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The relationship between role expectations and training needs of educational supervisors in Nepal

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The relationship between role expectations and training needs of educational supervisors in Nepal

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Content THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ROLE EXPECTATIONS AND TRAINING NEEDS OF EDUCATIONAL SUPERVISORS IN NEPAL by Balaram Shrestha A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Education) November 198 0 UMI Number: DP24799 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. UMT Dissertation Publishing UMI DP24799 Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA T H E G R A D U A T E S C H O O L U N IV E R S IT Y P A R K LO S A N G E L E S . C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, w ritte n by balaram shrestha under the direction of h...is. Dissertation C o m mittee, and approved by a ll its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Graduate School, in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t of requirements of the degree of D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y Dean DISSERTATia Chairman ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The investigator expresses his profound gratitude to Dr. Marvin A. Nottingham, Chairman, for his guidance, advice, and support in the process of completion of this study. Heartfelt thanks are extended to Dr. W. Tapscott Steven, Jr., and Dr. John D. Gerletti for their valuable suggestions and encouragement. Appreciation is due to Dr. Kedar Nath Shrestha, Dean, Institute of Education, Tribhuwan University of Nepal, for his support and cooperation. Thanks are extended to Shubhadra Shrestha, Krishna Shrestha, Nilkantha Amatya, Purosottam Shrestha, Shiva Das Joshi, and Narottam Shrestha for undertaking the difficult task of gathering data from the field. Last, but not least, appreciation is extended to all the supervisors who cooperated in completing the questionnaires and returning them on time. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii LIST OF TABLES V I Chapter I. THE PROBLEM 1 Introduction Background of the Problem Statement of the Problem Questions to be Answered Significance of the Study Assumptions Delimitations Limitations Definitions of Terms Organization of the Remainder of the Study Introduction Section A Supervision System Before 1950 Supervision System After 19 50 Supervision System After 1971 Categories of Supervisory Roles Expected Supervisory Roles Section B Development of Supervision in the United States Some Definitions of Supervision Conceptual Frame of Supervision Some Major Issues in Supervision Some Major Patterns of Supervision General and Clinical Supervision Preparation of Supervisory Personnel Contrasting Features of the Two Systems of Supervision II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 13 iii Chapter Page III. METHODOLOGY...................................... 8 6 Research Design The Study of Related Literature Instrumentation Selection of Population Collection of Data Treatment of Data IV. THE FINDINGS............. 92 The Needed Skills and Techniques of Supervision in Nepal Needed Techniques and Skills Physical Facilities Teachers 1 Performance Instructional Improvement School-Community Relations Miscellaneous Demographic Data Opinions in Open-space on Questionnaire Analysis of Questionnaire Items Physical Facilities Teachers 1 Performance Instructional Improvement School-Community Relations Miscellaneous V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . 119 Summary Problem Methodology Summary of Findings Conclusions Recommendations Proposed Supervisory Training Program Outline for Supervisors in Nepal Description Contents of the Training Performance Objectives Tentative Plan for Implementing the Training Program Duration of the Training iv Chapter Page Number in Training Location Preparation for the Training BIBLIOGRAPHY.......................................... 136 APPENDIXES............................................. 141 A. Questionnaire and Letters of Introduction . . 142 B. List of Respondents' Districts................. 153 v LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. The Number of Supervisors............ 96 2. Supervisors' Experiences in Districts ... 97 3. Regional Experiences of Respondents . . . 98 4. Years of Supervisors' Experience ......... 99 5. Academic Qualifications of Respondents . . 100 6. Responses Regarding Training Needs on Physical Facilities ....................... .103 7. Responses Regarding Training Needs on Teachers' Performance .................... 104 8. Responses Regarding Training Needs on Instructional Improvement ................ 107 9. Responses Regarding Training Needs on School-Community Relations ............... 108 10. Responses Regarding Training Needs on Miscellaneous Supervisory Roles ......... 110 11. Total Responses of 100 Respondents on 38 Questionnaire Items .................... Ill 12. Rank Ordering of Questionnaire Items by Multiplying Responses by 0, 1, and 2 . 112 vi CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introducti on His Majesty's Government of Nepal implemented the national educational plan under its five-year plan--National Education System Plan 1971-1976 (NESP). With the implemen tation of this plan, educational programs expanded enor mously, curriculum was updated, and several new subjects were added. Enrollment increased greatly in the schools and substantial numbers of new teachers were appointed. On the whole, educational development reached a new stage. A well-organized supervision system was recognized as an essential ingredient to ensure proper and effective enforcement of the national educational programs in the schools (NESP, 1971, p. 49). The National Education Plan 1971-1976 contained a nationwide supervision system program as a separate section. As mentioned in the plan, one of the main purposes of the supervision system was to provide advice and incentives to the school teachers to do their jobs effectively and efficiently (NESP, 1971, p. 49). There was an urgent need for professional assis tance to the teachers in the schools because of the com plexities created by the new educational plan. There was 1 a large number of untrained and newly appointed teachers who were badly in need of constant professional guidance and assistance to carry out their instructional responsi bilities. The supervision system was established to pro mote educational quality along with the quantitative expan sion of educational programs, processes, and activities within the national education system. The supervision system in the sense of providing professional assistance to the teachers was quite a new concept in the Nepalese educational scene. Before the implementation of the National Education System Plan in 1971, inspections were conducted by the administrative officers for administrative and financial control purposes primarily. Since they were conducted only for control pur poses, they were generally authoritarian in nature, somewhat: as the legacy of the past autocratic regime. They did not provide any professional assistance to teachers (Super visors' Manual, 1978). It was recognized that this kind of inspection had negative effects on the professional growth and development of the teachers because of its inherent authoritarian nature, accompanied by the fear and anxiety such a system tends to produce. The supervision system which was introduced in the Nepalese educational system to provide advice and incen tives to teachers for the purpose of instructional improve ment in the schools was a landmark in the nation's 2 educational development. There was no such separate cadre of instructional supervisors to assist teachers in their professional performance before the implementation of the National Education System Plan 1971-1976. Within the five- year-plan implementation period, His Majesty1s Government of Nepal created approximately 50 0 supervisory positions to work with the teachers in the 75 districts of the country. These supervisory positions were classified as technical service employees in His Majesty's Government of Nepal Service System. It was significant for two reasons: (1) It provided a professional status to the supervisory positions and not an administrative position to perform the duties of control only; (2) it increased the salary of the supervisory positions as compared to the administrative positions. In addition to the better salary, supervisors were paid 33 percent of their base salary as a field allowance in recognition of the hardship of fieldwork. In the National Education System Plan 1971-1976, the general duties of the supervisors were defined. The Education Regulations of 1971 also specified the super visory functions and responsibilities. Supervisors were employed and sent to the districts to fulfill the duties as outlined in the plan and regulations. Thus, the super visory process was put into operation. The employed super visors were not adequately trained in the field of super vision, considering the relevancy of the supervisory roles 3 in the Nepalese situation. Consequently, the success of the new supervisory services to the teachers was limited. Background of the Problem The newly appointed and assigned supervisors had to face a series of problems in the course of their field work. Some of the problems mentioned by the supervisors who attended the in-service,short-term training programs conducted by the Ministry of Education in 1975, with the cooperation of the Institute of Education of Tribhuwan University and the Curriculum Development Center, were (a) lack of training for the supervisors, (b) lack of resources, (c) having majored in one subject area but being required to supervise all the subjects, and (d) unclear supervisory roles. The Mid-term Evaluation, which was conducted to evaluate the implementation of the National Education System Plan 1971-1976, resulted in a published report. In the report, some of the basic weaknesses and limitations of the newly introduced supervision system were stated. One of the main points mentioned in the report was the initial weakness of the system regarding the recruitment of the supervisors. The supervision system was established by employing the supervisors and assigning them to the districts to work. They were not trained in the necessary fields, especially in the skills and techniques of 4 supervision (Suggestions of Mid-term Evaluation Report, 1977) . The weaknesses of inefficiency and ineffectiveness were noticeable in the supervisory performances of these newly-recruited supervisors. The system had been the target of attack from all sides. The supervisors were frustrated by the situation. The authorities in the Ministry of Education had high expectations for the super vision system and they were not satisfied with its func tioning. The crux of the whole situation was the apparent lack of suitable and relevant supervisory training to enable the supervisors to fulfill the duties assigned to them. Statement of the Problem The roles of educational supervisors were defined in general terms in the National Education System Plan 1971-1976 which included the Education Regulations 1971 as mentioned in Supervisors * Manual, 197 3. In the sugges tions of Mid-term Evaluation Report (1977) it was apparent that the supervisory system was not meeting the expecta tions as envisioned by the educational plan. This study was designed to determine the rela tionship between the role expectations for educational supervisors as defined in the National Education System Plan and the Education Regulations and the training needs that supervisors identify as necessary to fulfill those expectations. 5 Questions to be Answered The specific questions to be answered by this study were: 1. What skills and techniques were needed by super visors to fulfill their supervisory roles? 2. What were the training needs of supervisors as perceived by themselves in the field? 3. What kind of training program would be necessary to develop the skills and techniques needed by the supervisors? Significance of the Study This study was the first to explore supervisory training needs in the national education system of Nepal. The supervisors who were appointed and sent to the field had gained valuable field experiences from this newly- introduced supervisory program in the country. The exper iences could provide a sound basis for the improvement of the supervisory system. In fact, these supervisors were the key resource personnel in the process of improvement of the supervisory system. The performance of effective, intelligent, instructional, supervisory behavior could not be left to chance. Those supervisors officially designated to demonstrate this behavior must be prepared with extreme care. Their practical field experiences must be utilized by involving them in the process of identification of 6 training needs and articulation of training programs. This study could be a significant step in this direction of development and improvement of the supervisory training program in the Institute of Education by making the super visory services relevant and meaningful to the in-service supervisors who must meet the problems and difficulties in the course of their daily performances. This study was intended to determine the relation ship between the duties of supervisors and their needs to fulfill the duties in the field. The comparison could provide the basis for improvement in supervisory training and in performance. Theoretically/ the entire educational system could be greatly benefited from this study since it focuses on the crucial problems of making instruction in the schools effective and efficient. It was the expecta tion of this study that it would bring positive results in making the supervision system capable of upgrading the standards of teaching in the schools of the country. Assumptions The following were the assumptions of this study: 1. The findings and recommendations of the study would have meaningful implications in the future super visory training program development in the Insti tute of Education as well as in the Ministry of Education of His Majesty's Government of Nepal. 7 2. This study would clarify the confusing and con flicting roles of the supervisors to some extent for the people involved in the supervisory process. 3. Supervisors would provide reasonably accurate perceptions of their professional needs. 4. The basic supervisory skills and techniques requir ed by primary, secondary, and vocational super visors would be the same. 5. The relationship between the supervisory role expectations and the training needs determined by this study would be critically significant in the development of the supervision system in Nepal. Delimitations The following were the delimitations to the scope of this study: 1. The study was delimited to the roles of district- level supervisors. 2. The focus of the study was directed at the develop ment of the training program to enable supervisors to play the roles as determined by the National Education System Plan 1971-1976. 3. The "remote" districts as described by His Majesty's Government of Nepal would be excluded for questionnaire distribution. 4. From the 300 supervisors in the 57 districts sur veyed, 150 supervisors were randomly selected to receive the survey. Limitations The following were the basic limitations of the study: 1. This study was limited by the fact that the super visors in 18 districts were not included in the study because of the problem created by geograph ic conditions. 2. This study might be limited because of the limited returns of the distributed questionnaires from the supervisors. 3. Responses might be inaccurate due to misunder standing by respondents or failure by them to respond candidly. 4. The survey instrument was, of necessity, adminis-' tered by persons other than the researcher. 5. The study was limited by resources of literature relating to the Nepalese supervision system. 6. The questionnaire translated into Nepali language might not have carried the exact meaning of its original English version: 9 Definitions of Terms Curriculum Development Center. ' An agency charged with carrying out continuous research and improvement of textbooks for the schools of Nepal. Education Regulation 1971. Legal document in relation to educational administrative process in the country. It is promulgated by HMG/N in accordance with NESP. Education Regulations. A legal document to regulate the educational system in the country. His Majesty's Government of Nepal. Nepal is a kingdom and its government is referred to as His Majesty’s Government of Nepal. In short, HMG/N. Institute of Education. This institute is charged with the responsibility of training teachers and other professionals in education. National Education System Plan 1971-1976. The overall national education system which is in operation in Nepal. In short, NESP. Remote Areas. His Majesty's Government of Nepal has classified 18 northern districts as remote areas because of the problems of transportation and communica tion created by the high mountainous condition of the area. Role expectations. The supervisory roles as expected by. the National Education System Plan 1971-1976, which includes the Education Regulations of 1971, and the 10 Supervisors 1 Manual of 197 8. Supervisors. There are three types of supervisors: Primary School Supervisors responsible for supervision of primary schools (grade I to III), Secondary School Super visors responsible for supervision of lower secondary and secondary schools (grades IV to X), and Vocational Super visors responsible for vocational programs in the schools. The Supervisors1 Manual 1973 & 1978^. A handbook developed and issued by the Ministry of Education to pro vide assistance to the supervisors in the performance of their supervisory duties in accordance with the educational plan. Trained teachers. Teachers with the completion of training required by the NESP. Training needs. The training needs as perceived by the supervisors selected for the questionnaire adminis tration . TribhuWan University. It is Nepal's only Univer sity charged with the total higher education system in the nation. There are several institutes to cover the principal subjects of higher education which are the units of the university. 11 Organization of the Remainder of the Study Chapter II contains a review of literature per taining to supervision. The main focus is directed to the perspectives on development of supervision systems in Nepal and the United States. Chapter III contains the procedures of the study, the selection of the population, and the instrument used for collection of data. Chapter IV contains the interpretations and find ings of the study. Chapter V contains the summary/ conclusions, and recommendations for the training program for the super visors of Nepal. It also contains the outline of the training program, devised as a result of the analysis of questionnaires from supervisors in Nepal. The study concludes with the bibliography and appendixes. 12 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction The establishment of a supervision system in the national education system created a new cadre of super visors with new roles and functions to be played by them to improve the quality of education in Nepal. These emerging supervisory roles seemed to be basically influ enced by the two fundamentally conflicting factors, such as the traditional notions of administrative inspection, which often tended to be authoritarian in nature, and the recent exposure to the new concepts of supervision through the studies of related literature, especially from the United States. The present stage of the supervision system was the gradual development of two decades of practical experiences of the people involved in it and the studies of national educational conditions by experts. Since the system was influenced by these factors, a certain degree of dilemma existed relating to the supervisory roles in the minds of the people directly or indirectly involved in the system, such as administrators, teachers, community people, planners, evaluators, trainers, specialists, and 13 supervisors themselves. Although the main purpose of this study was not to investigate such dilemmas relating to the supervision system, it was believed that a brief survey of the development of the supervision system would help to comprehend the complexity of how the traditional notion of administrative inspection persisted and resisted the new concepts of supervision. It would also provide implica tions for determining training needs and training programs for the supervisors. The proper assessment of the super visory roles and functions was prerequisite to determining the specific training needs and the training programs for them. This chapter consists of two main sections— A and B. Section A deals with the development of a supervision system from the Rana period to the present stage. The nature of the inspection system before and after 1950 until 19-70 fs is examined. The supervisory programs suggested by the educational studies and descriptions of the supervi sion system in the NESP and in other related materials are briefly stated. Section B deals with concepts of supervision as developed in the United States. This was to provide a general conceptual framework to understand better the emerging roles and responsibilities of supervisory per sonnel and patterns of supervision in the educational system. It focuses mainly on development, definitions, approaches, and training components of supervision. A j.4 brief note on the contrasting features of the supervision system of Nepal and the United States is made at the end of the chapter. Section A Supervi s i on Sys t em Before 1950 The Rana authocracy from 1846-1950 was a period of educational suppression and opposition. Education was reserved for a very few people and little progress in education was made during this period (Wood & Knall, 1962, p. 25). The spread of education was viewed as politically dangerous and strict surveillance was maintained until the end of the regime. Starting new schools and libraries was illegal. A group of sponsors of petitions to estab lish a public library was prosecuted by the Rana govern ment for contemplating an unlawful action and each of them was fined (Joshi & Rose, 1966, p. 53). The system of Rana autocracy was unchanged in its reliance on force and coercion, and administrative centra lization persisted in one fixed form in this period (Edwards, 1976, p. 2). Poverty and ignorance for almost all the people was the deliberate choice and the actively pursued goal of the Rana regime (Reed & Reed, 1968, p. 1) . The main characteristic of the personnel system— key positions as well as lower posts— under the Rana adminis tration was the absolute privilege of the ruling family 15 CBomberger, 1974, p. 22). Organization of educational administration was virtually non-existent, especially during the earlier part of the regime, since its deliberate intention was to restrict the