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An analysis of critical current issues and problems of higher education in Iran

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An analysis of critical current issues and problems of higher education in Iran

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Content AN ANALYSIS OF CRITICAL CURRENT ISSUES AND PROBLEMS OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN IRAN by Ezatolah Naderi A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Education) June 1977 UMI Number: DP24228 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Dissertation Rubi shirtg UMI DP24228 Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA T H E G R A D U A T E S C H O O L U N IV E R S IT Y PA R K LO S A N G E L E S , C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by ....E z a to ia h N a d e r i .............................................. under the direction of h.A-S.. Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by a ll its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Graduate School, in partial fu lfillm e n t of requirements of the degree of D O C T O R O F P H IL O S O P H Y Dean Date. .. DISSERTATION COM M ITTEE PVkIX £ 4 N I3S m s FOREWORD The essence of higher education is the search for truth and its relation to all of life: a search conducted through the study of the experience and achievement of man-- especially the best he has achieved--and through the "imaginative consideration" of the implications of that achievement for the present and the future. This interaction among students3 teachers3 and the records of manTs experience goes on in an atmosphere charac terized in some degree by freedom3 adventure 3 imagination3 inquiry 3 and Socratic humility. This process is the idea of the university in action. (Pullias, 1965, p. 28) I ACKNOWLEDGMENTS A particularly grateful acknowledgment is extended j i I jto Dr. Earl V. Pullias. His inspiration, guidance, and lim- I t itless support throughout the writing of this dissertation ! i were essential to its success. j ; ■ j i A grateful word of thanks is extended to both Dr. iFrank H. Fox and Dr. John Gerletti, who gave so generously i !of their time during a particularly busy period in order i fhat this study might be completed. , Special words of gratitude are extended to Dr. I M. Mashayekhi, the president of Teacher Education Universityl | i iin Tehran, Iran, for invaluable assistance and cooperation i in performing the research. The advice and guidance of Dr. Baheri, Deputy of the Imperial Court Minister, were instrumental in the successful i jlaunching of the research project, and the writer is most j I ! appreciative. j Finally, a word of deep appreciation and humble thanks to my dear wife and daughter; also to my lovely parents for their unusual tolerance and spiritual support throughout the long period of my doctoral studies. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS FOREWORD 11 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ill LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS LIST OF TABLES viil' Chapter I. INTRODUCTION 1 Background of the Problem Some Geographical Features and Cultural Patterns of Iran Statement of the Problem Purposes of the Study Questions to be Answered Procedure Importance of the Study Delimitations of the Study Limitations of the Study Assumptions Definitions of Terms Organization of the Study Secularization of Higher Education The Impact of Science and Graduate Schools on American Higher Education Management and Higher Education The Impact of Community College Movement on American Higher Education: Mass Education II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 19; III. PROCEDURE 58 iv IV. FINDINGS................................... V. ANALYSIS OF THE FINDINGS .................. j Educational Objectives Instructional Programs Faculty' and Staff Student Personnel : Administration I Proposed Changes | VI. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . Summary Conclusions Recommendations REFERENCES ........................ .............. APPENDIXES i I A. Supportive Letters ......................... i B. Cover Letter ............................... I j C. Questionnaire............................... LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Map of Iran .......... A Social Structure That A More Equitable Social Favors the Elite Structure . . . LIST OF TABLES 1. Distribution of Questionnaire . . ............... 2. Age Distribution of Respondents ................ 3. Distribution of Respondents According to Sex. . . 4. Distribution of Highest Educational Degrees Held by Respondents.................... . . . . 5. Distribution of Replies Concerning the Major Educational Objectives of Higher Education in Iran ....................................... 6. Respondents' Opinions of the Uniform College Entrance Examination.......................... 7. Respondents' Reasons for Unsatisfactory Opinion of the Uniform College Entrance Examination . . 8. Respondents' Beliefs Concerning Special Problems Connected With Evening Sessions. . . . 9. Respondents' Opinions Regarding Hiring Foreign Teachers............................... 10. Respondents' Opinions Regarding Adequacy of Salary Relative to the Cost of Living ........ 11. Major Reasons Given for Belief That Salaries Are Inadequate for Meeting the Cost of Living . 12. Respondents' Quantitative Evaluation of Selected Administrative Areas ................ 13. Respondents' Evaluation of Selected Qualities of Today's Students ...................... . . Il4. Respondents' Opinions on College Curricula Change......................................... 74 15. Respondents' Recommendations for Changing j College Curricula 74 16. Respondents' Opinions on Value of Having Private Institutions........................... 75 17. Respondents' Negative Remarks Concerning Private Institutions........................... 76 18. Respondents' Selection of Proper Proportion of General to Specialized Education .......... 77 '19. Respondents' Selection of Proper Proportion j of Required Courses to Electives.......... 77 j |20. Respondents' Opinions Concerning Change in ; Administrative Systems......................... 78 : 2l. Respondents' Recommendations for Changing Administrative Systems........................ 79 i 22. Respondents' Opinions Regarding Whether Course Offerings of the Institutions Are Keeping Up With Modern Developments.................. 80 23. Respondents' Opinions Concerning Suggested Proposals............................ 81 24. Major Issues and Problems in Higher Education in Iran at the Present Time as Identified by Respondents................................. 82 25. Respondents' Recommendations for Solution to ! the Problems of Higher Education in Iran. . . . 83j viii \ CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Background of the Problem Iran has a distinguished history of nourishing institutions of higher education which extends back into ’ antiquity. It has a tradition of higher education that was ancient when the great universities of Europe were being established. ^Long before Europe could boast Salerno or Bologna in Italy, Montpellier or Paris in France, or Oxford f; in England, Jondi Shapur University flourished in what is today the province of KhuzistanlJ During the time of the Sassanid kings (226-650 A.D.), this university was one of the largest and best equipped institutions of higher education in the world and was widely known for its contributions to medicine, pharmacy, and philosophy. The university attracted men of learning from many nationalities; its faculty included professors of Greek i . . . . . i and Syrian as well as Persian origin (Naja$aabadi, 1966) . Although Jondi Shapur was spared destruction at the time of the Islamic invasion in the seventh century, it 1 'nonetheless began to decline in importance within a few i (years. Many of its scholars, who had done significant research in several fields, emigrated to other parts of the : ^Islamic world and beyond. As a result, a decline in the quality of the university's scientific work began that would eventually lead to a cessation of its function as a i major center of learning. Jondi Shapur's influence as an ; I institution, however, should not be underestimated; it made ’ significant contributions, in both science and philosophy, to the nascent Islamic culture. Early Islamic Period Originally, Islam did not discourage scholarship and1 investigation. The early caliphs, on the contrary, dis played an avid interest in learning and surrounded them- ♦ selves with learned men. As a result of the encouragement given by the caliphs to the study of science and ^philosophy, ! Islam witnessed a period of intense intellectual activity and scientific inquiry. During this period of lively_^cholarship, a new type of institution, al-madrasah in Arabic, characterstically ^Islamic in structure, was developed. Significant madrasahs ! were established in the mid-eleventh century in Isfahan ! and Nishabur by Nizam al-Mulk, a famous minister under the Seljuk Turks (Dodge, 1962). Despite their excellence, the madrasahs contained | elements that contributed to an eventual stagnation of j , I ^scholarship. Throughout the educational system the emphasis) was on imitation and perpetuation rather than on innovation. The teaching methods, for example, allowed for little ere- I ativity; the professor's lecture was typically repeated by a teaching assistant while the students copied everything verbatim. The teaching assistant frequently took great pains in helping the students correct their notes, after which the students memorized them--a practice still followed all too often. As a result of qualities inherent in the ■ S i s t m « . madrasah system, curiosity was dulled, the spirit of inquiry was stifled, tradition became increasingly important, and ' intellectual vigor declined. j i : Following the Mongol invasion in the thirteenth I U,, , O - * I /" - , « f qr _ v/4 f U" century, Iran underwent a period of cultural decline during j which its institutions of higher learning either ceased to exist or became ineffectual. This period of cultural stag nation lasted until the reunification of Iran under the Safavid kings in 1500 A.D. Even after reunification, however, progess in educa-.’ tion was minimal; under the Safavids, the educational i emphasis was predominately religious and great efforts were • made to propagate a particular branch of Islam. These t efforts influenced education in at least two ways: First, religious education was emphasized to the detriment of the , sciences and, second, this emphasis discouraged free specu lation and inquiry. The chief aim of education was to train religious leaders and jurists (Borhanmanesh, 1965, pp. 28- 29). Tradition governed almost every aspect of scholarship and intellectual activities were greatly limited. The Nineteenth Century The condition of higher learning during the latter part of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth centuries left a great deal to be desired. The educational and intellectual legacy left by the Safavids was appalling. By the time the Qajar dynasty was established in 1780, "all the vigor had gone out of educational values and processes. After centuries of cultural, social, political, and economic decline, education had come to be the monopoly of narrow minded and parasitical clergy" (Banani, 1961, p. 86). Yet few attempts were made to improve the intellec tual climate in Iran under the Qajars; it seems that they were not particularly inclined toward scholarly pursuits. One of the few things they did, however, was to establish 4' Dar-ul-Fonun, a polytechnic college designed to provide training at the secondary level as well as the rudiments of higher education. Dar-ul-Fonun, consisting of seven Austrian profes sors and several European-trained assistants and interpret ers, was inaugurated in 1851. It catered to the Iranian aristocracy, from whose membership it attracted most of its 150 students. The fields of study included infantry, cav alry, artillery, engineering, medicine, surgery, pharmacy, and mining (Borhanmanesh, 1965, p. 23). The college was the first established along western lines and, as such, was a landmark in Iranian education. The Early Twentieth Century The political situation in Iran in the beginning of the twentieth century was one of instability and internal strife. This prevented governmental officials from taking positive steps toward solving the educational problem. The first few years of the twentieth century thus witnessed only a slight increase in the number of institutions of higher education in Iran. The situation began to improve in the early 1920s when Reza Shah the Great consolidated his power and seized control of the government. Among the many problems he faced upon his ascension to the throne was the pressing need to develop a viable educational system encompassing all levels, primary through tertiary. He set about building a modern educational system— by 1925 the list of institutions of higher education included schools of music, medicine, den tistry, law, agriculture, commerce, political science, fine arts, industrial technology, and military science--and in so doing laid the foundation for further developments in education. Reza Shah transformed the normal school at the sec ondary level, established in 1918, into a teacher's college, a three-year institution consisting of faculties of science and letters and granting degrees in five divisions: litera ture and philosophy, history and geography, mathematics, physics and chemistry, and biology (Sadiq, 1940, p. 72). Later, in 1934, the teacher's college was incorporated into the University of Tehran. In 1941, Reza Shah abdicated in favor of his son— the present Shah--and Great Britain and the Soviet Union occupied Iran. It was not until the occupation ended in 1946 that Iran could' once again turn serious attention to its educational problems. 6 1946 to the Present The major developments in Iranian higher education have taken place since 1946. Since then, five provincial ^universities had been established along with a number of other institutions and the growth in both enrollment and facilities has been phenomenal. The first privately financed university in Iran— the National University of Iran— was inaugurated in 1961 under a policy-making board of trustees. Several colleges and universities have been founded in the past 20 years. These institutions, both public and private, now receive governmental support and are serving an increasing number of students. Some Geographical Features and Cultural Patterns of Iran For full understanding of existing problems, any study of the methods for improving an organization requires an understanding of the culture in which the organization operates. For this reason, in the following section a brief description of geographical features and some of the cul tural patterns of Iran are presented. The Plateau Iran has an area of 628,000 square miles. It lies 7 between 25° and 40° north latitude, and between 40° and 64° east longitude. It is bounded on the north by the Caspian Sea and the Soviet Union, on the northwest by Turkey, on the west by Iraq, on the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, and on the east by Pakistan and Afghanistan (see Figure 1). The greater part of the country is a vast table land, averaging from 3,000 to 5,000 feet above sea level, surrounded on all sides except on the east by mountains, the highest of which is Damavand, 18,600 feet high at its peak. Climate Three distinct climatic conditions are identified in Iran: 1. Subtropical. The annual rainfall in the Caspian Sea area is from 4 0 to 6 0 inches; the average temperature ranges from 40° Fahrenheit in winter to 95° Fahrenheit in summer. 2. Continental. In the central plateau, with an annual rainfall ranging between 10 and .20 inches, the aver age temperature varies from 68° in winter to 108° Fahrenheit in summer. 3. Tropical. In the province of Khuzistan and the 8' \ ' • • Tabriz^ _ . / f c z n i e i ^ . p . ' 1 I J a f f a ! ) \ ( ! ! j I j A Y v S V u ' i Y A j * " » F i f f f ' ' ' f / h A i i i . \ \ ( | / i **« • \ \ \ V \ M/M u R O/ A £ 1 . *6 . ^ B a n d a r Pahktv! '~y))))) ries(]CJs± V yV iIA ’ i-.ar — < - X' "- G h a z v f n Kuraj J f a m a J a n Sabot ^^oe«AN < v * ^ / *> Kerir.anshnh >T£H£RAN Q i * m f t a v i r D e s e r t K a s h a n K H O A A S A N S h u s h V - r-7 ua/pza/e^a/t . * AnJt/neshk 'iDizfat * Isfahan ~ L ^ tiAXHTV>at Mrs i t . HasjiJ-i-SuiaimeUt • K H ' / I f u Z%i_£^T A M ? ( B a n d a r S h a a a r Kherra/nsAalrr'LAbaJan ^ S ^ S ^ ,‘M a s if‘ t/‘ farsepcffs r <<X L. Desert Zaheefan \ X4- S h i r a z S T A N franshahr M A n m j & M f££RS/A) Figure 1. Map of Iran A F O H A N I S T A N coastal regions of the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, the rainfall varies between 10 and 12 inches, and the tem perature from 33° to 130° Fahrenheit. The Population The national census taken the Department of Sta tistics shows a total population in 1970 of 31,627,112, an average of 5 3 inhabitants per square mile. Approximately 15 percent of them belong to partly nomadic tribes in the west, south, and southeast. About 70 percent of the popula tion of Iran is engaged in agricultural and related activi ties and most of these people live in small villages. Iranians, as the name implies, are Aryans who in the course of centuries have mixed with other people— the / Greeks, Turks, Mongols, Arabs, and Afghans who have all invaded the country at one time or another. Each group has settled on the land, and each has been assimilated to some extent. The native and national language is Persian and it is understood by all. People living in the province of Azarbaidjan speak the Turkish language, but read and write Persian. Tribes living in the western province use the Kurdi and Lurei dialect, but the written language is Persian (Ekrami, 1951, p: 18). 10 iSome Cultural Traits I , ------------------------------------------------------------- I i I i The family influence.— In Iran the family is one of jthe most significant elements of society. Iranian families jat the present time, especially among Iranian tribes, in Jthe case of the marriage of the daughters, resemble the old I ■Roman families where the father was the head and had all ! j Ipower over the persons under his protection. But such power ! has been reduced to some extent in the case of Iranian fathers. The structure of the Iranian family now stands t between the old Roman family and the present decentralized | • ■American family. i ! Individualism.--In his book, Mission for My Country, 'His Imperial Majesty Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlevi Shahanshah i i of Iran wrote: "As I look back over my country's long and rich history, certain things specially stand out in my mind. 'For example, Persians have always been pronounced indi- j I vidualists" (1961, p. 29)’ ! i v i I ■ Persians are not accustomed to working together and,' because of this, they lack the collaborative and cooperative skills that are so important and necessary to present daily (life! The diversity of opinion and personality is strongly jvalued and practiced. Everyone works for himself, and 'follows his own way! Opinion is less doctrinaire and more individualized. Subjectivity.— Emphasis on the spiritual aspect of life provides the Iranians with a sense of stability and security. For the majority, competition for material wealth is not of primary importance. The spiritual values and the thought processes related to them are the center of the Iranian world. But the characteristics of modernization and the worldwide inflation recently have been changing this aspect of Persian culture (Sam, 1959). Statement of the Problem The general objectives of this study were (1) iden tification of current problems and issues affecting higher education in Iran, and (2) exploration of procedures that Iranian authorities might pursue in their present reform efforts. Purposes of the Study The purposes of this study were (1) to identify the present goals and objectives of higher education in Iran; (2) to identify the current issues and problems affecting higher education in Iran; (3) to determine the significant factors in the development of higher education in the United 12 States, as they relate to the current issues and problems affecting higher education in Iran, by reviewing the lit erature since 1860; and (4) to recommend appropriate changes and solutions based upon the findings, as they relate to the! goals and objectives of higher education in Iran. Questions to be Answered The following questions were to be answered during the course of this study: 1. What are the goals of higher education in Iran? 2. What are the most pressing current issues and problems in higher education in Iran? 3. What are the most significant factors in the development of higher education in a developed country that might be useful to the improvement of higher education in Iran? 4. What steps may be recommended toward possible solutions to existing problems of higher education in Iran? Procedure For purposes of this study, the utilization of both the historical and the survey methods of research were used, and the following steps were taken: 1. A questionnaire for identification of current 13 'problems and issues affecting higher education in Iran was designed. 2. The questionnaire was validated by submitting it to the authorities in the field to whom the writer had access. 3. The questionnaire was distributed to a random sample of university instructors and administrators, in Iran. 4. A search of the literature was made to deter mine the significant factors of development of higher edu cation in the United States, as related to the current prob lems affecting higher education in Iran. 5. The data collected were summarized and pertinent information was organized for formulating improved proce dures for higher education in Iran, based upon the review of literature in the field of higher education, the reac tion of individuals who are involved with these problems, and the experience of the writer. Importance of the Study As Mallinson (1960) has stated, the problems of edu cation can never be isolated from those of society as a whole. And those problems will differ from society to society in space and time (p. 7). 14 Iran and all developing countries are of the great est importance in any evaluation of the purposes and limi tations of education. Developing countries must build their, ;future by careful use of a planned educational system, often1 i starting with modest resources and partially coordinated endeavors. Kandel (19 30) pointed out that in order to be of any value as a contribution to the clarification of thought and to the upbuilding of a comprehensive philosophy of edu cation, such a study must entail the search for the deeper meaning of schools and be more than merely the acquisition of information about educational systems (p. 7) . This study may be of value to those who, in refer ence to systems of higher education, would be facing prob lems of a similar nature as those presented and analyzed in this* study. Delimitations of the Study This study is concerned only with the critical prob lems present in higher education in Iran. The survey employed in this study was confined to four-year colleges and universities in Iran. The literature review and com parative review of problems of higher education in America were limited to approximately the period since 1860. 15 Limitations of the Study The following are some of the limitations for this study: 1. The survey questionnaire was relatively brief, in the hope that its briefness would encourage a greater percentage of returns. 2. Only 134 out of 200 mailed questionnaires (67 percent) were returned to the researcher. Assumptions This study was based on the following assumptions: 1. The future welfare and survival of Iran require that its institutions of higher learning serve its society effectively. 2. Effective higher education helps ensure general socioeconomic progress. 3. The content and analysis of the data are ade quately valid and reliable. 4. The results of this study would be of signifi cant value to individuals and agencies involved in higher education in Iran. Definitions of Terms A number of terms or expressions are used with 16 specific meaning in this study. In the interest of clarity, these terms are defined below. Higher education.— The term "higher education" as used in this study is defined as education that takes place 'after completion of secondary schooling and is conducted by accredited colleges and universities. | Issue.— An issue is a point on which different parties take differing positions, or hold divergent views. i I i Problem.— The term "problem" in this study refers to ! any significant, perplexing, or challenging situation, the 'answer to which requires study and reflection in terms of accumulated data and experience. I I I Organization of the Study This study is divided into six chapters. The first chapter provides an introduction to the problem, points out the significance of the study, describes the delimitations, and discusses briefly the procedure employed. The chapter also includes the assumptions of the study, definitions of ! some of the terms used, and furnishes an overview of the [total organization of the dissertation. I ] Chapter II contains the review of related literature. I 1 I I 17 lit determines significant factors in the development of higher education in the United States that are related to the current problems affecting higher education in Iran. Chapter III reviews the procedure utilized in making the study. It describes the population, method of sampling,' and the instrument used, and defines the process of analyz ing the findings. Chapter IV is a compilation of the findings from personal interviews and replies to the aforementioned ques tionnaire . Chapter V discusses and analyzes the findings pre sented in Chapter IV. Chapter VI presents a summary of the major points of the study. Conclusions, are drawn from the data and analysis presented in Chapters IV and V, and certain recommendations are presented. A list of references and pertinent appendixes com plete the study. 18 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE An educational system abstracts its purposes from the goals (including social, political, and personality objectives) and philosophy of the society in which it func tions. In the American democracy, the educational system consists of myriad means by which the nation strives to promote the ideal of equal freedom, opportunity, and jus tice. The accomplishment of these objectives is attempted through a dynamic and evolutionary process in which the democratic educational system becomes an instrument of social transition. While the purposes of an educational system are developed out of the needs and characteristics of contempo rary society, its institutional forms and changing methods are adapted to the diversity of the individuals whom it serves. Purposes toward which educational systems are • I directed should reveal the respective interests of society in general, of community groups and individuals, of politi cal jurisdictions, and of the internal human components of 19 ithe educational institution itself. The institution is concerned with conserving established values, with reinter preting the old, and with developing adaptations to fit new , jcircumstances and conditions. This involvement of many , interests almost certainly means difference in emphasis or ; jpossibly in the choice of values to work toward.. In the I ! ' ■ following sections of this chapter, some of these interests,! : I differences in emphasis, and the choice of values brought ■ i ■ i about by the evolutionary development of American higher j [education are reviewed. Many of the significant aspects of ; i American higher education might be useful in Iranian higher education. I I Secularization of Higher Education It would be difficult to find a worthwhile book i dealing with the history and development of higher education; j in the United States that does not make some reference to ! % the theme of secularization. There are a number of special references in the general histories on higher education. Selected chapters of such books as The Rise of Universities (Haskins, 1923), The Development and Scope of Higher Educa- ; i , tion in the United States (Hofstadter & Hardy, 1963) , Higher Education in Transition (Brubacker & Rudy, 1976), The Devel-j I t ■opment of Academic Freedom in the United States (Hofstadter & Metzger, 19 55) , The American College and University (Rudolph,/ 1965), The American College (Sanford, 1962), and one of the richest references concerning the process of secularization, |the two-volume American Higher Education: A Documentary History (Hofstadter & Smith, 1961) were used. Some of the forces that produced political democracy and industrial productivity, as well as religious plurality and sectarian rivalry, are discussed more fully in books such as Education in a Free Society (Rippa, 1971), The Revolution in Education (Adler & Mayer, 1958), Education and the Common Good (Phenix, 1961), and Paths of American Thought (Schlesinger & White, 1963). There is a wide scope of literature dealing with . 1 i secularization in books that investigate the historical beginning of individual colleges and universities. These volumes, along with biographical and autobiographical stud- . ;ies of their respective presidents, provide some of the most detailed and intimate references relating to secularization. Three Centuries of Harvard (Morrison, 1946), The University of Wisconsin (1848-1925) (Curti & Corstensen, 1949), Harper1s . University: The Beginnings (Storr, 1966) , Pioneer: A His- , ■ tory of the Johns Hopkins University, 1874-1889 (Hawkins, j 1960), and University Authority and the Student (Otten, : 1970) are among the historical accounts that depict several i types of institutions. i Throughout its history, the various levels of the i I educational system in the United States have stressed i worthy character as a major objective. One author charac terized the grand undertaking in the following lines: ! The highest and noblest purpose of all education, from grades to university, is to teach citizenship , and noble character. A man's character is greater ! than intellectual attainments or social privileges. j A man must be fit to live as well as to think. (McKay, 1967, p. 46). I The literature dealing with character, character j development, character education, and education for charac- : 'ter is voluminous. Most of the general writings and |research studies, however, have been devoted to the early childhood and adolescent years. Only a meager amount of ! i [literature deals with education for character and character : i development in higher education. Perhaps the most compre- ihensive volume on the problem of character is a series of ' i lectures by Ordway Tead (1953), published under the title Character Building and Higher Education. Three books that in one way or another speak of the i _ ; jconc.ern for education for character in higher education are i Goheen's (1969) The Human Nature of the University, Pusey's j (1963) The Age of the Scholar, and Astin's (1968) The Col- | lege Environment. 221 i Many studies dealing with the impact of college on ' ! j jstudent character and values have been published since 1950.! Some of the most notable are by Jacobs (1957), Eddy (1959), ^Jervis and Congdon (1958), Stern (1961), Goldsen, Rosenberg,| I ■ Williams and Suchman (1960) , and Feldman and Newcomb (1969) . • A considerable number of research studies have been j I | , I conducted m the past 25 years that relate to the problem ; of jteligion and education for character in higher education. i These studies have dealt with various aspects of a broad i concern about the continuing place and status of moral and religious training which include character building, and I training in values and ethics. Osmonson (1968) undertook i 1 | the task of discovering and comparing.the aims and objec- I tives of higher education as stated in the inaugural ad dresses of selected American college and university presi dents. He analyzed a total of 40 inaugural addresses : delivered by outstanding presidents of 20 private and 20 | public institutions. The study covered two historical periods, from 1860 to 1916 and from 1917 to 1967. 1 From the search of these inaugural addresses, jOsmonson (1968) found that the major objectives of higher education could be classified and listed under nine major headings. He identified these nine objectives and what is jincluded in each category as follows : | I ! 1. Citizenship: The training and production of j i citizens. 2. Cultural Training: The transmission of the cultural heritage and training for the social ! and cultural environment in which one lives, 1 3. Individual Development: Includes personal ! adjustment, use of leisure time, reasoning power, creativity, and development of the per son's full potential 4. Involvement in Community Service: Includes training for service for the betterment of the 1 race, the nation, and the world t I 5. Knowledge Extension: Includes the transmission and diffusion of information, the training of 1 intellect and scholarship | I I 6. Leadership Training: The training and prepara- ; tion of leaders in various realms 7. Moral and Religious Training: Includes charac ter building, training in values and ethics 8. Research: The search for truth, investigation, , i i and extension of the frontiers of knowledge I 9. Spirit of Place: Includes the "character of thet | | ; university," "university atmosphere," or "uni- ■ versity spirit" (p. 127). j ■ Osmonson's (1968) conclusions indicate that in j I ; recent years there has been slightly less frequent emphasis j on moral training, which may explain some of today's social i ! problems. In reference to California public junior colleges, ; Johnson (1952) listed 12 goals for general education. Four * I of these goals relate to the subject of religion and educa- . . tion for character, namely: 1. Developing a set of sound moral and spiritual values by which the student guides his life ; j ! 2. Using methods of critical thinking for the solu tion of problems and for discriminating among i ! values 3. Developing a balanced personal and social adjustment 4. Taking part in some form of satisfying creative activity and in appreciating the creative activ- i ities of others (pp. 21-22). j i i ; The College Influence on Student Character (Eddy, 1959) was concerned primarily with the realization of a 25 'growing need to help future generations of college-trained i I I men and women develop traits of character equal to their j ! prospective leadership responsibilities. The study identi- ; 'fied six elements as being particularly important to the j I i development of excellence in both intellect and character: ; (1) the level of expectancy, (2) the concept of teaching, ■ 1 I (3) the organization of the curriculum, (4) the degree of , i ! i student responsibility, (5) the opportunity for religious ■ understanding and practice, and (6) the effect of environ- i 1 i I ment (p. 177) . ■ Brubacker and Rudy (1976) stated that in developing j its unique framework and structure, the American university i "has assimilated, rather than destroyed, the pre-existing I ! f college" (p. 43). The real success of the new order empha- ' i sizing freedom in graduate research and teaching is evident ( > : in figures used by Hofstadter and Hardy (1963) which indicate I that in 1871 there were 198 graduate students in America, I in 1890 there were 2,382, and by 1910 the number had jumped to 9,370 (p. 64). The most obvious characteristic of the tew university and its greatest change was its secular inature, which freed it to pursue research and teaching. 1 i From 1860 to the present time, the literature indi- j i cates a gradual swing toward secular control of higher j 'education in the United States. Pattillo and Mackenzie j 1 i (1965) echoed the findings of other writers when they said j that "the academic world today is a secular world" (p. 17) . » i ,Yet it has been concluded that colleges and universities j I cannot escape a responsibility for character education. The ; l i most appropriate image for an institution, and its best con-! : i tribution to character, is a direct product of a properly i i .balanced emphasis on learning and being. ; i The Impact of Science and Graduate Schools : on American Higher Education ! Although American institutions of scientific in- t struction were undergraduate rather than graduate schools i originally, they were founded relatively early. They were i i ! being established during the same period that the sciences ! were establishing themselves in German universities. There-- ! fore the two strands that produced the American graduate ; I school actually were formed about the same time. One of them was foreign, one was domestic, but both were scientific . . . This was a generation which could appreciate not only what was going on in Europe, in the professional chambers, laboratories, observatories, medical schools, hospitals and research institutes of Germany, France, | and England, but also of Italy, Switzerland, the Netherlands, and Sweden. Many American scientists, physicians, and technical experts had gone across the j ocean and later tried to practice what they were \ taught in Europe. They all missed in America the i ; research facilities with which they had become familiar in Europe; not only the laboratories, but also the spe cialized scientific journals. (Struck, 1948, p. 342) The growing need for educating a decisive section of the i ■American public to realize the importance of science became evident, and coincided with the growing German influence.in science. Both of these facts were evident in the growing ! Isense of professionalism among American scientists. How ever, there was something symbolic in both facts in view of I . .. what was to develop in the future. Both inaugurated a tra dition that was slow in developing but, when science had become sufficiently professional, would become increasingly important to American higher education. ■ That was the crucial issue, the determining force: the rise of professionalism in science. It was not just in the United States either; it was a worldwide phenomenon. In the early stages of science, gifted amateurs could lead iin its foundation, but with the second wave of researchers I came the beginning of professionalism. Kaplan (1965) ^described this phenomenon: The growth of professionalism was one of the remark able social changes of the nineteenth century. . . . As the century progressed, the casual, sometimes non existent, training requirements and the individualis tic conditions of entry and practice gave place to carefully prescribed training together with rational ized conditions of entry and defined norms of conduct. (p. 102) 28 ! In 1871 Gilman had forecast a university for grad uate study only,, .to which young men would resort for the highest sort of scholastic training, and to which they i 1 :should be refused admission unless they had previously been ; i well-trained for a considerable period in the institutions of the next lower or collegiate grade. At that time he had : thought that the country needed at least one strictly grad uate university, and the plan for such an institution seems .to have been strong in his mind in January 1875. By the i time of his inauguration as president of Johns Hopkins Uni- ; 'versity, however, his thinking involved a more complex uni versity. Much of his importance and most of his success i came because his aims were pluralistic and his method prag- ; matic (Hawkins, 1960, pp. 65-66). This fact is important, for although the man was . influential, he could not have created the school alone. ' I I Even if he had, it would not have succeeded. There had to i be a group ready to profit from such an institution, both faculty and students. Also, there had to be some kind of demand for the product of the graduate school somewhere. Years later, Daniel Coit Gilman (1906/1969) wrote: i i So we did not undertake to establish a German univer- j sity, nor an English university, but an American I university, based upon and applied to the existing | j institutions of this country. Not only did we have | | no model to be followed, we did not even draw up a j | scheme or programme for the government of ourselves, ! our associates and successors. For a long time our proceedings were "tentative," and this term was used I so often that it became a by-word for merriment. j j Such considerations carried with them this corollary. I Every head of a department was allowed the utmost 1 freedom in its development. (p. 49) j ; i pf course, when he said that there was- no model, he meant no I i single model. Actually there were several types, and he j made an eclectic choice among them. As Metzger (1961) ' stated: j i j America took from German sources only that which fitted 1 her needs, only that which was in harmony with her his- j tory. In a certain sense, the German academic influ- . ,i ence, powerful as it was, reinforced rather than miti- j ated native American tendencies toward change. (p. 93) ; j Certainly Johns Hopkins University domesticated the j ideal of research in this country. It is clear enough that 'in the 18 70s research played no important role in higher j ieducation in the United States. Indeed, at that time the ■ i ^ 1 idea of a formal academic career was still in its infancy. ; And the conflict between so-called classical and scientific .education was henceforth to be without significance for the ! graduate student. Even after the founding of Johns Hopkins ;in 1876, it was several years before the influence of the , i scientific approach became readily apparent in the American | :academic world at large. After all, Johns Hopkins could not !have been such an instantaneous success unless there had I been a real need for a graduate school. That need was felt i in two ways. First, there was an increasing number of stu- dents in higher education in America; and consequently there ! : was a demand for teachers for these students. American science found its natural habitat in the I graduate school. One reason for the rapid acceptance of the graduate institution is that it fits the needs of science soj ideally. In the first place, the most obvious characteris- > tic of a graduate school is that it fosters research; and science not only needs research, it is_ research. A second characteristic of both science and higher education was the , growing sense of professionalism in both. In fact, it was i j 'a part of the sense of need for a new type of university. Johns Hopkins served a double purpose: it provided ;the original pattern, and it decentralized the sciences by 1 i . > spreading its influence to other institutions. The growth iof the sciences— both natural and social— under the impetus of the graduate school and the recapitulation of Johns Hopkins1 example in other universities have really only I served to confirm the pattern set in Baltimore in the eighth and ninth decades of the nineteenth century. The institu- i 'tion was established; the pattern was set; and it has | continued to the present day— both as the graduate school ■ ! | and the home of the sciences (Hawkins, 1960). ; I Management and Higher Education I It is noteworthy that in the structure of educa tional organizations, government by consensus is essential. Hungate (196 4) elaborated on the importance of consensus of ! trustees, administration, and faculty (p. 72). Dodds (1962) mentioned consensus in relations with the faculty (pp. 16- 17). Ruml and Morrison (1959) gave reinforcement to the concept (p. 76). Corson (1975) showed how the specializa tion and independence of the faculty make this problem dif ficult, but pointed out that gaining and keeping consensus is essential to good college administration (pp. 19-20). Millett (196 2) included students and alumni among those from1 [ whom consensus must be obtained for effective academic ad- t ministration (p. 2 57). In the operation of an educational institution, it is of prime importance to provide a sound administrative basis or the best of leadership will fail, according to Duryea (1962, p. 42). In order to have a sound administra- t ,tion foundation, it is essential to develop descriptive I principles for operations and procedures. According to j i Bauer (1955), this should be one of the most significant | ^contributions to the administration of higher education. j i ' jCertain general principles are essential to the administra- ; I ,tion of educational institutions, according to Hungate ! 1 j ( 1 9 5 4 ) : j ' ! 1. Distribution of the benefit of higher education 2. Distribution of the cost burden i 3. Determination of the quality of educational ! opportunity j i 4. Determination of the availability of educational : opportunity 5. Exercise of financial prudence: economy, control of funds, flow of capital 6. Coordination of functions and activities. (p. 16) Burns (1962) pointed out that administration must be i academically oriented; when the various administrative func tions are carried out efficiently, the academic program is « ' f enhanced (p. x). According to B^uer (1955) , this is often overlooked, and many administrators fail to recognize that ; educational management has its own characteristics, as do j i areas of academic specialization (p. 4). Walton (1959) pointed out that the requirements of administration in all organizations, including schools, demand the emergence of qualified management personnel (p. 145). This is increas ingly true because of the growth and complexity of educa tional institutions. The commonality of managerial functions has been j 33 jstated as follows: j | Managers perforin the same functions regardless of their ; : place in the organization structure or the type of enterprise in which they are engaged. Acting in their managerial capacity, presidents, department heads, j foremen, supervisors, college deans, bishops, and heads j of governmental agencies all do the same thing. As managers, they are all engaged in getting things done with and through people. ... To the extent that their tasks are managerial rather than technical, and with | the proper motivation, executives may employ their i skill as well in one occupation as another. (Koontz & O'Donnell, 1964b, p. 45) This is a modern conception. The development of management in higher education reveals that division of labor was preceded by division of person, e.g., the president. The situation has been described thus: One hundred years ago the typical college or university president might discharge successfully the functions of chief administrative officer; coordinate the academic program, manage all business affairs; direct the entire public relation effort; and serve as guide, counselor, and friend to the institution's students, all of whom he knew by name. In addition, he ordinarily carried ; a heavy teaching load, presided at examinations and j academic functions, preached in one of the local churches on Sunday, and spoke on every conceivable public occasion. (Bauer, 1955, p. 10) The situation has been changed, and colleges now employ approximately one administrative officer for every A. six persons in instructional work. Even though there is an advancement of the theories of commonality and management, there is some belief that the unique characteristics of in- j stitutions of higher education as institutions dedicated to | 34! jfreedom of teaching and learning impose on their managements ! t pertain requirements that are markedly unlike those of other! organized forms of human endeavor. The dominant institu tional purpose is service, not profit. It deals more with j ! the intangible aspects of the spirit and intellect than with' the tangible aspects of places and things (Hungate, 1964, ; pp. 6 3-64). | The purposes, abilities, and attitudes of those who ; perform the daily management of an educational institution generally determine the level of its advancement (Hungate, 1964, p. 59). Burns ^1952) held that the prime purpose of administration is to serve the academic program. It must be academically oriented, and it is to be expected that ; : i administrative functions efficiently performed will enhance ; the various aspects of the academic program (p. vii). . The changing role of presidential leader^ehi-p in many .colleges has been attributed to the fragmentation of faculty and curriculum through specialization and departmentaliza tion at a time when the responsibilities of the president increased too rapidly to be manageable (Ruml & Morrison, 1959, p. 50). The solution advanced for this problem is the i adoption of an organization position which would command ; I support from faculty, administration, and trustees when conflict involving prerogatives and basic interests occurs. 1 } ! To succeed in times of crisis, all organizational arrange- 1 ments must be supported by dedication to the task and com- 1 mitment to acceptance of resourceful and energetic leader- ! i 1 'ship (Ruml & Morrison, 1959, p. 67). Management in higher education has these minimum principles, according to Hungate (1964, pp. 72-74): (1) in-j I stitutional government by consensus; (2) board responsibil- i ity for things done under its delegated authority; (3) long term view of objectives and plans; (4) effective use of per sonnel and facilities for the conduct of institutional programs; (5) personnel policies and practices suited to provide satisfaction in accomplishment, motivation for effi- ! ciency, and growth opportunities, both personal and profes- - sional; and (6) evaluation of objectives, plans, policies, programs, operations, and resources as a basis for improve- 1 ment. The implementation of these and related principles or theories is a challenge to management in higher education, as the superstructure of good management is developed on identifiable foundations. j Koontz and O’Donnell (1964b) analyzed managerial functions in their book, Principles of Management. This definitive study treats the functions of management jaccording to five aspects--"planning, organizing, staffing, i I I jdirecting, and controlling. In this section only those par ticular aspects of the managerial functions that are related to higher education are reviewed. i I Planning I A first step in planning is to bring together all objectives of the enterprise in order that they may serve as i jcohesive organizational goals, whether short- or long-term. I planning has come to be recognized as essential to survival i of educational institutions in the complex modern world. If i ! the efforts of these institutions are to have direction and j |certainty, their performance and progress must be measur- i able. The alternative is likely to be hasty and ill- informed decisions which result in waste and insecurity (Donovan, 1964, p. 174) . In his assessment of the applicability of business management principles to universities, Glaze (1962) wrote concerning the importance of planning: j i It has as its first principle the recognition of the j problem. Planning must be coupled with control; plans ! must be constantly evaluated and kept in proper bal ance. For maximum effectiveness of personnel, parti cipation in planning is necessary at all levels of the organization. Policies of planning must be passed from the highest level of authority successively to each other level. (pp* 52-53) i Hungate (1964) identified four major elements of I long-range planning: (1) guidelines in keeping with the j institution's objectives, philosophy, and criteria; (2) pro-; jgrams as projected; (3) plans in terms of resources in per- I i sonnel and facilities; and (4) plans for finance (p. 125). j I Foresighted planning is made more difficult and more! i imperative due to the rapid social, political, technologi- ; i pal, and economical changes that are the rule today. Dodds ! : I (1962) identified several factors that tend to make academic1 planning appear aimless when it is not. Its production Schedules do not lend themselves to quantitative terms, since its aspirations are more philosophical than concrete. Management decisions, which in business might be made by the I president and the board of directors, must in colleges j i involve the faculty as equal partners. Democratic rather than autocratic procedures must be the general rule here, with a reasonable concurrence in support of administrative leadership. The atmosphere of individualism in a college calls for the reconciliation of divergent views, rather than the reservation of planning decisions to top management (pp. 163-164). Organizing j I I After plans have been established, it is incumbent ! 3 8 * jupon the administration to organize the people involved so : that they may perform their tasks in the most effective man ner. Structure is essential, consistent with the functions , of the enterprise, and to the extent that it facilitates i 1 ' ; attainment of established objectives. Glaze (1962) observed that the abilities of the personnel, rather than the type of organization structure, doubtless account for whatever sue- j cess may be achieved (pp. 90, 186). Hungate (1964) suggested a three-part organization made up of a board of control, a president, and major admin istrative officers for such duties as fund-raising and pro gram of instruction, a business and financial officer to ad-i minister funds, and a personnel officer for various rela tionships with and services to students (pp. 38-39). The organizing aspect of management becomes more 'complicated as universities increase in size and in multi- i plicity of campuses. Kornfeld and O'Hara (1965) noted the :rigidity with which departments and functions are separated,- and the prevailing insularity (pp. 1-2). Another complicat ing factor in university organization is the characteristics that differentiate the administrator here from a manager in industry. Instead of production, he is concerned with ere- , i ativeness and research. This fostering of individualistic [tendencies is conducive to looseness of organization. Glaze; '(1962) has warned that for efficiency of administration increased attention must be given to structure (pp. 54-55). Staffing I i ; i Staffing is literally at the center of the five I I management functions. Planning, organizing, directing, and I controlling are done by and through persons. The allocation; of human resources for effective performance is the end result of policies pertaining to recruitment, selection, training, and development. Staffing involves placement and replacement in the positions provided for by the organiza tion structure, whether in business or in education. One of the major functions of the president and other administrators should be to determine the numbers and * I qualifications of persons needed for positions in adminis- 1 c tration, teaching, special services, and evaluation. Com- ! i pensation for these staff members must be adequate to attract and hold capable persons who will keep themselves capable through professional growth. Another area of major responsibility in staffing is the orientation of new members and provision for keeping others abreast of current | developments. ! The creativity and purposeful growth that college j 40 1 experiences should foster in students should also be mani fested in administration and faculty, through serious atten- | ■tion to staffing at all levels. i I j ! ‘ Directing Numerous writers have indicated that directing is of i basic importance in the total management function. Koontz and O'Donnell (1964a) defined its purpose as the integration1 1 i I of the efforts of subordinates in the interest of the total objectives of the enterprise (p. 475). Dimock (1958) called dt the heart of administration, and identified three aspects of the directing function: (1) determination of the course, (2) issuing orders and instructions, and (3) insuring ’ dynamic leadership (p. 99). Hungate (1964), in Management in Higher Education, I 1 Idevoted a chapter to the directive function as it is exer- : cised through policy action based on policy discussion. He j wrote: It is imperative that policies, which together direct the functioning of the institutions, be continuously studied and adopted to take account of ever-changing social needs, broadening ranges of student interest, aptitudes, and capacities, the changes in institutional resources," and new techniques and procedures. (p. 114) He concurred with other authorities regarding the j i basic nature of communications for the development, conser- I ■vation, and advantageous use of resources. Only on the basis of wide discussion can necessary information be dis- I seminated and rapport with major purposes be assured (pp. 1117-118) . i In the society of the future, institutions of higher, education will fulfill their role appropriately and effec tively only as they individually perform the management function known as directing (Hungate, 1964, p. 161). i Controlling Controlling refers to the establishment of standards and criteria for appraisal of organizational activities, i.e., the evaluation of results in terms of objectives. It closes the loop for the management function which started with planning, developed with organization, was expanded with staffing, became effective with directing, and is vali-' i dated with control. i Burns (1962) identified effective controls and regu lar appraisal for adjustment and change as basic functions of college administration (p. 43). Much of the writing on control in institutions of higher education pertain to finance and budget. Dodds (1962) viewed the budget as a i particularly effective area because it permits policy makers,’ I to trace major trends in expense and income, and to have a 42: basis for discussing finances with the administration (p. j 190). ! Glaze (1962) viewed the problem of control as one of. ! human relations, whatever the scientific devices that may ! help to insure a manager that people are doing what is intended (p. 33). He warned that lack of direction and con-| [ trol may result from too much decentralization; balance should be maintained in the application of control, as well ! i i as in the formal structure. Improper application may encroach on the organizational framework in a destructive manner, instead of giving command over operations to the administration (Glaze, 1962, p. 63). In summary, in Governance of Colleges and Universi ties , Corson (1975) stated that while the universities share many things in structure and governance with business enter-i prises, the nature of their problems . . i s different because j of diversity in their constituencies. In business there are well-defined sources of authority and a single mission— mak ing money— while authority in the university fragmented, and the mission is complicated. In university governance.he saw that which holds an organic cultural institution together necessary, and he called it "cement" or variously known as j "personality," "character," or "spirit of place." . : iThe exact nature of this force that holds together a univer-| i ! !sity or college is blurred in detail, sometimes vague and | I Intangible, yet it is a major force on governance. I ; ^ The Impact of Community College Movement on American Higher Education: ! Mass Education ! [ American higher education, which took its models from Europe, is a superimposition of German-type university 1 structure on the English-type college (Brubacker & Rudy, \ 1976, p. 176). It was successful in adapting foreign ideas j to a new context with a distinguishing feature of diversity! Since the founding of the first institution (Harvard in 16 36) , a variety of forms of institutions have been un- Jfolded: liberal arts college, technical institute, state i university, land-grant college, professional school, normal school, teachers college, state college, and municipal col- | i : lege. As Brick (1963) stated: "Each arose as a response to' the failure of existing institutions to meet the demands for a new or additional type of educational experience" (p. 1). The most recent institutional form is the community college. Although the emergence of the first institution of j t \ jthis type is usually placed sometime between the turn of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth centuries, its history can be traced back as far as the middle of the 'nineteenth century. Many books and articles are available ' i l ithat give detailed accounts of what is called "the junior college movement," a term used to refer to the growth, i .development, and status of the junior college^ in all its ! i branches, especially during the twentieth century (Eells, j 1941, p. 2). ! i This concept of adult education, or more properly, .education beyond the secondary level, is based on the premise that the most important wealth of any nation is its 1 human resources. It has been suggested that many present national and international problems are bound up with a poorly educated citizenry (Lake, 1948, p. 97). William Rainey Harper often is regarded as the I father of the junior college (Eells, 1931, p. 47). It is ; i more accurate to say that by dividing the undergraduate pro-! grams at the University of Chicago into junior and senior i colleges, he was the first to implement an idea that was sown and nurtured half a century previously. His forerunner was President Henry Philip Tappan of the University of Mich igan, who proposed in 1851 to free the university from the necessity of providing the "capstone years of secondary edu-. ; i cation," and to make it become "purely university without [ i admixture of collegial tuition" (Thornton, 1964, p. 46). | ! The first lasting separation came with the reorganin ;zation of the University of Chicago in 1892 under President Harper, which divided the first and last two years into the , "Academic College" and the "University College," renamed in j :1896 "Junior College," and "Senior College," respectively. The degree of Associate for junior college students was created in 1899. Harper was thus the inventor of the term, I but not the long-nurtured idea. | On one hand, by partitioning the undergraduate years, Harper gave to the junior college an entity of its own that might encourage students who otherwise would never attend college; on the other hand, he gave more appeal to graduate and professional schools because their student bod ies would be more selective. The junior college movement became active only in j the beginning of the twentieth century. In 1900 there were I i i 8 .private junior colleges with approximately 100 students. In 1920, 34 junior college representatives set up the Ameri can Association of Junior Colleges, at which time there were nearly 200 institutions (approximately one-third public and two-thirds private), enrolling a total of 15,000 stu dents (Hillway, 1958, p. 41). i The reasons for the fast proliferation of junior i 46! ^colleges were: (1) it offered two years of work acceptable j I I |to colleges and universities; (2) it gave opportunities to the students for rounding out their general education; ; :(3) it popularized higher education, (4) it secured continu-; ing home influences during immaturity; (5) it relieved the ; university; and (6) it affected high school instruction favorably (Koos, 1925, pp. 19-27). Up to 1920, the junior college served mainly one function; that is, articulation between the high school and ; |the university. Consequently its curriculum was identical to the first two years of a liberal arts college. This type i of program still exists today and is called the transfer curriculum, which serves to convey a number of high school j i I 1 graduates to the university. The definition of the junior college was expanded in 1925 by the American Association of ; i Junior Colleges: ! j The junior college may, and is likely to, develop a different type of curriculum suited to the larger and ever-changing civic, social, religious, and vocational needs of the entire community in which the college is located. It is understood that in this case also the work offered shall be on a level appropriate for high school students. (Eells, 1940, p. 3) The addition of vocational and adult education pro- , I 1 grams to the junior college curricula encouraged a great number of technical and commercial schools to become junior ‘ colleges by adding transfer and general education programs I (Hillway, 1958, p. 43). ; ] I On a national basis, Thornton (1964) saw many influ- i ences that contributed to the rapid expansion of occupa- . 1 tional education in the junior colleges. First, the Smith- Hughes Act of 1917, which resumed federal government parti- I bipation in vocational public education originally begun under the Morrill Act of 1862, encouraged vocational educa- 1 i tion in high schools. This Act was effective in the states that considered the public junior college to be part of secondary education. Second, because of widespread unem ployment during the depression years, many realized that .specific training beyond the high school level was needed to compete in the job market. Third, the increasing mechani zation of production required a higher level of technical : skills. Fourth, the close relationship between the junior colleges and the communities they served encouraged the creation of new occupational courses to fit the local needs. By adding terminal occupational courses, the junior college consolidated its identity by combining activities ;which were neither secondary nor higher education, thereby < 1 \ achieving a unique set of purposes. At this point, the j I junior college represented the synthesis of the university | I 48' dower division and programs similar to vocational-technical ! schools. Yet the movement did not stop there, and the junior college has developed a more meaningful function i which neither the university nor the technical school possesses. This new idea of organizing the junior college to meet the needs of the community was defined by Ricciardi (1930, p. 24) and later by Hollingshead (1936), who stated: It should serve to promote a greater social and civic intelligence in the community; it should provide opportunities for increased adult education; it should provide educational, recreational, and vocational op portunities for young people; the cultural facilities of the institution should be placed at the disposal of the community; the work of the community college should be closely integrated with the work of the high school and the work of other community institutions. (p. Ill) ' With these new activities, the community college became an integral part of the social and intellectual life j of its locality. The community college had no identity of its own until it gained a more utilitarian philosophy by adding terminal programs to its original college transfer curriculum. It moved farther away from the university or technical school by its last achievement; that is, the addi tion of community services. California, a pioneer in community college develop- ; i ment, through the master plan created by the 1960 Donahoe Higher Education Act, declares that junior colleges are part1 of the tripartite structure of higher education in which the! I state colleges and the University of California are the ' other components. I The movement could not be considered confined to the; United States, but rather it has spread to other countries of the world. The UNESCO World Survey on Higher Education indexes junior colleges, in addition to those in the United j ; i States, in the following countries: Australia, Canada, Ceylon, China, Japan, Korea, Liberia, Panama Canal Zone, Philippines, and Puerto Rico (UNESCO, 1966, p. 495). In reviewing the present features of the community junior colleges, Walker (1966) secured the opinions of twenty authorities in community colleges and defined the concept according to eight functions and two characteristics that are recurrent in most community college bulletins, as 'follows (p. 420) : 1. The Transfer Function. The transfer programs of the community colleges are similar to those of the first two years of the university or junior college. Upon completion .of the first two years, the student may transfer into the i third year of the university or college. The student may \ therefore start the first two years of higher education with! minimal costs, right in his community, and without losing ^opportunities for further education. i i 2. The Terminal Function. The terminal programs, ' i jof two-year duration or less, prepare the student for work | in positions that require vocational, technical, or semi- i professional training beyond the secondary school. This ! function supplements the technical school. Without leaving : i his community, the terminal student has the opportunity to obtain appropriate training in many fields, according to the1 needs of the community. (The advantage of the combination of transfer and terminal programs [1 and 2] offered in the same institution is two-fold: by reducing the operational ( costs, it is economical; and by giving people in different j walks of life the opportunity to study side by side, it is democratic.) I ; 3. The Adult Education Function. Usually offered in the evening, the adult education programs provide adults Iwith opportunities for improving themselves, either for job advancement, cultural enlightenment, creative interest, or other personal reasons. Education is a life-long concern. j 4. The General Education Function. The general i programs offer basic courses to all students to equip them with knowledge for life in modern times as members of the 51 jfamily, the society, the nation, and the world. Every mem- i iber of the society, no matter what his destination, requires: i some standard knowledge to function effectively as a human jbeing. He needs fundamental learning to make his fullest ! contribution to the society in which he lives. ; 5. The Remedial Education Function. There are ' I I those students (including adults) whose educational back- ; ground is insufficient to enter the college. There are also' i the so-called "late bloomers" whose intellectual development jComes only in the later years of life. Many, however, are potentially good students if they have the chance to over come their early difficulty. The community college provides1 them with courses that seek to remedy inadequate learning | : skills and furnish additional training in areas where defi- i ’ ciencies exist, thus salvaging students who might otherwise 'be discarded, thereby conserving human resources. i i ■ 6. The Guidance and Counseling Function. The com munity college assists the student in evaluating himself and in choosing programs consistent with his interests and abil ities . Many students coming from secondary schools are undecided about their career aims and educational goals. Guidance programs help them to make the most of their poten-j tialities, train them to define their objectives in life, and then to make definite plans to meet these objectives. i 7. The Community Service Function. Many members of; \ the community are interested in training, education, and ; activities of a cultural nature for reasons other than the j j : \ attainment of a degree. The community college provides com-! i prehensive offerings designed to meet these needs and i f I interests. 1 i 8. The Co-Curricular Function. To make the com- j munity college an interesting and enjoyable climate of learning, many opportunities are offered for students to participate in activities that promote their intellectual, physical, and emotional growth, such as athletic events, college newspapers, and societies of various kinds. The wide, range of co-curricular programs helps the student gain con structive experiences in social relationships and utilize native skills and abilities outside the classroom. , 9. The Quality of Instruction Characteristic. While) the university encompasses both teaching and research, the community college stresses superior teaching. Teaching is a more urgent and identifiable characteristic of the institu tion than research or publication. The community college teacher must be dedicated to the ultimate goal of helping i ! the student reach the full measure of his capacity. j ! 10. The Open-Door Characteristic. The community i jcollege must be accessible to every student who can profit from a college education and should give him a chance to acquire this education and provide every reasonable means for him to do so. This open-door policy democratizes American higher education. In summary, the community college, through its various functions and characteristics and its flexibility in serving community needs, may be the appropriate educational institution that fits the present needs of reconstruction of educational programs in Iran. This new social device maintains its whole value during the the time of development, as has been proved in modern industrial democracies and many developing countries. The community college certainly is not a place for !and does not produce an intellectual elite who, bound by ! ancient dogmas and cultural humanism, resists modernization. Neither does it turn out narrow-minded technicians who, through a mystique of science, regard technology as the main instrument for power. Instead, the community college aims at training balanced men who desire not only to learn the ^ I fundamental skills for earning a living, but to gain knowl- , !edge broad enough for. life in a world of social justice. i i The structure of the school system left by the ! I i colonials favors the privileged few who are detached from | the masses (see Figure 2). By training more semiprofession- jals, the community college reduces the class of unskilled i workers who suffer many deprivations and increases the class J of skilled workers to move toward the type of economic class f structure expected in a technologically developed society (see Figure 3). PROP ERTY CLASS PROFESSIONALS SEMIPROFESSIONALS SKILLED WORKERS UNSKILLED WORKERS Figure 2. A Social Structure That Favors the Elite 56 PROP ERTY CLASS PROFESSIONALS SEMIPROFESSIONALS SKILLED WORKERS UNSKILLED WORKERS Figure 3. A More Equitable Social Structure 57 CHAPTER III j | PROCEDURE This phase of the study was based upon a survey ! taken in Iran during August 1975. The purpose of this study was to identify the issues and problems of higher education i in Iran, to isolate and categorize them, and to explore ; procedural steps toward their solution. | In order to determine the critical issues with the least possible preconceived structure or bias, the instru ment selected to gather data for the study was a mail ques tionnaire, using frequency count, to organize pertinent 1 ! information for formulating improved procedures for higher i education in Iran. Also, as the writer was distributing the; questionnaire, in those cases where possible some personal observations were made and interviews were conducted. A copy of the questionnaire is included in Appendix C of this . study. The mail questionnaire was chosen because this ( instrument (1) permitted wide geographic coverage at minimum expense, (2) yielded greater validity because of the wider ! 'coverage and more representative sample, (3) reached people ■ who were difficult to locate, and (4) permitted respondents , t ,to consider their answers. i Perhaps the greatest weakness of the mail question- I i t naires is non-returns. It was felt that in this study the ! problem was overcome to a great degree by (1) careful con- j I 'struction of the questionnaire, (2) a well-written intro ductory letter that promised a report to the respondent, and (3) the enclosure of a stamped, addressed envelope for return of the questionnaire. The 200 questionnaires were distributed among a ran dom sample of university instructors and administrators in Iran. The six major universities were selected, as follows: (1) University of Tehran, (2) Teacher Education University in Tehran, (3) Ferdossi University in Mashad, (4) Pahlevi j University in Shiraze, (5) University of Esfahan, and (6) University of Jondishapoor in Ahvaze; the range of randomly ichosen colleges in the different universities was from five to seven. When possible, the deans were interviewed; other wise the questionnaires were left in their offices or were mailed to them. The range of randomly chosen departments in different universities was from 10 to 16, and these depart- ; i i ments were from the chosen colleges. When possible, the 1 'department chairmen were interviewed, otherwise the ques- 1 i i i itionnaires were left in their offices or were mailed to I ithem. The range of randomly chosen instructors from the i jchosen departments in different universities was from 14 to ; 19. When possible, these instructors were interviewed; otherwise the questionnaires were left in their offices or were mailed to them. Distribution of the questionnaires is shown in Table 1. i , As shown in Table 1, the questionnaires were widely ; f spread among deans, department chairmen, and instructors all' around the country in the hope that this study would reflect a real picture of the problems of higher education in Iran. Since the survey method is not commonly used in ; I ! Iran, the questionnaire was kept rather brief in the hope that the maximum number of receivers would feel encouraged jto answer the questions and return the questionnaire. How- ; I I ever, only 134 usable questionnaires, or 67 percent, were returned. Therefore the analysis of data is on the basis of these 134 returned questionnaires. o - ! Finally, it should be mentioned that in Iran the jdeans and the department chairmen also do some teaching. Another point worthy of mention is that during the course ; of the interviews (where interviews were possible), the | writer did not ask any extra questions; the purpose was chiefly to give more help to the questionnaire receivers ;in case of any misunderstanding. TABLE 1 DISTRIBUTION OF QUESTIONNAIRES ! University Dean Department Chairman Instructors i Total ! Tehran 7 16 19 42 ' 1 Teacher Education 4 10 14 28 Phalevi 5 12 17 34 Ferdossi 5 12 17 34 Esfahan 5 12 17 34 , Jondi shapoor 4 10 14 28 Total 1 30 72 98 200 I CHAPTER IV i ; ! I ; P' : FINDINGS | The questions to be answered by this study were: 1. What are the goals and objectives of higher edu cation in Iran? 2. What are the most presssing current issues and problems in higher education in Iran? 3. What steps may be recommended toward possible i solutions to existing problems of higher education in Iran? j . » ! The main thrust of this study was to determine the current critical problems and issues of university education in Iran. Questionnaires were distributed among a random js'ample of 200 university administrators and professors, since they are the most involved in university education. The questionnaire contained sixteen items in six major areas of institutional concern, as follows:: (1) educa tional objectives, (2) instructional programs, (3) faculty ■ • 1 and staff, (4) student personnel, (5) administration, and j i (6) proposed changes. The responses were compiled for each J of the areas of concern and classified in terms of ! ........ 62 ' (identified issues. The tables in this chapter contain the ! 'data obtained,from 134 questionnaires returned (67 percent of the total mailed). 1 i | This chapter is a simple compilation of tables i derived from the responses to the questionnaire, together I i with short explanations of the data contained in each one. ' ! i The detailed analysis of these findings on higher education 1 t in Iran today is presented in Chapter V. Question 1 of the questionnaire requested informa tion concerning sex, age, position held, degree earned, and I whether the position held was part-time or full-time. Data compiled from the replies are given in Tables 2, 3, and 4. TABLE 2 AGE DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS (N = 134) ! Range Frequency Percentage ; 21-30 23 17 31-40 68 51 41-50 18 13 51-60 23 17 Over 61 . 2 2 Total 134 100 i As shown in Table 2, the majority of respondents I (68 percent) are under 40 years of age, and only 2 percent are over 61 years. The remaining 30 percent of the respon dents fall in the range of 41 to 6 0 years of age. TABLE 3 DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS ACCORDING TO SEX (N = 134) — ■ - — - — Sex Frequency Percentage Male 121 90 Female 13 10 Total 134 100 As indicated in Table 3, relatively few women serve in i | higher education in Iran; only 13 percent of the respondents .are female. : t TABLE 4 | I DISTRIBUTION OF HIGHEST EDUCATIONAL DEGREES HELD BY RESPONDENTS (N = 134) i Type of Degree Frequency Percentage M.S. or M.A. 61 46 | Ph.D. 13 10 | Doctorate (other than Ph.D.)a 60 44 Total 134 100 j aSuch as Certificated Doctorate, Ed.D., D.P.A., D.B.A., j and so on. 64' Table 4 shows that 46 percent of the respondents I ihold a Master's degree as their highest degree, and only 10 percent have earned their Ph.D. The remainder, or 44 i ^percent of the respondents hold some type of doctorate, such as a Certificated Doctorate, Ed.D., D.P.A., D.B.A., and so : on, which are either earned or honorary. i Question 2 asked the respondents to list the major I I educational objectives of their respective institutions (at ! I least three). Table 5 shows the distribution of the repliesJ " TABLE 5 DISTRIBUTION OF REPLIES CONCERNING THE MAJOR EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN IRAN I (N = 134) Objectives Frequency Percentage Change and improvement of higher education in Iran 127 95 Reinforcing and supporting the edu cational leadership, both nationally and internationally 99 74 Provision for the needs of the nation 86 64 Providing higher educational experience for young adults 68 51 Academic research 61 46 No reply 7 1 5 ; f 65\ ; As shown in Table 5, only 7 of the 134 respondents i I did not answer Question 2. The majority (95 percent) indi- ■ cated that one of the major educational objectives of their I jinstitution was change in and improvement of higher educa tion in Iran. I i I , t • i Question 3 pertained to respondents' opinions of I the Uniform College Entrance Examination, and reasons for their opinions. Table 6 contains a tabulation of the replies and Table 7 shows the most often noted reasons for ■ ;the replies. : I TABLE 6 i RESPONDENTS' OPINIONS OF. THE UNIFORM COLLEGE 1 ENTRANCE EXAMINATION j I (N = 134) Replies Frequency Percentage Very satisfactory 18 14 j Satisfactory 30 22 ' Unsatisfactory 50 37 No opinion 36 27 Total 134 10 0 Table 6 shows that those respondents who expressed an opinion on this question are evenly divided between some kind of satisfactory and unsatisfactory attitude on this issue; 36 percent feel that these examinations are very Isatisfactory or satisfactory, and 37 percent feel that they are unsatisfactory. ; TABLE 7 RESPONDENTS1 REASONS FOR UNSATISFACTORY OPINION OF THE UNIFORM COLLEGE ENTRANCE EXAMINATION (N = 50)a Reason Frequency Percentage' individual interests and indi vidual differences are disregarded 48 96 'inability to distribute students among colleges and universities , in a proper proportion 23 46 N in this table is equal to the total number of respon dents who expressed an unsatisfactory opinion of the Uniform College Entrance Examination (see Table 6). ! As shown in Table 7, there were only two most often noted reasons for unsatisfactory opinions on the issue of the Uniform College Entrance Examinations. These reasons seem ■ important for higher education in Iran. Question 4 asked for indications of any special .problems related to evening sessions in the various institutions. These special problems and their distribution j , !are shown in Table 8. TABLE 8 RESPONDENTS1 BELIEFS CONCERNING SPECIAL PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH EVENING SESSIONS (N = 134) j Problems Frequency 1 Percentage! i Evening session students are tired , because of day work 86 f 64 Students are not properly selected 69 52 The older evening students are not as capable of learning the phy sical sciences as the younger day students 47 35 Students' educational goals are for job promotion and not for education 31 23 The evening students1 problems are different from daytime students' problems 23 17 No reply 48 36 As shown in Table 8, 64 percent of the I respondents i ^indicated some kind of problem related to having evening Isessions in their institutions, and 36 percent did not answer this question at all. i Question 5 asked respondents to express their opinions regarding hiring foreign teachers for institutions of higher learning in Iran. The results are given in ! Table 9. TABLE 9 RESPONDENTS' OPINIONS REGARDING HIRING FOREIGN TEACHERS (N = 134) 1 ! Reply Frequency Percentage Agree 85 63 Disagree 43 32 ; i No Opinion 6 5 Total 134 100 Table 9 indicates that the majority of respondents believe that hiring foreign teachers for the institutions of higher learning in Iran is a good policy. Question 6 concerned the adequacy of salaries in relation to the cost of living. Table 10 gives the opinions of respondents, and Table 11 lists the major reasons given j ;by those who indicated that salaries were inadequate. TABLE 10 RESPONDENTS' OPINIONS REGARDING ADEQUACY OF SALARY RELATIVE TO THE COST OF LIVING (N = 134) Reply Frequency Percentage Adequate 60 45 More than adequate 0 0 ' Inadequate 74 55 Total 134 100 i TABLE 11 MAJOR REASONS GIVEN FOR BELIEF THAT SALARIES ARE INADEQUATE FOR MEETING THE COST OF LIVING (N = 134) i Problem i Frequency Percentage: Housing 91 i 68 Insurance and health care i 69 51 1 Lack of adequate special compen sation for living in high cost- of-living regions 27 20 As shown in Table 10, 55 percent of the respondents i believe that salaries are inadequate for meeting the cost of' living; the other 45 percent believe it is adequate, and none of the respondents agreed that salaries are more than adequate for meeting the cost of living. Table 11 shows some of the major problems which ^ ■ I Respondents believe make salaries inadequate for the cost of living. Housing and insurance and health care are the \ most serious problems. Question 7 requested respondents to evaluate various administrative areas. Results of this evaluation are given ;in Table 12. TABLE 12 RESPONDENTS' QUANTITATIVE EVALUATION OF SELECTED ADMINISTRATIVE AREAS (N = 134) Area Very Satisfactory F P Satisfactory F P Unsatisfactory F P No Opinion F P Budget 18 14 48 36 35 26 33 24 Faculty and Staff 5 4 61 46 38 28 30 22 Classrooms 0 0 67 50 42 31 25 19 Facilities 0 0 42 31 62 : 47 30 22 Library 6 5 84 62 26 19 18 14 Instructional Program 6 5 78 58 20 15 30 22 Student Personnel 1 5 4 81 60 18 14 30 22 F = Frequency f p = Percentage As shown in Table 12, the majority of respondents I evaluated selected administrative areas as being either "Very Satisfactory" or "Satisfactory," except in the area of i ^educational facilities. Facilities were rated unsatisfac- i tory by 47 percent of the respondents, satisfactory by 31 percent, and 22 percent did not express any opinion. i i Question 8 requested an evaluation of today's stu dents in terms of physical health, emotional stability, self-motivation, extracurricular activities, moral values, j personal ability, faculty-studeht relationships, and student-student relationships. Evaluations are tabulated in Table 13. As shown in Table 13, the majority of respondents ; i i I : agreed that the physical health of today's students is satis-' i factory. On emotional stability, respondents held varied ; opinions; 40 percent rated this item as either very satis factory or satisfactory; 46 percent rated it not satisfac tory, and 14 percent expressed no opinion. Although a majority of the respondents gave unsatisfactory ratings to 'student self-motivation toward learning, extracurricular activities, moral values, and faculty-student relationships,5 the quality of student-student relationships was rated as j I being either very satisfactory or satisfactory by 86 percent^ I i of the respondents. i 72 ■ TABLE 13 RESPONDENTS' EVALUATION OF SELECTED QUALITIES OF TODAY'S STUDENTS (N = 134) 1 Very Satisfactory Satisfactory Unsatisfactory No Opinion Quality i F P F P F P F P Physical health 11 8 117 87 6 5 0 0 Emotional stability 5 4 49 36 61 46 19 14 Self-motivation toward learning 0 0 24 18 97 72 13 10 Extracurricular activities 10 7 38 28 73 55 13 10 Moral values 0 0 54 40 60 45 20 15 Personal ability 12 9 49 37 42 31 31 23 Faculty-student relationships 6 5 36 27 85 63 7 5 Student-student relationships 24 18 91 68 0 0 19 14 F . = = Frequency'; P = Percentage Question 9 asked whether today's college curricula ; l i I ' 'should be changed, and if so, to what degree. The second ! part of this question asked respondents for their recom- jmendations for college curricula. Tables 14 and 15 show i i the frequency and percentage of replies to this question. TABLE 14 RESPONDENTS' OPINIONS ON COLLEGE CURRICULA CHANGE (N = 134) Yes 1 Frequency/ Percentage Major Minor No ! Frequency 55 60 19 Percentage 41 45 14 TABLE 15 RESPONDENTS' RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CHANGING COLLEGE CURRICULA <n = 1 1 5 ) a ; Recommendation Frequency Percentage Curricula should better meet the 95 83 needs of society Curricula should become more 6 9 6 0 objective Curricula should be updated in 45 39 accordance with worldwide i curricula of higher education cL N of 115 is equal to the total number of those respon dents who felt that some degree of change in today's col lege curricula is needed (see Table 14). j As shown in Table 14, 86 percent of the respondents : felt that today's college curricula, should be changed to ! some degree. Table 15 shows the respondents' recommenda- 'tions for these changes, with the majority (95 percent) recommending that the curricula should be changed to better meet the needs of today's society. Question 10 asked whether the respondents saw any ! ! value in having private institutions of higher learning governed by a private board of trustees. Table 16 is a tab ulation of replies. The reasons given against having pri vate institutions in Iran are shown in Table 17. TABLE 16 RESPONDENTS' OPINIONS ON VALUE OF HAVING PRIVATE INSTITUTIONS (N = 134) i Reply Frequency Percentage Yes 42 31 No 68 51 Undecided 24 18 Total 134 100 As shown in Table 16, 51 percent of the respondents i did not see any value in having private institutions of | leducation in Iran, 31 percent were in favor, and 18 percent i ! |expressed no opinion. | I I TABLE 17 RESPONDENTS' NEGATIVE REMARKS CONCERNING PRIVATE INSTITUTIONS (N = 68)a Remark Frequency Percentage They are too profit oriented The graduate student's educa tion is of low quality 64 37 94 54 N in this table is equal to the total number of respon dents who did not see any value in having private institu tions of higher learning in Iran (see Table 16). The two most frequently cited reasons against having private institutions of higher learning in Iran are shown in Table 17, with 94 percent of these negative replies indi cating that respondents considered them too profit oriented. Question 11 asked: "What do you believe should be the proportion of general to specialized education in col lege curricula?" The frequency and percentage of ratios ranging from 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:3, to 3:1 are shown in Table 18. Opinions on this issue varied, but a majority of 54 percent selected the ratio of one unit general education to three units specialized education. 76 TABLE 18 RESPONDENTS' SELECTION OF PROPER PROPORTION OF GENERAL TO SPECIALIZED EDUCATION (N = 134) Ratio Frequency Percentage 1:1 18 14 j 1:2 8 6 1:3 73 54 2:3 26 19 3:1 9 7 i 1 1 1 | Question 11 also asked: "What do you believe should i |be the proportion of required courses to electives in col- ■lege curricula?" i The frequencies and percentages in reply to this question i are shown in Table 19 TABLE 19 RESPONDENTS' SELECTION OF PROPER PROPORTION OF REQUIRED COURSES TO ELECTIVES (N = 134) Ratio Frequency Percentage 3:1 21 16 4:1 78 58 4:2 16 12 5:1 19 14 77 I As shown in Table 19, respondents' opinions on this I _ jissue were scattered; a majority of 58 percent selected the i jratio of four units required courses to one unit elective. I Question 12 asked whether respondents felt that ipresent administrative systems and procedures should be t changed, and if so, what major changes they would recommend. Table 20 shows that a great majority of the respon dents (81 percent) felt that some kind of change should be made in the present administrative systems of higher educa tion in Iran. i I Table 21 lists the changes recommended by respon dents, together with the frequencies and percentages of each i suggestion. As shown, 90 percent suggested less bureaucracy. TABLE 20 RESPONDENTS' OPINIONS CONCERNING CHANGE IN ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEMS (N = 134) Frequency/ Percentage Yes Major Minor No Frequency 72 37 t 25 i Percentage 54 27 i 19 7:8 TABLE 21 RESPONDENTS' RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CHANGING ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEMS (N = 109)a Recommendation Frequency Percentage Administrative systems should be less bureaucratic 98 90 Delegation of authority should be encouraged 63 58 More faith should be placed in other people’s abilities 49 45 Selection and promotion should be on the basis of educational background and experience 48 44 Number of administrative officers should be reduced 26 24 N in this table is equal to the total number of those respondents who felt that some kind of change should be made in present administrative systems of higher education in Iran (see Table 20). Question 13 asked whether course offerings of the institutions of higher learning in Iran are keeping up with modern developments. As shown in Table 22, 42 percent of the respondents did not believe this to be true, 13 percent i i believed the course offerings were keeping up with modern developments, and 45 percent offered no opinion on this | jissue. i 79 TABLE 22 RESPONDENTS1 OPINIONS REGARDING WHETHER COURSE OFFERINGS OF THE INSTITUTIONS ARE KEEPING UP WITH MODERN DEVELOPMENTS (N = 134) Reply Frequency Percentage Yes 17 13 No 57 42 Undecided 60 45 Total 134 100 ; Question 14 asked respondents to indicate whether I I 'they agreed or disagreed on eight listed proposals. As ! 'shown in Table 23, 82 percent of the respondents agreed that there should be more extracurricular activities, and 95 percent agreed that there should be improved coordination among institutions of higher education. On the other hand, 52 percent of the respondents did not believe that there should be more elective courses, and 55 percent did not believe that there should be fewer required courses. Other i frequencies and percentages pertaining to the proposals are ! I also given in Table 23. Question 15 asked whether the respondents believed some problems to be of greater importance than others in Ihigher education in Iran at the present time. If the answer TABLE 23 RESPONDENTS' OPINIONS CONCERNING SUGGESTED PROPOSALS (N = 134) Proposal Agree F P Disagree F P No Opinion F P Summer sessions More electives Fewer required courses jMore objective tests tore extracurricular i activities Two-year mandatory public service after graduation Mandatory faculty retirement at age 6 5 Improved coordination among institutions of higher education 79 34 59 25 31 23 55 41 110 82 66 49 79 59 128 95 37 69 73 43 11 49 12 28 52 55 32 8 37 18 31 30 36 13 19 13 23 22 27 10 14 43 32 F = Frequency P = Percentage was yes, respondents were asked to list five problems they considered to be of greatest importance. Table 24 lists the major issues and problems identified as being of great importance by respondents, together with the frequencies and percentages involved. 81 TABLE 24 MAJOR ISSUES AND PROBLEMS IN HIGHER EDUCATION IN IRAN AT THE PRESENT TIME AS IDENTIFIED BY RESPONDENTS (N = 134) Issues/Problems I Frequency Percentage ( Lack of trained manpower at the university level 129 96 Inadequate selection of students for higher education 95 71 'students1 lack of interest in the present curricula 87 65 Lack of intimate relationships between students and faculties 71 53 Lack of unity and coordination between faculties and adminis trative officers 65 49 Use of informal relationships for faculty promotion 49 37 Lack of expertise in the area of educational consulting in higher education 41 31 No answers 5 4 As shown in Table 24, 129 of the 134 respondents j i identified some type of problem in higher education in Iran and only 5 of them did not reply to this question. Question 16 asked respondents to suggest solutions I for the problems in higher education in Iran. The four most ^frequently mentioned solutions are shown in Table 25. A j jtotal of 97 respondents (72 percent) mentioned giving more I scholarships for advanced degrees to able students. The other suggestions are listed in order of frequency. TABLE 25 RESPONDENTS' RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEMS OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN IRAN (N = 134) Recommendation Frequency Percentage ■More scholarships for advanced | degrees should be given to able students 97 72 Faculty members with better educational background expe riences should become more involved in the higher edu cation process 83 62 More respect and independency should be given to able faculty members 79 59 All faculty members should give some time to student advisement 74 55 83 CHAPTER V i 1 ANALYSIS OF THE FINDINGS I I I The purpose of this chapter is to discuss and janalyze the findings presented in the preceding chapter. i t jlssues identified as being held in common by a majority of i ithe respondents are related to the total gestalt of Iranian i I higher education. The analysis of these research findings I is an attempt to establish a set of criteria that can be utilized in an effort to make valid suggestions for future [developments. j The following sections correspond to the six major jareas of concern mentioned in the previous chapter: (1) educational objectives, (2) instructional programs, j ( 3 ) faculty and staff, ( 4 ) student personnel, ( 5 ) adminis- i itration, and (6) proposed changes. i i Educational Objectives The following major educational objectives cited by the respondents are ranked in order of frequency of mention: 84 | 1. Change and improvement of higher education in j Iran.--A total of 95 percent of the respondents agreed that j I higher education as a major agent of change and improvement I i in a society should not be rigid (see Table 5). | 2. Reinforcing and supporting the educational leadership, both nationally and internationally.--A total of r 74 percent of the respondents agreed that higher education I i j jshould be providing educational leadership (see Table 5). i i j 3. Provision for the needs of the nation.— Of the I I jrespondents, 64 percent held in common that higher education jshould foresee the needs of the nation, and be oriented j i ^oward satisfaction of those needs (see Table 5). i 4. Providing higher education experience for young adults.--A total of 51 percent of the respondents agreed that the issue of need for increased educational jopportunity is one of the major roles of higher education ! (see Table 5). I 5. Academic research.— A total of 4 6 percent of | | j !the respondents felt that academic research should be one j i of the university's roles, and would help sharpen the fac- ; ulties' minds (see Table 5). ! There is obviously a diversity of opinions concern ing the proper mission of higher education as a worldwide (endeavor. Certain of the suggested goals are primarily i i practical; others reveal a highly theoretical outlook. I I Both types of objectives may be relevant in their place, but1 actual implementation under conflicting pressures of tradi- jtion and change, in an effort to satisfy both individual and i |community demands is bound to entail complex problems. i i i } i I i j Instructional Programs i | Three issues related to instructional programs were [particularly stressed: (1) freshman admissions policies and i procedures, (2) curricular reform, and (3) the role and 'administrative status of evening schools. I The most pressing issue cited was that of freshman admissions. All Iranian students seeking admission to a I college or university must pass the Uniform College Entrance Examination held in July each year; the examination scores are the only criterion for acceptance of applicants. Test ing is conducted by the National Testing Bureau, but there i j jare some questions about the qualifications of the Bureau j (see Table 7). The staff members of the Testing Bureau are j I l Responsible for writing and grading the examinations and distributing successful applicants to the various institu tions on the basis of expressed choices and examination I scores (each applicant is normally requested to name the 86 I — ■ • 1 (five major fields of his interest and the respective insti- I i Itutions he most prefers to attend). The applicants with | I i i i higher scores are distributed until the national freshman Jquota is reached. There is no official passing score; the number of applicants admitted each year is still simply the I Inumber of freshman students that all colleges and universi- I ties combined can accommodate in terms of available teach- | ers, staff, and facilities. More than one-third of the ' respondents in this study were dissatisfied with the Uniform (College Entrance Examination (see Tables 6 and 7). Also, i Ithose respondents who agreed that the Uniform College i Entrance Examination was satisfactory appeared to have I three main reasons for its general acceptance: 1. It is a free, open competition. 2. It eliminates the expense and overlapping that (Would be entailed if each institution chose and administered I I its own entrance examination. 3. The present instrument and examining procedures i are the best available at this time. j i Curricular reform has been another major area of i controversy. The writer found that an overwhelming majority |of the respondents favored some type of change in present I college curricula (see Table 14). There were several suggestions for reform: 1. The number of required courses should be i increased and the number of electives should be reduced (seej i i jTable 19) . i j i | ; 2. Overlap courses should be eliminated. j I 3. A permanent committee should review and revise [curricula every year. ! I | Most of the university officials in Iran pointed out ito the writer that the problem is not merely one of altering ! jcurricula, but also of finding professors qualified to teach i newly introduced courses. The major obstacle to change has j been the shortage of adequately trained teachers. ! The final major issue in the area of instructional programs is that of the role and status of evening classes. The main arguments in their favor are as follows: 1. They reduce congestion in day classes. 2. They provide in-service training for business and industry. i I I Also, problems related to evening sessions cited by | i respondents are ranked in order of frequency of mention (see Table 8). The respondents pointed out that a separate [administrative staff should be assigned to the evening j [school— a dean of instruction, a dean of students, and even 1 9 88 ja business manager. Evening school students should be on i I jthe same academic level as regular daytime students, and i itheir selection should be more on the basis of their educa- i jtional interests and abilities. I ' Faculty and Staff The survey responses emphasized a major problem in th£^area of faculty and staff: the shortage of qualified i .teachers and the declining quality of teachers. A mandatory jretirement age of 65 was suggested as a means of creating jnew faculty openings for young, innovative teachers. Table 23 clearly indicates that the majority favored this I jsuggestion. While higher salaries and better housing naturally are favored by all teachers, the government has not yet founc ample means to provide either. Recently, because of the iworldwide inflation, faculty salaries have been increased, I but the lack of proper housing facilities still is a major problem which makes faculty salaries inadequate for meeting i i the cost of living (see Tables 10 and 11). j A majority of 6 8 percent of the respondents are j i under 40 years of age (see Table 2), which seems to account for the problem of existing diverse opinions concerning the relative merits of programs of instruction, organizational 89 patterns, and administrative procedures. Also, there I i jappears to be some form of discrimination against female ifacuity in higher education in Iran; only 10 percent of the ! jtotal population of this research were female (see Table 3). bln fact, the higher the academic rank, the lower the propor- i i tion of female faculty members. The final interesting point concerning faculty mem bers in higher education in Iran is the percentage of those i who hold Ph.D.'s. Only 10 percent of the total population J i jof this research hold earned Ph.D.'s, and 44 percent have \ i ’ ■ ' some type of Doctorate, such as Certificated Doctorate, Ed.D., D.P.A., D.B.A., and so on, which is either earned or i honorary (see Table 4). Student Personnel i j Total college and university enrollment has increased jsteadily by 20 to 25 percent annually over the past 5 years. I | |The total number of students enrolled in 197 5-76 was I jl47,000. Authorities in higher education in Iran ascribe • i i . i the increase to the following developments: j 1. The establishment of new institutions and i ' departments in response to changing social pressures and demands ! 2. The construction of new classrooms and facili- j ties, enabling colleges and universities to I accommodate such an increase i I 90 j The recent emphasis on increased enrollment has beeni accompanied by greater awareness of a decline in the quality| of the academic background of college students. Many j ! respondents believed that such a decline had indeed taken place over the last 10 years, mostly because of the lack of qualified teachers. Many also expressed concern over the apparent deterioration of morals and manners among young Ipeople (see Table 13) . While it might be argued that the i i i ^apparent deterioration is not real, but rather signals a rebellion against traditional values in defense of the new jand unfamiliar values of emergent generations, it is never theless obvious that many respondents felt that the teacher-student relationship had become noticeably cold, businesslike, and even strained... Teachers find today's lib- i leral students uncivilized and lacking in discipline, while i i i !the students themselves find their elders rigid and out of touch with the times. The majority of the respondents did jfeel that students now enjoy better physical health and a more rewarding social life (see Table 13). Perhaps better medical care and modern recreational facilities have helped l make such types of progress possible. A majority of 55 percent of the respondents were dissatisfied with the present situation of extracurricular 91 (activities for students (see Table 13), and 82 percent of the respondents agreed that there should be more and better < i organized extracurricular activities in universities and colleges in Iran (see Table 23). i A total of 49 percent of the respondents were in | l i Ifavor of a proposed requirement that all college and univer sity graduates remain in public service for two years before i going abroad for further education. It was thought that i I such an experience would acquaint students with the needs of jthe country and perhaps motivate many to return to Iran I lafter completion of studies abroad (see Table 23). I i 1 Administration A majority of 81 percent of the respondents agreed that there should be some changes in the area of the admin istrative systems in higher education in Iran (see Table 20). Many administrative difficulties and problems in Iran ensue from the lack of trained and qualified administrators (see Table 24). The rapid growth and expansion of university education during the past 10 years provided little time or j i opportunity to prepare administrators for their tasks. Because of too much bureaucracy and the lack of delegation of authority (see Table 21), the administration is too weak to be effective. It lacks the power to enforce ________ 92 |decisions even when they are wisely formulated. This prob- I jlem is compounded by power struggles among the administra- I Stors, distrust for one another, and clashes between adminis trators and academicians. i I ; Proposed Changes i | The writer asked the respondents to list on the i [questionnaire suggestions for improvements or solutions for i ithe problems of higher education in Iran. In general, re spondents' recommendations tended to affirm that they are I 1 . i 'very concerned with the total gestalt of higher education m I I Iran. : The shortage of well-qualified Iranian teaching staff and administrative personnel cannot be ameliorated I juntil a sufficient number of qualified students are given scholarships for pursuing advanced degrees (see Table 25). i Also, the problem of retaining faculty members in the field of teaching as opposed to their taking a more prestigious or better-paying government or industrial post can be over- I i come only by giving more respect and autonomy to the able I and qualified faculty members (see Table 25). The last important suggestion for change made by an I overwhelming majority of the respondents was institutional 'coordination. Such cooperation should prove far more effective than the present uncoordinated efforts of the I I various colleges and universities (see Table 23). 94 CHAPTER VI | SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS I i Summary jBackground I | Higher education in Iran faces a tremendous task in i ithe decades ahead. Recognition of the need for expansion isj I ! I reflected in the extremely rapid growth in enrollment and the total number of colleges and universities. The increas ing manpower demands of industry and business have com pounded the already urgent problems of inadequate educa- i I tional facilities and shortage of qualified faculty. There is no doubt that higher education in Iran must continue to search for ways of organizing the students' edu cational experiences in order to achieve more effective and i Economical results. The educational system must continue | I i j I |its search for quality while handling a larger quantity of I students than ever before. The Problem It was the purpose of this study to identify the ■major issues and problems facing Iranian higher education, j f j I |and to categorize and analyze them in the hope of exploring j ! ' ' j . i procedural steps toward their solution, which Iranian educa- i Itors and administrators might feasibly pursue in their I efforts to improve programs of higher education. Specifi ll 'cally, the study attempted to answer the following questions: 1. What are the goals of higher education in Iran? i 2. What are the most pressing current issues and problems in higher education in Iran? 3. What are the most significant factors of the development of higher education in a developed country that might be useful to the improvement of higher education in Iran? i 4. What steps may be recommended toward possible ! solutions to existing problems of higher education in Iran? Assumptions Basic to this study were the following assumptions: 1. The future welfare and survival of Iran require that its institutions of higher learning serve its society effectively. 2. Effective higher education helps ensure general socioeconomic progress. 3. The content and analysis of the data are ade quately valid and reliable. 4. The results of the study will be of significant f i I 96 . . I value to individuals and agencies involved in higher educa- i tion in Iran. i | Procedures To carry out the purposes of this study, both his torical and survey methods of research were utilized, and the following steps were taken: i 1. A questionnaire for identification of current I [problems and issues affecting higher education in Iran was i i |de signed. I . | | 2. The questionnaire was validated by submission tos i 'the authorities in the field to whom the writer had access, j 3. The questionnaire was distributed to a random sample of university instructors and administrators in Iran. 4. A search of the literature was made to determine the significant factors in the development of higher educa tion in the United States that relate to the current prob lems affecting higher education in Iran. 5. The data collected were summarized and pertinent information was organized for formulating improved proce- j dures for higher education in Iran, based upon the review of| i literature in the field of higher education, the reaction of individuals who are involved with these problems, and the experience of the writer. 97 'Summary of Findings j The major findings may be summarized as follows: I j 1. Many problems exist or are aggravated by , poor, „ / planning and control caused by the excessively rapid growth and development of the colleges and universities. 2. Iranian education is strictly a state function and responsibility; local autonomy is not encouraged. 3. There has been an extraordinary student popula tion explosion in the past 10 years. 4. The need for clarification and reorganization of basic administrative structures and procedures, and for clarification and definition of the roles of administrative i jofficers was stressed. 1 5. Lack of cooperation and coordination among institutions has resulted in undue waste of manpower and financial resources. 6. Many issues have resulted from the extreme European- or American-oriented policies of control and/or | ! the difficulty of welding them into a control pattern suit able for Iranian higher education. Problems in terms of the! basic philosophy and objectives of an institution, its [organizational pattern, and the selection of curricular offerings, instructional materials, and techniques often Ireflected similar influences. There still is confusion con- i i jcerning what the proper philosophy and objectives of higher | 'education in a developing country should be. s/ 7. Distrust and lack of cooperation between admin- i jistrators and academicians tended to result in weak guid ance of the institutions of higher learning and in weak, poorly organized programs for students. I i 8. The need for a cohesive, well-defined pattern I i of organization within a university and for better communi cation and coordination among the various organizational units was stressed. I i 9. A desire for curricular reform and improvement of instructional and evaluative methods was clearly jexpressed. | 10. The problems of acquiring and retaining quali- ^ jfied faculty and staff have been ascribed to low salaries, poor or no housing, and poor research facilities. ! 11. The need for educating and training personnel to; i | i I ■fulfill the middle manpower needs of the country appears | j unquestioned. There is, however, a lack of consensus on j the proper role of higher education in providing such programs. i l 12. The need for paying greater attention to stu- ents1 personality development and emotional problems, theirj i i social and recreational activities, and for better housing j i iwas stressed. ! I Conclusions i ------------- i , On the basis of the findings and their analysis, the! jfollowing conclusions seem warranted.. 1. The many immediate problems facing the system ofi ‘ higher education in Iran are the direct result of the rapid I i . (increase m enrollment and jthe njumber of institutions, inad equate nationwide planning, and the shortage of qualified ^faculty. I 2. Lack of mutual trust, respect, and cooperation between individuals and groups of people compound problems in all areas of higher education. 3. Future economic and industrial development of the nation is dependent upon the quality, scale, and jfocuses of higher education. i i I 4. There is a great need for creatively designed i instructional programs and student services of all kinds. I I t I Recommendations The following recommendations are based upon the i findings and conclusions as reported in this study. i i__________ 100 'General Recommendations I 1. Serious consideration should be given by educa tors concerning how the system of higher education in Iran can best meet the needs of a rapidly developing society in the immediate future. | 2. Greater emphasis should be given to the concept of the service higher education can render to the individual ^student and to society at large. 3. Improved coordination should be sought to pre vent overlapping of expensive instructional programs, par ticularly during periods of financial distress. i 4. A permanent committee on college curricula com- i posed of university and governmental officials and curricu lum planners should be set up to review and revise curricula in accordance with current needs of students and the nation. i j 5. Ongoing institutional research should be con- jducted for the purpose of yearly reviews of current issues !and problems and improvement of administrative efficiency. 6. Business and industrial communities should be j made aware of the importance of cooperation with the uni versities. They need to understand that the university is virtually the only source of scientific and technological i [personnel and research facilities and is the nation's pri- I rnary agency of social progress. I 101 7. Middle manpower needs are especially important in a developing nation. It is suggested that government and i Educators make every effort to establish several two-year- type institutions of higher education, which have proved jtheir advantages to many developed and developing nations. 1 i> * > f' 8. Research funds should be augmented. Recommendations for Further Study Since research in higher education in Iran is rela tively unknown, many areas are open for further investiga tion. The following important topics are recommended for ifuture study: 1 1. Problems of communication among the various i | organizational units within each institution | and among all of the institutions of higher \ education in Iran 2. Future needs for academically trained personnel in business, industry, and the professions in Iran 3. The scope and nature of academic freedom in j Iran's present colleges and universities 4. A comparison of the cost of educating students in various institutions of higher education in Iran 102 5. The relationship between the entrance admission j examinations and the success in satisfying j t I graduation requirements in higher education in j I I Iran 6. A follow-up study on the impact of college life on students in future career selection. 103 I REFERENCES i 104' REFERENCES jAdler, M. , & Mayer, M. The revolution in education. Chi cago: University of Chicago Press, 1958. Astin, A. W. The college environment. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 196 8. X^anani, A. The modernization of Iran, 1921-1941. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1961. Bauer, R. C. Cases in college administration. New York Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1955 'Best, J. W. Research in education (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1970. Bolton, C. K., & Boyer, R. K. Organizational development \ for academic departments. Journal of Higher Educe tion, 1973, 44_, 352-369. Borhanmanesh, M. A study of Iranian students in Southern California. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California at Los Angeles, 1965. ✓ Bowen, H. R. Can higher education become more efficient? Educational Record, 1972, !53, 191-201. Boyer, R. K., & Campbell, C. Organizational development in higher education: Introduction. Journal of Higher Education, 1973, 44_, 339-351. Brick, M. Forum and focus for the junior college movement. New York: Columbia University, 196 3. Brubacker, J., & Rudy, W. Higher education in transition, an American History: 1636-1976. New York: Harper & Brothers, Publishers, 1976. 105 Bruner, J. S. The process of education (13th printing), j Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1975. j Burns, G. P. (Ed.). Administrators in higher education: 1 Their function and coordination. New York: Harper /r j & Brothers, 196 2. Burroughs, F. T., & Fatemi, K. Higher educational develop ments in Iran. Junior College Journal, 1969, 40 (2) , 21-25. I jcorson, J. J. Governance of colleges and universities j (2nd ed.). Mew York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1975. i ( Curti, M., & Corstensen, V. The University of Wisconsin, j 1848-1925 (2 vols.). Madison: University of Wis consin Press, 1949. Dimock, M. E. A philosophy of administration. Direction: ' The heart of administration. New York: Harper & ! Brothers, 1958. i Dodds, H. W. The academic president: Educator or care- ! taker? New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1962. bodge, B. Muslim education in medieval times. Washington, ! D.C.: The Middle East Institute, 1962. Donovan, G. P. Selected problems in administration of American higher education. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 1964. jDuryea, E. D. The theory and practice of administration. | In G. P. Burns (Ed.), Administrators in higher edu- i cation: Their functions and coordination. New j York: Harper & Brothers, 196 2. Eddy, E. D., Jr. The college influence on student charac ter . Washington, D.C.: American Council on Edu cation, 1959. Eells, W. C. The junior college. Boston: Riverside Press, 1931. Eells, W. C. (Ed.). American junior colleges. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1940. EelIs, W. CH Why junior college terminal-education? Wash- ington, D.C.: American Association of Junior Col leges, 1941. Ekrami, Feldman jGilman, ,Gilman, ! jGilman, ,Glaze, Goheen, Goldsen Haskins Hawkins, Hillway, A. Developing a curriculum for the elementary schools of Iran. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1951. K. A., & Newcomb, T. M. The impact of college on students. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1969. D. C. Education in America, 1776-1876. North American Review, 1876, 122, 191-228. D. C. Present aspects of college training. North American Review, 1883, 136, 526-540. D. C. The launching of a university. New York: Garnet Press, 1969. (Originally published, 1906.) ' . E. Business administration for colleges and uni versities . Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1962. R. The human nature of a university. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969. R. K., Rosenberg, M., Williams, R. M., & Suchman, E. A. What college students think. New York: D. Van Nostrand Co., 1960. C. H. The rise of universities. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1923. H. Pioneer: A history of the Johns Hopkins Uni versity, 1874-1889. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1960. | T. The American two-year college. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1958. Hodgkinson, H. L., & Meeth, L. R. (Eds.). Power and author ity: Transformation of campus governance. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1971. iHofstadter, R. , & Hardy, C. D. The development and scope of[ higher education in the United States. New York: Columbia University Press, 1963. Hofstadter, R. , & Metzger, W. The development of academic freedom in the United States. New York: Columbia University Press, 1955. .Hofstadter, R., & Smith, W. American higher education: A | documentary history (Vols. 1 and 2). Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961. Hollingshead, B. S. The community junior college program. Junior College Journal, 1936 , 7_(3) , 111-116. Hungate, T. L. Finance in educational management of col leges and universities. New York: Bureau of Pub lications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1954. i ^l Hungate, T. L. Management in higher education. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1964. Isaac, S., & Michael, W. B. Handbook in research and evalu ation (5th printing). San Diego: Robert R. Knapp, 1974. Jacobs, P. E. Changing values in colleges. New York: Harper & Row, 1957. Jervis, F. M., & Congdon, R. G. Student and faculty per ceptions of educational values. The American Psy chologist , 1958, 13^(8), 464-466 . Johnson, B. L. General education in action. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1952. Kandel, I. L. Essay in comparative education. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1930. Kaplan, N. (Ed.). Science and society. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965. I i |Keeton, M. Shared authority on campus. Washington, D.C.: | American Association for Higher Education, 1971. f I 108 Kerlinger, F. N. Foundations of behavioral research (2nd j ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 197 3. Kerr, C. The uses of the university. New York: Harper & i Row, 196 3. I Koontz, H., & 01Donnell, C. Management: A book of read ings . New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1964. (a) ;Koontz, H., & O'Donnell, C. Principles of management (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1964. (b) Koos, L. The junior college movement. Boston: Ginn & Co., 1925. i Kornfeld, L. L., & O'Hara, J. F. Designing a management information system (Vol. 1, No. 3). Detroit: American Data Processing, 1965. I I jLahti, R. E. Innovative college management. San Francisco: i Jossey-Bass, 1973. i !Lake, C. H. (Ed.). The expanding role of education: 1 The Twenty-Sixth Yearbook of the American Associ ation of School Administrators. Washington, D.C.: American Association of School Administrators, 1948. Mallinson, V. An introduction to the study of comparative education. New York: Macmillan Co., 1960. Martin, D. (Ed.). Anarchy and culture: The problem of the contemporary university. New York: Columbia Uni versity Press, 1969. i jMayhew, L. B. (Ed.). Higher education in the revolutionary decade. San Francisco: McCutcheon, 196 8. , ( i McKay, D. 0. Secrets of a happy life. Salt Lake City: j Bookcraft, 1967. Metzger, W. P. Academic freedom in the age of the univer sity . New York: Columbia University Press, 1961. jMiller, D. C. Handbook of research design and social mea- | surement (2nd ed.). New York: David McKay Co., ! 1970. 109 ;Millett, J. D. The academic community. New York: McGraw- Hill Book Co., 1962. ! Morrison, S. E. Three centuries of Harvard: 1636-1936. | I Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1946. Najmabadi, M. The University of Jondishapur. Tehran: Sharivan, 196 6. I i jOrtega y Gasset, J. Mission of the university. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1966. Osmonson, R. L. Objectives of higher education as reflected in the inaugural addresses of selected college and university presidents. Unpublished doctoral dis sertation, University of Southern California, 1968. Otten, C. M. University authority and the student: The j Berkeley experience. Berkeley: University of j California Press, 1970. j I ^ahlevi, Mohammad Reza Shah, His Imperial Majesty, Shahan- i shah of Iran. Mission for my country. London: 1 Hutchinson Co., 1961. Patillo, M. M., Jr., & MacKenzie, D. M. Eight hundred colleges face the future. Preliminary report of j the Danforth commission on church colleges. St. I Louis: Danforth Foundation, 1965. Perkins, J. A. (Ed.). The university as an organization. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1973. Phenix, P. H. Education and the common good. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1961. ! jPullias, E. V. A search for understanding. Dubuque, Iowa: I William C. Brown Co., 1965. j i Pullias, E. V. A common sense philosophy for modern man: | A search for fundamentals. New York: Philosophical Library, 1975. I Pusey, N. M. The age of the scholar. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1963. 110 Ricciardi, N. Vital junior college problems in California. Junior College Journal, 1930, 1_(1) , 24-27 . Richardson, R. E., Blocker, C. E., & Bender, L. W. Govern ance for the two-year college. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1972. Rippa, A. Education in a free society. New York: David McKay Co., 1971. Rudolph, F. The American college and university: A history. New York: Vintage Books, 1965. |Rudy, W. The revolution in American higher education: j 1865-1900. Harvard Educational Review, Summer 1951, | 21, 155-174. I ruitiI, B., & Morrison, D. H. Memo to a college trustee. Nev^! j York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1959. jSadiq, I. Modern Persia and..her .educational systems. New < York: Columbia University Press, 1931. ISadiq, I. History of education (in Persian). Tehran, 1940. Sam, M. The role of'supervision in educational administra tion as applied in the Iranian environment. Unpub lished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern' California, 1959. Sanford, N. (Ed.). The American college. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1962. I [ Schlesinger, A. M., Jr., & White, M. (Eds.). Paths of American thought. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Co., 1963. Smith, G. K. (Ed.). The troubled campus: Current issues in higher education. San Francisco.: Jossey-Bass, | 1970. Stern, G. G. Student values and their relationship to col lege environment. In H. T. Sprague (Ed.), Research on college students. Boulder: Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education, 1961. Ill jstorr, R. J. Harper's University: The beginnings. A His- | tory of the University of Chicago. Chicago: Uni- j versity of Chicago Press, 1966. IStruik, D. J. Yankee science in the making. Boston: Little, Brown, 1948. Tead, 0. Character building in higher education. New York: j Macmillan Co., 1953. i i Thornton, J. W. , Jr. The community junior college. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1964. i Travers, R. M. W. An introduction to educational research (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan Co., 1969. UNESCO. World survey of education. IV. Higher education. New York: UNESCO Publications Center, 1966. Veysey, L. The emergence of the American university. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965. Walker, D. G. The potential of junior colleges in the I developing nations of the world. Unpublished doc toral dissertation, University of Southern Cali fornia, 1966. i I i Whitehead, A. N. The aim of education. New York: Free Press, 1968. Wilson, L. Emerging patterns in American higher education. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1965. I APPENDIXES 113 APPENDIX A SUPPORTIVE LETTERS 115 S C H O O L O F E D U C A TIO N UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA U N IV E R S IT Y PARK LOS A N G E LE S , C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7 April 7, 1975 Ministry of Science and Higher Education Tehran, Iran Dear Sir: I'm very pleased to inform you that Ezatolah Naderi is making good progress in his doctoral studies. We are pleased with him both as a person and a scholar. His topic for research will be "An Analysis of Critical Current Issues and Problems of University Education in Iran." It may be that the specific title of his study will be changed as his research progresses, but the above title will indicate the basic nature of his study. Please let me know if I can be of any special assistance in guiding this student in terms of your policies. Sincerely yours, Professor of Higher Education and Chairman of Committee on Studies EVP:mhc UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA University Park Los Angeles, California 90007 ! ^ School of Education August 1, 1975 Dear Iranian Colleagues: We are very pleased that Mr. Ezatolah Naderi is doing this research on higher education in Iran. The purpose of his research is to determine the principal strengths and weaknesses of the system and particularly, to dis cover means of improvement. Mr. Naderi is an able and responsible student, and is worthy of your confidence. He will use all information secured with scholarly responsibility. He is quite aware that all solutions must take into account the nature and purposes of the Iranian culture. I personally, and the University of Southern California, will appreciate any assistance you can give him. Sincerely, Earl V. Pullias Professor of Higher Education EVPrmhc 116 ^ ( , _ 5 ^ KZfJpS’ (^ W T A . Liu^Mi^ .JLj l» 2 fc* ^ 3 \ « I . I ...... ill f£*»J *} 4 ^ ^1 mu 1 1 ‘ ■'ij ^ ^ * •mXimrn^mM* I a b * ^ ^ ^ X a > » / . ^ r i * > .... ^ ^ J j ^ —. . . S - ^ jsA ( j g 1„ . , . m V ^ . - , . . 1 1 % i J O v ^ J J d»i «nfai>j^w» i > I S W ^ IM <||||^11■ * ■ ■ ■ * Lj m3 3^^l w 4 r i <A J 4 «loT £, 1 3— 4; A il l ■ &? t ^ ) j i - L a Ur L <£ juU> j> J S d . __ i ? ^ (3 o L w w A ^ j i ^ i i s r f i ) . ^ j > ijrt» «nj«i.i^ g : w ^ f ) J L * *i » in Mtlg vJLw-«»*a^ii ^ -3 > & * 3 S * * I m Q o As^Z J < J L ^ j ^ CXw^ ^JyASwAfi Cww * «J»mw ■ J k * % ! J * Z < ? ^ ^JyfcUJ 117 APPENDIX B COVER LETTER f I August 10, 1975 ] (Dear Sir: i 1 i i . . . . . 1 University education m the developing countries today faces serious problems; and there is general recog nition of the need for improvement in many areas of higher education in Iran. j With this fact in mind, I am entering upon a study jof the most critical issues in Higher Education in Iran. .The result of this study when completed will be submitted las a doctoral dissertation at the University of Southern i [California, Los Angeles, California 90007. The study is (being done under the direction of Dr. Earl V. Pullias, |Professor of Higher Education. It is hoped that this research will be worthwhile •and that the result will be of interest to you. Your assistance in the study by completing the questionnaire on the following pages will prove invaluable. Those cooperat ing with this survey will receive a summary of the results upon request. For your convenience an addressed stamped envelope is enclosed. Your kind cooperation will be thoroughly appreciated. Thank you for your time and interest. i j Cordially yours, Ezatolah Naderi 119 APPENDIX C QUESTIONNAIRE QUESTIONNAIRE Personal Data: Sex: Male __ Female __ Age: 21-30 , 31-40 __ , 41-50 __ , 51-60 __ , Over 61 __ Position _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Degrees _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Full-Time Part-Time Dept. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Institution__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ What are the major educational objectives of your institution? (Please list at least three) What is your opinion of the Uniform College Entrance Examination? Very satisfactory _ _ _ Satisfactory _ _ _ Unsatisfactory _ _ _ No opinion _ _ _ Reasons for your opinion _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Please indicate any special problems for having evening sessions in your institution: i Recommendations for improvement of evening sessions program: 1 |5. What do you think of hiring foreign teachers for the institutions of. j higher learning in Iran? j I Agree _ _ _ Disagree No Opinion j ! Explanatory remarks _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ I |6. How adequate is your salary relative to the cost of living? i I More than adequate _ _ _ Adequate _ _ _ Inadequate _ _ _ | If inadequate, what means of increasing faculty salaries would you recommend? 7. Please evaluate conditions in the following administrative areas ; quantitatively by checking the appropriate column. A. Very satisfactory | B. Satisfactory C. Unsatisfactory D. No opinion ^ ^ ^ ^ Budget ___ ^_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____ Faculty & Staff ___ ___ ___ ___ Classrooms ___ ___ ___ ___ Facilities_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ ___ ___ ___ Libraries ___ ___ ___ ___ Instructional Programs_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ ____ ___ ___ Student Personnel ___ ___ ___ ___ i | 8. Please evaluate the quality of today's students in terms of the following attributes: A. Very satisfactory B. Satisfactory C. Unsatisfactory D. No opinion A B C D Physical health ___ ___ ___ ___ Emotional stability ___ ___ ___ ___ 122 ! 8. (continued) j Self-motivation toward learning _ _ _ _ _ ! Extracurricular activities _ | Personal ability _ Faculty-student relationships ___ _ Student-student relationships ___ _ ; 9. Do you feel today's college curricula should be changed? i i Yes _ _ _ _ _ _ No_ ____ If yes, to what extent? Major change _ _ _ Minor change ___ What major changes do you recommend? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ i l O . Do you see any value in having private institutions of higher | learning governed by a private board of trustees? Yes No Undecided j i Explanatory remarks _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 11. What do you believe should be the proportion of general to specialized education in college curricula? Example: General:Specialized 3:2 In your opinion:_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ | What do you believe should be the proportion of required courses i to electives in college curricula? Example: Required Courses:Electives 4:1 In your opinion:_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ j12. Do you feel present administrative systems and procedures should ! be changed? Yes __ No __ Major Change Minor Change No Opinion 12. (continued) What major changes do you recommend? 13. Overall, are the course offerings of the institutions for higher learning in Iran keeping up with modern developments? Yes _ _ _ No_ _ _ _ ____ Undecided _ _ _ _ Explanatory remarks:_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 14. Please check whether you agree or disagree with the following proposals. A. Agree j B. Disagree J C. No opinion 1 A B C Summer sessions ___ ___ ___ i More electives ___ ___ ___ Fewer required courses ___ ___ ___ More objective tests ___ ___ ___ More extracurricular activities ___ ___ ___ Two-year mandatory public service after graduation ___ ___ ___ Mandatory faculty retirement at age 65 ____ ____ ____ Improved coordination among institutions of higher education ___ ___ ___ 15. Do you feel some problems to be of greater importance than others i in higher education in Iran at the present time? j Yes __ No __ If yes, please list the five you consider to be of greatest importance. ,'15. (continued) i 3. _____ 4. 16. What suggestions could you give to solve the above problems? 125

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Creator Naderi, Ezatolah (author)

Core Title An analysis of critical current issues and problems of higher education in Iran

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, sociology of,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-458845

Unique identifier UC11246069

Identifier usctheses-c26-458845 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP24228.pdf

Dmrecord 458845

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Naderi, Ezatolah

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA