The effects of cross-age tutoring on the reading achievement and self-concept of tutors at the intermediate level

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Content THE EFFECTS OF CROSS-AGE TUTORING ON THE
READING ACHIEVEMENT AND SELF-CONCEPT OF
TUTORS AT THE INTERMEDIATE LEVEL
by
C a r o l Dee S n e ls o n
A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n t e d t o t h e
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
I n P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e
R e q u ir e m e n ts f o r t h e D eg ree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
( E d u c a tio n )
A u g u st 28, 1978
UMI Number: DP24676
All rights reserved
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UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N C A L IFO R N IA
TH E GRADUATE S C H O O L
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES, C A LIF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
Carol Dee Snelson
under the direction of h & x .................. Dissertation
Committee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Dean of The
Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of the re
quirements for the degree of
D O C T O R OF PH ILO SO PH Y
......................
Dean
Date 3 7 J . .
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES...................................... vi
C h a p te r
I . STATEMENT OF THE P R O B L E M ....................................... 1
P r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e P ro b le m ...................................... 1
I m p o r ta n c e o f t h e P ro b lem ........................................... 2
P u r p o s e o f t h e S t u d y ............................................ 3
H y p o th e s e s ................................................................................. 4
D e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e S tu d y ...................................... 5
L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e S t u d y .................................. . 5
D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms ........................................................... 6
O r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e R em ain in g C h a p t e r s . . . 7
I I . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ........................................... 9
I n t r o d u c t i o n ........................................................................... 9
H i s t o r i c a l B ac k g ro u n d ...................................................... 12
C u r r e n t S t a t u s o f T u t o r i n g i n
t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ................................................. 13
A d v a n ta g e s o f T u t o r i n g t o t h e
I n d i v i d u a l and S o c i e t y ................................ 15
D e s c r i p t i o n , o f P r o g r a m s ...................................... 18
V a r i a b l e s To Be C o n s id e r e d when
P l a n n i n g a T u t o r i n g P rogram ................................. 22
A g e ..................... - . .................................... 22
A c h i e v e m e n t ................................................................. 25
Sex ............................................................................................ 27
T r a i n i n g o f T u t o r s ............................................ 30
R e s e a r c h R e l a t i n g t o T u te e s ...................................... 34
R e s e a r c h R e l a t e d t o R e a d in g A c h i e v e
ment o f T u t o r s i n C ro ss-A g e
T u t o r i n g P ro g ram s ........................................................... 39
M eaning and I m p o r ta n c e o f S e l f - C o n c e p t . . . 49
S e l f - C o n c e p t and R e a d in g A ch ie v e m e n t . . . 53
C ro s s-A g e T u t o r i n g as an A p p r o p r i a t e
M ethod f o r Im p ro v in g S e l f - C o n c e p t . . . . 61
R e s e a r c h R e l a t e d t o S e l f - C o n c e p t i n
C ro ss-A g e T u t o r i n g P rogram s ................................. 63
i i
C h a p ter Page
I I I . METHODOLOGY....................................................................................... 67
The P i l o t S t u d y ....................................................................... 67
The S a m p l e ................................................................................. 67
S e l e c t i o n o f S u b j e c t s ................................................. 69
S e l e c t i o n o f T u te e s . ............................................ 71
S o c io e c o n o m ic F a c t o r s ................................................. 71
P r o c e d u r e s F o llo w e d w i t h T e a c h e r s . . . . 72
T e s t i n g I n s t r u m e n t s ............................................................ 72
I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s t ............................................................ 73
R e a d in g T e s t ...................................................... 74
S e l f - C o n c e p t T e s t ............................................ 75
P h o n ic s T e s t ....................................................................... 77
D e s c r i p t i o n o f I n s t r u m e n t D e s ig n e d
by t h e I n v e s t i g a t o r ................................................. 77
D a ta C o l l e c t i o n ....................................................................... 78
S e l e c t i o n o f M a t e r i a l s ................................ 79
T r a i n i n g o f T u t o r s ............................................................ 8 l
O th e r P r o c e d u r e s U sed
t o P r e p a r e T u t o r s ...................................................... 8 l
T u t o r / T u t e e P a i r i n g ...................................................... 82
R e s e a r c h P r o c e d u r e s ............................................................ 83
Summary o f t h e P i l o t S t u d y ....................................h 83
D e s ig n o f t h e E x p e r i m e n t a l C r o u p ...................... 84
The S a m p l e ................................................................................. 84
S e l e c t i o n o f S u b j e c t s ................................................ 85
S e l e c t i o n o f T u t e e s ...................................................... 85
S o c io e c o n o m ic F a c t o r s ................................................. 86
P r o c e d u r e s F o llo w e d w i t h T e a c h e r s . . . . 86
T e s t i n g I n s t r u m e n t s - -
P h o n ic s T e s t ....................................................................... 87
D a ta C o l l e c t i o n ...................................................................... 88
S e l e c t i o n o f M a t e r i a l s ................................................. 89
T r a i n i n g o f T u t o r s ............................................................ 89
O th e r P r o c e d u r e s U sed
t o P r e p a r e T u t o r s ...................................................... 90
T ut o r / T u t ee P a i r i n g ........................................... 91
R e s e a r c h P r o c e d u r e s - -
At t e n d a n c e ............................................................................ 91
S c o r in g P r o c e d u r e s ............................................................ 92
Summary o f t h e M e t h o d o l o g y ...................................... 93
ill
C h a p ter Page
IV. REPORT AND INTERPRETATION OF THE FINDINGS . . | 4
I n t r o d u c t i o n ............................................................................ 94
D e s c r i p t i v e D a t a ........................................................... 94
S e l e c t i o n o f S t a t i s t i c a l P r o c e d u r e s . . . 97
The C o v a r i a t e s ................................................................. 98
A n a l y s i s o f C o v a r i a n c e - -
P i l o t v s . C o n t r o l ...................................................... 99
A n a l y s i s o f C o v a r i a n c e - -
E x p e r i m e n t a l v s . C o n t r o l ................................. 104
C o r r e l a t e d t_ t e s t - -
E x p e r i m e n t a l Group ................................................. 108
P e r s o n a l I n t e r v i e w s . 109
Summary o f R e s u l t s ................................................ 110
C o n c l u s i o n ................................................................................. I l l
V. SUMMARY., CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . 112
I n t r o d u c t i o n ............................................................................ 112
S u m m a r y ............................................................................................ 112
P u r p o s e s o f t h e S t u d y ................................................. 112
The S a m p l e ............................................................................ 112
T e s t i n g I n s t r u m e n t s ...................................................... 113
D a ta C o l l e c t i o n ................................................................. 113
M a t e r i a l s and P r o c e d u r e s ...................................... 114
A n a l y s i s o f t h e D a t a ................................................. 114
F i n d i n g s ................................................................................. 115
C o n c l u s i o n s ................................................................................. 115
C o n c lu s io n s R e l a t e d t o t h e H y p o th e s e s . . 115
G e n e r a l C o n c lu s io n s ...................................................... 117
C o n c lu s io n s R e l a t e d t o C o m p re h e n sio n . . 118
C o n c lu s io n s R e l a t e d t o A c c u ra c y ....................... 119
C o n c lu s io n s R e l a t e d t o P h o n ic s ....................... 121
C o n c lu s io n s R e l a t e d t o S e l f - C o n c e p t . . . 122
C o n c lu s io n s C o n c e rn in g M ethod ........................... 123
R ecom m endations f o r C la s sro o m T e a c h e r s . . 124
S u g g e s t i o n s f o r F u r t h e r S tu d y ................................. 126
BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................................................................... 129
APPENDICES............................................................................................................ 140
A. I n s t r u m e n t D e s ig n e d by t h e I n v e s t i g a t o r
t o I d e n t i f y P o s i t i v e and N e g a t i v e
B e h a v io r s d u r i n g T e s t i n g . . . ................................. l 4 l
i v
Page
B. IQ S c o r e s on t h e S l o s s o n I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s t
and P r e - and P o s t- G r a d e L e v e l S c o r e s
on t h e G ilm o re O r a l R e a d in g T e s t
f o r t h e T h re e R e s e a r c h M ethods ................................. 143
C. S o c io e c o n o m ic I n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h e
T h re e R e s e a r c h G r o u p s ............................................................ 147
D. C o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h S c h o o l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
and T e a c h e r s C o n c e rn in g t h e S tu d y ........................... 149
v
LIST OF TABLES
T a b le Page
1. Means and S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s :
G ilm o re O r a l R e a d in g T e s t ........................................... 95
2. Means and S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s :
I F e e l Me F e e l S e l f C o n cep t
A p p r a i s a l - - P i l o t Group ...................................................... 96
3. Means and S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s : I F e e l
............................. Me F e e l S e l f C o n cep t
A p p r a i s a l - - C o n t r o l Group ................................................. 96
4 . Means and S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s :
I F e e l Me F e e l S e l f C oncept
A p p r a i s a l - - E x p e r i m e n t a l Group ................................. 97
5. A n a l y s i s of C o v a r ia n c e : G ilm o re O r a l
R e a d in g C o m p re h e n sio n S u b t e s t - -
P i l o t / C o n t r o l ............................................................................ 100
6 . A n a l y s i s o f C o v a r i a n c e : G ilm o re O r a l R e a d
i n g A c c u ra c y S u b t e s t - - P i l o t / C o n t r o l . . . . 100
7 . A n a l y s i s o f C o v a r i a n c e : I F e e l ...........................
Me F e e l S C - I - - P i l o t / C o n t r o l ...................................... 101
8 . A n a l y s i s o f C o v a r ia n c e : I F e e l ...........................
Me F e e l S C - I I — P i l o t / C o n t r o l ...................................... 102
9. A n a l y s i s o f C o v a r i a n c e : I F e e l ...........................
Me F e e l S C - I I I — P i l o t / C o n t r o l ................................. 102
10. A n a l y s i s of C o v a r i a n c e : I F e e l .............................
Me F e e l S C - I V - - P i l o t / C o n t r o l ...................................... 103
11. A n a l y s i s o f C o v a r ia n c e : I F e e l .............................
Me F e e l S C - T - - P i l o t / C o n . t r o l ...................................... 103
12. A n a l y s is o f C o v a r i a n c e : G ilm o re O r a l R e a d
i n g C o m p re h e n sio n S u b t e s t - -
E x p e r i m e n t a l / C o n t r o l ............................................................ 104
13- A n a l y s i s o f C o v a r ia n c e : G ilm o re O r a l R e a d
i n g A c c u ra c y S u b t e s t b -
E x p e r i m e n t a l / C o n t r o l ' ............................................................ 105
v i
T a b le Page
14 . A n a l y s i s o f C o v a r ia n c e : I P e e l ...........................
Me P e e l S C - I - - E x p e r i m e n t a l /
C o n t r o l ............................................................................................ 106
15. A n a l y s i s o f C o v arlan .ce: I F e e l ...........................
Me P e e l S C - I I - - E x p e r i m e n t a l /
C o n t r o l ............................................................................................ 106
16. A n a l y s i s o f C o v a r ia n c e : I F e e l ...........................
Me F e e l S C - I I I - - E x p e r i m e n t a l /
C o n t r o l ................................ 107
17. A n a l y s i s o f C o v a r ia n c e : I F e e l ...........................
Me F e e l S C - I V - - E x p e r i m e n t a l /
C o n t r o l ............................................................................................ 107
18. A n a l y s i s o f C o v a r i a n c e : I F e e l ...........................
Me F e e l S C - T - - E x p e r i m e n t a l /
C o n t r o l ..................................... 108
19. Meansj S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s , and L e v e l o f
S i g n i f i c a n c e f o r S p ach e D i a g n o s t i c
R e a d in g S c a l e s P h o n ic s T e s t s - -
C o r r e l a t e d t t e s t ................................................................. 109
v i i
CHAPTER I
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
P r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e P ro b le m
I n r e c e n t y e a rs,, much a t t e n t i o n h a s b e e n g iv e n t o
t h e r e a d i n g l e v e l o f t h e p e o p l e o f o u r n a t i o n . F e d e r a l and
s t a t e p ro g ra m s h a v e b e e n i n i t i a t e d t o p r o v i d e a d d i t i o n a l
i n s t r u c t i o n i n re a d in g ., n o t o n ly f o r t h e p u b l i c s c h o o ls
and h i g h e r e d u c a tio n ,, b u t a l s o i n a d u l t e d u c a t i o n p ro g ra m s .
I n 1969^ D r. Jam es A lle n „ t h e n U .S . C o m m issio n e r o f E d u c a
t i o n , e x p r e s s e d h i s c o n c e r n a b o u t t h e many c h i l d r e n and
young p e o p l e i n o u r n a t i o n who h a v e r e a d i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s .
I n a d d i t i o n , h e e l u c i d a t e d a d e s i r a b l e g o a l f o r t h i s
d e c a d e : t h a t e v e r y c h i l d s h o u ld l e a v e o u r s c h o o l s w i t h a
d e s i r e f o r r e a d i n g and t h e a b i l i t y t o r e a d a t a l e v e l a p
p r o p r i a t e f o r him .
Of g r e a t c o n c e r n t o t e a c h e r s i s t h e c h i l d who h a s
r e a c h e d t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l , b u t who h a s r e a d i n g s k i l l s
w h ich a r e i n a d e q u a t e t o e n a b l e him t o r e a d m a t e r i a l s a t o r
n e a r h i s own g r a d e l e v e l and who h a s l i t t l e m o t i v a t i o n t o
r e a d . A lth o u g h t h e r e h a s b e e n an i n c r e a s e i n t h e amount
o f m a t e r i a l s p u b l i s h e d f o r o l d e r r e t a r d e d r e a d e r s , t h e r e
s t i l l e x i s t s a c o m p a r a t i v e d e a r t h o f m a t e r i a l s w h ich h a v e
1
2
n o t o n l y low r e a d a b i l i t y * b u t a l s o h a v e i n t e r e s t f o r t h e
i n t e r m e d i a t e p u p i l .
The r e a d i n g d i f f i c u l t y i s com pounded b y t h e p r o b a
b i l i t y t h a t t h i s c h i l d ’s s e l f - c o n c e p t h a s b e e n damaged
t h r o u g h lo n g and r e p e a t e d e x p e r i e n c e w i t h f a i l u r e . Such
an i n d i v i d u a l becom es s u s p i c i o u s o f books and s c h o o l -
r e l a t e d m a t e r i a l s * r e j e c t i n g a n y t h i n g t h a t a p p e a r s " e a s y . "
I t i s a f o r m i d a b l e ta s k * in d e e d * t o i n d u c e su c h c h i l d r e n
t o s e l e c t a book t o r e a d on t h e i r own. They s p e n d a v e r y
s m a l l amount o f tim e i n a c t u a l r e a d i n g . .I t a p p e a rs *
t h e r e f o r e * f e a s i b l e t o s e a r c h f o r b e t t e r m ethods t o h e l p
t h e s e c h i l d r e n p r o g r e s s i n r e a d i n g .
C r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g c a n h e l p e l i m i n a t e some o f
t h e s e p r o b le m s . I f t h e o l d e r c h i l d i s p r e p a r i n g a l e s s o n
i n o r d e r t o t e a c h a y o u n g e r c h ild * he n e e d n o t f e e l i n
s u l t e d b e c a u s e t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r i s a t a low g r a d e l e v e l .
Such a p ro g ra m a l s o p r o v i d e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a i d i n g i n
r e b u i l d i n g t h e c h i l d ’s c o n c e p t o f h i m s e l f by g i v i n g him an
o p p o r t u n i t y t o f e e l u s e f u l and i m p o r t a n t . A c c o r d in g t o
H ym ovitz ( 1 9 7 5 ) t h e v a lu e o f t h e l a t e r a l t r a n s m i s s i o n o f
k n o w le d g e was c o n f ir m e d i n a n c i e n t Rome by t h e maxim
docem ur d o cen d o o r "he who t e a c h e s l e a r n s " (p . 4 2 ) .
I m p o r ta n c e o f t h e P ro b lem
T e a c h e r s o f r e a d i n g h av e o f t e n s t r u g g l e d w i t h t h e
p r o b le m o f m o t i v a t i o n * e s p e c i a l l y w i t h t h o s e p u p i l s who
3
h a v e e n c o u n te re d , f a i l u r e in. r e a d i n g so o f t e n t h a t i t h a s
become a lm o s t i m p o s s i b l e f o r t h e t e a c h e r t o f i n d a n y t h i n g
t h a t w i l l i n t e r e s t t h e c h i l d i n l e a r n i n g t o r e a d . S t a n c h -
f i e l d ( 1 9 7 1 ) sp o k e o f m o t i v a t i o n as a g o ld e n w o rd / s t a t i n g
t h a t "anyone c a n l e a r n when h e i s m o t i v a t e d " (p . 1 9 3 )- The
d i f f i c u l t y * o f c o u rse * w i t h p u p i l s who c a n n o t read' w e l l i s
f i n d i n g t h e k e y t h a t w i l l m o t i v a t e them t o w ant t o r e a d .
W ith t h e c u r r e n t e m p h a s is t h a t s o c i e t y p l a c e s upon r e a d i n g
a b i l i t y * m ost c h i l d r e n t o d a y grow up i n an e n v ir o n m e n t i n
w h ic h i n a b i l i t y t o r e a d i s s o c i a l l y u n a c c e p t a b l e (Quandt*
1972* p p . 8 - 9 ) . S in c e t h e q u e s t i o n o f l i t e r a c y i s c r i t i c a l
f o r a l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e o f y o u t h s today* i t becom es i m p e r a
t i v e t h a t m eth o d s be v a l i d a t e d w h ic h c a n be u t i l i z e d t o
a s s i s t t h e s e young p e o p l e i n a c h i e v i n g t h e i r p o t e n t i a l i n
r e a d i n g . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t a d d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h d a t a on
t u t o r i n g and i t s e f f e c t s on r e a d i n g a c h ie v e m e n t and s e l f -
c o n c e p t be made a v a i l a b l e t o t h e p r o f e s s i o n i n o r d e r t h a t
k n o w le d g e a b o u t t u t o r i n g be more c o n c l u s iv e * as e d u c a t o r s
c o n t i n u e t o s e e k h i g h m o t i v a t i o n a l m ethods f o r r e m e d i a t i n g
t h e r e a d i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s o f t h e y o u th o f t o d a y .
P u r p o s e o f t h e S tu d y
The p u r p o s e o f t h e s t u d y was t o d e t e r m in e w h e th e r
p u p i l s i n t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e g ra d e s* who a r e r e a d i n g a y e a r
o r m ore b elo w t h e i r a c t u a l g r a d e l e v e l * w ould make s i g n i f i
c a n t p r o g r e s s i n r e a d i n g a c h ie v e m e n t by p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n a
c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g p ro g ra m . I n a d d i t i o n ,, i t was t h e i n t e n t
o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r t o d e t e r m i n e w h e th e r t h e r e was im p r o v e
ment i n s e l f - p e r c e p t i o n f o r l o w - a c h i e v i n g i n t e r m e d i a t e p u
p i l s as a r e s u l t o f in v o lv e m e n t i n a t u t o r i n g e x p e r i e n c e .
H y p o th e s e s
The f o l l o w i n g h y p o t h e s e s w ere f o r m u l a t e d :
1. T h e re a r e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n r e a d i n g c o m p re
h e n s i o n b e tw e e n p u p i l s a t t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l who
h a v e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a c r o s s - a g e ' t u t o r i a l p ro g ra m
and p u p i l s a t t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l i n a r e m e d i a l
r e a d i n g c l a s s , when com pared on t h e G ilm o re O r a l
R e a d in g T e s t .
2. T h e re a r e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n a c c u r a c y b e tw e e n
p u p i l s i n i n t e r m e d i a t e g r a d e s who a r e i n v o l v e d i n a
c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i a l p ro g ra m and p u p i l s i n i n t e r m e d i
a t e g r a d e s who a t t e n d a r e m e d i a l r e a d i n g c l a s s , when
co m p ared on t h e G ilm o re O r a l R e a d in g T e s t .
3 . T h e re i s a s i g n i f i c a n t g a i n i n k n o w led g e and a p p l i c a
t i o n o f p h o n i c s s k i l l s f o r c h i l d r e n i n v o l v e d i n a
c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i a l p ro g ra m , when p r e - and p o s t t e s t
r e s u l t s a r e com pared u s i n g s e l e c t e d p o r t i o n s o f t h e
p h o n i c s t e s t fro m t h e S p ach e D i a g n o s t i c R e a d in g
S c a l e s .
4 . S i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t i n p u p i l s ’ s e l f -
c o n c e p t s when c o m p a rin g c h i l d r e n who h a v e b e e n i n
a c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g p ro g ra m w i t h t h o s e who h a v e b e e n
i n a r e m e d i a l r e a d i n g c la s s ,, u s i n g t h e I F e e l . . . .
Me F e e l S e l f C o n ce p t A p p r a i s a l .
D e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e S tu d y
The f o l l o w i n g d e l i m i t a t i o n s w ere im p o se d by t h e
i n v e s t i g a t o r :
1. The sa m p le was l i m i t e d t o f o u r t h - , f i f t h - , and s i x t h -
g r a d e p u p i l s .
2. The s t u d y was l i m i t e d t o two i n n e r - c i t y s c h o o l s o f a
m e t r o p o l i t a n s c h o o l d i s t r i c t i n t h e s o u t h c e n t r a l
U n i t e d S t a t e s .
3 . The r e s e a r c h was l i m i t e d t o a p e r i o d o f 10 w e e k s.
L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e S tu d y
T h ese l i m i t a t i o n s s h o u ld be c o n s i d e r e d i n i n t e r
p r e t i n g t h e f i n d i n g s .
1. P u p i l s w ere s e l e c t e d fro m many d i f f e r e n t c la s s r o o m s
and i t w o u ld h a v e b e e n i m p o s s i b l e t o c o n t r o l t h e
d i f f e r e n c e s r e s u l t i n g from t h e q u a l i t y o f i n s t r u c
t i o n r e c e i v e d .
2. A lth o u g h s o c io e c o n o m ic f a c t o r s w e re e x p l a i n e d ,
t h e r e was no e f f o r t made t o c o n t r o l t h i s v a r i a b l e .
3 . The s o c io e c o n o m ic l e v e l was c o n s i d e r e d t o be b a l a n c e d
i n t h e s c h o o l s , w i t h m id d le and lo w e r s o c io e c o n o m ic
l e v e l s r e p r e s e n t e d . H ow ever, no a t t e m p t was made t o
6
s e l e c t a b a l a n c e d s a m p le f o r t h e r e s e a r c h o r c o n t r o l
g r o u p s .
4 . A lth o u g h a t t e n d a n c e was r e c o r d e d f o r t h e r e s e a r c h
group,, no a t t e m p t was made t o d e t e r m in e t h e a b s e n
t e e i s m i n t h e c o n t r o l g ro u p .
5 . P resum ably., t h e r e was an e q u a l c h a n c e f o r e a c h g ro u p
t o i n c l u d e some p u p i l s who h a d b e e n r e t a i n e d . How
e v e r ,, no a t t e m p t was made t o c o n t r o l t h i s v a r i a b l e .
D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms
C r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g p r o g r a m . A p ro g ra m i n w h ic h
p u p i l s i n i n t e r m e d i a t e g r a d e s t u t o r f i r s t - and s e c o n d - g r a d e
c h i l d r e n i n r e a d i n g .
I n t e l l i g e n c e q u o t i e n t . F o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s
s t u d y t h i s r e f e r s t o s c o r e s d e r i v e d from t h e S l o s s o n I n t e l
l i g e n c e T e s t .
S l o s s o n I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s t . An i n d i v i d u a l i n t e l l i
g e n c e t e s t w h ich i s a d m i n i s t e r e d by t h e e x a m in e r r e a d i n g
t h e ite m s t o t h e s u b j e c t .
G ilm o re O r a l R e a d in g T e s t . An i n d i v i d u a l r e a d i n g
t e s t i n w h ic h t h e p u p i l r e a d s a lo u d w h ile t h e e x a m in e r
m arks e r r o r s . The r e a d i n g i s f o ll o w e d by q u e s t i o n s r e l a t
i n g t o t h e m a t e r i a l r e a d .
7
S pache D i a g n o s t i c R e a d in g S c a l e s . O nly t h e p h o n i c s
s u b t e s t was u s e d . P e r fo r m a n c e on t h i s t e s t i n d i c a t e s k n o w l
edge o f v a r i o u s p h o n i c s s k i l l s and t h e a b i l i t y t o a p p ly
t h e s e s k i l l s .
I F e e l . . . Me F e e l S e l f C o n ce p t A p p r a i s a l . An
i n s t r u m e n t w h ic h a l l o w s t h e s u b j e c t t o i d e n t i f y f e e l i n g s
to w a r d o t h e r s , s e l f , and t h i n g s by m a rk in g f a c e s d e s i g n e d
t o c o n v e y v a r i o u s l e v e l s o f f e e l i n g s .
A c t u a l g r a d e l e v e l . F o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s s t u d y
t h i s r e f e r s t o t h e g r a d e l e v e l o f t h e p u p i l a t t h e tim e o f
t h e s t u d y , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e p u p i l ' s a b i l i t y .
R e m e d ia l r e a d i n g c l a s s . A c l a s s f o r p u p i l s w i t h
r e a d i n g p r o b le m s , i n w h ich s p e c i f i c i n s t r u c t i o n i s g i v e n
t o a i d i n t h e im p ro v em en t o f r e a d i n g s k i l l s .
O r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e R e m a in in g C h a p te r s
C h a p te r I I p r o v i d e s a r e v ie w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e and
an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f r e s e a r c h r e l a t e d t o t u t o r i n g and s e l f -
c o n c e p t , f o c u s i n g u p o n t h e e f f e c t o f c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g on
r e a d i n g a c h ie v e m e n t an d s e l f - c o n c e p t . A b r i e f h i s t o r y o f
t u t o r i n g i s a l s o i n c l u d e d .
C h a p te r I I I p r e s e n t s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s a m p le ,
d e s c r i b e s t h e a s s e s s m e n t i n s t r u m e n t s , and e x p l a i n s t h e
r e s e a r c h m e th o d o lo g y . A d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p i l o t s t u d y i s
a l s o i n c l u d e d .
8
C h a p te r IV d e s c r i b e s t h e t r e a t m e n t o f t h e d ata,,
p r e s e n t s t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h e study., and i n t e r p r e t s t h e
f i n d i n g s .
C h a p te r V p r e s e n t s a summary o f t h e f in d i n g s ,,
s t a t e s c o n c lu s io n s ,, and g i v e s re c o m m e n d a tio n s t h a t a r e a
r e s u l t o f t h e s t u d y .
CHAPTER I I
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
I n t r o d u c t i o n
Q u e s t i o n i n g a p r e - s c h o o l e r a b o u t w hat he e x p e c t s
when he b e g i n s s c h o o l t y p i c a l l y e l i c i t s t h e r e s p o n s e , ,rto
l e a r n t o r e a d . ” L e a r n in g to r e a d h a s lo n g b e e n synonymous
w i t h s t a r t i n g to s c h o o l and i n d e e d th e e m p h a s is on r e a d i n g
i n th e p r im a r y g r a d e s i s a c c e p te d ., ev en o v e rw h e lm in g . When
n o n - p r o m o tio n was an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e e l e m e n t a r y school.,
d e c i s i o n s w ere b a s e d l a r g e l y on t h e c h i l d ' s p e r f o r m a n c e in
t h e a r e a o f r e a d i n g . " R e s e a r c h I n d i c a t e s t h a t m ost f a i l
u r e s i n e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l a r e c a u s e d by l a c k o f r e a d i n g
a b i l i t y " (R agan, 1971* P- 2 4 3 ) . Ragan r e m in d s u s t h a t th e
t e a c h i n g o f r e a d i n g i s a m a jo r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e e l e
m e n ta r y t e a c h e r . The c h i l d n e e d s t h i s a b i l i t y f o r s u c c e s s
i n s c h o o l an d to f u l f i l l h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a s a c i t i z e n i n
a d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t y . E d u c a t io n h a s b e e n u n a b l e , h o w e v e r,
to p r o v i d e e v e r y c h i l d w i t h t h i s n e e d e d and d e s i r a b l e
s k i l l .
I n a b i l i t y to r e a d e f f e c t i v e l y i s a p ro b le m o f g r e a t
m a g n itu d e among o u r c h i l d r e n , y o u t h and a d u l t c i t i
z e n r y . The f a i l u r e o f s t u d e n t s to d e v e lo p a d e q u a te
r e a d i n g s k i l l s makes i t i m p o s s i b l e f o r them to m eet
th e demands o f t h e s c h o o l c u r r i c u l u m , w h i l e t h e l a c k
t
9
10
o f r e a d i n g s k i l l s among a d u l t s m akes i t I m p o s s i b l e f o r
them to be s u c c e s s f u l and c o n t r i b u t i n g members o f o u r
s o c i e t y . (p . 242)
A c c o rd in g to Cook (1977)* t h e r e a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y
39 m i l l i o n p e o p l e i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s who a r e f u n c t i o n a l l y
i l l i t e r a t e . R e c e n tly ,, t h e r e h a v e b e e n i n c r e a s i n g demands
f o r minimum c o m p e t e n c i e s i n r e a d i n g and o t h e r a r e a s b e f o r e
a h i g h s c h o o l d ip lo m a w i l l be a w a rd e d . W hat, t h e n , can th e
s c h o o l s do t o e n a b l e a l l c h i l d r e n to r e a d to t h e i r p o t e n
t i a l l e v e l ? I t a p p e a r s t h a t two i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f
a c h i e v i n g t h i s g o a l a r e i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n o f i n s t r u c t i o n
and a p o s i t i v e s e l f - i m a g e f o r th e p u p i l .
I n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n can be a c c o m p lis h e d t h r o u g h a
v a r i e t y o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p l a n s and m e th o d s . I n d i v i d u a l i
z a t i o n t h r o u g h c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g seem s e s p e c i a l l y d e s i r
a b l e f o r th e i n t e r m e d i a t e c h i l d who h a s n o t r e a c h e d h i s
p o t e n t i a l i n r e a d i n g . M ela ra g n o (1977) r e p o r t s t h a t more
a t t e n t i o n i s b e i n g g i v e n to p u p i l t u t o r i n g i n an e f f o r t to
s o l v e t h e p ro b le m o f d i s i n t e r e s t on t h e p u p i l ' s p a r t a s
w e l l a s to p r o v i d e a means f o r i n d i v i d u a l i z i n g r e a d i n g . In
f a c t , M ela ra g n o s p e a k s o f t u t o r i n g a s " t h e u l t i m a t e form o f
i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n " (p . 384) f u r t h e r s t a t e s ,
E d u c a t o r s t u r n e d to t u t o r i n g i n t h e hope t h a t d i s e n
c h a n t e d y o u t h m ig h t view e d u c a t i o n more p o s i t i v e l y ,
i f t h e y w ere g i v e n more r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y
i f a young p e r s o n c o u ld be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e i n
s t r u c t i o n o f a v e r y young p u p i l . ( p . 384)
D re y e r ( 1 9 7 3 ) b e l i e v e s t h a t "some i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n o f i n
s t r u c t i o n i s u n d o u b t e d l y t h e k ey to s u c c e s s f u l an d e f f i
11
c i e n t l e a r n i n g " (p . 810) and s u g g e s t s p u p i l t u t o r i n g as one
m eans o f p r o v i d i n g f o r t h e a p p r o p r i a t e l e v e l o f i n d i v i d u a l
i z a t i o n .
I n a d d i t i o n t o an i n d i v i d u a l i z e d s i t u a t i o n , , c r o s s
a g e t u t o r i n g g i v e s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r t h e c h i l d t o g a i n
s t a t u s . , h o p e f u l l y l e a d i n g t o an im p ro v e d s e l f - c o n c e p t . The
l i t e r a t u r e h a s o f t e n a l l u d e d t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s e l f -
c o n c e p t and r e a d i n g a c h ie v e m e n t (R obeck & W ilson., 197^-j
W ilson., 1 9 7 7 ; Z in tz ., 1 9 7 0 ) . The e f f e c t o f s e l f - c o n c e p t on
t h e c h i l d ’s a b i l i t y i n an y a r e a can be n o t e d i n t h i s s t a t e
m ent by G illh a m ( 1 9 6 7 ):
The i n d i v i d u a l who h a s l e a r n e d t o s e e h i m s e l f as s t u
p i d and i n s i g n i f i c a n t i s e n s l a v e d by t h i s s e l f - c o n c e p t
u n t i l some s i g n i f i c a n t p e r s o n o r p e r s o n s i n h i s l i f e
h e l p him s e e h i m s e l f as c a p a b l e and w o r t h w h i l e .
( p . 2 7 2 )
T h e l e n ’s ( 1 9 6 9 ) s t a t e m e n t t h a t t u t o r i n g s t r e n g t h e n s t h e
p u p i l ’s ego and e n h a n c e s h i s s e l f - e s t e e m s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e
t u t o r i n g e x p e r i e n c e c a n l e a d t o an i n d i v i d u a l ’s r e l e a s e
fro m a low s e l f - i m a g e .
T h e se e le m e n ts,, th e n „ a r e t h e b a s i s f o r t h i s study,,
and f o l l o w i n g a b r i e f summary o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l b a c k g ro u n d
o f t u t o r i n g . , t h e c h a p t e r w i l l c i t e e x p e r t o p i n i o n s an d r e
s e a r c h r e l a t e d t o t u t o r i n g . , e s p e c i a l l y c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g
i n r e l a t i o n t o r e a d i n g a c h ie v e m e n t w i t h e m p h a s is on s e l f -
c o n c e p t .
12
H i s t o r i c a l B a c k g ro u n d
C h i l d r e n h av e b e e n t e a c h i n g o t h e r c h i l d r e n t h r o u g h
o u t h i s t o r y . , a c c o r d i n g t o G a r t n e r , Kohler., and R iessm an
(l971a.> p . 14) . C a lle n d e r ,, P o rt., and D y k s t r a (1973) c o n c u r
b y s t a t i n g t h a t " th e c o n c e p t o f one s t u d e n t t e a c h i n g a n o t h e r
I s n o t new" (p . 8 ) . C a l l e n d e r e t a l . e x p l a i n e d t h a t one
s t u d e n t t e a c h i n g a n o t h e r can be t r a c e d to f i r s t - c e n t u r y
Rome and Hindu s c h o o l s o f a n c i e n t d a y s a s w e l l a s s i x t e e n t h -
c e n t u r y F ra n c e .
G a r t n e r e t a l . (1 9 7 1 a) a l s o d e s c r i b e t h e e v o l u t i o n
o f t h e m o n i t o r i a l system., i n i t i a t e d by J o s e p h L a n c a s t e r i n
1798 when l a c k o f f u n d s f o r h i r i n g t e a c h e r s f o r c e d him to
u t i l i z e t h e c h i l d r e n a s t e a c h e r s . T h is m ethod r e t a i n e d i t s
p o p u l a r i t y f o r a num ber o f y e a r s an d a s i m i l a r p ro g ra m was
a d v o c a t e d by Andrew B e l l . N ear t h e m id d le o f t h e n i n e
t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e s e i d e a s becam e u n p o p u l a r , m o t i v a t e d , i n
p a r t , by t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f l a r g e r num bers o f q u a l i f i e d
t e a c h e r s . I t was n o t c o m p l e t e l y a b a n d o n e d , h o w e v e r, a s
A m erican p u p i l s o f t h e o n e -ro o m s c h o o l v a r i e t y c o u l d v e r i f y .
W illia m B e n t l e y Fow le, a n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y New E n g la n d
e d u c a t o r , r e f u s e d to e l i m i n a t e t u t o r i n g from e d u c a t i o n . H is
p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f t u t o r i n g was b r o a d e r , how
e v e r , th a n t h a t h e l d by e a r l i e r p r o p o n e n t s o f t h e c o n c e p t .
W hile m o st t u t o r i a l s y s te m s w ere u s e d to m eet t h e n e e d s o f
t h e l e a r n e r , F ow le, i n 1846, saw t h e a d v a n ta g e to t h e t u t o r ,
13
n o t o n ly b e c a u s e o f th e k n o w led g e he c o u ld g a i n b u t b e c a u s e
o f t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a g r e a t e r s e n s e o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .
A lth o u g h E l l i o t w r o te i n 1973 t h a t " r e s o u r c e f u l
t e a c h e r s h av e a lw a y s known t h a t s t u d e n t s can and do t e a c h
e a c h o t h e r " (p . 535) j t u t o r i n g d i d n o t a g a i n r e c e i v e w id e
a t t e n t i o n u n t i l a l m o s t a c e n t u r y a f t e r F o w le s ' w r i t i n g s .
C u r r e n t S t a t u s o f T u t o r i n g
i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
A lth o u g h t h e e f f i c a c y o f t u t o r i n g can be s u p p o r t e d
an d many e d u c a t o r s p r o f e s s t o b e l i e v e i t i s a v i a b l e a l t e r
n a t i v e to th e i n s t r u c t i o n o f p u p i l s by t h e t e a c h e r , i t i s
u n c l e a r w h e th e r o r n o t t h e p r a c t i c e i s w i d e s p r e a d a t t h i s
ti m e . H ip p ie ( 1 9 6 9 ) d i s c u s s e d p o t e n t i a l b a r r i e r s to t h i s
a p p r o a c h an d s u g g e s t e d t h a t some t e a c h e r s f e e l t h r e a t e n e d
by any o t h e r p e r s o n e n t e r i n g t h e i r room f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f
p e r f o r m i n g some o f th e t e a c h e r s * d u t i e s . He a l s o w r o te o f
t h o s e few t e a c h e r s who r e f u s e to a c c e p t any h e l p b e c a u s e o f
a s t r o n g d e s i r e to l a y a c l a i m t o b e i n g o v e rw o rk e d . H ip p ie
ad m its,, h o w e v e r, t h a t m o st t e a c h e r s w ould welcome some a s
s i s t a n c e . I t i s n o t t h e i n t e n t o f t h e s e p ro g ra m s to a l l o w
th e t e a c h e r t o t u r n h e r c l a s s o v e r to someone e l s e . T h is
a t t i t u d e i s s u p p o r t e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t i n a r e
p o r t o f t h e T u t o r i a l Community P r o j e c t i n P a co im a, C a l i f o r
n i a . " I t i s n o t an a t t e m p t to r e p l a c e t h e te a c h e r ,, b u t to
m o d ify t h e t e a c h e r ' s r o l e to t h a t o f a l e a r n i n g c o o r d i n a t o r "
( " S t u d e n t s A s s i s t Each Other,, " 19&9y p . 4 4 ) .
14
P e r h a p s a more l o g i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f why more
t e a c h e r s h a v e n o t u t i l i z e d t h i s a p p r o a c h i s g i v e n by B o ra k s
and A lle n ( 1 9 7 7 ) . They c i t e two m ain b a r r i e r s to a t u t o r i n g
p ro g ra m . The f i r s t i s r e l a t e d to t h e p l a n n i n g and s c h e d u l
i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s a s w e l l a s t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r t h e c o o p e r a
t i o n o f p e r s o n n e l i n v o l v e d i n i n i t i a t i n g a t u t o r i n g p ro g ra m .
Second,, B o ra k s and A lle n f e e l t h a t t h e tim e and money n e c e s
s a r y f o r s e c u r i n g a p p r o p r i a t e m a t e r i a l s t o be u s e d by t h e
t u t o r s r e s u l t s i n a r e l u c t a n c e on t h e p a r t o f t e a c h e r s .
T h is f e a r may be g r o u n d le s s ., a s some f e e l t h a t an a s s e t i s
t h e f a c t t h a t l i t t l e a d d i t i o n a l c o s t f o r m a t e r i a l s i s r e
q u i r e d . In an e x a m i n a t i o n o f f i v e p ro g ra m s by C ooper (1974),
t h e c o s t o f e q u i p p i n g and o p e r a t i n g t h e p ro g ra m s was m in im a l
an d fo u n d to b e l i t t l e more th a n t h e u s u a l e x p e n d i t u r e s f o r
c u r r i c u l u m r e s o u r c e s .
In g e n e r a l., r e p o r t s o f t u t o r i n g h av e b e e n p o s i t i v e . ,
w i t h a t y p i c a l comment b e i n g t h a t t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s , i n c l u d
i n g t h e t e a c h i n g s t a f f , w ant t h e p ro g ra m t o c o n t i n u e
(C o o p e r, 1 9 7 4 ) . In C o o p e r 's c o m p a r a t i v e s tu d y o f f i v e s e
l e c t e d c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g p ro g ra m s i n s o u t h e a s t e r n M ic h ig a n ,
h e r e p o r t e d t h a t a f t e r f o u r y e a r s , c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g was
r e c e i v e d f a v o r a b l y by t h e d i s t r i c t s and t h e s e p ro g ra m s w ere
i n c r e a s i n g i n num ber. D e s p i t e su c h r e p o r t s a s t h e p r e c e d i n g
and a s t a t e m e n t by M e la ra g n o (1974) t h a t " a t p r e s e n t , th e
num ber o f e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t h a t h a v e
15
t u t o r i n g p ro g ra m s m ust h a v e r e a c h e d t h e 1 0 ,0 0 0 s " (p . 157)*
t h e r e d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o be e v i d e n c e t h a t t u t o r i n g i s an
o n g o in g p a r t o f m ost s c h o o l p r o g r a m s . N e i t h e r i s i t c e r
t a i n , w i t h some e x c e p t i o n s , t h a t w h ere t u t o r i n g h a s b e e n
s u c c e s s f u l , i t h a s c o n t i n u e d u n i n t e r r u p t e d and w i t h c o n
s i s t e n c y .
A d v a n ta g e s o f T u t o r i n g t o t h e
I n d i v i d u a l a n d S o c i e t y
Few e d u c a t o r s o f t h i s d a y w o uld f a i l t o r e c o g n i z e
t h a t i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s a r e a r e a l i t y . Much v e r b a l i z
i n g i s done r e g a r d i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n ,
b u t t e a c h i n g t h e e n t i r e c l a s s a t one tim e i s s t i l l t h e p r o
c e d u r e m ost u s e d (R agan, 1 9 7 1 ). P e r h a p s a s t r o n g a p p e a l o f
t u t o r i n g l i e s i n t h e f a c t t h a t one c a n a p p l y t h e c o n c e p t o f
i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n , y e t r e t a i n a t r a d i t i o n a l s t y l e o f t e a c h
i n g . C e r t a i n l y , t h e p u s h f o r i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n h a s g i v e n
im p e tu s t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t u t o r i n g p r o g r a m s . A c c o r d in g
t o H a r r i s and S m ith ( 1 9 7 6 ), "The v a l u e o f c r o s s - a g e t u t o r
i n g makes i t w o r th c o n s i d e r i n g as a way t o i n d i v i d u a l i z e
i n s t r u c t i o n and p r o v i d e m e a n i n g f u l i n d e p e n d e n t l e a r n i n g
a c t i v i t i e s " (p . 3 8 6 ) .
The P o r t l a n d , O reg o n , s c h o o l s y s te m h a s a t u t o r i n g
p ro g ra m c a l l e d S t u d e n t Team A c t i o n , w h ich t h e y b e l i e v e h a s
h e l p e d them t o s o l v e two c r i t i c a l p r o b le m s - - m a k in g e d u c a
t i o n r e l e v a n t and i n d i v i d u a l i z i n g i n s t r u c t i o n (F le m in g ,
16
1969)* T h is i d e a i s s u p p o r t e d by T h e le n (1969)* w^-° s t a t e d
t h a t a t u t o r i n g p ro g ra m i n c r e a s e s "by a v e r y l a r g e f a c t o r
t h e amount o f t e a c h i n g g o in g on i n t h e s c h o o l " (p . 2 4 2 ) .
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l a t t e n t i o n t h a t a c c o m p a n ie s
t h e a c t u a l t u t o r i n g , , H i p p i e ( 1 9 6 9 ) s u g g e s t e d t h a t an a d d i
t i o n a l b o n u s o f I n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n o c c u r s t h a t r e s u l t s fro m
t h e t e a c h e r b e i n g f r e e t o g i v e more tim e t o e a c h c h i l d .
Some a u t h o r s h av e l a u d e d a s e r e n d i p i t o u s e f f e c t o f
t u t o r i n g w h ic h B r u n e r (1 9 7 2 ) r e f e r s t o a s "a s e n s e o f com
m u n ity " (p . 6 2 ) . I n h i s book r e v i e w o f C h i l d r e n T each
C h i l d r e n by G a rtn e r,, K ohler., and R ie ssm a n (1971)* B r u n e r
( 1 9 7 2 ) s ta t e d ,,
One r e a l i z e s t h a t t h e i d e a o f e a c h t e a c h i n g a n o t h e r
may i n d e e d be a r e v o l u t i o n a r y s t e p to w a r d m a i n t a i n i n g
com m unity i n a s o c i e t y w h e re t h e f o r c e s o f u r b a n o r
g a n i z a t i o n .; o f m ass p r o d u c tio n .; and i n d e e d o f m ass
e d u c a t i o n a r e a l l c e n t r i f u g a l . . . . The c o n te m p o r a r y
e f f o r t t o r e c o n s t r u c t o u r s c h o o l s I S ; I t h i n k ; p a r t
o f t h e g e n e r a l e f f o r t t o r e d u c e i s o l a t i o n ; t o r e
e s t a b l i s h m u t u a l i t y and e x c h a n g e . S h a r i n g o n e ’s
s k i l l s and k n o w le d g e w i t h o t h e r s ; b e i n g t e a c h e r a s
w e l l as l e a r n e r a r e e f f o r t s t o t h a t e n d . (p p . 6 2 -
6 3)
O th e r s c o n c u r w i t h B r u n e r . H i p p i e ( 1 9 6 9 ) deemed I t a p p r o
p r i a t e t h a t t h e s c h o o l d e v e lo p good l i v i n g h a b i t s w h ic h i n
c l u d e h e l p i n g o t h e r s ; and T h e le n ( 1 9 6 9 ) s u g g e s t e d t h a t t u
t o r i n g c a n b e a f o r c e i n r e d u c i n g p r e j u d i c e and p r o m o tin g
c l a s s and r a c e I n t e g r a t i o n . A c o n c l u s i o n o f C o o p e r 's 1973
s t u d y o f c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g p ro g ra m s was t h a t " p a r t i c i p a n t s
c o n s i d e r e d t h e g r e a t e s t b e n e f i t . . . t o be t h e o p p o r t u n i t y
17
o f I n c r e a s i n g i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s 1 ' ( p . 4690A) among
s t u d e n t s i n v o l v e d i n t h e p ro g ra m . The i m p o r t a n c e o f th e
o p p o r t u n i t y t h a t t u t o r i n g p r o v i d e s f o r im p ro v in g com m unica
t i o n and r e l a t i o n s h i p s among p a r t i c i p a n t s s h o u ld n o t be
t a k e n l i g h t l y , a s i t may be an i m p o r t a n t e le m e n t i n p r o
d u c in g a b e t t e r s o c i e t y . As T h e le n (1 9 ^9 ) s t a t e d ,
To th e e x t e n t t h a t t h e s e [ h e l p i n g ] e x p e r i e n c e s i n
s c h o o l a r e a r c h e t y p a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f s i g n i f i c a n t
e n c o u n t e r s t h e s t u d e n t w i l l h a v e i n t h e l a r g e r s o c i
e t y , t h e i r e d u c a t i o n a l p o t e n t i a l i s w o r th t r y i n g to
r e a l i z e . . . . I t w i l l be w o r t h w h i l e , a s we e x p e r i
m ent w i t h t h e h e l p i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s among s t u d e n t s ,
t o r e c o g n i z e and demand t h a t t h e s t u d e n t r e c o g n i z e
t h o s e q u a l i t i e s and p r i n c i p l e s w h ic h a r e a l s o v i a b l e
I n th e l a r g e r s o c i e t y . (p p . 2 3 9 -2 4 0 )
F u r t h e r , T h e le n c o n te n d e d t h a t t h e to p p r i o r i t y o f
o u r n a t i o n f o r t h e s c h o o l s i s to k e e p s t u d e n t s i n s c h o o l ,
to t e a c h them to r e a d , an d to aw ard them a d ip lo m a . I t i s
q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t t u t o r i n g c a n be an a v e n u e to a c h i e v e
t h e s e g o a l s . I n 19^9 S c h r e i b e r s t a t e d t h a t " t h e d r o p o u t ’ s
l e v e l o f r e a d i n g a c h ie v e m e n t i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y lo w e r th a n
t h a t o f t h e n o n d r o p o u t ” ( i n E b e l, 19^9^ P . 3 1 l ) • A s tu d y
b y B le d s o e (1959) c o n f ir m e d t h a t d r o p o u t s i n t h e n i n t h and
t e n t h g r a d e s h a v e lo w e r r e a d i n g s c o r e s th a n t h e i r p e e r s who
d i d n o t d ro p o u t . A s u r v e y was made o f 247 s t u d e n t s who
w ith d r e w from s c h o o l i n t h e e i g h t h , n i n t h , an d t e n t h g r a d e s .
The C a l i f o r n i a R e a d in g A c h ie v e m e n t T e s t was a d m i n i s t e r e d to
a l l s t u d e n t s i n t h e n i n t h g r a d e . The mean r e a d i n g c o m p re
h e n s i o n s c o r e o f s t u d e n t s d r o p p in g o u t a t n i n t h and t e n t h
18
g r a d e s . w a s 7 - 9 ; a l l o t h e r n i n t h g r a d e r s h a d a mean r e a d i n g
c o m p r e h e n s io n s c o r e o f 8 . 9 .
A s t u d y by Wing (1 9 7 2 ) a t t e m p t e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e
e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t u t o r i n g f o r h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s who h a d
b e e n i d e n t i f i e d a s p o t e n t i a l d r o p o u t s . The f i n d i n g s i n d i
c a t e d t h a t t h e t u t o r i n g h a d a f a v o r a b l e e f f e c t on a t t e n d a n c e
a n d was h e l p f u l t o s t u d e n t s i n m a i n t a i n i n g t h e i r a v e r a g e
g r a d e p e r f o r m a n c e .
A s t u d y b y F r a g e r and S t e r n (1 9 7 0 ) a l s o fo u n d t h a t
l o w - a c h i e v i n g t u t o r s showed s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n a t
t i t u d e to w a r d s c h o o l a n d i n a t t e n d a n c e p a t t e r n s . A p ro g ra m
t h a t im p ro v e s s c h o o l a t t e n d a n c e i s a d v a n ta g e o u s., o f c o u rse,,
s i n c e i n t e r m i t t e n t and p r o l o n g e d a b s e n c e s a r e one f a c t o r i n
t h e c h i l d ' s f a i l u r e t o l e a r n t o r e a d . The c h a n g e i n a t t i
t u d e i s r e l a t e d t o t h e c h a n g e i n s e l f - c o n c e p t 3 w h ic h w i l l
be d i s c u s s e d i n a l a t e r p o r t i o n o f t h i s c h a p t e r .
I t a p p e a r s , th e n * t h a t t h e a d v a n t a g e s i n h e r e n t i n
t u t o r i n g e x p e r i e n c e s ' s h o u l d p ro m o te a g r e a t e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n
o f t u t o r i n g as a v i a b l e e d u c a t i o n a l method,, w h ic h i s v a l u
a b l e n o t o n l y t o t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s b u t t o t h e l a r g e r s o c i e t y
a s w e l l .
D e s c r i p t i o n o f P ro g ram s
C h i l d r e n T each C h i l d r e n ,, w r i t t e n b y G a r t n e r e t a l .
an d p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 7 1 * s e r v e d t o f o c u s a t t e n t i o n on c r o s s
a g e t u t o r i n g . I n an i n t r o d u c t o r y s ta t e m e n t * t h e a u t h o r s
n o te d * " i t h a s lo n g b e e n o b v io u s t h a t c h i l d r e n l e a r n from
t h e i r p e e r s * b u t a more s i g n i f i c a n t o b s e r v a t i o n i s t h a t
c h i l d r e n l e a r n more fro m t e a c h i n g o t h e r c h i l d r e n " (p . l ) .
T h is s t a r t l i n g o b s e r v a t i o n * no doubt* c a u s e d o t h e r e d u c a T-
t o r s to lo o k more c l o s e l y a t r e p o r t s on t u t o r i n g p r o g r a m s .
T h e re a r e n um erous t y p e s o f p ro g ra m s d e s c r i b e d i n
t h e l i t e r a t u r e . Many u t i l i z e a d u l t v o l u n t e e r s * o t h e r s u s e
o l d e r y o u th * w h i l e some u s e th e c h i l d r e n i n t h e i n t e r m e d i
a t e g r a d e s . Many p ro g ra m s h a v e u s e d t h e i d e a s o f L i p p i t
and L i p p i t (1970) a s a m o d e l. The L i p p i t s b eg a n t h e i r work
i n t h e 1 960s i n D e t r o i t u s i n g o l d e r e l e m e n t a r y p u p i l s a s
t u t o r s f o r y o u n g e r e l e m e n t a r y p u p i l s . They s t r e s s e d t h e
n e e d f o r a t l e a s t two y e a r s g r a d e s e p a r a t i o n b e tw e e n t u t o r
and t u t e e * i n o r d e r to p r o t e c t t h e o l d e r c h i l d ' s im age a s
t h e " e x p e r t " (p . 1 3 7 ) . They a l s o p l a c e d much e m p h a s is on
t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t d e
v e l o p i n t h i s o n e - t o - o n e e n c o u n t e r a s w e l l a s on t h e r e
s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e t e a c h i n g s t a f f to h e l p l e a d t h e c h i l
d r e n I n t o c o n s t r u c t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
A n o th e r p ro g ra m o f t h e 1 960s was " M o b i l i z a t i o n f o r
Y o u th * " w h ich was a p r o j e c t to com bat d e lin q u e n c y * e s t a b
l i s h e d u n d e r t h e Kennedy a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . The Homework
H e lp e r P ro g ram was an o u tg r o w th o f t h i s e f f o r t . Many New
Y ork C i t y h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s w ere em ployed to t u t o r e l e -
20
m e n ta r y p u p i l s ., w i t h t h e e m p h a s is b e i n g on a c a d e m ic a c h i e v e
m ent ( H a s s e t t , 197*0 • N e v e r t h e l e s s , R ie ssm a n ( i n G a r t n e r
e t a l . , 1971h) n o t e d t h a t t h e i m p r e s s i o n s one r e c e i v e d w ere
t h a t t u t o r s fo u n d t h e s e s s i o n s e n j o y a b l e ,and h ad im p ro v e d
a t t i t u d e s to w a rd s c h o o l ; t h a t im p ro v e m e n t a p p e a r e d to s p re a d
o u t i n t o s u b j e c t s o t h e r t h a n t h e one th e s t u d e n t was t e a c h
i n g .
Y o u th T u t o r i n g Y o u th (YTY) p ro g ra m s w ere e s t a b l i s h e d
t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h t h e N e ig h b o r
hood Y o u th C o rp s . One exam ple was a p ro g ra m i n t h e B an n e -
k e r S c h o o l D i s t r i c t o f S t . L o u i s . A lth o u g h a c a d e m ic s k i l l s
w ere r e c o g n i z e d a s i m p o r t a n t , YTY was e s p e c i a l l y o r i e n t e d
to w a rd h e l p i n g b o t h t u t o r s and t u t e e s who w ere a c a d e m i c a l l y
weak to g a i n s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e and d e v e lo p more p o s i t i v e f e e l
i n g s to w a rd t h e m s e l v e s and o t h e r s . YTY p ro g ra m s o p e r a t e d
a f t e r s c h o o l o r d u r i n g t h e summer, w i t h t u t o r s r e c e i v i n g
p a y f o r t h e i r e f f o r t s ( S q u i r e s , 1 9 7 1 ) .
One e s p e c i a l l y a m b i t i o u s p r o j e c t was i n i t i a t e d i n
th e Pacoim a E le m e n ta r y S c h o o l i n t h e Los A n g e le s D i s t r i c t .
A p p r o x im a te ly 75 t u t o r s , l a r g e l y fro m f i f t h g r a d e , w ere
s e l e c t e d to t e a c h 400 k i n d e r g a r t e n c h i l d r e n d u r i n g t h e
f i r s t y e a r o f t h e p ro g ra m . The i n t e n t was to i n c l u d e a l l
c l a s s e s i n t h e s c h o o l a s t h e s i x - y e a r p ro g ra m e v o l v e d , a p
p r o a c h i n g a s i t u a t i o n i n w h ich a l l c h i l d r e n w o uld be t e a c h
e r s and l e a r n e r s . T h is p ro g ra m , w h ic h was s p o n s o r e d by th e
21
F o rd F o u n d a t i o n and d i r e c t e d by S y stem s D ev elo p m en t C o rp o ra
tio n . o f S a n t a M o n ica, h a d t u t o r s w o r k in g w i t h s m a l l g ro u p s
o f y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n ,, r a t h e r t h a n on a o n e - t o - o n e b a s i s .
P a r e n t s and o t h e r com m unity members w ere a l s o i n v o l v e d i n
t h e program ., known a s t h e T u t o r i a l Community P r o j e c t ( " S t u
d e n t s A s s i s t E ach O t h e r , " 1 9 6 9 ).
A P o r t l a n d , O reg o n , e f f o r t c a l l e d S t u d e n t Team
A c t i o n (STA) i n v o l v e d a l l s t u d e n t s i n u p p e r g r a d e s , p a i r i n g
e a c h w i t h a p r i m a r y p u p i l . The t u t o r s k e p t l o g s and e v a l u
a t e d t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s . The i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s
t h a t d e v e lo p e d b e tw e e n t h e t u t o r and h i s p u p i l w e re c o n
s i d e r e d o f u tm o s t i m p o r t a n c e i n STA. I t s s u c c e s s i n f l u
e n c e d t h e s p r e a d t o o t h e r s c h o o l s i n t h e s y s te m (F le m in g ,
1 9 6 9 ) .
Some u n i v e r s i t i e s h a v e become i n v o l v e d I n t u t o r i n g .
One .example h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d b y L aw ren ce S m ith (1 9 7 3 ) a t
t h e I n d i a n a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y L a b o r a t o r y S c h o o l. The s c h o o l
was c o n c e r n e d a b o u t h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s and t h e f r u s t r a
tio n . t h e y m eet d a i l y i f t h e y do n o t r e a d a d e q u a t e l y . T h is
p ro g ra m , t h e n , was aim ed a t im p ro v in g t h e a t t i t u d e s and
l a n g u a g e a r t s s k i l l s o f t h e s e s t u d e n t s . T u t o r s a r r i v e d 15
t o 20 m in u te s e a r l y t o p r e p a r e m a t e r i a l s an d t h e y r e m a in e d
a f t e r t h e t u t o r i n g s e s s i o n s t o e v a l u a t e t h e i r r o l e as t u
t o r s . K e e p in g a l o g was a l s o a p a r t o f t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
o f t h e t u t o r s .
I n an e f f o r t t o m eet t h e n e e d s o f c h i l d r e n who w e re
22
r e a d i n g b elo w t h e i r p o t e n t i a l s t h e New H aven, C o n n e c t i c u t ,
P u b l i c S c h o o ls p r o v i d e d f i v e p r o g r a m s . They w e r e : Commu
n i t y T u t o r s , Y o u th S e r v i n g Y o u th , A f t e r S c h o o l R e a d in g ,
J u n i o r A s s i s t a n t s C o rp s , and S c h o o l V o l u n t e e r s . S e v e r a l
h a d a d u l t t u t o r s , b u t two u s e d u p p e r e l e m e n t a r y and h i g h
s c h o o l y o u n g s t e r s as t u t o r s . The J u n i o r A s s i s t a n t s C orps
s e l e c t e d a s t u t o r s s i x t h g r a d e r s who h a d a c a d e m ic and b e
h a v i o r p r o b le m s . The f o c u s o f t h e s e p ro g ra m s seem ed t o be
on t h e a c a d e m ic a c h ie v e m e n t o f t h e t u t e e s . I n r e p o r t i n g on
t h e s e e f f o r t s , C r i s c u o l o (1971) e m p h a s iz e d t h e n e e d f o r
p r e s e r v i c e an d i n s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g a s w e l l a s a r t i c u l a t i o n
b e tw e e n t u t o r and t e a c h e r .
The f o r e g o i n g d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e p r e s e n t e d a s t y p i c a l
o f t u t o r i n g p ro g ra m s t h r o u g h o u t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . W h ile
t h e im p e tu s f o r i n i t i a t i n g t h e t u t o r i n g may be d i f f e r e n t ,
m o st d i r e c t o r s and p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e i n t e r e s t e d in. t h e e f
f e c t on b o t h t h e c o g n i t i v e an d a f f e c t i v e d o m a in s.
V a r i a b l e s To Be C o n s i d e r e d when P l a n n i n g
a T u t o r i n g P ro g ram
Age
The p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n g av e e x a m p le s o f p ro g ra m s
w h ic h f o r t h e m ost p a r t p r a c t i c e d c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g .
T h e re a r e t h o s e , h o w e v e r, who a d v o c a t e p e e r t u t o r i n g a s a
b e t t e r a l t e r n a t i v e . O a k la n d and W illia m s (1975)* t h o u g h
n o t i n g t h a t c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g i s p o s s i b l y more w i d e l y u s e d ,
23
b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e p r a c t i c e o f e s t a b l i s h i n g p e e r t u t o r i n g
p r o g ra m s e l i m i n a t e d some o f t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f s c h e d u l i n g
an d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n t h a t a r e o f t e n f o u n d when p l a n n i n g a
c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g e x p e r i e n c e . The s t u d y was c o n d u c te d
w i t h 33 t h i r d - an d f o u r t h - g r a d e c h i l d r e n f o r a f u l l y e a r .
F o r 30 m in u te s a d a y t h e t u t e e s * who h a d b e e n s e l e c t e d on
t h e b a s i s o f r e a d i n g a c h ie v e m e n t * r e c e i v e d r e a d i n g and
s p e l l i n g i n s t r u c t i o n fro m 46 o f t h e i r p e e r s .
A u n i q u e a s p e c t o f t h e s t u d y was t h a t t u t e e s w ere
n o t a s s i g n e d t o one p a r t i c u l a r t u t o r an d t h e t u t o r s d i d n o t
t e a c h e v e r y d a y . T h is s t u d y was a l s o i n t e r e s t i n g i n t h a t
one g ro u p r e c e i v e d a l l t h e i r i n s t r u c t i o n i n r e a d i n g and
s p e l l i n g from t h e t u t o r s . A n o th e r g ro u p r e c e i v e d s u p p l e
m e n t a l a s s i s t a n c e fro m t u t o r s * w h i l e t h e c o n t r o l g ro u p w ere
t a u g h t r e a d i n g b y t h e i r c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r s . No s t a t i s
t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w ere r e p o r t e d . However.,
t h e g ro u p r e c e i v i n g s u p p l e m e n t a l a s s i s t a n c e h a d g r e a t e r
g r o w th i n w ord k n o w le d g e and c o m p re h e n sio n * w h i l e t h e g ro u p
w i t h t h e l e a s t am ount o f g r o w th was t h e one r e c e i v i n g a l l
r e a d i n g i n s t r u c t i o n fro m t h e i r p e e r s . As no s i g n i f i c a n t
d i f f e r e n c e s w ere found* t h e a u t h o r s c o n c l u d e d t h a t p e e r
g ro u p i n s t r u c t i o n was e f f e c t i v e . O a k la n d an d W illia m s i n
s i s t e d t h a t t h e t u t o r i n g . p a i r s m ust be s u p e r v i s e d by c l a s s
room t e a c h e r s f o r a p o r t i o n o f t h e t i m e . T e a c h e r s re c o m
mended t h a t o n l y two p a i r s be u s e d i n an y one c la s sro o m *
24
f e e l i n g i t was i m p o s s i b l e f o r them to s u p e r v i s e a g r e a t e r
num ber.
B o ra k s an d A l l e n (1977) a l s o r e p o r t e d on t h e f i e l d
t e s t i n g o f a p e e r - t u t o r i n g p ro g ra m w i t h f o u r t h an d f i f t h
g r a d e r s from an i n n e r - c i t y sch o o l., a l l o f whom w ere s e l e c t e e ,
by t e a c h e r s a s r e q u i r i n g r e m e d i a l r e a d i n g i n s t r u c t i o n .
E ach t u t o r / t u t e e p a i r was a s s i g n e d to a c o l l e g e s t u d e n t who
d i a g n o s e d t h e t u t e e * p l a n n e d th e i n s t r u c t i o n * and t a u g h t
t h e t u t o r p r i o r to h i s w o rk in g w i t h h i s p e e r . The c o l l e g e
s t u d e n t a l s o o b s e r v e d t h e t u t o r i n g s e s s io n * b u t w i t h o u t
comment. E v a l u a t i o n s by th e c o l l e g e s tu d e n t s * tu to rs .* and
t u t e e s w ere f a v o r a b l e and t h e a u t h o r s s u g g e s t t h a t su c h a
p e e r t u t o r i n g p ro g ra m i s f e a s i b l e .
T hese two r e p o r t s s u g g e s t p e e r t u t o r i n g c an h av e
p o s i t i v e r e s u l t s * a l t h o u g h b o t h s t r e s s t h e n e e d f o r c o n t i n
u e d m o n i t o r i n g by t h e c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r . In r e v i e w i n g t h e
l i t e r a t u r e * t h e r e a p p e a r t o be m ore r e p o r t s o f c r o s s - a g e
t u t o r i n g * s u g g e s t i n g * p e r h a p s * t h a t more e d u c a t o r s s u b
s c r i b e to t h e c o n c e p t p ro m o te d by L i p p i t and L i p p i t (1 9 7 0 ):
t h a t a t l e a s t two y e a r s s h o u ld s e p a r a t e t h e t u t o r and t u t e e
t o p r o t e c t t h e s e l f - i m a g e o f t h e t u t o r . I t a p p e a r s t h a t
t h i s p r i n c i p l e c o u l d a l s o be u s e d a s an a rg u m e n t f o r p r o
t e c t i n g t h e ego o f th e t u t e e * a s t h e r e may be l e s s s tig m a
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h h a v in g someone o l d e r be o n e ' s t e a c h e r .
E h ly and L a r s e n (1975) b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y o u n g e r c h i l d w i l l
be more r e l a x e d w i t h an o l d e r t u t o r .
25
T h is s i t u a t i o n c o u l d b e a l l e v i a t e d , , p e r h a p s , i f t u
t o r i n g p ro g ra m s s i m u l a t e d t h e P a co im a, C a l i f o r n i a , c o n c e p t
o f h a v i n g a l l c h i l d r e n assum e t h e r o l e o f t u t o r a t some
t i m e , e n s u r i n g t h a t a l l c h i l d r e n a r e b o t h t e a c h e r s and
l e a r n e r s ( " S t u d e n t s A s s i s t Each O t h e r , " 1 9 6 9). T h is i s a p
p a r e n t l y more t h e e x c e p t i o n t h a n t h e r u l e b e c a u s e many t u
t o r i n g p ro g ra m s u s e t u t o r s who a r e o l d e r t h a n t h e i r p u p i l s .
T h e se i n c l u d e : a p ro g ra m a t t h e L a b o r a t o r y S c h o o l o f t h e
U n i v e r s i t y o f M ic h ig a n ( L i p p i t , 1 9 7 5); a s t u d y i n C h a n d l e r ,
A r i z o n a (S tro m & E n g e l b r e c h t , 1 9 7^-); one by P r a g e r and
S t e r n a t UCLA ( 1 9 7 0); C l o w a r d ’s ( 1 9 6 7) r e p o r t on a M o b i l i
z a t i o n f o r Y o u th p ro g ra m i n New Y o rk ; F l e m i n g ’s ( 1 9 6 9)
S t u d e n t Team A c t i o n in. P o r t l a n d ; a s t u d y by S n ap p , O a k la n d ,
an d W illia m s i n T e x as ( 1 9 7 2); one by C sapo i n B r i t i s h Co
lu m b ia ( 1 9 7 6); and L a n e , P o l l a c k , and S h e r ’s ( 1 9 7 2) s t u d y
a t t h e M aim onides Community H e a l t h C e n t e r i n B r o o k ly n .
W h ile t h e r e d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o be e v i d e n c e s u p p o r t
i n g t h e d i s i r a b i l i t y o f v a r i a n c e s i n a g e b e tw e e n t u t o r and
t u t e e , a h i g h e r i n c i d e n c e o f p ro g ra m s u t i l i z i n g o l d e r w i t h
y o u n g e r s t u d e n t s d o e s a p p e a r t o g i v e i n d i r e c t s u p p o r t t o
t h e p r a c t i c e o f c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g .
A c h ie v e m e n t
T h e re i s a l s o no c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n t h a t a t u t o r
s h o u l d be a t a c e r t a i n l e v e l o f a b i l i t y t o e n s u r e a s u e -
26
c e s s f u l e x p e r i e n c e . C e r t a i n l y ., t u t o r i n g h a s n o t b e e n r e
s t r i c t e d to h i g h o r a v e r a g e a c h i e v e r s . As S p ach e (1977)
p o i n t e d o u t , " O f te n t u t o r s a r e s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e t h e y , t o o ,
a r e p o o r r e a d e r s , a n d , a s e x p e c t e d , t h e i r s k i l l s im p ro v e
s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n h e l p i n g a y o u n g e r p u p i l " (p . 4 6 9 ) . T h is
p r e m is e was t h e b a s i s f o r many o f t h e p i o n e e r i n g e f f o r t s o f
t h e 1 960s m e n tio n e d p r e v i o u s l y , su ch a s L i p p i t and L i p p i t 1s
m odel ( 1 9 7 0 ), t h e M o b i l i z a t i o n f o r Y outh ( i n C lo w ard , 1 9 6 7 )^
and Y o u th T u t o r i n g Y o u th p r o g r a m s . O th e r s u c c e s s f u l p r o
g ram s u s i n g low a c h i e v e r s to t e a c h y o u n g s t e r s i n c l u d e
C s a p o 's ( 1 9 7 6 ) , u s i n g a d o l e s c e n t s on p r o b a t i o n who w ere
b e lo w g r a d e l e v e l , an d A l l e n an d F e ld m a n ’ s (1973)* whose
w ork i n v o l v e d l o w - a c h i e v i n g f i f t h g r a d e r s a s t u t o r s .
O th e r p ro g ra m s i n c l u d e d a l l c h i l d r e n i n a g r a d e ,
b o t h h i g h an d low a c h i e v e r s ( F le m in g , 1 9 ^9 ; Moon & W ilso n ,
1 9 7 0 ) , and one c r i t e r i o n f o r S trom and E n g l e b r e c h t ’ s (1974)
s t u d y was t h a t a l l t u t o r s be m aking s a t i s f a c t o r y p r o g r e s s
i n f o u r t h g r a d e . F r a g e r an d S t e r n (1970) n o t o n l y i n c l u d e d
h i g h and low a c h i e v e r s , b u t a t t e m p t e d to d e t e r m i n e t h e e f
f e c t o f t u t o r i n g on b o t h g r o u p s . H igh m o r a le , s a t i s f a c t o r y
s c h o o l a d j u s t m e n t , an d good a t t e n d a n c e was t h e r e s u l t f o r
a l l t u t o r s , b u t f o r t h o s e w i t h low a c h ie v e m e n t t h e r e w ere
s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n e x p e r i m e n t a l and c o n t r o l
g r o u p s who w ere n o t i n v o l v e d i n t u t o r i n g . F r a g e r and S t e r n
c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e r e s u l t s s u p p o r t t h e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t low
27
a c h i e v e r s a r e e f f e c t i v e a s t u t o r s an d a r e t h e m s e l v e s b e n e -
f i t t e d by t h e e x p e r i e n c e . C o n v e rs e ly * f o l l o w i n g a s t u d y o f
p e e r t u t o r s * O ak lan d and W illia m s (1 9 7 5 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t ,ra
good t u t o r s h o u ld be d e p e n d a b le * ab o v e a v e r a g e i n a c h i e v e
ment* a p e r s o n who w o u l d n 't l e t t h i s e x p e r i e n c e 'g o t o h i s
h e a d * ' h a v e good w ork h a b i t s an d h a v e a com m itm ent t o
o t h e r s " (p . 1 7 1 )• H i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e s e a t t r i b u t e s a r e
e s s e n t i a l i n a p e e r t u t o r i n g s i t u a t i o n * b e c a u s e t h e r e i s no
s e n i o r i t y and one d o e s n o t r e a d i l y " lo o k u p " to o n e ’ s p e e r s .
The l i t e r a t u r e d o e s n o t r e v e a l a d i s t i n c t a d v a n t a g e
i n u s i n g h ig h * a v e ra g e * o r low a c h i e v e r s . R a th e r* i f a n y
th in g * i t s u p p o r t s th e u s e o f a l l t y p e s o f c h i l d r e n and
y o u t h . E h ly and L a r s e n (1 9 7 5 ) s u g g e s t e d t h a t b e h a v i o r a l
an d e m o t i o n a l f a c t o r s be c o n s id e r e d * w i t h t h e t e a c h e r show
i n g s e n s i t i v i t y to t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f a l l p o t e n t i a l t u t o r s .
They p r o p o s e t h a t e v e r y s t u d e n t c a n c o n t r i b u t e and p r o f i t
from a t u t o r i n g e x p e r i e n c e i f g i v e n a p p r o p r i a t e t r a i n i n g
an d s u p p o r t o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l s t a f f .
Sex
Some r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e a t t e m p t e d to d e t e r m i n e w h e th e r1
b o y o r g i r l t u t o r s h a d h i g h e r g a i n s an d o t h e r s h a v e f o c u s e d
on t h e e f f e c t o f t h e sex o f t h e t u t o r / t u t e e p a i r . I t w ould
b e e s p e c i a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e f o r r e a d i n g e d u c a t o r s t o s e e k
e v i d e n c e o f an a p p r o a c h t h a t w o uld be a d v a n t a g e o u s f o r b o y s
28
w i t h r e a d i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s , , f o r a s P a l a r d y ( 1 9 6 9 ) h a s s t a t e d :
One d o e s n o t h a v e t o v e n t u r e f a r . . . t o f i n d s u p p o r t
f o r t h e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t b o y s v e r y o f t e n do l e s s w e l l
i n . . . r e a d i n g than, g i r l s , a l t h o u g h t h e r e a s o n s f o r
t h e f a i l u r e o f many bo y s t o a c h i e v e a s w e l l a s g i r l s
h a v e n o t b e e n d e f i n i t e l y e s t a b l i s h e d . (p . 7 2 0 )
E d u c a t o r s do n o t a g r e e on. a l l o f t h e c a u s e s f o r t h e h i g h e r
i n c i d e n c e o f r e a d i n g d i s a b i l i t y among b o y s , b u t t h e y do
a c c e p t i t a s f a c t . As many f o re ig n , c o u n t r i e s show a r e
v e r s e f a i l u r e r a t i o t o t h a t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , i t c a n n o t
b e c l a i m e d t h a t t h i s i s a s e x - l i n k e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c (.Spache,
1 9 7 7 ) . A c c o r d in g t o H a r r i s and S i p a y (1 975)* b o y s e x h i b i t
65 t o 90 p e r c e n t o f t h e r e a d i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s i n t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s . I t i s , t h e r e f o r e , u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h a t r e a d i n g
a u t h o r i t i e s w o u ld h o p e t o f i n d an a p p r o a c h w h ic h w o u ld be
h e l p f u l t o b o y s i n r e a d i n g . N e v e r t h e l e s s , s e x o f t h e t u
t o r s and s e x p a i r i n g h a v e r e c e i v e d l e s s a t t e n t i o n i n t h e
l i t e r a t u r e t h a n t h e p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d v a r i a b l e s o f age
and a b i l i t y . F r a g e r a n d S t e r n (1 9 7 0 ) com m ented on t h e a d
v a n t a g e o f t h e m ale t u t o r s e r v i n g a s a m odel f o r a y o u n g e r
s t u d e n t , e s p e c i a l l y w h e re no a p p r o p r i a t e m ale f i g u r e was i n
t h e home.
U s in g a p e e r t u t o r i n g s i t u a t i o n , E h ly an d L a r s e n
( 1 9 7 6 ) c o n d u c te d a s t u d y t o d e t e r m i n e w hat e f f e c t v a r i o u s
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s h a d i n p r e d i c t i n g outcom e o f t h e t u t o r i n g .
Sex o f t u t o r s and t u t e e s , as w e l l as t y p e o f s e x p a i r i n g ,
was i n c l u d e d w i t h e q u a l num bers o f m ale and f e m a le t u t o r s
29
an d t u t e e s and e q u a l n u m b ers o f o p p o s i t e and same se x p a i r s .
T h e se c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w ere n o t fo u n d to p r e d i c t s u c c e s s .
In a s t u d y by M o r l t a (1972)* w i t h o l d e r e l e m e n t a r y
c h i l d r e n t u t o r i n g y o u n g e r e l e m e n t a r y c h i l d r e n * t h e v a r i a b l e
o f se x ( a s w e l l a s o t h e r v a r i a b l e s ) d i d n o t r e v e a l a s i g
n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e . I t was n o te d * how ever* t h a t a com pos
i t e p i c t u r e o f a t u t o r who p r o f i t e d m o st fro m t h e e x p e r i
e n c e was a s i x t h - g r a d e boy* 26 m o n th s r e t a r d e d i n r e a d in g *
b e tw e e n t h e a g e s o f 1 0 .8 an d 12.6* w i t h an IQ o f + 90 . T his
f i n d i n g was n o t s u p p o r t e d i n a s t u d y by K o s k in e n ( 1 9 7 5 )*
who I n v e s t i g a t e d t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g
and a n a l y z e d w h e t h e r f e m a le an d m ale p a r t i c i p a n t s b e n e -
f i t t e d e q u a l l y . I t was fo u n d t h a t * w h i l e f e m a le t u t o r s
s c o r e d h i g h e r t h a n t h e f e m a l e s who d i d n o t t u t o r * t h e r e
v e r s e was t r u e f o r m a l e s .
A s t u d y w h ic h c o n s i d e r e d p a i r i n g was d e s i g n e d by
F o s t e r (1972) to m e a s u re f i f t h - y e a r p u p i l s ' a t t i t u d e s .
T h is r e s e a r c h fo u n d s i g n i f i c a n c e on one m e a s u r e . More c h i l
d r e n f e l t p o s i t i v e l y to w a rd t h e same sex and h a d n e g a t i v e
f e e l i n g s to w a rd t h e o p p o s i t e s e x ; i t was s u g g e s t e d t h a t
t h i s f i n d i n g b e c o n s i d e r e d when p a i r i n g t u t o r s an d t u t e e s .
T h e re i s a d e a r t h o f e v i d e n c e r e g a r d i n g t h i s v a r i
a b l e and no r e a l c o n c l u s i o n s can b e c la im e d a t t h i s tim e*
on t h e b a s i s o f r e s e a r c h .
30
T r a i n i n g o f T u t o r s
The p r a c t i c e o f t r a i n i n g t u t o r s b e f o r e a l l o w i n g
them t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n a p ro g ra m i s w i d e l y s u p p o r t e d i n t h e
l i t e r a t u r e . I n some i n s t a n c e s , t h e s u p p o r t h a s b e e n g i v e n
b e c a u s e t h o s e i n i t i a t i n g t h e t u t o r i n g r e c o g n i z e d t h e n e c e s
s i t y f o r t r a i n i n g and t h e v a l u e o f i t . L i p p i t ( 1 9 7 5 )5 i n a
c h a p t e r p e r t a i n i n g to k e y e l e m e n t s o f an e f f e c t i v e p ro g ra m ,
l i s t s p r e s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g and i n s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g o n ce e v e r y
week f o r o l d e r s t u d e n t s i n v o l v e d i n t u t o r i n g s t u d e n t s
y o u n g e r th a n t h e m s e l v e s . S a n a c o r e (1974) a l s o s t a t e d t h a t
t u t o r s m u st be t r a i n e d i n o r d e r to f u n c t i o n e f f e c t i v e l y .
Bean and Luke (1 9 7 2 ) c o n c lu d e d t h a t " c a r e f u l p l a n n i n g was
fo u n d t o be e s s e n t i a l to t h e s u c c e s s f u l t u t o r i n g s e s s i o n "
(p . 1 3 2 ) . W hile E h ly and L a r s e n (1976) e x p r e s s e d t h e b e
l i e f t h a t p r o c e d u r e s v a r y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p ro g ra m , t h e y ,
t o o , s t r e s s e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t r a i n i n g t u t o r s .
N ie d e rm e y e r and E l l i s (1971) a t t e m p t e d to d e t e r m in e
th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t r a i n i n g on f i f t h - g r a d e t u t o r s . S ix
t u t o r s w ere t r a i n e d an d s i x w ere u n t r a i n e d . The v a l u e s o f
U ( u s i n g th e M ann-W hitney U) w ere s i g n i f i c a n t b ey o n d t h e
.0 5 l e v e l f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g b e h a v i o r s .
1. T u to r e n g a g e s p u p i l i n n o n - i n s t r u c t i o n a l
f r i e n d l y c o n v e r s a t i o n .
2 . T u t o r a lw a y s l e t s t h e p u p i l know he i s r i g h t .
3 . T u t o r p r a i s e s t h e p u p i l .
4. When t h e p u p i l i s i n c o r r e c t , t u t o r t e l l s o r shows
p u p i l t h e c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e .
5. A f t e r d i s p l a y i n g B e h a v io r 4 , t u t o r e l i c i t s c o r -
_______ r e c t r e s p o n s e from p u p i l . . (p . 404)______________________
31
I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to com pare t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f
t r a i n e d t u t o r s w i t h t h a t o f u n t r a i n e d t u t o r s . F o r e x a m p le ,
t h e t r a i n e d t u t o r d i s p l a y e d B e h a v io r 4 , 85 p e r c e n t o f t h e
tim e a s o p p o s e d to 6 p e r c e n t f o r u n t r a i n e d t u t o r s . On B e
h a v i o r 5* t r a i n e d t u t o r s d i s p l a y e d t h e b e h a v i o r 75 p e r c e n t
o f th e tim e , w h i l e t h i s b e h a v i o r was a b s e n t i n t h e u n
t r a i n e d t u t o r s . T h e re was a l s o a 14 p e r c e n t d i f f e r e n c e
f a v o r i n g p u p i l s o f t r a i n e d t u t o r s i n im p ro v e m e n t o f r e a d i n g
p e r f o r m a n c e . H ow ever, i t s h o u ld be n o t e d t h a t S h eeh an ,
Feldm an, and A l l e n ( 1 9 7 6 ) , i n t h e i r r e v i e w o f r e s e a r c h on
t u t o r i n g , p o i n t e d o u t t h e r e s u l t s may h a v e b e e n i n f l u e n c e d
by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e t r a i n e d t u t o r s h ad b e e n t u t o r i n g t h e i r
t u t e e s f o u r w eeks p r i o r to t h e o b s e r v a t i o n an d t h e u n t r a i n e d
t u t o r s h ad h ad no p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e i n t u t o r i n g . T h e r e
f o r e , t h e e x p e r i e n c e an d f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h th e t u t e e s and th e
s i t u a t i o n may h a v e b e e n t h e v a r i a b l e t h a t m o st a f f e c t e d t h e
o u tc o m e . S h eeh an e t a l . a l s o m e n tio n e d t h a t t r a i n e d t u t o r s
v o l u n t e e r e d , w h i l e u n t r a i n e d t u t o r s w ere c h o s e n by t h e i r
t e a c h e r s .
F r a g e r and S t e r n (1970) r e p o r t e d on an e x p e r i m e n t
u t i l i z i n g UCLA g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s to t r a i n t u t o r s i n two d i f
f e r e n t c o u n s e l i n g m e th o d s . One was te rm e d t r a d i t i o n a l ,
w i t h t h e t r a i n i n g i n v o l v i n g an e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e p r o c e s s
and s u g g e s t i o n s aim ed a t h e l p i n g t h e t u t o r w ork w i t h a
y o u n g e r c h i l d . A n o th e r g ro u p was t r a i n e d i n a m ethod u s i n g
32
t h e f o l l o w i n g s t e p s : " d e f i n i n g g o a ls,, d e f i n i n g o b s t a c l e s , ,
s p e c i f y i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s , , i d e n t i f y i n g c o n s e q u e n c e s o f s p e
c i f i c a l t e r n a t i v e s , and m aking s e l e c t i o n s among a l t e r n a
t i v e s " (p . 4 0 4 ) . P r i n c i p l e s o f l e a r n i n g w ere a l s o t a u g h t
i n t h e l a t t e r c o u n s e l i n g m e th o d . The 48 t u t o r s r e c e i v e d
t h e same am ount o f t r a i n i n g . R e s u l t s g a v e s u p p o r t t o t h e
p o s i t i v e e f f e c t o f t u t o r i n g on t u t e e s „ a s t h o s e c h i l d r e n
r e c e i v i n g t u t o r i n g s c o r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r t h a n t h e i r
u n t u t o r e d c l a s s m a t e s . H ow ever, n e i t h e r ty p e o f t r a i n i n g
was shown to be more e f f e c t i v e t h a n t h e o t h e r .
D r e y e r (1973) r e l a t e d an e x p e r i e n c e w i t h a T i t l e I
t u t o r i n g p ro g ra m t h a t was h a v i n g much d i f f i c u l t y i n s u c
c e e d i n g . In o r d e r to s a l v a g e t h e p ro g ra m , i t was n e c e s s a r y
to i n c l u d e more i n t e n s i v e p l a n n i n g and t r a i n i n g s e s s i o n s ,
a s w e l l a s f o l l o w - u p e v a l u a t i o n . The t r a i n i n g i n v o l v e d i n
s t r u c t i o n i n s p e c i f i c r e a d i n g s k i l l s p l u s d i r e c t i o n i n g i v
i n g p o s i t i v e r e i n f o r c e m e n t t o t u t e e s . A c c o rd in g to D r e y e r ,
t h i s i n f u s i o n o f t r a i n i n g r e s u l t e d i n an e n t h u s i a s t i c r e
s p o n s e by p a r t i c i p a n t s . In a d d i t i o n , t u t o r s and t u t e e s
g a i n e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n r e a d i n g when com pared w i t h p e e r s a t
t h e same d e v e l o p m e n t a l l e v e l .
B o ra k s an d A l l e n (1977) a l s o s t r e s s e d t h e n e e d f o r
a s t r u c t u r e d t r a i n i n g s e s s i o n w i t h t u t o r s an d a d v o c a t e d a
1 0 - u n i t p ro g ra m w i t h e a c h u n i t r e q u i r i n g one t r a i n i n g s e s
s i o n . In w r i t i n g o f a p r o j e c t o f t h e N e ig h b o rh o o d Y o u th
33
C o r p s , Landrum an d M a r tin (1970) r e p o r t e d t h a t a t e a c h e r -
s u p e r v i s o r t r a i n e d t h e t u t o r s f o r a week p r i o r to th e i n i
t i a l c o n t a c t w i t h t h e t u t e e . T u t o r s a l s o h a d an h o u r o f
p l a n n i n g tim e e a c h day a n d t u t o r s r e c e i v e d a s s i s t a n c e i n
d a i l y p l a n n i n g an d e v a l u a t i o n o f p r o g r e s s .
M e la ra g n o (1 974)* a s D i r e c t o r o f t h e . T u t o r i a l Com
m u n ity P r o j e c t i n P a c o im a , C a l i f o r n i a , a l s o w r o te o f th e
n e e d f o r an i n t e n s i v e t r a i n i n g p e r i o d . He a d v o c a t e d a
t u t o r i n g c o o r d i n a t o r who p r e p a r e s c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r s f o r
t h e i r r o l e i n i n i t i a t i n g an d m o n i t o r i n g t h e t u t o r i n g . The
c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r s t r a i n e d t h e t u t o r s i n two s t a g e s . The
f i r s t s t a g e was d e s c r i b e d a s o r i e n t i n g t h e t u t o r t o th e
h e l p i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p ; t h e se c o n d s t a g e was c o n c e r n e d
l a r g e l y w i t h s p e c i f i c m a t e r i a l s and m e th o d s . T r a i n i n g i n
r e i n f o r c e m e n t p r o c e d u r e s was i n c l u d e d an d much was accom
p l i s h e d t h r o u g h r o l e p l a y i n g .
V a r i o u s b o o k l e t s a r e a v a i l a b l e t o a i d i n p l a n n i n g
an d i n i t i a t i n g a t u t o r i n g p r o g ra m . The T u t o r s 1 R e s o u rc e
H andbook (1974) i s su ch a p u b l i c a t i o n , , d e v e l o p e d f o r th e
R i g h t - t o - R e a d t u t o r t r a i n i n g p ro g ra m u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s o f
t h e O f f i c e o f E d u c a t i o n . W hile t h i s was p l a n n e d t o a s s i s t
t e a c h e r s who a r e w o rk in g w i t h a d u l t v o l u n t e e r s , t h e i n f o r
m a tio n can be a d a p t e d t o an y t u t o r i n g p r o g ra m . V o l u n t e e r s
i n E d u c a t i o n (1975) i s a n o t h e r p u b l i c a t i o n w h ic h g i v e s d i
r e c t i o n t o t u t o r i n g p ro g ra m s and i n c l u d e s a c h a p t e r on
nU s in g S t u d e n t s a s V o l u n t e e r s " (C hap. 9 ) -
34
Again,, t h e r e i s no c l e a r s t a t i s t i c a l e v i d e n c e t h a t
t r a i n i n g i s e s s e n t i a l o r b e n e f i c i a l b e c a u s e t h e r e h a v e n o t
b e e n eno u g h s t u d i e s c o m p a rin g t r a i n e d and u n t r a i n e d t u t o r s .
Where su c h s t u d i e s h a v e t a k e n p la c e ., i t i s n o t c l e a r t h a t
t h e t r a i n i n g a l o n e was t h e v a r i a b l e m aking th e d i f f e r e n c e .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , t r a i n i n g i s o b v i o u s l y s t r o n g l y a d v o c a t e d by
many i n v o l v e d i n t u t o r i a l p r o j e c t s and i s f u r t h e r s u p p o r t e d
by t h e a d v e n t o f su c h p u b l i c a t i o n s a s t h o s e p r e v i o u s l y
c i t e d from t h e USOE. F i n a l l y ,, t h e c o n c e p t o f t r a i n i n g i s
c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e b e l i e f o f c u r r i c u l u m s p e c i a l i s t s , i n
d e e d o f a l l e d u c a t o r s , t h a t p l a n n i n g and o r g a n i z a t i o n i s a
p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r a s u c c e s s f u l e d u c a t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e .
R e s e a r c h R e l a t i n g to T u te e s
A lth o u g h we a r e c u r r e n t l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e e f f e c t
o f t u t o r i n g on t h e t u t o r , i t w o u ld be i r r e s p o n s i b l e to f a i l
t o i n c l u d e f i n d i n g s r e l a t e d to th e e f f e c t o f t u t o r i n g on th e
t u t e e . A p ro g ra m su c h a s c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g w ould n o t be
j u s t i f i a b l e i f fo u n d to p l a c e t u t e e s a t a d i s a d v a n t a g e .
Some r e p o r t s lo o k a t t h e a c h ie v e m e n t o f t u t o r s an d t u t e e s ,
w h i l e i n o t h e r s t h e m ain f o c u s h a s b e e n on t h e e f f e c t o f
t u t o r i n g on t h e t u t e e . The l a t t e r o f t h e s e two o f t e n u t i
l i z e s a d u l t s a s t u t o r s , w h ic h , o f c o u r s e , c o u l d l e a v e o pen
t h e q u e s t i o n o f a s i m i l a r e f f e c t when u s i n g y o u t h o r e l e
m e n ta r y a g e c h i l d r e n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , p ro g ra m s w i t h a d u l t
35
t u t o r s w i l l be i n c l u d e d a s t h e y do show r e s u l t s o f a t u t o r
i n g e x p e r i e n c e .
K l o s t e r m a n r s ( 1 9 7 0 ) s t u d y o f a t u t o r i n g e x p e r i m e n t
u t i l i z i n g e l e m e n t a r y e d u c a t i o n m a jo r s a s t u t o r s was s p o n
s o r e d by t h e U .S . O f f i c e o f E d u c a t i o n . A l l f o u r t h - g r a d e
c h i l d r e n i n t h r e e e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s w ere d e s i g n a t e d a s e x
p e r i m e n t a l s u b j e c t s and becam e an e x p e r i m e n t a l group., w h i l e
a f o u r t h g r a d e i n a n o t h e r s c h o o l becam e t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p .
P u p i l s r e c e i v e d i n s t r u c t i o n 4 d a y s a w eek, 30 m i n u t e s p e r
day., f o r 6 m o n th s . T h is was a p a r t o f t h e i r d a i l y r e a d i n g
i n s t r u c t i o n and was done i n d i v i d u a l l y o r i n s m a ll g r o u p s .
When co m p ared w i t h c o n t r o l g r o u p s , b o t h t h o s e r e c e i v i n g
r e a d i n g i n s t r u c t i o n i n d i v i d u a l l y and t h o s e r e c e i v i n g i n
s t r u c t i o n i n s m a l l g r o u p s showed s i g n i f i c a n t g a i n s .
I n a s t u d y b y S h a v e r a n d Nuhn (1 971)* a d u l t t u t o r s
w ere s e c u r e d f o r u n d e r a c h i e v i n g f o u r t h - , s e v e n t h - , and
t e n t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s . The s t u d e n t s w ere t u t o r e d one h o u r
p e r d ay f o r a y e a r i n r e a d i n g an d w r i t i n g . T hose p u p i l s
r e c e i v i n g t u t o r i n g made s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r g a i n s th a n
d i d t h e c o n t r o l s u b j e c t s . In a d d i t i o n , t h e s e g a i n s w ere
p r e s e n t a f t e r a t w o - y e a r p e r i o d .
S c h o e l l e r and P e a r s o n (1970) r e p o r t e d th e f i n d i n g s
o f a t u t o r i n g p ro g ra m i n M ilw a u k e e , W is c o n s in , w h ic h u s e d
com m unity r e s i d e n t s a s t u t o r s w i t h a s s i s t a n c e p r o v i d e d by
t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f W is c o n s in E x t e n s i o n C e n t e r f o r Community
36
L e a d e r s h i p . P r e - a n d p o s t t e s t i n g was done by p r o f e s s i o n a l
r e a d i n g a s s i s t a n t s , , u s i n g t h e S p a c h e D i a g n o s t i c R e a d in g
S c a l e s (SDRS). T u t e e s g a i n e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n w ord r e c o g
n i t i o n . an d p h o n i c s s k i l l s an d show ed a b o v e - a v e r a g e i m p r o v e
m ent i n o r a l r e a d i n g . T h is was s u p p o r t e d by e x a m in in g t h e
r e s u l t s o f q u e s t i o n n a i r e s g i v e n t o t e a c h e r s , p a r e n t s , and
t u t o r s , w h ic h show ed t h e y b e l i e v e d t u t e e s h a d im p ro v e d i n
t h e i r r e a d i n g s k i l l s .
C o n v e r s e l y , a s t u d y by N i c h o l s ( 1 9 6 9 ) w h ic h u s e d
u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s a s t u t o r s fo u n d no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r
e n c e s b e tw e e n e x p e r i m e n t a l an d c o n t r o l g r o u p s on v a r i o u s
l e v e l s o f t h e G a t e s - M a c G i n i t i e R e a d in g T e s t s on s u b t e s t s o f
c o m p r e h e n s io n an d v o c a b u l a r y , e x c e p t on one s u b t e s t w h ic h
f a v o r e d t h e c o n t r o l g ro u p i n v o c a b u l a r y . T h e se r e s u l t s
w e re c o n t r a r y t o t h o s e o f q u e s t i o n n a i r e s a d m i n i s t e r e d t o
p a r e n t s , t e a c h e r s , an d t u t o r s , h o w e v e r, w h ic h i n d i c a t e d 88
p e r c e n t f e l t t h e t u t o r i n g was v a l u a b l e t o t h e c h i l d i n
r e a d i n g .
When C lo w a rd ( 1 9 6 7 ) was i n v o l v e d i n t h e M o b i l i z a
t i o n F o r Y o u th p r o j e c t i n New Y o rk , h e c o n c l u d e d t h a t t u
t o r i n g r e s u l t e d i n s i g n i f i c a n t r e a d i n g im p ro v e m e n t f o r the*
t u t e e i f t h e a s s i s t a n c e was p r o v i d e d a s o f t e n a s f o u r h o u r s
p e r week f o r a 2 6 -w eek p e r i o d . The t u t o r s , i n t h i s i n
s t a n c e , w e re 240 t e n t h - and e l e v e n t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s w i t h a
mean r e a d i n g l e v e l o f 1 0 . 0 .
37
The F r a g e r an d S t e r n (1 9 7 0 ) e x p e r i m e n t m e n tio n e d
e a r l i e r u s e d 48 f i f t h an d s i x t h g r a d e r s a s t u t o r s f o r
k i n d e r g a r t e n c h i l d r e n and t h e r e s u l t s showed t u t e e s made
s i g n i f i c a n t g a i n s when co m p ared w i t h u n t u t o r e d p e e r s .
F r a g e r an d S t e r n s t a t e d t h a t
n o t o n l y d i d t h e c h i l d r e n show g a i n s i n l e a r n i n g * b u t
t h e y a l s o lo o k e d f o r w a r d to t h e t u t o r i n g s e s s i o n s and
a b s e n t e e i s m becam e v i r t u a l l y n o n e x i s t e n t . In a d d i
t i o n ^ t h e f i f t h and s i x t h g r a d e t u t o r s c l e a r l y i n d i
c a t e d t h e i r a b i l i t y to w ork w i t h y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n .
(p . 405)
H ow ever, A l l e n an d Feldm an (1973) r e a c h e d a c o n c l u
s i o n c o n t r a r y to t h a t n o t e d b y F r a g e r and S t e r n ( 1 9 7 0 ) .
W hile F r a g e r an d S t e r n u s e d h i g h an d low a c h i e v e r s , A l l e n
a n d Feldm an u s e d o n l y low a c h i e v e r s to t u t o r t h i r d g r a d e r s .
Ten t u t o r s w ere p a i d f o r t e n 4 5 - m in u te s e s s i o n s f o r a tw o -
week p e r i o d d u r i n g t h e summer. T u t e e s w ere co m p ared w i t h
p u p i l s who s t u d i e d a l o n e f o r t h e same am ount o f t i m e . R e
s u l t s i n d i c a t e d l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e on
a c h ie v e m e n t t e s t s f o r t h i r d - g r a d e t u t e e s and t h i r d g r a d e r s
s t u d y i n g a l o n e . The i n v e s t i g a t o r s n o t e d t h a t t u t e e s te n d e d
t o p e r f o r m l e s s w e l l a s tim e p r o c e e d e d an d s u g g e s t e d t h e
p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e r e b e i n g a d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t f o r t h e
t u t e e s . The s h o r t tim e p e r i o d p l u s t h e f a c t t h a t f i n a l
d a t a i n c l u d e d o n l y r e s u l t s f o r s e v e n s u b j e c t s c o u l d be
f a c t o r s to c o n s i d e r i n e v a l u a t i n g t h e s e f i n d i n g s .
L i e t t e (1 9 7 2 ) c o n d u c te d a s tu d y to d e t e r m i n e t h e
e f f e c t o f t u t o r i n g on t h e r e a d i n g a c h ie v e m e n t o f o l d e r and
38
y o u n g e r u n d e r a c h i e v i n g b l a c k m a le s . F o r t y - o n e t u t o r i n g
p a i r s w ere i n v o l v e d i n a 1 2 -w eek s e s s i o n an d t h e t u t e e s
made s i g n i f i c a n t g a i n s i n r e a d i n g a c h ie v e m e n t a t t h e .0 5
l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e .
R e s u l t s o f a s t u d y by D u ff (1 9 7 ^ ) w ere s i m i l a r .
T h i s p ro g ra m i n c l u d e d 60 s u b j e c t s who w e re ra n d o m ly s e
l e c t e d fro m f i r s t , se c o n d s t h i r d s and f o u r t h g r a d e r s who
w e re p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n a summer s c h o o l p r o g ra m . F i f t e e n
f i r s t an d s e c o n d g r a d e r s w e re t u t o r e d by 15 t h i r d and
f o u r t h g r a d e r s , w h i l e t h e r e m a i n i n g 30 c h i l d r e n w ere c o n
t r o l s . A d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n r e a d i n g a c h ie v e m e n t o f e x p e r i
m e n ta l t u t e e s an d c o n t r o l t u t e e s was s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f
i c a n t . The i n v e s t i g a t o r c o n c l u d e d t h a t p u p i l t u t o r i n g was
an e f f e c t i v e i n s t r u c t i o n a l m eth o d f o r im p r o v in g r e a d i n g
p e r f o r m a n c e o f y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n .
A lth o u g h t h e r e a r e r e p o r t s o f t u t e e s f a i l i n g t o
g a i n i n r e a d i n g a s a r e s u l t o f t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s ,, t h e r e i s
a l s o e v i d e n c e t h a t t u t o r i n g i s s u c c e s s f u l f o r t h e t u t e e s
a n d d o e s p r o d u c e s i g n i f i c a n t g a i n s i n r e a d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t .
F a i l u r e t o a c h i e v e p r o g r e s s i s n o t c o n f i n e d t o t h o s e p r o
gram s u t i l i z i n g y o u th and i n t e r m e d i a t e c h i l d r e n a s t u t o r s ,
an d r e p o r t s n o t e d t h a t e v e n l o w - a c h i e v i n g o l d e r s t u d e n t s
a r e s u c c e s s f u l i n t e a c h i n g s t u d e n t s y o u n g e r t h a n th e m s e lv e s ,
I t , t h e r e f o r e , d o e s a p p e a r t h a t t u t o r i n g c a n be i n i t i a t e d
w i t h o u t f e a r t h a t a d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t w i l l r e s u l t f o r t h e
t u t e e .
39
R e s e a r c h R e l a t e d to R e a d in g A c h i e v e
m ent o f T u t o r s i n G ro ss-A g e
T u t o r i n g P ro g ram s
Many s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n c o n d u c te d t o d e t e r m i n e th e
e f f e c t o f t h e t u t o r i n g e x p e r i e n c e on t h e t u t o r an d a l t h o u g h
t h e r e a r e r e p o r t s o f t u t o r i n g i n v a r i o u s s u b j e c t s , su c h a s
m a t h e m a t i c s (C la rk so n ., 1975) ^ f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e ( B a r n e t t ,
1973)> and g e o g r a p h y (A rc h b o ld & Mason, 1 9 7 6 ) , t h e r e a p p e a r
to be more p ro g ra m s c o n c e r n e d w i t h r e a d i n g t h a n a l l o t h e r s
p u t t o g e t h e r . A c c o rd in g to M e la ra g n o (197*0 * "R e a d in g i s
t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r m o st f r e q u e n t l y e n c o u n t e r e d i n s t u d e n t
t u t o r i n g p r o g ra m s " ( p . 1 5 7 ) . T h is seem s l o g i c a l , a s th e
i m p o r t a n c e o f r e a d i n g i n t h e c h i l d ’ s l i f e h a s b e e n w e l l
e s t a b l i s h e d . T h is p o r t i o n o f th e c h a p t e r , t h e n , w i l l i n
c l u d e r e s e a r c h a s i t r e l a t e s to t h e r e a d i n g a c h ie v e m e n t o f
t h e t u t o r s .
In 1972 L a n e , P o l l a c k , and S h e r s e l e c t e d a g ro u p o f
e i g h t d i s r u p t i v e e i g h t h an d n i n t h g r a d e r s to t u t o r t h i r d -
and f o u r t h - g r a d e c h i l d r e n who w ere p o o r r e a d e r s o r n o n
r e a d e r s , u s i n g a program m ed p h o n i c - l i n g u i s t i c a p p r o a c h .
A l l s u b j e c t s c h o s e n a s t u t o r s w ere r a t e d a s h a v i n g s e v e r e
d i s r u p t i v e b e h a v i o r . V a r i a b l e s w ere n o t c o n t r o l l e d , n o r was
t h e r e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e d a t a . H ow ever, an e v a l u
a t i o n o f p r e - an d p o s t - r e a d i n g t e s t s c o r e s f o r t u t o r s
showed a mean r e a d i n g g a i n o f 19 m onths o v e r a 7 -m onth
p e r i o d . U n d e r s t a n d a b l y , t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s r e f e r r e d t o th e
4o
g a i n a s phenom enal,, e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e t h e o l d e r y o u th w ere
n o t r e c e i v i n g o t h e r r e a d i n g i n s t r u c t i o n .
A s i m i l a r s t u d y by Csapo (1976) u s e d s i x a d o l e s
c e n t s on p r o b a t i o n a s t u t o r s f o r e i g h t - an d n i n e - y e a r - o l d
t u t e e s ., who w ere a t l e a s t two y e a r s b e lo w t h e i r e x p e c t a n c y
i n r e a d i n g . T h is was a summer p ro g ra m i n w h ic h t u t o r s w ere
p a i d . F o r t h r e e w eeks p r i o r to t h e 1 0 -w eek t u t o r i n g s e s
s i o n , t h e a d o l e s c e n t s w ere t r a i n e d by u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s .
P r e - and p o s t t e s t i n g was done u s i n g t h e Wide Range A c h ie v e
m ent T e s t , w h ic h t e s t s num ber o f w o rd s r e a d c o r r e c t l y .
T u t o r s showed an i n c r e a s e i n num ber o f w ords r e a d p e r
m in u te a s w e l l a s num ber o f w o rd s r e a d c o r r e c t l y .
A n o th e r s t u d y c o n d u c te d w i t h a s m a ll num ber o f s u b
j e c t s was r e p o r t e d by K o k o v ich and M atth ew s (1971)* A l
th o u g h t h e p r i m a r y f o c u s f o r t h i s p i l o t s t u d y was s e l f -
c o n c e p t , r e a d i n g a c h ie v e m e n t was a l s o i n v e s t i g a t e d . F iv e
b o y s w ere c h o s e n who m et t h e e s t a b l i s h e d c r i t e r i a o f low
s e l f - c o n c e p t , a v e r a g e o r ab o v e i n t e l l i g e n c e , and a c a d e m ic
u n d e r a c h i e v e m e n t . A l l w ere t o l d t h e y c o u l d l e a v e t h e p r o
gram a n y tim e t h e y d e s i r e d to do s o . The t u t o r i n g was on a
w e e k ly b a s i s u s i n g f i r s t - g r a d e p u p i l s a s t u t e e s . T u t o r s
w ere a i d e d by t h e s t a f f t h r o u g h c o n f e r e n c e s and c o u n s e l i n g -
t y p e s e s s i o n s f o r t h e e i g h t - m o n t h p e r i o d . I n c o m p a rin g
p r e - an d p o s t t e s t s c o r e s on t h e G a te s R e a d in g S u r v e y — Form
3 , i t was fo u n d t h a t p r e t e s t s c o r e s r a n g e d from 2 . 9 to 5 *3 *
4 i
w h i l e p o s t t e s t s c o r e s w e re 4 . 7 t o 6 . 9 . I t was noted, t h a t
one boy made a t h r e e - y e a r gain, i n r e a d i n g s w i t h t h e s m a l l
e s t g a i n b e i n g f o u r m o n t h s .
A lth o u g h t h e o b j e c t i v e o f a p r o j e c t i n Brooklyn,,
New Y ork (Moon & W ilson,, 1970)., was t o Im p ro v e t h e s e l f -
c o n c e p t o f members o f a f i f t h - g r a d e c l a s s , r e a d i n g g a i n s
w e re a l s o a r e s u l t . T h i s J a n u a r y - t o - J u n e p r o j e c t u s e d t h e
e n t i r e f i f t h - g r a d e c l a s s , a h e t e r o g e n e o u s g r o u p , a s t u t o r s
f o r f i r s t g r a d e r s an d f o u n d an a v e r a g e gain, i n r e a d i n g
s c o r e s o f 1 y e a r , 9 m o n th s o v e r t h e p r e c e d i n g y e a r .
An I n v e s t i g a t i o n by D u ff (1 9 7 4 ) ex a m in e d t h e e f f e c t
o f t u t o r i n g on t h e r e a d i n g a c h ie v e m e n t o f u n d e r a c h i e v i n g
p u p i l s i n g r a d e s t h r e e an d f o u r . S i x t y t u t o r s , t u t e e s , and
c o r r e s p o n d i n g c o n t r o l s u b j e c t s w ere r a n d o m ly s e l e c t e d .
T u t e e s , who w e re a l s o u n d e r a c h i e v e r s I n f i r s t and s e c o n d
g r a d e s , w e re t a u g h t f o r a s ix - w e e k summer s e s s i o n . R e s u l t s
show ed no s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e i n r e a d i n g s c o r e s o f t u t o r s ,
b u t d a t a t r e n d s d i d show e v i d e n c e o f a p o s i t i v e c h a n g e i n
t h e i r r e a d i n g p e r f o r m a n c e .
I n r e p o r t i n g on. a t u t o r i a l p r o j e c t I n Los A n g e le s
C o u n ty s c h o o l s , Landrum and M a r t i n (1 9 7 0 ) n o t e d t h a t t h e
" g a i n s in. r e a d i n g a c h ie v e m e n t s c o r e s h a v e c o n s i s t e n t l y e x
c e e d e d o u r e x p e c t a t i o n s " (p . 4 4 8 ) . T h is p r o j e c t , w h ich was
s u p p o r t e d by 0E0 a g e n c i e s , ESEA T i t l e I f u n d s , and t h e
N e ig h b o rh o o d Y o u th C o r p s , i n c l u d e d h i g h s c h o o l d r o p o u t s o r
4 2
s t u d e n t s fro m f a m i l i e s w i t h low incom es* w hose s c o r e s
show ed them t o be tw o o r m ore y e a r s b e lo w g r a d e p l a c e m e n t
on s t a n d a r d i z e d r e a d i n g t e s t s . P e r fo r m a n c e o b j e c t i v e s i n
c l u d e d a mean r e a d i n g g r a d e i n c r e a s e o f s i x m o n th s . G a in s
r e p o r t e d f o r t u t o r s a f t e r t h e s ix - w e e k s e s s i o n w e re a s f o l
lo w s : 69 t u t o r s i n t h e summer o f 1967 show ed a mean g a i n
o f 8 m o n th s i n r e a d i n g and 343 t u t o r s f o r t h e summer o f
1968 show ed g a i n s o f 8 . 5 i n r e a d i n g .
W i l l i s a n d C ro w d er (1 9 7 4 ) m a tc h e d tw o g r o u p s o f 12
e i g h t h g r a d e r s on t h e b a s i s o f a b i l i t y an d a c h ie v e m e n t .
B o th g r o u p s h a d a mean g r a d e e q u i v a l e n t o f 7 - 8 . F o l l o w i n g
7 m onths o f t u t o r i n g * t u t o r s h a d a m e d ia n g a i n i n r e a d i n g
o f 9 m o n th s; t h e n o n - t u t o r i n g g ro u p h a d a m e d ia n g a i n o f
11 m onths* w h ic h was n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t * l e a d i n g
t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t u t o r i n g h a d no a p p a r e n t e f f e c t on
t h e r e a d i n g l e v e l o f t u t o r s . However* i t was n o t e d t h a t
t u t o r s i n t h i s p r o g ra m w ere a t o r n e a r g r a d e l e v e l a t t h e
i n c e p t i o n o f t h e program * w h ic h l e d t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s t o
c o n j e c t u r e a b o u t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t c h i l d r e n w i t h more
s e v e r e d i s a b i l i t i e s i n r e a d i n g c a n a c h i e v e m ore im p ro v em en t
t h r o u g h t u t o r i n g .
A l l e n and F eld m a n (1 9 7 3 ) a l s o c o n d u c t e d a n e x p e r i
m ent w i t h low a c h i e v e r s a s t u t o r s . I n c l u d e d w e re 10 f i f t h
g r a d e r s w i t h r e a d i n g s c o r e s a y e a r o r m ore b e lo w g r a d e
l e v e l . The t u t o r i n g c o n d i t i o n was co m p ared w i t h a s t u d y i n g -
43
a l o n e c o n d i t i o n to d e t e r m i n e w h ic h m ethod h ad t h e g r e a t e s t
e f f e c t upon r e c a l l . A l l f i f t h - g r a d e p u p i l s s t u d i e d t h e ma
t e r i a l f o r 8 m i n u t e s f o l l o w e d by a 3 m in u te f r e e - r e c a l l
t e s t . They th e n t a u g h t t h e m a t e r i a l to t h i r d - g r a d e c h i l
d r e n f o r 20 m i n u t e s o r s t u d i e d a l o n e f o r 20 m i n u t e s . A l l
p u p i l s r e c e i v e d an o b j e c t i v e t e s t f o l l o w i n g e a c h s e s s i o n .
A t t h e end o f two weeks., s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r r e s u l t s w ere
shown i n f a v o r o f t h e t u t o r i n g c o n d i t i o n ., l e a d i n g t h e i n
v e s t i g a t o r s to c o n c lu d e t h a t t u t o r i n g i s e s p e c i a l l y u s e f u l
f o r im p ro v e m e n t o f r e a d i n g p e r f o r m a n c e o f low a c h i e v e r s .
T u t o r i n g was a l s o f a v o r e d i n an e x p e r i m e n t c o n
d u c t e d i n t h e A ragon Avenue E l e m e n t a r y S c h o o l i n t h e Los
A n g e le s U n i f i e d S c h o o l D i s t r i c t . The ra n d o m ly a s s i g n e d
p u p i l s w ere d e s c r i b e d a s l a r g e l y M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n from a
low s o c io e c o n o m ic l e v e l . The 184 p u p i l s i n t h e e x p e r i
m e n t a l g ro u p t u t o r e d y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n fro m S e p te m b e r 19^9
to m i d - A p r i l 1 9 7 0 . The S t a n f o r d R e a d in g T e s t was u s e d i n
t h e p r e t e s t - p o s t t e s t ty p e d e s i g n and when com pared w i t h t h e
123 s t u d e n t s i n t h e c o n t r o l groups., t u t o r s and t u t e e s showed
s i g n i f i c a n t g a i n s i n r e a d i n g ( M o r i t a , 1972) .
C low ard ( 1 9 6 7 ) r e p o r t e d on a t u t o r i a l p ro g ra m i n
s t i t u t e d by M o b i l i z a t i o n f o r Youth., I n c . The t u t o r s w ere
s e l e c t e d from t e n t h - an d e l e v e n t h - g r a d e a p p l i c a n t s who w ere
n o t more t h a n t h r e e y e a r s b e lo w g r a d e l e v e l i n r e a d i n g .
F o llo w in g e i g h t w eeks o f t r a i n i n g i n N ovem ber, t u t o r i n g was
44
s c h e d u l e d t h r e e d a y s a week from 3 to 5 p .m . t h r o u g h o u t t h e
y e a r., w i t h t u t o r s r e c e i v i n g $11 p e r w eek. At th e end o f
t h i s p e r io d ,, c o m p le te d a t a w ere a v a i l a b l e on 97 e x p e r i m e n -
t a l s and 57 c o n t r o l s . C low ard n o t e d t h a t t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
g r o u p showed d r a m a t i c g a i n s . F o r e x a m p le , when t r a n s l a t i n g
s t a n d a r d s c o r e s to g r a d e e q u i v a l e n c i e s , t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
g r o u p showed a mean g ro w th o f 3 . 4 y e a r s , w h i l e t h e c o n t r o l
g r o u p ’ s g a i n was 1 . 7 o v e r t h e 7 -m o n th p e r i o d b e tw e e n p r e -
an d p o s t t e s t i n g . The i n v e s t i g a t o r fo u n d a c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n
t h a t n o t o n l y was t r a i n i n g i n r e a d i n g u n n e c e s s a r y f o r s u c
c e s s f u l e x p e r i e n c e , b u t a l s o t h a t t h e t u t o r h i m s e l f n e e d
n o t be a h i g h l y s u c c e s s f u l s t u d e n t , a s t u t e e s a l s o showed
im p ro v e m e n t i n r e a d i n g .
In 1 9 7 1 / M cW horter and Levy d e s i g n e d a p ro g ra m
b a s e d on t h e p r e m i s e t h a t i n s u f f i c i e n t e v i d e n c e was a v a i l
a b l e c o n c e r n i n g t h e e f f e c t o f t u t o r i n g on t h e t u t o r . The
p r o j e c t was e s t a b l i s h e d by S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e a t B u f
f a l o an d s u p p o r t e d i n p a r t b y f u n d s from t h e N e ig h b o rh o o d
Y o u th C o rp s . H igh s c h o o l g r a d u a t e s who n e e d e d a d d i t i o n a l
r e a d i n g s k i l l s , a s i n d i c a t e d by an I n f o r m a l R e a d in g I n v e n
t o r y , w e re s e l e c t e d a s t u t o r s . T u t e e s w e re f i r s t , s e c o n d ,
and t h i r d g r a d e r s who w ere a l s o h a v i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s i n
r e a d i n g . D u r a t i o n o f t h e t u t o r i n g was a c o l l e g e s e m e s t e r .
F o r t y - o n e t u t o r s f o r t h e s p r i n g s e m e s t e r o f 19^9 and 38
t u t o r s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g f a l l te r m w e re i n c l u d e d who w orked
45
w i t h t u t e e s f o r t h r e e 4 5 - m in u te p e r i o d s p e r w eek. I n a d d i
tio n ., s e m i n a r s w ere h e l d b i w e e k l y b y t h e c o l l e g e to a s s i s t
t u t o r s i n p l a n n i n g an d t e a c h i n g t h e c h i l d r e n . An I n f o r m a l
R e a d in g I n v e n t o r y was a g a i n a d m i n i s t e r e d a t t h e c l o s e o f th e
p r o g ra m . F o r t h e s p r i n g s e m e s t e r , t u t o r s showed an a v e r a g e
g a i n o f 2 . 4 y e a r s on t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e v e l and t h e f a l l
te r m t u t o r s h a d an a v e r a g e g a i n o f 1 . 1 . The i n v e s t i g a t o r
co m p ared t h e s e g a i n s w i t h t h o s e e x p e c t e d i n a n o rm a l p a t t e r n
o f growth., w h ic h showed t h e r e a d i n g g ro w th t o be s i x t i m e s
g r e a t e r f o r t h e s p r i n g t u t o r s and t h r e e t i m e s g r e a t e r f o r
t h e f a l l t h a n w o uld n o r m a l l y b e e x p e c t e d .
O ld e r u n d e r a c h i e v i n g b l a c k m a le s w ere s e l e c t e d by
L i e t t e (1 9 7 2 ) t o t u t o r u n d e r a c h i e v i n g y o u n g e r b l a c k m a le s ,
w i t h th e p r i m a r y p u r p o s e o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e e f f e c t on r e a d
i n g a c h ie v e m e n t o f t u t e e s and t u t o r s . E i g h t y - t w o ra n d o m ly
a s s i g n e d p a i r s o f m i n o r i t y p u p i l s from a l a r g e m id w e s te r n
i n n e r - c i t y s c h o o l s y s te m c o m p r is e d t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s .
The c o n t r o l g r o u p was com posed o f 82 boys., a l s o ra n d o m ly
a s s i g n e d , fro m t h e same b a c k g r o u n d . A l l p a r t i c i p a n t s w ere
t e s t e d f o l l o w e d by 12 w eeks o f t u t o r i n g f o r t h e e x p e r im e n -
t a l s . P o s t t e s t i n g fo u n d t h e r e a d i n g a c h ie v e m e n t o f t u t o r s
to be s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .0 7 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e . The i n
v e s t i g a t o r s u g g e s t e d a l o n g e r p e r i o d o f tim e was a d v i s a b l e .
L a k in (1 9 7 2 ) a l s o w a n te d to d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t o f
t u t o r i n g on m i n o r i t y c h i l d r e n . S i x t y f i f t h - an d s i x t h -
46
g r a d e M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n p u p i l s w ere ra n d o m ly a s s i g n e d t o e x
p e r i m e n t a l an d c o n t r o l g r o u p s . C h i l d r e n i n a H e a d s t a r t
p ro g ra m w ere t h e t u t e e s . A n o th e r c o n t r o l g ro u p was s e
l e c t e d ., com posed o f 60 A n g lo -A m e ric a n p u p i l s . On t h e b a s i s
o f p r e v i o u s s t a n d a r d i z e d t e s t i n g , a l l s u b j e c t s w e re c o n s i d
e r e d a v e r a g e i n a b i l i t y , b u t w ere low i n a c a d e m ic a c h i e v e
m e n t. T r a i n i n g p r e c e d e d t h e t u t o r i n g and was i n c l u d e d once
a week t h r o u g h o u t t h e t u t o r i n g p e r i o d . Tw enty m i n u t e s a
d a y , f o u r d a y s a week f o r e i g h t w e e k s, t u t o r s r e a d s t o r i e s
t o t h e y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n and a s k e d them p r e p a r e d q u e s t i o n s .
A l l g r o u p s showed s i g n i f i c a n t g a i n s a t t h e .0 5 l e v e l o f
c o n f i d e n c e , u s i n g t h e a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e w i t h v o c a b u l a r y
p r e - and p o s t t e s t s c o r e s . The M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n e x p e r i
m e n t a l g r o u p s showed s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r s c o r e s t h a n t h e
o t h e r g r o u p s ( .0 0 5 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e ) .
O t h e r s , h o w e v e r, h a v e c o n d u c t e d s i m i l a r i n v e s t i g a
t i o n s w h ic h p r o d u c e d no s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s i n f a v o r o f
t u t o r i n g . K o s k in e n ( 1 9 7 5 ) u s e d random s e l e c t i o n i n s e c u r
i n g a sa m p le o f 376 f i f t h - an d s e c o n d - g r a d e p u p i l s w i t h th e
p u r p o s e o f i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f c r o s s - a g e
t u t o r i n g , u s i n g k n o w led g e o f w ord m ean in g s c o r e s f o r com
p a r i s o n . T u t o r i n g s e s s i o n s w ere f o r 20 m i n u t e s t h r e e tim e s
a week f o r a 10 -w eek p e r i o d . T u t o r s a l s o r e c e i v e d t r a i n i n g
i n t h r e e s e p a r a t e s e s s i o n s and m et 36 m i n u t e s w e e k ly f o r
d i s c u s s i o n an d i n s t r u c t i o n . At t h e end o f t h e t u t o r i n g
47
p e r io d ., no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n k n o w led g e o f word m ean
i n g was fo u n d b e tw e e n p u p i l s who t u t o r e d an d t h o s e who d i d
n o t .
Diamond (1976) a l s o a t t e m p t e d to d e t e r m in e t h e e f
f e c t o f c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g on f i f t h - g r a d e m a le s . E x p e r i
m e n t a l and c o n t r o l g r o u p s i n c l u d e d 90 f i f t h g r a d e r s and 85
s e c o n d g r a d e r s . T u t o r i n g s e s s i o n s w ere 30 m i n u t e s i n
l e n g t h and w ere h e l d f o u r ti m e s a week f o r 10 w e e k s. Vo
c a b u l a r y an d c o m p r e h e n s io n s c o r e s on t h e Iow a T e s t o f B a s i c
S k i l l s , w h ich w ere u s e d f o r p r e - and p o s t t e s t c o m p a r is o n s ,
showed no s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t upon t h e r e a d i n g a c h ie v e m e n t
o f f i f t h - g r a d e m a le s who t u t o r e d . In d i s c u s s i n g f a c t o r s
w h ic h may h a v e a f f e c t e d t h e o utcom e o f t h e s t u d y . Diamond
m e n tio n s l e n g t h o f tim e f o r t h e t u t o r i n g p l u s l a c k o f s u p
p o r t and s t r u c t u r e f o r p a r t i c i p a n t s . The tim e e le m e n t d o e s
n o t a p p e a r to be v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t fro m o t h e r p ro g ra m s t h a t
h a v e h ad r e s u l t s f a v o r i n g t u t o r i n g an d i n f a c t , a num ber o f
p ro g ra m s p r e v i o u s l y r e p o r t e d h a v e b e e n o f s h o r t e r d u r a t i o n .
H ow ever, t h i s p ro g ra m d o e s d i f f e r from m o st i n t h e l i t e r a
t u r e i n t h a t t h e r e was a p p a r e n t l y l i t t l e s t r u c t u r e a s w e l l
a s l a c k o f s u p p o r t by t h e s t a f f .
A s t u d y by L i n d q u i s t (1977)* h o w e v e r, e m p h a s iz e d
t r a i n i n g and s u p e r v i s i o n o f t u t o r s b u t fo u n d no ’s i g n i f i c a n t
d i f f e r e n c e s i n word a t t a c k s k i l l s and c o m p r e h e n s io n s k i l l s
b e tw e e n f i f t h g r a d e r s who t u t o r e d and t h o s e who d i d n o t
48
t u t o r . F o r t y - f i v e f i f t h - g r a d e v o l u n t e e r s w e re r a n d o m ly
a s s i g n e d t o e x p e r i m e n t a l and c o n t r o l g r o u p s . D u r in g t h e
1 5 -w eek t u t o r i n g p r o g ra m , w e e k ly 3 0 - m in u te s e s s i o n s w e re
h e l d f o r f e e d b a c k and 30 m i n u t e s was d e v o t e d t o i n s e r v i c e .
The t u t o r i n g was a l s o f o r 3 0 - m i n u t e p e r i o d s a n d was h e l d
t h r e e t i m e s p e r w eek. The a b i l i t y l e v e l o f p a r t i c i p a n t s
was n o t m en tio n ed ., b u t i t a p p e a r s t h a t t u t o r s w e re s e l e c t e d
on t h e b a s i s o f d e s i r e t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e p r o g ra m .
U n d e r a c h i e v i n g f o u r t h g r a d e r s c o m p r is e d t h e sa m p le
i n a s t u d y by Gomez (1 9 7 4 ) t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t o f t u
t o r i n g on r e a d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t . S i x t y - t w o p u p i l s w e re a s
s i g n e d t o t h r e e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s and one r e f e r e n c e g r o u p .
T u t o r i n g e x t e n d e d o v e r a f i v e - m o n t h p e r i o d . P r e - and p o s t
t e s t i n g was c o n d u c t e d u t i l i z i n g t h e G a t e s - M a c G i n i t i e Reading;
T e s t , S u rv e y D. O ne-way a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e and c o v a r i a n c e
t e c h n i q u e s was u s e d t o a n a l y z e t h e d a t a and t h e e v i d e n c e
s u p p o r t e d t h e c o n c lu s io n , t h a t t u t o r i n g h a d no s i g n i f i c a n t
s t a t i s t i c a l e f f e c t on t h e r e a d i n g a c h ie v e m e n t o f t h e u n d e r
a c h i e v i n g t u t o r s . The i n v e s t i g a t o r s u g g e s t e d f o r c o n s i d e r a
t i o n f a c t o r s w h ic h may h a v e a f f e c t e d t h e r e s u l t s : l e n g t h o f
t u t o r i n g t i m e , t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e t r a i n i n g , and t h e
com m itm ent o f t h e c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r t o t h e c r o s s - a g e t u t o r
i n g c o n c e p t . One o t h e r p o s s i b l e f a c t o r n o t l i s t e d by t h e
i n v e s t i g a t o r w o u ld a p p e a r t o b e t h e u s e o f t h e G a t e s -
M a c G i n i t i e , Form D t o a s s e s s t h e r e a d i n g a b i l i t y o f u n d e r
49
a c h i e v i n g f o u r t h g r a d e r s . As Form D i s a f o u r t h - l e v e l
g ro u p r e a d i n g t e s t , one c o u ld q u e s t i o n i t s a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s
i n d e t e r m i n i n g an a c c u r a t e r e a d i n g l e v e l i f a r e a d i n g d i s
a b i l i t y e x i s t e d .
I t i s , o f c o u r s e , te m p t i n g t o f i n d r e a s o n s f o r a
s t u d y to f a i l t o show s i g n i f i c a n c e i n f a v o r o f t u t o r i n g
when one i s c o m m itte d t o th e c o n c e p t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e
a p p e a r s to be a d e q u a t e s u p p o r t f o r t h e s u c c e s s o f c r o s s - a g e
t u t o r i n g , a s e v i d e n c e d by th e r e s u l t s o f o t h e r s t u d i e s p r e
s e n t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n .
M eaning a n d I m p o r ta n c e o f S e l f - C o n c e p t
Q u an d t (1 9 7 2 ) d e f i n e d s e l f - c o n c e p t a s uth e p e r c e p
t i o n s t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l h a s o f h i m s e l f ; e s p e c i a l l y em pha
s i z e d a r e t h e i n d i v i d u a l ’ s p e r c e p t i o n s o f h i s v a l u e and h i s
a b i l i t y " (p . 5 ) - Q uandt a n a l y z e d p s y c h o l o g i s t s ’ c o n s e n s u s
o f s e l f - c o n c e p t a s f o l l o w s :
1 . The p e r c e p t i o n s o f s e l f t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l h a s i n
c l u d e h i s view o f h i m s e l f a s co m p ared t o o t h e r s
( s e l f - p e r c e p t i o n ) , h i s v ie w o f how o t h e r s se e him
( s e l f - o t h e r p e r c e p t i o n ) , an d h i s v ie w o f how he
w i s h e s he c o u l d be ( s e l f - i d e a l ) .
2 . The p e r c e p t i o n s o f s e l f t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l h a s
a r e l a r g e l y b a s e d upon th e e x p e r ie n c e s , t h a t he
h a s h a d w i t h t h o s e p e o p l e who a r e i m p o r t a n t to
him ( s i g n i f i c a n t o t h e r s ) . T h u s, su c h p e o p l e can
e f f e c t c h a n g e i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s s e l f - c o n c e p t .
(p. 5)
The i m p o r t a n c e o f th e i n d i v i d u a l ’ s p e r c e p t i o n o f
h i m s e l f h a s becom e i n c r e a s i n g l y c l e a r a s a u t h o r i t i e s h a v e
50
a d o p t e d t h e v ie w t h a t w h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l b e l i e v e s a b o u t
h i m s e l f g r e a t l y a f f e c t s h i s p e r f o r m a n c e .
A c c o r d in g t o P u rk e y ( 1 9 7 0 ) ,
C h i l d r e n come to s c h o o l f o r t h e f i r s t tim e w i t h a
p r e d i s p o s i t i o n to w a rd a c h i e v e m e n t o r u n d e r a c h i e v e m e n t .
Long b e f o r e t h e f i r s t s c h o o l b e l l r in g s ., many c h i l
d r e n . . . a r e o r i e n t e d to w a rd e i t h e r s u c c e s s o r f a i l
u r e i n s c h o o l . . . . L ik e an i n v i s i b l e p r i c e t a g t h e
c h i l d ' s s e l f im age i s w i t h him w h e r e v e r he g o e s , i n
f l u e n c i n g w h a t e v e r he d o e s . . . . "When t h e i n v i s i b l e
p r i c e t a g i s n e g a t i v e , i t i s p r o b a b l y more d e s t r u c
t i v e th a n a p h y s i c a l h a n d i c a p , f o r e v e n t h e m o st i n
s e n s i t i v e p a r e n t o r t e a c h e r c an u s u a l l y r e c o g n i z e and
t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t a c r i p p l i n g p h y s i c a l h a n d i c a p . Neg
a t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m , h o w e v e r, i s o f t e n o v e r l o o k e d b e
c a u s e we f a i l to t a k e t h e tim e and e f f o r t i t r e q u i r e s
to be s e n s i t i v e to how c h i l d r e n s e e t h e m s e l v e s and
t h e i r a b i l i t i e s . (p p . 3 6 - 3 7 )
S e l f - c o n c e p t , h o w e v e r, h a s b e e n d i f f i c u l t to m e a s
u r e and many h a v e f o u n d , a s C a p l i n ( 1 9 6 9 ) s t a t e d , t h a t i t
h a s b e e n " e l u s i v e and c o n f u s i n g " ( p . 1 4 ) . C a p l i n b la m e s
t h i s on t h e l a c k o f p r e c i s i o n i n d e f i n i n g t h e c o n c e p t and
t h e f a c t t h a t i t c a n n o t be d i r e c t l y o b s e r v e d , an d P a s c h a l
( 1 9 6 8 ) a p p e a r s to c o n c u r by s t a t i n g t h a t " t h e c o n s t r u c t
s e l f c o n c e p t , i s c o n s i d e r a b l y m ore d i f f i c u l t to m e a s u re th a n
i t i s to d e f i n e " (p . 3 9 2 ) . He s u p p o r t s t h e v ie w s o f P u rk e y
a n d Q uandt by n o t i n g t h a t t h e r e i s a p p a r e n t l y l i t t l e d o u b t
t h a t s e l f - c o n c e p t i s i m p o r t a n t i n d e t e r m i n i n g b e h a v i o r , b u t
" t h e d e g r e e o f r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n m e a s u re d s e l f a c c e p t a n c e
and s u c h v a r i a b l e s a s a c a d e m ic a c h ie v e m e n t i s more d i f f i
c u l t t o a s s e s s " (p . 3 9 2 ) .
Lecky (1945) was one o f t h e f i r s t to c o n c lu d e t h a t
ij2_
low a c a d e m ic a c h ie v e m e n t m ig h t be r e l a t e d t o s e l f - p e r c e p
t i o n . T h is f o l l o w e d h i s o b s e r v a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n w i t h a
s p e l l i n g a s s i g n m e n t who c o n s i s t e n t l y made s p e l l i n g e r r o r s
r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f t h e m a t e r i a l . I t a p p e a r e d
t o L eck y t h a t t h e y w e re r e a c t i n g m ore t o t h e i r e x p e c t a t i o n
o f t h e i r a b i l i t y t h a n t o t h e i r a c t u a l a b i l i t y . A c c o r d in g
t o L e ck y , a p e r s o n who d e f i n e s h i m s e l f a s a p o o r s p e l l e r
c o n s i s t e n t l y m i s s p e l l s a c e r t a i n p r o p o r t i o n o f w ords b e
c a u s e I t I s m o r a l l y I m p e r a t i v e t h a t h e e n d e a v o r t o b e h a v e
i n a m anner c o n s i s t e n t w i t h h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f s e l f . I n
s u p p o r t o f t h i & t h e o r y , L eck y s t a t e d t h a t s p e l l i n g in.
f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e s was i m p a i r e d v e r y l i t t l e I f an y , w h ic h
n e g a t e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f m e c h a n i c a l I n t e r f e r e n c e .
I n t h e D ecem ber 1958 R eview o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h ,
G-ordon and Combs r e p o r t e d a h i g h I n t e r e s t In. p e r c e p t i o n , and
s e l f - t h e o r y , b u t a d e a r t h o f r e s e a r c h r e l a t e d t o c h i l d r e n
an d y o u t h . However^ a 1957 s t u d y b y B ru c k d i d e s t a b l i s h a
p o s i t i v e an d s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n s e l f - c o n c e p t
an d g r a d e p o i n t a v e r a g e w i t h a r e s e a r c h g ro u p o f 3 0 0 s u b
j e c t s fro m t h i r d t o s i x t h g r a d e s and fro m a n e l e v e n t h g r a d e
in. t h e F l i n t , M ic h ig a n , s c h o o l s .
A lm ost 10 y e a r s l a t e r , P a s c h a l ’s ( 1 9 6 8 ) i n v e s t i g a
t i o n show ed s i m i l a r r e s u l t s . A f t e r random s e l e c t i o n o f 152
j 'u n i o r h i g h s t u d e n t s In. Dade C o u n ty , F l o r i d a , s e l f - p e r c e p
t i o n was co m p a re d w i t h a c a d e m ic a c h i e v e m e n t , a s d e t e r m i n e d
52
b y g r a d e p o i n t a v e r a g e . R e s u l t s show ed t h o s e h a v i n g m ore
a d e q u a t e s e l f - c o n c e p t s t o b e h i g h e r i n o v e r a l l a c h i e v e m e n t .
C a p l i n ( 1 9 6 9 ) j w h i l e c o n d u c t i n g a s t u d y u s i n g 120
N eg ro and w h i t e c h i l d r e n t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t o f de f a c t c
s e g r e g a t i o n on s e l f - c o n c e p t , a l s o i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e r e l a t i o n
s h i p o f s e l f - c o n c e p t and a c a d e m ic a c h i e v e m e n t . H is f i n d i n g s
s u p p o r t e d t h o s e o f P a s c h a l an d B ru c k i n t h a t a s i g n i f i c a n t
r e l a t i o n s h i p was shown, b e tw e e n s e l f - c o n c e p t an d a c a d e m ic
a c h i e v e m e n t .
N e a r t h a t tim e., C o o p e r s m ith ( 1 9 6 8 ) r e p o r t e d on
s t u d i e s h e and h i s c o l l e a g u e s h a d c o n d u c t e d o v e r a n e i g h t -
y e a r p e r i o d i n c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f
M e n ta l H e a l t h . The s u b j e c t s w e re a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sa m p le
o f n o rm a l b o y s who w ere f o l l o w e d fro m p r e a d o l e s c e n c e t o
e a r l y a d u l t h o o d . The m i d d l e - c l a s s , u r b a n s u b j e c t s w e re
ju d g e d n o rm a l i f t h e y came fro m an i n t a c t f a m i l y an d h a d no
p a t h o l o g i c a l p e r s o n a l i t y d i s t u r b a n c e s . S e l f - e s t e e m was a s
s e s s e d t h r o u g h s u b j e c t s ’ e v a l u a t i o n s o f th e m s e lv e s ,, r e p o r t s
o f t e a c h e r s , an d p s y c h o l o g i c a l t e s t s . The b o y s w e re t h e n
r a t e d high., a v e r a g e , o r low i n s e l f - e s t e e m , - and i t was founcL
t h a t t h o s e r a t i n g h i g h w e re s u c c e s s f u l a c a d e m i c a l l y a n d s o
c i a l l y . Boys w i t h low s e l f - e s t e e m , h o w e v e r, w e re d e s c r i b e d
a s p r e s e n t i n g "a p i c t u r e o f d i s c o u r a g e m e n t and d e p r e s s i o n "
( p . 9 8 ) . T h e se b o y s f e l t i s o l a t e d and u n l o v a b l e and w e re
c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s " to o w eak t o c o n f r o n t o r o v erco m e t h e i r
53
d e f i c i e n c i e s 1 ' ( p . 9 8 ) - They w e re s e n s i t i v e to c r i t i c i s m
an d p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h t h e i r p r o b le m s : t h e i r l a c k o f c o n f i
d e n c e was r e f l e c t e d i n d r a w in g s w h ic h w e re s m a l l , c o n
s t r a i n e d . , an d d i s t o r t e d . T h is c o n t r a s t e d w i t h b o y s o f h i g h
e s te e m who w ere m ore c r e a t i v e i n t h e i r d r a w in g s and showed
s e n s i t i v i t y t o d e t a i l s . T h ese d r a w in g s w ere a r e f l e c t i o n
o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e way b o y s w i t h low and h i g h e s te e m
r e g a r d e d t h e m s e l v e s an d o t h e r s .
A p p a r e n t l y , su c h f i n d i n g s a s t h e s e l e d Hamachek to
r e p o r t i n 196 9 t h a t " r e s e a r c h i s t e a c h i n g u s t h a t how a
s t u d e n t p e r f o r m s d e p e n d s n o t o n l y on how i n t e l l i g e n t he
a c t u a l l y is., b u t a l s o on how i n t e l l i g e n t h e t h i n k s h e i s "
( p . 1 8 ) .
Self-Concept and Reading Achievement
E a r l y r e s e a r c h e f f o r t s i n r e a d i n g a l s o g av e l i t t l e
a t t e n t i o n t o t h e e f f e c t r e a d i n g h a d on t h e p e r s o n a l i t y . I n
1 9 4 8 , S m ith s t a t e d t h a t " a l t h o u g h t h e r e s e a r c h i n t h e a r e a
o f t h e p e r s o n a l and s o c i a l v a l u e s to be d e r i v e d from r e a d
i n g was n o t v o lu m in o u s , b e l i e f i n t h e s e v a l u e s h a s a lw a y s
b e e n a c c e p t e d " ( p . 4 9 0 ) . She f u r t h e r s t a t e d t h a t t h e a s
s u m p tio n was so w i d e s p r e a d " t h a t t h r o u g h t h e c e n t u r i e s , no
one was moved to p r o b e i n t o i t s p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r s t a t i s
t i c a l e v i d e n c e " (p . 4 9 0 ) . N e v e r t h e l e s s , S m ith r e p o r t e d
t h a t r e s e a r c h s u g g e s t s a s t r o n g r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n r e a d
i n g a c h ie v e m e n t an d m e n t a l h e a l t h .
54
S ix y e a r s l a t e r i n a sym posium on u n s o l v e d p r o b le m s
i n r e a d in g * b o t h B e t t s (1954) an d R u s s e l l (1 9 5 4 ) l i s t th e
n e e d f o r a d d i t i o n a l s t u d y o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n p e r
s o n a l i t y d e v e lo p m e n t an d r e a d i n g . Many a u t h o r i t i e s h a v e
o b s e r v e d t h a t a c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n s e l f - c o n c e p t and
a c h ie v e m e n t e x i s t s and w o uld a g r e e w i t h P u r k e y r s (1970) .
s t a t e m e n t t h a t ’’f o r g e n e r a t i o n s w is e t e a c h e r s h a v e s e n s e d
t h e s i g n i f i c a n t an d p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n a s t u
d e n t ’ s c o n c e p t o f h i m s e l f and h i s p e r f o r m a n c e i n s c h o o l ”
( p . 1 4 ) .
T h e re h a s n o t* how ever* b e e n a g r e e m e n t a s to w h e th e r
r e a d i n g d i s a b i l i t y o r e m o t i o n a l in v o l v e m e n t i s p r i m a r y .
T h e re a r e t h o s e who s u b s c r i b e to one t h e o r y o r t h e o th e r *
b u t many a u t h o r i t i e s l e a n to w a rd t h e v iew t h a t a p e r s o n
c a n n o t d e t e r m i n e w h ic h comes f i r s t . I n 1948* S m ith s t a t e d
t h a t t h e r e i s n o t e v i d e n c e to d e t e r m i n e t h a t one c a u s e s th e
o t h e r . A c c o r d in g to Bond and T i n k e r ( 1 9 5 7 ) j i t i s im p o s
s i b l e to i d e n t i f y e x a c t p r o p o r t i o n s o f e m o t i o n a l d i f f i c u l
t i e s w h ic h a r e c a u s e s o f r e a d i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s . They h a v e
s t a t e d * how ever* t h a t e m o t i o n a l m a l a d j u s t m e n t i s t h e e f f e c t
o f r e a d i n g d i s a b i l i t y more o f t e n t h a n i t i s t h e c a u s e .
They o f f e r a s s u p p o r t t h e f a c t t h a t e m o t i o n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s
d i s a p p e a r when t h e r e a d i n g d i s a b i l i t y i s re m o v ed .
Q uandt (1 9 7 2 ) a l s o com m ented on t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f
i d e n t i f y i n g d i r e c t c a u s e s o f s e l f - c o n c e p t and r e p o r t e d no
r e s e a r c h h ad b e e n a b l e to i s o l a t e c a u s e s .
55
P u rk e y (1970) o b s e r v e d t h a t w h i l e
t h e d a t a do n o t p r o v i d e c l e a r - c u t e v i d e n c e a b o u t w h ic h
comes f i r s t - - a p o s i t i v e s e l f c o n c e p t o r s c h o l a s t i c s u c
cess,, a n e g a t i v e s e l f c o n c e p t o r s c h o l a s t i c f a i l u r e - -
i t d o e s s t r e s s a s t r o n g r e c i p r o c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p an d
g i v e s u s r e a s o n to assum e t h a t e n h a n c in g t h e s e l f c o n
c e p t i s a v i t a l i n f l u e n c e i n im p ro v in g a c a d e m ic p e r
f o rm a n c e . ( p . 2 7 )
The s u g g e s t i o n i s , then., t h a t a p o o r s e l f - c o n c e p t
n o t o n l y i n t e r f e r e s w i t h l e a r n i n g and r e a d i n g , b u t i n t u r n
l e a d s t o an e v e n lo w e r s e l f - c o n c e p t a s t h e r e a d i n g d i s a b i l
i t y becom es m ore s e v e r e . T h is h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d a s a
v i c i o u s c i r c l e by many r e s e a r c h e r s , i n c l u d i n g Homze ( 1 9 6 2 )
a n d Bond an d T i n k e r ( 1 9 5 7 ) ^ who s t a t e d t h a t " r e a d i n g d i s
a b i l i t y and t h e e m o t i o n a l r e a c t i o n s i n t e r a c t e a c h m aking t h e
o t h e r more i n t e n s e " ( p . 1 0 8 ) .
I f we a c c e p t t h e p r e m is e t h a t a c h i l d ' s p e r f o r m a n c e
w i l l be d i c t a t e d by h i s o p i n i o n o f h i m s e l f , t h i s i n t e r r e l a
t i o n s h i p b ecom es a c r i t i c a l f a c t o r to c o n s i d e r when t e a c h
i n g r e a d i n g t o t h e young c h i l d . B e c a u se r e a d i n g h a s su c h
h i g h s t a t u s i n o u r s c h o o l s , i n o u r s o c i e t y we b e g i n t o r e
a l i z e t h e e s s e n t i a l n a t u r e o f a s u c c e s s f u l f i r s t e x p e r i e n c e
i n r e a d i n g . Z i n t z (1 9 7 0 ) e m p h a s iz e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s
by s t a t i n g t h a t " t h e y o u n g c h i l d who e x p e r i e n c e s p e r s o n a l
f a i l u r e h i s f i r s t two o r t h r e e y e a r s o f s c h o o l may be f i t
t i n g i n t o a b e h a v i o r p a t t e r n o f low s e l f - e s t e e m w i t h a l l t h e
n e g a t i v e b e h a v i o r s t h a t t h i s s u g g e s t s " (p . 5 2 2 ) .
T h i s c o n c e p t o f e a r l y i n f l u e n c e o f s e l f - c o n c e p t on
56
r e a d i n g a c h ie v e m e n t was s u p p o r t e d b y W a tte n b e r g an d C l i f f o r d
(1 9 6 4 )* who c o n d u c te d a s t u d y t o o b t a i n d a t a w h ic h m ig h t
show c a u s a t i o n b e tw e e n s e l f - c o n c e p t and r e a d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t .
The sam p le was 185 k i n d e r g a r t e n c h i l d r e n i n two D e t r o i t
s c h o o ls * one from an a r e a w i t h p a r e n t s i n t h e w o r k in g c l a s s
an d one t h a t was te rm e d m id d le c l a s s . In e a c h o f t h e s e
s c h o o l s , a p p r o x i m a t e l y h a l f e n t e r e d C a t h o l i c s c h o o l s I n t h e
f i r s t g r a d e . The C a t h o l i c an d p u b l i c s c h o o l s u s e d d i f f e r
e n t a p p r o a c h e s to t e a c h i n g r e a d i n g . A f i n a l num ber o f 128
y i e l d e d f i n d i n g s w h ic h s u g g e s t e d t h a t m e a s u r e s o f s e l f -
c o n c e p t i n k i n d e r g a r t e n w ere p r e d i c t i v e o f r e a d i n g a c h i e v e
m en t two an d o n e - h a l f y e a r s a f t e r t h e i n i t i a l t e s t i n g .
A s t u d y by W illia m s (1 9 7 3 )* h o w e v e r, c o n t r a d i c t e d
t h e f i n d i n g s o f W a tte n b e r g an d C l i f f o r d . I n h e r stu d y * 133
f i r s t - g r a d e c h i l d r e n w ere in c l u d e d * w i t h 25 p e r c e n t H is p a n o
an d 75 p e r c e n t A n g lo . T h e re w ere e q u a l n u m b ers o f b o y s and
g i r l s and t h e s o c io e c o n o m ic l e v e l r a n g e d fro m l o w e r - l o w e r
t o u p p e r - m i d d l e . W i l l i a m s f o u n d no s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s
b e tw e e n s e l f - c o n c e p t an d r e a d i n g a c h ie v e m e n t* l e a d i n g h e r
t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e c h i l d ' s s e l f - c o n c e p t may n o t be I n f l u
e n c e d g r e a t l y b y s c h o o l o r r e a d i n g a c h ie v e m e n t i n t h e e a r l y
y e a r s .
I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h i s i n f l u e n c e on s e l f - c o n c e p t
d o e s n o t* i n g e n e r a l * r e v e a l I t s e l f so o v e r t l y i n t h e e a r l y
y e a r s . A c c o r d in g t o Kunz ( 1 9 6 8 )* " t h e s e l f Im age a t t h i s
57
tim e i s m o st p l i a b l e . S i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s can i n f l u
e n c e g ro w th to w a rd e i t h e r a p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e s e l f - c o n
c e p t a s t h e c h i l d i s w o rk in g to w a rd b u i l d i n g s k i l l s n e c e s
s a r y f o r r e a d i n g " ( p . 1 1 6 ) .
T h is v ie w was s u p p o r t e d b y Q uandt (1972) i n t h e f o l
lo w in g s t a t e m e n t . "The r o l e o f s e l f - c o n c e p t in. l e a r n i n g to
r e a d o r i n im p r o v in g r e a d i n g s k i l l . . . i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t
a n d may c o n t i n u e to grow i n i m p o r t a n c e i f n o t h i n g i s done
t o r e v e r s e i t s e f f e c t s " (p . .1 0 ).
T h e re may n o t b e c o m p le te a g r e e m e n t c o n c e r n i n g t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s e l f - c o n c e p t and r e a d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t i n t h e
p r i m a r y g ra d e s,, b u t few w o u ld d en y t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p an d i t s
i m p o r t a n c e a s t h e c h i l d a d v a n c e s i n s c h o o l .
Bodwin (1 9 5 8 ) s t u d i e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f im m a tu re
s e l f - c o n c e p t t o e d u c a t i o n a l d i s a b i l i t i e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n
r e a d i n g and a r i t h m e t i c . T h i r d an d s i x t h g r a d e r s from t h r e e
e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s i n F l i n t , M ic h ig a n p r o v i d e d a r e s e a r c h
g ro u p o f 300. O n e - t h i r d h a d a r e a d i n g d i s a b i l i t y , o n e -
t h i r d w ere d e f i c i e n t i n m a th e m a tic s s k i l l s , an d o n e - t h i r d
w e re f r e e o f a n y e d u c a t i o n a l d i s a b i l i t i e s . C o n c l u s i o n s i n
c l u d e d a v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t , p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n
r e a d i n g d i s a b i l i t y and im m a tu re s e l f - c o n c e p t .
A s t u d y by Lumpkin (1959) a l s o a t t e m p t e d to e s t a b
l i s h t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n r e a d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t an d s e l f - .i
c o n c e p t . F i f t y p u p i l s w ere s e l e c t e d fro m a p o p u l a t i o n o f
58
251 p u p i l s i n e i g h t c l a s s r o o m s o f f i f t h g r a d e r s . V a r i o u s
t e s t s w ere a d m i n i s t e r e d i n c l u d i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e , r e a d i n g , an d
s o c i o m e t r i c . T e a c h e r s r a t e d a l l p u p i l s on a b e h a v i o r s c a l e ;
by u s i n g an e x p e c t a n c y f o r m u l a , o v e r a c h i e v e r s and u n d e r
a c h i e v e r s w ere i d e n t i f i e d . The f i n d i n g s i n d i c a t e d t h a t
s e l f - c o n c e p t i s r e l a t e d t o a c h i e v e m e n t i n r e a d i n g . I n a d d i
t i o n , Lumpkin fo u n d t h a t o v e r a c h i e v e r s h a d a more a d e q u a t e
c o n c e p t o f s e l f and u n d e r a c h i e v e r s p e r c e i v e d t h e m s e l v e s more
n e g a t i v e l y .
More r e c e n t r e s e a r c h i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h i s r e l a t i o n
s h i p i n t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s c h o o l c h i l d i n c l u d e s s t u d i e s by
E p a n c h in ( 1 9 7 8 ) , P u r y e a r (1975')* S a o i (19 7 7 )* and McKibbon
( 1 9 7 7 ) .
E p a n c h i n ' s s t u d y f o c u s e d on t h e n a t u r e o f t h e r e l a
t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n r e a d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t an d s e l f - c o n c e p t , a t - .
t e m p t i n g to d e t e r m i n e i f th e s e l f - c o n c e p t i t e m s w h ic h w ere
m o st p r e d i c t i v e o f r e a d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t v a r i e d a t t h e p r i
m ary and i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l s . I n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d i n
c l u d e d r e a d i n g s c o r e s and s e l f - c o n c e p t r a t i n g s on 5*990
p u p i l s . A f t e r i d e n t i f y i n g and a n a l y z i n g p e r t i n e n t f a c t o r s ,
e m o t i o n a l m a t u r i t y was more p r e d i c t i v e t h a n s e l f - c o n c e p t o f
a b i l i t y a t t h e p r i m a r y l e v e l , w h i l e s e l f - c o n c e p t o f a b i l i t y
and e m o t i o n a l m a t u r i t y w ere more p r e d i c t i v e o f r e a d i n g
a c h i e v e m e n t a t th e i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l . T h is l e n d s some su p
p o r t to t h e c o n t e n t i o n , d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r , t h a t s e l f - c o n c e p t
59
becom es a more a p p a r e n t c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r i n u p p e r e l e
m e n t a r y p u p i l s t h a n i n t h e p r i m a r y g r a d e s .
P u r y e a r ’ s (1975) r e s e a r c h was b a s e d on t h e p r e m is e
t h a t "a c h i l d ’ s a t t i t u d e to w a rd r e a d i n g i s a m a jo r f a c t o r
i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e r e l a t i v e s u c c e s s o r f a i l u r e o f an y r e a d
in g p r o g r a m ” (p . 7 0 6 8 - A ) . A l l 200 f o u r t h g r a d e r s i n one
e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l w e re u s e d a t t h e o u t s e t ; however,, in c o m
p l e t e d a t a f o r some r e s u l t e d i n a f i n a l num ber o f 9 0 . V a r i
o u s m e a s u r e s w ere u s e d to d e t e r m i n e a t t i t u d e and r e a d i n g
a c h i e v e m e n t an d r e s u l t s showed a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e tw e e n a c h i e v e m e n t i n r e a d i n g an d a t t i t u d e s to w a rd r e a d i n g .
W h ile s u g g e s t i n g i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s t u d y , t h e i n v e s t i
g a t o r m e n tio n e d t h e l i k e l i h o o d t h a t t h e c h i l d ' s i n i t i a l e x
p o s u r e to s c h o o l an d r e s u l t i n g a t t i t u d e s i n f l u e n c e d him to
m a i n t a i n an a t t i t u d e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h i s i n i t i a l e x p e r i
e n c e , w h ic h a g a i n s u p p o r t s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f a p o s i t i v e
f i r s t e x p e r i e n c e .
S a o i (1 9 7 6 ) s e l e c t e d 220 c h i l d r e n , w h ic h i n c l u d e d
a l l f o u r t h g r a d e r s i n f i v e s m a l l - t o w n s c h o o l s an d two c i t y
s c h o o l s i n S o u th D akota, an d t e s t e d t h e e f f e c t o f i n t e r e s t ,
s e x , a c h i e v e m e n t , and s e l f - c o n c e p t on c o m p r e h e n s io n . Only
t h e e f f e c t o f a c h ie v e m e n t w as shown to b e s i g n i f i c a n t .
T h e re was an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t p u p i l s i d e n t i f i e d a s h a v i n g
lo w s e l f - c o n c e p t s w ere m ore a f f e c t e d by t h e i n t e r e s t l e v e l
o f t h e m a t e r i a l t h a n o t h e r s i n v o l v e d i n t h e s t u d y , a s t h e y
6 0
h a d a h i g h e r mean c o m p r e h e n s io n s c o r e w i t h h i g h i n t e r e s t
m a t e r i a l t h a n w i t h lo w i n t e r e s t m a t e r i a l ; t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n
was s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .0 5 l e v e l . This,, o f c o u rse ,, em pha
s i z e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f s e l e c t i n g h i g h - i n t e r e s t m a t e r i a l s
f o r c h i l d r e n who a p p e a r t o b e lo w i n s e l f - c o n c e p t .
N i n e t y - tw o r u r a l M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n f o u r t h g r a d e r s
w e re t h e s u b j e c t s f o r M cK ibbon’ s (1 9 7 7 ) s t u d y . He r e p o r t e d
t h a t t h e more s u c c e s s f u l p u p i l s showed t h e h i g h e s t s e l f -
c o n c e p t s a t t h e en d o f a t r e a t m e n t l a s t i n g one y e a r an d one
i m p l i c a t i o n was t h a t a s u c c e s s f u l r e a d i n g e x p e r i e n c e a p
p e a r s r e l a t e d to d e v e l o p i n g a p o s i t i v e s e l f - c o n c e p t .
O th e r s t u d i e s h a v e d e a l t w i t h p u p i l s a s t h e y move
i n t o t h e j u n i o r h i g h l e v e l . B lack h a m (1 9 5 ^ ) i n v e s t i g a t e d
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n p e r s o n a l i t y a d j u s t m e n t and r e a d i n g
a c h i e v e m e n t u s i n g 155 e i g h t h - an d n i n t h - g r a d e o v e r a c h i e v e r s
a n d u n d e r a c h i e v e r s i n two r u r a l s c h o o l s . R e s u l t s showed
s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n m e n t a l h e a l t h an d f i n d i n g s l e d
t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r to c o n c l u d e t h a t a h i g h e r i n c i d e n c e o f
e m o t i o n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s o c c u r r e d i n s t u d e n t s w i t h r e a d i n g
d i s a b i l i t i e s a s co m p ared t o s t u d e n t s w i t h a v e r a g e o r ab o v e
r e a d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t . Tw enty y e a r s l a t e r , , Sw eet (1976) a t
te m p te d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , ,
u t i l i z i n g 286 f o u r t h - t h r o u g h e i g h t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s . F i n d
i n g s i n d i c a t e d t h e c a u s a t i o n t h a t e x i s t e d was i n t h e d i r e c
t i o n o f s e l f - e s t e e m a f f e c t i n g r e a d i n g c o m p r e h e n s io n r a t h e r
t h a n v i c e v e r s a .
61
The d i r e c t i o n i n d i c a t e d by t h e s e s t u d i e s d o e s a p p e a r
to s u p p o r t t h e c o n t e n t i o n o f a u t h o r i t i e s t h a t t h e r e i s a r e
l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n s e l f - c o n c e p t an d r e a d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t . I t
may b e i m p o s s i b l e t o i d e n t i f y one a s t h e p r i m a r y c a u s e , b u t
t h i s i s p e r h a p s n o t so i m p o r t a n t a s t h e a w a r e n e s s t h a t a
r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s . The i m p l i c a t i o n s t a t e d b y D iv in e
(1 9 7 5 )* f o l l o w i n g a s t u d y u s i n g 27*413 p u p i l s I n g r a d e s two
t h r o u g h e i g h t an d f o c u s i n g on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s e l f
e s te e m and r e a d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t , p o i n t s t o t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r
b e i n g c o g n i z a n t o f t h e s e f a c t o r s .
A lth o u g h t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n s e l f - e s t e e m and
r e a d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t i s n o t l a r g e e n o u g h 't o be p r a c
t i c a l a s a p r e d i c t o r f o r a g i v e n c h ild ., i t d e f i n i t e l y
s h o u ld n o t be i g n o r e d by s c h o o l p e r s o n n e l o r r e s e a r c h
e r s . The r e l a t i o n s h i p was fo u n d to o c c u r c o n s i s
t e n t l y , i t w as a lw a y s p o s i t i v e . , and i t was s t a t i s
t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t e a c h g r a d e l e v e l f o r b o t h
s e x e s . ( p . 2095-A )
Cross-Age Tutoring as an Appro
priate Method for Improving
Self-Concept
Many h a v e r e c o g n i z e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f im p r o v in g
s e l f - c o n c e p t t h r o u g h c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g . The f o l l o w i n g
s t a t e m e n t made by Bean an d Luke (1 9 7 2 ) i s a t y p i c a l one I n
c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g p r o j e c t s . "The p r i m a r y g o a l s o f t h i s
p ro g ra m i n c l u d e d t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a p o s i t i v e s e l f - c o n c e p t
a s w e l l a s im p ro v e d r e a d i n g s k i l l s " (p . 1 3 1 )• B e c a u se t h e
c h i l d i s p l a c e d i n a r o l e o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y an d a u t h o r i t y . ,
i t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t he w i l l g a i n i n p r e s t i g e . , w h ic h may
62
l e a d him t o v ie w h i m s e l f i n a more p o s i t i v e l i g h t r a t h e r
t h a n s e e i n g h i m s e l f a s a f a i l u r e . A c c o rd in g t o H a r r i s and
S m ith ( 1 9 7 6 ) , t h e t u t o r c a n b u i l d "a s t r o n g s e l f - c o n c e p t o f
h i m s e l f a s a w o r t h w h i le i n d i v i d u a l w i t h s o m e th in g to o f f e r
t o o t h e r s " ( p . 3 8 6 ) .
I n d i s c u s s i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l o f t u t o r i n g . , T h e le n
( 1 9 6 9 ) i n c l u d e d t h e e n h a n c e m e n t o f s e l f - e s t e e m o f t h e t u t o r s
an d w r o t e o f t h e s e n s e o f a d e q u a c y an d s t r e n g t h t h a t i s d e
v e l o p e d w i t h i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l t h r o u g h t u t o r i n g . I t i s ,
t h e r e f o r e , e s p e c i a l l y l o g i c a l t o c o n s i d e r s u c h a p r o g ra m
f o r c h i l d r e n w i t h r e a d i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s , b e c a u s e t h e r e i s a
b u i l t - i n e l e m e n t f o r im p r o v in g s e l f - c o n c e p t , w h ic h i s , o f
n e c e s s i t y , an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f a l l r e a d i n g im p ro v e m e n t p r o
gram s .
I t i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t t h e f i r s t r e q u i s i t e f o r r e a d
i n g im p ro v e m e n t i s t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l h a s a s u c
c e s s f u l e x p e r i e n c e . Q uandt (1 9 7 2 ) s t a t e d :
When t h e c h i l d ' s s e l f - c o n c e p t h a s a d e b i l i t a t i n g e f
f e c t u p o n r e a d i n g , w ork on r e a d i n g s k i l l s a l o n e w i l l
be f r u i t l e s s . When h i s s e l f - c o n c e p t I s so n e g a t i v e
t h a t h e e x p r e s s e s no d e s i r e f o r e v e r l e a r n i n g t o r e a d ,
i t m akes m ore s e n s e t o b u i l d t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t b e f o r e
a t t e m p t i n g to c o r r e c t t h e r e a d i n g . The m ain e m p h a s is
s h o u ld b e up o n s u c c e s s . Of c o u r s e , i t may be p o s
s i b l e t o w ork on b o t h a s p e c t s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , b u t
s u c c e s s s h o u ld n e v e r b e f o r f e i t e d f o r s k i l l s n e e d s
i n t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e p r o g ra m . ( p . 24)
C r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g o f f e r s a u n i q u e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r b u i l d i n g
s k i l l s an d s e l f - c o n c e p t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , t h e r e b y m aking i t
63
an i m p o r t a n t v e h i c l e f o r im p ro v in g r e a d i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s
t h r o u g h e n h a n c e m e n t o f s e l f - c o n c e p t .
Research Related to Self-Concept
in Cross-Age Tutoring Programs
C r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g p r o g ra m s a r e w i d e l y s u p p o r t e d i n
t h e l i t e r a t u r e a s a v i a b l e m eans o f im p r o v in g s e l f - c o n c e p t .
H ow ever, a s was s t a t e d e a r l i e r an d n o t e d b y C a p lin ( 1 9 6 9 )*
s e l f - c o n c e p t i s d i f f i c u l t to m e a s u r e . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , p e r
h a p s , r e p o r t s o f many p r o g ra m s h a v e n o t i n c l u d e d t h e m e a s
u r e m e n t o r s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s r e l a t e d to s e l f - c o n c e p t .
This section, then, will include expert opinion concerning
self-concept in cross-age tutoring programs as well as re
search findings.
G e i s e r ( 1 9 6 9 ) r e p o r t e d t h e r e s u l t s o f a t u t o r i n g
p r o g ra m i n w h ic h p u p i l s w i t h b e h a v i o r p r o b le m s i n g r a d e s
f i v e t h r o u g h e i g h t w ere u s e d to t u t o r slo w c h i l d r e n i n
g r a d e s one t h r o u g h f o u r . A c c o r d in g to G e i s e r , t h e m o st o b
s e r v a b l e b e n e f i t was t h e im p ro v e d s e l f - i m a g e o f t h e t u t o r s .
K o k o v ich an d M atth ew s (1 9 7 1 ) a l s o u s e d p u p i l s who
h a d e n c o u n t e r e d f a i l u r e r e p e a t e d l y . F iv e s i x t h - g r a d e b o y s
w i t h ab o v e a v e r a g e i n t e l l i g e n c e w e re s e l e c t e d to t u t o r f i r s t
g r a d e r s 30 m i n u t e s a w eek. P r e - a n d p o s t t e s t i n g o f s e l f -
c o n c e p t , t e a c h e r o b s e r v a t i o n , an d i n t e r v i e w s w i t h t h e b o y s
l e d t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s to c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e r e was e v i d e n c e
t h a t t h e p u p i l s 1 i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e p ro g ra m l e d to im p r o v e
m en t o f t h e i r s e l f - i m a g e .
64
A h e t e r o g e n e o u s g r o u p o f f i f t h g r a d e r s w ere t h e s u b
j e c t s s e l e c t e d f o r t u t o r i n g f i r s t g r a d e r s b y Moon and W ilso n
(1 9 7 0 )- A f t e r f i v e m o n th s , t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s r e p o r t e d t h a t
t u t o r s p r e v i o u s l y l a b e l e d a s d i s c i p l i n e p r o b le m s showed
d e f i n i t e im p ro v e m e n t i n t h e i r c l a s s r o o m b e h a v i o r . A r e p o r t
on a Y o u th T u t o r i n g Y o u th p ro g ra m b y S q u i r e s (1 9 7 1 ) a l s o
s t a t e d t h a t t h e e m o t i o n a l , s o c i a l , and p s y c h o l o g i c a l b e n e
f i t s o f s u c h a p ro g ra m a r e n u m e ro u s. S q u i r e s i n c l u d e s
b u i l d i n g a p o s i t i v e s e l f - i m a g e a s an a d v a n t a g e f o r t h e
t u t o r .
A f t e r a s u c c e s s f u l c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g e x p e r i m e n t
w i t h 75 s e l e c t e d j u n i o r h i g h s t u d e n t s , D a l l a s (1974) r e
p o r t e d t h e r e s u l t s o f a s k i n g f o r v o l u n t e e r s i n t h e e i g h t h
and n i n t h g r a d e s . Two h u n d r e d v o l u n t e e r e d and many w ere
s t u d e n t s w i t h p r o b le m s , known a s " h ig h r i s k n s t u d e n t s . I t
was fo u n d t h a t t h e s e h i g h r i s k s t u d e n t s o f t e n b e n e f i t t e d
t h e m o st fro m t h e e x p e r i e n c e . The i n v e s t i g a t o r s t r e s s e d
t h a t w h i l e t h e s e s t u d e n t s h a d h a d c o u n t l e s s l e c t u r e s on d e
v e l o p i n g a s e n s e o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , t h e y w ere a t l a s t a s k e d
to becom e r e s p o n s i b l e a s p a r t i c i p a n t s i n a t u t o r i n g p ro g ra m .
I n w r i t i n g o f t h e f u t u r e f o r p u p i l t u t o r i n g ,
M e la ra g n o (1 9 7 7 ) c o n c l u d e d t h a t t u t o r s u s u a l l y do e x h i b i t
p o s i t i v e a f f e c t i v e c h a n g e s , b u t t h e s e w ere l e s s c l e a r t h a n
t h e e v i d e n c e f o r a c a d e m ic a c h i e v e m e n t . R o u s s i n (1 9 7 1 )
f o u n d t h i s to be t r u e when he a t t e m p t e d to d e t e r m i n e t h e
65
e f f e c t o f c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g on a t t i t u d e s o f 271 s i x t h
g r a d e r s i n 12 c l a s s r o o m s fro m t h r e e e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s i n
Io w a . A f t e r an e i g h t - w e e k s e s s io n ,, t h e r e was no s i g n i f i
c a n t c h a n g e i n a t t i t u d e s to w a r d s c h o o l an d s e l f .
A s i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o n was r e a c h e d b y K o s k in e n (1975)*
who u s e d ran d o m s a m p lin g to s e l e c t 376 f i f t h an d se c o n d
g r a d e r s f o r t u t o r i n g s e s s i o n s t h r e e t i m e s a week f o r a 1 0 -
week p e r i o d . T h e re was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n
p u p i l s who t u t o r e d an d t h o s e who d i d n o t . T e a c h e r s an d t u
t o r s , h o w e v e r, r e a c t e d p o s i t i v e l y to t h e p ro g ra m an d e x
p r e s s e d a d e s i r e to p a r t i c i p a t e i n a n o t h e r t u t o r i n g e x p e r i
e n c e .
S u b j e c t s f o r Diamond (1976) w ere 92 f i f t h g r a d e r s
a n d 85 s e c o n d g r a d e r s . T u t o r i n g s e s s i o n s w ere h e l d f o u r
t i m e s a week f o r 10 w e e k s . At t h e end o f t h i s p e r i o d , i t
was fo u n d t h a t t h e s e l f - e s t e e m o f t h e t u t o r s was n o t s i g
n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t e d b y t h e t u t o r i n g .
H ow ever, s t u d i e s by P a o n i an d D u f f i n t h e e a r l y
1 9 7 0 s r e s u l t e d i n o p p o s i t e f i n d i n g s . P a o n i (1 9 7 1 ) i n c l u d e d
240 p u p i l s from f o u r t h i r d and f o u r s i x t h - g r a d e c l a s s e s .
The e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p e n g a g e d i n c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g t h r e e
d a y s a w eek, 30 m i n u t e s p e r d a y , f o r f o u r m o n th s . R e s u l t s
showed a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t im p ro v e m e n t i n a t t i t u d e
to w a r d r e a d i n g i n f a v o r o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p .
D u ff (1 9 7 3 ) s e l e c t e d 60 p u p i l s f o r a s ix - w e e k summer
66
s c h o o l p r o g ra m . T h i r t y t h i r d - an d f o u r t h - g r a d e p u p i l s t u
t o r e d 30 f i r s t an d s e c o n d g r a d e r s . A lth o u g h n o t s t a t i s
t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t * d a t a t r e n d s showed e v i d e n c e o f a p o s i
t i v e c h a n g e i n t u t o r s ' p e r c e p t i o n o f s e l f .
W h ile t h e r e i s n o t o v e rw h e lm in g s t a t i s t i c a l e v i d e n c e
t o show t h a t t u t o r i n g i s a v a l u a b l e a v e n u e to im p ro v e m e n t
o f t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t * t h e r e i s w i d e s p r e a d s u p p o r t f o r i t i n
t h e l i t e r a t u r e * i n d i c a t i n g t h a t a u t h o r i t i e s a g r e e w i t h
T h e le n ( 1 9 6 9 )* who s t a t e d t h a t " e d u c a t o r s * a l m o s t to a man*
f e e l t h a t t u t o r i n g w o r k s . I can t h i n k o f no o t h e r i n n o v a
t i o n w h ic h h a s b e e n so c o n s i s t e n t l y p e r c e i v e d a s s u c c e s s -
f u l " ( p . 2 3 0 ) .
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
T h is c h a p t e r i n c l u d e s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e ( l )
sa m p le s e l e c t i o n p r o c e s s , (2 ) t e s t i n g i n s t r u m e n t s , (3 ) d a t a
c o l l e c t i o n an d s c o r i n g p r o c e d u r e s , (b) r e s e a r c h m a t e r i a l s . ,
an d (5 ) p r o c e d u r e s u s e d w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p . I n
a d d i t i o n ., t h e p i l o t s t u d y i s d e s c r i b e d .
For purposes of identification.., the three groups
are designated as the pilot research group., the experi
mental group, and the control group. These groups, then.,
are referred to as the P, E, and C groups.
The Pilot Study
I t was d e c i d e d t h a t a p i l o t s t u d y w o u ld b e c o n
d u c t e d d u r i n g t h e s p r i n g o f 1973* The i n i t i a l p o r t i o n o f
t h i s c h a p t e r w i l l d e s c r i b e t h e p r o c e d u r e s u s e d i n t h i s
s t u d y and r e l a t e f i n d i n g s w h ic h s e r v e d t o a s s i s t i n p l a n
n i n g t h e s t u d y w i t h t h e r e s e a r c h g r o u p .
The Sample
The sample was drawn from an inner-city school in
the second largest school district in the state of Arkansas.
The school included all elementary grades except grade four.,
67
68
an d was one o f 26 s c h o o l s a t t h i s l e v e l i n t h e d i s t r i c t .
The t o t a l e l e m e n t a r y p o p u l a t i o n was a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 2*524.
At t h e tim e t h e s t u d y was co n d u c te d ,, t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t
was i n v o l v e d i n a s y s t e m a t i c r e o r g a n i z a t i o n i n o r d e r t o
a c h i e v e r a c i a l b a l a n c e t h r o u g h o u t t h e c i t y . By 1973* t h e
p l a n h a d p r o g r e s s e d t o i n c l u d e t h e h i g h s c h o o ls * m id d le
s c h o o ls * and t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e p o r t i o n o f t h e e l e m e n t a r y
s c h o o l s .
F o r t h e e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s only* t h e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n
p l a n i n v o l v e d p a i r i n g o f s c h o o ls * w h ic h h a d t h e e f f e c t o f
t r a n s p o r t i n g e n t i r e g r a d e s t o t h e p a i r e d s c h o o l s . T h e r e
f o r e * t h e s a m p le s c h o o l was com posed o f f i r s t - * s e c o n d -*
t h i r d - * f i f t h - * an d s i x t h - g r a d e p u p i l s fro m t h e n e i g h b o r
hood* w h ic h was i n t h e e a s t e r n p o r t i o n o f t h e c i t y and
f i f t h an d s i x t h g r a d e r s who w e re t r a n s p o r t e d fro m a s c h o o l
i n t h e w e s t e r n p a r t o f t h e c i t y . T h is a l s o r e s u l t e d i n a
c o m b i n a t i o n o f p u p i l s fro m a low s o c io e c o n o m ic l e v e l and
a h i g h s o c io e c o n o m ic l e v e l i n f i f t h and s i x t h g r a d e s .
However* one c o u l d n o t e x p e c t a sa m p le o f c h i l d r e n who h a d
r e a d i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s t o be b a l a n c e d i n t h i s same m an n er and
no e f f o r t was made t o e n s u r e s u c h a b a l a n c e .
I t was d e c i d e d t h a t a l l a v a i l a b l e f i f t h - and s i x t h -
g r a d e p u p i l s r e a d i n g a t l e a s t a y e a r b e lo w g r a d e l e v e l on
one s u b t e s t o f t h e G ilm o re w o u ld be i d e n t i f i e d f o r p o s s i b l e
I n c l u s i o n i n t h e s t u d y . The t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f t h i s g ro u p
i n t h e d i s t r i c t was 4*485 p u p i l s .
69
Selection of Subjects
In order to identify specific pupils, the investi
gator reviewed all the permanent records and listed those
children who were at least a year below their actual read
ing level on the basis of scores from standardized tests
administered by the district. Following this procedure,
the names were given to the teacher who taught them for
the language arts block. She was then asked to verify that
these pupils were in need of additional help in reading.
In addition, she was asked to identify those children who
were in a remedial reading class, those who were having
additional reading instruction from an adult volunteer,
and, finally, she was asked to list others who should be
included* This was followed by the investigator individ
ually testing those who had been identified, initially
resulting in selection of a control group of 30, which
included all pupils in a remedial reading class and a
pilot research group of 35 * which included all others hav
ing scores on the G-ilmore Oral Reading Test, Form C, which
placed them at least one year below their actual grade
level in reading. A small number was eliminated because
of low scores on the Slosson Intelligence Test.
Bond and Tinker (1 9 5 7 ) stated that "an able child
who is a poor reader cannot be expected to develop as ex
tensive a vocabulary . . . as can his able-reading counter
part" (pp. 7 3 - 7 3 ) . In a study on the performance of good
70
a n d p o o r r e a d e r s on S t a n f o r d - B i n e t item s,, Bond and P ay
(1 9 5 0 ) f o u n d t h a t d i s a b l e d r e a d e r s d i d h a v e a p p r e c i a b l e
d i f f i c u l t y w i t h t h o s e i t e m s i n t h e B i n e t r e l a t e d t o r e a d i n g
g r o w th . They a l s o f o u n d t h a t a r e a d i n g h a n d i c a p p e n a l i z e d
t h e p o o r r e a d e r , r e s u l t i n g i n an u n d e r e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e
i n t e l l i g e n c e o f p o o r r e a d e r s a t t h e f i f t h - g r a d e l e v e l .
B e c a u se a r e a d i n g d i s a b i l i t y c a n be e x p e c t e d t o
a d v e r s e l y i n f l u e n c e an i n d i v i d u a l ^ i n t e l l i g e n c e s c o r e ,
p u p i l s w hose s c o r e s on t h e S l o s s o n w e re ab o v e 70 w ere a c
c e p t e d i n t h e s t u d y . I n c o m p l e t e d a t a w ere a l s o a f a c t o r
i n t h e f i n a l num ber f o r e a c h g r o u p , w h ic h was 29 f o r t h e
p i l o t r e s e a r c h g ro u p and 23 f o r t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p .
I t was s u b s e q u e n t l y d e t e r m i n e d t h a t r e v i e w i n g t h e
p e rm a n e n t r e c o r d s was u n n e c e s s a r y , a s t e a c h e r i d e n t i f i c a
t i o n was a r e l i a b l e s o u r c e f o r r e f e r r i n g p u p i l s w i t h r e a d
i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s . I n some i n s t a n c e s , t e a c h e r i d e n t i f i c a
t i o n p r o v e d t o be more r e l i a b l e , a s s t a n d a r d i z e d t e s t ?
s c o r e s w e re i n a c c u r a t e f o r some c h i l d r e n w i t h r e a d i n g d i f
f i c u l t i e s . I f a n y t h i n g , t e a c h e r s h a d a t e n d e n c y t o i n c l u d e
p u p i l s whom t h e y m e r e l y s u s p e c t e d o f h a v i n g a p r o b le m an d
a s t h e s e p u p i l s w e re e l i m i n a t e d t h r o u g h i n d i v i d u a l t e s t i n g ,
i t was d e c i d e d t h a t t h e p r o c e d u r e o f r e v i e w i n g p e r m a n e n t
r e c o r d s w o u ld n o t be u t i l i z e d when i d e n t i f y i n g t h e f i n a l
e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p .
S e l e c t i o n o f T u t e e s
T u t e e s w e re t h o s e c h i l d r e n i n t h e s e c o n d g r a d e
i d e n t i f i e d by t h e i r c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r s a s r e q u i r i n g h e l p
i n r e a d i n g . I t was s t r e s s e d t h a t t h e s e c o n d - g r a d e c h i l d
m ust b e one who was d e f i c i e n t I n r e a d i n g s k i l l s . , as t h e
I n v e s t i g a t o r was c o n c e r n e d t h a t no s i t u a t i o n d e v e l o p i n
w h ic h t h e y o u n g e r c h i l d was more c a p a b l e I n r e a d i n g t h a n
h i s t u t o r . As s t a t e d by Bond a n d T i n k e r (1957)*
The d i s a b l e d r e a d e r f r e q u e n t l y f e e l s i n s e c u r e and
d e f e a t e d I n s c h o o l . Any r e m e d i a l p r o g ra m d e s i g n e d
t o t r e a t r e a d i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s m u st make t h e c h i l d
f e e l h i s s u c c e s s fro m t h e s t a r t . I t m ust a l s o t a k e
I n t o a c c o u n t t h e c h i l d ’s s e n s e o f p e r s o n a l w o r t h .
(p . 215)
I t seem s l o g i c a l t o assu m e t h a t t h e t u t o r w o u ld f a i l t o
a c h i e v e a s e n s e o f s u c c e s s I f t h e t u t e e w ere m ore c a p a b l e
i n r e a d i n g t h e n h e .
S o c io e c o n o m ic F a c t o r s
The s o c io e c o n o m ic l e v e l o f t h i s i n n e r - c i t y n e i g h
b o rh o o d was c o n s i d e r e d q u i t e lo w . H ow ever, a s a l l f i f t h
an d s i x t h g r a d e r s fro m t h e p a i r e d s c h o o l I n t h e n e i g h b o r
h o o d w i t h a h i g h s o c io e c o n o m ic l e v e l w e re b u s s e d i n t o t h e
sc h o o l., t h e r e s u l t i n g p o p u l a t i o n was a c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e
tw o . As i t seem ed a r t i f i c i a l t o t r y , i n any way, t o a v e r
a g e t h e s t a t i s t i c s o b t a i n e d fro m t h e c e n s u s t r a c t i n f o r m a
t i o n , t h e d a t a a r e r e p o r t e d s e p a r a t e l y ( s e e A p p e n d ix C ).
As was s t a t e d e a r l i e r , i t I s n o t u n u s u a l f o r t h e
72
num ber o f p u p i l s i n r e m e d i a l r e a d i n g c l a s s e s t o be u n b a l
anced,, w i t h t h e l a r g e r p e r c e n t a g e b e i n g d raw n fro m t h e lower*
s o c io e c o n o m ic l e v e l . I n b o t h t h e c o n t r o l g ro u p an d t h e
p i l o t r e s e a r c h group,, t h i s p r o v e d t o be t r u e . The c o n t r o l
g r o u p 's p e r c e n t a g e was 91 p e r c e n t o r 22 o f 24 p u p i l s . , w h i l e
t h e r e s e a r c h g r o u p 's p e r c e n t a g e fro m t h e lo w e r s o c i o e c o
nom ic l e v e l was 86 p e r c e n t o r 25? o f 29. I t d i d n o t a p p e a r
t h a t t h e two g r o u p s w e re d i s s i m i l a r eno u g h t o s i g n i f i c a n t l y
a f f e c t t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e s t u d y .
P r o c e d u r e s F o llo w e d
w i t h T e ach ers"
I n i t i a l l y , t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r met w i t h a l l la n g u a g e
a r t s t e a c h e r s o f f i f t h - and s i x t h - g r a d e p u p i l s . The p r o j
e c t was e x p l a i n e d t o t h e f a c u l t y and t h e y w e re a s k e d t o
c o o p e r a t e b y a s s i s t i n g i n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f p u p i l s and
r e l e a s i n g p u p i l s f o r a t u t o r i n g s e s s i o n e a c h d a y . No o t h e r
f o r m a l m e e t i n g was c o n d u c t e d d u r i n g t h e p i l o t s t u d y . I n
f o r m a l c o n t a c t w as m a i n t a i n e d , h o w e v e r, a s t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r
was i n t h e s c h o o l e a c h d a y . The f a c u l t y was s u p p o r t i v e and
no d i f f i c u l t i e s w e re e n c o u n t e r e d i n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f p u
p i l s f o r t h e p ro g ra m o r s e c u r i n g t h e i r r e l e a s e fro m c l a s s .
T e s t i n g I n s t r u m e n t s
The i n v e s t i g a t o r a d m i n i s t e r e d t h e f o l l o w i n g t e s t s
t o e a c h p u p i l I n t h e p i l o t r e s e a r c h g ro u p a n d t h e c o n t r o l
g r o u p : ( l ) t h e S l o s s o n I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s t , (2 ) t h e G ilm o re
73
O r a l R e a d in g T e st., Form s C and D, an d (3 ) t h e I F e e l . . .
. . . Me F e e l S e l l C o n c e p t A p p r a i s a l . I n a d d i t i o n ., t h e
Ransom S ounds an d Form s o f E n g l i s h ^ L e v e l I , was a d m i n i s
t e r e d i n g r o u p s o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 15 p u p i l s p e r t e s t i n g
s e s s i o n .
I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s t
The S l o s s o n I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s t (S IT ) was u s e d t o
m e a s u re I n t e l l i g e n c e o f a l l s u b j e c t s . T h is i s an I n d i v i d
u a l i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t an d r e q u i r e s v e r b a l a n s w e rs t o i t e m s
r e a d by t h e e x a m i n e r . I t i s e s p e c i a l l y u s e f u l b e c a u s e o n l y
5 t o 20 m i n u t e s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t i m e i s r e q u i r e d . The S l o s
s o n was c o n s t r u c t e d by a d a p t i n g i t e m s fro m t h e R e v i s e d
S t a n f o r d - B i n e t and t h e B i n e t was u s e d as a c r i t e r i o n f o r
e s t a b l i s h i n g c o n c u r r e n t v a l i d i t y . S l o s s o n (1 9 7 1 ) r e p o r t e d
a c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t b e tw e e n t h e t e s t s w h ic h r a n g e s
fro m .9 0 t h r o u g h .9 8 f o r s u b j e c t s r a n g i n g i n ag e f ro m 4 t o
1 8 .
W h ile H i m e l s t e i n ( i n B u r o s , 1972) q u e s t i o n e d t h e
r e p o r t s o f v a l i d i t y s t u d i e s ,, s t a t i n g t h a t t h e y p r e s e n t a
som ew hat c o n f u s i n g p i c t u r e o f t h e SIT,, h e d e s c r i b e d t h e SIT
a s a v a l u a b l e " q u ic k s c r e e n i n g d e v i c e " (p . 4 2 5 ) . A s t u d y
by A r m s tr o n g and Mooney (1 9 7 1 ) a t t e m p t e d t o d e t e r m i n e I f
s c o r e s o b t a i n e d fro m t h e SIT c o u l d be u s e d w i t h a s much
c o n f i d e n c e a s s c o r e s on t h e S t a n f o r d - B i n e t . Two h u n d r e d
f o u r s t u d e n t s fro m a g e s 6 t o 14 w e re i n c l u d e d i n t h e s a m p le .
74
To a v o i d b i a s t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o c e d u r e s w e re f o l l o w e d :
(1 ) e a c h t e s t was a d m i n i s t e r e d f i r s t an e q u a l
num ber o f t i m e s ;
(2 ) in. h a l f o f t h e c a s e s b o t h # e s t s w e re a d m i n i s
t e r e d by t h e same p e r s o n ; and
(3 ) f o r t h e o t h e r h a l f ; two d i f f e r e n t a d m i n i s t r a
t o r s w e re u s e d . (p . 337)
R e s u l t s o f t h e s t u d y i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e SIT c a n b e u s e d
w i t h as much c o n f i d e n c e as s c o r e s fro m t h e S-B.
H a r r i s an d S i p a y (1 9 7 5 ) f o u n d t h e S lo sso n . t o h a v e
" s u f f i c i e n t a g re e m e n t w i t h t h e R e v i s e d S t a n f o r d B i n e t and
W e c h s le r I n t e l l i g e n c e S c a l e f o r C h i l d r e n t o j u s t i f y i t s u s e
a s a s c r e e n i n g t e s t " (p . 3 2 ) . T h e re f o re ., t h e SIT was c o n
s i d e r e d t o be a n a p p r o p r i a t e i n s t r u m e n t f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e
i n t e l l i g e n c e o f p u p i l s i n t h i s s t u d y .
R e a d in g T e s t
The G ilm o re O r a l R e a d in g T e s t i s an. i n d i v i d u a l
r e a d i n g t e s t w h ic h y i e l d s s c o r e s i n a c c u r a c y an d c o m p re
h e n s i o n . The s u b j e c t r e a d s v a r i o u s p a r a g r a p h s aloud., a l l
o f w h ic h r e l a t e t o a p i c t u r e shown, i n i t i a l l y t o t h e s u b j e c t .
W h ile t h e s u b j e c t r e a d s , t h e e x a m in e r m arks e r r o r s made by
h i m / h e r and f o l l o w i n g t h e r e a d i n g , q u e s t i o n s a r e a s k e d
r e l a t i n g t o t h e p a r a g r a p h s r e a d .
H a r r i s an d S i p a y ( i n B u ro s , 1972) f o u n d t h e G ilm o re
t o be "among t h e b e s t s t a n d a r d i z e d t e s t s o f a c c u r a c y i n o ra ],
r e a d i n g o f m e a n i n g f u l m a t e r i a l now a v a i l a b l e " (p . 7 3 7 ) .
They made t h i s s t a t e m e n t d e s p i t e t h e i r c r i t i c i s m o f some
75
a s p e c t s o f t h e t e s t . The c o m p r e h e n s io n s c o r e i s , o f c o u r s e ,
l e s s d e s i r a b l e t h a n a s c o r e r e s u l t i n g fro m m a t e r i a l r e a d
s i l e n t l y . H ow ever, t h e G ilm o re d o e s h a v e t h e a d v a n t a g e o f
p r o v i d i n g an a c c u r a c y and c o m p r e h e n s io n s c o r e i n a c o m p a r a
t i v e l y s h o r t t i m e . T w enty m i n u t e s i s s u g g e s t e d i n t h e
m a n u a l a s t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n (G ilm o r e ,
1 9 6 8 ) . T h i r t y m i n u t e s i s a m ore a c c u r a t e e s t i m a t e , e s p e
c i a l l y when t e s t i n g i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h a r e a d i n g d i f f i c u l t y .
The G ilm o re was u s e d i n t h e C o o p e r a t i v e R e s e a r c h
P ro g ra m i n F i r s t - G r a d e R e a d in g I n s t r u c t i o n , w h ic h was c o n
d u c t e d by Bond an d D y k s t r a i n 1 9 6 4 -1 9 6 5 ( i n G ilm o re , 1 9 6 8 ).
Some i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s r e p o r t e d f o l l o w i n g t h i s r e s e a r c h
betw een, t h e G ilm o re A c c u r a c y an d o t h e r m e a s u re s w e re :
S t a n f o r d A c h ie v e m e n t T e s t , Form. X . 7 5 - .8 3
P a r a g r a p h M ean in g
G a te s Word P r o n u n c i a t i o n T e s t . 8 I - . 9 O
(P . 27)
The G ilm o re , t h e n , was s e l e c t e d as an a p p r o p r i a t e i n s t r u
m ent i n d e t e r m i n i n g r e a d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t .
S e l f - C o n c e p t T e s t
The I F e e l ............................Me F e e l S e l f C o n c e p t Ap-
p r a i s a l i s a b o o k l e t o f 40 s t a t e m e n t s , a l l o f w h ic h r e l a t e
t o some a s p e c t o f s e l f - c o n c e p t . Each s t a t e m e n t i s p r e
s e n t e d on one p a g e an d i s a c c o m p a n ie d by a p i c t u r e . The
b o o k l e t , w h ich was d e v e l o p e d by Y e a t t s and B e n t l e y ( 1 9 7 0 ) ,
was d e s i g n e d t o r e d u c e t h e c h a n c e o f one se g m e n t o f t h e
p o p u l a t i o n i d e n t i f y i n g w i t h t h e p i c t u r e m ore o r l e s s t h a n
a n o t h e r . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , t h e p i c t u r e s a r e r e d a n d a r e
p r e s e n t e d in a s l i g h t l y a b s t r a c t d e s i g n .
The I F e e l ............................... Me F e e l i s s i m i l a r t o '/ a
L i k e r t s c a l e o r t h e S e m a n tic D i f f e r e n t i a l o r i g i n a t e d by
O sgood. The s u b j e c t r e s p o n d s t o t h e s t a t e m e n t by m a rk in g
one o f f i v e f a c e s d e p i c t i n g d e g r e e s o f f e e l i n g r a n g i n g fro m
v e r y h a p p y t o v e r y s a d . The m id d le f a c e i s n e u t r a l , i n d i
c a t i n g t h a t t h e i t e m e l i c i t s a r e s p o n s e t h a t i s n o t s a d and
n o t h a p p y . S u b j e c t s a r e d i r e c t e d t o m ark t h e way t h e y f e e l
i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e s t a t e m e n t and i t i s s t r e s s e d t h a t t h e r e
a r e no r i g h t o r w rong a n s w e rs ( Y e a t t s & B e n t l e y , 1 9 7 0 ).
I n d i s c u s s i n g a L i k e r t - t y p e i n s t r u m e n t , A le x a n d e r
an d F i l l e r (1 9 7 6 ) n o t e d t h a t "a m a in a d v a n t a g e o f t h i s
t y p e o f s c a l e i s t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c h e c k d e g r e e s o f
f e e l i n g ” (p . 2 3 ) . I n a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e S e m a n tic D i f f e r
e n t i a l , t h e y s t a t e d t h a t " t h i s a s s e s s m e n t t e c h n i q u e may be
u s e d i n p r e - an d p o s t - s i t u a t i o n s and may a l s o b e u s e d t o
co m p are s t u d e n t s w i t h i n a n d / o r b e tw e e n g r o u p s . A t e a c h e r
may e a s i l y d e t e r m i n e how a s p e c t s o f h i s p ro g ra m a r e e v a l u
a t e d and how i n t e n s e l y e a c h i s v i e w e d ” (p . 2 4 ) . I n The
H andbook o f R e s e a r c h on T e a c h i n g , Remmers ( i n Gage, 1963)
s t a t e d t h a t " t h e s e m a n ti c d i f f e r e n t i a l i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e
r i g o r o u s and e x t e n s i v e e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n t h a t i t h a s so f a r
u n d e r g o n e , a p p e a r s t o be a w i d e l y u s e f u l r e s e a r c h i n s t r u
m ent ” ( p . 3 6 2 ) .
77
P h o n ic s T e s t
The Ransom Sounds an d Form s o f E n g l i s h was s e l e c t e d
t o o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e s u b j e c t ' s p h o n i c s s k i l l s .
"The S ounds an d Form s o f E n g lis h ., L e v e l I , c a n b e u s e d t o
i d e n t i f y t h e p h o n i c s n e e d s o f s t u d e n t s i n t h i r d g r a d e and
a t h i g h e r l e v e l s , w hose s k i l l s a t a n a l y z i n g s o u n d s an d
s t r u c t u r e a r e i n c o m p l e t e " (Ransom , 1978.? P- 1 8 0 ) . T h is
t e s t i n v o l v e s a p p l i c a t i o n o f v a r i o u s p h o n i c s s k i l l s an d was
s e l e c t e d by t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r on t h e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e
s u b j e c t s w o u ld h a v e a low l e v e l o f p h o n i c s k n o w le d g e . How
ever., t h e m a j o r i t y o f p u p i l s h a d l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y w i t h t h e
t e s t an d i t was d e c i d e d t h a t a p o s t t e s t w o u ld n o t b e a d
m i n i s t e r e d , a s i t a p p e a r e d a n o t h e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e
t e s t w o u ld h a v e y i e l d e d l i t t l e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r c o m p a r i s o n .
D e s c r i p t i o n o f I n s t r u m e n t D e
s i g n e d by t h e I n v e s t i g a t o r
The i n v e s t i g a t o r was i n t e r e s t e d i n c o n s t r u c t i n g an
i n s t r u m e n t t h a t w o u ld a t t e m p t t o i d e n t i f y p o s i t i v e an d n e g
a t i v e a t t i t u d e s to w a r d r e a d i n g on t h e b a s i s o f o b s e r v a b l e
b e h a v i o r s an d com m ents. T h is i n t e r e s t h a d e v o l v e d t h r o u g h
15 y e a r s o f t e a c h i n g a n d t e s t i n g c h i l d r e n w i t h r e a d i n g d i f
f i c u l t i e s , a c c o m p a n ie d by t h e d e s i r e t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r
o r n o t t h e s e o b s e r v a b l e b e h a v i o r s w o u ld c o r r e l a t e w i t h s e l f -
c o n c e p t o r r e a d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t . The i n s t r u m e n t , a s c o n
s t r u c t e d by t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r ( s e e A p p e n d ix A ), was u t i l i z e d
a t t h e t i m e o f t h e i n i t i a l t e s t i n g . A lth o u g h f u r t h e r
78
e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n may r e s u l t i n a u s e f u l i n s t r u m e n t , f o r t h e
p u r p o s e o f t h i s study., t h e r e was i n s u f f i c i e n t i n f o r m a t i o n
r e c o r d e d f o r c o m p a r is o n p u r p o s e s an d r e s u l t s w e re i n c o n
c l u s i v e .
D a ta C o l l e c t i o n .
I n i t i a l t e s t i n g was c o n d u c t e d d u r i n g t h e f i n a l
w eeks o f F e b r u a r y an d t h e f i r s t week o f M arch 1973- Ap
p r o x i m a t e l y one h o u r was r e q u i r e d t o c o m p l e t e t e s t i n g f o r
one i n d i v i d u a l . I n a d d i t i o n * f i v e s e s s i o n s o f 20 m in u te s
e a c h w ere n e c e s s a r y t o a d m i n i s t e r t h e p h o n i c s t e s t .
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e G ilm o re i n c l u d e d i n i t i a l
t e s t i n g a t l e a s t two g r a d e s b e lo w t h e s u b j e c t ' s a c t u a l
g r a d e le v e l ., a s s u g g e s t e d i n t h e m an u al (G ilm ore., 1968*
p . 4 ) . I f i n f o r m a t i o n was a v a i l a b l e w h ic h i n d i c a t e d t h e
c h i l d r e a d a t an e v e n lo w e r g r a d e l e v e l * t h i s was c o n s i d
e r e d when a d m i n i s t e r i n g t h e t e s t .
The I F e e l .....................................Me F e e l c o n s i s t e d o f one
s t a t e m e n t p e r p a g e f o l l o w e d by t h e r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t t h e
i n d i v i d u a l m ark a f a c e r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e f e e l i n g o f v e r y
happy* a l i t t l e happy* n o t h a p p y / n o t sad*-;> a l i t t l e sad*
and v e r y s a d . Many p u p i l s c o u l d h a v e r e a d t h e s t a t e m e n t s
w i t h o u t d i f f i c u l t y . However* t o a v o i d t h e b i a s t h a t
c o u l d h a v e o c c u r r e d i f some s u b j e c t s c o u l d n o t r e a d t h e
s t a t e m e n t s and f a i l e d t o a s k t o h a v e t h e w ords p r o n o u n c e d
p l u s t h e b i a s r e s u l t i n g fro m some r e a d i n g t h e i r own and
79
some h a v i n g t h e i t e m s r e a d by t h e e x a m in e r , a l l i t e m s w e re
r e a d b y t h e e x a m i n e r . S u b j e c t s w e r e t o l d t h a t t h e y c o u l d
r e a d a l o n g o r n o t , as t h e y c h o s e .
D u r in g t h e l a s t w eek o f May an d t h e f i r s t w eek o f
J u n e 1 9 7 3 j? p o s t t e s t i n g was c o m p l e t e d on a l l p u p i l s i n t h e
p i l o t r e s e a r c h g ro u p an d t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p . T h is i n v o l v e d
t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e G-ilmore O r a l R e a d in g T e s t ,
Form D, an d p o s t t e s t i n g o f t h e I F e e l ............................... Me F e e l
S e l f C o n c e p t A p p r a i s a l , w h ic h r e q u i r e d 30 t o 35 m i n u t e s f o r
e a c h p u p i l .
S e l e c t i o n o f M a t e r i a l s
I n s e l e c t i n g b o o k s , t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r was c a r e f u l t o
c h o o s e t h o s e w h ic h w o u ld b e i n t e r e s t i n g t o t h e t u t o r a s
w e l l a s t h e t u t e e . A c c o r d in g t o H a r r i s and S i p a y (1975).?
The f i r s t s t e p i n i n t r o d u c i n g . . . a c h i l d t o p l e a s
u r a b l e , v o l u n t a r y r e a d i n g i s t o l o c a t e a book t h a t i s
e a s y a n d b r i e f an d w i l l a t t r a c t an d h o l d h i s i n t e r e s t .
F o r t h i s p u r p o s e i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o t r y a b o o k t h a t
h a s many p i c t u r e s , few l i n e s t o a p a g e , a n d c o m p a r a
t i v e l y few p a g e s . The t h i n n e r t h e b o o k , t h e b e t t e r .
(P . 5 2 9 )
To m eet t h i s c r i t e r i o n , t h e m a j o r i t y o f b o o k s p r o v i d e d came
fro m S c h o l a s t i c ’s I n d i v i d u a l i z e d R e a d in g P ro g ram (L y n c h ,
i 9 6 0 ) w h ic h c o n t a i n s p a p e r b a c k b o o k s . P a p e r b a c k s a r e a p
p e a l i n g an d do n o t p r e s e n t a f o r m i d a b l e o b s t a c l e t o t h e
c h i l d who h a s e x p e r i e n c e d f a i l u r e i n r e a d i n g . Cohn and
K e n n e l l y ( 1 9 7 0 ) h a v e s u p p o r t e d t h e i r u s e by s t a t i n g " p a p e r
b a c k s [ h a v e ] p s y c h o l o g i c a l a c c e p t a n c e b y s t u d e n t s a t a l l
80
r e a d i n g l e v e l s " (p . 2 0 1 ) . A s t u d y by Low ery and G r a f f t
( 1 9 6 8 ) i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e e f f e c t s o f p a p e r b a c k s u p o n t h e a t
t i t u d e s o f f o u r t h g r a d e r s and fo u n d t h a t t h o s e u s i n g p a p e r
b a c k s show ed s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e s i n p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e s
and a d e c r e a s e i n n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e s .
A s m a l l num ber o f h u m orous b o o k s w e re i n c l u d e d i n
h a r d b a c k . "Humorous b o o k s u s u a l l y make an e x c e l l e n t s t a r t .
Few c h i l d r e n who c a n r e a d them c a n r e s i s t t h e f u n i n The
C at i n t h e H a t ,, B e n n e tt C e r f ' s Book o f R i d d l e s ., C u r i o u s
G eo rg e o r Mr. P o p p e r s 1 P e n g u i n s " ( H a r r i s & Sipay,, 1975^
p . 5 3 0 ) . A ls o s e l e c t e d was D o l c h 's (1 9 4 4 ) b in g o game w i t h
w o rd s fro m t h e D o lc h B a s i c S i g h t Word L i s t . "The D o lch
B a s ic S i g h t Word L i s t c o n t a i n s 220 s e r v i c e w o rd s t h a t a r e
u s e d o v e r an d o v e r i n a l l t h e r e a d i n g e l e m e n t a r y c h i l d r e n
d o " ( Z i n t z , 1 9 7 0 , p . 1 4 7 ) .
O th e r m a t e r i a l s i n c l u d e d games t o r e i n f o r c e p h o n i c s
s k i l l s fro m t h e L e a r n i n g Games K i t by Lyons an d C a rn a h a n
( P h o n ic s We U s e ., 1 9 6 8 ), p h o n i c s games by D olch„ an d t e a c h e r -
made g am es. T h i s a p p r o a c h t o s k i l l s was c h o s e n b e c a u s e t h e
i n v e s t i g a t o r s t r o n g l y b e l i e v e s t h a t r e i n f o r c e m e n t o c c u r s
m ore r e a d i l y when t h e l e a r n e r i s i n v o l v e d i n a m e a n i n g f u l
b u t f u n a c t i v i t y . "G am e-ty p e a c t i v i t i e s . . . make t h e
r e i n f o r c e m e n t o f . . . s k i l l s m ore i n f o r m a l and p l e a s u r
a b l e " ( W ils o n , 1 9 7 7 , P . 1 7 8 ) .
81
T r a i n i n g o f T u t o r s
T r a i n i n g c o n s i s t e d o f s e v e r a l m e e t i n g s w i t h t h e
t u t o r s i n s m a l l g r o u p s o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 12 p u p i l s e a c h . At
t h i s t i m e t h e m a t e r i a l s w ere i n t r o d u c e d and e x p l a i n e d . A
d a i l y p l a n was s u g g e s t e d w h ic h i n c l u d e d r e a d i n g t o t u t e e s
an d l i s t e n i n g t o t u t e e s read., b o t h o f w h ic h w o uld be f o l
low ed by q u e s t i o n s fro m t h e t u t o r . T u t o r s w ere a s k e d t o
s e l e c t b o o k s a t e a c h s e s s io n , t h a t w o u ld be u s e d t h e f o l l o w
i n g d a y an d t o p r e p a r e by r e a d i n g t h e b o o k s and f o r m u l a t i n g
q u e s t i o n s b e f o r e t h e n e x t s e s s i o n . I t was s u g g e s t e d t h a t
a p o r t i o n o f e a c h d a y be u s e d t o p l a y t h e b in g o game u s i n g
t h e c a r d s w i t h t h e D o lch v o c a b u l a r y . F i n a l l y * t h e t u t o r
an d t u t e e w o u ld u s e a game t o r e i n f o r c e p h o n i c s s k i l l s .
T u t o r s w e re e n c o u r a g e d t o u s e p o s i t i v e v e r b a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t
an d n e g a t i v e com m ents w e re d i s c o u r a g e d .
O t h e r P r o c e d u r e s U sed
t o P r e p a r e T u t o r s
Each t u t o r was p r o v i d e d w i t h a p o c k e t f o l d e r t o
h o l d h i s t e a c h i n g m a t e r i a l s . T h is was d one t o e n a b l e t u
t o r s t o k e e p t h e i r m a t e r i a l s o r g a n i z e d a s w e l l as t o g i v e
them a f e e l i n g o f p r e s t i g e . I n a d d i t i o n * i t was b e l i e v e d
t h a t t h i s w o u ld s e r v e t o e n c o u r a g e t h e t u t o r s t o t a k e t h e
b o o k s o u t an d r e a d them* p e r h a p s e v e n t o t a k e them home*
a s t h e f o l d e r w o u ld l e n d s u p p o r t t o t h e i r c laim * i f asked*
t h a t t h e y w e re p r e p a r i n g a l e s s o n i n o r d e r t o t e a c h i t t o
82
a y o u n g e r c h i l d . "S om etim es o l d e r c h i l d r e n a r e r e l u c t a n t
t o t a k e b o o k s home b e c a u s e t h e y a r e a f r a i d t h a t o t h e r c h i l
d r e n w i l l n o t i c e t h e ’b a b y b o o k s ’ and make f u n o f th em "
( H a r r i s & Sipay,, 1975^ p . 5 3 0 ) . B e c a u s e t h i s f e e l i n g i s
so p r e v a l e n t i n o l d e r y o u n g s t e r s w i t h r e a d i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s ,
t h e s e p r e c a u t i o n s w e re t a k e n i n o r d e r t o a v o i d a n y s u c h
a d v e r s e r e a c t i o n s f o r t h e t u t o r s .
T u t o r s w e re a l s o g i v e n an e n v e l o p e w h ic h c o n t a i n e d
s m a l l s q u a r e s , o f c o n s t r u c t i o n p a p e r t o u s e i n p l a y i n g B in g o .
A c o n s t a n t s u p p l y o f t h e s e m a r k e r s was p r o v i d e d t o a v o id
a n y l o s s o f t i m e w h ic h w o u ld r e s u l t i f t h e y w e re m i s p l a c e d
o r l o s t . T h is w a s, i n f a c t , t h e p r e v a i l i n g a t t i t u d e f o r
a l l m a t e r i a l s t h r o u g h o u t t h e s t u d y . I f m a t e r i a l s w e re m i s
p l a c e d o r l o s t , t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r q u i c k l y r e p l a c e d th e m .
T u t o r / T u t e e P a i r i n g
P a i r i n g was done i n an i n f o r m a l m an n er w i t h no e f
f o r t made t o p a i r l i k e s e x e s , a l t h o u g h m ost p a i r s w e re com
p o s e d o f a t u t o r an d t u t e e o f t h e same s e x . R e l a t i v e s w ere
n o t p a i r e d w i t h e a c h o t h e r t o e l i m i n a t e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f
a fo rm o f s i b l i n g r i v a l r y e n t e r i n g i n t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p .
T h i s was a l s o d o n e i n o r d e r t o avoid, an y p a t e r n a l i s m on t h e
p a r t o f t h e t u t o r .
83
R e s e a r c h P r o c e d u r e s
T h o se c h o s e n f o r t h e r e s e a r c h g ro u p t u t o r e d s e c o n d -
g r a d e c h i l d r e n on a o n e - t o - o n e b a s i s 20 m i n u t e s p e r day.,
e v e r y day f o r s i x w e e k s . The t u t o r i n g t o o k p l a c e i n a
l a r g e c a f e t e r i a w h ich was a d e q u a t e t o a l l o w e a c h t u t o r /
t u t e e p a i r a p r i v a t e s p a c e t o t h e m s e l v e s . The i n v e s t i g a t o r
y
was p r e s e n t b u t d i d n o t g i v e a s s i s t a n c e d u r i n g t h e t u t o r i n g
s e s s i o n s . However., g u i d a n c e was p r o v i d e d i n an i n f o r m a l
m an n er p r i o r t o t h e s e s s i o n s e a c h day* b e f o r e t h e a r r i v a l
o f t h e t u t e e s .
Summary o f t h e P i l o t S tu d y
A lth o u g h t u t o r s w e re t r a i n e d b e f o r e t h e i n i t i a l
s e s s i o n s w i t h t h e y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n ., i t a p p e a r e d t h a t m ore
i n t e n s i v e t r a i n i n g w o u ld b e b e n e f i c i a l p r i o r t o im p l e m e n t a
t i o n o f t h e t r e a t m e n t . Some t u t o r s g a v e i n s t r u c t i o n i n
s p e l l i n g * u s i n g w ords w h ic h w e re i n a p p r o p r i a t e f o r s e c o n d -
y e a r c h i l d r e n . T h e se t u t o r s a l s o a s k e d t u t e e s t o w r i t e t h e
w o r d s ; i n a d d i t i o n * t h e y o c c a s i o n a l l y t a u g h t m a t h e m a t i c s
s k i l l s . S uch a c t i v i t i e s w e re n o t o n l y c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e ;
t h e y w e re n o t w i t h i n t h e s c o p e o f t h e r e s e a r c h d e s i g n e s
t a b l i s h e d by t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r . I t was d e c id e d * t h e r e f o r e *
t h a t a p r e - t r a i n i n g p e r i o d i n v o l v i n g m ore s p e c i f i c g u i d e
l i n e s was i n d i c a t e d when p l a n n i n g f o r t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
p r o g r a m . O t h e r c h a n g e s r e s u l t i n g fro m t h e p i l o t s tu d y * a s
p r e v i o u s l y n o te d * i n c l u d e d e l i m i n a t i o n o f r e v i e w i n g s t a n d
84
a r d i z e d t e s t s c o r e s i n t h e p e r m a n e n t r e c o r d s ., e l i m i n a t i o n
o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t d e v i s e d by t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r , and t h e u s e
o f a d i f f e r e n t i n s t r u m e n t t o t e s t k n o w le d g e o f p h o n i c s .
D e s ig n o f t h e E x p e r i m e n t a l G roup
As p r e v i o u s l y p l a n n e d , an e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y was
c o n t i n u e d d u r i n g t h e s p r i n g o f 1 9 7 4 . T h i s p o r t i o n o f t h e
c h a p t e r w i l l d e s c r i b e t h e p r o c e d u r e s u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y .
The Sam ple
W ith t h e c o o p e r a t i o n o f t h e D i r e c t o r o f I n s t r u c t i o n
o f t h e L i t t l e Rock P u b l i c S c h o o ls i n L i t t l e R ock, A r k a n s a s ,
a s c h o o l was s e l e c t e d fro m w h ic h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g ro u p was
d ra w n . The t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f e l e m e n t a r y p u p i l s I n t h e
d i s t r i c t d u r i n g t h e s p r i n g o f 1974 was e s t i m a t e d t o b e
9 ) 1 3 1 • The s h a r p d r o p i n o v e r a l l e l e m e n t a r y p o p u l a t i o n was
due t o t h e f a c t t h a t a l l s i x t h g r a d e s w e re rem o v ed an d
p l a c e d I n m i d d l e s c h o o l s . The r e o r g a n i z a t i o n s t r u c t u r e
h a d , a t t h i s p o i n t , u n d e r g o n e a d d i t i o n a l c h a n g e s , r e s u l t i n g
i n s e p a r a t e p r i m a r y , i n t e r m e d i a t e , an d m id d le s c h o o l s .
T h e r e f o r e , few s c h o o l s r e m a in e d w i t h g r a d e s one t h r o u g h
f i v e i n t a c t an d f e w e r p u p i l s w e re e n r o l l e d a t e a c h g r a d e
l e v e l f o r t h o s e s c h o o l s r e t a i n i n g t h e n e i g h b o r h o o d c o n c e p t .
O t h e r f a c t o r s I n f l u e n c i n g s e l e c t i o n w ere i n v o l v e d ,
i n c l u d i n g r e s e a r c h i n p r o g r e s s a t s e v e r a l p o t e n t i a l s i t e s .
As g r a d e s i x was no l o n g e r a v a i l a b l e , I t was d e c i d e d t h a t
85
f o u r t h and f i f t h g r a d e s w o u ld b e u s e d f o r t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
g r o u p . The t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f t h i s g ro u p was 4 ^ 1 6 5 p u p i l s .
The f i n a l s a m p le was d raw n fro m an i n n e r - c i t y s c h o o l o f t h e
s e c o n d l a r g e s t s c h o o l d i s t r i c t i n A r k a n s a s . The s c h o o l was
on e o f f o u r i n t h e d i s t r i c t w h ic h was com posed o f g r a d e s
one t h r o u g h f i v e .
S e l e c t i o n o f S u b j e c t s
F o l l o w i n g t h e f i n a l s e l e c t i o n o f t h e sc h o o l., t e a c h
e r s who t a u g h t t h e f o u r t h and f i f t h y e a r l a n g u a g e a r t s
c l a s s e s w e re a s k e d t o s u g g e s t a l l f o u r t h an d f i f t h y e a r
p u p i l s who t h e y c o n s i d e r e d t o b e r e a d i n g a t l e a s t one y e a r
b e lo w t h e i r a c t u a l g r a d e l e v e l an d who w e re n o t e n r o l l e d i n
a r e m e d i a l r e a d i n g c l a s s . A ls o e x c l u d e d w e re t h o s e p u p i l s
r e c e i v i n g a d d i t i o n a l h e l p i n r e a d i n g fro m an a d u l t t u t o r .
T w e n t y - n i n e w e re r e f e r r e d , w i t h f o u r b e i n g d r o p p e d b e c a u s e
t h e i r s c o r e s p l a c e d th em a t g r a d e l e v e l o r a b o v e . A num ber
o f 25 was i d e n t i f i e d on t h e b a s i s o f i n d i v i d u a l t e s t i n g and
i n c l u d e d i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p . I t was a l s o d e c i d e d
t h a t t h e i n i t i a l c o n t r o l g ro u p w o u ld b e u s e d a s a c o n t r o l
f o r t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p .
S e l e c t i o n o f T u t e e s
T u t e e s w e re f i r s t - an d s e c o n d - g r a d e c h i l d r e n i d e n
t i f i e d by t h e i r t e a c h e r s a s b e i n g d e f i c i e n t i n r e a d i n g .
Again., t h i s c r i t e r i o n f o r s e l e c t i o n o f t u t e e s was em pha
s i z e d i n o r d e r t o p r o t e c t t h e ego o f t h e t u t o r .
86
S o c io e c o n o m ic F a c t o r s
The e x p e r i m e n t a l s c h o o l was a l s o i n t h e i n n e r c i t y *
h u t c e n s u s t r a c t i n f o r m a t i o n s u g g e s t s t h a t r e s i d e n t s a r e a t
a s l i g h t l y h i g h e r s o c io e c o n o m ic l e v e l t h a n t h o s e who r e s i d e
i n t h e a t t e n d a n c e a r e a o f t h e c o n t r o l s c h o o l . H ow ever, t h e
d i s p a r i t y was n o t c o n s i d e r e d t o be o f en o u g h m a g n itu d e t o
a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e s t u d y . One o t h e r f a c
t o r i n v o l v e d was t h e i n c l u s i o n o f tw o c h i l d r e n i n t h e c o n
t r o l g ro u p who l i v e d i n t h e p a i r e d s c h o o l Ts a t t e n d a n c e area,,
w h ic h h ad a much h i g h e r s o c io e c o n o m ic l e v e l . However., two
c h i l d r e n seem ed t o o few t o c a u s e an y s e r i o u s c o n c e r n a b o u t
t h e i r a f f e c t on t h e ou tco m e o f t h e s t u d y .
P r o c e d u r e s F o llo w e d
w i t h T e a c h e r s
I n i t i a l l y , t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r met w i t h t h e f o u r t h -
and f i f t h - y e a r t e a c h e r s as a g r o u p * e x p l a i n e d t h e p ro g ra m ,
and a s k e d f o r t h e i r s u p p o r t i n i d e n t i f y i n g p u p i l s and r e
l e a s i n g th em t o a t t e n d t h e d a i l y t u t o r i n g s e s s i o n s . T e a c h
e r s w ere c a u t i o n e d n o t t o a l l u d e t o t h e p r o g r a m as one d e
s i g n e d t o im p ro v e t h e r e a d i n g o f t h e t u t o r s . They w ere
e n c o u r a g e d t o a l l o w p u p i l s t i m e t o r e a d b o o k s i n t h e i r
f o l d e r s and p l a n t h e i r s e s s i o n s w i t h t u t e e s . No o t h e r
g ro u p m e e t i n g s w e re c a l l e d i n v o l v i n g t h e f a c u l t y . H ow ever,
i n f o r m a l c o n t a c t was m a i n t a i n e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e s t u d y and
i n f o r m a t i o n was s h a r e d i n c l u d i n g t e s t s c o r e s .
87
T e s t i n g I n s t r u m e n t s - -
P h o n ic s T e s t
The i n v e s t i g a t o r a d m i n i s t e r e d t h e f o l l o w i n g t e s t s
t o e a c h p u p i l i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s e a r c h g r o u p : ( l ) The
S l o s s o n I n t e l l i g e n c e T e st,, (2 ) t h e G ilm o re O r a l R e a d in g
T e s t , Form s C a n d D, (3 ) t h e I F e e l ............................Me F e e l
S e l f C o n c e p t A p p r a i s a l , an d s e l e c t e d p o r t i o n s o f t h e p h o n ic s
s u b t e s t o f t h e S p a c h e D i a g n o s t i c R e a d in g S c a l e s . As a l l o f
t h e s e a r e t h e same t e s t s t h a t w e re u s e d ' i n t h e p i l o t s t u d y ,
w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e p h o n i c s t e s t , o n l y t h a t i n s t r u
m ent w i l l b e d e s c r i b e d b e lo w .
S e l e c t e d p o r t i o n s o f t h e S p a c h e D i a g n o s t i c S c a l e s
P h o n i c s T e s t w e re u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e p h o n i c s k n o w le d g e
o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p . B a r r (1 9 7 2 ) s t a t e d t h a t " t h e
s c a l e s a r e u s e f u l a s an i n f o r m a l d i a g n o s t i c I n s t r u m e n t
t h r o u g h w h ic h a t e a c h e r o r c l i n i c i a n can. a c q u i r e i n a s h o r t
t i m e c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a c h i l d ’s l a n g u a g e and
r e a d i n g s k i l l d e v e lo p m e n t" ( i n B u r o s , 1 9 7 2 , p . 7 1 8 ) . The
s u b t e s t s chosen, i n c l u d e d t h o s e y i e l d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t
t h e c h i l d ’s k n o w le d g e o f i n i t i a l d i g r a p h s , i n i t i a l b l e n d s ,
s h o r t v o w e l s , a n d lo n g v o w e ls . The t e s t i s c o n s t r u c t e d t o
r e q u i r e t h e s u b j e c t t o show a b i l i t y t o a p p l y c e r t a i n , p h o n
i c s s k i l l s . F o r e x a m p le , i n t e s t i n g f o r k n o w le d g e o f s h o r t
v o w el s o u n d s , t h e s u b j e c t m ust r e a d a n o n s e n s e w o rd a n d
g i v e t h e c o r r e c t v ow el s o u n d a s i n t h e n o n s e n s e w ord " c l a t . '
88
T h e se f o u r s u b t e s t s w e re s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e t h e y w e re r e l a t e d
t o s k i l l s t h a t w o u ld b e s t r e s s e d i n m a t e r i a l s t h e t u t o r s
w o u ld be u s i n g w i t h t h e i r t u t e e s .
D a ta C o l l e c t i o n
I n i t i a l t e s t i n g was c o n d u c t e d d u r i n g t h e f i n a l weeks
o f F e b r u a r y an d t h e f i r s t week o f M arch 1 9 7 4 . A p p r o x i m a te ly
75 m in u te s was n e e d e d t o c o m p le te a l l t e s t s . T e s t i n g p r o
c e d u r e s u s e d w e re i d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e em p lo y e d f o r t h e p i l o t
stu d y ,, w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e p h o n i c s t e s t , , w h ic h was
a d m i n i s t e r e d t o e a c h c h i l d i n d i v i d u a l l y .
D u r in g t h e f i n a l w eeks o f May a n d t h e f i r s t week o f
J u n e 1974; p o s t t e s t i n g was c o m p le te d on a l l e x p e r i m e n t a l
p u p i l s . One t u t o r h a d moved t h e F r i d a y b e f o r e t e s t i n g
b e g a n , w h ic h r e d u c e d t h e t o t a l num ber t o 24. F i n a l t e s t i n g
i n c l u d e d t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e G ilm o re O r a l R e a d in g
T est,, Form D, t h e I F e e l ............................... Me F e e l S e l f C o n c e p t
A p p r a is a l,, and s e l e c t e d p o r t i o n s o f t h e p h o n i c s s u b t e s t o f
t h e S p a c h e D i a g n o s t i c R e a d in g S c a l e s . Time r e q u i r e d f o r
t h e f i n a l t e s t i n g was a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 0 m i n u t e s p e r p u p i l .
A lth o u g h no s t a t i s t i c a l t r e a t m e n t was i n t e n d e d ; e a c h t u t o r
fro m t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g ro u p was a l s o i n t e r v i e w e d b r i e f l y
r e g a r d i n g t h e t u t o r i n g e x p e r i e n c e . The i n v e s t i g a t o r a s k e d
e a c h t u t o r t o r e l a t e h i s own f e e l i n g s a n d / o r i d e a s a b o u t
t h e t u t o r i n g .
89
S e l e c t i o n o f M a t e r i a l s
The m a t e r i a l s u s e d w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g ro u p w e re
i d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e u s e d i n t h e p i l o t s t u d y . T h e se i n c l u d e d
p a p e r b a c k s fro m S c h o l a s t i c ’s I n d i v i d u a l i z e d R e a d in g P ro g ram
(Lynch„ I960),, a s m a l l num ber o f h u m o ro u s h a r d b a c k books,,
D o l c h ’s (1 9 4 4 ) b i n g o game u s i n g t h e D o lc h B a s i c S i g h t Word
L is t., an d games d e s i g n e d t o r e i n f o r c e t h e f o l l o w i n g p h o n i c s
s k i l l s : i n i t i a l d ig r a p h s ,, i n i t i a l b l e n d s „ an d s h o r t an d
lo n g vow el s o u n d s . The p h o n i c s r e i n f o r c e m e n t was a l s o a c
c o m p l i s h e d t h r o u g h games fro m Lyons a n d C a r n a h a n ’s L e a r n i n g
Games K i t ( P h o n ic s We U s e , 1 9 6 8 ), v a r i o u s D o lch gam es, and
t e a c h e r - m a d e gam es.
T r a i n i n g o f T u t o r s
T r a i n i n g was p r o v i d e d f o r t h e t u t o r s i n s m a l l
g r o u p s o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10 p u p i l s e a c h . T h e ' i n v e s t i g a t o r
b e g a n by e x p l a i n i n g t o t h e f o u r t h and f i f t h g r a d e s t h a t
t h e y w o u ld becom e t u t o r s o f f i r s t and s e c o n d g r a d e r s who
w e re e x p e r i e n c i n g some d i f f i c u l t y w i t h r e a d i n g . E m p h a sis
was p l a c e d on t h e v a l u e o f t h e i r r o l e i n h e l p i n g y o u n g e r
c h i l d r e n . M eth o d s t o a c c o m p l i s h t h i s p u r p o s e w e re d i s
c u s s e d an d t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r i n t r o d u c e d and e x p l a i n e d t h e
m a t e r i a l s t h a t w o u ld be made a v a i l a b l e . Time was a l l o w e d
f o r p u p i l s t o f a m i l i a r i z e t h e m s e l v e s w i t h t h e m a t e r i a l s .
A d a i l y p l a n was t h e n s u g g e s t e d w h ic h i n c l u d e d r e a d i n g t o
t u t e e s an d l i s t e n i n g t o t u t e e s r e a d , b o t h o f w h ic h w o u ld be
f o l l o w e d by q u e s t i o n s fro m t h e t u t o r . T h is a s p e c t o f t h e
t u t o r i n g was s t r e s s e d , as t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r was e s p e c i a l l y
i n t e r e s t e d i n im p ro v e m e n t t h r o u g h a c t u a l r e a d i n g and d i s
c u s s i o n o f s t o r i e s i n o r d e r t o im p ro v e c o m p r e h e n s io n an d
r e a d i n g a b i l i t y . T u t o r s w e re a s k e d n o t t o n e g l e c t t h i s
a s p e c t o f t h e t u t o r i n g e a c h d a y , e v e n i f t h e r e was n o t
a lw a y s t i m e t o c o m p le te a l l p l a n s .
C a re was t a k e n a t t h i s t i m e a l s o t o e m p h a s iz e t h a t
t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s w o u ld p r o v i d e t h e m ost h e l p f o r t h e y o u n g e r
c h i l d r e n i n t h e s m a l l am ount o f tim e a l l o t t e d . I n a d d i t i o n ,
t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r e x p l a i n e d why s u c h a c t i v i t i e s as s p e l l i n g ,
w r i t i n g , a n d m a t h e m a t i c s s h o u l d n o t be i n c l u d e d i n t h e t u
t o r i n g . As i n t h e p i l o t s t u d y , t u t o r s w e re a s k e d t o s e l e c t
b o o k s a t t h e c l o s e o f e a c h s e s s i o n t o e n a b l e them t o r e a d ,
p r e p a r e q u e s t i o n s , an d p l a n f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g d a y .
O t h e r a c t i v i t i e s s u g g e s t e d w e re t h e b in g o games
u s i n g t h e D o lch w o rd s a n d r e i n f o r c e m e n t o f p h o n i c s s k i l l s
t h r o u g h gam es. S p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n was g i v e n t o t h e i m p o r
t a n c e o f u s i n g p o s i t i v e r e i n f o r c e m e n t w i t h t u t e e s .
O t h e r P r o c e d u r e s U sed
t o P r e p a r e 'T u to rs
T u t o r s w e re a g a i n g i v e n a f o l d e r f o r k e e p i n g t h e i r
m a t e r i a l s o r g a n i z e d , w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n a l i n t e n t o f g i v i n g
th e m a f e e l i n g o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y an d s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e . They
a l s o c a r r i e d an e n v e l o p e o f c o n s t r u c t i o n p a p e r m a r k e r s i n
t h e i r f o l d e r s .
91
T u t o r / T u t e e P a i r i n g
As i n t h e p i l o t stu d y ,, p a i r i n g was d o n e i n f o r m a l l y
w i t h no a t t e m p t t o c o n t r o l t h e p r o c e s s e x c e p t t h a t r e l a
t i v e s w e re n o t p a i r e d . A g a in , o n l y a s m a l l num ber o f t h e
p a i r s w e re b o y / g i r l c o m b i n a t i o n s .
R e s e a r c h P r o c e d u r e s - -
A t t e n d a n c e
The e x p e r i m e n t a l g ro u p c o n s i s t i n g o f 25 i n t e r m e d i
a t e p u p i l s t u t o r e d f i r s t and s e c o n d g r a d e r s on a o n e - t o - o n e
b a s i s 20 m i n u t e s p e r d a y , e a c h d a y f o r a p e r i o d o f 10 w e e k s .
T u t o r i n g s e s s i o n s w e re h e l d i n a l a r g e c a f e t e r i a w h ic h a l
lo w e d room f o r e a c h t u t o r / t u t e e p a i r t o h a v e a p r i v a t e
s p a c e , f a r en o u g h rem o v ed fro m o t h e r p a i r s t o p r e v e n t i n
t e r f e r e n c e w i t h e a c h o t h e r . The i n v e s t i g a t o r was p r e s e n t
a t a l l t i m e s , b u t d i d n o t g i v e a s s i s t a n c e d u r i n g t h e s e s
s i o n . H ow ever, g u i d a n c e was g i v e n on an i n f o r m a l b a s i s ,
c o n s i s t i n g l a r g e l y o f a s s i s t a n c e i n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f b o o k s
an d m a t e r i a l s .
A t t e n d a n c e r e c o r d s w e re n o t a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e c o n
t r o l g r o u p . H o w ev er, a t t e n d a n c e r e c o r d s w e re m a i n t a i n e d
f o r t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p . F o r t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e t u t o r s ,
a b s e n c e s w e re i n f r e q u e n t o r n o n e x i s t e n t , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n
o f tw o g i r l s who w e re i l l f o r a lm o s t one w eek d u r i n g t h e
m id d le o f A p r i l .
92
S c o r i n g P r o c e d u r e s
A l l s c o r i n g was c o m p le te d b y t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r .
S c o r i n g t i m e r e q u i r e d was a p p r o x i m a t e l y 35 m i n u t e s f o r e a c h
s u b j e c t i n t h e p i l o t g r o u p , t h e c o n t r o l group,, a n d t h e e x
p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p . F o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f c o m p u te r a n a l y s i s ,
t h e G ilm o re O r a l R e a d in g T e s t s c o r e s w ere t r a n s l a t e d i n t o
raw s c o r e s . G rad e l e v e l e q u i v a l e n c i e s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d ,
h o w e v e r, i n A p p e n d ix B.
I t was d e c i d e d t o i d e n t i f y f o u r a r e a s o f s e l f -
c o n c e p t on t h e I F e e l Me F e e l i n s t r u m e n t .
1. I te m s r e l a t e d t o r e a d i n g and t h e r e a d i n g p r o c e s s .
2. A l l o t h e r i t e m s more r e l a t e d t o s c h o o l t h a n t o
a n y o t h e r a r e a .
3 . A l l i t e m s t h a t r e l a t e m ost t o a f e e l i n g o f c o n
f i d e n c e i n o n e s e l f .
4 . A l l i t e m s t h a t r e l a t e t o t h e c h i l d ' s s e l f - i m a g e .
To a v o i d b i a s , a p a n e l o f p e e r s was a s k e d t o ju d g e t h e a p
p r o p r i a t e c a t e g o r y f o r e a c h i t e m . T h r e e c o l l e a g u e s on t h e
f a c u l t y o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f A r k a n s a s a t L i t t l e Rock c a t e
g o r i z e d t h e i t e m s , a s d i d t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r . Any i t e m t h a t
a p p e a r e d u n d e r one c a t e g o r y a t l e a s t t h r e e t i m e s was c o n
s i d e r e d t o be a p p r o p r i a t e l y p l a c e d i n t h a t s u b a r e a o f t h e
t e s t . T h e re was a g re e m e n t on. a l l b u t f o u r i t e m s , w h ic h
w e re t h e n i n c l u d e d i n t h e t o t a l s e l f - c o n c e p t s c o r e . N um er
i c a l v a l u e s w e re a s s i g n e d t o e a c h a n s w e r, w i t h t h e m ost
p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e r e c e i v i n g f i v e p o i n t s and t h e m ost n e g a
t i v e r e s p o n s e r e c e i v i n g one p o i n t .
93
Summary o f t h e M e th o d o lo g y
T h i s c h a p t e r h a s p r o v i d e d a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p i l o t
s t u d y and t h e r e s e a r c h d e s i g n . I n c l u d e d h a s b e e n a d e
s c r i p t i o n o f t h e (a ) sa m p le s e l e c t i o n . , (b ) t e s t i n g i n s t r u
m ents., ( c ) c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e d ata., and (d ) p r o c e d u r e s u s e d
w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s .
A p r e s e n t a t i o n , o f t h e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s and f i n d
i n g s f o r a l l g r o u p s i s g i v e n i n C h a p t e r IV.
CHAPTER IV
REPORT AND INTERPRETATION OF THE FINDINGS
I n t r o d u c t i o n
C h a p t e r IV i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h r e p o r t i n g t h e s t a t i s
t i c a l p r o c e d u r e s u s e d i n a n a l y z i n g t h e d a t a and p r e s e n t i n g
t h e f i n d i n g s an d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h o s e f i n d i n g s .
D e s c r i p t i v e D a ta
A's was n o t e d i n C h a p t e r I I I , a p i l o t s t u d y was c o n
d u c t e d p r i o r t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s e a r c h . The s t a t i s t i c a l
a n a l y s i s o f t h e d a t a fro m t h e p i l o t s t u d y w i l l be i n c l u d e d
i n t h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f f i n d i n g s .
Means and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s w e re c a l c u l a t e d f o r
t h e f o l l o w i n g d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s .
1. G ilm o re "Oral R e a d in g T e s t (C o m p re h e n sio n s u b -
t e s t )
2. G ilm o re O r a l R e a d in g T e s t ( A c c u ra c y s u b t e s t )
3 . I F e e l Me F e e l S e l f C o n c e p t Ap
p r a i s a l ( a r e a r e l a t e d t o r e a d i n g an d t h e r e a d
i n g p r o c e s s )
4 . I F e e l .................................Me F e e l S e l f C o n c e p t Ap
p r a i s a l ( a l l o t h e r ite m s r e l a t e d more t o s c h o o l
t h a n a n y o t h e r a r e a )
5. I F e e l .................................Me F e e l S e l f C o n c e p t Ap
p r a i s a l ( a l l i t e m s r e l a t e d t o t h e c h i l d ' s f e e l
i n g o f s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e )
6 . I F e e l .................................Me F e e l S e l f C o n c e p t Ap
p r a i s a l ( a l l a r e a s r e l a t e d t o s e l f - i m a g e )
94
95
7 . I F e e l ............................... Me F e e l S e l f C o n c e p t Ap
p r a i s a l ( t o t a l i t e m s )
F o r t h e p u r p o s e o f r e p o r t i n g s t a t i s t i c a l i n f o r m a t i o r
i n t a b l e s , t h e f i v e a r e a s o f t h e I F e e l ............................... Me F e e l
w i l l be d e s i g n a t e d a s SC-1,, S C -II., S C - I I I „ SC-IV., and SC-T„
w i t h SC d e n o t i n g s e l f - c o n c e p t . Mean s c o r e s a n d s t a n d a r d
d e v i a t i o n s f o r e a c h g ro u p on t h e a c c u r a c y and c o m p r e h e n s io n
s u b t e s t s o f t h e G ilm o re O r a l R e a d in g T e s t a r e p r e s e n t e d i n
T a b le 1.
Table 1
Means and Standard D ev iatio n s:
Gilmore O ral Reading T est
Group
N
Accuracy
Pre Post
Comprehension
Pre Post
P 29 Mean 51.0 58 .0
18.5 28.4
SD 9 .0 6 .4 5.2
4.9
C
25
Mean
25-5 51.5
20 .2
25.1
SD 6 .4 5 .8 5.2
4 .9
E 24 Mean 2 5 .4
55-5
22.4 51 .8
SD 7.2 - 8 .4 5.0
5 .1
Mean s c o r e s an d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s o f t h e P g r o u p 3
C g r o u p j an d E g ro u p on t h e v a r i o u s s u b a r e a s and t o t a l t e s t
o f t h e I F e e l ............................Me F e e l S e l f C o n c e p t A p p r a i s a l
a r e p r e s e n t e d in. T a b l e s 2 t h r o u g h 4 .
96
Table 2
Means and Standard D ev iatio n s: I F eel ......................
M e F e e l S e lf Concept A p p ra isal—P ilo t Group
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ V 1 .
Subareas Pre Post
SC-I Mean 15 .0 16 .9
SD 3.2 2 .0
SC-II Mean 36.0 kO.2
SD
8 .7
7-k
S C -III Mean 55.0 $k.2
SD
5 .7
6 .1
SC-IV Mean 2 k .6
25.3
SD k . l
3.9
SC-T Mean 150.2 156.1
SD
19.3
1 8 .2
Table 3
Means and Standard D ev iatio n s: I F e e l ......................
M e F e e l S e lf Concept A p p ra isal—C ontrol Group
Subareas Pre Post
SC-I Mean 1 6 .0
1 6 .7
SD
2 .7 3 .1
SC-II Mean
37.1
*1-0.1
SD 8 .0
9.9
S C -III Mean 5 2 .8 5 k .k
SD
7.5 7.0
SC-IV Mean
2 5 .7
2 7 .1
SD
3 .7
*f.O
SC-T Mean
151.7 159 A
SD 1 8 .2 2 3 .8
97
Table ^
M e a n s a n d S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s : I F e e l ......
M e F e e l S e l f C o n c e p t A p p r a i s a l — E x p e r i m e n t a l G r o u p
S u b a r e a s P r e P o s t
S C - I M e a n 16.9
16.5
S D k.2
^•3
S C - I I M e a n
42.3
4o.o
S D 10.6 11 A
S C - I I I M e a n
52.9
52.2
S D 13.0
13.3
S C - I V M e a n 26.3
25.3
S D
6.9 6.5
S C - T M e a n
139.1 154.5
S D
37.9 38.9
S e l e c t i o n o f S t a t i s t i c a l P r o c e d u r e s
A c c o r d in g t o B e s t (1970)* t h e a n a l y s i s o f c o v a r i a n c e
i s " p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l when, i t h a s n o t b e e n p o s s i b l e t o
co m p a re r a n d o m l y - s e l e c t e d sam p les* a common s i t u a t i o n i n
c l a s s r o o m e x p e r i m e n t s u s i n g a v a i l a b l e s a m p l e s " (p . 2 7 7 ).
The a n a l y s i s o f c o v a r i a n c e may be p a r t i c u l a r l y h e l p f u l when*
a t t h e t i m e t h e t r e a t m e n t commences* t h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n c e s
among g r o u p s on v a r i a b l e s t h o u g h t t o be h i g h l y c o r r e l a t e d
w i t h t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e . I n s u c h s i t u a t i o n s * t h e a n a l
y s i s o f c o v a r i a n c e may make t h e g r o u p s f p e r f o r m a n c e on t h e
p o s t t e s t m ore c o m p a r a b le b y a d j u s t i n g f o r t h o s e i n i t i a l
d i f f e r e n c e s . I t was d e c id e d * t h e r e f o r e * t h a t t h i s w o u ld be
t h e m ost a p p r o p r i a t e s t a t i s t i c a l p r o c e d u r e f o r a n a l y z i n g
t h e d a t a i n t h i s s t u d y .
The Covariates
As was n o t e d i n C h a p t e r I I I , i n t e l l i g e n c e s c o r e s
may b e a f f e c t e d b y r e a d i n g a b i l i t y . A ls o , a d e c i s i o n , h a d
b e e n made t o i n c l u d e s c o r e s ab o v e 70 , w h ic h w o u ld h a v e t h e
e f f e c t o f i n c l u d i n g a w id e r a n g e o f i d e n t i f i e d i n t e l l i g e n c e
l e v e l s i n t h e g r o u p s . F o r t h e s e r e a s o n s , i t was d e t e r m i n e d
t h a t i t was e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t t o i n c l u d e IQ a s a c o v a r i -
a t e . I n a d d i t i o n , i t a p p e a r e d i m p o r t a n t t o s e l e c t a c o -
v a r l a t e t h a t w o u ld be h i g h l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e p o s t t e s t .
T h e r e f o r e , t h e p r e t e s t o f e a c h m e a s u re was u s e d a s a c o -
v a r i a t e .
The f o l l o w i n g c o v a r i a t e s , t h e n , w e re s e l e c t e d f o r
t h e s t u d y :
1. I n t e l l ± g e n c e - - d e f i n e d a s t h e s c o r e o b t a i n e d on
t h e S l o s s o n I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s t
2. I n i t i a l , a b i l i t y i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n - d e f i n e d a s
t h e s c o r e o b t a i n e d fro m t h e c o m p r e h e n s io n s u b
t e s t o f t h e G ilm o re O r a l R e a d in g T e s t
3. I n i t i a l a b i l i t y i n a c c u r a c y - d e f i n e d a s t h e
s c o r e o b t a i n e d fro m t h e a c c u r a c y s u b t e s t o f
t h e G ilm o re O r a l R e a d in g T e s t
4 . I n i t i a l s e l f - c o n c e p t r e l a t e d t o r e a d i n g an d ,
t h e r e a d i n g p r o c e s s - - d e f i n e d a s t h e s c o r e o b
t a i n e d on S C -I o f t h e I F e e l ............................... Me
F e e l S e l f C o n c e p t A p p r a i s a l
5 . I n i t i a l s e l f - c o n c e p t r e l a t e d t o a l l o t h e r
a r e a s o f s c h o o l - - d e f i n e d a s t h e s c o r e o b t a i n e d
on S C - I I o f t h e I F e e l ............................... Me F e e l
S e l f C o n c e p t A p p r a i s a l
6 . I n i t i a l s e l f - c o n c e p t r e l a t e d t o c o n f i d e n c e i n
o n e s e l f - - d e f i n e d a s t h e s c o r e o b t a i n e d on
S C - I I I o f t h e I F e e l ............................... Me F e e l S e l f
C o n c e p t A p p r a i s a l
99
7 . I n i t i a l s e l f - c o n c e p t r e l a t e d t o s e l f - i m a g e -
d e f i n e d a s t h e s c o r e o b t a i n e d on SC-IV o f
t h e I F e e l ............................Me F e e l S e l f C o n c e p t
A p p r a i s a l
8 . I n i t i a l s e l f - c o n c e p t - - d e f i n e d a s t h e s c o r e
o b t a i n e d on t h e t o t a l I F e e l ............................Me
F e e l S e l f C o n c e p t A p p r a i s a l
A n a l y s i s o f C o v a r i a n c e - -
P i l o t v s . C o n t r o l
A o n e -w a y a n a l y s i s o f c o v a r i a n c e was p e r f o r m e d on
e a c h d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e u s i n g IQ an d p e r f o r m a n c e on. t h e
p r e t e s t o f e a c h m e a s u re a s c o v a r i a t e s . R e s u l t s o f t h e s e
a n a l y s e s a r e c o n t a i n e d in. T a b le s 5 t h r o u g h 18 . The r e s u l t s
o f t h e p i l o t g ro u p a s c o m p a re d w i t h t h e c o n t r o l g ro u p h a v e
b e e n p r e s e n t e d in. T a b l e s 5 t h r o u g h 11., f o l l o w e d b y t h e com
p a r i s o n o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g ro u p an d t h e c o n t r o l g ro u p i n
T a b l e s 12 t h r o u g h 18 . I t was d e c i d e d t h a t an .0 5 l e v e l o f
c o n f i d e n c e w o u ld be u s e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e s t u d y t o d e t e r m i n e
s i g n i f i c a n c e .
C o m p r e h e n s io n . A s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was shown
b e tw e e n t h e P an d C g r o u p s on t h e c o m p r e h e n s io n s u b t e s t o f
t h e G ilm o re O r a l R e a d in g T e s t ,(F = 6 .1 9 8 j p < .0 1 6 ., d f = 2 , 4 8)
a s shown i n T a b le 5.
A c c u r a c y . T h e re was a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e
tw e e n t h e P an d C g r o u p s on a c c u r a c y o f r e a d i n g on. t h e G i l
m ore O r a l R e a d in g T e s t (F = 7 .4 4 6, p < .009., d f= 2 , 4 8 ) . The
summary sh o w in g t h e s e r e s u l t s i s d i s p l a y e d i n T a b le 6 .
100
Table 5
A nalysis of C ovariance: Gilmore O ral Reading Comprehension S u ite s t
P ilo t/C o n tro l
Source
of V a ria tio n SS df M S F
F
R atio
C o v ariates 101.492 2 50.746 2.224 0.119
IQ 6 0 . 560 1 6O.56O
2.655
0.110
P re te s t 16.216 1 16.216 0.711 0.403
Treatm ent 141.387 1
141.387
6 .198 0.016
R esidual 1095.040 48 22.813
T o tal 1337.918 31 2 6 .2 3 1 1 -
T ab le 6
A nalysis of C ovariance: Gilmore O ral Reading Accuracy S ubtest
P i l o t / C o n tro l
Source F
of V a ria tio n SS df M S F R atio
C o v ariates 1607.254 2 803.627
54.737
0 .0
IQ 42.150 1 42.150
2 .871
0 .0 9 7
P re te s t
1349.727
1
1349.727 91.932
0 .0
Treatm ent IO9.3 2 7 1 109.327 7.446 0.009
R esidual 704.722 48 14.682
T o ta l 2lf21.303 51 V7.V77
101
S e l f - c o n c e p t . No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was o b
s e r v e d b e tw e e n g r o u p s i n a n y s u b a r e a o f s e l f - c o n c e p t o r
on c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e t o t a l t e s t s . The i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e
s e l f - c o n c e p t m e a s u r e s o f t h e I P e e l ............................... Me F e e l
i s f o u n d i n T a b l e s 7 t h r o u g h 11.
Table 7
A nalysis of C ovariance: I P e e l .......................... M e F e e l SC-I—
P ilo t/C o n tro l
Source
of V a ria tio n SS df M S F
F
R atio
C o v ariates 23.42*4- 2 11.712
1.853
0 .168
IQ 0 .0 0 k 1 0.004 0.001
0.979
P re te s t
23.233
1
23.233
3.676 0.061
Treatm ent 2.6*4-3 1 2.6*4-3 0 .4 i8 0.5 2 1
R esidual
303. 37^
* 4 - 8 6.3 2 0
T o tal 329.441
51
6. * 4-60
102
A n a ly s is o fC o v a r i a n c e
Table 8
: I F e e l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P ilo t/C o n tr o l
. M e F e e l S C - I I —
S o u r c e
F
o f V a r ia tio n S S d f M S F
R a tio
C o v a r ia te s 1175.185 2
586.595 11.197
0.000
I Q 95.086 1 95.086
1.777 0.189
P re te s t 999.020 1 999.020 I 9 .O69 0.000
T r e a t m e n t
17.525
1
17.525
0.554 O.566
R e s id u a l 251^.728 48 52.590
T o ta l 3705 A 3 7
51
72.656
T a b l e
9
A n a ly s is o fC o v a r i a n c e: I F e e l S C - I I I —
P ilo t /c o n t ro l
S o u r c e F
o f V a r ia tio n S S d f M S F R a tio
C o v a r ia te s 5^7.581 2
175.691
4.711 0.014
I Q 2 .6 l4 1 2.614 0.071 0.791
P re te s t 517.07*4- 1 517.074 8.600 0.005
T r e a t m e n t
15..185
1
15.185 O.558
0.553
R e s id u a l
1769.659
48 56.868
T o ta l 2 1 5 0 .2 2 6 51 i n . 769
103
A nalysis of Covariance
Table 10
I F e e l ..................
P ilo t /C ont r o l
. M e F e e l SC--IV—
Source
of V a ria tio n S S df M S F
F
R atio
C o v ariates 315.996
2 157.998 15.106 0.000
IQ
1.672 1 1.672 0.160
0.691
P re te s t 314.231 1 314.231 30.043 0.000
Treatm ent 16.469
1 1 6 .469
1.575
0.216
R esidual 502.050 4& 10.459
T o ta l 834.515
51
16.363
Table 11
A nalysis of C ovariance: I F e e l ...........................M e F e e l SC-T—
P ilo t/C o n tro l
Source . F
of V a ria tio n SS df M S F R atio
C ovariates
4600.465
2 2300.232 6.3 8 1 0.003
IQ 185.888 1 185.888 O.516 0.476
P re te s t 4270.125 1 4270.125 11.845 0.001
Treatm ent 52.546 1 52.546 0.146 0.704
R esidual 17303.438 48 360.488
T o ta l 21956.449
51
430.519
1 0 4
A n a l y s i s o f C o v a r i a n c e - -
E x p e r i m e n t a l v s . C o n t r o l
C o m p a riso n o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l an d t h e c o n t r o l
g r o u p s u s i n g t h e a n a l y s i s o f c o v a r i a n c e c a n be f o u n d i n
T a b le s 12 t h r o u g h 18.
C o m p r e h e n s io n . A s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was f o u n d
on. t h e c o m p re h e n sio n , s u b t e s t o f t h e G ilm o re R e a d in g T e s t
b e tw e e n g r o u p s E an d C ( P = 1 0 .115^ P < . 0 0 3 j d f-2 * 4 3 ) . The
summary o f t h e s e r e s u l t s i s d i s p l a y e d i n T a b le 12.
Table 12
A nalysis of C ovariance: Gilmore O ral Reading Comprehension S u b te st—
E x perim ental/C ontrol
Source
of V a ria tio n SS df M S F .
F
R atio
C o v ariates 545.492 2 271.746 13.143 0.000
IQ 170.702 1 170.702 8.256 0.006
P re te s t 236.940 1 236.940
11.459 0.002
Treatm ent 209.146 1 209.146 10.115 0.0 0 3
R esidual
889.103 43
20.677
T o tal i 64i .74 i 46 35.690
10 5
A c c u r a c y . No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was o b s e r v e d
b e tw e e n g r o u p s on t h e a c c u r a c y s u b t e s t o f t h e G ilm o r e . The
summary o f t h e s e r e s u l t s c a n be fo u n d i n T a b le 13-
Table 15
A nalysis of C ovariance: Gilmore O ral Reading Accuracy S u b te st—
E xperim ental/C ontrol
Source F
of V a ria tio n SS d f M S F R atio
C o v ariates 427.162 2 715.581 28.847 0.000
IQ 244.778 1 244.778
9.895
0 .005
P r e te s t
987.075
1
987.075 59.905
0.000
Treatm ent
3^.763
1
54.765
1.405 0.242
R esidual IO65.687
45 24.757
T o tal 2525.612 46
54.905
S e l f - c o n c e p t . No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w e re o b
s e r v e d f o r an y s u b a r e a o f t h e I F e e l ................................Me F e e l
S e l f C o n c e p t A p p r a i s a l n o r on t h e t o t a l t e s t . The s u b a r e a
o f s e l f - i m a g e d i d show s i g n i f i c a n c e b e y o n d t h e .0 7 l e v e l o f
c o n f id e n c e ., w h ic h c o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a p p r o a c h i n g
s i g n i f i c a n c e . However,, i t d o e s n o t m eet t h e c r i t e r i o n o f
s i g n i f i c a n c e e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r and s h o u l d n o t
be r e g a r d e d a s c o n v i n c i n g e v i d e n c e f o r t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f
t h e t r e a t m e n t . T a b l e s 14 t h r o u g h 18 d i s p l a y t h e i n f o r m a
t i o n r e l a t e d t o t h e c o m p a r i s o n o f s e l f - c o n c e p t f o r t h e
e x p e r i m e n t a l an d t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p s ._______________________________
A n a ly s is o f
T a b l e l4
C o v a r ia n c e : I F e e l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E x p e r im e n ta l/C o n tr o l
. M e F e e l S C
106
-I—
S o u r c e F
o f V a r ia tio n S S d f M S F R a tio
C o v a r ia te s 281.954 2 140.977
17.327
0 .0 0 0
I Q 6.956 1 6.956
0.855
O.36O
P re te s t 2 8 1 . 7 2 7 1 281.727 34.627 0 .0 0 0
T r e a t m e n t 3 . 6 8 1 1 3.681 0.452 O.505
R e s id u a l 349.851 8.136
T o ta l 635.487 46
13.815
T a b l e
15
A n a ly s is o fC o v a r ia n c e : I F e e l . M e F e e l S C - -II—
E x p e r im e n ta l /C o n t ro l
S o u r c e F
o f V a r ia tio n S S ' d f M S F R a tio
C o v a r ia te s 2407.577 2
1203.789
18.884 0 .0 0 0
I Q 260.248 1 260.248 4.083 0.050
P re te s t 2166.083 1 2 1 6 6 . 0 8 3 33.980 0 .0 0 0
T r e a t m e n t
29.233
1
29.233
0.459 0.502
R e s id u a l 2741.077
43 63.746
T o ta l
5177.887 46 112.563
..................... _ . .....................
A nalysis of
3 '
Table 16
C ovariance: I F e e l ......................
Experiment a l/c ont r o l
M e F e e l S C
107
- I I I —
Source
F
o f V a ria tio n SS df
M S F
R atio
C o v ariates
3708.959
2 1854.479 56.934 0 .0 0 0
IQ 2.448 1 2.448
0.075 O.785
P r e te s t 3676. W ) 1 3676.440 112.869 0 .0 0 0
Treatm ent
6 9. 31^
1 69.314 2.128 0.152
R esidual
1400-62.5'' 43 32.573
T o tal 5178.898 46 112.585
Table
17
A nalysis of C ovariance: I F e e l M e F e e l S C --IV—
Expe rim ental/C o n tro l
Source
F
of V a ria tio n SS df
M S F R atio
C o v ariates 842.534 2 421.267
38.095
0 .0 0 0
IQ 34.554 1 34.554
3-125
0.084
P re te s t 816.256 1 816.256
73V813
0 .0 0 0
Treatm ent 36.590 1 36.590
3.309
0.076
R esidual 475.510 43 . 11.058
T o tal 1354.634 46 29.449
108
Table 18
A n a ly s is o f C o v a r ia n c e : I Feel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .M e F e e l S C - T —
E x p e r im e n ta l/C o n tr o l
S o u r c e
o f V a r ia tio n S S d f
M S F
F
R a tio
C o v a r ia te s 32322.906 2 16161.453
V 7 . 6 5 5
0 .0 0 0
I Q 919.867 1 919.867 2.712 0.107
P re te s t 31589.184 1 31589.184
94.147
0 .0 0 0
T r e a t m e n t 772.003 1 772.003 2.276 O .I39
R e s id u a l 14582.684
^3 339.132
T o ta l
^7677.59^
46
1036.469
C o r r e l a t e d t_ t e s t - -
E x p e r i m e n t a l Group
P h o n i c s . I n t h e a b s e n c e o f p h o n i c s I n f o r m a t i o n on
t h e c o n t r o l s u b j e c t s , i t was d e c i d e d t o co m p are p r e - and
p o s t t e s t p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l group., u s i n g s e
l e c t e d s u b t e s t s fro m t h e S p a c h e D i a g n o s t i c R e a d in g S c a l e s .
I n s u f f i c i e n t d a t a on t h e t o t a l nu m b er r e s u l t e d i n a num ber
o f 20 f o r t h i s t e s t . A c o r r e l a t e d t_ t e s t was u s e d t o t e s t
s i g n i f i c a n c e . I n a l l f o u r a r e a s , t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p
show ed a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n k n o w le d g e o f p h o n i c s
s k i l l s . The p r e - and p o s t t e s t m eans an d s t a n d a r d d e v i a
t i o n s , a s w e l l a s t h e l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e , a r e r e p o r t e d
f o r e a c h s u b t e s t i n T a b le 1 9 .
109
Table 19
Means, Standard D ev iatio n s, and L evel of S ig n ific an c e f o r
Spache D iagnostic Reading S cales Phonics T e s ts—
C o rre la te d t t e s t
S ubtest Pre Post
S ig.
Level
D igraphs Mean
SD
2.65
1-3
3.90
o.bb
0 .028
Blends Mean
SD
16.00
2 .7
18.80
0 .6
0.020
Short vowels Mean
SD
3.25
1 .7
9 .3 0
0 .8
0.003
Long vowels Mean
SD
2 .bo
1 .5
4.15
1 .2
0.009
P e r s o n a l I n t e r v i e w s
P e r s o n a l i n t e r v i e w s w ere h e l d w i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l
s u b j e c t s o n l y , f o l l o w i n g t h e c l o s e o f t h e t u t o r i n g p r o g ra m .
An. e f f o r t was made t o s t r u c t u r e t h e q u e s t i o n s t o p r e v e n t
p ro g ra m m in g t h e r e s p o n s e o f t h e t u t o r . F o r e x a m p le , t h e
i n v e s t i g a t o r a s k e d t h e p u p i l t o r e l a t e h i s t h o u g h t s an d
i d e a s a b o u t t h e t u t o r i n g o r how h e f e l t a b o u t t e a c h i n g
y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n . R e s p o n s e s w e re c o n s i s t e n t l y p o s i t i v e ,
w i t h com m ents i n c l u d i n g r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e t u t o r i n g as f u n ,
m ak in g one f e e l g o o d , an d m ak in g one f e e l h a p p y . S e v e r a l
a s k e d i f t h e y c o u l d do i t a g a i n an d two r e m a rk e d t h a t t h e y
w a n te d t o becom e t e a c h e r s . I n t h e v ie w o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r ,
t h e e x p e r i m e n t was j u s t i f i e d by t h e r e s p o n s e o f one g i r l ,
who s a i d , "I f o u n d t h a t i t e v e n h e l p e d m e ." T h a t, o f
110
c o u rse ,, was t h e i n t e n t * b u t m ore s i g n i f i c a n t was h e r r e a c
t i o n w h ic h i n d i c a t e d t h a t s h e was n o t aw are o f t h e p u r p o s e ,
t h u s v e r i f y i n g t h e v a l u e o f t h e t u t o r i n g a s a p o s s i b l e a g e n t
to w a r d im p r o v in g s e l f - c o n c e p t .
Summary o f R e s u l t s
I n summary, i t a p p e a r s t h a t t u t o r i n g d i d a f f e c t t h e
a c c u r a c y o f r e a d i n g a b i l i t y f o r t h e p i l o t g ro u p when com
p a r e d w i t h t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p . H ow ever, t h e r e was no s i g
n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g ro u p and t h e
c o n t r o l g ro u p in. t h i s a r e a .
I n t h e a r e a o f c o m p r e h e n s io n , h o w e v e r, t h e e f f e c t
o f t u t o r i n g was s i g n i f i c a n t on b o t h t h e p i l o t g ro u p an d t h e
e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p when c o m p a rin g them w i t h t h e c o n t r o l
g ro u p o f s u b j e c t s i n a r e m e d i a l r e a d i n g p r o g ra m .
T u t o r i n g e x p e r i e n c e d i d n o t a p p e a r t o s i g n i f i c a n t l y
a f f e c t s u b j e c t s fro m e i t h e r t h e p i l o t o r e x p e r i m e n t a l g ro u p
i n t h e a r e a o f s e l f - c o n c e p t .
I t i s r e c o g n i z e d t h a t a o n e - g r o u p , p r e t e s t - p o s t t e s t
d e s i g n s u c h a s t h a t u s e d w i t h t h e p h o n i c s t e s t h a s l i m i t e d
i n t e r n a l v a l i d i t y an d c a u t i o n s h o u l d be t a k e n i n i n t e r p r e t
i n g t h e r e s u l t s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e p h o n i c s p o s t t e s t r e
s u l t s d i d show a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n a l l a r e a s f o r t h e
e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p .
R e s u l t s o f t h e p e r s o n a l i n t e r v i e w s i n d i c a t e d p u p i l s
I l l
i n v o l v e d i n a t u t o r i n g p r o g ra m i d e n t i f i e d t h e i r own f e e l i n g s
to w a r d t h e t u t o r i n g e x p e r i e n c e as b e i n g p o s i t i v e .
C o n c l u s i o n
T h is c h a p t e r p r e s e n t e d a d e s c r i p t i o n an d i n t e r p r e
t a t i o n o f t h e f i n d i n g s r e s u l t i n g fro m t h e e f f e c t o f t u t o r i n g
on t h e r e a d i n g a c h ie v e m e n t and s e l f - c o n c e p t o f i n t e r m e d i a t e
p u p i l s .
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
I n t r o d u c t i o n
T h i s c h a p t e r p r e s e n t s an o v e r v ie w o f t h e p i l o t and
e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s . I n c l u d e d a r e a b r i e f summary o f t h e
p u r p o s e s o f t h e s t u d y , t h e i n s t r u m e n t s u s e d , d a t a c o l l e c
t i o n a n d a n a l y s i s , an d a s t a t e m e n t o f t h e f i n d i n g s . C on
c l u s i o n s b a s e d u p o n t h e f i n d i n g s an d s u g g e s t i o n s f o r t h e
c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r a r e a l s o I n c l u d e d . S u g g e s te d a r e a s f o r
f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h c o n c l u d e t h e c h a p t e r .
Summary
P u r p o s e s o f t h e S tu d y
The p u r p o s e o f t h e s t u d y was t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t ,
o f c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g on t h e r e a d i n g a c h ie v e m e n t and s e l f -
c o n c e p t o f i n t e r m e d i a t e p u p i l s w i t h r e a d i n g p r o b l e m s . T h is
was a c c o m p l i s h e d by i n v o l v i n g a g ro u p o f i n t e r m e d i a t e p u
p i l s i d e n t i f i e d as h a v i n g r e a d i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s i n a c r o s s
ag e t u t o r i n g p r o g ra m w h ic h i n c l u d e d a p i l o t s t u d y f o l l o w e d
b y an e x p e r i m e n t a l g ro u p o f c r o s s - a g e t u t o r s .
The S am ple
A l l g r o u p s w e re d raw n fro m tw o i n n e r - c i t y s c h o o l s
112
1 13
o f a l a r g e m e t r o p o l i t a n s c h o o l d i s t r i c t I n s o u t h c e n t r a l
A r k a n s a s . However,, o n e s c h o o l i n c l u d e d f i f t h an d s i x t h
g r a d e s t h a t w e re b u s s e d fro m a h i g h s h c io e c o n o m ic a r e a o f
t h e c i t y . A s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e o f c h i l d r e n fro m t h i s a r e a
was i n c l u d e d i n t h e c o n t r o l g ro u p and t h e p i l o t r e s e a r c h
g r o u p . The s t u d y was com posed o f t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s who h a d
t e s t s c o r e s on t h e G ilm o re O r a l R e a d in g T e s t w h ich p l a c e d
th em a t l e a s t a y e a r b e lo w t h e i r a c t u a l g r a d e l e v e l i n r e a d
i n g on one s u b t e s t o f t h e G ilm o re . An i n t e l l i g e n c e s c o r e of
70 on t h e S lo sso n . was a l s o n e c e s s a r y f o r a c c e p t a n c e .
T e s t i n g I n s t r u m e n t s
The S l o s s o n I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s t was u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e
m e n t a l a b i l i t y and t h e G ilm o re O r a l R e a d in g T e s t was a d
m i n i s t e r e d i n o r d e r t o a s s e s s r e a d i n g a c h ie v e m e n t i n t h e
a r e a s o f a c c u r a c y and c o m p r e h e n s io n . The I P e e l ............................
Me P e e l S e l f C o n c e p t A p p r a i s a l was a l s o a d m i n i s t e r e d t o a l l
s u b j e c t s .
A p r e - and p o s t t e s t o f s e l e c t e d p o r t i o n s o f t h e
S p a c h e D i a g n o s t i c R e a d in g S c a l e s was given, t o t h e e x p e r i
m e n t a l g r o u p . F i n a l l y , , e x p e r i m e n t a l s u b j e c t s w e re i n t e r
v ie w e d by t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r a t t h e c l o s e o f t h e t u t o r i n g
p r o g r a m .
D a t a C o l l e c t i o n
A l l t e s t s w ere a d m i n i s t e r e d and s c o r e d b y t h e i n -
114
v e s t i g a t o r . P r e t e s t i n g was c o n d u c t e d d u r i n g t h e f i n a l
w eek s o f F e b r u a r y an d t h e f i r s t week o f March,, w h i l e p o s t
t e s t i n g was c o m p le te d d u r i n g t h e l a s t week o f May and t h e
f i r s t week o f J u n e . A l l t e s t s t h a t w ere i n c l u d e d i n t h e
s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s w e re a d m i n i s t e r e d i n d i v i d u a l l y .
M a t e r i a l s and P r o c e d u r e s
The i n v e s t i g a t o r met w i t h t e a c h e r s p r i o r t o t h e
i n c e p t i o n o f t h e p r o g ra m f o r e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e p ro g ra m
an d t h e p r o c e d u r e s t o be u s e d . I n f o r m a l c o n t a c t was m a in
t a i n e d w i t h t h e f a c u l t y t h r o u g h o u t t h e s t u d y .
T r a i n i n g was p r o v i d e d by t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r f o r
p u p i l s s e l e c t e d a s t u t o r s . The t r a i n i n g r e l a t e d t o e x p l a n
a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l s , m ethods., and r e i n f o r c e m e n t p r o c e d u r e s .
T u t e e s w e re i d e n t i f i e d b y t h e i r c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r s as
p u p i l s r e q u i r i n g a d d i t i o n a l a s s i s t a n c e i n r e a d i n g . The
i n t e r m e d i a t e p u p i l s , t h e n , t u t o r e d p r i m a r y c h i l d r e n in.
r e a d i n g f o r 20 m i n u t e s p e r d ay e v e r y d a y f o r s i x w eeks i n
t h e p i l o t s t u d y and f o r 10 w eeks i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p .
A n a l y s i s o f t h e D a ta
Means an d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s w e re c a l c u l a t e d f o r
t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s f o r e a c h o f t h e t h r e e g r o u p s . T h is
i n c l u d e d t h e a c c u r a c y an d c o m p r e h e n s io n s u b t e s t s o f t h e
G ilm o re and t h e s u b a r e a s o f t h e I F e e l ............................... Me F e e l
S e l f C o n c e p t A p p r a i s a l .
1 1 5
A n a l y s i s o f c o v a r i a n c e was s e l e c t e d t o s t u d y t h e
d a t a , u s i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e s c o r e s on t h e S l o s s o n an d p r e t e s t
s c o r e s o f e a c h m e a s u re a s c o v a r i a t e s . A c o r r e l a t e d t_ t e s t
was u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e s i g n i f i c a n c e on. t h e s u b t e s t s o f t h e
S p ach e R e a d in g D i a g n o s t i c S c a l e s . A .0 5 l e v e l o f c o n f i
d e n c e was c h o s e n a s t h e b a s i s f o r s i g n i f i c a n c e .
F i n d i n g s
A s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was o b s e r v e d b e tw e e n
g r o u p s on t h e c o m p r e h e n s io n s u b t e s t o f t h e G ilm o re f o r b o t h
t h e p i l o t s t u d y and t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s e a r c h .
W h ile a c c u r a c y o f r e a d i n g on. t h e G ilm o re was s i g
n i f i c a n t b e y o n d t h e .0 5 l e v e l i n t h e p i l o t s t u d y , no s i g
n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was shown, when c o m p a r in g t h e e x p e r i
m e n t a l g ro u p w i t h t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p . No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f
f e r e n c e was o b s e r v e d in. a n y a r e a o f s e l f - c o n c e p t . H ow ever,
a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was o b s e r v e d fro m p r e t e s t t o p o s t -
t e s t on a l l s u b t e s t s o f t h e S p a c h e D i a g n o s t i c R e a d in g
S c a l e s b e y o n d t h e .0 5 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e . T h is i n c l u d e d
s u b t e s t s o f i n i t i a l d i g r a p h s , b l e n d s , s h o r t v o w e ls , and
l o n g v o w e l s .
C o n c l u s i o n s
C o n c l u s i o n s R e l a t e d t o
t h e H y p o th e s e s
H y p o t h e s i s 1 . T h e re a r e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n
r e a d i n g c o m p r e h e n s io n between, p u p i l s a t t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e
116
l e v e l who h a v e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i a l p ro g ra m
and p u p i l s a t t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l i n a r e m e d i a l r e a d i n g
c l a s s , when, c o m p ared on. t h e G ilm o re O r a l R e a d in g T e s t .
T h i s h y p o t h e s i s was s u p p o r t e d ab o v e t h e .0 5 l e v e l
o f c o n f i d e n c e j n o t o n l y w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s e a r c h
group., b u t i n t h e p r e v i o u s p i l o t s t u d y .
H y p o t h e s i s 2 . T h e re a r e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s
i n a c c u r a c y between, p u p i l s i n i n t e r m e d i a t e g r a d e s who a r e
i n v o l v e d in. a c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i a l p ro g ra m and p u p i l s i n
i n t e r m e d i a t e g r a d e s who a t t e n d a r e m e d i a l r e a d i n g c l a s s ,
when co m p a re d on t h e G ilm o re O r a l R e a d in g T e s t .
T h is h y p o t h e s i s was r e j e c t e d by a n a l y z i n g t h e p e r
fo rm a n c e o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s u b j e c t s an d c o m p a r in g them
w i t h t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p . I t h a d b een s u p p o rte d ., h o w e v e r,
I n t h e I n i t i a l p i l o t s t u d y .
H y p o t h e s i s 3 « T h e re i s a s i g n i f i c a n t gain. I n
k n o w le d g e an d a p p l i c a t i o n o f p h o n i c s s k i l l s f o r c h i l d r e n ,
i n v o l v e d I n a c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i a l program ,, when p r e - an d
p o s t t e s t r e s u l t s a r e c o m p a re d u s i n g s e l e c t e d p o r t i o n s o f
t h e p h o n i c s t e s t fro m t h e S p a c h e D i a g n o s t i c R e a d in g S c a l e s .
T h i s h y p o t h e s i s was s u p p o r t e d in. a l l a r e a s s e l e c t e d
f o r a n a l y s i s . T h i s i n c l u d e d s u b t e s t s o f I n i t i a l d ig ra p h s .,
b le n d s., s h o r t v o w e ls , and l o n g v o w e ls on t h e S p a c h e t e s t .
1 1 7
H y p o t h e s i s 4 . S i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t i n
p u p i l ' s s e l f - c o n c e p t when c o m p a r in g c h i l d r e n , who h a v e b een
i n a c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g p ro g ra m w i t h t h o s e who h a v e b e e n i n
a r e m e d i a l r e a d i n g c l a s s ,, u s i n g t h e I P e e l ............................... Me
P e e l S e l f C o n c e p t A p p r a i s a l .
No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e o c c u r r e d i n any a r e a o f
s e l f - c o n c e p t . T h e r e f o r e , t h i s h y p o t h e s i s was r e j e c t e d .
G e n e r a l C o n c l u s i o n s
I n e v a l u a t i n g t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h i s study,, i t i s
n e c e s s a r y t o c o n s i d e r s e v e r a l f a c t o r s t h a t rnay h a v e i n
f l u e n c e d t h e o u tc o m e .
As t h e s a m p le s i z e was r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l and s u b
j e c t s w e re n o t r a n d o m ly a s s ig n e d ,, t h e q u e s t i o n o f r e p r e s e n
t a t i o n . o f t h e f i n d i n g s an d r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e d a t a m ust be
c o n s i d e r e d when i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e r e s u l t s .
In. a d d i t i o n ,, s i n c e t h e s e s u b j e c t s w e re draw n fro m
10 c l a s s r o o m s , i t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e r e w e re s e v e r a l
p u p i l s fro m e a c h c l a s s r o o m . T h e r e f o r e ., c l a s s r o o m d y n a m ic s
c o u l d be r e l a t e d t o t h e e f f e c t o f t h e t r e a t m e n t an d t h e
o u tco m e o f t h e r e s e a r c h . P o s s i b l y , t h e d e g r e e o f I n f l u e n c e
was n o t a s g r e a t a s i t w o u ld h a v e b e e n h a d t o t a l c l a s s r o o m s
b e e n i n v o l v e d , and i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o ju d g e t h e e x t e n t t o , :
w h ic h t h e r e s p o n s e o f t u t o r s was d e p e n d e n t on. t h e r e s p o n s e
o f t h e i r p e e r s an d c l a s s r o o m i n t e r a c t i o n . N e v e r t h e l e s s ,
t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h i s c o n t a m i n a t i o n s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d
118
when I n t e r p r e t i n g t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e s t u d y .
A lth o u g h i n t e l l i g e n c e was u s e d as a c o v a r i a t e ^ i t
s h o u l d a l s o be n o t e d t h a t v a r i a n c e i n i n t e l l i g e n c e may h a v e
c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e r e s u l t s . I n c o m p a rin g t h e g r o u p s , g ro u p
E h a d a mean o f 9 6 . 0 and a s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f 9*1*
G roup P and g ro u p C w e re more e q u i v a l e n t , w i t h t h e c a l c u
l a t e d mean, f o r g ro u p P b e i n g 8 7 -5 w i t h a s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n
o f 8 . 4 , w h i l e t h e mean f o r g ro u p C was 8 4 . 8 w i t h a s t a n d a r d
d e v i a t i o n o f 9 - 4 . F u r t h e r m o r e , as was s u g g e s t e d i n C h a p t e r
I I I , i n t e l l i g e n c e s c o r e s a r e e s p e c i a l l y s u s p e c t when a
r e a d i n g d i f f i c u l t y i s i n v o l v e d b e c a u s e i t i s I m p o s s i b l e t o
d e t e r m i n e t h e e x t e n t o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e p o o r r e a d i n g
s k i l l s on t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l . H ow ever,
t h i s f a c t o r c a n be a ssu m ed t o be o p e r a t i n g t o some e x t e n t
an d s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d I n e v a l u a t i n g t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e
r e s e a r c h ,.
C o n c l u s i o n s R e l a t e d t o
C o m p re h e n s io n
The r e s u l t s i n t h e a r e a o f c o m p r e h e n s io n g av e
s t r o n g s u p p o r t t o t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t
s t a t e d t h e r e a r e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n r e a d i n g c o m p re
h e n s i o n between, p u p i l s a t t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l who h a v e
p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i a l p r o g ra m and p u p i l s a t
t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l i n a r e m e d i a l r e a d i n g c l a s s , when
co m p a re d on. t h e G ilm o re O r a l R e a d in g T e s t . T e a c h in g t h e
m a t e r i a l t o y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n and f o r m u l a t i n g q u e s t i o n s may
119
h a v e h a d a b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t upon t h e s u b j e c t s 1 c o m p re h e n
s i o n , e n c o u r a g i n g them t o more c l o s e l y a t t e n d t o a n y m a t e
r i a l t h e y r e a d . I n f a c t , i t may b e t h a t p u p i l s c h a n g e d t h e
s t r a t e g y t h e y u s e d i n a p p r o a c h i n g r e a d i n g . As t u t o r s w e re
a s k e d t o r e a d an d p r e p a r e q u e s t i o n s p r i o r t o t h e s e s s i o n
w i t h t u t e e s , t h e y may h a v e come t o b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d t h e
v a l u e o f r e t e n t i o n t h r o u g h t h e i r e f f o r t s t o e l i c i t c o r r e c t
r e s p o n s e s from t u t e e s .
One w o u ld a l s o e x p e c t t h e a d d i t i o n a l r e a d i n g i t s e l f
t o h a v e a s a l u b r i o u s e f f e c t , s i n c e , a s was n o t e d e a r l i e r ,
p u p i l s r e a c h i n g t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l w i t h r e a d i n g d i f f i
c u l t i e s a r e r e l u c t a n t t o c h o o s e r e a d i n g m a t e r i a l . C e r
t a i n l y , as w i t h a l l o t h e r s k i l l s , t h e y m ust p r a c t i c e o r
r e a d i n o r d e r t o l e a r n t o r e a d . A n o t h e r c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c
t o r may h a v e b e e n t h e fre e d o m fro m t h e s t i g m a w h ic h i s a s
s o c i a t e d w i t h r e a d i n g "baby b o o k s . " I t a p p e a r s , t h e n , t h a t
t h e m eth o d o f r e a d i n g an d p r e p a r i n g , f o l l o w e d by t e a c h i n g
y o u n g e r s , i s c o n d u c i v e t o t h e im p ro v e m e n t o f r e a d i n g com
p r e h e n s i o n .
C o n c l u s i o n s R e l a t e d
t o A c c u r a c y
A lth o u g h t h e r e s u l t s show ed t h i s h y p o t h e s i s t o be
a c c e p t e d i n t h e p i l o t s t u d y , no s i g n i f i c a n t im p ro v e m e n t
o c c u r r e d w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p . I t i s n o t p o s s i b l e
t o c o m p l e t e l y s u p p o r t t h e t u t o r i n g a s a means o f im p r o v in g
a c c u r a c y o f r e a d i n g . I t can. be s t a t e d , h o w e v e r, t h a t f o r
120
some i n d i v i d u a l s * u n d e r c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s * r e a d i n g h i g h -
i n t e r e s t * l o w - v o c a b u l a r y b o o k s i n o r d e r t o s h a r e th em w i t h
a y o u n g e r c h i l d a n d t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t o f v o c a b u l a r y t h r o u g h
t h e D o lc h B ingo game l e a d s t o im p ro v e m e n t i n a c c u r a c y .
The f a i l u r e o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g ro u p t o show s i g
n i f i c a n t im p ro v e m e n t i n a c c u r a c y c a n n o t b e f u l l y e x p l a i n e d .
However* i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r ’s e f f o r t s t o
s t r e s s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f r e a d i n g an d d i s c u s s i o n e a c h d a y
r e s u l t e d i n a g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n o f tim e u s e d f o r t h e s e
a c t i v i t i e s t h a n was u s e d i n t h e p i l o t g r o u p . The i n v e s t i
g a t o r h a d h a d some c o n c e r n t h a t t h e i n i t i a l p i l o t g ro u p
b e g a n t o u s e i n a p p r o p r i a t e m ethods* w h ic h l e d t o h e r g i v i n g
m ore s p e c i f i c i n s t r u c t i o n s when t r a i n i n g t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
g r o u p . The p i l o t g ro u p did* i n f a c t * u t i l i z e many a c t i v i
t i e s t h a t w e re d e s i g n e d t o i n c r e a s e v o c a b u l a r y .
A lth o u g h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g ro u p show ed no s i g n i f i
c a n t i n c r e a s e i n a c c u r a c y when co m p a re d w i t h t h e c o n t r o l
group* an e x a m i n a t i o n o f s c o r e s ( s e e A p p e n d ix B) r e v e a l s
t h a t m ost p u p i l s show ed g r e a t e r g a i n s t h a n w o u ld b e e x
p e c t e d o f an a v e r a g e s t u d e n t f o r t h a t l e n g t h o f t i m e .
O n ly one c h i l d h a d a lo w e r s c o r e on t h e p o s t t e s t an d e x c e p t
f o r f o u r who g a i n e d o n l y two o r t h r e e m onths* a l l p u p i l s
show ed g a i n s o f s e v e r a l m o n th s o r y e a r s . T h e r e f o r e * e x p e r i
m e n t a l p u p i l s d i d show g a i n s an d p e r h a p s a l o n g e r s p a n o f
t i m e f o r t h e t u t o r i n g w o u ld h a v e p r o d u c e d s i g n i f i c a n t
121
C o n c l u s i o n s R e l a t e d
t o P h o n ic s
As was n o t e d e a r l i e r . , a l l r e s u l t s c o n c e r n i n g t h e
p h o n i c s t e s t s m ust h e c o n s i d e r e d a s b e i n g r e l a t e d t o t h e
l i m i t a t i o n s i n h e r e n t i n a o n e -g ro u p ., p r e t e s t - p o s t t e s t
d e s i g n . However,, a s a l l s u b t e s t s o f t h e p h o n i c s i n s t r u m e n t
show ed s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n k n o w le d g e and a p p l i c a t i o n o f
s k i l l s , , i t i s l o g i c a l t o c o n c lu d e t h a t t h e p r o c e d u r e o f
r e i n f o r c i n g p h o n i c s s k i l l s t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f games i s s u c
c e s s f u l .
Games w e re s e l e c t e d f o r s k i l l r e i n f o r c e m e n t b e c a u s e
t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s o u g h t a m ethod w h ic h w o u ld i n v o l v e t h e
p u p i l s c o m p l e t e l y . Games f o r c e t h e p l a y e r t o t h i n k an d
a p p l y t h e s k i l l i n o r d e r t o make a c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e . Many
o f t h e games w e re b i n g o - t y p e games and a l l w e re games o f
c h a n c e r a t h e r t h a n games w h ic h p l a c e e m p h a s is on g r e a t e r
a b i l i t y . T h i s t y p e o f game a l s o s e r v e s t o r e l i e v e t e n s i o n ,
t h a t i s p r e s e n t when one i s t r y i n g t o M b e a t " a n o t h e r . The
t u t o r , o f c o u r s e , n o t o n l y p l a y e d w i t h h i s t u t e e , b u t h e
h a d t o e x p l a i n t h e game an d s e e t h a t t h e t u t e e was c o r r e c t .
T h e r e f o r e 3 he h a d t o l e a r n i n o r d e r t o t e a c h . T h e se f a c
t o r s c o m b in e d t o p r o d u c e a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n p h o n i c s
s k i l l s an d t h i s m eth o d s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d a s an a i d in.
t e a c h i n g p h o n i c s .
122
C o n c l u s i o n s R e l a t e d
t o S e l f - C o n c e p t
R e s u l t s fro m t h e m e a s u re o f s e l f - c o n c e p t c a n n o t be
t a k e n a s e v i d e n c e t h a t t u t o r i n g c a n b e a means o f im p r o v in g
s e l f - c o n c e p t . H ow ever, as s e l f - c o n c e p t i s q u i t e c o m p le x ,
i t seem s a p p r o p r i a t e t o m e n tio n s e v e r a l f a c t o r s t h a t may
h a v e i n f l u e n c e d t h e s e r e s u l t s .
R e s p o n s e s on an a t t i t u d e s c a l e r e f l e c t many t h i n g s :
t h e way t h e s t u d e n t f e e l s a t a g i v e n t i m e , h i s p e r
c e p t i o n s r e l a t i v e t o how h e i s e x p e c t e d t o f e e l b y
o t h e r s who a r e i m p o r t a n t t o h im , and o u t s i d e p r e s
s u r e s im p i n g i n g f o r f i r s t p l a c e i n h i s t h i n k i n g a t
t h e t i m e . ( A l e x a n d e r & F i l l e r , 1976, p . 25)
W h ile t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r t o o k p r e c a u t i o n s t o e n s u r e maximum
a c c u r a c y o f r e s p o n s e s , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y r e m a in s t h a t t h e
o u tco m e was a f f e c t e d by t h e s e f a c t o r s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e
r e v i e w o f r e s e a r c h h a s i n d i c a t e d a c o n t i n u i n g d i f f i c u l t y
I n m e a s u r i n g s e l f - c o n c e p t .
F i n a l l y , t h e r e I s e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t t h a t a low
s e l f - c o n c e p t I s a t t a i n e d o v e r a l o n g p e r i o d o f t i m e , and
one w o u ld e x p e c t t h a t a h i g h e r s e l f - c o n c e p t w o u ld r e s u l t
o n l y fro m a l o n g p e r i o d o f s u c c e s s f u l a c h ie v e m e n t p l u s
s u c c e s s In. a w id e a r e a o f o n e ’s l i f e . I n o t h e r w o r d s , I f
t h e t u t o r i n g d i d p r o d u c e f e e l i n g s o f s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e and
p r e s t i g e , t h a t a l o n e w o u ld n o t be en o u g h t o a c h i e v e an
o v e r a l l r e s u l t o f Im p ro v e d s e l f - c o n c e p t . One s u b a r e a o f
t h e I F e e l ............................Me F e e l S e l f C o n c e p t A p p r a i s a l was
r e l a t e d t o r e a d i n g and t h e r e a d i n g p r o c e s s , b u t o n l y f o u r
123
i t e m s f e l l i n t h i s c a t e g o r y . Had t h e s t u d y i n v o l v e d a
s e n s i t i v e m e a s u re o f s e l f - c o n c e p t a s i t r e l a t e d t o r e a d i n g
p e r s e ; t h e h y p o t h e s i s may h a v e b e e n s u s t a i n e d .
W h ile t h e r e was no s t a t i s t i c a l , t r e a t m e n t o f p e r s o n a l
i n t e r v i e w s w i t h t u t o r s , , t h e r e s p o n s e s w e re c o n s i s t e n t l y
p o s i t i v e r e g a r d i n g t h e t u t o r i n g p r o g ra m . I f a c c u r a t e , one
c o u l d assum e t h a t s u c h an e x p e r i e n c e c o u l d b e a b e g i n n i n g
e f f o r t to w a r d p r o m o t i n g a p o s i t i v e s e l f - c o n c e p t .
C o n c l u s i o n s C o n c e r n
i n g M ethod
On t h e b a s i s o f t h e g a i n s I n r e a d i n g a c h ie v e m e n t
o f t u t o r s when, c o m p a re d w i t h a g ro u p i n a r e m e d i a l r e a d i n g
c l a s s , i t a p p e a r s t h a t t u t o r i n g may be a v i a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e
t o r e m e d i a l r e a d i n g c l a s s e s a t t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l . I f
r e a d i n g a c h ie v e m e n t i s g r e a t e r i n c o m p r e h e n s io n f o r g r o u p s
P and E and a c c u r a c y f o r t h e p i l o t stu d y ,, one c o u l d c o n
c l u d e t h a t f o r i n t e r m e d i a t e p u p i l s t h e t i m e w o u ld b e b e t t e r
u s e d f o r c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g . The r e a d i n g s p e c i a l i s t c o u l d
s u p e r v i s e t h e t u t o r i n g , , o r , i f d e s i g n e d t o be c o n d u c t e d i n
t h e c l a s s r o o m , t h e r e a d i n g s p e c i a l i s t w o u ld b e f r e e t o
i n c l u d e m ore c h i l d r e n a t t h e p r i m a r y l e v e l . T h i s s h o u ld
h a v e t h e a d d i t i v e e f f e c t o f r e d u c i n g r e a d i n g p r o b le m s a t
t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l a n d w o u ld be m ost " a d v a n ta g e o u s as
t h e r e s e a r c h c l e a r l y I n d i c a t e s t h e i n c r e a s i n g d i f f i c u l t y
o f r e m e d i a t i n g t h e r e a d i n g p r o b le m a s t h e c h i l d moves
u p w a rd t h r o u g h t h e g r a d e s .
124
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e o b v i o u s g o a l s o f c r o s s - a g e t u t o r
i n g , su c h t u t o r i n g i s recom m ended i n o r d e r t o p r o m o te t h e
" s e n s e o f c o m m u n ity " s p o k e n o f by B r u n e r (1 9 7 2 , p . 6 2 ) .
L aw ren ce (1 9 7 5 ) a l s o w r o t e o f t h e n e e d t o h u m a n iz e e d u c a
t i o n an d a d v o c a t e d c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g a s an a v e n u e t o im
p r o v e d c o m m u n ic a tio n among p u p i l s . A p ro g ra m t h a t w o u ld
l e a d t o b e t t e r I n t e r p e r s o n a l s k i l l s w o u ld b e a d v a n t a g e o u s
f o r o u r e n t i r e s o c i e t y a n d s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d on t h e
b a s i s o f t h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n a l o n e .
R ecom rfiendations f o r C la s s r o o m T e a c h e r s
1 . I t I s s u g g e s t e d t h a t c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r s o f
I n t e r m e d i a t e p u p i l s who h a v e low r e a d i n g
a c h ie v e m e n t p r o v i d e o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r them
t o r e a d o r a l l y t o y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n an d d i s
c u s s a n d / o r q u e s t i o n them c o n c e r n i n g t h e
s t o r y . Even th o u g h a l l t e a c h e r s may n o t
f e e l t h e y h a v e t h e t i m e t o I n i t i a t e a f u l l -
s c a l e c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g p r o g ra m , I t s h o u l d
n o t b e a f o r m i d a b l e t a s k t o a r r a n g e a s h a r i n g
ti m e w h ic h w o u ld o n l y I n v o l v e r e a d i n g s t o r i e s
t o y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n .
2. I n t h e a b s e n c e o f o r i n a d d i t i o n t o a c r o s s
a g e t u t o r i n g p r o g ra m , i t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e
o l d e r c h i l d r e n w i t h r e a d i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s w r i t e
s t o r i e s t o b e r e a d b y y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n , t h u s
125
g i v i n g t h e o l d e r c h i l d r e n an o p p o r t u n i t y t o
p r a c t i c e c o m m u n ic a tio n s k i l l s a t t h e i r l e v e l
o f a b i l i t y .
3 . I t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r
h a v e a v a i l a b l e many p a p e r b a c k s ., h u m o ro u s books,,
a n d h i g h - i n t e r e s t l o w - v o c a b u l a r y b o o k s „ and
t i m e be a l l o w e d f o r f r e e r e a d i n g e a c h d a y .
C h i l d r e n w i t h r e a d i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s m u st f i r s t
b e e n c o u r a g e d t o r e a d i f t h e y a r e t o o v erco m e
t h e i r d e f i c i e n c i e s i n t h i s a r e a .
4 . I t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r s p r o v i d e
much r e i n f o r c e m e n t o f p h o n i c s s k i l l s t h r o u g h
g am es. T h is c o u l d b e b e n e f i c i a l , , n o t o n l y i n
c o n n e c t i o n w i t h c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g b u t w i t h
p e e r s „ a s i t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e r e s u l t s
r e l a t e d t o g ro w th i n p h o n i c s s k i l l s w e re due,,
I n p a r t,, t o t h e m eth o d o f u s i n g gam es f o r
r e i n f o r c e m e n t .
5 . I t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t e l e m e n t a r y t e a c h e r s c o
o p e r a t e i n p l a n n i n g a p r o g ra m w h e re b y o l d e r
p u p i l s c a n go t o t h e y o u n g e r c h i l d ’s c l a s s
room., o r v i c e v e rs a ,, a t v a r i o u s t i m e s t h r o u g h
o u t t h e d a y . T h i s w o u ld e l i m i n a t e t h e d i f f i
c u l t y o f f i n d i n g an a d d i t i o n a l p e r s o n t o
s u p e r v i s e s u c h a p r o g ra m and w o u ld a l s o p l a c e
t h e t u t o r / t u t e e p a i r i n a f a m i l i a r s e t t i n g w i t h
126
b o t h (a ) a c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r who was k n o w le d g e
a b l e a b o u t t h o s e i n v o l v e d i n t h e t u t o r i n g and
(b)' a p p r o p r i a t e m a t e r i a l s b e i n g a v a i l a b l e .
Also,, t h i s w o u ld a l l o w a l a r g e num ber o f p u p i l s
t o e n g a g e i n t u t o r i n g * s c h e d u l i n g o n l y t h e num
b e r t h a t c o u l d e a s i l y be a b s o r b e d i n t o t h e
c l a s s r o o m a t a g i v e n t i m e .
6 . I t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e r e m e d i a l r e a d i n g
t e a c h e r i n i t i a t e a p ro g ra m o f c r o s s - a g e t u t o r
i n g w h ic h h e w o u ld s u p e r v i s e * or* i f p o s s i b l e *
c o o r d i n a t e t h r o u g h t h e r e g u l a r c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r .
I n a d d i t i o n * t h e r e a d i n g s p e c i a l i s t c o u l d a c c e p t
m ore p r i m a r y c h i l d r e n i n t o t h e s p e c i a l r e a d i n g
p r o g ra m .
S u g g e s t i o n s f o r F u r t h e r S tu d y
1. A d d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h u s i n g t h e s e s u b j e c t s and
c o m p a r in g t h e i r a c h ie v e m e n t w o u ld b e h e l p f u l
t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t o f a t u t o r i n g p ro g ra m
a f t e r a lo n g p e r i o d o f t i m e .
2. R e p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s r e s e a r c h u s i n g a l a r g e r
s a m p le and random a s s i g n m e n t w o u ld be b e n e
f i c i a l i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e e f f e c t o f t u t o r i n g
on a m ore r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a m p le .
3 . R e p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s s t u d y a t t h e j u n i o r h i g h
l e v e l a n d / o r h i g h s c h o o l l e v e l w o u ld be h e l p -
127
f u l . T h is w o u ld h a v e t h e a d v a n t a g e o f t e s t i n g
t h e e f f e c t o f a d d i t i o n a l m a t u r i t y on t h e a c h i e v e
m ent o f t h e t u t e e .
4 . F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s n e e d e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e f
f e c t o f t u t o r i n g on. a c c u r a c y o f r e a d i n g a c h i e v e
ment .
5 . F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s n e e d e d t o s t u d y t h e e f f e c t
o f a s i m i l a r t u t o r i n g e x p e r i e n c e on b o y s an d
g i r l s . , as w e l l a s t h e same o r o p p o s i t e s e x i n
t u t o r / t u t e e p a i r i n g .
6 . R e p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s s t u d y u s i n g v a r i o u s s o c i o
eco n o m ic g r o u p s w o u ld be h e l p f u l i n d e t e r m i n i n g
t h e e f f e c t o f t u t o r i n g on c h i l d r e n fro m v a r y i n g
s o c io e c o n o m ic b a c k g r o u n d s .
7- A s t u d y i n c l u d i n g a c o m p a r is o n o f a c h ie v e m e n t i n
t h e a r e a o f p h o n i c s b e tw e e n an e x p e r i m e n t a l and
c o n t r o l g ro u p i s n e e d e d t o p r o v i d e a d d i t i o n a l
i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h i s a r e a .
8 . F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h u t i l i z i n g a l o n g e r p e r i o d o f
ti m e f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t i s n e e d e d t o d e t e r m i n e
t h e e f f e c t o f a l o n g e r tim e p e r i o d on s e l f -
c o n c e p t .
9 . A d d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h w o u ld b e h e l p f u l t o d e t e r
m in e t h e v a l u e o f c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g ^ u s i n g t h e
r e g u l a r c l a s s r o o m a s a s e t t i n g f o r t h e t u t o r i n g
e x p e r i e n c e .
10. F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s n e e d e d I n w h ic h t r a i n e d
t u t o r s a r e c o m p a re d w i t h u n t r a i n e d t u t o r s t o
d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s and n e c e s s i t y o f
t r a i n i n g i n a c r o s s - a g e t u t o r i n g p r o g ra m .
1 1 . A s t u d y s h o u l d b e c o n d u c t e d t h a t u s e s s u b j e c t s
who a r e t u t o r e d by o l d e r s t u d e n t s an d who, i n
t u r n , t u t o r y o u n g e r s t u d e n t s . T h i s m ig h t e n
c o u r a g e t h e i n d i v i d u a l s who a r e t u t o r s / t u t e e s
t o g i v e m ore a t t e n t i o n t o t h e i r own t u t o r s ,
k n o w in g t h e y w o u ld become t e a c h e r s .
12 . A s t u d y s h o u l d be c o n d u c t e d t h a t u s e s te a m s o f
t u t o r s an d t u t e e s an d c o m p a re s th e m w i t h o t h e r
te a m s . The te a m s m ig h t fo rm d i f f e r e n t p a i r s on.
a r o t a t i n g b a s i s , b u t t h e y w o u ld s t a y w i t h t h e i r
te a m . I t w o u ld be i n t e r e s t i n g t o o b s e r v e t h e
p a i r i n g , a l l o w i n g i t t o b e c o n t r o l l e d w i t h i n
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135
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APPENDICES
140
APPENDIX A
INSTRUMENT DESIGNED BY THE INVESTIGATOR
TO IDENTIFY POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE
BEHAVIORS DURING TESTING
141
p o s i t i v e / n e g a t iv e b e h a v io r s observed d u r in g t e s t in g
1. O rally expressed p le a su re about reading
2. T e lls about reading something
a t home o r school
3- M entions a book he has read
b. T e lls o f some in fo rm atio n /itern th a t
was read somewhere
5 . T e lls of someone reading to him
. 1 2 3 ^
1. E xcessive movement in c h a ir
2. O ral ex p ressio n s in d ic a tin g a d e sire
not to co n tin u e: e .g ., Do I have to
read an o th er one? I s th a t a ll?
3* Taking o b je c ts from pockets
Q uestions or comments th a t would
tend to focus a tte n tio n away from
reading or q u estio n s
5- Reading in a high p itc h e d o r s tra in e d
voice
14 2
APPENDIX B
IQ SCORES ON THE SLOSSON INTELLIGENCE TEST
AND PRE- AND POST-GRADE LEVEL SCORES
ON THE GILMORE ORAL READING TEST
FOR THE THREE RESEARCH GROUPS
143
SLOSSON
IQ SCORES O N TH E SLOSSON A N D G R A D E LEVEL
SCORES O N THE GILM ORE:
PILOT G R O U P
GILM ORE
Accuracy Comprehension
pre p o st p re p o st
99
6 .4 6 .1 2 .8
8 .7
83 4.5 4 .3 2 .3
3-4
93
3.8
4 .3
4.2
7.5
73 '
5 .0 6.2 2 .1 5-8
75
5.0 5 .4
2 .3
6.2
83^
3-6
5 .1
1 .4 3.6
91
6 .1 7.0
1 .3
6.2
72
1-9
2.8 1.0 4.1
85 2 .4 4.1
3-1
4 .8
Q k^
4 .3 5-5
2 .1
8 .7
92 2 .1 4.2 1 .0 3-8
79
4 .8 5.2
2 .3
5 .8
90 4 .1 5.2 3-4 5-4
89 3.8 4 .8 3 .8 5-4
5-1 5 .1
2 .8 3 .4
97
6 .1 6.2
3 .1
6.2
85 3.5 4.5
2 .8 5-8
75
4.2 4.6 2 .1 2 .8
97 4.5
4.8
6 .7 6 .7
79 5.9
6.6 4.2 4.2
89 3.0 4.6 3 .4
7.5
85 5.3 5-1
2 .6 4 .8
109
4 .3
4 .8 4.2
7.5
88 3.6
5 .1 3 .1 5 .1
8 V
3-9
4.2 3 .4 2 .8
93
6 .4 6 .4 5 .8
7.1
91
3-8
4.5
6 .2
5 .1
91
5 .0 4.6 4 .8 2 .8
8 <^
6 .4 7.4
3-1
6.2
A
t
144
145
IQ SCORES O N THE SLOSSON A N D G R A D E LEVEL
SCORES O N THE GILMORE:
EXPERIM ENTAL G R O U P
GILM ORE
Accuracy Comprehension
SLOSSON pre post pre post
91
2.6 2.8 4.8 5 .4
82 2.8 4.8
3.1
5 .4
99 2.5
3.8
7.1 7.5
96 4.5 5.4 8.4 9 .0
90 3.6
5.1
3.4 5 .4
110 3.6
5.5
C O
•
-3 -
7.1
101 7.4 8.4 4.1
9.5
91 3.9
C \J
•
-3 -
3.8
5 .4
92 3.6
4.5
4.2
6 .7
9 0 / 4.1 4.8 3.4
7.1
97
3.6 4.9
6.2
9.5
100
4.3 5.9
2.1 5 .4
88
3.5 4.3
3.4 5 .8
113
2 .8
2.9
2.6 5 .4
8L .
3.2
3.9 5 .1
9 .0
103 4.2
5.9 7.1
8.0
105
4 .3 4.5
4.8 9.2
99 2 .7 5.5 7.1
8.0
116
3.9
6.1 3.8
7.5
102 .
y
3 .4 4.9 2.8 4.2
80 3.2 4.3 1.9
4.2
89 4.1
5.9 3.1 5 .8
95
2.2 3.4 4.8 2 .8
90
3.1
2.6 2.6 4.1
146
I Q S C O R E S O N T H E S L O S S O N A N D G R A D E L E V E L
S C O R E S O N T H E G I L M O R E :
C O N T R O L G R O U P
G I L M O R E
A c c u r a c y C o m p r e h e n s i o n
S L O S S O N p re p o st pre p o st
102 3.6
5 .7
2 .8 5 .8
80
4.5
4.3 5 .4 3.6
75 3-9 3.3
3.4 4 .8
76 4.2 4.1 1.0
2 .3
82 2 .2
2.9 1-9
4.1
91^
3.2 4 .8 5 .8
3.1
85
4 .1 4.2 3.1 3 .4
84 3.6 4.2 6.2 4.1
76 4 .8
3.9
4 .1
5 .1
9 9 ^ 3.5
3 .8 3-8
7.5
87
4 .8
5 .1
2 .6 1.8
92 4.3
4.5 3.1
5 .4
84 2.6
2 .9
3.4 3.8
103 4 .8 4 .8 3.4 4.8
00
\ H
\
2 .7 3.5 6 .7
3.8
85
4.2
5 .7
3.8 4.1
77 4.3
4.6 6.2
7-5
96 3 .4 4.2 3.8
2 .3
71
2 .8
3-7
2 .6 5.8
7 6 ,
2 .4
2 .7
2 .8 3.4
12 2 .4 4.1 2 .1 3.4
94 3.6 4.8
3.1
3.8
82 2 .6 4.1
3 .1
5 .8
APPENDIX C
SOCIOECONOMIC INFORMATION FOR THE
THREE RESEARCH GROUPS
147
SOCIOECONOMIC BACK G RO U N D
C EN SU S T R A C T IN FO R M A TIO N FO R T H E PILOT R E SE A R C H G R O U P
A N D T H E C O N T R O L G R O U P
Research
Group
Mean Value
of H om e
Percent
Rental
Median
Rental
Percent
Ownership
Median
S alaries
p/c $22,001 k l 60
53
$1^,069
p/c* 9,700
52 66 kQ 4,615
CEN SU S TEA C T IN FO R M A TIO N FO R T H E EX PER IM EN TA L G R O U P
E $10,733 61
76
39 $ 5.872
*Neighborhood Attendance Area.
APPENDIX D
CORRESPONDENCE WITH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION
AND TEACHERS CONCERNING THE STUDY
149
September 22, 1972
Mr. John F o rten b e r ry
A s s is ta n t S uperintendent o f In s tru c tio n
L i t t l e Rock P u b lic Schools
L i t t l e Rock, Arkansas
Dear Mr. F o rte n b erry :
I would lik e to submit a req u est to conduct a re se a rc h p ro je c t
w ith in your elem entary sch o o ls. B rie fly , I am in te r e s te d in using
f i f t h grade p u p ils as tu to r s f o r second grade c h ild re n , in o rd er to
determ ine th e e f f e c t upon th e read in g s k i l l s of th e f i f t h grade p u p ils .
S p e c ific a lly , I would conduct th e resea rch in th e fo llo w in g man
n e r:
Step 1 : Through exam ination of e x is tin g t e s t sco res, I would
compile a l i s t of f i f t h grade p u p ils , who scored one or more grades
below t h e i r expected grade le v e l. Names would be randomly se le c te d
from t h i s group f o r in c lu sio n in c o n tro l and experim ental groups.
I would lik e to complete th e re se a rc h w ith a t l e a s t 50 c h ild re n in
each group, which would re q u ire 6O-65 a t th e o u ts e t. Both c o n tro l
and experim ental groups would be given th e t e s t s a t th e beginning
and end of th e p e rio d , but only h a lf would be involved in th e p ro je c t
(approxim ately 60).
Step 2 : T e sts would be ad m in istered to a l l c h ild re n in both
groups. These t e s t s would include an in d iv id u a l read in g t e s t , a
phonic in v en to ry , and a read in g a ttitu d e t e s t . This would involve
20-25 m inutes p e r c h ild .
150
151
Page 2
Step 3 ; I would go to th e v a rio u s schools and meet w ith th e
c h ild re n who had been se le c te d f o r th e a c tu a l p ro je c t and e x p lain
th e program and fa m ilia riz e them w ith m a te ria ls . The m a te ria ls
would c o n s is t la rg e ly of hooks and games, which I would p ro v id e.'
Step k : The second and f i f t h grade te a c h e rs would need to
decide upon a tim e th a t th e f i f t h g rad ers could do th e tu to r in g .
H opefully, t h i s would he a 20 m inute p e rio d , two o r th re e tim es a
week. Second grade te a c h e rs would send c h ild re n who need h elp in
read in g . T his tu to rin g could tak e p lace in th e Prim ary I I c la s s
rooms, hut would p o ss ib ly be b e tt e r f o r those involved, as w ell as
t h e i r c lassm ates, i f th e y could be allow ed to use th e c a f e te r ia or
some o th e r p lace o u tsid e th e rooms.
A fte r the tu to rin g se ssio n s b eg in , I would re tu rn to meet w ith
th e f i f t h grade c h ild re n approxim ately once every two weeks. This
would be a b r i e f m eeting f o r th e purpose of c la r if i c a t io n and p ro
v id in g d if f e r e n t m a te ria ls . I f f e a s ib le , t h i s could be done during
th e noon re c e s s . I would lik e th e tu to rin g se ssio n s to continue
fo r approxim ately six months, a t which tim e I would r e - t e s t a l l
c h ild re n .
The prim ary disadvantage to th e te a c h e r would be fin d in g a tim e
to re le a s e c h ild re n f o r th e tu to rin g and te s tin g se ssio n s. I would,
of course, share sco res and r e s u lts w ith th e te a c h e rs and schools
involved.
Thank you fo r your tim e and c o n sid e ra tio n .
S in c e re ly ,
C arol Snelson
152
D e a r ( T e a c h e r ’ s N a m e ) :
I h a v e liste d th e c h ild r e n , - w h o h a v e s c o r e s in d ic a tin g th e y h a v e
r e a d in g d iffic u ltie s, I n a d d itio n , I h a v e liste d c h ild r e n w h o h a v e
n o s c o r e s . If, in y o u r o p in io n , te s tin g m i g h t s h o w th e s e c h ild r e n
to h e h e l o w g r a d e le v e l in r e a d in g , w o u l d y o u s o in d ic a te . If th e y
d o n o t h a v e p r o b l e m s w ith r e a d in g , p le a s e c r o s s o u t th e ir n a m e s .
A ls o , if y o u fe e l th e r e a r e o th e r c h ild r e n in y o u r r o o m w h o a r e a
y e a r o r m o r e h e l o w th e ir e je c te d r e a d in g le v e l, w o u l d y o u a d d th e ir
n a m e s ,
P le a s e c irc le th e n a m e s o f all c h ild r e n w h o a r e r e c e iv in g s p e c ia l
h e lp fro m th e r e a d in g te a c h e r .
P u t a c h e c k h y th e c h ild ’ s n a m e if h e is r e c e iv in g h e lp fro m a
R U N v o lu n te e r .
T h a n k y o u ,
C a r o l S n e l s o n

Asset Metadata

Creator Snelson, Carol Dee (author)

Core Title The effects of cross-age tutoring on the reading achievement and self-concept of tutors at the intermediate level

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, reading,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-481485

Unique identifier UC11246058

Identifier usctheses-c26-481485 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP24676.pdf

Dmrecord 481485

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Snelson, Carol Dee

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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