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Gender barriers towards women on the career path and within executive leadership

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Gender barriers towards women on the career path and within executive leadership

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Gender Barriers Towards Women on the Career Path and Within Executive Leadership

Heather Triana

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May 2023

© Copyright by Heather Triana 2023
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Heather Triana certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Monique Datta
Melanie Brady, Committee Co-Chair
Alan Green, Committee Co-Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2023

iv
Abstract
This study combines and applies Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological theory and Eagly and
Karau’s (2002) role congruity theory of prejudice towards female leaders to understand how
gender barriers impact women both on the path and within executive leadership. The purpose of
this study was to explore the reasons some women prevailed and persevere over gender barriers
on the track and into executive leadership positions. This study also sought to gain a better
understanding of how these barriers work both independently and in concert to better understand
how to counteract these challenges, and to understand how these women overcame and continue
to endure barriers. Utilizing a narrative inquiry methodology, five women chief executive
officers were interviewed using a semi-structured method. The study found that women face
barriers to executive leadership from multiple ecological levels, external support systems and
internal response behaviors were used to overcome or endure barriers and challenges, negative
and positive experiences were used to develop one’s leadership style, and leadership was not
about power or authority but about working with people to achieve a common goal. This study
supports that women in executive leadership positions continue to experience gender barriers,
and it is important to address this problem as women positively contribute to the betterment of
organizations.

v
Dedication
To my father, William Neil Merchant, though you were not able to complete the journey with me,
your memory and love will always guide me.

To my husband, Rico, without your faith in my ability I would not have made this journey. You
encouraged me to take the step of going back to school which allowed me to do what I have
always wanted to do. Thank you! Though the time was stressful, we both have come out of this
stronger and wiser.

To my mother, Marlene “Cookie” Merchant. Your strength and example helped make me the
woman I am today. You have always put your family ahead of yourself, and I am deeply grateful
for all you have done and continue to do.

To my fur babies. One can never forget the support that our pets provide during our struggles.
When times are tough and lonely, they remain by our side. No matter how late the nights got,
they always provided their love.

vi
Acknowledgements
To the women who participated in this study. Thank you for opening your “onions” and
letting me and my readers hear your stories. Your candor and willingness to be vulnerable is
greatly appreciated. The paths that you have taken will inspire and guide others to be the women
that they were meant to be.
To all of those at USC that have provided their insight and expertise to shine through and
improve others. To the professors that inspired, pushed, and/or believed in my ability: Dr. Alan
Green, Dr. Eric Canny, Dr. Deanna Campbell, Dr. Doug Lynch, and Dr. Jennifer Phillips, thank
you.
To my fellow Cohort 17 friends, thank you all for being a part of my journey. Together
we created friendships, and you enriched my learning journey. You provided examples of
strength and tenacity, thank you.

vii
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ........................................................................................................................................v
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ vi
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix
List of Figures ..................................................................................................................................x
Chapter One: Introduction ...............................................................................................................1
Background of the Problem .................................................................................................1
Importance of Addressing the Problem ...............................................................................2
Purpose of the Paper ............................................................................................................3
Research Questions ..............................................................................................................4
Overview of the Conceptual Framework and Methodology................................................4
Definitions............................................................................................................................6
Organization of the Project ..................................................................................................7
Chapter Two: Literature Review .....................................................................................................8
History of Women in Leadership .........................................................................................8
Concepts of Leadership and Gender ..................................................................................13
Barriers to Women in Leadership ......................................................................................17
Conceptual Framework ......................................................................................................28
Summary ............................................................................................................................30
Chapter Three: Methodology .........................................................................................................32
Overview of Design ...........................................................................................................32
Research Questions ............................................................................................................33
Participants .........................................................................................................................33
Data Sources ......................................................................................................................34

viii
Ethics and Role of Researcher ...........................................................................................40
Chapter Four: Findings ..................................................................................................................42
Participants .........................................................................................................................43
Findings Related to Research Question 1 ..........................................................................54
Findings Related to Research Question 2 ..........................................................................73
Findings Related to Research Question 3 ..........................................................................88
Conclusions ........................................................................................................................94
Chapter Five: Recommendations and Discussion..........................................................................97
Discussion of Findings .......................................................................................................97
Recommendations for Practice ........................................................................................101
Limitations and Delimitations ..........................................................................................108
Recommendations for Future Research ...........................................................................109
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................110
References ....................................................................................................................................112
Appendix A: Interview Protocol ..................................................................................................126
Appendix B: Interview Instrumentation ......................................................................................132
Appendix C: Initial Request Email Template ..............................................................................139
Appendix D: Information Sheet for Exempt Studies ...................................................................141

ix
List of Tables
Table 1: Key Concepts 6

x
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework 29

1

Chapter One: Introduction
Gender barriers impede women on the leadership track and in executive management by
devaluing and dismissing their full capabilities. As of a 2021 report, women compose 8.2% of
chief executive officers (CEOs) in the Fortune 500, which is an increase of 3.4% from 2015
(Catalyst, 2021). As women reached executive leadership positions, they faced barriers such as
gender bias, work-life conflict, social and organizational culture impediments, and were placed
into higher risk leadership positions (Campuzano, 2019; Carbajal, 2018; Hurley & Choudhary,
2016; Smith, 2015). These barriers can be categorized into levels or environments (social,
structural, and individual) that act independently and in concert with each other (Bronfenbrenner,
1979; Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016). Despite the positive trend for women obtaining executive-level
leadership positions, there remains a large disparity compared to the fact that women comprise
48.19% of the U.S. workforce (U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 2018).
Understanding how and why some women have achieved and prevailed in executive leadership
may help reduce the gender gap.
Background of the Problem
Women have historically been marginalized in the U.S. workforce when it comes to both
leadership positions and pay. While women made up 45% of the U.S. full-time workforce and
accounted for 43% of all management occupations in 2020, their representation declined to 31%
in the reported executive/senior-level positions (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021).
Beaudin’s (2019) research further supported the reduction of women’s representation into upper-
management positions from lower-level management and concluded that women are less likely
to be in middle- to upper-management positions than males. A large gender disparity in the CEO
position at Fortune 500 companies persists, but there appears to be some improvement as the
2

number of Fortune 500 female CEOs grew from 24 (4.8%) in 2015 to 41 (8.2%) in 2021
(Catalyst, 2021). Additionally, the pay gap between males and females continues as the median
earnings for a full-time, year-round employed male in the United States in 2020 was $56,264 yet
$46,322 for a female, which equates to an 18% disparity (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021).
The pay gap widens at the executive level, as women are paid 24% less than males (U.S. Bureau
of Labor Statistics, 2021). Even though there have been improvements, there is still significant
inequality between women and men at executive-level leadership.
A great deal of the focus of research on the lack of women in executive positions and
leadership has been on identifying the barriers that have encumbered women. Carbajal (2018)
noted that women lack the social networks to further their advancement. Hurley and Choudhary
(2016) reported women were less likely to become CEOs the more children they had. A male-
dominated organizational culture was reported less likely to promote women to executive
leadership positions (Campuzano, 2019). When women are promoted to executive leadership
positions, there is a greater frequency for the organization to be in difficulties, leading to the term
glass cliff (Smith, 2015), and the performative pressures and invisible resistance continue and
often increase (Glass & Cook, 2020). Although much research has been conducted to identify
barriers placing women at a disadvantage, there is a gap in the literature regarding how women
who persevered and prevailed did so and how old and new barriers that arise after reaching
executive leadership might be resolved. Glass and Cook (2016, 2020) and Cook and Glass
(2014a) have begun to explore this concept, but more needs to occur to close this gap.
Importance of Addressing the Problem
The low number of women in leadership is important to address, as women and other
minoritized populations bring to organizations ideas, experiences, and skills that benefit
3

organizational performance (Glass & Cook, 2016). At organizations where women composed a
large portion of the labor force, and within high-tech and knowledge-intensive industries,
Christiansen et al. (2016) concluded there was a significantly higher return on assets when
women were in senior positions. Firms with a large representation of women in the labor force
achieved higher rates of sales per worker when they were led by women (Flabbi et al., 2019). In
addition to financial implications, there are also positive skills and motivational effects to women
in leadership positions.
Glass and Cook’s (2016) research noted that women who do reach executive leadership
tend to be more skilled and better at their jobs because of the adversity and barriers they endured
and overcame, and these women often bring innovation, profit, and social responsibility to their
organizations. As more women enter executive leadership positions, the potential of other
women to enter executive leadership increases (Glass & Cook, 2016). In addition, as gender
inequality continues or is perceived to continue, women may not attempt to achieve leadership
positions and may leave organizations, increasing firms’ costs and reducing the talent pool,
making the organization less competitive (Cohen et al., 2020; Han & Noland, 2020).
Purpose of the Paper
The purpose of this narrative inquiry was to explore the lived experiences of women who
have reached the position of CEO and the lessons learned that helped these women who
participated in the study prevail and persevere over gender barriers on the track and into
executive leadership positions. This purpose is further expanded into two areas. The first is to
gain a better understanding of how the different environments (e.g., family, school, workplace,
social) individually and in concert impacted the women and their responses to adversity. The
4

second is to understand how these women overcame and continue to endure barriers and how, if
possible, women can preserve and have both success and satisfaction in their careers.
Research Questions
The following questions will be used to better understand what women in executive
leadership positions encountered both on their path and in executive leadership positions and
how they dealt with and persevered.
1. How did women in executive leadership roles experience barriers related to gender as
they navigated their career path into and within leadership?
2. What are the processes whereby women in leadership positions overcame the barriers
and challenges they faced as they navigated their academic and career pathways?
3. How did experiences with barriers impact the female executive leader’s leadership
style?
Overview of the Conceptual Framework and Methodology
Two theoretical frameworks helped form the conceptual framework that guided this
study. The first is Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological theory. The second is Eagly and Karau’s
(2002) role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders, which expands on the impact to
women of social roles within the social level and the other ecological levels of the
Bronfenbrenner model.
The combination of these two theories creates a conceptual framework that helps identify
the barriers faced by women both seeking and within executive-level leadership. As
Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) work denotes, an individual’s ecological environment consists of
multiple environmental levels and factors that influence and interact with an individual to form
and develop them. Therefore, what happens directly to a person and what happens in their
5

community affects the individual (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Eagly and Karau’s (2002) contribution
is in how societal expectations permeate all ecological environmental levels and influence how
individuals, groups, and society perceive women and leadership. Society has set gender role
expectations based on historical beliefs (Eagly, 2013). These beliefs affect how an individual is
taught from an early age and the experiences they encounter (Fitzsimmons & Callan, 2016). This
is important as society’s role expectations create an incongruity with women and leadership
(Eagly & Karau, 2002), creating the barriers within the different ecological environments
identified in Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological environmental model.
As each researcher’s theory describes a specific concept, each does not completely
capture the whole issue of gender barriers on its own. Thus, the commingling of these two
theories provided this study’s framework. Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) model identified the
environmental components. Eagly and Karau’s (2002) model identified the social level as the
dominant environment, which has a great impact on sustaining or changing the cultural beliefs
that overshadow the other environments. To address the individual barriers at each level, the
barriers must be addressed at multiple levels and not one at a time. To sustain change, change
cannot occur at the individual or the organization level without changing at the societal level, and
mass societal beliefs cannot change without changing the individuals and the organizational
beliefs (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016; Diehl et al., 2020; Fitzsimmons & Callan, 2016).

6

Definitions
Table 1 includes the key concepts that inform this study.

Table 1
Key Concepts
Term Definitions
Gender stereotypes Gender stereotypes are “preconceptions regarding what men and
women are like” (Heilman & Caleo, 2018, p. 726).
Gender bias “Gender bias refers to prejudicial attitudes and behaviors toward
one gender at the expense of the other” (Cook, 2016, p. 1).
Gender roles Gender roles are the social roles that society has imbued upon
what men and women ought to do according to their sex (Eagly
& Karau, 2002).
Gender barriers Gender barriers are those obstacles or impediments that prevent an
individual from obtaining career advancement or leadership
positions because of their gender (Speranza, 2017).
Societal (macro) This represents barriers that work at the society level, which can
include culture and belief systems (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Diehl
& Dzubinski, 2016).
Structural (meso) This represents barriers that operate at the meso or structural level,
which includes groups and organizations (Diehl & Dzubinski,
2016).
Individual (micro) This represents barriers that operate at the individual level (Diehl
& Dzubinski, 2016).
Time (chrono) This system represents the “focus on time and sociohistorical
conditions” (Gardiner & Kosmitzki, 2008).

7

Organization of the Project
This study is composed of five chapters. This chapter introduced the problem of practice,
context, and background of the problem as well as addressed the problem’s importance. In
addition, the purpose of the study, research questions, a summary of the conceptual framework
and methodology, and key concept definitions were addressed. Chapter Two begins with the
literature review, which includes a brief history of women in executive leadership, concepts of
leadership and gender, and concludes with barriers women face presented in an environmental
context. The final section of Chapter Two contains a detailed description of the conceptual
framework used to study the problem of practice. Chapter Three details the study’s methodology
and design as well as identifies the participants and rationale used for selecting them. Measures
are discussed, including data collection procedures, data analysis, credibility, trustworthiness,
and reflexivity. Chapter Three concludes with a discussion of the ethics of the study. As this
study was conducted using a narrative inquiry methodology Chapter Four gives a brief profile of
the participants as the individual’s lived experiences impact how the individual participants
related to and perceived the interview questions and their answers to those questions (Josselson
& Hammack, 2021). Next, the major findings from the participants’ responses related to the
research questions will be addressed. Chapter Five includes a discussion of the findings,
recommendations for practice and recommendations for future research.

8

Chapter Two: Literature Review
Chapter Two provides a review of the literature in research about the gender gap in
leadership. This chapter begins with the history of women in leadership. This is appropriate as to
aid in understanding what has already occurred to better assess where gaps may still exist. The
second section is on concepts of leadership and gender. This section will aid in defining what the
different terminology within the literature means to this study. The third section is on barriers to
women in leadership. It is important to understand what previous research has concluded
deterred some women from moving into executive leadership positions to better study and
understand how those who have succeeded dealt with the obstacles. The fourth section is on the
conceptual framework of the study. The conceptual framework helps to focus and create the
foundation of this research study (Osanloo & Grant, 2016). The final section is a summary of the
chapter.
History of Women in Leadership
To understand where we are and where we must yet travel, it is important to understand
our history. The gender gap in leadership has been researched for more than five decades, yet the
issue persists as only 31% of the U.S. executive/senior-level positions are female, yet 45% of the
full-time workforce is female (Joshi et al., 2015; U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021). This
section of the literature review begins with a recounting of the ascension of women into CEO
executive leadership positions at U.S. Fortune-ranked companies. This is important as it presents
the historical framework of the issue allowing for a better understanding of what has transpired
up until this research study. The second section will discuss the identification of the gender gap
in leadership within the literature. This is important to understanding what prior research has
determined are obstacles that women have faced in leadership.
9

History of Women Ascension to Executive Leadership
A brief history of women in CEO positions within the Fortune-ranked companies is
reviewed to help identify the story of women in leadership. Katharine Graham of the Washington
Post Co was the first woman to lead a Fortune-ranked company (Catalyst, 2021; Smith &
Epstein, 2001). Her leadership tenure began in 1963 as president of the organization, but she was
not named CEO until 1972 (Catalyst, 2021; Smith & Epstein, 2001). In 1974, Marion O. Sandler
of Golden West Financial Corporation became the second woman to join the rank of CEO of a
Fortune-ranked company, and the two remained the only women for 13 years until, in 1987,
Linda Wachner of Warnaco Group Inc. joined them (Catalyst, 2021).
In 2021, women achieved three milestones in the Fortune-500 ranking. They are as
follows:
• The largest number of CEO positions ever held by women, which was 41,
• The first time there were two Black women included in the ranking, and
• CVS Health became the highest-ranking Fortune company (No. 4) to have a woman
at its helm with the installation of Karen Lynch as its president and CEO (Hinchliffe,
2021).
These are impressive achievements, but after 49 years, women still make up only 8.2% of
CEOs at Fortune 500 companies, yet women are 48.19% of the U.S. workforce (Catalyst, 2021;
U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 2018). The next section will address the
gender gaps in leadership that have been identified within existing research.
Identification of the Gender Gap in Leadership
Within the research conducted on women and executive leadership, researchers have used
the terms “glass ceiling” (Glass Ceiling Commission, 1995; Johns, 2013; Manzi & Heilman,
10

2021) and “glass cliff” (Ryan & Haslam, 2005; Sabharwal, 2015) to name two of the common
issues women face in obtaining and retaining executive leadership. The first section that follows
will explain what is meant by the glass ceiling and how it impedes women in their pursuit of
executive leadership positions. The second section will explain what happens once a woman is
promoted to an executive leadership position, which includes the glass cliff, lack of support and
authority, and increased scrutiny. These sections help add clarity to the obstacles women have
faced both on the path and into executive leadership.
Glass Ceiling
The term “glass ceiling” has been used to identify the invisible barrier women and
minoritized populations encounter when attempting to advance into upper-level management
positions (Hymowitz & Schellhardt, 1986; Vargas, 2018). Secretary Elizabeth Dole and
Secretary Lynn Martin of the Department of Labor helped bring this issue to the forefront of the
United States (Glass Ceiling Commission, 1995). As a result of their work and others, Title II of
the Civil Rights Act of 1991 established the Glass Ceiling Commission to conduct a study and
make recommendations to eliminate the glass ceiling (Glass Ceiling Commission, 1995).
Two decades after the Glass Ceiling Commission’s report, research has determined that
the glass ceiling persists and that men are still more likely to hold middle- and upper-
management positions (Beaudin, 2019). The glass ceiling is important to the study of women in
leadership as it articulates the barriers that women face when attempting to achieve leadership
positions. These barriers included but are not limited to discrimination, implicit bias, lack of
quality mentoring, exclusion from social and informational networks, and scrutiny (Cook &
Glass, 2014a; Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016; Glass & Cook, 2020; Hurley & Choudhary, 2016;
Sabharwal, 2015).
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Just the perception of the existence of the glass ceiling can have important implications
(Cohen et al., 2020). Women who perceive a barrier to upper-level management will be less
inclined to pursue a promotion, resulting in fewer women in those positions (Cohen et al., 2020;
Powell & Butterfield, 1994). Downes et al. (2014) reported that the perception of a glass ceiling
hindered organizational commitment and increased turnover. Cohen et al. (2020) also noted that
the perception of a glass ceiling could affect how workplace equality is perceived. The following
sections discusses what research has reported occurring once a woman has reached executive
leadership.
Breaking the Glass Ceiling
The metaphor of a glass ceiling implies that shattering this barrier means women will be
able to obtain parity and equality, but this has not been the case (Glass & Cook, 2016, 2020;
Sabharwal, 2015). One difference is that in breaking the glass ceiling, women may encounter the
glass cliff (Glass & Cook, 2016; Ryan & Haslam, 2005, 2007; Smith, 2015). In addition to the
glass cliff, Glass and Cook (2016) noted that women will encounter challenges to authority, lack
of support, heightened scrutiny, and performance pressure.
The glass cliff is a metaphor created by Ryan and Haslam (2005) to refer to the fact that
women are often appointed to leadership positions when the organization is facing increased risk
and perilous times. There have been differing results in the research around the glass cliff.
Sabharwal’s (2015) work showed evidence of glass cliffs in male-dominated U.S. federal
agencies. When Glass and Cook (2016) examined the total population of women CEOs of
Fortune 500 companies through 2014, they too found evidence supporting the glass cliff
phenomenon. When Cook and Glass (2014b) looked at just the years 1990 to 2011, they found
factors that did not support some of the tenets of the glass cliff. The 2014 study found that firm
12

performance, such as declining growth, was not an indicator of a female’s promotion to a
leadership position but diversity among decision-makers was (Cook & Glass, 2014b). An
additional tenet of the glass cliff is that women are placed into precarious leadership positions,
but Glass and Cook (2016) found that some women will seek out risky leadership positions as an
opportunity to be visible and to be seen as effective leaders in times of crisis. Therefore, the
research tends to support many of the glass cliff’s tenets with slight alterations in different
situations.
Women in top leadership positions experience a lack of support and authority issues
(Glass & Cook, 2016). Not only do women lack access to professional and social networks
below the glass ceiling (Cohen et al., 2020; Diehl et al., 2020), this continues to be a problem on
the other side of that ceiling (Glass & Cook, 2016, 2020). Women in leadership positions
continue to experience being ignored or dismissed in top-level strategy discussions and having
their leadership often covertly or overtly undermined (Glass & Cook, 2016). One way that a
female CEOs’ authority may be undermined is that women (13%) are far less likely than men
(50%) to be appointed to both the CEO and chair of the board positions at the outset of the CEO
appointment, thereby not fully allowing the female control and authority (Glass & Cook, 2016).
Sabharwal (2015) noted that empowering women helps them succeed in their leadership
positions, thereby reinstating Glass and Cook’s (2016) argument that the dual appointments give
more power and influence.
Women in leadership positions continue to feel a sense of increased scrutiny compared to
their male counterparts and additional pressure to perform (Glass & Cook, 2016). Women are
held to a higher standard when it comes to both their physical appearance and their job
performance (Glass & Cook, 2016, 2020). Women are very cognizant about how others perceive
13

them and are desirous to be seen positively and as capable (Glass & Cook, 2020). Ryan and
Haslam (2005) observed that women in leadership positions might be exposed to criticism for
negative organizational outcomes and receive greater blame than a male.
In addition to defining gender gaps, many researchers used reoccurring concepts to
describe the barriers women face in leadership. The next section will identify and define some
key concepts that were prevalent within the literature.
Concepts of Leadership and Gender
In reviewing the literature, the concepts of leadership stereotypes and gender stereotypes
were often reported in the context of what society, organizations, and individuals perceived when
they envisioned a leader. The first section that follows will discuss gender bias, gender
stereotypes, leadership stereotypes, and gender barriers as these are key concepts in the study of
women and executive leadership. The second section will discuss the theoretical lenses that
researchers have developed to convey how gender stereotypes, gender bias, and leadership
stereotypes impacted women and the paths they have taken to and within executive leadership
positions. These theoretical lenses help build the basis for the study of gender bias and gender
stereotypes and how they continue to impact and limit women in achieving leadership positions
and their ability to function effectively as leaders.
Gender Concepts Defined
Gender stereotypes are “preconceptions regarding what men and women are like”
(Heilman & Caleo, 2018, p. 726), whereas gender bias “refers to prejudicial attitudes and
behaviors toward one gender at the expense of the other” (Cook, 2016, p. 1). These stereotypes
are how society sees members of the separate genders and how individuals see themselves
(Hentschel et al., 2019). In organizational cultures, which have been historically established
14

within patriarchal societies, men have often held leadership positions, creating a leadership
stereotype composed of masculine traits (Carbajal, 2018; Cook, 2016; Eagly & Sczesny, 2009;
Schein, 1973; Schwanke, 2013; Xiang et al., 2017). These stereotypes and biases form gender
barriers, which are obstacles or impediments that prevent an individual from obtaining career
advancement or leadership positions because of their gender (Speranza, 2017).
Societies have differentiated individuals into groups based on their gender. Expectations
have evolved and are what society determined are proper qualities and behaviors for members of
each gender in action and behavior, referred to as normative expectations (Eagly, 2013). These
normative expectations have fallen into two defining areas agentic (masculine) and communal
(feminine; Eagly, 2013; Eagly & Karau, 2002). As women enter leadership positions, they face
conflicting social roles that may lead to them demonstrating more leadership (masculine)
qualities, which subordinates, peers, and/or superiors may not accept (Braun et al., 2017; Eagly
& Sczesny, 2009; Glass & Cook, 2016). Researchers have developed different theoretical lenses
to try to explain or rationalize the disconnect between women and leadership acceptance which
will be discussed next.
Theoretical Lenses Used in Women and Leadership Research
In studying the disparity of women in leadership positions, researchers have developed
theoretical frameworks to rationalize and develop a structure as to the study and understanding of
why this phenomenon continues to occur, which has formed the baseline of continued research in
this area (Osanloo & Grant, 2016). Madsen and Scribner (2017) conducted a literature review of
the scholarship in gender and cross-cultural management from January 2010 to March 2016.
During this review, the four most used theories centered around social and gender roles and
identity. These four theories were social role, social identity, role congruity, and role theory
15

