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An experimental model of organizational development for institutions of higher education

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An experimental model of organizational development for institutions of higher education

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Content AN EXPERIMENTAL MODEL OF ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
FOR INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION
by
M. Masoud Givrad
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Education)
January 1978
UMI Number: DP24279
All rights reserved
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a note will indicate the deletion.
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U N IV E R S IT Y O F S O U T H E R N C A L IF O R N IA
T H E G R A D U A T E S C H O O L
U N IV E R S IT Y P A R K
LO S A N G E L E S , C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, w ritten by
M. Masoud Givrad
under the direction of h.P P ... Dissertation C o m
mittee, and approved by a ll its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Graduate
School, in p artial fu lfillm e n t of requirements of
the degree of
O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
Ph.D.
Ed
>78
G-53^
C/
p*v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Special appreciation is extended to Professor
Wallace R. Muelder who spent long hours of his
valuable time to discuss the subject of this
dissertation with me.
Many thanks go to Dr. Frank Adshead, an out
standing teacher and practitioner in the field of
organizational development, whose excellence in
teaching and practice inspired me to undertake this
study.
I am particularly grateful to my gracious wife
for all her support, love, and understanding.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . < ....... ... ii
LIST OF TABLES...................................... V
LIST OF FIGURES........................................ vii
Chapter
I. THE PROBLEM.................................. 1
Background of the Problem
Statement of the Problem
Importance of the Problem
Delineation of the Research Problem
Basic Assumption
Delimitations of the Study
Limitations of the Study
Theoretical Framework of the Study
Methodological Procedures
Definitions of Terms
Organization of the Remainder of the Study
II. REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE........... 23
Organizational Development Defined
Organizational Development and Organiza
tional Change
Organizational Environment and Organiza
tional Change
Organizational Development in Higher
Education
III. METHODOLOGY ............................ 51
Importance of the Methodological
Procedure
IV. FINDINGS OF THE STUDY........................ 65
Organizational Development Values
Organizational Development Goals
Problems with Which Organizational
Development Programs Are Designed
to Deal
Typology of Interventions
iii
Chapter Page
Structural Elements vs. Process Variables
Role of the Change Agent in the
Intervention Process
Initiation of the Change Efforts
Stages of Models
Classification of Models
Level of Intervention
Organizational Development Strategies
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . 98
Summary
Conclusions
The Proposed Experimental Model
Recommendations
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................. 136
APPENDIX
Correspondence Pertaining to the Study .... 143
iv
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Relation of the OD Cases to OD Values......... 67
2. Relation of the OD Models to OD Values .... 68
3. Relation of the OD Cases to OD Goals ..... 71
4. Relation of the OD Models to OD Goals......... 72
5. Relation of the OD Cases to the Problems
With Which OD Programs Are Designed to Deal . . 74
6. Relation of the OD Models to the Problems
With Which OD Programs are Designed to Deal . . 75
7. Relation of the OD Cases to "Typology
of Interventions"........................... 77
8. Relation of the OD Models to "Typology
of Interventions" . 78
9. Relation of the OD Cases to Structural
Elements and Process Variables . . ........ 7 9
10. Relation of the OD Models to Structural
Elements and Process Variables . . ........ 79
11. Relation of the OD Cases to the Role of the
Outside Change Agent in Intervention Process . 83
12. Relation of the OD Models to the Role of the
Outside Change Agent in Intervention Process . 84
13. Relation of the OD Cases to Inside Resources
Available for Change Efforts ................. 85
14. Relation of the OD Models to Inside Resources
Available for Change Efforts ................. 86
15. Relation of the OD Cases to Initiation of
the Change Efforts ......................... 87
16. Relation of the OD Models to Initiation of
the Change Efforts......................... 88
v
Table Page
17. Relation of the OD Cases to Stages of Models . 89
18. Relation of the OD Models to Stages of Models . 90
19. Relation of the OD Cases to the
Classification of Models .................... 91
20. Relation of the OD Models to the
Classification of Models .................... 92
21. Relation of the OD Cases to the
Level of Intervention .............. . 93
22. Relation of the OD Models to the
Level of Intervention.......... 94
23. Relation of the OD Cases to OD Strategies . . . 96
24. Relation of the OD Models to OD Strategies . . 97
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1. Educational Institution as a System.......... . 13
2. Internal Features of Educational
Institutions................ 15
3. Sequential Procedure Used in the
Development of the Experimental Model ..... 17
4. Relative Standing of the Five Basic
Organizational Development Consultation Models
on a Continuum of Client-Centered to
Consultant-Centered ............................ 32
5. Sequential Illustration of the Proposed
Experimental Model of Organizational
Development for Institutions of Higher
Education.........................................134
vii
CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM
Growth is a prime objective of most institutions.
But growth, measured in terms of size, presents major
problems. As universities grow large, they may become
unwieldy. The economics of scale may be overshadowed by
the disadvantages of what organization theorists refer to
as the "bureaucratic structure."
A pervading complaint in a large university deals
with what is often missing in many bureaucratic structures;
i.e., much of the commitment that characterized the few
who started the institution, the excitement of a new ven
ture with its creative possibilities, a substantial part
of the face-to-face communication, and the vital synergy
the institution had in the beginning.
Universities may settle into a "state of medio-
cracy," intending to make a living, but losing the flexi
bility and innovativeness they once had, which formed the
basis for long-range viability.
These implications of growth have long been major
concerns in institutions of higher education; a system
hopefully aware of the need for continued innovation, as a
result of its highly changing environment.
1
The growth of a university may create all of the
negative aspects of increased size if the institution does
not consider the implications of a bureaucratic structure
for the institution as a whole and for the individuals
who compose the institution.
Critics in education have long criticized the
system of higher education on the grounds that the most
precious resource possessed by universities, the human
resource, is not being used to its full potential.
Common excuses for not adequately using human resources
are: enough managers willing to take responsibility cannot
be found, creativity and initiative are shown only by a
small minority of people, and people find reasons explain
ing why the objectives set from above are too demanding.
A popular solution presented by bureaucratic
systems for the underutilization of human resource is
often a mass of detailed instructions coupled with tight
control. This makes it possible for a system to point
out to an administrator when he is not up to standard.
This approach has been criticized on the grounds that in
the long term its results prove disappointing; also, that
a passive and reactive, rather than a positive and pro
active, spirit is created; and that administrators may
grow mechanistic, inflexible and dependent on their
superiors, and their budget forecasts become cautious so
that they are certain to keep out of trouble.
2
One solution of modern organization theory to
underutilization of human resource is development of this
resource through planned organizational change. Planned
organizational change aims for reorientation of people's
thinking and behavior toward their work and toward each
other. Coordination of the man with the rapidly changing
environment is the goal of planned organizational change.
The body of theory and practice in planned organi
zational change is referred to as "organizational develop
ment." Organizational development is a relatively new
field; one which is yet emerging and taking form.
Organizational development in higher education is
a recent but promising phenomenon. An underlying assump
tion of organizational development is that people will
respond with vitality to challenging objectives if they are
involved in establishing them and if they work in an
organizational climate which encourages self-development,
self-control, and an easy flow of communication.
The term "OD" is used in this study to refer to
"organizational development."
Background of the Problem
Much of the change which took place in higher
education during the 1960s is attributed to the fact that,
during a relatively short period of time, the number of
students doubled. The changes that occurred during this
3
period outstripped most earlier practices and introduced
new models. Tremendous attention was paid to the changes
in the composition of the student group and changes in the
students' programs. Therefore, the curriculum, for example
became a major issue during the decade of the 1960s.
The decade of the 197 0s, however, marked a new
generation of consecutive changes among which was the
internal governance of the institutions. External forces
of governance became so strong that to compensate for
them, internal governance should be brought increasingly
to the best possible working situations (Hodgkinson, 1971) .
Drastic changes in science, technology, and
economics in general during the 1970s, put the institutions
of higher education through a great deal of change.
During these years, "cope with change" became a favorite
subject for scholarly writings and discussions. There
has been a number of action research oriented efforts to
identify those factors which Blake and Mouton (196 9)
called "drag" factors in developmental activities. There
seems to be a need for movement toward the concept "form
follows function" rather than that of "tasks must fit into
existing structure" (Beckhard, 1969, p. 14).
Although institutions of higher education have
been very active in realizing the needs of the changing
society, administrations have been accused of being
reactive rather than proactive. Part of their inability
4
to cope with change is claimed to be the result of their
inclination toward more traditional administrative struc
tures; namely, hierarchical-centralized. Administration
in large universities is accused of lacking the pace of
change in academia.
This study undertook to analyze organizational
development (OD) as one solution to the problem of under
utilization of human resources in institutions of higher
education. When applied to institutions of higher
education, OD aims to develop the human resource of an
institution as a whole in a harmonious, orchestrated, and
meaningful way.
Statement of the Problem
The purpose of this study was to develop an
experimental model of organizational development for
institutions of higher education by answering the follow
ing questions:
1. Is there sufficient data in the field of
organizational development to suggest the use of organize^
tional development programs in higher education?
2. Can the data be structuralized in order to
develop an experimental model of organizational develop
ment for institutions of higher education?
3. Is there a consensus among educational special
ists with regard to: (a) the role of institutions of
5
higher education in initiation, design, and implementation
of organizational development programs, and (b) the
sequence of phases of an experimental model of organiza
tional development for institutions of higher education as
presented in this study?
importance of the Problem
Concern with the administrative teams composed of
highly qualified personnel, and, as a current priority,
of college and university administrators, has given impetus
to organizational development (OD) programs in institu
tions of higher education. Although implementation of OD
programs may constitute a step forward in the achievement
of certain goals, the design of such programs is of major
importance in order that they can effectively fulfill the
aims for which they were created. Therefore, a study
whose purpose was to build a model of an experimental
organizational development program appeared to be feasible,
timely, and necessary.
The importance of such a model can be summarized
as follows: (a) it may contribute to the preparation of
qualified educational administrators, (b) it introduces a
new and promising approach, i.e., organizational training,
in the design of the OD programs, and (c) since one of the
spin-offs of OD programs is the reduction of the cost of
administrative services through increasing efficiency
6
and effectiveness of executives and staff, the experimental
model developed in this study may be considered by institu
tions of higher education in any cost-effectiveness analy
sis of their operations. The cost factor has always been
a variable in educational decision-making equations.
During the past few years, the cost of administrative
services has been continuously rising and it has become
more and more expensive to procure services of qualified
top executives.
Delineation of the Research Problem
Organizational development, as used in this study,
differs from cognitive change strategy and T-group strategy
(Schmuck et al., 1972).
Cognitive change strategy is based on the assump
tion that knowledge of social psychology and administrative
science will lead to changes in the group behavior of
individuals, which in turn will help to improve the func
tioning of the staff to which they belong.
The T-group is an effective change strategy which
helps to provide a participant with the opportunity to
explore the impact of his behavior on others and experi
ence the forces affecting a group's commitment to a
decision, its cohesiveness, level of trust, and its open
ness. Although T-group is an effective change strategy
on the individual level, there is not enough research
7
evidence to support its effectiveness on the organizational
level (Campbell and Dunnette, 1968; Friedlander, 1968;
Lansky and Runkel, 1969).
Organizational development, as used in this study,
always contains at least the following four features:
1. Training the organization's subsystems as
working groups rather than individuals
2. Training in communication skills
3. Training in group problem-solving
4. h development sequence of experiential training
that moves from simulations and exercises performed away
from normal operation of the institution to problem
solving on real issues in the work setting.
Organizational training, as used in this study,
covers a complete cycle of intervention which in most cases
includes: entering, diagnosis, introductory training,
assessing and feedback, follow-up training, and withdraw
ing. Organizational training does not aim to change the
personalities of participants in regard to their relation
ships with persons off the job. Rather, it is concerned
with the changes in the functioning of the work-groups and
the ways in which roles are carried out.
Basic Assumption
Educational management and administration is a
profession similar to other management and administrative
positions in the sense that it requires of its
8
practitioners the possession of specific knowledge,
abilities, and skills, i.e., the possession of the tools
of the profession.
Delimitations of the Study
The present study was delimited to the design of
an experimental model of organizational development pro
grams for implementation in institutions of higher
education. The model has restricted its scope to the
definition of a set of core phases of organizational
development programs which supposedly aid educational
administrators in the practice of their profession.
The theoretical models adopted for the develop
ment of the experimental model did not assume the inclu
sion of all the elements of organizational development
programs, but only those which supposedly do not require
immediate changes within institutional organization.
Both the proposed content and the structure of the proposed
experimental model are not based on the actual empirical
data, but are rather based on the hypothetical extrapola
tions from theoretical models and case studies reviewed
and reported in Chapter IV of the study.
Furthermore, the review of the related literature
in Chapter II was delimited to the period between 19 67 to
1977, except for a few references which were published
prior to 19 67 but appeared to be essential to the purpose
of the study.
9
Limitations of the Study
The experimental model developed in this study,
as any other experimental model, was not intended to con
stitute a finished product. Furthermore, it has included
only a limited set of illustrations for each one of the
core phases which were identified as necessary to the
profession of educational administration. Therefore, it
is expected that the present model merely represents a
starting point and is not to be considered as a definitive
answer to the problems of adaptation in institutions of
higher education. Obviously, changes will emerge from
future research findings as well as from the implementation
of the model itself.
Theoretical Framework of the Study
The foregoing discussion was intended to provide
a theoretical framework for the development and presenta
tion of the experimental model. To fulfill this objective,
the theoretical model constructed by Schmuck et al. (1972)
was employed. Their theoretical model utilizes systems
theory to demonstrate the relationship and interdependence
of subsystems, and suits the purposes of the present study.
A summary of the theoretical framework follows;
Four, postulates are basic to the analysis of an
educational institution as a system; (a) the system is
constituted of components, ( f c > ) as a living system it is
10
goal oriented, (c) the system displays varying degrees of
openness in communication, and (d) the system contains a
variety of resources and plans (variety pool).
Although an OD program takes the idea of "whole
system" into consideration, it is most efficient when
dealing with subsystems identified on a rational basis.
Furthermore, the theoretical framework suggests
that organizational development should focus on relation
ships within and between subsystems. By focusing on the
communication among subsystems and clarifying the process,
organizational development can help subsystems to set up
their goals in conjunction with one another.
Subsystems display varying degrees of openness.
The more open a subsystem is to the influence of other sub
systems, the more useful it is to the system as a whole.
Facilitation of the communication is aimed toward maximi
zation of openness.
The effectiveness of training interventions is to
some extent dependent upon the access of the institution
to the variety resources. Availability of resources is
termed "variety pool." Organizational development improves
the use of the variety pool. As a result of this, new or
ad hoc subsystems may be created. An example would be
problem solving groups.
Another factor affecting the effectiveness of
training interventions is the adaptability of the system.
11
In fact, prior to intervention, the effectiveness of
organizational training may be evaluated by assessing the
adaptability of the system.
The major factors deciding the adaptability of a
system are: (a) receptiveness to the environment, (b)
responsiveness to the environment, and (c) accessibility
to the variety pool. Figure 1 illustrates the preceding
discussion.
Internal Features of Educational
Institutions with which OD is Concerned
1. Differentiation and integration. The ultimate
aim of training intervention is to optimize the adapt
ability chracters of a system. This is, however, a
laborious job because one has to deal with a number of
variables at the same time. So, often, the training agent
starts with fixing a number of variables in order to be
able to deal effectively with others. This is termed the
process of differentiation. By differentiation, organi
zational development clarifies the functions of each sub
system and then, by integration, relates them to each
other. The change agent should study the following
characteristics of subsystems: (a) structural formality,
(b) goal orientations, (c) time orientations, and (d)
interpersonal relations.
