University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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A suggested curriculum for secondary schools in Iraq

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Content A SUGGESTED CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY \ * SCHOOLS IN IRAQ A Project Presented to the Faculty of the School of Education The University of Southern California In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science in Education .by Haifa Ismail Al-Sharbati June 1962 UMI Number: EP50678 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publ sh*ng UMI EP50678 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 Ed ' 6 3 . S $31 fr T his proje ct report, w ritte n under the directio n of the candidate’s adviser and approved by h im , has been presented to and accepted by the fa c u lty of the School of E d ucation in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t of the requirements fo r the degree o f M a s te r of Science in Education. D ate. Adviser TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED. . The Problem and Its Importance The Procedure and Methods Definition of Terms Organization of Terms Organization of the Remainder of the Project II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ..... ........ Historical Background Organization and Administration of the Present Educational System Secondary Education in Iraq III. THE CURRENT STATUS OF SECONDARY EDUCATION IN I R A Q ................................. The Secondary School Courses of Study The Curriculum and Methods of Teaching in Secondary Schools IV. PROPOSALS FOR REORGANIZING CURRICULUM IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN IRAQ .............. Introduction Suggested Changes in Curriculum Development Suggested Changes in Methods of Teaching Chapter Summay V. FINDINGS .......... .............. BIBLIOGRAPHY................................... ii PAGE 1 11 39 55 83 102 LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE 1* Results of Public Examinations, Iraq, 1950-51........................... 25 2. Number of Students of Schools Sitting for Secondary Public Examinations and the Schools to Which They Belong ........ 28 3. Number of Public Schools, Teachers, and Pupils in Iraq at the Secondary Level (Intermediate and Preparatory) in Ten- Year Intervals Since 1920 . * ......... 30 4. Number of Secondary Schools, Teachers, and Pupils in Iraq, 1950-1951 ........ 31 5. Number of Students Graduated from Public Secondary Educational Institutions in Iraq Since 1920-21, in Ten-Year Intervals .................. ...... 32 6. Number of Schools, Teachers, and Students in Secondary Education .......... 33 7. The Secondary School Program of Studies Before the Revolution ............ 42 8. The Secondary School Program of Studies After the Revolution.................. 44 iii CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED The hope of a country lies in the faith of its people in education. Educational reform and reconstruc tion are basic conditions for the social, economic, and political progress of the country, and, consequently, for the public welfare of the entire nation. There is perhaps no more important responsibility • / confronting the Ministry of Education in Iraq than to see to it that adequate educational programs are made avail able for all boys and girls, and to promote the necessary revision and re-adaptation of these educational programs now in force. pxohlssi* The chief purpose of this study was to select current practices in American secondary education that may have significance for 1 2 improving the educational programs in the secondary schools of Iraq* A further purpose was to describe, analyze, and evaluate the status of secondary education in Iraq in the light of modem practices in American secondary education, and on the basis of such analytical investigation, to offer suggestions for adapting and introducing into Iraqi secondary education certain prac tices found to be effective in American secondary educa tion* Answers were sought to the following questions: 1* What are the social, economic, cultural, and political conditions in Iraq? 2* What is the present status of secondary education in Iraq? 3* What are the educational problems and needs of Iraq? 4. Is there a need for improving curriculum practices in the secondary schools of Iraq? 3* What curriculum practices in American second ary education might be significant to the secondary schools of Iraq? 6 • What changes should be made in the educational programs of the secondary schools of Iraq? 3 7. Is there a need for making changes in methods of teaching in Iraq? 8. What changes ought to be made in methods of teaching in Iraq? Importance of the study. Secondary education in Iraq forms the bridge necessary to carry primary graduates through the college and university stages of their education. Therefore, secondary education in Iraq is in great need of educators who are well informed on the subjects of educational philosophy, psychology, modem curriculum development practices, and new teaching procedures * Matthews and lUcrawi, in a descriptive analysis of Iraq's educational systems have said: There is need for social and educational theorists who will be able to deal with the educa tional problems in relation to the general, social, political, and economic background of the country, who would translate into educational terms the various currents of changes in Iraqi life. There is further need for a study of the multitudinous needs of the environment in order to lay down curriculums that will meet these needs. R. D. Matthews and M. Akrawi, Education in Arab Countries of the Near East (Washington: American Council on Education, 1949), p. 5. 4 Iraq*s government is constantly seeking the advice of experts and technicians from outside and inside the country* The need for reconstructing its social, economic, and cultural life is widely recognized. It is hoped that this study may render valuable service at this time of rapid change in Iraqi political, social, economic, and educational concepts. Dissatisfaction with present conditions, and an awareness of a need for change have created a spirit of receptiveness to new ideas and a desire for reform in Iraq. It is also hoped that this study may solve the needs not only of youth but also of the Iraqi community- at-large, for it is believed by many educators that the problems of youth are also the problems of society as a whole. It is only through the co-operation of pupils, teachers, the community, and the Ministry of Education that the problems of Iraqi youth can be solved. This co-operation would imply respect for the worth of the individual, faith in human beings, consideration for scientific methods, and commitment to the general welfare. 5 The investigation has been limited to the discovery and analysis of the most important educational problems in secondary schools and needs of Iraq, The study is concerned with these specific practices and procedures of curriculum development, classroom instruction in American secondary education that might be adapted to secondary education in Iraq, such as co-operative and democratic techniques in curriculum revision. The findings of the study have furnished the basis for recommendations concerning the improvement of the following aspects of secondary education in Iraq: (1) the general educational situation in secondary schools; (2) curriculum development; and (3) methods of teaching. These recommendations were based on: (1) the new trends and democratic principles and procedures in public education; (2) the educational reports and studies made regarding Iraq; and (3) direct observation of the educa tional needs and problems of Iraq, 6 TheProcedure and Methods This investigation is a library study based primarily on a review of literature relating to Iraqi secondary education, and new trends in modern education. In order to determine the need for improving the curriculum in the secondary schools of Iraq and the suitability of presenting suggestions for indicated changes in the educational system, a study was first made of the available literature pertaining to: (1) education in Iraq; (2) the social, economic, and political condi tions in the country; (3) the history of the country; and (4) the form of government in Iraq as it may influence the educational situation* The review of literature included books, official reports, mission reports, and magazine articles dealing with the topics mentioned above. A study was also made of literature on American education pertaining to modern trends in curriculum and administrative practices. The two phases of literature were coordinated in an effort to form a frame of reference for a descriptiv€t analysis o£ Iraq's educational problems* The educational system of Iraq was studied and analyzed in the light of modern educational advances in philosophy and practice; and on the basis of this study, proposals were made for the improvement of education in Iraq* These proposals took into account direct observations of Iraqi schools as a teacher in its schools, and later as a student of education in colleges of the United States* Iraq* Iraq is the Arabic name of what was formerly known as Mesopotamia* It is an independent republic with a representative form of government* Iraq is one of the Arab countries in the Near or Middle East, bounded on the north by Turkey, on the east by Iran, on the west by Syria, Trans-Jordan and Saudi-Arabia, and on the south by Saudi - Arabia, Kuwait and the Persian Gulf* Public schools of Iraq. Iraq's public schools include two stages of formal education extending from the first grade through the eleventh grade, inclusive. The first stage is six years of primary education* The second 8 stage is five years of secondary education. The secondary schools are of two levels: (1) an intermediate school of three years* duration, and (2) a two-year preparatory school. Thus, Iraqi primary and secondary schools operate on the 6-3-2 plan, as compared with the American 8-4, or 6-3-3-year plans. Needs. The discussion of the needs of youth implies the following definition: Everything necessary to ensure the optimum development of the potential abilities of a pupil- intellectual, physical, moral, emotional and social— both in relation to his present interests, abilities, and level of achievement and in relation to the probable future demands of the individual and of society.2 QlXXlexJim- All the activities and all the experiences in which pupils engage under the direction of the school to achieve the objectives of the school are included in the meaning of the term curriculum as used in 3 this study. 2Carter V. Good (ed.), Dictionary of Education (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1945), p. 271. 3Ward ©. Reeder, The Fundamentals of Public School Administration (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1951), p. 575. 9 Supervision. This investigation adopts the following definition of supervision: All efforts of designated school officials directed toward providing leadership to teachers and other educational workers in the improvement of instructions involves the stimulation of profess ional growth and development of teachers, the selection and revision of educational objectives, materials of instruction, and methods of teaching, and the evaluation of instruction.^ -the, t o ; t e s t Graphic representation is made of data and materials in this investigation whenever the nature of the materials warranted its inclusion in tabular form. The organization of the presentation is as follows. Chapter XI is devoted to a brief account of the history of Iraq, the social, economic, and cultural condi tions of the country. Also, it discusses briefly the organization and administration of the present educational system in Iraq. It describes also the secondary education in Iraq. Chapter III describes the current status of secondary education in Iraq. Chapter IV gives, in a ^Good, op. eft., p. 400. descriptive way, the writer's proposals for the reorgani zation of secondary school curriculums in Iraq* Chapter ? is followed by the Bibliography. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE For several centuries and until the middle of the sixteenth century, when the Turks took over the country, Iraq experienced a brilliant civilization, particularly during the Abbasid period. Following those centuries, the country remained under the Ottoman Empire's domination up until the First World War, During the time of the Turkish administration, little effort was made to educate people of Iraq and other Arab states. No attempt was made to teach the Arabic language. As a consequence, both spoken and written Arabic was of poor quality. The people of Iraq were more or less illiterate at the time of their liberation and the occupation by the British, A new start was made with the substitution of British authority, toward the end of World War I, With 11 12 the British occupation in 1917, a beginning was made in founding an educational system on a sound basis* The department of education was among the other departments of the new governmental machinery which were established in 1918. Education was regarded, both by the British and by the more forward-looking Iraqis, as a very funda mental consideration. Both regarded the educational background of Iraq as demanding urgent and intensive attention*1 It was regarded that Arabic instead of Turkish was not to be the official language of instruction; however, there was apparently great demand for English as the foreign language of first importance. A secondary school was opened in 1920. In 1921, an Iraqi was appointed Area Education Officer for Baghdad and given control over all schools except higher and denominational schools. The gradual substitution of Iraqi for British executive officials was completed by 1922. fflnen the Iraqi administrative officers took over from the British, Arabic had already been substituted for Turkish as the official language. Today this medium is ■^Carter V. Good (ed.), Dictionary of Education (New York; McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1945), p. 66. 13 universal except in places where the mother-tongue of the majority of inhabitants is other than Arabic* Even in such places, instruction in Arabic has, from the first, formed a large part of the curriculum. Among the educational difficulties faced by the new government of Iraq, as listed by Foster in l Q.€„.MQ.Agm,-X.taq, are the following: 1. The prevailing idea is that education is essentially a study of the Arab language. Too little time is left for other things. 2. The shift from the Turkish to the Arabic medium necessitated the discarding of old teachers and the draining of new. 3. Racial divisions requiring provision for minorities, geographical divisions of plains and mountain folk, religious divisions of Sunni and Shiah, economic and social divisions of merchant and agriculturalist, and of townsman and tribesman. Among the most serious problems facing the govern ment were those of finding suitable persons to fill ^Ibid., p. 256 14 essential official posts* In order to remedy this shortage, the Iraqi govern ment has given attention increasingly to the many problems confronting education* Some educational advances have already been made* Organization and Administration of the Present Educational System General statement. The present educational system is composed of three stages* The first stage includes six years of primary education* The second stage covers five years of secondary education divided into a three-year intermediate section and a two-year preparatory section* The third is the higher educational stage* According to their aims, the country1s educational establishments are of two kinds, those offering general education and those offering specialized training* The administration of public education in Iraq is highly centralized and is under the control of the Ministry of Education. Like other systems of the Iraqi government, the educational system is an integral part of the government. 15 Private and foreign schools in Iraq are subject to the supervision of the Ministry of Education. Education in Iraq today may be considered as democratic in the sense that (1) it provides equal educa tional opportunities to all the people of Iraq; (2) it is free; and (3) it recognizes no class, race, or denomina tional discrimination* It may also be looked upon as progressive in the sense that it appreciates all signifi cant aspects of modem western education* The Minis&ix The public school system is under the control of the Ministry of Education. Hie Ministry, as the central office, reserves the powers of making rules and regulations for all public schools. It provides almost all the money for public education, educates and appoints the teachers, determines the curriculum, prescribes the textbooks, and formulates and grades public examinations* The Ministry exercises considerable control over private and foreign schools. At the head of the Ministry is the Minister of Education who is a member of the Cabinet and is respon sible for the educational policies of his Ministry. With 16 the aid of the Director General of Education, he is also responsible for the proper execution of the laws and regulations of his ministry. The Minister of Education is also the president of the Board of Education, the Board of Directors, the Scientific Council, the Annual Convention of Primary Education, and the Board of Higher Education. Under the Minister of Education are the Director General of Education, the Director General of Technical Affairs, the Director General of Antiquities, the deans of the Higher Teachers' Colleges, the Law College, the College of Arts and Sciences, the College of Engineering, the College of Commerce and Economics, and Tahreer College, and the Chief of the Private Bureau* The Director General of Education and the Director General of Technical Affairs are the real administrative heads of the public school system. They are supposed to have experience in educational administration and in school teaching matters * They are responsible to the Minister of Education for the proper administration of all public schools* The Director General of Education and the Director General of Technical Affairs provide the administrative 17 and professional direction of the educational system. With various councils and committees, they assist the Minister in initiating and laying down educational policies. The Director General of Education is assisted by six directors for the six fields of educational activity which now comprise the curriculum: primary education and teacher training, secondary education, agriculture education, and school buildings. Under this also come the fourteen provincial directors of education. The Director General of Technical Affairs is aided by the Chief Inspector and directors for each of the three following sections: curriculum, textbooks, and examina tions; educational missions abroad; and equivalence of degrees and cultural affairs. The Chief Inspector is assisted by specialized inspectors, administrative inspectors, primary school inspectors, and inspectors of boarding houses. Educational legislation. Matthews and Akrawi, in their report on Education in Arab Countries of the Hear East. give an excellent resume of the legislative aspect of the educational program of Iraq: 18 In general, education in Iraq is governed by the provisions of the Public Education Law of 194©. The law defines the functions of the Ministry of Education as the founding and maintenance of government schools of all types and levels, the supervision of private and foreign schools to direct them toward the general goals of the government schools, the organization of youth, particularly through military training, scouting, and physical education, and finally the fostering of scientific and literary movements, the spread of general culture, and the liquidation of illiteracy. The law classifies the schools into primary, secondary and higjtier institutions; accords ing to purpose into schools of general culture and professional or vocational schools, and according to control into government, private, and foreign schools* The law sets forth in a general way the conditions for admission of students to the various kinds of schools and of their promotion from one school level to another*3 The educational ladder. The educational ladder in Iraq comprises three consecutive levels of schooling, namely, primary and secondary schools, followed by several colleges or institutions of higher learning. Children enter the first grade of the primary school at the age of six and attend for six years* The primary school is followed by five years of secondary education and then three to six years of higher education. There are also 3R. D. Matthews and M. Akrawi. Education In Arab Countries of the Near East (Washington: The American Council on Education, 1949), p. 128. 19 several professional and vocational schools* The five-year secondary schools are divided into two stages: the first three years constitute the "inter mediate" stage, the last two years the "preparatory1 1 stage* The preparatory stage is divided into literary and scientific sections, with different curriculums for each* Thus, it can be said that Iraqi primary and secondary schools operate on the 6-3-2 plan, as compared with the American plans of 8-4 or 6-3-3 years. The study at these schools is entirely at govern ment expense* The last two years of the secondary schools, that is the preparatory stages, offer the student a choice of two parallel courses, the literary or scientific* In Baghdad there is the commercial secondary school which constitutes a special type of preparatory school offering a two-year course in commerce and business* No student may be admitted to higher education unless he has successfully passed the public secondary examination* For the graduate of the secondary school there are a number of educational channels open. He may leave school and go to work, or he may apply for admission to one of the ten higher institutions or colleges \diich are open to all secondary school graduates. A secondary school graduate who wishes to study abroad and cannot afford it has a chance to be sent on a government expense scholarship if he has done superior work in school. Scholastic standing and proportional representation of each province are the primary bases for admission to colleges. The Iraqi public school system is well described by Matthews and Akrawi, as follows: The Iraqi public school system is essentially democratic in character, affording a large measure of equality of opportunity to students. It is largely a free system. . . . The government has taken up the heavy burden of providing professional education entirely at its own expense. Recently the Ministry of Education has taken steps to extend primary educational opportunities for village boys. In 1945 the Ministry of Education adopted the policy of opening a board department in the capital of each province where ten bright village boys can be taken annually at government expense and so allow to pursue their secondary education.^ . Two types of examina tions are conducted in the public schools of Iraq: the school examinations, and the public examinations• 21 The school examinations are given at each school from the first grade through the eleventh grades, inclusive, These examinations are of two kinds: the mid-year examina tion and the final examination. In addition to these two examinations, teachers give their pupils some sort of monthly examinations. The school examinations cover all the subjects studied in each grade. Generally speaking, the examinations are of written type and in some subjects they are both written and oral. Written examinations are usually of the essay type. These examinations, of course, form the basis for the promotion of pupils from one grade to the next higher one. The public examinations are those examinations prepared, administered, and corrected by the Ministry of Education. They are held at the end of the primary, intermediate, and preparatory stages of schooling. Their purpose Is to check by the Ministry of Education on the standard of achievement of the schools, and they serve also to keep private and foreign schools up to the stan dards of the programs and policies laid down by the Ministry. These examinations are held twice a year, in the first half of June and in the second half of September. 22 The second examination is held for the benefit of those 'who are delinquent in the June examination, or who were absent from it for some valid reason. Public examinations form the basis for passing from one school level to the next. Government certificates for graduation from the three levels of schooling are issued on the basis of having passed these examinations. This situation is elaborated upon by Matthews and Akrawi in their study of Education in,Arab Countries of the Near East. According to the regulations of the Public examinations of 1942, as amended in 1943, 1944, and 1945, public primary examinations require papers in five subjects: Arabic, English, Social Studies, Arithmetic and Measurements, and "object lessons" (elementary Science and Hygiene). Public Intermedi ate examinations are in six subjects: Arabic, English, Social Studies, Mathematics, Biology, and Hygiene, Physics and Chemistry. In the Public Preparatory School examinations, the subjects are grouped into four categories: languages, social studies, mathematics, and the sciences. The examina tion is composed of seven sections, one in each language, and two in each of two groups chosen by the students, plus one in the remaining group. Students are admitted to these examinations either upon the recommendation of their schools or as outsiders. Schools, whether public, private, or foreign, are required to recommend only those students who have maintained a passing average in the final school year, or who are delinquent because of failure in only one subject. They must recommend that students as outsiders must first take a special examination in a public school according to a pro gram determined by the Ministry. In addition, they 23 must present a formal application to the provincial director of education before the first of May, together with a character certificate. The passing mark is 50 per cent in the individual subjects, and 6© per cent for the general average, A delinquent is a student *dio receives below 5© in one or two subjects with his general average in the other subjects of 60 or above, or who fails in one subject and whose general average is between 50 and 60, or who fails to achieve the average of 60 without having fallen below 5© in any single subject* Other failure may not be re-examined for a year.5 Questions of the public examinations for the three schooling levels are developed about the middle of the school year by subject committees composed of inspectors and teachers* Members of the committees are usually from a school of a higher level than that for which the questions are being devised. The examination questions are sent in sealed packages to each examination center. They should be opened only by the director of the examina tion center on the day of the particular examination. Committees for correcting and marking the papers are usually formed on the basis of two committees for each subject on each level for each center. The examination in each subject takes place simultaneously in all centers* 5Ibld.. p. 135 24 Two or three hours are allowed for each examination which is usually of the essay type and consists of five to seven questions* The examination papers are collected and sent in sealed packages to the correction center by the director of the examination center. Results of the public examinations for the inter mediate, and preparatory schools for the year 1950-51 are shown in Table 1. It can be noticed that for this year students at private and foreign schools did poorly in the intermediate and preparatory examinations while the public school students did better. Students who prepare privately for the examinations are consistently the poorest, on the average. The annual reports of the last ten years show that these trends are not exceptional to any one year. State intermediate and preparatory schools now admit students on the basis of their achievement and, furthermore, drop any student who fails twice in the same year*s work. Those dropped, in an effort to save themselves from two years of compul sory military service as privates, in some cases enroll in the private schools, thus reducing the standard of these schools. The results of the public examinations do not show the complete picture of all failures, for since 1940 the schools have had authority to pass or fail TABLE 1 RESULTS OF PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS, IRAQ, 1950-1951 Outside Stud ents or Students Public Schools Private and Foreign Schools Not Enrolled in Schools Total Number Per Cent Number Per Cent Number Per Gent Number Per Gent Intermediate Esmtoafiloaa.: Number entering 3,673 100,0 1,968 100.0 290 100.0 5,931 100.0 Number who passed 2,514 68,4 566 28.8 61 21.0 3,141 52.6 Number vitio failed 1,159 31,6 1,402 71,2 229 79.0 2,790 47.4 k ra ttn ftu a t Number entering: Science 1,307 292 107 1,806 Literature 832 867 423 2,122 Commerce 32 5 3,965 N5 Ui TABLE Outside Stud ents or Students Private and Not Enrolled Public Schools Foreign Schools in Schools Total Number Per Gent Number Per Cent Number Per Cent Number Per Cent Number who passed: Science 794 60.8 110 28.1 11 10.3 915 50.6 Literature 617 74.2 378 43.6 127 30.0 1,122 52.8 Commerce 31 96.9 4 80.0 35 94.6 Total 1,442 66.4 488 38.8 142 26.5 2,072 52.2 Number who failed: Science 513 39.2 282 71.9 96 89.7 891 49.4 Literature 215 28.8 489 56.4 296 70.0 1,000 47.2 Commerce 1 3.1 1 20.0 2 5.4 Total 729 33.6 771 61.2 393 73.5 1,893 47.8 N> ON 27 students o£ their graduating class prior to those examinations .6 i The passing or failing of those students is based on their final average for the school year. By looking at Table 1, it can be concluded that Iraq’s public school system, particularly on the secondary level, is highly selective. The annual reports of the last few years, as shown in Table 2, reveal that the percentage of the pupils who succeed in passing the public examinations is increas ing. This could mean that less emphasis is being placed on marks and examinations by the teachers of public schools, or that better training of teachers has been accomplished, or possibly both. M , Jfcfa.fiL-P.ufr.lAg ,S,ch.9Ql To make more clear the picture of Iraq’s educational system, tables are prepared to present a statistical view of education as it exists today in all types of educational institutions. For comparative purposes, there are given (whenever possible) figures taken at ten-year intervals ^Ihid., p. 138 * TABLE 2 NUMBER OF STUDENTS OF SCHOOLS SITTING FOR SECONDARY PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS AND THE SCHOOLS TO WHICH THEY BELONG School Year Number of Schools Partici pating Pupils Number Who Passed Number of Schools Partici pating Pupils Number Who Passed 1943-44 44 2,341 1,286 17 1,155 680 1944-45 45 1,924 1,418 21 1,248 911 1945-46 46 2,148 1,671 22 1,441 1,176 1946-47 50 2,261 1,964 24 1,556 1,161 1947-48 57 2,607 2,434 26 1,913 1,495 1948-49 59 2,595 1,779 27 1,942 1,439 1949-50 mm mm 3,161 2,491 m m m t 2,288 1,357 1950-51 mmmm 3,673 2,514 mm mm 2,171 1,442 N> 00 29 for the period since the 1920-21 school year for the public school system. Data for these tables were obtained from the reports of the Ministry of Education. Table 3 shows the increase in ten-year intervals since 1920, in the number of public school teachers and pupils at the secondary level. In fact, the data pre sented in these tables reveal that more students are entering secondary school now, and that the rate of increase for girls is greater than that for boys in secondary schools. Table 4 gives information relative to the status of education in Iraq in 1950-51. Table 5 shows the number of graduates from secondary schools presented in ten-year intervals since 1920, from the public secondary schools. Analysis of data of Tables 4, 5, and 6 reveals that secondary education is well advance. Secondary education in Iraq started to develop slowly after World War I. The first classes for boys in secondary education were opened in Baghdad, Mosul and Basra in 1920. The first graduation from these secondary TABLE 3 NUMBER OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, TEACHERS, AND PUPILS IN IRAQ AT THE SECONDARY LEVEL (INTERMEDIATE AND PREPARATORY) IN TEN-YEAR INTERVALS SINCE 1920 School Year Number of Schools Number of Teachers Number of Pupils Male Female Co-ed Total Male Female Total Male Female Total 1920-21 3 3 34 34 110 110 1930-31 16 3 19 107 22 129 1,906 176 2,082 1940-41 38 18 56 370 102 472 11,494 2,475 13,969 1950-51 85 36 121 698 301 999 17,594 5,112 22,706 © NUMBER OF TABLE SECONDARY SCHOOLS, TEACHERS 4 , AND PUPILS IN IRAQ, 1950-.1951 Institution Male Co-ed Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Public 61 29 90 301 199 500 13,835 4,176 18,011 Private 43 10 53 127 51 178 5,978 564 6,542 Foreign 3 1 4 15 15 517 104 621 Total 107 4© 147 443 25© 693 20,330 4,844 25,174 Public 24 7 31 379 102 499 3,709 936 4,690 Private 28 8 36 484 69 553 2,208 233 2,461 Foreign 1 1 2 45 6 51 119 14 133 Total 53 16 69 926 177 1,103 6,086 1,183 7,269 u> H V A T IT I? K X t S X w l l t l Z r NUMBER OF STUDENTS GRADUATED FROM PUBLIC SECONDARY EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN IRAQ SINGE 1920-21, IN TEN-YEAR INTERVALS 192§-21 193§-31 1940-41 1950-51 Intermediate Schools 136 2,562 2,514 Preparatory Schools mm mm 159 945 1,442 10 N> NUMBER OF SCHOOLS, TEACHERS, TABLE 6 AND STUDENTS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION Year Number of Schools Number of Teachers Number of Students Public 178 2,442 51,464 1957- Private 60 21 17,53© THE 1958 Foreign 6 86 1,098 Total 244 2,549 70,092 R E Public 245 2,966 73,887 V 1958- Private 75 37 23,507 0 1959 Foreign 6 81 1,165 L Total 326 3,084 98,559 U T Public 292 2,090 94,448 I 1959- Private 77 34 24,561 0 1960 Foreign 6 62 1,146 N Total 375 3,186 120,155 u? TABLE 6 Number of Schools Number of Teachers Number of Students Year 3,588 136 ©6,628 25,252 292 Public 960- Private 1961 Foreign Total 133,146 375 Per cent increase over 1957-58 Per cent increase over 1958-59 Per cent increase over 1959-60 35 school classes was in 1924. In 193©, classes in secondary education were opened for girls in the same cities. In 1929, the secondary education course was extended from four to five years, with an intermediate stage of three years and a preparatory stage of two years. Coeducation is developing rapidly in the primary schools and has been accepted in the higher education institutions, but is still being opposed at the secondary level. The employment of men teachers in girl’s secondary schools was started a few years ago when the rapid expan sion of secondary school education for girls and the shortage of women teachers had been felt. This practice has not been opposed except by a few localities and has resulted in a more rapid development of secondary education for girls. Secondary education has grown fast, and private schools are increasing rapidly and competing with public secondary education. As explained in the report given by Matthews and Akrawi, this is due to the application of the Iraqi Military Service Law: 36 The Iraqi Military haw exempts secondary schools and college students until graduation, after which they receive nine months of training as reserve officers instead of having to serve for two years as privates, as do non-students. The application of this law has considerably popularized secondary education. The resulting expansion of schools at this level is not so apparent in the public second ary schools for boys, as expansion is controlled by budgetary limitations, but the effect upon private and foreign schools has been pronounced. The Military Service law brought into the public secondary school many inferior students whose prin cipal interest was to escape and who failed in their studies repeatedly* To avert the danger of having the public schools filled with laggards who lowered the standards and often became behavior problems, it was ruled that a student who failed the same grade twice should be dropped. Many of these failures from the public school system contributed to the expansion of the private schools, which tend to have flexible standards.7 According to the secondary school regulations, admission to public, private, and foreign intermediate and preparatory schools is based on the public education. As in the public primary schools, education in the public secondary schools is free. The size of the secondary school determines the number of teachers needed, and the number of assistants and clerks who assist the principal in administering the 7Ibid.- p. 162. 37 school. As a maximum teaching load, intermediate school teachers are assigned twenty-four periods or weeks and preparatory school teachers, twenty-two. A maximum of six additional periods is allowed a teacher for extra pay. In addition to class teaching, teachers are required to supervise students during their extracurricular activi ties and leisure hours. To some extent the school staff cooperates in planning and executing some of the school activities. This is evident from the following statements made by Matthews and Akrawi: Each school has a general teacher's council which meets at least once a month, and there are committees responsible for discipline, purchases, school activities, and for studies and examinations. There are five committees for studies and examinations . . . one each for Arabic, English, Mathematics, Science, and Social Studies. They meet at least once every two months to consider ways of improving the teaching in the school, and at the end of the year each study committee acts as an examining committee, setting questions and marking papers jointly and submitting a final report on examination results to the principal. The class teacher conducts quizzes and topical tests and mid-year examinations, but final examina tions are given by the study committees.8 ^Ibid.- p. 164. 38 The secondary school teacher is a teacher of sub jects. He is required to follow the prescribed courses of study and the adopted textbooks. CHAPTER III THE CURRENT STATUS OP SECONDARY EDUCATION IN IRAQ 1 C,surges, S The secondary school program of studies has under gone few revisions since 1926 • Matthews and Akrawi state the following in regard to the secondary-school program of studies: A secondary school program was first published in 1926 and provided for a four-year course. After the lengthening of the secondary course to five years in two stages, a temporary intermediate pro gram was issued in 1926, and in 1931-32 the new course for the upper two years was issued. This program attempted a departure from the earlier type of specialization in either the literary or the scientific section of permitting four types of specialization . • * literary, social studies, science and mathematics. There was also an innovation in the form of a course to study Iraq in all phases of its political, social, and economic life. The four parallel courses and the study of contemporary Iraq aroused a great controversy and resulted in a revision of the secondary school program in 1936 \diich returned to the two parallel curriculums of scientific and literary subjects and abolished the study of contemporary Iraq as being too controversial. Two other revisions were made in 1940 and in 1943. 40 These revisions attempted to unify the literary and scientific curriculums for girls' schools, but the present program, that of 1943, follows the same lines for girls as for boys except that girls have two additional periods per week for home arts and needle work and in the fourth and fifth years have two and four periodsj respectively, in child education instead of the study of Iraq, now permitted in the fourth and fifth years.1 The subjects taught in secondary schools are as follows: Arabic and English are taught in all grades from the seventh up to and including the eleventh grade. Religion is taught in all grades of the intermediate level. A course in general science is given in the seventh grade as a start to an extensive program of science pro vided for both levels of secondary education. In the eighth grade a course in biology and a course in chemistry are provided. A course of physics is given in the ninth grade. A more extended course of chemistry and biology is now being divided into botany and zoology. In the eleventh grade, a more extended course in physics is offered. Demonstration and observation form the practical part of the science program. !r. G. Matthews and M. Akrawi, Education in Arab Countries of the Near East (Washington: The American Council on Education, 1949), p. 128. 41 Courses in mathematics (arithmetic, algebra, plane and solid geometry, and trigonometry) are given in all secondary schools. The program in social science is made up of courses in history, geography, economics, civics, and ethics, and the study of Iraq. The latter is related to the social and economic conditions in Iraq. 4 course in child care and psychology is given for girls in the preparatory stage of schooling* A course in manual arts and home economics (consisting of sewing, embroidery, knitting, cooking, and home cleaning, in a more advanced form than in the primary school) is given to girls in secondary schools. A more advanced course in drawing and physical education than those of the primary stage are also provided at the secondary level. Shown in Tables 7 and 8 are the levels of secondary education, and the number of periods devoted to each subject both before and after the revolution* In a few of the secondary schools there are laboratory facilities available; in those which are equipped for laboratory instruction, students are required to perform some laboratory work in chemistry, physics, and biology, in addition to the demonstration by the TABLE 7 THE SECONDARY SCHOOL PROGRAM OP STUDIES BEFORE THE REVOLUTION Subjects ■XPilitfdPiiadi-ate X M l M rate. 7th 8th Liter ary Section Liter ary Liter ary Liter ary Section Section Section Religion 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Arabic 6 6 6 7 5 7 5 English 6 6 6 7 6 7 6 History 2 2 3 4 4 - Geography 2 2 2 2 - 3 - Civics and Ethics - 2 1 - - - - Study of Iraq mm - 2 2* 2 - Economics - - - - - 3* - Arithmetic 4 2 - - - - - Algebra - 2 3 2 - 2 Geometry 2 2 3 - • 3 *Boys only* #Girls only, **Girls have only one period. to TABLE 7- Intermediate Preparatory .G xflAe,... Liter Liter Liter Liter 7th 8th 9th ary ary ary ary Subjects Grade Grade Grade Section Section Section Section Trigonometry 3 General Mathematics - - • 2 - 2 - General Science 6 - * 4 - - Physics - mm 3 mm 3 - 4 Ghemistry » 3 « * - 3 - 3 Biology - 2 - - 4 - 5 Hygiene - - 2 - mm - - Drawing 2 1 1 1 i 1 1 Child Education * • - mm 2# 4# mm Physical Education 2 2 2 2 2 2 * * 2 Home Arts and Needle Work 2# 2# 2# 2# 2# 2# 2# Total Boys 33 33 32 32 32 32 32 Total Girls 35 35 35 34 34 34 34 LO TABLE 8 THE SECONDARY SCHOOL PROGRAM OF STUDIES AFTER THE REVOLUTION Intermediate Preparatory 10th Grade 11th Grade Liter Liter Liter Liter 7th 8th 9th ary ary ary ary Subjects Grade Grade Grade Section Section Section Section Religion 1 1 1 1 1 1 r Arabic 6 6 6 7 6 7 3 English 6 6 6 7 5 7 5 History 2 2 2 3 - 3 ' « * » Geography 2 2 2 2 mm 2 Civics and Ethics 1 1 1 • - - Study of Iraq mm - - 1 - 1 mm Economics mm • • 2 2 3 2 Mathematics# 5 5 5 mm • mm Algebra mm mm - - 2 mm 2 Geometry mm mm - 3 Trigonometry mm < ■» - - 3 - General Mathematics mm mm mm 3 3 mm General Science 3 mm • 2 2 - Physics mm mm 3 - 3 mm 3 #Girls only. TABLE 8— Continued Subjects Intermediate Preparatory 7th Grade 8th Grade 9th Grade .....ItfiL Liter ary Section JSmAs.. . Liter- Liter- Liter ary ary ary Section Section Section Chemistry 3 - 3 • 3 Biology • 2 - mm 4 - 4 Hygiene - • 2 - «* - - Drawing and Fine Arts 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 Physical Education 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 Home Economics 2# 2# 2# 2# 2# 2# 2# Total Boys 3© 32 32 3© 3© 30 30 Total Girls 32 34 32 32 32 32 32 46 teacher. The Curriculum and Methods of .-Teaching Since the first establishment of public schools in Ira<f, the curriculum has been regarded as a list of subject matter--that is, a course of study which pupils are expected to learn and to recite. The school subjects have usually determined the curriculum, and their purpose has been to give mental discipline. Some teachers in Iraq still believe that book-learning is the only correct method of learning, or at least the only type worth pursuing. Consequently, the textbooks have largely determined the curriculum. Pupil experiences recurred outside the classroom are not considered as part of the curriculum. The school subjects are pre-eminent in value and pupil needs are secondary. Accordingly, the only type of school that exists today in Iraq is the traditional or academic one; especially is this true on the secondary level. The curriculum may be criticized as being far too bookish and academic, and as leaving a great gulf between what is 47 taught in school and the necessities of everyday living. The Ministry of Education has been aware of this problem and at the present time is making an attempt to reorganize secondary education more in line with the basic concepts of American modern education. This movement has so far not progressed beyond the decision to attempt the reorganization. The report on Economic Development states the following in regard to education in Iraq: Education, as it is provided at present, is con cerned with only a part of the child's development. It leaves a large area of his aptitudes and his men tal and emotional make-up untouched. In the proposed reconstruction of education, it will be most import ant to give it a more practical, realistic and rural bias in order to relate it intelligently to the psychological and social needs of the individual child and the adult society. It is a well-known fact of child psychology that the child is by nature an active, pragmatic person who delights in doing, creating, playing and generally expressing himself in various practical ways which grow increasingly purposeful with age. Unfortunately, the primary and secondary schools as well as training colleges at present time seem to be hardly aware of the basic importance of bringing education into harmony with this crucial fact of child psychology. In fact, with the exception of ♦ • ., the schools were found to be entirely preoccupied with the classical and literary tradition. . . . But with the increased importance of science and technology and the need of improving production efficiency in industry, agriculture, and other occupations, the people of Iraq cannot afford to remain content with a system of 48 education which does not equip the younger generation to play its part in the projected plans of development. * Curriculum revision. The preceding discussion has suggested the need of the Iraq secondary school curriculum to be revised in the light of modem educational concepts. Victor Clark, in a report, fiomulsmy„ ■ > suggests that the school curriculum should be revised in the light of four principal objectives, as follows: The first is the need for sound character train ing, including a realization that education is not simply a collection of skills and aids in prepara tion for a government or clerical job, but the acquisition of round values ’ odtich need to be applied in all walks of life whether professional or manual. The second important need is a knowledge of the practice and principles of good husbandry by those who work on the land. An equally important require ment in a minority of the population is the acquisi tion of technical skills necessary in local industries and in the growing demand for maintenance work. Finally, as is to be expected in a young country which is still engaged in the process of welding diverse racial and religious groups into conscious nation hood, it is considered that one of the most important needs is the promotion of knowledge and qualities necessary to the furtherance of national unity.3 2Ibid.. p. 389. ^Victor Clark, Compulsory Education in Iraq (New York: UNESCO, 1951), p. 18. 49 The following is a statement from the report of the Ministry of Education to UNESCO regarding the educa tional development in Iraq .1951-52* The reorganization of secondary education in Iraq needs to be based on the necessity that education in the rural bias and education in the urban areas a truly vocational bias* Greater emphasis needs to be placed on the teaching of crafts* Provisions are needed in the curriculum for introducing agricultural and industrial education. Health, hygiene, social service, and other aspects of everyday living all need to be given a much more important place in the secondary school curriculum. In summary, educational objectives must take into account the preparation of future citizens for better living. One of the basic principles in curriculum recon struction is the recognition of the importance of activity- centered methods and curriculum. Before making changes in the educational program it would be advisable to enlist the cooperation of officials and other outstanding people dealing with public and governmental affairs such as agriculture, industry, public health and other aspects and problems of the public life. To make the general 50 population more vitally interested in education a program of public relations must be developed* Contacts with the parents through their children would create an intelli gent, understanding and better attitude on the part of the public toward the school and its importance. An inter-relation between the school and the community will be the natural outcome of such a program, a relationship which will increase the confidence of the teachers, pupils, and the public in the importance and realistic value of educational opportunities offered by the schools. The utilization of all possible community resources should be enlisted in the new educational public relations program. - The assign-study-recite test method of teaching is used by almost all teachers in the secondary schools of Iraq. Accordingly, learning in these schools is largely by rot e-memorization. This method of instruction regards the individual as a passive entity, and considers learning to be a "pouring in" process. The students are taught to accept passively the conclusions of others rather than to think reflectively. Very little 51 attention has been given by the schools to the practice of learning by doing. Formal mental discipline is still given great emphasis in the classroom instruction. Instruction in small groups is not known in Iraq; and this means that little, if any, individual attention is given the student. No attempt is made, for example, to discover and develop classroom discussion or cooperative learning activities do not exist. More recitation and less laboratory activities would seem to be the keynote of educational instruction at the present writing. An excellent account of present-day teaching methods in the schools of Iraq is given by Matthews and Akrawi in their report on M Teachers are required by the regulations to pre pare each of their daily lessons, and lesson plan books are furnished them by the Ministry. The commission saw a number of these plain books, but "planning1 1 was scarcely more than a mention of the date, grade and topic to be taught. . . . methods of teaching in secondary schools do not differ in their essentials from those of the primary schools. In the main they are based on the initiative and activity of the teacher in class. Great stress is laid on the teacher’s explanation in class by inductive, deductive, lecture and demonstration 52 methods according to the subject. Not enough emphasis is laid on student activity which should develop understanding and knowledge of what the students are studying. They, therefore, come to rely on the teacher for clarifying the subject. Theirs is to learn what has been explained and be ready to recite it back when required. In this way the r f spoon-feed ing" of the primary school is carried over to the secondary school, and the students do not as a rule acquire a habit of self-reliance and self-instruction. The text books are chosen by the Ministry of Education and are uniform for all public schools and most of the private schools. . , . The text book is followed lesson by lesson and chapter by chapter. . . . Little, if any, reading is done outside the text book, since most of the teachers do not assign reference work.4 Secondary school libraries are small and, on the whole, little used. Science is generally taught as a theoretical sub ject, as a lesson from the printed book, or as a lecture by the teacher, with occasional demonstration or experi ments by the teacher in front of the class. This kind of experimentation, vdiich never allows the student to handle any apparatus, does little to foster the scientific attitude or interest. Little individual work is carried on by the student in few of the preparatory schools where laboratory facilities exists on an adequate basis* Nhat ^Matthews and Akrawi, op. cit.. pp. 155-69. 53 is needed is the introduction of an activity methods in the teaching of science and the use of science as an instrument to develop the student*s powers of inquiry and independent work. The nbook schools1 1 of Iraq must be transformed into **work schools,*1 as has been recommended by the Mission of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Develop ment in its report on the Economic Development of Iraq. To make this possible, laboratory should be used as a center of science teaching. More excursions for nature study and for visits to establishments of scientific interest are needed. « Extracurricular activities are spreading more into the curriculum of the secondary schools than into that of the primary schools. Perhaps the most popular among these activities is a version of an Arabic Glub or association. English clubs are also becoming popular. Dramatic performances are sometimes shown to the public by some secondary schools. Mimeographed or printed magazines are issued by some of the secondary schools. Some sort of yearbook or a book 54 of essays by students on various subjects may be issued by few secondary schools* In regard to sports, the Ministry is making every effort to encourage games and athletics. Field trips and excursions of various kinds are also becoming part of the extra-class activities. This includes visits to some places of historical value in Iraq, to the oil fields, the main dams and the like. Sporting trips such as bicycle trips and camping trips are also made by some secondary schools. Some swimming centers and summer camps are maintained by the Department of Physical Education during the summer. In connection with the programs of the Physical Education Departments, the scouting movement is expanding its activities * Exhibitions of school work are organized each year by some schools. This gives the public an opportunity to see and appreciate xdiat is being done in the schools. In regard to these exhibitions, sports, and other extra curricular activities, competitions are being organized among schools. CHAPTER IV PROPOSALS FOR REORGANIZING THE CURRICULUM IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF IRAQ Secondary education in Iraq is developing in the direction of modern educational trends. The aims, curriculum practices, and current trends in secondary education prevailing in modern democratic countries like the United States were considered in developing the proposals presented in this chapter. In the light of educational aims and modern curriculum practices, and on the basis of educational, economic, and social situations in Iraq, a series of principles and procedures were derived in the form of proposals for strengthening the different aspects of secondary education in Iraq. In formulating these proposals, the main purpose has been to develop an educational program which would take into account the native abilities of the younger 55 56 generation in Iraq, in the hope that they may become use ful and productive citizens who may participate intelli gently in the development of their country* The policies and principles formulated in this chapter were thought to be basic to the reorganization and expansion of the present educational system in Iraq* They are basic, too, to the suggestions made for improv ing secondary education in that country. GeneraLstatement* In the preceding chapter, the program of studies and other aspects of the curriculum of the secondary schools of Iraq were discussed. This dis cussion indicated that the curriculum of secondary schools is rigidly prescribed, and is uniform throughout the country. The subjects, the syllabi, the number of hours allotted to each subject, and the examinations required at the end of each course have been detailed in the official syllabus and must be followed to the letter. Curriculum improvement is not possible under such a system, as long as the Ministry of Education is content to continue to prepare and enforce the teaching of a ijy standardized state-imposed curriculum. In secondary schools all subjects are taught in separate departments and no correlation is attempted. The programs of studies are somewhat scholarly for young children, and it does not allow for much experimentation or flexibility in relation to the varying needs of youth. Teachers are allowed little freedom in the preparation of their plans of classroom work. The modern curriculum is no longer limited to the sum of specific learnings or a listing of subject matter. During recent years, definitions of the curriculum have come to include not only the school subjects but all other activities and experiences provided by the school. Improving education in Iraq is dependent upon a marked change in the existing programs of studies, and other aspects of the curriculum. The curriculum must be put on a flexible basis, so that it can be constantly adapted and redesigned to fit the needs and interests of Iraq’s society. The learning experiences of children must grow intimately out of the life of the community, and must be directed toward its improvement. The curriculum should no longer lag behind the nation’s level V 58 of socio-economic development. In regard to curriculum construction, Reeder has outlined the following broad principles: In constructing a curriculum certain steps must be taken, and certain principles must be followed in taking those steps; in other words, there must be an underlying philosophy for all steps. The central aim of all steps should be to secure a curriculum which will meet the needs of pupils and adults in a constantly changing civilization; moreover, the materials of the curriculum should be selected, organized and administered in such a way as to contribute to the realization of the central aim of education, namely, creative thinking.1 The curriculum must change as the times change; it must be flexible enough to be adjusted to new needs and conditions as they develop. American educational leaders have agreed that those responsible for an educa tional program must seek out the needs of individuals and society. This cannot be achieved unless the school curriculum is altered and improved in terms of continuous social change. Improvement in secondary education is the sum of many basic local improvements. This suggests the need for decentralizing the control of secondary education in Iraq, at least to a certain extent. If present deficiencies in %ard 6. Reeder, The Fundamentals of Public School Administration (Mew York: The Macmillan Go., 1951), p. 589. 59 Iraqis secondary education are to be overcome, there must be (1) local recognition of needs, (2) local determination of needs, (3) local initiative directed toward that end, and (4) exchange of ideas and methods among the schools* Efforts to reorganize and ^ improve the educational program of Iraq must take into consideration the nature, problems, interests, and basic needs of Iraq’s students* A major criticism that has been levelled at the secondary schools of Iraq is that the curriculum is not well adapted to the needs of the learners* This criticism has been made not alone but educators who were members of outside educational missions invited to study the educational situation of the country, but by some of Iraq’s leading educators and laymen, as well* These men have pointed out that, besides not being well adapted to the needs of the pupils, the curriculum is unsuited to the needs of Iraq's social structure* Moreover, it lags many years behind the social progress of the country* Without far-reaching revisions in the curriculum, the secondary schools cannot hope to help in solving the pressing needs and problems of the country* 60 Pupil needs may be classified under two headings: (1) immediate, and (2) deferred. These needs may also be referred to as direct or indirect needs. Any study and analysis of educational needs of Iraqfs youth could well accept the assumption that these needs are not vastly different from the imperative needs of the youth of America, as outlined by Douglass: 1. All youth need to develop and maintain good health and physical fitness. 2. All youth need to understand the significance of the family for the individual and society, and the conditions conducive to successful family life* 3. All youth need to understand the methods of science, the influence of science on human life, and the main scientific facts concerning the nature of the world and of man. 4. All youth need to develop respect for other persons, to grow in their insight into ethical values and principles, to be able to live and work cooperatively with others. 5. All youth need to grow in their ability to think rationally, to express their thoughts clearly, and to read and listen with understanding.2 {/ X&xAsXm- con structing a curriculum, certain steps must be considered. %arl R* Douglass, "Secondary Education for Life," Adjustment of American Youth (New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1952), p. 162. 61 Problems of curriculum improvement vary from situation to situation, and from time to time* This suggests the need for flexibility in organization. The educational program must be adapted to the particular conditions which it is intended to serve. The educational facilities of the q school, the cultural changes, the changes in philosophies^) of education, all are factors to be considered in planning for curriculum improvement. In any organization of curriculum change, provisions such as the following should be included: (1) opportunity for the entire staff to participate in the curriculum planning, (2) the coordina- V) tion of the home with the school, (3) utilization of out- / of-school resources and the physical facilities of the \ \ community to enrich and expand educational experiences, (4) teacher-pupil planning of school activities, and (5) relating the curriculum to local needs and the future careers of youth. As has been pointed out, secondary education in Iraq is organized under a curriculum which has little planned^rel^j^nship to the practical life of the nation1 s social and economic life. Therefore, a more practical curriculum must be developed. Courses of study to be 62 developed in all subjects should be planned to bring them in line with possible practical applications to home liv ing, to citizenship demands, to health situations, to leisure-time demands, and to the future vocational life of the student* The objectives of secondary education would be most effective if stated in terms of areas of living. The following areas of life activities are offered as being of great value to the schools of Iraq. They are based on the "objectives of secondary education" suggested by Douglass: 1. Citizenship: involving one’s participation in all social groups outside the homes including the neighborhood, work groups, leisure groups, city, county, state, region, nation, and world* 2. Earning a living: including selection of a vocation, economic understanding, and getting ahead vocationally in job skills. 3. Enjoying use of leisure: richer enjoyment of all life experiences in ways conductive to the common welfare. 4. Home living: including relationships of married people, rearing of children, leisure life in the home, and consumer activities of various sorts. 5. Mental and physical health: including activities related to diet, exercise, dress, first aid, self care, care of others, mental hygiene, person ality development, and related activities.3 ^Ibid., p. 46. 63 Each of these five major fields, or "objectives,” may be broken down into component elements on the basis of the contributory types of growth which are considered essential for the realization of the particular objective. These types, or fields of growth, are listed as follows: (1) information, (2) concepts, (3) habits, (4) skills, 9 (5) ideals, (6) attitudes, and (7) interests. ) It is evident from the previous discussion that it is not enough for the schools to develop verbal skills alone. Practical experiences and activities are of great value to the growth of the individual, and to the society in which he grows. The search for talent in conducting schools in line with these objectives is one of utmost importance, and must be one of the first educational goals or functions of the revised school program. 1/ Life. adjustment afrj&ffjtiass* Adjusting the prin ciples and procedures of education to fit a program of "life adjustment" would be of great value in reorganizing secondary education in Iraq. "Education for life adjust ment," as an educational keynote, may be described as follows; 64 1* Giving all pupils experiences in all areas of living, including those essential to future educational and vocational planning* Emphasis is placed upon meeting common needs in all areas of living* 2. Modifying all aspects and fields of the education al program, particularly the curriculum and courses of study, to focus content and experience on life problems and their solution. For example, courses such as mathematics, science, and social studies should be organized so that they contri bute to the solution of life problems. 3. Increasing and more effective use of community resources, in school and out, to enrich the educational program and to afford more opportunity for work experience and the practical application of learning to life problems* 4* Developing an adequate guidance service, both group and individual, based upon collection and use of pupil and community data and focussing on all phases of guidance— educational, national, personal, racial, and civic. 5. Providing freedom, guidance, and leadership from within the school and from without, and time for sound educational experimentation during the school day* 6. Carrying on follow-up studies of graduate, and dropouts and using the results to improve the educational programs and service of the school. 7. Evaluating continuously the educational program in terms of changes sought in pupil behavior. 8. Developing a continuous program of in-service training for teachers, an in-service training 65 program which is related to the life adjustment educational program and its improvement.4 In summarization, a program devoted to neducation for life adjustment” presupposes the coordination of all phases of the school*s programs for the education of all the students for all the areas of life, f , Education for life adjustment1 1 clearly requires that a far greater emphasis be given than in the past to the development of clearly defined ideals, interests, attitudes, understand ings, concepts, and habits. Such an emphasis is in direct contrast to traditional educational objectives which are centered exclusively upon the acquisition of information. Without the slightest question, 1 1 education for life adjustment1 1 means much less attention upon subject-matter and subj ects, and a great deal more emphasis on the needs of life as growing and expanding concepts. Implementation of the program. In developing the new curriculum upon the basic tenets outlined here, full use should be made of the cooperative efforts of all. Teachers and lay persons must be given the opportunity, ^Adapted from Douglass, £&. cit., pp. 17Off. 66 and must be encouraged to participate whole-heartedly, in developing the school curriculum. The best possible type of curriculum is one that is developed through the cooper ative efforts of all teachers in the same school, all those in the same district or province teaching the same subjects, courses or grades (as the case may be), working closely together under the guidance and leadership of the principal and the director of education and with the technical assistance of curriculum specialists. Out standing persons from related fields in the community should frequently be requested to give their views and professional opinions, especially regarding the broad objectives and subject matter content. Maximum use of local resources and materials should be stressed in planning the educational program for the specific community. Having agreed upon commonly-devised objectives and subject matter content, close cooperation with teachers should continue as curricular specifics are developed, teachers being encouraged and guided in the development of classroom adaptations of the curriculum, and the effective use of other related teaching materials. Workshops and similar in-service aids should be included as part of curriculum development* Extra-curricular activities. Extra-curricular activities should be considered as a part of the school curriculum-and should-be"extended• Various types of extra-curricular activities such as athletic programs, school clubs of various kinds (including science, music, photography, or speech clubs), and a student body organi zation should be planned and controlled by the students and supervised by the teachers* The objectives of these activities should be the promotiorijof good citizenship, _ the development of desirable traits of personality and C character— i.e*, social intelligence, leadership, group ' interest, initiative, self-confidence in human relations, and powers of self-expression. These activities should be varied in order to provide for the interests of all students. £v,alua£Am..PJ.. * Evaluation in its broad meaning should largely replace existing tests and examinations in the schools of Iraq* Reliable measures of pupil growth must in time replace the pencil-and-paper 68 tests and less on-reciting by rote. The new methods of evaluation seek to measure significant changes in pupil behavior, which represent the achievement of desirable objectives. The evaluative techniques of collecting and using all possible evidence of pupil growth in attaining significant educational outcomes should be developed and employed generally throughout the schools of Iraq. Evaluation is an essential part of curriculum planning. The problems of evaluation and the problem of curriculum reconstruction are inextricably interrelated. Evaluation of instruction may be defined as the process by which one researches a judgment as to its quality and effectiveness. This process involves (a) defining the ultimate objective of the entire educational program in terms of specific behaviors, (b) establishing desired standards of attainment, (c) describing the extent to which objectives have been attained by individual students at various grade levels, (d) determining the discrepancies between the results actually obtained and the stand ards set for each objective, and (e) interpreting the results. . . . There must be a clear understending that the controlling purpose of evaluation is to guide and facilitate learning experiences designed to develop those behaviors required to deal effectively with important situations in the pupils' present and future lives. ... Since the purpose of evaluating achievement is to guide and facilitate learning, the program of evaluation should be as comprehensive as is the instructional program itself. . . . The criteria for determining the amount and nature of 69 evaluation are (a) the need for evidence, and (b) the uses to which the obtained evidence is to be put.^ Recent educational developments make it apparent that modern methods of evaluation are placing less and less emphasis on objective testing and other types of paper-and-pencil tests in measuring pupil growth. One clear principle has emerged with respect to the essential purpose of testing and examining, e*g,, the purpose of giving tests is to obtain evidence on the achievement of the pupil, and not on the mere efficiency of classroom teachers to impart prescribed information. This distinc tion is of great importance, for it greatly determines the attitude of teachers toward the evaluation process. The teacher’s efficiency is but one of many factors that influence the scores made by pupils in a given class. ^ Other factors that influence achievement are the intelli-< gence of the pupils, their instruction in earlier years, / their socio-economic backgrounds, the adequacy of educa- j tional facilities, and the type of materials and methods/ which the teacher is required or encouraged to use. \ e J ^American Association of School Administrators, National Education Association, American School Curricu lum. 1953 Year Book (Washington, D.G.: The Association). 70 The results of evaluation should be interpreted and used for improving the educational programs* The child’s educational progress should be measured in terms of changing patterns of behavior. Evaluation of education al progress should be expressed not only in terms of the individual student's achievement in relation to his ability but also in terms of his achievement in relation to standards that take into consideration the over-all achievement in the entire school population. The following statements might serve as guiding principles for conducting an evaluation of curriculum improvement: 1. Evaluation should be planned and carried out in terms of the specific purposes of the curriculum improvement program. 2. Purposes should be precisely defined in terms of changes to be achieved. 3. The purpose of a sound curriculum improvement program evolve continuously. A high degree of flexibility is therefore necessary in evaluation activities. 4. Evaluation should be concerned with both ends and means• 5. Decisions concerning the purpose, procedures and data to be collected should be determined coopera tively in advance by all personnel involved. 71 6. Evaluation is a complex process that should be based upon an abundance of evidence obtained in many ways* 7 • Evaluation procedures should not be limited merely to a single device or testing instrument. Any procedures are appropriate which provide pertinent and reliable evidence regarding change* 8. Measuring and counting are not sufficient to form an evaluation. The essential nature of evaluation is the application of value judgments to the data. 9. In order to accomplish its purpose, evaluation should be an integral part of the curriculums improvement program. 6 Suggested Changes in Methods of Teaching Instructional procedures. As indicated in the preceding chapter, the outmoded rote technique of teach ing— i.e., the "assign-study-recite-test" method— is still used almost exclusively by most teachers in the public schools of Iraq. The classroom instructional procedures are uniform throughout the country, and are marked by a singular lack of individuality or of pupil-motivation. Instructional procedures are limited to the text book and the syllabus. The important objectives of ^Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, NEA, Action for Curriculum Improvement (Washington, B.C.: WE A Yearbook, 1951), p. 215. 72 health, citizenship, home living, vocational education, and worthy use of leisure are totally neglected by the syllabus-and-text book method of instruction and, conse quently, are not characteristics of teaching now employed. The inevitable consequences are that these educational materials and procedures are failing to give the students instruction and training in the economic, social, and political life of Iraq. Under such a system of education, the initiative of the teacher is completely suppressed. The corollary is that the initiative, self-expression and creative thinking of the pupils are stifled. The pre scribed syllabus being used in today’s schools is designed to crowd more and more into the teaching program, is overcrowded with many subjects, and requires the teacher to test the pupils* knowledge of the factual content of each course of study. In fact, the duty of the teachers, as now conceived under the regulations of the Ministry of Education, is merely to find out whether the pupil has studied his lesson well enough to recite what the book contains, in more or less rote form, or whether he has failed to do so. The obvious weaknesses and shortcomings of such 73 an educational program and method of instruction are in part an outgrowth of the overly-standardized system of examinations under which both pupils and teachers must be concerned solely with an accurate reproduction of the syllabus materials. The pupils must learn verbatim vhat is in the textbooks in order to be able to pass the examinations and gain promotion* The administrative system which prevents the adaptation of the school work to the actual needs of the local community and to the individual needs of the students is commented upon in the report of the Mission of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. In any reorientation of educational methods, there must also be a simplification of the syllabus. The tendency has been to overload the syllabus with many subjects, all of which the child is expected to memorize primarily for the purpose of passing examinations. . . •; in the secondary schools, the total goes to 10-12 subjects* The contents of the existing syllabus in each subject and at each stage of education must be critically reexamined in the light of individual and social needs, and curricular cargo which is merely traditional and outdated must be thrown overboard* 7 report of the Mission of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. 74 Hie courses of study offered in the schools of Iraq are of an outmoded type— i.e., the traditional Hsubject -matter1 1 type— and are organized according to principles of logic rather than according to principles of psychological and social development* Commenting on the teaching of this type of curriculum, Wrinkle et. al. have high-lighted its essential weakness* The logical organization of subject-matter is certainly logical for the subject-matter specialists* But it is not psychological, that is, it is not an organization in terms of the experiences which we have in real life and the way we learn. To under stand how a city is supplied with pure water involves problems in bacteriology, chemistry, physics, econo mics, government, mathematics, and other subject classifications* Photography involves physics, chemistry and art* To understand a war by study in the economic aspects, the political aspect or any other single classification of subject matter alone would be impossible.^ To teach such subjects as chemistry, mathematics, biology, or any of the sciences in their logical compart ments, quite apart from their context in everyday life and without reference to all other subjects, is to do violence to all that modern education has learned during the past fifty years. No longer do educators accept the %illiam L. Wrinkle and R. S. Gilchrist, Secondary Education for American Democracy. (New York: Rinehart and Company, Inc., 1952), p. 286. 75 theory that the study of any one subject automatically increases the student*s ability to do equally well in all other subjects— i.e., that mental discipline in one area automatically carries over to the other scholastic disciplines. Wrinkle point out the fallacy of this assumption with the following remarks; Teaching is no longer the act of exercising the mind of the learner or of filling it with ideas— f teaching is the development of ways of behaving, and / the results of teaching are measurable in terms of ( the changes in the way the learner behaves. Under 1 this functional theory, by education is developing \ the mind we mean that education is bringing about \ desirable changes in the behavior of the learner. The first problem in teaching is not what mental / gymnastics should we have the learner engage in or what does he need to know— the first problem is how do we want him to behave? If we can determine how we want him to behave, then our responsibility as teachers is to provide situations in which he learns to behave as we want him to behave.9 Newer jgoals and__technigues. The purpose of educa tion should be accepted as the modification of behavior. Social concern and skills in social participation are among the important objectives of modem education* In order to develop students with such qualities, the teacher must see to it that the students are confronted by social 9Ibid.. p. 225 76 situations in the school and that they receive guidance in meeting these situations and in practicing the abilities to be developed* In connection with the importance of educating students for meeting life situations, Wrinkle et al. state: To the extent that secondary education utilizes real life situations and involves real life activities common to the present life of the learner, the more interesting and the more effective it will be in achieving both immediate and diferred values. Secondary education should be concerned with living today because it is only as we learn to live more adequately today do we learn to live more adequately tomorrow* The schools of Iraq place great emphasis on punishment as a motivator of desired behaviors, for example, threat of grade failure, withholding of praise, and similar penalties. Educators have long known that persons do not learn well under punishment* Neither do the traditional methods of teaching motivate or stimulate pupils to learn. It is suggested that punishment be replaced by a more positive, warm, and friendly type of motivation. Education takes place rapidly when friendly relations are established between the teacher and his 10Ibld.. p. 212. 77 pupils, and between pupils and their fellow-pupils. Punishment succeeds usually in creating ntrouble-makers,** a natural response to the frustration suffered by the pupil* All children need to experience the emotional satisfaction that comes with the assurance of being liked, approved, and wanted* Research in educational psychology has proved that learning activities cannot be stimulated by external pressure. The function of the teacher is well described by Edmonson: f l The teacher is a director of the students* learning activities, and one of his main functions is to create situations that will arouse their interests and 11 enthusiasm.1 * Modern schools are providing pupils with opportunities to develop their talents in a positive way, whether those talents are musical, artistic, or vocational* The primary concern of the modern-day teacher is the vitalization of the subject matter being taught. To this end, he does everything in his power to create 11 J* B. Edmonson, Joseph Roeraer, and Francis L. Bacon, The Administration of .the Modern Secondary School (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1948), p. 411, 78 classroom situations in which students may take an active part in the learning situation. He recognizes that the course of study and the textbooks are aids rather than limitations. The blind following of prescribed text- books and courses of study is being replaced by vitalized and enriched curricular experiences. Modem methods of teaching stress teaching problems of every day living. The recitation method has been replaced by cooperative procedures for working on group problems of many kinds— i.e., problems in human relations and economic well-being. Modem schools are working with their communities on problems of practical, social and economic concern to the community. The role of the teacher in modem education is as a leader in school and community affairs. The learning activities are being planned cooperatively by teachers and pupils. Teachers and students, together, are employing the problem-solving method. As a consequence, they are no longer confined within the boundaries of logically- organized subject-matter fields. The child is being encouraged to do his own thinking and to correlate his learnings. The role of the teacher in the group learning 79 process is that of a manager of the group* His chief function is to exhibit the kinds of group work and technical skills ^diich group learning implies* Modem means of communication and interaction (audio-visual materials, activity plans, community trips, and laboratory experiences) are replacing the older outmoded methods of the lecture and the formal recitation* The school has become a place where pupils get together to solve important problems* Moreover, the school is becoming an integral part of the life of the community. Modem methods of education encompass a wide range of extra-curricular activities which provide the means for helping pupils to discover their own aptitudes and interests. This wide range of extra-curricular activities provides opportunities for every student in the school to participate in one or more of the activities carried on outside the school curriculum, and to take part in the social life of the school. This practice can best be achieved through guidance, an effective procedure for getting students more vitally interested in the school* Incidentally, this approach is essential in motivating students, and 80 keeping them longer in attendance. The present marking system in the schools of Iraq requires special attention, for it undoubtedly serves to increase the students1 dislike for school; certainly, it encourages them to quit school as early as possible. The suggestion is herewith offered that a study of the present system be undertaken in an attempt to improve its contribution* In regard to current and recent trends in thinking on the problem of the technique of teaching, Douglass outlines a number of broad principles which should be considered in improving the quality and effectiveness of classroom teaching: In recent years, classroom procedures have become more and more democratic, involving (a) student participation in the planning and directional learning activities; (b) much less recitation and more labor atory activities; (c) much more discussion— give and take— among the pupils and the teacher on a basis other than a teacher’s promulgation of author itative answers to questions raised; and (d) pupil participation in evaluation of their own learning efforts and growth. . . . There has also grown along with our better under standing of human nature and the human personality an increased recognition of the importance of mental hygiene. This means, among other things, a much greater recognition of the individual as an 81 individual, and much less appeal to such motives and fear, worry, rivalry, and artificial rewards and punishments; and much more opportunity for pupil expression in the creative activities, intellectual, physical, emotional, and aesthetic. • . . It has become increasingly recognized that in the effort to stimulate the young person in learning activities by means of artificial incentives, including marks and report cards, there is a dis tinct danger of developing unfavorable attitudes toward school subjects the school, the teacher, and parents and adults in general as well as a loss of the pupil’s confidence in himself and in the value in having pupils work together in groups, carrying joint responsibilities, group planning, group evaluations, and other cooperative endeavours•^2 Chapter Summary In brief, it is time that the traditional instructional procedures currently employed in the schools of Iraq be replaced by modern methods of teaching. Many new methods have been developed in the more democratic nations of the world. In principle and in nature, they have been planned in the light of their total effect upon the growth and development of young people. They would seem to be well adapted to the educational needs of the Republic of Iraq. 12Douglass, op. cit.. p. 476. 82 It is suggested that in formulating objectives for a new educational approach in Iraq less emphasis be given to recitation procedures, less reliance be placed on textbooks, and less use made of motivation by fear and punishment. The nation1s all-out educational effort should be centralized, instead, on vitalizing real-life situations— in getting pupils to work together in small groups on community problems and projects, and in eliciting pupil participation in planning their learning activities and experiences. Greater use of audio-visual aids and community resources is highly recommended. Newer educational methods should give greater considera tion to mental hygiene and motivation procedures. As a first step in initiating improvements in methods of instruction for the schools of Iraq, it is suggested that model schools be developed and promoted in the larger cities of the country to serve as demon stration schools where modem methods of teaching may be featured and xdiere workshops and study centers may be conducted for the teachers of the entire nation. CHAPTER V FINDINGS The findings of the study may be summarized under the following main headings: (1) history and form of government; (2) social, economic and cultural conditions; (3) the current status of education in Iraq from an historical standpoint; (4) organization and administration of the present educational system; and (5) curriculum and methods of teaching. 1. Iraq, better known to the Western World as Mesopotamia, is one of the Arab countries in the Middle East. 2* Iraq has a very ancient civilization vfoich goes back to the years preceding 400® B.C. 3. Iraq was among the several Arab States released from the Ottoman Empire during the first World War. 83 84 4. Iraq became a repulbic after the revolution on the fourteenth of July, 1958* 5. Iraq was admitted to the League of Nations in 1932 as an independent sovereign state. 6. Iraq is a land of contradictions: the anti quated and the modem phases of civilization exist side by side. Social. Economic and Cultural Conditions 1. The population of Iraq is about seven million, living within an area of approximately 168,00# square miles. 2. About 22 per cent of the people live in urban areas, 40 per cent in settled rural communities, and 30 per cent in semi-settled rural areas; the remaining 8 per cent are nomadic. 3. Arabic is the official language in Iraq. 4. Iraq is one of the most important agricultural countries of the Middle East. 5. The average standard of living is very low in Iraq. 6. Agriculture and animal husbandry are the major 85 occupations in Iraq, Next to these two occupations come commerce, and private and public service, 7, Literacy in the cities is much higher than in the rural areas, but remains a major problem. The Current Status of Education in Iraq; Historical 1, During the times of the Turkish administration little effort was made to educate the people of Iraq and other Arab states. No attempt was made to teach the Arabic language; as a consequence, both spoken and written Arabic was of poor quality, 2, The people of Iraq were more or less illiter ate before the British occupation of the country* 3, With the British occupation in 1917, a beginning was made in founding an educational system on a sound basis, 4, At the time of its founding in 1921, the , if Kingdom of Iraq had several primary schools, one training college which was barely above the primary level, and a law school which had no collegiate standing whatever. These were all that the country then possessed in the way of educational facilities. 86 Organization and Administration of the Present Educational System 1. The present educational system of Iraq is comprised of three stages, or levels: a. Six years of primary education. b. Five years of secondary education, divided into a three-year intermediate section and a two-year preparatory section. c. The higher educational level. 2. The Iraqi system of education is highly centralized and strongly regulated; it is supervised by the government, under the administration of the Ministry of Education. 3. The Minister of Education is the political head of the Ministry of Education; this office usually changes with changes in the cabinet. 4. There are fourteen provincial directors of education, all of whom are under the jurisdiction of the Minister of Education. 5. There are several kinds of inspectors tdiose 87 functions are to visit classes and teachers in their own fields, and to report on the performance of teachers and on the general situation in each school with regard to educational facilities. 6. There are several boards and committees of the Ministry of Education ^diich deal with the general policies and trends of education, curriculum, budgets, laws, and regulations. 7. Educational finance in Iraq is centralized. No contribution to the school fund is made by municipal or provincial authority except for occasional help given to needy local pupils. 8. Teachers, administrators, and other local authorities in Iraq have no opportunity to participate in the determination of what to teach and how to teach it. 9. The schools in Iraq are uniform throughout the country, and are being administered from a single national office. 10. The major purpose of Iraqi public secondary instruction, as reflected in the educational program, is preparation for college entrance. 88 11. Boys and girls are segregated to a large extent in primary and secondary education. Curriculum and Methods of Teaching 1. Areas of the curriculum of the Iraqi public schools are academic and of the subject-matter type. 2. The curriculum of primary and secondary education is rigidly prescribed and is uniform throughout the country. 3. The subjects, syllabi, number of hours allotted to each subject, and the examinations required at the end of each course are specified in detail in the official syllabi, and must be followed to the letter. 4. The school subjects have usually determined the curriculum. 5* The curriculum has been criticized as being far too bookish and academic, and as leaving a great gulf between what is taught in school and the activities and requirements of every day living. 6. In regard to curriculum construction and revision, no provision has been made for enlisting the cooperation of school officials and other leaders of 89 public and governmental affairs (agriculture, industry, public health, and other aspects of public life). 7. The method of teaching employed by almost all teachers in the public schools of Iraq may be described as the "assign-study-recite-test" method. 8. Learning in the schools of Iraq is largely by rote memorization. 9. Little if any individual instruction is given, nor is there any use of instruction in small groups. ID. No provision is made for class discussion or cooperative learning activities. 11. Great emphasis is placed on classroom recitation, and very little on laboratory activities. 12. Instructional procedures are limited almost wholly to the use of textbooks and syllabi. 13* The duty of the teacher, as now conceived, is that of finding out vdiether the pupil has studied his lesson well enough to recite what is written in the book. 14. The schools of Iraq place great emphasis on punishment as a motivator of desired behaviors. 15. Two types of examinations are conducted in the schools of Iraq: 9© a. School examinations, given in every grade of the public schools# b. Public examinations, held at the end of the primary, intermediate, and preparatory stages of schooling; these are prepared, administered, and corrected by the Ministry of Education. 16. Both types of examinations are of the written type. School examinations may at times be both written and oral. These examinations form the basis for the promotion of pupils from grade to grade. 17. All examinations are conducted in accordance with the regulations and instructions of the Ministry of Education. 18. In recent years, some secondary schools have made limited use of extra-curricular activities. 19. Evaluation of instruction, in its broad meaning, does not exist in the schools of Iraq. 91 The conclusions reached as a result of the findings of the present investigations may be summarized as follows: 1. The long period of Turkish demonation, with its distant center of administration, left its mark upon the culture of Iraq. At the time of its founding in 1921, the Kingdom of Iraq had very little on which to build in the way of education. The government was confronted not only with the tremendous problem of build ing an educational system from the ground up, but with the more serious problem of finding suitable persons who were qualified and willing to fill essential official posts. 2. In relative terms, the country has achieved some noticeable educational progress since the establish ment of its national government in 1921. 3* The plans for the nation* s economic and cultural growth must provide not only for the large cities but also for the villages and rural areas of the country. 92 4. Although literacy in the cities is much higher than in the rural areas, illiteracy is still a grave problem, 5. The general prevalence of illiteracy is a great handicap to all types of learning which require written instruction. 6. Better public education and good public health are essential to all types of progress. 7. The reconstruction of education in Iraq must be closely related to the existing social, economic, and cultural situations. B. An absence of a spirit of democracy is the greatest single deterrent to Iraq’s progress. 9. Educational problems in Iraq are to two kinds: (a) those relating to the social and economic conditions of the country, and (b) those arising from the adminis tration and organization of the educational system. 10. There is a great need both for trained leadership and for the general education of the masses. 11, The lack of adequate funds has been one of the main obstacles to educational development in Iraq. 93 12. The curriculum of the schools of Iraq is poorly adapted to the needs and interests of pupils and society. 13. Improvements in education must include some radical changes in the existing programs of studies, and in the following practices: a. Curriculum practices and patterns are completely prescribed in advance, and the subject matter predetermined. b. Education in Iraq is not compulsory and is on a selective basis, the schools quickly eliminating all nho do not pass examinations • c. There is complete adherence to traditional methods of teaching, and memorization of subject matter is the dominating goal of education. d. The present marking system serves to create fear and to increase students1 dislike for schools and learning. e. Supervision is accomplished through a police-like system of inspection. 14. There is an urgent need for the revision of Iraq’s educational program in the light of modem educational philosophy and technique. 15* Attention should be given by the schools to the practice of "learning by doing." 16. An in-service educational program for teachers should be included in the over-all planning. 17* An adequate program of evaluation should be planned and executed. Recommendations The recommendations of this study are listed under the following headings: (1) the general educational situation, and (2) curriculum construction and methods of teaching. . 1. Education should be made to function more vitally in social life and should contribute more directly to the realization of national programs of reconstruction. 2* Changes in the organization and administration of education should go hand-in-hand with economic and 95 social changes* 3. The educational problems should be studied in the light of two groups of factors: a. The social and economic conditions of the country* b* Modern trends in all educational practices. 4. In each community people should be brought together through integrating and coordinating their activities and under trained leadership* 5* Educational effort must be directed to the effective solution of the everyday problems of the people of the country. 6. The first objective of education must be to adapt its aims to the practical needs of the people of Iraq, i.e*, to help them improve their health and methods of work. 7. Educational reform should be combined with a * • program of economic and social betterment. 8. Educational concepts should be much broader than they are at present, and more closely related to the needs of pupils and of society* 96 9. A new educational approach— that of community- school cooperation— should replace the traditional and isolated school system which now exists. 10. An adequate educational philosophy should be formulated, based on a careful study of the social, economic and political conditions of the country. 11. Goeducation should be encouraged. 12. The school should focus on promoting the common welfare of the community and should become progressively a more integral part of the community. 13. The principles should be accepted that the general purpose of education is the modification of behavior. 14. One basic educational goal should be the development of a new level of thinking ability in the Iraqi people, the realization of which would enable them to meet intelligently and effectively the problems and emergency situations which confront the nation under today's stressful international developments. 15. The use of the school as a center for social reconstruction, the organization of local school committees, and the introduction of parent-teacher 97 associations will do much to promote popular interest in education. Curriculum Construction and Methods of Teaching 1. The existing programs of studies should be changed to conform more closely to the needs and interests of pupils and society* They should also be broad and flexible enough to relate to problems of everyday living, to local needs, to the future careers of children, and to other social demands* 2. Curriculum construction and revision should be based on an adequate and democratic philosophy of education; in other words, a program of curriculum reorganization for Iraq should provide opportunities for the active participation of administrators, teachers, community leaders, and students* 3. Utilization of out-of-school resources and the physical facilities of the community must be consider ed in planning or revising the educational experiences* 4. The educational needs of Iraqi youth should be studied and analyzed in the light of the imperative needs 98 of the youth of America, 5, Objectives of education as a guiding principle in curriculum construction should be started in terms of conceiving education as na growth process1 1 and not merely in terms of mastery of subject-matter, 6, All types of modern curriculum patterns (such as life adjustment programs, the core curriculum, the activity curriculum, work experience programs, et cetera) should be taken into consideration in reorganizing the educational program of Iraq. 7, Adequate education should be provided for everyone, according to abilities, interests, needs, and purposes. 8, Cooperative and democratic procedures should be used in the recognition and solution of problems in the process of curriculum reorganization. 9* Arbitrary boundaries between subject-matter courses should be reduced. 10. Teachers should play an active role in determining the direction of a program of curriculum reorganization, since it is they who play a key role in determining #iether the new program will succeed or fail 99 Tfltien it is put into classroom operation. 11* Curriculum revision should be planned and directed primarily by those working in the local system. Skilled leadership should be provided for this important task* 12. Curriculum revision should receive priority among public school undertakings. 13. A philosophy of education is necessary before a school can build an effective curriculum. 14. The blind following of prescribed texts and courses of study should be replaced by vitalized and enriched curricular experiences* 15. Methods of teaching should stress problems of everyday living; students should be given practice in treating and solving problems of everyday living. 16. The learning activities should be planned cooperatively by teachers and pupils. 17. Modem means of communication and interaction (audio-visual materials, activity plans, community trips, et cetera) should replace outmoded methods of teaching. 18. A wide range of extra-curricular activities should also be provided (1) to help pupils to discover 100 their own abilities and interests, and (2) to provide opportunities for every student to participate in these activities and in the social life of the school. 19. Improving classroom instruction in the schools of Iraq will be dependent mainly upon (1) adequate train ing of teachers, and (2) the development of existing inspectoral services into supervisory services. 2G. The outmoded instructional procedure now being employed should be replaced by modern democratic methods of teaching. As a first step in initiating modem methods of teaching in the Iraqi schools, model schools should be developed and promoted in larger centers of the country to serve as demonstration schools for modem methods of instruction. 21* An adequate program of instruction should be set up* This program should seek to measure significant changes in pupil behavior which represent the achievement of desirable objectives; in other words, the schools should develop a scientific and systematic appraisal of their work as seen in changes in learners, in home living, community improvement, and agency services. 1§1 22. In evaluating the educational program, chief emphasis should be placed upon collecting and using all possible evidence of pupil growth in attaining significant educational outcomes. 23. Provisions should be made for frequent evaluations of the growth and development of students and for the appraisal of the effectiveness of the teachers in aiding students to grow and develop. 24. In Iraqi schools, the intellectual achievement of pupils and their promotions should not be the sole criterion used in the marking system. Students in elementary and intermediate schools should rarely, if ever, be failed. BIBLIOGRAPHY A. BOOKS American Association of School Administrators, National Education Association, American SchoolCurriculum, 1953 Yearbook. Washington, B.C.: The Association. This book discusses the curriculum practices in the American secondary schools. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, National Education Association. Action for Curriculum Improvement. Washington, D.G.: National Education Association, 1951. Clark, Victor. . New York: UNESCO, 1951. A book of seventy-six pages discusses the problems of compulsory education in Iraq, and their relation to other economic, political, and social factors, whether putting obstacles in its way. Douglass, Harl R. "Secondary Education for Life,*:’ M, M a & g m X m t h* New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1952. A book about secondary education. It discusses the problems of America; the relation of curriculum to the pupilsf needs. It also presents the educational programs of teaching improvement techniques. _______• The„Hi£h^clm.al_Curricnlimi. New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1947. A book about secondary education in America, It discusses the school curriculum and its relation to the needs of American youth. 102 103 Edmonson, J. B., Roemer, Joseph, and Bacon, Francis L. The Administration of the Modern^condary. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1948. EducationJEorAll American JYouth.a- Fjir-th-er-Lo_Qk. Washington, D.C.: Educational Policies Commission, 1952. A book which discusses the extension, adaptation, and improvement of secondary education of the American institutions. It also discusses the problem of meeting educational needs of American youth. Foster, Henry A. The Makin^of Modem Iraq. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1935. A book that discusses the different educational problems in Iraq and their relationship to the progress of Iraq. It gives suggestions to the solu tion of such problems. Good, Carter V. (ed.). PAsfrjgmty., . New York: McGraw-Hi11 Book Company, Inc., 1945-1959. A dictionary based on the broad foundations laid down per American dictionaries. The dictionary contains over 142,00© vocabulary entries. Iraq, AX-Pi.ya.g3fa, .AlrXb,anawi&. Secondary school syllabus. Baghdad: Government Press, 1950, I960, 1961* A book about the courses offered in the secondary schools of Iraq. It discusses the aims and methods of teaching. _____. Ministry of Education. Al-Taorir al-Snaw ^ Savr al-Ma*arif. Annual reports on the development of education, 1921-1950. Baghdad: Government Press. Three separate annual reports on the development of education for 1921-1950, 1959-1960, 1960-1961* _______. Ma imu1 at al-Oawanin Wal-Andhim^Talimat_JLi- Wizarat al-Ma*arif. Collection of laws, regulations and instructions of the Ministry of Education, Iraq. Baghdad: Government Press, 1950, 1952, 1953. 104 Main, Ernest. Iraq from Mandate to Independence. London: George Allen and Unwin, Ltd., 1935. A book about the history of Iraq fro® mandate to independence. Matthews, Roderic Donalds, and Akrawi, M. Education_in f f i E . JRsa.IL.MSlL * Washington: American Council on Education, 1949. A book about education in the following Arab countries: Egypt, Iraq, Palestine, Transjordea, Syria, and Lebanon. It discusses the organization and administration of the educational system in Iraq; also the secondary and vocational education in Iraq. Translated into Arabic by Amir Boktor; Cairo: Modern Press, 1940. Ministry of Economics. Principal Bureau, of Statistics. Baghdad: Republic Government Press, 1958. A report on the education in Iraq, 1956-1957. Ministry of Guidance. Directorate of Educational Statistics. Baghdad: Republic of Iraq. A brief report of educational progress in Iraq. Monroe, Paul, and others. Report of the. Educational Enquiry Commission. In English and Arabic. Baghdad: Government Press, 1932. Office of the Cultural Attache, Embassy of Iraq. Education ip Iraq. Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office. A small book that discusses education in Iraq in its different stages and aspects: primary, secondary, and higher. . , . Womenfs Education in Iraq. Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office. A small book that discusses women1 s and quantitative growth in secondary, vocational, and technical education whether training or general activities. 105 Olson, Myron S. Secondary Education* Los Angeles: University of Southern California, 1955* A resource syllabus that discusses the problems of secondary education in America* Reeder, Ward 6* The Fundamentals of Public School Administration * New York: The Macmillan Company, 1951. Smith, B. Othanel, Stanley, William 0*, and Shores, J. Harlan* Fundamental of Curriculum Development. New York: World Book Company, 1950. A book about curriculum development. It discusses the social diagnosis principles and procedures for curriculum development. Trillingham, Clinton C. The Organization and Administra tion of Curriculum.JP_rngrams_. Los Angeles: University of Southern California Press, 1934. A published doctoral dissertation identifying the issues and problems of the organization and adminis tration of curriculum programs in America, relating and exploring procedural steps toward their solution. Wrinkle, William L., and Gilchrist, R. S. Secondary £&£ * New York: Rinehart and Company, Inc., 1942. B. PERIODICAL ARTICLES A \ Coombs, 0. M. "Education in Iraq," ffoe JsfflrnaJLflfi Education (London), Vol. 78, July, 1946, p. 392. An article about some of the educational problems in Iraq, and how they are solved. i Crowson, Ben F*, Jr. "Education in Iraq," 1951 Reporton Foreign Educational Systems. Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office. This is the first of four special volumes covering education in seventy-one nations of the world includ ing United States. Contents are based on primary or diplomatic sources, therefore, authentic. "Curriculum Development in Secondary Education," The Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals. Vol. 33, May, 1944. The Arab World. Iraq's Educational Revolution. The Arab Information Center, New York, Vol. VII, No. 11, December 1961, pp. 8-13. An article discussing the educational progress Iraq made after the revolution on the 14th of July, 1958* It also covers the vocational progress. UNESCO, "Iraq: Educational Developments in 1950-51," InternationalYear Booko£ Education (1951), 156-60. . "Iraq: Educational Developments in 1951-52," I - n&sCTi ^ ^ (1952), 166-70. ' . "New Foundations in Mesopotamia." The Times Educational Supplement. No. 1983 (May 1, 1953), p. 387. ftfrvorRlty-of-Southern California L lb fQ

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Asset Metadata

Creator al-Sharbati, Haifa Ismail (author)

Core Title A suggested curriculum for secondary schools in Iraq

Degree Master of Science

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-126939

Unique identifier UC11235940

Identifier usctheses-c26-126939 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier EP50678.pdf

Dmrecord 126939

Document Type Thesis

Rights al-Sharbati, Haifa Ismail

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA