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Women Chief Information Officers (CIOs): how did they make it?

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Women Chief Information Officers (CIOs): how did they make it?

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Content Women Chief Information Officers (CIOs): How Did They Make It?
By
Meghan Marie Weeks
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
May 2024

© Copyright by Meghan Marie Weeks 2024
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Meghan Marie Weeks certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Maria Ott
Patricia Tobey
Alison Muraszewski, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024

iv
Abstract
This study examined the experiences of women Chief Information Officers related to the barriers
they faced and how they overcame the barriers to promote into top IT leadership positions. The
qualitative study was guided by the Individual Differences Theory of Gender and IT which has
constructs around individual identity, individual influences, and environmental influences
(Trauth, 2002). The study participants included women who currently or recently worked as a
Chief Information Officer or equivalent top IT leadership role in the United States and who had
worked in the IT field for at least two years prior to promoting into a top IT leadership position.
The following themes emerged from the findings of the study: Exposure to computers and
technology helped women to identify with a career in IT and a leadership position in IT; Women
faced barriers related to caregiving responsibilities and discrimination including negative
attitudes toward women, hitting the glass ceiling, and having lower social capital; Women
overcame the barriers through essential support from mentors, professional networks, role
models, sponsors, and support systems outside of the workplace; Women also overcame barriers
by developing skill and traits such as communication, self-efficacy, curiosity, motivation,
resilience, and self-promotion. The study findings support three recommendations which are
supporting early exposure and identification with IT careers for women, supporting flexible
schedules and work-life balance for IT professionals, and supporting IT professionals by creating
professional networking, mentoring, and sponsorship opportunities.

v
Dedication
To my husband, Freddy. I would not have been able to do this without your unwavering support
of my dreams. You are my rock and the love of my life.
To my family including my parents who are with me in spirit. You taught me to be the strong
independent woman I am today. Thank you.
To my coworkers and friends, thank you for your words of encouragement and your support of
this accomplishment.

vi
Acknowledgments
To my fellow OCL 21 cohort members, thank you for your guidance and support along the
journey.
To my Chair, Dr. Alison Muraszewski, thank you for believing in me and allowing me the
latitude to follow my heart. To my committee members, Dr. Maria Ott and Dr. Patricia Tobey,
thank you for your feedback, encouragement, and support.
Author Note
Correspondence concerning this dissertation should be addressed to Meghan Weeks,
subject line: Dissertation Inquiry, via email at meghanmweeks@gmail.com

vii
Table of Contents
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... vi
Author Note ....................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix
List of Figures................................................................................................................................. x
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study .......................................................................................... 1
Context and Background of the Problem............................................................................ 1
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions.................................................................. 3
Importance of the Study...................................................................................................... 3
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology .................................................... 6
Definition of Terms............................................................................................................. 8
Organization of the Study ................................................................................................. 10
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ........................................................................................ 11
An Examination of Women in the Workforce in the U.S................................................. 11
The History of Computers and the Information Technology (IT) Field ........................... 14
Women and IT Career Advancement ............................................................................... 22
Theory and Conceptual Framework.................................................................................. 32
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 36
Chapter Three: Methodology........................................................................................................ 37
Research Questions........................................................................................................... 37
Overview of Methodology................................................................................................ 37
Participants........................................................................................................................ 38
Instrumentation ................................................................................................................. 38

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Data Collection ................................................................................................................. 39
Data Analysis.................................................................................................................... 39
Trustworthiness and Credibility........................................................................................ 39
Ethics................................................................................................................................. 40
The Researcher.................................................................................................................. 40
Chapter Four: Findings ................................................................................................................. 42
Chapter Overview ............................................................................................................. 42
Participants........................................................................................................................ 42
Findings for Research Question 1..................................................................................... 45
Discussion for Research Question 1 ................................................................................. 54
Results for Research Question 2 ....................................................................................... 55
Discussion for Research Question 2 ................................................................................. 69
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 70
Chapter Five: Recommendations.................................................................................................. 71
Recommendation 1: Support Early Exposure and Identification With IT Careers
for Women ........................................................................................................................ 72
Recommendation 2: Support IT Professionals With Flexible Schedules and WorkLife Balance ...................................................................................................................... 74
Recommendation 3: Support IT Professionals by Creating Mentoring,
Sponsorship, and Professional Networking Opportunities............................................... 75
Limitations and Delimitations........................................................................................... 76
Future Research ................................................................................................................ 77
Conclusions....................................................................................................................... 78
References......................................................................................................................... 80
Appendix A: Interview Protocol..................................................................................... 104

ix
List of Tables
Table 1: Constructs of Individual Differences Theory of Gender and IT 43
Table 2: Participant Overview 53
Table 3: Participant Race Overview as Percentage 54
Table 4: Findings for Research Question 1 55
Table 5: Participant IT Career Interest Overview 57
Table 6: Findings for Research Question 2 66

x
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework from IDTGIT 44

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Chapter One: Introduction to the Study
Women face underrepresentation in the information technology (IT) field and the
disparity is more pronounced in senior leadership positions. Women represent 57% of the
professional workforce but only 26% in computing occupations (Bureau of Labor Statistics,
2022a). Men are promoted into leadership positions at a higher rate than women (McKinsey,
2022). Women represent 26% of the IT leadership positions (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2022a).
However, of the roughly 70,000 Chief Information Officers (CIOs) women represent only about
18% (Korn Ferry, 2019; Thomas et al., 2016; Zippia, 2024). In 2021, the overall rate of attrition
of women leaders increased and the gap between attrition by men and women widened
(McKinsey, 2022). This research will explore what barriers women CIOs faced and how they
overcame the barriers to promote into top IT leadership positions.
Context and Background of the Problem
Gender inequity in the IT field has been known and researched for decades and yet there
has been little to no improvement. The demand for high skilled jobs like those in IT increased
during the last quarter of the 20th century (Nightingale & Fix, 2004). In 1991, women had the
most representation in the IT workforce at 36% but since that time the percentage has declined to
26% in 2022 (Ashcraft et al., 2016; Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2022a). Researchers started to
study the underrepresentation of women in the IT field in the early 1980s (von Hellens et al.,
2012). Research applied many theoretical approaches to understanding the problem including
gender essentialism, gender as a social construct, and gender intersectionality (Craig, 2016;
Mennega & de Villiers, 2021; Trauth, 2013). Research named barriers women face as well as
influences that aid women to persist in the IT field.

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Women face more barriers to advancement than their male colleagues in the IT field.
Women who earn degrees in science, technology, engineering, or mathematics (STEM) fields are
less likely to work in their field of study and more likely to leave the field due to being
outnumbered and negatively stereotyped (van Veelen et al., 2019). Women are excluded from
professional networks in IT which inhibits the ability to promote and increases the gender pay
gap (Carboni et al., 2022; Kirton & Robertson, 2018). Women face a disproportionate share of
family responsibilities which affects career advancement (Bansal & Axelton, 2022; Chauhan et
al., 2022; Makarem & Wang, 2020). Women who promote above the glass ceiling face a glass
cliff (Ryan et al., 2007; Wilson-Kovacs et al., 2006). The glass ceiling refers to impediments that
prevent women from promoting into leadership positions which gives the impression that there is
an invisible wall between women and career advancement (Martínez-Fierro & Lechuga Sancho,
2021). The glass cliff refers to a situation where women promoted into leadership positions are
not supported or set up for success (Ryan et al., 2007; Wilson-Kovacs et al., 2006).
Mentorship, sponsorship, and role models are influences which help women to persist
and even promote into leadership positions. Women benefit from formal mentorship programs
and through the mentoring process leaders in organizations can learn about specific challenges
women face (Liautaud & Lagarde, 2016). Sponsors also help women to persist and promote but
in a unique way. Sponsors publicly advocate and create opportunities for women to promote
which also helps with retention (Hewlett et al., 2010). Role models help women to develop
confidence in their ability to work in the IT field and promote in to leadership positions (Schunk
& Usher, 2022; Trinkenreich et al., 2022). The lack of role models creates barriers from career
entry through career advancement (Borna et al., 2022).

3
Research describes barriers and aids for women to not only persist but to promote in the
IT field, yet progress is slow at best. Interventions to mitigate the underrepresentation of women
in IT lack application of a theory to evaluate the effectiveness (Craig, 2016). Understanding why
only 18% of women in the IT field promote to CIO positions is cause for more research.
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
The primary purpose of this phenomenological qualitative research study is to examine
the career advancement barriers women working as CIOs in the IT field face and to understand
how they mitigated and coped with the barriers to reach a senior IT leadership position. The
following research questions will guide this study.
1. How have individual identity and environmental factors created career advancement
barriers for women in IT?
2. What individual influences helped women overcome the barriers and promote to top
leadership positions in IT?
Importance of the Study
The underrepresentation of women in the IT field is a global problem affecting the
economy and national wealth. Gender inequity in general has a negative economic impact
globally which if rectified would increase human capital wealth, decrease population growth, and
substantially increase national wealth (Ellingrud et al.; European Institute for Gender Equality,
2017; Klasen & Lamanna, 2009; Wodon et al., 2020). IT jobs in the United States are expected
to increase about 15% between 2021 and 2031 and the demand for IT workers is outpacing the
available supply of skilled workers (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2022a; Krutsch, 2022; Scott et
al., 2018). If the United States does not find a way to meet the increasing demand for IT workers,
the United States will not have the ability to stay competitive globally (National Science Board,

4
2015; Scott et al., 2018). Adding women to the workforce in STEM fields including IT would
satisfy the increase in IT employment opportunities, and increase gender and pay equity in the
field (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2022a; European Institute for Gender Equality, 2017; Noonan,
2017). Increasing gender equity in the IT field would also economically help women and their
families.
Adding women to the IT workforce would lower poverty rates and decrease the gender
pay gap. In 2020, the poverty rate for married couples, male householders, and female
householders was 4.7%, 11.4%, and 23.4% respectively and the overall rate was 11.4% (Shrider
et al., 2021). The poverty rate for individuals was 10.2% for men and 12.6% for women (Shrider
et al., 2021). Women have higher poverty rates than men in every age group and women
typically have a higher percentage increase or lower percentage decrease from year to year
(Shrider et al., 2021). In 2020, women’s earnings as a percentage of men’s earnings was about
82% for all full time occupations in the United States (Shrider et al., 2021; Women's Bureau,
2021). Women’s earnings as a percent men’s earnings are better for many but not all IT
occupations. The following list of IT occupations shows the job title and the percentage of
women’s earnings compared to men: computer and information systems managers at 86%,
computer systems analysts at 86%, computer support specialists at 90%, information security
analysts at 91%, computer programmers at 93%, and web and digital interface designers at 94%
(Women's Bureau, 2021). Increasing the percentage of women in the IT workforce increases
earnings for women and decreases the gender wage gap but also has benefits for organizations.
Diversity in organizations at various levels has a positive impact on innovation which
leads to better performance. Innovation helps organizations to survive and thrive by giving them
a competitive advantage in today’s ever-changing technical environment (Wu et al., 2021).

5
Diversity among collaborative work teams increases the chance of novel solutions which
generate radical innovation (Díaz-García et al., 2013; Thomas et al., 2016). Organizations with a
woman Chief Technology Officer (CTO) are more innovative measured by increased patent
counts (Wu et al., 2021). Increasing diversity in organizations has a positive correlation with
innovative products and services but lack of diversity on teams may lead to gender biased
products and services.
Diversifying teams by adding women would help with the issue of gender biased
technology innovations. Here are few examples of bias in technology innovations. When Apple
released Siri, the artificial intelligence (AI) assistant for the iPhone, Siri could find prostitutes but
did not understand when a person said they were raped (Apple iPhone search Siri helps users
find prostitutes and Viagra but not an abortion, 2011, December 2; Belluck, 2016; Criado-Perez,
2021). When iPhone released its health app, it would track all kinds of biometrics but did not
track menstrual cycles or fertility for women (Alba, 2015). AI relies on speech synthesis and
processing which produced better results with male voices than female voices (Rizhinashvili et
al., 2022; Zacharia et al., 2020). Gender biased products may be politically incorrect but can also
be dangerous.
Gender biased technologies can pose a threat to women. Women are 17% more likely to
die in a car crash and 47% more likely to be seriously injured because the automobile industry
designed crash test dummies to resembled the average male (Bose et al., 2011; Criado-Perez,
2021; Kahane, 2013). In 2013, the development of the artificial heart was expected to save many
lives but unfortunately women are not candidates to receive it because it is too large (CriadoPerez, 2021; Syncardia Total Artificial Heart (TAH), 2020). Having gender diversity in

6
technology and research teams and in leadership positions creates an opportunity to avoid these
pitfalls.
Increasing gender equity in leadership positions has a positive correlation to
organizational performance. Research shows that gender diversity on corporate boards increases
innovation and performance (Arora, 2022; Bouchmel et al., 2022; Goryunova et al., 2017;
Sabatier, 2015). When diverse top leadership teams working in conjunction with diverse boards
of directors create an environment conducive to innovation, organizations develop innovative
solutions and products, improve decision making, improve problem solving, and develop more
innovative processes (Bouchmel et al., 2022; Ruiz-Jiménez & Fuentes-Fuentes, 2016; Wu et al.,
2022). Technology organizations with women board members with the appropriate education
and experience benefit from better performance measured by higher organizational market value
(Rodríguez-Domínguez et al., 2012). Improved performance is not the only reason that
organizations should increase the percentage of women in leadership positions.
Women have the skills and abilities to succeed in leadership roles and service as positive
examples for other women. Research suggests women’s leadership skills are better including
resilience, integrity, flexibility, cooperation, and the desire for self-improvement (Bogdan et al.,
2023; Ly-Le, 2022). It is important to address this problem because research shows that the lack
of diversity has an impact on female perception which contributes to and perpetuates the problem
(Franklin, 2013). Women need to see same-sex role models in IT to increase the number of
women who choose IT as a career (Adya, 2019).
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
In the decades of research on gender inequity in IT, researchers used theoretical
frameworks such as Essentialist and Social Construction Theory. Early research on this issue

7
took a gender essentialism approach which viewed gender differences as biologically
predetermined and diametrically different (Mennega & de Villiers, 2021; Trauth, 2013).
Research evolved to use a social construction approach which viewed the gender equity issue in
IT as a result of social norms that associate IT work as masculine (Mennega & de Villiers, 2021;
Trauth, 2013). The most recent studies take an intersectional approach which view people within
gender groups as having different individual identities as well as different individual and
environmental influences (Mennega & de Villiers, 2021; Trauth, 2013). The intersectional
approach shows a more nuanced understanding of the barriers women face as well as the ways
women can mitigate the barriers.
Eileen Trauth (2002, 2006) formulated an intersectionality framework called Individual
Differences Theory of Gender and IT (IDTGIT) as a result of gaps in other theoretical
frameworks previous researchers used to study the gender gap in IT. IDTGIT states researchers
should view women in IT as individuals, not as a representation of a specific gender group as a
whole or the embodiment of a gender’s social construction (Trauth, 2002, 2006). Other research
applied this theory for other underrepresented people in IT such as Black men (Cain & Trauth,
2017; Cain, 2021; Cain & Trauth, 2022; Trauth et al., 2016). This study used the IDTGIT
framework because it will allow a deeper analysis of women in top IT leadership positions and
how their individual influences helped them to overcome barriers created by individual identity
and environmental influences.
This study will use a qualitative research design approach in order to discover how
women are able to persist in the IT field and achieve the highest level of leadership while others
stalled or left altogether. The inquiry strategy will consist of face-to-face virtual interviews with
semi-structured, open-ended questions. The sampling will be non-random identifying

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participants by searching the LinkedIn professional social media platform as well as searching
the internet for women CIO panelists at professional development workshops and events. These
women will reveal insights into their individual identities, individual influences, and
environmental influences which will help to understand how they succeeded despite the
challenges they faced.
Definition of Terms
The terms defined below provide clarity related to this research:
• Chief Information Officer (CIO is an executive level position which oversees the
planning and usage of information technology aligning with organizational goals and
creating value for the organization (Banker et al., 2011; Gerth & Peppard, 2016).
• Environmental Influences is one of the three constructs of the Individual Differences
Theory of Gender and IT framework describing factors related to the geographic area
where the individual lives (Trauth et al., 2009).
• Essentialist theory refers to the theory which attributes biological and psychological
factors to characteristics inherent in a specific group such as a gender group (Marini,
1990; Trauth et al., 2004; Trauth et al., 2009; Wajcman, 1991)
• Individual identity is one of the three constructs of the Individual Differences Theory
of Gender and IT framework which includes both demographic and identity related
factors such as the individual’s race, ethnicity, and IT positions held (Trauth et al.,
2009).
• Individual influences is one of the three of the Individual Differences Theory of
Gender and IT framework which includes educational achievements, personality traits
as well as role models and mentors (Trauth et al., 2009).

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• Information technology (IT) refers to “tools that capture, store, process, exchange,
and use information” (Reynolds, 2015). IT includes computer hardware, network
equipment, operating systems and software applications that run on all the computer
equipment (Reynolds, 2015).
• IT field consists of people who work in computer and information technology
occupations which “create or support computer applications, systems, and networks”
(Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2022c).
• Mentorship is a relationship between a mentor and mentee which helps the mentee
achieve career goals in a confidential and advisory manner (Liautaud & Lagarde,
2016).
• Role model is a term to describe a person who emulates something a person desires to
be like and is often seen as similar in some aspect (Gibson, 2004).
• Science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) refers to education and
occupations in the categories of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
(Hallinen, 2023). The United States National Science Foundation coined the acronym
STEM in 2001 (Hallinen, 2023).
• Social Construction Theory as it relates to gender and IT refers to society’s view of
IT as a masculine field which does not correlate with society’s view of the feminine
identity (Berger & Luckmann, 1966; Trauth et al., 2004; Wajcman, 1991).
• Sponsor refers to a person who helps to pave the way for another person by creating
opportunities, making recommendations to others about their promotability, and
supports them along their career journey (Liautaud & Lagarde, 2016).

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Organization of the Study
This research paper consists of five chapters. Chapter one starts with an introduction
followed by the context and background of the problem, purpose of the project, research
questions, importance of the study, overview of the theoretical framework, methodological
design, and key concepts and definitions. Chapter two consists of an extensive literature review
synthesizing available research on this topic and an explanation of the conceptual framework for
this research study. Chapter three will describe the method used for this research study including
the three research questions, the research design, and methods of data collection. Chapter four
will detail the research findings and results. Chapter five will discuss the finding and results and
how they related to earlier research as well as recommendations for practice and future research
recommendations.

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Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
This literature review covers three areas related to the study: an overview of women in
the workforce, the history of computers and the IT field, and an overview of factors influencing
women’s career advancement in IT. The goal of this review is to understand the women’s
underrepresentation in IT leadership. Women’s representation in IT is an issue. Women’s
representation in leadership is an issue. However, when you combine both women’s
representation in IT and leadership, women face an even tougher challenge. It is important to
understand the history of women’s place in the workforce and more specifically the IT workforce
to understand the root cause of the problem.
An Examination of Women in the Workforce in the U.S.
This section provides a brief overview of the history of women entering the workforce
and implications associated with it. This section ends with a brief overview of relationship
between leadership and women.
Women in the Workforce
Women’s participation in the paid workforce has grown steadily since the end of the 19th
century. In 1860 and 1890, women represented about 15% and 18% respectively of the paid
labor force in the United States (Hesse-Biber & Carter, 2005; Kessler-Harris, 1982). Women’s
participation in the paid labor force reached a high of 60% in 1999 and has slightly decreased in
the first quarter of the 21st century to about 57% (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2022b). These
statistics do not count unpaid women’s work done in the home to manage the household and care
for children and other family members (Hesse-Biber & Carter, 2005; Kessler-Harris, 1982).
These statistics also do not reflect the experiences of women entering the paid workforce and
how the outlook for women was very different from men in those years (Kessler-Harris, 1982).

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As women steadily increased their numbers in the market economy, research looked at the
impact on society.
Women entering the paid workforce did not come without strife. Societal norms created
prescribed gender roles which placed women in the home and men in the workforce but women
working conflicted with the gender roles and societal norms (Hesse-Biber & Carter, 2005).
Research on women in the workforce set the men as the norm which produced misperceptions of
women as less ambitious and less committed (Hesse-Biber & Carter, 2005). Researchers in the
1970s looked at the potential negative effects of women leaving the home to work such as the
effect on children, the marital relationship, or the community (Hesse-Biber & Carter, 2005).
However, women whose only role was taking care of the home responsibilities suffered from
higher rates of depression and were more likely to live in poverty (Hesse-Biber & Carter, 2005).
Despite prescribed gender roles, women benefit from taking part in the workforce.
In addition to the economic gains, women also benefit emotionally and professionally.
Although some women entered the paid workforce out of economic necessity, more than 70% of
women surveyed in the 1970s and 1980s indicated that they would continue to work even if it
was not economically necessary (Hesse-Biber & Carter, 2005). Research shows that women who
work outside the home feel less depressed and feel an increased sense of fulfillment and
confidence (Hesse-Biber & Carter, 2005). As more women entered the workforce, their role as
leaders also grew slowly.
Leadership and Women
Leadership is a socially constructed concept. One of the earliest discourses on leadership
was the Great Man theory which theorized that leaders were “men” who were born with
leadership qualities (Benmira & Agboola, 2021). In the 1940s and 1950s leadership theories

13
suggested that leadership was defined by developed traits or behaviors rather than inherent
qualities (Benmira & Agboola, 2021). In the 1960s, theories developed to consider
environmental factors which led to situational leadership theories (Benmira & Agboola, 2021).
In the 1990s and 2000s, many more leadership theories emerged such as transactional,
transformational, and servant leadership (Benmira & Agboola, 2021). An analysis of perceived
leadership effectiveness showed no difference between men and women yet men rated
themselves much higher in terms of effectiveness than women rated themselves (PaustianUnderdahl et al., 2014). Men and women may differ with regard to leadership style but neither
gender has proven to have the most effective style (Gipson et al., 2017).
Gender is also a socially constructed concept. Social role theory describes the concept
where societal gender roles are universally accepted by members with the expectation each will
and should follow these roles (Eagly, 1987; Eagly & Karau, 2002). Social role theory with regard
to gender categorizes women as more empathetic, kind, and caring and men as more confident,
ambitious, and dominant (Eagly & Karau, 2002). Role congruity theory builds on social role
theory by comparing gender roles with other roles such as leadership roles (Eagly & Karau,
2002). Confidence, ambition, and aggression embody characteristics of a leader but these
characteristics are not typically associated with women’s social roles (Anglin et al., 2022). When
women demonstrate these leadership qualities, people evaluate their potential for leadership
positions and actual leadership performance negatively because of the mismatch between female
stereotypes and leadership stereotypes (Anglin et al., 2022; Eagly & Karau, 2002). Women have
struggled to overcome the role incongruency between their gender and leadership.
In 2022, women represent only 25% of all C-suite leaders in the United States
(McKinsey, 2022). The feeder positions for C-suite are management positions where only 87

14
women are promoted for every 100 men promoted (McKinsey, 2022). Women face more
challenges as leaders such as being more likely to be mistaken for someone in a lower level
position or having someone else take credit for their ideas (McKinsey, 2022). Women leaders
take on additional responsibilities like DEI initiatives which impose an emotional tax and usually
are not part of their performance evaluation putting them at a disadvantage for promotion despite
the organizational benefit of increasing employee satisfaction and retention for the organization
(McKinsey, 2022). The rate at which women leaders are leaving organizations has increased in
the last five years and the difference between women and men leaving has increased to an alltime high (McKinsey, 2022). Workplace policies and culture are factors affecting whether
women stay or leave an organization. Women want to work for organizations which offer
flexibility and are committed to DEI (McKinsey, 2022). As women advance into leadership
positions, their home life responsibilities remain fairly steady but as men advance into leadership
positions, their home life responsibilities decrease (McKinsey, 2022).
The History of Computers and the Information Technology (IT) Field
This section starts with a brief overview of the history of computing. Women had
significant contributions from the beginning and some of those are highlighted. The next section
looks at masculinity and the IT field. The last area in this section looks at the historical
underrepresentation in the IT field.
Brief History of Computing
In 1830s, Charles Babbage’s Analytical Engine, which was never actually built, was the
first computer ever designed (McCully, 2019). The Analytical Engine had mechanical
components analogous to modern computer systems such as a processor and storage (McCully,
2019). Babbage designed a punch card system to program the Analytical Engine (McCully,

15
2019). About 100 years later, a professor at Harvard named Howard Aiken with sponsorship
from IBM created the first mechanical computer called the Mark I which ran automatically with
punched tape derived from Babbage’s idea (Campbell-Kelly et al., 2014). The purpose of the
early computers was to perform mathematical computations (Campbell-Kelly et al., 2014;
McCully, 2019). The advent of World War II created the need for faster computing for code
breaking, calculating weapon trajectories, and producing nuclear weapons which motivated
governments, corporations, and academia to focus resources on creating faster multi-purpose
computing machines (Campbell-Kelly et al., 2014). The ENIAC was the first electronic
computer brought online in the United States in 1945 (Campbell-Kelly et al., 2014). Although
the need for military calculations and national security drove the development of computers
during World War II and through the Cold War era, the prospects of what computers could do
for business also contributed to continued rapid technological developments (Mody, 2017). As
time went on, the rate of change for computer technology grew exponentially and this period
became known as the third industrial revolution (Raja Santhi & Muthuswamy, 2023).
In 1965, Gordon Moore who founded Intel Corporation predicted the processing power
of computer components would double every year and the technology would bring computers
into homes, integrate with existing inventions such as cars, and create new mobile
communication devices (Thackray et al., 2015). Moore’s prediction known as Moore’s Law
essentially came true and lasted for more than five decades (Thackray et al., 2015). In 1965,
number of computers in the United States was about 25,000 and grew to 75,000 in five years
(Flamm, 1988). The personal computer changed the IT landscape even more. IBM released the
first personal computer in 1981 and it was quickly embraced by the business sector (Brookshear

16
& Brylow, 2018). The technological advances of the third industrial revolution led to the
beginning of the fourth industrial revolution.
The technological advances in the last quarter of the 20th century led to the fourth
industrial revolution in the beginning of the 21st century. Computer capabilities increased while
the cost for computers decreased which created greater use, innovation, and adoption of
technology (Raja Santhi & Muthuswamy, 2023; Thackray et al., 2015). The fourth industrial
revolution which is going on now includes connected technologies, digitization of processes, and
the introduction of artificial intelligence (Raja Santhi & Muthuswamy, 2023). Both the third and
fourth industrial revolutions created the increasing demand for skilled IT workers (Nightingale &
Fix, 2004; Raja Santhi & Muthuswamy, 2023; Schwab, 2017). Women took part in the IT
workforce from the beginning and made significant contributions.
Significant Contributions of Women in the IT Field
Women have made significant contributions to the computing and IT field from the
beginning, but society, employers, and individuals considered women less suitable for
employment in the field. In the 1800s, Ada Lovelace, considered the first programmer, wrote
programs for Babbage’s Analytical Engine (Hurt, 2017; Serenko & Turel, 2021). Another
woman who made significant contributions was Grace Hopper. Starting in the late 1940s,
Grace’s contributions included writing the first computer programming manual and creating the
COBOL programming language (Serenko & Turel, 2021; Williams, 2012). Grace invented the
compiler which allowed programmers to write programs in an English-like language instead of
machine language (Serenko & Turel, 2021; Williams, 2012). Ironically, in 1969, the Data
Processing Management Association awarded Grace the inaugural Computer Sciences Man of
the Year Award (Serenko & Turel, 2021; Williams, 2012).

17
In the 1940s, six women programmed the ENIAC which was the first electronic computer
in the United States (Fritz, 1996). However, observers and others involved in the project
incorrectly viewed the women’s programming work as routine clerical work as opposed to their
view of male engineers work as scientific and intellectual (Ensmenger, 2012; Light, 1999;
Serenko & Turel, 2021). In the late 1960s, Margaret Hamilton wrote software that guided the
Apollo 11 on its flight to the moon (Serenko & Turel, 2021). Margaret had the forethought to put
a contingency in her code just in case the code was accidentally erased which inevitably
happened but her forethought saved lives (Headrick, 2017; Serenko & Turel, 2021). Despite
women’s significant contributions to the IT field, society, employers, and individuals thought
and still think women were less capable than men in the IT field.
Masculinity and the IT Field
In the early days of computer programming which started in the 1940s, employers
thought that programming was more of a clerical job which is why women were brought in to do
that work (Ensmenger, 2012; Goldstine, 1993). Employers realized that programming was more
complicated and suited for individuals with the ability to be creative (Brooks, 1995; Ensmenger,
2012). The concept of programming soon became divided into two parts, programming and
coding (Ensmenger, 2012). The programmer dealing with the analysis of the problem and
building the logical workflow was an intellectual role performed by men (Ensmenger, 2012).
The coder writing the code based on the workflow was a clerical role suited more for women
(Ensmenger, 2012). However, this distinction of duties in reality was not the way programming
worked (Ensmenger, 2012).
A contributing factor to the association of IT work and masculinity may be due to studies
conducted in the 1960s (Ensmenger, 2012). In 1966, the Computer Personnel Research Group at

18
Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Lab released a survey report on employer’s use of
various tests used for hiring computer programmers and computer analysts (Dickmann &
Lockwood, 1966; Ensmenger, 2012). The survey results indicated that 68% of 483 participating
organizations used one or more tests in their hiring process for programmers and systems
analysts (Dickmann & Lockwood, 1966). The various tests included general intelligence tests,
aptitude tests, personality tests and vocational interests tests but very few of these test were
validated to determine if they were useful in selecting the best “men” to work in the computer
field (Dickmann & Lockwood, 1966). In the methods section the study indicated the researchers
followed the guidelines of a previous study by System Development Corporation (SDC) in order
to better make comparisons (Dickmann & Lockwood, 1966).
In 1950s and 1960s, SDC was one of the largest producers of programmers in the field at
the time (Ensmenger, 2012; Misa, 2010). Because the demand for programmers was increasing
so rapidly, SDC employed psychologists Dallis Perry and William Cannon to develop an
aptitude test to determine characteristics for hiring good programmers (Ensmenger, 2012; Misa,
2010). It was estimated that about 30% of the programmers at the time were women (Misa,
2010). The study sample included only 13.5% women participants, but Perry and Cannon (1967)
decided to exclude the women “because of the considerable evidence of differences in the
vocational interests of men and women” (p. 29) as purported by Strong (1943). The results stated
that the best programmers were men who liked problem and puzzle solving activities, disliked
activities involving close personal interaction, and preferred working with things rather than
people (Perry & Cannon, 1967). Perry and Cannon (1968) published another study a year later
focusing on women programmers but standardized these scores against the men’s results. The
study determined women are better at the aesthetic fields as they anticipated (Perry & Cannon,

19
1968). In addition, the study determined women scored higher in the scientific occupations but
lower on the technical occupations and technical supervision (Perry & Cannon, 1968). The
studies by SDC and others created a self-fulfilling prophecy that continues today.
As computers started becoming an integral part of business processes, more skilled
programmers were needed which elevated the status of programmers within organizations
(Ensmenger, 2012). In the late 1960s, people working in the computing field wanted to move
toward professionalizing IT work because it offered security and additional benefits such as
increased opportunity for mobility, independence, advancement, and higher salaries (Ensmenger,
2001). Organizations also wanted to move toward professionalizing IT work to assist recruiting
experienced and capable IT specialists (Ensmenger, 2001). In the 1960s the professional
computing organizations needed to separate the routine work from the more intellectual work
and started requiring a college degree or other certification credential to obtain membership
which created barriers for women (Ensmenger, 2012). Organizations and hiring managers
viewed professionals as potential managers which also created barriers for women since their
gender role was not congruent with management or leadership (Ensmenger, 2012). As the
computing field became more masculine, the work environment in organizations followed suit.
The terminology and images used in the IT field were male oriented. Phrases such as
“killing a job” or “tool-kits” are examples of language associated with masculinity (Ghoshal &
Passerini, 2006, p. 27). Frederick Brooks (1995) wrote a popular software development book
titled The Mythical Man-Month (Ensmenger, 2012) which does not mean programmers are men
but using gendered language has an effect on women (Ghoshal & Passerini, 2006). Researchers
started using part of a Playboy centerfold image while developing an image compression
technique for a conference (Hutchinson, 2001; Kinstler, 2019, January 31; Mankin, 2012). This

20
centerfold image became the standard for other researchers doing the same type of image
research and image appear in journals, conference proceedings and at professional gatherings
(Hutchinson, 2001; Kinstler, 2019, January 31; Mankin, 2012). This image and the research
surrounding it are hard to find and some journals even have a policy which states they will no
longer accept submissions using this image (Manuscript submission guidelines, 2023). Factors
like gender roles and environmental influences contributed to the underrepresentation of women
in the IT field which created the need for research.
Research on the Underrepresentation of Women in the IT Field
Researchers started to study the underrepresentation of women in the IT field, now
known as social inclusion research, in the early 1980s but they faced challenges publishing on
this topic (Trauth, 2017; von Hellens et al., 2012). Professional conferences were one of the first
venues which accepted publications on this topic (von Hellens et al., 2012). A conference held in
1985 by the International Federation for Information Processing (IFIP) was one of the first
conferences dedicated to women working in the IT field (von Hellens et al., 2012). The first
journal issue dedicated to the underrepresentation of women in IT was published in 2002 by the
Information Technology and People journal (von Hellens et al., 2012). Researchers have used
various theoretical and non-theoretical frames to study the issue of gender inequity in the IT
field.
The initial studies on women in the IT field lacked theoretical frameworks and placed
little importance applying a theoretical gender lens. Researchers conducted both qualitative and
quantitative studies but by not applying a theoretical or gender framework, results implied
differences between men and women were determined by inherent fixed qualities whereby men’s
qualities held higher esteem (Adam et al., 2004; Trauth, 2006). In the early 2000s published

21
research on women in IT called for more studies grounded in theory with a gender framework as
a central focus (Adam, 2002; Adam et al., 2004).
A couple of theoretical frameworks became popular with researchers studying gender and
IT. Researchers used essentialism and social constructionism theories in their studies (Mennega
& de Villiers, 2021; Trauth, 2006). Essentialism applied to gender and IT theorizes inequity in
the IT field is a result of inherent fixed differences between men and women (Mennega & de
Villiers, 2021; Trauth, 2006; Wajcman, 1991). Essentialism was not a suitable framework for
gender and IT studies. If men and women are truly inherently different in the IT workforce then
one can conclude that there should be one approach to hiring, retention, and promotion for men
and another approach for women (Trauth, 2006). Society already unsuccessfully tried this
approach with race, and it would not be successful with gender either (Trauth, 2002, 2006).
The other theoretical framework which became widely used in gender and IT research is
social construction theory. Social construction theorizes inequity in IT is a result of socially
constructed gender roles of women and of people who work in IT (Berger & Luckmann, 1966;
Mennega & de Villiers, 2021; Trauth, 2006). The socially constructed role of people who work
in IT is masculine and women’s identity is feminine which causes both men and women to view
IT as not a good career fit for women (Mennega & de Villiers, 2021; Trauth, 2006). Social
constructionism is a flawed approach to gender and IT studies because societies construct norms
but societies and cultures are different as are their views on gender roles (Trauth, 2006;
Wajcman, 1991). Since gender roles differ based on cultural differences, finding one approach to
address societal gender role incongruency is not possible (Trauth, 2006). Gaps in applied
theoretical frameworks led to the development of new theoretical frameworks such as Individual
Differences Theory of Gender and IT (IDTGIT) (Trauth, 2002). Researchers used IDTGIT to

22
understand root causes of the underrepresentation of women in the IT field by listening to
women’s individual experiences and influences and how they each reacted (Trauth, 2006).
IDTGIT accounts for variations in gender roles in different cultures as well as individual
differences within a gender group (Trauth, 2006). Researchers adopted IDTGIT to study
women’s career advancement in IT (Adams, 2018; Al Sebaie, 2015; McGee, 2018).
Women and IT Career Advancement
Women who choose to work in the IT field face challenges and barriers affecting career
advancement. The combination of being negatively stereotyped and outnumbered affects
women’s career choices both entering the field and persisting in the IT field (van Veelen et al.,
2019). If women choose not to enter the field or choose to leave mid-career, it creates a
phenomenon known as the “leaky pipeline” (Scott et al., 2018; Wynn & Correll, 2018).
However, the “leaky pipeline” framework over simplifies the problem by just looking at the
statistics (Metcalf, 2010). Women have the aptitude and interest to choose IT as a career.
Women choose IT careers and want to pursue leadership in IT for a variety of reasons.
The average overall job opening rate in the United States is estimated at 5%, but for the IT field
it is 15% (Krutsch, 2022). Women in IT earn considerably more than women in other
occupations (Ghoshal & Passerini, 2006; Miller & Vagins, 2018). The wage gap between men
and women in IT is smaller than in other industries (Ghoshal & Passerini, 2006; Miller &
Vagins, 2018). Women reported wanting to advance to a leadership position for personal
development for themselves and others around them, to positively impact the community, and to
work collaboratively with others (Amon, 2017; Suseno & Abbott, 2021).

23
Entry Into the IT Field
Women’s influences and experiences from a young age through higher education affect
their choice to pursue a career in IT (Adya, 2019; Ahuja, 2002). The influence of parents,
teachers, and others greatly affects a young woman’s interests, choices, and eventual career path
(Alawi & Al Mubarak, 2019; Ertl et al., 2017; Starr, 2018; Stout et al., 2011). Women who have
parents or siblings who work in the IT field or actively encourage them to pursue an IT career
positively affects career choice and persistence in the field (Adya & Kaiser, 2005; Adya, 2019).
Access to subject matter experts and role models increases women’s career self-identification,
motivation, and interest in stereotypically male fields (Botella et al., 2019; Stout et al., 2011).
Institutional support such as formal networking opportunities and mentoring programs also
increases women’s interest in the IT field (Botella et al., 2019).
Influences and experiences can also deter women from choosing IT as a career choice.
Women may not have the same access or exposure to technology and technology education
which creates a deficit mindset and lowers self-efficacy about succeeding in IT (Adya & Kaiser,
2005; Adya, 2008, 2019). The influence of parents, teachers, and peers may also have a negative
effect on women’s career choices if they consciously or unconsciously show bias or enforce
stereotypical norms (Bian et al., 2017; Bleeker & Jacobs, 2004; Ertl et al., 2017; Starr, 2018;
Vasconcelos et al., 2022). Stereotypes of gender roles and stereotypes of women in STEM
careers like IT are not congruent which affects women’s career choices (Dasgupta & Stout,
2014; Master et al., 2016; Master et al., 2021). Lack of same sex role models lowers self-efficacy
and deters women from choosing an IT related major or career (Adya, 2019; Dasgupta & Stout,
2014). Women who are outnumbered in classes, teams, or other environments feel less engaged,
less sense of belonging, and less confident which affects their performance and choices

24
(Dasgupta & Stout, 2014). In instances where women are outnumbered and their gender is
negatively stereotyped, stereotype threat becomes a significant factor in their choices of whether
they persist or leave (Schuster & Martiny, 2017).
Most jobs in IT require a degree in computer science or related field but the number of
women who graduate with a degree in this area has dropped considerably. The percentage of
women who attained a bachelor’s in computer science reached a high of 37% in 1984 but the
percentage declined to less than 20% by 2004 (National Center for Education Statistics, 2012).
The percentage remained stagnant until 2018 when it broke the 20% plane and increased again in
2019 to 21% (DuBow & Gonzalez, 2020; Hamrick, 2021). Without qualified women applicants,
the number entering the IT field will not increase.
The hiring process for IT jobs discourages women applicants. Job advertisement
language has a major influence on whether women apply for jobs in IT (Ly-Le, 2022). In the
1960s many advertisements used male pronouns or the word “man” when referring to
programmers (Ensmenger, 2012). Advertisements for jobs list more technical skills than are
actually needed for the job (Ly-Le, 2022). Women tend to take the job requirements at face value
and if they do not meet all the requirements, they are less likely to apply (Mohr, 2014). In
addition, benefits that are more male oriented such as sporting event outings are a deterrent (LyLe, 2022). Recruitment efforts that specifically identify women as an underrepresented group,
may have the opposite effect than intended because it may give women the impression that they
do not belong or are not welcome (Cowgill et al., 2021). Recruiting sessions by technology
companies may create a negative impression to potential women applicants by showing gendered
images, giving away gendered promotional items, and using gendered speech (Wynn & Correll,

25
2018). Recent research indicates job advertisement practices are improving and are not
displaying gender biased language (Breese et al., 2020).
Besides increasing the number of women choosing to start a career in IT, keeping women
is important to reach gender equity in the field. Women in IT say they enjoy working in IT but
more than 50% of women working in IT leave the field within 5 years (Ashcraft et al., 2016).
Despite the implementation of diversity initiatives, women leave due to issues with
organizational culture and barriers they experience (Annabi & Lebovitz, 2018).
Barriers
Women in IT face barriers related to their gender roles and from other influences. The
social constructed roles of women and of IT professionals do not align. Women perceive gender
and gender stereotypes as barriers to persist and promote in the IT field (Amon, 2017; Armstrong
et al., 2012; Joia & Sily de Assis, 2019; Quesenberry & Trauth, 2012).The socially constructed
roles of women and of leadership do not align which also causes barriers for women who want to
promote (Ensmenger, 2012). Women wanting to promote into an IT leadership positions face
barriers from both gender role incongruency and with IT work and gender role incongruency
associated with leadership (McCullough, 2011). Researchers examined both issues.
Women experience discrimination and sexism in the IT field. Sexism can take two forms,
hostile and benevolent. Hostile sexism takes the form of microaggressions where women’s
contributions to discussions are not valued or male coworkers make negative comments about
their knowledge and abilities (Atal et al., 2019; Trinkenreich et al., 2022). Tokenism or inclusion
of women in teams just for appearance or to meet a quota rather than based on skills or abilities
is an example of benevolent sexism women experience in the IT field (Atal et al., 2019;
Trinkenreich et al., 2022). Women also face other forms of discrimination.

26
Supervisors treat women differently than men in IT. Women are given less technical and
more manual assignments compared to their equally qualified male coworkers (Ghoshal &
Passerini, 2006). Women are supervised more closely by supervisors, receive lower performance
evaluation scores, and less praise than their male coworkers (Atal et al., 2019; Ghoshal &
Passerini, 2006; Trinkenreich et al., 2022). In performance reviews women receive more
negative feedback and more critical reviews than men regardless of the gender of the reviewer
(Snyder, 2014). Women’s experiences that differ from men’s experiences affect their sense of
belonging.
Women in IT experience exclusion and lower social capital than their male colleagues. In
a social setting when there are more men than women, the men tend to interact with each other
which leaves women feeling excluded (Trinkenreich et al., 2022). Women also feel that they
have lower social capital and have less influence or decision making powers (Amon, 2017).
Bapna and Funk (2021) found that women at a professional IT conference made fewer
professional contacts than men did. Informal social networks create promotional opportunities
for the dominant group which adversely affects women in IT because they are not members of
the dominant group (Kirton & Robertson, 2018; McDonald & Day, 2010). Women also face
barriers when their professional life and home life intersect.
Women also face work-life balance career barriers related to demands of IT work, family
obligations, beliefs of managers and coworkers, and individual motivations and self-efficacy.
The demands of IT work including long hours, travel, and an obligation to be on call to resolve
issues create more stress and work life balance conflict for women (Ahuja et al., 2007; Atal et
al., 2019; DePasquale et al., 2017; Joia & Sily de Assis, 2019; Kirton & Robertson, 2018;
Paulson, 2016; Trinkenreich et al., 2022). Married women and women with children face more

27
conflict between work and home life due to IT work demands conflicting with expectations of
partners and other family responsibilities (Chauhan et al., 2022; DePasquale et al., 2017;
Makarem & Wang, 2020). IT management and coworkers think less of women who do not
prioritize work over family obligations and give them more trivial work and exclude them from
decision making (DePasquale et al., 2017; Trinkenreich et al., 2022). Women who have family
obligations may choose roles that allow for more flexibility and work life balance which hinders
career advancement opportunities (Holth et al., 2017; Paulson, 2016). The roles that offer more
flexibility and work life balance tend to be less technical and over time women lose confidence
and self-efficacy related to their technical abilities which adds to the career advancement barriers
(Holth et al., 2017). Whether by choice or by circumstance, the job classifications women work
in differ from men in IT organizations.
Women face disparity around the type and level of IT positions held compared to their
male coworkers. Women experience both horizontal and vertical stratification when it comes to
IT careers. Horizontal stratification refers to women hiring into and occupy less technical and
low-level positions in the IT workforce such as project managers, business analysts, customer
support, or technical recruiters while men work as software engineers, systems administrators,
and application developers (Ashcraft et al., 2016; Fernandez & Campero, 2017; Ghoshal &
Passerini, 2006). Vertical stratification refers to the underrepresentation of women in IT
management and senior leadership positions (Ashcraft et al., 2016; Ghoshal & Passerini, 2006).
The percentage of women in IT management and senior leadership positions is 26% and 18%
respectively (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2022a; Korn Ferry, 2019; Zippia, 2024). Women face
challenges as they try to promote in the IT field.

28
Women experience a glass ceiling or perceive that one exists. The glass ceiling refers to
invisible impediments that prevent women from promoting into leadership positions (MartínezFierro & Lechuga Sancho, 2021). Women may believe the glass ceiling exists which may deter
them from applying for promotional opportunities (Akpinar-Sposito, 2013). Fernandez and
Campero (2017) took a different approach to studying the glass ceiling by studying external
hiring rather than internal organizational hiring. Findings indicate the number of qualified
women candidates is too low to meet the number of IT leadership openings which is a
consequence of horizontal stratification where women occupying lower level positions and lack
the experience to promote (Fernandez & Campero, 2017). Women who can promote into senior
leadership positions experience other gender related challenges.
Women who promote into senior or executive leadership positions may face challenges
referred to as the glass cliff. Research shows that organizations may have policies to help
promote women which increase the number of women in leadership positions, but they may not
provide the support needed for women to succeed in these new roles (Wilson-Kovacs et al.,
2006). Research suggests that organizations which are not performing well or are in a state of
crisis are more likely to take risks, one of which might be hiring a woman into a senior
leadership position (Ryan et al., 2016). If the company continues to underperform after the
woman is hired, observers are particularly critical of the woman leader and may associate the
underperformance to her lack of skills and abilities as a leader (Ryan et al., 2016). Other
influences besides barriers affect a woman’s ability to promote in the IT field.
Other Influences
Mentors have a considerable influence on a woman’s career journey in IT. Mentors
provided support and advice when women experienced career barriers and helped them to

29
visualize themselves in leadership roles especially in early stages of their career (Amon, 2017;
Liautaud & Lagarde, 2016; Trauth et al., 2009). Women reported positive experiences from both
male and female mentors (Trauth et al., 2009). When mentorship opportunities and formal
support were not available, some women developed informal mentorship from various people
both inside and outside the organization and the field (Amon, 2017). Research suggests that
informal mentoring may be more beneficial because there may be a stronger relationship bond
formed (Ahuja, 2002). Mentorship is one way to break through the glass ceiling (Liautaud &
Lagarde, 2016). When mentorship opportunities were not available, professional development
and training opportunities may increase a woman’s ability to promote in IT (Langer et al., 2020).
Mentorship and lack of mentorship can also have a negative effect on a woman’s career.
Women reported a negative mentoring experience when the mentor tried to shape the mentee in
their own image, exerted too much control, or participated in mentorship solely for their own
benefit (Trauth et al., 2009). Women perceive lack of mentorship opportunities as a barrier for
career advancement (Botella et al., 2019). Lack of mentorship programs may coincide or be
included in with the lower social capital and exclusion barrier (Armstrong et al., 2018).
Role models also have an influence on women’s career journey in IT. Role models can be
beneficial for women in IT to improve confidence and self-efficacy (Stout et al., 2011; Trauth et
al., 2009). More research is needed to determine if women seeing but not interacting with career
aspirational role models are more, less, or equally effective as career aspirational role models
with whom they personally interact (Olsson & Martiny, 2018). Despite negative gender
stereotypes about women in science and technology roles, women are positively impacted by
seeing same-sex role models increasing self-efficacy and motivation in the field (Annabi &
Lebovitz, 2018; Stout et al., 2011).

30
Role models can also have a negative influence on a woman’s career journey in IT. If
women perceive role models are too different or have achieved heights seemingly unattainable,
then women’s confidence and self-efficacy may actually decrease (Olsson & Martiny, 2018).
Lack of role models has a negative effect reducing confidence, sense of belonging, and
persistence (Armstrong et al., 2018; Botella et al., 2019; Trinkenreich et al., 2022). Women
leader role models at times demonstrate self-group distancing behavior in male dominated fields
such as IT to distance themselves from women in lower level positions (Derks et al., 2016).
Women demonstrate the self-group distancing behavior as a result of gender-bias in an
organization and feel as if they need to choose between career advancement or being authentic to
their gender identity (Derks et al., 2016; Faniko et al., 2017).
Sponsors or allies create opportunities for women to promote in IT. Sponsors create
opportunities by increasing social capital, opportunities for networking and advancement (Atal et
al., 2019; Hewlett et al., 2010; Paulson, 2016). Women in science and technology feel they have
less opportunity for sponsorship opportunities which decreases the sense of belonging (Hewlett
et al., 2010). One study found a formal sponsorship program designed to provide equal access to
sponsors was not succeeding because women at all levels had less access to senior leadership
sponsors (Carboni et al., 2022).
Organizations instituting diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) initiatives create an
environment where women feel welcome and valued. Organizations are committing to increasing
diversity by instituting training programs for managers and sponsoring educational opportunities
for young people (Atal et al., 2019). Organizations which have benefits such as paid parental
leave, flexible schedules, telework, and professional development opportunities are able to attract
and retain more women in IT. (Atal et al., 2019; Wang & Degol, 2017). When women are

31
supported by the organization and recognized for their accomplishments, it increases their selfefficacy for career advancement (Amon, 2017; Botella et al., 2019). Initiatives specifically
designed to support women in fields where they are underrepresented and negatively stereotyped
may have the opposite effect than intended (Cowgill et al., 2021; Ertl et al., 2017). Initiatives
designed to only support women may overemphasize the gender stereotype and give the
perception women need support to succeed (Cowgill et al., 2021; Ertl et al., 2017).
Personality traits are key factors which determine whether women overcome barriers and
seek promotion opportunities. Emotional resilience correlates positively with job and career
satisfaction which is helpful in IT work which tends to be more stressful and changing often
(Lounsbury et al., 2007; Sackett & Walmsley, 2014). Optimism is another characteristic which
positively correlates to IT job and career satisfaction which may be due to the way optimists
view stressful situations more positively and are better able to persist (Lounsbury et al., 2007).
Initial research on IT workers indicated that introverts were more suited to IT work but more
recent research found that extroverts have higher levels of job and career satisfaction (Lounsbury
et al., 2007; Perry, 1967; Perry & Cannon, 1968; Sackett & Walmsley, 2014). In addition,
assertiveness, work drive, customer service orientation, openness, and working in teams were all
positively correlated to IT job and career satisfaction (Lounsbury et al., 2007).
In addition to personality traits, leadership skills are a key factor for women’s career
advancement success. One study of perception and ratings of leaders working in high performing
organizations found that women scored higher than men on 17 out of the 19 measurements of
leadership capability including taking initiative, demonstrating resiliency, developing themselves
and others, driving results, and demonstrating integrity (Zenger & Folkman, 2019). Women also
demonstrate communication skills which are consistent with effective leadership (Paulson,

32
2016). When women work in an environment where they are outnumbered, research suggests
that they feel the need to prove they are qualified and therefore work harder (Paulson, 2016).
Researchers call for more research on women either in a senior IT leadership positions or
thinking of pursuing a senior IT leadership position to understand the challenges and
opportunities with the ultimate goal of reaching gender parity in IT including women in senior IT
leadership positions (Adams, 2018; Chauhan et al., 2022; Paulson, 2016). Armstrong et al.
(2018) suggest studying women CIOs to understand how they succeeded in order to provide
support for other women to promote into leadership roles in the IT field. Gorbacheva et al.
(2019) suggest studying differences within genders as opposed to between genders.
Theory and Conceptual Framework
The Individual Differences Theory of Gender and IT (IDTGIT) examines the unique
identity, influences, and experiences of the individual women working in the IT field (Trauth,
2002, 2013). IDTGIT was developed to fill a gap in previous research which used gender
essentialist or social constructionist theory to explain the underrepresentation of women in IT
(Mennega & de Villiers, 2021; Trauth, 2013). IDTGIT consists of three constructs which are
individual identity, individual influences, and environmental influences (Trauth et al., 2016;
Trauth, 2002). Table 1 shows the constructs, sub-constructs, and examples of each (Trauth et al.,
2016). Research shows that women have individual experiences, influences, and identities which
must be explored to truly understand the problem and find solutions (Adya, 2008). Figure 1
shows the individual and environmental constructs with the themes presented in the literature
review as it relates to understanding how women despite barriers can promote into CIO
positions.

33
Table 1
Constructs of Individual Differences Theory of Gender and IT
Construct Sub-construct Examples
Individual
identity
Personal demographics Age, ethnicity, socio-economic
class
Type of IT work Software development,
IS design
Individual
influences
Personal characteristics Educational background,
personality traits, abilities
Personal influences Mentors, role models,
significant life experiences
Environmental
influences
Cultural influences Attitudes about women
and IT
Economic influences Cost of living
Societal infrastructure
influences
Availability of childcare
Policy influences Laws about gender
discrimination
Note. Reprinted from “The influence of gender-ethnic intersectionality on gender stereotypes
about IT skills and knowledge,” by E. M. Trauth, C. C. Cain, K. D. Joshi, L. Kvasny, and K. M.
Booth, 2016, ACM SIGMIS Database: the DATABASE for Advances in Information Systems,
47(3), pp. 9-39 (https://doi.org/10.1145/2980783.2980785). Copyright 2016 by ACM.

34
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework Based on the Individual Differences Theory of Gender and IT
Individual identity factors include age, gender, race, and identification with IT. Previous
research indicates early exposure to IT helps girls see alignment with their identity and affects
career interests and choices (Botella et al., 2019; Stout et al., 2011). Women’s gender identity is
incongruent with IT work and with leadership (Anglin et al., 2022; Eagly & Karau, 2002). This
study will explore the impact gender norms had on the participants self-efficacy to promote to a
senior IT leadership position. Women occupy lower-level IT jobs and occupy less technical
assignments (Ghoshal & Passerini, 2006). This study will explore participants’ previous job
classifications and assignments, what related barriers they faced, and what factors influenced
mitigating them.
Environmental influence factors include attitudes toward women in IT, discrimination
and bias, family obligations, IT job opportunities, networking opportunities, social capital,
workplace culture and workplace policies including DEI initiatives. Women experience unequal
treatment based on attitudes toward women who work in the IT field including discrimination,

35
microaggressions, and tokenism (Atal et al., 2019; Trinkenreich et al., 2022). This study will
explore the types of unequal treatment women in senior leadership positions faced as they
promoted into their current role and what influences helped them to mitigate them. Women with
family obligations may feel stressed by the demands of IT work and opt for a more flexible and
likely less technical position affecting potential career advancement in the future (Ahuja et al.,
2007; Holth et al., 2017; Trinkenreich et al., 2022). This study will explore whether the
participants faced barriers related to family obligations. In the environmental influence construct,
family obligations refer to others treating the participant differently because she has family
responsibilities. For example, supervisors and coworkers to see a woman prioritizing family over
work is seen in a negative light and given less decision-making responsibility (DePasquale et al.,
2017; Trinkenreich et al., 2022). This study will explore participant’s experiences balancing
work and family responsibilities and what affect it had on career advancement. Workplace
culture and policies have an impact on a woman’s ability to promote. For example, women do
not experience the benefits of networking and social capital in IT organizations (Atal et al.,
2019). This study will explore the participant’s experience with networking and social capital
within her organization and what influences they had on her career advancement.
Individual influence factors include mentors, motivation, personality traits, professional
development and networking, role models, skills, sponsors, and support systems. Mentors, role
models, and sponsors can help women to overcome barriers and promote into senior leadership
positions (Trauth et al., 2009). This study will explore the participant’s experience with these
influences to see in what way they benefited from the experience. This study will also explore
the education background including formal education as well as professional development
opportunities.

36
Summary
For more than four decades, the underrepresentation of women in IT has been a problem
without any progress toward gender parity in the field. Women in IT leadership positions is an
even smaller percentage. Women CIOs faced barriers along the way associated with their
identity and various individual and environmental influences. Despite these barriers, women
CIOs succeeded. Understanding how they did will provide valuable insight into how more
women can promote into senior leadership roles.

37
Chapter Three: Methodology
The purpose of this study was to understand how women CIOs overcame barriers in their
career advancement journey. The findings of this study provided insight into what influences
helped women overcome career barriers in IT. This chapter presents the research questions,
overview of the research design and methods. The chapter also describes the sample population,
instrumentation, and procedures for data collection and analysis to ensure validity and reliability
of the study. Lastly, this chapter presents ethical considerations, my positionality, limitations,
and delimitations of the study.
Research Questions
This purpose of this study was to gain a better understanding of what career barriers
women CIOs faced in their career advancement journey and how they overcame the barriers. The
following research questions (RQ) guided this study.
RQ 1: How have individual identity and environmental factors created career
advancement barriers for women in IT?
RQ 2: What individual influences helped women overcome the barriers and promote to
top leadership positions in IT?
Overview of Methodology
The research approach that best suits this study was a qualitative approach. Qualitative
research involves a researcher who collects and analyzes data, is an inductive process, and
provides depth to understand meaning of participants’ experiences and perspectives (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Conducting one-on-one interviews is one way to gather qualitative data to
analyze a research problem and it is the appropriate tool for this study (Merriam & Tisdell,

38
2016). Researchers use interviews when they want to understand a person’s perceptions,
feelings, beliefs, and thoughts about their experiences (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
This study used a qualitative approach to discover the barriers women face in the IT field
and how they overcame them. This method provided an opportunity for deeper understanding of
the barriers women faced and what influences helped to mitigate and overcome them to promote
into CIO roles.
Participants
This research used a homogenous purposeful sampling from a population of women
employed as CIOs. I used the following criteria for selecting participants which included selfidentifying as a woman, currently or recently employed as a CIO in the United States and has
worked in the IT field for at least two years prior to working in the CIO role. This research study
consisted of interviewing 13 participants. Purposeful sampling allowed for more meaningful and
rich information because these participants have a unique perspective into the problem of
practice (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). I searched the LinkedIn social media platform and created
a list of women CIOs and contact them through the messaging feature in LinkedIn for the initial
contact and to provide the research information sheet.
Instrumentation
I used a semi-structured interview approach. A semi-structured interview allows for some
flexibility in question wording and order (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Choosing semi-structured
interviews allowed participants to share experience and allowed the researcher to ask additional
probing questions to get richer information. Appendix A presents the interview protocol
including the list of questions, potential probes, research questions addressed, and key concepts
addressed.

39
Data Collection
In qualitative research, the researcher is a primary instrument in the research (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The data collection method was online interviews which spanned from 31 to 73
minutes and averaged 51 minutes in length. I used Zoom as the online meeting platform because
it is widely known and used tool for online collaboration (Brandl, 2021). The Zoom meeting
options included a passcode to join. I sent the participants a link to Calendly calendar application
to schedule the interview at a time convenient for them. The Calendly system sent out the
meeting invite and sent reminders to for the meeting one day and one hour before the meeting
time. The participants gave consent to record the interviews and they were recorded using Zoom
and stored in Zoom’s cloud infrastructure which is password protected. I also used Otter.ai for
interview transcriptions. I listened to all the recordings to ensure that Otter.ai transcribed the
interviews verbatim. I removed identifying information and applied a participant number for
each participant. I will ensure the data is destroyed after the data analysis and the dissertation are
completed and will be kept no longer than a year.
Data Analysis
I used a data analysis tool called ATLAS.ti. The transcripts were confirmed for accuracy,
scrubbed of identifying information, and imported into ATLAS.ti for analysis. I developed a
codebook which categorizes data into themes (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The themes linked to
the conceptual framework. I documented the procedures used in data analysis to ensure
reliability of the research.
Trustworthiness and Credibility
Researchers need to perform research in an ethical manner in order to ensure validity and
reliability (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Validity in qualitative research refers to the process of the

40
researcher employing procedures to validate accuracy of the finding (Creswell & Creswell,
2018). I used defined procedures and guidelines to conduct the study. I used reflexivity as a
measure of validity. Reflexivity refers to the researcher discussing her positionality and bias as it
relates to the interpretation of the data and findings (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Reliability in
qualitative research refers to consistency and stability of the approach (Creswell & Creswell,
2018). This research study used mechanically recorded data and verbatim transcripts to ensure
the research is trustworthy and credible.
Ethics
Ethics including standards and practices are an essential considerations for ensuring
credibility and reliability when designing and performing research (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
This research adhered to the guidelines and procedures provided by the University of Southern
California’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) including obtaining informed consent. I obtained
IRB approval before the recruitment and research process began. During the initial recruitment
communication and at the beginning of the interview, I advised participants that participation in
the study is voluntary, and they may stop participation at any time. I coded the interview data
using participant numbers to maintain anonymity of research participants. I advised the
participants of the secure storage and eventual destruction timeline for the recordings and the
transcripts.
The Researcher
As a researcher, it is important to understand my positionality and bias because it affects
how I view the world and interact with others. On the intersecting wheel of privilege,
domination, and oppression (Pauly Morgan, 2018), my identity as a woman shows my position
of oppression. Pauly Morgan (2018) defines oppression as experiences of marginalization by a

41
dominant group based on a person’s position on the different lines of the axis. My identity as a
woman working in a senior leadership position in IT impacts my views of the world and this
research on three levels. First, my experience as a woman in the United States in a time when
legislative and judicial bodies are rolling back women’s rights may affect my views on this
research. Second, my experience as a woman working in the IT field for more than two decades
facing many of the barriers discussed in the literature review may affect my views on this
research. Third, my experience as a woman in a leadership position may affect my views on this
research. My experience as a woman who works in IT and holds a leadership position affects my
views on the participants because we share these positions of oppression. In qualitative research,
researchers use reflexivity to mitigate bias by writing notes during the research process reflecting
on how their past experiences may shape the interpretation of the study data (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018). My process included reflexivity to mitigate any personal bias.

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Chapter Four: Findings
The purpose of this study was to gain a better understanding of career barriers women
CIOs faced as they promoted in their IT career and how they overcame the barriers. This study
utilized Individual Differences Theory of Gender and IT (IDTGIT) as the basis for the research
(Trauth, 2002, 2006). The following research questions (RQ) guided this study.
RQ 1: How have individual identity and environmental factors created career
advancement barriers for women in IT?
RQ 2: What individual influences helped women overcome the barriers and promote to
top leadership positions in IT?
Chapter Overview
This chapter presents an overview of participants’ demographic information, experiences,
and influences. This chapter also presents the findings in the form of themes and subthemes for
each research question. To ensure credibility and trustworthiness, the findings include direct
quotes from participants.
Participants
Thirteen participants for this study were women who currently or recently worked as a
CIO or equivalent title and had worked in the IT field for at least two years before promoting
into a top IT leadership role. This study used a purposeful sample of participants to conduct
qualitative interviews. The participant recruitment process used messaging on the professional
social media platform LinkedIn. The interviews occurred in the fall of 2023. Each participant
discussed barriers or challenges they faced in their career advancement journey as well as
strategies they used to promote into a top IT leadership position. The participants also provided
advice to women working in IT who might want to advance into an IT leadership position.

43
I assigned a pseudonym to each participant to protect their identity and ensure
confidentiality. I redacted all identifying information such as current and past employers which
may reveal their identity. To further protect the participant’s identity, I generalized their
undergraduate degrees into three broad fields, computer related, business, or other. Demographic
data provided in Table 2 includes an overview of the current or most recent industry they worked
in, generation they belong to, years of experience in IT, and undergraduate degree field. This
small sample size is not generalizable to a larger population.
Table 2
Participant Overview (n = 13)
Participant
pseudonym
Current (or most
recent) industry
Generation Years working
in IT
Undergraduate degree
Anne Government Gen X 20-29 Computer related
Dorothy Government Baby boomer 30+ Computer related
Elaine Private sector Gen X 30+ Business
Elizabeth Private sector Gen X 20-29 Business
Emily Private sector Gen X 30+ Business
Florence Government Millennial 20-29 Computer related
Janet Higher education Gen X 20-29 Computer related
Jennifer Private sector Gen X 20-29 Other
Judy Higher education Gen X <20 Other
Kate Private sector Gen X 20-29 Business
Rita Private sector Baby boomer <20 Other
Rose Private sector Baby boomer 30+ Business
Ruth Government Gen X 20-29 Other

44
All participants worked in the United States in their current or recent CIO role. One
participant worked in the Southern region and 12 participants worked in the Western region. Five
participants earned an advanced degree in business or management. Ten participants had
children. Two participants indicated they intentionally chose not to have children.
The majority of participants identified as White which equated to 77% of participants.
The other participants either identified as Asian or Black at 15% and 8%, respectively. Table 3
shows the overview of the participants’ racial identity as a percentage.
Table 3
Participant Race Overview as a Percentage (n=13)
Race Percentage
Asian 15
Black 8
White 77

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Findings for Research Question 1
The first research question focused on individual identity and environmental influences
which hindered career advancement for women in the IT field. Table 4 shows the three themes
and corresponding subthemes which emerged from the data. This section presents each theme
and subtheme with evidence from the participant interview data.
Table 4
Findings: Research Question 1
Themes Subthemes Conceptual
Framework Area
Theme one: Exposure
necessary for women to
identify with an IT
career
I never thought about a career in IT
I never thought I would be CIO
Individual identity
Theme two:
Family obligations
Caregiving choices
Prioritizing family
Environmental
influences
Theme three:
Discrimination and bias
Negative attitude toward women
Not considered for promotion
Social capital and confidence
Environmental
influences

46
Theme 1: Exposure Necessary for Women To Identify With an IT Career
All the participants were exposed to computers and IT at some point in their life. This
exposure led to participants seeing a future for themselves in the IT field, but more than half of
the participants only gained exposure after high school. This lack of early exposure created a
barrier for women’s ability to envision a career in IT for themselves. Once women entered the IT
workforce, some participants did not envision becoming a CIO because they either did not
identify as a technology leader, or they lacked the self-efficacy to promote into a CIO role. This
section shares the participants experiences related misalignment of identity with IT careers and
IT leadership roles.
Early exposure to technology and STEM fields affects career choices. Without early
exposure, women are not able to identify with a career in technology and they lack the selfefficacy to pursue an IT career. The lack of early exposure by more than half of the participants
affected their career aspirations and choices. Two participants did not decide until college to
pursue an IT career and did not choose a computer related major. This was a barrier to entry into
the IT field. Kate said she “was always drawn to the IT” but studied business instead. She then
had a challenging time getting an IT job after graduation during the dot com bust and had to
work as a business data analyst for a few years before she was able get an IT job.
I Never Thought About a Career in IT
The participants described starting to think about a career in IT at various stages in their
life from middle school to when they were already in the workforce. More than half of the
participants did not identify with IT as a potential career until after high school. Table 5 shows
an overview of the participants’ generation and their stage in their life when they started to have
an interest in and identify with a career in IT.

47
Table 5
Participant IT Career Interest Overview (n=13)
IT career interest started Number of participants Generation
In middle school 2 Both Gen X
In high school 3 Millennial and Boomer (2)
After high school or during college 2 Both Gen X
After entering the workforce 6 Gen X (5) and Boomer (1)
The other six participants described getting exposure to IT through working in a different
field and later “kind of fell into” a career in IT as stated by Ruth.. Rita graduated with a degree
that was not related to either computers or business and did not know what career path she
wanted to follow. She only thought about pursuing an IT career when her father suggested it.
Elizabeth did work involving mathematical calculation and “fell into technology.” Emily shared,
“[I] got into IT by accident.” She worked the swing shift and when things broke after normal
business hours, someone had to fix it and that’s how she learned how to program.
These participants only started working in IT due to coincidental or accidental exposure.
Early exposure to IT reduces barriers to entry in the IT field by sparking interest, identification,
and self-efficacy (Adya & Kaiser, 2005; Ahuja, 2002; Ertl et al., 2017; Starr, 2018). Once
working in the IT field, some participants did not identify with a leadership position in IT or
lacked self-efficacy to believe they could be a CIO. If women are not able to see congruence
between their identity and a leadership position, then it is a barrier to career advancement (Eagly
& Karau, 1991, 2002; McCullough, 2011; Paulson, 2016).
I Never Thought I Would Be CIO
Once the participants were working in the IT field, five of them mentioned that they
never thought they would or could be a CIO. Anne shared, “if you had asked 25-year-old me,
would you be a CIO someday, [I] would have been like, Oh, no.” Jennifer shared, “if you had

48
asked me was, I like planning to be a CIO. No, I think in my head I probably would have top out
at a director.” Ruth said, “I never said I want to be a CIO.” Rose shared, “I never had this desire
to become a CIO. I didn't think about it.” Dorothy reported that a supervisor suggested she
“need[s] to think about being a CIO, [she] had never even thought about it.” These participants
did not identify with a top IT leadership role and therefore, it never occurred to them to aspire to
be a CIO. Without some kind of individual influence, they would not have promoted to a CIO
role because they did not see this role aligned with their identity.
Theme 2: Family Obligations
Nine participants discussed family obligations as a barrier in their career. The topics
discussed related to facing a choice between progressing in their career and taking care of family
obligations. Most of the family obligations centered on childcare responsibilities but two
participants discussed being a caregiver for a parent.
Caregiving Choices
Women must balance work, caregiving, and household responsibilities. In the United
States, the expectations for caregiving and household responsibilities fall on women more than
men (Blair-Loy et al., 2015; DePasquale et al., 2017). Rita reported, “I've mentored a lot of
women … the challenge that I found common about all of them is trying to balance raising the
kids, keeping the household, and their career.” At times, women face choice which are almost
impossible. Dorothy said, “There's choices you have to make right? If you need to make money
and your boss says you have to be there. What do you do? You bring a sick kid to work.”
Women also face choices related to the demands of IT work which requires long hours and being
available. Florence reported she struggled with “having little kids [and] making sure you have
your work life balance set out.” Women also must provide caregiving for parents as well. Emily

49
shared, “I had to care for an aging parent a few years ago …and do that while you're working full
time is not really, is pretty tough and is the world that, by the way, that women live in. You're
getting squeezed with childcare and elder care all at the same time.” Women balance these hard
choices daily and are sometimes treated differently at work if they take time off or prioritize
family. Janet experienced a situation where female executives told her, “You will never have
time for a family. Don't even bother and don't tell people you're pregnant because they will fire
you.” Despite that unsolicited advice, she had a baby while still working at that organization and
went on maternity leave. When she came back, she “was no longer a manager or leader.”
Leadership told her, “You can come back and work your way back up.” Other women felt they
had to choose a more flexible role or delay their career progression path to prioritize their family.
Prioritizing Family
Four participants shared that they made career choices to accommodate caregiving for
either children or aging parents. The choices were to choose roles that would accommodate work
life balance and even turndown promotional opportunities to prioritize family obligations. These
choices were a barrier to career advancement for these women. Janet shared that her choice
delayed her career advancement. She reported, “I probably would have been a CIO at 30. Easily.
But as a woman and having to take [care of] kids I had to slow roll it. I could only take roles
where I could balance my life.” Jennifer talked about choosing to take lateral positions which
would allow her to care for her child and elderly parent. She reported “twice in my career
because … I was a caregiver … [and] laterals were my choice.” Dorothy shared three times in
her career when she made choices to prioritize her family. After the birth of her first child, she
“did part time work, kind of gig work.” She had two more children and she “decided to step
down you know, and I said, I'm just going to go back to be an analyst.” She then decided to

50
become a consultant for more flexibility. She shared, “I was a consultant for three years so that
when my kids went on vacation, I could just quit, and I'd give 30 days’ notice.” Dorothy also
passed up on a promotional opportunity because she prioritized her family. She shared, “I was
actually offered my first CIO position … and I turned it down…. I said my kids are so young that
I already work so much. I am not going to do it.” Elizabeth talked about women she knew not
choosing to promote because “a lot of them were like, you know, I have multiple priorities. And
I can't make this my number one priority, like some of the people that are in those [CIO] roles
can.”
Family obligations are one of the environmental influences which create career barriers
for women in the IT field. The participants faced challenges such as caregiving responsibilities
which sometimes forced them to make choices which affected their career advancement. IT
leadership work was more demanding than lower-level positions and some participants chose to
not promote, take lower-level positions, or gig work so that they could balance family
obligations and their work.
Theme 3: Discrimination and Bias
All the participants experienced some sort of discrimination and bias in the workplace.
The three most frequent issues mentioned were negative attitudes toward women, hitting the
glass ceiling, and experiencing lower social capital which led to lower confidence. Each of these
was an environmental factor which affected the participants’ career advancement or the belief
they could advance in their IT career.
Negative Attitudes Toward Women
More than half of the participants reported experiencing negative attitudes toward women
in their career journey which they perceived as a barrier to their career advancement. The two

51
negative attitudes mentioned most often by the participants were colleagues not showing respect
and tokenism. Anne described a male supervisor who continued to think of her as “this woman
that reports to me” even after she became his peer. Jennifer mentioned men “talking over” her
and trying to physically “intimidate” her. Janet described an experience where she was about to
present to the board in her organization. The board consisted of about 30 white men. Just before
she was about to lead the meeting, one of the executives turned to her and said, “Hey, sweetie,
can you go get us copies of this presentation because I want to have it in my hand.”
Three participants described experiencing tokenism. A top executive invited Emily to
move her office to the executive suite. She asked the executive, “Does it also mean that I get to
come to the executive meetings?’ and he said, “no” and she thoughtfully declined because she
was not going to move there for optics. Janet worked as an IT consultant for a period of time and
peers openly described her as “the token woman” and as “arm candy.” She refuted the assertion
to her male peers, but they told her, “You’re here because you're going to represent our diversity
angle.” Rita had an experience with a direct report. The male direct report who went for the same
job was upset when she got the job instead of him. He told her she “only got the job because [of
her underrepresented status].”
The negative attitudes toward women and tokenism were barriers to career advancement
for the participants. These were environmental influences which affected their ability to persist
and advance both in the organization and in the IT field.
Not Considered for a Promotion
Six participants shared experiences where they felt they hit the glass ceiling. Four
participants discussed issues with processes for promotion which did not give them the
opportunity to promote. In all these cases, the person who got the promotion was a male. Kate

52
said, “It's very difficult to even be considered for position that isn't posted and someone else just
gets named for it.” Anne had a similar experience where a job “was posted I think on an internal
job board for maybe a day or two over a weekend.” Florence had the same experience happen to
her when she was on maternity leave. She said “the position wasn't officially posted. So, I didn't
really get a chance to interview for that. And then the next thing I know is my [male] coworker
messages me and says, hey, I got that position because our boss called me and asked me if I
wanted that position.” Judy also shared a similar experience where “they didn't post the position.
They just re-organized it, and made him over IT.”
Four participants discussed not being promoted even though they showed capability to do
the job and leaders knew they were qualified. Kate shared:
I think the hardest was just being able to justify you could do the next role. To even get to
the next role was very difficult in my career. Yeah. Knowing you're qualified, having
people know you're qualified, but the opportunity never been presented.
Elizabeth demonstrated her ability and the C-Suite leaders saw it and reached out to her for
special projects but never promoted her. She reported:
I had over 90 people reporting into me, I ran … eight of the processes that were managed
by … the IT department…. I got incredible reviews. You know, the CIO, the CEO, the
president when they had issues or wanted special projects done, they would ask for me to
get them done. And yet, … when it came time to promote and … hire a new VP, they
went outside, and that person only has like a handful of directs and they were male.
Meanwhile, I still ended up holding the entire bag and doing everything and, you know,
they brought in a person that was less experienced that they asked me to onboard and
mentor.

53
Emily was working for a large company with field offices all over the United States. Her
career stalled and she was applying for promotions but was not successful. She interviewed for a
couple of positions back at the corporate office which she did not get and was told by a human
resources executive, “you get asked to interview. You don't apply at certain levels.” In addition,
she reported if you aren’t asked to interview but you apply anyway, you are seen in a negative
light. She was also told by the human resources executive that you will never get back to
corporate because “you are the perfect field agent.” When she looked at the top executives in the
organization, she saw “it is 100% good old boys … company and at that point, [she] knew [she]
had to leave.” Judy said, “everybody was fine with me being an assistant director … but I
actually run the program.” They would not promote her even though she was doing the same
work as other program directors. When another supervisor came in, he looked at the situation
and asked, “Why aren't you a director? I see you're doing the same things that these other
directors are doing.”
Whether it is workplace culture or discrimination, women getting to a certain leadership
level and not being able to promote despite leadership knowing they have the skills is certainly a
barrier to promotion for the participants. Workplace culture and discrimination are
environmental influences which negatively affect a woman’s career progression in the IT field.
Social Capital and Confidence
Five participants shared experiences and feelings related to social capital and confidence.
Rose described tailoring her communication in meetings and not speaking up as much. She
shared, “I learned to tell a guy and then they would bring up your ideas because the ideas were
important, right? And then they would say and then get credit for it and then maybe get
implemented.” Elizabeth shared, “It's hard to build confidence in IT when you're surrounded by

54
men, and they have a camaraderie they go golfing, and you know, what they don't know their
buddies will help them.” Similarly, Emily shared:
I never became an expert in any one thing. I became an incredibly capable or versatile
generalist. And every so often, because I wasn't an expert in a conversation that was
being had or that I needed to be. I didn't always show up perhaps as well as I could have.
And because I'm not, I'll be honest, one of the guys because they'd go out and you know,
after work or go play golf or do different things, they would have different conversations.
Kate said, “I feel it's easier for men to connect with men and to promote men.” Rita said that
prior to promoting into her first CIO role, her mentor told her to apply for the job, but she stated
she did not have the confidence she was “ready for the role.”
Social capital is an environmental influence, and it affects confidence. The participants
shared having less social capital in the workplace which affected their relationships and
perceived ability to promote. It also affected some participants’ confidence which was also a
barrier for career advancement in their IT career.
Discussion for Research Question 1
The three themes presented in this section provide insights into the participants’
experiences facing barriers working within IT and advancing to a top IT leadership position.
Theme 1 (exposure necessary for women to identify with a career in IT) focuses on exposure to
IT and IT leadership. Lack of exposure or late exposure to computers and IT is a barrier to entry,
persistence, and promotion in the IT field related to the participants’ individual identity. Identity
is a factor of career choice. If women do not identify with IT or IT leadership, they will not
choose a career in IT or envision they can be leaders in the IT field. Barriers related to exposure
to IT (Adya & Kaiser, 2005; Adya, 2008, 2019; Ahuja, 2002) and incongruence of IT identity

55
with women’s gender identity (Dasgupta & Stout, 2014; Master et al., 2016; Master et al., 2021;
McCullough, 2011) are well documented in the literature.
Theme 2 (family obligations) focuses on the hard choices women face in the IT field
when trying to balance a career and family life and the effects of those choices on career
advancement. Family commitments are environmental influences which create barriers for
women working in and trying to promote in the IT field. When women take time off for
caregiving or to start a family, they may lose their status and must work their way back up. In
addition, women may choose to demote, take a less demanding lateral, or pass up promotional
opportunities which is a barrier to career advancement. These findings align with the literature
with relation to the effect of family obligations on career advancement (Ahuja et al., 2007;
DePasquale et al., 2017; Holth et al., 2017; Paulson, 2016; Trinkenreich et al., 2022).
Theme 3 (discrimination and bias) focuses on environmental influences such as negative
attitudes toward women, hitting the glass ceiling, and having less social capital which affects
confidence. These environmental influences are barriers women in the IT field experience which
hinders their career advancement journey. Participants experiences align with the literature
surrounding the barriers women face working and advancing to leadership positions in the IT
field including negative attitudes toward women (Amon, 2017; Armstrong et al., 2012; Joia &
Sily de Assis, 2019; Quesenberry & Trauth, 2012), and the real or perceived glass ceiling
(Akpinar-Sposito, 2013; Amon, 2017; Fernandez & Campero, 2017).
Results for Research Question 2
The second research question focuses on individual influences which helped women overcome
barriers and promote to a top IT position. Table 6 shows the two themes and corresponding

56
subthemes which emerged from the data. This section presents each theme and subthemes with
evidence from the participant interview data.
Table 6
Findings: Research Question 2
Themes Subthemes Conceptual
Framework Area
Theme 1: Essential support Mentors
Professional Network
Role Models
Sponsors
Support outside of work
Individual
influences
Theme 2: Skills and
Personality Traits
Communication
Confidence/Self-Efficacy
Curious and continually learning
Motivations
Resilience
Self-Promotion
Individual
influences

57
Theme 1: Essential Support
During the interviews, all participants shared receiving at least one type of support which
was essential to their career success. The types of support included mentors, professional
networks, role models, sponsors, and external support systems such as family. Dorothy summed
up the sentiment by sharing, “I don't think it would have been the same if I didn't have someone
helping me.”
Mentors
At least nine participants discussed having mentors who helped their career advancement
journey in IT. Mentoring helped the participants to learn new skills, build confidence, and see
opportunities. Dorothy had a mentor who helped her learn additional IT skills. She said, “I could
walk into the CIOs office and go ‘I don't understand this. What's a fat table? What does it do and
why is it important?’ And he would take out a piece of paper and draw me a picture.” Rita shared
a similar experience where a mentor helped her to become “a better programmer.” In these two
cases, mentors helped with building their IT skills and confidence.
Several other participants shared how mentors helped to build confidence in their IT
career journey. Emily shared a mentoring experience from early in her career which built
confidence both for working in IT and becoming a leader in IT. Her mentor said, “there weren't
very many people who knew how to do that and there really weren't very many female leaders
who knew how to do that.” She told her, “You are your own competition … own that space and
then create what you want from it.” Elizabeth talked about two mentors who “helped me you
know build that confidence.” One of the two mentors gave her the confidence to apply for a top
IT leadership position when she was thinking about another Vice President (VP) role that would
get her ready for a CIO role. He told her, “You're ready now. Like, you have the knowledge, you

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know how to do that job. You know, you don't need one more tour of duty as a VP somewhere.
You could do this job.” Florence also talked about a mentor who gave her the confidence to
envision being a CIO. He told her, “You can do it.… You should be the CIO here. … I know you
could do it.”
Participants also had mentors who helped them see opportunities they may have not even
considered. Judy was finishing her last class for her master’s program. During that last class, the
instructor had the students do a mock interview for an actual job. After the mock interview the
instructor took her aside and said, “Hey, you should really apply for that job, like for real.” She
was initially shocked at the idea but applied and got the job. Kate left the IT field and started
working in a different industry because she was demoralized due to not being able to promote in
the IT field. She got a call from a previous mentor in the IT field telling her about “a perfect
[CIO] opportunity.” She initially resisted but she applied and has been CIO there for almost five
years. Rita would not have gotten her first CIO if it was not for her boss and mentor. She was
happy where she was and “wasn't interested in taking [a promotional opportunity].” He told her,
“You have to take this job…. You're going to, 10 years from now, you're going to regret that you
did and do it.” She resisted at first but eventually did take the job and it helped her career
advancement because she would have just stayed in her previous role because she was
comfortable.
A couple of participants compared the difference between male and female mentors.
Jennifer also said, “Women have actually come through formal programs. The men have been
more informal, but they played like a critical role throughout my career and trajectory.”
Elizabeth said her mentors included one man who encouraged her to try out innovative
technologies and take some risks and one woman who encouraged her to take advantage of

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professional development opportunities. Rita was not able to compare mentors of different
genders because she “didn't really have any women mentors.”
Mentorship is an individual influence which helped the participants in their IT career
journey. Mentorship helped to build skills and confidence for the participants. Mentors also
helped the participants to see opportunities which they may not have considered or lacked the
confidence to think they could do. The majority of the mentorship the participants received was
informal in nature and not through formal mentorship programs.
Professional Network
More than half of the participants mentioned professional networking as a factor that
helped their career advancement journey. Professional networks helped participants navigate
new roles, stay relevant, promote, and just be there for support. Elizabeth described overcoming
the challenge of building an IT department in her first CIO role and relied on “networking with
people that I used to work with, people that I met through business networks to kind of help me
figure [it] out.” Emily was able to “keep [herself] relevant” and to connect “with other people
that [she] wouldn't meet” through professional development opportunities and being part of
professional associations. Janet said, “leadership is all about who you know, not what you know,
unfortunately.” She started making relationship contacts in professional networks and “when
[she] did that, that's when [her] career really escalated.”
Professional networks are people who provided individual influence for the participants
and helped them with career advancement in IT. Professional networks are colleagues from
current and prior work experiences, as well as people they met through professional associations
and professional development opportunities.

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Role Models
Five participants mentioned having professional role models in their career journey.
Dorothy “had a male and a female role model of success.” Three participants described
toughness as a common quality they saw in their female role models. Anne said her role models
“just didn't take any shit whatsoever … [and] just got in there and got it done and didn't care
about the gender dynamics that were going on in the room at the time.” Emily said her first boss
was “was just thoughtful and honest but she was like super hardcore.” Ruth said her role model
“was awesome. She was she was tough.” Research indicates role models were individual
influences which help women build confidence and see a pathway for themselves in IT
leadership positions (Borna et al., 2022; Gibson, 2004; Trinkenreich et al., 2022).
Sponsors
More than half of the participants had sponsors who helped them to advance in their IT
career journey. Almost all these participants mentioned that their sponsor was a man. The only
exception was one participant who did not mention the sponsor’s gender. Jennifer defined a
sponsor as someone who “champion[s] your name in rooms that you're, that you literally are not
in.” She was one of the two participants who shared that her sponsor hired her to eventually be
his replacement. Her sponsor said, “You would make a great CIO.” He hired her for his deputy
role, but it was to be his replacement. Similarly, Ruth had a sponsor who she had met earlier in
her career. He messaged her on LinkedIn and when they met, he said, “I will be retiring in five
years maybe or so and I want to help you have that opportunity to have that position.”
Other sponsors helped with promotions and professional development opportunities
which would help with career advancement. Elaine talked about her sponsor who fought for her
to be promoted when his superior did not want him to promote her. She said it “was a big thing

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to get to that level.” If her sponsor did not fight for her, she said it “could have prevented [her]
from being at this level for the rest of [her] career potentially.” Emily talked about an executive
leadership class that she “was actually handpicked by [her] boss at the time” to attend. Similarly,
Anne shared her sponsor signed her up for “these leadership cohorts and opportunities.”
The participants were able to advance in their career journey because of the individual
influence of sponsors along the way. Sponsors helped them with professional development
opportunities and promotional opportunities which helped them promote into IT leadership
positions.
Support Outside of Work
Nine participants discussed some kind of support outside of work being necessary for
their career success. This support is an individual influence which aided the participants to
succeed in their IT career journey. Florence summed this up well by saying “it is extremely
important to have a good support system … and that's something that has also truly helped me
you know, move ahead in my career.” This support allowed the participants to focus on their
career and overcome the family obligations barrier presented earlier.
Some participants talked about support from a spouse/partner or other family members.
Anne shared, “when you, you know, you're in a you're in a role like this or you're in a mindset to
get to a type of executive role. I think that the spouses do a lot of work.” Judy said, “my husband
is highly involved in raising our kids and we go back and forth.” Dorothy shared her husband
“took a different job, because he used to travel a lot.… He stopped traveling and so he was able
to do all the school pickups and the field trips.” Kate said, “I've had amazing support at home
from [her husband] and from his family and my family in supporting my children. So, I have
been given the opportunity not to have to make sacrifices.

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Other participants discussed other sources of external support. Emily mentioned support
may come from “a great friend group, great family group, [or] religious group.” Jennifer shared
that when she would travel for work, she would have to bring her son because she was a single
parent. She found “the mom network” and she would reach out to that network for support. She
would ask the other mothers if they could take care of her son “for the week” she was in their
area. She said she thinks that is “probably why [she] didn't have to make choices or get derailed.”
The support systems outside of work were individual influences which helped these
participants to overcome environmental barriers related to family obligations and caregiving
responsibilities. Without this support, the participants would not have been as successful in their
IT career journey.
Theme 2: Skills and Personality Traits
The second area of individual influences which helped women overcome barriers to
promote into top IT positions are related to personal characteristics such as communication,
confidence, curiosity, motivation, resilience, and self-promotion. All the participants mentioned
at least two of these personal characteristics but some of the characteristics like confidence and
curiosity were mentioned by at least 75% of the participants.
Communication
More than half of the participants discussed communication as an important skill which
helped them overcome barriers in their career journey. One of the most prevalent topics was
centered on translating between the IT side and the business side. Rose described why
communication between business and IT is a necessity. She shared, “In my observation, really
technical people have a hard time speaking to the business, right? That translation between
technology and business is, can be a real chasm.” Kate also talked about communication as a

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skill that helped her get one of her jobs because the organization was looking for “someone who
can program, understand databases, but can also speak business, because [they were] having
problems with developers not being able to communicate requirements.” Florence was told by
one of her coworkers she is like “two different people” when she speaks because she can be
technical when needed and speak with the business on their terms. Elaine shared the importance
of communication at the leadership level. She said, “Communication is a very important
competency to lead IT and it's also … unique. The bridge between your business partner
departments and IT requires … translation which is communication at its best.” Communication
especially being able to translate between technical topics and business topics is an individual
influence which helped the participants get jobs and promote in the IT field.
Confidence/Self-Efficacy
The concept of self-efficacy came up in at least 80% of the participant interviews.
Participants used the terms like fearlessness, courage, and confidence to describe this concept.
When asked what traits have helped you to succeed in your career, Elizabeth responded and said
“fearlessness.” She said, “You got to kind of not be afraid to take the risks. not be afraid to be the
only woman in the room.” Similarly, Emily said, “Like what's the worst that's going to happen?
They're going to fire you; well, you go find another job. And you don't do that from a careless
perspective, but like, what are you afraid of? Like, be fearless.” Ruth talked about the link
between courage and confidence and said, “You need confidence for courage, but courage also
builds confidence.” Similarly, Dorothy linked confidence to self-esteem. She said what helped
her was “confidence and self-esteem in your abilities to know … you don't need that validation
from other people.” She also shared the notion of “just being comfortable in being different….
You don't have to be like everybody else.”

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Some participants shared experiences which demonstrated a sense of confidence. Judy
shared, “I'm willing to admit when I don't know something.…I feel like definitely the ability to,
to just admit when you don't, you know, I admit when I don't know. She was only able to admit
her lack of knowledge because she was confident in herself and her abilities. Kate shared another
example. She said, “I'll figure anything out just as long as you could point out the problem. I can
go solve it…. I can figure it out…. That attitude has helped immensely in my career.” Being able
to admit that you do nor know something or having the confidence you can solve any problem
are examples of self-efficacy which helped the participants to persist and promote in their IT
careers.
Some participants described leadership as an innate ability they had which demonstrated
self-efficacy in their leadership abilities. Janet said, “I knew at five years old that I'm a leader….
Leadership, that's just who I am.” Elaine talked about becoming a leader and shared a similar
sentiment and said, “I think [leadership] might just be part of who I am.” This confidence and
self-efficacy helped these women to promote into IT leadership positions.
Curious and Continually Learning
Ten participants mentioned curiosity and continually learning as a trait that helped them
to overcome barriers and succeed in their IT careers. Emily believes “there is the need to not
only be curious but continuous learning…. Technology is the place that never stays the same
ideally.” Similarly, Rose said, “if you're going to be in IT, you better be curious, … take a lot of
classes, and attend a lot of things where you get information because it changes all the time.”
Janet summed up why learning is so important in the IT field. She said:

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If you're not learning and changing, then you will not survive in IT. It is most imperative
that you maintain currency, you understand the new trends, you understand the existing
trends, and the old trends, because in IT, you will have to work with all of them.
Participants described different ways in which they prefer learning. Anne mentioned she
was “self-taught” and said it when describing several distinct stages in her career. Dorothy
described herself as a “lifelong learner” who “literally took every opportunity and found
opportunities [to get certifications].”
Some of these participants felt that being well-rounded with the various areas of IT work
was beneficial in their career advancement in IT. Elizabeth kept expanding her knowledge. She
explained, “I went and got myself well rounded where I could find those opportunities or create
them on my own.” Similarly, Jennifer shared:
My career path has always been within technology, all of the disciplines, whether it's
been operations, service delivery, applications, engineering, software engineering type,
program management, even some information assurance, security, thrown in there
engineering like it, it's covered the gamut. And because of that, it's offered me a very
unique perspective.
Janet also purposefully learned different areas of IT to give her “a very well-rounded foundation
before [she] went into senior leadership.” She “intentionally did that because [she] knew that
[she] was going to be a CIO.” Rita also mentioned learning as a necessary influence to maintain
an IT leadership role. She shared:
When you're in the IT world, and if you're a CIO, you still have to stay on top of the
developments in technology. And you may not have to go into the nuts and bolts … but I

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have to understand what the current trends are or what the latest software might do and
things like that.
Curiosity and continuous learning are personal characteristics needed to be successful in
the IT field and to promote into top leadership positions. Participants discussed several ways
they achieved this by being self-taught, taking advantage of professional development
opportunities such as certification classes or professional conferences.
Motivations
Motivations are personal characteristics which influence individuals to overcome
obstacles and pursue their career aspirations. The participants shared various motivations which
propelled them to become a top IT leader. The motivations included money, career longevity,
enjoying a challenge, liking to fix things, helping people, and setting an example for others. Janet
shared she “chose IT because [she] was motivated by money.” She also said her “biggest
motivator” is when “you tell me I can't do it…. I'm going to do it better than anybody else has
ever done it before.” Conversely, Dorothy said her “focus was never money…. It was always
opportunity and learning and trying new things.” She “like[d] hard things… [and] challenges.”
Similarly, Rose shared she got “bored” and needed challenges so she “always took anything, any
new any new technology and a new application that came out I was first one that volunteered to
run it or manage it.” Elizabeth indicated she wanted to promote to a CIO “because I really
wanted to take on that responsibility take on that challenge.” The motivation to take on
challenges is an individual influence which is beneficial in overcoming barriers in IT because the
participants see the barriers as a challenge to overcome.
Two participants wanted to create efficiencies and fix things. Judy said, “I'm 100% in the
job saying, how can I help? And how can I fix things.” Rose who previously stated she liked

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challenges also shared she likes “to fix things… [and] improve them.” Participants also reported
wanting to “change the world,” “help people,” and “delivering something good for someone.”
Finally, Elizabeth said she “wanted to show my younger sister, … my friends that … women can
advance in technology” and “be a trailblazer.” The participants had various individual
motivational influences which helped them overcome barriers and achieve top IT leadership
positions.
Resilience
Five participants discussed resilience as a personal characteristic which helped influence
them individually with career advancement in the IT field. Two of the participants shared that the
resilience came from advice their parents instilled in them. Rita said her resilience “had to do
with my upbringing … [and] lessons and values that you learn from your family.” She said, “you
might be going along a path you hit a road bump and you get thrown off the side of the road” and
her parents told her “You just pick yourself up and you keep going and … you finish the race.”
Similarly, Anne talked about seeing barriers as opportunities. She looked at “what we have in
front of us and let's make it work.” She also said, “just being really resilient is something that
[she] just can't unsee that and … that's probably the biggest thing that just kept propelling me.”
Emily talked about being “resilient because shits going to happen, no matter where you go.” She
had a valuable perspective when you do not end up on top. She shared:
What I've loved about my career I've often had the best opportunities because I've been
underestimated. And so don't always look at like the second place or third place finish is
not an opportunity to go become number one because that's usually when they're not
paying attention and you get to make the greatest impact.

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Ruth noted we are “not perfect.” We all “make a lot of mistakes.” She discussed how
mistakes helped her career. She shared “it's what you do with that mistake that opens other doors
and that's how my career evolved. Every mistake or decision that I made, a whole bunch of other
doors that I didn't even know existed appear.”
Resilience was an individual influence and personal characteristic that helped the
participants see barriers as opportunities. This perspective helped them to persist in an IT career
that has many barriers and promote into a top IT leadership position.
Self-Promotion
Five participants shared experiences where they intentionally made sure to promote their
own work to leadership and others in the organization. This individual influence helped to
overcome barriers where women are seen as lesser or stereotyped as not as good at IT as men.
Rose said, “I've had to really learn to like no, don't whisper it to a guy. Speak up, say it, … own
it” Elizabeth applied for a promotion, but the organization chose to bring in a less experienced
man from outside the organization and tasked her with onboarding and mentoring him. She
“realized [she] need to kind of promote [herself].” She also said that once you get to a certain
level, “… now it's not about my ability to deliver. Now it's got to be about my personality, or my
communication skills are building the reputation and network of champions within the company
to get me to that next level.” Similarly, Florence talked about not being considered for a
promotion and she “was angry … [and] bitter” but she chose to “put myself more out there [and]
… engaged more with people and … make it more visible.” Anne shared, “I feel like I positioned
myself in ways to stand out and I deliberately did that in a lot of lot of spaces.” Judy also
deliberately found ways to increase her visibility for a promotion she was interested in applying

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for. She “would participate in things … that might help my visibility … and so I feel like that
kind of really helped me.”
Self-promotion helped these participants to make sure others saw their contributions and
value to the organization. This individual influence was beneficial to these participants and
helped them to promote into a top IT leadership position.
Discussion for Research Question 2
The two themes presented in this section provide insight into the participants’ individual
influences which helped them overcome barriers working in IT to advancing to promote top IT
leadership position. Theme 1 (Essential Support) focuses on personal influences such as support
systems which helped participants in their career advancement journey. This theme shows
external individual influences which helped the participants overcome barriers. The findings in
this theme align with existing research. Support from mentors (Ahuja, 2002; Amon, 2017;
Botella et al., 2019; Liautaud & Lagarde, 2016; Trauth et al., 2009), role models (Annabi &
Lebovitz, 2018; Botella et al., 2019; Stout et al., 2011; Trauth et al., 2009), and sponsors (Atal et
al., 2019; Carboni et al., 2022; Hewlett et al., 2010; Paulson, 2016) is well documented in the
literature.
Theme 2 (Skills and Personality Traits) focuses on personal characteristics such as skills
and personality traits which helped participants’ career advancement journeys. The individual
influences in this theme are internal characteristics which helped the participants to overcome
barriers. The findings in this theme align with existing research. Motivations (Amon, 2017;
Ghoshal & Passerini, 2006; Miller & Vagins, 2018; Suseno & Abbott, 2021), professional
development (Langer et al., 2020; Zenger & Folkman, 2019), and resilience (Lounsbury et al.,

70
2007; Sackett & Walmsley, 2014; Zenger & Folkman, 2019) are findings which align with the
literature.
Summary
This chapter presented findings from 13 interviews conducted with women CIOs to
understand the barriers they faced in their career advancement journey and how they overcame
the barriers. The first research question focused on the barriers women faced related to their
individual identity and environmental influences. The key themes related to individual identity
were the timeframe of exposure to IT and incongruence of career and gender identities. The key
themes related to environmental influences were family obligations, discrimination, and bias.
The second research question focused on the internal and external individual influences which
helped the CIOs overcome the barriers. The key themes related to individual influences were
external support systems and internal skills and personality traits.

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Chapter Five: Recommendations
The purpose of this study was to examine the barriers women CIOs faced in their career
advancement journey and how they overcame those barriers. This chapter highlights key findings
and their relation to existing literature as well as providing recommendations to improve the
underrepresentation of women in IT and particularly in IT leadership positions. This study used
the Individual Differences Theory of Gender and IT (Trauth, 2002, 2006) to guide the research.
The research questions which guided this study were:
1. How have individual identity and environmental factors created career advancement
barriers for women in IT?
2. What individual influences helped women overcome the barriers and promote to top
leadership positions in IT?
This study explored individual identity factors and environmental factors which hindered
the career advancement for the 13 participants. The participants experienced late exposure and at
times accidental exposure to the IT field which hindered their ability to identify early with a
career in IT. This late exposure caused a barrier to entry into the field. In addition, the
participants did not see themselves as a CIO because their identity and a leadership position in IT
were not aligned until some influence changed the narrative and opened their eyes to the
possibility of a future in IT leadership. In addition to identity factors, the participants faced
environmental factors such as family obligations, discrimination, and bias.
This study also examined individual influences both external and internal to the 13
participants which helped them to overcome the barriers and promote into a top IT leadership
position. The external individual influences were mentors, role models, sponsors, and support
systems in their personal life. The internal individual influences were motivations, personality

72
traits, skills, and abilities. This last chapter of the study provides three recommendations and
suggestions for future research.
The audience for these recommendations are leaders who oversee IT organizations but
others such as parents, schoolteachers, school administrators, and higher education faculty and
administrators would also benefit. Although this research focused on women, the
recommendations should be available to all marginalized groups in the IT field.
Recommendation 1 centers on the identity factor and creating earlier exposure to IT careers
which will help with the misalignment of women’s gender identity and a career in IT.
Recommendation 2 centers on the addressing one of the environmental influence factors which
would help women to stay on track and promote sooner. Recommendation 3 centers on the
individual influences which help women and others to overcome barriers in IT.
Recommendation 1: Support Early Exposure and Identification With IT Careers for
Women
Women and girls need more role models in technology and technology leadership
positions to feel that their identity aligns with a career in IT and a leadership position in IT. This
study found that more than half of the participants did not get exposure or identify with a career
in IT until after high school. Previous research indicates early exposure to IT careers and IT role
models helps women and girls see alignment with their identity and affects career interests
(Botella et al., 2019; Stout et al., 2011). The small percentage of women in the study who knew
in grade school they wanted to have a career in IT resulted from exposure to computers and
internship programs which aligns with previous research (Alawi & Al Mubarak, 2019; Ertl et al.,
2017; Starr, 2018; Stout et al., 2011). Examples include creating programs for girls and women
in elementary school through higher education which provide encouragement, access to

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technology, opportunities for networking, leadership training, and access to role models. Specific
examples include school partnerships with science museums and higher education STEM
programs as well as extracurricular programs like coding clubs and camps. Research on girls in
elementary school indicates more access to computers and technology, support from parents and
teachers, access to role models, and a better awareness of IT jobs help to increase interest and
identification with IT careers (Adya & Kaiser, 2005; Dasgupta & Stout, 2014; González-Pérez et
al., 2020; Olsson & Martiny, 2018).Research shows female students in higher education benefit
from encouragement, professional networking opportunities, leadership development, and access
to role models which increases graduation rates for women in IT related degrees (Botella et al.,
2019; Shin et al., 2016).
This study found that even after working in IT, some women did not identify with an IT
leadership position and did not see themselves as a CIO one day until a mentor suggested it.
Having more role models would help women to identify with and develop confidence in
promoting into IT leadership positions (Schunk & Usher, 2022; Trinkenreich et al., 2022). One
participant in this research could have been one of the statistics in these other studies. She left the
IT field altogether and started working in a different field, but a mentor called her and told her
about a job opportunity, and she ended up coming back. Without the individual influence of this
mentor, she would be one of the statistics who dropped out. The leaky pipeline analogy is over
simplistic because the problem is a difficult one to solve (Metcalf, 2010). This recommendation
is broad but there are many points in their lives where women can make career choices and
influences can help lead them toward IT and IT leadership.

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Recommendation 2: Support IT Professionals With Flexible Schedules and Work-Life
Balance
Family obligations were one of the environmental factors which created a barrier for
career advancement for women in the IT field. This study found women struggled with family
obligations and career responsibilities which aligns with previous research (Chauhan et al., 2022;
DePasquale et al., 2017). This study also found some women made choices to self-demote, take a
less demanding lateral position, and even turn down a promotion because of their family
obligations. These choices stalled their career advancement for a while which aligns with
previous research (Ahuja, 2002; Holth et al., 2017; Paulson, 2016; Trinkenreich et al., 2022).
Another finding of this research was some women felt they had to prioritize work over their
family because they felt they would be treated differently and not have the same opportunities as
others who did not have the same family obligations which aligned with the previous research as
well (DePasquale et al., 2017; Trinkenreich et al., 2022).
The women in this study were able to overcome this barrier because they had support
from outside their employment organizations. For those women and others who do not have
external support, organizations should offer flexible work schedules and work life balance.
Examples include offering a compressed schedule which allows a longer workday with an extra
day off per week or per pay period, allowing employees flexibility in the day to take breaks for
childcare or other activities, and allowing flexibility for remote work if possible. Research shows
that organizations offering paid parental leave, flexible schedules, and telework are able to attract
and retain more women for the IT workforce (Atal et al., 2019; Wang & Degol, 2017). Initiatives
targeted to only women may overemphasize the stereotype and indicate women will only
succeed with additional support (Cowgill et al., 2021; Ertl et al., 2017). Therefore, organizations

75
should offer these support initiatives to all employees so as to not stigmatize women and further
alienate them (Cowgill et al., 2021; Ertl et al., 2017).
Recommendation 3: Support IT Professionals by Creating Mentoring, Sponsorship, and
Professional Networking Opportunities
Support in the form of mentors and sponsors which is an individual influence factor in
the conceptual framework helps women to promote in the IT field. Mentorship aids in career
development (Gong et al., 2011). Formal mentorship programs benefit women and mentoring
programs also benefit leaders in organizations because they learn about the challenges women
face (Liautaud & Lagarde, 2016). Sponsorship helps with retention as well as career
advancement due to advocacy and increased visibility (Baranik et al., 2010; Hewlett et al., 2008).
This study showed women CIOs benefited from support of mentors and sponsors and is aligned
with previous research on women’s persistence and advancement in IT careers (Annabi &
Lebovitz, 2018; Kenny & Donnelly, 2020).
The findings show the majority of the CIOs had at least one male mentor which aligns
with previous research which indicated that gender matching does not have a significant effect
on outcomes (Blake-Beard et al., 2011). Women in IT who want to promote into leadership
positions should have a diverse group of mentors and sponsors both in terms of race and gender
but also hierarchical position to the mentee (Ehrich, 2008). This study found that social capital
affecting confidence was a barrier in career advancement. Diversity in mentorship has the added
benefit of increasing social capital which may help with career advancement opportunities for
women and other underrepresented groups in IT (Randel et al., 2021). Participants mostly had
informal mentorship and sponsorship relationships which aligns with research indicating this
allows for more open and genuine communication (Gray, 2021; Kelch-Oliver et al., 2017).

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This research found professional networking opportunities allowed space for developing
relationships with potential mentors and sponsors. Access to professional networking
opportunities increases women’s sense of belonging, increases social capital, and creates
opportunities for professional advancement (Atal et al., 2019; Hewlett et al., 2010; Paulson,
2016). The findings of this study align with previous research with regard to professional
networks being important to career advancement in IT. Organizations should set aside funding
and encourage women and others to develop professional networks by encouraging attendance at
professional conferences and other professional networking events.
As indicated in the previous recommendations, organizational support initiatives should
be open to all employees because research indicates that initiatives specifically designed to
support women in the fields where they are underrepresented may have an unintended negative
effect (Cowgill et al., 2021; Ertl et al., 2017).
Limitations and Delimitations
This study had limitations and delimitations. Limitations are risks or weaknesses of the
study which are outside of the control of the researcher (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Delimitations are purposeful choices the researcher makes to limit the scope of the research
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Researchers should specifically call out the limitations of the
research in a section dedicated to this topic and disclose any concerns to external validity and
researcher’s attempts to mitigate any biases (Brutus et al., 2013).
A limitation of this qualitative research study was due to the nature of qualitative research
which is subjective both from the standpoint of the researcher and the participants. The
researcher interpreted the data which could have been interpreted differently by a different
researcher. The participants shared information based on their recollection of their individual

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experiences. This research relied on accurate and truthful information provided by the
participants. The small purposeful sample size of 13 is a limitation in that it is not generalizable
to a larger population. Also, the participants were a small percentage of women who were invited
to participate. There may be some bias related to who agreed to participate and those who chose
not to participate. Another limitation was that the participants were all currently working in the
Western region of the United States except for one participant. The method of conducting the
interviews was also a limitation. The interviews were conducted over Zoom which limited the
ability to see body language and other social cues which would have been more evident if the
interviews were done in person.
A delimitation of this research was the sample size of 13 participants, but this choice was
intentional to allow for deeper and richer data from participants given that there was only one
person, the researcher, collecting and analyzing the data. Another delimitation was only selecting
women in the United States. The choice to only interview women working in the United States
was also intentional because cultural norms differ from country to country. This study focused
on barriers that women in the United States face. Recruiting participants who have a LinkedIn
account was also a potential delimitation. This study did not focus on race, ethnicity, or other
identities or intersectional identities.
Future Research
The underrepresentation of women in the IT field and in IT leadership is well known but
viable solutions to the problem have not moved the needle toward equity in the field. More
research is needed in specific organizations which have succeeded to create a more equitable
workplace in terms of recruitment, hiring, retention, and advancement for women in IT to find
out what they did and why their initiatives were successful. This research did not make a

78
distinction between women’s race, ethnicity, or age because the sample of participants was not
diverse enough to look at similarities and differences in these areas.
Another area of future research stems around support systems for women in the IT field.
Many of the women shared the support they received from partners and family but really did not
discuss organizational support outside of sponsorship and mentorship. Future research is needed
to determine what types of organizational support would be beneficial to women to help them
with career advancement. These future studies could provide a roadmap with recommendations
for organizations to implement policies and practices which would support a diverse and
equitable work environment for all employees.
Conclusions
The underrepresentation of women in the IT field is a well-known problem that has been
studied for more than four decades and yet still persists. Early exposure to IT as a career path
helps with entry into the field. Workplace culture still exhibits discrimination and bias toward
women in the IT field and yet some women do succeed and advance into leadership positions in
the field. The purpose of this study was to understand what barriers women CIOs face whether
related to identity or environmental factors and how individual influences helped them to
overcome the challenges to promote into a top IT leadership position.
The number of jobs in the IT field has been increasing over the last few decades and that
trend is expected to continue (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2022c; Krutsch, 2022). The U.S. needs
to ensure these jobs are filled by qualified people in order to remain competitive in the world
market (National Science Board, 2015; Scott et al., 2018). Reaching gender equity in the field of
IT would have a positive impact on the economy and national wealth (Ellingrud et al.; Wodon et
al., 2020). It would reduce poverty rates with women and families (Shrider et al., 2021). In

79
addition, research shows that diversity in IT produces better outcomes and performance in
organizations including more innovative products, safer products, or products that appeal to a
larger audience (Arora, 2022; Bouchmel et al., 2022; Díaz-García et al., 2013; Wu et al., 2021).
Through the voices of the participants in this study, this research provides a better
understanding of women’s lived experiences and barriers they face as they navigate a career in
IT. Although this problem has been well known and documented, bringing to light the fact that
barriers still exist for women in IT will hopefully be a call to action for everyone to do better and
finally bring equity in IT to not only for women but other marginalized groups as well.

80
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Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Interview questions Potential probes RQ
addressed
Key concepts
addressed
1. Can you tell me
about your current
position and how
long have you been
in this position?
What type of organization?
What type of industry?
RQ1 Background &
individual identity
2. I would love to hear
about what factors
or influences led you
to choose a career in
IT.
Any family members or
others work in IT?
Did you have any role
models that influence your
career choice?
RQ2 Background &
individual influences
3. What educational
background or
formal preparation
helped you to work
in the IT field?
What education or
preparation helped you to
land your current job?
Do you take advantage of
professional development
opportunities, and do you
think they helped your
career advancement?
RQ 2 Individual influences
4. What jobs have you
worked in from the
start of your career
in IT to your current
role?
How did you transition from
one job to another?
RQ1 Individual identity
5. At what point in
your career did you
start thinking about
promoting into a
leadership position?
What influenced your
interest and desire to
promote?
RQ2 Individual influences
6. Please tell me about
experiences, if any,
where you felt
overlooked for a
promotion because
of your gender?
How did you deal with this
situation?
Did this experience prompt
you to make changes
regarding your work?
RQ1 Environmental
influences
7. What sacrifices, if
any, have you had to
make in pursuit of
your career
advancement in IT?
Do you feel any of these
sacrifices were related to
being a woman working in
IT?
RQ1 Individual identity
8. Please describe any
barriers or
challenges you faced
What strategies did you use
to overcome the
challenges?
RQ2 Individual identity
and/or environmental

105
in your career
advancement
journey in IT.
Any other challenges as you
were promoting?
Are there any challenges you
are facing now which are
not part of the actual
work?
influences depending
on the answer
9. I would love to hear
about any role
models, mentors, or
sponsors who
inspired, motivated,
or helped you in
your IT career.
Where the mentors formal or
informal?
Did you interact with the role
model at all?
RQ2 Individual influences
10. Thinking back on
your IT career, tell
me about times, if
any, where you
considered leaving
the IT field.
What caused you to consider
leaving?
Why did you stay and what
influenced that decision?
RQ1 and
RQ2
Environmental
influences and
individual influences
11. What specifically
has helped you
advance in your IT
career?
Any significant events or
experiences?
Any specific skills, abilities,
or personality traits?
RQ2 Individual influences
12. If you were to give
advice to a woman
entering a career in
IT, what would it
be?
What kind of personal or
organizational support
could make a difference?
(Professional
development, mentors,
role models, sponsors)
What skills, abilities, or
behaviors could make a
difference?
RQ2 Individual influences
13. Is there anything
that we did not cover
that you would like
to add?
RQ1 or
RQ2
depending
on the
answer
Individual identity,
environmental
influences, or
individual influences
depending on the
answer

Abstract (if available)

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Creator Weeks, Meghan Marie (author)

Core Title Women Chief Information Officers (CIOs): how did they make it?

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2024-05

Publication Date 04/08/2024

Defense Date 03/22/2024

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Tag Chief Information Officer,gender equity,Individual Differences Theory of Gender and IT,information technology,Women

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