limited educational facilities within the small circle of the ruling elite (K. N. Shrestha, 1975, p. 14). There was a position of Director General for education in the central level of the government. This position was awarded to some member of the ruling family usually to decorate and to authorize privileges to him, not to develop, improve, or facilitate educational pro grams and services for the cause of public education. According to Wood (19 65), one of the Rana Generals was designated as the Director General of Education, but the responsibilities were minimal and the functions were performed indifferently (p. 13). In 19 41, that is, in the latter part of the Rana regime, the Office of the Chief Inspector of Schools was established to start inspections of the few schools in operation at that time. There was no assistant provided for the Chief Inspector in his task of inspection (K. N. Shrestha, 1976, p. 3). The main objective of inspection was to see that schools were operational according to the prescribed rules and to maintain administrative control. In 1947, two offices of the Deputy Inspectors of Schools were established for the eastern and the western regions 16 to assist the Chief Inspector of Schools (Supervisors1 Manual, 1978, p. 3). Supervision System After 1950 In 1950, there was a political revolution which brought a drastic change in the political system. A more representative form of government with more political freedom took the place of the autocratic Rana regime in the country. The advent of this new form of government not only gave more freedom to the people, but also it burdened them heavily with the corresponding responsibili ties. At that time, the educational program in the country was almost non-existent, and less than 2 percent of the people were literate. It posed a great challenge for the people to bear the burden brought by the political revolu tion. The report of the Nepal National Educational Plan ning Commission in 1954 recognized education as the key stone for successful working of democracy and recommended a national educational system (Pandey, K C , & Wood, 19 56). The decade after the 1950 revolution in the country was the period of educational reconstruction, and it resulted in a surge of educational institutional growth and expan sion (Wood & Knall, 1962, p. 25). The number of schools increased rapidly to meet the rising demands of the people for education. It impacted on the overall educational 17 situation in the country. It was considered as a keenly felt awakening for the need of education with the dawn of democracy in the country (Pandey et al., 1956, p. 1). Its immediate impact was on the administrative reorgani zation in the education system. In 1952, an education board was established to supervise and expand the existing educational facilities. The national commission for plan ning a national educational scheme was formed as suggested by the education board (Pandey et al., 1956, p. 1). For the first time in the country, an inspection system in a nationwide structure was established to main tain first-hand touch with the schools of the country, but there was still no uniform record-keeping system to draw necessary information and data related to education. For better and realistic educational planning, such a record keeping system was badly needed for the educational plan- I ners and administrators. Such educational information and data were almost nil. The Education Department could not make available accurate figures of even the number of schools in teims of need (Pandey et al., 1956, p. 25). The school system, in the early part of the first decade after democracy, was loosely organized under the Ministry of Education. The extent of control by the cen tral ministry was determined by the amount of financial aid extended to the school system. In 19 53, in the Ministry of Education, there were an education secretary, two 18 deputy secretaries, and two assistant secretaries. The educational policies and programs were determined and carried out by this level with the help of a National Board of Education. Below this, there were a Director General of Public Instruction, two directors, an Assistant Director of Public Instruction, seven zonal Inspectors and three Sub-Inspectors in each zonal office (Pandey et al., 1956, p. 26X. The zonal inspector and his sub-inspectors con ducted inspection of the schools within their jurisdictions and were directly responsible to the Assistant Inspector of Public Instruction. There were basically three types of schools in the country at that time. These schools were categorized on the basis of the financial system. There were government schools, which were financed com pletely by the government, government-aided schools, which were financed partly by governmental financial aid, and the independent schools which did not receive government aid but had government recognition. The headmaster of each government school was responsible to the inspectorate and a managing committee, which was mostly an advisory board. The headmaster and managing committee of each government-aided school were responsible to the inspec torate for inspection and advice and for accounting for government funds. It was not obligatory for independent schools to be inspected by the inspector, if they were 19 not planning to secure financial aid from the government. Inspection was prerequisite for securing government aid. The independent schools had a different control system. The managing committees were the controlling power for the independent schools. Usually managing committees exercised administrative control over them. These managing commit tees were usually made up of seven to fifteen members, representing the teachers, the parents, the headmaster, and laymen at large (Pandey et al., 1956, p. 26). Instruction was not the main concern for the inspector at that time, and inspection was conducted for administrative control and release of financial aid. There were frequent changes in both the ministry and the directorate of education, particularly during 1951 to 1960. The main problem was to clearly determine the lines of authority and responsibility between the two main organs of the education ministry. For a time, the foreign-aided development programs were under a separate section in the Ministry of Education, thus creating a dual directorate. Consequently there was a lack of continuity of programs and a lack of consistency of policies of education administration. After 1960, there was some administrative reorganization and it created a better situation for a closer coordination of activities (Wood & Knall, 1962, p. 79). 20 There were a few educational studies to investigate the conditions in the Nepalese education system in different times and to suggest to the government future plans and programs to improve the system on the basis of the studies. The significant studies were the Nepal National Educational Planning Commission (19 54), the All-Round National Educa tion Committee (1961), the UNESCO Team (1962), and the Long-Term Projection For Education In Nepal (1965). Each of them had shown concerns for the need to maintain quality in education along with the rapid growth and expansion of educational programs and activities in the country. Recom mendations were made for administrative and supervisory systems to be developed within the education system to ensure the maintenance of quality in education. The need for a supervisory program in each of these study reports was significant in the Nepalese education system because it paved the way for the present educational supervision system in the country. Therefore, a brief discussion on the aspect of supervisory systems recommended by each of them is made here. One of the characteristics of national education for Nepal as proposed by the Nepal National Education Planning Commission was decentralization in educational organization, administration, and control. The Ministry of Education would play the role of organizing forces, and provide leadership and necessary uniformity, ensure 21 minimum standards, and direct training of teachers. It was emphasized that each village must take major responsibility of education in its area. It would have a board of educa tion to organize and supervise education in general, and would employ a competent administrator to administer schools (Pandey et al., 1956, p. 84). The role of the teacher was recognized as the key stone of education and the remark was made that education could be no better than the teacher made it, because the educational environment usually is shaped largely by the role played by the teacher (Pandey et al., 1956, p. 161). The commission report recognized the need to introduce an effective supervisor to help a teacher improve his work. The supervisor*s role should not be to rate teachers for the purposes of awards or discipline. The inspector who would rate or criticize teachers creates a negative situa tion and affects negatively the inspector-teacher relation ship. The report preferred the term 'supervisor' rather than 'inspector.1 His major function should be that of a special consultant to improve the instruction process in schools. The rating function and the guiding function should be kept separate if supervision was to be success ful (Pandey et al., 1956, p. 190). Specific roles and functions of supervisors were referred to in the report. In the secretariate office, there should be a supervisor for each major field of 22 learning and special supervisors as needed. These super visors would be responsible for general leadership in their respective fields, developing curricula and courses of study, establishing criteria by which to evaluate the work in areas of learning, and giving general supervision to the districts in their related fields. Regarding the field activities, they should spend one-third to one-half of their time visiting schools throughout the country, meet ing with teachers and promoting the curriculum, methods, materials, and other aspects of the professional programs. No single supervisor should be assigned to one or a group of schools. Their function should be chiefly one of leader ship, not administrative control. General supervision might be carried on by special supervisors or directly from the Deputy Secretaries' offices (Pandey et al., 1956, p. 192). The report also suggested that each district office should have necessary assistants such as deputy director or supervisor in primary and secondary level according to the numbers of schools in the districts. The headmaster's role as a supervisor was clearly mentioned in the report. The headmaster must become a good supervisor because it would be cheaper and more effective to help teachers im prove (Pandey et al, 1956, pp. 192-193). The All-Round National Education Committee of 19 61 recommended the following in relation to educational supervision. Under the direction of the zonal education 2 3 officer, the education supervisor was to organize and implement the supervision programs for schools, libraries, and institutions of social education within the assigned area at least twice a year. In addition to this, he should (1) Conduct cross-inspection from time-to-time, (2) decide upon and approve school sites, (3) recommend financial assistance to schools in accordance with the departmental policy and directives, (4) manage salaries for the government institutions, (5) appoint personnel temporarily in vacancies, (6) recommend transfer of government teachers and employees to the zonal education office, (7) maintain records of the office staff, teachers, and other employees, (8) suspend any teacher or employee immediately in case they indulged in activities against educational institutions and refer the cases to the zonal educational office for necessary actions, (9) solve problems of educational institutions within the assigned area. Financial administration was one of the major functions recommended for the supervisors. Discon tinuance of financial assistance to the schools and other educational institutions which were not abiding by the regulations by reporting the actions to the zonal education office and recommending the transfer of assistance from one to another institution were recommended functions for the supervisors. They should arrange for auditing of the income and expenditures of all educational institutions 24 every six months. The approval to add classes in schools should be given only in case of adequate facilities (All- ROund National Education Committee Report, 1961, pp. 58-59). In short, this report confined the supervisors' functions to the financial and personnel administration and did not mention the functions relating to instructional improvement and assistance to teachers for better teaching. The UNESCO Team of 1962 proposed the establishment of a division of curriculum and supervision under the directorate of education. This was one of the major changes in organization proposed by the team. This division would serve as an executive agency of the National Curriculum Commission and plan details of curriculum, develop sylla buses and other interpretive materials, and implement and supervise them in the schools. Supervision of instruction was emphasized. Under this new division, there should be a group of specialists of primary education, secondary education, and of major vocational and general school subjects, and they should work closely with school supervisors at the district level and with the teacher training institutions to assure a correct and effective interpretation of cur riculum. They should have major responsibility for improve ment of the quality of education and the modification of existing curriculum. 25 In relation to organization and expansion of the inspectorate,, the report proposed 14 zonal inspectors, 14 zonal deputy inspectors, and 7 5 block sub-inspectors. "Blocks" were used at that time for "districtsand later these blocks were converted into districts. The zonal inspectorate should be responsible for administration and supervision of education in the region and the sub inspector would be responsible for administration and super vision of education at the block level. As a large number of schools were located in the areas, the sub-inspectors could provide only nominal administration and little or no supervision. The proposed plan stressed an improvement of the quality of school education, in-service training of teach ers, and rapid expansion of education. For the attainment of these goals, there should be adequate leadership and supervision on the regional level. Training of inspectors and sub-inspectors could pay the highest returns for the investment and adequate supervision could ensure high standards of education. The UNESCO Team Supervisory plan also proposed making provision for one primary school education specia list, one secondary education specialist and specialists in vocational and selected subject areas according to the location and size of the blocks. In smaller blocks, the "combination" supervisors (e.g., social studies and 26 language, science and health or mathematics, etc.) might be introduced. Thus the report indicated the immediate need for approximately 500 supervisors and specialists for the education system. Additional supervisors and specia would be needed in proportion to educational expan sion. There would be a need for master supervisors in the several zones to coordinate the activities of block super visors, and to serve as the contact between them and the directorate and division of curriculum and supervision. The zonal supervisors would have to come to Kathmandu once or twice a year for two to three week conferences. Upon their return to the zonal offices, the block supervisors could be called to the zonal headquarters for similar con ferences. The block supervisors in turn arranged seminars or in-service training for teachers in their respective areas. Careful recruitment of specialists and supervisors and training for them at least a year at the college of education were suggested. In the training components, several subjects were suggested, such as a thorough study of grades 1-10 curriculum, modern methods of teaching, educational psychology and philosophy, leadership tech niques and group dynamics, in-service training techniques, orientation to village development programs, adult literacy, and other related programs. The specialists should be given refresher training in their respective specialities. 27 The report proposed to give top priority for the super vision system, which could be a highly productive investment for successful implementation of other recommendations of the report for the improvement of quality in education (Wood & Knall, 1962, pp. 81-83). The Long-Term Projection For Education in Nepal (1965)indicated that it was desirable to have an education service with professional career staff to focus on organi zation, inspection, and administration in the field of education. This would be part of the program for strength ening the infrastructure of the education system. Graduates with professional training and a few years of teaching,as well as district educational administrative experience, should be recruited for this service. The supervision of schools was not adequate; more education officers would be required. Special attention and effort for the train ing of the cadres were required for the expanding tasks of supervision, planning, and administration in education C Long-Term Projection For Education in Nepal, 1965, p. 50). Continuous reorganization of educational adminis tration of the government has been imperative with the growth and development of educational programs and activi ties in the country since political change in 19 50. The educational administration has been a part of the general government administration. The officers who worked in the 28 Ministry of Education and some of those who worked as zonal inspectors were the members of the general public adminis trative service, which was responsible for staffing all the administrative positions in all the ministries and departments of the government (Long-Term Projection for Education in Nepal, 1965, p. 15). Thus, the administrative reorganizations initiated by the general public adminis trative service department also affected an educational administrative organization. Recognizing the district administration as the weakest link in the administrative chain of the country, the new district administration plan was introduced to foster a cementing force of socio-politico-economic over lays apart from communication and transport networks between the center and the districts. The philosophy behind this plan was to create a viable centripetal organi zation capable of formulating and implementing a district- wide plan and to absorb these fully functional sub-systems within the unitary framework of the national administration (M. K. Shrestha, 1975, p. 65). In the educational sector, the administrative reorganization was directed to clarify the roles of educa tional officers at the district level. The responsibili ties of the educational officers were being expanded along with the effort to make the ever-growing and developing governmental organizational structure effective (K. N. Shrestha, 1976, p. 4 ) . _____________________________29 Before the abolition of the zonal education offices, they were responsible for secondary education within the zone, and the district education sub-inspectors were responsible only for primary education within the respec tive districts. The numbers of zones and districts were increased from 7 to 14 and 32 to 75, respectively, in the course of administrative reorganization in the country. After the abolition of the zonal education offices, the positions of district education inspector in 29 districts were upgraded to administer both the primary and secondary schools in the district. The educational administrative organizational structure remained the same until the imple mentation of the national education system plan in 1971. Supervision System After 1971 In 1971, the National Education System Plan--1971- 1976 was introduced and it provided for a comprehensive national education system with overall administrative reorganization as well as with several new and expanded educational programs. One of the concerns shown by the plan was the urgent need to maintain educational quality in the educational system of the country. The quantitative increase of the educational programs and activities had resulted in a wide diffusion of the available resources, especially financial resources. It had unfavorably ____________________________________________ 30 influenced the educational standard (NESP, 1971, p. 4). This was the situation before the implementation of the NESP. There were other problems inherent in the education al system in the country before the NESP implementation. The major problems were lack of well-defined and clearly laid down educational policies and objectives, unproductive values of the society as the basis of education, objectives unrelated to the aims and objects of the national plan, and weaknesses of the administration in education. The weaknesses inherent in educational administration seemed to be the outcome of other problems and weaknesses in the educational system. The weaknesses in the educational administration were not action-oriented. Being highly centralized, there was a lack of clarity of scope, author ity, and responsibility of the educational administrators and other officials. There was an absence of effective communication among the different divisions, sections, and projects within the administrative organization, and a lack of inspection of the field-activities by the central office CNESP, 1971, pp. 3-7). The NESP devised steps to overcome these problems and weaknesses. One of the attempts taken was the synchron ization of the qualitative improvement of education with its quantitative growth by stressing the production and distribution of necessary educational materials and by strengthening the inspection and supervision system in 31 educational administration, standardizing textbooks, and expanding educational opportunities (NESP, 1971, pp. 9-10). Though the reports of the previous educational studies stressed a great need for educational supervision to improve educational quality in the school system, it was not established as envisaged before the implementation of the NESP. The supervision system was established with the hope that it would ensure proper and effective enforce ment of the plan by offering advice and incentives to the teachers to do their jobs more effectively and efficiently. Frequent visits to the schools and evaluations of the performances of the teachers were desired. Supervision of physical facilities, adequacy of the numbers of teachers, standards of performance, and evaluation of instruction were emphasized. At least twice-a-year visits to the schools by supervisors were made obligatory. Supervision of lesson plans, evaluation of stu dents' abilities by administering standardized tests,con ducting model lessons for observation, and discussion on teaching were major parts of the supervision procedure. In the original plan, there were three different kinds of supervisors, such as primary, lower secondary, and second ary level supervisors, requiring different qualifications. The academic degrees of I. Ed. means Intermediate of Education; I. A. means Intermediate of Arts. I. Ed. or I.A. or their equivalent with training, for primary school 32 supervisor, and B.Ed. or B.A. or their equivalent and training, for secondary school supervisor, were required. Primary school supervisors were placed in non-Gazetted class I (technical) and secondary school supervisors were in Gazetted class III (technical). Special preference for M.Ed. and training for secondary school supervisors was indicated. The status of Gazetted class II technical or administrative might be given to the secondary school supervisors with qualification of M.Ed. and training. The supervision section at the ministry level would circulate professional materials such as school management and new methods and ideas of teaching to the supervisors. It would also administer questionnaires to schools and super visors regarding their problems and difficulties. It was obligatory for each school to submit progress reports and useful data to the supervisors concerned, who would forward the same to the regional directorate for onward transmittal to the ministry. Problems faced by the school and possible suggestions for overcoming them should be stated in the reports (NESP, 1971, pp. 49-50). The revised supervisor- school ratio for primary level was 1 to 40 in valley and plains, and 1 to 30 in hilly regions. For the secondary level it was 1 to 20 in valley and plains and 1 to 15 in hilly regions. Supervisors were provided an additional 33 percent of their regular salary as the field allowance, because they were expected to work in the field extensively (Supervisors' Manual, 1978, p. 3). The team of supervisors 33 in the district education office was responsible to the district education officer, who was the chief instrument of implementation and supervision of the educational pro gram within the assigned district (NESP, 1971, p. 47). The emerging new roles and responsibilities of supervisors, especially the new professional role, created an entirely new situation and the new situation challenged supervisory personnel to play the roles in a professionally sound way. The concerned units of the ministry of educa tion conducted short-term training, workshops, and con ferences to improve supervisory competencies. The insti tute of Education also conducted three-month-long super visory intensive courses along with participation in the training and workshops organized by the ministry, (Super visors ' Manual 197 8, p. 3). There was a mid-term evaluation of the implemen tation of NESP, and the evaluation report contained a seg ment on the supervision system. It pointed out a series of problems, difficulties, and weaknesses of the supervi sion system. it portrayed a complexity of process for this newly emerged supervision system in the Nepalese education system. It ranged from administrative to organi zational management to professional skills and techniques relating to supervision. The confusion created by this complex situation itself affected negatively the effective ness and efficiency of the system. 