2. Norms. A norm exists when there are shared
12
Educational
institution
as a System
Processes vital to
adaptabi1i ty:
1. Receptiveness
to environment
2. Responsiveness
to environment
3. Accessabi1ity
of variety pool
0 1
0 )
+ - >
O J
Z J
+ j
0 1
O
0_
1_
D
o
1 . Is consti tuted
of components
3. Displays varying
degrees of openness
in communication
k. Contains variety of
resources and plans
2. Is goal oriented
>-
cn
< D
4->
( o
Ol
c
n j
N
c
n j
oi
L.
o
Dl
C
z s
0 1
a )
a c
1. Organizational training
deals with subsystems and
communication among them.
2. Organizational training
helps subsystems to set
up thei r goals .
3. Organizational training
maximizes usefulness of
subsystems by enhancing
thei r openness.
k. Organizational training
improves the maximum use
of variety resources
(variety pool)
Figure 1— Educational Institution as a System
H
OJ
expectations that a given behavior within a specified
context will be approved or disapproved. Behavioral norms
of an institution are a part of organizational life upon
which the change agent can operate directly. Norms can
facilitate the change as well as make the people resistant
to modifications.
3. Roles. Differentiation and integration
between and within subsystems is manifested in the inter
action of roles. Role-taking is always done as part of an
interaction with other role-takers. Therefore, OD will be
ineffective to the extent that it deals with organization
al members in isolation. Rather, such intervention should
involve the integration of behavior patterns of two or more
role-reciprocators.
4. Motivational patterns. Motivational patterns
of the group are important to study because they delineate
the areas in which the group invests emotion. A substan
tial body of research shows that men invest emotion in at
least three domains; achievement, affiliation, and power.
Figure 2 illustrates internal features of educational
institutions.
Following is a list of subgoals or action steps
for this theoretical model;
1. Clarifying communication
2. Establishing goals
3. Uncovering conflicts and interdependence
14
Role of Training Agent
Training agent will study the
norms of each subsystem
Roles
1. Differentiation
and integration
Motivational
patterns
2. Norms
Training agent will study the
roles of organizational members
in an interactive manner
Training agent will study the
motivational patterns of
each group
Training agent will study:
1. structural formality
2. goal orientations
3. time orientations
4. interpersonal relations
Internal features of
educational institu
tions with which
organizational training
is concerned
Figure 2. Internal Features of Educational Institutions
4. Improving group procedures
5. Solving problems
6. Making decisions
7. Assessing changes
Metho do1o g id a1 Pro cedure s
The methodological approach used in this study
consisted of a sequence which was devised to develop the
experimental model. The sequence is illustrated in the
paradigm portrayed in Figure 3 in which eight key steps
are specified as follows:
1. A review of the related literature in the field
of OD in general, with specific attention paid to the
implementation of OD programs in the field of educational
administration.
2. A review of the selected theoretical OD models
in order to provide background for the development of the
model.
3. A review of the selected case studies dealing
with implementation of OD programs in the institutions of
higher education.
4. The'development of a framework of analysis
based on the preceding steps.
5. The analysis and tabulation of the selected
OD models and OD case studies based on the framework of
analysis developed in the preceding step.
6. The development of the experimental model based
16
Analysis of OD models
and case studies
Development of the
framework of analysis
Development of the
experimental mode1
Submission of model
to panel of experts
Review of the case
studies
Review of the related
literature
Review of the OD
models
8. Incorporation of
suggestions into
the model
Figure 3. Sequential Procedure Used in the Development
of the Experimental Model
17
on the preceding steps.
7. The submission of the experimental model to a
panel of educational specialists who are known to possess
the knowledge and interest necessary for the performance
of a meaningful critique.
8. The incorporation of the suggestions into the
experimental model.
Definitions of Terms
The following terms are defined as they were used
in this study.
Change: A shift from one established pattern of
behavior or status to another so as to lead to growth
and development.
Change agent; The one whose primary responsibility
is to facilitate the improvement of organization effective
ness and health through providing interventions, develop
ment activities, and programs for organizational improve
ment.
Change managers: Those people, such as the chief
executive of the organization or the head of a unit, who
are responsible for the organization's operations and
effectivenessf and who must accept major management
responsibility in a planned organization or unit-wide
change effort.
Client system: Also designated as target system.
This term refers to the party who asks for help and
18
desires some change in performance. A party may be a
group, an organization, or a community.
Consulting: Advising on present practices or
planning for new practices either of the total system or
of subsystems.
Diagnosis: Means examining the need for change and
evaluating the state of the system.
Education; Those phases of OD in which some part
of the system, or parts of the system, are engaged in an
effort which is primarily learning-oriented rather than
action-oriented.
Evaluation; Continuing investigation of the
effects of a change program on the total organization.
Goals; For the purposes in this study, any
conscious and deliberate programs that aim specifically
at certain results.
Groups; The word "group" means different things
to different people. To some people, a "group" means a
number of persons working together in a field or sitting
fa,ce to face in a single room. To other people, the
important element regarding groups is not merely physical
proximity but membership in, or loyalty to, an official
organization,
For purposes of this study, a group consists of
two or more persons who share norms about certain things
and whose social roles are closely interlocking. An
aggregate of people may become a group as a result of 19
long interaction with a set of norms and roles of their
own.
Management development: Includes career planning,
job rotation, management education in and out of the
organization, appraisal and review, etc., for the manage
ment team. Management development focuses on individuals,
while OD is concerned with groups.
Management of change; Characterized by a process
of conscious, deliberate, and collaborative efforts on
the part of the organization toward some specific goal.
Organization; A system which has a more or less
clearly defined and specialized function requiring the
loyalty and labor of a group of people who are organized
into a relatively systematic relationship and whose efforts
are coordinated by some kind of formal leadership struc
ture. This includes business organizations, welfare
agencies, educational institutions, government bureaus,
religious and private associations, political parties, etc.
Organizational change: A configuration of tasks,
subsystems, influence relationships, budgetary processes
or other relationships such that the new configuration
can be described as different or changed from what went
before, but whose effect is to increase the overall
adaptiveness or effectiveness of the organization.
Organizational development (OD); "An effort
planned, organization-wide and managed from the top to
20
increase organization effectiveness and health through
planned interventions in the organization's 'processes'
using behavioral science knowledge" (Beckhard, 1969, p. 9).
Organizationa1 growth; An increase in organiza
tional size, measured by a number of people, departments,
amount of technology, volume of financial flow, or area of
society affected by the organization's activities.
Process. Progressive actions (characterized by
regularity) performed by persons to move an organization
from one state to another.
Strategy: A plan or course of action involving
manipulation in order to achieve a pre-determined
obj ective.
Strategy planning; Developing a plan for organi
zational improvement, including the determination as to
what systems are to be engaged and in what order, what
activities should be initiated, and what resources are
needed.
Training: One phase of OD, but not synonymous
with OD. Training is a useful effort, but when used as
a single activity cannot be expected necessarily to pro~
duce organizational change.
Organization of the Remainder of the Study
The remaining chapters of this study are organized
as follows:
Chapter II review the related literature to
21
build a conceptual background for the development of the
experimental model. Chapter III describes the method
ological procedures of the study. In Chapter IV the
findings of the theoretical models and case studies
reviewed are presented.
Chapter V of the study presents the major findings
of the study. Conclusions together with the proposed
experimental model are cited and recommendations are made.
A bibliography and appendix- * conclude the study.
22
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE
One of the basic theoretical concerns in higher
education which has arisen in a different way during the
past few years is the relationship between a university
and its environment. Although this issue has been the
focus of scholarly discussions for several years, the
relationship is now being examined in terms of its implica
tions on a societal level.
A considerable amount of scholarly writing suggest
that the relationship between a university and its environ
ment is indeed an issue to be seriously studied (Bennis,
1966; Biller, 1971; Emery and Trist, 1965; Lawrence and
Lorsch, 1967) . The effects of environment on a university
are known to be fourfold as follows:
1. Environment affects the definition of effec
tiveness of a university
2. Environment affects the behaviors which can
occur within a university
3. Environment affects the structure of authority
in a university
4. Environment affects the character and quality
of human and technological resources which a university
23
can effectively employ.
The degree of success of an experimental model
for organizational development in institutions of higher
education depends largely on the extent to which the
design takes into account the relationship between the
institutions of higher education and their environment.
The underlying theme of this chapter is the
relationship between institutional environments and
institutional change. The following issues are explored:
1. A conceptual framework which differentiates
between various types of organizational environments.
2. A conceptual framework of how different types
of environments affect different types of organizations
3. A conceptual framework for exploring which
circumstances are, or are not, likely to encourage
organizational change
4. A conceptual framework of which kinds of
relationships between the organization and its environment
promote positive change and which kinds do not.
Organizational Development Defined
Bennis (1969, p. 17) emphasized that organizational
development (OD) was not synonymous with sensitivity
training, although it may use sensitivity training as a
strategy. Organizational development should not be
mistaken for "permissive leadership" either, although it
provides for more delegation of authority and responsibil
ity. Organizational development does not adhere to any
particular management style or management system, such as
those defined by Likert, other than an open and confronta
tional one.
In defining organizational development it is very
important not to become confused with the definitions of
OD strategies. An all inclusive single definition of OD
would probably be a lengthy one, too. In search of a
comprehensive definition of OD one needs to differentiate
between OD and technologies such as management develop
ment. Burke (1971, pp. 569-579) presented a comparative
typology that differentiated between management develop
ment and OD based on the following characteristics:
(a) reasons for use, (b) typical goals, .(c) interventions
for producing change, (d) time frame, (e) staff require
ments, and (f) values.
Burke (1971) further emphasized that OD programs
include the total system while other programs are designed
to improve only some aspects of the organization. The
following four definitions presented by the prominent
writers in the field of OD further delineate the concept
of OD:
1. "OD is a process of continual organizational
renewal. The process is one of constantly examining the
way organizational systems are functioning and looking
25
for ways of improving these functions” (Burke, 1971, p.
579) .
2. "... a realistic behavioral unit of develop
ment is found in the organization. The behavioral unit
becomes the organization membership including all the
significant variables such as policies, rules, regulations,
reward and punishment system, production controls, informal
social systems, etc. The organization, then, is the
environment within which individuals and groups perform
and interrelate toward accomplishing organizational aims.
In this sense, the organization is the critical unit of
development" (Blake and Mouton, 1964, p. 261).
3. "Organization development (OD) is a response
to change, a complex educational strategy intended to
change the beliefs, attitudes, values and structure of
organizations so that they can better adapt to new tech
nologies, markets, and challenges, and the dizzying rate
of change itself. Organization development is new and
still emerging, only a decade old, so its shape and
potentiality are far from granted and its problems far
from solved" (Bennis, 1969, p. 2).
4. "Organizational development is an effort
(a) planned, (b) organization-wide, and (c) managed from
the top, to (d) increase organizational effectiveness and
health through (e) planned interventions in the organiza
tion's "processes,1 using behavioral-science knowledge"
(Beckhard, 1969, p. 9). 26
Kirkhart (1973) concluded that a comprehensive
definition of OD necessarily includes the idea of the
total system.
Organizational Development and Organizational Change
. Organizational development (OD) as a body of
theory and practice is a relatively new field, one which
is yet emerging and taking form. The formal history of
OD dates only to 195 7-1958, about two decades ago. How
ever, the conceptual antecedents of OD, as well as certain
terminological and procedural precursors, can be traced
to the post-World War ii era.
For about a decade after World War II, there was
a dual emphasis on individual training and organizational
planning. This unintentional dual emphasis did not lead
to better organizational change. In the summer of 194 6,
Kurt Lewin, Ronald Lippit, Leland Bradford, and Kenneth
Benne were asked by the Connecticut Interracial Commission
to conduct a training program and report the results to
the Committee. It was out of this program that the idea
and concept of "T-group" was developed.
In the summer of 194 7, National Training Labora
tories (_NTL) was established with the support of the
National Education Association (NEA). The primary concern
of NTL during its formative years was continued experi
mentation with, and development of, the laboratory method
as a training tool and learning experience.
27
By the summer of 1950, the Basic Skill Training
Groups had evolved into T-groups. The purpose being to
accommodate the change in their function from emphasizing
skill training and social change to an emphasis on inter
personal and intrapersonal learning. Commitment to con
tinued experimentation with the laboratory method on the
part of Bradford, Benne, Gibb, Lippit, and others who were
in the forefront of the training field, had great impact
upon changing traditional training methods.
In a concentrated effort, however, attention was
diverted from the need for concomitant change in the scope
and focus of the application to those methods necessary
to realize the notion of training as a planned program of
individual and organizational growth. It was not until
the late 19 50s, almost a decade after the inception of the
laboratory method, that NTL and its affiliated members
became active in the application of the laboratory method
in a planned program of organizational growth and develop
ment.
The conviction of the early 1960s was that T-
group learning was readily transferable to the institu
tional situation. However, the NTL assessment programs
disclosed that after a short time back on the job, the
trained administrators were less effective than their
counterparts who had not received training. This post-
training decrease in effectiveness was attributed to the
28
fact that the new skills and attitudes acquired through
training were incompatible with the ways in which their
subordinates, peers, supervisors, and organization at
large, expected them to perform. Thus, they either had to
oppose others or resume practices which they thought to be
less effective than those they had learned in training.
Disappointing conclusions of this nature led many
of those involved in organizational training programs to
conclude that effective training programs: (a) must be
concerned with the organizational setting as well as with
individual behavior patterns, and (b) must deal with a sub
system or a particular organizational level as a whole.
Recognition of the validity and potential effec
tiveness of an approach to training which reflected con
cern for both the forces within the individual and the
forces in the organizational situation stimulated a search
for new OD models. A wide variety of models was developed
and implemented. The Institute of Industrial Relations,
at the University of California at Los Angeles, encouraged
the use of vertically structured training groups in an
effort to attend to the individual in the context of his
organizational unit.
Floyd Mann, Rensis Likert, Daniel Katz, and others
from the University of Michigan's Survey Research Center
developed the "survey-feedback” technique as a means of
relating individual data to the work group.
29
Darwin Cartwright, at the Research Center for Group
Dynamics at the University of Michigan, formulated a series
of steps for diagnosing, planning, and acting upon organi
zational change. These and numerous other models and
programs attempted to maximize the effectiveness of OD
activities by integrating the emphasis upon the individual
and the organization.
In 1954, Neely D. Gardner introduced training as
"a framework for action1 1 in the Training Division of the
California State Personnel Board. This model had two
substantive goals: (a) to provide a climate in a public
agency which would permit 'not only training to be given,
but would also facilitate the utilization of the results
of that training, and (b) to develop the concept that
training is an integral part of the organizational
process.
Five basic organizational development consulta
tion models were developed during this period in the
history of OD as follows:
1. Direct services— purchase model
2. Diagnostic services--doctor/patient model
3. Advice-giving— expert model
4. Problem-solving— psychotherapeutic assistance
model
5. C!ient^development--ptocess model
30
Figure 4 illustrates the relative standing of the
five basic organizational development consultation models
on a continuum of client-centered to consultant-
centered.
Organizational Environment and Organizational Change
During the past few decades, "change" has become a
popular issue, A body of literature has developed around
the concept of change to the extent that Fennis (.1966,
p. 20) argued against change just for the sake of
change; however, chief executive officers were increasingly
encouraged to use the services of "change agents" for the
purpose of coordinating themselves more harmoniously with
the changing environment.
The reality is that the problem of ’ ’ change" is
much more complex than most would think. The subtlety of
the problem is partly explained by the interdependence of
organization and its environment. This part of the pre
sent chapter undertakes to explore the relationship of the
organization to its environment.
Argyris (1971) wrote that the relationship between
the organization and its environment has an important
bearing upon the way an organizational system behaves.
An important phenomenon that has developed during the past
few years is the more systematic development of theories
of change. It has promoted our understanding of which
situations are more likely to lead to change and which
31
Consultant-Centered
Client DeveL lent
Problem-So ng
Advice-giving
Diagm ic Services
Services Dir
Client-Centered
>
Effectiveness
>
Time
^
Involvement______________
Commitment_______________
Cost
>
Figure 4. Relative Standing of the Five Basic Organiza
tional Development Consultation Models on a
Continuum of Client-Centered to Consultant-
Centered
32
are not.
Emery and Trist (1965), at the Tavistock Institute
Human Resource Center, were among the very first organiza
tional theorists to discuss this theoretical concern.
Many of the concepts to be discussed were originally
developed by Emery and Trist. Their contributions to the
field of organizational theory can be classified as:
(a) the conceptualization of a new type of environment,
(b) a new way of looking at environment, and (c) the
development of an analytical method of examining the
organization-environment relationship.
Emery and Trist (196 5) constructed a typology of
environments. A "placid" environment is one in which the
level of energy exchanged between organizations in that
environment is low and not likely to promote change. A
"turbulent" environment is one in which the energy exchang
ed between organizations is high, and likely to create new
relationships and promote change. If there is a great
deal of organizational interaction in a particular environ
ment, it is called "clustered." If the possibility of
such interaction is low then it is called "random."
An early industrial environment is characterized
as random and placid. An industrial environment is
characterized as placid but clustered, A late industrial
environment is characterized as turbulent but random.
Only a post-industrial environment possessed both
* 33
turbulent and clustered characteristics, meaning that
there is a high rate of energy exchanged between organiza
tions in that environment and there is a high possibility
of organizational interaction.
The early industrial environment has its roots in
Western history. There is little organizational inter
action and little, if a,ny, energy exchange in early
industrial environments (Schmuck and Welford, 1972).
Tasks are routinfzed to insure maximum stability, in
other words, repetition is a value.
In an industrial environment, organizations have
reached a point in which they actively interact, but the
rate of energy exchange is still very low. In order to
insure their survival, organizations are highly competitive
instead of collaborative. There is a distinct effort
made by organizations as well as social subsystems to
distinguish their activities from others. Woodrow Wilson*s
(1887) attempt to differentiate between political and
administrative systems during the 1880s is an example of
such distinction.
In a late industrial environment, social subsystems
are closely interrelated. Ellul (1964) explained that in
an industrial society there seems to be a full-speed move
toward mechanizing everything. In fact, one survives by
being innovative in the technological sense. Social
subsystems are heavily influenced by the effects of
34
technology.
In a late industrial society, energy exchange
among organizations is high (Presthus, 1965, p. 59). But
the interactions between organizations still remain random,
meaning that each organization tries to keep its strategy
and tactics secret from the other organizations. The
possibility of change is greater in this environment than
in that of the other two environments mentioned previously.
A constant and accelerated pace of change charact
erizes the post-industrial environment. As Emery and Trist
(19 65) wrote, not only the subsystems are moving but the
ground is in constant motion, too. Uncertainty becomes a
common phenomenon because of the unplanned continuous
interactions among organizations.
Toffler (1970) wrote that in a post-industrial
society, widespread education in all fields will result
in a more equal distribution of power between socialf
economical and political subsystems. Organizations will
find themselves in a situation where there is no other
choice than collaborating with other organizations. The
problems they face will be too complex to be solved by one
organi zation,
Chandler ( . 1962) identified four organizational
structures which may be associated with the four types of
environments explained by Emery and Trist. The four
environments are: Cal pre-bureaucracy, (b) centralized
35
bureaucracy, (c) decentralized bureaucracy, and (d) non
bureaucracy, According to Chandler, the closer an
environment gets to type four, the more its structure
becomes open and receptive to change.
The above association of types of environments
with types of organizational structure does not always
apply. But, it is one way to conceptualize the relation
ship between organizational structure arid environment.
It gives further insight into the process of design and
implementation of OD programs in the sense that objectives
of change efforts have to be realistic and match the type
of environment they are dealing with.
A critical point made by Fuller (1969) is that the
above typology and associated organizational structures
do not necessarily apply to developing countries. The
reason being, that although these countries go through the
same sequential changes that developed countries have
undergone, they are not operating in an environment iden
tical to the environment in which developed countries
operated during their developing period.
Organizational Development in Higher Education
OD is a fairly recent phenomenon in higher educa
tion. Social systems such as large scale business
organizations have long been involved in OD research and
implementation. The famous Michigan Inter-Company
36
Longitudinal (ICL) Study (Bowers, 1973), which surveyed
more than 14,000 respondents in 23 organizations, is only
one example of such undertakings in the business world.
Bennis (1973) explained some of the underlying
reasons for the success of OD programs in industrial
systems. Industrial systems are usually self-contained,
large, rich, and their product is easily identified and
measured. Obviously, this is not always true about
institutions of higher education. The difference between
the implementation and success of OD programs in higher
education and industry, may be partly explained by the
fact that most universities are publicly supported, and
the acquisition of public appropriations requires different
criteria.
Boyer and Crockett (1973) wrote that the major
reasons for such differences are:
Universities . . . have more diverse goal structures,
a much more pluralistic set of subsystems, difficulty
in measuring the quality of their products, and are
greatly influenced by, and in most cases, highly
dependent upon their external environments (e*g,,
state legislatures, federal agencies, foundations,
parents, alumni, community groups) for their
s urv iva1. (p. 3431
Burnett (1974) referred to change as an often
unrealistic panacea for solving many of the problems in
institutions of higher education:
In higher education, too often, it [change] becomes
a matter of magic in the process of instant imita
tion of what some other university has done.
Frequently, the change may be no better, or even
37
less effective, than the plan or idea that was
replaced. (p. 424)
Wattenbarger (1973) wrote that institutional
change takes place as a response to new demands. Demand
for humaneness in the 196Qs entailed changes in the
operation of higher education. These changes may be divided
into five categories: (a) changes in structure, (b)
changes in operational policies, (c) changes in financial
support, (d) changes in instructional procedures, and
(e) changes in concepts of accountability.
During his study of the University of Orient in
Venezuela, Burnett (1974) observed that there were
numerous myths about change in higher education. The
following are some of these myths:
1. If the new idea is different, it will bring
about the desired change.
2. Simply revising the process will bring about
the desired results, whatever they may be.
3. The use of educational technology, programmed
instruction, educational television, video-tape recording,
slides, films, and the rest of the audio-visual spectrum
will, of course, produce more learning than would occur
otherwise.
4. Interdepartmental collaboration or inter
college cooperation in developing a course or a program
is better than a single-department approach to the problem.
38
5. All changes operate on an all-or-none
principle.
6. Whatever learning outcome is desirable, it
can be accomplished by revising the curriculum to include
one or more courses in the area of desired modification
in behavior.
Adaptation to change by British universities is
the subject of a number of scholarly writings, Perkin
(.1974) of the University of Lancaster in England, traced
the history of change in the British universities and
suggested a number of areas in which drastic changes have
taken place:
1. Although most of the students are still coming
from the privileged classr their characters and needs have
changed profoundly. The proportion of women students has
risen.
2. In order to increase the student participation
in university governance, a number of profound changes
have been made in university organizations.
3. Demand for broader and more relevant education
by students and their potential employers has brought about
curriculum changes.
4. Universities have adopted new research pro
jects which deal with the urgent problems of the present
time.
5. University service to the local community is
39
a new concept and demand to which universities have adapted
themselves.
Adaptation to change in institutions of higher
education requires a number of important conditions.
Burnett (1974, p. 425) suggested five such conditions:
1. There should be a conceptual framework for
change. In other words, administrators and faculty should
be able to conceptualize what the alteration will do within
the framework of the present philosophy, goals, programs,
and psychological environment.
2. The change does not take place unless the idea
of change is reinforced.
3. In order for change to take place, the environ
ment must be ready to accept the change.
4. Adequate and continuous financial support and
encouragement is necessary.
Reinforcing the idea of the total system, Burnett
made the following concluding remarks:
Change, therefore, is an important psychological
phenomena in higher education. A proposed revision
needs to be studied critically in relation to the
total college environment to determine the degree
of fit with an estimate of its potential for bring
ing about the desired modification in behavior.
(Burnett, 1974, p. 425)
Hartsock (1974) wrote that improvement in the
internal relationships among constituencies in univer
sities was the key factor to a successful institutional
change program.
4Q
. . . if institutions and their various parts can
develop awareness, means of analysis, and resolu
tions for some of their internal relationships,
both the institutions and their parts will be more
capable of accomplishing the tasks for which they
exist, achieving continuous growth and development,
and maintaining internal organizational integration,
(pp. 35-36)
Corprew and Davis (1975) studied OD efforts which
were made to improve instruction at a medium-sized univer
sity. One of the findings of this study, among others,
was that:
OD efforts in educational institutions are basically
long-term pursuits to make these institutions more
effective, usually by improving appropriate dimen
sions of organizational health [or climate]. (p. 41)
Three OD models have been utilized in higher
education institutions: (a) self-study models, (b)
utilization of external consultants, and (c) creation of
an internal OD department.
Emerging Patterns of Faculty Unionism
Studying the theories, models, and strategies of
OD with respect to patterns of unionism in higher educa
tion may facilitate our understanding of the dilemma of
institutional change.
Prior to the rise of the large scale unions,
decisions regarding organizational change remained the
prerogative of the management. As unions grew larger,
issues such as goal setting, power distribution, and
conflict resolution became the subjects of bilateral
decision making.
41
Depending on the situation, union demands may be
interpreted as encouraging or inhibiting the commitment
necessary for change efforts.
A model of QD involving unions and professional
associations may resolve some of the problems associated
with the application of QD models which do not take union
ism into consideration. None of the prominent writers in
the field of QD have significantly considered union-
management issues in their writings.
Walton and McKersie (1965) formulated a behavioral
theory of collective bargaining. In their theoretical
model, systems theory is utilized to explain the relation
ships between variables under study. Faculty attitudes
constitute the primary input of the system. Organized
predispositions of participants in a system of higher
education toward collective bargaining issues will result
in behaviors which constitute the throughput of the system.
The impact of collective bargaining on the system composes
the output of the system. The output of the system relates
to the input through a feedback loop.
Whyte (197 3, pp. 12 9-14 0) predicted the emerging
need for union involvement in change efforts. Based on
such need, and pursuant to problems associated with OD
efforts in unionized environments, Kochan and Dyer (1976)
developed a model of organizational change in the context
of union-management relations. Included in this model are
42
three major stages or components similar to other change
models, Kochan and Dyer described these stages as follows:
The first stage discusses the stimuli for
union-management change. The second stage
focuses on the initial decision to participate
or commit the respective organizations to a
specific change program, and the third focuses
on maintaining commitment to the change program
or institutionalizing it over time. (Kochan and
Dyer, 1976, p. 64)
While OD does not advocate any particular manage
ment style, OD values imply shared decision making. As
far as bilateral decision making is concerned, there is
no conflict between OD and collective bargaining. However,
a serious conflict of interest arises with regard to the
outcome of the process.
Consequences, of collective bargaining can be
causes as well. Faculty unionization creates a formal
adversarial atmosphere in which parties play a "zero sum"
game. Formal negotiations put administration, faculty, and
students (if allowed to participate) in a win or lose
situation with the bargaining agent attempting to get as
much as possible and the administration willing to give
only as much as it deems necessary.
While the adversarial relationship is an inherent
part of the collective bargaining process, and is intended
to resolve conflict, it is a self-perpetuating phenomenon
which may, in turn, generate conflict. This ironic
characteristic of collective bargaining has made
43
generalization of the research findings dealing with the
impact of collective bargaining on governance very diffi
cult. Therefore, in reviewing the related literature, one
may come across conflicting opinions.
Kugler C1968) maintained that faculty input into
the decision-making process can be enhanced through
collective bargaining. Union supporters argue that a
written agreement will prevent administration from ignoring
the rights of the faculty to participate.
Carr and Van Eyke (1973) disagreed with the notion
that collective bargaining results in greater shared
decision-making authority.
Participation in decision making is an OD value.
One may postulate that faculty members who express greater
dissatisfaction with institutional governance would be more
supportive of a formal contractual basis for their relations
ship with the institution.
Collective bargaining supposedly implies a
greater extension of faculty participation in institutional
governance. But if greater participation does not lead to
better conditions of work, then it does not seem reasonable
to associate participation with support for collective
bargaining. Therefore, the hypothesis that there is a
negative relationship between the extent of faculty
participation in institutional governance and support for
collective bargaining may not hold.
44
However, there is evidence of research (Gustad,
1969) that better working conditions do not necessarily
lead to faculty satisfaction. On the other handf French
and Peterson Cl970) have listed ten elements as contri-
buting to teacher satisfaction from which only three deal
with participation and communication.
Begin (1973) commented that there was a limited
amount of evidence in related literature on the relation
ship between teacher satisfaction and support for collec
tive bargaining:
. . . faculty support for the bargaining process
is expected, in part, to be a function of the
following groups of factors: economic benefits;
working conditions; decision-making authority in
regard to faculty benefits and educational policy;
rapport with various levels of administrative
leadership; rapport among faculty; public support
of education; and faculty independence and freedom
in carrying out its duties. (p. 14)
The preceding discussion indicates the subtlety
of the issue. Meaning, that depending on the circumstances
in a specific situation, a number of interacting variables
may decide the outcomes of an OD program in an unionized
institution. Because of the complications involved in
deciding the possible causes, and predicting the conse
quences of faculty participation, OD practitioners may
not be able to apply OD packaged programs, which are not
designed for unionized environments, to unionized insti
tutions .
45
Emerging Patterns and New Ideas in
Organizational Development
Daring the past few years the field of OD has been
in a state of constant change. These changes are
characterized by the' following distinct characteristics:
1, Refinements in the methods of model building
and the tying of methodology more directly to theory.
2, Consideration in terms of generating strate
gies of change for a total system,
3, Readjustment especially with respect to values
and questions of advocacy,
Burke (1976, pp, 23-31). summarized changes in the
field of OD during the past decade. The field of OD has
changed:
1, from a field limited almost exclusively to
business/industrial organizations to a field affecting
many different organizational types?
2, from advocating a specific managerial style
to emphasizing the situational or contingency approach;
3, from advocating democracy as the primary value
to advocating authenticity as the primary value;
4, from a field which was largely based on a
limited number of social technologies such as laboratory
training and survey feedback to a field based on a broader
range of social technologies;
5, from a field in which the consultant was a
46
non-directive and purely process-oriented practitioner
to a field where he is an authoritative specialist;
6. from a field in which the OD practitioner
was considered as the change agent to a field in which
the line manager/administrator is considered the change
agent;
7. from a field in which the practitioner was
working almost exclusively with management to a field in
which he is working with both managers and persons at all
organizational levels;
8. from a field in which the OD function was mere
ly a glamorous name for "training" to a field in which the
term "OD" has organizational legitimacy in and of itself,
with attendant power and official status*
The above changes in the field of OD during the
past decade have been adaptive rather than deliberate and
planned.
Bass (1976) designed a questionnaire for managers
and their subordinates to generate scores on organiza
tional, group, task, personal, interpersonal factors,
management styles, and outputs of effectiveness and
satisfaction. Raw data obtained from a particular group
were analyzed and the manager obtained a computerized
printout called a "profile" of the discrepancies between
his subordinates and himself, as well as normative data
to help him in planning for change.
47
Correlational analysis of the data obtained from
experimental groups suggested that authoritative manag
erial styles are more frequent in situations where tasks
are regular, clear, and structured. Further analysis of
data suggested that manipulative managers are down
graded by their subordinates, while consultative superiors
are favored under most conditions. Bass’s research shed
light on a new approach in social psychology where subjects
gain practical on-the-job self-knowledge directed toward
change.
Walton and Warwick (1973). reported that an emerg
ing trend in the field of OD during the past decade has
been the increase in the number of full-time OD consul
tants as distinct from in-house practitioners. Walton and
Warwick (1973) went on to argue that such a rapid expan
sion of both practice and practitioners in an uncharted
field raises numerous ethical questions such as the
following: (a). Who are its clients and what are its power
implications? (b) What norms of professional responsibil
ity should govern the work of the OD practitioners?
(c) What are the rights of OD participants, particularly
when their power position is weak, vis-a-vis these initia
tors of change? (d) Is OD a morally neutral tool applic
able to any organizational setting, or are there situations
in which its use is ethically questionable?
The gap between OD practice and theory has
48
attracted much attention during the past decade.
Weisbord (1974) critically reviewed the state of the art
in the field. His concluding remarks implied that there
was a vast gap between OD as researched and written about,
and OD as actually practiced.
Kahn (1974) suggested the need for a critical
examination of what has been done in the field of OD.
To him, much of the research in the field was redundant
and without refinement or validation. Kahn (1974) ques
tioned the adequacy and utility of the traditional
dichotomy between organizational process and structure
evident in the literature. He further discussed a recon
ceptualization of organizational structure that permits
clarification of key issues in the practice and theory
of organizational change.
Organizational development interventions customar
ily deal with the organizational processes. An example
of an unusual kind of OD intervention, namely structural
intervention, is a longitudinal study of "flexi-time
effects" by Golembiewski, Hilles, and Kagno (1974). They
discussed specific outcomes of a particular version of a
structural design. Although the supporting data suggested
that structural intervention was effective, it did not
indicate how much of the obvious and persistent impact
was the result of the intervention as a technique, and how
much of it was a function of the culture of the host
49
organization, which had been exposed to a range of
activities based on OD values.
Interorganizational information sharing was the
subject of a study by Brown, Aram, and Bachner (1974).
Data generated by the study supported the hypothesis that
the intervention would increase the amount and accuracy
of the information shared by participant organizations.
However, the data did not support the hypothesis that
increased consensus among school representatives would
result from the intervention, which in this case were cam
pus visits by consultants.
50
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this study was to develop an experi
mental model of organizational development for institutions
of higher education.
Developing theoretical models is a delicate art
which can be best accomplished if it is done in the light
of unity of theory and practice. Stated in different
words, the possibilities of success for an experimental
model are more if it takes into consideration that theory
and practice are two dependent and supporting factors in
the development of any model CWeisbord, 1974), Therefore,
the methodological procedure of this study was so designed
to take into account both the contributions of theory and
accomplishments made by the practitioners.
The conceptual framework developed by Starr (1971,
p. 34) significantly influenced both the design of the
experimental model and its development. According to
Starr (1971, p. 34), there are three stages of models as
follows:
1. First stage models only specify the objectives
of a system, the variables and constants or parameters
involved, and finally outcomes of a system. Therefore,
51
a system is identified only by its input and output.
2. Second stage models possess all the elements
of the first stage models plus an extra feature which shows
and explains the relationships between input and output
of a system.
3. Third stage models possess all the elements
of second stage models plus an extra feature called
"feedback." In the third stage modelsr outcomes, through
feedback, alter the value of the variables and also change
the order of relationships. In other words, there is a
built-in self-correcting mechanism in the third stage
models which makes them superior to the first and the
second stage models.
The methodological procedure designed for the
development of the proposed experimental model embodies
steps and the processes essential in the construction of
the third stage models. The detail of the methodological
procedure follows:
1. Review of the Related Literature
An extensive review of the related literature was
performed to provide an overview and a conceptual back
ground of the field of organizational development. The
following subheadings were explored; (a) definitions of
organizational development, (b) organizational development
and organizational change, (c) organizational environment
and organizational change, (d) organizational development
52
in higher education, (e) organizational development in
higher education and emerging patterns of unionism, and
(f) emerging patterns and new ideas in organizational
development.
It was from the review of the related literature
that organizational development models appropriate for,
and relevant to, the purpose of this study were selected.
2. Review of the Selected Organizational
Development Models
The following organizational development models
were reviewed in order to provide evidence for supporting
the proposed experimental model; (a) Grid Organization
Development (Blake and Mouton, 1969), (b) Organization
Development through Management by Objectives and Result^;
OD/MBOR (Beck and Hillmer, 1972), (c) Organizational
Training (Schmuck et al. , 1972), (d) Organization as a
Training Laboratory (U.S. Civil Service Commission, 1957),
(e) Denova's Model of Organizational Training (Denova,
1971), (f) Action Research Model of Organizational Develop
ment (Koprowski, 1972), and (g) Beckhard's Model of
Organizational Development (Beckhard, 1969).
3. Selection and Review of the Case Studies
Letters of inquiry were sent to major institutions
of higher education and also to authorities in the field
of organizational development to identify those institu-
53
tions which had made an effort to implement organizational
development programs on their campuses (Appendix).
As a supplement, case study texts in the field of
organizational development were consulted to identify some
appropriate case studies for review.
The following case studies were selected for the
final analysis:
a. Developing Change Agent Teams on Campus
(Sikes, Schlesinger, and Seashore, 1973)
b. Organizational Development for Academic Depart
ments (Bolton and Boyer, 197 3)
c. An Internal Change Agent's Role in Restructur
ing University Governance (Janks, 1973)
d. The Higher Education Institute: A Vehicle for
Change (Crockett, 1973)
e. Expanding Professional Design Education Through
Workshops in the Applied Behavioral Sciences (Plovnick,
Steele, and Schein, 1973)
4. Development of the Framework of Analysis
for Models and Cases Reviewed
A framework of analysis was developed in order to
obtain data about commonalities and differences which may
exist among the models and cases reviewed in steps 2 and 3.
The detail of the framework of analysis follows:
Framework of analysis. The study of institutional
54
change involves the examination of variables which are
often dependent on each other. In order to construct a
framework for institutional study, one has to select a
number of variables which are as independent from each
other as possible and then proceed.
Among other organizational theoreticians, Leavitt
(1965) selected four interacting variables for his study.
These four variables were: (a) task, (b) people, (c)
technology, and (d) structure.
The task variable is often defined on the basis
of the goals and objectives according to which the organi
zation is established. Although the task variable seems
to be independent, it often changes with respect to the
changes in the other three variables.
The following framework for analysis of models
and cases reviewed coincides with the exploration of the
above four variables.
Organizational development models and case
studies reviewed in this study were analyzed on the basis
of one or more of the following criteria:
I. Possession of one or more of the following OD values:
1. An educational strategy adopted to bring about a
planned organizational change.
2. Changes sought are coupled directly with the
exigency or demand (problem) the organization is
trying to cope with. Three general categories
55
II.
of exigencies are:
a. Problems of destiny, growth, identity, and
revitalization
b. Problems of human satisfaction and development
c. Problems or organizational effectiveness
3. Reliance on an educational strategy which
emphasizes experienced behavior.
4. Change agent is external to the client system.
5'. Implies a collaborative relationship between
change agent and consultants of the client system.
6. Possession of a set of values about the world in
general and human organizations in particular quite
different from those of bureaucratic values.
Possession of one or more of the following goals:
1. Improvement in interpersonal competence.'
2. A shift in values so that human factors and
feelings come to be considered legitimate.
3. Development of increased understanding between
and within working groups in order to reduce
tensions.
4. Development of more effective "team management,"
i.e., the capacity for functional groups to work
more competently.
5. Development of better methods of "conflict
resolution." Rather than the usual bureaucratic
methods which rely mainly on suppression, compro
mise, and unprincipled power, more rational 56
III.
IV.
and open methods of conflict resolution are sought.
6. Development of organic rather than mechanical
systems. This is a strong reaction against the
idea of organizations as mechanisms which managers
"work on" in the same manner as pushing buttons.
7. Development of a set of normative goals based on
the OD values.
Dealing with one or more of the following problems
which OD programs are designed to deal with:
1. Integration: integrating individual needs and
organizational goals.
2. Social influence: distributing power and sources
of authority.
3. Collaboration: producing mechanisms for the
control of conflict.
4. Adaptation: responding appropriately to changes
induced by environment.
5. Identity: achieving clarity, consensus, and
commitment to organizational goals.
6. Revitalization; dealing with growth and decay.
Falling into one or more of the categories of the
following "Typology of Interventions";
1. Discrepancy: analysis of contradictions in
actions or attitudes.
2. Theory: analysis of organization with reference
to behavioral science theory and concepts.
57
V.
VI.
3. Procedural: analysis of various steps of OD
activities which may or may not aid problem solving
4. Relationship: analysis of issues which arise
between people as they work together.
5. Experimentation: testing and comparing two or
more courses of action before a final decision is
taken.
6. Dilemma: an analysis of issues to help members
re-examine outworn assumptions and search for
alternatives other than those under consideration.
7. Perspective: analysis of the present in the light
of broader historical orientation.
8. Organizational structure: focuses on issues
which, confront the total organization membership
and its various subcomponents,
9. Cultural analysis: examines traditions, precedents
and established practices which constitute pro
perties of the organizational fabric.
Falling into one or more of the categories of the
distinctions made between types of interventions:
1. Intervention deals with structural variables in
the organization.
2. Intervention deals with process elements in the
organization.
Role of the change agent in the intervention process:
1. Forms of outside resource "contracts" available
58
for change efforts.
a. The continuity arrangement
b. The periodic review
c. The project management
d. The educational consultant
e. The trainer arrangement
f. The packaged OD program
g*
The consulting team
h. The organization-wide evaluation
2, Forms of inside resources available for change
efforts:
a. The OD department
b. The OD specialist
c. The personnel man with OD as his primary job
d. The "account executive"
e. The "temporary" change agent
f. The training consultant
g.
The Grid OD Coordinator
h. The "new look" Management Development
Department
VII, Initiation of the change efforts by:
1. Chief executive officer
2. A unit head
3. The "natural leaders"
4. The "functional leaders"
5. A "convert group"
59
VIII. Falling into one of the categories of "stages of
models":
1. First-stage or primitive models are those which
do not have normative (or optimizing) capabilities.
These models list important factors but do not
describe how outcomes are produced by different
arrangements of the factors.
2. Second-stage models which can be normative, relate
the factors to the outcomes with functional
descriptions.
3. Third-stage models can also be normative. Major
characteristic of third-stage models is that they
embody feedback effects, which makes it essential
that time or sequence be considered.
IX. Falling into one of the categories of "classification
of models":
1. Classification of models by contrast:
a. Subjective and objective models
b. Physical and abstract models
c. Prescriptive and descriptive models
d. Static and dynamic models
e. Isomorphic and homomorphic models
2. Classification of combination models:
a. Simulative-descriptive: statistical samples
b. Analytic-prescriptive: inventory models
c. Simulative-prescriptive: fault-location models
60
X. The following format was used for the analysis of the
case studies— background of the problem:
1. The
a.
environment
Cooperative or competitive
b. Turbulent and uncertain or ready and certain
c. Large scale or small scale
d. Complex and multi-unit or simple
unit
and single
2. Population characteristics
3. Work values
4. Tasks and goals
5. Organization
XI. Organizational Development Strategies;
1. Coercive
a. Pressure
b. Stress induction
c. Hierarchy
2. Normative
a. Participation
b. Involvement-commitment
c. Feedback, evaluation, and follow-
up
d. Displacement of values
e. Social awareness
f. Education
3. Utilitarian
a. Placement
b. Empiricism 61
c. Goal setting
4. Other techniques
a. Action research
b. Training
c. Technical modification
d. Manipulation of charisma
e. Communication
f. Marginality
g-
Voluntary association
XII. Evaluation of planned change in case studies
reviewed:
1. Success
2. Partial success
3. Failure
5. Analysis of Models and Case Studies
Models and cases selected for analysis were analyzed
with reference to the framework of analysis developed in
Step 4. Data generated by such analysis are tabulated
and presented in Chapter IV of this study,
6. Development of the Experimental Model
Based on all the findings of the study, and also the
review of the related literature, an experimental model of
organizational development for institutions of higher
education was developed. The proposed experimental model
is presented in Chapter V of this study.
62
7. Review of the Experimental Model by a Panel
of Educational Specialists
In order to test the feasibility, validity, and
reliability of the proposed model, a panel of educational
specialists was convened. Members of the panel were asked
to review the model and make comments with respect to the
following two specific questions: (a) the role of institu
tions of higher education in initiation, design, and
implementation of organizational development programs,
and (b) the sequence of phases of an experimental model of
organizational development for institutions of higher
education as presented in this study.
8. Incorporation of the Suggestions Made by the panel
of Educational Specialists into the Experimental Model
The last step in the development of the proposed
experimental model was the incorporation of the suggestions
made by the panel of educational specialists into the
model.
Importance of the Methodological Procedure
Aside from the content of the study and the
proposed experimental model of organizational development,
the methodological procedure designed for the construction
of the experimental model is of significant importance as
distinguished from the data. The methodological procedure
is a model by itself which may be effectively used for
63
pre-action data gathering in problem-solving situations.
This methodological procedure is a modified version of
the scientific method. It particularly suits the purposes
of contextual studies such as the present one.
64
CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS OF THE STUDY
The findings which resulted from analysis of case
studies and models reviewed are presented in this chapter.
Presentation of the findings is made on the basis of
(a) case studies, and (b) organizational development
models.
Framework of analysis presented in Chapter III
of this study was the basis of data analysis. Therefore,
presentation of findings revolve around the framework of
analysis and will be presented in the same order.
Organizational Development Values
1. Three of the OD models reviewed considered OD
as an educational strategy for change. Four of the OD
cases reviewed utilized OD programs as an educational
strategy to bring about planned organizational change.
2. In two of the models reviewed, OD was recom
mended as a strategy to cope with the changes in the
environment. In all of the cases studied, OD is used in
one way or another for coping with environmental changes.
This may indicate the reactionary nature of the institu
tions when faced with changes occurring in the surrounding
environment.
3. Three of the models reviewed relied on
experienced behavior during the course of training. In
three of the case studies experienced behavior was
utilized. These cases dealt with the issues at the small
group and departmental levels.
4. In two of the models reviewed, the change
agent was external to the system. In only one of the
case studies an outside change agent was invited to plan
and implement institutional change.
5. Collaboration between external/internal change
agents characterized three of the models reviewed. Again,
in only one of the case studies was such a pattern
utilized.
6. All of the models reviewed were characterized
by non-bureaucratic values. Elements of choice, freedom
to express opinions, and preferences, and openness were
present.
Tables 1 and 2 illustrate the relation of the OD
cases and OD models to OD values.
Organizational Development Goals
1. Organizational change was stated as the prime
goal of all the models reviewed. In all except one of the
case studies, which was dealing strictly with a small
group, organizational change was expressed as a goal of the
program.
2. All of the models reviewed were designed to
66
Table 1
Relation of1the OD Cases to OD Values
OD Values Cases:
#1
#2 #3 #4 #5
An educational strategy
for change X X X X
A strategy to cope with
exigency X X X X X
Reliance on experienced
behavior x/ X X
Change agent is external
to system x
Collaboration between
external/internal
change agents x
Characterized by non-
bureaucratic values x X X X
67
Table 2
Relation of the OD Models to OD Values
OD Values Models: #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7
An educational strategy
for change X X X
A strategy to cope
with change X X X
Reliance on experienced
behavior X X X
Change agent is
external to system X X
Collaboration between
external/internal
change agents X X X
Characterized by non-
bureaucratic values X X X X X X X
68
deal with institutional problems in the process of change.
Thus, improving interpersonal competence was not explicitly
expressed as a goal of the models. In only one of the
case studies, improving interpersonal competence was the
primary goal of the program.
3. Attitude, habit, and belief changes were the
goal of one of the models reviewed. Correspondingly,
one of the case studies aimed toward changing attitudes,
habits, and beliefs.
4. None of the models reviewed aimed toward making
economic changes. However, in one of the case studies,
economic change was stated as a primary goal of the change
efforts.
5. Only one of the models and one of the case
studies reviewed expressed as one of their goals a shift
in values to legitimize human factors and feelings.
6. None of the models reviewed undertook to bring
about socio-cultural changes. This was true about case
studies too.
7. Although two of the models reviewed dealt
with technological changes, none of the case studies were
found to deal with such, problems.
8. To increase understanding among constituents
of a university was a goal of one of the models and three
of the case studies reviewed.
69
9. Five of the models had built-in mechanisms
for team development, and in three of the case studies
team concept was utilized.
10. Developing organic rather than mechanical
systems is a goal of the OD programs. None of the models
and case studies directly addressed themselves to such a
goal.
11. In one of the models reviewed, conflict
resolution was stated as one of the goals of the model,
and in two of the case studies conflict resolution was
directly dealt with.
12. Two of the models aimed toward developing
normative goals based on OD values. There was no corres
ponding observation in the case studies.
Tables 3 and 4 illustrate relation of the OD
cases and OD models to OD goals
Problems With Which Organizational Development
Programs are Designed to Deal
1. Integration: One of the models reviewed dealt
with the problem of integrating individual and organiza
tional goals. Three of the case studies addressed them
selves to this problem.
2. Social influence: None of the models directly
dealt with distribution of power and sources of authority.
However, in one of the case studies, a more equal share by
70
Table 3
Relation of the OD Cases to OD Goals
OD Goals Cases: #1 #2 #3 #4 #5
Organizational change X X X X
Improving interpersonal
competence X X
Attitude, habit and
belief changes X
Economic changes X
A shift in values to
legitimize human
factors and feelings X
Socio-cultural changes
Technological changes
Increased understanding X X X
Team development X X X
Conflict resolution X X
Developing organic
systems
Developing normative goals
based on OD values
71
Table 4
Relation of the OD Models to OD Goals
OD Goals Models: #1
#2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7
Organizational change X X X X X X X
Improving inter
personal competence
Attitude, habit and
belief changes X
Economic changes
A shift in values
to legitimize human
factors and feelings X
Socio-cultural changes
Technological changes X X
Increased understanding X
Team development X X X X X
Conflict resolution X
Developing organic
systems
Developing normative
goals based on OD
values X X
72
the university constituencies in decision making was the
problem to be solved.
3. Collaboration: Four of the models had built-in
mechanisms for the control of conflict. All of the case
studies dealt with the problem of increasing collaborative
relationships.
4. Adaptation; Five of the models were designed
to deal with the problem of adaptation. All of the case
studies concerned themselves with responding appropriately
to changes which had occurred in the surrounding environ
ment.
5. Identity: The problem of identity is closely
related to that of integration. It is defined as achiev
ing clarity, consensus, and commitment to organizational
goals. None of the models and case studies expressly
addressed themselves to such a problem.
6. Revitalization: Revitalization is an organiza
tional response to the problems of growth and decay. None
of the models explicitly dealt with such a problem.
However, in two of the case studies, revitalization was
referred to in the statement of the problem.
Tables 5 and 6 illustrate the relation of the OD
cases and OD models to the problems with which OD programs
are designed to deal.
73
Table 5
Relation of the OD Cases to the Problems With
Which OD Programs are Designed to Deal
Problems Cases: #1 #2 #3 #4 #5
Integration X X X
Social influence X
Collaboration X X X X X
Adaptation X X X X X
Identity
Revitalization X X
Typology of interventions
1, Discrepancy: Two of the models reviewed did
an analysis of the contradictions in actions and attitudes.
One of the case studies reviewed dealt with the problem
of discrepancy.
2. Theory: Four of the models reviewed made
extensive use of the behavioral sciences theories and
concepts. Such a pattern was observed in two of the case
studies.
74
Table 6
Relation of the OD Models to the Problems With
Which OD Programs are Designed to Deal
Problems Models: #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7
Integration X
Social influence
Collaboration X X X X
Adaptation X X X X X
Identity
Revitalization
3. Procedural: In two of the models reviewed
analysis of various steps which may or may not aid problem
solving was recommended. Correspondinglyf in two of the
case studies, procedural analysis was utilized.
4. Relationship: Three of the models reviewed
undertook to analyze the issues which arise between people
as they work together. Correspondingly, in three of the
case studies such an attempt was observed.
5. Experimentation: Experimentation is testing
and comparing two or more courses of action before a final
decision is taken. None of the models reviewed specifical
ly recommended experimentation. None of the case studies
used such a pattern. 75
6. Dilemma: OD programs which undertake to do an
analysis of issues to help members re-examine outworn
assumptions and search for alternatives other than those
under consideration, are categorized under dilemma.
Although none of the models reviewed specifically referred
to such a concept, but all of them, in one way or another,
indicated such intention. All of the case studies had
characteristics of the dilemma type of OD programs.
7. Perspective: OD models which suggest analysis
of the present in the light of broader historical orienta
tion are categorized as the perspective type. None of the
models and cases reviewed were found to fall into this
category.
8. Organizational structure: Focuses on issues
which confront the total organization membership and its
various subcomponents. Four of the models and two of the
case studies were found in this category.
9. Cultural analysis: Examination of traditions,
precedents, and established practices which constitute
properties of the organizational fabric is called cultural
analysis. None of the models and case studies were found
to fall into this category.
Tables 7 and 8 illustrate relation of the OD cases
and OD models to "Typology of Interventions."
76
Table 7
Relation of the OD Cases to
"Typology of Interventions"
Typology of Cases:
Interventions
#1 #2 #3 #4 #5
Discrepancy X
Theory X X
Procedural X X
Relationship X X X
Experimentation
Dilemma X X X X X
Perspective
Organizational structure X X
Cultural analysis
Structural Elements vs. Process Variables
OD models and programs can be categorized according
to their orientation. They may deal with structural
elements or process variables. Six of the models reviewed
were found to deal with the process variables in the
organization vs. one which dealt with the structural
elements. In three case studies process variables were
the main target vs. two which concentrated on the
77
Table 8
Relation of the OD Models to
"Typology of Interventions"
Typology of
Interventions
Models: #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7
Discrepancy X X
Theory X X X X
Procedural X X
Relationship X X X
Experimentation
Dilemma
Perspective
Organizational
structure X X X X
Cultural
analysis
structural elements. Tables 9 and 10 illustrate the
relationship of OD cases and OD models to structural
element and process variables.
Role of the Change Agent in
the intervention Process
1, Role of the Outside Change Agent
a. Continuity arrangement. In none of the
models reviewed was a continuity arrangement specifically
78
Table 9
Relation of the OD Cases to Structural
Elements and Process Variables
Variables Cases:
Structural
Processes
Table 10
Relation of the OD Models to Structural
Elements and Process Variables
Variables #1 #6 Models #5
Structural
Processes
79
recommended. Correspondingly, in none of the case
studies such a pattern was utilized.
b. Periodic review. In none of the models
and case studies reviewed was such a pattern observed.
c. Project management. In none of the models
and case studies reviewed was such a pattern observed
d. Educational consultant: In three of the
models.reviewed this pattern was recommended to procure
the services of the outside change agents. However, none
of the case studies used this pattern.
e. Trainer arrangement. Such a pattern was
recommended by three models and was used in two of the
case studies.
f. Packaged OD programs. None of the models
reviewed prescribed this normative pattern and it was not
observed in any of the cases studied.
g. Consulting team. This pattern of outside
consultancy was recommended by two of the models and was
utilized in two cases.
h. Organization-wide evaluation. Although
this form of maintaining services of outside change agents
is referred to as desirable in the related literature,
because of relatively heavy expenses and efforts required,
it was recommended only by one of the models and used
in none of the cases studied.
80
2. Role of the Inside Change Agent
a. OD Department. This pattern of securing
services of inside change agents is relatively costly and
was not recommended by any of the models reviewed but
was practiced in two cases.
b. OD Specialist. Hiring one or more inside
change agents was recommended only by one of the models
reviewed and was used in two cases.
c. Personnel Man with OD as his primary job.
This pattern of implementing OD programs was neither
recommended by any of the models reviewed nor used in any
of the cases studied.
d. Account Executive. Assigning one or more
persons to a special project was recommended by one of the
models and used in two cases.
e. "Temporary" Change Agent. Assigning an
inside change agent on a temporary basis was not recommended
by any of the models but was used in two cases. In one
case it was used because of the cost effectiveness,
f. Training Consultant, An inside training
consultant, although costly, was recommended by four of
the models reviewed. This approach was used in two cases.
g. Grid OD Coordinator. Assigning an inside
change agent as Grid OD Coordinator was recommended by one
of the models reviewed but was not observed in any of the
cases.
81
h. New Look Management Development Depart
ment. Redressing a training and development department
to undertake OD projects was not recommended by any of the
models or used in any of the cases.
Tables 11 and 12 illustrate the relation of the
OD cases to the role of the outside change agent in the
intervention process. Tables 13 and 14 illustrate the
relation of the OD cases to inside resources available
for change efforts.
Initiation of the Change Efforts
1. By Chief Executive Officer: All the models
reviewed strongly recommended initiation of the OD pro
grams by the chief executive officer of the institution
and advocated securing his support. However, only in
three cases was this pattern observed.
2. By a Unit Head: Two of the models reviewed
recommended initiation of the change efforts by the unit
head, or in the case of the educational institutions,
the department chairperson. Accordingly, this pattern
was observed in two cases.
3. By the "Natural Leaders”: Natural leaders
in an institution are those who are informally influencing
and enhancing the process of change. One of the models
reviewed contained initiation of the change by the natural
leaders. In one case the change effort was initiated in
this manner, and was promoted to an inside consultant form.
82
Table 11
Relation of the OD Cases to the Role of the Outside
Change Agent in Intervention Process
Role Cases:
Continuity arrangement
Periodic review
Project management
Educational consultant
Trainer arrangement
Packaged OD program
Consulting team
Organization-wide
evaluation
83
Table 12
Relation of the OD Models to the Role of the Outside
Change Agent in Intervention Process
Role Models: #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 * #7
Continuity arrangement
Periodic review
Project management
Educational consultant X X X
Trainer arrangement X X X
Packaged OD Program
Consulting team X X
Organization-wide
evaluation X
84
Table 13
Relation of the OD Cases to Inside Resources
Available for Change Efforts
Inside Resources Cases: #1 #2 #3 #4 #5
OD department X X
OD specialist X X
Personnel man with OD
as his primary job
"Account executive" X X
"Temporary" change
agent X X
Training consultant X X
Grid OD coordinator
"New look" management
development department
85
Table 14
Relation of the OD Models to Inside Resources
Available for Change Efforts
Inside Resources Models: #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7
OD department
OD specialist X
Personnel man with OD
as his primary job
"Account executive" X
"Temporary" change
agent
Training consultant X X X X
Grid OD coordinator X
"New look" management
development department
86
4. By "Functional Leaders": "Functional leaders"
are those who formally head the change efforts. This
pattern was recommended by one of the models and used in
one case.
5. By a "Convert Group": "Convert groups" form
on a campus as a result of the pressure induced by the
changes in the surrounding environment. According to one
of the models, change efforts may be initiated by a
"convert group.” Such a pattern was observed in one of
the case studies.
Tables 15 and 16 illustrate the relation of the
OD cases to the initiation of the change efforts.
Table 15
Relation of the OD Cases to Initiation
of the Change Efforts
Initiation by Cases: #1 #2 #3 #4 #5
The chief executive officer X X X
A unit head X X
The "natural leaders" X
The "functional leaders" X
A "convert group" X
87
Table 16
Relation of the OD Models to Initiation
of the Change Efforts
Initiation by Models: #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7
The chief executive
officer X X X X X X X
A unit head X X
The "natural
leaders" X
The "functional
leaders" X
A "convert
group" X
Stages of Models
First stage or primitive models are those which
simply enumerate objectives, variables, and constants
of a system but do not have normative or optimizing
capabilities. Primitive models do not describe how out
-
comes are produced by different arrangements of the factors.
Second stage models, which can be normative,
relate the factors to the outcomes with functional
descriptions.
Third stage models, beside possessing character
-
istics of second stage models, embody feedback effects,
88
which make it essential that time or sequence be con
sidered.
All of the models reviewed for the purpose of this
study possessed characteristics of the third stage models.
All the case studies reviewed also used one or more of
the third sta! ge models.
Tables 17 and 18 illustrate relation of the OD
cases cind models to the stages of models.
Table 17
Relation of the OD Cases to Stages of Models
Stages of Models Cases #1 #2 #3 #4 #5
First stage or
primitive models
Second stage
models
Third stage
models X X X X X
89
Table 18
Relation of the OD Models to Stages of Models
Stages of Models: #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7
Models
First stage or
primitive models
Second stage
models
Third stage
models X X X X X X X
Classification of Models
All of the models and case studies reviewed
possessed elements of the subjective models. All of the
models were prescriptive in the sense that they embodied
the criteria and moans for determining the configuration
that would produce optimum solution. Case studies, on the
other hand, were all descriptive/ meaning that they did
not specify the optimum behavior of the system. Such a
discrepancy between models and cases may be attributed
to the fact that, being essentially mathematical, prescrip
tive models are less dependent on intuition and personal
managerial contact than are descriptive models.
Four of the models reviewed were static in the
9.0
sense that no time element was present in the equations.
Three of the models reviewed were dynamic. In all of
the case studies a dynamic model was utilized, meaning
that time parameters were considered.
Tables 19 and 20 illustrate the relation of the
OD cases and models to the classification of models.
Table 19
Relation of the OD Cases to the Classification of Models
Classification
of Models
Subjective
Objective
Physical
Abstract
Prescriptive
Descriptive
Static
Dynamic
Isomorphic
Homomorphic
Cases: #1 #2
X X
X X
X X
X X
#3 #4 #5
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
91
Table 20
Relation of the OD Models to the Classification of Models
Classification
of Models Models: #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7
Subjective
Obj ective
Physical
Abstract
Prescriptive
Descriptive
Static
Dynamic
Isomorphic
Homomorphic
X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X
X X X X
X X X
Level of Intervention
Of all the models reviewed, one dealt with the
implementation of the OD programs at the small group level,
two at the departmental level, two at the school level,
and four at the institutional level. Of all the case
studies reviewed, two operated at the small group level,
three at the departmental level, one at the school level,
and two at the institutional level.
92
Tables 21 and 22 illustrate the relation of the
OD cases and models to the level of intervention.
Table 21
Relation of the OD Cases to the Level of Intervention
Level of
Intervention Cases: #1 #2 #3 #4 #5
Individual level
Small group level
Departmental level
School level
Institution-wide
level
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
Organizational Development Strategies
For the purposes of this study, OD strategies
were grouped as follows:
1. Coercive: Including pressure, stress induc
tion, and hierarchy. None of the models reviewed recom
mended coercive strategies and they were not used in any
of the case studies.
93
Table 22
Relation of the OD Models to the Level of Intervention
Level of
Intervention Models: #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7
Individual level
Small group level
Departmental level
School level
Institution-wide
level
X
X
X
X
X
X X X X
2. Normative: All of the models and case studies
invariably used four of the normative strategies; i.e.,
participation; involvement-commitment; feedback, evalua
tion and follow-up, and education.
3. Utilitarian: One of the models recommended
the strategy of placement or rearranging the order of
elements. However, such strategy was not utilized in any
case. Goal setting, as an OD strategy, was invariably
used in all models and cases.
4. Other strategies: Action research was
recommended by two models and was used invariably in all
cases. Training, one of the most common OD strategies,
94
was used in two models and all case studies.
Technical modification was recommended only by
one of the models and was not used in any of the case
studies. Improving communication as an OD strategy was
explicitly advocated by two of the models. This does not
necessarily mean that other models have ignored such an
important strategy. It may well mean that improving
communication as a basic value of OD programs is a built-
in factor in OD models.
Voluntary association was recommended only by one
of the models but was not used in any of the cases studied
Tables 23 and 24 illustrate the relation of the
OD cases and OD models to OD strategies.
95
Table 23
Relation of the OD Cases to OD Strategies
OD Strategies Cases: #1 #2 #3 #4 #5
1. Coercive
a. Pressure
b. Stress induction
c. Hierarchy
2. Normative
a. Participation X X X X X
b. Involvement-
commitment X X X X X
c. Feedback, evaluation,
and follow-up X X X X X
d. Displacement of
values
e. Social awareness
f. Education X X X X X
3. Utilitarian
a. Placement
b. Empiricism
c. Goal setting X X X X X
4. Other techniques
a. Action research X X X X X
b. Training X X X X X
c. Technical modification
d. Manipulation of
charisma
e. Communication X X X X X
f. Marginality
g. Voluntary association
Relation of the
Table 24
OD Models to OD Strategies
OD Strategies Models: #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7
1. Coercive
a. Pressure
b. Stress induction
c. Hierarchy
2. Normative
a. Participation X X X X X X
b. Involvement-
commitment X X X X X X X
c. Feedback, eval
uation, and
follow-up X X X X X X X
d. Displacement
of values
e. Social
awareness
f. Education X X X X X
3. Utilitarian
a. Placement X
b. Empiricism
c. Goal setting X X X X X X X
4. Other techniques
a. Action research X X
b. Training X X X
c. Technical
modification X
d. Manipulation of
charisma
e. Communication X X
f. Marginality
g. Voluntary
association X
97
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
Since the nature of model building studies causes
a comprehensive, in-depth examination of many theoretical
issues, a fore-part of this study has been devoted to
such intensive reviews. In this Chapter V, entitled,
"Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations," is included
a brief review of the study and a treatment of the data
conclusions along with some observable recommendations.
Background of the Problem
The decade of the 1960s marked a remarkable
growth in American institutions of higher education.
During a relatively short period of time, the number of
students attending colleges and universities almost
doubled. However, growth, measured in terms of size,
presented major problems in administration. The
economics of scale were overshadowed by the disadvantages
of what organization theorists refer to as the "bureau
cratic structure."
During the following decade; i.e., the 1970s,
growth continued with a decreasing rate. Financial
resources became scarcer and the advent of accountability
introduced a new dimension in the administration of
98
institutions of higher education. External governance
became so strong that to compensate, the problems of
internal administration needed to be brought increasingly
to the best possible working situation (Hodgkinson, 1971).
The present study undertook to suggest organizational
development programs as one strategy to be used by institu
tions of higher education in coping with the changes
induced and necessitated by the internal/external forces.
Organizational Development Defined
Organizational development, referred to in this
study as "OD" was defined by Beckhard (1969, p. 9) as:
". . . an effort planned, organization-wide and managed
from the top to increase organization effectiveness and
health through planned interventions in the organization’s
’processes* using behavioral science knowledge."
Bennis (1969, p. 17) emphasized that OD was not
synonymous with sensitivity training, although it may use
sensitivity training as a strategy. Organizational develop
ment should not be mistaken for "permissive leadership"
either, although it provides for more delegation of
authority and responsibility. Organizational development
does not adhere to any particular management style or
management system, such as those defined by Likert, other
than an open and confrontational one.
99
Statement of the Problem
The purpose of this study was to develop an
experimental model of organizational development for
institutions of higher education by answering the follow
ing questions:
1. Is there sufficient data in the field of
organizational development to suggest the use of organi
zational development programs in higher education?
2. Can the data be structuralized in order to
develop an experimental model of organizational develop
ment for institutions of higher education?
3. Is there a consensus among educational specia
lists with regard to: (a) the role of institutions of
higher education in initiation, design, and implementation
of organizational development programs, and (b) the
sequence of phases of an experimental model of organiza
tional development for institutions of higher education as
presented in this study.
Importance of the Problem
The importance of the present study may be summar
ized as follows: (a) it may contribute to the preparation
of qualified educational administrators, (b) it introduces
a new and promising approach, i.e., organizational training,
in the design of organizational development programs, and
(c) since one of the spin-offs of organizational develop
ment programs is the reduction of the cost of
100
administrative services through increasing efficiency and
effectiveness of executives and staff, the experimental
model developed in this study may be considered by insti
tutions of higher education in any cost-effectiveness
analysis of their operations.
Delineation of the Research Problem
Organizational development, as used in this study,
differs from cognitive change and T-group strategies
(Schmuck et al., 1972).
Cognitive change strategy is based on the assump
tion that knowledge of social psychology and management
sciences will lead to changes in the group behavior of
individuals, which in turn will help to improve the
functioning of the staff to which they belong.
The T-group is an effective change strategy which
helps to provide a participant with the opportunity to
explore the impact of his behavior on others and experi
ence the forces affecting a group's commitment to a
decision, its cohesiveness, level of trust, and its
openness. Although there is evidence for the above
strategies to be effective on the individual level, there
is not sufficient research evidence to support their
effectiveness on the organizational level (Campbell and
Dunnett, 1968; Friedlander, 1968; Lansky and Runkel, 1969).
Organizational development, as used in this study,
always contains at least the following four features:
101
1. Training the organization's subsystems as
working groups rather than individuals
2. Training in communication skills
3. Training in group problem-solving
4. A development sequence of experimental training
that moves from simulation and exercises performed away
from normal operation of the institution to problem
solving on real issues in the work setting.
Basic Assumption of the Study
Educational management and administration is a
profession similar to other management and administrative
positions in the sense that it requires of its practi
tioners the possession of specific knowledge, abilities,
and skills, i.e., the possession of the tools of the
profession,
Delimitations of the Study
The scope of the present study was delimited to
the development of an experimental model of organizational
development for institutions of higher education. As far
as the content of the proposed experimental model is con
cerned, the scope of the study was delimited to the
definition of a set of core phases of organizational
development programs which supposedly aids educational
administrators in the practice of their profession.
Neither the proposed content nor the structure of the
102
proposed experimental model are based on the actual
empirical data. Rather, they are based on the hypothetical
extrapolations derived from theoretical models and case
studies reviewed and reported in Chapter IV of the study.
Furthermore, the theoretical models selected for the re
view did not assume the inclusion of all the elements of
organizational development programs, but only those which
supposedly do not require immediate changes within
institutional organization.
Limitations of the Study
The following limitations emerged during the
course of development of the experimental model:
1. In reviewing the related literature, the
availability of the references dealing specifically with
the implementation of organizational development programs
in higher education was a limiting factor.
2. Although inquiry was made to several institu
tions of higher education about their involvement in
organizational development programs, a relatively limited
number of them proved to have had such involvement on the
institutional level.
3. Due to the very nature of institutions of
higher education, i.e., difficulties associated with
organizational change, inclusion of the theoretical models
selected for the review and analysis was limited to those
103
models which did not assume immediate organizational
change in institutions.
4. Abundance of the number of "program contents"
available in the field of organizational development also
presented a limiting factor. The review of the related
literature revealed that a tremendous number of "program
contents" are available which may be used in different
situations. Therefore, selection of one "program content"
over the others for inclusion in the experimental model
would have appeared as favoring a particular approach and
as being judgmental. Hence, in each phase of the model,
one or more "program contents" were cited only as
examples.
Theoretical Framework of the Study
Since model building studies make a number of
assumptions which are essential to their structure and
content, they need to adopt a theoretical framework which
can serve as a reference during the course of presentation
y
of the model. A theoretical framework facilitates under
standing of a model in the same fashion that a framework
of analysis convenes tabulation, interpretation, and
generalization of a set of data.
For the purpose of this study, the theoretical
model presented by Schmuck et al. (1972) was employed.
Their theoretical model utilizes systems approach to
demonstrate the relationship and interdependence of
104
subsystems. A summary of the theoretical framework
follows:
Four postulates are basic to the analysis and
understanding of an educational institution as a system:
(a) the system is constituted of components, (b) as a
living system, it is goal oriented, (c) the system displays
varying degrees of openness in communication, and (d) the
system contains a variety of resources and plans (variety
pool).
Although organizational development programs take
the idea of "whole system" into consideration, they are
most efficient when dealing with subsystems identified on
a rational basis.
An educational system is goal oriented in the
sense that it aims toward accomplishment of goals ex
pressed in a general and directive fashion.
Subsystems display varying degrees of openness.
The more open a subsystem is to the influence of other
subsystems, the more useful it is to the system as a
whole.
The effectiveness of a system as a whole is to
some extent dependent upon the access of the system to
the necessary resources.
Me thodological Procedure
Model building is a delicate art which can be
best accomplished if it is done in the light of unity
of theory and practice. Stated in different words, the
possibilities of success for an experimental model are
more if it takes into consideration that theory and prac
tice are two dependent and supporting factors in the
development of any model (Weisbord, 1974).
Starr (1971, p. 34), conceptualized the basics of
model building. According to Starr, there are three
stages of models as follows:
1. First stage models only specify the objectives
of a system, the variables and constants or parameters
involved, and finally outcomes of a system. Therefore,
a system is identified only by its input and output.
2. Second stage models possess all the elements
of the first stage models plus an extra feature which
shows and explains the relationships between input and
output of a system.
3. Third stage models possess all the elements
of second stage models plus an extra feature called
"feedback." In the third stage models, outcomes, through
feedback, alter the value of the variables and also change
the order of relationships. In other words, there is a
build-in self-correcting mechanism in the third stage
models which makes them superior to the first and the
second stage models.
The methodological procedure designed for accom
plishing the objective of this study embodied the steps
106
and the processes essential in constructing the third
stage models. Hence, the proposed experimental model of
organizational development is a third stage model. A
summary of the methodological procedure follows:
1. An extensive review of the related literature
was performed to provide an overview and a conceptual
background of the field of organizational development.
2. Through a search among theoretical models of
organizational development, seven models were chosen for
in-depth analysis.
3. Letters of inquiry were sent to major institu
tions of higher education throughout the country to
identify those institutions which had implemented organiza
tional development programs. Through this strategy, and
also through a search in case study texts, five case
studies were chosen for in-depth analysis.
4. Based on the preceding steps, a framework of
analysis was developed.
5. The selected theoretical models and case
studies were analyzed and tabulated with reference to the
framework of analysis developed in step 4.
6. An experimental model of organizational develop
ment was developed based on the data generated by the
analysis of models and case studies and also by the review
of the related literature.
7. Since the feasibility, validity, and reliabil
107
ity of experimental models should be tested, the experi
mental model developed in step 6 was submitted to a panel
of educational specialists to verify if there was a con
sensus among the members of the panel with regard to (a)
the role of institutions of higher education in initiation,
design, and implementation of organizational development
programs, and (b) the sequence of phases of an experimental
model of organizational development for institutions of
higher education as presented in this study.
8. The last step in the development of the
experimental model was the incorporation of the suggestions
of the panel of educational specialists into the model.
Selected Findings of the Study
Following are the selected findings of the study:
1. In an analysis performed to examine the
relationship of organizational development values to the
case studies and models reviewed in this study, approxi
mately 50 percent of the models reviewed considered organi
zational development programs as an educational strategy
for change. In practice, however, in 80 percent of the
cases, organizational development programs were considered
as an educational strategy to bring about planned organi
zational change. Results of such analysis are reported
in Tables 1 and 2 in Chapter IV.
2. While only 40 percent of the models reviewed
108
associated organization development with "exigency
situations," in all of the cases, organization development
was considered as a valuable strategy to cope with exigency.
This finding may be interpreted as an indication of the
tendency of educational institutions to value the concepts
and practices which contribute to the solving of problems
in hand. The results of this finding are reported in
Tables 1 and 2 in Chapter IV.
3. Only in 20 percent of the cases and 30 percent
of the models reviewed, was the change agent an outside
consultant invited to plan and facilitate the process of
change. In the remainder of cases and models, the change
agent was either an in-house agent or a combination of
inside/outside change agents. This finding may be
attributed to the complexity of the process of change in
institutions of higher education which requires the change
agent to have an in-depth involvement in, and a thorough
understanding of, the roles and expectations of constitu
encies. Stated in different words, although externality
of the change agent to the system is an organization
development value, in practice, institutions of higher
education compromise for an in-house change agent due to
the difficulties associated with the employment of outside
change agents. An in-house change agent is a full-time
employee of the institution whose primary function is to
plan and facilitate the process of change in the institu
tion. 1Q9
4. All of the organizational development models
reviewed were characterized by non-bureaucratic values;
i.e., they advocated non-hierarchical, non-authoritarian
structures, and a democratic process in decision-making.
However, 80 percent of the case studies recognized non-
bureaucratic values as vital to the implementation of
organizational development programs. If the cultural state
of the institution is not ready for organization develop
ment or institutional values do not coincide with those
of organization development, it is not to the advantage
of the institution to implement organizational development
programs. In one of the case studies analyzed, failure
of the institution to recognize this fact resulted in the
failure of change efforts. Results of this finding are
reported in Tables 1 and 2 in Chapter IV.
5. An analysis of the goals of organization
development in higher education was performed. All of
the models reviewed, and 80 percent of the case studies,
reported that the primary goal of organizational develop
ment in higher education is to deal with organizational
change. Other goals of organization development, as
spelled out in the framework of analysis in Chapter III,
and reported in Tables 3 and 4 in Chapter IV, were con
sidered as secondary to organizational change.
6. Organization development, especially by its
definition in the late 1970s, does not adhere to any
110
single management theory and strongly recommends develop
ment of contextual solutions. However, organizational
development programs usually adopt strategies and mechan
isms such as team development. Seventy percent of the
models reviewed had built-in mechanisms for team develop
ment. In 60 percent of the case studies reviewed, team
development was utilized. Results of this finding are
reported in Tables 3 and 4 in Chapter IV.
7. An analysis of the problems with which organi
zational development programs are designed to deal was
performed. Approximately 6 5 percent of the models
reported that ’ 'collaboration1 1 and "adaptation" were two
major problems with which organization development aims to
deal. All of the case studies invariably dealt with
problems of collaboration and adaptation. Collaboration
is the supportive relationship among constituencies in an
institution. Adaptation is responding effectively and
appropriately to changes induced and necessitated by the
internal/external environments.
8. An analysis of "typology of interventions"
showed that a gap existed between organizational develop
ment models and cases. All of the cases studied reported
an effort to help members re-examine outworn assumptions
and search for alternatives other than those under con
sideration. In "typology of interventions" such effort
is called the "dilemma" type of intervention.
Ill
However, none of the models reviewed explicitly referred
to the "dilemma" type of intervention. Results of this
finding are reported in Tables 7 and 8 in Chapter IV.
9. An analysis was performed to explore the rela
tion of models and cases reviewed to structural elements
and process variables. Process variables are those which
deal with the "way" a function is performed. Structural
elements deal with the "content" of a function. Approxi
mately 85 percent of the models reviewed dealt with
process variables. Sixty percent of the cases studied
were primarily process oriented. Forty percent of the case
studies primarily dealt with structural elements? i.e.,
they were concerned with the changes in the content of a
function. Results of this finding are reported in Tables
9 and 10 in Chapter IV.
10. Since the conceptual framework developed by
Starr (1971, p. 34) was adopted in this study, an analysis
was performed to explore the relation of organizational
development models and case studies to the stages of models
discussed by Starr. All of the models and cases possessed
characteristics of "third stage models." Third stage
models characterize a system not only by its variables,
constants or parameters, outcomes, and a system of rela
tionships, but also by a feedback loop which is capable
of altering the value of the variables and changing the
systems of relationships. Results of this finding are
reported in Chapter IV. 112
11. Most management theories ' and models in the
behavioral sciences possess elements of subjectivity; i.e.,
they provide total pictures, or gestalt, through synthesis,
rather than through detailed analysis. An analysis was
performed to explore the relative standing of organization
al development models and cases with reference to a compre
hensive classification of models. All of the models and
cases possessed elements of subjectivity. Results of this
finding are reported in Tables 19 and 20 in Chapter IV.
12. Further analysis of the models and cases
with reference to the classification of models revealed
a major gap between models and cases. All of the models
reviewed were prescriptive; i.e., they embodied the
criteria and means for determining the configuration that
would produce optimum solution. Organizational develop
ment programs, on the other hand, were all descriptive;
i.e., they did not specify the optimum behavior of the
system.
13. An analysis was performed to explore the
relationship of the models and cases to organizational
development strategies. All of the models and cases
used the normative strategies, i.e., participation,
involvement—commitment, evaluation, feedback, and follow-
up. Organizational development cases were consistent in
using strategies of education, goal setting, action
research, training, and communication. Organizational
113
development models, however, were scattered in terms of
strategies and no consistent pattern was observed. Such
a gap between models and programs may be attributed to
the diversity of theoretical models in the field of
organizational development and the eclectic nature of
organizational development programs.
Although successful programs are characterized
as being highly contextual; i.e., they are tailored to
meet the specific needs in a specific situation, most
programs use strategies which have proved to be practical
and feasible. Furthermore, use of common strategies to
some extent minimizes the danger of unanticipated conse
quences for individual human beings. The effects of
common strategies on human beings have supposedly been
tested repeatedly.
Further analysis of cases and models with
reference to the ’ ’typology of interventions” showed that
coercive strategies, i.e., pressure, stress induction, and
hierarchy, were neither recommended by any model nor
used in any of the cases. This is, obviously, because
coercive strategies are not compatible with goals and
values of organization development.
Results of this finding are reported in Tables 2 3
and 24 in Chapter IV.
114
Conclusions
The following conclusions were drawn from the
analysis of the findings of the study:
1. Organizational development programs can
successfully be adopted by institutions of higher education
in coping with the changes induced and necessitated by
the external/internal forces.
An analysis of organizational development cases in
higher education showed that in 80 percent of the cases
organizational development programs were successfully
adopted to bring about planned organizational change. The
goals of programs varied. In 4 0 percent of the cases the
goal was to improve interpersonal competence of institu
tional members. In 60 percent of the cases the goal was
to increase understanding among constituencies and to
provide for conflict resolution.
This conclusion is further supported by the find
ing that in all of the cases, organizational development
programs were invariably successful in dealing with
problems of collaboration and adaptation (Table 5 in
Chapter IV).
2. Institutions of higher education can benefit
from re-examining outworn assumptions and practices by
adopting organizational development programs. Since, in
dealing with problems, organization development raises
115
pertinent questions rather than prescribing packaged
solutions, the chances of misdiagnosis, change for the
sake of change, and adoption of wrong solutions are
minimized.
This conclusion is further supported by the find
ing that organizational development programs have the
potential for questioning the validity of assumptions
underlying administrative, organizational, and managerial
philosophies in an institution.
3. Due to the complexity of system of relation
ships in institutions of higher education, use of in-house
change agents or a combination of inside/outside change
agents seems to be superior to the exclusive use of out
side change agents.
Outside change agents have a better opportunity
to observe and analyze critically the processes in an
institution. There are several reasons for this,
including: (a) the change agent is not an employee of
the institution and his status is not directly affected
by the probable changes in the institution, and (b) he
is "detached" from the institution and is not influenced
by the opinions and controversies. Therefore, he has a
better opportunity to be objective in his diagnoses.
Included in the disadvantages of an outside change agent
are: (a) he is not a member of the institution, therefore
he may not be as concerned with or as sympathetic for the
116
problems of the institution, and (b) he may not be as
familiar with the culture of the institution as it is
necessary for the task of planned interventions.
Use of in-house change agents, on the other hand,
may be associated with the following disadvantages;
(a) he may be unreasonably cautious in his recommendations
and actions because of their possible effect on his status
and the status of others with whom he is concerned, and
(b) his involvement in the day-to-day controversies of
the institution and his close physical proximity to the
opinions of institutional members may work as an obstacle
for his ability to have a gestalt view of the situation.
However, the inside change agent may have many advantages
including: (a) his concern with, and sympathy for,
institutional problems may work as a supporting factor in
his efforts, and (b) his close physical proximity to the
institution may well give him a more thorough understanding
of problems.
A proper combination of inside/outside change
agents possesses the advantages of both patterns. If
such a combination is not possible, the use of an in-
house change agent seems to be superior to the exclusive
use of outside change agents.
4. Involvement, commitment, and support of
executive officers and staff is indispensible to the
success of organizational development programs.
117
An analysis of the initiation of the change
efforts showed that in 60 percent of the cases the chief
executive officer of institutions initiated the change
efforts. In the remaining 40 percent of the institutions,
although the change effort was initiated by others such as
unit heads, executive officers were involved in and com
mitted to the program.
5. Normative organizational development strate
gies, i.e., participation, involvement-commitment,
evaluation, feedback, follow-up, and education, seem to
be superior to coercive change strategies.
An analysis of organization development strategies
was performed. None of the models recommended the use of
coercive strategies. Accordingly, in none of the cases
coercive strategies were used (Tables 23 and 24 in
Chapter IV).
6. Action research, as an organizational develop
ment strategy, seems particularly to suit the contextual
problems of administration in institutions of higher
education.
An analysis of organizational development strate
gies showed that although in only 20 percent of the models
the use of action research was explicitly recommended,
this strategy was successfully used in all of the cases.
Action research is an organizational development
strategy which demands relatively more time and resources.
118
Therefore, its use is highly recommended whenever other
less demanding strategies do not satisfy the purposes of
diagnosis and intervention, and appropriate resources are
available. Since the systems of relationships in institu
tions of higher education are complex and each institution
has its own peculiar characteristics, the use of action
research seems to be highly effective.
7. Based upon all the findings of this study,
and an extensive review of the related literature, an
experimental model of organizational development for
institutions of higher education was developed which
contains eleven major phases. The proposed experimental
model follows.
The Proposed Experimental Model
Organizational development, as used in this model,
was defined as a "planned intervention in the process
of change." The methods to be used in an OD program
vary widely depending upon the needs of the organization
and the skills and techniques of the change agent (Jenks,
1970) . A change agent is viewed as a person who has access
to certain technologies, but no "set" program (Culbert,
1972). In line with these statements, the experimental
model presented in this study should be considered as a
flexible guideline for change agents in institutions of
higher education.
119
The processes and steps recommended in eleven
major phases of the model follow a logical sequence and
are necessary to the integrity of the model. However,
depending on the circumstances and particular needs of a
client system, the order of the phases may be altered,
or one or more phases may be ' bypassed.
The content of programs presented throughout the
model are merely selected examples and in no way are
intended to include all possible strategies and content
programs. Therefore, it seems appropriate that each
individual client system using the experimental model
select the OD strategies and designs the content of pro
grams in a way that they best suit the contextual needs
of that particular system.
The experimental model, which consists of eleven
major phases, was developed on the basis of the following
methodological procedure:
1. A review of the related literature in the
field of OD in general, with specific attention paid to the
implementation of OD programs in the field of educational
administration.
2. A review of the selected theoretical OD models
in order to provide background for the development of the
model.
3. A review of the selected case studies dealing
with implementation of OD programs in institutions of
higher education. 120
4. The development of a framework of analysis
based on the preceding steps.
5. The analysis and tabulation of the selected
OD cases and OD models based on the framework of analysis
developed in the preceding step.
6. The development of the experimental model
based on the preceding steps.
7. The submission of the experimental model to a
panel of educational specialists who were known to possess
the knowledge and interest necessary for the performance
of a meaningful critique.
8. The incorporation of the suggestions into the
experimental model.
Phase One--Entry into a Process Of Planned Change
Entry into a process of planned change may take
place in a variety of ways. Whatever the mode of entry,
two basic rules should be observed: (a) The support
and commitment of the executive officer(s) of the subject
group should be secured prior to entry. In order to obtain
the commitment of the executive officer (s), consultant (s)
may raise pertinent questions as to the validity of an
OD program without this commitment; and (b) at the outset
of the program, a team composed of the organizational
members should be selected by means of a democratic process.
This team should represent vertically and horizontally
all the organizational members affected by the OD program.
121
The team is to be involved and consulted in all matters
throughout the process of planned change.
Phase Two--Diagnosis
The diagnosis phase in a planned change program
is viewed as a step by step process which takes place
jointly with the cooperation of the consultant(s) and the
client system. The strategy of joint cooperation for the
purpose of diagnosis possesses a number of advantages
including but not limited to: (a) allows the client
system to determine the scope and extent of the inter
vention, (b) consultant(s) do(es) not have to specify a
predefined program at the outset, (c) allows for decreasing
the risk of unintended consequences for individuals,
(d) allows the cost control of the program, and (e) the
more input from the individuals, the more chances for the
problem areas to become the target of change efforts.
Often it is not clear at the outset of the program
what kind of interventions are necessary to facilitate
the process of change. These steps become apparent only
after questions are raised and answered. Therefore, it is
appropriate that both consultant(s) and client system
review the project's status prior to, and periodically
after/ each phase.
For the purposes of the diagnosis phase, four major
questions should be thoroughly answered:
122
1. Are the OD goals and values appropriate to the
target system? If not, stop and reconsider the appropriate
ness of OD programs for the client system. If yes, pro
ceed to the next step.
2. Is the cultural state of the institution pre
pared for OD programs? In answering this question the
following variables should be considered:
a. Degree and type of interinstitutional and
intrainstitutional value conflicts
b. To what extent the concept of "inter
personal relations" is a legitimate issue
in the institution to be explored
c. Degree and intensity of existing conflicts
and existing processes for resolution of
those conflicts
d. The structure of control and authority
e. Interdependence of subsystems within the
client system
f. Degree of trust and confidence between
consultant (s) and the clientele in the
institution.
If the answers to these questions imply negative
consequences for the interventions, stop and examine
where more preparation is needed or where value conflicts
may be reduced. If the answers are affirmative, proceed
with the next question.
123
3. Are key executive(s) and the representative
team of organizational members actively involved in and
committed to the program? If not, stop and examine ways
of developing more involvement in and commitment to the
program. The answer to this question is so important that
a negative answer may well mean to stop the program until
the client system begins hurting again. If the answer is
affirmative, proceed with the next question.
4. Are participating members from the institution
adequately prepared and oriented to OD? If not, stop and
examine ways to develop more effective orientation pro
grams .
Strategies of Diagnosis
Strategy options largely depend on the situation
and prior activities. Since the diagnosis strategy should
be tailored to suit the requirements of a particular
situation, it may be stated that there are as many versions
of diagnosis strategies as the number of situations calling
for diagnosis* However, such strategies may be grouped
under two general categories as follows:
1. Psychometric methods of measurement for
gathering data
2. Subjective-semistruetutad methods together
with unobtrusive observational techniques (Webb, Campbell,
Schwartz, and Sechrest, 1966).
124
Because of the nature of OD programs, use of the
diagnosis strategies in either categories largely depend
on the situation. However, use of a combination of two
categories is recommended as one effective method to
maximize the strength of the diagnostic data.
Process of Diagnosis
There are many approaches as to what the process
of diagnosis may or should be. The questions of how many,
which ones, how much, etc., are highly contextual (Schein,
1969).
One popular approach is that most of the diagnostic
information is gathered during a relatively short period
of time. This tends to prevent the effects resulting
from the interaction of the several variables during a
long period of time. During a general meeting the approach
of the consulting team and the involvement of the client
system may be explained. Individuals are to be assured
of the anonymity of the comments made during the group
and individual interviews. It is recommended that the
top management team depart from the general meeting before
group interviews are conducted. The purpose of the group
interview is to involve those affected by the problem at
hand and let everybody know that others are involved, too.
Group interviews are usually followed by individual
interviews. The objective of an individual interview is
to provide ample opportunity for participants to express
125
themselves freely. A following step may be administration
of a job attitude questionnaire.
Phase Three— Pre-Intervention Feedback
Pre-intervention feedback is accomplished through
synthesis of the diagnostic data. The most significant
part of phase three is the feedback given to those
individuals whose behavior and areas of responsibility
will be most affected by the implied changes.
Selection of the feedback techniques and proce
dures to a large extent depends on the situation and
prior activities. One popular approach is to conduct
individual as well as general feedback sessions.
Principles of Pre-Intervention Feedback
The main objectives of phase three are: (a) to
give the client group a feeling of what is taking place
in the group, (b) to involve actively the client group in
deciding what steps to take next, (c) to "let the pressure
off" prior to specific interventions by giving the client
group an opportunity to react freely to the feedback, and
(d) to continue to provide an open, receptive climate for
the next phase.
Although the above mentioned objectives of the pre
intervention feedback may all sound like advantages of
this phase, precautions should be taken to prevent possible
unintended negative consequences.
126
During the data gathering process, individuals may
tend to define their problems as someone else's. Thus,
feedback often comes unexpectedly and results in un
easiness among participants. Recipients' immediate
reaction to feedback may be hostility toward themselves
and others, as well as toward the consulting team.
However, participants are often surprised to discover
that they are partially responsible for the present
organizational problems.
Information dependency is another common effect
consultants should expect. There is always the possibility
that clients may see the consultants as possessing certain
higher knowledge and understanding which the client needs
in order to handle problems that surface. After feedback,
the client is especially vulnerable to directive sugges^
tions.
Phase Four— Action Planning on Content of Intervention
Planning for OD programs is a participatory and
democratic process whereby participants are provided with
the maximum possible opportunity to express their feelings
and have their inputs into the program. As long as the
ground rule of "democratic process" is observed, the rest
of the planning process depends on specific situations.
An example of the process of action planning on content
of intervention follows:
127
Step 1. Participants may be divided into smaller
groups. A consulting team or client member may be assigned
to facilitate each group in discussing the information
generated by diagnosis and feedback activities.
Step 2. The entire group may convene to decide
what the content and specific action steps of intervention
should be and to plan how, when, and by whom the results
will be observed and discussed.
Phase Five— Intervention
Phases one and two of the model were aimed at
revealing dysfunctional behaviors in intergroup and intra
group relationships. The assumption was made that the
management team may be split and working at cross pur
poses. During phases three and four, findings were dis
cussed and decisions made regarding action that should be
taken.
The objective of phase five is to provide the
client group with the opportunity to experiment in alle
viating the discord by changing processes, attitudes, and
behaviors. Such an objective can be reached through
several OD strategies including, but not limited to, the
following:
Management Team Building
The main objective of a management team building
workshop is to offer participants a setting in which they
128
can realistically view themselves and others. A number of
exercises are designed to help them describe themselves,
to have others describe them; and then with the use of
small group interventions, to provide an understanding of
why differences between the views occur.
Caution must be taken against possible unpopular
consequences of such workshops. Dealing with the infor
mation about oneself, especially from a group of peers,
may result in an extremely intense experience.
Supervisory Skills Workshops
Supervisory skills workshops are designed.for the
first line supervisors in larger academic departments and
all other administrative departments. In this kind of
workshop, alternative methods of supervision are discussed.
A variety of diagnostic instruments may be used to measure
how first line supervisors would wish to be supervised
and how they feel their subordinates need to be supervised.
Instruments will often aid in revealing discrepancies
between present practices and desired practices.
Phase Six— Post-Intervention Measurement
The effects of the intervention activities are
measured during phase six of the model. Measurement
instruments are numerous and are used in a wide variety
of ways. The following are cited as examples:
129
1. Behavioral Indicators are those which will
indicate certain behavior of participants. The rate of
turnover, for example, is a behavioral indicator to the
extent that certain employee behaviors and organizational
states can be inferred from it. Turnover rates can be
defined as the number of new employees (employed less
than one month) divided by the total number of employees.
Absenteeism is another behavioral indicator. It may be
computed as the percentage of the employees who miss one
or more work days each month.
2. Attitudinal Measures are those psychometrically
oriented instruments which measure personnel attitudes.
Due to the fact that attitudes cannot be measured directly,
psychometric instruments are constructed to measure the
products of attitudes. Smith and Cranny (19 68) developed
the "Job Descriptive Index" (JDI)‘ which is claimed to be
a psychometrically sound instrument available for the
assessment of employee attitude. The JDX provides an
index of employee attitudes toward five relatively distinct
aspects of work as follows: (a) the work itself, (b)) co-
workers, (c) supervision, (d) promotional opportunities,
and (e) pay.
Phase Seven— Data Feedback, Group Discussion,
and Action Planning
During phase seven, the outcomes of the post-
intervention measurements are fed back to participants.
130
The following is an example of what the process in phase
seven may be:
Step 1. During a general session, data related to
work in general and of concern to all participants are fed
back and discussed.
Step 2. Separate feedback sessions are arranged
with individuals or small groups to discuss data or prob
lems related to specific work situations or hierarchical
work groups.
Step 3. All participants join together and make
decisions to plan new action steps. This process often
results in the decision "to go" or "not to go."
Theoretically, if either the group or management decides
"not to go," the OD process stops here. If this happens,
the decision "not to go" may be considered as a piece of
information by itself worth further exploration. If the
decision is "to go," then the OD process will continue to
the next phase.
Phase Eight— Action Taking
Post-intervention feedback may reveal significant
relationships among organizational variables. A direct
positive or negative relationship between two variables
may suggest action to alter one of the variables by mani
pulating the other. In such case, two conditions should
be met before proceeding to the next step: (a) decision
"to go" and the planning of action remain with the
131
client and not the consultant(s), and (b) there should be
a firm commitment to the idea of "action" by the top
officials and a consensus among the client group as to the
type of action to be taken.
Phase Nine--Pata Gathering and Assessment of Action
Assessment of actions taken is often called post
measurement activity. Postmeasures may be obtained in a
variety of ways. The following is an example of the
process in phase nine:
Step 1. Consultant(s) talk informally to key
participating members to obtain their impressions about
the actions taken.
Step 2. The same direct measures that have been
used earlier as a part of the diagnosis phase two of the
model may be obta.ined from the same group.
Phase Ten— Feedback, Group Discussion, and
Action Planning (What To Do Now?)
Feedback of data should be scheduled as close to
the postmeasurement as possible. This tends to minimize
the effects of intervening variables as a function of time.
Feedback may be given in a variety of ways, depending on
the situation and prior activities. The following is an
example of the process in phase ten:
Step 1. During a general session, data related to
work in general and of concern to all participants is fed
back and discussed . 132
Step 2. Separate feedback sessions are arranged
with individuals or small groups to discuss data related
to specific situations .
Step 3.' Following the general and individual
feedback sessions, the entire group of participants come
together and discuss the feasibility of taking any action
based on postmeasurement data. The decision "to go" or
"not to go" remains with the client. Consultant(s)
continue(s) to play the role of facilitator(s).
Phase Eleven— Action Taking
If the group or the management decides "not to go,"
the process may stop here. If the decision is "to go,"
appropriate action is taken as planned and the process
repeats in a cyclic fashion returning to activities in
phase nine.
Figure 5 illustrates the proposed experimental
model.
Recommendations
The following recommendations are offered:
1. Institutions of higher learning should desig
nate a group or an agency on the campus for study and
examination of the internal/external forces and their im
pact on the administration.
2. In-house change agents who possess sufficient
knowledge of organizational development and are willing
to take the responsibility for challenging tasks should
133
(1)
Entry
\ i /
(2)
Diagnosis
I
(3)
Pre-Intervention
Feedback
(4)
Planning for the
Content of
Intervention
v l '
(5)
Intervention
(6)
Post-Intervention
Measurement
v l '
(7)
Data Feedback,
Group Discussion,
and Action-Planning
4 '
(8)
ActionrTaking
t | /
V
(9) <________
Data Gathering
(assessment of action)
(10)
Feedback, Group Discussion,
and Action-Planning
(What to do now?)
(11)
Action-Taking
Repeat the cycle with Phase 9 _=
Figure 5— Sequential Illustration of the Proposed Experi
mental Model of Organizational Development for
Institutions of Higher Education
134
be designated to make recommendations to the chief
executive officer of institutions as to where changes are
necessary and suggest alternative plans.
3. A study should be conducted by means of
analysis to identify factors contributing to, as well as
factors prohibiting, the success of organizational develop
ment programs in institutions of higher education.
4. Using the methodological procedure designed
for the development of the proposed experimental model
in this study, other institutional issues in higher educa
tion, such as the changing nature of the student popula
tion, the design of fiscal accountability models, and
alternative methods in dealing with the scarcity of
economic resources, should be studied. The processes of
such studies may be compared to make necessary changes in
the methodological procedure.
135
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136
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142
APPENDIX
CORRESPONDENCE PERTAINING TO THE STUDY
143
COPY
October 15, 1976
National Training Laboratories
Institute for Applied Behavioral Sciences
P. 0. Box 9155
Arlington, Virginia 22209
Gentlemen:
I am involved in a research project concerning the
organizational development programs. Inherent in this
will be constructing a model for the implementation of
organizational development programs in institutions of
higher education. This model will be based on in-depth
case studies of those universities which have made an
effort regarding this subject. The findings will be
submitted to a panel of educational specialists for their
critique. From this procedure, and a thorough review of
the related literature, the model will be developed.
The purpose of this letter is to seek your aid in
identification of those institutions of higher education
that you believe have made an effort to implement organi
zational development programs on their campuses. No
delimitation is placed on the type or size of the institu
tions or organizational development programs. Also, names
and addresses of those NTL research associates who have
been working on projects of this nature would be very
helpful to me.
A model so developed can be a valuable vehicle in
the total scheme of educational accountability. As a
graduate student at the University of Southern California,
I have been vitally concerned with the development of such
a model.
Your assistance will be greatly appreciated. Please
contact me at your earliest convenience if additional
information is required.
Very truly yours,
M. Masoud Givrad
144
COPY
NTL Institute
Developmental Experiences, for Individuals,
Groups and Organizations
Birge D. Reichard, Ph.D.
Vice-President and Professional Director
October 19, 1976
Mr. M. Masoud Givrad
Research Assistant
School of Education
903 W. Phillips Hall
University of Southern California
Los Angeles, California 90007
Dear Mr. Givrad,
Your letter of October 15 has been brought to my
attention.
One of our members, Dr. Melinda Sprague has done much
work at San Diego State University and knows many people
in the organization development field. Dr. Sprague1s
address is:
7934 La Julia Shores
La Jolla, CA 92037
She can be reached during the day at 714/ 286-6410
Also, there is much work in organization development
at the Graduate School of Management at UCLA. That
should be a very good source for you.
I hope this information will aid in your search.
Best regards,
Birge D. Reichard, Ph.D.
145
C O P Y
Dr. Birge D. Reichard
Vice President and Professional Director
NTL Institute
P.O. Box 9155, Rosslyn Station
Virginia 22209
Dear Dr. Reichard:
Thank you very much for your informative letter
dated October 19, 1976. I have contacted Dr. Sprague
and I am expecting a response very soon.
Let me thank you again for your assistance.
Sincerely yours,
M, Maspud Givrad
146
COPY
October 22, 1976
Dr. Melinda Sprague
San Diego State University
7934 La Jolla Shores
La Jolla, CA 92037
Dear Dr. Sprague,
I am involved in a research project concerning the
organizational development programs. Inherent in this
will be constructing a model for the implementation of
organizational development programs in institutions of
higher education. This model will be based on in-depth
case studies of those universities which have made an
effort regarding this subject. The findings will be
submitted to a panel of educational specialists for
their critique. From this procedure, and a thorough
review of the related literature, the model will be
developed.
I have contacted NTL (National Training Laboratories)
and Dr. Birge D. Reichard has recommended you as a leading
professor in the field. The purpose of this letter is to
seek your aid in identification of those institutions
of higher education that you believe have made an effort
to implement organizational development programs on their
campuses. No delimitation is placed on the type or size
of the institutions or organizational development programs.
Also, names and addresses of those NTL research associates
who have been working on projects of this nature in
institutions of higher education would be very helpful
to me.
A model so developed can be a valuable vehicle in
the total scheme of educational accountability. As a
graduate student at the University of Southern California,
I have been vitally concerned with the development of such
a model.
Your assistance will be greatly appreciated. Please
contact me at your earliest convenience if additional
information is required. I will be more than happy to
visit you at a mutually convenient time.
Very truly yours,
M. Masoud Givrad 147
COPY
October 14, 1976
Dr. Warren Bennis, President
University of Cincinnati
Cincinnati, Ohio 4 5221
Dear Professor Bennis:
I am involved in a research project concerning the
organizational development programs. Inherent in this will
be constructing a model for the implementation of organiza
tional development programs in institutions of higher
education. This model will be based on in-depth case
studies of those universities which have made an effort
regarding this subject. The findings will be submitted to
a panel of educational specialists for their critique.
From this procedure, and a thorough review of the related
literature, the model will be developed.
The purpose of this letter is to seek your aid in
identification of those institutions of higher education
that you believe have made an effort to implement organiza
tional development programs on their campuses. No delimita
tion is placed/on the type or size of the institutions or
organizational development programs.
A model so developed can be a valuable vehicle in
the total scheme of educational accountability. As a
graduate student at the University of Southern California,
I have been vitally concerned with the development of such
a model.
Your assistance will be greatly appreciated. Please
contact me at your earliest convenience if additional
information is required.
Very truly yours,
M. Masoud Givrad
148
COPY
University of Cincinnati
Cincinnati, Ohio 4 5221
Office of the President
October 19, 1976
M. Masoud Givrad
University of Southern California
School of Education
903 W. Phillips Hall
Los Angeles, California 90007
Dear M. Givrad,
Were it possible to lead two lives or were my life
different from what it presently is, I would like nothing
better than to help with your research project. But I am
presently concentrating on the conversion of the
University to full-state status and, unfortunately, I
can't even devote the time to talk to my own faculty
and students on the issues they raise which may need my
assistance. Your thoughtful letter requires more
attention than I can presently devote.
I hope you understand.
Sincerely,
S/ Warren Bennis
P.S. Thought you might find the enclosed article helpful
149
COPY
November 4, 197 6
Editor
The Journal of Higher Education
2070 Neil Avenue
Columbus, Ohio 4 3210
Dear Sir:
I am involved in a research project concerning the
organizational development programs in institutions of
higher education. This study will be based on in^depth
case studies of those Universities which have made an
effort regarding this subject. The findings will be sub
mitted to a panel of educational specialists for their
critique. From this procedure, and a thorough review of
the related literature, a model of organizational develop
ment for institutions of higher education will be developed.
The purpose of this letter is to seek the permission to
use the contents of The Journal of Higher Education,
Volume XLIV, Number 5, May 197 3 in my study. Of course,
proper credit will be given to any portion of the articles
to be used.
Your assistance will be greatly appreciated. Please con
tact me at your earliest convenience if additional infor
mation is required.
Very truly yours,
M. Masoud Givrad
150
COPY
November 23, 1976
The Journal of Higher Education
Ohio State University Press
2070 Neil Avenue
Columbus, Ohio 4 3210
M. M. Givrad
Research Assistant
School of Education, WPH 903
University of Southern California
Los Angeles, California 90007
Dear Mr. Givrad:
I am in receipt of your letter of November 4, 1976
concerning permission to use materials from the Journal of
Higher Education in your study on organizational develop
ment programs in institutions of higher education.
Without further information on your intended use of the
May 1973 issue (Volume XLIV, Number 5), I can offer no
permission. If you wish to reprint certain sections of the
issue in a published study, I shall need to know what mate^
rial is to be used, identified by author, title, and page
numbers, along with information on the nature of the
publication, namely, who will be the publisher, when the
study will be published, how many copies will be printed,
and what will be the approximate price per copy.
I am enclosing a statement from the Association of
American University Presses, to which the Ohio State Univer
sity Press is signatury, on fair use of copyrighted mate
rial .
Thank you for your interest, and I hope to hear from you.
Sincerely,
Richard C. Rose
Managing Editor
151
COPY
December 6, 1976
Mr. Richard C. Rose
Managing Editor
The Journal of Higher Education
Ohio State University Press
2070 Neil Avenue
Columbus, Ohio 4 3210
Dear Mr. Rose:
Thank you very much for your letter dated
November 23, 1976. I appreciate your prompt reply to my
request.
I am planning to use the case studies published in
the May 1973 issue of the Journal of Higher Education in
my doctoral dissertation. These cases, together with some
other cases from a different source,.will be analyzed
according to a predetermined framework of analysis. The
purpose of such analysis is to find out the major factors
in implementation of organizational development programs
in institutions of higher education. A copy of the frame
work for analysis is enclosed in this letter*
No part of the material will be used without proper
credit given to the author(s) and the Journal of Higher
Education. My dissertation will be published in one
original typewritten copy which will be retained in the
library at the University of Southern California. Approxi
mate date of publication would be June, 1977. This study
will not be available for sale by the author. However,
copies of doctoral dissertations are available for purchase
from University Microfilm International, Ann Arbor,
Michigan 48106.
I would like to emphasize that this is not a profit
oriented study. It is strictly an academic study to ful
fill the requirements for the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy in Education.
Mr. Rose, let me thank you again. I hope that this
explanation is sufficient to obtain your permission. If
not, please let me know. I would be happy to provide you
with more information. A list of the case studies to be
used is enclosed.
Very truly yours,
M. Masoud Givrad 152
COPY
The Journal of Higher Education
Ohio State University Press
207 0 Neil Avenue
Columbus, Ohio 4 3210
December 21, 1976
Mr. M. M. Givrad
Research Assistant
School of Education, WPH 903
University of Southern California
Los Angeles, California 90007
Dear Mr. Givrad:
Thank you for your letter of December 6, 197 6, offering
detailed information on your intended use of materials
from the May 1973 issue of the Journal of Higher Education.
From your earlier letter I had the impression that the
study was in preparation for immediate publication, but
as you have kindly shown, this is not the case.
Citation of the materials need only to follow the usual
mode of citing reference materials in the doctoral disser
tation; of course, no fee is involved. Should your
dissertation be accepted for publication, a request for
permission to reprint would be necessary.
Thank you for your cooperation.
Sincerely,
Richard C. Rose
Managing Editor
153
COPY
September 13, 1977
Distribution
For the purpose of writing my doctoral dissertation
I am involved in a research project concerning organization
development programs. Inherent in my project has been
the construction of a model for the implementation of
organization development programs in institutions of
higher education. Enclosed with this letter is a summary
of the procedure I have employed in the construction of
the model and a copy of the model.
Step 7 of the procedure requires submission of the
model to a panel of educational experts known to possess
the knowledge and experience necessary for performing a
critique of the model. The purpose of this letter is to
request that you be a member of that panel.
I am aware that busy and conflicting schedules
make a joint meeting of this panel almost impossible to
obtain. But it would be most helpful to me if you
could make an evaluation and criticism of the attached
model at a time which is convenient for you. If appro
priate, I am willing to be present and take notes. Your
assistance in this capacity would be greatly appreciated.
Very truly yours,
M. Masoud Givrad
Distribution:
Professor Leonard Murdy, Department of Educational
Administration, University of Southern California
Dr. Frank Adshead, College of Continuing Education,
University of Southern California
Dr. David Hartle, Director, Center for Training and
Development, University of Southern California
Dr. Joyce Ross, Assistant Professor, School of Public
Administration and Urban Studies, San Diego State
University
Dr. Mike Spark, California State University at
Sacramento
154

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Asset Metadata

Creator Givrad, M. Masoud (author)

Core Title An experimental model of organizational development for institutions of higher education

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, Higher Education Administration,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-467028

Unique identifier UC11246072

Identifier usctheses-c26-467028 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP24279.pdf

Dmrecord 467028

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Givrad, M. Masoud

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA