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An investigation into the relationship among intelligence, age of entry, length of remediation, progress during remediation, and post-clinical reading remediation in determining long-term post-cl...

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An investigation into the relationship among intelligence, age of entry, length of remediation, progress during remediation, and post-clinical reading remediation in determining long-term post-cl...

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Content AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE RELATIONSHIP AMONG
INTELLIGENCE, AGE OF ENTRY, LENGTH OF
REMEDIATION, PROGRESS DURING REMEDIATION,
AND POST-CLINICAL READING REMEDIATION
IN DETERMINING LONG-TERM POST-
CLINICAL READING COMPREHENSION
AND READING VOCABULARY SUCCESS AND FAILURE
by
William Edward Broderick
^
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Education)
September 1976
Copyright by William Edward Broderick 1976
UMI Number: DP24186
All rights reserved
INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
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a note will indicate the deletion.
UMI
Dissertation Pubi steng
UMI DP24186
Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author.
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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL h
UNIVERSITY PARK L -C aJLl C
LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA 90007
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This dissertation, written by
.... . W . i I lia rn . E d w . a r d _ .B r o d e r ic k ...............................
under the direction of hX?..... Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of
the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
Chairman
D E D IC A T IO N
To m y w ife , T a r i, fo r h e r p a tie n c e and u n d e rs ta n d in g ;
and to o u r boys, who s tru g g le d alo n g w ith us.
ii
T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S
Page
L IS T O F T A B L E S ............................................................................................... v
C h a p te r
I. S T A T E M E N T O F T H E P R O B L E M
In tro d u c tio n
S ta te m e n t o f the P ro b le m
S ta tis tic a l H yp o th eses
A s sum ptions
L im ita tio n s
D e lim ita tio n s
D e fin itio n o f T e rm s
O rg a n iz a tio n of the R e m a in d e r
o f the D is s e r ta tio n
I I . R E V IE W O F T H E L IT E R A T U R E .................... 17
The N a tu re of R ead in g C lin ic s
The E ffe c t of A ge of E n try and L e n g th of
R e m e d ia tio n on R e ad in g A c h ie v e m e n t
F o llo w -u p S tu d ies in R e m e d ia l R ead in g
The W e c h s le r In te llig e n c e S c ale fo r C h ild re n
and R ead in g A c h ie v e m e n t
S u m m a ry of the L ite r a tu r e
I I I . P R O C E D U R E S .................................................... 45
Ove rv ie w
The V a r ia b le s
The In s tru m e n ts to M e a s u re the
In d ep e n d en t V a ria b le s
The In s tru m e n ts to M e a s u re the
D ep en d en t V a ria b le s
The S am p le
P ro c e d u re s
D a ta P ro c e s s in g and A n a ly s is
111
C h a p te r
IV . F IN D IN G S A N D D IS C U S S IO N
Page
57
In tro d u c tio n
L o n g -te r m P o s t-c lin ic a l R ead in g
C o m p re h e n s io n Success and F a ilu r e
D is c u s s io n
L o n g -te r m P o s t-c lin ic a l R ead in g
V o c a b u la ry Success and F a ilu r e
D is c u s s io n
V . S U M M A R Y , C O N C L U S IO N S , A N D
R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S 82
S u m m a ry
C o nclusions
R e c o m m e n d a tio n s
R E F E R E N C E S 91
IV
L IS T O F T A B L E S
T a b le P age
1. H ig h and L ow S u btest C h a r a c te r is tic s of
D is a b le d R e a d e rs Found in 22 S t u d ie s ............................... 40
2. G roup M e a n s , C la s s ific a tio n F u n c tio n C o e ffic ie n ts ,
and S ta n d a rd iz e d D is c r im in a n t F u n c tio n
C o e ffic ie n ts fo r D is c r im in a tin g B e tw e e n
L o n g -te r m P o s t-C lin ic a l R ead in g
C o m p re h e n s io n Success and F a i l u r e ............................... 59
3. P re d ic tio n R e s u lts : P e rc e n t o f "G ro u p e d 1 1 C ases
C o r r e c tly C la s s ifie d = 95. 83 P e r c e n t ............................... 68
4. G roup M e a n s , C la s s ific a tio n F u n c tio n C o e ffic ie n ts ,
and S ta n d a rd iz e d D is c r im in a n t F u n c tio n
C o e ffic ie n ts fo r D is c r im in a tin g B e tw een
L o n g -te r m P o s t-c lin ic a l R e a d in g
V o c a b u la ry Success and F a i l u r e ....................................... 7 0
5. P re d ic tio n R e s u lts : P e rc e n t o f "G ro u p e d " C ases
C o r r e c tly C la s s ifie d = 100 P e r c e n t ................................... 81
y_
C H A P T E R 1
S T A T E M E N T O F T H E P R O B L E M
In tro d u c tio n
L o n g itu d in a l studies in v e s tig a tin g the e ffe c tiv e n e s s of
r e m e d ia l re a d in g in s tru c tio n a re s p a rs e (F ie d le r , 1972). Bond and
T in k e r (1957) c o n c u rre d , as th ey d iscu s sed the need fo r m o re fo llo w -
up stu d ies, and suggested th a t w hen the c h ild had m ade s u ffic ie n t
p ro g re s s to a llo w his re le a s e fro m re m e d ia tio n , he be c a r e fu lly
fo llo w e d -u p to d e te rm in e if gains w e re m a in ta in e d .
L o v e ll, Johnson, and P la tts (1962) w ro te th a t th e re is v e ry
lit t le know n about the lo n g -te r m e ffe c ts of r e m e d ia l re a d in g , and they
c a lle d fo r the study of a tta in m e n t le v e l in re a d in g of pu p ils tw o o r
m o re y e a rs a fte r c e s s a tio n of re m e d ia tio n . B a lo w (1965) a g re e d th a t
th e re a re few re s e a rc h re p o rts a v a ila b le to a tte s t to the e ffe c tiv e n e s s
of re m e d ia tio n . Those studies w h ic h have b een re p o rte d focus on
im m e d ia te re s u lts , w ith no e v a lu a tio n of gains o v e r tim e .
M o u ly and G ra n t (1956) re p o rte d th a t th e re has been no m e n
tio n o f stan d a rd s by w h ic h the g ro w th of re a d in g re s u ltin g fro m r e
m e d ia l w o rk m ig h t be e v a lu a te d . T h ey c a lle d fo r r e s e a rc h on gains
1
exp ected of d is a b le d re a d e rs .
S ta te m e n t of the P ro b le m
P u rp o s e o f the Study
The N C L -U S C R e a d in g C e n te r School is a f u ll- t im e c lin ic a l
sch ool e s ta b lis h e d to c o r r e c t re a d in g d e fic ie n c ie s . Students e n ro lle d
in the sch ool have s e v e re re a d in g d is a b ilitie s . Y o u n g s te rs ra n g in g in
age fr o m s ix th ro u g h fifte e n a re re m o v e d fro m a r e g u la r school s e t
tin g and p la c e d in to a c lin ic a l s itu a tio n fo r the p u rp o ses o f a m e lio ra tin g
th e ir re a d in g s k ills and of im p ro v in g th e ir a ttitu d e to w a rd re a d in g .
Students atte n d c la s s e s fo r fiv e h o u rs d a ily , w ith e m p h a s is on re a d in g
is k ills w ith in the to ta l c u r r ic u lu m .
P r io r to accep tan ce to the R e ad in g School, eac h stu d en t m u s t
und ergo a co m p le te d ia g n o s tic te s t b a tte ry . The b a tte ry in c lu d e s a
m e a s u re of in te llig e n c e , p£us te s ts of re a d in g s k ills , in c lu d in g o r a l
v o c a b u la ry , flu e n c y , v is u a l and a u d ito ry p e rc e p tu a l s k ills , phonic
a n a ly s is s k ills , and s ile n t v o c a b u la ry and c o m p re h e n s io n . A n audio -
m e tric te s t fo r h e a rin g a c u ity and a te le b in o c u la r te s t fo r v is u a l a c u ity j
a re also a d m in is te re d . In som e cases, te s tin g is fo llo w e d by one o r
I
tw o s e m e s te rs o f w e e k ly tu to rin g sessio n s a t the USC R e a d in g C lin ic . ;
! i
!
O th e r students show im m e d ia te need fo r f u ll- tim e w o rk . In a d d itio n ,
students a re a d m itte d th ro u g h b a tte rie s of te s tin g done a t o th e r in s t i
tu tio n s , p a r t ic u la r ly those, who have b een s c re e n e d fo r S e d g ew ic k J
iF u n d in g , a p la n fo r state and lo c a l s u p p o rt of p riv a te sch ool
e n ro llm e n t,
To th is po in t, d ata have been c o lle c te d to d e te rm in e o n ly the
s h o r t-te r m e ffe c ts of c lin ic a l in te rv e n tio n . No d ata have been c o l
le c te d on lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g a c h ie v e m e n t. No data
have been c o lle c te d on the re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n in te llig e n c e and
lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g a c h ie v e m e n t. No d ata have been
c o lle c te d on the e ffe c ts of p o s t-c lin ic a l re m e d ia tio n . No d ata have
been c o lle c te d on the re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n p ro g re s s d u rin g r e m e d i
a tio n and lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g p e rfo rm a n c e . L im ite d
d ata have been c o lle c te d on the o p tim a l age of e n try to the sch ool
and the o p tim a l le n g th of re m e d ia tio n a t the sch ool. The p u rp o se of
th is study w as to d e te rm in e how in te llig e n c e , as m e a s u re d by the
W e c h s le r In te llig e n c e S cale fo r C h ild re n (W IS C ), age of e n try to a
f u ll- t im e reading c lin ic sch ool, le n g th of re m e d ia tio n at a f u ll- t im e
re a d in g c lin ic school, p ro g re s s d u rin g re m e d ia tio n in re a d in g v o
c a b u la ry and c o m p re h e n s io n , and p o s t-c lin ic a l re m e d ia tio n d is c r im
in ate b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n and
re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success and f a ilu r e .
P r o b le m S ta te m e n t
How do (a) in te llig e n c e , (b) age of e n try , (c) le n g th of r e
m e d ia tio n , (d) v o c a b u la ry p ro g re s s d u rin g re m e d ia tio n , (e) c o m p re
3
hen sio n p ro g re s s d u rin g re m e d ia tio n , and (£) p o s t-c lin ic a l r e m e d i
a tio n d is c r im in a te b etw ee n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re
h en sio n and re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success and fa ilu r e ?
S ta tis tic a l H yp o th eses
F o r the p u rp o se o f th is study the re s e a rc h hypotheses w e re
stated in the n u ll fo r m and te s te d fo r s ta tis tic a l a n a ly s is . The le v e l
o f s ig n ific a n c e fo r a ll hypotheses w as s e t a t the . 05 le v e l of co n
fid e n c e .
H y p o th esis 1
In te llig e n c e does not d is c rim in a te b e tw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-
c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success and fa ilu r e .
Subhypotheses w e re e s ta b lis h e d to te s t th is h y p o th e s is .
H y p o th esis 1.1
The W IS C F u ll- s c a le IQ s c o re does not d is c r im in a te b e
tw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success and
fa ilu r e .
H y p o th esis 1. 2
The W IS C V e r b a l-s c a le IQ s c o re does n o t d is c r im in a te b e
tw ee n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success and
fa ilu r e .
H y p o th esis 1. 3
The W IS C P e rfo ra n c e -'s c a le IQ sc o re does not d is c r im -
4
in ate b e tw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success
and fa ilu r e .
H yp o th esis 1. 4
The W IS C In fo rm a tio n su b te s t s c o re does n o t d is c r im in a te
b etw een lo n g - t e r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success and
fa ilu r e .
H yp o th esis 1. 5
The W IS C C o m p re h e n s io n su b te s t s c o re does n o t d is c r im
inate b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n s u c
cess and f a ilu r e .
H y p o th esis 1. 6
The W IS C A r ith m e tic sub te s t s c o re does not d is c r im in a te
b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n su ccess and
fa ilu r e .
H y p o th esis 1.7
The W IS C S im ila r itie s s u b tes t s c o re does not d is c rim in a te
b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success and
f a ilu r e .
H y p o th esis 1. 8
The W IS C V o c a b u la ry su b tes t s c o re does not d is c r im in a te
b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success and
fa ilu r e .
5
H yp o th esis 1. 9
The W IS C D ig it Span su b te s t s c o re does not d is c rim in a te
b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success and
fa ilu r e .
H yp o th esis 1. 10
The W IS C P ic tu r e C o m p le tio n s u b tes t s c o re does not d is
c r im in a te b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n
success and fa ilu r e .
H y p o th esis 1. 11
The W IS C P ic tu r e A rra n g e m e n t s u b tes t s c o re does not
d is c r im in a te b etw een lo n g -te rm p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n
success and fa ilu r e .
H y p o th esis 1. 12
The W IS C B lo c k D e s ig n su b te s t s c o re does not d is c r im
in ate b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success
and fa ilu r e .
H yp o th esis 1.13
The W IS C O b je c t A s s e m b ly s u b tes t s c o re does n o t d is c r im
inate betw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success
and fa ilu r e .
H yp o th esis 1. 14
The W IS C C oding s u b tes t s c o re does n o t d is c rim in a te b e
tw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success and
6
'fa ilu re .
H y p o th esis 2
i
(
A ge of e n try to a f u ll- t im e re a d in g c lin ic sch o o l does not
J d is c rim in a te b e tw e e n lo n g - t e r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n
success and fa ilu r e .
(H ypothesis 3
t
| L e n g th of re m e d ia tio n a t a f u ll- tim e re a d in g c lin ic school
i
jdoes not d is c r im in a te b etw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m -
I
p re h e n s io n success and fa ilu r e .
H y p o th e s is 4
V o c a b u la ry p ro g re s s d u rin g re m e d ia tio n a t a f u ll- t im e
re a d in g c lin ic school does not d is c rim in a te b e tw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-
c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success and fa ilu r e .
H y p o th esis 5
C o m p re h e n s io n p ro g re s s d u rin g re m e d ia tio n at a f u ll- t im e
re a d in g c lin ic sch o o l does not d is c rim in a te b e tw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-
c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success and fa ilu r e .
H y p o th esis 6
A m o u n t of p o s t-c lin ic a l re m e d ia tio n does n o t d is c r im in a te
b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success and
f a il u r e .
H y p o th esis 7
In te llig e n c e does n ot d is c r im in a te b e tw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-
[c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success and fa ilu r e .
I
I
S ubhypotheses w e re e s ta b lis h e d to te s t th is h y p o th e s is .
i
I
[H ypothesis 7. 1
The W IS C F u ll- s c a le IQ s c o re does n o t d is c r im in a te b e -
,tw ee n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success and
|
•fa ilu re .
i
i
'H ypo thesis 7. 2
The W IS C V e r b a l-s c a le IQ s c o re does n o t d is c rim in a te
i
i
b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success and
fa ilu r e .
H y p o th e s is 7. 3
The W IS C P e r fo r m a n c e -s c a le IQ s c o re does not d is c r im i- 1
h ate b etw een lo n g - t e r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success and
fa ilu r e .
H y p o th esis 7 .4
The W IS C In fo rm a tio n su b te s t s c o re does not d is c rim in a te
b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success and
fa ilu r e .
H y p o th e s is 7 .5
The W IS C C o m p re h e n s io n su b te s t s c o re does n o t d is c r im
in a te b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success
and fa ilu r e .
H y p o th esis 7. 6
T he W IS C A r ith m e tic su b te s t s c o re does not d is c r im in a te
b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success and
fa ilu r e .
H y p o th esis 7 .7
The W IS C S im ila r itie s s u b te s t sco re does not d is c rim in a te
betw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry su ccess and
f a ilu r e .
H yp o th esis 7 .8
The W IS C V o c a b u la ry s u b tes t s c o re does not d is c r im in a te
betw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry su ccess and
I
f a ilu r e .
H y p o th e s is 7 .9
The W IS C D ig it Span s u b te s t s c o re does not d is c r im in a te
Detween lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry su ccess and
fa ilu r e .
H y p o th esis 7 .1 0
The W IS C P ic tu r e C o m p le tio n su b tes t s c o re does not d is - j
c r im in a te b e tw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry s u e - ,
cess and f a ilu r e .
Hypo the sis 7 .1 1
i
I
The W IS C P ic tu r e A r r a n g e m e n t su b te s t s c o re does not d is - \
|
c r im in a te b e tw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry s u e - :
cess and f a ilu r e .
H yp o th esis 7 .1 2
The W IS C B lo c k D e s ig n s u b te s t s c o re does n ot d is c r im i
n ate b e tw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success
and fa ilu r e .
H y p o th esis 7 .1 3
The W IS C O b je c t A s s e m b ly su b te s t s c o re does not d is
c r im in a te b e tw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry s u c
cess and fa ilu r e .
H y p o th esis 7 .1 4
The W IS C C oding s u b te s t s c o re does n o t d is c rim in a te b e
tw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success and
fa ilu r e .
H y p o th e s is 8
A g e of e n try to a f u ll- t im e re a d in g c lin ic sch ool does not
d is c rim in a te b e tw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry
success and fa ilu r e .
I
H y p o th esis 9 ;
J L e n g th of re m e d ia tio n a t a f u ll- t im e re a d in g c lin ic sch o o l -
does not d is c r im in a te b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b -
i
u la r y success and fa ilu r e .
I
i |
H y p o th esis 10
! V o c a b u la ry p ro g re s s d u rin g re m e d ia tio n a t a f u ll- t im e 1
re a d in g c lin ic sch ool does not d is c r im in a te b e tw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-
c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success and fa ilu r e .
H y p o th esis 11
C o m p re h e n s io n p ro g re s s d u rin g re m e d ia tio n a t a f u ll- tim e
re a d in g c lin ic sch ool does not d is c rim in a te b e tw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-
c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success and fa ilu r e .
H y p o th esis 12
A m o u n t of p o s t-c lin ic a l re m e d ia tio n does not d is c r im in a te
betw een lo n g - t e r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry su ccess and
f a ilu r e .
A s sum p tio n s
C e rta in b a s ic a s s u m p tio n s w e re n e c e s s a ry fo r th is study:
1. G e n e ra liz a tio n to o th e r re a d in g c e n te rs s im ila r in d esig n
jto the N C L -U S C R e ad in g C e n te r S chool is a p p ro p ria te , sin ce s e le c
tio n o f p a rtic ip a n ts in the stu d y w as done ra n d o m ly ,
j 2. The te a c h e rs a t the R e ad in g C e n te r School w e re a s
s u m e d to have c o m p a ra b le b ackg ro u n d s and tra in in g in the fie ld of
j
re a d in g d is a b ilitie s .
j
!
D e lim ita tio n s
The fo llo w in g d e lim ita tio n s w e re m ade fo r th is study:
[ 1. No studen t e x p e lle d fr o m the R e a d in g C e n te r S chool w as
i
I
c o n s id e re d fo r p a r tic ip a tio n in th e study.
2. O n ly students g iven the W IS C p r io r to e n ro llm e n t a t the
R ead in g C e n te r School w e re c o n s id e re d fo r p a rtic ip a tio n in the
study.
3. O n ly students g iv e n the G ates -M a c G in itie R e ad in g T e s t
(G a te s ) upon e n try to and e x it fro m the R e ad in g C e n te r School w e re
c o n s id e re d fo r p a rtic ip a tio n in the study.
4. The study w as con fined to boys, as th e re have been o n ly
tw o g ir ls in atten d an ce a t the R e ad in g C e n te r School since its i n
cep tio n .
5. The study was co n fin ed to students who g ra d u a te d fro m
the R e ad in g C e n te r School tw o o r m o re y e a rs ago.
L im ita tio n s
The fo llo w in g lim ita tio n s w e re p la c e d on the study:
1. The q u a lity of p o s t-c lin ic a l re m e d ia tio n w as not
c o n tro lle d .
2. S o c io -e c o n o m ic v a ria b le s w e re not in c lu d e d in th is study,
and w e re not c o n tro lle d .
3. B ecause th is study w as r e s tr ic te d to boys w ith re a d in g
d is a b ilitie s , g e n e ra liz a tio n s cannot be a p p lie d to the g e n e ra l sch ool
pop ulation.
4. I t has been the p ra c tic e of the R e ad in g C e n te r School to
a d m in is te r those re a d in g te s ts w h ic h w ill m o s t a c c u ra te ly r e fle c t
12
In te llig e n c e w as m e a s u re d by the W IS C F u ll- s c a le IQ s c o re ,
V e r b a l-s c a le IQ s c o re , P e rfo r m a n c e -s c a le IQ s c o re , and the sub
te s t s c o re s of each of these s c a le s .
Age of E n tr y
each stu d en t's in s tru c tio n a l le v e l in c o m p re h e n s io n and v o c a b u la ry .
Thus, a fifte e n y e a r o ld boy fu n c tio n in g a t the th ir d g ra d e le v e l m ig h t
be g iven the G ates L e v e l C, desig n ed fo r use in g ra d e 3. T h is
p ra c tic e w as continued fo r the p o s t-c lin ic a l te s tin g conducted in
the study.
D e fin itio n of T e rm s
In te llig e n c e
A ge of e n tr y w as d e fin e d as the c h ro n o lo g ic a l age a s u b je c t
e n te re d the R ead in g C e n te r School.
L e n g th o f R e m e d ia tio n
L e n g th of R e m e d ia tio n w as d efin ed as the n u m b e r of school
m onths spent by a studen t in atte n d an c e a t the R e ad in g C e n te r
School.
L o n g -te r m P o s t-c lin ic a l R e ad in g
C o m p re h e n s io n Success
L o n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success
was d efin ed as a g rad e le v e l s c o re of 9 .0 o r m o re on the G a te s -
M a c G in itie R ead in g T e s t, C o m p re h e n s io n s e c tio n . T h is m e a s u re
-13-
o f success c o rre s p o n d s to the s c o re needed to s u c c e s s fu lly pass the
A riz o n a S tate T e s t o f F u n c tio n a l P r o fic ie n c y . I t w as c o n s id e re d a
c o n s e rv a tiv e e s tim a te of su c cess .
L o n g -te r m P o s t-c lin ic a l R ead in g
C o m p re h e n s io n F a ilu r e
L o n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n fa ilu r e w as
d efin ed as a g ra d e le v e l s c o re of le s s th an 9. 0 on the G ate s - M a c -
G in itie R ead in g T e s t, C o m p re h e n s io n s e c tio n .
L o n g -te r m P o s t-c lin ic a l R e ad in g
V o c a b u la ry Success
L o n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success w as
d efin ed as a g ra d e le v e l s c o re of 9. 0 o r m o re on the G a te s -M a c -
G in itie R e ad in g T e s t, V o c a b u la ry s e c tio n . T h is m e a s u re of success
c o rre s p o n d s to the s c o re needed to s u c c e s s fu lly pass the A riz o n a
S ta te T e s t of F u n c tio n a l P ro fic ie n c y . It w as c o n s id e re d a c o n s e rv a tiv e
m e a s u re o f su c cess .
L o n g -te r m P o s t-c lin ic a l R e ad in g
V o c a b u la ry F a ilu r e
L o n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry fa ilu r e w as
defined as a g ra d e le v e l s c o re of le s s th an 9 .0 on the G a te s -M a c -
G in itie R e ad in g T e s t, V o c a b u la ry s e c tio n . „
14.
P o s t-c lin ic a l R e m e d ia l In s tru c tio n
P o s t-c lin ic a l r e m e d ia l in s tru c tio n w as d e fin e d by a coding
of high, lo w , o r none. H ig h coding w as d e fin e d as one o r m o re
y e a rs of re m e d ia l re a d in g in s tr u c tio n a fte r atte n d a n c e a t the R ead in g
C e n te r S chool. Low coding w as d e fin e d as fro m 1 to 11 m onths of
r e m e d ia l re a d in g in s tru c tio n a fte r atten d an ce a t the R e a d in g C e n te r
S chool. A coding of none w as d e fin e d as no r e m e d ia l re a d in g in
s tru c tio n a fte r atten d an ce a t the R e ad in g C e n te r S chool.
R e ad in g D is a b ility
R e ad in g d is a b ility r e f e r r e d to a c h ild show ing s ig n ific a n t
d is c re p a n c y b etw een his p o te n tia l and his p e rfo rm a n c e in the
p ro c e s s of re a d in g .
The R e ad in g C e n te r School
The R e ad in g C e n te r School id e n tifie d the N C L -U S C R e ad in g
C e n te r School, a f u ll- tim e o p e ra tio n of the School of E d u c a tio n of
the U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th ern C a lifo rn ia , w ith s u p p o rtiv e h elp fro m the
N a tio n a l C h a rity L eag u e of L o s A n g e le s . The sch o o l w as established
in 1964 to p ro v id e in d iv id u a l and s m a ll-g ro u p in s tru c tio n to boys
w ho have d e m o n s tra te d a s ig n ific a n t d e g re e of re a d in g d is a b ility .
The W e c h s le r In te llig e n c e
S cale fo r C h ild re n
The W e c h s le r In te llig e n c e Scale fo r C h ild re n w as r e f e r r e d
______________________ 15
to as W IS C in th is study, W IS C is d e s c rib e d in C h a p te r I II ,
The G a te s -M a c G in i tie R ead in g T e s t
The G a te s -M a c G in itie R e a d in g T e s t w as r e f e r r e d to as
G ates in th is study. G ates is d e s c rib e d in C h a p te r I I I .
O rg a n iz a tio n of the R e m a in d e r
of the D is s e r ta tio n
A re v ie w of the lit e r a t u r e r e la te d to the study c o v e re d the
fo llo w in g a re a s : (a) the n a tu re of re a d in g c lin ic s , (b) the e ffe c t of
age of e n try and le n g th of re m e d ia tio n on re a d in g a c h ie v e m e n t,
(c) fo llo w -u p stu d ies in r e m e d ia l re a d in g , (d) the r e la tio n b etw een
the W IS C and re a d in g a c h ie v e m e n t, and (e) s u m m a ry of the l i t e r a
tu re . The re v ie w of the lit e r a t u r e is p re s e n te d in C h a p te r I I,
The p ro c e d u re s used in the study, the te s t in s tru m e n ts , the
s a m p le , and the s ta tis tic a l tre a tm e n t of the d ata a re p re s e n te d in
C h a p te r I I I ,
The re s u lts of the study and a d is c u s s io n of the fin d in g s
r e la tin g to the hyp o th eses u n d e r c o n s id e ra tio n a re p re s e n te d in
C h a p te r IV ,
A s u m m a ry of the study, co n clu sio n s based on the re s u lts ,
and re c o m m e n d a tio n s fo r fu tu re r e s e a r c h a re p re s e n te d in
C h a p te r V ,
16
C H A P T E R I I
R E V IE W O F T H E L IT E R A T U R E
The re v ie w of the lit e r a t u r e c o v e rs the fo llo w in g m a jo r
to p ic s : (a) the n a tu re of re a d in g c lin ic s , (b) the e ffe c t of age of
e n tr y and le n g th of re m e d ia tio n on re a d in g a c h ie v e m e n t, (c) fo llo w -
up stu d ies in r e m e d ia l re a d in g , (d) the r e la tio n b e tw een the W e c h
s le r In te llig e n c e S cale fo r C h ild re n (W IS C ) and re a d in g a c h ie v e
m e n t, and (e) s u m m a ry of the lit e r a t u r e .
The n a tu re of re a d in g c lin ic s c o v e rs the fo llo w in g a re a s of
c o n c e rn : (a) u n iv e rs ity -s p o n s o re d re a d in g c lin ic s , (b) p u b lic sch o o l
re a d in g c lin ic s , and (c) p r iv a te ly -o p e r a te d re a d in g c lin ic s .
The e ffe c t of age of e n try and le n g th of re m e d ia tio n on
re a d in g a c h ie v e m e n t s u rv e y s the lim ite d n u m b e r o f stu d ies ' co n cen
tra tin g on the o p tim a l e n tr y age fo r re m e d ia tio n and the m a x im u m
len g th of stay in a re m e d ia l p ro g ra m fo r s u s tain ed p ro g re s s ,
The th ir d m a jo r to p ic c o v e rs the lite r a tu r e r e la tin g to
lo n g -te r m fo llo w -u p studies in r e m e d ia l re a d in g in s tru c tio n .
The fo u rth m a jo r to p ic a n a ly ze s the lit e r a t u r e c o v e rin g the
r e la tio n b etw een the W IS C s u b te s t s c o re p a tte rn s and re a d in g
______________________________________________________________________17_
a c h ie v e m e n t , e s p e c ia l ly r e a d in g r e t a r d a t io n .
A s u m m a r y of th e l i t e r a t u r e p e r t a in in g to th e s e to p ic s is
in c lu d e d a t th e end o f th e c h a p te r .
T h e N a t u r e o f R e a d in g C lin ic s
R e a d in g c lin ic s v a r y c o n s id e r a b ly in t h e i r o r g a n iz a t io n ,
g o a ls , m e th o d o lo g y , m a t e r i a l s , and e f f e c t iv e n e s s . S t ill, the p r i m a r y
o b je c tiv e o f a l l ty p e s o f r e a d in g c lin ic s r e m a in s the s a m e : to h e lp
the r e t a r d e d r e a d e r . A s S h e r k (1969) r e p o r t e d , th e q u a lit y of a
r e a d in g c lin ic c a n be ju d g e d b y the n u m b e r o f p u p ils i t c u re s of
t h e ir r e a d in g d is a b i l i t i e s . T h e s e r v ic e a s p e c t o f r e a d in g c lin ic s has
tw o m a in f a c e t s : d ia g n o s is an d t r e a t m e n t . D ia g n o s is is u s u a lly
b a s e d on a b a t t e r y of p e r f o r m a n c e te s ts d e s ig n e d to m e a s u r e the
c lie n t 's a b i l i t y to fu n c tio n in a v a r i e t y of w a y s , b o th p s y c h o lo g i
c a lly and e d u c a t io n a lly . P u p ils a r e u s u a lly s c r e e n e d f o r u n d e te c te d
p h y s ic a l d e f ic ie n c ie s in v is io n , h e a r in g , s p e e c h , an d m o t o r c o o r
d in a tio n . T r e a t m e n t v a r ie s f r o m c lin ic to c lin ic .
In g e n e ra l, th e re a re th re e types of re a d in g c lin ic s : those
sp o n so red by c o lleg es and u n iv e r s itie s , those o rg a n iz e d w ith in the
pub lic school s y s te m , and those o p e ra te d in d e p e n d e n tly , u s u a lly
fo r a p r o fit.
U n iv e rs ity -s p o n s o re d R e ad in g C lin ic s
M i c h a e l (1969) c a t e g o r iz e d c o lle g e an d u n i v e r s i t y r e a d in g
18
c lin ic s in to two c la s s ific a tio n s : those o ffe rin g th e ir s e rv ic e s to
u n iv e r s ity students, w ith re a d in g p ro b le m s , and those h e lp in g the
re ta rd e d re a d e r fro m lo c a l e le m e n ta ry and s e c o n d a ry schools as
p a r t of the te a c h e r -tr a in in g p ro g ra m . M ic h a e l lis te d the m o s t
im p o rta n t o b je c tiv e s of the u n iv e r s ity re a d in g c lin ic s as (1) tra in in g
re a d in g te a c h e rs , s p e c ia lis ts , and c lin ic ia n s , (2) p ro m o tin g r e
s e a rc h in the te a c h in g of re a d in g and in the causes of re a d in g d is
a b ilitie s , and (3) a id in g the d is a b le d re a d e r . H a r r is (1961) added to
th is lis t of o b je c tiv e s th a t of p ro v id in g c o n s u lta tio n s e rv ic e s to
sch ool s y s te m s .
F r y (1959) r e p o r t e d th a t a t th e L o y o la U n i v e r s i t y R e a d in g
C lin ic , e l e m e n t a r y and s e c o n d a r y c h ild r e n a r e a d m it te d f o r one
s e m e s t e r . W h ile ' th e y a r e n o t b r o u g h t up to t h e i r a c tu a l g ra d e
l e v e l d u r in g th is r e m e d ia t io n , th e y a r e g iv e n th e s e lf - c o n f id e n c e and
fu n d a m e n t a l r e a d in g s k ills to r e t u r n to t h e i r r e g u l a r s c h o o ls an d
c o n tin u e to m a k e p r o g r e s s .
The L e ic e s te r U n iv e r s ity R e ad in g C e n tre (G o o d a c re , 1971)
w as planned to p ro v id e fa c ilitie s fo r o b s e rv a tio n and d iag n o s is of
r e m e d ia l re a d in g p ro b le m s . G ra d u a te students w o rk w ith in d iv id u a l
c h ild re n fa llin g behind in th e ir a c a d e m ic w o rk b ecause of re a d in g
d e fic ie n c ie s . In -s e r v ic e tra in in g co u rs es on the te a c h in g of re a d in g
a re also p ro v id e d by the u n iv e rs ity ,
B a lo w (1965) re p o rte d on the P s y c h o -E d u c a tio n a l C lin ic at
______________________________________________________________________________ 1 9_
the U n iv e r s ity of M in n e s o ta , w h e re r e m e d ia l s e rv ic e s a re o ffe re d
to e le m e n ta r y and s e c o n d a ry studen ts y e a r -r o u n d , b u t w ith the b u lk
of the in s tru c tio n done d u rin g the te n -w e e k s u m m e r s e s s io n . M eth o d
of in s tru c tio n is g o v ern ed by the p s y c h o lo g ic a l and e d u c a tio n a l
needs of the p u p il, w ith no one ''s y s te m " of re m e d ia tio n p re v a le n t.
F a ir le ig h D ic k in s o n U n iv e r s ity 's R ead in g C lin ic (S u lliv a n ,
1969) p r e fe r s s m a ll g roup in s tru c tio n to in d iv id u a l tu to rin g , as this
is thought to f a c ilita te in te ra c tio n am ong stu d en ts. E a c h c h ild has
the o p p o rtu n ity to assu m e a ro le in the gro u p as p e r c e iv e r , le a d e r,
fo llo w e r, and p la n n e r.
P u b lic S chool R ead in g C lin ic s
R e a d in g c lin ic s o rg a n iz e d w ith in the p u b lic sch o o l s y s te m
v a r y in s iz e , e m p h a s is , and ran g e o f a c tiv itie s p ro v id e d . Som e
sch o o l s y s te m s have e s ta b lis h e d re a d in g c lin ic s w ith in in d iv id u a l
sch ools, o th e rs have c e n tra liz e d c lin ic s w ith in a d is tr ic t, s t ill
o th e rs have b ro ad en ed the c lin ic to in c lu d e guidance and p s y c h o
lo g ic a l s e rv ic e s w ith in the county u n it.
The L akew o o d School R e ad in g C e n te r (B u e rg e r, 1968) p r o
vid es r e m e d ia l in s tru c tio n fo r d is a b le d re a d e rs a t the e le m e n ta r y
le v e l, w ith s e le c tio n of can d id ate s based on need as d e te rm in e d by
e x te n s iv e p h y s ic a l, in te lle c tu a l, and ■ e m o tio n a l e v a lu a tio n .
S u m m e rs (1964) re p o rte d on the re a d in g p ro g ra m a t E a s t
20
H ig h S chool in D u lu th , M in n e s o ta , w h ic h o p e ra te s fo r the b e n e fit of
sop hom ore and s e n io r stud en ts, in s tru c tio n tim e b ein g ta k e n fro m
the r e g u la r E n g lis h c la s s .
The R e ad in g C lin ic a t T re n to n C e n tr a l H ig h School (M a th e w -
son and M ic h e ls o n , 1957) w as d e e m e d n e c e s s a ry b ecause m a n y of
the p u p ils could not re a d a t an a c c e p ta b le le v e l upon e n te rin g high
school.
F o le y (1969) w ro te th a t N ile s N o rth H ig h School, Illin o is ,
sch eduled the e n tire fre s h m a n c la s s fo r s ix w eeks of d e v e lo p m e n ta l
re a d in g , re g a rd le s s of re a d in g le v e l.
S teve n (197 0) state d th a t the T o p eka P u b lic Schools c o n s o li
dated th e ir s e rv ic e s so th a t 14 e le m e n ta r y re a d in g te a c h e rs w e re
ass ig n ed to th re e e le m e n ta ry schools w ith in the d is tr ic t. Students
not su cceed in g in th e ir re g u la r sch ool e n v iro n m e n t a re ass ig n ed to
these sch o o ls.
M o u ly and G ra n t (1956) in d ic a te d th a t th e re w e re 18 re a d in g
c lin ic s in the M ilw a u k e e e le m e n ta r y sch o o ls, w ith a d m itta n c e r e
s tric te d to those students m o s t lik e ly to p r o fit fro m the e x p e rie n c e .
The c ity o f W h ite P la in s , New Y o rk , opened a re a d in g c lin ic
fo r s e v e r e ly d is a b le d re a d e rs (M . Johnson, 1969). In a d d itio n to
p ro v id in g in s tru c tio n fo r the re ta rd e d re a d e r, th e re is a ls o an
in -s e r v ic e tra in in g p ro g ra m fo r te a c h e rs to d ev elo p m o re in te n s iv e
m ethods w ith in the c la s s ro o m , H ess and H a ll (1969) re p o rte d a
_ 21
s im ila r p ro g ra m w as u n d e rta k e n by the San D ie g o U n ifie d School
D is t r ic t . T h e ir " D e m o n s tra tio n P r o je c t" a ls o in c lu d e d p a re n t in
v o lv e m e n t, w ith a f u ll- t im e c o u n s e llo r w o rk in g w ith p a re n ts of
students h av in g r e m e d ia l re a d in g d iffic u ltie s . S im ila r p ro g ra m s
w e re d is c u s s e d by H a rrin g to n (1969) and J. Johnson (1969).
P r iv a te ly -o p e ra te d R e ad in g C lin ic s
R e ad in g c lin ic s o p e ra te d as in d e p e n d e n t u n its can be
c la s s ifie d in to tw o c a te g o rie s : those sp o n so red by c h a rita b le o r
g a n iz a tio n s , such as the N o rth s id e C e n te r fo r C h ild D e v e lo p m e n t
(C la r k and K a rp , I9 6 0 ), and those o p e ra tin g as p riv a te e n te r p r is e s .
P r iv a t e c lin ic s v a r y in the d e g re e of co m p e ten ce of the p r o fe s
s io n a l s ta ff, p h ilo so p h y of ed u c a tio n , s iz e , and s e rv ic e s o ffe re d to
the p u b lic . P e a r lm a n and P e a r lm a n (1970) re p o rte d on the V a lle y
R e m e d ia l C e n te r, a p r iv a te ly o p e ra te d c lin ic w hose c lie n te le in
cludes han dicapped re a d e rs fro m a ll sch o o l le v e ls and in to a d u lt
hood. B ecau se the c lin ic is fe e -s u p p o rte d , m o s t c lie n ts a re of
m id d le to u p p e r class b a c k g ro u n d .
In a study on the e s ta b lis h m e n t of re a d in g c lin ic s ,
C h u r c h ill (1969) con clu ded th a t th e c lin ic m u s t not fu n c tio n in an
is o la te d m a n n e r, but m u s t be c o g n iza n t of the s tu d e n t's sch o o l
e n v iro n m e n t, and m u s t s tr iv e to a tta in the o b je c tiv e of re tu rn in g
the stu d en t to the c la s s ro o m as soon as he can p a rtic ip a te
22
s u c c e s s fu lly .
The E ffe c t of A ge of E n tr y
and L e n g th of R e m e d ia tio n
on R e ad in g A c h ie v e m e n t
K r ip p n e r (1963) a tte m p te d to d e te rm in e w h e th e r such v a r i
ables as in te llig e n c e , c h ro n o lo g ic a l age, g ra d e p la c e m e n t, and
d eg re e of r e ta r d a tio n w e re re la te d to p ro g re s s w ith in a re m e d ia l
re a d in g p ro g ra m . The re s u lts in d ic a te d th a t c h ro n o lo g ic a l age
ap p ro ach ed but did not a tta in s ig n ific a n c e at the . 05 le v e l of
c o n fid en c e. K r ip p n e r conclu ded th a t a r e m e d ia l p ro g ra m w hose
purpose w as to e n r o ll those studen ts who could be exp ected to m ake
the m o s t p ro g re s s w ould do b e s t to s e le c t students in the u p p e r
g rad es w ith h ig h W IS C V e r b a l and F u ll- s c a le IQ s c o re s .
D a h lk e (1971) used s e v e r a l v a r ia b le s , in c lu d in g W IS C su b test
s c o re s , c h ro n o lo g ic a l age, and re a d in g p o te n tia l le v e l to p r e d ic t
tru e re a d in g gains a t the in s tru c tio n a l le v e l a fte r r e m e d ia l te a c h in g .
She concluded th a t the stu d en t who a p p e a re d to m ake the b e s t g ain
in re a d in g a fte r re m e d ia tio n w as the o ld e r one, above p r im a r y
le v e l, who had d ev elo p ed his in d e p e n d e n t and p o te n tia l re a d in g le v e l
above his in s tru c tio n a l le v e l. The o ld e r r e ta rd e d re a d e r w as f e lt to
be a b e tte r choice than the young r e ta rd e d re a d e r b ecause his
e x p e r ie n tia l and co n cep tu a l s k ills have w id e n ed , h is a tte n tio n span
is lo n g e r, he has d evelo p ed the m a tu r ity to u n d e rs ta n d the need
23
fo r b ec o m in g a good re a d e r , and he is used to going to sch o o l and
le a rn in g ,
H o w e v e r, in a fo llo w -u p study of 97 d is a b le d r e a d e rs ,
L y tto n (1967) found th a t c h ild re n in the s e c o n d a ry sch o o l had lo s t
m o re of th e ir gains than those in the p r im a r y g ra d e s . L y tto n
a ttrib u te d th is fin d in g to less e m p h a s is on b a s ic s k ills and le s s
c o n c e rn fo r the d iffic u ltie s of the d is a b le d r e a d e r at the s e c o n d ary
le v e l.
P e a r lm a n and P e a r lm a n (197 0) found th a t the ra te of g ro w th
w ith in a r e m e d ia l re a d in g p ro g ra m was s ig n ific a n tly g r e a te r fo r the
you nger stu d en ts. P u p ils in g rad e s one th ro u g h th re e m ad e b e tw een
th re e and fo u r m onths g ro w th fo r ea c h m o n th in the r e m e d ia l p r o
g ra m , w h e re a s students in g ra d e s fo u r th ro u g h s ix m ad e b e tw een
two and th re e m onths g ro w th fo r ea c h m o n th in the p ro g ra m ,
M u e h l and F o r r e l l (197 3) and W a lk e r (196 3) re p o rte d s im ila r fin d
ings, as d id C la r k and K a rp (I9 6 0 ), who also re p o rte d th a t c h ild re n
w ith the h ig h e s t IQ s a p p e a re d to m ake the g re a te s t g ain s.
M a n n in g (197 0) p re s e n te d an a rg u m e n t fo r the in tro d u c tio n
of the yo u n g e r student, b elo w the fo u rth g ra d e le v e l, in to the
c lin ic a l s itu a tio n . He con clu ded th a t the am o u n t of tim e a llo tte d fo r
re m e d ia tio n should be p ro p o rtio n a te to the s e v e r ity of the p ro b le m .
P a lm a tie r (197 0) a g re e d w ith th is co n clu sio n .
C ashden, P u m fr e y , and L u n z e r (1967) s u rv e y e d c h ild re n
______________________________________________________________________ 24.
re c e iv in g r e m e d ia l re a d in g in s tru c tio n and found som e s lig h t
ev id e n c e th a t the lo n g e r the r e m e d ia l te a c h in g con tinued, the
g r e a te r the g ain w as lik e ly to be, H o w e v e r, a second study by
C ashden and P u m fre y (1969) w h ic h a tte m p te d to d e te rm in e i f a tta in -
m e n t in re a d in g w o u ld be g r e a te r w ith re m e d ia tio n doubled, found
th a t m e a n gains in re a d in g did n o t d iffe r s ig n ific a n tly b e tw een an
e x p e r im e n ta l g ro u p and a c o n tro l group , a lth o u g h the e x p e rim e n ta l
group a tte n d ed a lm o s t th re e tim e s as m a n y r e m e d ia l s e s s io n s .
M u e h l and F o r r e l l (197 3) found a s m a ll and n o n -s ig n ific a n t
re la tio n s h ip b etw een s e m e s te r s -in -c lin ic and r e m e d ia l im p ro v e m e n t.
W hen fo llo w -u p su b jec ts w e re g roup ed a c c o rd in g to le n g th of c lin ic a l
in s tru c tio n , the group w ith m o re re m e d ia tio n had m ad e the g re a te s t
re a d in g gain.
F o llo w -u p Studies in R e m e d ia l R e a d in g
The b e lie f in the e ffe c tiv e n e s s of r e m e d ia l re a d in g p r o
g ra m s has la r g e ly been a m a tte r of fa ith , as p a re n ts , te a c h e rs , anc.
c lin ic ia n s e ith e r ass u m e th a t th e ir e ffo rts a re s u c c e s s fu l, o r p o in t
to im m e d ia te p o s tte s t in s tru c tio n a l re s u lts as s u p p o rt of th e ir
c o n v ic tio n . Y e t, r e la tiv e ly lit t le is know n o f the even tu al e d u c a tio n a l
status of r e m e d ia l re a d in g stu d en ts.
R o b in so n and S m ith (1962) s u rv e y e d the e d u c a tio n a l standing
of 44 U n iv e r s ity o f C h icag o R e a d in g C lin ic c lie n ts te n y e a rs a fte r
_______________________________________________________________________ 25.
re m e d ia tio n . N e a r ly a ll o f the studen ts had a c h ie v e d a c a d e m ic s u c
cess, and i t w as con clu ded th a t a b le students re ta rd e d in re a d in g can
be s u c c e s s fu lly ed u cated . B a lo w and B lo m q u is t (1965) re p o rte d
s im ila r fin d in g s fo r a g ro u p of 32 re ta rd e d m a le re a d e rs w ith n o rm a l
IQ s , re te s te d te n to fifte e n y e a rs a fte r re m e d ia tio n . It w as con cluded
th a t m a le s s e v e r e ly d is a b le d in re a d in g w ill a tta in a d u lt p ro fic ie n c y
and g ra d u a te fro m h ig h sch o o l.
R a s m u s s e n and Dunne (1962) fo llo w e d the p ro g re s s o f s e v
enth g ra d e r e m e d ia l r e a d e r s . T h re e y e a rs a fte r re m e d ia tio n th e re
w as no s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e in the re a d in g im p ro v e m e n t o f the
r e m e d ia l g roup c o m p a re d w ith a n o n -r e m e d ia l c o n tro l g ro u p .
L o v e ll, Johnson, and P la tts (1962) fo llo w e d 284 p u p ils who
had re c e iv e d r e m e d ia l in s tru c tio n . D u rin g in s tru c tio n , studen ts
gained a t a ra te of two to th re e tim e s the n o rm a l ra te o f non
re ta rd e d r e a d e r s . On a fo llo w -u p one to fo u r y e a rs a fte r t e r m in
atio n o f r e m e d ia l te a c h in g , the ra te o f im p ro v e m e n t had fa lle n o ff
d r a s tic a lly . S tudents had c o n tin u ed to m a k e p ro g re s s , b u t a t a
s lo w e r ra te than d u rin g re m e d ia tio n , and th e y w e re fa llin g fa r th e r
behind th e ir c la s s m a te s . Tho se who had m ad e the m o s t p ro g re s s
d u rin g r e m e d ia tio n tended to have the h ig h e s t re a d in g s c o re s on
the fo llo w -u p . A s ig n ific a n t re la tio n s h ip b etw een p ro g re s s m a d e and
the le n g th o f tim e e la p s e d b e tw e e n re m e d ia tio n and fo llo w -u p w as
re p o rte d , su g g estin g th a t m a tu ra tio n m a y p la y a p a r t in re a d in g
2.6.
im p ro v e m e n t. A second study (L o v e ll, B y rn e , and R ic h a rd s o n ,
1963) of 240 f u ll- t im e r e m e d ia l stu d en ts, show ed th a t th e re w as
an a v e ra g e of tw o y e a rs gain fo r each in s tru c tio n a l y e a r sp en t in
re m e d ia tio n . S ix te e n m onth s fo llo w in g re m e d ia tio n , students w e re
p ro g re s s in g , but a t a s lo w e r r a te . T h re e and o n e -h a lf y e a rs a fte r
re m e d ia tio n , no s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e w as found b etw e e n the
re a d in g of b a c k w a rd studen ts who a tte n d ed the f u ll- t im e r e m e d ia l
school and a c o n tro l g roup of n o rm a l studen ts who had not attended
the r e m e d ia l c e n te r.
S h e a re r (1964) re p o rte d on a g ro u p of r e m e d ia l students
who m ade an a v e ra g e g ain of tw o to fo u r y e a rs p e r y e a r of r e m e
d ia tio n . T h re e y e a rs a fte r re m e d ia tio n , re a d in g p ro g re s s had slow ed
to an a v e ra g e an n u al g ain of . 49 y e a rs .
B a lo w 's (1965) co n c lu s io n s , b ased on a gro u p of re ta rd e d
fifth and s ix th g ra d e re a d e rs of a v e ra g e o r above a v e ra g e i n t e ll
ig e n c e , w as th a t, fo llo w in g re m e d ia tio n , r e ta rd e d re a d e rs m ake
p ro g re s s in th e ir r e g u la r c la s s ro o m in s tru c tio n a t a p p ro x im a te ly
h a lf the ra te of the n o n -re ta rd e d re a d e r . S e v e re re a d in g d is a b ility
is a p ro b le m r e q u irin g lo n g -te r m tre a tm e n t if g ro w th is to be
m a in ta in e d . S im ila r fin d in g s w e re re p o rte d by B u e rg e r (1968),
C ashden and P u m fr e y (1969), L y tto n (1967), P re s to n and Y a rrin g to n
(1967), and S ilv e r and H a g in (1964).
In c o n tra s t, s e v e r a l stu d ies found th a t gains m ade in
_______________________________________________________________________________ 27_
r e m e d ia l re a d in g s itu a tio n s cou ld be m a in ta in e d o v e r tim e . C a w le y ,
C h a ffin , and B ru n n in g (1965) found th a t a re a d in g im p ro v e m e n t
p ro g ra m conducted by te a c h e rs who c o n c e n tra te th e ir e ffo rts
to w a rd s tru c tu rin g a p ro g ra m aro u n d the needs o f stu d en ts could
y ie ld s ig n ific a n t im p ro v e m e n t. H o w e v e r, the fo llo w -u p w as done o n ly
fiv e m onths a fte r re m e d ia tio n . S im ila r ly , S ie g e l (1962) fo llo w e d 1, 197
a d u lt p a rtic ip a n ts and re p o rte d s ig n ific a n t gains had been m a in ta in e d
a fte r re m e d ia tio n . The fo llo w -u p p e rio d c o v e re d o n ly s ix m o n th s,
how eve r .
Stebens and B e ld e n (197 0) c o m p a re d a g ro u p of 108 students
e n ro lle d in the O k la h o m a S tate U n iv e r s ity R e ad in g C lin ic w ith a
c o n tro l gro u p of students not e n ro lle d in the c lin ic fiv e s e m e s te rs
a fte r re m e d ia tio n . S ig n ific a n t g ains w e re re p o rte d a t the . 05 le v e l of
con fidence f o r c o m p re h e n s io n and a t the . 01 le v e l of co n fid en c e fo r
v o c a b u la ry and ra te , in fa v o r of the e x p e r im e n ta l g ro u p . I t w as co n
cluded th a t a c a d e m ic e x p e rie n c e and m a tu ra tio n m a y have acco u n ted
fo r a p a r t o f the g ro u p 's g ain s, but i t a p p e a re d th a t f o r m a l r e m e d ia
tion a ffe c te d re a d in g p e rfo rm a n c e .
A c c o rd in g to T u fz a n d e r and Z in tz (1957), those students
w ho co n tin u ed r e m e d ia l in s tru c tio n a fte r d is c h a rg e fro m the re a d in g
c lin ic w e r e found to have m o re s u s ta in e d g ro w th in re a d in g than
those studen ts who re c e iv e d no r e m e d ia l in s tru c tio n a fte r c lin ic a l
re m e d ia tio n .
28
N o n e th e le s s , the a v a ila b le stu d ies p ro v id e q u e s tio n a b le
su p p o rt fo r the a s s u m p tio n th a t s h o r t - te r m re m e d ia tio n is a v ia b le
s o lu tio n to the p ro b le m of the d is a b le d r e a d e r . The b e n e fits of
s h o r t-te r m re m e d ia tio n , if any, a re o fte n q u ic k ly lo s t and have
Little e ffe c t on the p u p il's fu tu re e d u c a tio n a l p e rfo rm a n c e , e s p e c ia lly
i f s u p p o rtiv e in s tru c tio n fo llo w in g re m e d ia tio n is not a v a ila b le .
The W e c h s le r In te llig e n c e S c ale f o r C h ild re n
and R e a d in g A c h ie v e m e n t
The s ig n ific a n c e o f the su b te s t p a tte rn s o f the W e c h s le r
In te llig e n c e S c ale fo r C h ild re n (W IS C ) has been w id e ly in v e s tig a te d ,
p a r tic u la r ly in its re la tio n s h ip to the d e v e lo p m e n t of re a d in g s k ills .
A. re v ie w of 22 stu d ies o f the W IS C s u b te s t p a tte rn fo r re ta rd e d
re a d e rs re v e a le d v a r ie d re s u lts , w ith som e a g re e m e n t fo r a d is
tin c tiv e te s t p a tte rn .
In 1952, G ra h a m found th a t 96 r e ta rd e d re a d e rs g iven the
W e c h s le r In te llig e n c e sca le s s c o re d below the m e a n on the A r i t h
m e tic , D ig it Span, In fo rm a tio n , C oding, and V o c a b u la ry s u b te s ts.
O b je c t A s s e m b ly , P ic tu r e C o m p le tio n , P ic tu r e A rra n g e m e n t, B lo c k
D e s ig n , C o m p re h e n s io n , and S im ila r itie s su b tests w e re above the
m e a n . T h is study w as d iffic u lt to in te r p r e t b ecau se G ra h a m used
W e c h s le r -B e lle v u e te s ts w ith som e s u b je c ts , and he fa ile d to
in d ic a te the s ta tis tic a l s ig n ific a n c e fo r his fin d in g s .
B u rk s and B ru c e (1955) a d m in is te re d the W IS C to 31 p o o r
______________________________________________________________________29_
r e a d e rs and 11 good re a d e rs to d e te rm in e i f a p a tte rn e m e rg e d to
e x p la in the re a d in g a c h ie v e m e n t of ea c h gro u p . P o o r re a d e rs w e re
found to be s ig n ific a n tly low on the In fo rm a tio n , A r ith m e tic , and
C oding sub tests and s ig n ific a n tly h ig h on the P ic tu r e A rra n g e m e n t,
B lo c k D e s ig n , and C o m p re h e n s io n s u b te s ts . Good re a d e rs s c o re d
s ig n ific a n tly high on the S im ila r itie s s u b te s t.
In a study o fte n re v ie w e d and d u p lic a te d , A ltu s (1956) found
th at u n d e ra c h ie v e rs in g ra d e s th re e th ro u g h e ig h t s c o re d s ig n ifi
c a n tly low on the C oding, A r ith m e tic , and In fo rm a tio n sub te s ts , and
high on the V o c a b u la ry , P ic tu r e C o m p le tio n , P ic tu r e A rra n g e m e n t,
and O b je c t A s s e m b ly su b tes ts. B e cau s e the sam e su b tests re p o rte d
as low fo r the d is a b le d re a d e r w e re a ls o found to be low f o r a d u lt
s o ld ie rs d e fic ie n t in re a d in g , A ltu s sug gested th a t the p r o file d e
s c rib e d in h e r study m a y be re a s o n a b ly c h a ra c te r is tic o f r e ta rd e d
re a d e rs r e g a rd le s s of age. S h elto n and G a rto n (1959) re p lic a te d
A ltu s ' study and re p o rte d lo w s c o re s on the In fo rm a tio n , C oding,
A r ith m e tic , V o c a b u la ry , and C o m p re h e n s io n s u b tes ts, and high
s c o re s on the B lo c k D e s ig n and O b je c t A s s e m b ly su b te s ts .
S p ach e's (1957) su b jec ts w e re 100 d is a b le d re a d e rs age
6 .9 to 15. 6 y e a r s . T h e y tended to be lo w on C oding and A r ith m e tic
and h ig h on C o m p re h e n s io n , P ic tu r e C o m p le tio n , and P ic tu r e A r
ra n g e m e n t. Spache also found th a t 66 su b je c ts w e re s ig n ific a n tly
h ig h e r on P e rfo rm a n c e IQ , w h ile 31 w e re s ig n ific a n tly h ig h e r on
30
V e r b a l IQ .
S tro u d , B lo m m e rs , and L a u b e r (1957) used a g ro u p of
775 th ir d to s ix th g ra d e rs r e ta rd e d in re a d in g a t le a s t one y e a r .
A v e ra g e IQ w as re p o rte d to be in the d u ll-n o r m a l ra n g e . A r i t h
m e tic , V o c a b u la ry , D ig it Span, and C oding sub tests w e re s ig n ifi
c a n tly low and B lo c k D e s ig n and O b je c t A s s e m b ly w e re s ig n ific a n tly
high. The r e s e a r c h e r s con clu ded th a t the A r ith m e tic , V o c a b u la ry ,
B lo c k D e s ig n , and O b je c t A s s e m b ly su b tests w e r e 'n e a r ly as good
a t p re d ic tin g re a d in g a c h ie v e m e n t as w hen a ll e le v e n su b tests w e re
used.
H age and S tro u d (1959) a tte m p te d to d e te rm in e w h e th e r the
V e r b a l o r P e rfo rm a n c e IQ s c o re s of the W IS C c o r r e la te d w ith
re a d in g a c h ie v e m e n t. T h e y con clu ded th a t both c o r r e la te d e q u a lly
w e ll w ith re a d in g a c h ie v e m e n t.
R o b eck (I9 6 0 ) s u rv e y e d 36 c h ild re n e n ro lle d in the U n iv e r s ity
of C a lifo rn ia a t Santa B a rb a r a R e a d in g C lin ic . She con clu ded th a t
re ta rd e d r e a d e r s ra te d s ig n ific a n tly h ig h e r than W e c h s le r 1 s p o p u latio n
on s ix s u b te s ts : C o m p re h e n s io n , B lo c k D e s ig n , S im ila r itie s , P ic tu r e
C o m p le tio n , V o c a b u la ry , and O b je c t A s s e m b ly . D is a b le d re a d e rs
showed s ig n ific a n t w e a k n e s s e s on fo u r s u b te s ts : D ig it Span, A r it h
m e tic , C o ding, and In fo rm a tio n .
D o c k r e ll (I9 6 0 ) c o n firm e d the fin d in g s of A ltu s th a t C oding,
A r ith m e tic , and In fo rm a tio n a r e lo w su b tes ts fo r re ta rd e d re a d e rs
_______________________________________________________________________31
and P ic tu r e A r r a n g e m e n t and P ic tu r e C o m p le tio n a re h ig h . He fa ile d
to c o n firm the fin d in g th a t O b je c t A s s e m b ly is high, and he d is a g re e d
w ith the fin d in g th a t V o c a b u la ry is high.
H ir s t (I9 6 0 ) used a tw o -w a y a n a ly s is on the W IS C s u b te s t
s c o re s of 30 students re ta rd e d s ix m onths o r m o re in re a d in g
a c h ie v e m e n t in re la tio n to th e ir m e n ta l age. The s u b je c ts , 8 ,0 to
13. 6 y e a rs old, w e re e v a lu a te d in te rm s of the to ta l g ro u p and in
te rm s o f two subgroups - - m ild and s e v e re re a d in g d is a b ility , w ith
s e v e re being d e fin ed as tw o o r m o re y e a rs re ta rd e d . The to ta l group
of re a d e rs s c o re d s ig n ific a n tly above the m e a n on P ic tu r e C o m p le tio n
and P ic tu r e A r r a n g e m e n t and b e lo w the m e a n on A r ith m e tic , D ig it
Span, and C oding. A d d itio n a lly , the s e v e re ly d is a b le d re a d e rs s c o re d
s ig n ific a n tly above the m ea n on O b je c t A s s e m b ly and b e lo w the m ean
on S im ila r itie s and V o c a b u la ry .
N e v ille (1961) c o m p a re d W IS C su b te s t s c o re s of a gro u p of 35
m a le s r e ta rd e d in re a d in g tw o o r m o re y e a rs and w ith F u ll- s c a le IQ s
of 90 o r b e tte r , w ith a gro u p of 35 n o n -r e ta r d e d r e a d e rs . The r e
ta rd e d re a d e rs s c o re d s ig n ific a n tly b elo w the m e a n on In fo rm a tio n ,
A r ith m e tic , and D ig it Span, and s ig n ific a n tly above the m e a n on
P ic tu re A r r a n g e m e n t and B lo c k D e s ig n . S c o res on C oding and S im il
a r itie s w e re b elo w a v e ra g e , b ut not s ta tis tic a lly s ig n ific a n t.
K a llo s 's (1961) su b jec ts in c lu d e d 37 boys, 9 to 14 y e a rs old,
w ith W IS C F u ll- s c a le IQ s o f 90 to 108, and a t le a s t tw o y e a rs
____________________________________________________________________ 32
re a d in g re ta rd a tio n in re la tio n to a g e -g ra d e e x p e c ta tio n . No
s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e w as found b e tw e e n the V e r b a l and P e rfo rm a n c e
IQ s , but the re ta rd e d re a d e rs s c o re d s ig n ific a n tly above the m e a n
on B lo c k D e s ig n and s ig n ific a n tly b elo w the m e a n on In fo rm a tio n ,
C oding, and A r ith m e tic . It w as co n clu d ed th a t a lo w C oding s c o re ,
w hen c o m p a re d w ith o th e r p e rfo rm a n c e su b te s ts , a p p e a rs to be
s y m p to m a tic of re a d in g d is a b ility . A l o w In fo rm a tio n o r A r ith m e tic
s c o re o r a h ig h B lo c k D e s ig n s c o re w o u ld tend to c o n firm the
d ia g n o s is .
P a t e r r a 's (196 3) e x te n s iv e study d iv id e d 33 su b jec ts in to tw o
g ro u p s, yo u n g er and o ld e r. In the age gro u p s h av in g hig h V e r b a l
IQ s c o re s , she found th a t C o m p re h e n s io n w as h ig h f o r both g ro u p s,
In fo rm a tio n and A r ith m e tic w e re h ig h fo r the y o u n g e r g ro u p , and
S im ila r itie s fo r the o ld e r g ro u p . In the age groups having: higfc
P e rfo rm a n c e IQ s c o re s , P ic tu r e C o m p le tio n w as hig h fo r both age
group s, w ith In fo rm a tio n , A r ith m e tic , and V o c a b u la ry low fo r the
y o u n g er g roup , and C o m p re h e n s io n , S im ila r itie s , and P ic tu r e
C o m p le tio n high fo r the o ld e r g ro u p . P a t e r r a con clu ded th a t d is
a b le d re a d e rs w ith h ig h V e r b a l IQ s c o re s show g r e a te r v a r ia b ilit y
th an those w ith h ig h P e rfo rm a n c e IQ s c o re s .
C o le m a n and R a s o f (1963) s tu d ied the W IS C sub te s t p a tte rn s
of 126 u n d e ra c h ie v e rs and 20 o v e ra c h ie v e rs . U n d e ra c h ie v e rs w e re
found to be s ig n ific a n tly lo w e r on su b tes ts in v o lv in g s c h o o l-ty p e
33
le a rn in g , c o n c e n tra tio n , and m e m o ry (In fo rm a tio n , A r ith m e tic ,
V o c a b u la ry , D ig it Span, and C o d in g ), and s ig n ific a n tly h ig h on
su b tests d em an d in g p e rc e p tu a l o rg a n iz a tio n and in fo r m a l le a rn in g
(C o m p re h e n s io n , P ic tu r e C o m p le tio n , B lo c k D e s ig n ). S u b te st p a t
te r n w as not found to be a ffe c te d b y d e g re e of u n d e ra c h ie v e m e n t.
In a second study, R o b eck (1963) a n a ly z e d the re s p o n s e s of
tw e n ty re a d in g c lin ic cases w hose m a jo r d iffic u lty w as w o rd -a tta c k
s k ills . The group d is p la y e d a s u b te s t p a tte rn s ig n ific a n tly h ig h on
C o m p re h e n s io n , S im ila r itie s , V o c a b u la ry , P ic tu r e C o m p le tio n , P ic
tu re A rra n g e m e n t, and B lo c k D e s ig n , and s ig n ific a n tly low on
In fo rm a tio n , A r ith m e tic , D ig it Span, and C oding. T h ese tw e n ty m ay
have been p a r t of the 80 c lin ic cases a n a ly z e d in R o b e c k 's th ir d
study (1964), w h e re in she c o m p a re d su b te s t s c o re s w ith the W IS C
p o p u la tio n s a m p le s . R e ad in g c lin ic cases w e re found to s c o re
s ig n ific a n tly h ig h e r, a t the . 001 le v e l of c o n fid en c e, on C o m p re
hen sio n, S im ila r itie s , V o c a b u la ry , P ic tu r e C o m p le tio n , and B lo c k
D e s ig n , w h ile s c o rin g s ig n ific a n tly lo w e r on In fo rm a tio n , D ig it
Span, A r ith m e tic , and C oding.
M c L e a n (1964) stu d ied fo u r groups of boys in g ra d e s 4 to 6,
d iffe r in g in re s p e c t to e m o tio n a l a d ju s tm e n t and re a d in g a b ility . The
gro u p s, of u n s p e c ifie d s iz e s , in c lu d e d (a) w e ll-a d ju s te d d is a b le d
re a d e rs , (b) p o o rly -a d ju s te d d is a b le d re a d e rs , (c) w e ll-a d ju s te d non
d is a b le d re a d e r s , and (d) p o o rly -a d ju s te d n o n -d is a b le d re a d e rs .
______________________________________________________________________ 34
C o m p a ris o n of V e r b a l IQ s c a le s show ed both d is a b le d groups to be
s ig n ific a n tly lo w e r. The d is a b le d groups s c o re d s ig n ific a n tly h ig h e r
on P ic tu re C o m p le tio n . The s u b te s t s c o re s of p o o rly -a d ju s te d
re a d e rs had g r e a te r e x tre m e s than the w e ll-a d ju s te d g ro u p s.
S a w y e r (1965) used d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is in h e r study of
90 m ild ly d is a b le d and 90 s e v e re ly d is a b le d re a d e rs , 30 in e a c h
two and o n e -h a lf y e a r age b ra c k e t fro m 8 to 13. A d is a b le d re a d e r
w as one w hose a c h ie v e m e n t le v e l w as one o r m o re y e a rs belo w
c a p a c ity . A m ild ly d is a b le d r e a d e r w as one who had m ade a t le a s t
h alf the p ro g re s s exp ected of h im . A s e v e re ly d is a b le d r e a d e r had
not m ade a t le a s t h a lf the p ro g re s s e x p e c te d of h im . S a w y e r
re p o rte d th a t the a b ility of the sub tests to d is c r im in a te d e c lin e d in
s ffe c tiv e n e s s as c h ro n o lo g ic a l age (C A ) in c re a s e d , and th a t the co n
trib u tio n s of in d iv id u a l sub tests to the d is c r im in a tio n v a r ie d w ith
ag e. P ic tu r e C o m p le tio n w as in c re a s in g ly a s s o c ia te d w ith the
s e v e re ly d is a b le d re a d e rs a t the o ld e r age le v e ls . A s CA in c re a s e d ,
P ic tu re A rr a n g e m e n t s h ifte d fro m c o n trib u tin g m e m b e rs h ip in the
m ild ly d is a b le d group to m e m b e rs h ip in the s e v e re ly d is a b le d
group. H ig h s co re s on C oding w e re a ls o c h a r a c te r is tic of the
s e v e re ly d is a b le d group a t the yo u n g est age le v e l, b u t w ith the
m ild ly d is a b le d group at the o ld e s t le v e l. D ig it Span had the
re v e rs e e ffe c t. S a w y e r used the d is c r im in a n t fu n c tio n e q u a tio n to
a s s ig n d is a b le d re a d e rs fro m o u tsid e the s a m p le to e ith e r the
________________________________________________________________________________35_
m ild ly d is a b le d o r the s e v e re ly d is a b le d g ro u p s. D is c r im in a n t
a n a ly s is was h ig h ly e ffic ie n t, w ith su b jec ts c o r r e c tly c la s s ifie d 19
out of 20 tim e s .
U s in g a sa m p le of 177 s u c c e s s fu l re a d e rs and 116 b a c k w a rd
re a d e rs , M c L e o d (1965) re p o rte d th a t the b a c k w a rd re a d e rs sco re d
s ig n ific a n tly lo w e r on In fo rm a tio n , V o c a b u la ry , A r ith m e tic , D ig it
Span, and C oding, w h ile s c o rin g s ig n ific a n tly h ig h e r on P ic tu re
C o m p le tio n .
B e lm o n t and B ir c h (1966) stu d ied the W IS C p ro file s of 150
d isab led re a d e rs age 9 to 10 y e a rs . L ow s c o re s w e re found on the
[n fo rm a tio n , A r ith m e tic , and C oding s u b te s ts . No h ig h su b test
sco res w e re re p o rte d . A m a tc h e d g ro u p of 50 n o r m a l re a d e rs w as
used as c o n tro l.
R e id and S ch o er (1966) c a te g o riz e d fo u rth g ra d e rs in 19
e le m e n ta ry schools in e a s te rn Io w a in to th re e c la s s ific a tio n s : below
a v e ra g e re a d e rs , a v e ra g e re a d e rs , and above a v e ra g e re a d e rs .
W ISC s u b tes t s co re s w e re a n a ly ze d , and below a v e ra g e re a d e rs
w e re found to s c o re s ig n ific a n tly lo w e r on A r ith m e tic , S im ila r itie s ,
and D ig it Span, and s ig n ific a n tly h ig h e r on P ic tu r e C o m p le tio n .
C o rw in (1967) c o m p a re d the W IS C s u b te s t p a tte rn s of tw o
groups of 30 good and p o o r fo u rth and fifth g ra d e studen ts m atch ed
fo r age, g ra d e , and n o n -v e rb a l IQ s c o re . S u b jects in the low
re a d in g g ro u p s c o re d s ig n ific a n tly lo w e r on the In fo r m a tio n , A r it h
36
m e tic , D ig it Span, and Coding su b tes ts, and s o m e w h a t lo w e r on the
S im ila r itie s and V o c a b u la ry s u b tes ts. A n y re s u lts o f s ig n ific a n tly
h ig h e r su b tests w e re not re p o rte d . S e le c tio n o f s u b je c ts on the b as is
of a n o n -v e rb a l IQ*, s c o re m a y have in flu e n c e d the re s u lts , e lim in a tin g
p e rfo rm a n c e te s t d iffe re n c e s b etw een the tw o group s and thus h ig h
lig h tin g the v e r b a l fin d in g s .
The p u rp o se of D e B r u le r 's (1967) study w as to d e te rm in e
w h e th e r re ta rd e d re a d e rs of a v e ra g e in te llig e n c e d iffe r e d fro m
n o rm a l re a d e rs on su b tests on the W IS C . U s in g tw o groups of 70
sev en th g ra d e rs m a tc h e d in IQ , age, and sex, b u t d iffe r in g in re a d in g
b ackg ro u n d , D e B r u le r re p o rte d th a t A r ith m e tic and C oding w e re
c o n s is te n tly lo w am ong re a d in g d is a b ility c as es, w h ile P ic tu r e C o m
p le tio n w as c o n s is te n tly high.
H u e ls m a n (1970) c o m p a re d W IS C s u b te s t s c o re s of 101
fo u rth g ra d e rs s e le c te d as u n d e ra c h ie v e rs w ith those of 56 fo u rth
g ra d e rs id e n tifie d as a c h ie v e rs . The p o o r re a d e rs had s ig n ific a n tly
lo w e r In fo rm a tio n , A r ith m e tic , and Coding su b tes ts, w h ile s c o rin g
s ig n ific a n tly h ig h on P ic tu r e C o m p le tio n , P ic tu r e A rra n g e m e n t,
and O b je c t A s s e m b ly s u b te s ts . H u e ls m a n co n clu d ed th a t w h ile
groups of d is a b le d re a d e rs ten d to show hig h P e rfo rm a n c e - sca le IQ
s c o re s and lo w s u b tes t s c o re s on In fo rm a tio n , A r ith m e tic , and
C oding, in d iv id u a l d is a b le d re a d e rs s e ld o m show the c o m p le te
p a tte rn .
_________________________________________________________________________ 31
R e ed (1967) in v e s tig a te d the re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n d iffe re n c e s
in W IS C V e r b a l and P e rfo rm a n c e IQ s c o re s (V IQ and P IQ ) and
re a d in g age a t ages 6 and 10. T h re e group s w e re fo rm e d a t ea c h age
le v e l, one w ith V IQ 10 to 15 p oints h ig h e r th an P IQ , a second group
w ith P IQ 10 to 15 p o in ts h ig h e r than V IQ , and a th ir d gro u p w ith
a p p ro x im a te ly e q u a l V IQ and P IQ . R eed co n clu d ed th a t th e re w as no
ev id e n c e to su g gest th a t the re ta rd e d r e a d e r p a tte rn could be used to
id e n tify p o te n tia l re a d in g p ro b le m s .
D a h lk e (1971), a n a ly z in g W IS C s c o re s of 62 r e m e d ia l students
fro m 6 .9 to 15. 8 y e a rs of age, con clu ded th a t none of the W IS C sca led
o r su b tes t s c o re s show ed a s ig n ific a n t c o r r e la tio n w ith tru e re a d in g
g ain s.
F in a lly , M u e h l and F o r r e l l (197 3) fo llo w e d 43 d is a b le d
re a d e rs who had been g iv e n the W IS C d u rin g re m e d ia tio n . T h ey found
th at 24 of the 43 had V IQ sc a le s b elo w a v e ra g e , w ith 14 le s s than
90. In c o n tra s t, o n ly seven had P IQ s c a le s le s s th an a v e ra g e , o n ly
two le s s th an 90.
A n u m b e r o f stu d ie s u tiliz in g the W e c h s le r A d u lt In te llig e n c e
Scale; (W A IS ) have also been re p o rte d . G ra h a m and K a m a n o (1958)
c o m p a re d 35 u n s u c c e s s fu l re a d e rs w ith 35 s u c c e s s fu l r e a d e r s . The
u n s u c c e s s fu l re a d e rs s c o re d s ig n ific a n tly lo w e r on a ll V e r b a l-s c a le
su b tes ts and on D ig it Span. T h e y w e re s u p e rio r on th e re m a in in g
P e r fo r m a n c e -s c a le su b tests.
____________________________________________________________________________ T8_
H u rs t and P o r t e m ie r (1951) c o m p a re d P e rfo rm a n c e IQ
s c o re s w ith V e r b a l IQ s c o re s of 53 d is a b le d re a d e rs in the s e v en th
g ra d e . The g ro u p s c o re d s ig n ific a n tly b elo w the m e a n on In fo r m a
tio n and A r ith m e tic and above the m e a n on C o m p re h e n s io n and
S im ila r it ie s .
M c D o n a ld (1964) c o n s id e re d 60 m a le d is a b le d re a d e rs 16 to 19
y e a rs of age. He re p o rte d th a t 30 p e rc e n t w e re s ig n ific a n tly h ig h on
V e r b a l IQ and 64 p e rc e n t s ig n ific a n tly h ig h on P e rfo rm a n c e IQ , D is
ab led re a d e rs s c o re d b elo w the m e a n on In fo rm a tio n , A r ith m e tic ,
D ig it Span, and D ig it S y m b o l, and above the m e a n on C o m p re h e n s io n ,
P ic tu r e C o m p le tio n , B lo c k D e s ig n , and O b je c t A s s e m b ly .
O f the stu d ies e m p lo y in g the W IS C , 22 len d th e m s e lv e s
to p a tte rn a n a ly s is . T a b le 1 is an a tte m p t to p la c e the im p o r ta n t
data fr o m th ese stu d ies in such a w a y th a t s im ila r it ie s and d if
fe re n c e s m a y be seen m o re r e a d ily . The la c k o f c o n s is te n c y
e v id e n t in these stu d ies should not be s u rp ris in g , fo r a n u m b e r of
re a s o n s : re a d in g r e ta r d a tio n has b ee n d e fin e d d is s im ila r ly by
d iffe r e n t r e s e a r c h e r s ; som e stu d ies w e re conducted w ith m a le su b
je cts o n ly, w h ile o th e rs in c lu d e d fe m a le s ; re a d in g c lin ic p o p u latio n s
w e re d iv e rg e n t, dep enden t upon s e le c tio n p ro c e d u re s of re s e a rc h e rs ;
the n u m b e r o f s u b je c ts v a r ie d c o n s id e ra b ly , w ith a ran g e o f 11
su b jects fo r S h elton and C a rto n to 750 fo r S tro u d , B lo m m e rs , and
L a u b e r. G iv e n th ese v a r ia b le s , th e re s t ill a p p e a re d to be a d e fin ite
________________________________________________________________________________ 3S L
T A B L E 1
H IG H A N D L O W SUB T E S T C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S O F
D IS A B L E D R E A D E R S F O U N D IN 22 S T U D IE S
Study N A g e -G ra d e Source
I C A S Y DS P C P A BD O A C
A ltu s 25 grad e 3 -8 G uidance dept. L L H
H H H L
B e lm o n t & B irc h * 150 age 9-10 C o m m u n ity L L L L
L
B u rk s & B ru ce 31 g rade 3 -8
?
L H L
H H
C o lem an & R asof 126 age 7. 5-16 C lin ic school L H L
L H H L
C o rw in * 30 grad e 4 -5 P u b lic school L L L
L
D e B r u le r 70 g rade 7 P u b lic school
L
H L
D o c k re li 34 age 8. 2-14.9 C lin ic L H L H L H L
G ra h a m 31 age 8-16.11 C lin ic L H L
L
H ir s t 30 age 8-13. 6 R eading c lin ic
L L H H
H
L
H u elsm an 101 grade 4 P u b lic school L L
H H L
K a llo s e t a l. 37 age 9-14
?
L L
H H L
N e v ille 35
?
R eading c lin ic L L L H
M c L e o d 116
?
E le m e n ta ry school L L L L H
L
P a te r r a 33 age 6 .5 -1 4 .6 P u b lic schools
H L L
H
L
R ic h a rd s o n & Surko 105
?
C o u rt r e fe r r a ls
L L L
R obeck (I960) 36 age 6.11-13. 9 R eading c lin ic L H L H H L H H H L
R obeck (1963) 20 age 7-17 R eading c lin ic L H L H H L H H H L
R obeck (1964) 80 - age 6 .1 0 -1 3 . 9 R eading c lin ic L H L H H L H H L
R e id & Schoer 87 grade 4 P u b lic school
L L L H
H
Sheldon & G ar ton 11 age 7 -1 4 .8 R eading p ro g ra m L L L L H L
Spache 100 age 6. 9-15. 6 R eading c lin ic L H L L H H H
H
L
S troud & B lo m m e rs 750 g rade 3 -6 P u b lic school
L L L H L
N low 15 1 22 1 8 11 0 0 0 0 18
N high 0 8 0 5 4 0 12 8 8 6 0
U * These studies did not re p o rt high sco re s.
!p __________________
ten d en cy fo r re ta rd e d re a d e rs to show a d is tin c tiv e su b tes t p a tte rn ,
w ith s ig n ific a n tly lo w s co re s on the In fo rm a tio n , A r ith m e tic , 'D ig it
Span, and C oding su b tests, and s ig n ific a n tly h ig h s c o re s on P ic tu r e
C o m p le tio n , and p o s s ib ly B lo c k D e s ig n and O b je c t A s s e m b ly .
S e a rls (197 5) e x p la in e d w h a t eac h of th ese su b tests is
d esig n ed to m e a s u re . The In fo rm a tio n s u b te s t m e a s u re s m e m o ry of
g e n e ra l in fo rm a tio n gained fr o m e d u c a tio n and e x p e rie n c e . The
s u b je c t m u s t d e m o n s tra te w h e th e r he has s to re d fa c ts as g e n e ra l
kn o w led g e. The A r ith m e tic su b tes t m e a s u re s the a b ility to co n cen
tra te to e x tr a c t the re la tio n s in v o lv e d b e tw e e n a b s tra c t s y m b o ls . The:
D ig it Span s u b te s t m e a s u re s a tte n tio n span, s h o r t - te r m s to ra g e , anc.
m e m o ry , fu n ctio n s w h ic h m a y cause the d is a b le d re a d e r d iffic u lty .
The Coding s u b tes t m e a s u re s a s s o c ia tio n of sym b o ls w ith m e a n in g ,
v is u a l-m o to r d e x te r ity , the a b ility to m e m o r iz e q u ic k ly , co n cen
tra tio n , and s h o r t - te r m s to ra g e , fu n c tio n s w h ic h m a y p ro v e d iffic u lt
fo r p o o r re a d e r s .
The P ic t u r e C o m p le tio n su b tes t m e a s u re s a tte n tio n to the
e n v iro n m e n t and d e ta il, v is u a l m e m o ry , and v is u a l p e rc e p tio n .
W hile i t in v o lv e s c o n c e n tra tio n , i t is g a m e -lik e and thus m a y be
n o n -th re a te n in g to the re ta rd e d r e a d e r . The B lo c k D e s ig n su b test
m e a s u re s the p e rc e p tio n and re p ro d u c tio n of a b s tra c t d e s ig n s .
B lo c k D e s ig n re q u ire s lo g ic and re a s o n in g to be a p p lie d to s p a tia l
re la tio n s h ip s . S u b jects m u s t p e rc e iv e the d esig n , a n a ly z e the p a rts ,
_______________________________________________ 4 1_
and put the p a rts b ack to g e th e r to re p ro d u c e the d es ig n , thus
p ro v id in g a good m e a s u re of re a s o n in g a b ility . B lo c k D e s ig n m a y
be the b e s t s in g le n o n -v e rb a l m e a s u re of g e n e ra l in te llig e n c e on
the W IS C . B lo c k D e s ig n has the h ig h e s t r e lia b ilit y c o e ffic ie n t of
an y p e rfo rm a n c e su b test, ra n g in g b etw een , 84 and . 88. F u r th e r
in fo rm a tio n on r e lia b ilit y fo r the W IS C is p re s e n te d in C h a p te r I I I .
The O b je c t A s s e m b ly su b te s t m e a s u re s p a r t/w h o le re la tio n s h ip s ,
u sin g v is u a l a n tic ip a tio n , a s s e m b ly s k ills , and v is u a l-m o to r c o o r
d in a tio n . A s w ith P ic tu r e C o m p le tio n , it is g a m e -lik e in n a tu re anc
thus is no th r e a t to the p o o r r e a d e r.
G ra h a m (1952) w ro te th a t the C oding s u b te s t m o s t c lo s e ly
re s e m b le d the ta s k of re a d in g , w h ile the a tte n tio n r e q u ire d fo r the
A r ith m e tic su b test, the ro te m e m o ry needed fo r the D ig it Span
su b test, and the r e e a ll type of in fo rm a tio n e s s e n tia l to the In fo r m a
tio n su b te s t a ll c lo s e ly re s e m b le s c h o o l-lik e le a r n in g . C o le m a n and
R a s o f (1963) con clu ded th a t p o o r re a d e rs s c o re d s ig n ific a n tly lo w e r
on those W IS C sub tests w h ic h w e re m o s t h ig h ly re la te d to s c h o o l-
type le a rn in g , w h ic h re q u ire d s u s ta in e d c o n c e n tra tio n , and w h ic h
r e q u ir e d m e m o ry . C o n v e rs e ly , th e y ten d ed to s c o re w e ll on those
su b tes ts m e a s u rin g in c id e n ta l le a rn in g and p e rc e p tu a l o rg a n iz a tio n .
42
S u m m a ry of the L ite r a tu r e
The re v ie w o f the lit e r a t u r e has c o v e re d the n a tu re of
re a d in g c lin ic s , the e ffe c t of age o f e n try and le n g th of re m e d ia tio n
on re a d in g a c h ie v e m e n t, fo llo w -u p stu d ies in r e m e d ia l re a d in g , and
the r e la tio n b etw een the W e c h s le r In te llig e n c e S c ale fo r C h ild re n
(W IS C ) and reading a c h ie v e m e n t,
The n a tu re of re a d in g c lin ic s in d ic a te d th a t c lin ic s v a r y in
s iz e , scope, m e th o d o lo g y, and e m p h a s is . The r e s e a rc h fo cu se d on
the th re e m a in types of re a d in g c lin ic s : those sp o n so red by u n iv e r
s itie s and c o lle g e s , those m a in ta in e d b y p u b lic sch o o l s y s te m s , and
those c lin ic s p r iv a te ly o p e ra te d . I t w as re p o rte d th a t w h ile e a c h type
d £ . c lin ic d iffe r e d in e m p h a s is , the p r im a r y p u rp o se of ea c h w as to
help the d is a b le d r e a d e r .
T h e lit e r a t u r e c o v e rin g the e ffe c t of age of e n try and
Length o f re m e d ia tio n on re a d in g a c h ie v e m e n t w as s p a rs e . F in d in g s
on the e ffe c t of age of e n tr y and re a d in g a c h ie v e m e n t w e re m ix e d ,
w ith som e a u th o ritie s re p o rtin g th a t o ld e r studen ts have a b e tte r
chance fo r su cceed in g in a r e m e d ia l re a d in g s itu a tio n , w h ile o th e rs
re p o rte d th a t the y o u n g er c lie n ts m a k e the m o re s ig n ific a n t lo n g
t e r m g a in s , F in d in g s on the le n g th o f re m e d ia tio n p ro v id e d som e
s vid e nee th a t the lo n g e r the r e m e d ia l in s tru c tio n co n tin u ed , the
43
g r e a te r the lik e lih o o d of su ccess in re a d in g .
The re s u lts o f r e s e a r c h on fo llo w -u p stu d ies in the fie ld o f
re a d in g w e re also m ix e d , w ith som e r e s e a r c h e r s co n clu d in g th a t
lo n g -te r m e ffe c ts o f re m e d ia tio n cou ld be m e a s u re d , o th e rs c la im in g
th a t gains w e re n e g lig ib le , and s t ill o th e rs re p o rtin g th a t students
co n tin u ed to g ain a fte r r e m e d ia l in s tru c tio n , b u t a t a s lo w e r ra te th an
d u rin g r e m e d ia l te a c h in g .
A n a ly s is o f the lit e r a t u r e c o v e rin g the W IS C and re a d in g
a c h ie v e m e n t a p p e a re d to le n d s u p p o rt fo r a d is tin c tiv e s u b te s t p a tte rn
fo r the d is a b le d re a d e r . The r e ta r d e d r e a d e r p a tte rn w as found by
r e s e a r c h e r s to be s ig n ific a n tly lo w on the In fo rm a tio n , A r ith m e tic ,
D ig it Span, and Coding su b tes ts, and s ig n ific a n tly h ig h on the P ic tu r e
C o m p le tio n su b test, and p o s s ib ly on the B lo c k D e s ig n and O b je c t
A s s e m b ly s u b te s ts . It w as noted, h o w e v e r, th a t an in d iv id u a l d is a b le d
r e a d e r m ig h t not show th is p a tte rn a t a ll.
44
C H A P T E R I I I
P R O C E D U R E S
O v e rv ie w
T h is c h a p te r deals w ith the d e s c rip tio n of r e s e a r c h m e th
odology and p ro c e d u re s in v o lv e d in the stu d y. S ectio n s of th is
c h a p te r c o n s id e r (a) the v a r ia b le s , (b) the in s tru m e n ts to m e a s u re
the in d ep e n d en t v a r ia b le s , (c) the in s tru m e n ts to m e a s u re the
dependent v a r ia b le s , (d) the s a m p le , (e) p ro c e d u re , and (f) d ata
p ro c e s s in g and a n a ly s is .
The V a ria b le s
The in d ep e n d en t v a ria b le s in this stu d y w e re : (a) i n t e ll i
gence, (b) age of e n try , (c) le n g th of re m e d ia tio n , (d) v o c a b u la ry
p ro g re s s d u rin g re m e d ia tio n , (e) c o m p re h e n s io n p ro g re s s d u rin g
re m e d ia tio n , and (f) p o s t-c lin ic a l re m e d ia tio n .
The' In s tru m e n ts to M e a s u re the
In d ep e n d en t V a ria b le s
W e c h s le r In te llig e n c e Scale fo r C h ild re n
The W e c h s le r In te llig e n c e S cale fo r C h ild re n (W IS C ) was
45
used to m e a s u re in te lle c tu a l a b ilitie s of s u b je c ts . The S cale is
d iv id e d in to tw o p a rts : (a) the V e r b a l-s c a le , and (b) the P e r fo r m a n c e -
s c a le .
The V e r b a l-s c a le in v o lv e s a u d ito ry v e r b a l in p u t and v o c a l
v e r b a l output, as the s u b je c t respo nds o r a lly to q u e stio n s re a d by
the e x a m in e r . The P e r fo r m a n c e -s c a le in v o lv e s v is u a l, n o n v e rb a l
in p u t and m o to r, n o n v e rb a l output, as the s u b je c t re c e iv e s v is u a lly
and n o n v e rb a lly the in fo rm a tio n needed fo r h im to do a ta s k .
The sub te s ts of the V e r b a l-s c a le in c lu d e : (a) In fo rm a tio n ,
(b) C o m p re h e n s io n , (c) A r ith m e tic , (d) S im ila r itie s , and (e) V o c a b
u la r y . D ig it Span is an a lte rn a te su b tes t.
The In fo rm a tio n s u b te s t m e a s u re s m e m o ry of g e n e ra l
in fo rm a tio n gained fr o m e x p e rie n c e and e d u c a tio n . The s u b je c t is
re q u ire d to d e m o n s tra te w h e th e r he has s to re d fa c ts as g e n e ra l
k n o w le d g e .
The C o m p re h e n s io n s u b te s t m e a s u re s the e x te n t to w h ic h
the s u b je c t has a c q u ire d s o c ia l v a lu e s th ro u g h e v e ry d a y e x p e r i
en c es. I t re fle c ts a kno w led g e of c o n v e n tio n a l s ta n d a rd s of b e h a v io r
and ju d g m e n t in s o c ia l s itu a tio n s .
The A r ith m e tic s u b te s t m e a s u re s the a b ility to c o n c e n tra te
in o r d e r to d e a l w ith the a b s tra c t concepts of n u m b e rs and to p e r
fo r m the b a s ic m a th e m a tic a l o p e ra tio n s of a d d itio n , s u b tra c tio n ,
m u ltip lic a tio n , and d iv is io n .
______________________________________________________________________________ 4£l_
The S im ila r itie s su b te s t m e a s u re s m e m o ry , con cept f o r m a
tio n , and lo g ic a l and a b s tr a c t th in k in g , as the s u b je c t v e r b a liz e s
re la tio n s h ip s b etw een tw o co n cep ts,
The V o c a b u la ry su b te s t m e a s u re s le a rn in g a b ility , kn o w ledge
of w o rd s a c q u ire d fro m e x p e rie n c e and ed u c a tio n , and q u a lita tiv e
a u d ito ry la b e ls fo r o b je c ts .
The D ig it Span s u b te s t m e a s u re s a u d ito ry seq u en cin g and
im m e d ia te a u d ito ry m e m o ry (a tte n tio n span), as the s u b je c t re p e a ts
lis ts of d ig its , both fo r w a r d and b a c k w a rd , spoken by the e x a m in e r.
The su b tests o f the P e r fo r m a n c e -s c a le a re : (a) P ic tu r e C o m
p le tio n , (b) P ic tu r e A rra n g e m e n t, (c) B lo c k D e s ig n , (d) O b je c t
A s s e m b ly , and (e) C oding, A l l su b tes ts on th is s c a le a r e tim e d .
The P ic tu r e C o m p le tio n s u b te s t c a lls fo r v is u a l id e n tific a tio n
of f a m ilia r o b je c ts , and r e q u ire s a tte n tio n and c o n c e n tra tio n .
The P ic tu r e A r r a n g e m e n t s u b te s t m e a s u re s v is u a l sequencing,
a tte n tio n to d e ta ils , and v is u a l p e rc e p tio n , as the s u b je c t m u s t e v a lu
ate w h a t is going on in a p ic tu re , and p la c e i t in r e la tio n to o th e r
p ic tu re s so a lo g ic a l s to ry e m e rg e s .
The B lo c k D e s ig n su b te s t m e a s u re s p e rc e p tio n , a n a ly s is ,
s y n th e s is , and re p ro d u c tio n o f a b s tra c t d e s ig n s . I t r e q u ire s lo g ic and
re a s o n in g to be a p p lie d to space re la tio n s h ip s , as the s u b je c t r e p r o
duces a tw o -d im e n s io n a l g e o m e tric p a tte rn .
The O b je c t A s s e m b ly su b tes t m e a s u re s v is u a l- m o to r - s p a t ia l
______________________ 4JL
c o o rd in a tio n , p a rt/w h o le re la tio n s h ip s , and s im p le a s s e m b ly s k ills ,
as the s u b je c t m u s t a s s e m b le f a m ilia r o b je c ts w ith no clues beyond
the n am in g of the o b je c t.
The C oding su b te s t m e a s u re s v is u a l-m o to r c o o rd in a tio n
and the a s s o c ia tio n of m e a n in g w ith a s y m b o l. It a ls o m e a s u re s
the a b ility to m e m o r iz e q u ic k ly so th a t lo o k in g b a c k a t the guide
is not n e c e s s a ry . Speed and a c c u ra c y in m a k in g a s s o c ia tio n s d e te r
m in e s su ccess, as su b jec ts m u s t m a tc h and copy s y m b o ls , using
a guide of sym b o ls a s s o c ia te d w ith s im p le shapes o r n u m b e rs .
The W IS C w as s ta n d a rd iz e d on a s a m p le of 100 boys and
100 g ir ls fr o m e a c h age fro m 5 to 15. A ll su b je c ts w e re w h ite
students fro m sch ool s e ttin g s , w ith the e x c e p tio n of 55 c h ild re n
who cam e fro m in s titu tio n s fo r the m e n ta lly h an d ic ap p ed . S a m p lin g
c r it e r ia in c lu d e d s e le c tio n of su b je c ts based on d ata p ro v id e d by
the 1940 U . S. C ensus, w ith an a d ju s tm e n t fo r a s h ift in p o p u la tio n
to the w e s t. C o n s id e ra tio n s in c lu d e d g e o g ra p h ic re g io n , u rb a n -
r u r a l re s id e n c e , and p a re n ta l o cc u p atio n .
The r e lia b ilit y c o e ffic ie n ts of the W IS C a re d iv id e d in to
th re e age g ro u p s, 7 - 1 /2 , 1 0 -1 /2 , and 1 3 -1 /2 , s e le c te d as m o s t
re p re s e n ta tiv e o f the age ra n g e fo r w h ic h the W IS C w as d e s ig n ed .
R e lia b ilty c o e ffic ie n ts w e re com pu ted by the s p lit- h a lf te c h n iq u e ,
ex c e p t fo r C oding, w h ic h w as based on a lte rn a te te s ts , and D ig it
Span, b ased on a c o r r e la tio n b e tw e e n s c o re s on D ig its F o r w a r d and
48
D ig its B a c k w a rd . R e lia b ilty c o e ffic ie n ts fo r F u ll- s c a le ran g e d fro m
.9 2 to .9 5 ; fo r V e r b a l-s c a le , fro m .8 8 to 96; fo r P e r fo r m a n c e -
s c a le , fro m .8 6 to . 90.
A ge of E n tr y
A ge of e n try w as com pu ted on the b a s is of re c o rd e d date
of b ir th fo r eac h in d iv id u a l.
L e n g th of R e m e d ia tio n
L e n g th of re m e d ia tio n w as based on continuous atten d ance
a t the R e ad in g C e n te r S chool. E a c h sch o o l y e a r w as c o n s id e re d to
be te n sch o o l m o n th s.
P ro g re s s d u rin g R e m e d ia tio n
Tw o R e ad in g G ain In d ic e s (R G I) w e re co m p u ted fo r each
s u b je c t, b ased upon the gains m ade on the G ates V o c a b u la ry and
C o m p re h e n s io n te s ts d u rin g re m e d ia tio n , and th e le n g th of r e m e d i
a tio n . These In d ic e s w e re com pu ted fro m the fo llo w in g fo rm u la e :
R e ad in g G ain In d e x (C o m p re h e n s io n ) = ^ 2 ^T
L
w h e re C^ = f in a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n s c o re
C^ = in it ia l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n s c o re
L = le n g th of re m e d ia tio n
R e ad in g G ain In d e x (V o c a b u la ry ) = ^ 2 - ^ 1
L
w h e re V ^ = fin a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry s c o re
V]_ = in it ia l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry s c o re
L = le n g th of re m e d ia tio n
________________________________________________________________________________
P o s t- c lin ic a l R e m e d ia tio n
P o s t- c lin ic a l re m e d ia tio n w as coded a c c o rd in g to the
a m o u n t of fo r m a l r e m e d ia l re a d in g in s tru c tio n re c e iv e d by the
s u b je c t a fte r le a v in g the R e ad in g C e n te r School. A coding of 2
s ig n ifie d one o r m o re y e a rs of re m e d ia tio n . A coding of 1 in d ic a te d
le s s than one sch o o l y e a r but a t le a s t one m o n th of re m e d ia tio n . A
coding of 0 in d ic a te d no p o s t-c lin ic a l re m e d ia tio n fo r the s u b je c t.
P o s t- c lin ic a l re m e d ia tio n in c lu d e d in s tru c tio n re c e iv e d w ith in an
e d u c a tio n a l in s titu tio n , such as r e m e d ia l re a d in g c la s s e s w ith in the
sch o o ls, s u m m e r sch ool re a d in g c la s s e s , tu to rin g done by a r e
m e d ia l re a d in g s p e c ia lis t, a tte n d an c e a t a p riv a te re a d in g c lin ic , o r
atte n d an c e a t a n o th e r f u ll- t im e re a d in g sch o o l. No a tte m p t w as made:
to ass e s s the q u a lity of p o s t-c lin ic a l r e m e d ia l in s tru c tio n .
The In s tru m e n ts to M e a s u re
the D ep en d en t V a ria b le s
G a te s -M a c G in itie R e a d in g T e s t
The G a te s -M a c G in itie R e ad in g T e s t (G a te s ) c o n s is ts of two
p a rts , V o c a b u la ry and C o m p re h e n s io n . The V o c a b u la ry te s t s a m p le s
the s u b jec ts a b ility to re c o g n iz e is o la te d w o rd s in r e la tio n to a
g ro u p of w o rd s th ro u g h id e n tific a tio n of a synonym fo r the is o la te d
w o rd .
The C o m p re h e n s io n te s t m e a s u re s the su b jec ts a b ility to
re a d and u n d e rs ta n d e n tire sen ten ces and p a ra g ra p h s . T he s u b je c t
• ___________________________________ 50
m u s t g ra s p the c e n tr a l m e a n in g of the passage to f i l l in the c o r r e c t
re s p o n s e , The te s t con tain s p as sag es of in c re a s in g le n g th and
d iffic u lty .
F o r th is study, le v e ls A , B, C, D, and E of the G ates
w e re used.
T e s t n o rm s w e re based on a n a tio n w id e s a m p le o f 40, 000
students in 37 c o m m u n itie s s e le c te d to be r e p re s e n ta tiv e on the
b asis of s iz e , g e o g ra p h ic lo c a tio n , ed u c a tio n le v e l, and fa m ily
in c o m e ,
R e lia b ility data in c lu d e d both a lt e m a t e - f o r m r e lia b ilit y
c o e ffic ie n ts and s p lit-h a lf r e lia b ilit y c o e ffic ie n ts , A lt e r n a t e -f o r m
r e lia b ilit y c o e ffic ie n ts w e re o b ta in e d by a d m in is te r in g one fo r m of
a te s t one d ay and a second fo r m on a n o th e r d ay , w ith the o r d e r
of a d m in is tra tio n of fo rm s c o u n te rb a la n c e d . A lt e r n a t e -f o r m r e lia b il
ity c o e ffic ie n ts ran g e d fr o m , 80 to , 87 fo r v o c a b u la ry , and fro m
. 81 to . 87 fo r c o m p re h e n s io n , S p lit-h a lf r e lia b ilit y c o e ffic ie n ts
w e re based on o d d -e v e n d iv is io n of ite m s , S p lit-h a lf r e lia b ilit y
c o e ffic ie n ts ran g e d fro m ,8 8 to . 93 fo r v o c a b u la ry and fro m , 92
to . 95 fo r c o m p re h e n s io n ,
The S am p le
The S chool and C o m m u n ity
In the g e n e ra l p o p u la tio n , boys m a k e up the m a jo r ity of
51
le a r n in g -re a d in g d is a b le d students (B e n tze n , 1963; H e ilm a n , 1967;
K a llo s e t a l. , 1961). The p o p u la tio n a t the Reading C e n te r School,
th e r e fo r e , has been lim ite d to boys w ith an a p p a re n t d is c re p a n c y
b etw een th e ir exp ected re a d in g le v e l and th e ir a c tu a l re a d in g le v e l.
S e v e r a l fa c to rs a re g iv e n c o n s id e ra tio n b e fo re a stu d en t is
a cc ep ted in to the sch ool: (a) g e n e ra l in te llig e n c e m u s t f a ll w ith in
the a v e ra g e ra n g e . G e n e ra l in te llig e n c e has u s u a lly been m e a s u re d
by the W IS C ; (b) a h is to ry of re a d in g d is a b ility has been shown;
(c) p e rfo rm a n c e in re a d in g has a p p e a re d to have s e rio u s ly h in
d e re d the stu d en t a c a d e m ic a lly ; and (d) e v id e n c e is p re s e n t th a t the
stu d en t could b e n e fit fro m the in te n s iv e re a d in g p ro g ra m o ffe re d
by th e R e ad in g C e n te r School.
The S u bjects
The 24 su b jec ts used in th is study w e re ra n d o m ly s e le c te d
fr o m 95 fo r m e r students w ho q u a lifie d fo r p a r tic ip a tio n in the
stu d y. To q u a lify fo r p a rtic ip a tio n in the study, a studen t had to
have been a d m in is te re d the W IS C , been g iv e n a G ates upon e n try
to and e x it fr o m the R ead in g C e n te r School, and le ft the C e n te r
tw o o r m o re y e a rs b e fo re the 1975-197 6 sch ool y e a r began.
O f the 95 f o r m e r stu d en ts, 49 w e re co n tac ted by telephone.
O f th e s e , 24 p a rtic ip a te d in the study; 2 w e re in c o lle g e and unable
to atte n d any te s tin g sessio n ; 1 w as in c a r c e r a te d ; 2 fa ile d to show
52
up fo r te s tin g d es p ite re p e a te d re s c h e d u lin g ; and 20 w o u ld not
p a rtic ip a te in the study. R easons g iv e n fo r not p a rtic ip a tin g in the
study in c lu d e d too lit t le tim e , la c k of in te re s t, and fe a r o f te s tin g .
One studen t w as re p o rte d to be in a m e n ta lly r e ta rd e d c la s s , and
an e x a m in a tio n of his W IS C p r o file show ed an IQ s c o re of 51.
P ro c e d u re s
In co n tac tin g the s u b je c ts , e v e ry a tte m p t w as m ad e to
a d a p t the te s tin g to the sch ed u le of e a c h in d iv id u a l. A to ta l of e ig h t
te s tin g sessio n s w e re conducted, and e a c h stu d en t who a g re e d to
p a r tic ip a te in the study found a t le a s t one tim e c o n v e n ie n t to his
sch ed u le. A l l te s tin g w as done a t the R e ad in g C e n te r School.
A d m in is tra tio n of the G ates fo llo w e d s ta n d a rd iz e d p ro c e d u re s .
In a d d itio n to the G ates, s u b je c ts w e re a d m in is te re d an
a ttitu d in a l sca le to d e te rm in e th e ir fe e lin g s to w a rd v a rio u s asp ects
o f the R e ad in g C e n te r S chool. W h ile not a p a r t of the p re s e n t study,
th is sca le could p ro v id e in fo rm a tio n fo r fu tu re re s e a rc h p ro je c ts .
S u b jects a ls o c o m p le te d an in fo rm a tio n a l sh e et d esig n ed to p ro v id e
in fo rm a tio n re le v a n t to the study, in c lu d in g am o u n t of p o s t-c lin ic a l
re m e d ia tio n re c e iv e d .
L im ita tio n s
A f t e r co n tac tin g and te s tin g the s u b je c ts , the fo llo w in g
lim ita tio n s w e re added to those p re s e n te d , in C h a p te r I:
53
1. O n ly those students who a llo w e d th e m s e lv e s to be in
v o lv e d in the study w e re in c lu d e d .
2. The m eth o d u tiliz e d to d e te rm in e am o u n t of p o s t-c lin ic a l
re m e d ia tio n w as based on in d iv id u a l re p o rtin g by the p a rtic ip a n ts
and thus s u b je c t to e r r o r .
3. Students who e n te re d the R e ad in g C e n te r School w e re
n o t e q u a l in te rm s of re a d in g n eed s. W h ile a ll students w e re d is
a b le d re a d e rs , som e w e re m ild ly d is a b le d and o th e rs w e re s e v e re ly
d is a b le d . T h is fa c to r w as not c o n tro lle d by the study,
D a ta P ro c e s s in g and A n a ly s is
The c o m p u te r p ro g ra m u tiliz e d in th is study w as SPSS
S u b p ro g ra m D IS C R IM IN A N T , M E T H O D - W IL K S (S te p w is e ), O ptions
5 (P r in t c la s s ific a tio n s r e s u lt ta b le ), 6 ( P r in t d is c r im in a n t s c o re s
and c la s s ific a tio n in fo rm a tio n ), and 12 ( P r in t c la s s ific a tio n functions)
w ith a ll a v a ila b le s ta tis tic s .
D is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is a tte m p ts to s ta tis tic a lly d is tin g u is h
b etw een tw o o r m o re g ro u p s. To d is tin g u is h b e tw e e n the groups
the r e s e a r c h e r s e le c ts a n u m b e r of d is c r im in a tin g v a r ia b le s th a t
m e a s u re c h a ra c te r is tic s on w h ic h the groups a re e x p e c te d to d iffe r .
In the p re s e n t study, these v a ria b le s , in c lu d e d the W IS C F u ll-s c a le ,
V e r b a l-s c a le , P e rfo rm a n c e - s c a le , and su b tes t s c o re s , age of en try,
le n g th of re m e d ia tio n , p o s t-c lin ic a l re m e d ia tio n , v o c a b u la ry gain
54-
s c o re , and c o m p re h e n s io n g ain s c o re . The m a th e m a tic a l o h je c tiv e
of d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is is to w e ig h t and lin e a r ly co m b in e the d is
c r im in a tin g v a ria b le s so the groups a re fo rc e d to be as s ta tis tic a lly
d iffe r e n t as p o s s ib le . T h is is done by fo rm in g one o r m o re lin e a r
c o m b in a tio n s of the d is c r im in a tin g v a r ia b le s . T h ese " d is c rim in a n t
fu n c tio n s " a re in the fo r m of
P i = du zx. .. dipZp
w h e re D ^. is the sco re on the d is c r im in a n t fu n c tio n i, the d rs a re
w e ig h tin g c o e ffic ie n ts , and the Z 's a re the s ta n d a rd iz e d v a lu e s of
the p d is c r im in a tin g v a ria b le s used in the a n a ly s is . The w e ig h tin g
c o e ffic ie n ts can be in te rp re te d as in m u ltip le re g re s s io n o r fa c to r
a n a ly s is , in th a t th e y id e n tify those v a ria b le s w h ic h c o n trib u te m o s t
to d iffe r e n tia tio n ,
T h e re a re tw o r e s e a r c h o b je c tiv e s of d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is :
a n a ly s is and c la s s ific a tio n . A n a ly s is p ro v id e s s e v e r a l to o ls fo r the
in te r p r e ta tio n of data, in c lu d in g s ta tis tic a l te s ts fo r m e a s u rin g the
success w ith w h ic h the d is c r im in a tin g v a r ia b le s a c tu a lly d is c r im
in a te .
D is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is as a c la s s ific a tio n tech n iq u e com es
a fte r the in it ia l c o m p u ta tio n . O nce a s e t of v a ria b le s is fo rc e d to
p ro v id e s a tis fa c to r y d is c r im in a tio n fo r cases w ith know n g ro u p
m e m b e rs h ip , a s e t of c la s s ific a tio n fu n c tio n s can be d e riv e d to
p e r m it the c la s s ific a tio n of new cases w ith unknow n m e m b e rs h ip s .
______________________________________________________________________ 55.
A r e s e a r c h e r fa c e d w ith m o re d is c r im in a tin g v a ria b le s than
needed to s a tis fa c to r ily d is c r im in a te m a y s e le c t the m o s t u s e fu l of
these th ro u g h a s te p w is e p ro c e d u re , w h ic h s e le c ts the s in g le b e s t
d is c rim in a tin g v a r ia b le . A second d is c rim in a tin g v a r ia b le is s e le c te d
as the v a r ia b le b e s t ab le to im p ro v e the v a lu e o f the d is c r im in a tio n
c r ite r io n in c o m b in a tio n w ith th e f i r s t v a r ia b le . S u bsequ ent v a ria b le s
a re s e le c te d a c c o rd in g to th e ir a b ility to c o n trib u te to fu r th e r d is
c r im in a tio n . E v e n tu a lly , e ith e r a ll v a ria b le s w il l have been s e le c te d
or i t w ill be found th a t the re m a in in g v a ria b le s can no lo n g e r d is c r im
in a te . W hen th is o c c u rs , th e s te p w is e p ro c e d u re stops and fu r th e r
a n a ly s is is p e r fo r m e d u sin g o n ly the s e le c te d v a r ia b le s .
A c r ite r io n fo r e lim in a tin g d is c r im in a n t fu n c tio n s is to te s t
fo r the s ta tis tic a l s ig n ific a n c e o f d is c r im in a tin g in fo rm a tio n not
a lre a d y acco u n ted fo r by u s in g W ilk s ' la m b d a , an in v e rs e m e a s u re of
the d is c r im in a tin g p o w e r in the o r ig in a l v a r ia b le s w h ic h has not y e t
Deen re m o v e d by the d is c r im in a tin g fu n c tio n s . The la r g e r the v a lu e of
Lambda, the le s s in fo rm a tio n is le ft.
56
CHAPTER IV
F IN D IN G S A N D D IS C U S S IO N
In tro d u c tio n
The fin d in g s fr o m the study a re p re s e n te d in c o n n ectio n
w ith e a c h v a r ia b le : (1) lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n
sion success and fa ilu r e , and (2) lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g
v o c a b u la ry success and fa ilu r e .
R e a d in g success is, d e fin e d as a g rad e le v e l s c o re o f 9. 0
or m o re on the G a te s . R e a d in g fa ilu r e is d efin e d as a g ra d e le v e l
s c o re of le s s th an 9 .0 on the G ate s.
In p re s e n tin g the fin d in g s , a ll d ata w h ic h p ro v e d to s ig
n ific a n tly c o n trib u te to d is c r im in a tio n a t o r above the , 05 le v e l of
confidence a re a p p ro p r ia te ly in d ic a te d .
L o n g -te r m P o s t-c lin ic a l R e ad in g
C o m p re h e n s io n Success and F a ilu re
S ix h yp oth eses w e re p re s e n te d in an a tte m p t to d e te rm in e
w hich v a r ia b le s c o n trib u te d to d is c r im in a tio n b etw een lo n g -te r m
p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success and fa ilu r e . E a c h h y
p o th es is is re s ta te d as an in tro d u c tio n to the s e c tio n w h ic h i t
57
p re c e d e s .
N in e te e n v a r ia b le s w e re e n te re d in s te p w is e d is c r im in a n t
a n a ly s is . To be in c lu d e d in the s te p w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is , the
in it ia l F -v a lu e r e q u ire d fo r in c lu s io n of a v a r ia b le w as 1 .0 , w ith
to le ra n c e s e t at , 001. T a b le 2 p re s e n ts the gro u p m ean s f o r each
v a r ia b le c o n trib u tin g to d is c r im in a tio n b e tw e e n re a d in g c o m p re h e n
sion success and fa ilu r e , the c la s s ific a tio n fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t fo r
e ac h group , and the s ta n d a rd iz e d fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t fo r eac h
va r ia b le .
T h e c la s s ific a tio n fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t d e m o n s tra te s the
e ffe c t o f th e v a ria b le on both the fa ilu r e g ro u p and the success
g ro u p . The e ffe c t o f the v a r ia b le in te r m s of d is c r im in a tin g b e
tw ee n success and fa ilu r e is m o re p ro n o u n ced fo r the g ro u p p o s
sessin g the la r g e r n u m b e r. A n e g a tiv e n u m b e r in d ic a te s th a t the
g roup had d iffic u lty w ith th a t v a r ia b le . Thu s, a c la s s ific a tio n
fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t of -0 . 23818 fo r the W IS C C o m p re h e n s io n su b tes t
s c o re (F a ilu r e group ) w o u ld in d ic a te th a t s u b je c ts a re m e m b e rs of
th is g ro u p becau se o f d iffic u lty w ith th e C o m p re h e n s io n s u b tes t of
the W IS C .
The s ta n d a rd iz e d fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t in d ic a te s the w e ig h t
a s s o c ia te d w ith eac h v a r ia b le as i t c o n trib u te s to d is c r im in a tio n
b etw een re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success and f a ilu r e . T h e s e w e ig h ts
a re n u m b e rs , e ith e r p o s itiv e o r n e g a tiv e , w h ic h , w hen m u ltip lie d
________________________________________________________________________________ h a
TABLE 2
G R O U P M E A N S , C L A S S IF IC A T IO N F U N C T IO N C O E F F IC IE N T S , A N D
S T A N D A R D IZ E D D IS C R IM IN A N T F U N C T IO N C O E F F IC IE N T S FO R
D IS C R IM IN A T IN G B E T W E E N L O N G -T E R M P O S T -C L IN IC A L
R E A D IN G C O M P R E H E N S IO N SUCCESS A N D F A IL U R E
Group
S tan d ard ized
D is c rim in a n t
Fun ction
C o e ffic ie n t
F a ilu re Success
V a ria b le M ean
C la s s ific a tio n
F u n ctio n
C o e ffic ie n t M e a n
C la s s ific a tio n
Fu n ction
C o e ffic ie n t
W ISC In fo rm a tio n subtest 7. 57 1. 85384 11. 50 2 .5 4 5 2 9 0. 39416
W IS C C o m p reh en sio n score 8. 43 -0 . 23818 1 1 .8 0 0 .2 0 0 4 5 0.27719
W IS C D ig it Span subtest 7 .7 1 2 .2 7 7 4 0 8. 90 3 .2 2 2 0 8 0. 37790
W ISC Coding subtest 8. 79 0 .0 7 4 2 2 8. 70 -0. 66888 - 0 .3 6 2 7 4
V o c a b u la ry p ro g re s s
d u rin g re m e d ia tio n 0. 44 1. 90024 1. 63 5. 90201 0 .5 6 2 2 5
Ul
nD
1 _
by the in d iv id u a l's ra w s c o re , a re e n te re d in to the d is c r im in a n t
fu n ctio n e q u a tio n as a m ean s of d e te rm in in g to w h ic h g ro u p the
in d iv id u a l w ill be a s s ig n ed .
V a ria b le s n o t in c lu d e d in T a b le 2 w e re n o t in c lu d e d in the
ste p w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is because th e y did n o t c o n trib u te
to w a rd s ta tis tic a lly d is tin g u is h in g b e tw e e n re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n
success and fa ilu r e .
H y p o th esis 1
H y p o th esis 1 s ta te d : " In te llig e n c e does not d is c r im in a te b e
tw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success and
fa ilu r e . " H y p o th esis 1 re c e iv e d p a r t ia l su p p o rt, as can be seen
by e x a m in a tio n of the subhypotheses c o n s id e re d .
H y p o th esis 1. 1
H y p o th esis 1.1 sta te d : " The W IS C F u ll- s c a le IQ s c o re does
not d is c r im in a te b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re
hen sio n success and fa ilu r e . " A s can be noted by e x a m in a tio n of
T a b le 2, the W IS C F u ll- s c a le IQ sc o re w as not in c lu d e d in the
s te p w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is . T h e re fo r e , the n u ll h yp o th esis w as
c o n s id e re d te n a b le .
H y p o th esis 1. 2
H y p o th esis 1. 2 sta te d : "T h e W IS C V e r b a l-s c a le IQ s c o re
60
does not d is c r im in a te b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m
p re h e n s io n success and f a ilu r e . " The W IS C V e r b a l-s c a le IQ s c o re
w as not in c lu d e d in the ste p w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is . T h e re fo re ,
the n u ll hyp o th esis w as c o n s id e re d te n a b le .
H y p o th esis 1. 3
H y p o th esis 1 .3 sta te d : "T h e W IS C P e rfo rm a n c e - scale IQ
s c o re does n o t d is c r im in a te b e tw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g
c o m p re h e n s io n success and fa ilu r e . " The W IS C P e rfo rm a n c e - scale
IQ s c o re w as not in c lu d e d in the s te p w is e d is c r im in a n t fu n c tio n
a n a ly s is . T h e re fo r e , the n u ll h yp o th esis w as held te n a b le .
H y p o th esis 1 .4
H y p o th esis 1 .4 s ta te d : "T h e W IS C In fo rm a tio n su b tes t score
does not d is c r im in a te b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m
p re h e n s io n success and f a il u r e . " The W IS C In fo rm a tio n sub te s t
s c o re w as in c lu d e d in the s te p w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is , w ith a
s ta n d a rd iz e d fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t of 0 .3 9 4 1 6 . T h e re fo re , the n u ll
h yp o th esis w as re je c te d . Such a fin d in g m a y in d ic a te th at the W IS C
In fo rm a tio n s u b te s t c o n trib u te s to s ta tis tic a lly d is tin g u is h in g b e
tw ee n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success and
f a il u r e . The c la s s ific a tio n fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t v a lu e s in d ic a te th a t
the e ffe c t of the W IS C In fo rm a tio n s u b te s t s c o re in te r m s of d is
c r im in a tin g b e tw een groups is m o re p ro n o u n ced f o r success than
61
, ------------
fo r fa ilu r e . The success g ro u p has s c o re d hig h on th is su b tes t.
T h is fin d in g co n cu rs w ith in fo rm a tio n c ite d in the s u rv e y of the
lit e r a t u r e .
H y p o th esis 1. 5
H y p o th esis 1. 5 s ta te d : "T h e W IS C C o m p re h e n s io n su b test
s c o re does not d is c r im in a te b e tw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g
c o m p re h e n s io n success and fa ilu r e . " The W IS C C o m p re h e n s io n
su b tes t s c o re w as in c lu d ed in the s te p w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is ,
w ith a s ta n d a rd iz e d fu n ctio n c o e ffic ie n t of 0, 27719. T h e re fo re , the
n u ll hyp o th esis w as re je c te d . The W IS C C o m p re h e n s io n sub te s t m a y
c o n trib u te to s ta tis tic a lly d is tin g u is h in g b e tw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-
c lin ic a l re a d in g success and fa ilu r e . The c la s s ific a tio n fu n c tio n
c o e ffic ie n t va lu e s in d ic a te th a t the e ffe c t of the W IS C C o m p re h e n
sion su b tes t s c o re in te r m s of d is c r im in a tin g b etw een group s is
m o re p ro n o u n ced fo r fa ilu r e th an su c cess . The fa ilu r e g ro u p had
d iffic u lty w ith th is su b test. T h is fin d in g c o n tra s ts lit e r a t u r e fin d irg s
w h ic h show d is a b le d re a d e rs s c o rin g h ig h on th is s u b te s t.
H y p o th esis 1. 6
H y p o th e s is 1. 6 sta te d : "T h e W IS C A r ith m e tic su b te s t sco re
does not d is c r im in a te b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m
p re h e n s io n success and fa ilu r e . " The W IS C A r ith m e tic s u b te s t score
w as not in c lu d e d in the ste p w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is . T h e re fo re ,
6 2
the n u ll h yp o th esis w as c o n s id e re d te n a b le .
H yp o th esis 1. 7
H y p o th esis 1. 7 sta te d : "T h e W IS C S im ila r itie s su b test
s c o re does not d is c r im in a te b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g
c o m p re h e n s io n success and fa ilu r e . " The W IS C S im ila r itie s s u b tes t
s c o re w as n o t in c lu d e d in the s tep w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is . There
fore, the n u ll hyp o th esis w as h eld te n a b le .
H y p o th esis 1. 8
H y p o th esis 1. 8 sta te d : "T h e W IS C V o c a b u la ry s u b tes t s co re
does not d is c r im in a te b etw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m
p re h e n s io n success and f a ilu r e . " The W IS C V o c a b u la ry su b test
s c o re w as not in c lu d e d in the step w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is , and
the n u ll h yp o th esis w as c o n s id e re d te n a b le .
H y p o th esis 1. 9
H y p o th esis 1. 9 stated.: "T h e W IS C D ig it Span su b te s t s c o re
does not d is c r im in a te b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m
p re h e n s io n success and fa ilu r e . " The W IS C D ig it Span s u b te s t s co re
w as in c lu d e d in the s te p w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is , w ith a sta n d a rd
iz e d fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t of 0 .3 7 7 9 0 . T h e re fo r e , the n u ll h yp o th esis
w as re je c te d . Such a fin d in g m a y in d ic a te th a t the W IS C D ig it Span
s u b tes t s c o re c o n trib u te s to d is c r im in a tio n b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-
c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success and fa ilu r e . The c la s s ific a
tio n fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t v a lu e s in d ic a te th a t the e ffe c t of the W IS C
D ig it Span s u b tes t s c o re in te rm s o f d is c r im in a tin g b e tw een groups
is m o re p ro n o u n ced fo r success than fo r fa ilu r e . The su ccess
g roup s c o re d h ig h e r than the fa ilu r e g ro u p . T h is fin d in g c o n c u rs
w ith in fo rm a tio n c ite d in the s u rv e y of the lit e r a t u r e .
H y p o th esis 1. 10
H y p o th e s is 1.10 sta te d : "T h e W IS C P ic tu r e C o m p le tio n
s u b tes t s c o re does n o t d is c r im in a te b e tw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l
re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success and fa ilu r e . " The W IS C P ic tu r e
C o m p le tio n su b test s c o re w as not in c lu d e d in the s te p w is e d is c r im
in a n t a n a ly s is , and the n u ll h yp o th esis w as acc e p te d .
H y p o th esis 1.11
H y p o th e s is 1.11 s ta te d : "T h e W IS C P ic tu r e A r r a n g e m e n t
su b tes t s c o re does not d is c r im in a te b e tw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l
re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success and fa ilu r e . " The W IS C P ic tu re
A r r a n g e m e n t s u b tes t s c o re w as not in c lu d e d in the d is c r im in a n t
a n a ly s is . T h e re fo r e , the n u ll h yp o th esis w as c o n s id e re d te n a b le .
H y p o th esis 1. 12
H y p o th e s is 1.12 sta te d : "T h e W IS C B lo c k D e s ig n su b test
s c o re does not d is c r im in a te b e tw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g
64
c o m p re h e n s io n success and fa ilu r e . " The W IS C B lo c k D e s ig n su b test
s c o re was not in c lu d e d in the ste p w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is , and
the n u ll h yp o th esis w as ac c e p te d .
H y p o th esis 1.13
H y p o th esis 1. 13 s ta te d : "T h e W IS C O b je c t A s s e m b ly su b test
s c o re does not d is c r im in a te b e tw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g
c o m p re h e n s io n success and f a ilu r e . " The W IS C B lo c k D e s ig n subtest
s c o re w as not in c lu d e d in the s te p w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is , and
the n u ll h yp o th esis w as c o n s id e re d te n a b le .
H yp o th esis 1.14
H y p o th esis 1.14 s ta te d : "T h e W IS C Coding s u b te s t s c o re does
n o t d is c r im in a te b e tw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re
hension success and f a il u r e . " The W IS C Coding su b te s t s c o re was
in c lu d e d in the step w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is , w ith a s ta n d a rd iz e d
fu n ctio n c o e ffic ie n t of -0 . 3 6 2 7 4 . T h e re fo r e , the n u ll h yp o th esis w as
re je c te d . The W IS C C oding su b tes t s c o re m a y c o n trib u te to s ta tis
tic a lly d is tin g u is h in g b e tw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m
p re h e n s io n success and f a ilu r e . The c la s s ific a tio n fu n c tio n c o e ffi
c ie n t v a lu e s in d ic a te th a t the e ffe c t of the W IS C Coding s u b tes t
sco re in te r m s of d is c r im in a tin g b e tw een group s is m o re pronounced
fo r success than fo r f a ilu r e . The n e g a tiv e c o e ffic ie n t in d ic a te s th a t
the success g ro u p had d iffic u lty w ith th is su b tes t. T h is fin d in g
6 5
a p p e a rs to be unique to th is s a m p le .
H y p o th esis 2
H y p o th e s is 2 s ta te d : "A ge of e n tr y to a f u ll- t im e re a d in g
c lin ic school does not d is c r im in a te b e tw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l
re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success and f a ilu r e . " A g e o f e n try w as not
in c lu d e d in th e s te p w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is , and the n u ll h yp o th esis
w as h e ld te n a b le .
H y p o th esis 3
H y p o th esis 3 state d : "L e n g th of r e m e d ia tio n a t a f u ll- t im e
re a d in g c lin ic sch o o l does n ot d is c r im in a te b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-
c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success'^and f a ilu r e . " L e n g th of
re m e d ia tio n w as not in c lu d e d in the s te p w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is .
T h e re fo r e , the n u ll h yp o th e s is w as c o n s id e re d te n a b le .
H yp o th esis 4
H y p o th e s is 4 sta te d : " V o c a b u la ry p ro g re s s d u rin g r e m e d ia
tion does not d is c r im in a te b e tw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g
c o m p re h e n s io n success and fa ilu r e . " V o c a b u la ry p ro g re s s d u rin g
re m e d ia tio n w as in c lu d e d in the s te p w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is , w ith
a . s ta n d a rd iz e d fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t of 0. 5 6 2 2 5 . T h e re fo re , the n u ll
hypothesis w as r e je c te d . V o c a b u la ry p ro g re s s d u rin g re m e d ia tio n
m a y c o n trib u te to d is c r im in a tio n b etw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l
66
re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success and f a ilu r e . The c la s s ific a tio n
fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t valu es in d ic a te th a t the e ffe c t o f v o c a b u la ry
p ro g re s s d u rin g re m e d ia tio n in te r m s of d is c r im in a tin g b etw een
groups is m o re prono unced fo r success than fo r f a ilu r e . The high
p o s itiv e c o e ffic ie n t in d ic a te s th a t the success g ro u p s c o re d e x
tr e m e ly h ig h on th is v a r ia b le .
H y p o th esis 5
H y p o th esis 5 state d : " C o m p re h e n s io n p ro g re s s d u rin g
re m e d ia tio n does not d is c r im in a te b e tw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l
re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success and fa ilu r e . " T h is v a r ia b le w as not
in c lu d e d in the step w ise d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is , and the n u ll h y p o th
e s is w as acc ep ted .
H y p o th esis 6
H y p o th e s is 6 state d : "A m o u n t of p o s t-c lin ic a l re m e d ia tio n
does not d is c r im in a te b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m
p re h e n s io n success and f a il u r e , " P o s t-c lin ic a l re m e d ia tio n w as not
in c lu d e d in the step w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is , and the n u ll h yp o th
es is w as c o n s id e re d te n a b le .
D is c u s sion
F in d in g s based on d ata r e la tin g to v a ria b le s w h ic h d is
c r im in a te b e tw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n
success and fa ilu r e in d ic a te th a t the fo llo w in g v a ria b le s c o n trib u te
to d is c r im in a tio n b etw een re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n - su ccess and
fa ilu r e : (a) W IS C In fo rm a tio n su b tes t s c o re , (b) W IS C D ig it Span
su b tes t s c o re , (c) W IS C C oding su b te s t s c o re , (d) W IS C C o m p re
h en sio n s u b te s t s c o re , and (e) v o c a b u la ry p ro g re s s d u rin g r e m e
d ia tio n . A s can be seen by an e x a m in a tio n o f T a b le 3, the p e rc e n t
of group ed cases c o r r e c tly id e n tifie d by th ese v a r ia b le s w as 95. 83
p e rc e n t.
T A B L E 3
P R E D IC T IO N R E S U L T S : P E R C E N T O F
" G R O U P E D " C A S E S C O R R E C T L Y
C L A S S IF IE D - 95. 8 3 P E R C E N T
N o . of P re d ic te d G ro u p M e m b e rs h ip
A c tu a l G ro up C ases
F a ilu r e Success
F a ilu r e 14 14(100%) 0 (0%)
Success 10 1 (10%) 9 (90% )
L o n g -te r m P o s t- c lin ic a l R e a d in g
V o c a b u la ry Su ccess and F a ilu r e
S ix hyp o th eses w e re p re s e n te d in an a tte m p t to d e te rm in e
w h ich v a r ia b le s c o n trib u te to d is c r im in a tio n b e tw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-
c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success and fa ilu r e . E a c h h yp o th esis is
68.
re s ta te d as an in tro d u c tio n to th e s e c tio n w h ic h i t p re c e d e s .
N in e te e n v a r ia b le s w e re e n te re d in s te p w is e d is c r im in a n t
a n a ly s is . To be in c lu d e d in the ste p w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is , the
in it ia l F -v a lu e r e q u ire d fo r in c lu s io n of a v a r ia b le w as 1, 0, w ith
to le ra n c e set at , 001. T a b le 4 p re s e n ts the gro u p m e a n s fo r eac h
v a r ia b le c o n trib u tin g to d is c r im in a tio n b e tw een re a d in g v o c a b u la ry
success and fa ilu r e , the c la s s ific a tio n fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t fo r
each group, and the s ta n d a rd iz e d fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t fo r ea c h
v a r ia b le .
The c la s s ific a tio n fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t d e m o n s tra te s the
e ffe c t o f the v a r ia b le on both the fa ilu r e group and the success group,
The e ffe c t of the v a r ia b le in te r m s of d is c rim in a tin g b e tw een success
and fa ilu r e is m o re p ro n o u n ced in fa v o r of the gro u p w ith the la r g e r
n u m b e r. A n e g a tiv e n u m b e r shows g ro u p d iffic u lty w ith th a t v a r ia b le .
Thus, a c la s s ific a tio n fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t o f - 0 . 200 36 fo r the W IS C
P ic tu re A rr a n g e m e n t su b te s t s c o re ( F a ilu r e g ro u p ) in d ic a te s th a t
m e m b e rs of th is group had d iffic u lty w ith the P ic tu r e A r r a n g e m e n t
s u b test of the W IS C ,
The s ta n d a rd iz e d fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t in d ic a te s the w e ig h t
a s s o c ia te d w ith e ac h v a r ia b le as i t c o n trib u te s to d is c r im in a tio n b e
tw een re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success and f a ilu r e . T h ese w e ig h ts a re
n u m b e rs , e ith e r p o s itiv e o r n e g a tiv e , w h ic h , w h en m u ltip lie d by
the in d iv id u a l's ra w s c o re , a re e n te re d in to the d is c r im in a n t
________________________________________________________________________________ 63
T A B L E 4
G R O U P M E A N S , C L A S S IF IC A T IO N F U N C T IO N C O E F F IC IE N T S , A N D
S T A N D A R D IZ E D D IS C R IM IN A N T F U N C T IO N C O E F F IC IE N T S FO R
D IS C R IM IN A T IN G B E T W E E N L O N G -T E R M P O S T -C L IN IC A L
R E A D IN G V O C A B U L A R Y SUCCESS A N D F A IL U R E
Group
F a ilu r e Success S tan d ard ize d
V a ria b le M ean
C la s s ific a tio n
F u n ctio n
C o e ffic ie n t M ean
C las s ific a tio n
F u n ctio n
C o e ffic ie n t
D is c rim in a n t
F u n ctio n
C o e ffic ie n t
W IS C V e rb a l IQ score 42. 85 0.43415 55. 09 1. 20351 0.9951 4
W IS C C o m p reh en sio n sco re 8. 46 1.19106 11.45 -0 .0 2 8 3 3
-0 .4 7 2 4 9
W IS C D ig it Span subtest 7. 69 0 .4 7 6 8 5 8 .8 2 1 .7 5 2 2 4 0. 31281
W IS C P ic tu re A rra n g e m e n t
subtest score 9 .4 6 -0 .2 0 0 3 6 10. 09
-1.4 1391 -0 .4 0 5 1 5
W IS C P ic tu re C o m p letio n
subtest sco re 11. 39 1. 31122 10. 27 0.13343 -0 .4 4 6 0 6
W IS C O b je c t A s s e m b ly
subtest sco re 10.15 -0 .0 5 7 8 0 11. 36 1.89305 0.71536
W IS C Coding subtest 8. 77 -0 .4 9 8 4 7 8 .7 3 - 1 .7 0 6 7 4 -0 . 36163
A ge of e n try 10. 83 5. 51915 10.77 4.1360 2 -0 .3 0 6 8 6
P o s t-c lin ic a l re m e d ia tio n 1.15 2.17639 1. 00 0. 23588 -0 .1 9 3 6 0
V o c a b u la ry p ro g re s s
d u rin g re m e d ia tio n 0. 41 -4 .4 6 0 5 0 1. 55 1. 55317 0. 51804
lo
fu n c tio n e q u atio n as a m ean s of d e te rm in in g gro u p a s s ig n m e n t.
V a ria b le s not in c lu d e d in T a b le 4 w e re not in c lu d e d in
the step w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is b ecause th ey d id not c o n trib u te
to w a rd s ta tis tic a lly d is tin g u is h in g b etw een re a d in g v o c a b u la ry
success and fa ilu r e .
H y p o th e s is ■7
H y p o th esis 7 stated : " In te llig e n c e does not d is c r im in a te
b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry su ccess and
fa ilu r e . " T h is h yp o th esis re c e iv e d p a r t ia l su p p o rt, as can be seen
by an e x a m in a tio n of the subhypotheses c o n s id e re d .
H y p o th esis 7 .1
H y p o th esis 7 .1 s ta te d : "T h e W IS C F u ll- s c a le IQ s c o re does
not d is c r im in a te b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry
success and fa ilu r e . " A s can be noted by an e x a m in a tio n of T a b le 4,
the W IS C F u ll- s c a le IQ s c o re w as not in c lu d e d in the s te p w is e d is
c r im in a n t a n a ly s is . T h e re fo r e , the n u ll h yp o th esis w as a c c e p te d .
H y p o th esis 7 .2
H y p o th esis 7 .2 s ta te d : "T h e W IS C V e r b a l-s c a le IQ s c o re
does not d is c r im in a te b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o
c a b u la ry success and fa ilu r e , " The W IS C V e r b a l-s c a le IQ s c o re w as
in c lu d e d in the step w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is , w ith a s ta n d a rd iz e d
71
fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t of 0. 99514. T h e re fo re , the n u ll h yp o th e s is w as
re je c te d . The W IS C V e r b a l-s c a le IQ s c o re m a y c o n trib u te to d is
c r im in a tio n b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry
success and f a ilu r e . The c la s s ific a tio n fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t v a lu e s
in d ic a te th a t the e ffe c t o f the W IS C V e r b a l-s c a le IQ sc o re in te rm s
o f d is c r im in a tin g b e tw e e n groups is m o re p ro n o u n ced fo r success
th an fo r f a ilu r e .
H y p o th esis 7. 3
H y p o th esis 7. 3 sta te d : "T h e W IS C P e r fo r m a n c e -s c a le IQ
s co re does n o t d is c r im in a te b e tw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g
v o c a b u la ry success and f a ilu r e . " T h is v a r ia b le w as not in c lu d e d in
the step w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is , and the n u ll h yp o th esis w as h eld
te n a b le .
H y p o th esis 7 .4
H y p o th e s is 7 .4 sta te d : "T h e W IS C In fo rm a tio n su b test s c o re
does not d is c r im in a te b e tw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b -
u a lr y success and fa ilu r e . " The W IS C In fo rm a tio n su b te s t sco re w as
not in c lu d e d in the ste p w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is . T h e re fo re , the
n u ll h y p o th esis w as ac c e p te d .
H y p o th esis 7. 5
H y p o th esis 7. 5 sta te d : "T h e W IS C C o m p re h e n s io n su b test
______________________________________________________________________7_2
s c o re does not d is c r im in a te b e tw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g
v o c a b u la ry success and fa ilu r e . " The W IS C C o m p re h e n s io n su b test
s c o re w as in c lu d e d in the s te p w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is , w ith a
s ta n d a rd iz e d fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t of - 0 .4 7 2 4 9 . T h e re fo re , the n u ll
h yp o th esis was re je c te d . The W IS C C o m p re h e n s io n su b te s t s c o re
m a y c o n trib u te to d is c r im in a tio n b e tw e e n re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success
and f a ilu r e . The c la s s ific a tio n fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t va lu e s in d ic a te
th a t the e ffe c t of the W IS C C o m p re h e n s io n s u b te s t s c o re in te rm s
of d is c r im in a tin g b etw een groups is m o re pro n o u n ced fo r fa ilu r e
th an fo r su c cess . The fa ilu r e group s c o re d hig h on the C o m p re
h en sio n su b test, a fin d in g in a g re e m e n t w ith in fo rm a tio n c ite d in
the s u rv e y o f the lit e r a t u r e .
H y p o th esis 7. 6
H y p o th esis 7, 6 sta te d : "T h e W IS C A r ith m e tic s u b te s t s c o re
does not d is c r im in a te b etw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b
u la r y success and fa ilu r e . " The W IS C A r ith m e tic su b te s t s c o re w as
not in c lu d e d in the step w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is . T h e re fo r e , the
n u ll h yp o th esis w as c o n s id e re d te n a b le .
H y p o th esis 7. 7
H yp o th esis 7 .7 s ta te d : "T h e W ISC. S im ila r itie s su b tes t sc o re
does not d is c r im in a te b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o
c a b u la ry success and fa ilu r e . " T h is v a ria b le w as not in c lu d e d in the
___________________________________________________________________ 73
step w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is , and the n u ll h yp o th esis w as held
te n a b le .
H y p o th esis 7 .8
H y p o th esis 7 .8 sta te d : "T h e W IS C V o c a b u la ry s u b te s t s c o re
does not d is c r im in a te b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b
u la r y success and fa ilu r e . " The W IS C V o c a b u la ry s u b tes t sc o re
w as not in c lu d e d in the s te p w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is , and the
h yp o th esis w as c o n s id e re d te n a b le .
H y p o th esis 7 .9
H y p o th esis 7 .9 sta te d : "T h e W IS C D ig it Span su b tes t sco re
does not d is c r im in a te b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o
c a b u la ry success and fa ilu r e . " The W IS C D ig it Span s u b te s t s c o re
w as in c lu d e d in the s te p w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is , w ith a s ta n
d a rd iz e d fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t o f 0. 31281. T h e re fo r e , the n u ll h y
p o th es is w as re je c te d . T h is fin d in g m a y in d ic a te th a t the W IS C
D ig it Span su b test sco re c o n trib u te s to s ta tis tic a lly d is tin g u is h in g
b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success and
f a ilu r e . The c la s s ific a tio n fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t v a lu e s in d ic a te th a t
the e ffe c t of the W IS C D ig it Span sub te s t s c o re in te r m s of d is
c r im in a tin g b etw een groups is m o re p ro n o u n ced fo r su ccess than
fo r fa ilu r e . The success group s c o re d h ig h e r th an the fa ilu r e group
on th is sub te s t. T h is fin d in g co n cu rs w ith in fo rm a tio n c ite d in the
____________________________________________________________ 74
L ite ra tu re .
H y p o th esis 7 .1 0
H y p o th esis 7 ,1 0 s ta te d : "T h e W IS C P ic tu r e C o m p le tio n su b
te s t s co re does not d is c r im in a te b etw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l
re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success and f a ilu r e . " The W IS C P ic tu r e C o m
p le tio n su b tes t s c o re w as in c lu d e d in the ste p w is e d is c r im in a n t
a n a ly s is , w ith a s ta n d a rd iz e d fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t of -0 .4 4 6 0 6 .
T h e re fo r e , the n u ll h yp o th esis w as re je c te d . T h is fin d in g m a y i n
d ic a te th a t the W IS C P ic tu r e C o m p le tio n s u b te s t s c o re c o n trib u te s to
s ta tis tic a lly d is tin g u is h in g b e tw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g
v o c a b u la ry success and fa ilu r e . The c la s s ific a tio n fu n c tio n c o e f
fic ie n t v a lu e s in d ic a te th a t the e ffe c t o f the W IS C P ic tu r e C o m
p le tio n s u b te s t s c o re in te r m s of d is tin g u is h in g b e tw een g ro u p s is
m o re p ro n o u n ced fo r fa ilu r e th an s u c cess . The fa ilu r e g ro u p s c o re d
h ig h on th is su b test, a fin d in g in c o n c u rre n c e w ith in fo rm a tio n c ite d
in the lit e r a t u r e .
H y p o th esis 7 .1 1
H y p o th esis 7 .1 1 sta te d : "T h e W IS C P ic tu r e A rr a n g e m e n t
su b te s t s c o re does not d is c r im in a te b e tw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l
re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success and fa ilu r e . " The W IS C P ic tu r e A r
ra n g e m e n t su b tes t sco re w as in c lu d e d in the step w is e d is c r im in a n t
fu n c tio n a n a ly s is , w ith a s ta n d a rd iz e d fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t of
________________________________________________________________________________75
-0 .4 0 5 1 5 . T h e re fo re , the n u ll h yp o th esis w as re je c te d . The W IS C
P ic tu r e A rra n g e m e n t s u b te s t s c o re m a y c o n trib u te to d is c rim in a tin g
betw een re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success and f a ilu r e . The c la s s ific a tio n
fu n ctio n c o e ffic ie n t v a lu e s in d ic a te th a t the e ffe c t of the W IS C P ic tu re
A rra n g e m e n t su b test s c o re in te r m s of d is c r im in a tin g b e tw e e n
groups is m o re p rono unced fo r su ccess th an f a ilu r e . The n e g a tiv e
c o e ffic ie n t fo r success in d ic a te s th a t the su ccess gro u p had m o re
d iffic u lty w ith th is su b test than did the f a ilu r e g ro u p . F in d in g s c ite d
In the review of the lit e r a t u r e in d ic a te th a t d is a b le d re a d e rs tend
to sco re h ig h on th is sub te s t.
H y p o th esis 7 .1 2
H y p o th e s is 7 ,1 2 s ta te d : "T h e W IS C B lo c k D e s ig n su b test
s c o re does not d is c r im in a te b e tw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g
v o c a b u la ry success and fa ilu r e . " The W IS C B lo c k D e s ig n su b te s t
s c o re w as not in c lu d e d in the s tep w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is , and
the n u ll h yp o th esis w as h e ld te n a b le .
H y p o th esis 7 .1 3
H y p o th esis 7 .1 3 sta te d : "T h e W IS C O b je c t A s s e m b ly su b test
s c o re does not d is c r im in a te b e tw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g
v o c a b u la ry success and f a il u r e . " The W IS C O b je c t A s s e m b ly sub-',
te s t s c o re w as in c lu d e d in the s te p w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is , w ith
a s ta n d a rd iz e d fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t o f 0 .7 1 5 3 6 . T h e re fo r e , the n u ll
76
hyp oth esis w as re je c te d . T h is fin d in g m a y in d ic a te th a t the W IS C
O b je c t A s s e m b ly su b test s c o re c o n trib u te s to w a rd d is c r im in a tio n
betw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success and
fa ilu r e . The c la s s ific a tio n fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t valu es in d ic a te th a t
the e ffe c t of the W IS C O b je c t A s s e m b ly s u b te s t sc o re in te r m s of
d is c r im in a tin g b etw een groups is m o re p ro n o u n ced fo r success than
f a ilu r e . The success group s c o re d h ig h e r on th is su b tes t than the
fa ilu r e g ro u p .
H y p o th esis 7 .1 4
H y p o th esis 7 .1 4 s ta te d : "T h e W IS C Coding s u b te s t s c o re does
not d is c r im in a te b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry
success and fa ilu r e . " The W IS C C oding su b tes t s c o re w as in c lu d e d
in the s te p w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is , w ith a s ta n d a rd iz e d fu n c tio n
c o e ffic ie n t of - 0 . 36163. T h e re fo r e , the n u ll h yp o th esis w as re je c te d .
Such a fin d in g m a y in d ic a te th a t the W IS C Coding sub te s t s c o re co n
trib u te s to w a rd s ta tis tic a lly d is tin g u is h in g b etw een re a d in g v o c a b u la ry
success and fa ilu r e . The c la s s ific a tio n fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t valu es
in d ic a te th a t the e ffe c t of the W IS C Coding s u b tes t s c o re in te r m s of
d is c rim in a tin g b etw een grou p s is m o te pro n o u n ced fo r success than
fo r fa ilu r e . The success gro u p w as p e n a liz e d by its sc o re on this
su b test, a fin d in g in c o n tra s t to in fo rm a tio n c ite d in the re v ie w of
the lit e r a t u r e .
_________________________77
H y p o th esis 8
H y p o th esis 8 s tated : "Age of e n try to a f u ll- t im e re a d in g
c lin ic sch o o l does not d is c r im in a te b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l
re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success and f a ilu r e . " A ge of e n try w as in c lu d ed
in the ste p w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is , w ith a s ta n d a rd iz e d fu n c tio n
c o e ffic ie n t of -0 , 306 86, T h e re fo re , the n u ll h yp o th esis w as re je c te d .
Age of e n try m ay c o n trib u te to w a rd d is c r im in a tio n b e tw e e n re a d in g
v o c a b u la ry success and fa ilu r e . The c la s s ific a tio n fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t
valu es in d ic a te th a t the e ffe c t of age of e n try in te r m s of d is c r im in
atin g b etw een groups is m o re p ro n o u n ced fo r fa ilu r e than su ccess,
T h is fin d in g in d ic a te s th a t the o ld e r a p e rs o n is w hen re m e d ia tio n is
begun, the g r e a te r the lik e lih o o d o f fa ilu r e in re a d in g . R e s e a rc h has
shown c o n flic tin g points o f v ie w on th is fin d in g .
H yp o th esis 9
H yp o th esis 9 s ta te d : "L e n g th of re m e d ia tio n a t a f u ll- tim e
re a d in g c lin ic school does not d is c rim in a te b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-
c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success and fa ilu r e . " L e n g th of r e m e d ia
tion w as not in c lu d e d in the s te p w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is , and the
n u ll h yp o th esis w as acc ep te d .
H yp o th esis 10
H y p o th esis 10 s ta te d : " V o c a b u la ry p ro g re s s d u rin g r e m e
d ia tio n a t a f u ll- tim e re a d in g c lin ic sch ool does not d is c r im in a te
_____________________ 78
b e tw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success and
f a ilu r e . n V o c a b u la ry p ro g re s s w as in c lu d e d in the s te p w is e d is
c r im in a n t a n a ly s is , w ith a s ta n d a rd iz e d fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t of
0. 51804. T h e re fo r e , the n u ll h yp o th esis w as re je c te d . T h is fin d in g
m a y in d ic a te th a t v o c a b u la ry p ro g re s s d u rin g re m e d ia tio n contributes,
to s ta tis tic a lly d is tin g u is h in g b e tw e e n re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success
and f a ilu r e . The c la s s ific a tio n fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t v a lu e s in d ic a te
th a t the e ffe c t o f v o c a b u la ry p ro g re s s in te rm s of d is c rim in a tin g
b e tw e e n g roup s is m o re p ro n o u n ced fo r fa ilu r e th an s u c c e s s . The
n e g a tiv e c o e ffic ie n t in d ic a te s th a t m e m b e rs a re in c lu d e d w ith in the
f a ilu r e group b ecause of d iffic u ltie s w ith th is v a r ia b le .
H y p o th e s is 11
H y p o th esis 11 s ta te d : "C o m p re h e n s io n p ro g re s s d u rin g r e
m e d ia tio n does not d is c r im in a te b e tw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l
re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success and fa ilu r e . " T h is v a r ia b le w as n ot
in c lu d e d in the ste p w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is , and the n u ll h yp o th
e s is w as a c c ep ted .
H y p o th esis 12
H y p o th e s is 12 sta te d : "A m o u n t of p o s t-c lin ic a l re m e d ia tio n
does n o t d is c r im in a te b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o
c a b u la ry su ccess and f a i l u r e . M P o s t- c lin ic a l re m e d ia tio n w as in
cluded in the s te p w is e d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is , w ith a s ta n d a rd iz e d
______________ 1 3L
fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t of -0 .1 9 3 6 0 . P o s t- c lin ic a l r e m e d ia tio n m a y
c o n trib u te to d is c r im in a tio n b etw een re a d in g v o c a b u la ry su ccess and
f a ilu r e , The c la s s ific a tio n fu n c tio n c o e ffic ie n t v a lu e s in d ic a te th a t
the e ffe c t of p o s t-c lin ic a l re m e d ia tio n in te r m s of d is c r im in a tin g
b etw een g ro u p s is m o re p ro n o u n ced fo r fa ilu r e th an su c cess . The
m o re p o s t-c lin ic a l re m e d ia tio n re c e iv e d by an in d iv id u a l, the
g r e a te r the lik e lih o o d of h is c la s s ific a tio n in the re a d in g fa ilu r e
g ro u p . T h is fin d in g m a y su g g est th a t c e rta in in d iv id u a ls w ith s e v e re
re a d in g d is a b ilitie s a r e lik e ly to be c la s s ifie d as re a d in g fa ilu r e s
no m a tte r how m u ch re m e d ia tio n is a p p lie d .
D is c u s s io n
F in d in g s b ased on d ata r e la tin g to v a r ia b le s w h ic h d is
c r im in a te b e tw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry s u c
cess and f a ilu r e in d ic a te th a t the fo llo w in g v a r ia b le s c o n trib u te to
d is c r im in a tio n b etw een re a d in g v o c a b u la ry su ccess and f a ilu r e :
(a) W IS C V e r b a l-s c a le IQ s c o re , (b) W IS C C o m p re h e n s io n s u b te s t
s c o re , (c) W IS C D ig it Span s u b te s t s c o re , (d) W IS C P ic tu r e C o m
p le tio n s u b te s t s c o re , (e) W IS C P ic tu r e A rra n g e m e n t s u b te s t s c o re ,
(f) W IS C O b je c t A s s e m b ly s u b te s t s c o re , (g) W IS C Coding su b test
s c o re , (h) age o f e n try , (i) v o c a b u la ry p ro g re s s d u rin g re m e d ia tio n ,
and (j) a m o u n t of p o s t-c lin ic a l re m e d ia tio n . A s can be seen by an
e x a m in a tio n of T a b le 5, the p e rc e n t of g ro u p ed cas es c o r r e c tly
80
id e n tifie d b y these v a r ia b le s w as 100 p e rc e n t.
T A B L E 5
P R E D IC T IO N R E S U L T S : P E R C E N T O F
" G R O U P E D " C A SE S C O R R E C T L Y
C L A S S IF IE D = 100 P E R C E N T
No. of
Cases
P re d ic te d G ro u p M e m b e rs h ip
A c tu a l G roup F a ilu r e Succes s
F a ilu r e
13 13 (100%) 0 (0%)
S uccess 11 0 (0%) 11 (100%)
81
C H A P T E R Y
S U M M A R Y , C O N C L U S IO N S , A N D R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
S u m m a ry
P u rp o s e
The m a in p u rp o se of th is study w as to d e te rm in e how
(a) in te llig e n c e , (b) age of e n try , (c) le n g th of re m e d ia tio n , (d) v o
c a b u la ry p ro g re s s d u rin g re m e d ia tio n , (e) c o m p re h e n s io n p ro g re s s
d u rin g re m e d ia tio n , and (f) p o s t-c lin ic a l re m e d ia tio n d is c rim in a te
b e tw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n and re a d in g
v o c a b u la ry success and fa ilu r e . A to ta l of 12 h yp o th eses w e re
te s te d , w ith 19 v a r ia b le s e n te re d in to d is c r im in a n t a n a ly s is to d is
tin g u is h b e tw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n
success and f a ilu r e , and b e tw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g
v o c a b u la ry success and fa ilu r e .
M eth o d o lo g y
T h is study w as c a r r ie d out th ro u g h SPSS S u b p ro g ra m
D IS C R IM IN A N T , M E T H O D = W IL K S (S te p w is e ), O p tio n s 5, 6, and 12,
w ith a ll a v a ila b le s ta tis tic s . The in d ep e n d en t v a r ia b le s w e re r e p -
82
re s e n te d by the W IS C F u ll-s c a le IQ s c o re , W IS C V e r b a l-s c a le IQ
s c o re , W IS C P e r fo r m a n c e -s c a le IQ s c o re , W IS C In fo rm a tio n s u b
te s t s c o re , W IS C C o m p re h e n s io n su b te s t s c o re , W IS C A r ith m e tic
su b test s c o re , W IS C S im ila r itie s s u b te s t s c o re , W IS C V o c a b u la ry
su b test s c o re , W IS C D ig it Span su b te s t s c o re , W IS C P ic tu r e C o m
p le tio n s u b te s t s c o re , W IS C P ic tu r e A rr a n g e m e n t su b te s t s c o re ,
W IS C O b je c t A s s e m b ly s u b te s t s c o re , W IS C B lo c k D e s ig n su b test
s c o re , W IS C Coding s u b te s t s c o re , age o f e n tr y to a f u ll- t im e
re a d in g c lin ic school, le n g th of re m e d ia tio n a t a f u ll- t im e re a d in g
c lin ic school, v o c a b u la ry p ro g re s s d u rin g re m e d ia tio n , c o m p re
h en sio n p ro g re s s d u rin g re m e d ia tio n , and am o u n t of p o s t-c lin ic a l
re m e d ia tio n . D ep en d e n t v a r ia b le s w e re lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l
re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success and f a ilu r e , and lo n g -te r m p o s t-
c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success and fa ilu r e .
S u b jects w e re 24 m a le s who a tte n d e d the N C L .-U S C R eading
C e n te r School tw o o r m o re y e a rs p r io r to the stu d y. S u b jects w e re
ra n d o m ly s e le c te d and a d m in is te re d the G a te s -M a c G in itie R ead ing
T e s t a t the R e ad in g C e n te r School.
F in d in g s
The fo llo w in g a n s w e rs w e re found to the q u estio n s posed
by the p ro b le m s ta te m e n t:
(1) V a rio u s com ponents of in te llig e n c e w e re found to co n -
_________________________________________________________________ 8 3
trib u te to d is c r im in a tio n b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g
c o m p re h e n s io n success and fa ilu r e . T h ese com ponents a r e :
(a) W IS C In fo rm a tio n s u b te s t s c o re , (b) W IS C C o m p re h e n s io n sub
te s t s c o re , (c) W IS C D ig it Span su b test s c o re , and (d) W IS C Coding
su b test s c o re .
(2) V a rio u s com po nents of in te llig e n c e w e re found to co n
trib u te to d is c r im in a tio n b etw een lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g
v o c a b u la ry success and fa ilu r e . These com ponents a r e : (a) W IS C
V e r b a l-s c a le IQ s c o re , (b) W IS C C o m p re h e n s io n s u b te s t s c o re ,
(c) W IS C D ig it Span s u b tes t s c o re , (d) W IS C P ic tu r e C o m p le tio n
su b test s c o re , (e) W IS C P ic tu r e A r r a n g e m e n t s u b te s t s c o re ,
(f) W IS C O b je c t A s s e m b ly s u b te s t s c o re , and (g) W IS C Coding su b
te s t s c o re .
(3) A ge of e n try w as found to c o n trib u te to d is c r im in a tio n
b e tw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success and
f a ilu r e , but not to lo n g -te rm p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n
success and fa ilu r e .
(4) L e n g th of re m e d ia tio n w as not found to c o n trib u te to
d is c r im in a tio n b e tw e e n e ith e r lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m
p re h e n s io n o r re a d in g v o c a b u la ry su ccess and f a ilu r e . T h is fin d in g
is in c o n tra s t to the lit e r a t u r e , w h ic h suggests th a t the lo n g e r r e
m e d ia tio n co n tin u es, the g r e a te r the lik e lih o o d of re a d in g s u c cess .
(5) V o c a b u la ry p ro g re s s d u rin g re m e d ia tio n w as found to
84
c o n trib u te to d is c r im in a tio n b e tw e e n both lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l
re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n and re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success and f a ilu r e .
(6) C o m p re h e n s io n p ro g re s s d u rin g re m e d ia tio n w as not
found to c o n trib u te to d is c r im in a tio n b e tw een e ith e r lo n g -te r m p o s t-
c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n o r re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success and
fa ilu r e .
(7) P o s t- c lin ic a l re m e d ia tio n w as found to c o n trib u te to
d is c r im in a tio n b e tw e e n lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g v o c a b u la ry
success and f a ilu r e , but not to re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success and
fa ilu r e .
C o n clu sio n s
The fo llo w in g co n clu sio n s s e e m to be w a rra n te d :
(1) S ince the v a r ia b le s of (a) W IS C In fo rm a tio n s u b tes t
s c o re , (b) W IS C C o m p re h e n s io n s u b te s t s c o re , (c) W IS C D ig it Span
su b test s c o re , (d) W IS C Coding s u b te s t s c o re , and (e) v o c a b u la ry
p ro g re s s d u rin g re m e d ia tio n w e re found to d is c r im in a te b etw een
lo n g -te r m p o s t-c lin ic a l re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success and fa ilu r e ,
w ith a c la s s ific a tio n a c c u ra c y ra tin g of 100 p e rc e n t, it could be
lo g ic a lly con clu ded th a t a s s ig n m e n t of new in d iv id u a ls w hose m e m
b e rs h ip in re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n su ccess o r fa ilu r e groups is
unknow n can be s u c c e s s fu lly a c c o m p lis h e d on the b as is of k n o w
led g e of th e ir ra w s c o re s on the v a r ia b le s lis te d abo ve. (N u n n a lly ,
85
1967).
(2) Since the v a r ia b le s of (a) W IS C V e r b a l-s c a le IQ s c o re ,
(b) W IS C C o m p re h e n s io n s u b tes t s c o re , (c) W IS C D ig it Span s u b tes t
s c o re , (d) W IS C P ic tu r e C o m p le tio n s u b tes t s c o re , (e) W IS C P i c
tu re A r r a n g e m e n t s u b tes t s c o re , (f) W IS C O b je c t A s s e m b ly su b test
s c o re , (g) W IS C Coding s u b te s t s c o re , (h) age of e n try , (i) a m o u n t
of p o s t-c lin ic a l re m e d ia tio n , and (j) v o c a b u la ry p ro g re s s d u rin g
re m e d ia tio n w e re found to d is c r im in a te b etw een re a d in g v o c a b u la ry
success and fa ilu r e , w ith a c la s s ific a tio n a c c u ra c y ra tin g of 95. 8 3
p e rc e n t, i t could be lo g ic a lly con clu ded th a t a s s ig n m e n t of new i n
d iv id u a ls w hose m e m b e rs h ip in re a d in g v o c a b u la ry su ccess o r
fa ilu r e group s is unknow n can be s u c c e s s fu lly a c c o m p lis h e d on the
b a s is of kn o w led g e of th e ir s c o re s on the v a r ia b le s lis te d abo ve.
(3) G iv e n the c h a ra c te r is tic s of the s a m p le used in th is
study, its fin d in g s should be g e n e ra liz e d o n ly to c lin ic a l p o p u latio n s
w ith c o m p a ra b le c o n d itio n s . T h is w o u ld in c lu d e f u ll- t im e re a d in g
c lin ic s w hose p o p u latio n s a r e : (a) lim ite d to boys b e tw e e n the ages
o f 6 to 15, (b) of a v e ra g e o r above a v e ra g e in te llig e n c e , (c) c o m
posed of d is a b le d re a d e rs , (d) h in d e re d a c a d e m ic a lly as a r e s u lt of
the re a d in g d e fic ie n c ie s .
(4) W h ile the co m b in ed a c c u ra c y ra tin g w as 9 7 .9 0 p e rc e n t,
th e re w as one s u b je c t who w as n ot c la s s ifie d a c c u ra te ly . It could
be con clu ded th a t a v a r ia b le o r v a r ia b le s o th e r th an those in c lu d e d
„ 8 . 6 .
w ith in th is study c o n trib u te d to in c o r r e c t c la s s ific a tio n . P e rh a p s , as
F r y (1959) o b s e rv e d , c e rta in students m ake a v e r y ra p id im p ro v e m e n t
a fte r re m e d ia tio n has been te rm in a te d . T h is " tim e b o m b " e ffe c t m a y
o r m a y not have an yth in g to do w ith the re m e d ia tio n .
(5) S ince v o c a b u la ry p ro g re s s d u rin g re m e d ia tio n c o n trib u te d
to d is c r im in a tio n in both re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n and re a d in g v o c a b u
la r y , i t could be concluded th a t c o n c e n tra te d v o c a b u la ry in s tru c tio n
d u rin g re m e d ia tio n w ould r e s u lt in g r e a te r lo n g -te r m re a d in g v o c a b
u la r y and re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n g ain s.
(6) S ince the Coding and D ig it Span su b te s t s c o re s c o n trib u te d
to d is c r im in a tio n in both re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n and re a d in g v o c a b
u la r y , i t could be concluded th a t in s tru c tio n c e n te rin g on im p ro v e m e n t
of s k ills m e a s u re d by these su b tests w ould r e s u lt in g r e a te r lo n g -te r m
re a d in g v o c a b u la ry and re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n su c cess . W o rk on
m e m o ry , c o n c e n tra tio n , and s h o r t-te r m s to ra g e w ould be a p p ro p ria te .
(7) S ince the C o m p re h e n s io n s u b te s t s c o re c o n trib u te d to
d is c r im in a tio n in both re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n and re a d in g v o c a b u la ry ,
i t could be con clu ded th a t in s tru c tio n c e n te rin g on im p ro v e m e n t of
s k ills m e a s u re d by th is su b te s t w ould r e s u lt in g r e a te r lo n g -te r m
re a d in g v o c a b u la ry and re a d in g co m p reh en sio n s u c c e s s . W o rk on
c o n v e n tio n a l s tan d a rd s of b e h a v io r and a c q u is itio n of s o c ia l valu es
w ould be a p p ro p ria te .
(8) S ince the In fo rm a tio n s u b tes t s c o re c o n trib u te d to d is -
__________________________________________________ 87__
c r im in a tio n b e tw e e n re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n success and fa ilu r e , i t
could be con clu ded th a t in s tru c tio n c e n te rin g on im p ro v e m e n t of
s k ills m e a s u re d by th is su b te s t w ould r e s u lt in g r e a te r lo n g -te r m
re a d in g c o m p re h e n s io n suc cess . In s tru c tio n on kno w ledge of g e n e ra l
in fo rm a tio n w ould be a p p ro p ria te .
(9) Since the P ic tu r e A rra n g e m e n t, P ic tu r e C o m p le tio n , and
O b je c t A s s e m b ly su b tes t s c o re s c o n trib u te d to d is c r im in a tio n b etw een
re a d in g v o c a b u la ry success and fa ilu r e , and since th ese su b tests a re
a ll g a m e -lik e , i t could be con clu ded th a t in s tru c tio n u tiliz in g g a m e -
lik e s itu a tio n s w o u ld r e s u lt in g r e a te r v o c a b u la ry su ccess.
R e c o m m e n d a tio n s
B a sed on the fin d in g s and co n clu sio n s of th is study, the
fo llo w in g re c o m m e n d a tio n s can be m a d e :
(1) R e p lic a tio n of th is study should be m ade w ith in a p u b lic
sch o o l s e ttin g . T h is w o u ld be h e lp fu l in a c c u m u la tin g evid en ce of the
d is tin g u is h in g c h a r a c te r is tic s of v a r ia b le s used w ith in th is study fo r
othe r p o p u la tio n s .
(2) A lo n g itu d in a l study should be m ade of p u p il p ro g re s s fo r
re a d in g d is a b le d students, w ith focus on the g ro w th p a tte rn s m a d e .
(3) A study should be m ade in w h ic h s e le c te d v a ria b le s a re
e m p lo y e d to d is c r im in a te b etw een re a d in g success and fa ilu r e at the
c o n clu sio n of re m e d ia tio n at the R e ad in g C e n te r School. T h ese v a r i
88
a b le s m ig h t in c lu d e the W IS C s c o re s , the in it ia l and fin a l G ates v o c a b
u la r y and c o m p re h e n s io n s c o re s , the in it ia l and fin a l G ilm o re O r a l
R ead in g T e s t s c o re s , age of e n try , le n g th of re m e d ia tio n , and a ttitu d e
to w a rd re a d in g . A study u tiliz in g th ese v a ria b le s w o u ld p ro v id e a
r e la tiv e ly o b je c tiv e m e a s u re fo r s e le c tio n of ca n d id a te s to the R e ad in g
C e n te r S chool.
89

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Creator Broderick, William Edward (author)

Core Title An investigation into the relationship among intelligence, age of entry, length of remediation, progress during remediation, and post-clinical reading remediation in determining long-term post-cl...

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Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, reading,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-452719

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Document Type Dissertation

Rights Broderick, William Edward

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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