34 The evaluation report referred to some of the weak nesses in the supervision system which could be seen as barriers to the successful implementation of the specified policies and goals of education. Some of the weaknesses mentioned in the report were (1) inadequancy of school supervision, (2) appointment of unqualified and untrained persons as supervisors, (3) lack of appropriate training <v for supervisors, (4) lack of a reward and punishment system, (5) inadequate supervisory leadership ability of district education officers,(6) lack of timely directions and leader ship of the regional directorates to the concerned districts on the basis of occasional evaluation, (7) ineffective central-level supervision sections, and (8) slow process of transferring temporary supervisors to permanent posi tions. The temporary but experienced supervisors were often disappointed and uncertain (Agrawal, 1977, pp. 85-86). The report also contained suggestions relating to the improvement in central,regional, and district-levels of the supervision system. At the central level, the supervision section would be free from the burden of per sonnel administration and would assist developing programs and policies, and evaluate and direct the regional and district levels. Appointment of a competent and qualified person as the head of the supervision section in the cen tral level who would be capable of supervising and evaluating supervisory programs and who could prepare 35 materials and plan training for supervisors was recommended at the regional level. Subject specialists in vocational and general subjects would be appointed and they would provide services to the concerned districts in conducting workshops and short-term training for subject teachers. Thus they would have to play a significant role in provid ing special services in subject supervision. At the dis trict level, supervisors would organize workshops and short term training for the teachers, conduct follow-up and supervise physical facilities, administration, and adult education programs. For making supervision convenient and efficient, the district education officer would delegate some administrative power to the supervisors (Suggestions of Mid-Term Evaluation, 1977, pp. 3-4). The problems and difficulties in the supervision system as perceived and verbalized by the supervisors, district education officers, and the others who were directly or indirectly involved in the supervision system, were many and multi-dimensional, i.e, organizational, managerial, professional and role perceptions. The line- staff relations among the District Education Officer (DEO), supervisor, headmaster, and teacher were unclear. Super visors frequently experienced failure to maintain func tional relationships with the headmasters and teachers in the course of their performance. Supervisors felt the need for administrative authority to do their supervisory jobs 36 in the field. In terms of the number of schools as well as areas to be supervised, they were burdened with much more than they could do effectively and efficiently. They also felt that there was a lack of coordination among the administrative, supervisory, and fiscal units within the district education offices. Communication was not adequate, There was lack of adequate exchange of ideas and opinions, especially between the DEO and supervisors on their plans, programs, problems and difficulties. In professional aspect, they experienced difficulties in playing the roles of general supervisors. Teachers needed specific guidance and assistance in various teaching subjects for which the supervisors were not competent. There existed conflicts in role perception--authoritarian or democratic. The in spectorial traditions of the past tended to prevail as predominant, especially because of the existing bureau cratic nature of government organization. In the Education Regulations of 1971, the duties, responsibilities and powers were listed which the supervisors must follow (NESP, 1971). Except one, all the listed jobs were drawn from the NESP. The last job added was that "other" assign ments could be directed by the DEO. It seemed that this single responsibility of supervisors overshadowed all other duties which were more professional in nature. One of the fundamental problems indicated by the super visors was that they had to do more administrative and fiscal type of duties than professional duties. The DEOs indicated different problems in relation to the performance of supervisors. These problems were lack of enthusiasm and interest on the part of supervisors to improve instructional programs. They found supervisors as incompetent in their performance (Report on the Fourth Conference of District Education Officers of Regional Directorate, Middle-19 78). This would shed light in recog nizing the often heard conflicting relations between DEOs and supervisors (Supervisors 1 Manual, 1978) . The Summary Report on Problems Faced by District Supervisors-1975 (Hughes & Shrestha, 197 5) indicated that some major problems cited by the supervisors were lack of trained teachers, lack of training in supervision and resources, lack of educational materials in schools, prob lems of supervisor-DEO relations, lack of p-ysical facili ties in schools, professional problems, and problems of school-community relations. One of the comments made by the supervisors in the Curriculum Workshop of 1977 was that people had shown much dissatisfaction about the ineffec tiveness and inefficiency of the supervision system, but nobody had explored what was achieved and what was not, and no effort had been made to find out the actual reasons for problems and difficulties of supervisors so that help could be provided to them to improve their performance. 38 The Institute of Education was responsible to carry on all kinds of professional education needed for success ful implementation of educational plans and programs and to improve the standards of education in the country. It started course offerings in educational administration and supervision at the diploma and degree levels. One could major in this field of study. The course components con tained both theoretical as well as practical activities to make them more useful and relevant to meet the wide range of theoretical and practical needs of the existing reality. In 1976, the Institute conducted a Summer Intensive Training course of three-month duration for secondary school supervisors with a view to assist them in their supervisory performances. The major components of the training programs were educational supervision, school management, planning school education at the district level, school curriculum and in-service teacher education. The field experience was included in the training program to provide the opportunity to try out the newly acquired skills and techniques under the guidance of the Institute staff. The Training Section of the Ministry of Education and the Curriculum Development Center had organized a series of short-term training and workshops for supervisors and the Institute of Education staff was involved in the training team. The short-term training sessions were designed to assist supervisors to improve their super visory performances. 3 9 The UNICEF-Assisted Education Project of 197 6 had funded a series of practical "on-the-job" two-weeks train ing sessions for primary school supervisors of the country. It was recognized that there was a need for a coordinated approach in conducting training programs involving the needed expertise from the related agencies such as IOE, MOE CDC, and others, and stress was given to real-life practi calities for school activities. Relevancy and practical use of the training were the critical needs and all the training should be based on the need assessments of the supervisory system (Ratnaike, 1976, p. 8-11). Categories of Supervisory Roles. The study of the National Education System Plan 1971-1976, with the Education Regulations, and the Super visors 1 Manual (197 8) provided the expected supervisory roles which can be categorized into five areas: (1) roles relating to physical facilities, (2) roles relating to teachers' performance, (3) roles relating to instructional improvement, (_4J roles relating to school-community relations, and (5) miscellaneous roles. Techniques and skills needed by the supervisors relating to the physical facilities, teachers' performance, instructional improvement, school-community relations, and miscellaneous were identified to determine the extent of 40 the training needs in each category. Techniques and skills for supervision were related to the roles of the supervi sors. In other words, different supervisory roles demanded f different sets of techniques and skills of supervision. In the Nepalese situation, supervisors were expected to play specific roles according to functions of supervision as specified in the educational plan and regulations. The following are the roles of the supervisors as defined by the Nepalese educational plan: Expected Supervisory Roles Expected supervisory roles Physical facilities Developing plans for future school facilities Selecting new school sites Planning for the expansion and improvement of school facilities Supervising school facilities construction Evaluating school building adequacy Assessing school property Teachers1 performance Planning for increasing teachers according to increasing enrollments and programs Planning, organizing, and implementing in-service training for teachers Evaluating trainings Conducting follow-up evaluation after training Planning and implementing extracurricular activities Planning for school visits and class observation Planning daily, monthly, and annual schedules for schools Expected supervisory roles Developing appropriate student records system Conducting staff meetings and discussing school prob lems 41 Planning for supervision in assigned schools Evaluating supervision program for constant improvement Evaluating teachers Selecting and assigning teachers Assessing teachers needs Instruction improvement Evaluating the degree to which the prescribed curricul um is being implemented in schools Improving school curriculum Preparation and use of instructional materials and equipment Constructing and administering instruments to evaluate student achievement Change-agent for instructional improvement Providing leadership for instructional improvement Conducting research and utilizing research findings for instructional improvement in schools School-community relations Establishing and maintaining good school-community relations Working with community people for school improvement Working with parents in improving students' achievement Mobilizing and encouraging community people for increas ing student enrollment in schools Planning and managing literacy classes for adults Mi sc e1laneou s Preparing school budget Understanding and implementing financial policy and procedures Understanding and implementing administrative pro cedures Procuring instructional materials, equipment, and other materials according to regulations Performing legal functions Communicating effectively with people concerned (NESP, 1971) Section B Development of Supervision in the United States Spears (1958) described five distinct periods of 42 development of supervision in American education in terms of people responsible for it and its nature. The first period of supervision began during the colonial period and went through the Civil War. The inspec tion of school and classroom was the concept. The people responsible for it were laymen:: clergy, school wardens, trustees, selectmen, citizens' committees. They focused on inspection for the sake of control. Emphasis was upon observing rules and maintaining existing standards. The second period of supervisory development began in the nineteenth century and superintendents of state, intermediate (county), and local units were the parties doing the supervision. The nature of supervision was inspection for the sake of control, and emphasis upon regulations continued with some leadership for improvement. The third period was from 1910 to 1935 when super visory responsibilities were divided between principals and special supervisors or "helping teachers." Improve ment of instruction was expected through direct classroom observation and demonstration. Attention was focused upon the teachers' weaknesses. The fourth period covered from 193 5 to 1963 when the dominating concept was cooperative educational leader ship. The responsibility of supervision of principals and special supervisors was shared mainly by coordinators, curriculum directors, and consultants. The nature of the 43 supervisory program was also changed accordingly. Super visory program centered in cooperative study enterprises, such as curriculum development and in-service education courses aimed toward improvement of instruction. The fifth period began in 1964 with the supervisory concept as cooperative effort, stimulated by democratic leadership and influenced by the availability of federal grants and the interest of the community. Responsibilities were with principals and,,in certain cases, specialist consultants, special supervisors, shared coordinators, curriculum directors, consultants, research personnel, and public relations specialists. The supervisory program continued to focus on cooperative study enterprises with the addition of community participation (Spears, 1958, p. 38).. Wiles and Bondi (198 0) outlined the evolution of supervision roles: inspection and enforcement from 1750 to 1910, scientific supervision from 1910 to 1920, bureau cratic supervision from 1920 to 1930, cooperative super vision from 1930 to 1955, supervision as curriculum develop ment from 1955 to 1965, clinical supervision from 1965 to 1970, and supervision as management from 1970 to 1980 (p. 7).. The relationship of the inspectors with the teachers was often stern and punitive when the supervisory role was a form of inspection and enforcement. Supervisory 44 visitations were characterized by directing, telling, judging, and sometimes even dismissal of teachers. In the beginning of the twentieth century, education in America was heavily influenced by models of industrial mechani zation and the practices of scientific management. Effi ciency and economy were dominant. The scientific super vision in education was followed by bureaucratic super vision which was the impact of the business age. Super vision was concerned with goals, objectives, and specifi cations. Bureaucratic features such as division of labor, technical specialization, high organizational discipline, specific procedures for work situations and a reliance on written communication were seen in educational supervision. American education entered a new era of progressive education when education supervision became ineffective in its enforcement in the 1930s. This new era was charac terized by a rapid growth in school population, increasing diversity among school children, economic prosperity, mobility, and other socioeconomic factors. New school programs were spread throughout the country and thus increased the responsibilities for school administrators. Complex management skills for them were needed to deal with complex educational institutions. Human relations had become an emerging theme of educational supervision in the 1940s. Processes rather than products were focused upon . Supervisors were busy more in helping teachers 45 than judging their performance. Supervision emerged as a specialty area in education. Cooperative group efforts and democratic interactions were the features of super vision up to 1955. From 1955, curriculum development dominated the educational scene which influenced the role of educational supervisors. In the early 1960s, the roles of supervisors, as subject-matter field agents, were organizing materials, involving teachers in the production and implementation of educational programs, serving as resource persons to the teachers in the field, and organizing in-service training for them. The job of training classroom teachers through in-service training opportunities was gaining- prominence. In the late 1960s, most school districts failed to maintain distinct goals. A reassessment of programs became a matter of necessity, because of too many program changes, an overextended and crowded school curriculum, and rising costs. The expectations for schools were rising, and resources for operating schools were declining. Administrators returned to the traditional practices of making things orderly. In the late 1960s and 1970s, the literature on supervision focused on analysis of the teaching-learning process and on the concept of "clinical supervision.1 1 Due to the great economic and political pressures on school systems in the late 197 0s, administra tors were forced to return to the similar situation of 46 industrial orientation of the first quarter of the century. Supervisors also began moving toward a managerial role, which perceived supervision as an extension of adminis tration. It was evidenced by the related literature on supervision in the late 1970s which dealt with behavior systems, organizational theories, and concerns for manage ment. The role of supervision in the 1980s would continue to evolve balancing between administrative, curricular, and instructional concerns (Wiles & Bondi, 1980, pp.4-8). The literature on supervision broadly characterizes supervision as traditional or modern in terms of its characteristic features. Traditional supervision centered mostly on the teacher and the classroom situation. Teach ers, being undertrained, needed constant direction and training. Thus, supervision was taken as super-inspection and super-rating, and thus, it was based on a misconception. Modern supervision is perceived as a cooperative service. Its main concern is with the identification and solution of professional problems. It focuses upon the total learning-teaching situation, and provides cooperative services, consultation, and in-service education. Burton and Brueckner (1955) pointed out some major features of traditional and modern practices in school supervision. Traditional supervision is inspection imposed and authori tarian and usually carried on by one person. The main focus is on teacher and class visitation and conference, 47 and a poorly planned or a meager formal plan. Modern supervision has distinctive features. It is based on pragmatic study and analysis, and it focuses on goals, materials, techniques, methods, teachers, students and environment. It plays many diverse functions and is organized and planned definitely. It is cooperative and derived, and carried on by many persons. Marks, Stoops, and King-Stoops (1978) added some features in modern supervision such as objective, systematic, democratic, creative, growth-centered, and producing. It accentuates the spirit of inquiry by emphasizing experimentations and continuous evaluation. Some Definitions of Supervision Harris (197 5) defined supervison as follows: Supervision of instruction is what school personnel do with adults and things to maintain or change the school operation in ways that directly influence the teaching processes employed to pro mote pupil learning. Supervision is highly instruction-related but not highly pupil-related. Supervision is a major function of the school operation, not a task or a specific job or a set of techniques. Supervision of instruction is directed toward both maintaining and improving the teaching-learning processes of the school. (pp.10-11) Lucio and McNeil (197 9) defined supervision as 1 1 supervision is itself a process of discovering what values are worthwhile and proper for instructional objec tives" (p. viii). 