g s o f t h e s tu d y have j u s t i f i e d th e o r i g i n a l h y p o th e s e s . The f a c t s d is c o v e r e d by th e r e s e a r c h have c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e m a in , th e o r i g i n a l c o n te n tio n s s e t f o r t h e x p l i c i t l y in C h a p te r I I I . The s c h o o ls h e lp e d m o d ify th e German s o c i a l o r d e r o f rnr nmmmmmmmmmmmt mt mm mmmmmm t h e e a r l y and m id d le n in e te e n th c e n tu r y i n t o so m e th in g o t h e r th a n i t h ad b e e n . The R e p o rts o f C o u s in , Mannr, S tow e, and th e v a r io u s o t h e r e x t r a c t s i n Volume XXII o f B a rn a rd ’ s J o u r n a l o f .American E d u c a tio n , w hich in c lu d e s h i s own, have s u b s t a n t i a t e d th e o r i g i n a l h y p o th e s e s . I n a d d i t i o n , o t h e r r e p u ta b le s o u rc e s o f a s e c o n d a ry n a tu r e h a v e a l s o b o rn e o u t 286 t h i s p rim a ry c o n te n tio n * T hese o b s e r v a tio n s w ere made in Germany b etw een 1 8 1 5 -1 8 4 5 . F i c h t e ’ s own He den d r a m a tic a lly r e l a t e th e s t a t e o f d i s r e p a i r in to w hich Germany h ad f a l l e n a s a r e s u l t o f t h e J e n a d i s a s t e r . The o t h e r h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n ts u se d i n C h a p te rs I I I and IV show t h a t a l l o f Germ any, e s p e c i a l l y P r u s s i a , w as a s e m i- fe u d a l and e x tre m e ly backw ard c o u n tr y . The k in g s o f th e F r e d e r i c i a n T r a d i t i o n have l e f t enough e v id e n c e t o p ro v e them a t th e v e r y b e s t , m e re ly b e n e v o le n t d e s p o ts . When th e s c h o o ls began to m o d ify t h e s o c i a l o r d e r , su ch ch a n g e s o c c u r r e d a s t o a t t r a c t th e a t t e n t i o n o f a w h o le w o rld . T ra in e d o b s e r v e r s from many E u ro p ean c o u n t r i e s came to s e e , and l e f t w ith p r a i s e o f b o th th e re fo rm e d s c h o o l sy ste m an d i t s s u rro u n d in g s o c i e t y . H i s t o r i c a l l y , th e n , th e s c h o o ls h e lp e d m o d ify th e s o c i a l o r d e r t o such an e x te n t t h a t i t no lo n g e r re se m b le d w hat i t h ad b e e n . The d i s a s t e r o f t h e P r u s s ia n m i l i t a r y by N apoleon s e rv e d a s a m o tiv a tio n f o r r e g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e s o c i a l o r d e r . An a n a l y s i s o f th e Heden a s h a s b een s e t f o r t h i n C h a p te r V I I I , showed c l e a r l y th e ch a o s in t o w h ich th e c o u n try h ad f a l l e n a s a r e s u l t o f th e N a p o le o n ic tr iu m p h . I n t h e s e A d d re s s e s , F ic h te m ourned t h e f a c t t h a t Germany h ad su n k en so lo w , and h e o f f e r e d th e s o l u t i o n . H is p l e a was c e n te r e d a ro u n d e d u c a tio n , th ro u g h w hich he b e s e e c h e d h i s countrym en 287 to r i s e an d sh ak e o f f th e f o r e ig n b o n d ag e. I t w as a e a l l t o arm s f o r a n a t i o n to c a s t o f f i t s c h a in s a s a v a s s a l s t a t e , She He d e n « p r o b a b ly a s much a s an y o t h e r d o cu m en t, a r e e v id e n c e a s t o th e c o n d i tio n o f s e r v it u d e u n d e r B o n a p a rte and w ere th e summons t o b u ild a new G erm any. I n a d d i t i o n to th e H eden« a l l t h e h i s t o r i a n s r e f e r r e d t o in C h a p te r V a r e a g re e d a s to th e e f f e c t th e T r e a ty o f T i l s i t h ad upon th e r e g e n e r a tio n o f t h e s o c i a l o r d e r . The p e o p le who w ere p ro m ise d s o c i a l re fo rm s by th e m onarch i n o r d e r t o f a c i l i t a t e th e r i s e a g a i n s t N ap o leo n , re s p o n d e d in g r e a t num bers t o th e c a l l f o r b a t t l e . O nly a d i s a s t e r w hich so th r e a te n e d n a t i o n a l s u r v i v a l and J o in e d a p e o p le t o g e t h e r i n common m is e r y c o u ld p o s s i b l y h av e ev o k ed such a s u b s e q u e n t change in th e s o c i a l o r d e r . O th e r e v e n ts i n h i s t o r y b e a r o u t t h i s c o n t e n ti o n . T h r e a ts o f d i s a s t e r t o a l l b in d t o g e t h e r a p e o p le a s o n e . The m i l i t a r y d i s a s t e r f o c u s s e d a t t e n t i o n upon th e s c h o o ls . K ing F r e d e r ic k I I I h a s h im s e lf b een q u o te d to th e e f f e c t t h a t th e r e g e n e r a t i o n o f h i s l o s t kingdom l a y i n th e s c h o o ls . F i c h t e f s R eden w ere one lo n g p l e a o f f e r i n g th e s c h o o ls a s a m eans o f s a l v a t i o n . I t w as shown i n Chap t e r VI t h a t th e s c h o o ls w ere outm oded and m ere a p p e n d a g e s t o a f e u d a l s t a t e . The n a t i o n a l d i s a s t e r c a u s e d th e l e a d e r s t o se e k f o r an y m eans a t h an d t o o v e rth ro w th e in v a d e r , and 8 8 8 r e s t o r e th e m o narchy to i t s o r i g i n a l s o v e r e ig n ty . The s c h o o ls w hich had f o r so lo n g b een n e g l e c t e d and l e f t to f o llo w a lo n g , now w ere t h r u s t i n t o th e l i m e l i g h t . C h a p te r VI showed how a l l o f th e l e a d e r s b ro u g h t up e d u c a tio n tim e and a g a in , a s t h e one s u re m eans o f r e g e n e r a t i o n . I f n o t f o r t h e g r e a t d e f e a t an d s u b s e q u e n t l o s s o f t e r r i t o r y and f o r c e d in d e m n itie s , i t i s h i g h l y u n l i k e l y t h a t th e s c h o o ls w ould h av e b e e n c h o se n a s a m eans to r e s t o r e G erm any, n o r w ould th e y h av e b een a m eans to re fo rm th e s o c i a l o r d e r . The A d d re sse s o f Jo h an n F ic h te w ere a p rim e m over i n t h e s o c i a l r e f o r m . C h a p te r V I I I showed t h a t F ic h te p ro v id e d th e i n s p i r a t i o n f o r t h e P r u s s ia n re a w a k e n in g . He w as one o f th e many r e a s o n s f o r P r u s s ia n r e s u r g e n c e . But he w as th e s ta n d a r d b e a r e r j o i n i n g th e o t h e r f o r c e s in t o one f o r th e c a u s e . By a s o r t o f c re d o u t i n t e l l i g a n . h e c o n v in c e d h i s l i s t e n e r s t h a t th e y m u st have f a i t h i n o r d e r n o t o n ly to l e a r n b u t to r i s e . F a i t h i n th e P r u s s ia n d e s t i n y w as h i s p o s t u l a t i o n . T hrough t h i s and a common la n g u a g e , th e y c o u ld l e a r n th e t r u t h . T h is t r u t h w as t o l e a d them i n t o a new er and g r e a t e r e r a . F i c h t e f s t h e o r i e s w ere g e a re d n a t i o n a l i s t i c a l l y . A lth o u g h i t h a s b ee n shown tim e and a g a in th ro u g h t h e s tu d y t h a t F ic h te w as b ro a d and h u m a n is tic i n h i s e d u c a tio n a l v ie w s , th e P r u s s ia n le a d e r s d eb au ch ed h i s n a t io n a lis m i n t o 289 a m i l i t a r i s t i c w a r-w o rd . T h is w as n o t F ic h te * s f a u l t . As i s o f t e n th e c a s e , many t h e o r i e s a r e tra n s m u te d i n to b a s e r m e ta l by a v id o r u n l e t t e r e d f o l l o w e r s ♦ W ords a r e b u t sym b o ls o f co m m u n icatio n , and v e r y e a s i l y m i s i n t e r p r e t e d . W ith a n a t i o n a l i s t i c b a s i s , i t w as n o t to o d i f f i c u l t t o ig n o r e th e h u m a n ita ria n a s p e c t s o f a w h o le p h ilo s o p h y . M odern e d u c a to r s a r e so m etim es g u i l t y o f th e same g l a r i n g e r r o r , a s r e g a r d s th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f some p h ilo s o p h y i n t o some t h in g o t h e r th a n w hat i s o r i g i n a l l y m e a n t. O th e r f a c t o r s a l s o o p e r a tiv e i n a g iv e n s o c i e t y . P r u s s ia n r e s u r g e n c e w as th e r e s u l t a n t o f o t h e r a g e n c ie s b e s id e s e d u c a tio n . T h is o t h e r , th e common d i s a s t e r , th e c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e , c h u r c h , e t c . , f o r c e d e d u c a tio n in to t h e l i m e l i g h t , b u t w ith o u t them e d u c a tio n w ould h av e b e e n t h e same im p o te n t ap pendage i t w as p r i o r t o th e r e v i v a l . A ll th ro u g h t h i s s tu d y t h e r e w as im p lie d t h a t s o c i e t y i s a com plex g ro u p and a c t s b y th e movem ent o f t h e f o r c e s w i t h i n i t . I t i s n o t q u i t e r e a s o n a b le how a p a r t can be g r e a t e r th a n a w h o le . Mayhap th e sum o f th e p a r t s a r e g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r , a s p o s t u l a t e d by m odern p s y c h o l o g i s t s , b u t t o sa y t h a t a n y one p h a se o f a g iv e n t o t a l i t y can add up t o m ore th a n th e r e s t , i s n o t w ith in th e ca n o n s o f lo g ic * T h at i s n o t to sa y t h a t an i n s t i t u t i o n i n a s o c i e t y can n o t le a d o r i n f lu e n c e a l l o f s o c i e t y , o n ly t h a t i t c a n n o t e x i s t a p a r t fro m i t The o t h e r r e f o r m e r s . G re a t e v e n ts demand g r e a t m en. I n t h i s r e s p e c t P r u s s i a w as in d e e d f o r t u n a t e . War i t was endowed w ith many l e a d e r s , many o f them n o t P r u s s i a n s . I t w as se e n i n C h a p te r V how th e s e l e a d e r s s te p p e d o u t and e x e c u te d th e r e f o rm s . W ith o u t th e m , t h e re fo rm s may have bogged down, The k in g F r e d e r ic k W illia m I I I was an I n e f f e c t u a l m o n arch , an d a t one tim e f l e d , le a v in g P r u s s i a d e s e r te d . He h im s e lf w as no b e n e v o le n t m o n arch , a s w ere some o f h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s . But i n s p i t e o f him m ost o f th e re fo rm s w ere c a r r i e d i n t o e f f e c t . When t h e s e men s te p p e d o f f th e s ta g e i n t o th e w in g s o f r e t i r e m e n t , much o f t h e i r re fo rm w ith e r e d on th e v i n e . C e n tr a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . C h a p te r V I I I f u r n is h e d a r e c a p i t u l a t i o n o f th e v a s t change in th e s c h o o l system * T h is a l t e r a t i o n gave th e s c h o o ls a im , c o n te n t, and m eth o d . A s c h o o l sy ste m n e e d s t o be p la n n e d . W ith t h a t t h e r e can be no c a v i l . I t i s th e ty p e o f p la n n in g , and on w hat b a s i s i t i s p la n n e d t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s th e s o c i a l l y m inded s c h o o l sy stem fro m t h e n arro w o n e . The P r u s s ia n s made o f t h e i r s c h o o l sy ste m a n o th e r h ig h ly m i l i t a r y m a c h in e . As su c h , i t w as e f f e c t i v e , b u t i t h ad no r e s i l i e n c y . When th e tim e came i t c o u ld n o t r e s i s t e n c ro a c h m e n t. E f f e c t i v e n e s s i s n o t th e s o le c r i t e r i o n o f a s c h o o l sy stem . 291 E d u c a tio n w hich i s n o t t r u l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e f a i l s in i t s p u r p o s e . The P r u s s ia n s c h o o l sy stem f a i l e d in i t s o r i g i n a l p u rp o se o f b r in g in g P r u s s i a t o a new and g r e a t e r e r a , a s E ic h te an d th e o t h e r r e f o r m e r s h ad e n v is io n e d . But t h i s f a i l u r e was a lm o s t a fo re g o n e c o n c lu s io n . T h at e d u c a tio n w hich d o es n o t e x p r e s s th e w i l l o f a p e o p le h a s no s t r e n g t h to r e s i s t , f o r th e p e o p le o n ly s p r in g t o i t s d e fe n s e when th e y f e e l t h a t i t i s t h e i r s . The P r u s s ia n s c h o o l sy ste m , m a s t e r f u l i n i t s r o b o t f a s h io n , h ad no common s u p p o rt a f t e r th e em erg en cy . S c h o o lm a s te rs who a r e i n d o c t r i n a t e d a r e n o t k e e p e r s o f t h e flam e o f fre e d o m . O nly a f r e e s c h o o l sy stem c a n o p e r a te t o h e lp a s o c i e t y . An e d u c a tio n w h ich i s in im ic a l t o th e l i b e r a l s p i r i t m u st e i t h e r f a i l o r become a s u p in e t o o l i n th e w rong h a n d s . I n t e g r a t i v e e d u c a tio n fo rm s one s o l u t i o n f o r a d v a n c e m ent . Out o f a l l t h i s s tu d y h a s em erged t h e f a c t t h a t th e P r u s s ia n s c h o o ls f a i l e d a s a l a s t i n g m eans o f d e m o c ra tic m o d if ic a ti o n . I t w as a p la n n e d , p u r p o s e f u l e d u c a tiv e s y s tem . But i t s one g ra v e f a u l t w as i t s s t a t i c n a t u r e . I t w as fo rg e d in to an e f f i c i e n t i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y b u t i t rem a in ed j u s t t h a t . I t h a d n o t re a c h e d th e p e o p le n o r r e p r e s e n te d th em . I t i n d o c t r i n a t e d ; i t d id n o t t e a c h . When i t h a d la g g e d b e h in d f o r c e n t u r i e s i t w as g e n e r a l l y i n e f f e c t i v e . When i t h a d le a p e d a h e a d , i t d id so w ith o u t s lo w ly b r in g in g 292 th e s o c i e t y w ith i t . W h ils t no r i g i d g e n e r a l i z a t i o n can he made fro m t h i s one phenom enon, i t d o e s le n d c re d e n c e t o th e b e l i e f t h a t i n t e g r a t i o n i s a p o s s i b le s o l u t i o n t o th e p ro b lem o f sc h o o l and s o c ie ty * Summary. The o r i g i n a l h y p o th e s e s o f t h i s s tu d y fo u n d j u s t i f i c a t i o n i n th e f in d in g s w ith b u t two e x c e p tio n s * The f i r s t e x c e p tio n w as in i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h a t i s t o sa y , F i c h t e ’ s th e o r y o f n a tio n a lis m w hich he p o s t u l a t e d w as w ro n g ly i n t e r p r e t e d . H ence i t w as n o t h i s f a u l t t h a t i t became a s n a rro w a s i t d id . A lth o u g h one o f th e h y p o th e s e s m a in ta in e d t h a t h i s w as a n a t i o n a l i s t i c c o n c e p t, t h e f i n d in g s , h o w ev er, d id n o t j u s t i f y th e w r i t e r ’ s o r i g i n a l con t e n t i o n s t h a t F i c h t e ’ s t h e o r i e s w ere n a t i o n a l i s t i c . The p o s t u l a t i o n s w ere j u s t i f i e d in th e m a in , h o w ev er. The i n t e g r a t i v e c o n c e p t w as i n f e r r e d a s a l o g i c a l d e d u c tio n fro m th e f a i l u r e o f th e P r u s s ia n sy ste m , and b e c a u se th e r e a s o n s f o r f a i l u r e w ere c o n d u c iv e t o su ch a h y p o th e s is . The o t h e r e i g h t c o n c e p ts p o s t u l a t e d w ere j u s t i f i e d a s s e t f o r t h i n th e h y p o th e s e s . The o r i g i n a l h y p o th e s is c o n c e rn in g th e m o d if ic a ti o n w as j u s t i f i e d by th e f i n d i n g s . The P r u s s i a n d i s a s t e r d id f u r n i s h t h e s ti m u lu s , w h ile F ic h te th ro u g h h i s He den p r o v id e d th e i n s p i r a t i o n . O th e r a g e n c ie s jo in e d i n t h e r e fo rm , and th e l e a d e r s w ere fo u n d to e x e c u te t h e s e . I t i s 293 i n t e r e s t i n g to n o te t h a t t r a c e s o f th e P r u s s ia n s c h o o l r e form l i n g e r on i n A m erica. F i n a l l y t h e f a c t s p ro v e d t h a t fre ed o m i s a r e q u i s i t e f o r an y l a s t i n g re fo rm . The o t h e r h y p o th e s is , num ber t e n , i s a l o g i c a l i n f e r e n c e w ith in t h e w r i t e r * s fra m e o f r e f e r e n c e . T h a t i s to s a y , t h a t th e m eans a tte m p te d b y th e P r u s s ia n s h ad f a i l e d . Hence i t f o llo w s o th e r m eans m u st be fo u n d . I n t e g r a t i o n w as s e t f o r t h a s a p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n . The n e x t c h a p t e r , th e f i n a l one o f th e s tu d y , p r e s e n t s t h e summ ary, c o n c lu s io n s , and reco m m e n d a tio n s. CHAPTER X I I StASMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS T h is f i n a l c h a p te r w i l l c o n c e rn i t s e l f w ith a sum m ary, c o n c lu s io n s , an d reco m m e n d a tio n s, w hich a r i s e o u t o f t h i s s tu d y . The summ ary, P a r t I , c o n t a in s a p r e c i s o f th e f o llo w in g s u b j e c t s : s ta te m e n t o f th e p ro b le m , im p o rta n c e o f th e s tu d y , te rm in o lo g y , r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e an d f in d in g s o f th e s tu d y . P a r t I I , th e c o n c lu s io n s , in c lu d e th e l o g i c a l d e d u c tio n s d e r iv e d from th e f in d i n g s d is c lo s e d in t h e s tu d y . P a r t I I I , on reco m m en d a tio n s, g o e s beyond th e d a ta o f th e s tu d y , an d o f f e r s c e r t a i n s u g g e s tio n s w h ich s h o u ld , i n th e o p in io n o f th e w r i t e r , r e s u l t fro m t h i s s tu d y . I . SUM M ARY S ta te m e n t o f th e p ro b le m . I t w as th e p rim a ry p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y t o d is c o v e r t o w h at e x t e n t a s c h o o l sy ste m c o u ld m o d ify i t s s o c i a l o r d e r . The w r i t e r assum ed t h a t t h i s s tu d y c o u ld f u r n i s h d a ta f o r th e m odern p ro b lem o f s c h o o l and s o c i e t y . F u rth e rm o re , th e s tu d y i n v e s t i g a t e d th e m eans em ployed t o re fo rm th e s o c i a l o r d e r b y th e s c h o o ls , and how th e y th e m s e lv e s w ere tra n s fo rm e d i n t o an e f f e c t i v e i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y . From a l l o f t h i s i t w as re a s o n e d t h a t some d e f i n i t e p a t t e r n m ig h t em erge a s a r e s u l t o f a l l th e s e ch an g es d u r in g a g iv e n h i s t o r i c a l e r a . 295 Im p o rta n c e o f th e s tu d y * T h is s tu d y i s im p o rta n t f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s . C o n c e rn in g th e r e l a t i o n s o f s c h o o l and s o c i e t y , t h e r e s t i l l e x i s t many t h e o r e t i c a l c o n t r o v e r s i e s among l e a d e r s in A m erican e d u c a tio n . E d u c a tio n n e e d s aim s and o b j e c t i v e s . T hese p u rp o s e s a r e d e r iv e d fro m i t s a t t i tu d e to w a rd s o c i e t y . H ence th e a t t i t u d e m ust be d e te rm in e d f o r i n t e l l i g e n t a c t i o n . U n til enough e v id e n c e i s ad d u ced from s i t u a t i o n s w here one d e f i n i t e p o s i t i o n w as ta k e n , th e c o n t r o v e r s i e s w i l l e x i s t . B ecause a l l such in f o r m a tio n o f a h i s t o r i c a l n a t u r e c a n o f f e r some e n lig h te n m e n t, t h i s s tu d y c a n be im m ed iate a n d p r a c t i c a l . F i n a l l y , t h i s s tu d y p ro v id e s d a ta f o r a f r o n t a l a t t a c k on t h i s p ro b lem o f th e p o s i t i o n o f s c h o o l an d s o c i e t y , by f u r n i s h i n g a com pre h e n s iv e h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h and p h i lo s o p h ic a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T e rm in o lo g y . The te rm s o f t h i s s tu d y h av e a l r e a d y b een d e f in e d in C h a p te r X. B ecause o f th e tre m e n d o u s am ount o f se m a n tic d i f f i c u l t i e s o b ta in in g i n th e s o c i a l s t u d i e s , i t sh o u ld be r e c a l l e d t h a t " s o c i e t y ” i s d e f in e d in i t s s o c io l o g i c a l s e n s e . T h a t i s t o s a y , t h a t w here u s e d , i t h ad th e c o n n o ta tio n , o f a g ro u p bound t o g e t h e r by m u tu a l t i e s . I n th e e a s e o f P r u s s ia i t i n f e r r e d t h a t t h e com m onalty b in d in g t h i s gro u p t o g e t h e r w as so m e th in g u n iq u e and d i s t i n c t i v e . The a p p e l l a t i o n s , d e m o c ra tic , n a t i o n a l i s t i c , an d so f o r t h , w ere u se d t o d e n o te s p e c i f i c s o c i e t i e s . 296 P r o c e d u r e . Much h a s b een w r i t t e n c o n c e rn in g th e v a lu e o f th e h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e d u r e . T h is s tu d y a d h e re d to i t s c a n o n s , a s much a s w as p o s s i b l e . The a tte m p t th ro u g h o u t t h e s tu d y w as to a r r i v e a t f u n c t i o n a l m eaning from th e h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s e s , v i z . , c o l l e c t i o n , c r i t i c i s m , i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y . H i s t o r i c a l p ro c e d u re i n t h i s s tu d y i d e n t i f i e d i t s e l f w ith th e p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e f i n a l end an d c r i t e r i o n o f h i s t o r i c a l in q u ir y i s t h e u n i f i c a t i o n o f th e p a s t and p r e s e n t in to a l u c i d p a t t e r n . A resum e o f t h i s e n t i r e p o s i t i o n w as p r e s e n te d i n C h a p te r I I . T h is s tu d y r e a l i z e d t h a t th e h i s t o r i c a l m ethod i s n o t th e o n ly n o r p e r f e c t m eans o f s e c u r in g t e n t a t i v e s o l u t i o n s t o p ro b le m s . N o n e th e le s s i t o f f e r s a t l e a s t a n a p p ro a c h t o th e g r e a t dilem m as o f m odern e d u c a tio n . As such th e h i s t o r i c a l m eth o d , g ro u n d ed i n s c i e n t i f i c c a n o n s , form ed th e p ro c e d u re o f t h i s s tu d y . The l i t e r a t u r e . T hese form ed th e b a s e s o f t h e s tu d y , and w ere em ployed p r o c e d u r a l ly . Much h a s b een w r i t t e n co n c e rn in g th e t h e o r e t i c a l c o n t r o v e r s i e s e x i s t i n g a s r e g a r d s s c h o o l an d s o c i e t y . H ow ever, t h e r e h av e b een v e r y few i n v e s t i g a t i o n s w h ich l i m i t e d th e m s e lv e s s o l e l y to s tu d y in g th e e x t e n t and th e m eans o f th e m o d if ic a ti o n o f P r u s s ia n s o c i e t y by th e s c h o o ls a s a b a s i s f o r th e p r e s e n t p ro b lem o f s c h o o l an d s o c i e t y . The r e s t o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have b een l i m i t e d t o o t h e r a s p e c t s . I t a p p e a rs t h a t t h e r e h a s 297 been no o t h e r s tu d y s p e c i f i c a l l y d e a lin g w ith th e p ro b lem o f t h i s s tu d y . P rim a ry s o u r c e s . C e r ta in p rim a ry s o u r c e s w ere u t i l i z e d f o r th e p u rp o s e s o f h i s t o r i c a l v a l i d i t y . V ic t o r C o u s in ’ s " R e p o rt on th e S ta te o f P u b lic I n s t r u c t i o n i n P r u s s i a , " was an e y e w itn e s s a c c o u n t by a co m p ete n t o b s e r v e r , o f th e P r u s s ia n s c h o o l sy stem i n 1831. T h is R e p o rt d e s c r ib e d th e sy ste m a f t e r i t h ad a l r e a d y b ee n o v e rh a u le d . Much t h a t w as p e r t i n e n t t o t h i s s tu d y w as d e r iv e d from C o u s in ’ s R e p o rt, f o r h i s o b s e r v a tio n s w ere d e t a i l e d and m e tic u lo u s . H is f i n d i n g s a r e re c o g n iz e d a s r e l i a b l e by m o st a u t h o r i t i e s . T h ere w ere s e v e r a l o t h e r w r i t e r s who p r e s e n te d docu m e n ta ry e v id e n c e . Among them w ere H orace Mann, t h e g r e a t .American e d u c a to r , who w ro te h i s fam ous "S ev e n th A nnual R e p o rt" a s a com m entary on th e r e b u i l t P r u s s ia n S ch o o l S y stem . Along w ith Mann w as C a lv in Stowe w hose " R e p o rt on E le m e n ta ry P u b lic I n s t r u c t i o n in E u r o p e , w a s p r e s e n te d t o th e O hio L e g is l a t u r e i n 1837. W hile b o th o f th e s e r e p o r t s w ere h i g h l y s u b j e c t i v e , b o th men w ere a s t u t e and t r a i n e d o b s e r v e r s , and Mann w as an e d u c a to r o f th e f i r s t o r d e r . T hese r e p o r t s b o re o u t th e c o n te n tio n o f t h i s s tu d y con c e rn in g th e e f f e c t o f s c h o o ls o f P r u s s i a on th e s o c i a l o r d e r . Both th e s e r e p o r t s a r e now la n d m a rk s i n th e h i s t o r y 298 o f e d u c a tio n * I n r e g a r d t o th e c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r , Jo h an n G o t t l i e b F i c h t e , h i s A d d re sse s w ere t r a n s l a t e d and a resum e o f e a c h o f th e f o u r te e n A d d re sse s w as s e t f o r t h s e q u e n tia lly * T h ese A d d re s s e s , an e x p o s itio n o f F i c h t e f s p h i lo s o p h ic a l and e d u c a tio n a l p r i n c i p l e s , p r e s e n te d a d i r e c t m ethod o f s e c u r in g h i s v ie w p o in t. I n a d d i t i o n , th e y d e s c r ib e d th e con d i t i o n s i n Germany d u rin g t h e tim e he d e l iv e r e d th e Re den d u rin g t h e w in te r o f 1807-1808 i n B e rlin * B ecause o f th e s e A d d re s s e s , th e s tu d y h a s o f f e r e d i n s i g h t i n t o a p rim a ry f a c t o r i n P r u s s ia n re s u rg e n c e * F i c h t e ’s C o lle c te d W orks w ere s c r u t i n i z e d f o r t h e i r e d u c a tio n a l c o n t e n t , and w hat w as c o n s id e r e d r e l e v a n t to t h i s s tu d y w as e x t r a c t e d . F ic h te w as f i r s t o f a l l , a p h i l o so p h e r and h i s e d u c a tio n a l t h e o r i e s w ere b u t a p r o lo n g a tio n o f h i s b a s ic p o s i t i o n . The fu n d a m e n ta l p r i n c i p l e o f h i s th in k i n g w as h i s s y n t h e s is o f th e m o ra l and m e ta p h y s ic a l p r i n c i p l e s * He p a r te d com pany w ith K a n t, o r r a t h e r w en t on a h e a d , w ith h i s p o s t u l a t i o n o f th e A b so lu te Ego, a s th e one c r e a t i v e and u n if y in g law u n d e r ly in g a l l p h ilo s o p h y . But w ith Im m anuel K a n t, h e b e lie v e d t h a t e d u c a tio n w as th e ro a d to advancem ent o f th e s o c i a l o r d e r . To F i e h t e , th e o n ly way a n a t i o n c o u ld p r o g r e s s w as th ro u g h m o ra l r e g e n e r a t i o n . S e co n d a ry m a t e r i a l s . The se c o n d a ry l i t e r a t u r e , w h ich 299 f u r n is h e d th e s e t t i n g f o r th e c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r s and th e f o r c e s w h ich swayed th e m , w ere o f an h i s t o r i c a l , e d u c a ti o n a l, and p o l i t i c a l n a tu re * B a r r a c lo u g h 's The O r ig in s o f M odern Germany was a n e x c e l l e n t r e f e r e n c e s o u r c e . A w hole s e c tio n o f th e hook w as d e v o te d to th e p a r t i c u l a r a r e a c o v e re d by t h i s s tu d y , b u t i t w as f i t t e d in to a g e n e r a l p i c t u r e o f th e em ergence o f th e German s t a t e . H e n d e rs o n 's S h o rt H is to r y o f Germany o f f e r e d m any e x c e l l e n t q u o ta tio n s . T h is book a p p e a rs th e m o st s c h o l a r l y o f a l l , and i t s p r e s e n t a t i o n w as i n th e sw eep in g s t y l e w hich i s so i l l u m i n a t i v e . I t d e a l t fro m th e tim e o f G erm any's in c e p ti o n from C harlem agne up u n t i l 1866. A n o th e r h i s t o r y u se d a g r e a t d e a l w as L o e w e n s te in 's The Germans in H i s t o r y . As r e g a r d s s t y l e , t h i s book ra n k e d v e ry h ig h . N ot o n ly w as th e in f o r m a tio n p r e s e n te d c r e d i t a b l y , b u t L o e w e n s te in 's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e e v e n ts was s tim u l a t i n g . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o te t h a t h e t a k e s a d i f f e r e n t s ta n d a s r e g a r d s th e im p o rta n c e o f F ic h te upon h i s m i l i e u . He p r e s e n t s some s ta u n c h e v id e n c e t o b o l s t e r h i s c o n te n ti o n , and b e r a t e s th e o th e r h i s t o r i a n s f o r o v e r s im p lif y in g F i c h t e 's e f f e c t . I t i s alw ay s r e f r e s h i n g t o g e t a d i f f e r e n t v ie w , and L o e w e n s te in 's i s u n u s u a l, i n l i g h t o f th e re m a rk a b le c o n c u rre n c e o f a l l th e o t h e r h i s t o r i a n s . A n o th er h i s t o r y w hich p ro v e d o f g r e a t v a lu e t o t h i s s tu d y w as T r e i t s e h k e 's Germany i n th e N in e te e n th C e n tu ry . T h is t r e a t i s e , em an atin g fro m a re c o g n iz e d German s c h o la r and h i s t o r i a n , w as a s l u c i d 300 a tr e a tm e n t o f th e P r u s s ia n r e c o n s t r u c t i o n a s w as p o s s ib le # A lthough he d id n o t make to o much m e n tio n o f e d u c a tio n , p e r s e , he d id d e v o te some a m p l i f i c a t i o n t o i t s r e o rg a n i z a t i o n . He w as p r i m a r i l y co n c e rn e d w ith an a l l a ro u n d a c c o u n tin g o f th e r i s e o f P ru s s ia * T h ere i s a se n se o f un m is ta k a b le m a s te r y i n h i s e x h a u s tiv e v o lu m e s. As su ch th e y h e lp e d make t h i s s tu d y m ore p r e c i s e . S o c io - p o l i t i c a l t r e a t i s e s . S in c e t h i s w as i n e s s e n c e , a s o c io - e d u c a tio n a l s tu d y o f tn e p a s t and i t s r e f e r e n c e to th e p r e s e n t , t h e r e w as in c lu d e d s e v e r a l su ch v o lu m e s. Hayes* The H i s t o r i c a l E v o lu tio n o f M odern N a tio n a lis m , and H e r t z ’s N a tio n a lis m i n H is to r y and P o l i t i c s , w ere f i r s t among t h i s ty p e o f l i t e r a t u r e . They w ere b o th c a r e f u l l y r e a d f o r t h e i r p o l i t i c a l an d s o c i a l i m p l ic a tio n s on th e p e r io d c o v e re d by t h i s s tu d y . Hayes* book w as a p o l i t i c a l p h ilo s o p h y more th a n a n y th in g e l s e , and h i s em p h asis was upon n a tio n a lis m , p e r s e . H is tr e a tm e n t o f F i c h t e ’ s e r a , h e c a l l e d " T r a d i ti o n a l N a tio n s ," and in i t he c o n t r a s t e d P r u s s i a w ith o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . H e r t z ’ s book w as a ttu n e d t o th e s o c i o l o g i c a l and p s y c h o lo g ic a l p o s i t i o n s . He m a in ta in e d t h a t F ic h te w as an i d e a l i s t , who dream ed o f r a i s i n g Germany t o g r e a t h e i g h t s , b e c a u se h e w as m o tiv a te d b y an ex tre m e sem se o f n a t io n a l is m . E d u c a tio n a l h i s t o r i e s . The e d u c a tio n h i s t o r i e s , fro m 301 w hich much b ack g ro u n d d a ta was g a in e d , w ere C u b b e rle y ’ s The H is to r y o f E d u c a tio n , and R e is n e r* s N a tio n a lis m and E d u c a tio n S in c e 1 7 8 9 , G u b b e rle y ’ s tr e a tm e n t w as e x h a u s tiv e and s c i e n t i f i c . R e is n e r* s book w as m ore p h ilo s o p h ic a l i n n a t u r e . B oth t r e a t i s e s , h o w ev er, o f f e r e d much a b o u t th e p e r io d t h a t c o v e re d t h i s s tu d y . C u b b e rle y ’ s r e a c t i o n to th e P r u s s ia n re fo rm w as e n t h u s i a s t i c , a lth o u g h s c h o l a r l y . R e is n e r ’ s tr e a tm e n t w as o f th e i n t e r p r e t i v e k in d . T h is s tu d y d e riv e d some o f i t s p re m is e s from R e is n e r* s s tu d y . R e la te d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . The r e l a t e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f B e l l , E n g e lb r e c h t, N u ll, and M aupin w ere n o t o f th e n a tu r e o f t h i s s tu d y . They w ere a l l a lo n g s i m i l a r l i n e s , i n t h a t th e y d e a l t w ith some p h a se o f e d u c a tio n p o l i t i c a l l y and s o c i a l l y . B e l l T s s tu d y d e a l t w ith th e in f lu e n c e o f M adison on A m erican e d u c a tio n . E n g e lb re c h t re v ie w e d F i c h t e f s p o l i t i c a l w r i t i n g s i n r e l a t i o n to h i s n a t io n a l is m , and in c lu d e d some e d u c a tio n a l p h a s e s , a lth o u g h h i s em p h asis w as p r i m a r i l y p o l i t i c a l * N u ll s tu d ie d th e h i s t o r y o f ed u c a tio n an d n a tio n a lis m i n F ra n c e , G erm any, and E ng lan d and f i n a l l y , M au p in Ts i n v e s t i g a t i o n d e lv e d i n t o th e in f lu e n c e o f B enjam in F r a n k lin on th e c o u rs e o f e d u c a tio n in th e U h ite d S t a t e s . A ll o f th e s e s t u d i e s w ere o f a g e n e r a l l y a l l i e d n a tu r e b u t none o f th em , o r any o t h e r s fo u n d , w ere s t u d i e s w hich a n t i c i p a t e d th e p ro b le m , s p e c i f i c c o n t e n t, 3 0 2 and f in d in g s o f t h i s s tu d y . As a r e s u l t , t h e r e f o r e , t h i s w r i t e r b e l i e v e s t h a t new and n e c e s s a r y d a t a h av e b een r e v e a le d in t h i s h i s t o r i c a l and p h ilo s o p h i c a l s tu d y . F a c tu a l d a t a . A few o u ts ta n d in g f a c t s c o l l a t e d , a s a r e s u l t o f t h i s h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h , s h o u ld be r e c a l l e d a t t h i s p o i n t . The s t a t u s o f th e s c h o o l sy ste m and th e s o c i a l o r d e r , b e f o r e th e G re a t R eform s f o llo w in g J e n a , w as d e f i n i t e l y shown to be f e u d a l in c h a r a c t e r , by t h e f a c t s o f h i s t o r y . Enough f i r s t - h a n d r e p o r t s d e t a i l i n g i n g r e a t m easu re th e s t a t u s qu o , p ro v e d th e b ac k w ard n ess o f th e s c h o o ls o f t h e P r u s s ia n n a t i o n . F i c h t e ’ s own w r i t i n g s , n o ta b ly th e A d d re s s e s , h ad g iv e n a p la n o f e d u c a tio n , and th e r e f o rm e rs c a r r i e d i t o u t . As f o r th e c o n d itio n i n w h ich th e s c h o o ls and s o c i e t y fo u n d th e m s e lv e s a f t e r th e R efo rm s, th e R e p o rts o f B a rn a rd , C o u s in , Mann, and Stowe o f f e r p rim a f a c i e e v id e n c e t h a t s a l u t a r y re fo rm s h ad ta k e n p l a c e . T hese f a c t s c a n n o t be g a i n s a i d . H i s t o r i c a l b a c k g ro u n d . T h is s tu d y p r e s e n te d i n some w hat summary f a s h io n , a re v ie w o f P r u s s i a a s a f e u d a l m onarchy d u rin g th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y , and up u n t i l 1808. P o r tr a y e d w ere th e e v e n ts ot t h e F r e d e r ic ia n T r a d i t i o n and t h e i r p la c e in P r u s s ia n e d u c a tio n . A ll o f th e s e F r e d e r ic k s who stemmed from th e H o h e n z o lle rn s w ere m ore o r l e s s i n f l u e n t i a l i n s t e e r i n g th e c o u rs e o f th e P r u s s ia n m on arch y . 303 The h i s t o r i c a l r e p o r t w as p r e s e n te d in C h a p te r IV and C h a p te r V. C h a p te r IV gave a p i c t u r e c e n te r in g a ro u n d th e r i s e o f th e fam ous P r u s s ia n n a t i o n a l c o n s c io u s n e s s o r G e i s t * T h is G e is t made i t p o s s i b l e f o r F ic h te t o p r e s e n t h i s A d d re s s e s * S k e tc h e d w as th e r i s e o f P r u s s i a a s a m i l i t a r y p o w er, i t s g ro w in g im p o rta n c e and f i n a l l y t h e g r e a t l o s s e s a t T i l s i t i n 1 8 08. C h a p te r V p ro v id e d th e in f o rm a tio n con c e rn in g th e p o s i t i o n o f P r u s s i a i n 1808. At t h i s tim e , P r u s s i a w as j u s t b e g in n in g t o c h a n g e . The g r e a t vom S t e i n , G n e ise n a u , M a rw itz , an d th e o th e r l e a d e r s b e s id e s F i c h t e , h ad a l l la b o r e d g r e a t l y i n t h e c a u s e o f P r u s s i a . I t w as th e y who aw akened P r u s s i a from i t s l e t h a r g y a s a r e s u l t o f th e d e f e a t by N ap o leo n . A ll o f t h i s w as shown a s one g r e a t movement i n w hich F ic h te p ro v id e d th e s p a rk an d th e m o t i f . The s o c i a l o r d e r in two y e a r s w as tu r n e d from fe u d a lis m in t o a q u a s i - l i b e r a l S t a t e . The p e o p le h ad b ee n g iv e n t h e g r e a t p r i v i l e g e o f f r a n c h i s e ; th e la n d re fo rm s h ad s t a r t e d ; and P r u s s i a w as on i t s way to a b e t t e r schem e o f th in g s f o r i t s s o c i e t y . Jo h an n G o ttli e b F i c h t e . T h is p h ilo s o p h e r and e d u c a t i o n a l t h e o r i s t w as th e c e n t r a l f i g u r e aro u n d whom th e g r e a t Reform drama r e v o lv e d . H is t h e o r i e s , above a l l e l s e , f u r n is h e d th e b a s i s f o r t h e e d u c a tio n a l r e h a b i l i t a t i o n , w h ile h i s A d d re sse s w ere th e g r e a t f o r c e o f th e P r u s s ia n 30 4 r e g e n e r a tio n . Upon t h i s s c o r e , th e h i s t o r i a n s a r e n e a r l y a l l a g re e d . Inhere i s a lm o s t c o m p le te u n a n im ity a s r e g a r d s th e fu n d a m e n ta l p o s i t i o n t h i s man h o ld s . As s u e h , h e w as a sym bol f o r th e re fo rm m ovem ent. From th e d ay s o f h i s A d d re sse s u n t i l h i s u n tim e ly d e a th , h e w as one o f th e g r e a t f i g u r e s o f t h i s s t i r r i n g p e r i o d . H is p h ilo s o p h y , a s a b ack g ro u n d t o h i s e d u c a tio n a l t h e o r i e s , w as c a r e f u l l y re v ie w e d so a s t o f u r n is h m eaning to th e t h e o r i e s th e m s e lv e s . F i c h t e ’ s d o c t r in e w as th e one g r e a t in f lu e n c e i n P r u s s ia n e d u c a tio n , f u r n is h in g th ro u g h P e s t a l o z z i fo rm and c o n t e n t , and th ro u g h F i c h t e , p u rp o se an d a r a t i o n a l e . F i c h t e ’ s e f f e c t upon P r u s s i a i t s e l f w as g r e a t and h i s t o r y i s a g re e d t h a t h i s A d d re sse s f u r n is h e d much o f th e le a v e n n ee d ed f o r th e r i s e o f P r u s s i a and i t s o v e rth ro w o f N apoleon d u r in g th e W ars o f L ib e r a t i o n . The c o n te m p o ra rie s o f F ic h te * I t h a s a l r e a d y b e e n shown t h a t F i c h t e ’ s e f f e c t w ould n o t have b een so g r e a t w ere i t n o t f o r vom S t e i n , G n e ise n a u , M a rw itz , A rn d t, an d many o t h e r s t h i s s tu d y d id n o t m e n tio n . T hese men w ere a l l v ig o ro u s i n ch a m p io n in g th e re fo rm s . I t was vom S t e i n , h o w ev e r, who a c c o m p lis h e d m ost i n th e w ay o f a c t u a l l y e x e c u tin g th e much n eed ed p o l i t i c a l ch a n g e. I t w as he who w as r e s p o n s ib le i n g r e a t p a r t f o r f r e e i n g t h e p o p u la tio n o f much o f i t s c o n d i tio n o f s e r v i t u d e . Vom S te in n o t o n ly 30 5 f r e e d th e p e a s a n t s , b u t he endowed them w ith .la n d . F o r c e n t u r i e s th e y h ad t i l l e d th e s o i l , b u t n e v e r p o s s e s s e d an y o f i t . Vom S t e i n , m ore th a n a n y o t h e r , h e lp e d them become ow ners o f th e la n d w hich th e y h ad so lo n g te n d e d . Von H um boldt w as a g r e a t p r a c t i c a l e d u c a to r , p u t t i n g F i c h t e f s t h e o r i e s in to d a i l y u s e . He h e lp e d fo u n d th e g r e a t U h iv e r s it y o f B e r l i n , w hich becam e a m odel o f i t s k in d f o r s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h . He o v e rh a u le d a g r e a t d e a l o f th e d ecad en ce i n t h e s c h o o ls , and made them i n t o a n e f f i c i e n t w o rk a b le o r g a n i z a t i o n . So g r e a t a w ork d id he d o , t h a t a few y e a rs l a t e r men came fro m a l l o v e r th e w o rld t o view h i s h an d iw o rk . A rndt w as th e v o ic e o f t h e R eform . He p u t i n t o p o e tr y w h at vom S te in b e l ie v e d and d id . Freedom was a l i v i n g and v i t a l c o n c e p t f o r t h i s p o e t . Men such a s he made v o c a l t h e h o p e s an d a s p i r a t i o n s o f th e m any. Von G n eisen au was one o f th e l e a d e r s o f th e P r u s s ia n arm y r e fo rm , d e m o c ra tiz in g and m aking o f i t a t h in g o f th e p e o p le . More th a n a n y o th e r m i l i t a r i s t , p e rh a p s von G n eisen au w as a t h e a r t a r e f o r m e r . W hile an arm y, i n t h e s t r i c t se n se o f th e w o rd , i s n o t a m eans o f re fo rm , t h e P r u s s ia n arm y so d e m o c ra tiz e d , d id h e lp d e f e a t N apoleon a t W a te rlo o . The s c h o o ls o f G erm any. The German sc h o o l sy stem was d e s c r ib e d d u rin g t h e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y i n C h a p te r V II, 3 0 6 and in C h a p te r IX th e y w ere a g a in d e s c r ib e d , t h i s tim e a f t e r th e y h ad b e e n c o m p le te ly r e o r g a n iz e d . The v a r io u s s c h o o l R e g u la tio n s o f e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y w ere d e p ic te d , a s w e ll a s th e re a s o n f o r t h e i r f a i l u r e to ch an g e e x i s t i n g c o n d i t i o n s . The s c h o o ls o f th e F r e d e r ic k s w ere a r c h a ic and i n e f f e c t u a l . They m ir r o r e d th e s o c i a l o r d e r ; i n f a c t , t h e i r s w as a d u l l r e f l e c t i o n , a s th e y la g g e d f a r b e h in d . But th e re fo rm s w hich sw ept a l l o f P r u s s i a a ls o rem ade th em . As a r e s u l t o f t h i s o v e r h a u lin g , th e s c h o o ls a s d e s c r ib e d by C o u sin , S to w e, e t a l . , w ere se e n a s m o d els w o rth y o f e m u la tio n . The ♦ c e n t r a l b u re a u a d m i n is t r a t i n g th e s c h o o ls w as f o m e d a s a c e n t e r o f an e f f i c i e n t s c h o o l sy stem e x te n d in g i n t o e v e ry p a r t o f P r u s s i a . Now th e s c h o o ls w ere one c o h e s iv e u n i t . W hereas f o rm e rly th e y w ere l o c a l a f f a i r s , c h u rc h d o m in a te d , and s y s te m le s s , now th e y w ere s y s te m a tiz e d and u n d e r th e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f th e S t a t e . As a w e ll- p la n n e d o rg a n iz e d i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y , th e s c h o o ls b eg an t o m o d ify th e s o c i a l o r d e r . They th e m s e lv e s a t f i r s t w ere r e l a t i v e l y d e m o c ra tic , an d a s a r e s u l t th o s e whom th e y s e rv e d l a t e r s p re a d th e d e m o c ra tic e th o s in to t h e i r s o c i a l s p h e re . And a s a r e s u l t o f t h i s c y c le , t h i n g s changed a s th e y m ust i n such a c a s e . An i n t e r a c t i n g move m ent w as th u s g e n e r a te d . The s c h o o ls s e n t o u t t h e i r changed s t u d e n t s , who i n t u r n , ch an g ed t h e i r s o c i e t y . T hrough t h i s c h a in o f e v e n ts , i t i s q u i t e p o s s i b le t h a t th e 3 0 7 c o u rs e o f P r u s s ia n h i s t o r y w ould h av e ta k e n a d i f f e r e n t t u r n th a n i t d id * P h ilo s o p h ic a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . From t h i s s tu d y t h e r e w as i n f e r r e d s e v e r a l c o n c e p ts . The P r u s s ia n s c h o o ls w ere n o t th e o n ly ag e n cy m o d ify in g s o c i e t y ; b u t , th e y w ere an e f f e c t i v e f a c t o r b e c a u se o f t h e i r n a t u r e . The s c h o o ls , how e v e r , d e r iv e t h e i r f i r s t p r i n c i p l e s fro m t h e i r s o c i a l en v iro n m e n t, and th e y i n tu r n in f lu e n c e i t . They c o u ld b y a hap p y c irc u m s ta n c e i n s t i g a t e re fo rm s , b u t th e y w ould n ee d a s s i s t a n c e i n c a r r y in g th em o u t , f o r t h e r e i s a n i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p h e r e w hich m ust o b t a i n . T h ere i s no do u b t t h a t some one ag e n cy m ust s t a r t a n y th in g . The s c h o o ls c o u ld f u r n is h th e le a d e r s h ip v e r y p o s s i b l y , b u t th e y c o u ld n o t d ra g a r e l u c t a n t s o c i e t y . T h ere w ould h av e to be a slow r e e d u c a tio n , so t h a t s o c i e t y w o u ld k eep p a c e . I f th e s c h o o ls o u tr u n t h e i r s o c i a l o r d e r th e y have o n ly i s o l a t e d th e m s e lv e s . I f th e y la g to o f a r b e h in d , th e y a r e a g a in c u t o f f , so t o s p e a k . They a r e in v o lv e d in s o c i e t y . T hey c o u ld s e rv e a s th e b e l l s w hich t o l l th e s i g n a l f o r re fo rm , b u t th e y m ust summon a l l th e p e o p le . I I . C0HCLUSI0HS FROM THIS STUDY M ost o f th e c o n c lu s io n s o f t h i s s tu d y have a l r e a d y b een m a n ife s te d e i t h e r e x p l i c i t l y o r i m p l i c i t l y . T h ere i s no sp ace t o once a g a in t r e a t them a d e q u a te ly . From th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h e r e em erg es a r e a l i z a t i o n o f th e c o m p le x ity o f th e p ro b le m . The h y p o th e s e s o f th e s tu d y . R e g a rd in g th e hypo t h e s e s i t i s c o n c lu d e d t h a t e i g h t o u t o f th e t e n h y p o th e s e s w ere c o m p le te ly J u s t i f i e d b y th e f i n d i n g s . One h y p o th e s is w as i n p a r t i a l e r r o r , th e o t h e r i s a l o g i c a l in f e r e n c e g ro w in g o u t o f th e s tu d y , and n o t a d i r e c t r e s u l t a n t o f t h e f a c t s . 1 . M o d if ic a tio n o f th e s o c i a l o r d e r . The e v id e n c e from th e R e p o rts te n d s t o show a v e r y d e f i n i t e m o d if ic a tio n o f th e s o c i a l o r d e r a s a r e s u l t o f th e r e s u rg e n c e o f P r u s s i a . The s c h o o ls w ere a d r iv in g f o r c e in t h i s m odi f i c a t i o n . 2 . C a ta s tro p h e f u r n is h e d th e m o tiv e . H i s t o r i a n s rem a in a g re e d a s to th e e f f e c t th e N a p o le o n ic d e f e a t h ad upon a l l o f G erm any, and p a r t i c u l a r l y upon P r u s s i a . The l o s s o f t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s , t h e i r t h r e a t o f e x t i n c t i o n a s a n a t i o n a l e n t i t y s e rv e d to s p u r th e P r u s s ia n s to f i g h t b a c k . F i c h t e ’ s A d d re sse s w ere t h e t o c s i n t o do b a t t l e and r e s t o r e th e P r u s s ia n s o v e r e ig n ty . 3 . The s c h o o ls a r e e m p h a siz e d . F i c h t e ’ s A d d re sse s s t a t e d v e ry d e f i n i t e l y th e u se s c h o o ls c o u ld be p u t to i n 309 th e r e g e n e r a t i o n . The o th e r le a d e r s a ls o r e a l i z e d t h a t ed u c a tio n c o u ld make an e f f e c t i v e t o o l . The h i s t o r i a n s h av e re c o u n te d th e m o n arch ’ s id e a s a s t o t h e n ee d f o r s c h o o ls to show th e w ay. 4 . The A d d re s s e s . Jo h an n G o tt l i e b F ic h te s p a rk e d th e re a w a k e n in g . H i s t o r i a n s a r e a lm o s t unanim ous in a g r e e in g t h a t F ic h te w as a g r e a t f o r c e in th e r e v i v a l , and t h a t i t w as th e A d d re sse s w hich u n ite d th e p e o p le i n a common e f f o r t . 5 . F ic h te a s a n a t i o n a l i s t . W hile F ic h te w as a p a t r i o t , h i s p h ilo s o p h y a s w as d e m o n s tra te d , showed t h a t he b e lie v e d in th e pow er o f m o r a l i t y ; b u t t h i s g r e a t m o ra l w i l l was n o t n e c e s s a r i l y n arro w o b l i g a t i o n to an y one S t a t e . Germany w as t o be a l e a d e r ; b u t , so t h a t th ro u g h i t , a l l m ankind c o u ld become m o ra l. The le a d e r s o f P r u s s i a , how e v e r , u se d th e n a tio n a lis m t o f u r t h e r t h e i r own e n d s . 6 . The o th e r f o r c e s . The re fo rm s o f vom S te in and th e o t h e r s showed t h a t o th e r a g e n c ie s e n te r e d i n t o th e s o c i a l m o d if ic a ti o n . F i r s t , a s th e h i s t o r i a n s have r e c o u n t e d , came th e g r e a t s o c i a l re fo rm s , and th e n th e s c h o o ls fo llo w e d s u i t . 7 . The o t h e r l e a d e r s . To e x e c u te th e re fo rm s t h e r e w as n eed ed o t h e r m en. The h i s t o r i a n s have shown how th e 3 10 o t h e r f i g u r e s p la n n e d and w orked to h e lp P r u s s i a . F ic h te a lo n e c o u ld n o t p o s s i b l y have a c c o m p lish e d a s much a s he d id w ith o u t th e a s s i s t a n c e o f h i s c o n te m p o ra rie s . 8 . The r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f th e s c h o o ls . C o u s in , S tow e, e t a l . , showed how e f f i c i e n t l y th e s c h o o ls h ad b een c h a n g ed . T h is change o c c u rr e d a s a r e s u l t o f th e g r e a t r e form s i n s t i g a t e d by th e o th e r a g e n c ie s , an d e x e c u te d by th e o th e r l e a d e r s . 9 . L o ss o f d e m o c ra tic a im . The s tu d y h a s shown t h a t P r u s s i a ’ s s c h o o ls l o s t t h e i r d e m o c ra tic aim and becam e an in s tru m e n t f o r n arro w e n d s . O b s e rv e rs l i k e Mann and Stowe r e a l i z e d t h a t th e fo rm s o f dem ocracy a r e n o t i t s e s s e n c e . 1 0 . I n t e g r a t i o n . T h is h y p o th e s is em erged a s a r e s u l t o f th e P r u s s ia n d e b a c le . I t w as s e e n how a s an appendage th e s c h o o ls w ere c o m p a ra tiv e ly u s e l e s s a s an in s tru m e n t o f s o c i e t y . They c o u ld n o t o u td is ta n c e s o c i e t y . The l o g i c a l in f e r e n c e w as t h a t t h e i r p la c e w as p a r a l l e l w ith a l l th e o t h e r f o r c e s i n a u n i f i e d e f f o r t . The s c h o o ls , h o w ev er, c o u ld s e rv e a s a g u id e by v i r t u e o f t h a t w h ich g u id e s th em , i . e . , r e a s o n . I l l . RECOMMENDATIONS T h is i n v e s t i g a t o r d o es n o t d e s i r e to go beyond th e 311 r e a s o n a b le b o u n d a rie s o f h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h . H ow ever, i t d o es seem v e ry p o s s i b le t h a t some p r a c t i c a l reco m m en d atio n s sh o u ld en su e o u t o f t h e d a t a and c o n c lu s io n s a t w hich th e s tu d y a r r i v e d c o n c e rn in g P r u s s i a ’ s r e g e n e r a t i o n . One o f th e fu n d a m e n ta l p u rp o s e s o f t h i s s tu d y w as th e d is c lo s u r e o f h i s t o r i c a l f a c t r e g a r d in g th e new r o l e e d u c a tio n assum ed to w ard s o c i e t y , a s a r e s u l t o f Jo h an n G o t t l i e b F ic h te and th e o th e r r e f o r m e r s . Out o f t h i s i s th e d e s i r e to p r e s e n t a m e a n in g fu l p a t t e r n , w hich c o u ld be u t i l i z e d by m odern ed u c a tio n * E d u c a tio n a s a b u lw ark f o r d em o cracy . T h at e d u c a tio n i s a n e c e s s a r y and i n t r i n s i c c o n d itio n f o r a d e m o c ra tic s o c i e t y can h a r d ly be d is p u te d . W ith o u t a t r u l y e n lig h te n e d p e o p le , dem ocracy i s n o t f e a s i b l e . I t h a s b een se e n t h a t when a p e o p le i s n o t in c lu d e d i n i t s p l a n s , e d u c a tio n a l ad vancem ent l a g s . The e v id e n c e a c h ie v e d by t h i s s tu d y shows t h a t s o c i e t y can tr a n s f o r m a s c h o o l sy ste m , and t h a t th e l a t t e r c a n th e n m o d ify s o c i e t y . I n s h o r t , e d u c a tio n and s o c i e t y a r e c u t from th e same c l o t h , b e in g one and th e same t h i n g . One c a n n o t r e a l l y ad v an ce w ith o u t th e o t h e r . Ho one ag e n c y i n a com plex s o c i e t y h a s th e pow er to c a r r y a l l th e r e s t . The s c h o o ls m ig h t c o n c e iv a b ly be th e s ta n d a r d b e a r e r s , b u t i t seem s t h a t th e y can n o t tr a n s f o r m t h e i r s u rro u n d in g s e n t i r e l y o f th e m s e lv e s . L o g ic a lly t h e n , i t 3 12 a p p e a rs t h a t e d u c a to r s sh o u ld s t r e s s i n t e g r a t i o n i f s o c i e t y i s to rem a in d e m o c ra tic . The d e m o c ra tic p r o c e s s e m p h a siz e s p a r t i c i p a t i o n . The s c h o o ls can f u l f i l l t h e i r o b l i g a t i o n s by s h a r in g t h e aim s e f f e c t i v e l y w ith th e o th e r s o c i a l a g e n c ie s . Thus th e f i r s t reco m m en d atio n i s s u i n g o u t o f t h i s s tu d y i s t h a t e d u c a to r s se e k a m ore e f f e c t i v e m eans o f i n t e g r a t i n g th e sc h o o l w ith s o c ie ty . Common aim o f e d u c a t o r s . The f i r s t s te p a d v a n ce d i s th e c o n c e p t o f i n t e g r a t i o n a s a p o s s i b le m eans f o r e n s u r in g dem ocracy. Much h a s b e e n w r i t t e n a b o u t t h e n ee d f o r su ch * i n t e g r a t i o n . Where and how s h o u ld t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f s c h o o l w ith i t s s o c i e t y b e g in ? The r e a s o n a b le an sw er to t h i s p o in te d in q u ir y seem s to l i e i n th e p r e s e n t . I t i s a p p a re n t t h a t th e s i t u a t i o n o b ta in in g a t th e p r e s e n t tim e be c r i t i c a l l y a n a ly z e d , and a l l e f f o r t s made to w a rd a common m e e tin g g ro u n d f o r a c h ie v in g t h i s sound p u rp o s e . The d e m o c ra tic aim s have a l r e a d y b e e n many tim e s e x c e l l e n t l y s t a t e d . I t i s a g re e d t h a t th e s e alm s a r e fu n d a m e n ta l to w a rd s a c h ie v in g r e s u l t s . W ith t h e s e i n m in d , e d u c a to r s c a n , an d sh o u ld have a s t h e i r p u rp o s e th e u t i l i z a t i o n o f th e s c h o o ls a s a m eans o f a d v a n c in g s o c i a l p r o g r e s s i n u n is o n w ith a l l th e o th e r a g e n c ie s o f s o c i e t y . A lth o u g h t h i s s tu d y p r e s e n ts b u t one e p is o d e , u n iq u e th o u g h i t may have b e e n , i t d o es seem to p o in t o u t t h a t i n t e g r a t i o n may have w o rk ed . M ost 3 1 3 e d u c a to r s a r e a g re e d a s t o th e n e c e s s i t y f o r some p o i n t o f common d e p a r tu r e . The p a t t e r n em erging fro m t h i s s tu d y sh o u ld be n o te d a s i n d i c a t i v e o f p o s s i b le a c t i o n i n th e f u t u r e . F u r th e r r e s e a r c h s h o u ld be made a lo n g t h i s l i n e to g a t h e r m ore su ch d a t a . S u b s e q u e n tly , e d u c a to r s w ould be f o r g in g ah ead to w a rd th e consum m ation o f g r e a t e r c o o p e r a tio n b etw een s c h o o l and s o c i e t y . R e sta te m e n t o f p u rp o se o f e d u c a tio n . As r e g a r d s th e e v id e n c e draw n fro m t h i s s tu d y th e p o s s i b le v ie w s w ith r e s p e c t to e d u c a tio n a s a m ethod f o r m o d if ic a tio n o f th e s o c i a l o r d e r seem t o b e : (1 ) to p r e s e r v e th e s t a t u s quo by i n c u l c a t i o n ; (2 ) t o i n d o c t r i n a t e i n th e m in d s o f th e f u t u r e c i t i z e n s th e id e a o f a new s o c i e t y w ith th e hope t h a t th e y , so t a u g h t , w i l l b r in g i t i n t o f r u i t i o n ; (3) to e n l ig h te n th e im m ature a s th e y come to s c h o o l, and h av e f a i t h i n t h e i r own a b i l i t y to m eet s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s w ith m a tu r i ty an d judgm ent when th e y a r e c o n f r o n te d w ith m aking d e c is io n s . E d u c a to rs have th e c h o ic e o f an y one o f th e s e t h r e e a l t e r n a t i v e s . The f i r s t i s s im p le s t and u t i l i z e d by a l l a u to c r a c i e s . The seco n d w as m a in ly u sed by P r u s s i a w ith a d e g re e o f th e f i r s t , and th e t h i r d em bodies th e t r u l y demo c r a t i c p u rp o s e . E d u c a to rs m ust k eep c o n s ta n t l y aw are o f th e s e p u r p o s e s . They m ust d e v e lo p a sound p h ilo s o p h y o f e d u c a tio n , so t h a t th e t h i r d p u rp o se i s r e a l i z e d i n i t s 3 1 4 e n t i r e t y . The P r u s s ia n phenom enon p ro v e d th e f u t i l i t y o f i n d o c t r i n a t i o n . O nly w ith a t r u l y e d u c a te d p o p u la c e i s i t p o s s i b l e to a c h ie v e th e d e m o c ra tic p u rp o s e . R e a f f ir m a tio n o f a im s . I n Germany a t th e o p e n in g o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y , Jo h an n G o tt l i e b F ic h te a p p a r e n tly h e ld t h e d e m o c ra tic v iew , w h ile th e p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s , i n c lu d in g th e th r o n e i t s e l f , h e ld t h a t c o n s e rv a tis m and i n d o c t r i n a t i o n w ere v a l i d c o n c e p ts in e d u c a tio n . W herever im p o s itio n o r i n c u l c a t i o n i s deemed t o be d e s i r a b l e , o r a d v e n t i t i o u s , th e q u e s tio n alw ay s a r i s e s : f o r whom i s i t d e s i r a b l e , an d how do th e y mean to u s e i t ? H is to r y h a s seem ed to an sw er t h a t th e s t r o n g e s t g ro u p , n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n n u m b ers, o r one b e l ie v i n g i n th e g r e a t e s t good f o r th e g r e a t e s t num ber. I n f a c t , i t h a s many tim e s b een a s e l f - s e e k in g g ro u p . I n Germany th e p o l i t i c a l g ro u p , s e e k in g d o m in a tio n g o t in t o p o w er, and u l t i m a t e l y r u in e d t h e re fo rm m ovem ent. The s a v in g e le m e n t i n th e s i t u a t i o n , and one h o ld in g l a s t i n g s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r e d u c a tio n , was th e n arro w m a rg in o f freed o m o f F ic h te and h i s c o -w o rk e rs f o llo w in g th e d e m o c ra tic i d e a l o f l i b e r a l i z i n g th e p u p i l s . I t w as fro m th e le a v e n in g in f lu e n c e o f t h i s s m a ll gro u p t h a t su b se q u e n t p r o g r e s s and re fo rm was p o s s i b l e . M odem edu c a t o r s in t h e i r r e s ta te m e n t o f th e p u rp o se m ust see t h a t a l l e le m e n ts u n d e r t h e i r j u r i s d i c t i o n e sc a p e undue i n d o c t r i n a t i o n . 315 Summary, The reco m m en d atio n s w hich fo llo w a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y o r i g i n a l w ith t h i s s tu d y . T hey m ay, o r may n o t b e , i n ag reem en t w ith d ev e lo p m e n ts i n th e f i e l d o f e d u c a tio n a s r e g a r d s th e p ro b lem o f s c h o o l and s o c i e t y . They a r e , how ever, d i r e c t in f e r e n c e s from th e f i n d in g s and c o n c lu s io n s o f th e p r e s e n t s tu d y i n t h e o p in io n o f th e w r i t e r . I n a c c o rd a n c e w ith t h i s , t h e f o llo w in g reco m m en d atio n s a re o f f e r e d f o r c o n s id e r a ti o n i n r e f e r e n c e to d e a lin g w ith p r e s e n t- d a y is s u e o f s c h o o l and s o c i e t y . 1 . The in te r d e p e n d e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een s c h o o l and s o c i e t y i n th e o r y and p r a c t i c e m ust be r e a l i z e d m ore c o m p le te ly . 2 . The p r i n c i p l e s u n d e r ly in g t h i s c o n n e c te d n e s s m u st be c r i t i c a l l y i n v e s t i g a t e d . 3 . P r e s e n t e d u c a to r s , a s w e ll a s p r o s p e c tiv e o n e s , n eed t o be w e ll v e r s e d i n t h e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n s and t e n t a t i v e s o l u t i o n s t o t h i s p ro b le m . 4 . I f a g r e a t e r u n ity i n ag re e m en t i s t o be a c h ie v e d , t h e r e m ust be a s p i r i t o f u n d e r s ta n d in g , and a d e te r m in a tio n a s w e ll a s w i l li n g n e s s t o m eet on common g ro u n d . 5 . I n v iew o f th e f a c t t h a t e d u c a to r s a r e p r e d o m in a n tly a g re e d a s to th e d e m o c ra tic aim s o f e d u c a tio n , t h e r e sh o u ld be an a tte m p t t o f o rm u la te some common m ean s. 6 . E d u c a to rs sh o u ld s t r i v e to w a rd an o rg a n ism ic ap p ro a c h t o th e p ro b lem o f s c h o o l and s o c i e t y . 3 1 6 7 . E d u c a tio n m ust j o i n w ith a l l th e o t h e r s o c i a l a g e n c ie s in t h e i r a tte m p ts a t a s o l u t i o n o f th e common p ro b lem* 8 . The s c h o o ls m u st c o n s t a n t l y a f f i r m th e d e m o c ra tic e th o s on a l l l e v e l s o f l e a r n i n g . C o n c lu s io n * I n c o n c lu s io n i t seems t o t h i s w r i t e r t h a t e d u c a tio n m u st a r r i v e a t some g r e a t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g and a g ree m en t a s r e g a r d s th e p ro b lem o f sc h o o l an d s o c i e t y i f e i t h e r i s to e n jo y g e n u in e ad v an cem en t. BIBLIOGRAPHY A. BOOKS 3 1 8 A b b o tt, Jo h n S te v e n s , The H is to r y o f P r u s s i a - Hew Y ork: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1882. 396 p p . A b b o tt, Thomas K in g s m ill, K a n t's C r iti q u e o f P r a c t i c a l R easo n . London: Longmans G reen an d Company, 1 9 2 3 . 368 p p . ( T r a n s la te d b y th e a u t h o r .) Adams, J o h n , The E v o lu tio n o f E d u c a tio n a l T h e o ry . London: M acm illan and Company, T ?2 2 . 410 p p . Adamson, R o b e rt, F i c h t e . E d in b u rg h : W illia m Blackw ood and S o n s, 1 8 3 1 . 222 p p . A le x a n d e r, Thomas, The P r u s s ia n E le m e n ta ry S c h o o ls . Hew Y ork: The M acm illan Company, 1 9 16. 5 7 l p p . A n d erso n , E u g en e, n a tio n a lis m and th e C u l t u r a l C r i s i s . Hew Y ork: F a r r a r and R h in e h a r t, I n c . , 1 9 3 7 . 3 0 3 p p . A rn o ld , M atthew , H ig h e r S c h o o ls and U n i v e r s i t i e s i n G erm any. London: M acm illan Company, 1882. 270 p p . A tk in s o n , C h r is to p h e r Thom as, A H is to r y o f Germany 17 1 5 - 1 8 1 5 . London: M ethuen and Company, 1908. 558 p p . B a g le y , W illia m , A C e n tu ry o f th e U n iv e rs a l S c h o o l. Hew Y ork: The M acm illan Company, 1937. 85 p p . B a rn a rd , H en ry , German P ed ag o g y . E d u c a tio n th e S ch o o l and th e T e a c h e r in German L i t e r a t u r e . H a r tf o r d : Brown and G ro s s , 1 8 76. 648 p p . , e d i t o r , M em oirs o f E m inent T e a c h e rs and E d u c a to rs w ith C o n tr ib u tio n s to th e H is to r y o f E d u c a tio n i n ~ G erm any. 2 V ol s . ; H a r tf o r d : Brown and G ro s s, T£T71. . e d i t o r , The A m erican J o u r n a l o f E d u c a tio n . 32 V o ls.; H a r tf o r d : F . C. B ro w n e ll, 1 8 5 6 -8 2 . B a rra c lo u g h , G e o ffre y , The O r ig in s o f M odem Germany. Hew Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, 1947. 481 p p . B ig elo w , P o u ltn e y , H is to r y o f th e German S tru g g le f o r L i b e r t y . 3 V o ls .; Hew Y ork: H a rp e r B r o th e r s , 1 9 0 3 . Bode, Boyd H ., M odern E d u c a tio n a l T h e o r ie s . Hew Y ork: The M acm illan Company, 1927. 351 p p . 319 Bowden, A berdeen O rla n d o , and I r v i n g R. M elbo, S o c ia l P sy ch o lo g y o f E d u c a tio n . Hew Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, 1 9 3 7 . 296 p p . Boyd, W illia m , The H is to r y o f W e ste rn E d u c a tio n . London: A. and C. B la c k , L t d . , 1932 . 452 p p . B ru b a c h e r, Jo h n S . , A H is to r y o f th e P ro b lem s o f E d u c a tio n . Hew Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, 1 9 47. 688 p p . ________ , M odern P h ilo s o p h ie s o f E d u c a tio n . Hew Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, 1 9 3 9 . 370 p p . B u t le r , Rohan D’O l i e r , Ih e R o o ts o f n a t i o n a l S o c ia lis m . Hew Y ork: E. P . D u tto n Company, 1 942. 304 p p . B u t ts , Freem an R . , A C u l tu r a l H is to r y o f E d u c a tio n . Hew Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, 1 9 4 7 . *726 p p . C a t l i n , G eorge, The S to r y o f th e P o l i t i c a l P h ilo s o p h e r s . Hew Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, 1 9 3 9 . 802 p p . C om payre, G a b r ie l, H is to r y o f P ed ag o g y . 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Hew Y ork: The M acm illan Company, 1916. 434 p p . ________ , German P h ilo s o p h y and P o l i t i c s . Hew Y ork: H enry H o lt an d Company, 1 9 l5 . 134 p p . 5 20 L o g ic . The T h eo ry o f I n q u i r y . New Y ork: H enry H o lt and Company, 1938. 546 p p . ________ , P ro b lem s o f Men. New Y ork: The P h ilo s o p h ic a l L ib r a r y , 1946. 424 p p . ________ , The Q uest f o r C e r t a i n t y . New Y ork: M in to n B aleh and Company, 1 9 29. 318 p p . Dim ock, M a r s h a ll, A m erican G overnm ent i n A c tio n . New Y ork: R in e h a r t and Company, 1 9 4 6 . 394 p p . ________ , M odern P o l i t i c s and A d m in is tr a tio n * New Y ork: The A m erican Book Company, 1 9 3 7 . 4 i0 p p . E b e n s te in , W illia m , The German R eco rd — A P o l i t i c a l P o r t r a i t . New Y ork: F a r r a r and R h in e h a r t, In c . , 1 9 4 5 . 334 p p . Eby, F r e d e r ic k , and C h a rle s F lin n Arrowwood, The D evelopm ent M odern E d u c a tio n . 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B ro ck h a u s, 1862. , Das System d e r S i t t e n l e h r e n ac h den P r i n c i p i e n d e r W i s s e n s c h a f ts l e h r e . J e n a und L e ip z ig : C. E. G a b le r, 1 7 9 8 . 494 p p . 321 » D e d u c ir te r P la n e i n e r zu B e r lin zu e r r ic h te n d e n h o h e re n L e h r a n s t a l t . G e sc h rie b e n im ja b r e 1807 T S t u t t g a r t : C o tta , 1817. 158 p p . _______ , N a c h g e la sse n e W erke. von I . H. F i c h t e ; 3 V o ls. ; L e i p z i g : I . H. F i c h t e , 1 8 3 4 -3 5 . ________ , Heden an d ie d e u ts c h e N a tio n . S t u t t g a r t : A lf re d K ro n e r, 1 9 3 8 . 249 p p . ________ , Sam m tliohe W erke. 8 V o ls .; B e r l in : V e rla g von V e it und Company, 1 9 4 6 . ________ , The S c ie n c e o f E t h i c s . London: Kegan P a u l, L t d . , 1 8 8 7 . 267 p p . ( T r a n s la te d by A d o lf E r n e s t K ro e g e r.) ________ , The S c ie n c e o f K now ledge. London: T ru b n e r and Company, 1889. 377 p p . 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A p p le to n -C e n tu ry Company, 1 9 3 6 . 890 p p . H a l l e r , J o h a n n e s , The E pochs o f German H i s t o r y . New Y ork: H a rc o u rt B race and Company, I n c . , 1 9 3 0 . 247 p p . ( T r a n s la te d b y E . W. D ic k e s .) H a r t, Jo se p h K ., C r e a tiv e Moments in E d u c a tio n . New Y ork: H enry H o lt an d Company, 1 9 31. 476 p p . 3 22 H a u s s e r, L udw ig, D eu tsch e G e s h ic h te von Tode F r i e d r i c h d e s G ro ssen b i s z u r G rundung d es d e u ts c h e B undes. B e rlln T Weidmann B u ch -H an d lu n g , 1 8 6 9 . 597 p p . H ay es, C a r lto n , The H i s t o r i c a l E v o lu tio n o f M odern N a tio n a l ism . New Y ork: R ic h a rd Sfcaith, I n c . t~~T937T 327 p p . __, A P o l i t i c a l and C u l t u r a l H is to r y o f M odem E u ro p e . 2 V o l s . ; New Y ork: The M acm illan Company, 1 9 3 2 -1 9 3 6 . E a z en , C h a rle s Downer, E urope S in c e 1 8 1 5 * New Y ork: H enry H o lt and Company, 1 9 l0 . "830 p p . H eam shaw , F o sse y Jo h n Cobb, G erm any. The A g g re s s o r. London: W. an d R. C ham bers, L td . ,” 1940 . 288 p p . H en d erso n , E r n e s t, S h o rt H is to r y o f Germ any. 2 V o ls .; New Y ork: The M acm illan Company, 1 9 1 9 . H e r tz , F r e d e r ic k , N a t i o n a l i t y i n H is to r y and P o l i t i c s . London: K. P a u l, T re n c h , T rtib n e r and Company, t t d . , 1 944. 417 p p . H o p k in s, L. Thom as, and o t h e r s , I n t e g r a t i o n and I t s M eaning and A p p lic a tio n . New Y ork: D. A p p le to n and Company, 1 9 3 7 . 315 p p . H u tc h in s , R o b e rt M aynard, No F r ie n d ly V o ic e . C h icag o : The U n iv e r s ity o f C hicago P r e s s , 1947. 197 p p . Ju d d , C h a r le s , E d u c a tio n and S o c ia l P r o g r e s s . New Y ork: H a rc o u rt, B race an d Company, 1934. 284 p p . ________ , P u b lic E d u c a tio n i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s . New Y ork: H oughton M i f f l i n Company, 193*41 980 p p . K a n d e l, I s a a c L eon, C o m p arativ e E d u c a tio n . New Y ork: H oughton M i f f l i n Company, 1 933. 922 p p . ________ , The R e o rg a n iz a tio n o f E d u c a tio n i n P r u s s i a . New Y ork: C olum bia U n iv e r s it y , 1927. 647 p p . K i l p a t r i c k , W illia m H ., e t a l . , The E d u c a tio n a l F r o n t i e r . New Y ork: D. A p p leto n C e n tu ry Company, 1 9 3 5 . 325 p p . K in g , I r v i n g , S o c ia l A sp e c ts o f E d u c a tio n . New Y ork: The M acm illan Company, 1912." 534 p p . Kohn, H ans, The I d e a o f N a tio n a lis m * New Y ork: The M acm illan (Sompany, 1 9 3 6 . 735 p p . 3 23 K n ig h t, E d g a r, e d i t o r , R e p o rts on E uro p ean E d u c a tio n . New Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, 1930* 328 p p . ________ , Tw enty C e n tu r ie s o f E d u c a tio n . B o sto n : G inn and Company, 194CT 622 p p . L e x is , W illia m H e c to r, A G e n e ra l View o f th e H is to r y and O rg a n iz a tio n o f P u b lic E d u c a tio n i n th e German E m p ire. B e r l in : A. A sher and Company, 1904. T 82 p p . ( T r a n s la te d by G. J . T am son.j L o e w e n s te in , P r in c e H u b e rtu s Zu, The Germans i n H i s to r y . New Y ork: The C olum bia U n iv e r s ity P r e s s ,“ 1 9 4 5 . 584 p p . L udw ig, E m il, The G erm ans. B o sto n : L i t t l e , Brown and Company, 1 9 4 1 . 509 p p . M a c h ia v e lli, N ic c o lo , The P r i n c e . O x fo rd : The C la re n d o n P r e s s , 1897. 198 p p . ( T r a n s la te d by S i r Thomas M o re.) H a r r i o t , Jo h n A rth u r Ransom, The E v o lu tio n o f M odem E u ro p e . New Y ork: P utnam , 1 9 3 3 . 431 p p . ________ , The E y o lu tio n o f P r u s s i a . O x fo rd : The C la re n d o n P r e s s , l 9 l 5 . -459' p p . M i l l , Jo h n S t u a r t , On L ib e r ty and O th e r E s s a y s . New Y ork: The M acm illan Company, 1 9 07. 548 p p . M onroe, P a u l, A T ex tb o o k in th e H is to r y o f E d u c a tio n . New Y ork: The M acm illan Company, 1907. "7 7 2 p p . M u lh e m , Jam es, A H is to r y o f E d u c a tio n . New Y ork: The R onald P r e s s Company, 1946. 647 p p . N o b le, S t u a r t G ray so n , A H is to r y o f A m erican E d u c a tio n . New Y ork: F a r r a r and R h in e h a r t, 1 9 3 8 . 463 p p . P a u ls e n , F r i e d r i c h , German E d u c a tio n P a s t and P r e s e n t. New Y ork: C h a rle s S c r ib n e r ’ s S o n s, 1912. 310 p p . ( T r a n s la te d b y T. L o re n z .) , Im m anuel K a n t, H is L if e and D o c tr in e . New Y ork: C h a rle s S c r i b n e r ’ s S o n s, 1 902. 289 p p . ( T r a n s la te d b y J . E. C re ig h to n an d A lb e r t L e f e v r e .) ________ , The German U n i v e r s i t i e s and U n iv e r s ity S tu d y . New Y ork: C h a rle s S c r i b n e r ’ s S o n s, 1 9 0 6 . 249 p p . ( T r a n s la te d by F ran k T h i l l y and W illia m W. E lw an g .) 3 2 4 , The German U n i v e r s i t i e s , T h e ir C h a ra c te r and H i s t o r i c a l D ev elo p m en t. Hew Y ork: The M a cm illan Com p a n y , 1895. 254 p p . ( T r a n s la te d by Edward D. P e r r y .) R e is n e r, Edw ard, N a tio n a lis m an d E d u c a tio n . New Y ork: The M acm illan Company, 1 9 2 9 . 575 p p . R o b in so n , D a n ie l S . , I l l u s t r a t i o n s o f th e M ethods o f R eason in g . New Y ork: D. A p p leto n C e n tu ry Company, 1927. 346 p p . R o sen b erg , A rth u r, A H is to r y o f th e Qermeui R e p u b lic . London: M ethuen and Company, L t d . , 1 9 3 6 . 350 pp* ( T r a n s la te d by I a n F . D. M orrow and L . M a rie .) Rugg, H a ro ld , E d u c a tio n and S o c ie ty . New Y ork: The D ryden P r e s s , 1942. 428 p p . S e e le y , s i r Jo h n R o b e rt, L if e and Tim es o f S t e i n , o r Germany an d P r u s s i a i n t h e N ap o le o n ic A ge. 2 V o l s . ; B o sto n : R o b e rts , 1879. S m ith , W illia m , P o p u la r W orks o f Johann G o tt l i e b F i c h t e . London: T ru b n e r and Company, 1 8 7 3 . 564 p p . '^ T r a n s l a t e d by th e a u t h o r .) T a lb o t, E lle n B l i s s , The F undam ental P r i n c i p l e o f F i c h t e 1 s P h ilo s o p h y . New Y ork: The M acm illan Company, 1 9 46. 140 p p . T a y lo r, A lan Jo h n P e r c i v a l , The C ourse o f German H i s t o r y . New Y ork: Coward McMann, I n c . , 1946 . 230 p p . Thompson, Anna B o y n to n , The U n ity o f F ic h te * s D o c trin e o f K now ledge. B o sto n : G inn and Company, 189*51 2 l5 p p . T oynbee, A rn o ld J . , A S tu d y o f H i s t o r y . 3 V o ls .; New Y ork: London: O xford U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1 9 4 7 . T r e its c h k e , H e n rie h G o tth a rd v o n , H is to r y o f Germany i n th e N in e te e n th C e n tu ry . 7 V o l s .; New Y ork: M c B rid e ,T fa s t and Company, 1 9 l5 . ( T r a n s la te d by Eden and C edar P a u l.) T u r n b u ll, G eorge H en ry , The E d u c a tio n a l T h eo ry o f J . U. F i c h t e . L iv e r p o o l: U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , L t d . , 1926. 196 pp* V e it , V a le n tin e , The German P e o p le . New Y ork: A lfre d K nopf, 1946. 730 p p . 325 V e rm e il, Edward L . , A llem agne e s s a i e l e x p l i c a t i o n . P a r i s : G u illa u n e e t c i e , 19457 458 p p . W in d elb an d , W ilh elm , A H is to r y o f P h ilo s o p h y . New Y ork: The M acm illan Company, L t d ., 1 9 26. 726 p p . ( T r a n s la te d by Jam es H. T u f t s .) B. PERIODICAL ARTICLES K unz, F . L . , " E d i t o r i a l , " M ain C u rre n ts in M odern T h o u g h t, 6 :9 - 1 0 , S p rin g , 1 9 4 8 . ~ Woods, E l i z a b e t h , " E d u c a tio n L i f t s I t s S i g h t s , " G uidance i n E le m e n ta ry S c h o o ls « Los A n g eles S ch o o l P u b lic a tio n No. 3 9 8 , 1 9 44. C. PUBLICATIONS OF LEARNED ORGANIZATIONS Dewey, Jo h n , " E th ic a l P r i n c i p l e s U n d e rly in g E d u c a tio n ," The T h ird Y earbook an d P u b lic a tio n s o f th e N a tio n a l H e rb a rt S o c i e t y . P a r t 1 . C h icag o : U n iv e r s ity o f C hicago P r e s s , 1908. P p . 7 -3 4 . , " I n t e r e s t in R e la tio n t o T ra in in g o f th e W i l l ," Second S u p p le m e n t, F i r s t Y earbook o f th e N a tio n a l H e rb a rt S o c ie ty . C h icag o ! U h iv e r s lty o f C hicago P r e s s , 19087''^Pp'.—5 ^3 8 . De G am o , C h a r le s , " S o c ia l A sp e c ts o f M oral E d u c a tio n ," T h ir d Y earbook o f th e N a tio n a l H e r b a r t S o c ie ty , P a r t I I . C h icag o ! U n i v e r s i t y D f C h icag o !P re ss, 1908. P p . 3 5 -5 7 . D. DICTIONARIES R unes, D a g o b e rt D ., e d i t o r , D ic tio n a r y o f P h ilo s o p h y . New Y ork: The P h ilo s o p h ic a l L i b r a r y , 1942! 343 p p . E . ENCYCLOPEDIA ARTICLES M onroe, P a u l , e d i t o r , E n c y c lo p e d ia o f E d u c a tio n a l R e s e a rc h . New Y ork: The M acm illan Company, 1 9 1 1 -1 9 1 3 . 5 V o ls . 326 F . REPORTS C o u s in , V i c t o r , "R e p o rt on th e S ta te o f P u b lic I n s t r u c t i o n i n P r u s s i a , " R e p o rts on E uropean E d u c a tio n , e d i t e d by- E d g ar K n ig h t • Hew Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, 1930* P p . 1 1 5 -2 3 8 . ( T r a n s la te d by S a ra h A u s tin .; Mann, H o ra c e , "A nnual R e p o rt o f th e S e c r e t a r y o f th e B oard o f E d u c a tio n , M a s s a c h u s e tts f o r th e Y ears 1 8 3 9 -1 8 4 4 ," L if e and Works o f H orace M ann. V o l. I I I . B o sto n : Lee and S h ep ard P u b lis h in g Company, 1890. S tow e, C a lv in , "R e p o rt on E le m e n ta ry P u b lic I n s t r u c t i o n i n G erm any," The .American J o u r n a l o f E d u c a tio n . H a r tf o r d : H enry B a rn a rd , 1 8 7 1 . P p . 7 6 7 -8 1 2 . G. UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS B e l l , Raymond 0 . , "The E d u c a tio n a l P h ilo s o p h y o f Jam es M a d iso n ." U n p u b lish e d M a s te rf s t h e s i s , The U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e le s, 1 9 3 5 . 75 p p . E n g e lb r e c h t, H elm uth C ., "Jo h an n G o ttli e b F i c h t e ." Unpub l i s h e d D o c to r’ s d i s s e r t a t i o n , T e a c h e rs C o lle g e , C olum bia U n iv e r s ity , 1938. 221 p p . Goy, H e n ri, "La p o l i t i q u e s c h l a i r e d e la n o u v e lle I t a l i e . " U n p u b lish e d D o c to r’ s d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n iv e r s ity o f P a r i s , P a r i s , 1931. 161 p p . M aupin, M ary M a u rin e , "The E d u c a tio n a l T h e o rie s o f B enjam in F r a n k l i n ." U n p u b lish e d M a s te r ’ s t h e s i s , The U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e le s, 1 9 3 3 . 91 p p . N u ll, V oid B o d k in , "Resume and R e c a p itu la tio n — A S tu d y o f N a tio n a lis m and E d u c a tio n ." U n p u b lish e d M a s te r’ s t h e s i s , The U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , Los Angeles*, 1 9 3 2 . 182 p p . S a r a f i n , K evork A v e d is, " H is to ry o f E d u c a tio n in A rm en ia ." U n p u b lish e d D o c to r’ s d i s s e r t a t i o n , The U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e le s, 1929. 348 p p . S p a u ld in g , D avid M e rric k , "The D evelopm ent o f a N a tio n a l P ro g ram o f E d u c a tio n i n M e x ic o ." u n p u b lis h e d M a s te r ’s t h e s i s , The U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e le s, 1928. 72 p p . 537 W egener, F ra n k C ., **The P h ilo s o p h ic a l B e l i e f s o f L e a d e rs i n A m erican E d u c a tio n ." U n p u b lish e d D o c to r1s d i s s e r t a t i o n , The U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e le s, 1940. 388 p p . H. NEWSPAPERS New York T im e s, J a n u a ry 7 , 1948. tfafoeneHy of Southern California Ukm&

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Creator Schmuller, Allen Mark (author)

Core Title The role of education in the rehabilitation of the Prussian Empire

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, sociology of,history, European,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

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Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-410757

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Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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