(Madsen & Scribner, 2017). These four theories continue to permeate the literature on the topic
of study; therefore, a brief summation of each is presented next.
Social Role Theory
The social role theory focuses on the concept that society has set expectations on how
individuals within specific social classes are expected to behave (Eagly, 2013; Eagly & Wood,
2011). This theoretical lens expands upon the previously discussed concepts of gender
stereotypes, gender bias, and leadership stereotypes to discuss how social roles impact
perceptions of women in leadership. Social roles are created when society associates specific
social norms to people within a recognized social group (Eagly, 2013; Eagly & Karau, 2002;
Eagly & Wood, 2011). Gender roles are the social roles that society has imbued upon what men
and women ought to do according to their sex, and from these gender roles, gender stereotypes
are created based on people’s perceptions of what is normal behavior for the respective gender
(Eagly, 2013; Eagly & Karau, 2002; Eagly & Wood, 2011). Men are associated with agentic
traits such as aggression and competitiveness, which are often associated with leadership traits
(Braun et al., 2017; Fitzsimmons et al., 2014; Schein, 1973). Women are often associated with
communal traits, such as concern for others and nurturing, which are often associated with
followers (Braun et al., 2017; Eagly & Karau, 2002; Hentschel et al., 2019).
Social Identity Theory
Social identity theory is focused on how individuals identify not as individuals but as
members of a group or organization and the process of the categorization (Ibarra et al., 2014). By
identifying with a group, the group members can then determine who is within and outside of
their group. Hogg (2000) noted that this behavior is motivated by an individual’s need to reduce
uncertainty, and the individual gains legitimacy by being a member of a like group. From within
16

this lens, leaders emerge embodying the group’s prototypical characteristics and ideals, although
these leaders may not possess other qualities generally desirous in leadership (Hogg & Terry,
2000; van Knippenberg & Hogg, 2003). Cook and Glass’s (2014b) study findings support the
social identity theory in that women were more likely to be appointed to a CEO position when
other women were members of the board. When all board members were men, the appointments
tended to be other men (Cook & Glass, 2014b).
Role Congruity Theory
Expanding upon Eagly’s earlier social role theory, Eagly and Karau (2002) developed the
role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Role congruity theory is based on the
descriptive and injunctive aspects of gender roles. This theory further notes that there are two
forms of prejudice that female leaders face. First, women are thought to have less leadership
ability when compared to men, and second, women leaders exhibit agentic leadership traits,
which violates the social norms expected of women resulting in being perceived unfavorably as
leaders (Eagly & Karau, 2002).
Role Theory
Role theory looks at the roles or social positions that people have and the behavior
associated with those roles (Aartsen & Hansen, 2020). As individuals go through life, they may
add, change, or lose roles associated with them (i.e., daughter, sister, mother, grandmother,
student, teacher, etc.; Aartsen & Hansen, 2020). Social expectations and cultural norms are
placed on these roles regarding how the individuals holding the roles should act and behave
(Fitzsimmons & Callan, 2016; van Vianen & Fischer, 2002). Role theory describes the roles that
women are expected to play and denotes that when women take leadership positions, they may
17

be perceived as not within the normal role acceptable for a woman, creating dissent among
others (Carbajal, 2018; Eagly & Sczesny, 2009).
Each of these theories is based on the premise of society’s perceptions of what is and is
not normative and what is and is not acceptable by gender. The separation of each theory is in
the minutia. The important item to note is how women are perceived at all levels, be it society,
the organization, or the individual; these perceptions impact and predicate the barriers women
endure in obtaining and maintaining leadership positions. The next section will identify gender
barriers and the respective ecological level at which women experience them.
Barriers to Women in Leadership
The study of women and leadership has led to the identification of what are considered
gender barriers women encounter and must navigate during all phases of their careers (Diehl &
Dzubinski, 2016; Schwanke, 2013). These barriers have been repeatedly noted, yet they persist
(Madsen & Scribner, 2017). An important point is that they are often hidden, unconscious, and
considered acceptable everyday behavior, which have been called second-generation forms of
gender bias (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016; Ely et al., 2011; Glass & Cook, 2020; Lyness & Grotto,
2018; Sturm, 2001). These barriers impact a woman’s actual and perceived power and capital
within her environments (Fitzsimmons & Callan, 2016; Lyness & Grotto, 2018; Ragins &
Sundstrom, 1989; Schwanke, 2013). Both work processes and societal practices have embedded
these barriers into everyday life, and therefore they are difficult to overcome (Diehl &
Dzubinski, 2016; Lyness & Grotto, 2018).
During the review of gender barriers, a reoccurring theme emerged in that these barriers
do not just occur at one environmental level but at multiple levels with multiple barriers
occurring at the same time (Castaño et al., 2019; Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016; Diehl et al., 2020;
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Glass Ceiling Commission, 1995; Ragins & Sundstrom, 1989). The three most common levels
were societal, structural, and individual. Each of these three levels, along with prominent gender
barriers encountered within them, will be discussed in the following sections.
Societal (Macro)
Within societies, women and men have been held to different expectations, consistent
with social role theory, role congruity theory, and role theory. The assertion is that as societies
began to evolve, physical differences differentiated the gender roles whereas men, who were
larger and stronger, took on tasks such as hunting and farm labor, whereas women, who were
smaller and childbearing, took on roles that were focused on childcare and maintaining the
family home (Eagly & Wood, 2011). Today, this division of labor based on physical
characteristics has become antiquated, yet many cultures and societies still hold the biases
created by these early societal expectations (Eagly & Wood, 2011)
Societal barriers, referred to as the macro level, permeate all aspects of an individual’s
life as this level encompasses an individual’s culture in which they live and are raised
(Fitzsimmons & Callan, 2016; Schwanke, 2013). Schwanke (2013) went on to note that these
barriers “are deeply rooted in culture and public policy” (p. 17). Societal barriers include cultural
constraints on women’s choices, gender stereotypes, gender unconsciousness, leadership
perceptions, and scrutiny (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016; Diehl et al., 2020). Each of these will be
discussed separately.
Cultural Constraints on Women’s Choices
Diehl et al. (2020) and Diehl and Dzubinski (2016) noted that culture could prevent or
limit women’s choices when it comes to advanced education and a career. These choices begin
early in life. Fitzsimmons and Callan (2016) referred to these as the pink and blue decisions
19

made by families and educational intuitions that affect a child’s experiences based on their
gender. These different experiences are important as they help develop an individual’s human
capital, and women are often put at a disadvantage in developing the necessary capital to be
successful in leadership and must learn on the job (Fitzsimmons & Callan, 2016; Fitzsimmons et
al., 2014). Consequently, cultural constraints can be a result of gender stereotypes.
Gender Stereotypes
As previously stated, gender stereotypes are “preconceptions regarding what men and
women are like” (Heilman & Caleo, 2018, p. 726). Eagly and Sczesny (2009) noted that gender
stereotypes are empowered by their pervasiveness and that sex is the “strongest basis of
classifying people” (p. 24). Individuals are generalized by their gender and are expected to imbue
the characteristics associated with that gender, be it agentic for males or communal for females
(Eagly & Sczesny, 2009). These expectations create a misalignment for women in leadership
positions as they are expected to display communal characteristics consistent with being a
woman and agentic characteristics consistent with leadership (Lyness & Grotto, 2018;
Schwanke, 2013). Further, Castaño et al. (2019) surmised that gender stereotypes could lead to
the underrepresentation of women in leadership positions. Therefore, as progress is made to
reduce the effects of gender stereotyping, some individuals have a false sense that the barriers to
women have been resolved, leading to the next barrier of gender unconsciousness (Glass Ceiling
Commission, 1995)
Gender Unconsciousness
Gender unconsciousness is the lack of knowledge or acceptance that gender has an
impact on women in the workforce (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016; Diehl et al., 2020). The Glass
Ceiling Commission (1995) noted this lack of knowledge or recognition that a problem persists
20

in that some leaders felt that gender parity was no longer an issue. This lack of acknowledgement
is of concern when higher-ranking individuals at an organization do not perceive an issue and
lower-ranking women do. As Cohen et al. (2020) surmised, without the acknowledgement of
higher-ranked individuals, programs, practices, or policy aimed at addressing the gender issue
will not be supported, resulting in further underrepresentation of women in leadership positions.
Schwanke (2013) also noted that “inaccurate perception of gender equality limits opportunities
for women as a group because it creates false optimism and eliminates the perceived need to
make things better” (p. 21).
Leadership Perceptions
Just as there are gender stereotypes, there are also leadership stereotypes that affect
women. As previously stated, a leadership stereotype exists because men have historically held
leadership positions, resulting in perceived masculine qualities’ (i.e., aggressive, forceful, and
assertive) associated with leadership qualities (Eagly, 2013; Eagly & Sczesny, 2009; Manzi &
Heilman, 2021; Ryan & Haslam, 2007). Leadership positions are often described using
masculine terminology, resulting in women appearing less suitable for them (Schwanke, 2013).
In male-dominated organizations, men are often seen as the successors to leadership; therefore,
the men receive the grooming necessary, whereas women are often neither considered nor
groomed for leadership (Lyness & Grotto, 2018). The final social level gender barrier to be
discussed, scrutiny, will be reviewed next.
Scrutiny
Diehl and Dzubinski (2016) defined scrutiny as the “intense or hypercritical examination
of women” (p. 188). Research has reported that women received more scrutiny on their
management style, job performance, and physical appearance than their male counterparts (Eagly
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& Sczesny, 2009; Glass & Cook, 2016; Hurley & Choudhary, 2016). This excess burden to
perform and to look and appear correct can cause job dissatisfaction and increase turnover (Glass
& Cook, 2016; Schwanke, 2013).
In addition to societal-level barriers, women also encounter barriers at the organizational
or structural level. The definition of this ecological level and discussion of the common gender
barriers encountered within it is addressed next.
Structural (Meso)
Structural barriers, referred to as the meso level, are barriers women encounter at the
organizational or group level. As businesses developed in patriarchal societies, they mirrored
these societies in policies and practices and favored a white male culture (Diehl & Dzubinski,
2016; Glass Ceiling Commission, 1995). Although today most barriers are second generational,
organizations still operate in ways structured in favor of males (Ely et al., 2011; Lyness &
Grotto, 2018; Schwanke, 2013). Women continue to feel their presence will always be
challenged because they continue to experience these barriers in leadership positions (Glass &
Cook, 2016; Hurley & Choudhary, 2016). As these beliefs are long-standing, the barriers are
prolific. The following sections present a brief discussion of some of the more prevalent barriers
noted at this ecological level.
Discrimination
Gender discrimination can occur both subtly and overtly (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016;
Glass & Cook, 2016). Although some research has noted that overt discrimination is less of an
issue than in the past, Barreto et al. (2009) postulated that gender discrimination is more subtle.
Barreto et al. (2009) also noted that people will attempt to control their behavior and verbal
expressions but will still display tendencies to favor one gender over another in their choices of
22

support. Therefore, gender discrimination can occur in hiring, training, occupational gendering,
pay, and promotion, leading to the next barrier of lack of mentoring and sponsorship (Fernandez
& Campero, 2017; Sabharwal, 2015; Stamarski & Son Hing, 2015).
Lack of Mentoring and Sponsorship
Mentorships is the relation between an individual that provides advice and guidance
(mentor) to another individual who is usually younger or less experienced (mentee), whereas a
sponsorship occurs when an individual, usually with access and good standing, provides support
and endorsement of an individual (Oxford English Dictionary, n.d.). Mentorship and sponsorship
have been linked to successful leadership, yet research has noted a divide between the sexes on
who receives mentorship and/or sponsorship and at what stage in their career they receive them.
Diehl and Dzubinski’s (2016) noted that women often felt left in limbo and that men were more
likely to receive mentorship and sponsorship at a much younger age than women. In additional
research, it was observed that in male-dominated leadership organizations, it is often an
assumption that men will be the future leaders and therefore receive the mentorship, training, and
support to develop leadership skills more often than women (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016; Lyness
& Grotto, 2018). This lack of early involvement by senior-level management could have a long-
term effect on a woman’s capital, as Carbajal (2018) stated that mentorship and sponsorship
were critical to upward mobility and Fitzsimmons et al. (2014) noted that this involvement
helped individuals make key career moves earlier to reach leadership positions. In Dwivedi et
al.’s (2018) work, it was observed that women who were handpicked and mentored were often
successful CEOs. The timing of mentorship and sponsorship is important, but how it is provided
is critical. Research supports that senior-male mentors in male-dominated industries are more
23

beneficial for women than men in obtaining career satisfaction, pay, and success (Ramaswami et
al., 2010).
Exclusion From Informal Networks
Similar to the lack of mentoring and sponsorship, women are often excluded from
informal networks. This exclusion is significant as Carbajal (2018) stated that “networking has
been the most influential factor in increasing social capital” (p. 13), and the type of network is
important, as some have more influence on promotion and authority. Social capital is the
acceptance of membership into groups, and the acquisition of one type of capital can lead to the
acquisition of other types of capital that could further an individual’s career (Bourdieu, 1986;
Fitzsimmons et al., 2014). For individuals to become executive leaders, they must be visible, and
to become visible, they need access to networking, yet women often lack access to strong
professional networks (Fitzsimmons et al., 2014; Glass & Cook, 2016). Researchers have found
that organizations’ networks exclude women and promote the status quo (Diehl & Dzubinski,
2016; Glass Ceiling Commission, 1995; Schwanke, 2013).
Lack of Support
Women face a lack of support due to reduced early career mentorship and sponsorship as
compared to their male colleagues, and they may see their decisions overturned or not supported
(Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016; Diehl et al., 2020). Glass and Cook (2016) noted a form of lack of
support of female leadership occurs when women are appointed to the CEO position but not
named chair of the board at the same time. Their research noted that women received dual
appointments 13% of the time, whereas males’ appointments were dual 50% of the time. They
suggested that this lack of dual appointment could be interpreted as a form of reduction of
authority and lack of support by boards of directors. In these instances, a woman would receive
24

both appointments only after a successful trial period (Glass & Cook, 2016). Expanding on the
lack of support, Lyness and Grotto (2018) noted that women in leadership positions are regarded
as possessing less power and authority than their male counterparts.
Male Organizational Culture
As discussed within the social environment, many organizational cultures mirror the
patriarchal societal culture in which they were established, leading to male organizational
culture. Male organizational culture is denoted when a working environment is conducive to the
male experience and interests, including informal discussion topics and social activities (Diehl &
Dzubinski, 2016; Diehl et al., 2020). These organizations are difficult for women to navigate and
are unwelcoming as males hold the power and influence (Lyness & Grotto, 2018; Schwanke,
2013). Male-dominated organizations tend to promote individuals who embrace the cultural
norms, prolonging gender inequality (Campuzano, 2019; Lyness & Grotto, 2018).
Queen Bee Effect
For women to compete with or rationalize the other barriers described, they may develop
compensating behaviors that result in a queen bee effect (Baker & Kelan, 2019; Glass & Cook,
2020). The queen bee effect occurs when women in leadership positions become a hindrance or
obstacle to women in lower positions (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016; Diehl et al., 2020; Hamel,
2009). A coping mechanism for women who achieved executive leadership positions is to
separate themselves from other women, align themselves with men, and legitimize their position
(Glass & Cook, 2020; Schwanke, 2013). Baker and Kelan (2019) called this defense mechanism
blaming and stated that it allowed these women to project what they perceived as failures onto
others.
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Unequal Standards
The final barrier to be identified within the structural level is unequal standards. Research
supports that women are held to different standards when it comes to hiring, performance
evaluations, and promotions (Lyness & Grotto, 2018; Rice & Barth, 2017). Women are held to
different standards related to their work and may experience different standards regarding their
physical appearance (Glass & Cook, 2016). Women expressed that they had to master skills and
produce positive results as well as “master the unspoken roles of the game” (Glass & Cook,
2020, p. 1246) to maintain their success.
The previously discussed gender barriers are not inclusive of gender barriers encountered
within organizations and group structures, but they help define the obstacles women face in
achieving parity with their male peers. After having discussed the societal and structural
ecological environments and their associated barriers, the next topic is that of the individual
environment and the gender barriers commonly encountered within it.
Individual (Micro)
Individual barriers, referred to as the micro level, “primarily involve the woman herself,
placing an extra burden of responsibility on her own shoulders beyond that normally required by
male leaders” (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016, p. 191). The barriers at this level can be developed
based on different life experiences, how a woman perceives herself, and how the individual’s
psyche responds to a need to be perfect (Baker & Brewis, 2020; Fitzsimmons & Callan, 2016;
Ragins & Sundstrom, 1989). In the following section, three barriers that tend to occur frequently
at the individual level are discussed: personalizing, psychological glass ceiling, and work-life
conflict.
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Personalizing
Personalization occurs when an individual takes “personal responsibility for system or
organizational problems” (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016, p. 192). Schwanke (2013) noted that
women internalize problems and try to figure out what went wrong. Researchers such as Baker
and Brewis (2020), Baker and Kelan (2019), and McRobbie asserted that this is in response to
neoliberalist views. Neoliberalism propagates the concept that individuals control their lives, and
therefore, when negative situations like discrimination occur, the individual turns inward to find
fault to help restore their belief that the workplace is entrepreneurial (Baker & Kelan, 2019).
Instead of critiquing the socio-political sphere, “social critique is transformed into self-critique,
resulting in a prevalence of self-doubt and anxiety” (Scharff, 2016, p. 108). In addition to
personalizing system or organizational problems, women also create psychological barriers to
their ability to obtain or be in leadership positions.
Psychological Glass Ceiling
The second barrier within the individual level is the psychological glass ceiling. A
psychological glass ceiling occurs when an individual does not believe in her abilities and creates
barriers to prevent her advancement (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016). A woman’s confidence can
prevent her from advancing (Johns, 2013). This occurrence may result from organizational
experiences of gender bias (Lyness & Grotto, 2018). Lyness and Grotto (2018) also suggested
that experiences of gender bias result in women devaluing their leadership skills and abilities,
resulting in the women refraining from becoming leaders.
Work-Life Conflict
The third barrier at this level is work-life conflict. Women often experience a work-life
conflict that creates barriers to their advancement or career dissatisfaction (Hoobler et al., 2010).
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Studies report that women continue to bear a larger burden of domestic responsibilities than men
(Eagly & Sczesny, 2009; Schwanke, 2013). The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2003, 2019)
reported that the hours per day spent performing household activities, caring for and helping
household members, and caring for and helping non-household members were 3.35 for women
and 1.93 for men in 2003, and by 2019 the numbers had changed to 3.02 hours for women and
1.87 hours per men, supporting these findings.
Women often face having to choose between family and career. Hurley and Choudhary’s
(2016) research concluded that a woman with children is less likely to become a CEO, and the
likelihood decreases with each additional child. Their research found that a woman with no
children maintained a 51.34% chance of becoming a CEO, yet a woman with four children had a
99.69% chance of not becoming one (Hurley & Choudhary, 2016). Fitzsimmons et al.’s (2014)
research noted that women who took even short breaks to have children might have to change
roles upon returning to work or move to a new company. Another study’s respondents
commented that they did not have the time or energy to seek career advancement after having
children and managed the family life around their work responsibilities (Adapa et al., 2016). van
Vianen and Fischer (2002) concluded that “women perceived work-home conflict as the most
important barrier for accepting a senior management position” (p. 333).
This concludes the discussion regarding gender barriers to women in executive leadership
positions. These barriers are important to understand as they are direct obstacles to women
advancing in their careers and leadership. Women often encounter multiple barriers and pressure
to perform from multiple facets of their lives. Trying to understand these pressures and obstacles
and how they work independently and in concert may help reduce the gender gap. A conceptual
framework was developed to further this understanding and frame the study on how some
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women prevail and persevere over gender barriers. In the next section, this conceptual
framework will be discussed.
Conceptual Framework
The foundation of the conceptual framework for this study, as shown in Figure 1, is based
on Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model of human development with slight modifications
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Gardiner & Kosmitzki, 2008). This model includes the ecological
environmental constructs of social (macro), structural (meso), individual (micro), and time
(chrono) defined in Chapter One. Building on Bronfenbrenner’s model, Eagly and Karau’s
(2002) role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders is added as it speaks specifically
to how gender barriers, often constructed at the societal level, impact women at all ecological
levels (Speranza, 2017).
In the conceptual frameworks, each level affects the others, both moving from the center
outward and from the outside of the model inward. Beginning at the center of the model is the
individual. This level is identified as the individual level. Bronfenbrenner (1979) called this layer
the microsystem and described it as “a pattern of activities, roles, and interpersonal relations
experienced by the developing person in a given setting with particular physical and material
characteristics” (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, p. 22). For this study, this definition is slightly adapted
to address the barriers the individual woman brings to her environment.
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Figure 1
Conceptual Framework

Note. Adapted from Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development:
Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press.