48 Wiles and Lovell viewed supervision as an instruc tional behavior system and wrote as follows: Instructional supervisory behavior is assumed to be an additional behavior system formally provided by the organization for the purpose of interacting with the teaching behavior system in such a way as to maintain, change, and improve the provision and actualization of learning opportunities for students. (1975, p. 6). Alfonso, Firth, and Neville (1975) wrote as follows: Instructional supervision is herein defined as: Behavior officially designated by the organization that directly affects teacher behavior in such a way as to facilitate pupil learning and achieve the goals of the organization.(pp.35-36) According to Oliva, "Supervision is conceived as a service to teachersf both as individuals and in groups. 'Supervision is a means of offering to teachers specialized help in improving instruction" (1976, p. 7),. Stoller said: The improvement of instruction seems to be concerned with— overseeing, directing, guiding, conducting, regulating, controlling, moving toward a goal, etc.— workers (teachers), who give or teach knowledge or information in such a manner that there is a resulting increase in value or in excellence of quality or condition. (1978, pp.7-8) Neagley and Evans (1980) maintained: Modern supervision is considered as any service for teachers that eventually results in improving instruction, learning, and the cur riculum. It consists:ot positive, dynamic, democratic actions designed to improve instruc tion through the continual growth of all con cerned individuals— the child, the supervisor, the administrator, and the parent or other lay person. Cp. 20). 49 Eye, Netzer and Krey (1971) defined supervision as "that phase of school administration which focuses primarily upon the achievement of the appropriate instructional expec tations of the educational system" (p. 31). Harris and Bessent (1969) also related supervision with administration and defined it: Supervision is what school personnel do with adults and things for the purpose of maintaining or changing the operation of the school in order to directly influence the attainment of major instructional goals of the school.(p. 11) Cogan (1973) gave a definition of general super vision work as follows: General supervision, therefore,denotes activities like the writing and revisions of curriculums, the preparation of units and materials of instruction, the development of processes and instruments for reporting to parents, and such broad concerns as evaluation of the total educational program, (p. 9) Curtis (1964) defined supervision in a similar way: Curriculum practices can exist without supervision, although one would scarcely wish to vouch for their vitality. However, it is so blatantly obvious that supervision is utterly dependent on concern for curriculum that one need hardly bring up the matter at all. That is, if the newer concept of supervision is accepted. Of course, supervisors can "do" things that are not related to curriculum and instruction, just as they have in the past. They can gather statistics and information to no avail; they can observe teachers for no good reason; they can con fer with teachers about irrelevancies; and they can conduct staff meetings that are unrelated to the imperatives of teaching. Enough of this exists today to make one uneasy. The only com fort that one can draw is that these activities are not supervisory at all. They are called "supervisory," and this tends to give the 50 whole concept of supervison a bad name. Supervision must find meaning in curriculum If it does not, it has no meaning, (p. 162) The Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (1965) provided the following definition of supervision: Since the titles "supervisor" and "curriculum director" are often used interchangeably as to function, the terms might be used to indicate a person who, either through working with super visors, principals, or others at the central office level,contribute to the improvement of teaching and/or the implementation or development of curriculum, (pp. 2-3) Marks, Stoops and King-Stoops (197 8) defined super vision as "action and experimentation aimed at improving instruction and the instructional program" (p. 15). Wiles (.1967), and Sergiovanni and Starrett (1979) emphasized the human relations aspect in supervision. Mosher and Purpel (1972) focused on the leadership function and wrote as follows: We consider the tasks of supervision to be teaching teachers how to teach, and the pro fessional leadership in reformulating public education— more specifically, its curriculum, its teaching, and its forms, (p. 4) In the same way. Wiles and Bondi (19 80) also emphasized the leadership function of supervision and de fined supervision as "a leadership function that bridges administration, curriculum, and teaching, and coordinates those school activities concerned with learning" (p. 11). According to Wiles and Bondi (1980), the difference in definitions results from contextual variables and the 51 relative emphasis given supervisory functions vis-a-vis other components of the school environment. Social and economic conditions of the times when these definitions were formulated influence them. These authors pointed out specific aspects that were emphasized by different authors in different times and conditions during 19 6 0 to 1980. Different authors focused on different aspects of supervision such as Harris and Bessent (1969) and Eye, Netzer, and Krey (1971) on administration; Curtin (1964) and Cogan (.1973) on curriculum; Wiles (.1967), Sergiovanni and Starrett (197 9) on human relations; ASCD Yearbook (1965), Marks, Stoops and King-Stoops (197 8) on instruction; Mosher and Purpel (1972), and Wiles and Bondi (1980) on leadership; and Alfonso-, Firth, and Neville (1975) on management. Conceptual Frame of Supervision Oliva (197 6) presented his conceptual model of supervision and referred to roles, domains, and foundations of supervision. Coordinator, consultant, group leader, and evaluator are the four main roles the supervisor plays. Instructional, curricular, and teacher development are the three main domains in which the supervisor plays those four major roles. He assists teachers in the improvement of instruction, curriculum planning and improvement, and 52 professional development of teachers. For these kinds of activities, he has to have "a wide repertoire of knowledge, skills, and techniques." A knowledgeable and skilled supervisor must draw his expertise from a series of areas of learning such as instructional technology, curriculum theory, group interaction, counseling, sociology, disci pline, evaluation, management, learning theory, history of education, communication theory, personality theory, and philosophy of education (Oliva, 1976, pp. 12-14). Alfonso, Firth, and Neville (1975), discussing a conceptualization of instructional supervisory behavior, viewed the educational organization as a social system and believed that educational institutions could be studied as subsystems of a larger society. Each educational insti tution is composed of specialized and inderdependent parts to achieve the common goal. It consists of a variety of behavior systems to achieve organizational goals and to maintain organizational operation and existence. Adminis trative behavior system, teaching behavior system, counsel ing behavior system, instructional behavior system, and student behavior system are the examples of educational organizational behavior systems. There are six fields of study which have implications for instructional supervisory behavior, such as leadership theory, communication theory, organization theory, change theory, group dynamics theory and decision theory. 53 Presenting a concept of supervision, Lucio and McNeil (1979) described supervision as a synthesizing process, assimilating predicted consequences suggested by various theories with judgments about the desirability of consequences in unique situations. This concept is supported by a series of theories, such as theory of learning, theories of personality, phenomenological views of individual behavior, legal and political institutions and beliefs, contemporary philosophy, theories of knowl edge, theory of group dynamics, social anthropology, and theories of.change, role theory, theory of organizations, and theory of communications. Harris (1975) provided some significant proposi tions regarding the nature of instructional supervision. Five functions of school operations, such as teaching, supervision services, special pupil services, management services, and administrative services, have two dimensions: (1) instruction-relatedness, and (2) pupil-relatedness. In the goal-setting process for a program of instructional supervision, the five functions of school operations referred to ten tasks of supervision, such as developing curriculum, organizing for instruction, providing instructional staff, providing instructional facilities, providing materials, arranging for in-service education, orienting staff members, relating other services to instruction, developing public relations, and evaluating instruction. Supervisory leadership is related with the processes of planning, organizing, leading, controlling, and assessing, and the leadership role is very crucial since human means are so important to attain human ends. Harris (197 5) categorized two supervisory endeavors— tractive supervision and dynamic supervision-- in terms of their nature. Some endeavors are to maintain continuity and some are for change. Tractive supervision tries to resist change, enforces rules to maintain uniform ity or conformity, and codifies to formalize practices. Dynamic supervision acts to upgrade supervision by making minor changes without altering related practices, restruc turing, and redesigning. Wiles and Bondi (1980), emphasizing supervision as a leadership role, referred several approaches to super visory leadership such as authoritarian (using power to exert influence), observing (identifying dissonance and suggesting changes), planning management (projecting goals and evaluating progress), human relations (building relationships in groups, climate building (altering the perceptions of group members), research (using a trial- error format to change practice), and therapeutic (serving as counselor to group members). The choice of an approach should be determined according to the needs of the group being served (Wiles & Bondi, 1980, p. 28). The following are examples of static (reinforcing) and dynamic (change-oriented) activities of supervisors: ______ 55 Static Enforcing statutory requirements Evaluating semester course outlines Filing lesson plans in the district office Holding class enrollments to correct teacher-pupil ratios Approving daily class schedules Final editing of curriculum guides Enforcing legal length of the school day Scheduling psychological services in the district Arranging for publishing companies to display their products Regulating visitors to school building Dynamic Planning programs for staff development Holding conferences with individual teachers to im prove instruction Working with teachers to apply research findings Initiating pilot projects and innovative programs Developing long-range curriculum plans Demonstrating new instructional methods to teachers Designing - enrichment and remedial activities for students Leading revision of school or district philosophy of education Circulating newly acquired professional literature Evaluating various media.(Wiles and Bondi, 1980, pp. 29-30 The supervisory role has three main dimensions: administrative, curricular, and instructional. Among supervisory roles or tasks are setting and prioritizing goals, establishing standards and developing policies, providing long-range planning, designing organizational structures, identifying and securing resources, selecting personnel and staffing, providing adequate facilities, securing necessary funding, organizing for instruction, and promoting school-community relations. 56 Among curriculum-related supervision roles or tasks are determining instructional objectives, surveying needs and conducting research, developing programs and planning changes, relating programs to various special services, selecting materials and allocating resources, orienting and renewing instructional staff, suggesting modification in facilities, estimating expenditure needs for instruction, preparing for instructional programs, and developing and disseminating descriptions of school programs. Among instruction-related supervisory roles or tasks are developing instructional plans, evaluating pro grams, initiating new programs, redesigning instructional organization, delivering instructional resources, advising and assisting teachers, evaluating facilities and over seeing modifications, dispersing and applying funds, con ducting and coordinating in-service programs, and reacting to community needs and inquiries (Wiles & Bondi, 1980, pp. 32-34). Some Major Issues in Supervision Oliva (1976) reflected on some of the major issues in supervision. The issues he cared to discuss were: Is supervision necessary? For whom should supervision be provided? How shall we organize for supervision? Shall the supervisor be an administrator? What kind of approach 57 should the supervisor use in working with teachers? What shall be the role of the supervisor in the day of strong teachers* associations? A short note on each issue is given below. Oliva (1976) asserted the need for supervision referring to several supporting points, such as teachers' difficulty in attaining perfection in teaching, inability of preservice programs of teachers to turn out finished products, inability of prospective teachers to learn all they need to know and will need to know when teaching, especially because of rapid development in all fields of knowledge. Supervisors help teachers to effect change, which is the central problem facing instructional leaders. There is a great need for better trained and more skilled supervisors to help teachers. Oliva was in favor of making supervision available to all kinds of teachers— older as well as newer, exper ienced as well as inexperienced, and poor as well as able. It is obvious that the new, inexperienced and poor teachers need supervisory assistance. But supervisors can be of great help even for better teachers in providing useful suggestions or making known to them new publications and materials. Thus supervisors can play a role of 1 1 time-saver" for teachers. Cooperative and able teachers could be a great joy to the supervisor (Oliva, 1976, p. 29). 58 Regarding the issue of organizing supervision, Oliva pointed out that a plan for organizing supervision should be developed before hiring supervisors, after making decisions on desirable qualifications, needed number, kind, and use of supervisors. The size and financial resources, number of teachers in the system, and the strengths and needs as well as their attitudes toward supervision must be considered. There has been a question on whether generalists or specialists should be employed to perform the supervisory functions. Oliva (1976), de scribing the basic characteristics of generalist super visors, wrote as follows: The generalist may be described as a super visor who has responsibilities for supervising teachers in a number of grades or in a variety of subjects. Although he has expertness and experience in at least one teaching field, he may and usually does supervise in areas in which he does not have special training or has no training at all. The generalist is an expert at "teaching" and knows what constitutes good general methods. He can recognize, for example, a good classroom environment, knows when a teacher is presenting a lesson well, and can judge effec tiveness of planning. The generalist understands learning theory and is conversant with principles of evaluation and measurement. He has an understanding of the use of audio-visual materials, a good background in resources and materials, and knows where to locatq additional sources. The generalist has a broad view of curriculum. He can compare what teachers in various grades, classes, subjects, and schools do. He can assist the teacher with problems of discipline and may be able to help the teacher to develop techniques of counseling. He has a good over-all knowledge of curriculum and instruction. By helping teach ers of different grades and subjects to work together he can serve as a unifying force. (Oliva, 1976, p. 30) 59 Regarding specialist supervisors, Oliva pointed out the following characteristics: The specialist supervisor has depth of pre paration and experience in a particular level or subject. He not only knows his subject thoroughly but knows modern techniques and latest trends in teaching the subject. The specialist possesses some of the same knowledge, and skills as the generalist. He too understands learning theory and can help a teacher with discipline, classroom climate, and guidance. His forte lies in the ability to relate principles and techniques to a particular grade level or field. The specialist can help a teacher apply techniques of evaluation to a particular subject. He can discuss the use of audio-visual materials with the teachers in relation to a specific grade or field. Planning is considered with the teach er in relation to a specific field rather than principles of planning in the abstract. The specialist knows sources of specific materials of use to the teacher. He can detect when teachers are making mistakes in teaching particular topics and can help them to correct the errors. The specialist has a more limited view of curriculum and instruction than the generalist since he works within.one area whereas the generalist works across areas. (Oliva, 1976, p. 31) Although Oliva preferred to have specialist super vision, he recognized the effectiveness of general super vision at the elementary school level. He indicated that it was preferable to have specialists who were, in effect, generalists, or conversely, generalists, who were in effect, specialists (Oliva, 1976, pp. 35-36). McKean and Mills (1964) rather favored the use of general supervision by recognizing the values of correlation and integration of different subjects. Specialist supervison may result in increasing compartmentalization of subjects. 60 Another issue is whether the supervisor can be an administrator or not. Administrators play supervisory roles to improve curriculum and instruction in the school districts. Administration and supervision are both closely related fields and it is difficult to draw hard and fast lines between these two areas. There is a great need to maintain rapport between supervisors and teachers, if there should take place any positive result from the supervisory service. If supervisory personnel possess control over teachers* destinies, teachers may hot feel free to seek the services of supervisors. Supervision should be of service to the teachers to improve their effectiveness in teaching. Oliva (197 6) suspected supervisors may not be free from administrative responsibilities and tasks if they stay close to the administrators. Administrators tend to assign administrative responsibility to the supervisors and some supervisors want to do administrative jobs and intend to be involved in administrative decision-making activities. Such supervisors cannot play the service role of supervisors. Oliva indicated that supervisors should stay away from administrative responsibilities and should assume a service role to help teachers become more effec tive in instructional activities. Supervisors should be trained in programs specifically for them. In other words, supervisors should have separate training programs since 61 they are in a different career— a service career to engage in professional improvement of the teachers. Supervisors should function without line authority and should keep administrative responsibilities to a minimum (Oliva, 197 6, pp. 39-401. Regarding the question of adoption of approach— direct or indirect approach--in dealing with teachers by supervisors, generally, supervisors who adopt a direct approach intend to prescribe content, materials, and tech niques for teachers to follow. In this sense, an indirect approach in supervision is preferable. An indirect approach is non-directive and intends to help teachers come to their own decisions in professional matters. The non-directive or indirect approach of supervision treats teachers as intelligent, professional, and valued persons (Oliva, 1976, p. 41). The issue of the kind of role to be assumed by the supervisors in the day of growing strength of teachers' associations is considered. Oliva (1976) suggested that supervisors should be aware of the changing role of teach ers and administrators. He also suggested that supervisors should take a non-directive role to supervision. They should see themselves as special service persons and should try to maintain good relations with the teachers, thus they may effect more changes. 62 Some Major Patterns of Supervision There are several distinct patterns of supervision used by the educational institutions and by supervisory personnel. Some of the major patterns of supervision are referred to to provide some general perspectives of each of the patterns. Traditional scientific management supervision represents the classical authoritarian philosophy of educa tional supervision. Teachers are regarded as the organs of management and are expected to carry out prespecified duties in accordance with the wishes of management. The key words in this pattern of Supervision are "control," "accountability," and "efficiency," and are emphasized in an atmosphere of clear-cut boss-subordinate relation ship (Sergiovanni & Starratt, 197 9, p. 3). Scientific management supervision usually treats teachers as passive instruments of management who can be manipulated to facilitate achievement of organizational goals. The goals are predetermined by management, and supervisors are expected to function to maintain quality control "by telling, showing, enforcing, monitoring, rating, and rewarding" (Wiles & Lovell, p. 296). Lucio and McNeil (1979) pointed out that the primary task of the scientific supervisor was to discover educational "laws" and apply them through the labors of the teachers. Supervisors were 63 to discover best procedures in the performance of parti cular educational tasks and give these methods to the teachers for their guidance. Scientific supervison was, according to Lucio and McNeil, partly a protest movement against the confusion of goals and practices existing at the time. Bobbitt described the situation in education in 1913 as follows: At present, the chief difficulty is that there are no standards to work to. Schools are simply grinding away without any goal in view. They move in the right direction— they move in the wrong direction. Without a goal their efforts are relatively random, feeble, inefficient. The pupil does not know what to aim at; the teacher does not know how much to require; the principal does not know how high the teacher is aiming; the superintendent has no means of knowing the standards of either teacher or principal. The whole situation represents the jellyfish stage of organization and direction. (Bobbitt, 1913, p. 40) Human relations supervision is related, to the democractic administration movement began in the 1930s and is still widely preached and practiced. It came into existence as a challenge to the traditional scientific management pattern of supervision. Human relations super vision focuses mainly on viewing teachers as "whole people" rather than as packages of needed energy, skills, and aptitudes to be used by administrators and supervisors. "Personal feelings" and "comfortable relationships" were the watchwords in this human relations approach. But this approach has not succeeded to the extent as advocated. The misunderstanding in procedure and faulty theoretical 64 notions inherent in the approach have to be counted for the lack of success. Widespread neglect of teachers, permis sive supervision, and focus on "winning friends" in an attempt to influence people are some of the weaknesses of the human relations movement (Sergiovanni & Starratt, 1979, P - 41. In the early years of the human relations movement, the emphasis was on social interactions and needs and physical comfort of the teachers, but it seemed a super ficial attempt (Sergiovanni & Starratt, 19 79). Lucio and McNeil indicated economic and social situations were responsible for the emergence of human relations super vision in the following way: Related to the economic and social transforma tions of the depression and war years were spiri ted pleas for a kind of supervision which would embrace the ideals of a democratic order. Instead of emphasis upon tradition— the leader and the led— supervision became associated with precepts respecting human personality and encouraging wide participation in the formulation of policy. Those who opposed the imposition of courses of study and methods planned by upper levels were committed to a philosophy of situational relati vism; that is, there were no absolutes, and "correct" procedures depended upon particular circumstances. Gestalt psychology supplied theory and Lewin supplied evidence to support the social supervision desired. (Lucio & McNeil, 197 9, pp. 10-11) A human relations supervisor is considered by staff to care for and maintain the human aspect of the school enterprise. There is a need of such staff because there is conflict between job demands and human demands in any 65 kind of organization. Teachers have needs and feelings and they experience frustration, disappointment, and other maladies which can prove dangerous to maintain teachers1 morale. Morale is to be maintained among the teachers to enhance the school programs for excellence. Human rela tions supervisors should be able to get along with teachers, be sympathetic to their problems, and be able to gain their cooperation. They should increase teachers' job satisfac tion (Sergiovanni & Starratt, 1979, p. 20). Neoscientific management, as coined by Sergiovanni and Starratt C197 9), a recently emerged pattern of super vision, is being developed as a reaction against human relations supervision which is negligent of the teachers' performance in the classrooms. It is a kind of revival of the traditional scientific management supervision which focuses on "control, accountability, and efficiency." This neoscientific management supervision pattern focuses on "teacher competencies," "performance objectives," and "cost-benefit analysis." The task dimension, concern for job, and highly specified performance objectives are very much emphasized in it. It has shown less concern for human dimension, and so relies heavily on authority to carry on jobs and tasks. Teachers often show lack of interest and acceptance of the programs as a result of reliance on control and authority. Neoscientific manage ment supervision relies on impersonal quality-control 66 mechanisms, such as performance contracts, accountability to predetermined objectives, and competency standards (Sergiovanni & Starratt, 1979, pp. 5-6). Assuming that if visible standards of performance, objectives, or competencies can be identified, impersonal, technical or rational mechanisms can be applied,,y instead of face-to-face supervision, for better teaching perform ance in the classroom. Sergiovanni and Starratt (197 9) pointed out that it was unrealistic and undesirable to assume a list of competencies, performance criteria, and other specifications that apply to all teachers, to all teaching situations to all students, at all times. Alfonso, Firth and Neville presented a different view in support of the need for management approach in supervision. The following lines clarify the need for management approach: Supervision is found in all complex organi zation. This is so because organizations are determined to maintain themselves and are some times concerned about their improvement or refinement. The connection between supervision and organizations is clear and direct. Organi zational resources must be applied to the analysis of efficiency and effectiveness. Therefore, in a general sense, the purpose of supervision is quite simple; it is to promote those conditions which- help the organization to achieve its goals. (Alfonso, Firth, & Neville, 1975, p. 3) Human resources supervision, proposed by Sergio vanni and Starratt (19791, is distinct from human relations supervision and a cQntinued protest against scientific management supervision. The fundamental difference between human relations supervision and human resources supervision 67 is in perceiving "teacher satisfaction" as means or ends. Human relations supervision views "teacher satisfaction" as a means to a smoother and more effective school. It is assumed that the school program would be effective if the teachers were satisfied. Teachers' attitude toward school makes a great difference in achieving school pro grams. Teachers like to feel important and are willing to be involved in the programs when they have a better atti tude . teachers from a different perspective. The human resources supervision assumes that the main focus is to be on the successful accomplishment of important and meaningful work which brings effectiveness in the school. This would bring satisfaction to the teachers. In other words, shar ing decision-making practices for bringing about school effectiveness and teacher satisfaction is the outcome of this effectiveness (Sergiovanni & Starratt, 1979, p. 6). basic factors fundamental to the human resources super vision as follows: These three characteristics of human resources supervision should be high-lighted: it is founded on beliefs about human nature that center on human beings as active, responsible, and growing per sons; it is exercised with a conscious understand ing of organizational dynamics; and its logic and intelligibility are rooted in an educational vision and platform which is both personal and yet ^^begimated within educational tradition. These three characteristics of human resources supervision Human resources supervision views satisfaction of Sergiovanni and Starratt (197 9) pointed out three 68 give it a power and a direction which we believe enable it to accomplish the upgrading of the quality of education in a local school or school system. And no matter at what higher level of government, plans, laws, projects, and policies are made for the improvement of education, the proof of the pudding will always be found at the local level. If it does not happen there, it does not happen. (Sergiovanni & Starratt, 197 9, p. 331} A human resources supervisor is not viewed as an administrator or organizational buffer but the position is taken as a key member of the school’s leadership team. Here this role of human resources supervision is a critical link between the school management subsystem and its instructional subsystem (Sergiovanni & Starratt, 197 9, p. 20). Collaborative supervision, as proposed by Wiles and Lovell (1975), is a challenge to both the traditional pattern of supervisory process and human relations super vision pattern. It intends to improve instructional pro grams through the cooperation of the professional workers. It recognizes the need for collaboration of all the differentiated roles of educational endeavors to achieve the goals of organization and its members. Wiles and Lovell pointed out that competence and expertise of the educational workers of the organization were the essential ingredients in this proposed pattern of supervisory pro cess. The following lines reveal more in this regard: The "need" is for the identification, analysis, and delivery of the reservoir of specialized competence to the appropriate 69 problem solving situations. It is recognized that individuals such as supervisors, coordina tors, consultants, and principals who are form ally assigned to the supervisory behavior system have specialized competence that should be utilized. But it is also assumed that they can't be competent in all things or available in all situations. Therefore, it is proposed that the competence of organizational and nonorganizational members be utilized on an ad hoc basis. What is required is an organizational structure that facilitates this kind of flexibility. (Wiles & Lovell, 1975, p. 297) The proposed pattern of collaborative supervision is supported by a set of propositions developed by Wiles and Lovell (197 5) to provide the framework for this super visory pattern. The propositions reveal that teachers in organizations are capable of providing leadership in curriculum and policy formulation activities, giving help to and receiving help from each other, particularly between teachers and superordinates. Effective supervisory behavior is a function of many factors, including students. The supervisory behavior system should be a product of a scientific system for the allocation of human effort to improve the quality of learn ing for children. It is not possible for the supervisor to have the availability, esteem of fellow professionals, and expertise in all situations. New developments in the educational organization, such as open space, team teaching, differentiated staffing, media utilization, independent study, and large-group instruction, contribute to the possibility of teacher-teacher visibility, interaction, 70 cooperation and availability for and competence in par ticipating in collaborative supervision. The supervisory behavior system should utilize resources from the teacher behavior system, student behavior system, and internal administrative behavior system. The specialty, competence, and interdependence of organizational members lead to the need for a system of cooperation in curriculum and instruc tional decision making and problem solving. Wiles and Lovell pointed out the need for collaborative supervision in the following words: The lack of availability of a large enough group of people titled supervisors with a broad enough spectrum of expertise and the availability of teachers indicated a need to get the people with expertise and esteem where they could col laborate with individuals needing psychological or technical support. But it was also assumed that the organizational members achieve different levels of prestige and organizational authority. Therefore, it was assumed that organizational members would not always be collaborating from equal positions of power. Rather, it was assumed two or more people nearly always collaborate from positions of unequal influence. Therefore, collaboration, defined also as cooperating with a perceived adversary or person with greater power, seemed to describe the situation as it often exists. But, the need for cooperative help, sharing of ideas, coordination, and caring also exists; and so does the need for collaborative supervision. (Wiles & Lovell, 1975, pp. 300-301) The target of collaborative supervision is the student behavior system. The teaching behavior system which interacts with the teacher behavior system, has five dimensions-— planning, actualizing, describing, analyzing, and generalizing. These factors of teaching are 71 interdependent. The supervisory behavior system has a primary function to study the needs of the teaching behavior system and the human resources available from teachers, supervisors, internal administrators, and students. On the basis of the collaborative supervision, strategies for the utilization of the resources are to be developed. Five different strategies, such as the "Rifle Approach," the cadre of "Floating Teachers," team teaching, open space, and micro-teaching, are suggested to be used in this colla borative supervision. These strategic approaches of collaborative supervision provide for teachers to partici pate in self-supervision and supervision of each other, and they like it. Wiles and Lovell (1975) depicted the difficulties of traditional supervision as well as diffi culty with adoption of collaborative supervision in the following lines: Supervisors often elaborate on the great difficulty of working with each teacher in each school in the system. They explain that there are just too many schools with too many teachers and not enough supervisors to go around. They also speak of the difficulty of being available at the right place at the right time with the necessary rapport and com petence to be truly effective in their efforts to work in terms of the needs of teachers. With so many teachers to see it is difficult to establish a true basis of mutual trust and respect. When these same teachers are confronted with the idea of a system of "collaborative supervision" in which teachers are encouraged to participate in self-supervision and the supervision of each other, they like it but raise some serious questions. Do teachers have the necessary skills and understandings to supervise each other? Have they had the necessary training in group process, human relations skills, micro-teaching, observation and description skills, such as the interaction analysis, video-taping and analysis, and evaluation. They also wonder if teachers "really" want to help each other and if they have the time. (Wiles & Lovell, 197 5, p. 3 03) The above questions are certainly appropriate and the strategies suggested by Wiles and Lovell may not be complete answers for these questions in relation to collab orative supervision. But they suggested that these approaches are useful to start with collaborative super vision. A short note on each of the strategies proposed by Wiles and Lovell is given in the following. The "Rifle Approach" requires collaborative supervision in a school with some interested teachers to participate in the new program; the program to be started on a limited and experimental basis with the support of administrators to concentrate needed material and human resources. Necessary assistance is to be provided in the beginning of the pro gram. This approach provides a multiplier effect after the successful initial efforts in the program and gradually it could spread to other schools and the participating teachers would gain necessary skills, interest, and under standing to continue the program. The cadre of "floating teachers" who are competent and willing can participate in either the teaching behavior or supervisory behavior system. The members of the float ing teaching group can be utilized in a variety of ways: 73 they can collaborate directly with teachers in a super visory role of work with teachers to help them develop needed supervisory skills, spreading the potential for teacher participation in the collaborative supervision system. Team teaching is to facilitate teachers' coopera tive process in planning, teaching, and evaluating with the efforts of the organizational structure of the teachers and other professionals. Members can assume teaching as well as supervisory roles to develop necessary teaching and supervisory skills in the course of participation. The team teaching approach is good for collaborative supervision because it provides for teacher-teacher visibility, inter action, and sharing. Teachers share with each other in planning, suggesting, observing, and describing the learn ing environment, provide feedback, and participate in cooperative evaluation. If there is desire, effort, and competence among the participants, there is potentiality for collaborative supervision. Open space is to promote cooperative teaching and learning, availability of specialized resources, differen tiated staffing, independent study, and use of multi-media. If the professionals working in this strategy can develop needed skills and understanding of collaborative super vision, the open space approach can be of utility because it frees teachers to see each other's work, to collaborate, 74 to evaluate. , and to describe their work to each other. It also reduces the threat of traditional supervision because of its open nature. Micro-teaching is defined as a process of "boiling down" a teaching situation in terms of time, methodology, or content. It provides an opportunity for teachers and supervisors to "try out" teaching ideas without the risk of an actual situation but with the opportunity for imme diate feedback from fellow teachers and supervisors. It also provides opportunities to participate in planning, teaching, describing, and analyzing phases of teaching in collaborative supervision to learn needed skills. General and Clinical Supervi si on Sergiovanni and Starratt (.197 9) made a point in relation to general supervision: Supervision tends to emphasize organizational and behavioral aspects and the educational program administration aspects. The decline of interest in classroom supervision by scholars and prac titioners and the increasing emphasis on general super vision seem to be related. General supervision emphasizes out-of class supervision, so it is distinct from classroom supervision, which is also called clinical supervision. General supervision and clinical supervision are inter dependent. General supervision is interested in maintaining 75 healthy organizational climates through credible leadership and good educational programs. The healthy organizational climate is essential for meaningful clinical supervision. General supervision provides such climate. General super vision is concerned with educational as well as supervisory leadership to organizational factors such as healthy climate and supportive relationships (Sergiovanni & Star ratt, 1979, pp. 285-286). Clinical supervision is different from counseling in the sense that clinical supervision focuses on the teachers' instructional performance, whereas counseling focuses on teachers' personal problems. In the same way, clinical supervision differs from curriculum support since it focuses on materials, objectives, and philosophy of instruction, whereas clinical supervision focuses on actual observable events of teaching (Acheson & Gall, 19 80, pp. 14-15). Clinical supervision is concerned with the pro fessional development of teachers so it emphasizes improv ing teachers' classroom performance. The need for clinical supervision for teachers is similar to the need for assis tance of teachers to their students (Acheson & Gall, 1980, p. 17). Clinical supervision is recognized as a key tech nique for promoting professional development of teachers and provides the major activities such as planning con ferences, classroom observation, and feedback conferences aimed toward improvement of classroom instruction (Acheson 76 & Gall, 1980, p. 12). Cogan (1973) cited two purposes of clinical super vision : The first is to develop and explicate a system of in-class supervision that, in com petent hands, will prove powerful enough to give supervisors a reasonable hope of accom plishing significant improvements in the teacher's classroom instruction. The second purpose is to help correct the neglect of in- class or clinical supervision and to establish it as a necessary complement to out-of-class ("general") supervision. (p. xi) Cogan (197 3) identified eight phases to the cycle of supervision: 1. Phase 1 requires establishing a teacher- supervisor relationship. 2. Phase 2 is for intensive planning of lessons and units with the teachers. 3. Phase 3 is for planning the classroom observation strategy by teacher and supervisor. 4. Phase 4 is for the supervisor to observe in-class instruction. 5. Phase 5 is for careful analysis of the teaching- learning process. 6. Phase 6 is for planning the conference strategy. 7. Phase 7 is for the conference. 8. Phase 8 is for the resumption of planning (Sergiovanni & Starratt, 1979, pp. 310-311). Wiles and Lovell (1975) referred to a sequence of five stages of the supervisory act as developed by 77 Goldhammer (1969). The five stages are: preobservation conference, observation, analysis and strategy, super vision conference, and post-conference analysis (pp. 154- 155) . Preparation of Supervisory Personnel Alfonso, Firth, and Neville (197 5) emphasized the preparation of individuals who were officially designated as supervisors after selecting them with extreme care. To make these personnel effective and intelligent in their performance cannot be left to chance. The preparation of these personnel must ensure that they will demonstrate effective and intelligent instructional supervisory behav ior in their performances. Alfonso et al. also indicated that there were three essential elements in necessary competencies for supervisors: (1) a knowledge base--the possession of a theoretical and conceptual base in the area of supervision and in related social and behavioral sciences, (2) a supervisory skill base— the possession of "the tools of the trade," the mix of technical, managerial, and human skills, and (3) an affective base--the possession of healthy personal characteristics, a functional value system, and a belief in others. These elements are inter related and must not be excluded from the training programs of the supervisors (Alfonso et al., 1975, pp. 297-299). 78 Lucio and McNeil (197 9) pointed out that in most states in the United States the school supervisors must have taken college courses in (1) school administration and organization; (2) supervision— its aims, scope, and desirable outcomes, principles and practices; (3) curricul um development and construction; (4) evaluation of instruc tion; and („5) courses appropriate to the types and levels of responsibilities of the particular supervisory position. Preparation programs for supervisors generally focus on the ways teachers can be helped in their teaching and include in them information on materials of instruction, their sources, availability, criteria for selection, and techniques of utilization, techniques of supervision with special emphasis on selection, placement, and orientation of teachers, in-service programs, and evaluation of teach ing success. Study of a variety of ways in which people work together and analysis of both individual and group behavior to learn ways of helping teachers in their pro fessional adjustments and interpersonal relations, and the use of group processes including ways of organizing groups, planning, securing participation, and problem solving, are recommended to be included in the preparation programs of supervisory personnel. Communication skills include oral and written reporting, speaking to community groups, writing press releases, and preparing supervisory bulletins, curriculum development, and clear understanding of the 79 responsibility and relationships of teachers, administra tors, supervisors, and members of governing boards in the organization of school system and in the profession (Lucio & McNeil, 19-79, pp. 50-52),. Referring to the ASCD study to identify the kind of preparation necessary for instructional supervisors, Wiles and Bondi (19880). pointed out areas of training components found in twelve college courses which are as follows: 1. Supervision of Instruction 2. Group Processes and Human Relations 3. Curriculum Theory and Development 4. Educational Measurement and Evaluation 5. Educational Psychology 6. Organization and Administration of Schools 7. Educational Research 8. Philosophy of Education 9. Media and Technology 10. Sociology of Education 11. History of Education 12. Anthropology of Education. (Wiles & Bondi, 19 80 p. 161 The following are the standards and guidelines training of instructional supervisors as identified by the group conducting the ASCD study: I. Experience A. Minimum of two years of classroom teaching experience B. Minimum of one year of leadership experience (such as department chairperson, principal, internship, laboratory school researcher) II. Preparation A. Certification as a teacher (assumes com petence in the science of teaching and conditions of learning) 80 --- B. Completion or equivalent of an educational specialist degree leading to certification as an instructional leader with courses and experiences in: 1. Supervision, including: a. Knowledge regarding the principles and nature of supervision, trends, and issues in supervision and models of staff development b. Ability to apply communication and group development skills c. Ability to evaluate staff personnel and to design improvement programs 2. Curriculum, including: a. Knowledge regarding curriculum pro grams and processes of curriculum development b. Ability to evaluate curricular pro grams and plan appropriate strate gies for their improvement c. Understanding of curriculum theory and design of various curricular models 3. Instruction, including: a. Knowledge regarding principles and concepts, trends, issues, and models of instructional strategies b. Ability to design, develop, imple ment, and evaluate various instruc tional systems c. Understanding of instructional theo ry, utilization of media, and analysis of instructional factors 4. Educational psychology, including: a. Ability to conduct appropriate research for determining teaching and learning problems b. Understanding of adult learning and and teaching/learning process 5. Leadership, including: a. Processes and purposes of organi zations b. Skills to organize and coordinate perceived resources for facilita ting operations of and changes in curriculum and instruction c. Understanding of the function of supervision as provided by other educational leaders such as college professors, principals, and district curriculum leaders . (Wiles & Bondi, 1980, pp. 16-17) 81 Oliva (1976) suggested areas of knowledge to be included in the preparation of supervisors such as: 1. A broad knowledge of the school's program of studies, trends of teaching fields, curriculum development and instructional theory and practices. 2. The fields of educational foundations— history of education, culture, and philosophy of education and its role in school curriculum, and learning theory in relation to instruction. 3. Organizational patterns at state, district, and local schools, school financing, school law, pupil personnel services, and community relations. 4. Knowledge of at least two subject areas including a broad understanding of methodology of teaching skills, and be well grounded in ways of analyzing teachers' competence and applying models of instruc tion . 5. Ability to identify sources of materials useful to teaching, to utilize technological aids and demon strate their use. 6. Principles of measurement and evaluation, methods of in-service programs, and ways of identifying trainees' needs, and other related skills (Oliva, 197 6, pp. 14-16). 82 Alfonso et al., made a remark that "it is axio matic that the performance of supervisory candidates should be geared to the types of educational contexts in which they are to serve" (1975, p. 302). They emphasized the need for practicum experiences to provide a variety of field situations and administrative organizations, with a broad array of characteristics and experience in classroom as well as community settings. A supervisor should be given the opportunity to function in traditional, contemporary, and emerging settings of supervisory activi ties (Alfonso et al., 1975, p. 302). Contrasting Features of the Two Systems of Supervision The brief review of literature on supervision in both educational systems--the U.S. and Nepal— revealed some of the contrasting features of the supervision sys tems, which are summarized as follows: 1. The supervision system in the Nepalese educational system has a short history and is in its ini tial stage of development. The availability of related literature in this field is meager and systematic studies for improvement of the supervision system are almost non existent at the present stage. The supervision system in the U.S. had its origin centuries ago and has attained an 83 advanced stage with an abundance of related literature, studies, and experimentations with various approaches. 2. The supervision system in Nepal is based on a national educational system, and thus it is centrally con trolled. A uniform system of supervision system is found in the school districts of the country. The supervisors are appointed by the central government and assigned and/ or transferred to the districts. In the U.S., the super vision system is based on the local school systems, so it is decentralized and it differs from district to district. 3. In the U.S., supervision as a concept has attained an advanced stage-, changing approaches from one to another, such as scientific management, human relations, neo-scientific management, human resources, and others, according to the needs and circumstances of the school systems. In the Nepalese educational situation, super vision is still in its infancy and in search of a relevant and functional type of supervision system. It has not yet attained the scientific management stage fully. To try out some of the newer supervision approaches— neo-scientific: management, human resources, and collaborative— seemed highly desirable in the Nepalese education system to find out the feasibility of adoption of the suitable approach. 4. In the U.S. educational system, the availa bility of human and material resources and facilities is in abundance and a variety of instructional materials is 84 available. The human resources with necessary professional backgrounds are available for the smooth functioning of the educational system. Thus the performance at the operation level of the educational system is commendable and achievement is high. But in the Nepalese situation, the availability of material as well as human resources needed for the functioning of the educational system is extremely meager and thus the performance at the opera tional level of the education system is poor and often discouraging. Nepal has a series of severe limitations to attain the satisfactory improvement of the supervision system. Under such circumstance of the socio-economic limitations, a neo-scientific management approach with needed gradual development in the system of supervision seems desirable because of the existing circumstances to insure the best use of available resources for maximum achievement. It may take a long time and much effort to adopt human resources as well as collaborative approaches in the Nepalese super vision system; but the effort must be made to adopt those new approaches according to the time, circumstances, and availability of resources for a better system and greater productivity. 85 CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY This chapter deals with the methodology utilized in this study. As mentioned in Chapter I, the purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between the role expectations for educational supervisors and their training needs to meet the expectations successfully. It provides the basis for the development of the training pro gram for the supervisors as part of this study. Research Design The components of this research design are (1) the study of the related literature, (2) instrumentation, (3) selection of population, (4) collection of data, and (5) treatment of data. The Study ~of Related Literature The study of related literature on the Nepalese educational system with special focus on the development of the supervision system was done for determining the needed supervisory skills and techniques for supervisors in terms of their expected supervisory roles by the Nation al Educational System Plan 1971-1976. The study of 86 literature on supervision in the United States was done to gather the useful information to build up the conceptual framework needed to conceive alternative supervisory approaches for the development of the Nepalese supervisory system. Instrumentation On the basis of the study of the related documents such as the National Educational System Plan, the Educa tional Regulations of 1971, and the Supervisors1 Manual of 1973, a questionnaire was developed to gather necessary data regarding the training needs as perceived by the supervisors of Nepal in the course of their fieldwork. The questionnaire contained 38 items as expected super visory roles and these items were grouped into five major categories. The five categories were (1) physical facili ties, (2X teachers' performance, (3) instructional improve ment, (4) school-community relations, and (5) miscellaneous Respondents were asked to rate each item on one of three rating scales (1) no need of training, (2) some need of training, and (3) serious need of training. Open space was provided at the end of each category of items for respondents to express opinions not covered by the speci fied questionnaire items. The instrument is included as Appendix A. 87 Six items related to the respondents' bio-data were given in the beginning of the questionnaire to gather some profile of the population. Their names were not required to avoid possible inhibition in giving their personal perceptions in all the items of the questionnaire. The questionnaire was developed in English for approval from the chairman of the study committee. After approval, it was translated into Nepali language and sent to Nepal for administration to selected supervisors in the districts of Nepal. Selection of Population The population was selected for the study from the list of supervisors— primary, secondary, and voca tional— which was obtained from the Ministry of Education of His Majesty's Government of Nepal. There were alto gether 37 0 supervisors currently working in all the 75 districts of the country, although there were 540 posi tions. Obviously, not all positions were filled. There were 18 districts which were categorized as remote areas by the government because of the inconveniences of trans portation and communication. These 18 remote districts were excluded from this study because of practical con siderations of distance and remoteness, shortage of time, and because there were few supervisors working in those areas. There were 70 supervisors working in those 18 88 districts. The selection of 50 percent of the remaining total number of supervisors was made using a table of random numbers from a statistical book (Arkin & Colton, 1963). The sample population was then 150 supervisors in 57 districts in Nepal. Collection of Data The data collection was accomplished with coopera tion of a team of volunteers in Nepal. The team was formed and instructed in detail through correspondence about all the procedures of questionnaire administration. The questionnaire in Nepali was reviewed by a Nepali language specialist before it was used with a group of supervisors as a field test to get their opinion on the understandability of the questionnaire items. The data collection team performed a series of tasks, specifically: Cl) contacting offices and people concerned, (2) getting the questionnaire materials— questionnaire, covering letters,envelopes--printed, and (3) getting the list of the supervisors from the Ministry of Education, (4) selec ting the respondents from the list of supervisors using the table, and (5), making things ready for distribution. After this, the team distributed the questionnaires to the selected supervisors in the districts. The question naires were sent to some supervisors by mail and distri buted by personal contact to some supervisors. Some of 89 the team members traveled in several districts to contact supervisors. Treatment of Data The information relating to bio-data of the responding supervisors provided the profiles of the super visors in terms of status, number of supervisors responding in each district, previous experiences, and academic qualifications. This information was used to describe the nature of responding supervisors which provides a better understanding of the type of supervisors. The main purpose of the questionnaire was to define needed areas for training as perceived by the supervisors themselves and to utilize the information as the basis for developing a future training program for the supervisors of Nepal. The basis for analyzing the questionnaire items for inclusion and/or exclusion in the training program was established basically in terms of percentage frequencies of responses by the respondents on each item of the questionnaire. Frequency distributions of responses in all the 3 8 items of the questionnaire are presented to secure an overall idea of the response clusters in the three rating scales. Rank order of the questionnaire items was established by adopting the procedure of multiplication of the responses in each of the rating scales (no need, 90 some need, 'serious need) by 0, 1, and 2 respectively to give a graded weight on the three rating scales. This was done to get an overall picture of the responses in terms of training needs. The graded weight on the rating scales facilitated a summation of the total responses on each item which made it possible to determine the hier archy of the items in terms of training needs. A training program in outline form was proposed on the basis of the findings of this study. 91 CHAPTER IV THE FINDINGS This chapter is devoted to an analysis of the data gathered to answer the three research questions raised in Chapter I. Prior to going into the analysis of the questionnaire replies, reference to the three research questions is made here. The following are the three research questions of this study: 1. What techniques and skills were needed by super visors to fulfill their supervisory roles? 2. What were the training needs of supervisors as perceived by themselves in the field? 3. What kind of training program would be necessary to develop the skills and techniques needed by the supervisors? These questions were interrelated in sequential order. Answers to these questions were to be gathered partly from the review of literature and partly from the questionnaire reply analysis. Question 1, that is--What techniques and skills were needed by supervisors to ful fill their supervisory roles?— was to be answered from the review of literature on supervision in Nepal. 92 The Needed Skills and Techniques of Supervision in Nepal The needed skills and techniques of supervision were to be determined by the close study of the expected supervisory roles within the educational system and from the responses of supervisors in Nepal. The following list is a list of skills and techniques of supervision for supervisors of Nepal. It was prepared from the review of literature and was judged to be the set of techniques and skills needed by supervisors to fulfill their roles in the Nepalese educational system. The list also became the basis for the development of the survey instrument. Needed Techniques and Skills Physical Facilities 1. Planning for school facilities 2. Assessing school property 3. Evaluating school facilities Teachers1 Performance 1. Planning for teacher requirements in future 2. Planning in-service training, extracurricular activities 3. Construction of schedules and calendars of operation of school programs 4. Techniques of school supervision 5. Designing, organizing, implementing, evaluating, and follow-up of in-service training--short-term as well as long-term 6. Evaluating techniques of teachers' performance 7. Assessing teachers' needs 8. Keeping educational records 9. Conducting meetings and leading group discussions * 10. Related technical, human, and conceptual skills Instructional Improvement 1. Evaluation of curriculum 2. Preparation of instructional materials 3. Using materials properly 4. Construction and administration of evaluative tools 5. Ways of change-agent and leadership roles 6. Conducting educational research and use of research findings School-Community Relations 1. Ways to establish and maintain good school- community relations 2. Ways to work with community people and parents 3. Moblizing and encouraging community for increasing student enrollment and literacy classes for adults 94 Mi seellaneous 1. Procedure for preparing school budget 2. Conceptual skills for understanding and implemen ting financial policy and procedures, and administrative and legal procedures 3. Communication skills Research question 2 is: What were the training needs of supervisors as perceived by themselves in the field? This question was to be answered with the findings of the questionnaire analysis. In the following pages, the analysis of the different aspects of the questionnaire such as demographic information, specific questionnaire items in five major categories, and opinions expressed in each category are presented. First, the demograghic information and opinions expressed in open-spaces in each category of the questionnaire are discussed. The five major categories of the questionnaire items were analyzed for the findings which would be the basis for the develop ment of a training program for the supervisors of Nepal. Demographic Data Information regarding the total number of super visory positions, the number of supervisors currently working in remote districts, and the number of supervisors to whom the questionnaires were distributed, as well as the total number of questionnaire replies received, is 95 presented in Table 1. Table 1 The Number of Supervisors Item Secondary Primary Total Total number of supervisory positions Total number of supervisors currently working 108 540 370 262 Supervisors currently working in 18 remote districts 26 44 70 Total supervisors after removal of 18 remote districts 82 218 300 Number of supervisors selected for questionnaire distri bution 50 100 150 Total questionnaire replies received 37 63 100 The total number of questionnaire replies received was 100 out of 150 distributed, with 63 primary school supervisors and 37 secondary school supervisors responding to the questionnaires. In terms of percentage, 66.7 per cent of the total number of questionnaires distributed were received. The 100 questionnaire replies were received from 24 districts out of 57 districts. The responses ranged from 1 to 10 questionnaires representing the eastern, 96 middle, western, and southern parts of the country. The list of the districts with corresponding numbers of ques tionnaire replies is given in Appendix B. The previous supervisory experiences of the respondents in other districts were varied from 25 respon dents who did not have previous supervisory experiences to. 2 respondents who had such experiences in more than five districts. This indicates that a fewer number of supervisors had previous experience in supervision in terms of diversity of locations. Table 2 shows the experience figures. Table 2 Supervisors' Experiences in Districts Item Total No experience in other districts 25 Experience in one district 32 Experience in two districts 25 Experience in three districts 11 Experience in four districts 5 Experience in five or more districts 2 100 97 In terms of total years of experience as super visors in different geographical locations or conditions of the country, the figures are different. For conven ience, the three major geographical areas are described here before discussing the figures. The remote areas of the northern region of the country, the mountainous region of the middle belt of the country, and the plains areas of the southern region of the country are the three major areas in the country. Table 3 indicates the experiences of responding supervisors in those regions; Table 3 Regional Experiences of Respondents Item Total Number of in the respondents with remote region experience 22 Number of in the respondents with mountain region experience 85 Number of in the respondents with plains region experience 46 Number of respondents without any previous experience 25 98 The respondents' previous supervisory experiences are indicated in Table 4. Table 4 Years of Supervisors' Experience Years of Experience Number of Supervisors 1 to 3 years of experience 20 4 to 6 years of experience 59 7 to 10 years of experience 20 Note. One respondent did not mention such experience. Regarding the academic achievements of.the respon ding supervisors, the primary school supervisors and secondary school supervisors indicated their qualifications from the colleges. The minimum academic qualifications for being supervisors of primary schools and secondary schools as mentioned in the National Education System Plan 1971-19 7 6 are I.A., that is, a two-year college degree after high school graduation for primary school supervisors, and Bachelor degree, that is, a four-year college degree after high school graduation for secondary school supervisors. Table 5 shows the various qualifica tions acquired by the responding supervisors. 99 Table 5 Academic Qualifications of Respondents Categories of Primary School Secondary School Qualifications Supervisors Supervisors School Leaving Certificate 5 - I.A. level 19 - Bachelor level 3 5 33 Master 1s level 4 4 Totals 63 37 Of the 100 responding supervisors, only one respon ded to the question of participation in supervisory train ing. The respondent mentioned five different short train ing sessions (.5 to 15 days' duration) covering the topics of method of teaching, supervision, test construction, techniques of evaluation, and educational material pre paration . The findings from the demographic data are sum marized as follows: 1. Questionnaires were received from 42 percent of the total number of districts to which questionnaires were distributed and from 66.7 percent of the supervisors. 2. The responding supervisors generally had the 100 required academic qualifications but had no professional supervisory training. Opinions in Open-space on Questionnaire In each of the five categories of items in the questionnaire there was open space provided for the respon dents to give their opinions not covered by the items in the questionnaire. Only 19 of the 10 0 responding super visors gave their opinions in the space provided. These supervisors did not give their opinions relevant to the questionnaire purpose, that is, supervisory training needs. They expressed opinions relating to practical supervisory activities which were causing problems in their perfor mance. In short, less than 5 percent of the total respon dents wrote something in the open spaces. It was deter mined that these expressions were not related to the pur pose of the questionnaire and they were not included in the analysis of data. Analysis of Questionnaire Items As described in Chapter III, the questionnaire used for this study contained 3 8 items which were classi fied into five major categories. They were (a) physical facilities, (b) teachers' performance, (c) instructional improvement, (d) school-community relations, and (e) miscellaneous. The main purpose of the questionnaire was 101 to determine the extent of training needs of the super visors, so that research question 2 of this study could be answered; then relevant and meaningful training programs could be developed for the in-service training of super visors in Nepal. Developing a training program in outline form on the basis of the findings of this analysis would provide the answer for research question 3. The responses made by the supervisors in the questionnaire replies have been presented in tables so that the three sets of responses in the three columns of the questionnaire— no need of training, some need of training, and serious need of training— can be compared to determine the areas and the extent of the training needs of the supervisors. Physical Facilities Table 6 shows the responses made by the supervisors to indicate their training needs in the six items of the physical facilities category. Table 6 provides comparative data on training needs of supervisors in the major category of "Physical Facilities." In the three sets of responses, the responses in "some need of training" and "serious need of training" were greater than those of "no need of training." The total number of responses in the three rating scales were 102 Table 6 Responses Regarding Training on Physical Facilities Needs Expected Supervisory Roles No Need Training Some Need Needs Serious Need 1 . Developing plans for future school facili ties 10 31 59 2. Selecting new school sites 19 31 48 3. Planning for the expan sion and improvement of school facilities 5 23 72 4. Supervising school facilities construction 10 50 40 5. Evaluating school building adequacy 19 43 38 6 „ Assessing school property 20 40 40 Totals 83 218 297 83 for "no need of training," 218 for " some need of train- ing and 297 for "serious need of training. II Teachers' Performance In this category, there are 14 items or supervi- sory roles expected by the educational plan. Table 7 gives the comparative data on the responses in the three rating scales of the questionnaire • 103 Table 7 Responses Regarding Training Needs on Teachers' Performance Training Needs Expected Supervisory Roles No Need Some Need Serious Need 1. Planning for increas ing the number of teachers as enroll ment and instructional programs expand 12 37 51 2. Planning, organizing, and implementing in- service training for teachers 6 29 65 3. Evaluating teacher training programs 3 32 65 4. Conducting follow-up evaluation of teachers who have had in-service training 6 28 66 5. Planning and implemen ting extracurricular activities 8 44 48 6. Planning for school visitation and classroom observation 13 29 58 7. Planning daily, monthly, and annual schedules for schools 20 37 42 8. Developing appropriate student and employee record-keeping systems 14 52 34 9. Conducting staff meet ings and discussing school problems 20 45 35 104 Table 7--Continued Expected Supervisory Roles No Need Training Needs Some Need Serious Need 10. Planning for super vision in assigned schools 21 34 45 11. Evaluating super vision for con stant improvement 2 23 74 12. Evaluating teachers 7 33 59 13. Selecting and assign ing teachers 26 46 27 14. Assessing teachers' needs 25 36 38 Totals 183 505 707 In Table 7, the three sets of responses can be compared to get an idea of the relative training need situation of the supervisors. The comparison of the responses in the columns indicates that "some need of training" and "serious need of training" were both greater than "no need of training." The total responses in the three rating scales were 183, 505, and 707, respectively, in "no need of training," "some need of training." and "serious need of training!" 105 Instructional Improvement The third category of questionnaire items was about instructional improvement. There were 7 items in this category. Table 8 indicates the responses in the three columns of the rating scales which provides the comparative view of the levels of training needs in each item. Table 8 on instructional improvement shows that the responses in the column "no need of training" and "serious need of training" were very high in each item of the expected supervisory roles. School-Community Relations The fourth category of items in the questionnaire was school-community relations which contained five items. The responses made by the supervisors in this category of the questionnaire are presented in Table 9. Table 9 relating to school-community relations indicates a little different picture in the pattern of responses. The highest scores were in the "some need of training" column. The lowest scores were in "no need of training." 106 Table 8 Responses Regarding Training Needs on Instructional Improvement Expected Supervisory Roles No Need Training Needs Some Need Serious Need 1. Evaluating the degree to which the prescribed curriculum is being implemented in schools 14 28 57 2. Improving school curriculum 3 31 65 3. Preparation and use of instructional materials and equipment 6 25 68 4. Constructing and administering instru ments to evaluate stu dent achievement 7 41 51 5. Change-agent for instruc tional improvement 2 39 58 6. Providing leadership for instructional improvement 6 34 58 7. Conducting research and utilizing research findings for instruc tional improvement in schools 4 24 70 Totals 42 222 427 107 Table 9 Responses Regarding Training Needs on School-Community Relations Expected Supervisory Roles No Need Training Needs Some Need Serious Need 1. Establishing and maintaining, good school-community relations 16 49 34 2. Working with community people for school improvement 20 36 43 3. Working with parents in improving stu dents ' achievement 19 46 33 4. Mobilizing and encouraging community people for increasing student enrollment in schools 24 37 38 5. Planning and manag ing literacy classes for adults 8 44 47 Totals 86 212 195 108 Miscellaneous The miscellaneous category in the questionnaire con sisted of six items covering supervisory roles in adminis trative, financial, and legal aspects. Table 10 presents the responses made by the supervisors in the three columns of the questionnaire. Table 10 on miscellaneous supervisory roles pre sented similar response patterns as in previous categories of expected supervisory roles. The highest ratings were in the "serious need of training" column, and the lowest ratings were in the "no need of training" column. With 100 respondents and 38 items, a total of 3,800 responses in the three columns was possible. The respon dents did not respond to a total of 27 items; therefore, there were 3,773 responses in the grand total of all the 38 items in the five categories of the questionnaire. Table 11 presents the total responses in the three rating scales of the five major categories to provide a compre hensive and comparative view of the total responses on the questionnaire. Table 11 presents the summary of total responses in the three rating scales of the questionnaire. In all the five major categories, the responses in "no need of training" column were lowest, and except in "school- community relations" the responses in the "serious need of training" column were highest. In the category of 109 Table 10 Responses Regarding Training Needs on Miscellaneous Supervisory Roles Expected Supervisory Roles Training Needs No Need Some Need Serious Need 1. Preparing school budget 2. Understanding and implementing finan cial policy and pro cedures of the government 3. Understanding and implementing adminis trative procedures of the government 4. Procuring instruc tional materials, equipment, and other materials according to the government regulations 5. Performing legal functions such as contract adminis tration and the purchase of school sites 6. Communicating effec tively with school people, the com munity, and super visors Totals 13 17 20 15 78 49 29 44 47 37 41 247 3 8 64 49 34 42 43 270 110 Table 11 Total Responses of 100 Respondents on 38 Questionnaire Items Training Needs Questionnaire Item Categories No Need Some Need Serious Need ■ - 3 0 rt Physical facilities 83 218 297 598 Teachers' performance 183 505 707 1395 Instructional improvement 42 222 427 691 School-community relations 87 212 195 494 Miscellaneous 78 347 270 595 Totals 473 1404 1896 3773 1 1 school-community relations," the responses were highest in "some need of training." The response total in "no need of training" was generally much lower than those in "some need of training" and "serious need of training." Table 12 indicates the rank order of the question naire items on the basis of the total responses of each item in the three rating scales of the questionnaire. For determining the rank order of the questionnaire items, the responses in the three rating scales of each item— no training need, some training need, and serious training need— in the questionnaire were multiplied by 0, 1, and 2, respectively, to give a weighted score. The total numbers of the items are ordered in rank. In other words, this 111 Table 12 Rank Ordering of Questionnaire Multiplying Responses by 0, 1, Etems by and 2 Expected Supervisory Roles No Need xO Some Need x 1 Serious Need x 2 Total Rank Order Physical Facilities 1. Developing plans for future school facilities - 31 118 149 13 2. Selecting new school sites - 31 96 127 22 3. Planning for the expansion and improvement of school facilities 23 144 167 2 4. Supervising school facilities construction - 50 80 130 21 5. Evaluating school building adequacy - 43 76 119 31 6. Assessing school property— land, buildings, other kinds of school property - 40 80 120 29 H H K) Table 12— Continued Expected Supervisory Roles No Need xO Some Need x 1 Serious Need x 2 Total Rank Order Teachers' Performance 7. Planning for increasing the number of teachers as enroll ment and instructional programs expand 37 102 139 19 8. Planning, organizing, and implementing in-service train ing for teachers 29 130 159 8 9. Evaluating teacher training programs - 32 130 162 4 IQ. Conducting follow-up evalua tion of teachers who have had in-service training 28 132 160 7 11, Planning and implementing extracurricular activities - 44 96 140 18 12, H Planning for school visita tion and classroom obser vation 29 116 145 14 f—1 U > Table 12— Continued Expected Supervisory Roles No Need xO Some Need x 1 Serious Need x 2 Total Rank Order 13. Planning daily, monthly, and annual schedules for schools — 37 84 121 27 14. Developing appropriate student and employee record keeping systems _ 52 68 120 30 15. Conducting staff meetings and discussing school problems - 45 70 115 33 16. Planning for supervision in assigned schools - 34 90 124 25 17. Evaluating supervision pro grams for constant improve ment . 23 148 171 1 18. Evaluating teachers - 33 118 151 11 19. Selecting and assigning teachers - 46 54 100 38 20, Assessing teachers' needs - 3 6 76 112 36 H Table 12— Continued Expected Supervisory Roles No Need xO Some Need x 1 Serious Need x 2 Total Rank Order 21. Instructional Improvement Evaluating the degree to which the prescribed curri culum is being implemented in schools 28 114 142 16 22. Improving school curriculum - 31 130 161 5 23. Preparation and use of instruc tional materials and equipment - 25 136 161 6 24. Constructing and administering instruments to evaluate student achievement 41 102 143 15 25. Change-agent for instructional improvement - 39 116 155 10 26. Providing leadership for instructional improvement - 34 116 150 12 27. H H Ul Conducting research and utilizing research findings for instructional improvement in schools - 24 140 164 3 Table 12— Continued Expected Supervisory Roles No Need x 0 Some Need x 1 Serious Need x 2 Total Rank Order 'School--Community Relations 28. Establishing and maintaining good school-community relations - 49 68 117 32 29. Working with community people for school improvement - 36 86 122 26 30. Working with parents- in improving students' achieve ment 46 66 112 37 31. Mobilizing and encouraging community people for increasing student enrollment in schools 37 76 113 35 32. Planning and managing litera cy classes for adults 44 94 138 20 Miscellaneous 33. Preparing school budget 49 76 125 24 116 Table 12— Continued Expected Supervisory Roles No Need x 0 Some Need x 1 Serious Need x 2 Total Rank Order 34. Understanding and implementing financial policy and procedures of HMG 29 128 157 9 35. Understanding and implementing administrative procedures of HMG - 44 98 142 17 36. Procuring instructional materials, equipment, and other materials according to HMG regulations 47 68 115 34 37. Performing legal functions such as contract administration and the purchase of school sites 37 84 121 28 38. Communicating effectively with school people, the community, and superiors - 41 86 127 23 H rank ordering facilitates seeing the items in the hierarchy of training needs. Table 12, "Rank Ordering of Questionnaire Items by Multiplying Responses by 0, 1, and 2," contains the pro ducts of all the 38 questionnaire items to provide a per spective or rank order of the items. The rank order of the items helps to see the position of each item in terms of all the items. 118 CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary Problem The roles of educational supervisors were' defined in general terms in the National Education System Plan 1971-1976 and the Education Regulations 1971. In the Mid term Evaluation Report of 197 5, it was pointed out that the supervisory system was not meeting the expectations as perceived by the educational plan. The main problem was the apparent lack of suitable and relevant supervisory training to enable the in-service supervisors to fulfill their assigned duties. This study was designed to determine the relation ship between the role expectations for educational super visors as defined in the National Education System Plan 1971-1976, and the Education Regulations 1971, and the training needs that supervisors identify as necessary to fulfill those expectations. Questions to be answered by the study were: 1. What techniques and skills were needed by super visors to fulfill their supervisory roles? 119 2. What were the'training needs of supervisors as perceived by themselves in the field? 3. What kind of training program would be necessary to develop the skills and techniques needed by the supervisors? Me thodalogy The following procedures were adopted for this study: 1. A study of related literature on supervision in Nepal and in the U.S. was done to provide the list of expected supervisory roles in order to develop the questionnaire for the study and to develop the conceptual frame of the supervision. 2. A questionnaire was developed stating all the supervisory roles identified from the study of the related literature on Nepalese supervision to determine the areas and extent of training needs of the supervisors. 3. The questionnaire was distributed to 50 percent of the total 3 00 educational supervisors working in the 57 districts in the country. 4. The returned questionnaires were analyzed by pre senting frequency tables to determine areas and extent of the training needs in the expected supervisory roles which had been developed on the 12 0 basis of the study of the related literature. Summary of Findings Findings from the study of literature 1. The supervision system in Nepalese educational system has a short history of development. 2. The supervision system in Nepal is based on the educational system of the nation and it is central ly controlled. 3. The material and human resources are meager and the supervision system operation is not encourag ing. 4. The training need for the supervisor is clearly evident. Findings from demographic data from questionnaire 1. Replies were received from 42 percent of the total number of districts to which questionnaires were distributed and from 66.7 percent of the sample surveyed. 2. The responding supervisors generally had the required academic qualifications but had no pro fessional supervisory training. Findings from questionniare items 1. In all 3 8 questionniare items, the responses on "no need of training" were considerably lower in numbers. The range of responses in the question naire items were 2 and 26 out of 100 responses 121 on "no need of training.1 1 2. The responses on "some need of training" were relatively higher than those of "no need of train ing." The range of responses in the questionnaire items were 23 and 52 out of 100 responses. 3. In 10 questionnaire items, the responses were higher in "some need of training" than in "serious need of training." 4. In the other 28 questionnaire items, the responses in "serious need of training" were distinctly greater in number than in "some need of training." From a total of 3,773 responses, there were 1,896 indicating serious training need, 1,40 4 responses indicating some need of training, and 47 3 indica ting no need of training. 5. From response tabulation it was clear that super visors had a greater training need in the cate gories of "Instructional Improvement" and "Teachers' Performance" than in "Physical Facilities," "School-Community Relations," and "Miscellaneous•" 6. Generally, respondents indicated the need for training in all the identified supervisory roles. 122 Conclusions Following are the conclusions of the study which intend to answer the three research questions as indicated in Chapter I. 1. The review of literature indicates that pre vious supervisory training was not based on the specific expected supervisory roles as identified by this study. Consequently those short-term as well as regular training sessions provided for in-serivce of supervisors in Nepal were fragmentary, lacking in consistency, and did not respond to the basic needs of the supervisors. 2,. The supervisory role expectations as identified by this study were expected to provide a reasonable basis for developing comprehensive supervisory training programs relevant and useful in fulfilling basic requirements for the duties of supervisors in Nepal. 3. Question 1 in Chapter I was: "What techniques and skills were needed by supervisors to fulfill their supervisory roles?" The techniques and skills needed by supervisors to fulfill their supervisory roles assigned by the national education system were identified after the review of literature on supervision in Nepal. The list includes: Physical Facilities (a) Planning for school facilities (b) Assessing school property (c) Evaluating school facilities 123 Teachers' Performance (a) Planning for teacher requirements in future (b) Planning in-service training, extracurricular activities (c) Construction of schedules and calendars of opera tion of school programs (d) Techniques of school supervision (e) Designing, organizing, implementing, evaluating, and follow-up of in-service training--short term as well as long-term (f) Evaluating techniques of teachers' performance (g) Assessing teachers' needs (h) Keeping educational records (i) Conducting meetings and leading group discussions (j) Related technical, human, and conceptual skills Instructional Improvement (a) Evaluation of curriculum (b) Preparation of instructional materials (c) Using materials properly (d) Construction and administration of evaluative tools (e) Ways of change-agent and leadership roles (f) Conducting educational research and use of research findings School-Community Relations (a) Ways to establish and maintain good school- community relations 124 (b) Ways to work with community people and parents (c) Mobilizing and encouraging community for increasing student enrollment and literacy classes for adults Misce1laneous Ca) Procedure for preparing school budget (b) Conceptual skills for understanding and implemen ting financial policy and procedures, administra tive and legal procedures (c) Communication skills and techniques 4. The review of the related literature on the Nepalese supervision system indicated that there was a need for training of supervisors. This study established the relationship between the supervisory role expectations and the training needs of the in-service supervisors and determined the areas and extent of the training needs in the expected supervisory roles. 5. Serious training needs in almost all the supervisory roles identified from the related literature were verified by the responses from the supervisors sur veyed . 6. Though training needs in all the five major categories of the expected supervisory roles as mentioned in the questionnaire were serious, the training needs in teachers' performance and instructional improvement were higher than the other three categories of the question naire items. ____________________________________ 125 7. Question 2 in Chapter I was: "What were the training needs of supervisors as perceived by themselves in the field?" In response to this research question, the training program to be proposed should include all the items, since the majority of respondents indicated a serious need for training in all the areas included on the questionnaire. 8. Question 3 in Chapter I was: "What kind of training program would be necessary to develop the skills and techniques needed by the supervisors?" On the basis of the expected supervisory roles included in the ques tionnaire of this study, a proposed training program in outline form was developed and is provided in the recom mendations of this study. It is expected that the pro” posed training program will meet the basic training needs of all three types;,primary, secondary and vocational supervisors of Nepal. Recommendations On the basis of the findings and conclusions of this study, the following recommendations are made: Since the majority of responses from super visors was either in "serious need of training" or in "some need of training," the training program proposed as an answer to research question 3 of this study includes all the techniques and skills identified from the - ------------------------------------------------------------------------ las literature. The following is the proposed supervisory training program in outline form based on the findings of this study. This training program should be implemented by HMG in Nepal. Proposed Supervisory Training Program Outline for Supervisors in Nepal Description This training program is designed to provide seriously needed supervisory skills and techniques for educational supervisors currently working in the school districts of Nepal. The skills and techniques of super vision included in this training program are based on the findings of this study and focused on meeting the needs of the supervisors as defined in their questionnaire responses. Contents of the Training The topics listed below were derived from the needs identified by supervisors in Nepal. Unit 1. Physical facilities related skills and techniques (a) Planning and evaluating physical facilities for schools (b) Selecting school sites (c) Assessing school properties (d) Supervising school construction 127 Unit II. Teachers' performance related skills and tech- niques ta) Planning for teacher requirements in future (b) In-service training: designing, organizing, implementing, evaluating, and conducting follow-up CO. Planning and implementing extracurricular activities id) Planning for school visitation and classroom observation (e) Evaluating teachers' performance (f) Assessing teachers' needs (g) Selection of teachers CM* Evaluating supervision program Unit III. Instructional improvement related skills and techniques (a) Leadership for and methods of curriculum and instructional improvement CM Evaluation of curriculum implementation (c) Preparation and use of instructional materials (d) Test construction Ce). Research for instructional and curricular improvement Unit IV. School-community relations related skills and techniques (a) Methods for improving school-community relations (b) Ways of working with parents and community people 128 (c) Literacy program development and implementation Unit V. Miscellaneous skills and techniques (a) Preparation of school budget (b)_ Implementing administrative, financial, and legal procedures (c) Skills and techniques of communication Performance Obj ective s This training program aims at providing the needed supervisory skills and techniques for the in-service of supervisors in terms of specific supervisory roles. A performance objective has been prepared for each of the in-service topics identified by supervisors in the field. As a result of this in-service training, each supervisor will demonstrate his ability to: Unit I. (a) Plan and evaluate school physical facilities by evaluating actual schools located near the training site. (b) Recognize the factors in selecting school sites, such as distance, environment, and costs, by selecting the best site from a set of possibili ties provided by the instructor. (c) Estimate school property costs such as land, buildings, and equipment using models provided by the instructor. 129 (d) Practice skills required for supervising the construction of a school by reading blueprints and selecting appropriate building materials in a laboratory setting. Unit II. (a) Determine the rate of annual enrollment in a district and forecast future teacher requirements using data provided by the instructor. (b) Develop an in-service program for teachers includ ing needs assessment, problem identification, content description, development of in-service objectives, selection of presentation strategy, and the design of an evaluation tool. (c) Define extracurricular activities and prescribe reasonable activities for schools in the various regions of the country. The instructor will evaluate the program developed by the supervisor- in-training. (d) Observe acceptable protocol for school visitations as defined by the instructor. In addition, each supervisor will develop a teacher-observation form for use in schools. A final observation form will be developed from the work of all supervisors^in-training for use in the field. 130 (e) Develop criteria for evaluating teachers' per formance and determining teachers' needs. The criteria will be compared with those developed by other supervisors so that a uniform set can be derived. (f) Develop teacher selection criteria and compare those developed with the criteria established by the Ministry of Education. In the process, each supervisor will become familiar with the estab lished criteria. (g) Use the factors included in the training program for supervisors to develop a supervisory evalua tion instrument. This instrument will be adminis tered by supervisors to their clients— teachers and school headmasters— and the results will be provided to the District Education Office con cerned. Unit III. (a) Develop a set of questions for teachers and headmasters designed to identify problems teachers encounter in teaching the curricula. Identifica tion of problems will allow the supervisors to suggest possible improvements to the school, if appropriate, or to the Curriculum Development Center. 131 (b) During training, supervisors will obtain from the Curriculum Development Center a set of criteria for school curricula. Each supervisor will describe the procedures he will use to decide whether or not a specific curriculum is being implemented in a school. C . c ) In training sessions, construct a set of instruc tional materials needed for teaching a specific unit in one school subject for one grade level. (d) In training sessions, construct an evaluation instrument for a specific curriculum unit. This will be small group activity. Small groups will critique the work of other groups in the training session under direction of the instructor, te) In training sessions, identify a problem in curriculum, and design a research proposal to determine possible solutions for the problem under the supervision of the instructor. Unit IV ( . a ) In training sessions, identify a problem to be solved with the cooperation of community people, particularly parents. A plan for a P.T.A meeting to obtain necessary cooperation will be devised by supervisors and critiqued by the instructor. 132 (b) In training sessions, a procedure for determining the extent of need for literacy classes in a particular locality will be developed. A plan for an adult literacy class will then be developed by supervisors and evaluated by the instructor. Unit V. (a) In training sessions, develop a school budget which conforms to the criteria established by the Ministry of Education. Supervisor trainees will be provided the limits (parameters) of a typical school budget in Nepal as an example. (b) Interpret the rules and regulations of adminis tration, finance and legal requirements published by HMG. The instructor will use these publica tions as instructional materials. Content exam inations on rules and regulations may be a part of the evaluation of this objective. (c) Communicate according to criteria established by the instructor: In training sessions, the instructor will focus on instruction and practice in writing and speaking skills. Tentative Plan for Implementing the Training Program Duration of the Training The duration of the training will be three months 133 for both classroom and field experiences. Number in Training Since this training program is designed to pro vide skills and techniques of supervision, it is recommended that the number of participants be limited to 20 to 25 for effective training. Location Training may be organized in the four regional centers in the country so that supervisors may conveniently attend training for gaining the basic skills and techniques of supervision in the shortest possible time. Preparation for the Training 1. For conducting training in the four regional centers, there should be at least twelve teaching staff members. These staff members should be selected and train ed with the first group of supervisors before sending them to the field. The necessary training materials should be prepared before training is conducted. 2. It is recommended that the training for skills and techniques of supervision should relate to the reality of the instructional environment of the school system and should focus on matters directly related to supervisory skills and techniques to make the training 134 responsive to the day-to-day supervisory process. 3. It is recommended that some new approaches to supervision such as "Collaborative Supervision" and "Human Resources Supervision" be tried in some schools and/or districts as an experiment or alternative approach. The results of the experiment should be studied for pos sible inclusion in the Nepalese situation. 4. It is recommended that research be conducted in the field of supervision for the continuous improvement and development of the system. The successful implemen tation of national educational plans and programs and the upgrading of the educational standards within the educa tional system of His Majestys* Government could be the result. 135 BIBLIOGRAPHY 136 BIBLIOGRAPHY Acheson, K. A., & Gall, M. D. Techniques in the clinical supervision of teachers, preservice and inservice applications. New York and London: Longman Inc., 1980. Agrawal, G. R. School supervision system: Problem and solution. In P. Kesaju, M. Mainali, & S. Lamichhane (Eds.), Education for development. Kathmandu, Nepal: National Educatio# n Committee, Center for Educational Research, Innovation and Development, 197 7. (Nepali version) Alfonso, R. J., Firth, G. R., & Neville, R. F. Instruc tional supervision: A behavioral system. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, Inc., 1975. All-Round National Educational Committee Report. Kath mandu: Ministry of Education, His Majesty's Govern ment, 1961. (Nepali version) Arkin, H., & Colton, R. R. Tables for statisticians (2nd ed.). New York: Barnes & Noble, Inc., 1963. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD). Role of the supervisor and curriculum director in a climate of change, 1965. Washington, D.C.: The Author, 19 65. Bobbitt, F. The supervision of city schools, twelfth yearbook, part I, National Society for the Study of Education. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1913. Bomberger, L. D. Organizing for improving personnel management in His Majesty's Government of Nepal. Prashasan: The Nepalese Journal of Public Adminis tration^ HMG/Nepal, Public Administration Department, November 19 74, _11, 22. Burton, W. H., & Brueckner, L. J. Supervision: A social process. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Educa tional Division, Meredith Corp., 1955. Cogan, M. Clinical supervision. Boston: Houghton- Mifflin, 1973. 137 Curtin, J. Supervision in today1s elementary schools. New York: Macmillan, 1964. Edwards, D. W. Studies of the Rana administration to date: Shortcomings in theory, analysis, and facts. Prashasan: The Nepalese Journal of Public Administra tion , HMG/Nepal, Public Administration Department, March 197 6, 15_, 2. An evaluative study on educational improvement through supervision project. Bhaktapur, Nepal: Institute of Education, Tribhuwan University, 197 8. Eye, G. G., Netzer, L. A., & Krey, R. D. Supervision of instruction. New York: Harper & Row, 19 71. Franseth, J. Supervision as leadership. Evanston, Illi nois: Row, Peterson, & Co., 1961. Harris, B. M. Supervisory behavior in education (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1975. Harris, B. M., & Bessent, W. In-service education: A guide to better practice. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1969. Hughes, J., & Shrestha, B. The summary report— problems faced by district supervisors— 1975, Nepal, i975. (Mimeographed report) Joshi, B. L., & Rose, L. E. Democratic innovations in Nepal: A case study of political acculturation. Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966. n Long-term projection for education in Nepal (preliminary draft). In Report of the UNESCO Team. Bangkok: UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Asia, October 1965. Lucio, W. H., & McNeil, J. D. Supervision in thought and action. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 19 79. Marks, J. R. , Stoops, E., & King-Stoops, J. Handbook of educational supervision: A guide for the practitioner (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1978. McKean, R. C., & Mills, M. H. The supervisor. New York: The Center for Applied Research in Education, Inc., 1964. 138 Mohsin, M. , & Kasaju, P. (Eds.). On education in Nepal. Kathmandu: The Office of the National Education Committee, 197 4. Mosher, R. L., & Purpel, D. E. Supervision: The reluctant profession. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1972. National Education System Plan 1971-1976. Kathmandu: HMG/Nepal Ministry of Education, 1971. Neagley, R. L., & Evans , N. D. Handbook for effective supervision of instruction (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1980. Oliva, P. F. Supervision for today's schools. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 19 76. Pandey, R. R., KC, K.B., & Wood, H. B. (Eds.). Education in Nepal. Kathmandu: Bureau of Publications, College of Education, 19 56. Ratnaike, J. Report: Mission to UNICEF-assisted educa tion project, Nepal. September 3-15, 1976. (Mimeographed report) Reed, H. B., & Reed, M. J. Nepal in transition: Educa tional innovation. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, Studies in Comparative Education, University of Pittsburgh Press, 1968. Report on curriculum workshop. Lalitpur: His Majesty's Government of Nepal, Curriculum Development Center, 1976. Report on the fourth conference of district education officers of middle regional directorate. Kathmandu: Ministry of Education, HMG, Nepal, 1978. Sergiovanni, T. J., & Starratt, R. J. Supervision: Human perspectives (2nd. ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 197 9. Shrestha, B. Report on secondary school supervisors1 training--Summer intensive course. Kathmandu: Institute of Education, Tribhuwan University, Nepal, 197 6. (Typed report) Shrestha, K. N. Educational administration in Nepal: A view. In Education and Development. Kathmandu: National Education Committee, 197 5. 139 Shrestha, K. N. Historical developments in educational administration in Nepal. Paper presented at the Summer Intensive Training for the Secondary Supervisors of Nepal, 1976. Shrestha, M. K.: Administrative innovations under King Birendra. Prashasan: The Nepalese Journal of Public Admini stratidh, February 1975, L2, 62-66. Spears, H. Improving the supervision of instruction. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1958. Stoller, N. Supervision and the improvement of instruction. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications, 197 8. Suggestions of mid-term evaluation report. Lalitpur: HMG/Nepal, Ministry of Education, 1977. Supervisors' manual. Singha Durbar: HMG/N, Mihistry of Education, Evaluation Division, 1973. Supervisors1 manual. Lalitpur: HMG/Nepal', Ministry of Education, Curriculum Development Center, 1978. Wiles, J., & Bondi, J. Supervision: A guide to practice. Columbus: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, 1980. Wiles, K. Supervision for better schools (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1967. Wiles, K., & Lovell, J. T. Supervision for better schools. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1975. Wood, H. B. The development of education in Nepal. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education, 1965. Wood, H. B., & Knall, B. Educational planning in Nepal and its economic implications. Draft report of the UNESCO mission to Nepal, Kathmandu, January-May, 19 62. 140 APPENDIXES 141 APPENDIX A QUESTIONNAIRE AND LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION 142 (Translated from the Nepali version) Tribhuwan University Institute of Education Dean's Office, Sanothimi Kathmandu, Nepal Mr/Mr s/Mi s s Supervisor, District Office, Education, District. Mr. Balaram Shrestha is a lecturer at the Central Campus of this Institute. Currently he has been studying for the Ph.D. at the University of Southern California. In relation to his study, he is conducting a research on "the relationship between supervisory role expectations and training needs." It is expected that this would con tribute in bringing improvement in the supervisory process in the country. When you receive the questionnaire rela ting to this study, it is requested that you cooperate with him by completing the questionnaire and returning it as soon as possible. Thanks, Dean, Sd. Dr. Kedar Nath Shrestha Institute of Education Tribhuwan University 143 COPY Department of Educational Administration & Supervision School of Education University of Southern California Los Angeles, Ca. 90007 USA Date: Dear . . . I am glad to let you know that I have been studying at the University of Southern California, USA,for a PhD Degree in Educational Administration and Supervision. In relation to my study, I am required to do some research to fulfill the requirements for the degree. I have developed a research design to study the relation ship between role expectations and training needs of educational supervisors in Nepal. For the successful com pletion of the research study, I greatly need your coopera tion. I hope you will cooperate with me by completing and returning the enclosed questionnaire in time. Your report will remain strictly confidential. Please complete the post-card and return it to me, after sending the questionnaire back to me. I am very grateful for your cooperation. Thanks Sincerely yours, Balaram Shrestha 144 COPY QUESTIONNAIRE BIOGRAPHICAL DATA OF SUPERVISOR 1. Please mark in one: Primary school supervisor Secondary school supervisor ___ Vocational subject supervisor ___ 2. Assigned to what district? 3. Previous districts in which you have worked (if any) 4. Years of experience as supervisor 5. Last academic degree 6. List previous training related to your position as a supervisor Training Training Organizer Year Duration Training Area 1. ; ______________ 2. ________________________________________________ 3.' _______ _______________________ 4 . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 5. _____________________________________________ This questionnaire was prepared after study and analysis of the National Education Plan and related regulations and manuals. The functions of supervisors were categorized under general headings and then as specific functions. Please mark an ’X1 in one appropriate column in each super visory function to indicate training needs on the basis of your experience as a supervisor. There are no right or wrong answers for these supervisory functions. Answer could be any one of the three according to your experience. 145 Physical Facilities Training Needs Some Need Expected No Need for Serious Need Supervisory for Training Training for Training Roles 1. Developing plans for future school facilities 2. Selecting new school sites 3. Planning for the expansion and improve ment of school facilities 4. Supervising school facili ties construc tion 5. Evaluating school build ing adequacy 6. Assessing school property— land buildings, and other kinds of school property Please write here if you have anything to say in relation to the supervisory functions mentioned' above or if you think functions needing training should be added. 146 Teachers1 Performance Training Needs Some Need Expected No Need for Serious Need Supervisory for Training Training for Training Roles 1. Planning for increasing the number of teach ers as enroll ment and instruc tional programs expand 2. Planning, organi zing, and imple menting in- service training for teachers 3. Evaluating teacher training programs 4. Conducting follow- up evaluation of teachers who have had in-service training 5. Planning and implementing extracurricular activities 6 . Planning for school visitation and classroom observation 7. Planning daily, monthly, and annual schedules for schools 147 Teachers* Performance Training Needs Some Need Expected No Need for Serious Need Supervisory for Training Training for Training Roles 8. Developing appropriate student and employee record-keeping systems 9. Conducting staff meetings and discussing school problems 10. Planning for supervision in assigned schools 11. Evaluating supervision program for constant improvement 12. Evaluating teachers 13. Selecting and assigning teachers 14. Assessing teachers * needs Please write here if you have anything to say in relation to the supervisory functions mentioned above or if you think functions needing training should be added. 148 Instructiorial Improvement Expected No Supervisory Roles for Training Needs Some Need Need for Serious Need Training Training for Training 1. Evaluating the degree to which the prescribed curriculum is being implemented in schools 2. Improving school cur- curiculum 3. Preparation and use of instructional materials and equipment 4. Constructing and adminis tering instru ments to eval uate student achievement 5. Change-agent for instruc tional improve ment 6. Providing leadership for instructional improvement 149 Instructional Improvement— Continued Expected Supervisory Roles Training Needs Some Need No Need For Serious Need for Training Training for Training 7. Conducting research and utilizing research find ings for instruc tional improve ment in schools Please write here if you have anything to say in relation to the supervisory functions mentioned above or if you think functions needing training should be added. 150 Schoo1-Community Relations Training Needs Some Need Expected No Need for Serious Need Supervisory Roles for Training Training for Training 1. Establishing and maintain ing good school- community relations 2. Working with community people for school improve ment 3. Working with parents on improving students1 achievement 4. Mobilizing and encouraging community people for increasing student enroll ment in schools 5. Planning and managing liter acy classes for adults Please write here if you have anything to say in relation to the supervisory functions mentioned above or if you think functions needing training should be added. 151 Mi s ee11aneous Expected No Supervisory Roles for Training Needs Some Need Need for Serious Need Training Training for Training 1. Preparing school budget 2. Understanding and implemen ting financial policy and pro cedures of HMG 3. Understanding and implementing admini strative procedures of HMG 4. Procuring instruc tional materials, equipment, and other materials according to HMG 5. Performing legal functions such as contract administration and the purchase of school sites 6. Communicating effectively with school people, the community, and superiors Please write here if you have anything to say in relation to the supervisory functions mentioned above or if you think functions needing training should be added. 152 APPENDIX B LIST OF RESPONDENTS' DISTRICTS 153 List of Respondents1 Districts Number of Responding Districts Supervisors 1. Kaski 7 2. Shyangja 9 3. Palpa 10 4. Tanhu 8 5. Kathmandu 7 6. Lalitpur 5 7. Bhaktapur 1 8. Nuwakot 1 9. Dhading 1 10. Surkhet 3 11. Nawalparasi 2 12. Kabhre 9 13. Bara 3 14. Sindhuli 2 15. Dhanusha 4 16. Sirha 3 17. Sunsari 4 18. Morang 8 19. Saptari 5 20. Parsa 2 21. Jhapa 3 22. Mahottari 1 23. Rupandehi 1 24. Kalhaiya 1 100 154

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Creator Shrestha, Balaram (author)

Core Title The relationship between role expectations and training needs of educational supervisors in Nepal

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

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