Moving out to the next level is the structural level. Bronfenbrenner (1979) named this
level the mesosystem and stated that it “comprises the interrelations among two or more settings
in which the developing person actively participates” (p. 25). This level is adapted to this study
to represent the structural systems, including organizations and workgroups, and the barriers
encountered within them.
The outer level of the framework is called the societal level. This level corresponds to the
macrosystem within Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model, which included “subcultures or the
culture as a whole, along with any belief systems or ideology underlying such consistencies”
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979, p. 26). Eagly and Karau’s (2002) role congruity theory indicates that this
Societal (Macro)
Structural (Meso)
Individual (Micro)
Time (Chrono)

30

level is significant as gender roles are formed at the societal level and impact all aspects of an
individual’s life.
In addition to the above-mentioned three levels, the fourth level, Time (Chrono), was
included in the conceptual framework. Although this layer is not included in Bronfenbrenner’s
earlier works, it is included in his later works, and as Gardiner and Kosmitzki (2008) noted, it is
“focused on time and sociohistorical conditions” (p. 23). As this study was aimed at
understanding lived experiences both on the path to executive leadership and those experienced
once there, time was expected to be an important component. As Fitzsimmons and Callan (2016)
mentioned, access to experiences early in a career can both help and hurt an individual in
building the capital needed to reach executive leadership.
One component of Bronfenbrenner’s model, the exosystem, was not used in this
framework. The exosystem pertains to the environments that affect but do not directly include
the subject (Gardiner & Kosmitzki, 2008). The exosystem does have an impact on the individual
in the relationship of networks or social settings that the individual is not a party to (i.e., sporting
events, male locker room chat, etc.), but this system was excluded from this framework to
concentrate on systems that had direct contact with the individual participants.
Summary
The literature review helped frame the area of study. The first section discussed the
overall historical context in the rise of women to executive leadership positions. Women first
came into the CEO leadership of the Fortune-ranked companies in 1972 with Katharine Graham
of the Washington Post Co., but 49 years later, women only hold 8.2% of the CEO seats of
Fortune 500 companies, further supporting the gender gap persists. From this discussion, the
gender gap in leadership was defined by what happened to women on both sides of the glass
31

ceiling. Next, a review of the concepts of leadership and gender was discussed. This involved
defining gender stereotypes, gender bias, leadership stereotypes, and gender barriers. Next, a
brief summation of the theoretical lenses developed and used to explain the phenomenon were
discussed.
The next section discussed the specific gender barriers and the ecological environments
in which they are prevalent. A continuing theme in the literature was the existence of barriers
that prevent women from advancing or maintaining leadership positions. Much of the research
classified these barriers into three levels: societal (macro), structural (meso), and individual
(micro). This literature review summarized the types of barriers encountered at each level and
provided brief descriptions and examples of the barriers within each level.
Finally, the conceptual framework of the research was identified. This identification
included the overview of theories used, the key theoretical principles appropriate for the study,
and an explanation of how these theories and principles apply to the topic of gender barriers to
executive leadership positions. The two theories help frame how women encounter obstacles and
pressures from multiple environmental areas within their lives. Reducing the gender gap requires
understanding the volume and complexity of gender barriers, as a single focus would have a
limited impact on the phenomenon (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016; Diehl et al., 2020; Fitzsimmons &
Callan, 2016).
In the next chapter, the methodology and design of the study will be addressed. This will
include a discussion of the participants, leading to a discussion of the measures. The chapter will
conclude with a discussion of ethics related to the study.
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Chapter Three: Methodology
The purpose of this study was to explore the lived experiences of the participants and the
lessons and skills learned that helped these women prevail and persevere over gender barriers
both prior to executive leadership and within it. This chapter describes the methodology and
research design used to explore the participants lived experiences, the research questions that
guided the study, the selection process of participants interviewed to inform the study, and the
measures used to interpret the data. The chapter concludes with a discussion of ethics and the
role of the researcher regarding the study.
Overview of Design
This study used narrative inquiry as its methodology. The goal was to explore how some
women prevailed and persevered over gender barriers before and after achieving executive
leadership and to gain a better understanding of how barriers encountered at different ecological
environments worked independently and jointly to impact the participants’ individual outcomes.
A narrative methodology aligned with this goal as narrative inquiry is designed to gain an
understanding by gaining meaning through the telling of lived experiences (Kramp, 2003). It is
in understanding and studying how the participants experienced their story and made meaning
that is the focus of narrative inquiry (Clandinin, 2006; Kramp, 2003) which aligns with the
purpose of this study.
Interviews were conducted to explore the participants’ individual interpretations of their
lived experiences, examining how the experiences affected their lives, and to discover the
meaning the participants placed on their experiences. A narrative approach facilitates this as
Clandinin (2006) stated, “Narrative inquiry allows the possibility for understanding how the
personal and social are entwined over time” (p. 51). Additionally, a narrative inquiry approach is
33

appropriate for the study’s conceptual framework in that Clandinin (2006) stated “individual
experiences are shaped by the larger social, cultural, and institutional narratives within which
they [participants] live and have lived” (p. 51).
Research Questions
The study is guided by the following research questions:
1. How did women in executive leadership roles experience barriers related to gender as
they navigated their career path into and within leadership?
2. What are the processes whereby women in leadership positions overcame the barriers
and challenges they faced as they navigated their academic and career pathways?
3. How did experiences with barriers impact the female executive leader’s leadership
style?
Participants
Participant selection was done with a purposeful intent (Creswell & Creswell, 2018) in
that the participants were selected based on meeting the criteria of being female and holding a
CEO or equivalent executive leadership position at an organization. A focus point of the
interviews was to gain an understanding of the participants’ lived experiences and how the
participants made meaning out of their experiences to gain the tools and skills to obtain a CEO
position. This participant structure was meant to ascertain the barriers these women encountered
and how they made meaning of the experiences to reach executive leadership.
There were five women with CEO titles that participated in the study. Sample size was
adequate to reach data saturation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Identifying and interviewing
women CEOs helped to understand the lived experiences of existing women CEOs, and how
these experiences help develop their perspectives and leadership style on both sides of the glass
34

ceiling. It also aided in understanding the techniques and skills these women utilized to persevere
and prevail. These women within this sample were appropriate as they are the individuals that
have been successful in obtaining CEO positions and have the greatest ability to provide insight
into their experiences and their techniques.
Data Sources
A narrative qualitative research approach seeks to explore and develop an understanding
of the meaning of lived experiences to the individual (Clandinin & Caine, 2008). As a form of
qualitative research, the narrative inquiry methodology does this by gaining understanding
through studying the context through which the stories are told by the participants (Kramp,
2003). Interviews allow for the discovery of information about participants that cannot be
observed, to gather the participants’ stories, and to produce rich descriptive information about
the participants’ perspectives (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Crawford & Lynn, 2019; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 2002).
Instrumentation
The interviews were conducted using a semi-structured method. The semi-structured
method was the correct method as it allowed the participants to tell their stories of their
experiences in relation to the questions asked, and I used probes to dig deeper into the
participant’s responses to gain richer data (Crawford & Lynn, 2019). An interview protocol
(Appendix A) was developed to provide a guide as to the information necessary to address with
the participants (introduction and closing) and ensure that all topics of inquiry were addressed
with each participant, ensuring consistency (Crawford & Lynn, 2019; Patton, 2002). Each
participant was asked the same base questions and allowed to elaborate on how each topic
35

specifically touched their lives. Additional probing questions were asked based on the
participants responses.
To develop the interview protocol, an interview instrumentation table (Appendix B)
ensured the research questions, concepts, and focus of the interviews aligned with the study’s
conceptual framework. Each question was identified along with the corresponding research
question it addressed. Next, the concepts specific to the interview questions were identified:
gender stereotypes, gender bias, gender roles, gender barriers, societal (macro), structural
(meso), individual (micro), and time (chrono). Finally, the focus of each question was identified
to ensure clarity in the questions asked and allow the interviewee assistance in how to respond
accordingly (Patton, 2002). The following section addresses how the data was collected.
Data Collection Procedures
Using network sampling and snowballing (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), potential
participants who were individuals with whom I have familiarity or who were referred to me were
contacted via email (Appendix C) which included an information sheet (Appendix D) regarding
the study. The interviews were conducted via videoconferencing technology. One participant
was unable to attend via video but did call into the videoconference number. There was an
introduction at the beginning of the interview to clearly articulate the intent of the study, that the
individual’s identity will remain confidential, that their participation was strictly voluntary, that
they had the ability to elect out at any time, and that the interview would be recorded for later
transcription and review. The interviews began with a demographic question on the
interviewees’ position/role, years in their position, and years in their field of work.
After the initial demographic questions, there were approximately 12 open-ended
questions with probes where necessary (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The questions were
36

developed to elicit responses that addressed the study’s research questions. The open-ended
questions asked were to elicit experiences and knowledge related to gender barriers experienced
by the participants during their career path before and after obtaining executive leadership. As
the intent of this research was to explore the lived experiences of the participants and the lessons
and skills learned that helped these women prevail and persevere over gender barriers both prior
to executive leadership and within it, the semi-structured questions allowed me to be adaptive to
the individual interviewee’s responses and experiences, thereby expanding the data brought forth
on the topic (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The interviews were conducted during August and September of 2022. The interviews
were conducted using videoconferencing technology, as this allowed the interviewee and I to see
each other and speak openly and allowed for some rapport to be established while at the same
time being mindful of distance, availability, and safety concerns related to COVID-19 (Crawford
& Lynn, 2019). One participant was unable to utilize the video portion of the videoconferencing
technology but was able to call into the videoconferencing allowing for audio and recording to
take place. The interviews lasted between 74 minutes and 165 minutes. This allowed adequate
time for each participant to tell their respective stories, to gather proper and rich data, and to also
be mindful of the participants’ time (Weiss, 1994). As the interviews were conducted using
videoconferencing technology, they were recorded, and the audio recordings were submitted to a
transcription software online to transcribe.
There are two other primary data collection techniques used in qualitative research:
observations and focus groups. The observation technique was determined to be inappropriate
for this study as I was looking to gain meaning by understanding and studying the stories and
given time constraints observing these stories as they occur was not feasible. The focus group
37

technique was determined to be inappropriate given that the individual stories and how the
participants made meaning from them was the intent; therefore, a group setting would not allow
for the individuals to adequately develop and expound on their own personal stories in rich detail
as they would individually.
Data Analysis
Analysis of the transcripts was an inductive and deductive process. As Merriam and
Tisdell (2016) described, data analysis begins as an inductive process by discovering what
emerges from the data. It then moves to an inductive/deductive stage where pre-established
concepts from earlier analysis and interviews are verified against new data from new interviews,
which also generate new categories. At the end of the data analysis, the process becomes
primarily deductive as data saturation is achieved (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The data analysis process included four phases. These phases were adopted from the
narrative analysis approach described by Josselson and Hammack (2021) but were reduced to
four phases versus Josselson and Hammack’s (2021) five phase approach. The phases were
modified to better meet the needs of the study’s purpose.
The first phase included transcription creation and review. After each interview, the audio
recordings were uploaded to a computer program that transcribed the audio records to text. Each
transcription was then reviewed for accuracy comparing the audio/video recordings to the
transcribed text. If differences were noted, the transcripts were corrected to reflect what I was
hearing and/or seeing on the audio and/or video recordings. Notations were made to annotate
emotions (i.e., laughing, sighing) if the emotions added meaning and context to the
transcriptions. As the transcriptions were reviewed, I made initial coding of areas of interest or
themes that emerged. Transcriptions were sent to the participants for review to ensure that what
38

was on the edited transcriptions was what the participant intended to reveal. If the participants
had edits, these were reviewed, and the transcripts were updated to reflect the edits. After the
first three interviews, I recorded my thoughts and ideas to investigate with the additional
interviews. After each of the fourth and the fifth participants were interviewed, I wrote a memo
of my thought’s, general impressions, and initial themes.
The second phase consisted of re-reading the transcripts paying close attention to themes
and developing additional codes. Excel © was utilized to create a spreadsheet that identified
specific extractions from the transcripts and the applicable code(s) applied. After conducting the
re-reading of a participant’s transcript, I made additional memos of the thematic clusters and
voices identified within the reading per participant (Josselson and Hammack, 2021).
The third phase involved reading through the coded transcript extractions within the
spreadsheet updating for any new codes that may have been added after they had been re-read in
phase two. I added coding to identify which extractions provided findings to the research
questions, conceptual framework, and developing profiles of each participant. In addition to
reading through the spreadsheet, I listened to the recorded audios of the interviews to further
immerse myself into the participants’ stories and how each participant responded to the
questions. From this, participant profiles were developed to bring forth the overall stories and
backgrounds of the women participating in the study.
The final phase involved reading through coded transcripts within the excel spreadsheet
and filtering the extractions by the applicable research questions which were identified in phase
three. The extractions pertaining to a research question were then further refined into thematic
clusters to allow for the synthesis of a cohesive response to each research question.

39

Credibility, Trustworthiness, and Reflexivity
Credibility and trustworthiness for this study was established based on the rigor of the
design and selection of participants, the interview process and interaction with participants, and
the use of rich thick descriptions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The participants were selected
based on their credentials, which were verified, ensuring credibility and trustworthiness as they
met the study’s participation criteria. As the participants were limited to women who obtained
CEO positions, the data was expected to be transferable to other individuals looking for insight
into how women have been successful or challenged because of gender barriers. I conducted the
interviews, thereby interacting with the participants. In addition to the above techniques,
credibility was established through diligence in maintaining adequate length and quantity of
interviews to obtain data saturation.
Interview transcripts were emailed to the participants for their review to ensure that the
data was accurate and correctly reflected the stories they were trying to convey. Merriam and
Tisdell (2016) referred to this procedure as member checking, and it is a common strategy for
ensuring the data’s credibility. Member checking helped ensure dependability by verifying the
accuracy of the recording of participants’ responses, and confirmability was addressed by
adhering to the interview protocol and consistent formats for all interviews.
As narrative inquiry is a study of lived experiences and recognizes that no two stories are
the same either per participant or per telling, concern for reliability is de minims but the
reflexivity of the researcher’s interpretations of the research is of substantial concern (Josselson
& Hammack, 2021). Reflexivity is the ability of the researcher to be intentional and transparent
in how their personal bias may impact their interpretations and understanding of the research
data (Josselson & Hammack, 2021). Recording and journaling of my thoughts and interpretations
40

of the data were performed to identify and minimize researcher bias. The process of the data
analysis was detailed to be transparent of how the data was reviewed. The ethics and the role of
the researcher were discussed in the following section.
Ethics and Role of Researcher
The protection of the study participants is of paramount concern in a qualitative study
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The issue of consent was addressed by one-on-one discussions and
confirmation of the use of the transcriptions via email from the respective participants of this
study. In addition, member checking was used to help ensure that what the participants intended
to disclose was properly recorded. Confidentiality was ensured because only the position title,
type of industry, and size of the organization based on headcount was disclosed. Other
identifying data was not disclosed. As the intent of this study was to provide a resource for other
women on the path to leadership positions through the lived experiences of those who have been
successful, no incentive was used. I was not in a position of authority over these individuals, and
their participation was completely voluntary. Two of the participants were individuals I was
acquainted with prior to my research study. The individuals were informed that their
participation was strictly voluntary and that they were able to withdraw their participation at any
time. Each of these women expressed a concern for the topic of this dissertation and were open
to participating. Therefore, there should not be an issue with power or coercion of any participant
as the only incentive the women had in participating in the study was to promote furthering
women in leadership. The study proposal went through the University of Southern California’s
Institutional Review Board (IRB) process. The IRB helps to protect the participants’ human
rights and ensures the researcher assesses the risk of harm to them because of their participation
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
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This research study was intended to benefit women who are or desire to be in C-Suite and
executive leadership positions. This research was meant to determine what techniques and
knowledge have worked and not worked to benefit women looking for additional knowledge on
navigating and/or combatting the obstacles they face. The individuals who may be harmed are
those who would have benefited from the discrimination of women, as the desired effect of the
research was to support women’s advancement and access to executive leadership positions. I am
a member of this classification of women in a C-Suite position, and who has also faced
discrimination based on my gender. The study’s questions were designed to extract knowledge
from the participants that would benefit other women looking for guidance and to understand
how barriers at different levels in an individual’s life and career work individually and jointly.
These results are recorded in this dissertation that the university will make available to others
looking to learn more about this topic of study.
As a woman in a C-Suite/executive leadership position who experienced gender bias, it
was necessary that I be cognizant of my opinions and work to ensure that the information I
relayed was the participants’ experiences and opinions and not my own. As Maxwell (2013)
noted, what is important in qualitative research is recognizing and understanding how you as the
researcher can influence the participants and understanding how this may affect the validity of
the findings. To help mediate this bias in the research results, it was imperative that I use
member checking to ensure that the participants’ voices are heard. I taped and journaled my
thoughts and interpretations of the interviews and findings as I progressed through the interview
and data analysis phases of the research. In addition, the questions were worded so that they were
neutral and not leading in any way.

42

Chapter Four: Findings
The purpose of this study was to explore the lived experiences of women who have
reached the position of CEO and the lessons learned that helped these women prevail and
persevere over gender barriers both on the track and into their executive leadership positions.
This study used a narrative inquiry method to learn what the participants’ responses were to
barriers and to gain a deeper insight into the motivations and experiences that helped them
navigate through the barriers and obstacles placed in their path to executive leadership.
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model of human development with slight modifications created the
foundation of the conceptual framework for this study (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Gardiner &
Kosmitzki, 2008). Eagly and Karau’s (2002) role congruity theory of prejudice towards female
leaders added depth to the understanding of how the gender barriers constructed at the societal
level, impact all ecological levels (Speranza, 2017). Much research has been done on identifying
what the gender barriers are that women face in obtaining executive leadership, this study was
aimed at adding to the limited work on what successful women have utilized to prevail and
preserve over gender barriers. This research study was guided by the following research
questions:
1. How did women in executive leadership roles experience barriers related to gender as
they navigated their career path into and within leadership?
2. What are the processes whereby women in leadership positions overcame the barriers
and challenges they faced as they navigated their academic and career pathways?
3. How did experiences with barriers impact the female executive leader’s leadership
style?
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The interview protocol used to elicit responses to answer the three research questions is attached
as Appendix A. These questions were designed to align with the research questions, key
concepts, and focus. Appendix B contains the Interview Instrumentation that provides the detail
of this alignment.
This chapter begins with a profile of each of the five participants. As this was a narrative
inquiry, it is important to understand the participants’ backgrounds to gain better insight and
understanding into how or why the individual participants formulated their response to barriers
and in particular gender barriers that they encountered. As noted by Josselson and Hammack
(2021), narrative analysis focuses on understanding how people make sense of the world around
them and their place within. The profiles will be followed by the findings pertaining to each
research question. The chapter concludes with a summarization of the findings.
Participants
Women who have obtained the position of CEO within the United States were the focus
of this study. Participant selection was done with purposeful intent (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Five women were chosen to participate in the study. Two of the women were individuals with
whom I had familiarity, the remaining three women were selected based on referrals made by
either the other participants or my associates. Each of the participants were interviewed utilizing
the Zoom © platform. All but one of the participants participated via audio and video with the
exception being via audio only. Each of the participants were requested to review the
transcriptions of their respective interviews for accuracy and approval. All five participants
responded that they approved of their transcript with two individuals making slight corrections or
clarifications. As the background of the individual participants is important to understand the
story of the individuals a profile of each participant will be presented below.
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Ariana
Ariana is a Black female in her late 40s who is the founder and CEO of a company that
provides medical supplies and disaster relief. She employs approximately 30 individuals. Ariana
had previously been employed in a high-pressure executive position in the financial sector. After
leaving this position in response to her desire to find a better balance between work and her
personal life, Ariana began her own company in a field that she had researched and determined
had growth potential. Ariana is married and has three children. Ariana’s life choices have been
strongly influenced by her family and her desire to make her environment more equitable than
what she experienced.
As a young child, Ariana’s father had a strong influence in her life choices. He was an
entrepreneur who ran his own construction company. He had a strong belief in what was the
proper career path for his daughter. When Ariana expressed a desire to be a pilot, she was
discouraged against it because she was a female. When she was in high school, she aspired to be
a corporate attorney as she felt she would be able to assist businesses in contract law. Her father
persuaded her from following this path and instead insisted that she become a nurse. Therefore,
Ariana went to nursing school all the while disliking it. After graduation and completing her
boards, she respectively told her father that she had gotten the degree that he wanted for her, but
now she was going to follow her own path.
Ariana knew that she lacked the education or experience to be in business, but she had a
strong desire to be in sales and marketing. Feeling that she had the skills but lacked the
experience, her goal was to get a perspective employer to take her seriously enough to hire her so
she could “move up the corporate ladder to be able to empower other people, other women.” She
interviewed with an organization and was hired into a position in financial sales. The
45

organization’s culture was White male and the only other woman in Ariana’s department held an
administrative support position. Her co-workers were unwelcoming and created an
uncomfortable environment for her to work in. Ariana recounted, “I decided that I was going to
learn everything I needed to learn in order to be ten times better, because they would not even
notice me if I wasn’t, and my goal was to be the best.” Despite the poor work environment,
Ariana excelled and within six months was a top tier salesperson. This success continued and she
received several promotions within her first few years with the organization.
While developing her career, Ariana also felt the need to begin a family. She always
wanted a family, but her mother had told her that if she had not found a man in college, it would
be more difficult to find one after. Ariana felt that her mother’s opinion created pressure on her
that she needed to begin a family while still developing her career. Ariana married her first
husband and had a child that was born premature. Ariana took a year’s leave of absence to be
with her child. Shortly after having her son, Ariana’s marriage ended, and she now felt the
pressure of being a single parent to provide for herself and child financially as well as the added
pressure of taking care of a child with health issues. She asked her employer if she could step
down from her position “to a lesser position that would not require so much time.” Her employer
decliner her request and instead allowed her to take time off if needed. Ariana remembers this
time as “it was challenging. It was a really tough position to be in.” Eventually, Ariana met her
second husband and together their relationship is much more supportive of a coparenting
relationship and career. “We do not give each other specific roles, which I love, because that
means we’re working together so that the home can be balanced.”
At work, Ariana continued to deal with a very White male dominant work environment.
When other women and minorities were hired, they were not given the tools and support to be
46

successful. Many of these individuals ended up leaving the organization after 60 days. Ariana
wanted to do something about the work environment. Therefore, as she continued to rise through
the organization and gain positions of leadership, she began to change the environment. She
gained an advocate in a position of power to help her. Her thought was, “We need to be
intentional with finding the qualified people to hire.” She continuously tried to recruit minorities
and even worked with historically black colleges and universities to find diverse candidates. She
also helped work with her employees to provide the support and the tools they needed to achieve.
Ariana stated, “offering support along with education and guidance was the key to making sure
that we have a solid team. Because if you don’t have a good foundation, the whole thing is going
to crumble.”
Ariana began to assess her career and family life situation. She realized that she was not
happy, and it was not her family that was the problem, but the imbalance of work and her family.
Ariana recalled thinking, “I have to take control as to what I want for myself and for my family,
and I need balance.” In addition to being unhappy, she was also getting pressure from her direct
supervisor as he felt insecure in his position. Ariana was producing for the organization, yet he
was not, and Ariana began to feel strife from him. After a very difficult day of trying to meet
with her supervisor, Ariana resigned. The organization contacted Ariana, but she had had enough
and respectfully declined their offers. It was at this point that Ariana made the decision to go into
business for herself.
Beth
Beth is a White female in her early 60s who is the CEO of a nonprofit organizations that
services young women in the Western United States. The organization’s headcount ranges from
between 115 to 200 throughout the year. Beth is in a long-term relationship and does not have
47

any children of her own, but her partner has both children and grandchildren that Beth includes
as her own family. During the discussion, Beth never expressed the desire to have children of her
own or that it had or had not been a priority in her life. Her discussions of childhood and the
impact that familiar relations had on her life decisions were focused on the impact of fostering a
desire to give back and of the support she received from her family to try new things. From
discussions with Beth, I took away the impression that education, goals, and being philanthropic
are important to her.
Beth discussed her early experience with education as a path of uncertainty with what she
wanted to do to the point that she left college before completing a degree. After obtaining a
position that required a degree, Beth returned to school to not only complete that degree but to go
on to also complete a master’s degree. Beth continues her desire of education as she is in the
process of completing a doctoral degree.
Goals were important from an early age. Beth speaks about the desire to be the first
female drum major in junior high school which she was successful in achieving. In her early
career, her goal was to become a store manager of a large retail store, which she was successful
in obtaining and was one of the youngest store managers at the time. Her goal setting continued
throughout her career to include her current position, which she saw as a goal to achieve and put
in motion a plan to achieve that goal. When asked about how she would act on her aspirations
she responded, “I would set a goal and go for it.” She attributes this to lessons learned from her
mother.
Philanthropy has always been a priority to Beth, and she credits this to her family and
social philanthropic programs she was involved in from a young age. Beth spent the first portion
of her career in retail, but even then, she was working the women’s lingerie department assisting
48

women with prosthesis after mastectomies which she attributed to as a “part of giving back”.
Beth has spent the past 32 years of her career in nonprofit organizations. The first organization
was a Catholic Diocese where she started out in the youth ministry and education which
eventually led to a mid-level leadership position. Beth left the Church to continue to grow her
career. At her current organization, she helps lead the organization to assist “girls see that they
can be anything.”
When asked about Beth’s perspective of how barriers and obstacles changed through her
career, Beth stated,
I don’t think I was conscious of the barriers of being a female in the ‘70s and ‘80s. I’m
very conscious of what they were now because I know and I’m very conscious of trying
to keep removing those for girls, now. I don’t feel like I have barriers in front of me, but I
know girls and young women, young professionals do. So, I’m very conscientious of that.
I feel this is important to note as it correlates to the ecological level of time (chrono) which is
part of the conceptual framework of this study. It implies that, society’s culture norms where
such that gender bias was not acknowledge in the past like it is in the present.
Cara
Cara is a Black female in her early 50s who is the founder and former CEO of a
consulting company that offers consulting services in education, social services, and healthcare.
Her company is in the Southeastern United States but does business in multiple different states.
Her company began 26 years ago as a mission to help “eradicate poverty related to student loan
debt.” She began providing consulting services while at the same time helping students increase
their standardize college entrance exam scores. Today, her company has approximately 100
people providing services to others. Cara is single and acknowledges that she has consciously
49

chosen to develop her career before having children. Cara has had to overcome bias over her
race, gender, and place of residence. She attributes her success to the power of environment and
the power of education.
From a young age, Cara has been an achiever being a talented athlete and student as well
as helping others. She began running track at the age of 5 and by age 16 she was a Junior
Olympian for Team USA. She aspired to compete in the 1992 and 1996 Olympics but after
achieving a qualifying time, broke her leg and was unable to continue her dream. In addition to
her athletic aptitude, Cara excelled in education. Her career goal was to be a medical researcher.
At the age of 12 she began high school and by the age of 16 she was attending college. She holds
bachelor’s degrees in biological and biomedical sciences and nursing. She holds a master’s
degree in human development, family studies, and related services, and is currently a doctoral
candidate in organizational change and leadership.
Cara has a strong sense of self and acknowledges the power of environment and the
power of education. When asked about her goals and aspirations as a young person and how
gender impacted her, she recalled the time when she began to tell others about her career
aspirations and how the advice, she received from a school guidance counselor did not align with
her aspirations. Cara recounted the advice she received from the counselor as follows,
As a woman, as a girl, I needed to get a good government job, especially as a Black girl,
because I needed to put myself in a position where I would always have benefits and be
able to take care of my offspring.
Cara goes on to describe the reaction of her mother to this advice as being so upset that her
mother went to the school the next day to speak to the counselor. The counselor defended her
50

recommendation based on Cara’s zip code, gender, and race. Cara’s mother made sure that this
bias did not prevent her daughter from achieving her potential.
Cara continued to speak about the strength of her family environment. She said, “I came
from a very strong, just a very strong home environment … there never was an option that I
wasn’t going to go to school.” This support continued as Cara also describes how her father gave
her the “permission to advocate for myself early on.” Her father also taught her that it was
important to be a woman and that she should never let others emasculate her “because of the
strength of my character.” Cara recounts the best lesson she ever learned was from her mother “I
could be anything I wanted to be, but I couldn’t be great at everything.”
Leadership appears to be an evolving dimension for Cara. When asked about when she
first thought of being a leader her response was that she never wanted to be a leader. She had
seen other people who were leaders, and her impression was that it was a thankless job. She went
on to describe an early experience in a leadership position and that reflecting on the experience
she felt that she was not and effective leader in that situation. In her opinion, a good leader leaves
“the people better than they were when I met them.” Cara continues to work on her leadership
skills and has gone so far as to be pursuing a doctorate in organizational change and leadership to
help herself and others achieve their goals.
Diana
Diana is a White female in her mid-50s who is the CEO of a nonprofit organization that
services youth development, education, and food services delivery in the Southwestern United
States. The organization has a headcount of approximately 500 individuals. Beth is in a long-
term relationship and chose not to have children until she was in her mid- to late-30s. Diana
expressed that she met her partner when she was starting her career and had a strong desire to
51

travel and learn; therefore, her relationship was very sporadic during the first 10 years. She grew
up in a family that was matriarchal and supportive of her “ability to be independent, critical
thinking, think for myself, and to be a leader.”
My impression of Diana is she is a very sophisticated, world travelled, executive. The
importance of education was instilled in Diana from a young age by her parents. She described
that her parents raised her “to be independent and to be financially independent.” She went on to
say, “It was not an option for anybody in our family to not get at least a bachelor’s degree.”
Diana attended college in pursuit of her desire to be a theater actress but changed her track to
directing after a professor pointed out her lack of skill in acting but noted that she was more
interested in what the other people were doing. Diana observed, “That was really one of the first
game changers for me.” Diana’s pursuit of education continues later in her career when she
realized that she would have more advancement options open to her if she held a Master of
Business and Administration (MBA). In addition to learning through school, Diana learned a
great deal through her world travels.
Diana spent her early career in international development and lived overseas for eight
years. During this time, she travelled to places such as the former Soviet countries, the Middle
East, and Cuba. During these travels, Diana was able to learn of the different cultures and power
dynamics. An example was when Diana was working in a country that had an egalitarian
government with many women holding positions, she noted, “You start to realize the levels of
power and who really can make the ultimate decisions, and most of those were men.” Diana also
spoke of how she learned to work around gender issues and use the example of allowing lower
supporting male colleagues to take the lead and speak in cultures where women were not allowed
to publicly speak, while at the same time controlling what was said in the background.
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Diana expressed how she had a desire to give back. She has spent nearly 30 years in the
nonprofit sector working in both healthcare and now youth development, education, and food
services.
Diana was very aware of gender barriers or obstacles throughout her career. In her early
life while working overseas, she experienced what other cultures deemed was acceptable gender
behavior. In addition to cultural expectations, there were other obstacles created by gender when
traveling. Diana stated, “When you’re working and traveling internationally, I think there’s
physical obstacles and safety obstacles, and to pretend there’s not is delusional for anybody.”
She commented that these obstacles played a role in her long-term career objectives.
Emma
Emma is a White female in her early 40s who is the CEO of an agriculture software
company with a team of 25 people. The company that she spearheads is a derivative of her
family’s farming business that was split off to become its own entity. Emma is married and the
mother of four school age children. She grew up on a family farm in the Southeastern United
States. Emma is a very energetic individual that is passionate about her business and her family.
Gender roles were very present for Emma growing up on a family farm. From early
childhood, she would be out on the farm helping with the farming activities. These activities
were gender oriented as Emma describes, “Girls had restrictions of what they could and could
not do. I was not allowed to drive the forklift.” She went on to describe that at lunch time she
would be sent inside the house to help her grandmother in the kitchen, yet the boys were to stay
outside. She discussed how the girls in the family were expected to go to college so that they
could be self-sufficient. This expectation made Emma “feel like the pressure was on ten times
harder to be more successful and be stronger because I was a female.”
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Emma stated that her ambition had always been to move away from the family farm to
New York City and be in corporate America. Upon graduating from college, she was offered a
position in New York City working with corporate America. Instead of taking her dream job,
Emma chose to return to her family farm. This decision was spurred by the fact that Emma had
met her future husband at college, and he would be returning home to work in his family
business. After being unsuccessful in finding a position near her husband’s hometown, she
returned to the family farm to “get my feet underneath me to figure out where I was going to go”
with her degree. Emma’s father was an important influence on her, and at his urging she help the
farm with its internet presence and the selling activities of one of the family’s farming
operations.
When the software product, developed by the company, matured to the point of becoming
its own company, Emma was chosen by her family to take the lead and run the company. This
change required a dramatic change in Emma’s family life. During the beginning of her marriage,
her husband maintained a separate home in another town during the work week and travel
extensively for work. Upon this change, he reduced his travel and opened an office near their
home so that he was more available to the family, and he could help support Emma’s career. In
addition to the support from her husband, her older children took on more responsibilities.
Despite the support of her husband and children, Emma expressed conflict she incurs when
traveling for work and the need to be there for her family. She said the “hotline still goes to
mom, no matter what happens, the hotline is the mom.”
Emma also discussed the pressures of developing a new company. At the time she was
launching her company, the COVID-19 pandemic shelter in place mandates were instituted
which affected her company’s operations and sales. Her children were unable to attend school,
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and Emma was trying to educate her four children while running a new business. In addition to
the stress that COVID-19 was having on her family and business, her home and office were hit
by a hurricane. The hurricane flooded her office and required it to be completely remodeled.
Despite these obstacles, Emma continued to battle and landed a place in a program sponsored by
a major company that would helped promote her business.
The previous participant profiles helped frame the stories of each of the women that took
part in this research study. Narrative inquiring provides the researcher a method through which
the stories of participants are analyzed to understand how each participant rationalizes
themselves and their world (Josselson & Hammack, 2021). The following three sections will
discuss the findings pertaining to each of the three research questions from the lived experiences
of these five women.
Findings Related to Research Question 1
Research Question 1 sought to understand how women in executive leadership roles
experienced barriers related to gender as they navigated their career path into and within
leadership. This study was guided by a conceptual framework that was built upon
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model of human development with slight modifications
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Gardiner & Kosmitzki, 2008). The participant’s responses to research
Question 1 fit well within the different ecological environmental constructs. This section will
first describe those barriers experienced at the social (macro) level, followed by the structural
(meso) level, then the individual (micro) level, and finally the time (chrono) level.
Social (Macro)
As discussed previously, the social (macro) level represents barriers that work at the
societal level, which can include culture and belief systems (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Diehl &
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Dzubinski, 2016). Within the social (macro) level the participants discussed barriers or obstacles
they encountered which can be classified into four of the social (macro) barriers that Diehl and
Dzbusinsk (2016) and Diehl et al., (2020) identified: cultural constraints on women’s choices,
gender stereotypes, gender unconsciousness, and scrutiny. Each of the barriers and their
respective findings will be discussed separately.
Cultural Constraints on Women’s Choices
Cultural constraints can impact a woman’s ability to seek an advanced education as well
as to pursue a career (Diehl & Dzbuinski, 2016; Diehl et al., 2020), and they are often decisions
or influences made early in an individual’s life by families and educational institutions
(Fitzsimmons and Callan, 2016). Cultural constraints that influence family behavior was a strong
finding for both Emma and Ariana. There were expectations placed on the roles individuals
played within their households and family businesses, career expectations, and of having a
family.
Household and Family Business. Both Emma and Ariana experience cultural
constraints concerning what was proper behavior for a female versus a male growing up. Emma
grew up on a family farm that was run by her father and uncles. Emma recounted that during her
father’s generation, he and his six brothers remained working on the family farm and his two
sisters did not. She noted that girls had roles on the farm (i.e., in the kitchen, in the office) and
boys had roles on the farm (i.e., out working on and with the machinery). She stated, “Girls had
restrictions of what they could and could not do.” The girls were not allowed to touch the
machinery but were sent inside the home at lunchtime to assist their grandmother in the kitchen.
Emma also went on to comment that these roles were not just expected of females but also could
be limiting to the males. She stated, “The females were standardly found in the office, and the
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males were standardly found on the tractors outside.” Therefore, there were different summer
jobs for Emma and her sisters versus their brother.
Ariana also experienced gender constraints but her experience was quite different from
Emma’s. Unlike Emma, who was not allowed to do specific activities in the family business as
they were for males only, Ariana was allowed to perform most of the tasks within her father’s
construction company. Where Ariana experienced conflict was in how her father was
inconsistent in his gender expectations. As Ariana described her father’s expectations as, “he
never used the excuse that I was a female during that time [working in family business], but for
some reason, he would imply it in other areas that didn’t make sense to me as a young person.”
These other areas that Ariana spoke about were often what was an acceptable career for her
which will be addressed next.
Career Expectations. Career choices and options are important from an early age as
Fitzsimmons and Callan (2016) noted, therefore, the finding that some of the participants
experienced cultural constraints on their choice of career was compelling. Ariana, Emma, and
Cara all spoke about how they encountered obstacles or expectations on what was appropriate for
their future careers by family and school personnel.
For Ariana, the choice of career and the impact that her father had on it appeared to be
significant to her. From the beginning of our conversation, the fact that she studied nursing
because it was her father’s choice of career for her was reiterated several times. Ariana was
adamant that she never wanted to be a nurse and stated, “I don’t even like blood. I just didn’t like
it. I’m the one when you get cut, I’m like, oh, let’s cover it up!”
Ariana went on to discuss her father’s reaction to the different careers she expressed
interest in. Ariana told the story about when as a young girl, she told her father she wanted to be
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a pilot, “I remember telling my dad, I think I want to be a pilot. This is cool, and he’s like, ‘you,
girl, you’re not going to fly planes.” She went on to say, “I remember very clearly him telling me
I couldn’t do it because I was a girl.” This confused Ariana because at other times she was told
by her father that she could do anything. This behavior from her father continued. When Ariana
was in high school, she expressed the desire to be a corporate attorney. Her father persuaded her
against being an attorney, as Ariana said, “Everything I got from him was negative about, ‘no,
you don’t want to do that,’ and because of my trust and my dad guiding me, I took it at face
value as to what I should do.” When asked why she felt her father was against her becoming an
attorney and for becoming a nurse, her response was,
I think he viewed it as, ‘Okay, she’s an attorney. She’s probably going to build a practice.
She’s probably got to do all these things, but if she’s a nurse she can go clock in, she can
make money, and that’s pretty much it.’ And then also, it’s not as an aggressive type of
field. There wasn’t the threat of male dominance in that field.
Emma experience career expectations from her family in a different manor. Instead of
encouraging her to go into a specific career path, she was subtly pushed way from farming. She
stated, “I think they really wanted the girls to go out and start their own lives, go make a career.
The boys could come back and farm, the girls needed to go make their career.” In addition to the
expectation of going out and starting their own lives, Emma also spoke about her mother’s desire
for her daughters to be self-sufficient and college educated. These expectations created pressure
as Emma explained, “I feel like the pressure was on ten times harder to be more successful and
to be stronger because I was a female, and you had to do it with having different frictions and
different opportunities.”
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For Cara, her exposure to gendered career expectations did not come from her family, but
instead came from a school counselor. Cara spoke of the career advice she received at school,
My guidance counselor told me that as a woman, as a girl, I needed to get a good
government job, especially as a Black girl, because I needed to put myself in a position
where I would always have benefits and be able to take care of my offspring.
Cara maintained that because of her mother and her strong family environment, Cara did not
follow this advice but continued her pursuit of science.
Having a Family. Cultural expectations on meeting a spouse and having children was
also discussed by some of the participants. Diana discussed the pressure and expectation that her
family had on her getting married and having children. When asked about how the pressure
affected her, she responded, “Yeah, not, not great.” She continued to explain, “I was in college. I
had a fiancé. I was trying to do all the right things.”
Ariana spoke about how she wanted a family but felt pressure to have her family while
also trying to start her career:
My mom used to say, ‘If you’re not going to meet him in college, the pickings are going
to be slim when you graduate as far as having a guy that you can actually connect with …
and so, she put this stigma in me.
Ariana continued with her discussion about family and the cultural expectations that are placed
on women from early childhood. “I totally feel like how you are brought up with the dolls and all
the stuff that make you feel like, oh, you got to be pretty, your house is in order.” Ariana stated,
“my thoughts were yes, I can work, but I’m still supposed to make sure the family is good.”
The constraints discussed by the participants that they encounter at the household and
family business, the career expectations, and having a family also have great similarity to the
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next topic of gender stereotypes and some of the same points could have also been discussed
within. The next section will address two examples that were identified specifically as gender
stereotypes.
Gender Stereotypes
Some cultural constraints on women’s choices could be identified as gender stereotypes
while other gender stereotypes could influence how others created cultural constraints on the
participants of the study. Individuals are generalized by their gender and are expected to imbue
the characteristics associated with that gender, be it agentic for males or communal for females
(Eagly & Sczesny, 2009). Two specific incidents involving gender stereotypes will be discussed
next.
Diana spoke about how she learned the impact of gender by visiting different countries
and cultures. She said, “Whether I was in Middle Eastern countries, I was in Latin countries, or I
was in the former Soviet Union, the role you have to play in many of these countries is very
different based on your gender.” Even though she experienced women in different positions of
authority, she also noted that this authority was illusionary as men continued to be the final
decision makers.
Cara spoke about how people try to place her in a box based on her gender and her race
and then compare her to other individuals.
A lot of times people would interact with me and be like, you’re so different than, and I
would stop them right there, and I would say if at the end of your conversation is, I’m so
different than any other female or any other Black or any other Black female that you’ve
met, I need you to go back to the table and look at the box that you kind of put me in,
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because I’m the most atypical Black female that you probably have ever met, depending
on how you operationalize Black and female.
Cara continued to speak about other’s expectations which leads to the next example of gender
unconsciousness.
Gender Unconsciousness
Gender unconsciousness is the lack of knowledge or acceptance that gender has an
impact on women in the workforce (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016; Diehl et al., 2020). Cara
commented on this barrier when she noted, “There was never the expectation that I would be a
CEO, because CEOs didn’t look like me. CEOs weren’t Black females.” Another example of
gender unconsciousness that Cara experienced also involves the prior example of the career
advice she received from the school guidance counselor. In the telling of this example, Cara also
spoke of the response her mother had upon hearing about the advice. She stated that her mother
was very upset and when speaking with the school guidance counselor the next day her mother
told the counselor, “You had no other conception of her doing anything besides getting a job
where she could be able to take care of herself and her offspring?” The school guidance
counselor explained to Cara’s mother that her advice had been based on the community that Cara
grew up in and what the stereotypical expectations was for Black females from her community.
For Cara, as a Black female growing up in a lower social economic community, she faced many
preconceived expectations about her and her future career prospects.
Scrutiny
The final social (macro) gender obstacle that was noted in the discussions with the
participants was that of scrutiny. Diehl and Dzubinski (2016) defined scrutiny as the “intense or
hypercritical examination of women” (p. 188). Cara spoke about how she undergoes scrutiny by
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others, particularly men, when they find out that she is a single, female CEO. She has had her
sexuality questioned, and she spoke of an experience were a man said to her, “You’re 50 years
old, you’re single by choice?” She went on to say, “I had to answer all of his questions at the
same time. I was like, no, I am not bisexual. I’m not transgender. I’m not gay.” This was
exasperating for Cara, as she felt like she was put upon to educate this male.
This section addressed how the participants experienced barriers related to gender as they
navigated their career path into and within leadership that occurred at the social (macro) level of
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model of human development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). The next
section will discuss barriers the participants experienced at the structural (meso) ecological level.
Structural (Meso)
The structural (meso) level are barriers encountered at organizational and group levels
that impact the individual participants directly (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016). Of the structural
(meso) barriers or obstacles identified by Diehl and Dzubinski (2016) and Diehl et al., (2020),
the participants discussed male organizational culture, queen bee, lack of mentoring and
sponsorship. The participants also identified work-life conflict from the organization,
discounting the whole person, gender bias, as well as others.
Male Organizational Culture
Male organizational culture is denoted when a working environment is conducive to the
male experience and interests (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016; Diehl et al., 2020). This barrier was
mentioned by Beth, Emma, and Ariana.
Beth at one point worked for a Catholic Diocese; therefore, her upward mobility was
limited. In speaking about her experience at the Church she stated:
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The limitations placed, consciously and subconsciously, codified. It’s not even under the
iceberg. It’s the tip of the iceberg is the male dominance in the hierarchy of the Church.
So that was a huge limiting factor, and consciously, subconsciously, whatever, I knew I
was never going to be up there.
Emma’s experiences within the agricultural industry also demonstrate a male dominated
culture. She described her experiences when attending agricultural events,
Even today, if I sit down at anything big ag, there are no women at the table, and if
they’re there, they’re the ones getting the waters or they arrange the meetings, or they’re
helping with the technology. Inclusivity, diversity, DEI at ag is the furthest behind of all
industries, in my opinion.
When asked if this was because it is such a physically labor-intensive industry, Emma responded
yes, and went on to comment,
You’re supposed to be strong. I mean, there’s no other way to say it. Female and male
sports are divided for a reason. Like our bodies are made differently. So, when you’re
thinking about changing a wheel on a tractor, you picture a male like you don’t picture a
female lifting something very heavy. Yes, I agree with you. I think it’s because
stereotypically you forget when it comes to ag, there’s just as much importance on
working smart as there is working hard.
Unlike Emma’s industry where it is heavily labor intensive, Ariana worked in the
financial sales industry, which was an office position, yet the company she worked for also
displayed a male dominate culture. She spoke about what her experience was like when she first
started working for the company, “It was nothing but Caucasian males in the office. They were
not very nice. They did not want to give you any information.” She went on to say that the White
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males in the office tried to keep others that were different from them out. She described the
office department as containing 22 individuals and besides herself there was only one other
female in the department, and she held an administrative support position. Ariana stated that the
department would hire non-White males, but the new employees would leave before 60 days
because, “They didn’t give them tools to be successful. They didn’t want to keep them around.”
The above experiences described the effect that the work environment can have on the
people working within. The next section discusses how a bad female leader can also impact other
women within the organization.
Queen Bee
Diana and Cara both discussed situations where their direct supervisor was a woman who
was either difficult to work for or had an underlying political agenda. This type of experience is
called the queen bee effect which occurs when women in leadership positions become a
hindrance or obstacle to women in lower positions (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016; Diehl et al., 2020;
Hamel, 2009).
Very early in Diana’s career she was hired to be the administrative assistant for a woman.
She was warned by the human resource department that the individual she was going to report to
was known for being a difficult person to work for. Diana described the individual as a
nightmare and said that she was awful to work for. Diana reflected on the experience,
Looking back, I see she had no one [emphasis added] in her corner. She was the only
[emphasis added] female executive of a very, very, heavily dominated field and
organization, and I bet she had to claw her way for everything she had to do.
Cara also experienced a female supervisor that was difficult to work for. Cara described
how she was hired by a Black woman in a leadership position, and Cara felt that the woman’s
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intentions where self-serving. Cara believed the supervisor’s intention was not to promote other
minority women, but instead to make an environment where the supervisor could have authority.
When Cara became aware of this and chose to leave the position, her supervisor attacked her by
trying to disparage Cara’s reputation to reduce Cara’s marketability to other potential employers.
This experience of bad leadership leads to the next topic of lack of mentoring and sponsorship.
Lack of Mentoring and Sponsorship
Mentorships is the relation between an individual that provides advice and guidance
(mentor) to another individual who is usually younger or less experienced (mentee), whereas a
sponsorship occurs when an individual, usually with access and good standing, provides support
and endorsement of an individual (Oxford English Diction, n.d.). Though the participants did
speak positively about the mentoring or sponsorship they did receive, Cara spoke about the lack
of support for women she felt:
There was no one who came along and said, “I give you permission to be great, and
here’s what I learned.” Here’s why I messed up. Very seldom, even if they had a mentor,
I mean, they just didn’t have people who were willing to show their battle scars and also
open their onion.
Work-Life Conflict
Work-life conflict, the discord between career and family responsibilities, was classified
by Diehl and Dzubinski (2016) and Diehl et al. (2020) as predominately occurring at the
individual (micro) level, but during the discussions with the participants of this study work-life
conflict also appeared at the organizational level. This determination was made because the
participants relayed how they felt the expectations were placed not by themselves but by the
organizations that they worked for.
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Diana spoke about how she felt organizations penalized women when they had to make
the choice to care for a child versus doing activities to promote one’s career. Referring to
organizations Diana said, “If they want certain levels of continued education or experience and
you’ve taken off years for childbearing or child raising, it definitely could impact your timeline
for moving up.”
Ariana experienced organizational behavior towards her having to take time off to care
for her family. She stated,
It’s strange how they put the barriers where if we actually leave early because our kid is
sick, it’s frowned upon. It’s like the unspoken conversation. If we had a man in a
position, he probably wouldn’t have to leave, or he could travel 10 days a week and it’s
okay because he doesn’t have any responsibility, his wife takes care of the kids. All of
those standards, they’re horrible.
Ariana also stated,
With the company I was working for, it was interesting because, again, it’s almost as a
woman, you can’t have, like, they don’t want to hear your kid is sick. They don’t want to
hear about your child is sick. I’m just being honest. They just don’t want to hear about
the woes of what it takes to be who you are and you’re a mother first, you’re a woman
first, you’re a mom, maybe a wife. You have all these titles.
Echoing Ariana’s statement above about how organizations do not want to hear about a
sick child and the roles and responsibilities women have, there was also the observation of
organizations trying to negate the otherness of women. This topic will be discussed next.
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Discounting the Whole Person
Discounting the whole person refers to the actions that women must take to make
themselves less communal or having to not portray all their aspects to fit the needs of others.
Cara described it best when she said,
To climb the corporate ladder, you negate some of your woman-ness to climb the
corporate ladder, but women who are minorities, you are asked to negate your woman-
ness and your woman as a minority-ness, to put yourself in a position to be at baseline.
This leads into the next obstacle that was noted at the organizational level, gender bias.
Gender Bias
Gender bias, which was also discussed by Diehl and Dzubinski (2016) to occur at the
structural (meso) level, was an obstacle that Beth discussed incurring. Beth recounted the time
when she experienced a male who was at a lower level in the Church trying to circumvent her
and go straight to her supervisor because she was a woman. “He was at a parish level, and I was
at diocese level … at the time, it was like, who is this woman telling me what to do?” Ariana
experienced gender bias in the hiring practice of her prior organization. She noted that the
interviews were done by a panel and that the men on the panel would find reasons not to hire
women interviewees. There were other findings related to barriers within organizations that did
not fit into the prior categories, and they will be discussed next.
Others
Several other obstacles or barriers were encountered at the organizational level by the
participants that did not fit into the previous categories. The first would be the physical aspects
of being a woman that Diana faced while travelling abroad. Diana said, “When you’re working
and traveling internationally, I think there’s physical obstacles and safety obstacles, and to
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pretend there’s not is delusional for anybody.” She went on to say, “It absolutely made me
reconsider what I wanted to do long term.” Ariana mentioned the gender and racial gossip she
had to endure after being promoted. It was implied that the only reason she got a promotion was
because of inappropriate behavior, “Oh well, you know, he likes those kind.” Cara spoke about
the lack of training for women and executive leadership, “I know there’s a different skill set from
C-suite to CEO that women are not being taught, and Black women are definitely not being
taught.” Corresponding to the lack of mentoring and sponsorship previously mentioned was a
lack of female leadership role models. Beth spoke about when she worked for a major
department store that “none of the top execs were female.” Diana also experienced this early in
her career and stated, “There weren’t that many female executives to emulate.”
This section addressed how organizational structures and behavior created barriers and
obstacles for the participants of the study. The next section of the Bronfenbrenner’s ecological
model of human development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) to be discussed is the individual (micro)
level and the obstacles or barriers encountered by the participants within.
Individual (Micro)
The individual (micro) level are barriers placed on the individual woman primarily by
herself (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016). Of the three barriers previously discussed in the literature
review at the individual (micro) level by Diehl and Dzubinski, 2016 and Diehl et al., 2020 (i.e.,
personalizing, psychological glass ceiling, work-life conflict) the only barrier discussed by the
participants was that of work-life conflict. It appears that this was a common issue for most of
the participants with differing responses.
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Cara chose to wait to have children. She spoke about how from a young age her father sat
her down and spoke about the effect having children would have on her. She recounted a
discussion she had with her father while still in high school when he said,
‘You do understand that once you have a child, things will be different. You understand
when you get married, things will be different. They’re different decisions you would
have to make.’ And I think those conversations played out in the back of my ear very
early on. I had no desire to have a child in my 20s.
Cara went on to discuss how she realized that she only had a limited time to build wealth and to
preserve it. She spoke about the advice she received from her aunt, and that was to “live your life
before you bring a life into this world.” From the advice from both her father and aunt, Cara
made the decision to pursue her career first.
Diana spoke about the choices she made regarding a family, as well. As previously
discussed, she received pressure to have children from her parents. For her this pressure was
difficult. She was in a relationship and had a fiancé in college. As she said, “I was trying to do all
the right things.” After college, the engagement ended because of her traveling for her career.
She then met her soulmate shortly after, but the first 10 years of the relationship were sporadic.
She and her wife have been together now for 32 years, but they did not have children until Diana
was in her mid- to late-30s.
Ariana spoke about the choices she made and the difficulties she encountered trying to be
a mother and have a career. When asked whether she made a conscious effort to put her career
first before having children or if she tried to do them both at the same time, Ariana replied,
I tried to do it at the same time, and I’m going to tell you why. The reason I did was more
so because I wanted a family. I knew that, but I didn’t meet the guy in college. I didn’t
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meet the perfect guy while I as in college, so my mom used to say, ‘if you’re not going to
meet him in college, the pickings are going to be slim when you graduate’ as far as
having a guy that you can actually connect with or whatever. And so, she put this stigma
in my head … I was like, okay, I need to yes, work is work, but I do need to date and
have a functioning lifestyle and decide who am I going to settle down with and so forth.
Ariana met her first husband and together they had a child. The child was born prematurely and
shortly thereafter Ariana and her husband divorced. This created more pressure, and Ariana
stated that “I felt like I had to do it all.” Ariana asked her employer if she could take a lesser
position with less stress as she did not feel that she could perform her required duties and take
care of a child with health issues. Her employers declined her offer allowing her the ability to
take time off as needed to attend to her child. For Ariana, this was difficult, and she recounted,
“It was a really tough position to be in.”
Emma discussed how she chose her husband over her dream job. Emma’s dream was to
be on Park Place, New York. After college, Emma received a job offer for her dream job, but she
had also fallen in love, and he was going back home. Emma chose her love and after
unsuccessfully trying to find a job using her skills in his hometown, returned to work on the
family farm. At the request of her father, she began helping the family farm update their
technology presence and helped generate sales for one of the farming operations. Emma married
her husband and together they had four children. It was not until several years later that an
opportunity arose that allowed Emma to take the risk of running a new company. When speaking
about her choices Emma said,
I wanted to be corporate and national and this that and the other, but suddenly realized
the importance of starting the family young and I reprioritized my goal and said,
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corporate America is just not for me. But right now, I’m in corporate America in some
ways that’s who my clients are.
Emma spoke about the support that she has received from her husband and children, but she also
said that she still feels the mother guilt when she is unable to be there for a child’s class party or
she is out of town on their first day of school.
Each of these women all faced choices in relation to having a career and having a family.
Each experience was unique but at the same time similar. It continues to demonstrate how
women must make hard decisions when it comes to whether they have a family and a career, as
well as, dealing with the guilt that follows.
Time (Chrono)
The time (chrono) level was the final level of Bronfenbrenner’s modified ecological
model of human development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Gardiner & Kosmitzki, 2008) used in the
study’s conceptual framework. Gardiner and Kosmitzki, 2008 stated this level represented the
“focus on time and sociohistorical conditions.” There were three examples of barriers and
obstacles related to progression of time that will be discussed below.
Beth noted that her awareness of barriers has changed over time. She stated, “I don’t
think I was conscious of the barriers of being a female in the ‘70s and ‘80s. I’m very conscious
of what they are now.” Beth also discussed the gender bias and gender roles she encountered in
her early career in the retail business. She commented on how there were females at the store
manager level but that at the top executive level there were no females. She went on to say, “And
that was kind of retail in the ‘80s. That was kind of everything in the ‘80s. Let’s just be honest.
There weren’t very many high-level women, anything.”
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This lack of female leadership related to a point in time was also reiterated by Diana. She
stated, “I think when I was coming up the ranks, probably in the ‘90s, there weren’t that many
female executives to emulate.” When asked if she had seen a change in the barriers and obstacles
related to the progression in her life, Diana responded,
I think it’s absolutely an evolution of history and time. I think as we evolve as a society,
that has had a huge impact for me personally in my career and women in general in the
workplace. As I mentioned, I used to be the only one of one or two females sitting at a
table, and that is not the case anymore from a work perspective.
Emma also spoke about time and its impact on the agricultural industry. She discussed
how the individuals who tend to be leading the agricultural industry have been doing so for years
and are set in their ways; therefore, it is difficult to effect change until there is a change in the
leadership.
The discussions with the participants help identify that there appears to be a culture shift
occurring allowing for more acceptance of women in leadership positions which is also
supported by the research in that women have grown from no CEO positions in the Fortune-
ranked companies prior to 1972 to 8.2% as of 2021 (Catalyst, 2021), but it is also apparent that
the increase is not in alignment to the presence of women in the work force as women comprise
45% of the U.S. full-time workforce (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021). These statistics and
the participants’ responses help demonstrate that more needs to be done to impact and increase
the cultural shift in the acceptance of women in leadership.
Summary
The research sought to understand how women in executive leadership roles experienced
barriers related to gender as they navigated their career path into and within leadership. The prior
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research suggested that barriers and obstacles would impact women and at multiple ecological
levels within their lives (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016; Diehl et al., 2020). From the participants
responses this appears to be true, as each participant discussed experiencing multiple barriers at
multiple levels. Cara discussed experiencing social (macro) barriers of what was considered an
acceptable career to pursue and gender stereotyping by people placing her in what they perceived
as specific “boxes”, structural (meso) barriers of working for a queen bee and lack of mentoring,
and an individual (micro) barrier of choosing to pursue a career before having a family. Diana
discussed experiencing the social (macro) barrier of her families’ expectations that she marry and
have children, the structural (meso) barrier of working for a difficult female boss, and the time
(chrono) barrier of the change in the number of women in leadership positions over her career.
This is just two of the five participants, but all the participants discussed experiencing multiple
barriers at multiple levels. Each of these women are unique, yet they each encountered many of
the same barriers and obstacles.
In addition, the responses also helped support the use of Eagly and Karau’s (2002) role
congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders within the conceptual framework as the
gender barriers these women faced at all the levels were often the result of social roles and
expectations. Ariana addressed this when she discussed how women are taught from a young age
that they are to be concerned with their physical appearance as well as being the primary
caregiver of their family. Cara discussed how when she was growing up there never was an
expectation that she would be a CEO; therefore, she was not prepared to be a CEO like a White
male would have been prepared. It is interesting to note that Diana specifically spoke to the
change in obstacles and barriers as society has evolved further supporting Eagly and Karau
(2002). Diana’s response also helps support the idea that a cultural shift may be occurring that is
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more accepting of women in leadership positions, but as the statistical data indicates women
represent only 31% of the reported executive/senior-level positions while at the same time
accounting for 45% of the U.S. full-time workforce (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021)
further supporting more needs to be done.
Findings Related to Research Question 2
Research Question 2 sought to determine what the processes were that allowed the
women in leadership positions to overcome the barriers and challenges they faced as they
navigated their academic and career pathways. The findings from the study participants were
categorizable as either external support or internal responses and behaviors within the participant
themselves. The findings appear to support the conceptual frameworks assumption that the
societal factors would influence the organizational and individual factors. Therefore, the external
support factors will be discussed first followed by the internal responses and behaviors.
External Support
Each of the study participants described at least one kind of external support that they
received from others. These support systems helped the participants develop and grow both as a
person as well as a leader. As Diana stated, “I think I’ve just always surrounded myself with
really the right people, and I think that’s a key strategy … it’s finding the right people who are
going to help you thrive.” The first finding was of family support both as a child as well as an
adult. In addition to family, mentors, sponsors, and coaches were also discussed. Each of these
will be discussed in the following sections.
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Family Support as a Child
The first type of support to be discussed is the support the participants received as a child
from their family members. This type of support was often associated with the term role model
by the participants. The role models were often women but could also be males.
Beth, Cara, and Diana all spoke about how their families instilled the ability to try, to
work hard, and that perfection was not expected but effort was. Beth spoke to how her family
gave her the ability to try and that perfection was not expected but effort was. Cara stated that the
“best lesson ever” was the advice she received from her mother, “My mom taught me that I
could be anything I wanted to be, but I couldn’t be great at everything at the same time.” Diana
said of her mother, “She has tremendous influence over me, my ability to be independent, critical
thinking, think for myself and to be a leader.” She went on to say that her mother “encouraged
me to speak my mind” and that Diana did not have to be the stereotypical meek female. In
Diana’s words, “I think her encouragement and support really, really made a difference.”
Emma had similar statements about the advice she received from her family but also
went on to say,
Well, my grandmothers and mother always pushed me to be ten times better than
anybody male around me and be a strong woman and taught me how to be a working
mom. They worked their hardest to break the barriers. They did a phenomenal job too.
Emma also spoke about how her father instilled in her the ability to not fear uncertainty. She said
her father taught her that “if what you’re doing doesn’t scare you a little bit or your dreams don’t
scare you, then you’re really not living.” Emma spoke about how being on the family farm
allowed her a “safety net”, but that her father also encouraged her to reach for her goals and
dreams even if they were scary.
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These lessons learned appear to have given these women the ability to develop
confidence in themselves. The importance and positive effect that family support had for the
participants did not cease when these women become adults. The next finding to be discussed is
that of the support received from family as an adult.
Family Support as an Adult
Support from family members continued to be of import even after the participants
became adults. For Emma and Ariana who are both married and have children, they spoke of the
effect that their spouse and children’s support had on their ability to be effective in their careers.
Ariana spoke about how the support that she receives from her husband has help her. She
and her husband share the responsibilities of running the family home. “We do not give each
other specific roles, which I love, because that means we’re working together so that the home
can be balanced.” She also spoke about a time when she was stuck in traffic and would be late
for an event of her son, her husband let her know that he and their daughters were there to
support their son, and that it would be alright.
Emma spoke about the changes that took place in her household when she became CEO
of her company. For the beginning of her marriage, her husband lived and worked three hours
away from the family home during the week and travel extensively for work. After taking on her
new role and responsibilities of running her company, Emma’s husband changed where and how
he worked. She said, “He had to hire part-time help and my kids had to step up, there’s no other
way to say it, and they did, they did remarkable.” She when on to note that if her husband had
not changed then she would not be able to do what she needed for her company as she would
have had to stay home to support the children.
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Mentors
As previously stated, mentorship is the relationship between an individual that provides
advice and guidance (mentor) to another individual who is usually younger or less experienced
(mentee; Oxford English Dictionary, n.d.). Several of the participants discussed the importance
that mentors have had on their careers. Ariana spoke of how the people who have supported her
have been “pillars in my life as far as support systems and encouragement and guidance and just
realness.” She went on to speak about how a mentor had been honest, gave her great advice, and
had compassion for people while still being a great businessman. Another mentor that was
female was able “to see me as a woman and really understand some of the dynamics I was going
to go through before I even knew it, before I’ve experienced it.” Ariana noted that she
consciously reached out to leaders within the organization she worked for to mentor her, as she
wanted to learn as much as she could to be able to make a difference.
Emma spoke about how her mentors helped her to embrace the uncomfortable thereby
allowing her to take the risk she is now facing. She also spoke about how she has had men in
leadership roles take her “under their wing” which has been impactful for her. In addition to
individual mentorships, Emma has participated in corporate mentorship programs. She has used
these corporate mentorship programs to develop both her business as well as herself. These
relationships continue to support her long after the program has completed through the
connections she has made with the individuals within the programs.
Diana discussed how she believes that “mentors are the most important thing you can
have in your career at different stages for different reasons.” She was also advised early on in her
career to have both a male and female mentor at the same time as it would allow her to see both
perspectives. She has followed this advice when making important decisions as it has made a
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difference for her. Diana did mention that early in her career it was difficult for her to find
female mentors as there were few women coming up the business ranks; this has since changed
somewhat. Diana explained that she preferred one-on-one mentorships versus large groups or
associations. She also remarked that now her focus has shifted from having mentors to mentoring
young people, as she observed her role has switched. Instead of a mentor, today Diana has a
group of colleagues that are also CEOs that she meets with once a month who support one
another.
Sponsors
As previously stated, sponsorship occurs when an individual, usually with access and
good standing, provides support and endorsement of an individual (Oxford English Dictionary,
n.d.). Similar to mentorship, sponsors also played a role in helping the study participants. For
Ariana, she was looking for a position in a field she had no education or experience. She stated,
“I needed someone to give me a chance to show that I was able to fulfill whatever the position.”
She found that in her hiring manager. The hiring manager pushed aside the standard panel
interview and interviewed Ariana one-on-one. The manager hired Ariana allowing Ariana to
prove herself, becoming one of the top performers within months. Ariana identified another
supervisor who spoke out about the racial and sexual misconduct directed towards Ariana and
helped support her initiative to hire more diverse individuals to change the company culture.
Emma commented on how the support of men in the agricultural business have been of
great importance to her. She said, “Walking in a room with a bunch of good old boys and having
somebody influential as a male bring me to the table and bring me the inclusivity, it’s huge.”
Beth also spoke of how in a male dominated work culture, she had a supervisor advocate for her
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when another employee tried to circumvent her authority and work directly with her supervisor.
She stated, “Having that advocate to make sure that I was being respected was important.”
Coaches
In addition to mentors and sponsors, coaches were also mentioned as a form of support
for the participants. Beth noted that she had a coach help her through the interview process for
the CEO position which she felt was a significant help. In addition to the interview coach, Beth
also had an executive coach help her after obtaining the CEO position. Beth described the
experience as, “She was phenomenal at just being able to listen, and she didn’t give advice. She
just listened and kind of was a good sounding board.”
Diana also sought out the support of a coach as well. Diana has the desire to obtain a paid
board seat outside of her current organization. To achieve this goal, she interviewed
organizations that specialize in assisting individuals prepare and obtain seats on boards. She has
chosen an organization that specializes in assisting women. Diana discussed how women have
been conditioned to play down their accomplishments, and that through the organization she is
developing or reestablishing the skills necessary to interview and obtain the desired position. As
Diana explained, “I have to retrain that skill set, and I’m not used to using [it].”
External support systems helped the participants develop into the leaders they are today
as well as continue to help them develop into what they want to be tomorrow. These support
systems include their families, mentors, sponsors, and coaches. The next section will discuss the
internal responses and behaviors within the participants that helped them overcome the barriers
and challenges they have faced.
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Internal Responses and Behaviors
A common thread for these women was that of controlling their destiny. These women
developed themselves, acknowledged where and what power dynamics exist, developed an
understanding of themselves, changed negatives to positives, learned to choose their battles, and
left unproductive situations. They also made life choices regarding children and their career
goals. These women have reached a point in their lives and careers where they have developed
the self-confidence and ability to know what they want, what they do not want, and the fortitude
to work to get there.
Education
The participants acknowledged the importance of education and experience. Diana spoke
of the advice she was given by a mentor, “to look at the people you admire and aspire to be
professionally.” In doing so, Diana realized that women she admired all had obtained an MBA
degree; therefore, she realized that she would need to return to school to obtain an MBA degree
if she wanted to follow in their footsteps. Diana recounted about the effect gaining her MBA had,
To be honest, I don’t know that I learned anything new or different getting my MBA, but
those letters gave me acceptance at the table, when I was sitting with a bunch of mostly
male CFOs … it’s just overcoming that barrier of being accepted at the table. So, I think
having the CEO title absolutely gives a level of acceptance when you’re in a
predominantly male industry or table and same thing with having the right credentials to
be at that table.
Cara also spoke about the need for educational credentials. As an educational consultant, Cara
said, “I decided to get my doctorate in education because I got tired of people in education telling
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me if I didn’t have a doctorate, what I have to say had no value.” Cara commented that education
has the power to change people’s lives.
Education does not necessarily have to come from academia but could also come from
experience and exposure. For Beth she realized that for her to become a CEO of her current
organization, she would need to learn different aspects of the company. Therefore, with the help
of the previous CEO’s sponsorship, Beth was able to obtain positions within the organization
that would afford her the education and exposure to different knowledge and skills she might not
have gained otherwise. Ariana also spoke about learning on the job. When she was faced with a
difficult work environment here response was, “I decided that I was going to learn everything I
needed to learn in order to be ten times better, because they would not even notice me if I wasn’t,
and my goal was to be the best.” Each of these women were determined to succeed and realized
that they would have to develop themselves to do so. The next section will discuss how the
participants learned the significance of understanding the power dynamics at play.
Power Dynamics
Understanding power dynamics appeared to be an important skill to learn to navigate
through the barriers and obstacles faced. Diana spoke about how she learned about power
dynamics early in her career which made her recognize that there is a level of decision making
and control that a person has if they are in a leadership position that they would not have
otherwise. Diana stated, “I could see things, but I didn’t have the control or the power to make
certain things happen. There was always that stop gap because it went up another level.” This
knowledge allowed Diana to understand that to influence change she would need to continue to
progress and advance her credentials and experience. This leads into the next topic of knowing
oneself.
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Knowing Oneself
An underlining theme that developed from speaking with these women is that they each
had a keen sense of knowing who they are and what they wanted. For Cara, she chose her destiny
by understanding what she did not want to do. Cara stated, “It was a constant realization of what
I did not want to do.” Cara discussed that having a consulting arm to her business was a
defensive mechanism that allowed her to choose her assignments without others having control
over her life. Cara spoke about how she was not willing to allow others to control her to the point
that her mental state or her ability to do other things was interfered with. By being a consultant,
she felt that it allowed her the ability to navigate through the power challenges that she saw.
Diana and Beth both spoke about understanding their personalities and using those
personalities as an advantage. Diana discussed how she understood that she had an assertive
personality and that not all people would be receptive to her assertiveness. Therefore, Diana said,
“It definitely made me look at the careers or the industries that I felt I could be the most effective
using the skills I had.” Beth echoed the idea of understanding that she was not a shy individual,
and she was not afraid of letting others know that she had aspirations of being a CEO, which
allowed others to help place her in positions that would give her the skills and knowledge to
reach her goals.
Additionally, the participants spoke about how they were willing to fight for what they
wanted. Beth described her responses to obstacles, “You know, I think when I saw an obstacle or
I felt like there was going to be a barrier, I figured [it] out.” She spoke of her tenacity to solve the
problem, “I do know that when I faced them [obstacles], how do I get around them, over them,
through them, dig under, whatever it takes.” Cara echoed this in her discussion about dealing
with obstacles, she stated “you know what you want, and you know what you’re trying to do,
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then some things that are obstacles to everybody won’t even be obstacles to you, because you’re
just like, it’s just a part of the job, and I’ll get it.” Ariana had the believe in herself and her
abilities and her goal was to get others to recognize her capabilities. She was able to achieve her
first goal of getting a sales position and was able to capitalize on the opportunity and her skills to
become a top seller within a matter of months further solidifying her growth path.
Changing Negatives to Positives
Understanding one’s attributes can also be used to turn what is perceived as a negative
into a positive. For Emma this involved understanding what scared her and pushing past the fear
and uncomfortableness to reach her goals and aspirations. It was about hustle, she said, “Hustle
every day outlives every barrier for me, getting up and hustling it and showing up, that always
gets me on the other side.”
Diana spoke a of three situations where she turned a negative situation or attribute into a
positive. The first was when she discussed the relationship she had with her former supervisor.
The supervisor was known to be difficult to work for and Diana recalled an incident where the
supervisor was screaming. Diana was able to defuse the situation by asking her supervisor, “Do
you want me to help fix this problem, or do you just want someone to blame the problem on?”
Diana went on to say, “She had an aha moment, and it was really a turning point for us, and she
ended up becoming an incredible mentor.”
The second situation Diana spoke about was acknowledging that you will encounter
gender bias but that you worked to find a successful solution to work around it for the good of
the company and its goal. She said, “I think, especially when you’re in a leadership position,
you’re always thinking … I needed to be thinking of what do I need to accomplish for the
organization?” She went on to say that if it took her to write a script for a male colleague to
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deliver because she was working in a country where women were not allowed to speak, then she
would do that. She added, “This is where you put your ego aside and you say, as a leader, this is
what the organization needs to happen.” For Diana it was more important to recognize the
obstacle and to confront it in a way that would benefit all.
The third situation, Diana spoke again to bias but addressed the ability to change a
negative bias into a positive attribute. Diana explained,
I think being female is a superpower, and if you don’t learn how to use it, then it becomes
an obstacle. But for me, and I would say probably the last, at least the last 15 years of my
career, it’s been a superpower, and I’ve learned how to use it really wisely.
Diana went on to say,
I learned how to harness my powers of influence, my ability to, I would say, have the
ability to be strong, assertive, but empathetic as a leader, that is when you, I think women
especially, really come into their own, I think it’s much easier for women to lead with
empathy than men, and that’s what the world needs now today.
She went on to describe the simple act of dressing the part. Diana is the CEO of a nonprofit
organization, and she interacts with a wide variety of individuals. She explained that she can
“control the room based on my appearance … this is a weapon.” She went on to described that
when she meets with potential donors she will dress differently depending on the audience. If she
is meeting with a group of engineers or technological individuals, she will wear khakis, if she is
meeting with the ladies who do lunch, she will dress like a lady who does lunch, she will wear a
suit if meeting with a board of directors, or a club shirt if meeting with children and volunteers.
Additionally, she commented that it is how you respond to the obstacles that matters as there will
always be obstacles.
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Choosing Your Battles
Sometimes changing a negative into a positive is not always possible or necessary. Cara
described the choice as follows:
What you learn many times as a woman, as a minority, as a minority woman, those are
three different boxes, you learn how systems are set up and how the game is played. And
then you determine whether or not you want to invest the mental, physical and emotional
energy to make yourself a pawn in that game. Sometimes you choose not to. Sometimes
you have no choice but to rise up and be a part of it. So, it’s like playing chess … it’s
always a balancing act.
Both Diana and Ariana commented on how they respond to adversity has changed. Diana
stated that “I think the older you get, I don’t have to fight every battle.” She went on to explain
that half her wins are when she does not have to fight the battles, that as a young female she may
not have had a choice to decline a battle to rise up the ranks, but as she has gotten older it
becomes more of a choice. Ariana also spoke about becoming older and wiser.
You go through stages. I can start with stages when I was younger, and I was always that
quick wit and chop them down. Now that I’m older and wise, I’m like so what do you
think you gained from saying that? What’s your purpose? What’s your point? So, you
just learn. As you grow, you learn what type of energy do you want to put in it now.
One choice that has been made by some of the participants was to leave the situation. This will
be addressed next.
Leaving
After assessing the situation, some participants chose to leave. Beth, Diana, and Ariana
all discussed leaving a position because it was in their best interests. Beth noted that gender
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limitations within the retail business and Church helped contribute to her leaving for better career
opportunities elsewhere. Beth also spoke about what her perspective was on working within a
difficult environment:
I think people have three choices, and one is to live with it. So, if you want that job so
badly and you’ve tried all these other things to live with it, the second is to work on
yourself and the things that you can change. I mean, it sounds hokey, but it’s like you
might not be able to change everything, but if you’re doing the work on yourself, and the
third is to walk away. Because at some point it’s just crazy making to stay in a situation
where you simply can’t control and to find some place where you can be who you’re
meant to be.’
Diana spoke about how she made the decision to leave an organization because it was
impacting her wellbeing:
It just felt right. I just knew in my gut at that time it felt right, and I needed to step away
from my last position. It was, uhm … there was no balance anymore. It was all
consuming, and I had made a commitment to never be that imbalanced again in my life.
Ariana was also faced with a difficult situation balancing her career and family life. She
spoke of how her family and work-life did not balance and when she was home, she was still
thinking about work while participating in family activities. She described it as physically being
present but not mentally present and exhausting. She went on to describe her decision to leave
her position,
It was more so about I’m not going to continue to live under these conditions in my
everyday life, and I have to take control as to what I want for myself and for my family,
and I need balance. So, I decided to resign.
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When Ariana resigned, she did not have another position to go to. For her, it was more important
to take the time to rest and to determine what it was that she wanted to do. This allowed her to do
her research and to create her own company.
Family Choices
The participants spoke of conscious decisions that they made regarding having a family
of their own. Ariana and Emma both made the conscious decision to have children early in life.
For Ariana, she chose to have children while also pursuing her career. Emma chose to have her
children first, allowing her husband to develop his career, and later she returned to pursue her
career. Emma stated,
I reprioritized them. So, I wanted to be corporate and national and this that and the other,
but I suddenly realized the importance of starting the family young and I reprioritized my
goal and said, corporate America is just not for me. But right now, I’m in corporate
America in some ways that’s who my clients are.
Cara chose to develop her career first before having children. She was advised by her
aunt to “live your life before you bring a life into this world.” She went on to recognize “I’m in a
financial position where I can do anything that I want to do at this point, but I also am not going
to my children’s, children’s graduations. I’m not a grandma.” She acknowledged that life has
sacrifices and that “life is about choices, and everything has an opportunity cost.”
Diana chose to wait to have children. She and her spouse adopted their children when
Diana was in her mid- to late-30s. She discussed that having her children changed her life
completely. She also commented that she felt that when having children, a man’s life is not
changed in the same way a woman’s is.
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Summary
Research Question 2 sought to determine what the processes were that allowed the
women in leadership positions to overcome the barriers and challenges they faced as they
navigated their academic and career pathways. The findings discussed in this section described
that the processes could be categorized into external support systems and internal responses and
behaviors.
External support systems included the support received from family members both as a
child and as an adult as well as those received from third parties. Examples of family support
were discussed by Beth of how her family gave her the ability to try anything and Diana in how
she explained that her mother was a great influence in her ability to be critical thinking and
independent. The participants discussed how mentors were important in providing them with
advice and guidance, and that now they feel that it is their turn to provide others with their help
and support. Diana spoke to how she has always had mentors and that today she feels it is her
turn to mentor the next generations. The participants discussed how sponsorship helped propel
them through difficult times and situations such as how Emma has utilized the support of men to
bring her to the table when working in the agricultural sector where it is difficult for women to
be perceived in leadership roles. Coaches were also utilized by the participants to help provide
support in areas of particular interest or need. Beth spoke to how she utilized coaches to help her
prepare for the interview process for her current position as CEO, and Diana is using an
organization that helps women obtain paid board seats.
Internal reactions and behaviors where also described by participants in how they
addressed obstacles and barriers. The participants spoke about how they took ownership of their
destiny. This could be seen in how they prepared for their careers via education and experience
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such as how Cara went back to school to obtain her doctorate degree to give her more acceptance
in her field. This could be seen in how they assessed power dynamics, how power dynamics
impacted their desires, and how best to prevail. One example of this was in how Diana
recognized that if she wanted to have more control and decision-making power, she needed to
advance her credentials and experience to have the impact she desired. The participants appeared
to be very aware of their abilities and desires and created paths to utilize those abilities to reach
their desires. These utilizations could come in the form of changing negatives to positives which
Diana has done by looking at how being a woman can be a benefit, choosing which battles are
worth the fight as Cara discussed how she has had to assess whether a battle was worth the fight,
and knowing when to walk away from an unproductive environment as Ariana did when she left
her previous employer and started her own business. These women were also willing to make
tough and lifelong decisions on having children. These choices ranged from having a family first
(Emma), building both at the same time (Ariana), building a career and then having a family
(Diana), or not having a family at all (Cara).
As the external support and internal reactions and behaviors helped develop and shape
each participant’s journey, they too helped develop the leader these women became. The next
section will discuss how these experiences helped develop and continue to impact the
participants’ leadership styles.
Findings Related to Research Question 3
Research Question 3 sought to understand how the experiences with barriers impacted the
participants executive leadership style. The experiences the participants faced along their
journeys to their current positions allowed them to learn from others what was poor leadership
and what was good leadership. The findings also illuminated that for the participants’ the
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leadership styles which emphasized communal qualities such as compassion and empathy were
more successful for them than leadership styles that emphasized agentic qualities such as
dominance and autocratic. The following sections will explore these findings in more detail.
Lessons Learned From Others
Sometimes the best lessons learned on how you can be a better person and leader is to
learn from those around you. The participants of the study used their exposure and reactions to
other leaders to identify the qualities of leadership that they both did not want to emulate as well
as those qualities that they did want to emulate in their leadership styles. Beth summarized, “I
really think it’s that combination of looking at what I don’t like about a leader, what do I like,
how do I incorporate those into my own leadership style?” The next section will discuss the
influence poor leadership experiences had on the participants which will be followed by a section
on positive leadership experiences.
Poor Leadership
Poor leadership experiences appeared to have a profound and lasting impact on the study
participants. Cara, Diana, Beth, and Ariana each spoke of how they learned what not to do from
others. Beth also spoke of an experience of her own failed attempt at leadership and the impact
that experience has on her leadership style today.
Cara’s experience with ineffective leadership allowed her to define what effective
leadership meant to her. Cara described how she was hired into a position by an individual that
made her uncomfortable and led Cara to leave the organization. The supervisor had hired Cara
not for the good of the company or Cara, but for the authority and the potential impact having
direct reports could have for the supervisor’s career. When Cara did resign from her position
with the organization, the supervisor attempted to disparage Cara’s character to prevent Cara
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from obtaining a position with a competitor. Reflecting on this experience, Cara stated, “I was
able to make some really concrete decisions about who she was as a person and that she was the
first person that made me change my definition of leadership.” Cara went on to define an
effective leader as, “An effective leader makes the people around them better.”
In the discussions with Diana, she also noted the profound impact that poor leadership
had on her,
So, the two horrible ones, really bad leaders in my opinion, were obviously the most
impactful on my career because they were so clear as to what I was never going to do and
never go in that direction. So, it’s much easier sometimes to see what you shouldn’t do
than what you should do.
Ariana expanded this concept by saying,
Even in my younger years in corporate, we had some leaders that were not very good,
and I always said, once I move up and every time I moved up, I took away things that I
felt that were not helpful to our team.
Beth stated, “I learned a lot about what not to do from watching others.” She went on to describe
the example of facial expressions and the effect that a supervisor’s upset look had on her and
others she worked with. Beth has since made a conscious effort to control how her emotions may
be presented on her facial expressions.
In addition to learning from others’ poor behavior, Beth also learned from her own poor
behavior. She described an incident when she was a drum major in junior high school, and she
yelled at a fellow student. She described how her behavior upset her and that she wished she
could go back and apologize. In reflecting on the incident, she felt that she was mimicking a
fellow male drum major as that was his style of leadership. She commented,
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It’s been interesting because to reflect on something that many years and to be able to
say, I’m pretty sure that when I tried to do a male, what we would say a traditional male
style of leadership, it did not work for me, and I know even to this day, when I get in that
highly directive leadership style, it doesn’t feel as good.”
Not all the experiences or examples of leadership learned from were bad experiences. The next
section will discuss how good leadership influenced leadership style.
Good Leadership
Learning from admired leaders and mentors also had an impact on the participants
leadership styles. Diana spoke about how she had mentors that she felt displayed excellent
leadership qualities in their abilities to communicate both in times of crisis and in making
connections with others. She stated, “I’ve had two mentors in my life, one male, one female, who
I very specifically said, wow, I want to be just like that when I’m communicating this way.” She
went on to explained that she worked hard to learn what motivated the person and would read
emails to learn how to communicate as effectively as her mentor had. In addition to learning
from watching others in leadership positions, the experiences also helped the participants learn
that working with others is an important aspect of being an effective leader.
The People
Leadership is an evolving concept. Northouse (2019) defines leadership as “a process
whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal.” The
findings of this study capitalize on this concept of interaction between individuals. The
participants discussed how their experiences have developed the way they build rapport with
those they lead, as well as, how as leaders they support those they lead. These findings will be
discussed in the following sections.
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Building Rapport
A common finding of the participants regarding their leadership style was that of building
relationships with those they lead. In the previous example of Diana learning from her mentors
on how they communicated, she discussed how one leader was able to be “specific but personal”
that she was a “combination of hard and smart and strategic, but just so giving and I think
empathetic doing hard things”. This motivates Diana in her leadership style. Diana could
recognize that there is an art in being able to connect with the ones you lead while at the same
time getting the job done. Diana built on this concept when she stated that by being a mother she
can relate to other employees, “It definitely gives me a connection with people that’s real and
authentic.” She also felt that because as a woman having to deal with obstacles in her career, she
is better equipped to “understand the up-and-coming workforces, the struggles that some of your
employees have, the difficulty getting things done or negotiating.”
Relationships are important to Beth and how she leads as well. She recounted the
experience she had when an individual tried to circumvent her authority. She stated that this
experience confirmed for her that “position is not status or power or require anything. It’s
relationship, it’s just more than position … really developing the relationship is what gets you
respect.” Beth also commented, “it’s always getting back to that roots of relationship and helping
people see, you know, how I’m connected to them and how they’re connected to me.”
Part of building positive relationships with your employees is being authentic. The
participants discussed how they are true to themselves and what feels right to them. This trait
was previously discussed in Beth’s experience of trying to portray agentic leadership qualities
that were unnatural to her and felt wrong and continues to bother her decades later. Diana spoke
of how a leader is not only in what you say but in saying what you do, creating results. Diana
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stated, “I think that I’ve been very clear about delivering on what I promise to deliver on. ‘My
word’ is ‘my word’ for good or bad.” Part of building positive relationships with your employees
is also supporting their needs.
Supporting Others
In addition to building relationships, the aspect of supporting those you lead was also a
common finding. Diana stated, “I think it’s much easier for women to lead with empathy than
men, and that’s what the world needs now today.” This statement on empathy and supporting
others was discussed by other participants as well.
Ariana spoke to how she would work with her staff to understand their needs in order to
help them be successful,
I [have] always taken time to figure out a person, not the whole entire team at once, and
just give them a directive and say, ‘Hey, let’s go get it.’ I just figured out what made
them tick, what was their passion? What drove them, what was their pet peeves about the
company.
Ariana also stated that “offering support along with education and guidance was the key to
making sure that we have a solid team. Because if you don’t have a good foundation, the whole
thing is going to crumble.” Beth felt that the support that she has received has allowed her to be
more supportive of others. She noted, “I’m not the expert in everything, and I just want to
empower the people to do their best job, which is what I’ve gotten from my board, from my
coach, from my friends, from my colleagues.”
For these women their leadership and support of others expands beyond just getting their
job duties done. Cara has a mission to help others have better lives and works with other people
and organizations make a difference. Cara stated, “I do know how to help people that look like
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me, who live in communities like I grew up in have a completely different life.” Beth is
committed to help girls and young women see that the possibilities for their future careers are
open and not limited to the traditional female roles. Ariana worked to create a diverse and
equitable environment where she and her fellow co-workers could be successful and not be
subject to bias. Diana is helping the next generation by becoming the mentor to young people.
Summary
Research Question 3 sought to understand how the experiences with barriers impacted the
participants executive leadership style. The findings discussed in this section recognized that the
participants were able to develop their executive leadership styles by not necessarily looking at
just the barriers and obstacles they faced but by looking at all examples of leadership they
encountered. Diana spoke to how she would speak with leaders she felt were good and try to
understand what motivated them. She would also study the leader’s emails to understand how
they were able to deliver information in writing. Cara discussed how she learned what effective
leadership was by watching ineffective leaders. From these encounters, the participants were able
to emulate those qualities that they felt were valuable and to discard those that they felt were
ineffective or uncomfortable. The participants were able to develop themselves as they evolved
and to learn to utilize their natural skills to enhance their leadership styles which included
capitalizing on communal traits such as compassion, empathy, and grace. Ariana spoke to this
when she discussed how she took the time to learn what made an individual employee work
better so that she could better support that employee to be successful.
Conclusions
The purpose of this narrative inquiry was to explore the lived experiences of women who
have reached the position of CEO and the lessons learned that helped these women who
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participated in the study prevail and persevere over gender barriers on the track and into
executive leadership positions. To do so, three research questions were established. From these
three research questions four findings were identified which will be discussed in detail in
Chapter Five.
The first research question sought to understand how women in executive leadership
roles experienced barriers related to gender as they navigated their career path into and within
leadership. The study findings fit well with the conceptual framework of the study as there were
barriers and obstacles identified at the social (macro), structural (meso), individual (micro), and
time (chrono) levels of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Gardiner &
Kosmitzki, 2008). Many of the barriers identified within each ecological level further support the
findings of the Diehl and Dzubinski (2016) and Diehl et al. (2020) studies as the participants of
this study experienced cultural constraints on women’s choices, gender stereotypes,
unconsciousness, and scrutiny at the social (macro) level; male organizational culture, queen bee,
and lack of mentoring and sponsorship at the structural (meso) level; and work-life conflict at the
individual (micro) level as the Diehl and Dzubinski (2016) and Diehl et al, (2020) participants
did. The participants of this study also discussed barriers not listed by either Diehl and Dzubinski
(2016) or Diehl et al, (2020) such as discounting the whole person.
The second research question sought to determine what the processes were that allowed
the women in leadership positions to overcome the barriers and challenges they faced as they
navigated their academic and career pathways. The study findings suggest that there are two
categories of processes which are external support systems and internal responses in behaviors.
Examples of the external support systems were in how Beth, Cara, and Diana spoke to how their
families helped support and encourage them when they were growing up, how Ariana and
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Emma’s spouses and children have helped support their careers, how Emma has use male
sponsors, and how Beth has utilized coaches to help her be successful. Examples of internal
responses in behavior were in how Diana recognized she needed to increase her educational
credentials to be able to participate in the manner she desired and in how Ariana made the
determination to leave her prior employer as the work conditions were not in her best interests.
The final research question sought to understand how the experiences with barriers
impacted the participants’ executive leadership styles. The study findings reported that the
participants were able to learn from both poor leadership, such as how Cara learned what
ineffective leadership was through working with a poor leader, and good leadership examples,
such has how Diana tried to emulate leadership qualities she liked in others, to create their own
leadership styles which consisted of building rapport with individuals and supporting others.
In conducting the interviews with the participants to answer the three research questions,
four findings were identified. The first was that women face barriers to executive leadership
from multiple ecological levels. Second, external support systems and internal response
behaviors were used to overcome or endure barriers and challenges. Third, negative and positive
experiences were used to develop one’s leadership style. Finally, leadership was not about power
or authority but about working with people to achieve a common goal. Chapter Five includes a
discussion of each of the findings, recommendations for practice, limitations and delimitations,
and recommendations for future research.

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Chapter Five: Recommendations and Discussion
This final chapter begins with a discussion of the findings that evolved from the
interviews with the five research participants. Next, recommendations for practice that evolved
from the research findings are presented. Then, limitations and delimitations of the study are
addressed followed by recommendations for future research. The chapter will conclude with a
summation of the study.
Discussion of Findings
The research study was conducted to gain a better understanding of what the barriers are
that women face on the path and into executive leadership, what processes they used to
overcome the barriers, and how did the barriers impact their executive leadership styles.
Interviews were conducted with five women who had each obtained the position of CEO. From
those interviews the following four findings were identified:
1. Women face barriers to executive leadership from multiple ecological levels.
2. External support systems and internal responses and behaviors were used to
overcome or endure barriers and challenges.
3. Negative and positive experiences were used to develop one’s leadership style.
4. Leadership was not about power or authority but about working with people to
achieve a common goal.
Finding One: Barriers From Multiple Levels
Gender barriers that women face occur at multiple ecological levels (i.e., societal,
organizational, individual; Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016). This study’s
findings support the prior research and the finding that positive changes to barriers have occurred
as individuals and society have advanced through time. This positive change in barriers over
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time can be seen in the statements made by both Beth and Diana and may also be inferred by
Emma’s, who is 18 years younger than Beth, recognition that some of the barriers that Emma’s
aunts faced where not as prevalent for her and her sisters and that her father has consciously
begun to include his daughters within the family business. This change in time was recognized
by Eagly and Sczesny (2009) as potentially occurring, but as they noted the change has not been
significant enough to resolve the problem. This study helped support the need to continue to
promote the cultural shift that has started to occur in accepting and promoting women both on
the path and into executive leadership. As the statistics show, women still only comprise 31% of
the reported executive/senior-level positions while making up 45% of the U.S. full-time
workforce (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021). There has been positive change, but there
continues to be a disparity between the portion of the workforce women comprise and the
portion of executive level leadership positions held by women.
As Diehl and Dzubinski’s (2016) study reported, many of the barriers can be found
within multiple ecological levels but generally occur in one more often. This study supported
those findings. Must of the barriers identified within the study were more prevalent in one
ecological level than others except for work-life conflict. Work-life conflict occurred both at the
structural (meso) level as well as the individual (micro) level for the study’s participants. This
finding supports the results of Diehl’s (2014) study that work-life conflict is not contained to one
ecological level but “crosses both the personal and professional domains” (p. 55).
The final analysis within this first finding is that of the barriers occurring simultaneously.
Many barriers do not just occur in isolation but occur together. Diehl and Dzubinski’s (2016)
work also reported this. An example would be working in a male organizational culture while
also struggling with how to balance family and work expectations. Therefore, this makes
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resolving the problem much more complex. As Eagly and Koenig (2021) wrote, the reason many
treatments and interventions have not been successful at resolving the gender barriers is that
“their basic weakness is that they attempt to cut off the weeds (stereotypes) at the ground instead
of digging them out by their roots (the observations that underlie stereotypes). The weeds will
quickly grow back” (p. 346). The next finding will acknowledge what processes were identified
as assisting the participants of this study endure or overcome the obstacles they faced.
Finding Two: External and Internal Processes Assisted Participants
Barriers to women’s advancement to executive leadership does not hold a simple solution
but requires a multi-level, multi-response approach (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016; Johns, 2013). The
participants of this study utilized both external support systems (i.e., family, mentors, sponsors,
coaches) as well as internal responses and behaviors (i.e., education, power dynamics, knowing
oneself, changing negatives to positives, and choosing your battles) to endure or overcome the
obstacles they faced on their career path into and within executive leadership. In addition to
responses to the barriers commented on by the participants, Johns (2013) also discussed the
inclusion of governmental actions to combat these barriers. The recommendations will look at
what some governments have done and what impact these interventions may or may not have on
resolving the problem.
Finding Three: Negative and Positive Experiences Influence Leadership Style
The next finding of the study was that the women utilized both negative and positive
experiences to influence their leadership style. Diehl (2014) reported that, “Participants used
their experiences with adversity to analyze themselves (self-analysis), accept themselves (self-
acceptance), define themselves (self-definition), and gain perspective over what was important in
their lives.” This study supports these findings in that participants utilized experiences with poor
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management practices, adverse work cultures, and uncomfortable experiences to shape their
leadership style. The participants also used positive experiences with exposure to management
practices and culture that they felt were beneficial to help develop their own style of leadership.
In addition to utilizing positive and negative experiences, Diana also discussed
transitioning her thinking of what a perceived negative was into a positive attribute. An example
of this was Diana’s comment of how she used the scrutiny of dress that women received as a tool
to connect with her donors, volunteers, employees, and board of directors. This supports the
statement by Diehl (2014) that an individual’s reactions to a situation can be a result of how they
interpret the situation. Glass and Cook (2020) also found that women recognized the impact that
their dress had on others’ perceptions, but unlike Diana, the respondents of Glass and Cook
(2020) appeared to perceive it as a hindrance not a benefit.
Finding Four: Leadership is About Working With People
The final finding of this study was that leadership was not about power or authority but
about working with people to achieve a common goal. This supports Carbajal’s (2018) findings
that the women leaders of his study gravitated toward relational leadership styles which included
collaborative styles and transformational approaches. Northouse (2019) called a collaborative
style, leader-member exchange theory, which is the “process that is centered on the interactions
between leaders and followers” (p. 139). This study supports this in that the leaders worked with
their teams to reach a common goal and that it was not about themselves but the common goal.
Northouse (2019) defined transformational approach as “concerned with emotions, values,
ethics, standards, and long-term goals. It includes assessing followers’ motives, satisfying their
needs, and treating them as full human beings” (p. 163). The participants of this study also
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displayed transformational leadership in that they were concerned with teaching and ensuring
that their staff had the necessary tools required to meet their goals.
Having identified the major findings of this study, the next section will address
recommendations for practice to help resolve the barriers that women face on their path into and
within executive leadership.
Recommendations for Practice
Gender barriers that women face occur at multiple ecological levels (i.e., societal,
organizational, individual; Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016). There have been
multiple solutions identified to combat the problem, and Diehl and Dzubinski (2016) and Johns
(2013) postulated that a cross-level and multi-pronged approach may be best. This section will
first discuss some of the solutions brought forth in the literature review to address the social
levels of government and education as well as the organizational level. Second is a discussion on
a specific solution, work leave, to address the work-life conflict that was discussed by the
participants of this study.
Social and Organizational Solutions
As businesses developed within patriarchal societies, the cultural norms of those
businesses often embodied those of the society (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016; Glass Ceiling
Commission, 1995). This embodiment has led to the social expectations of women cascading
into the way women are treated within organizations as well as the expectations placed on
women within organizations and within their homelife (Eagly, 2013). Therefore, to address the
gender gap, social level solutions as well as organizational level solutions have been discussed
within the research on this topic.
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Quotas have been used both at the country level (i.e., France, Finland, Iceland, Norway,
Spain) as well as by the State of California (Han & Noland, 2020; Noland et al., 2016). Lyness
and Grotto (2018) noted that "government-mandated reporting requirements, targets, and quotas
seem to help by creating a demand for female leaders" (p. 250). The use of quotas tends to be
controversial, and some argue that corporate performance impacts are either unclear or reduce
short-term profitability (Christiansen et al., 2016; Flabbi et al., 2019; Han & Noland, 2020;
Noland et al., 2016). Flabbi et al. (2019) suggested that quotas may be more beneficial for firms
with large female labor forces.
Educational systems can also offer a potential way to reduce the gender gap. This is an
important area to look at as the participants of this study spoke of both the positive and negative
effects that educational systems and expectations had on them. Han and Noland (2020)
commented that education needs to be more gender neutral. Girls need to be encouraged to
develop self-efficacy and to pursue fields of study that have historically been dominated by
males (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016; Fitzsimmons & Callan, 2016). This includes the
encouragement and promotion of STEM subjects (Fitzsimmons & Callan, 2016). As
Fitzsimmons and Callan (2016) noted, women and men begin to develop social capital at an
early age, and the playground and classroom experiences that build social capital have
historically only been encouraged for male students. Therefore, schools need to encourage
students of both genders to take part in activities that build social capital. Schools also need to
partner with and encourage community-based programs that promote gender equality (Diehl &
Dzubinski, 2016). This is important as this study noted that women need exposure to leadership
to develop the skills necessary to be an effective leader. Organizations like Beth’s are working
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with girls and young women to do this type of work but more needs to be done as there continues
to be a disparity.
Organizations also need to develop corporate initiatives that support women in the work
force. As the findings of this study show, organizational culture can have a strong impact on
developing women into leadership roles. These corporate initiatives need to be supported by top
management, have a specific plan, address the issues of preconceptions and stereotypes around
gender in the workforce, need to hold people accountable for achieving gender diversity, and
need to be trackable (Glass Ceiling Commission, 1995; Lyness & Grotto, 2018). Organizational
leadership needs to ensure that the organizational culture does not alienate or allow for gender
bias, and the leadership must ensure that the organizational culture is supportive of inclusion and
diversity (Grant Thornton, 2020).
Recruitment policies are necessary to address gender gaps. The importance of this was a
finding in the discussions with Ariana and her desire to increase diversity in hiring practices at
her prior employer. Fernandez and Campero (2017) observed external candidate pools for
executive level positions had lower percentages of women as candidates than the candidates of
lower-level positions. Therefore, they stated that policies need to be designed to improve the
gender diversity in the executive level candidate pools (Fernandez & Campero, 2017). Lyness
and Grotto (2018) added that organizations cannot just increase the candidate pool but must also
address any systemic gender barriers within the organization for women to succeed once hired.
Mentoring programs can also help close the gender gap as mentoring programs help
promote sponsorship, boost self-efficacy, and career development (Carbajal, 2018; Kalpazidou
Schmidt & Faber, 2016). The participants of this study discussed the importance that mentoring
and/or role models had on their development both personally and professionally therefore
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supporting the importance of this type of support system. Carbajal (2018) noted that “to climb
the ladder, sponsorship (having a mentor who guides a worker up the ladder) is critical.
Furthermore, sponsors at the top levels can mediate for a worker and guide his or her upward
mobility better than anyone else” (p. 13). Mentorships are not just beneficial for the mentee but
also for the mentors and institutions. Mentors can improve leadership skills, achieve institutional
recognition, and gain personal satisfaction (Kalpazidou Schmidt & Faber, 2016). Organizations
that sponsor mentoring programs can attract and retain talent as well as promote teamwork and
cooperation (Kalpazidou Schmidt & Faber, 2016).
In addition to the above-mentioned solutions, one specific type of solution was looked at
in more detail, work leave policies, as the participants of this study experienced this at the
structural (meso) level and individual (micro) level. The following section describes this solution
and provides a discussion on the solution’s merits and/or drawbacks.
Work Leave Policy Solutions
In bridging both public policy and organizational practices is the concept of work-life
balance practices. The participants of this study identified the impact that work-life conflict had
on them, supporting the need to address this barrier. Women often experience a work-life
conflict that creates barriers to their advancement or career dissatisfaction (Hoobler et al., 2010).
Studies reported that women continue to bear a larger burden of domestic responsibilities than
men (Eagly & Sczesny, 2009; Schwanke, 2013). The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2003,
2019) reported that the hours per day spent performing household activities, caring for and
helping household members, and caring for and helping non-household members were 3.35 for
women and 1.93 for men in 2003, and by 2019 the numbers had changed marginally to 3.02
hours for women and 1.87 hours per men, supporting these findings. Han and Noland (2020)
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recommended public policies that supported high-quality childcare and maternity and paternity
leave. Other studies have advocated for work-life initiatives such as paternity leave versus
maternity stating that paternity leave better supported the dual responsibility of both women and
men in family and caregiving responsibilities (Fritz & Van Knippenberg, 2018; Hurley &
Choudhary, 2016).
Having children has proven to be negatively related to the likelihood of becoming a CEO
(Hurley & Choudhary, 2016). This is not a new concept as the Glass Ceiling Commission (1995)
noted that “lack of family-friendly workplace practices is often cited as a barrier for managers
who must juggle home and professional responsibilities” (p. 153). Women tend to not only have
to leave work during childbirth, but often women must take time off from work to care for and
help household members and to care for and help non-household members (Fitzsimmons et al.,
2014; The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2003, 2009). This study’s findings supported this as
Ariana struggled with caring for a child with health care needs and having a high-pressure
position. Therefore, a proposed solution to this problem would be to address the issue of paid
time off. The following is an analysis that was performed to determine the cost effectiveness of
such a proposal.
The United States does not offer a nationally mandated paid leave program related to
childbirth and/or childcare (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2021).
Yet, currently birthing mothers take on average 9.4 weeks off for childbirth and the father or
other spouse takes on average 3.9 weeks off after the birth of a child (Oxford Economics, &
Society for Human Resource Management (OE & SHRM), 2021). Utilizing a calculation method
presented in the OE and SHRM (2021) and the median weekly earnings of full time-wage and
salary workers reported by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2021) the cost to implement a
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national paid leave to address maternity, paternity, and extended family care would cost
approximately $18.649 million annually.
Johansson (2010) studied Swedish parents to determine the effect of parental leave both
to the individual as well as to the spouse on future earnings. Though this study was related to a
reform in 1995 and a second reform in 2002 and the individuals studied were Swedish parents, it
gives a data point to conduct an analysis on the effects of parental leave on U.S. parents. Within
this study, after the first reform, it was noted that for every month a mother took off on maternity
leave her income was reduced by 4.5% and for every month the father took off on paternity leave
the mothers income increased by 6.7%. The study also found that for every month that a father
utilized paternity leave, his own income was reduced by 7.6% and his income was not impacted
at all regarding time taken off from work by his spouse for maternity leave (Johansson, 2010).
From this information it is easy to infer that assuming both parents earn the same wage rate and
contribute equally to the household income, a household will incur a decrease in household
income of 2.7% per month for every month both parents take leave. Given that women currently
do not make the same as their male counter parts, the decrease to household income is even
greater than 2.7% because of the wage differential.
Within the Johansson (2010) study, after the second reform, it was noted that for every
month a mother took off on maternity leave her income was reduced by 2.3% and for every
month the father took off on paternity leave the mothers income increased by 3.6%. The study
also found that for every month that a father utilized paternity leave, his own income was
reduced by 7.5% and his income was not impacted at all regarding time taken off from work by
his spouse for maternity leave (Johansson, 2010). One may infer that as time changed societal
perceptions may also change. What occurred was that the decrease in household income was
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now greater at 3.1% per month for every month both parents took leave versus the prior reported
2.7% decrease. Therefore, this may infer that the stigma of maternity leave may have lessened on
the female but the social role expectations of a male taking paternity leave have not, resulting in
an even greater loss to the family’s household income.
Researchers have suggested that allowing for more paternity leave may reduce the
economic impact on a mother’s income (Colantuoni et al., 2021; Schwanke, 2013). The data
reviewed above appears to support this, but what it also presents is that even though the mother’s
income may be less impacted, the total household income is still impacted as there is a penalty
for the use of paternity leave.
One would expect that diversity and cultural expectations would be improving, and we
see this in the result on the mother’s income. What we do not see is an improvement on the
outcome of the father’s income when using paternity leave. It could be inferred that society has
not yet truly accepted the use of paternity leave by the male parent. Therefore, for the ability of
paternity leave reforms to have a total positive income to the family unit, there also needs to be
reforms implemented both at the societal and organizational levels to be more accepting of the
use of paternity leave further supporting Diehl and Dzubinski (2016) and Johns (2013) that there
needs to be a cross-level and multi-pronged approach to addressing gender barriers.
Until the overall stigma of paternity leave is addressed, the actual financial impact of
paternity leave usage on household income has longer term impacts that will prevent the full
utilization of the benefit and its potential improvement on reducing work-life issues for women.
Final Recommendations
The prior sections discussed the potential solutions brought forth by the literature
including quotas, educational initiatives, corporate initiatives, and work leave policy solutions.
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Gender barriers occur not at one environmental level but multiple levels with multiple barriers
occurring at the same time (Castaño et al., 2019; Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016; Diehl et al., 2020;
Glass Ceiling Commission, 1995; Ragins & Sundstrom, 1989). One solution will not solve the
gender gap but a diverse effort that impacts multiple barriers will be needed to resolve the gender
gap (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016; Jones, 2013).
An example of this multi approach would be in adjusting the work leave policies as well
as addressing how society and organizations perceive the individuals that use them. The data
presented demonstrated that offering paid maternity, paternity, and family leave is not enough if
the result is to reduce the individual and family household income caused by the secondary
barrier of the stigma surrounding those who take such forms of leave.
The prior research and the findings of this study help demonstrate that a cultural shift
may be occurring that is more accepting of women in leadership positions, but the maternity,
paternity, and family leave analysis shows that a greater cultural shift is needed in all gender
biases. The cultural shift that is occurring is slow and appears to be generational given the
responses of this study’s participants. More work needs to be down to continue to change how
women are perceived, to increase the understanding of the benefits women bring to organizations
and society, and to reduce gender biases. Cultures need to be modified.
Limitations and Delimitations
I chose the narrative inquiry methodology to conduct this study as the intent was to
explore the lived experiences of women who have reached the position of CEO and the lessons
learned that helped these women prevail and persevere over gender barriers on the track and into
executive leadership positions. In research, delimitations are created by the researcher in their
choices made, whereas limitations are caused by external sources; therefore, the methodology
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choice of the researcher is a delimitation of the study, but the methodology of the research study
creates limitations (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). As this narrative study was of only five
individuals, the findings of this study cannot be readily extrapolated to the general population but
are instead views of the specific individuals interviewed (Josselson & Hammack, 2021). Instead,
this research adds to theory and can create further avenues of research and study (Josselson &
Hammack, 2021). In addition to quantity of participants, this study also was limited in time and
scope. Each participant was interviewed once for a duration of between 74 minutes and 165
minutes. As narrative inquiry seeks to understand meaning through lived experiences, one’s
memories and interpretations can vary given the time and current experiences one is
encountering at the time of the interview. A final limitation identified was scope. The
participants chosen for this study were individuals who had been successful in achieving
executive leadership positions, but this study did not consider what the stories were, and
meanings assigned to those stories by women who have not yet been successful in obtaining
executive leadership positions.
Recommendations for Future Research
This research study focused on a small set of women who have been successful in
obtaining executive leadership positions. Though these findings are useful in adding to the
development of theory and the search for approaches to mitigate and/or eliminate gender bias
and barriers, more work can be done. One area of additional study would be that of women who
have not been successful in obtaining executive leadership positions yet. Research is needed to
identify the differences and similarities to those who have been successful to help target viable
options and solutions.
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I, as well as others, have observed that there may be a shift occurring in culture that is
allowing more women to be accepted into and to be successful within executive leadership
positions. Further research is needed to understand if this shift is occurring, and if so, what are
the driving forces causing the shift to occur. Similarly, further research needs to understand what
the long-term effects are from programs that target women when they are in grade school. There
has been research done to look at the role mentorships play, but as this is a societal issue, long-
term studies would provide valuable insight into how to affect the root causes.
Conclusion
Gender barriers towards women in executive leadership continue to prevent women from
achieving their furthest potential. The low number of women in leadership is important to
address, as women and other minoritized populations bring to organizations, ideas, experiences,
and skills that benefit organizational performance (Glass & Cook, 2016). At organizations where
women composed a large portion of the labor force, and within high-tech and knowledge-
intensive industries, Christiansen et al. (2016) concluded there was a significantly higher return
on assets when women were in senior positions. Firms with a large representation of women in
the labor force achieved higher rates of sales per worker when they were led by women (Flabbi
et al., 2019). In addition to financial implications, there are also positive skills and motivational
effects to women in leadership positions as well as to other women.
This study helped support that women in executive leadership positions can be successful
leaders and contributed to the betterment of the organization. This study also found that gender
barriers continue to exist and if not addressed, women will continue to leave poor situations to
find better working and living environments. As Cara stated, “I don’t germinate in concrete
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fields anymore.” Therefore, it is important to continue to break down the barriers and open-up
the fields so that we can all grow.

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Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Hello, I would like to thank you for taking time out of your busy schedule to spend time
with me and allowing me to interview you today. I am Heather Triana, a doctoral student at the
University of Southern California. The purpose of this interview is to gain insight through your
lived experiences into the gender barriers that you faced both on your path to executive
leadership as well as those gender barriers experienced while in executive leadership positions.
These experiences do not begin with when a person enters leadership but is built up through a
continuous sequences of experiences lived. This interview is expected to last approximately one
to two hours, and I would like to confirm that this time commitment is still acceptable to you?
To begin, I would like to give you a brief overview of how the interview is structured as
well as to answer any questions you may have of me at this time. The interview is structured
through narrative inquiry, in that as a researcher, I am interested in learning and understanding
your lived experiences that helped propel you to the career position you are now in and to help
inform the research questions of this study. Therefore, the questions will be open-ended, in that
you are free to tell your lived experience and what those experiences mean to you. I may ask you
additional following up questions that will be intended to gain a better understanding of your
experience. The format of this interview is to be that of a conversion where you feel comfortable
in telling your experiences and how these experiences made you who you are today. As the focus
of my research is based on the impact that gender may have played in your career path both into
and within leadership, I would ask that you keep this in mind when thinking about the answers to
the questions and its role if any on your answers. The guiding research questions are as follows:
1. How did women in executive leadership roles experience barriers related to gender as
they navigated their career path into and within leadership?
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2. What are the processes whereby women in leadership positions overcame the barriers
and challenges they faced as they navigated their academic and career pathways?
3. How did experiences with barriers impact the female executive leader’s leadership
style?
I would like to remind you that you previously gave your consent to participate in this
study. Your participation is completely voluntary. You may stop this interview at any time and
my withdrawal you participation from this study at any time without consequences. Your identity
will remain strictly confidential, and any findings will be reported anonymously. No one other
than I will have access to the transcripts of this conversation. If you have any questions about
your rights in reference to this study and would like to speak with someone other than myself,
you may call (323) 442-0114 or email irb@usc.edu. You can reference IRB #UP-22-00580. Do
you have any questions?
This interview is being conducted using the Zoom © platform. I will be recording both
the audio and visual of this interview. This will be so that I may accurately capture our
conversation today. Transcripts will be created of our interview and will be sent to you after
transcription to confirm with you that I have properly documented your responses to the
questions. Do I have your permission to record the interview?
Interview Questions
To begin, I would first like to ask some basic questions so that I have an accurate understanding
of your current position and responsibilities. Feel free to elaborate where you feel more
information is needed.
1. Please describe what you do professionally?
• What is your official title?
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• How many people does your organization employee?
• What is your organizations industry?
• How many year(s) have you been in your current position?
• How many year(s) have you been with your current organization?
• How many year(s) have you been in your current field of work?
• Have you held any other C-Suite/executive-level positions? And if so, what
were they?
The next 12 questions will be to elicit your story, and how you personally have encountered or
addresses each topic raised.
2. As a young person, what were your goals and or aspirations?
• Personally?
• Professionally?
• Educationally?
• Did your gender impact any of these, and if so, how?
3. How did these goals intertwine and or compete with one another?
• Do you think this would have been different had you not been a woman?
4. How did you plan to achieve your goals?
• Were there obstacles you encountered in achieving your goals, and if so, what
were they?
• How did you feel when you were confronted with these obstacles?
• Did the obstacles cause you to change your goals, and if so, how?
• How did you deal with these obstacles?
• How did you feel these obstacles affected your leadership style?
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5. Please describe your path to your current position.
• Were there obstacles you encountered on your path related to your gender,
and if so, what were they?
• How did you feel when you were confronted with these obstacles?
• Did the obstacles cause you to change your path, and if so, how?
• How did you deal with these obstacles?
• How do you feel these obstacles affected your leadership style?
6. Describe when you first thought of becoming a leader?
• What made you consider leadership?
• How did you act on this aspiration?
• How were your received by others?
• How did other leaders impact the leader you wanted to be?
• How did your experiences impact the leadership style you have today?
7. Where their specific individuals or incidents that created obstacles to you reaching
your career goals, and if so describe?
• How did you react?
8. Do you feel that the type of people in your life (i.e., family members, co-workers,
other) made a difference either positively or negatively on the impact of the barrier(s)
or obstacle(s), and if so, how?
9. What types of barriers or obstacles did you encounter at the industry or organizational
level, if any?
• Were these different then at the individual level, and if so, how?
• How did this make you feel?
130

• How did this impact you and your career aspirations?
• How did you react to the situation(s)?
• How do you feel this experience affected your leadership style?
10. Have the barriers or obstacles changed throughout your career, and if so, how?
• What do you attribute this change to? (i.e., time, place, person)
• Did your perspective regarding the barriers or obstacles change throughout
your career, and if so, how?
11. Have the gender barriers and obstacles changed at different levels of leadership, and
if so, how?
12. What types of support did you receive?
• Individuals?
• Organizations/societies?
• Did you seek out support, and if so, what type of support and why?
• Did you avoid specific types of support, and if so, why?
• How do you think the support that you received impacted your career, if at
all?
• How do you think the support that you received impacted your leadership
style, if at all?
13. If another woman came to you for your advice regarding coping with gender barriers
what would that advice be?
Conclusion of Interview
I would like to take this time to wrap up or discussion. Do you have any questions of me?
If necessary, are you open to me contacting you for any clarifying questions that may arise? I
131

will be compiling the transcript of this interview within the next couple of weeks. Once
complete, I will be sending you a copy for your review. Are you willing to review the transcript
and respond with any comments, clarifications, or questions you may have regarding it? Thank
you very much as your help is greatly appreciated.

132

Appendix B: Interview Instrumentation
Interview
question
Prompts Research
question
Key concept Focus
Please describe what
you do
professionally?
1, 2, 3 Individual
(micro)
Background
What is your official
title?
1, 2, 3 Individual
(micro)
Background
How many people does
your organization
employee?
1, 2, 3 Individual
(micro)
Background
What is your
organization’s
industry?
1, 2, 3 Individual
(micro)
Background

How many year(s) have
you been in your
current position?
1, 2, 3 Individual
(micro)
Background

How many year(s) have
you been with your
current organization?
1, 2, 3 Individual
(micro)
Background
How many year(s) have
you been in your
current field of work?
1, 2, 3 Individual
(micro)
Background

Have you held any other
C-Suite/executive-
level positions? And if
so, what were they?
1, 2, 3 Individual
(micro)
Background

As a young person, what
were you goals and or
aspirations?
1, 2, 3 Time
(chrono)
Experience
Personally? 1, 2, 3 Individual
(micro)
Experience
Professionally? 1, 2, 3 Individual
(micro)
Experience
Educationally? 1, 2, 3 Individual
(micro)
Experience
Did your gender impact
any of these, and if so,
how?
1 Gender
stereotypes,
gender bias,
gender
roles,
gender
barriers
Opinion
133

Interview
question
Prompts Research
question
Key concept Focus
How did these goals
intertwine and/or
compete with one
another?
1, 2, 3 Individual
(micro)
Opinion
Do you think this would
have been different
had you not been a
woman?
1, 2 Gender
stereotypes,
gender bias,
gender
roles,
gender
barriers
Opinion
How did you plan to
achieve your goals?
1, 2, 3 Individual
(micro)
Knowledge
Were there obstacles you
encountered in
achieving your goals,
and if so, what were
they?
1 Gender
stereotypes,
gender bias,
gender
roles,
gender
barriers
Experience

How did you feel when
you were confronted
with these obstacles?
1 Individual
(micro)
Feelings
Did the obstacles cause
you to change your
path, and if so, how?
2 Individual
(micro)
Behavior
How did you deal with
these obstacles?
2 Individual
(micro)
Behavior
How do you feel these
obstacles affected your
leadership style?
3 Individual
(micro)
Behavior
Please describe your
path to your current
position.
1 Time
(chrono)
Experience
Were there obstacles you
encountered on your
path related to your
gender, and if so, what
were they?
1 Gender
stereotypes,
gender bias,
gender
roles,
gender
barriers
Experience

How did you feel when
you were confronted
with these obstacles?
1 Individual
(micro)
Feelings
134

Interview
question
Prompts Research
question
Key concept Focus
Did the obstacles cause
you to change your
path, and if so, how?
2 Individual
(micro)
Behavior
How did you deal with
these obstacles?
2 Individual
(micro)
Behavior
How do you feel these
obstacles affected your
leadership style?
3 Individual
(micro)
Behavior
Describe when you first
thought of becoming
a leader?
3 Individual
(micro)
Experience
What made you consider
leadership?
3 Individual
(micro)
Experience

How did you act on this
aspiration?
2 Individual
(micro)
Behavior
How were you received
by others?
1 Gender
stereotypes,
gender bias,
gender
roles,
gender
barriers,
societal
(macro)
Opinion
How did other leaders
impact the leader you
wanted to be?
3 Gender
stereotypes,
gender bias,
gender
roles,
gender
barriers,
societal
(macro)
Opinion
How did your
experiences impact the
leadership style you
have today?
3 Gender
stereotypes,
gender bias,
gender
roles,
gender
barriers,
societal
(macro)
Opinion
135

Interview
question
Prompts Research
question
Key concept Focus
Where their specific
individuals or
incidents that created
obstacles to you
reaching your career
goals, and if so
describe?
1, 2 Gender
stereotypes,
gender bias,
gender
roles,
gender
barriers,
societal
(macro),
structural
(meso),
individual
(micro)
Opinion/
Experience
How did you react? 2 Gender
stereotypes,
gender bias,
gender
roles,
gender
barriers,
societal
(macro),
structural
(meso),
individual
(micro)
Experience
Do you feel that the type
of people in your life
(i.e., family members,
co-workers, other)
made a difference
either positively or
negatively on the
impact of the
barrier(s) or
obstacle(s), and if so,
how?
1, 2 Gender
stereotypes,
gender bias,
gender
roles,
gender
barriers,
societal
(macro),
structural
(meso),
individual
(micro)
Opinion
136

Interview
question
Prompts Research
question
Key concept Focus
What types of barriers
or obstacles did you
encounter at the
industry or
organizational level,
if any?
1 Gender
stereotypes,
gender bias,
gender
roles,
gender
barriers,
structural
(meso)
Experience

Were these different then
at the individual level,
and if so, how?
1 Structural
(meso),
individual
(micro)
Opinion
How did this make you
feel?
1 Individual
(micro)
Feelings
How did this impact you
and your career
aspirations?
2, 3 Individual
(micro)
Behavior
How did you react to the
situation(s)?
2 Individual
(micro)
Behavior
How do you feel this
experience affected
your leadership style?
3 Individual
(micro)
Behavior

Have the barriers or
obstacles changed
throughout your
career, and if so,
how?
1, 2 Gender
stereotypes,
gender bias,
gender
roles,
gender
barriers,
time
(chrono)
Experience

137

Interview
question
Prompts Research
question
Key concept Focus
What do you attribute
this change to (i.e.,
time, place, person)?
1, 2 Gender
stereotypes,
gender bias,
gender
roles,
gender
barriers,
societal
(macro),
structural
(meso),
individual
(micro),
time
(chrono)
Opinion
Did your perspective
regarding the barriers
or obstacles change
throughout your
career, and if so, how?
1, 2 Time
(chrono),
individual
(micro)
Opinion
Have the gender barriers
and obstacles
changed at different
levels of leadership,
and if so, how?
2, 3 Gender
stereotypes,
gender bias,
gender
roles,
gender
barriers,
societal
(macro),
structural
(meso),
individual
(micro),
time
(chrono)
Opinion
What types of support
did you receive?
2 Societal
(macro),
structural
(meso),
individual
(micro)
Experience
Individuals? 2 Individual
(micro)
Experience
138

Interview
question
Prompts Research
question
Key concept Focus
Organizations/societies? 2 Structural
(meso)
Experience
Did you seek out support,
and if so, what type
and why?
2 Societal
(macro),
structural
(meso),
individual
(micro)
Experience
Did you avoid specific
types of support, and if
so, why?
2 Individual
(micro)
Opinion
How do you think the
support that you
received impacted
your career if at all?
2 Individual
(micro)
Opinion
How do you think the
support that you
received impacted
your leadership style,
if at all?
3 Individual
(micro)
Opinion
If another woman came
to you for your advice
regarding coping with
gender barriers, what
would that advice be?
2 Individual
(micro)
Opinion

139

Appendix C: Initial Request Email Template
Dear ___________,
My name is Heather Triana, and I am a doctoral student at the University of Southern
California Rossier School of Education. I am conducting a study on gender barriers towards
women on the career path and within executive leadership as a component of my Doctor of
Education in Organizational Change and Leadership dissertation under the supervision of Alan
Green, PhD. This email is to request your permission to be a participant of my study.
The purpose of this study is to explore the lived experiences of women who have reached
the position of chief executive officer or equivalent and the lessons and skills learned that helped
these women prevail and persevere over gender barriers both prior to executive leadership and
within it. I hope to gain a better understanding of how the different environments (e.g., family,
school, workplace, social) individually and in concert impacted the participants and their
responses to adversity, as well as, how the participants were able to overcome and continued to
endure barriers. You are invited as a possible participant because you are female Chief Executive
Officer or equivalent of an organization. As you are a woman who has obtain the position of
Chief Executive Officer, your participation would add valuable insight and experiences to the
topic of study.
Your participation in this study would be completely voluntary. If you later
decide that you do not want to participate, you only need to inform myself via email at
htriana@usc.edu or phone at (520) 591-8830. The study will be conducted via a one-to-two hour
Zoom © interview that will be pre-arranged with you.
If you are willing to be a participant, please contact me via email at
htriana@usc.edu or phone at (520)-8830, and I will work with you to schedule a time for our
140

interview and to explain any question you may have. For additional information, I have also
attached an Information Sheet to this email. I look forward to hearing from you soon.
Best,
Heather Triana
htriana@usc.edu
520-591-8830

141

Appendix D: Information Sheet for Exempt Studies
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089

INFORMATION SHEET

STUDY TITLE: Gender Barriers Towards Women on the Career Path and Within Executive
Leadership

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Heather Triana

FACULTY ADVISOR: Alan G. Green, PhD

You are invited to participate in a research study. Your participation is voluntary. This document
explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to
you.

PURPOSE
The purpose of this study is to explore the lived experiences of women who have reached the
position of Chief Executive Officer or equivalent and the lessons and skills learned that helped
these women prevail and persevere over gender barriers both prior to executive leadership and
within it. We hope to gain a better understanding of how the different environments (e.g., family,
school, workplace, social) individually and in concert impacted the participants and their
responses to adversity, as well as, how the participants were able to overcome and continued to
endure barriers. You are invited as a possible participant because you are female Chief Executive
Officer or equivalent of an organization.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
Participants will be asked to participate in a one-to-two-hour conversation with the principal
investigator. The interviews will be conducted via videoconferencing that will be recorded for
further review and study. If participants declined to be recorded, then they will not be able to
participate in the study. After completion of the interviews, transcripts will be emailed to the
participants to ensure that the data gathered is accurate and correctly captures the essence of the
lived experiences the participant was trying to give.

If you decide to take part, you will be asked to participate in a recorded videoconference, review
the transcripts of the interview, and may be contacted for further clarification after the interview
is completed, if necessary.

CONFIDENTIALITY
142

The members of the research team and the University of Southern California Institutional
Review Board (IRB) may access the data. The IRB reviews and monitors research studies to
protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.

All identifying information will be deleted once participants confirm their transcripts. Only the
position title, type of organization, and the size of organization based on headcount may be
disclosed.

Participants will have the right to review/edit the transcripts created from the interview. Only the
principal investigator will have access to the audio/video recorders. The audio/video-records will
be erased within a year of the completion of the study and its publication.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about this study, please contact Heather Triana at htriana@usc.edu or
(520) 591-8830.

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email
irb@usc.edu. The study ID is UP-22-00580.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Triana, Heather (author)

Core Title Gender barriers towards women on the career path and within executive leadership

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2023-05

Publication Date 01/19/2023

Defense Date 01/10/2023

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Barriers,bias,executive,gender,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,Women

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Brady, Melanie (committee chair), Green, Alan (committee chair), Datta, Monique (committee member)

Creator Email htriana.ht27@gmail.com,htriana@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC25340

Unique identifier UC25340

Identifier etd-TrianaHeat-11420.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-TrianaHeat-11420

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Triana, Heather

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20230120-usctheses-batch-1002 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright. The original signature page accompanying the original submission of the work to the USC Libraries is retained by the USC Libraries and a copy of it may be obtained by authorized requesters contacting the repository e-mail address given.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu