University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Why culture matters: a case study to determine the promising practices in the prevention of bullying in K‐12 schools

(USC Thesis Other)

Why culture matters: a case study to determine the promising practices in the prevention of bullying in K‐12 schools

PDF

Download

Open document

Flip pages

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content Running head: WHY CULTURE MATTERS

1

WHY CULTURE MATTERS: A CASE STUDY TO DETERMINE THE PROMISING
PRACTICES IN THE PREVENTION OF BULLYING IN K – 12 SCHOOLS

by

Stephanie A. Osowski

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2014

Copyright 2014 Stephanie A. Osowski
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

2

Acknowledgements
I would like to sincerely acknowledge those who contributed to the process of this
dissertation. First, a huge thank you to Professor Shafiqa Ahmadi and Dr. Kathy Stowe for your
encouragement throughout this process. Professor Ahmadi, my supportive chair who pushed me
beyond what I thought was possible to grow as a professional. It is fitting that I began this
journey with you and now will end it with you as well. Your encouragement has been a
wonderful source of strength and I am forever changed because of this program and my work
with you. I would also like to share my appreciation for my committee members, Dr. Kathy
Stowe and Dr. Eugenia Mora-Flores, whose constructive feedback helped create a strong study
that will contribute to preventing bullying in schools. I also want to express my gratitude to Dr.
Linda Fischer and her staff at the Doctoral Support Center. The feedback you all provided helped
ensure that this dissertation truly reflected the best work possible.
I am also wholeheartedly grateful to my family, friends, and colleagues who have
supported me through this journey. I have appreciated your patience and understanding over the
past three years during the busiest times. Knowing you were there with love and support when I
needed a boost has been invaluable. I could not have done this without knowing my loved ones
were supporting me!
Finally, I would like to thank my husband Mark who has taken this journey side-by-side
with me. You have done more than hold up that mirror, you have encouraged me to blossom in
every way possible—personally and professionally. Amazing things are in store for us as we
progress to the next chapter in our lives. Grandma Jones and Grammy are smiling the proudest
smiles. We made it and we are still smiling!

WHY CULTURE MATTERS

3

Table of Contents
List of Tables 5
List of Figures 6
Abstract 7
Chapter One: Introduction 8
Defining Bullying 11
Statement of the Problem 14
Purpose 16
Research questions 16
Significance of the study 16
Limitations, delimitations, assumptions 17
Glossary 18
Organization of the study 18
Chapter Two: Literature Review 20
Bullying Defined 24
Bullying Definition Clarified 24
Effects of Bullying 30
How Culture Affects Bullying 32
School and Other Contexts 34
Constructing Positive Culture 35
Perception Influences Culture 36
Systems and Structures 37
Creating Systems and Structures 38
Bullying Prevention Programs 40
Olweus Bullying Prevention Program in Practice 42
Other Intervention Programs 44
Struggles in Preventing Bullying 44
Teacher Beliefs 46
Professional Development 49
Leadership and Beliefs 49
Teachers Preventing Bullying 51
Professional Learning Communities 53
Theoretical Framework 57
Summary 60
Chapter Three: Methodology 62
Research Questions 63
Research Design 63
Sample and Population 64
Determination of Study Site Location 65
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework 67
Instrumentation 68
Data Collection 70
Data Analysis 71
Ethical Considerations 73
Summary 73
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

4

Chapter Four: Results 74
Participants 75
Emerging Themes 79
Whole School Approach 80
Master Schedule 85
Perception 88
Response to Intervention 92
Discussion Whole School Approach 95
Establishing and Reinforcing Policies 96
Training 98
Discussion Establishing and Reinforcing Policies 102
Stakeholder Involvement 103
Curriculum 104
Student Engagement 106
Teacher Engagement 107
Parent Engagement 110
Discussion Stakeholder Involvement 112
Summary 112
Chapter Five: Discussion 115
Introduction 115
Purpose of the Study 115
Summary of the Findings 117
Implications and Recommendations for Practice and Policy 119
Implication #1: Whole School Approach 120
Implication #2: Establishing a Clear Vision 121
Implication #3: Understanding the Culture 122
Recommendations for Future Study 123
Conclusions 124
References 126
Appendix A: Interview Protocol 137
Appendix B: Observation Protocol 138
Appendix C: Bully Awareness Committee Agenda 140
Appendix D: Let’s Get Real Curriculum Overview 141
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

5

List of Tables
Table 1: School data 66
Table 2: Research questions as instrumentation 69
Table 3: Description of interviewees 78
Table 4: Themes and sub-themes 80
Table 5: Master Scheduling Themes 85
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

6

List of Figures
Figure A: Bullying blueprint 28
Figure B: Olweus bullying circle 29
Figure C: Bronfenbrenner’s ecological framework model 58
Figure D: Conceptual Framework 68
Figure E: Data analysis in qualitative research 72

WHY CULTURE MATTERS

7

Abstract
Bullying is maintained by the culture and climate of an organization; and schools taking a
social-ecological approach to bullying prevention may benefit from programs that shift the
power dynamics in peer and school level interventions. Every aspect of a school can prevent or
promote bullying. All stakeholders in a school can participate in establishing and cultivating a
positive school climate in which bullying does not occur. The purpose of this study was to assess
the structures and systems that contribute to an anti-bullying culture in schools and institutions.
This study also examined how the systems and structures were implemented and sustained to
support an anti-bullying culture in schools and institutions. Finally, this study sought to
determine how new teachers with less than five years of experience compared to teachers with
more than five years of experience put into place any tools and training received to prevent
bullying. Using qualitative methodology, this study sought to determine and explain the
promising practices in the prevention of bullying in K – 12 schools. Instrumentation for this
study included semi-structured interviews with participants, multiple on-site observations, and
follow-up interviews with school leaders. Data was collected during a four-month period in 2013
when interviews, observations, and document analysis occurred. The theoretical framework for
this study was based on Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) social-ecological model for human
development. The data gathered show that bullying prevention systems and structures in place at
a school should be fully embedded into virtually every aspect of the school’s culture. Three
themes emerged from the data analysis: whole school approach, establishing and reinforcing
policies, and stakeholder involvement. These themes contributed to a whole school approach that
connected to the theoretical framework for this study.

WHY CULTURE MATTERS

8

CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
In 1993 Olweus coined the term bullying, since then researchers have been studying
various aspects of bullying to examine the causes, influences, and ways to measure and prevent
school bullying. Researchers and educators have attempted to better understand the nature of
bullying and reduce the negative impact it has on students’ physical and mental health. Research
on the various factors related to incidences of and prevention of bullying exists, however this
research has proven inconclusive and bullying remains problematic in schools (Hong, &
Espelage, 2012; Robers, Zhang, Truman, & Snyder, 2012; Swearer, Espelage, Vaillancourt, &
Hymel, 2010). Much of the research concentrated on teachers has focused on beliefs, preservice
and inservice teacher training, and what compels teachers to intervene when bullying occurs
(Craig, Bell, & Leschied, 2011; Kahn, Jones, & Wieland, 2012; Novick & Issacs, 2010; Yoon,
2004). While research exists about teachers’ being the first line of defense against school
bullying, a gap exists in the ways in which teachers are adequately prepared to prevent bullying.
In 2009, roughly 28 percent of 12 to18 year old students reported having been bullied at
school (Robers et al., 2012). This is consistent with prior research that indicated nearly 30
percent of students reporting some involvement with bullying—as a bully (13%), a victim
(10%), or both, classified as a bully-victim (6%) (Nansel, Overspeck, Pilla, Ruan, Simons-
Morton & Scheidt, 2001). Students who have some involvement in bullying are more inclined to
have psychological, social, and emotional challenges (De Voe, Bauer, & Hill, 2010; Espelage &
Swearer, 2004; Glew, Fan, Katon & Rivara, 2008; Nansel et al., 2001; Olweus, 1995, 1996).
Students in these three groups—bully, victim, or bully-victim—are more likely to feel unsafe at
school, exhibit key depressive symptoms, and may show challenges in learning (Glew et al.,
2008; Nansel et al., 2001). Bystanders to bullying have also been affected negatively by bullying
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

9

in schools. Bullying has been linked to anger, aggression, violence, hyperactivity, and other
challenges in schools (Olweus, 1993). Victimization has been linked to illness, school avoidance,
poor academic performance, increased fear and anxiety, low self-esteem, and depression that
sometimes leads to suicidal tendencies (Glew et al., 2008).
Variation in school effectiveness, including classroom and learning environment, has
been shown to affect incidences of bullying (Kyriakides, & Creemers, 2012). For example,
teachers’ responses to bullying incidents are likely to contribute to students’ perception of
classroom environments in a variety of ways (Yoon, 2004). School climate is an important
factor in the prevalence or absence of bullying. Kasen, Berenson, Cohen, and Johnson (2004)
determined that in schools where teachers were ineffective in maintaining order, conflict was
prevalent. Schools taking a whole school and community approach to bullying prevention may
benefit from programs that shift the power dynamics in peer and school level interventions from
students seeking to control situations through bullying behavior (Hong & Espelage, 2012). Hong
and Espelage (2012) note a disconnect between the empirical support for the social-ecological
model of bullying and the current prevention efforts. This may explain the lack of consistent data
in the bullying literature for successful prevention and intervention programs (Hong & Espelage,
2012; Swearer et al., 2010).
Since 1999, more than 120 bills were enacted by state legislatures that introduced or
amended education and criminal statutes to include language that addresses bullying and related
behaviors (Stuart-Cassel, Bell, & Springer, 2011). However, research suggests that the majority
of school based bullying prevention programs in the U.S. have had little impact on reducing
bullying behavior (Hong & Espelage, 2012; Swearer et al., 2010; Polanin, Espelage, & Pigott,
2012). Researchers have created programs that have proven effective in other countries
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

10

(Kyriakides & Creemers, 2012; Olweus, 1995; Wei, Williams, Chen, & Chang, 2010), yet little
data exist to show the effectiveness of such programs in the United States; and bullying
continues to affect roughly one in three children (DeVoe et al., 2010, Robers et al., 2011). The
United States Department of Education created a program in 2004 for schools to create safe
learning environments for students (Fein, Vossekuil, Borum, Modzeleski, & Reddy, 2004). The
Safe School Initiative resulted from the key findings of the study that reviewed case histories in
37 incidents of targeted school violence. The findings of this study include: incidents of targeted
violence at school are rarely sudden or impulsive acts; most attackers engaged in some behaviors
prior to the incident that causes others’ concern; and many attackers felt bullied, persecuted or
injured prior to their attacks (Fein et al., 2004). Known as the Safe School Initiative, this multi-
faceted approach is designed to help schools create plans, policies, and procedures for managing
threats to safe learning environments. Many schools and communities have implemented the
Olweus Bullying Prevention program, but studies show mixed results (Dake et al., 2003;
Kyriakides, & Creemers, 2012; Olweus & Limber, 2010).
Bullying prevention and intervention programs can be successful (Glew et al., 2008;
Olweus, 1995, 2006). However, in order for these programs to succeed, a change in all aspects
of school life and culture, including the attitudes and behavior of all members of the school—
teachers, administrators, students, and parents, can occur (Hong & Espelage, 2012; Espelage &
Swearer, 2004; Olweus, 1995, 2006). Many zero tolerance and other bullying prevention policies
and programs may not consider the ecological levels that have profound impact on school
climate—for example, neighborhood, cultural norms and beliefs, and religion all impact the
school climate (Hong & Espelage, 2012; Smokowski & Kopasz, 2005).

WHY CULTURE MATTERS

11

Defining Bullying
One key challenge in the prevention and intervention of bullying is a lack of consensus in
how to define bullying (Glew et al., 2008; Hong & Espelage, 2012; Sherer & Nickerson, 2010).
Furthermore, a common metric for measuring bullying does not exist (Swearer, et al., 2010). Of
the 50 states in the U.S., 46 have bullying laws that direct school districts to adopt bullying
policies—Hawaii, Michigan, Montana, and South Dakota do not have legislation (Stuart-Cassel
et al., 2011). Only 29 states include definitions of bullying in the legislation (Stuart-Cassel et al.,
2011). Each of the states with existing legislation differ in the key elements included in its anti-
bullying legislation, with language that explicitly defines prohibited behavior, reporting, training
and prevention, and legal remedies.
The most commonly used definition of bullying is from Olweus’ 1993 study (DeVoe et
al., 2009; Hong & Espelage, 2012; Espelage & Swearer, 2004). Olweus defined bullying as
“aggressive behavior or intentional harmdoing, carried out repeatedly and over time in an
interpersonal relationship characterized by an imbalance of power” (Olweus, 2006, p. 266) This
relationship includes repeated, persistent intentional behaviors that foster a climate of fear and
disrespect that have a traumatic (negative, significant) impact on physical and/or psychological
health. Olweus outlines two forms of bullying/victimization: Direct, which involves open attacks
on the victim; and indirect, which involves social isolation or intentional exclusion from the
group (Olweus, 2006).
While key aspects of the definitions of bullying are similar, creating and interpreting
policies, implementing prevention and intervention programs may prove challenging. Federal,
state, county and district policies often dictate what action a school can take in prevention and
intervention efforts. Schools are often required to implement these policies without any training
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

12

or guidance for staff, teachers and administrators (Bauman, Rigby, & Hoppa, 2008; Holt &
Keyes, 2004). Additionally, teachers, administrators, and staff may define bullying differently
based on their knowledge and experience and thus may interpret their role in implementing these
policies differently (Hanish, Kochenderfer-Ladd, Fabes, Martin, & Denning, 2004; Holt &
Keyes, 2004). A school’s culture, as well as teacher training, self-efficacy, and beliefs influence
the response teachers will have in implementing bullying intervention and prevention efforts
(Craig et al., 2011; Hong & Espelage, 2012; Kahn et al., 2012; Novick & Issacs, 2010; Yoon,
2004).
Prevention
Studies in which positive results were found from implementing an intervention program
focused on the existing social environment, which includes teachers, students, parents and other
school personnel (Hong & Espelage, 2012; Sherer & Nickerson, 2010; Swearer et al., 2010).
School psychologists and counselors play an important role in helping to facilitate, counsel, and
guide all school stakeholders—parents, students, and all staff—in implementing the program and
affecting positive change in the school (Sherer & Nickerson, 2010). Teacher and school staff
beliefs, training and experience, and self-efficacy also contribute to the response to bullying
(Yoon, 2004). Likewise, teachers are more likely to report feelings of anger, stress, helplessness,
irritation and hurt/offense if they had not received prior training on how to address bullying
among students (Alvarez, 2007). Training has important effects on teachers’ self-evaluation of
competence, which may influence responses to bullying (Bauman & Hurley, 2005).
Teachers’ behavior toward students displaying aggressive and bullying behavior is
impacted by several things, including the degree to which they feel comfortable or confident in
handling behavior problems in the classroom (Yoon, 2004). The amount of training received in
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

13

classroom management strategies (Alvarez, 2007) or whether they witness the bullying or
students inform them (Novick & Isaacs, 2010) also affects how teachers respond to incidences of
bullying. Teachers’ strategies for handling stressful or difficult situations may be a predictor of
their responses to bullying (Kahn et al., 2012). Teachers may perceive overt forms of bullying as
a bigger problem than indirect forms of bullying, such as social exclusion (Craig et al., 2011).
Teacher training and experience with bullying both as a professional and firsthand
influence responses to and perception of bullying (Alvarez, 2007; Kahn et al. , 2012). Most
teacher training programs focus on preparing teachers for delivering curriculum and instruction
rather than classroom management and other aspects of teaching (Bauman & Hurley, 2008;
Greenberg & Walsh, 2012). Traditional models of teacher professional development include
conferences, one-day workshops, and train-the-trainer; often materials are presented to staff by
an outside person or a staff member and teachers are expected to immediately implement this
new learning into their classes (Avalos, 2011; Buysse & Peisner-Feinberg, 2010; Clausen,
Aquino, & Wideman, 2009; Clement & Vandenberghe, 2000; Darling-Hammond, 2010; Flint,
Zisook, & Fisher, 2011; Garet, Porter, Desimone, Birman, & Yoon, 2001; Knight, 2002; Wayne,
Yoon, Zhu, Cronen, & Garet, 2008). Often the content of these one-day sessions reflect district
policy initiatives and shifting priorities. A great deal of research has shown that these efforts are
often unsuccessful and meaningless (Avalos, 2011; Buysse, Castro, & Peisner-Feinberg, 2010;
Clausen et al., 2009; Clement & Vandenberghe, 2000; Darling-Hammond, 2010; Flint et al.,
2011; Garet et al., 2001; Knight, 2002; Lovett, Lacerenza, DePalma, Benson, Steinbach, Frijters,
2008; Sandholtz & Scribner, 2006; Wayne et al., 2008).
Teachers may not have the tools to appropriately handle the challenges of classroom
aggression or bullying, thus training in supporting positive classroom climate and implementing
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

14

anti-bullying programs could provide teachers adequate tools (Alvarez, 2007). Teachers with
training in recognizing, intervening and preventing bullying are more likely to engage in more
active, positive intervention strategies within the classroom; including explanation of classroom
rules and use supportive behavior toward the child in the prevention of bullying (Alvarez, 2007;
Kallestad & Olweus, 2003). Teachers without training are more likely to refer the child to
outside personnel such as social workers and psychologists for services (Alvarez, 2007; Sherer &
Nickerson, 2010). Schools can provide support and adequate training to establish valid and
reliable mechanisms to identify aspects of the school and classroom environments that need
improvement. This support could be provided to teachers and other stakeholders to identify these
priorities and develop plans to change the environment in a positive way and thus reduce the
incidences of bullying (Kyriakides, & Creemers, 2012).
Statement of the Problem
Since the early 1990s researchers and educators have been searching for, have created,
and implemented a variety of solutions for the prevention of bullying in schools and to reduce
the negative impact it has on students’ physical and mental health. Although research on various
factors related to incidences and prevention of bullying exists, this research has proven
inconclusive and bullying remains problematic in schools.
Roughly 30 percent of students in the United States report some involvement with
bullying—as a bully (13%), a victim (10%), or both (6%) (Nansel et al., 2001). Students who
have some involvement in bullying have psychological, social, and emotional challenges (De
Voe et al., 2010; Nansel et al., 2001; Olweus, 1996). Students in these three groups—bully,
victim, or bully-victim—are more likely to feel unsafe at school, exhibit key depressive
symptoms, and may show challenges in learning (Glew et al., 2008; Nansel et al., 2001).
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

15

Despite the fact that bullying prevention programs have been created, a one-size-fits-all
solution is not the answer (Glew et al., 2008; Hong & Espelage, 2012). Researchers and
educators have created programs that have proven effective in other countries, yet little data
exists to show the effectiveness of such programs in the United States. The complexity of the
etiology of bullying and peer victimization is not always reflected in the school or community-
based interventions to prevent bullying (Espelage & Swearer, 2004). In order for these programs
to be successful, a change in attitudes, behavior, and routines in school life should occur (Hong
& Espelage, 2012; Espelage & Swearer, 2004; Olweus, 1995, 2006). Additionally, teachers with
adequate training and guidance effectively implement intervention and prevention programs
(Alvarez, 2007; Craig et al., 2011). Teachers’ behavior toward students displaying aggressive
and bullying behavior is impacted by several things, including training in classroom management
strategies, beliefs and perceptions about bullying, and the degree to which they feel comfortable
or confident in handling behavior problems in the classroom (Alvarez, 2007; Novick & Issacs,
2010; Yoon, 2004). Teachers’ strategies for handling stressful or difficult situations may be a
predictor of their responses to bullying (Kahn, et al., 2012). Proven strategies exist for creating a
school culture that promotes respect, recognition, learning, safety, and positive experiences for
all students (Smokowski & Kopasz, 2005).
Although key aspects of the definitions of bullying are similar, creating and interpreting
policies, implementing prevention and intervention programs may prove challenging. Federal,
state, county and district policies often dictate what action a school can take in prevention and
intervention efforts. Schools are often required to implement these policies without any training
or guidance. Moreover, teachers, administrators and staff may define bullying differently based
on their knowledge and experience, and thus may interpret these policies differently. Teacher
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

16

training, self-efficacy, and beliefs affect the response that teachers will have in implementing
intervention and prevention efforts. More research is needed to determine the specific factors and
training for teachers to best prevent bullying.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to assess the perceived structures and systems that
contribute to an anti-bullying culture in schools and institutions. This study also examined how
the systems and structures were implemented and sustained to support an anti-bullying culture in
schools and institutions. Finally, this study sought to determine how new teachers with less than
five years of experience compared to teachers with more than five years of experience put into
place any tools and training received to prevent bullying.
Research Questions
This study will answer three questions in relation to the promising practices in the
prevention of bullying in schools.
1. What are the structures and systems that contribute to anti-bullying culture in schools?
2. How are the systems and structures implemented and sustained to support an anti-
bullying culture?
3. How do teachers with less than five years of experience compared to teachers with more
than five years of experience put into place any tools and training received to best
implement the systems and structures that prevent bullying in schools?
Significance of the Study
For almost three decades, researchers and educators have tried to better understand the
nature of bullying and reduce the negative impact it has on students’ physical and mental health.
Despite the fact that much research on the various factors related to incidences of and prevention
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

17

of bullying exists, this research has proven inconclusive and bullying remains problematic in
schools. Roughly one-third of students in K-12 schools report having some experience with
bullying, either as bully, victim or bully-victim. Research shows that this experience has a
negative impact on student achievement, thus changes occur at multiple levels.
This study was designed to increase the understanding of the challenges in implementing
bullying prevention and intervention efforts. A great deal of research exists evaluating various
aspects and impacts of bullying on student achievement, but little information exists about
teacher preparation and the impact that has on the prevention of bullying. This research can help
inform teacher preparation and professional development programs to align with bullying
prevention and intervention efforts. This research will also contribute to the existing body of
research on bullying prevention.
Limitations, Delimitations, Assumptions
Although the limitations of this study were beyond the control of the researcher, they
were likely to have affected some of the results. The most notable limitation in this study is the
case study approach, in which one school with one aspect of teacher preparation was evaluated.
A further limitation was time, this study’s time-frame was limited to a three-to-five month period
in which interviews and observations could occur.
This study’s methodology was qualitative, in which surveys and interviews were used to
gather data. Although there is the expectation that participants respond to survey and interview
questions with candor, there is no way to guarantee that they were truthful in their responses.
In terms of delimitations, the researcher selected schools and teachers based on several
parameters for the sample. First, most of bullying incidents occurred at the elementary school
level, thus only elementary schools were selected as potential sites. Second, schools with student
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

18

enrollment of less than 1,000 were selected. Third, it was not essential to the study that the
schools selected have a specific anti-bullying program in place at the time of the study.
Glossary of Terms
Bullying: An aggressive behavior or intentional harm doing which is carried out
repeatedly and over time in an interpersonal relationship characterized by an imbalance of
power. (real or perceived imbalance of power)
Prosocial behavior: positive social acts carried out to produce and maintain the well-
being and integrity of others.
Structures: Mechanisms, policies, and procedures put in place by federal, state, and
district legislation or widely accepted as the official structure of institutions that are not subject
to change.
Systems: Coordinated and coherent use of resources (time, personnel, students, parents,
funds, facilities, etc.) at the institution to ensure that the institution vision, mission, and goals are
met
Victimization: Refers to incidents that occur inside the school building, on school
property, on the school bus, or on the way to or from school.
Organization of the Study
The challenges for schools in preventing bullying are multi-faceted, and this study sought
to determine the promising practices in the prevention of bullying in K – 12 schools. Chapter 1
provided an overview of the study and established its importance for schools seeking to create a
positive climate within which bullying among students does not occur. Chapter 2 offers a review
of the literature, focusing on the definition of bullying; the effects of bullying, including the
culture of a school; the systems and structures of a school, including prevention programs; and
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

19

teacher beliefs, including professional development of teachers. This chapter also describes the
theoretical framework for the study. Chapter 3 discusses the research methodology and the
justification for selecting a qualitative approach. It also provides information describing the
sample and how participants were selected. Additionally, a description of the study’s
instrumentation and framework for data collection and analysis is included. Chapter 4 reveals the
findings of the research that answer the research questions posed in Chapter 1. It also includes a
discussion of the findings related to the existing literature. Chapter 5 addresses the implications
for the study’s findings and provides recommendations for future research.

WHY CULTURE MATTERS

20

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Bullying is a complex, multi-faceted and multi-layered problem that has negative effects
on schools, including school climate and culture and student achievement. Teachers and school
officials often feel underprepared in detecting and managing bullying (Alvarez, 2007; Olweus,
1996). Involvement in bullying can be one of a combination of factors that undermine a child’s
engagement in school (De Voe et al., 2010; Nansel et al., 2001 Olweus, 1996). Teachers and
teacher preparation programs are more focused on preparing teachers for curriculum and testing
rather than a holistic approach to educating students, which in turn could impact incidences of
bullying among students. Prevention and intervention takes into consideration all of the factors
that influence education—from the overall culture of the community and neighborhood of a
school to the individual relationships among students, teachers and families (Espelage &
Swearer, 2004; Rigby, 2007).
The purpose of this study was to assess the structures and systems that contribute to an
anti-bullying culture in schools and institutions. This study also examined how the systems and
structures were implemented and sustained to support an anti-bullying culture in schools and
institutions. This study also sought to determine how new teachers with less than five years of
experience put into place any tools and training received to prevent bullying. This literature
review will examine past research in understanding and prevention of bullying, how it is defined,
and the effects of bullying on all stakeholders of a school. It will then discuss implementing
bullying prevention programs as well as the challenges with preventing bullying. Next, this
review will investigate how the climate and culture of a school, including involvement of all
stakeholders in a school, affects the occurrence of bullying. This review will then assess the
systems and structures put into place at schools, including intervention programs and struggles
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

21

with implementing prevention programs. An essential part of this examination will also explain
how the beliefs of teachers, students, parents and other stakeholders affect the prevalence of
bullying. This review will also discuss how professional learning communities can contribute to
the professional development of teachers in the prevention of bullying. Last, the theoretical
framework for this study will be explained and examined.
For decades, researchers and educators have tried to better understand the nature of
bullying and reduce the negative impact it has on students’ physical and mental health (Glew et
al., 2008; Smokowski &Kopasz, 2005) yet bullying remains problematic in schools (Espelage &
Swearer, 2004; Hong & Espelage, 2012; Olweus, 1995, 2006; Rigby, 2007; Robers et al., 2012).
Federal, state, county and district policies often dictate what action a school can take in
prevention and intervention efforts. Schools are often required to create and implement bullying
prevention programs based on these policies without any training or guidance for staff, teachers
and administrators (Bauman et al., 2008; Limber, & Small, 2003; Smokowski & Kopasz, 2005).
Additionally, school stakeholders may define bullying differently based on their knowledge and
experience and thus may interpret their role in implementing these policies differently (Holt &
Keyes, 2004; Kallestad & Olweus, 2003). A school’s culture, as well as teacher training, self-
efficacy, and beliefs influence the response teachers will have in implementing bullying
intervention and prevention efforts (Olweus, 1993, 1996, 2006; Rigby, 2007; Smokowski &
Kopasz, 2005).
For more than a decade, roughly 30 percent of students in the United States report some
involvement with bullying—as a bully (13%), a victim (10%), or both (known as bully-victim)
(6%) (Nansel, et al., 2001). Current studies show that this number has not changed much in the
past decade. During the 2009 – 10 school year, 23 percent of public schools reported that
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

22

bullying had occurred among students on a daily or weekly basis (Robers et al., 2011). In 2009,
roughly 28 percent of 12 to18 year old students reported having been bullied at school (Robers et
al., 2012). In 2012, an international study seeking to understand bullying among students in
special and general education found that 38.1% of students reported bullying behavior (Swearer,
Wang, Maag, Siebecker, & Frerichs, 2012). Bullying and its consequences remains a barrier to
education despite progress made in the prevention and intervention of bullying.
Research shows that students who have some involvement in bullying have
psychological, social, and emotional challenges (De Voeet al., 2010; Nansel, et al., 2001;
Olweus, 1996). Bullying has been linked to anger, aggression, violence, hyperactivity, and other
challenges (Olweus, 1993; Rigby, 2007). Students in the following three groups: bully, victim, or
bully-victim, are more likely to feel unsafe at school, exhibit key depressive symptoms, and may
show challenges in learning (Glew et al., 2008; Nansel, et al., 2001). Victimization has been
linked to illness, school avoidance, poor academic performance, social and emotional issues such
as depression (Glew et al., 2008). Individual characteristics also affect bullying behavior,
including personality characteristics (i.e. aggression, perceived strength or weakness, and
handling of stressful situations) (Olweus & Limber, 2010). School climate factors such as
attitudes toward bullying, the behavior of adults in the school environment, the degree of overt
hostility, and attitudes toward diversity, all play a role in determining the extent to which
problems of bullying may manifest (Holt & Keyes, 2004; Olweus & Limber, 2010). Rule-setting
policies, enforcement by adults on campus and the extent to which order is maintained also
affects the extent of bullying in schools (Holt, & Keyes, 2004; Kasen et al., 2004).
Federal, state and district laws, policies, and bullying prevention programs have been
created to help prevent bullying, yet the complexity of the causes of bullying and peer
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

23

victimization is not always reflected in the school or community-based interventions to prevent
bullying (Espelage & Swearer, 2004; Nansel et al., 2001). Additionally, teachers may have some
knowledge and skills to handle or prevent incidents of bullying but may not feel fully equipped
to tackle it (Nicolaides, Toda & Smith, 2002). Glew, Frey, & Walker (2010) explained that
although a school may invest in a school-wide program with the goal of changing the school’s
culture, personnel may not have the paradigm or ability to carry out the principles of the
program.
Teachers with adequate training and guidance effectively implement intervention and
prevention programs (Espelage & Swearer, 2004; Hong & Espelage, 2012; Glew, et al., 2008;
Olweus, 1005, 2006). Teachers’ behavior toward students displaying aggressive and bullying
behavior is affected by the degree to which they feel comfortable or confident in handling
behavior problems in the classroom (Yoon, 2004). The amount of training received in classroom
management strategies (Alvarez, 2007) or whether teachers witness bullying or are informed by
students (Novick & Isaacs, 2010) also affects how teachers respond to bullying behavior.
Bullying Defined
Bullying is a complex problem that is not easily identified and finding a solution that
works across contexts and schools has proven elusive for educators and researchers. One key
challenge in the prevention and intervention of bullying is the lack of consensus in how to define
bullying (Glew et al., 2008; Hong & Espelage, 2012; Sherer & Nickerson, 2010; Smith, 2004).
Furthermore, a common metric for measuring bullying does not exist (Swearer et al., 2010).
Although the definition of bullying outlined by Olweus (1993) is the most commonly used
definition because of its description of the multiple facets of bullying behavior, this definition
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

24

changes depending upon the context in which it is used (DeVoe et al., 2009; Hong & Espelage,
2012; Espelage & Swearer, 2004).
Bullying can be characterized as intentional, repeated, negative (unpleasant or hurtful)
behavior by one or more persons directed against a person who has difficulty defending himself
or herself (Olweus & Limber, 2010). Olweus’ (1993) definition of bullying explains “a student is
being bullied or victimized when he or she is exposed, repeatedly and over time, to negative
actions on the part of one or more other students’’ (Olweus, 1997, p. 265). Negative actions can
be carried out by physical contact, by words, or in other ways, such as gestures or intentional
exclusion from a group (Olweus, 1993, 1995, 1997). Olweus (1996) further clarified his
definition of bullying by explaining, “aggressive behavior or intentional harmdoing, must be
carried out repeatedly and over time in an interpersonal relationship characterized by an
imbalance of power” (Olweus, 1997, p. 266). This relationship includes repeated, persistent
intentional behaviors that foster a climate of fear and disrespect that have a traumatic (negative,
significant) impact on physical and/or psychological health (Olweus, 1996). There are two forms
of bullying/victimization: Direct, which involves open attacks on the victim; and indirect, which
involves social isolation or intentional exclusion from the group (Olweus, 2006).
Bullying Definition Clarified
Glew, Rivara, and Feudner (2000) define bullying as a form of aggression in which one
or more children repeatedly and intentionally intimidate, harass, or physically harm a victim who
is perceived as unable to defend him/herself. The key aspects of the definition are: repetition
over time; and an asymmetric, coercive power relationship (Glew et al., 2000). Victims perceive
themselves as being weaker than bullies and feel that they cannot retaliate. Examples of bullying
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

25

include being called names, physical harm, being threatened, being subject to rumors, being
isolated socially, and having one’s belongings taken repeatedly (Glew et al., 2000).
The Indicators of School Crime and Safety Report relied on self-reporting data to define
bullying by outlining specific elements that constitute bullying (Robers et al., 2011). The report
defined bullying by asking respondents to indicate if another student made fun of them, called
them names, or insulted them; spread rumors about them; threatened them with harm; pushed,
shoved, tripped or spit upon them; forced them to do something they did not want to do;
excluded them from activities on purpose; or destroyed their property on purpose (Robers et al.,
2011).
The California Department of Education (Ong, 2003) defines bullying as exposing a
person to abusive actions repeatedly over time. This abuse occurs toward an individual and
appears to be unprovoked, intentional, and is repeated over time. It involves a real or perceived
imbalance of power and may be physical (hitting, kicking, spitting, pushing), verbal (taunting,
malicious teasing, name calling, threatening), or emotional (spreading rumors, manipulating
social relationships, intimidating). Bullying can occur face-to-face or in the online world. More
specifically, bullying is also categorized as one or more acts by a student directed against another
that constitutes sexual harassment, hate violence, or severe or pervasive intentional harassment,
threats, or intimidation that is disruptive, causes disorder, and invades the rights of others by
creating an intimidating or hostile educational environment (Ong, 2003). Olweus (1996) notes
that most incidents of bullying occur without apparent provocation on the part of the person
being targeted. This definition makes clear that bullying can be considered a form of peer abuse.
What sets bullying apart from other forms of abuse, such as child abuse and domestic violence, is
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

26

the context in which it occurs and the relationship of the parties involved (Olweus, 1996; Olweus
& Limber, 2010).
Dake, Price, and Telljohann (2003) use Olweus’ definition of bullying but clarify specific
aspects of it. The authors explain that negative actions include attempted or actual intentional
affliction of injury or discomfort perpetrated on another person. These actions can consist of
physical contact, by words, through facial or obscene gestures, or through intentional exclusion
from a group. For these actions to be considered bullying, an imbalance in strength exists
between the people harassing and the student being harassed. Bullying does not apply to a
conflict between two students of nearly equal physical or mental strength (Dake et al., 2003).
Olweus (1996) discusses three common myths about bullying. One myth is that larger
class sizes affect the prevalence of bullying. His survey of more than 700 schools in Norway
showed no positive association with the size of the class and incidences of bullying (Olweus,
1996). The second myth, that bullying occurs because of student competition for higher grades.
Specifically, he explains that some have argued that bullies display their aggressive behavior is a
reaction to failures and frustrations in school. His study again showed no positive link to this
hypothesis (Olweus, 1996). The third myth is external factors, such as students who have
differing appearance than their peers, wear glasses, speak with an unusual dialect may be more
likely to become victims. However, his study showed no support from the survey data. He
concluded that these external factors play a smaller role in the bully/victim than expected despite
the popularity of this idea (Olweus, 1996).
There is a need for an expanded definition of bullying, including particular consideration
for differential behaviors between genders (Elinoff, Chafouleas & Sassu, 2004). Bullying is a
form of aggression that is hostile and proactive, and involves both direct and indirect behaviors
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

27

that are repeatedly targeted at an individual or group perceived as weaker (Elinoff et al., 2004).
Similarly Craig et al. (2011) state that bullying behaviors may be physical, verbal, and include
social situations. These include direct behaviors (physical attack, name-calling) as well as
indirect behaviors (spreading rumors). Bullying can also be differentiated between normal rough
and tumble play among friends. Bullying occurs along a continuum that begins with jostling
(part of rough and tumble play) and moves along the continuum toward malicious intent and
unequal power (Doll, Song, & Siemers, 2004). Bullying behavior can be differentiated and
recognized as a subset of aggressive behavior characterized by repetition and an imbalance of
power (Smith & Brain, 2000).
Smokowski and Kopasz (2005) described bullying in terms of the types, effects, family
characteristics, and intervention strategies. A physical bully is action-oriented and uses direct
bullying behaviors such as hitting and kicking. A verbal bully uses words to hurt or humiliate
their victims; this type of bullying happens rapidly and is often difficult to detect and intervene.
The relational bully convinces their peers to exclude certain children, this most often happens
with girls. Reactive bullies tend to be impulsive, taunting others into fighting with them, they
fight back but claim self-defense (Smokowski & Kopasz, 2005).
Glew et al. (2000) created a diagram for pediatricians to use as they explain bullying to
parents. Their bullying blueprint shows how multiple factors contribute to the problem and
where interventions can occur (see Figure A). The diagram shows how bullying detracts from
learning by all students because it interrupts teaching, distracts and scares other students (Glew
et al, 2000). The diagram is a top-down, step-by-step process with children who bully and are
bullied at the top.
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

28

Figure A: The Bullying Blueprint (Glew et al., 2000)
These two groups of children are affected by the school and community in which
bullying is accepted, no clear sanctions exist and no anti-bullying education of children exists.
When a bullying incident occurs in which the victim cries and withdraws, the bully has no
empathy, and bystanders do not get involved or reward the bully (Glew et al., 2000). The cycle
continues long after the bullying incident, with the bullies and victims continuing on their
respective paths. The victim may begin to feel isolated and the bully may go on to bully other
students. Meanwhile, the families may not be aware of what has happened (Glew et al., 2000).
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

29

Olweus’ Bullying Circle (1996) also shows the multiple factors that contribute to
bullying dynamics (see Figure B). The student who is bullied in the middle is surrounded by:
Students who bully, those who start the bullying and play a leadership role in it; the followers or
henchmen, those who take an active part in the bullying but do not usually initiate it and do not
play a lead role. The supporters or passive bullies are those who actively and openly support the
bullying through laughter or calling attention to the situation. Passive supporters or possible
bullies are those who like the bullying but show no outward signs of support. The disengaged
onlookers, those who do not get involved, do not take a stand, and do not participate in either
direction. The possible defenders, those who dislike the bullying and think they should help but
do nothing. The defenders are those who dislike the bullying and step in to help the student being
bullied.

Figure B: The Olweus Bullying Circle (Olweus, 1996)
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

30

With so many elements and factors defining bullying, it is no wonder that educators and
researcher have faced almost insurmountable challenges in the intervention and prevention of
bullying. Bullying does not occur in isolation (Swearer & Espelage, 2004) and multiple factors
influence the prevalence of bullying behavior. Every individual is affected by their surroundings,
every school has its own ecology and thus interventions need to target the environments in which
students function (Swearer & Espelage, 2004). There is no one solution to prevent bullying
behavior among students. School leaders could ensure that all stakeholders in a school share a
common language to identify bullying behavior. Creating safe schools in which students are not
exposed to bullying behavior requires that the total school climate allow everyone—students,
parents, school staff, and community members—to interact in positive ways.
Effects of Bullying
Much research exists that determines the association of bullying and being bullied with
indicators of social adjustment, including problem behavior, school adjustment, social/emotional
adjustment, and parenting (Ellis & Shute, 2007; Olweus, 1993, 2006; Rigby, 2007; Smokowski
& Kopasz, 2005). Multiple consequences for victims of bullying exist: including fear, which
leads to depression, low self-esteem and chronic absenteeism (Glew et al., 2000; Rigby, 2007). A
relationship exists between student bullying behavior and school issues such as academic
achievement, school bonding, and absenteeism (Dake et al., 2003). Bullying is a social process,
influenced by interactions with peers and involvement with teachers, which makes the classroom
one of the most important and proximal contexts for the development and prevention of bullying
(Hanish et al., 2004; Hong & Espelage, 2012).
Bullying can be considered the most prevalent form of youth violence and may escalate
into serious forms of antisocial behavior (Smokowski & Kopasz, 2005). Youth who bully others
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

31

tend to demonstrate higher levels of conduct problems and dislike of school (Nansel et al., 2001;
Olweus, 1993; Olweus, 2006; Rigby, 2007). Students who are victims of bullies show higher
levels of anxiety, insecurity, depression, loneliness, unhappiness, physical and mental symptoms
and low self-esteem (Nansel et al., 2001; Olweus, 1993; Olweus, 2006; Rigby, 2007). Students
involved in bullying incidents in any way (bully, victim, or bully-victim) associate with key
depressive symptoms and are more likely to endorse carrying a gun to school (Glew et al., 2008).
The negative effects of bullying prevent students from becoming socially competent
learners who are able to select and control behaviors in any situation to achieve the goal set by
themselves or others (i.e. teachers, friends, etc.) (Gettinger, 2003). A critical aspect of social
competence is that component skills and behaviors are applied conditionally, rather than
consistently (Gettinger, 2003). Promoting social competence in schools involves more than
reducing aggressive or disruptive behavior among children. It is about providing support for all
learners and designing classrooms so that friendships and positive peer relationships are more
likely to develop. Doing this requires the attention and deliberate actions on the part of adults in
classrooms who understand the social needs and capabilities of all learners; which includes how
to provide appropriate support, scaffolding and interventions when needed.
Hanish et al. (2004) sought to consider how interactions with peers and teachers related
to the development of bullying among young children. The authors used correlational data to
illustrate the important role peers and teachers play in the emergence of bullying behaviors in
young children. The findings in this study are consistent with other studies that indicate the kinds
of relationships students have with their teachers. These studies also showed that the behaviors
of teachers in the context of peer-to-peer interactions are associated with the development of or
prevention of aggressive behavior (Glew et al., 2008; Nansel et al., 2001; Olweus, 1993; 2006;
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

32

Rigby, 2007). It is essential for all adults in the school to be able to distinguish between bullying
behavior and its effects and normal rough and tumble play among children. Rough and tumble
play may include some of the same verbally and physically aggressive behaviors that comprise
bullying. However, rough and tumble play is part of normal child social development and is not
intended to inflict harm, manipulate or dominate another child (Doll et al., 2004).
Challenges with identifying and defining bullying behavior among students as well as
recognizing the connection to the effects on the culture of a school can create some
organizational gaps that might prove problematic in closing (Clark & Estes, 2008; Olweus, 1996,
2006; Olweus & Limber 2006). If organizationally, the right tools are not in place, then
achieving the goal proves difficult. The cultural beliefs of school stakeholders about what they
can do, what is worth doing and what makes them successful is attributed to life experiences and
influence individual decisions and actions (Clark & Estes, 2008).
How Culture Affects Bullying
Everything affects student development, and school stakeholders affect and shape the
climate of the school in positive ways to ensure that all students learn and develop and that a
culture of bullying is not present (Carney & Merrell, 2001). Bullying can be regarded within the
social context of the whole school and surrounding community (Holt & Keyes, 2004). It is
important to remember that climate can be experienced differently by different students—some
students may feel unwelcome or intimidated by the class climate whereas others may not
(Ambrose, Bridges, DiPietro, Lovett, & Norman, 2010). Teachers and students are intellectual,
social and emotional beings whose perceptions all interact to influence the school and classroom
climate (Ambrose et al., 2010). Teachers who are stressed, unhappy, and unsupported by their
peers are more inclined to treat their students with disrespect (Beaudoin, 2011). Despite the fact
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

33

that teachers genuinely attempt to foster respect and spend a great deal of time implementing
programs for doing so, disrespect and bullying continues to be prevalent in many schools. Staff
members’ well-being and professional relationships are also an important factors that can
provide positive levels of control and influence over the school culture (Beaudoin, 2011).
Cultural differences can negatively affect motivation and performance if the expectations are
based on cultural misconceptions (Clark & Estes, 2008). Classroom and whole-school contexts
that discourage all forms of aggression can reduce the frequency and severity of bullying.
Bullying can be reduced in classrooms where teachers model care and trust, and victims have
faith that adults will come to their defense if needed (Doll et al., 2004).
A negative school climate of gossip and cliques also interferes with trust, collaboration
and openness. It stifles creativity, and makes it daunting for many teachers to share anything
personal, making teachers and students feel isolated, disconnected, and sometimes reluctant to go
to school. Teachers in a negative climate are more likely to respond to students’ struggles in
impatient, disrespectful, and marginalizing ways (Beaudoin, 2011). Students who struggle with
various aspects of school because of racial, ethnic, academic and linguistic discrepancies are
often disregarded by teachers, staff and students (Callahan, 2005). The struggling and
marginalized student becomes caught in a downward spiral; the more he or she is the target of a
teachers’ and classmates’ frustration, the more likely he or she is to be unhappy, resentful, and
inattentive (Beaudoin, 2011). This, in turn, increases the likelihood that he or she will make
mistakes and respond to everyone in disrespectful ways. Or, this student, marginalized by
teachers, may become the target of bullies, who pick up on the teacher’s attitude and extend
those perceptions into social interactions (Doll et al., 2004; Olweus, 1993; Rigby, 2007).

WHY CULTURE MATTERS

34

School and Other Contexts
Bullying is embedded in the school context and often occurs outside of adult supervision
(Booren, Handy, & Powers, 2010), it has a negative effect on everyone—bully, victim, and
bystanders (Glew et al., 2008), and often occurs with many students nearby and aware of what is
happening (Hanish, et al., 2004). Holt and Keyes (2004) surveyed 797 teachers and staff
members from 18 Wisconsin elementary, middle and high pilot schools in rural and suburban
communities to assess school climate constructs, including attitudes toward bullying, degree of
respect, attitudes toward diversity, overt hostility, and rule-setting. Findings highlight the
importance of determining teacher attitudes when starting an intervention or prevention program
(Holt & Keyes, 2004). They found that 26% of teachers reported observing other teachers
making fun of the way students talk, look or act. A little more than one-fourth (27%) of
respondents either agreed or strongly agreed that a little teasing doesn’t hurt (Holt & Keyes,
2004).
Contextual characteristics of classrooms can foster or discourage peer bullying (Doll et
al., 2004). Using two samples of anonymous student surveys that describe classroom
relationships and human agency, Doll et al. (2004) asked 190 2
nd
through 5
th
grade students from
nine elementary classrooms and 113 2
nd
, 5
th
, and 6
th
grade students from seven elementary
classrooms to complete anonymous surveys describing classroom relationships and human
agency. Results showed that two features of classroom ecosystems are highly relevant to
understanding bullying. First, the quality of social relationships in the classroom including
relationships among students, between students and teachers, and between families and the
classroom determines how students relate to one another. Second, the support of human agency
in the classroom including support for students’ self-control, self-efficacy, and self-determination
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

35

helped prevent bullying (Doll et al., 2004). The authors use Bandura’s (1982) definition of
human agency, which describes the mechanisms people use to transform their knowledge into
action. It incorporates judgments of personal competence combined with self-efficacy as these
shape motivation and behavior (Doll et al., 2004). Results from the revised analysis confirm the
hypothesis that children’s perspectives link the ecological features of classrooms to the
prevalence of aggression. Findings also connect the importance of the different ecological
characteristics in preventing peer aggression (Doll et al., 2004). Specifically, peer inclusion, self-
efficacy, self-control, home-school relationship, and teacher-student relationship were most
strongly related to the frequency of peer aggression (Doll et al., 2004).
Constructing Positive Culture
Constructing a culture of respect and recognition where bullying is not tolerated is an
important aspect to preventing bullying. In such a context, everyone works together to ensure
that there are no social payoffs for bullying and that consequences for bullying behaviors are
clear, direct, and immediate (Smokowski & Kopasz, 2005). Proven strategies exist for creating a
school culture that promotes respect, recognition, learning, safety, and positive experiences for
all students. The most effective methods for preventing bullying involve a whole-school
approach that considers the social-ecological aspects of the school’s culture (Dake et al., 2003;
Espselage & Swearer, 2004; Olweus, 2006, Rigby, 2007). Individual characteristics including
gender, depression, and involvement in delinquent behaviors significantly contribute to both
physical and verbal bullying. Teachers’ support and/or maltreatment of students are also
associated with the two types of bullying (Wei et al., 2010).

WHY CULTURE MATTERS

36

Perception Influences Culture
It is important to determine differences in perceptions about bullying and school safety
among the stakeholders in a school (Booren et al., 2010). Using self-reports from 184 students,
32 teachers in a rural high school in the Pacific Northwest, Booren et al. (2010) examined
discrepancies in perceptions of school safety, school climate, and the importance of
implementing safety strategies between the teachers and students. Students’ feelings of school
climate and violence were associated with ratings on the importance of safety strategies but were
different than teachers’ feelings (Booren, et al., 2010). Consistent with Skiba, Simmons,
Peterson, & Miller, (2006), students reported higher ratings of dangerous or disruptive behavior
in school than the teachers. This suggests that students have differing views than teachers about
problematic behavior in school. The authors propose that this discrepancy may be due to teachers
turning a “blind eye” to problematic behavior or that students only exhibit this behavior when
teachers are not present (Booren et al., 2010; Skiba et al., 2006).
Understanding the reciprocity between the multiple layers of a school’s culture and
climate may lead to better designed and implemented programs that address violence and safety
issues within the school. Research suggests that because of the discrepancies in teacher and
student perceptions, it may be important to include the students’ voice when creating and
implementing programs. This may help target the unsafe situations students encounter rather
than the ones perceived by adults. Successful bullying prevention and intervention programs
promote prosocial behavior among all stakeholders. Prevention programs that embed
interventions into as many aspects of the school with adequate training for all school
stakeholders may help encourage cooperative and collaborative behaviors rather than negative
behaviors that may lead to bullying.
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

37

Systems and Structures
All stakeholders in a school can recognize the importance of establishing and cultivating
a positive school climate in which students are supported to become lifelong learners who are
able to work and act as responsible members of the community (Cohen, 2006). Individuals are
affected by their surroundings (Espselage & Swearer, 2004). Human environments and the
capacity of people to adapt and restructure these environments are so complex that they must be
considered together, not in individual dimensions (Bronfenbrenner, 1977). The environmental
structures and processes taking place within and between them can be viewed as interdependent.
These systems all impact the various factors of the school climate and the lens through which
students, teachers, parents, staff and community members deem important in the school. Rueda
(2008) describes three dimensions that impact students becoming self-regulated learners: teacher
and student motivation, knowledge and skill, and organizational and contextual factors. It is
extremely difficult to focus on only one area without taking into consideration the other pieces
that impact student learning and achievement (Rueda, 2008).
It is important to consider both school-wide as well as classroom-level programs and
supports to reduce bullying (Kyriakides & Creemers, 2012). Schools could provide support to
teachers and other stakeholders to identify priorities, keeping in mind the different dimensions
and school factors associated with bullying and develop plans to change the environment in a
positive way (Baker & Manning, 2005). Schools that embed anti-bullying practices into the
school’s culture, sustain intervention efforts over longer periods of time, and take ownership of
the anti-bullying work have shown more positive results in the prevention of bullying (Olweus,
1996; Rigby, 2007; Smith, 2004). With both structure and support in school, students may be
more likely to cooperate with rules and seek help when needed (Gregory, Cornell, Fan, Sheras,
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

38

Shih, & Huang, 2010). In such schools, both adults and students may set a tone of respect and
establish norms against bullying and victimization.
Contextual characteristics of classrooms can foster or discourage peer bullying. Teachers
need to learn about their students’ origins, education, relationship styles, family dynamics, views
of time and space, and other aspects of culture that would be relevant to how a student
approaches school (Carledge & Kourea, 2008). Effective teachers exhibit metacognitive
behaviors; they take charge of their work and are adaptive decision makers, able to self-regulate
as they respond differentially to children and situations in the classroom (Lovetta et al., 2008).
Compassion and flexibility are particularly important when teaching culturally diverse
students. Teachers see themselves as important agents of change for counteracting bullying
problems, which can be achieved through specific classroom and school activities (Kallestad &
Olweus, 2003). Promoting social and academic competence contributes to a shift toward
developing an inclusive learning environment (Gettinger, 2003). Cartledge and Kourea (2008)
describe aspects of schools and classrooms that successfully integrate culturally and
linguistically diverse students, including: high levels of student engagement at many points in
classroom lessons; instruction that is appropriately rigorous and challenging; feedback given to
students is specific, relevant and encourages student achievement at high levels; students who
have a sense of belonging and have a sense of community; and a classroom with clear structure
with rules and expectations is in place (Cartledge & Kourea, 2008).
Creating Systems and Structures
School districts can play a leadership role in reducing the levels of problem behavior by
initiating a community-wide process to build consensus on a set of disciplinary policies that are
consistently enforced throughout the district (Brown, Jackson & Cassidy, 2006). Urban school
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

39

districts can help schools strengthen their learning communities by providing them with a
comprehensive set of strategies for responding to the kind of disruptive behaviors which prevent
them from fulfilling their educational mission (Brown et al., 2006, p 238). For the effective
prevention of bullying, structure and support can be considered in tandem. Students who feel
supported and respected at school are more accepting of structure (Gregory et al., 2010).
However, offering support does not preclude upholding behavioral expectations through fair and
consistent rule enforcement (Gregory et al., 2010). Schools where students perceived that rules
were strictly enforced also described more supportive, trusting and positive relationships with
adults at their school. Structure in this context can be defined as comprising the students’
perceptions of the rules as fair and consistently enforced for common problems, such as cutting
class, smoking, fighting, and speaking sarcastically to a teacher (Gregory et al., 2010). Baker and
Manning (2005) compiled a list of indicators of a safe school that emphasize the importance of
positive, prosocial relationships between and among all stakeholders, a sense of cleanliness and
order on the campus, pride in the school, and high expectations for all students. Hanish et al.
(2004) considered how interactions with peers and teachers related to the development of
bullying among young children. The authors used correlational data to illustrate the important
role peers and teachers play in the emergence of bullying behaviors in young children by
recording any physically or verbally aggressive interaction during free playtime on the
playground. Establishing good relationships with teachers and peers early in life are likely to
provide children with critical experiences that lay the foundation to appropriate social and
academic functioning (Hanish et al., 2004). The findings in this study are consistent with other
studies that indicate the kinds of relationships students have with their teachers, as well as the
behaviors of teachers in the context of peer-to-peer interactions are associated with the
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

40

development of or prevention of aggressive behavior (Espelage & Swearer, 2004; Hanish et al.,
2004; Hong & Espelage, 2012; Kyriakides & Creemers, 2012).
Bullying is a social process, influenced by interactions with peers and involvement with
teachers, which makes it essential for schools to consider multiple aspects of the school when
creating or implementing bullying prevention efforts (Hanish, et al., 2004). Within a school,
different individuals may have different perceptions of the school’s climate due to the
differences in experiences, perspectives, or roles in the school’s structure (Booren et al., 2010).
Understanding these differences may lead to better designed and implemented programs that
address violence and safety issues within the school.
Bullying Prevention Programs
Anti-bullying practices and programs in American schools have proven both effective
and ineffective (Sherer, & Nickerson, 2010). Some of the most effective strategies include:
school-wide positive behavioral supports, modifying space and schedule, and immediate
response to bullying incidents (Olweus, 1995; Olweus, 1996). The least effective strategies
included: zero tolerance policies, suggestions to avoid contact with bullies and victims, and
written anti-bullying policies (Sherer & Nickerson, 2010).
Zero tolerance began in the 1980s in regards to state and federal drug enforcement
policies (Skiba & Peterson, 1999). Before these policies stopped being enforced, schools began
to develop similar policies for possession of drugs or participating in gang-related activities
requiring a mandatory expulsion. In late 1989 the superintendent of the Yonkers public schools,
Donald Batista, proposed a sweeping zero tolerance program as a way of taking action against
students who caused school disruption. Thus began an era that restricted school access, enforced
a ban on hats, called for the immediate suspension for any school disruption, and increased the
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

41

use of law enforcement—the things that characterize zero tolerance approaches over the past 10
– 15 years (Skiba & Peterson, 1999). With mass media over-telling the few stories of school
violence over the past two decades, the “fear of random violence is clearly the prime motivator
for the adoption of zero tolerance approaches to school discipline” (Skiba & Peterson, 1999, p.
373). Despite objections of the broad reaching policies that don’t allow for individual cases and
circumstances to be considered, school administrators and school boards “claim that their hands
are tied by federal or state law, or they assert that continued application of zero tolerance is
necessary to send a message to disruptive students” (Skiba & Peterson, 1999, p 374). Less
important is the actual outcome of such policies—more important is the reassurance that having
these measures in place provides to administrators, teachers, and parents the peace of mind that
violence will be addressed. It does not require strict policies to create an effective bullying
prevention program (Allen, 2009).
Carney and Merrell (2001) describe successful bullying prevention and intervention
programs. Successful programs promote facts, not myths about bullying and aggressive behavior.
Successful bullying prevention programs can build an accountability and evaluation system for
students and teachers with adequate information to all stakeholders about the effects of the
comprehensive school-wide plan (Carney & Merrell, 2001). Other important factors in creating
an effective bullying prevention program include: recruiting student input in creating a student
code of conduct; providing individual counseling and group skill-building services for bullies
and victims that emphasize the development of skills to replace maladaptive behaviors; and
including specific strategies for aggressive children (Carney & Merrell, 2001).
The Olweus Bullying Prevention (OBPP) program was created as a whole-school
program designed to reduce existing bully/victim problems and prevent the development of new
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

42

problems (Olweus, 1993, 1994). Implementation of the OBPP has shown positive results in
Norway (Olweus, 1996). The core of the program is based on the use of the social environment,
which includes teachers, students, parents and other school personnel. School psychologists and
counselors play an important role in helping to facilitate, counsel and guide participants in best
implementing the program and affecting positive change in the school (Olweus, 1993, 1996).
The OBPP showed marked reduction of bullying and bully/victim problems (Olweus 1996).
With the intervention program, a clear reduction in antisocial behavior—such as vandalism,
fighting, and truancy—occurred. Additionally, various aspects of the school climate improved,
including: social climate of classes, improved order and structure, more positive social
relationships, and a more positive attitude toward schoolwork and the school (Olweus, 1996).
The Olweus Bullying Prevention Program in Practice
Black, Washington, Trent, Harner, & Pollock (2010) describe the implementation and
maintenance of the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program in Philadelphia elementary and middle
schools. The goal of the program was to improve school climate and safety in participating
schools by reducing bullying. Implementation and maintenance of this program requires
multilevel interventions, including the school, classroom and the individual. School level
interventions include the formation of a coordinating committee to plan and implement the
program, administer an anonymous student survey, establish rules against bullying with
consistent consequences, establish positive reinforcements and improve communication with
parents (Black et al., 2010). Classroom interventions include holding weekly classroom
meetings, incorporating bullying into the curriculum, enforcing school rules and consequences in
the classroom, and holding meetings with parents. Individual interventions include on-the-spot
and follow-up with bullying children, victim support and parent involvement (Black et al., 2010).
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

43

One of the challenges in implementing this program was less experienced staff members
found difficulty conducting class meetings to establish and reinforce acceptable behavior. To
help, they created a handbook to guide discussions and held mock meetings to train staff.
Another hurdle for teachers was the perception that classroom meetings interfered with
instructional time. Administrative mandates, additional training and information helped
encourage teachers to hold weekly meetings and begin to integrate bullying prevention activities
into the curriculum (Black et al., 2010).
Bauer, Lozano, and Rivara (2007) sought to determine the effectiveness of the OBPP.
The mixed results of the study showed that schools implementing the program, especially with a
heterogeneous student body, should monitor outcomes and pay special attention to the impact of
culture, race and family influence on student behavior. Although results were not as positive as
expected, the study determined that schools could still implement the OBPP. Implementing the
OBPP can serve as a vehicle for schools to bring about change because it establishes a common
language and provides the necessary framework for schools to tackle bullying (Bauer et al.,
2007). The authors hypothesize several reasons for the lack of success in implementing the
program overall: First, the OBPP, developed for a homogenous population, may not translate
well into a multi-ethnic society. Second, students in middle school are still developing their
identity, which may be influenced by experiences with peer groups. White students in the study
may have held similar beliefs and thus, schools with higher populations of white students did not
require intensive or tailored approaches to bullying prevention. Third, a variety of factors affect
students’ perception and reporting of victimization, including cultural biases, home and family
factors, making the transfer of a program developed for one culture difficult to transfer to another
culture (Bauer et al., 2007).
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

44

Other Intervention Programs
Hudley et al. (2007) describe a program of bullying intervention to improve social
behavior and academic motivation of elementary students. The basis for this study was a focus
on children’s attributions in social and academic domains. Their program was designed to help
these students recognize the causes of bullying behavior, thus reducing negative or aggressive
responses. They found that in some settings, children assumed that others intend to cause harm;
that this is caused by the environment and contributes directly and powerfully to angry,
aggressive behavior (Hudley et al., 2007.) They found that by explicitly teaching students how to
respond in various settings, students from varied backgrounds understand their peers and choose
to respond in a positive, non-aggressive manner (Hudley et al., 2007). Programs with positive
results include multiple commonalities: a complete shift in the whole school environment and
culture that includes both support and structure, involvement of all school stakeholders, and
explicit instruction of prosocial behaviors for students and staff (Carney & Merrell, 2001;
Elinoff, et al. 2004; Olweus, 1993).
Struggles in Preventing Bullying
Bullying prevention program struggle for many reasons, including perceptions and
definitions of bullying behavior as opposed to normal rough and tumble play among school
children and a common way to measure bullying does not exist (Glew et al., 2008; Hong &
Espelage, 2012; Sherer & Nickerson, 2010; Smith, 2004; Swearer, et al., 2010). Swearer et al.
(2010) reason that anti-bullying programs are struggling for five reasons. First, many
intervention studies have relied on self-report indices of bullying and victimization. These may
not be sufficiently valid and accurate for detecting behavioral change. Second, most anti-bullying
programs are not well grounded in a guiding theoretical framework that would inform program
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

45

development and evaluation. Third, most programs fail to direct interventions at the social
ecology that promotes and sustains bullying perpetration, such as peers and families. Fourth,
many of these programs do not address the changing demographics of communities.
Additionally, these programs fail to consider or incorporate factors such as race, disability, and
sexual orientation. Fifth, schoolwide programs are designed to reach all students, but in many
schools a small percentage of students are directly engaged in bullying perpetration (Swearer et
al., 2010). In addition, less experienced staff members may find preventing bullying challenging
for a variety of reasons (Black, et al., 2010; Black & Jackson, 2007; Holt & Keyes, 2004).
Easton (2008) cites Killion’s five indicators that are descriptors of change: knowledge—a
conceptual understanding of information, theories, principles and research; attitude—beliefs
about the value of particular information or strategies; skills—strategies and processes to apply
knowledge; aspiration—a desire or internal motivation to engage in a particular practice; and
behavior—a consistent application of knowledge and skills. She argues that only when people
alter attitudes, aspirations, and behavior in addition to knowledge and skills can significant
change take place.
There are some challenges to the accurate measurement of bullying (Swearer et al.,
2010). First, intervention and prevention efforts that seek to raise awareness of bullying can
initially increase student reports of bullying. This makes it difficult to make an effective
evaluation of changes in the rates of bullying difficult in the short-term evaluations. Second,
interpretations of bullying varies across cultures, language groups, age, and gender. The use of
different evaluation and measurement assessments can lead to different findings (Swearer et al.,
2010). Dake, Price, Telljohnn, & Funk, (2003) describe four main barriers that prevent bullying
at the classroom level: Students’ lack of knowledge about bullying (13.9%), bullying as a low
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

46

priority relative to other issues (12.8%), bullying not being a problem for which to create rules
(11.1%), and students not taking the responsibility seriously.
Teacher Beliefs
Teachers’ beliefs have strong implications for the way they practice and implement their
teaching (Bedir, 2010). It is important that information about the detrimental effects of all types
of bullying is disseminated to teachers to minimize the harm to students. The moral orientation—
perceptions of justice, fairness and rules—of teachers may predict a preference in style of
response to incidents of bullying. This may inform why teachers may be more or less inclined to
respond to or adhere to anti-bullying policies (Ellis & Shute, 2007). As long as teachers perceive
relational or social bullying as less serious, they are less likely to intervene or stop the bullying
(Ellis & Shute, 2007).
Factors inherent in the teacher may also play a role in determining how bullying is
addressed. For example, teachers’ behavior (which may result from teachers’ beliefs) may drive
the students’ decision to report bullying (Bauman & del Rio, 2005). Preservice teachers view
bullying as a serious concern with implications for their role as professionals but often differ in
their definition of bullying (Craig et al., 2011). Teachers view covert forms of bullying, which
include relational, homophobic and cyber bullying as less serious, which highlights the
importance of providing preservice teachers with training to use effective anti-bullying strategies
(Craig et al., 2011). Holt and Keyes (2004) determined that teachers may have reported less
bullying because it was not brought into the spotlight until the 1999 school shooting at
Columbine High School. Until then, teachers may have dismissed incidences of bullying as a rite
of passage among students and non-hurtful interactions. Even if teachers observe episodes of
bullying of a particular nature (e.g. social exclusion), the behaviors may not be consistent with
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

47

what teachers consider or define as bullying (Holt & Keyes, 2004). The common element to
descriptions of effective teachers is that they are highly metacognitive teachers, fluent in their
use and orchestration of a repertoire of effective and adaptive instructional strategies.
Metacognitive teachers clearly possess implicit working models of mental development, reading
comprehension, the multi-dimensional learning trajectories of their students, and their own
instructional strategies (Lovetta et al., 2008).
Bauman & Hurley (2008) interviewed and surveyed 96 elementary teachers from eight
schools in two districts and 93 first-year teachers in five school districts in a southwestern
community in two exploratory studies to investigate teachers’ attitudes and beliefs about
bullying. Despite the fact that most teachers believed they were doing a good job of preventing
bullying, results indicate that some teachers hold beliefs that are at odds with current best
practices in bullying prevention and intervention (Olweus, 2006; Rigby, 2007). First-year
teachers were more likely to desire additional training despite their reported confidence in their
abilities to handle bullying. Many reported they did not receive such training in their teacher
preparation program (Bauman & Hurley, 2008). Preservice teachers who have had personal
experience being involved in or witnessing bullying incidents are more sensitive to labeling an
aggressive act as bullying (Craig et al., 2011).
In addition to beliefs, Ellis and Shute (2007) in a study of 127 teachers from five schools
in South Australia found that moral reasoning is applied whenever a teacher is confronted with a
choice of whether and how to respond to a bullying incident. Physical bullying (spitting on
someone) was rated as significantly more serious than verbal bullying (name-calling), which was
more serious than social bullying (dirty looks) (Ellis & Shute, 2007). When deciding to
intervene, 86% of teachers said they would stop the behavior if it was a highly serious incident,
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

48

almost 72% said they would stop if it was considered a mildly serious incident (Ellis & Shute,
2007).
Alvarez (2007) conducted a study in which she used a series of four hypothetical
vignettes of student aggression with measurements of proposed attributions, affective reactions
and interventions to measure teacher attributions and reaction to the child’s behavior among 121
teachers with a range of training and teaching experiences. Results of the study confirmed the
hypothesis that prior training influenced both affective responses and behavioral reactions to the
vignettes describing classroom aggression. Teachers in this study were more likely to report
feelings of anger, stress, helplessness, irritation and hurt/offense if they had not received prior
training. Results also show that it is likely that training has important effects on teachers’ self-
evaluation of competence, which may impact responses to classroom management needs
(Alvarez, 2007).
To properly implement an anti-bullying program, it is imperative to gain a clear
understanding of teachers’ perceptions and beliefs on any teaching and learning process (Bedir,
2010). A school in which bullying may be problematic may display a lack of teamwork among
parents, school, and teachers, and result from a conservative climate intent on maintaining the
status quo as well as a competitive climate dominated by student testing. Teacher training
programs can help new teachers make the connections between providing practical knowledge
on strategies based instruction and transferring that into their classrooms (Bedir, 2010). Simply
creating policies and procedures does not ensure that schools will be effective in reducing the
incidences of bullying. Research indicates that prevention and intervention efforts can include
school-wide programs that expand our definition to include subtle and obvious bullying
behaviors. These efforts aim to restructure the social environment of schools, thereby allowing
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

49

students to develop and learn in a safe atmosphere (Elinoff, et al., 2004). Prospective teachers’
attitudes as well as empathy may be important in determining their definitions of bullying, their
perceptions about the seriousness of bullying, and the likelihood of intervention (Craig,
Henderson, & Murphy, 2000).
Professional Development
Teachers’ knowledge and beliefs provide the underlying framework, which guides the
teachers’ classroom actions (Bedir, 2010). Metacognitive teacher training, instructional
coaching, long-term mentorship, and collaborative learning have all been proposed as important
features of effective professional development (Lovetta et al., 2008). It may be helpful for
children showing signs of developing aggressive behavior to have warm relationships with
teachers—the presence of a positive, supporting relationship with an adult may serves as a
foundation through which the child can develop more appropriate ways of interacting with others
(Hanish et al., 2004). Specific strategies, classroom management practices, programs, and
policies can prove helpful in creating a climate of positive peer and teacher-student relationships
that may prevent bullying. Some specific strategies include: helping young children manage their
own and peers’ externalizing behaviors, assist children in establishing positive peer and teacher
interactions, and direct children’s solitary activities into appropriate outlets (Dake et al., 2003;
Glew et al., 2000). To accomplish these suggestions, assistance and training may be needed for
teachers and staff (Hanish, et al., 2004).
Leadership and beliefs
Peter G. Northouse, in his book Leadership, describes leadership as an interactive event
(Northouse, 2010). Imagine a Slinky, contracting and expanding as the journey continues, as the
preservice teacher enters the profession armed with tools, strategies and an idyllic expectation of
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

50

what will be found in the classroom. Leadership in education can stem from a teacher just
entering the profession. Teacher preparation programs can prepare new teachers to become
leaders on whatever campus, in any classroom in which they land. Northouse defines leadership
as “a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common
goal” (Northouse, 2010, p. 3). Preservice teachers can have a clear understanding of the
following: strengths, weaknesses, who he or she is, who the team is, and a clear vision and
purpose. If new teachers do not know how to accomplish this, then using various leadership
styles might prove helpful.
An essential part of the whole school approach is ensuring that all teachers and staff
members are adequately trained to recognize, prevent and intervene in occurrences of bullying.
Teacher’s beliefs about bullying may affect their rate of intervention. The amount of teacher
contact with students is essential to consider as well as the perceptions of teachers regarding
student bullying is important to minimize any risk (Dake et al., 2003). How cultures define and
conceptualize bullying can also affect the rate or success of intervention (Craig et al., 2000). For
example, two participants involved in an interaction may not characterize student behaviors
(physical, verbal or social aggression) as bullying, which may prevent effective intervention and
prevention (Craig, et al., 2000). Principals’ perceptions can impact how school staff define and
perceive occurrences of bullying as well as determining when to intervene. Training specific to
violence/bullying is essential to ensuring all school staff are prepared with the same context
(Dake et al., 2003). Surveying principals from 384 U.S. elementary schools, Dake et al. (2003)
found that although the majority of participants had received training regarding school-based
violence (79.4%) or bullying (54.5%), almost 60% had not seriously thought about establishing a
bullying prevention committee to coordinate bullying prevention activities at their schools.
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

51

Principals who received specific bullying prevention training were more likely to perceive
primary prevention activities as effective and thus were more likely to ensure adequate training
for all staff (Dake et al., 2003). Veteran teachers’ ability to “perceive and express emotions, to
use emotions to facilitate thinking, to understand and reason with emotions, and to effectively
manage emotions within [him or herself] and in relationships with others” can greatly contribute
to the success of novice teachers and could persuade people to do new and unexpected things
(Mayer, Solovey, & Caruso, 2000, cited in Northouse, 2010, p. 23).
Teachers Preventing Bullying
Teacher observations versus student reports of bullying and staff preparedness predict
teacher involvement in incidences of bullying. Novick and Issacs (2010) found the highest
predictor of intervention was teachers being told by students about bullying incidents. However,
the relation between students telling teachers, observing it, and coaching students how to manage
bullying was most evident when teachers felt highly prepared to handle bullying situations.
Results indicate that teacher preparedness plays an important role in teacher response to
incidents of bullying (Novick & Isaacs, 2010). Teachers with prior training tend to have a more
positive reaction to incidents of bullying as opposed to teachers without prior training (Alvarez,
2007).
Comparing preservice teachers in the United States and the United Kingdom, Bauman
and del Rio (2005) found that preservice teachers do not have a clear understanding of the nature
and definition of bullying. “It behooves teacher preparation programs to respond to that interest
and need by designing and implementing effective training that teacher trainees receive as a part
of their preparation program” (Bauman & del Rio, 2005, p. 436). In training preservice teachers,
practical and accurate information about bullying could be taught (Nicolaides et al., 2002).
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

52

Teacher preparation programs can equip their future teachers with a variety of strategies to
manage bullying that can be selected depending upon the severity and context (Bauman et al.,
2008). Prevention and intervention strategies could be described, demonstrated and practiced
using videos and role play to apply their knowledge to actual situations in their classrooms.
The knowledge, attitudes and beliefs of teachers about bullying can have an effect on
implementing bullying prevention programs. Effective intervention in bullying requires a
committed, well-trained staff working together, and without ongoing training and support it is
difficult to attain the critical mass needed to make a difference and reduce bullying (Bauman &
del Rio, 2005). Teachers equipped with the tools to manage student behavior, establish a positive
classroom culture that fosters prosocial relationships are more likely to feel confident in the
prevention and intervention of bullying behavior among students.
Avalos (2011) and Flint, Zisook, and Fisher (2011) reviewed the publications on teacher
professional development over the past decade. Both studies synthesized factors influencing
professional development, the effectiveness of professional development, and the complexities of
professional development of teachers. One key observation from reviewing more than 100
studies of professional development is that the practice of in-service teacher training (INSET) is
not being used as frequently (Avalos, 2011; Flint et al., 2011). Additionally, teacher learning
and development is complex with many different elements and factors. For example, the
particular way in which background contextual factors interact with learning needs varies
depending upon the cultural norms, policies, and school conditions. Findings suggest that
prolonged interventions are more effective than shorter ones, and the combinations of tools for
learning and reflective experiences serve to better develop teachers in the way that is necessary
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

53

(Avalos, 2011; Flint et al., 2011). Additionally, co-learning emerged as a strong tool for teacher
development and learning.
The professional development model is characterized by a strong emphasis on the
teachers developing metacognitive models of effective literacy instruction, becoming more
reflective regarding their own teaching practices, and mastering effective multiple component
approaches to reading intervention (Lovetta et al., 2008). A long-term mentoring and
instructional coaching framework is being implemented inside and outside of teachers’
classrooms. The program includes opportunities for collaborative learning, with small groups of
teacher participants forming informal learning communities. The frequency and duration of the
in-class coaching, long-term mentorship, and collaborative learning experiences are all
parameters important to the professional development model. One way schools have
accomplished this is with professional learning communities.
Professional learning communities
Professional learning communities are developed where groups of people, linked
geographically or by shared interest, collaborate and work in partnership to address their
members’ learning needs. Learning communities facilitated through adult and community
education are a powerful tool for social cohesion, community capacity building and social,
cultural and economic development (Department of Education, 2003, p. 12). Easton (2008)
argues that to truly affect school reform to meet the changing needs of students, teachers need to
move from being trained or developed to becoming active learners.
New teachers improve their practice when they participate in communities of practice
(Au, 2002; Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999). By using a variety of frameworks to help guide the
conversation the group of new teachers and mentors can unpack the challenges they are facing
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

54

and begin to center the conversation around affecting positive change within the cultural context
of their individual school sites (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001; Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999).
Professional learning starts at the bottom, within schools, with educators identifying what
students need and what the teachers need to learn (Buffum, Mattos, & Weber, 2009; DuFour,
DuFour, Eaker, & Many, 2006; DuFour, Eaker, & DuFour, 2005; Flint et al., 2011; Garet, Porter,
Desimone, Birman, & Yoon, 2001; Glazer & Hannafin, 2006; Goldenberg, 2008; Gregory,
Cornell, & Fan, 2011; Lovett et al., 2008). Several qualities describe powerful professional
learning. The first is that it arises from and returns benefits to the real world of teaching and
learning. The second quality is that it requires the collection, analysis, and presentation of real
data from student work and teacher practice. The third quality is that it begins with what will
really help students learn, it engages those involved in helping them learn, and has an effect on
the classrooms where those students and their teachers learn. Professional learning leads directly
to application in the classroom. Professional learning experiences may not end when each
meeting ends. Professional learning honors the professionalism, expertise, experiences, and
skills of staff members. It is content-rich, establishes a culture of quality, and results in
automatic buy-in because it uses the “local” talent. Professional learning slows the pace of
schooling and provides the activities that make professional learning communities more than just
a structure (Buffum, Mattos, & Weber, 2009; DuFour et al., 2008; DuFour et al., 2005; Flint et
al., 2011; Garet et al., 2001; Glazer & Hannafin, 2006; Goldenberg, 2008; Gregory, Cornell, &
Fan, 2011; Lovett et al., 2008).
Developing an effective PLC must include long-term mentoring and instructional
coaching framework inside and outside of teachers’ classrooms; and create opportunities for
collaborative learning, with small groups of teacher participants forming informal learning
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

55

communities (DuFour et al., 2008; DuFour et al., 2005). The frequency and duration of the in-
class coaching, long-term mentorship, and collaborative learning experiences are all parameters
important to the professional development model. Flint et al. (2011) explain the idea of
communities of practice in which groups of people come together to engage in a process of
collective learning in a shared domain of interest. This involves an encompassing process of
active participants in the practices of social communities and constructing identities in relation to
these communities (Wesley and Buysse, 2001). There is no single model for teacher education
that is guaranteed to be successful in all areas. Aston (1988) argues that the most successful
arrangements involve a large part at the school site that provides opportunities for teachers to
share ideas.
The characteristics of a professional learning community do not (and can not) exist in
isolation of each other. The results of a study by Clausen, Aquino, and Wideman (2009) showed
that one characteristic of the professional learning community built upon the next and so on, with
the characteristics overlapping one another. A learning community can be defined as an
inherently cooperative cohesive and self-reflective group entity whose members work toward
common goals while respecting a variety of perspectives, values, and life styles (Clausen et al.,
2009). Collegiality holds promise for change in teachers’ practice and meaningful professional
development if the school’s administrators accept the learning community philosophy and is
willing to take the lead in initiating this reform.
A study by Flint et al. (2011) found that when teachers were engaged in conversations
that recognized their intentions and pushed them toward new perspectives, they offered similar
opportunities to their students (Flint et al., 2011). When teachers create a community of practice,
they become active participants in their own professional development and begin to reframe their
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

56

identities as teachers. The community of practice leads to more interactive dialog among
professionals about professional practices (Buffum, Mattos, & Weber, 2009; DuFour et al., 2008;
DuFour et al., 2005; Flint et al., 2011; Garet et al., 2001; Glazer & Hannafin, 2006; Goldenberg,
2008; Gregory, Cornell, & Fan, 2011; Lovett et al., 2008).
Ten characteristics have been outlined in relevant literature that describe what a learning
community looks like: 1. A constructed understanding of reality and learning within the
community. 2. A shared goal or purpose that drives the community members. 3. Informal power
shared by community stakeholders. 4. Flexibility exists for all participants within the
organizational structure. 5. Formal leaders show long-term commitment through a balance of
support and pressure. 6. Channels of communication are open to all stakeholders. 7. A group
memory exists. 8. In-service professional learning is ongoing and internal. 9. Teachers think in
collegial terms. 10. A culture of trust and respect exists among all stakeholders (Buffum,
Mattos, & Weber, 2009; Clausen et al., 2009; DuFour et al., 2008; DuFour et al., 2005; Flint et
al., 2011; Garet et al., 2001; Glazer & Hannafin, 2006; Goldenberg, 2008; Gregory, Cornell, &
Fan, 2011; Lovett et al., 2008).
Glazer and Hannafin (2006) describe professional learning in the context of reciprocal
interactions in a community of practice, where teachers take responsibility for each other’s
learning and development. They propose a collaborative apprenticeship model for professional
development of teachers that encourages peer teachers to serve as models and coaches to
improve instruction. In a collaborative apprenticeship model, expert teachers pass on experiences
and strategies to novices. As preservice teachers transition into their own classrooms, experts
support the novices until they can become full participants and can contribute new ideas and
strategies that affect teaching and learning within their school.
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

57

Theoretical Framework
Since bullying is maintained by the culture and climate of an organization, schools taking
a social-ecological approach to bullying prevention may benefit from programs that shift the
power dynamics in peer and school level interventions. Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) framework
explains human development in terms as the progressive, mutual accommodation, throughout the
life span of a person and the changing immediate environments in which he/she lives. This
process if affected by the relations obtaining within and between these immediate settings, as
well as the larger social contexts, both formal and informal, in which the settings are embedded
(Bronfenbrenner, 1977). The ecological environment comprises levels. The first is the
microsystem, which is the complex of relations between the developing person and the
environment in an immediate setting containing that person. The second level is the mesosystem,
which comprises the interrelations among major settings containing the developing person at a
particular point in his or her life. It is a system of microsystems. (e.g., church, camp, workplace)
The third level is the exosystem, which is an extension of the mesosytem, and embraces other
specific social structures, both formal and informal, that do not themselves contain the
developing person but impinge upon or encompass the immediate settings in which that person is
found, and thereby influence, delimit or even determine what goes on there. (e.g., world of work,
neighborhood, mass media, governmental agencies, distribution of goods and services,
communication and transportation facilities) The fourth level, the macrosystem, is the
overarching institutional patterns of the culture or subculture, such as the economic, social,
educational, legal, and political systems. Macrosystems are the carriers of information an
ideology that endow meaning and motivation to particular agencies. “Macrosystems are informal
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

58

and implicit—carried, often unwittingly, in the minds of the society’s members as ideology” (p.
515) and is manifested through custom and practice in everyday life (Bronfenbrenner, 1977).
Hong and Espelage (2012) describe the risk factors associated with bullying and peer
victimization within the context of Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) ecological framework. Their study
examined aspects of bullying from the micro (parent-youth relationships, inter-parental violence,
relations with peers, school connectedness, and school environment), meso (teacher
involvement), exo (exposure to media violence, neighborhood environment), macro (cultural
norms and beliefs, religious affiliation) and chronosystem (changes in family structure) levels.
Their meta-analyses indicate that programs that include ecologically based components are more
likely to show positive results (Hong & Espelage, 2012).

Figure C: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Framework Model (1977)
A combination of forces has an impact on incidences of bullying, including factors
related to students’ life outside of school and school climate (Rigby, 2007). Bullying is
maintained by the culture and climate of an organization, schools taking a social-ecological
Individual

Microsystem

Mesosystem

Exosystem

Macrosystem

WHY CULTURE MATTERS

59

approach to bullying prevention may benefit from programs that shift the power dynamics in
peer and school level interventions (Hong & Espelage, 2012). The socio-cultural environment of
the school, a student’s basic personal characteristics, and the family experiences all affect a
student’s mode of relating to others (Olweus, 1993; Rigby, 2007).
Examining bullying from a social-ecological theoretical framework proves helpful for
understanding and subsequently preventing bullying in schools. Bullying does not occur in
isolation (Espelage & Swearer, 2004). A social-ecological perspective offers a holistic view of
bullying within the nested contextual systems of schools, adults, neighborhoods, and society
(Espelage & Swearer, 2004; Hong & Espelage, 2012). Although no one program has proven
effective for the intervention and prevention of bullying behavior, the most effective approach
has been the whole school approach that incorporates multiple activities to decrease bullying
problems (Dake, et al., 2003; Greene, 2006; Polanin, Espelage, & Pigott, 2012; Sherer, &
Nickerson, 2010). A safe school is one in which the total school climate allows students,
teachers, administrators, staff, and visitors to interact in a positive, nonthreatening manner that
reflects the educational mission of the school in addition to fostering positive relationships and
personal growth (Baker & Manning, 2005).
A whole school or social-ecological approach to preventing bullying that focuses on
school climate is necessary to reduce all forms of aggression (Greene, 2006). At the individual
level, students need to understand and comply with anti-bullying rules, individual meetings need
to occur between a designated school authority and the bully and victim. Students need to learn
to help defuse bullying incidents or tell someone who can help. Students need to encourage
friends and peers to refrain from bullying, and they need to learn to relate to one another in a
positive and caring manner (Greene, 2006). At the school level, fair anti-bullying rules, positive
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

60

and negative sanctions, investigatory procedures, and policies need to be established and
consistently enforced. Training could be provided to all staff in identifying, reporting, imposing
positive and negative sanctions, and in how to intervene and report bullying. Any areas in which
bullying incidents are more likely to occur could be adequately monitored with ample adult role
models (Greene, 2006). At the community level, the school can work cooperatively with parents
and neighborhood partners to offer ample levels of support and ensure that anti-bullying norms
are in sync with each other at both school and in the community.
Summary
Despite decades of research, implementation of policies and programs, roughly one-third
of students are victims of bullying (DeVoe et al., 2011). Although bullying remains a problem,
the comprehensive understanding is still necessary to inform effective intervention and
prevention. Bullying needs to be viewed from an ecological framework, with all stakeholders
involved in the school in positive and meaningful ways (Espelage & Swearer, 2004; Hong &
Espelage, 2012). In the prevention of bullying, it is important for teachers to communicate and
support children from a caring perspective, cultivate and demonstrate appreciation for children’s
uniqueness and diversity, have clearly communicated expectations that children had a part in
creating, and determine the reasons behind behaviors before taking punitive action (Gettinger,
2003).
This literature review examined past research in understanding and prevention of
bullying, how it is defined, and the effects of bullying on all members of a school. Next, this
review investigated how the climate and culture of a school, including involvement of all
stakeholders in a school, affects the occurrence of and prevention of bullying. This review
assessed the systems and structures put into place at schools, including intervention programs,
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

61

leadership, teacher beliefs, teacher preparation, and professional development. Last, the
theoretical framework for this study was explained and examined.

WHY CULTURE MATTERS

62

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
For almost three decades, researchers and educators have tried to better understand the
nature of bullying and reduce the negative impact it has on students’ physical and mental health
(De Voe et al., 2010; Nansel et al., 2001). Much research on the various factors related to
incidences of and prevention of bullying exists, this research has proven inconclusive and
bullying remains problematic in schools. With roughly one-third of students in K – 12 schools
reporting some experience with bullying, either as bully, victim or bully-victim, and research
showing that this experience has a negative effect on student achievement, changes need to occur
at multiple levels (Nansel, et al., 2001; Robers et al., 2012).
The purpose of this study was to assess the perceived structures and systems that
contribute to an anti-bullying culture in schools and institutions. This study also examined how
the systems and structures were implemented and sustained to support an anti-bullying culture in
schools and institutions. This study also sought to determine how new teachers with less than
five years of experience put into place any tools and training received to prevent bullying.
This study was designed to help educators understand the challenges in implementing
bullying prevention and intervention efforts. Rather than determine specific causes and effects of
bullying, this study sought to understand, through qualitative study, “how people interpret their
experiences, how they construct their worlds, and what meaning they attribute to their
experiences” (Merriam, 2009, p. 5). A great deal of research exists evaluating the various
aspects and impacts of bullying on student achievement. However, little information exists about
teacher preparation and the impact that has on the prevention of bullying (Alvarez, 2007;
Olweus, 1993; 1996, 2006; Rigby, 2007). This research can help inform teacher preparation and
professional development programs to align with bullying prevention and intervention efforts.
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

63

This chapter outlines the research design of the study and provides an overview of the
participants and sample selection. It also re-introduces the theoretical and conceptual framework
that together form the foundation for the study. Data collection procedures are examined, along
with the instrumentation utilized. Finally, the format for data analysis is defined, along with the
ethical considerations made to ensure the safety and confidentiality of the participants.
Research Questions
This study will answer three questions in relation to the promising practices in the
prevention of bullying in schools.
1. What are the structures and systems that contribute to anti-bullying culture in schools and
institutions?
2. How are the systems and structures implemented and sustained to support an anti-
bullying culture?
3. How do teachers with less than five years of experience compared to teachers with more
than five years of experience put into place any tools and training received to best
implement the systems and structures that prevent bullying in schools?
Research Design

Using qualitative methods for this study allows for an “understanding of the meaning
people have constructed” and “how people make sense of their world and they experiences they
have in the world” (Merriam, 2009, p. 13). This study sought to determine and explain the
promising practices in the prevention of bullying in K – 12 schools. Keeping in mind the four
characteristics of qualitative design as described by Merriam (2009), this study focused on
gaining meaning and understanding with the researcher as the primary instrument for data
collection and analysis. Additionally, the study used an inductive process to gather data and build
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

64

concepts and tell the story of a school through the themes that emerge from rich descriptions
gleaned from interviews and observations. Qualitative research is a means for “exploring and
understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem”
(Creswell, 2009, p. 4). The process of this study involved extending meaning to emerging
questions about the prevention and intervention of bullying in schools. Data were collected in
participant’s setting, and data analysis inductively built from general themes to specific details
with the researcher examining and explaining meaning (Creswell, 2009).
Sample and Population

The beginning portion of this study needed to be structured, which help ensure the
comparability of data across individual times, settings, and researchers—and thus potentially be
able to become generalizable (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 2009). By asking the same questions of
different people in different settings within one school, the researcher sought to understand what
was going on at one site. To help inform the practice of others, this study sought to provide a
contextual understanding that leads to specific outcomes.
Rather than use probability (random), or convenience sampling, the researcher used
purposeful sampling. “Particular settings, persons or activities selected deliberately to provide
information particularly relevant to questions and goals” were chosen (Maxwell, p. 97, 2013).
This study used snowball, chain, or networking sampling. Additionally, this study used
purposeful sampling to gain the best knowledge to inform the promising practices in the
prevention of bullying in K – 12 schools. The five goals outlined by Maxwell (2013) help
illustrate this need. First, by identifying specific schools that have promising practices, this study
can achieve representativeness or typicality of the setting, individuals, or activities. Second,
purposeful sampling can achieve the opposite of the first goal—to adequately capture the
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

65

heterogeneity of the population. Third, the cases the researcher studied help identify how a
school can work into its structure and culture the theoretical framework the researcher used to
frame our study. Fourth, the researcher sought to establish particular comparisons using the
existing literature that illustrate what is going right at one site versus another. Fifth, the
researcher selected participants with whom productive relationships can easily be established but
who also achieve the goal, which is to answer the three research questions.
However, it is important to keep in mind what Merriam (2009) says in finding the right
number of people to interview, documents to review, and observations to be made. She states
that there is no right number, however, when redundancy in the data is reached, then it may be a
good point to stop. Although she does note in the case study approach, within each case there
exits numerous sites to visit, events or activities to observe, people to interview, and documents
to read.
Determination of Study Site Location
*All names, organizations, and locations are identified with pseudonyms.
Lilac Lane Middle School* is a 6 – 8 school in San Diego County, California. It has been
recognized by the California State Department of Education as a Distinguished School. All of
the teachers fully certified, see Table 1 for details. Lilac Lane Middle School describes itself as a
community of learners dedicated to the belief that all children can learn and grow in a safe,
orderly, and positive environment. The focus for students and teachers is a rigorous standards-
based curriculum, a clear academic focus, and an emphasis on responsible citizenship. They also
provide students with a foundation for future learning in a technological society.

WHY CULTURE MATTERS

66

Table 1: School Data (Numbers are averaged or rounded to the nearest decimal to
ensure anonymity)
School Lilac Lane Middle School
Demographics

Total enrollment: 1,600 students

3% African American
1% American Indian/Alaska Native
8% Asian
3% Fillipino
20% Hispanic
1% Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander
65% white
Relevant Data 25% of the students are designated as
socioeconomically disadvantaged
10% of the students are designated as English
learners
2012 Academic Performance Index (API)
growth score was 919; 76% of the students
scored proficient on the English-Language Arts
STAR tests.

The mission statement of the school is Lilac Lane Middle School strives to foster student-
centered and standards-based programs to meet the academic and social needs of middle grade
students, giving each the opportunity to realize success. The school offers multiple programs that
align with their mission, including: before school remediation based on teacher referral; after
school homework help; gifted and talented education (GATE) that provides differentiated
curriculum and advanced learning opportunities; student study teams review the needs of
individual students and generate plans to help students succeed; resource specialist support for
students with special needs on Individualized Education Plans (IEP); and counseling support
groups for students. Lilac Lane Middle School has an anti-bullying program in place in addition
to the state of California’s Safe Place to Learn Act and the district’s board policy that ensures a
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

67

safe learning space for students and staff at its schools.
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
Bullying is maintained by the culture and climate of an organization; and schools taking a
social-ecological approach to bullying prevention may benefit from programs that shift the
power dynamics in peer and school level interventions. Many researchers describe the risk
factors associated with bullying and peer victimization within the context of Bronfenbrenner’s
(1977) ecological framework (Hong & Espelage, 2012; Espelage & Swearer, 2004). Many of
these studies examined aspects of bullying from the micro (parent-youth relationships, inter-
parental violence, relations with peers, school connectedness, and school environment), meso
(teacher involvement), exo (exposure to media violence, neighborhood environment), macro
(cultural norms and beliefs, religious affiliation) and chronosystem (changes in family structure)
levels. The interaction of all of these levels became evident in the pilot interviews and
observations. The schools that appeared to have promising practices had systems and structures
in place that kept in mind the intersection and interaction of these nested systems in the
ecological framework. The following conceptual framework illustrates the interaction between
the systems and structures within a school.
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

68

Figure D: Conceptual Framework, Ed.D. Thematic Group, 2013
Instrumentation

Instrumentation for this study included semi-structured interviews with participants,
multiple on-site observations, and follow-up interviews with school leaders. The interview
protocols were comprised of semi-structured questions that provided a format for interviewee
response. All interviews and meetings were digitally recorded with the data transcribed to ensure
accurate representation of the interviewees’ thoughts and ideas. The following table illustrates
how the research questions for this study were utilized for framing the study’s methodologies.
Interviews, observations, and review of artifacts facilitated the collection of data to answer the
three research questions.

Stakeholders
Funding
Policies
Staffing
Professional
Development
What schools
do with
systems and
structures
School-wide
anti-bullying
culture
Sustainability and leadership
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

69

Table 2: Research Question Instrumentation
Research
Questions
Data Needs Data Sources Instrumentation

1. What are the
structures and
systems that
contribute to
anti-bullying
culture in
schools and
institutions?

Information
about the
systems and
structures at the
school/
institution
School web site
School staff
School
administrators
School data—
discipline
records
National data
about bullying
and bullying
prevention
programs
Spread sheet to
categorize
information
about the
structures
Interviews
Surveys
2. How are the
systems and
structures
implemented
and sustained
to support an
anti-bullying
culture?

Information
about how
schools are
implementing
the systems and
structures
School web site
School staff
School
administrators
School data—
discipline
records

Spreadsheet to
categorize
information
about the
structures’ and
systems’
implementation
Interviews
Surveys
3. How do
teachers with
less than five
years of
experience
compared to
teachers with
more than five
years of
experience put
into place any
tools and
training
received to
best
implement the
systems and
structures that
prevent
bullying in
schools?

Information
about the
programs used
by teacher
preparation
programs
Information
about the beliefs
and perceptions
of preservice
teachers
School of
education with
an embedded
anti-bullying
program
Surveys of
preservice
teacher’s
perceptions

Spread sheet to
categorize
information
about the
structures’ and
systems’
implementation
Interviews
Surveys

WHY CULTURE MATTERS

70

Data Collection

One advantage of qualitative research is the multiple sources for data collection (Corbin
& Strauss, 2008). The researcher can use interviews, observations, videos, documents, drawings,
diaries, memoirs, newspapers, and many other sources. For the purpose of this study, data
collection methods focused on interviews, observations, and document/artifact analysis in a case
study school site. Data was collected during a four-month period in 2013 when interviews,
observations, and document analysis occurred. Participation in this study was voluntary; prior to
starting the interview, consent was provided by the participant. Interviews were scheduled for
45-60 minutes each, and observations were at least two hours each. Both the interview and
observation data were collected using a semi-structured format with purposefully selected
participants and sites (Cresswell, 2009, p. 178). The interviews were tape-recorded and later
transcribed. During the observations detailed field notes were kept. To preserve confidentiality,
the participant as well as the study site was given pseudonyms.
In creating interview protocols, the researcher kept in mind the contextual factors
influencing the design of our study as outlined by Maxwell (2013). He discusses five
components in his model with each section intersecting and connecting to the other. The first
component is the goal of the study, the why it is worth doing. The second component was the
conceptual framework, the theoretical concepts previously studied in this context. The research
questions we devised came out of thematic group discussions about what we wanted to know
about the promising practices to prevent bullying in K-12 schools. In terms of the observations,
the researcher kept in mind the six elements likely to be present in any setting: the physical
setting, participants, activities and interactions, conversations, subtle factors, and own behavior
(Merriam, 2009).
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

71

Data Analysis

The analysis part of the study falls into multiple parts and is a dynamic and ongoing
process (Corbin & Strauss, 2008; Creswell, 2009). In reviewing the literature about the
promising practices in the prevention of bullying, several themes began to emerge. The purpose
of this study was to conduct basic research to convey an interest in a phenomenon with the goal
of extending knowledge (Merriam, 2009). The purpose of this study was to tell the story about a
school without a problem of bullying among students. This study, through interviews,
observations, and document review, will tell the story without a lot of interpretation or
explanation as to why certain events occur and not others (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). The latter
analyses will become more general to develop concepts that could build theory, describe events,
or analyze specific cases (Corbin & Strauss, 2008).
The case study approach of this study involved providing a detailed description of the
setting, stakeholders and other systems that affect the practice at the school including the
neighborhood and surrounding communities and their cultures. Data was analyzed using
Creswell’s (2009) six-step process for qualitative data analysis. A pictorial representation of this
six-step process illustrates these steps in Figure D. In this process, data is collected, organized
and prepared for data analysis in step one. Step two involved reading through all of the data to
gain an understanding of the overall meaning of the data. In this stage, some themes began to
emerge. Step three involved coding the data according to the themes that emerged through
literature review and data collection. Step four involved using the coding process to generate rich
descriptions of the themes that emerged. Step five involved reflecting the things that emerged
from the data to the theoretical and conceptual frameworks. Step six involved interpreting the
data and their meaning.
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

72

Figure E: Data analysis in qualitative research (Creswell, 2009)

Step Six
Interpret or make meaning of the data
Step Five
Decide how the description and themes will be represented in the study narrative
Step Four
Use coding process to
develop a description of the
participants and/or setting.

Use coding to develop
themes or categories
Themes are analyzed for each
interview/observation and
across interviews/observations
Step Three
Begin detailed analysis with a coding process (organizing the material into
chunks before bringing meaning to the data
Step Two
Read through all the data (first obtain a general sense of meaning)
Step One
Organize and prepare the data for analysis
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

73

Ethical Considerations

When conducting this study, ethical considerations were of highest importance. This
study was conducted according to the American Educational Research Association’s (AERA)
Code of Ethics (AERA, 2001). “Education researchers adhere to the highest possible standards
that are reasonable and responsible in their research, teaching, practice, and service activities.
They rely on scientifically, scholarly, and professionally derived knowledge and act with honesty
and integrity” (AERA, 2011, p. 147). This study followed principles for ethical considerations in
qualitative research, including ensuring that participants clearly understood the purpose and
intent of the study (Creswell, 2009), with the researcher’s personal biases accounted for as well
as the protection of subjects from harm, the right to privacy, and informed consent of all
participants (Merriam, 2009). Throughout the study, the researcher followed the Institutional
Review Board’s policies and procedures, and IRB approval was gained.
Summary
This chapter described the qualitative case study method. This chapter also explained the
data analysis used in the implementation of the study. Next, Chapter 4 presents the study’s
findings organized by themes that emerged from the data collected.

WHY CULTURE MATTERS

74

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
This chapter presents the results from a case study of a school that demonstrates the
promising practices in the prevention of bullying in K –12 schools. The results identify the
organizational systems and structures, what is done with those systems and structures to create
an anti-bullying culture, and how teachers are prepared to address issues of bullying. One middle
school was selected to serve as the subject for this case study.
The organizational structures that support an anti-bullying culture include guiding
principles for every stakeholder that contribute to the success of each student in the transition
from self-contained elementary classrooms to departmental settings of high school (Buffum,
Mattos, & Weber, 2009; Clausen et al., 2009; DuFour et al., 2008; DuFour et al., 2005; Flint et
al., 2011; Garet et al., 2001; Glazer & Hannafin, 2006; Goldenberg, 2008; Gregory, Cornell, &
Fan, 2011; Lovett et al., 2008). There are several systems and structures in place at this middle
school that contribute to promising practices in the prevention of bullying among the students
enrolled. These include stable leadership, stakeholder involvement and teacher participation. In
exploring the systems and structures that support an anti-bullying culture, three key themes with
sub-themes emerged from the analysis: whole school approach, establishing and reinforcing
policies, and stakeholder involvement.
This study answered three questions in relation to the promising practices in the
prevention of bullying in schools.
1. What are the structures and systems that contribute to anti-bullying culture in schools and
institutions?
2. How are the systems and structures implemented and sustained to support an anti-
bullying culture?
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

75

3. How do teachers with less than five years of experience compared to teachers with more
than five years of experience put into place any tools and training received to best
implement the systems and structures that prevent bullying in schools?
Along with four classroom, school and collaborative meeting observations, various artifacts
were reviewed and analyzed. Data collected and analyzed are presented in this chapter organized
by the emerging themes to present the qualitative data in response to each research question for
this study. First this study’s participants is described. Next, the findings arranged by each of the
themes is presented. Finally, the findings are summarized.
Participants
Lilac Lane Middle School is located in Southern California and is one of three middle
schools in a unified district that serves nearly 20,000 students in a suburban city. In the 2012-
2013 school year, Lilac Lane Middle School had an enrollment of more than 1,600 students, 24%
of whom are socioeconomically disadvantaged (School Web Site). The findings from this
chapter are based on data from observations, interviews, and review of artifacts. A total of 10
interviews were conducted with administrator, teachers, certificated staff members, and parents.
Table #3 describes the certificated and classified staff members and parents who were
interviewed at the school.
The principal began his career in education as a math and science teacher, earning Bachelor
of Science degrees in Biology and Psychology in 1979. He earned a Master of Science degree in
Educational Administration in 1987. He has served as a principal since 1994, and has led Lilac
Lane Middle School since the school opened in 2004. He explains that his focus as a middle
school leader is to ensure that students cross the bridge from elementary to high school with a
solid foundation of academic and social/emotional skills needed to realize success. All of his
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

76

teachers know his general philosophy—what is best for students—when planning or
implementing any programs or curriculum.
Assistant Principal 1 has been employed as an assistant principal at Lilac Lane since 2006.
His background as an educator is as a social science and health teacher. He has earned a
Bachelor of Arts degree in Psychology, two master’s degrees—one in educational administration
and the other in curriculum and instruction, and an Ed.D. in Educational Leadership. His doctoral
research was the catalyst for much of the bully prevention efforts at the middle school. Teachers
and students describe him as the “enforcer” of disciplinary challenges with students at the
school.
Assistant Principal 2 has served as an assistant principal in the district at another middle
school for 14 years, she transferred to Lilac Lane Middle School in the 2013-2014 school year.
She earned her bachelor’s and master’s degrees with an emphasis in bilingual education. When
she began teaching in the district in 1987, she served as a bilingual teacher at an elementary
school, eventually progressing to working as a teacher on special assignment. Her positive and
friendly demeanor serves as a balance to the administrative team; her leadership focus
emphasizes strong instructional practice and coordination of staff resources to ensure the safety
of everyone on campus.
Teacher A, a sixth grade teacher, is a new staff member to Lilac Lane Middle School. He
teaches social science and the Expo classes and serves as the school’s Response to Intervention
(RTI) coordinator. He serves on the school’s Bullying Awareness Committee.
Teacher B, a seventh grade teacher, has served at Lilac Lane Middle School for nine years.
She teaches social science and Expo classes. She serves as the grade level team leader,
coordinating grade level assessments and data collection.
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

77

Teacher C is the school’s AVID coordinator, teaching all of the sections of AVID classes
and serves on several school leadership committees. She serves on the school’s Bullying
Awareness Committee.
Counselor A serves half of the students, providing assistance with course selection, goal
setting and post-school planning for the students. She has worked at the school since it opened
in 2004. Another counselor serves the other half of the students in the same role.
Counselor B serves all of the students, but runs special programs, including therapy groups
for students. The groups and special programs include: grief counseling through a local hospice
organization; Student Assistance for Everyone (SAFE)—which provides substance abuse
intervention and parenting education; and the Unplugged Group—which is a support group for
students to manage any issues or challenges they may be having. She worked within the district
as a counselor, and joined the staff in this role mid-way through the previous school year.
Counselors D and E serve as the school’s psychologists, working with the counselors to
assist students with challenges students may have. They also work closely with the special
education department to ensure that students with special needs receive the support services
necessary to succeed.
Campus supervisor A has served as campus security for two years. He helps Assistant
Principals maintain order and ensure that all students and staff are safe while on campus.
Parent A/Campus Supervisor B has served as campus security for two years. She has two
children who have attended Lilac Lane Middle School, one has moved on to the local high
school.
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

78

Parent B lives in the community. Her second child now attends Lilac Lane Middle School.
Her eldest has moved on to the local high school, her youngest will attend Lilac Lane Middle
School in two years.
Table 3: Description of interviewees
Interviewee Position Held Number of years in
Position at Lilac Lane
Middle School
Principal Principal 9 years
Assistant Principal 1 Assistant Principal 7 years
Assistant Principal 2 Assistant Principal 1 year
Teacher A Sixth Grade 2 years
Teacher B Seventh Grade 9 years
Teacher C AVID 9 years
Counselor A
(JB)
School Guidance
Counselor
10 years
Counselor B
(CB)
School Guidance
Counselor
+20 years
Counselor D School Psychologist 5 years
Counselor E School Psychologist
Intern
< 1 year
Campus Supervisor A Campus security 2 years
Parent A / Campus
Supervisor B
Campus security 2 years
Parent B <1 year

WHY CULTURE MATTERS

79

Emerging Themes

This study was designed to help educators understand the challenges in implementing
bullying prevention and intervention efforts by identifying the promising practices in the
prevention of bullying in schools. Bullying is influenced by interactions with peers and
involvement with teachers at multiple points in the day in multiple contexts (Carney & Merrell,
2001). Within a school, different individuals may have different perceptions of the school’s
climate due to the differences in experiences, perspectives, or roles in the school’s structure
(Booren, Handy, & Power, 2010). Having a clear picture of the differing perceptions from
stakeholders can help school leaders create better designed and implemented programs that
address bullying and safety issues within the school. In the prevention of bullying, it is how these
systems and structures are used that make the difference. Bullying is maintained by the culture
and climate of an organization, schools taking a social-ecological approach to bullying
prevention may benefit from programs that shift the power dynamics in peer and school level
interventions (Hong & Espelage, 2012).
Three key themes with related sub-themes, outlined in table #2, emerged from the
interviews and observations that relate to the existing literature (Glew, Fan & Rivara, 2008;
Nansel et al., 2001; Olweus, 1993, 2006; Swearer & Espelage, 2004). These themes illustrated
the organizational systems and structures of a school that sustain and support an anti-bullying
culture. The data gathered show that the bullying prevention strategies were included in every
aspect of the Lilac Lane Middle School’s systems and structures, which effects the school’s
culture, including professional development of teachers and staff.

WHY CULTURE MATTERS

80

Table 4: Themes and Sub-themes
Themes Sub-themes
Whole School Approach Master schedule
Perception
Response to Intervention (RTI)
Establishing and reinforcing policies Training
Stakeholder involvement Curriculum
Student Engagement
Teacher Engagement
Parent Engagement

Whole School Approach

The first theme that emerged was the Whole School Approach. Included in this theme
are: master schedule, perception, and response to intervention (RTI). The master schedule was
designed to ensure academically rigorous programs for students at all levels while promoting a
safe environment for students’ healthy physical, social and personal growth. School community
member perceptions played an important part in bully prevention efforts, with school leaders
ensuring that consistent messages were delivered in multiple ways. The response to intervention
(RTI) program, with a teacher on special assignment coordinating RTI ensure that all student
needs—social, emotional, academic—are met.
The first important aspect of the whole school approach was the holistic approach
administrators took their bullying prevention efforts. All of the interviewees described the
multiple aspects of the school within which bullying prevention efforts are included, or
embedded within the school—from curriculum to lunchtime and extra-curricular events and
activities for students. The principal emphasized the importance of ensuring that bullying
prevention was embedded into virtually every aspect of the school, from the master scheduling to
the number of campus supervisors patrolling the campus at all times. The Principal said, “I knew
that our bully prevention efforts could not be wedded to one person—it had to include everyone
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

81

on our campus and had to be part of the whole physical plan.” With a three-year plan for
implementation of bullying prevention efforts, administrators sought ways in which those efforts
could be embedded into as many aspects of the school as possible. The principal explained,
“I wanted to ensure that everyone who sets foot on our campus has a positive
feeling here. When I walk around and ask, most people will say ‘yes, I feel good
on campus.’ Why? The most common explanation students give is that the
teachers are out, the campus supervisors are out, the APs are available, and they
can go talk to their counselor if needed.”
One of the more than 10 campus supervisors monitoring the campus directs anyone
entering the campus, assisting with directions to the front office to check in. “This is a really
great school and it’s because of all of the people here,” says Campus Supervisor A, also a parent
of a student enrolled at Lilac Lane Middle School. When asked about the campus supervisor
greeting visitors, the Principal said, “My number one goal is to ensure a positive feeling when
[anyone] walks on our campus.” Campus supervisors help maintain the cleanliness of the school
grounds as well as ensure the safety of students. Counselor B said, “one of the most important
things about our school is that the leadership has remained the same since the school opened in
2004.” She explained that the continuity in leadership has helped make the feeling on campus
positive.
All around the campus, anti-bullying posters are hung in all classrooms and indoor
common areas. Some classrooms have multiple posters that explain various aspects of bullying
and bullying prevention. Specific anti-bullying programs are in place at Lilac Lane Middle
School, including a monthly Bullying Awareness Committee that brings together teachers,
administrators, students, and parents. Specific bully prevention curriculum is delivered to staff
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

82

and students multiple times throughout the school year. Additional efforts to unite students and
staff include a Circle of Friends lunch club that pairs a general education student with a student
with special needs. A fully-functioning Advancement via Individual Determination (AVID)
program open to all students helps with academic support that prepares students for college
eligibility. AVID is a college readiness program designed to help students by providing academic
and social support (AVID, 2014). Extra curricular activities available to all students include band
and intramural sports. Every Thursday, through the school’s internal TV network, staff and
students are given information about bullying prevention efforts led by Assistant Principal 1 and
the school guidance counselors. Counselor B explained, “our plan is throughout the whole entire
year every Thursday that they get some type of reminder, the whole school gets a reminder of
what we are doing on campus.” Counselors conduct follow-up sessions with all classes to
facilitate deeper conversations about the various aspects of bullying and bullying prevention.
Another whole-school effort includes the Bully Awareness Committee (BAC), which
stemmed from the graduate school research of Assistant Principal 1. He introduced the BAC in
the 2011- 2012 school year as a venue for all school stakeholders to come together to help
educate students, parents, and teachers and promote a more positive school culture (see sample
agenda, Appendix C, p. 139). Assistant Principal 1, counselors A and C all noted that the BAC is
a fluid group, continually evolving and growing. Counselor A stated that “Not everyone has
bought into the ideals of the BAC’ because teachers have other priorities with curriculum and
state testing.” Teacher A disagreed, saying that the BAC has been a great addition to the school,
stating, “having parents, teachers and students gives everyone at this school a voice [in
preventing bullying].”
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

83

Before BAC was launched, several parent information meetings were held to educate the
community about the prevalence of bullying, prevention and intervention efforts, and how to
help ensure that the students would be safe at school and at home. During these meetings,
Assistant Principal 1 explained the types of bullying, the school’s definition, the causes of
bullying behavior among students, the reasons victims of bullying fail to report incidents,
bullying behavior among boys versus girls, California Education Code rules regarding bullying
and protected classes of students, and what parents can do to support their students. During these
meetings, student survey data regarding on campus bullying was shared. Assistant Principal 1
said that although more than 73% of students reported on their survey they feel safe at school,
almost half of the students reported being involved in some form of bullying—either as a bully
or victim. Although almost half of students reported being involved in bullying, Assistant
Principal 1 shared during these meetings the focus on shaping the social environment of the
school. For example, school leaders ensured that “hot spots” of bullying behavior had ample
adult supervision, and providing training and information for all staff and students. It was during
these meetings that the Assistant Principal 1 explained the launch of the BAC and encouraged
participation from all members of the school community.
Each year the BAC coordinates a Unity Day in which all students and staff were
encouraged to wear orange to show their unity in the fight against bullying behavior. Counselor
C stated “I think it’s really important to take one day and since that was unity day, for all of the
teachers to discuss, have a whole day, have a whole period lesson on what our program is, what
bully prevention is, why do we have unity day.” Assistant Principal 1 said that teachers were
given information regarding the Unity Day ahead of time and were encouraged to include related
activities into their classes that day. One of the day’s activities was for students to create chain
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

84

links on which they wrote pledges to help prevent bullying. Teacher C stated, “I allowed my
students to either adapt one of the standard pledges or write their own, and I was amazed at how
profound the students’ links were” Teacher C noted the importance for all teachers to buy into
the day’s activities. Teacher C said, “I think that it needs to be a one day lesson for all the
teachers to do it.” Counselor B concurred, stating, “When it’s the whole day, in every class, it
creates a really powerful presentation.”
A large part of the whole school approach to reducing bullying is a village approach. The
village approach involves students being divided into villages, with four teachers in charge of
monitoring students for the coordination of a variety of issues, including academic and
social/emotional challenges, and interdisciplinary teaming of classes. Village teams consist of
three general education and one special education teacher. Four of the ten interviewees indicated
that villages help ensure students can be successful academically. Village teachers collaborate on
everything from lessons to classroom accommodations for students. Teacher A stated, “We
should always be meeting and trying to understand our students better.” Teacher B noted that the
village system is “tremendous. You can’t just expect to just teach something and know that all of
the kids are going to get it. Teachers meeting to discuss different ways to deliver the information
help take the fear out of changing our practice.” Teachers meet regularly to discuss what is going
on in their classes, where kids are struggling, and how best to help them succeed academically.
Counselor A said, “with everyone on campus working together for what’s best for students,
amazing things can happen.”
The next section will discuss how the master scheduling, perceptions, and response to
intervention (RTI) tie into the whole school approach to preventing bullying.

WHY CULTURE MATTERS

85

Master Schedule
The Principal stated that one of his goals was to have the entire school community
participating in the prevention of bullying. Table #5 outlines the important aspects of master
scheduling. The master scheduling of students and classes is one part of this holistic endeavor.
Table 5: Master Scheduling Themes
Theme Sub-Theme
Student schedules Student safety—dividing older and
younger students
Student needs
Expo program
Meetings Student safety
Common planning
Collaboration
Staffing Student safety

The master schedule of students and classes was designed to promote a safe school by ensuring
that students are scheduled appropriately, separating older and younger students, and providing
ample time for teachers to plan and collaborate. The master schedule was designed to promote a
positive school culture in which all students feel welcome and safe. Of the 10 interviewees six
indicated that the design of the master schedule was an essential part of supporting the students
in all aspects of their development throughout the school. Assistant Principal 1 said, “It’s got to
be everybody on campus [to prevent bullying].” The Principal agreed, stating that master
scheduling is part of the process to embed bully prevention efforts by ensuring that all students
are safe. This also includes master scheduling of staff. Assistant Principal 2 schedules meetings
with all of the campus supervisors during shift changes when all supervisors are on campus to
discuss day-to-day issues with student safety (observation 3).
The Principal explained his philosophy for creating a master schedule to accommodate
the needs of the most high-needs and special education students first, then building the rest of the
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

86

students around that. The Principal stated, “This ensures that all students are included as much as
possible in every aspect of our school.” Counselor B described how she schedules students in
appropriate classes. She stated, “We work with the special education department to get all of
their students scheduled to ensure they are placed appropriately. Starting with this helps prevent
schedule changes once we have started the school year.”
An important aspect of the master scheduling is dividing the older and younger students.
Two lunch periods separate the sixth grade students from the eighth grade students and divide
the seventh grade students in half help create a different feeling on the campus (observation 1).
For example, the sixth grade lunch period has much more activity, with students running around
on the upper playground area. The older students tend to stay in the lunch table area of campus to
talk with classmates, work on homework, or take the time to eat their lunch (observation 1).
Assistant Principal 2 said, “We had to establish a rule for the campus supervisors to hold the
younger kids back from the playground area for at least the first 15 minutes of lunch. Otherwise,
[the younger kids] weren’t eating lunch.” She went on to explain that the first issue is student
safety, and part of that is ensuring that students eat their lunches. Campus supervisor A said that
as he patrols, he checks in with students to ensure that they have eaten their lunches.
Another aspect of the master scheduling is the Expo program. Exposure to the visual and
performing arts and the community service are two aspects of the Expo program. The Expo
program is designed to expose students to visual and performing arts education that they might
not normally be exposed to in their general core classes. Teacher B explained, “This program
really helps broaden the kids’ perspectives on things they may not have an opportunity to
otherwise.”
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

87

The Expo class, for sixth grade students not taking band as their elective course,
emphasizes study skills and learning needs for students as well as exposure to fine art
curriculum. The course is divided into two parts—one, study and academic success skills; and
two, visual and performing art. The primary focus of this class is to ensure that all sixth grade
students enrolled find success in their core academic courses. When the class moves onto the arts
curriculum, time each week is devoted to academic success skills. Teacher A noted that the focus
for many students has been basic computer and keyboarding skills. She continued, stating, “So
many of our students were lacking in basic computer skills and were struggling in their classes
because of that.”
The second part of this course, the Expo Art Program provides art instruction in different
mediums. Teacher B noted that much of the mainstreaming of students with special needs
happens in the Expo classes. The Counselor D said that this is one of the greatest successes at
Lilac Lane Middle School. Counselor D elaborates, “[Expo] is a great way to expose these
students [those with special needs] to the same curriculum as the other students.” Echoing the
importance of mainstreaming students with special needs Counselor E stated, “We have more
kids mainstreamed than we do in separate classes, it’s one of the things that is so great about this
school.”
One key aspect of the Expo course is a community service component. Each of the Expo
teachers has multiple community service opportunities for students. Students have participated in
raising funds for autism awareness, gathering food and other items for needy families, beach
cleanup, and tutoring students at a nearby elementary school. All students at Lilac Lane Middle
School are required to participate in a minimum of six hours of community service per year.
Teacher A explains, “This really helps our students see more of the world beyond themselves.”
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

88

The final aspect of the master scheduling plan is to ensure ample time for teachers to
meet and collaborate. Teachers have common planning time every day at the beginning of the
school day, with a structured teacher planning on Wednesday afternoons for collaboration.
Teachers and administrators, through common planning meetings, come together to discuss
curricular issues, targeted interventions for specific students, grade level or vertical teaming, or
committee meetings.
Perception
Perception was the second subtheme under the whole school approach. Differences in
perceptions among teachers, staff, students and parents is paramount to effective bully
prevention efforts (Booren, Handy & Power, 2010). Within the social context of a school
teachers, staff, and students influence the school culture (Ambrose, et al., 2010). When talking
about perceptions within the school community, the Principal and Assistant Principal 1 described
the importance of conveying the pertinent information to the school’s stakeholders and
remaining consistent about the message.
The Principal described an important part of the school’s safety structures is perception.
Perception can differ depending upon the person and how the various structures within the
school, home, and other environments affect each person. During an interview with both the
Principal and Assistant Principal 1, the Principal displayed a picture that appears different
depending upon the perspective of the viewer. From one side, the image appears to be a horse.
From another side, the image appears to be a frog. The Assistant Principal 1 stated, “It’s
important to have a clear and consistent message for everyone.” The Principal elaborated:
“Perception is real, particularly when you have middle school kids, it doesn’t
matter how it went down, it’s perceived that way. Oftentimes everybody is tried
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

89

and convicted now before the investigation is even being done. So as [Assistant
Principal 1] said, it’s essential to provide a place that [students] are safe is critical.
If the teacher’s on board and they know what to do, how to deal with any situation
right then and there, everybody’s perception changes, everybody’s information
changes.”
The Principal explained the main safety concern among parents is related to perception of
what goes on in middle school: “I still see after 33 years the biggest fear parents have coming to
a middle school is bullying, that their child is going to get thrown in the trash can or they’re
going to get thrown in the urinal. And I think in the last 15 years, I think it happened once and it
turned out not be a bullying issue. It was two cousins playing a prank on each other because it
was one of the boys’ birthday.”
Teacher B described how, through LLMS –TV and other avenues, students are made
aware of the systems in place where they can go for support and seek help if needed. “There are
what they call bully zones where students know that they can go and have someone that they can
always expect will be there in case they’re being bullied at that moment, they can go to this
location throughout the school and get the help they need.” At several locations throughout the
school there are “Bully Boxes” where students can put an anonymous note reporting bullying or
asking for help with other concerns. Teacher A elaborated:
“There are systems in place where the students know where they can receive
support and go seek help. I provide [my classroom as] one of the safe spaces on
campus for students to go. I also have what I call an ‘exit box’ in my classroom
for students to anonymously let me know if there are any issues—whether it’s for
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

90

a lesson or something else they want me to know. All of my students know that if
they put something in that box I will address it the next day.”
Counselor A clarified that many of the student safety issues surround perceptions of
social and emotional issues normal to student growth and development. She explained that in
sixth grade students are mainly concerned with “she used to be my friend, she’s not my friend
anymore type of thing. She looked at me funny, she’s talking behind my back.” Counselor A
stated that seventh grade students tend to participate in teasing about what others are wearing,
“trying to point out things so that you’re not different, someone else is different, so they fit in
with the group.” The eighth grade students, she says, tend to have a better idea of who they are.
Their challenges tend to be within their group and the outsiders coming in, new people coming in
or problems with other students. Counselor A stated, “A lot of times for eighth grade students,
it’s family, boyfriend, girlfriend types of things or dealing with rumors.” Counselor A explained
that although students in all grade levels have difficulty with rumors, the challenges tend to get a
bit more intense by the time students reach eighth grade because “they’re more aware of gay,
lesbian, sex, and drugs.” All of the counselors interviewed discussed the fact that in middle
school students are beginning to learn about and explore ideas of sex and drugs, which can lead
to bullying or teasing.
Teacher B explained that an essential piece of perception is consistent messages
regarding issues students may have. He continued,
“These young people are going through so much these days and it’s mind-
blowing, they just need the assistance and they need the caring and the
understanding. We can’t just, you know, expect to just teach it, you know, it’s –
that one way or the highway is no longer the deal, so we need to better understand
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

91

our students and that’s why I think we have an amazing system to have in place.”
The Principal spoke about how peer pressure comes into play with students. He stated,
“Where often times bleeding into [bullying prevention] is the peer pressure that you have and
you have to deal with that at the same time [as a reported incident]. Am I strong enough to be
able to say no when someone offers me a cigarette or someone offers me to go jump out in front
of a car or dares me to do it.” Counselor A concurred, explaining that one of the main goals for
middle school students is the need to fit in.
One of the most difficult things in bullying prevention at Lilac Lane Middle School is
getting students to report bullying incidents. Four of the interviewees discussed the difficulty in
getting students to report bullying because student perceptions regarding retaliation if they report
bullying to teachers. However, Lilac Lane Middle School provides several avenues in which
students can report bullying—school guidance counselors, several teachers who have “safe
havens”, and a “bully box”, a place in the assistant principal’s office where students can file
anonymous reports about bullying. Counselor B said, “One of the most difficult aspects of
getting students to report is easing their fears about retaliation or the bullying getting worse.”
Counselor A explained that they have multiple ways to talk to students without having things get
worse for the student who is feeling victimized. She described involving students in the process,
“We always ask the students what they want to do—do they want us to talk to the other student,
have a conflict resolution, or other action.”
Reaching out to the school community in a variety of ways helps ensure consistent
bullying prevention efforts. While only three of the interviewees spoke about the ways they
reach out to the school community, ample information regarding the school’s policies are shared
with staff, students and parents through several avenues, including the school’s web site, in
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

92

registration materials, and through whole-school assemblies and meetings. The principal
emphasized the importance of providing information to school community members via the
school’s web site, and on posters hanging in classrooms helps deliver a clear and consistent
message. Counselor B explained that one thing that has helped with relaying the same message
has been consistent leadership. Counselor B said, “We have had the same leader since the school
began, which has helped maintain the school’s culture.”
Response to Intervention (RTI)
Response to Intervention (RTI) is the last subtheme under the whole school approach.
The RTI program is a tiered series of supports and interventions given to students identified as
struggling academically, socially, or both. Supports and interventions are divided into three tiers.
The first tier is the least restrictive, with supports and services available to all students. The
second tier is slightly more restrictive, with targeted supports and interventions to shift these
students back to tier one. Tier three is the most restrictive, with students given special education
supports and services. At each tier interventions and supports are applied, data is collected to
determine the efficacy of those supports and interventions. After each data collection, the RTI
team determines if more supports and interventions are needed. RTI supports and interventions at
Lilac Lane Middle School include before and after school tutoring, counseling, and participation
in other programs available at the school.
Lilac Lane Middle School has an extensive RTI program with a teacher on special
assignment (Teacher A) serving as coordinator to ensure the success of all students. Teachers
identify students during the first six weeks of school; who note students struggling academically,
socially, or both. The RTI coordinator collects the information for professional learning
community (PLC) village team meetings. Teacher A explained the beginning of the process,
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

93

stating, “When we meet in the PLC, we come together to collaborate and discuss students that
teachers notice in the first six weeks of school that red flags are coming up, academically,
socially or otherwise.” An RTI team made up of teachers, counselors and administrators gathers
once per month to discuss interventions, address specific student needs, and assign village
teachers to students needing additional interventions. Teacher A explains the importance of his
role is coordinating all of the information and providing follow-up information for teachers who
recommend students for additional supports who may be struggling academically, socially, or
have discipline challenges. Teacher A elaborated, stating, “It is important that teachers know
what happened to students.”
The Principal explained his philosophy for the extensive RTI program: “The times we
find that it’s most successful is when everybody gets in, talks about it and gets it cleared up,
because it goes back to perception regardless of the issue a student is having.” Counselor B
explained that the leadership has set the tone for the success of the school’s RTI program. She
stated, “[Our Principal] is supportive of the RTI supports and interventions because he knows
whatever’s best for kids will result in what we do.” Counselor A concurs: “What the kids need,
they get, of course within reason, we don’t want teacher shopping [parents switching their
student to preferred teachers].” Counselor B stated: “Some teachers are more flexible than
others, but we have more than 1,700 students. We can’t have all of them have this one teacher.”
After the initial meeting, RTI team members convene a month later to evaluate what is
happening with the students originally identified. The RTI coordinator, in preparation for this
meeting, meets individually with teachers to find out the ways in which teachers are helping
students, how they are teaching, what additional support is needed for which students, and what
teachers overall are doing within the classroom to accommodate their students. At this point, the
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

94

students who need additional supports and interventions are placed into the first tier of the RTI
supports. Information for these students is placed on a spreadsheet available to all teachers, not
just the RTI team members. The RTI team then meets to itemize and plan interventions, like the
PRIDE or RISE program, to help these students realize success. “It’s important to ensure that all
teachers can see the information available in terms of what interventions are available help all
students,” asserted teacher A. He further explained that this accessibility is also important for
teachers to collect and share data about the students’ progress.
The RTI coordinator then meets with administrators to share the data and further evaluate
the data to determine any commonalities. Teacher A stated,
“We look to see what’s going on, what’s troubling them, what do we see?
Is it grades, is it schoolwork, is it their organizational skills, social
challenges and so on. We then take this information and we do a little bit
more research, and determine where we can best meet the needs of these
students.”
The next phase of the RTI process is for the RTI coordinator to determine the students
whose names come up multiple times or who are still struggling. Team members then provide
additional support for these tier two students—individual or group counseling, tutoring, or
specific classroom and school accommodations. Teacher A explains:
“I take all of the groups’ findings, their tier one recommendations and then
discuss with the team the in-class accommodations to better assist the students but
they’re still struggling and there could be external factors, things outside of the
classroom. My goal is to filter and find out and help the students but not have a
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

95

large list of accommodations that they need, so we want to refine, find out where
they need support and provide it.”
The overall goal for the RTI process is that at any point in the process, teachers can get
the necessary information about their students, what interventions have been tried, what has or
has not worked, and what is ongoing. Teacher A stated, “I want to ensure that the student is
understood buy the group [of teachers, counselors, and administrators]. They need a clear picture
of all the things going on with that student to best help and support him.” Additional support in
the way of an Individualized Education Program (IEP) or 504 accommodation plan may need to
be put into place for students whose needs are beyond what other students receive. But before
either of these more restrictive interventions are put into place, ample data and teacher input is
gathered and shared on a common drive for everyone to access.
One of the most important things teacher A says that he does for teachers, counselors and
administrators is follow up and communicate with everyone about what is happening with the
students who have been identified as needing additional supports and services. Teacher A
elaborates, stating, “I am the bridge for these teachers who want to know what else they can do
to help their students. I really have the best of both worlds.”
Discussion Whole School Approach
When planning for bullying prevention efforts, administrators recognized the fact that
efforts should not be tied to one program or effort. Much of the bully prevention efforts lie in a
positive school culture, with the majority of the interviewees speaking about the positive feeling
on the campus overall. A multitude of programs exist for all members of the school’s community
to participate and contribute to the school in a positive way. Scheduling of the students ensures
both the academic success and safety of students during the school day. Master scheduling that
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

96

provides time for targeted, collaborative teaming of teachers, counselors and administrators
ensures that all students receive the academic, social and emotional supports needed to realize
success. All of the findings point to the importance of bullying prevention responsibilities
residing with each member of the school community. Understanding the reciprocity between the
multiple layers of a school and its culture help contribute to creating a safe and positive school
culture within which bullying does not occur. The data show that creating a culture of respect in
which everyone works collaboratively to ensure there are no social payoffs for bullying and that
consequences for bullying are clear (Smokowski & Kopasz, 2005).
Establishing and Reinforcing Policies
The second theme that emerged from the data was establishing and reinforcing policies.
Within this theme, specific aspects of the school’s culture, systems and structures emerged:
community information, meetings, school safety, and training. Multiple avenues exist to ensure
that every school stakeholder receives relevant information about participating in school events.
Parents are strongly encouraged to participate in meetings, held at various times before, during,
and after the school day to ensure maximum participation. Additional information regarding the
content of these meetings is made available on the school’s web site. School safety information
is shared with school stakeholders through different venues—meetings, and the school and
district web sites. Formal training opportunities for teachers and staff are provided at the
beginning of the school year. Ongoing training and educational opportunities for all students and
staff regarding the various aspects of bully prevention are provided throughout the school year.
Research indicates the importance of implementing and reinforcing policies to cultivate a
positive and safe school (Cohen, 2006; Olweus, 1993; 2006). Schools with successful bully
prevention efforts have embedded prevention practices into the school’s culture and have well
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

97

established policies that set a tone of respect and establish cultural norms against bullying
(Olweus, 1993; Rigby, 2007l Smith, 2004). Eight interviewees indicated the importance of
consistent messages regarding state, district and school policies to school community members.
School guidance counselors conduct in-class meetings several times each semester with students
to reinforce school policies. Counselor B emphasized the importance of continuing education
regarding policies, she stated “When you’ve got a parent who wants a kid expelled or a teacher
fired because they say their child is being bullied, it’s a tough situation because it takes time to
unravel all of the details to find out what’s really going on so we can take action.”
The Principal elaborated, stating, “When we have ample information going out to all of
our community members, everyone feels as if there are people looking out for [our students].
Bullying is right there on the top of everything that parents are concerned about. We just try and
educate everyone—parents, students, teachers.
Both Administrator 1 and the Principal explained the importance of having clear and
consistent information about school and district policies. The Principal explains,
“When a parent calls regarding a perceived bullying incident, it doesn’t matter
what actually happened. Being able to point parents to existing policies is really
helpful; particularly when they want to confront the student they say is bullying
their child.”
An essential part of relaying a consistent message is posters that display school and
district policies. Anti-bullying posters hang in every classroom. Many classrooms have multiple
posters that explain and outline how students can contribute to bully prevention efforts
(observation 2). Some posters encourage students to help stand up to bullies, some posters
outline the difference between tattling and bullying prevention (observation 2). Having relevant
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

98

information regarding bullying everywhere—in classrooms, on materials that go home, on the
school’s web site—is an important part of the process. Counselor A stated, “I think the
individual students coming in may not have that complete effect [of bully prevention efforts]. I
think it’s more of a school culture, school environment thing. Because if we go into a classroom,
we’re talking to everyone, which we can hit so many more people than talking individually.” The
Counselor D concurred, “By sharing as much information as possible with [the entire school
community], we are building in this piece of empathy training. This just builds into the things
and programs we have in place to prevent bullying.”
The school’s website provides relevant information for community members regarding
the school and district policies regarding bullying, school safety and resources for parents to help
their child(ren) realize success while attending Lilac Lane Middle School. Assistant Principal 1
coordinates the bully prevention and parent support efforts. This includes coordinating meetings
for community members regarding bully prevention efforts. He ensures that all relevant
information regarding meetings, policies, and programs for students is shared with everyone in
the school community. He explained: “we just try and educate parents and students. When the
law was passed [regarding bullying and cyberbullying], we sent an e-mail blast giving everyone
a heads-up about the changes in the policies.”
Training
The knowledge, attitudes and beliefs of teachers about bullying can have an effect on
implementing bullying prevention programs. Effective intervention in bullying requires a
committed, well-trained staff working together, and without ongoing training and support it is
difficult to attain the critical mass needed to make a difference and reduce bullying (Bauman &
del Rio, 2005). Training efforts were not specifically focused on training teachers and staff,
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

99

however, using existing school resources, all members of the school community received the
same training and education regarding bully prevention efforts. These efforts include:
community members being encouraged to participate in the BAC, curriculum shared with the
entire school community via LLMS-TV, ongoing professional learning community (PLC)
discussions regarding embedding bullying prevention efforts into classrooms, having a common
language surrounding bullying, and including a specific curriculum for everyone in the school.
The teachers and staff were formally trained on a few occasions at the beginning of the
school year, but these efforts were district-driven initiatives. At Lilac Lane Middle School, the
emphasis for training efforts was for every stakeholder in the school to be trained together—
students, teachers, staff, and parents. Much of the training efforts regarding bullying prevention
have been embedded into as much of the school as possible. Assistant Principal 1 explained that
an essential part of embedding anti-bullying was training teachers on multiple fronts. He
elaborated by saying, “we had to ensure that teachers understood what bullying is, what bullying
is not and how best to intervene.” One key aspect of training was to help teachers in content
areas embed bullying into the curriculum. Assistant Principal 2 concurred by saying, the
“English teachers could have a persuasive essay or Socratic seminar about bullying prevention.
Or tie it to current events lessons in History.”
The Principal notes the importance of making sure that everyone shares a common
language about bullying. Relaying this information has been essential for all stakeholders,
including parents. The Principal explained that some parents will call and say their child has
been bullied, but after gaining more information, the incident is not bullying. Education of all
school stakeholders has been the primary responsibility of the Assistant Principal 1. The efforts
put forth include: parent information meetings regarding bullying, email blasts informing school
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

100

community members of policies, and ensuring that pertinent information is available on the
school web site. He elaborated on these efforts: “We have tried to educate everyone on the
responsibilities we all have to prevent bullying, and how we are trying to make a more positive
campus. It bleeds into the overall school culture.” He elaborated by emphasizing the importance
of educating everyone in the school community about what a bystander is, the responsibilities of
everyone, the multiple ways in which they are trying to make a more positive campus for
everyone. He said, “It’s important just to keep the message going.”
Assistant Principal 1 explained that in addition to providing information for parents, they
are continually “ helping our teachers embed bullying prevention into their lessons, having
counselors go into classrooms, we go on LLMS-TV and deliver specific messages to staff and
students every Thursday.” The Principal said, “We want the anti-bullying message to reach the
students as much as possible in as many ways as possible—through classroom presentations,
curricular assignments, LLMS-TV.” The counselors, in addition to delivering information via
LLMS-TV, come into classes and deliver specific presentations for the different grade levels.
Counselor A said, “it’s important to follow up with this because it helps keep the students aware
of what’s acceptable behavior.” Assistant Principal 1 said that the LLMS-TV is a valuable way
to bring everyone—staff and students—together. “The teachers are watching this each week with
their students. So they are also continually reminded about what the focus is, what the goal is—
so really it’s ongoing training for everyone.”
The school uses “Let’s Get Real” curriculum gives students the opportunity to hear
stories from their peers about a variety of issues that often lead to bullying—including racial
differences, sexual orientation, learning disabilities, religious differences, sexual harassment, and
more (see Appendix D, p.140). Before implementation of the “Let’s Get Real” curriculum used
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

101

with students, teachers were given the opportunity to become familiar with the curriculum.
During common planning meetings, teachers discussed and planned instructional strategies for
implementing and embedding anti-bullying messages within the core academic classes and
curriculum. Training for staff members—both certificated and classified—is arranged so that all
staff members can participate. Assistant Principal 2 explained the importance of ensuring that all
staff members clearly understand the information given to students. She stated, “When students
come to a campus supervisor with an issue, the campus supervisors need to have the pertinent
information to best help the student resolve the issue.”
Each week, information pertinent to students is delivered via LLMS-TV. Through this
medium, the “Let’s Get Real” videos are shared with students. Some of the bully prevention
training and information for staff and students is delivered via LLMS-TV. Assistant Principal 1
said that using LLMS-TV is an effective tool. He asserted, “It is a valuable medium to deliver
this important training to educate our entire population about bullying—how bullying is defined,
what a bystander is, what can be done.” Counselor B explained the importance of using the
LLMS-TV to relay important information to everyone. She elaborated by saying, “we can hit
everyone at once so it’s clicking. When we meet individual students we can remind them about
what they learned.” Counselor A, Teachers A and B, the Counselor D and Counselor D all
concurred that the weekly presentations are helpful and an essential tool to help prevent bullying.
The lessons and messages delivered through the LLMS-TV provide a valuable venue to ensure
that the foundation is laid for students. Counselor B said, “Then we can come in and give a little
bit more intense information specific to individual students or classes.”
Teacher A stressed the important role LLMS-TV has played in bully prevention efforts.
“This has helped us ensure that the students and staff share a common language.” He explained
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

102

that they do this in a “fun” way to best reach the students—through silly skits or interviews—to
relay the important information or to frontload knowledge so students are familiar with the
vernacular and the program curriculum they are using. Teacher A elaborated, “For example,
when you have imbalance of power, what is that exactly? And it doesn’t have to be an actual
imbalance; it only has to be perceived by the victim. What’s a victim? Then we kind of break it
up into increments to break it down for the kids.” The school guidance counselors conduct
follow-up instruction to the LLMS-TV information to give students more personal examples and
scenarios of bullying and how it can take place in school, at home, and by whom, the parties that
can do it.
Although teachers, staff and students were not trained regarding bullying policies,
multiple opportunities were provided for all members of the school community to gain a clear
understanding of bullying prevention efforts and policies regarding bullying.
Discussion Establishing and Reinforcing Policies
When preparing bullying prevention efforts, administrators and counselors emphasized
the importance of having policies in place. Providing multiple opportunities for school
stakeholders to access the relevant policies and participate in committee meetings and school
events was also noted as an important part of bullying prevention efforts. Educating all members
of the school community with important information about bully prevention efforts, including
school policies regarding bullying, through curriculum delivered on the school’s internal TV
network helped launch conversations in multiple ways about how everyone can contribute to a
positive school culture.

WHY CULTURE MATTERS

103

Stakeholder Involvement

The third theme that emerged from the data was stakeholder involvement. Within this
theme, specific aspects of the school’s culture, systems and structures emerged: curriculum,
LLMS-TV, student, teacher and parent engagement. Involving every member of the school
community is an essential part of creating a culture where there are no payoffs for bullying
behavior (Smokowski & Kopasz, 2005). Research indicates that a whole-school approach to
preventing bullying in which every stakeholder is involved by creating a culture of respect,
recognition, and safety is the best solution to preventing bullying incidents (Booren, Handy &
Powers, 2010; Dake, Price & Telljohann, 2003; Espelage & Swearer, 2004; Olweus, 2006;
Rigby, 2007). Almost all of the interviewees spoke about the school’s culture as involving as
many of the stakeholders as possible. Both school guidance counselors and the school
psychologist spoke about the high levels of communication and collaboration among staff
members. The teachers and guidance counselors spoke extensively about the curriculum used
and how that information is shared with the school community—parents, teachers, students. The
closed circuit TV programming each week was noted as an essential medium for relaying
important information regarding anti-bullying efforts. Multiple methods for engaging students,
teachers and parents are used to ensure maximum participation from all stakeholders. The
Principal said that having a campus where everyone feels safe is essential for him. He stated,
“that’s the question I always ask kids, do you feel safe on campus, why? Because everybody’s
here working together [to make sure all students are safe and successful].”
The data revealed that holding meetings at variety of times and types of meetings for
school stakeholders and having different voices within these meetings is important to stakeholder
involvement. The Bully Awareness Committee has proven a key component for the school’s
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

104

bully prevention efforts, bringing together students, parents, teachers, counselors and
administrators for regular monthly meetings. Parent information meetings are conducted several
times during the school year to ensure that school policies and bullying prevention efforts are
clearly communicated to all school stakeholders. At the beginning of the year, several meetings
were held to share with parents and community members the bullying prevention curriculum
used during the school day. The minutes and presentation materials for these meetings are also
available on the school’s web site for easy access to those unable to attend the meetings.
Curriculum
Lilac Lane Middle School uses materials and videos from Groundspark, an organization
whose mission is to create visionary films and dynamic educational campaigns that encourage
individuals and communities to take action to create a more just world (Groundspark). The
“Let’s Get Real” curriculum gives students the opportunity to hear stories from their peers about
a variety of issues that often lead to bullying—including racial differences, sexual orientation,
learning disabilities, religious differences, sexual harassment, and more. The film provides a
voice to kids who may be targeted for bullying, but also to the students who are the bullies. Four
of the ten interviewees spoke about the effectiveness of the curriculum, noting how it often
launches effective conversations among students and teachers that might not otherwise occur.
Counselor A described the school guidance counselors’ role in implementing the
curriculum. She stated, “Our plan is to ensure that each Thursday everyone gets some reminder
about being part of the solution to prevent bullying.” She continued to describe how they use the
curriculum by using workbook activities that relate to the information in the videos. “Some of
the topics and language used are a bit more sensitive, so for those issues we go into classrooms
for specific presentations before they watch the video.”
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

105

Counselor B described the curriculum and its effect on the students. “In eighth grade, the
students are gaining the knowledge of sexual harassment, in seventh grade the focus is on race,
and in sixth grade the focus is on what bullying is and how it’s classified.” By focusing in on
specific topics, the students get weekly reminders about what to do versus what not to do. She
continued, explaining how much it helps to include additional support and teaching for all
students. She asserted, “These videos can help model good behavior. The challenge is that for
middle school students, the real issue is often peer pressure, you know, fitting in. Having the
independence and security to stand up for someone can be hard.”
The Counselor D said that an important part of the “Let’s Get Real” curriculum is
creating a culture of empathy. He stated,
“I try to give them the psychologist’s perspective. For example, the effect that
bullying has on communities, to try to broaden the kids’ perspective. There are a
lot of people being affected [by bullying]. It is so important to teach them things
about what happens to bullies later in life if they continue to act that way. So they
feel some empathy for themselves and for others too. Also showing the other side
of behavior, that you will feel better if you show more empathy.
The Principal said that an important part of using the “Let’s Get Real” curriculum is
building a culture of trust. “If a teacher comes to us with an issue about something, we will deal
with it. If a child comes to us with an issue—because sometimes the bullying is not just among
kids, it could be staff members [bullying students], we have to have an atmosphere where there is
open communication. The Principal and Assistant Principal 1 explained that the curriculum
provides a vehicle for everyone to get the conversation started. This helps build a culture in
which students are supported and everyone has the tools to prevent bullying.
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

106

Student Engagement
There are multiple ways in which students are encouraged to connect and meaningfully
engage with the school. Several student organizations, Circle of Friends, Bully Awareness
Committee, Intramural sports, AVID (Advancement Via Individual Determination), and
band/color guard offer students ample opportunity to connect with the school and peers. There
are student representatives for both School Site Council and Student Council.
The school has two extra-curricular academic programs to ensure the academic success of
all students—PRIDE (Pupils Requiring Individualized Daily Education) and RISE
(Responsibility, Independence, and Study Skills in Education). These two programs, RISE
before school and PRIDE after school, help students find different ways to succeed with the
rigors of middle school core subject classes. Counselor B asserted, “These programs are an
essential part of our school’s culture, students can get all of the supports they need to be
successful academically.” Students who participate in these programs have better success in
their academic classes and are eligible to participate in extra-curricular activities such as AVID,
and sports.
Counselor A and Teacher B explained that both programs are always full of students
getting help from each other or the teachers available. RISE program is a before school
intervention program designed to assist students with study skills and academic training.
Students are recommended by teachers, counselors and parents for the RISE program because
they are struggling academically or socially. Counselor A explained that students are primarily
recommended for academic reasons, but on occasion students can be recommended because
parents want a safe place for their student to go before school. The RISE program is based on
AVID strategies in maintaining an organized school binder, emphasizing classroom and school
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

107

expectations; and positive study skills and habits. PRIDE is an intervention program to help
students with homework in the school library each day after school. There is a certified teacher
available to work individually with students as needed. Counselor A said, “The PRIDE program
is a little busier than the RISE program, there is only one teacher for 40 students. But that teacher
is constantly walking around offering help as needed to the students who participate.”
Multiple opportunities exist for students to engage and connect with the school in a
positive way. This includes the academic support programs available to students to best meet the
academic rigors in their classes so they can be eligible for the school’s extra-curricular activities.
Teacher Engagement
Teachers are the driving force behind most of the programs offered at Lilac Lane Middle
School. In the prevention of bullying, it is important for teachers to communicate and support
children with care, cultivate and demonstrate appreciation for children’s uniqueness and
diversity, have clearly communicated expectations that children had a part in creating, and
determine the reasons behind behaviors before taking punitive action.
Research question three sought to compare how novice teachers with less than five years
of experience to teachers with more than five years of experience best implement the systems
and structures put into place at the school to prevent bullying. Interview questions were added to
determine the specific training provided to teachers. All teachers interviewed said they did not
receive any specific training regarding bully prevention efforts. Although no specific training for
teachers occurred, the whole school approach to preventing bullying at Lilac Lane Middle
School established by school administrators included embedded training for all school
stakeholders, including teachers. The Principal and Assistant Principal 1 emphasized the whole
school approach to preventing bullying—including parents, staff and students. Data showed that
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

108

training efforts for teachers were embedded in collaboration and common planning meetings,
weekly messages delivered via LLMS-TV, and encouragement to participate in the BAC.
Teachers from multiple content areas collaborate to provide rich peer experiences for
students. Teachers have daily common planning times for collaborative and interdisciplinary
meetings. The school boasts an entrepreneurial spirit in which teachers can create programs that
promote student success. Several teachers from many of the school’s core departments
participate in the BAC. Counselor A noted, “the school culture here is really great. We have
great teachers, and for the most part, they’re all cooperative, they’re all, you know, helping.”
Counselor B spoke about the ways in which teachers are encouraged to use the “Let’s Get Real
curriculum into their classroom activities. She said, “We do rotations where we come into the
classrooms to give presentations, then we share with teachers some subtle and not-so-subtle ways
that they can embed these concepts into their classes—like writing assignments, speeches, and so
on.”
The principal said that when beginning bully prevention efforts, it was important to
determine what teachers knew about bullying and bullying prevention. He explained, “We did a
pre-survey and a post-survey about bullying, using the Olweus Bully Prevention Model.
Teachers were surprised to learn that 9 out of 10 times bullying occurs in the classroom.”
Assistant Principal 1 elaborated, explaining that most teachers thought bullying occurred mainly
in the lunch area, student bathrooms, and in unsupervised areas. The Principal explained, “They
were shocked, saying, ‘what do you mean? We are right there.’ What they didn’t realized that
although they are right there, they may not see everything.” With ongoing training through the
“Let’s Get Real” curriculum, PLC conversations an RTI interventions, teachers know when and
how to engage with students to prevent bullying.
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

109

Much of the teacher engagement focusing on bullying prevention launched three years
ago when the administrators did a specific training for teachers before school about bullying, the
laws, how to identify it and how to intervene. The following year, Assistant Principal 1 launched
the Bully Awareness Committee. The Principal described the roll-out to teachers, “We had
teachers play a mock classroom and showed some different behaviors. Then Assistant Principal 1
shared specific vignettes with potential bullying behaviors for teams of teachers to discuss. The
Principal said the teachers sharing their vignette and their evaluation helped focus conversations
about how teachers could resolve bullying behavior.
The Assistant Principal 1 said that much of the teachers’ responses were unanimous but,
“some different responses were based on the teachers’ comfort level, their education and
knowledge about it, and how much they would want to get involved.” The Principal said that an
essential part of the discussion was for the entire group to talk through the rationales to try and
get everyone on the same page about what to do and how to do it.
Teachers are an essential piece of the puzzle to prevent bullying (Espelage & Swearer,
2004; Hanish et al., 2004; Hong & Espelage, 2012). Teachers all receive the same information as
students do via the LLMS-TV, and specific teacher meetings and trainings. Teacher A and
Teacher B are just two of the teachers who present some of the weekly programming aired on the
LLMS-TV. Teacher A said that he also encourages teachers to get involved in other ways. “My
role is basically to attend the BAC meetings, and bring back any pertinent information to the
sixth grade teachers. From there, we kind of divide up how we volunteer.” He also recruits
students to get involved with the BAC and other school events by being present in the lunch area
during the sixth grade lunch.
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

110

Regular team level meetings and an elaborate RTI program ensures that teachers are
highly involved with their students. Teacher A explained that before he began coordinating the
school’s RTI programming, teachers may not have heard about what was going on with their
students. He said, “I keep track of everything we do for each student on a spreadsheet that is
shared with everyone. Anyone can access the information and update the spreadsheet with the
interventions tried and resulting data.” He continued, explaining that communication is an
essential piece.
Administration has tried through common planning meetings and trainings to help
teachers find ways to incorporate anti-bullying messages into their curriculum. Teachers also
participate with students in watching the LLMS-TV, which they are strongly encouraged to
embed into their classroom activities.
Parent Engagement
There are multiple opportunities for parents to participate in the school community. The
Parent Teacher Organization, School Site Council, English Language Advisory Representative
all include parents. Parents are an essential part of the Bully Awareness Committee; with at least
1 – 3 parents attending each monthly meeting (observation 2). Parents are also provided access
via the school web site to ParentVue, an online portal for parents to access their students’ grades,
assignments and other pertinent information. Parents can also register for eBlasts—email
notifications about events happening at Lilac Lane Middle School. Parents are also strongly
encouraged to volunteer for field trips and other special events.
Parent B stated that she is so pleased with the administrators and teachers at Lilac Lane
Middle School. “I was so worried about sending my kids [to the school], but there are so many
positive things going on at the school it’s hard not to get involved.”
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

111

Parents have also been included in the curriculum used with students. The Principal
explained:
“We had three or four different meetings where we talked to the parents, we
showed them the videos. Some of them had some very graphic words on there
and a lot of blowback from parents who didn’t want their child exposed to
certain things in the curriculum. We started off thinking that we could show all
of [the videos] to everybody but quickly we learned that we had to chunk them
and do parts for each of the three grade levels. We could save the more mature
ones for the 8
th
grade and by then, the parents are a lot more responsive.”
Multiple parents meetings at various times were held to ensure that the parents received
pertinent information regarding school events and curriculum. Most of the events had high levels
of parent participation. It was the feedback during and after these meetings that the
administrators decided to modify how they delivered the curriculum to students. Parent B stated
that she spoke to some of the other parents in her neighborhood about the bully prevention
program. She said, “so many parents were delighted when [the administrators] were so
responsive to their concerns [about the program].”
Almost all of the interviewees spoke positively about parent involvement and the positive
impact that has on the campus overall. Parent A/Campus Supervisor B said that she is surprised
when hearing about bullying going on. “This is a wonderful school. I love having my kids here.”
She elaborated by describing some of the positive things available for students to participate in.
“Some of the students’ relatives are famous athletes who have given their time to help our
students. It’s really helped create a positive environment.”
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

112

Counselor B said that one of the reasons for the positive culture is the high level of
parental involvement. She said, “Most of the time the [parental involvement] is positive, but
sometimes it is perhaps a little overprotectiveness.” She says that the counselors work with both
students and parents to help students become gradually more independent. She said, “if a student
is having an issue with the teacher, we try and let the kid take control over it and speak to the
teacher. It’s a learning process for both students and parents.”
Discussion Stakeholder Involvement

Schools that build consensus within the school community by involving all stakeholders
in positive ways have better bullying prevention efforts (Brown, 2006; Espelage & Swearer,
2004; Hong & Espelage, 2012; Olweus, 2006). Nine of the ten interviewees spoke about the
importance of the systems in place to involve every member of the school community. The
curriculum delivered through the school’s TV network provide a vehicle for meaningful
conversations for everyone—teachers, parents, administrators, counselors, and students. The
ongoing messages help provide ongoing training for teachers, staff and students to better
understand how to help prevent bullying. High levels of parental involvement helps create a
positive climate in which everyone comes together to create a safe space for students to learn and
develop in appropriate ways.
Summary

The three themes that emerged from the data, Whole School Approach, Establishing and
Reinforcing Policies, and Stakeholder Involvement, all contribute to an overall school culture
that sustains and supports anti-bullying messages on multiple levels. The findings indicate
bullying prevention systems and structures in place at Lilac Lane Middle School were fully
embedded in virtually every aspect of the school’s culture. The findings showed that a thorough
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

113

master scheduling plan, an elaborate response to intervention program, and an emphasis on the
perceptions of all school stakeholders helped to create a positive school culture. The majority of
the interviewees spoke about the importance of a positive school culture, with administrators
focusing bully prevention efforts in as many layers of the school and its community as possible.
Multiple programs exist for all stakeholders to participate, collaborate, and contribute to the
school in meaningful ways. The findings showed that consistent training on established school
and district policies helped ensure that appropriate systems and structures were in place to best
prevent bullying among students. School leaders focused their energy on consistent and
sustained training for all stakeholders, thus ensuring that every member of the school community
shared the same perception about bullying prevention efforts. All of the findings illustrate the
importance placed by school leaders on every member of the community sharing in the
responsibility of creating a safe and positive school culture. An emphasis was placed by most of
the interviewees and observational data on ensuring that every member of the school community
is on the same page in terms of policies, programs, and procedures for handling bullying
behavior. An important finding for stakeholder involvement was the continual training for all
stakeholders through curricular materials, ongoing professional learning community meetings,
parent meetings ensured that everyone has a clear understanding and a consistent message
regarding bully prevention. High stakeholder involvement helps create a positive climate in
which everyone comes together to create a safe space for students to learn and develop in
appropriate ways.
This chapter presented the study’s results organized by the three themes that emerged
from the data collected. The findings reinforce the importance of a whole school approach to
bullying prevention with prevention efforts embedded into as many aspects of the school and its
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

114

community. Ongoing and sustained training for school stakeholders ensures high levels of
involvement in positive ways. Chapter five will outline the implications for educators and
researchers based on the findings and recommendations for further study will be discussed.

WHY CULTURE MATTERS

115

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
Bullying is an international challenge that educators and researchers have been trying to
resolve for more than three decades (Olweus, 1993). Many challenges exist in the understanding
and prevention of bullying; including the lack of a common definition, the negative academic
and social impact on students who participate in bullying—either as a bully, victim or both
(bully-victim), teachers not feeling prepared to handle bullying, and aspects of a school’s culture
that might promote bullying among students. Bullying prevention programs have been created
with some success in other countries, but when implemented in the United States, have had
inconclusive results (Glew et al., 2008; Hong & Espelage, 2012). Teachers are often
underprepared to recognize and prevent bullying in their classrooms.
This chapter will outline the implications for educators and researchers based on the
findings. First, the purpose of the study will be discussed. Second, this chapter will include a
summary of the findings and how the data connect to the existing literature. Third, the
implications for practice and policy with recommendations for schools and districts to prevent
bullying among students will be considered. Finally recommendations for further study will be
discussed.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to determine the promising practices in establishing and
using the systems and structures in schools to prevent bullying. This study also sought to
determine how teachers are prepared to implement these systems and structures to prevent
bullying in schools. While a great deal of research exists regarding the multiple layers of
bullying and existing prevention efforts, there is not a one-size-fits-all solution. Roughly one-
third of students in K-12 schools report having some experience with bullying, either as bully,
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

116

victim or bully-victim (Nansel, et al., 2001). Just a few years ago, 23 percent of public schools
reported that bullying had occurred among students on a daily or weekly basis (Robers et al.,
2011). Students who have some experience with bullying may feel unsafe at school, exhibit
social and emotional difficulties, have challenges with learning and concentration, and miss
school due to school avoidance or increased illness.
Bullying does not occur in a vacuum. Every aspect of a school can prevent or promote
bullying. All stakeholders in a school can participate in establishing and cultivating a positive
school climate in which students are supported to work and act as responsible members of the
community (Cohen, 2006). The systems in which students develop and grow are interdependent.
These systems, described by Bronfenbrenner (1977), are complex and should be considered
together when creating programs and structures within a school.
This study sought to answer three questions:
1. What are the structures and systems that contribute to anti-bullying culture in schools?
2. How are the systems and structures implemented and sustained to support an anti-
bullying culture?
3. How do teachers with less than five years of experience compared to teachers with more
than five years of experience put into place any tools and training received to best
implement the systems and structures that prevent bullying in schools?
Data collection for this study included school observations (classrooms, meetings, open
areas, free times—lunch, passing periods), interviews with school stakeholders (administrators,
teachers, staff, parents), and artifact review (meeting agendas and minutes, school and district
web sites). Multiple sources ensured triangulation of the data to increase the validity of the
study’s results. This also provided a rich description of the story of a school as told through
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

117

interviews, observations and artifacts.
Summary of the Findings
The previous chapter outlined the promising practices in the prevention of bullying at one
middle school. Three key themes with related sub-themes emerged from the interviews,
observations and artifact review: Whole School Approach, Establishing and Reinforcing
Policies, and Stakeholder Involvement. These themes illustrated the organizational systems and
structures of a school that sustain and support an anti-bullying culture. The findings show that
the bullying prevention systems and structures in place at Lilac Lane Middle School were fully
embedded in virtually every aspect of the school’s culture. Under the theme of the Whole School
Approach, three findings emerged. The first finding showed that master scheduling of students
was an essential part of bullying prevention efforts. The second finding emphasized the
importance of perception among school stakeholders as an essential part of bullying prevention.
The third finding showed the positive effects of an elaborate response to intervention program.
Under the theme of Establishing and Reinforcing School Policies, one finding emerged. Targeted
and sustained training of all members of the school community helped ensure that consistent
messages were delivered and the conversation regarding bullying prevention never ended. Under
the theme of Stakeholder Involvement, four findings emerged. The first finding was a specific
curriculum used by the school to facilitate the conversation and target training efforts of all
school stakeholders. The second finding showed the multiple ways students are encouraged to
participate in and connect with the school in positive ways. The third finding showed that
engaging teachers with targeted interventions and information helped ensure that teachers
connected with students and the school in positive ways. The fourth finding showed the multiple
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

118

opportunities for parents to connect with the school in positive ways. All of these findings helped
create a positive school climate in which bullying incidents do not occur.
The findings that emerged in relation to the first theme, whole school approach, showed
that the majority of bully prevention efforts lie in a positive school culture with every
stakeholder serving a common goal for everyone on campus—student safety and achievement.
Multiple programs and opportunities exist for all members of the school community to
participate in meaningful ways to support this common goal. Master scheduling is targeted to
meet this goal by providing ample time for staff and teachers to communicate and collaborate to
ensure the safety and success of each student enrolled. Bully prevention efforts are the
responsibility of every member of the school community; there is not one program or one person
that leads these efforts. School leaders’ understanding of the reciprocity between the multiple
layers of a school and its culture help contribute to creating a safe and positive school culture
within which bullying does not occur. It is important for school leaders to understand the
reciprocity between the multiple layers of a school’s culture and climate (Booren et al., 2010;
Bronfenbrenner, 1977; Dake et al., 2003; Espselage & Swearer, 2004; Olweus, 2006, Rigby,
2007; Skiba et al., 2006).
Establishing and reinforcing policies highlighted the importance of having established
policies in the prevention of bullying on campus, which was the second theme. The findings
showed that school officials pointed to these policies when bullying incidents were reported. One
key aspect of this was sharing a common language and definition of bullying. Important was
providing multiple access points to these policies—on the school web site, in parent materials, in
classrooms, and in multiple places on campus. Another important part of this was educating all
members of the school community through a specifically designed curriculum delivered to
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

119

students and staff via the school’s internal TV network and then reinforced with content class
activities. Bullying is as complex as the school and its culture, which stresses the importance of
having clearly defined guidelines for the prevention of bullying (Craig et al., 2011; Glew et al.,
2000; Olweus, 1996; Smith & Brain, 2000).
Stakeholder involvement was the third theme. The findings highlighted two key ideas
from the school principal—doing what is best for students and not wedding bully prevention
efforts to just a few people. Having multiple avenues for stakeholder involvement help build
consensus within the school community and helps create a positive multi-faceted school culture.
Consistent and ongoing messages regarding school policies and interventions help provide
ongoing education for every member of the school community. The positive school climate
encourages high levels of stakeholder involvement. School stakeholders have the power to shape
the climate of the school in positive ways to ensure that all students learn and develop and that a
culture of bullying is not present (Carney & Merrell, 2001).
With roughly 30% of students being bullied in schools, bullying and its consequences
remains a barrier to education despite progress made in the prevention and intervention of
bullying. Every aspect of a school, including school stakeholders, can prevent or promote
bullying.
Implications and Recommendations for Practice and Policy
The three themes and their findings that emerged from the data illustrate the implications
for practice and policy establishment for schools seeking the promising practices in the
prevention of bullying. Three recommendations are provided based on the findings and their
implications. The first recommendation suggests that schools embed bully prevention efforts into
multiple aspects of the school; including master scheduling, response to intervention, and the
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

120

perception of school stakeholders. The second recommendation suggests that school leaders
might consider establishing a clear vision for the school that ensures that all school stakeholders
clearly understand established policies regarding bullying prevention and intervention. An
essential part of this recommendation suggests that school leaders provide targeted and sustained
training for all school stakeholders. The third recommendation suggests that school leaders
provide multiple opportunities for all members of the school community to connect and engage
with the school in meaningful ways. This will require a careful examination and understanding
of the reciprocity between the multiple layers of the school that comprise the culture. The three
themes of whole school approach, establishing and reinforcing policies, and stakeholder
involvement are interconnected.
Implication #1: Whole School Approach
There was not one aspect or program in place at the school that prevented bullying;
everything about the school’s bullying prevention efforts was intertwined and interconnected to
the vision and goals of the school. With a whole school approach the findings indicate that
bullying prevention must be embedded into as many aspects of the school as possible. This
includes creating a master schedule to benefit all students, creating an elaborate response to
intervention program to ensure student success, and creating positive perceptions among all
school stakeholders. The multiple ecological levels of a school affect the interactions within and
in between the levels for each student. Each person—student, teacher, parent, and staff
member—interacts within and in between these levels in a way that is unique to them. The
findings showed that every person in the school fully understood and was able to articulate the
vision of the school’s leadership. The socio-cultural environment of the school, a student’s basic
personal characteristics, and the family experiences all affect a student’s mode of relating to
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

121

others (Olweus, 1993; Rigby, 2007). Multiple aspects of the school fed into bullying prevention
efforts—from the targeted interventions for students needing additional academic or
social/emotional supports to the multiple members of the Bully Awareness Committee—these
strategic programs and interventions helped to create a more positive school climate in which
every member of the school community was valued and supported.
Implication #2: Establishing a Clear Vision
Strong leadership set a clear vision for the entire school community and many
opportunities were provided for members of the school community to participate in this vision.
Every aspect of the school spoke to this vision—every person interviewed was able to articulate
the vision and goals. Targeted and sustained training that was embedded into multiple aspects of
the school involving of all members of the school community helped ensure that consistent
messages were delivered and the conversation regarding bullying prevention never ended.
Olweus (1993), Rigby (2007), and Smith (2004) asserted that schools that embed anti-bullying
practices into the school’s culture, sustain intervention efforts over longer periods of time, and
take ownership of the anti-bullying work have shown more positive results in the prevention of
bullying. The findings showed that when bullying incidents were reported, school officials were
able to refer parents and students to established policies. Targeted, ongoing and holistic training
efforts were embedded into the whole school community. Each week messages that spoke to the
school’s policies were delivered through multiple mediums—the school’s TV programming and
targeted interdisciplinary lessons.
It is important to consider both school-wide as well as classroom-level programs and
supports to reduce bullying (Kyriakides & Creemers, 2012). Schools that provide targeted
support to teachers and other stakeholders to identify priorities and keep in mind the different
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

122

dimensions associated with bullying can develop plans to change the environment in a positive
way (Baker & Manning, 2005). Schools could consider systems and structures that support the
students in multiple ways. Before and after school academic and social supports can ensure that
students find success in ways that are meaningful to them. Having clearly set and communicated
policies that are reinforced within the multiple layers of the school community ensures that
everyone in the school community is on the same page to support students and ensure their
safety.
Implication # 3: Understanding the Culture
Schools could consider the theoretical framework used by Hong & Espelage (2012) and
Olweus (1993; 2006) that highlight the importance of the whole school and community approach
to preventing bullying. However, what works in one school may not produce such successful
results. Each school is unique in its culture and community members may interpret prevention
and intervention efforts differently. The data in this study connected to a holistic approach to
preventing bullying in schools, with the prevention efforts not being the sole responsibility of
one person, but every member of the school community. Bully prevention efforts that are
embedded into multiple layers involving multiple stakeholders are often more successful.
The findings showed that teachers, parents and staff members collaborated to ensure that
consistent messages regarding school policies and the vision were shared with every member of
the school community. Multiple supports were put into place to ensure student success and
safety. Other programs in the school that highlighted the vision and goals—success for all
students—included academic and social interventions for students. The unintended consequence
of these programs was a more united school community with reduced bullying incidents.
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

123

Each school is unique in its culture, thus one solution to prevent bullying does not exist.
Schools that have implemented the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program alone without other
interventions have had mixed results. Environmental structures as described by Bronfenbrenner
(1977) note the complexity and interdependent relationships between these structures. These
systems all impact the multiple layers to a school community and the lens through which each
member of the school community deems important. With strong leadership setting a clear vision
and mission for the entire school community, that vision should be embedded into as many
layers of the school as possible.
Schools might consider having a bully prevention/intervention committee with multiple
school stakeholders—parents, teachers, administrators, and students—to ensure that all voices in
the school’s community are heard. Regularly scheduled common planning meetings among
teachers, staff and administrators to collaborate and communicate about struggling students helps
ensure that everyone in the school community comes together to support the school’s vision and
goals. Targeted professional development for teachers, staff, and students could be embedded
into multiple layers of the school. This encourages ongoing conversations about bully prevention
efforts and helps students feel supported.
Recommendations for Future Study
Bullying does not occur in a vacuum. Every aspect of a school can prevent or promote
bullying. It is important for schools to consider the interdependency of the multiple layers of the
school community when evaluating bullying prevention efforts. Studies have proven
inconclusive on prevention and intervention efforts. Research has shown that teachers are often
underprepared to prevent bullying in schools. Only a few studies exist that include student voices
regarding bullying. Thus future studies could include:
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

124

• A longitudinal study following a school from beginning intervention to full
implementation (three or more years) of bullying prevention efforts that would prove
beneficial to the existing body of literature.
• Additional study could involve schools that fully embed their bully prevention efforts
into every aspect of the school. Schools that implement only one program (Zero
tolerance, for example) could be compared and contrasted to schools that take the whole-
school approach.
• Using the social-ecological approach, additional study could focus on student voices in
bullying prevention programs. The student perspective is important because adults in a
school may not recognize when and how bullying occurs.
• A hypothesis of this study was that teachers may be unprepared to prevent bullying.
Future study could further examine teachers’ role in the prevention of bullying.
Specifically, how teachers are prepared in their preservice program to prevent bullying in
their classrooms could be studied.
Conclusions
This study correlated with current literature regarding the promising practices in the
prevention of bullying in schools. There is not a one-size-fits-all solution to preventing bullying.
What works best is a whole-school approach with multiple bullying prevention efforts embedded
into the systems and structures in each school. The responsibility for bullying prevention rests
with every member of the school community—students, parents, teachers, staff, and
administrators. Every member of the school community needs to be trained regarding the
nuances of bullying among students. Training should be targeted and ongoing to ensure that he
messages of bullying prevention do not get lost in the multiple layers of the school. School and
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

125

district policies need to be well communicated to the school community to ensure a
comprehensive and clear message.

WHY CULTURE MATTERS

126

References
Allen, K. P. (2009). A bullying intervention system: Reducing risk and creating support for
aggressive students. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and
Youth, 54(3), 199-209.
Alvarez, H. K. (2007). The impact of teacher preparation on responses to student aggression in
the classroom. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23(7), 1113-1126.
Ambrose, S. A., Bridges, M. W., DiPietro, M., Lovett, M. C., & Norman, M. K. (2010). How
Learning Works: 7 research-based principles for smart teaching (1st ed.). San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass.
Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing:
A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. New York, NY: Addison
Wesley Longman.
Aston, M. (1988). Professional development and teacher education--have we got it right?
Computer Education, 12(1), 78-83.
Au, L., Reiner, D., Urbanowski, D., & Clark, D. (2002). Communities of practice. Journal of
Teacher Education, 53(3), 222-227.
Avalos, B. (2011). Teacher professional development in Teaching and Teacher Education over
ten years. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27, 10-20.
AVID (2014). What is AVID? www.AVID.org.
Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American psychologist, 37(2),
122-147.
Bauer, N. S., Lozano, P., & Rivara, F. P. (2007). The effectiveness of the olweus bullying
prevention program in public middle schools: A controlled trial. Journal of Adolescent
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

127

Health, 40(3), 266-274.
Bauman, S., & Del Rio, A. (2006). Preservice teachers' responses to bullying scenarios:
Comparing physical, verbal, and relational bullying. Journal of Educational Psychology,
98(1), 219.
Bauman, S., & Hurley, C. (2005). Teachers' attitudes and beliefs about bullying: Two
exploratory studies. Journal of school violence, 4(3), 49-61.
Bauman, S., Rigby, K., & Hoppa, K. (2008). US teachers' and school counsellors' strategies for
handling school bullying incidents. Educational Psychology, 28(7), 837-856.
Bedir, H. (2010). Teachers' beliefs on strategies based instruction in EFL classes of young
learners. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2, 5208-5211.
Beaudoin, M. N. (2011). Respect--Where Do We Start?. Educational Leadership, 69(1), 40-44.
Black, S. A., & Jackson, E. (2007). Using bullying incident density to evaluate the Olweus
Bullying Prevention Programme. School Psychology International, 28(5), 623-638.
Black, S., Washington, E., Trent, V., Harner, P., & Pollock, E. (2010). Translating the Olweus
Bullying Prevention Program into real-world practice. Health promotion practice, 11(5),
733-740.
Booren, L. M., Handy, D. J., & Power, T. G. (2011). Examining perceptions of school safety
strategies, school climate, and violence. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 9(2), 171-
187.
Boulton, M. J. (2011). Teachers' views on bullying: Definitions, attitudes and ability to cope.
British Journal of Educational Psychology, 67(2), 223-233.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American
Psychologist, 32(7), 513-531.
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

128

Brown, K., Jackson, M., & Cassidy, W. (2006). Cyber-bullying: Developing policy to direct
responses that are equitable and effective in addressing this special form of
bullying. Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy, 57(1), 1-36.
Buffum, A., Mattos, M., & Weber, C. (2009). Pyramid response to intervention: RTI,
professional learning communities, and how to respond when kids don't learn.
Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree.
Buysse, V., & Peisner-Feinberg, E. (2010). Effects of a professional development program on
classroom practices and outcomes for Latino dual language . Early Childhood Research
Quarterly, 25, 194-206.
Cartledge, G., & Kourea, L. (2008). Culturally responsive classrooms for culturally diverse
students with and at risk for disabilities. Exceptional Children, 74(3), 351-371.
Clausen, K., Aquino, A., & Wideman, R. (2009). Bridging the real and ideal: A comparison
between learning community characteristics and a school-based case study. Teaching and
Teacher Education, 25, 444 -452.
Clark, R. E., & Estes, F. (2008). Turning research into results. Charlotte, NC: Information Age
Publishing, Inc.
Clement, M., & Vandenberghe, R. (2000). Teachers’ professional development: a solitary or
collegial (ad)venture? . Teaching and Teacher Education, 16, 81-101.
Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. L. (1999). Relationships of knowledge and practice: Teacher
learning in communities. Review of Research in Education, 249-305.
Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2007). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for
developing grounded theory Sage Publications, Incorporated.
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

129

Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2008). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for
developing grounded theory Sage.
Craig, K., Bell, D., & Leschied, A. (2011). Pre-service teachers’ knowledge and attitudes
regarding school-based bullying. Canadian Journal of Education/Revue Canadienne de
l'éducation, 34(2), 21-33.
Craig, W. M., Henderson, K., & Murphy, J. G. (2000). Prospective teachers' attitudes toward
bullying and victimization. School Psychology International, 21(1), 5-21.
Creswell, J. W. (2012). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five
approaches SAGE Publications, Incorporated.
Cross, D., Epstein, M., Hearn, L., Slee, P., Shaw, T., & Monks, H. (2011). National safe schools
framework: Policy and practice to reduce bullying in Australian schools. International
Journal of Behavioral Development, 35(5), 398-404.
Dake, J. A., Price, J. H., & Telljohann, S. K. (2003). The nature and extent of bullying at
school. Journal of School Health, 73(5), 173-180.
Dake, J. A., Price, J. H., Telljohann, S. K., & Funk, J. B. (2003). Teacher perceptions and
practices regarding school bullying prevention. Journal of School Health, 73(9), 347-355.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2010). Teacher Education and the American future. Journal of Teacher
Education, 61(35), 35-47.
DeVoe, J. F., & Bauer, L. (2011). Student Victimization in US Schools: Results from the 2009
School Crime Supplement to the National Crime Victimization Survey. NCES 2012-
314. National Center for Education Statistics.
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

130

Doll, B., Song, S., & Siemers, E. (2004). Classroom ecologies that support or discourage
bullying. Bullying in American schools: A social-ecological perspective on prevention
and intervention, 161-183.
DuFour, R., DuFour, R., Eaker, R., & Many, T. (2006). Learning by doing: A handbook for
professional learning communities at work. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree.
DuFour, R., Eaker, R., & DuFour, R. (2005). On common ground: The power of professional
learning communities. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree.
DuFour, R., & Eaker, R. (1998). Professional learning communities at work: Best practices for
enhancing student achievement. Bloomington , IN: Solution TreeElinoff, M. J.,
Chafouleas, S. M., & Sassu, K. A. (2004). Bullying: Considerations for defining and
intervening in school settings. Psychology in the Schools, 41(8), 887-897.
Easton, L. B. (2008). From professional development to professional learning. The Phi Delta
Kappan, 89(10), 755-759.
Ellis, A. A., & Shute, R. (2007). Teacher responses to bullying in relation to moral orientation
and seriousness of bullying. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(3), 649-663.
Embry, D. D., Flannery, D. J., Vazsonyi, A. T., Powell, K. E., & Atha, H. (1996). Peacebuilders:
A theoretically driven, school-based model for early violence prevention. American
Journal of Preventive Medicine, 12(5 Suppl), 91-100.
Espelage, D. L., & Swearer, S. M. (2004). Bullying in American schools: A social-ecological
perspective on prevention and intervention. Routledge.
Flint, A. S., Zisook, K., & Fisher, T. R. (2011). Not a one-shot deal: Generative professional
development among experienced teachers . Teaching and Teacher Education, 27, 1163-
1169.
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

131

Garet, M. S., Porter, A. C., Desimone, L., Birman, B. F., & Yoon, K. S. (2001). What makes
professional development effective? Results from a national sample of teachers .
American Educational Research Journal, 38(4), 915-945.
Glazer, E. M., & Hannafin, M. J. (2006). The collaborative apprenticeship model: Situated
professional development within school settings . Teaching and Teacher Education, 22,
179-193.
Glew, G. M., Fan, M., Katon, W., & Rivara, F. P. (2008). Bullying and school safety. The
Journal of Pediatrics, 152(1), 123-128. e1.
Glew, G. M., Fan, M. Y., Katon, W., Rivara, F. P., & Kernic, M. A. (2005). Bullying,
psychosocial adjustment, and academic performance in elementary school. Archives of
pediatrics & adolescent medicine, 159(11), 1026.
Glew, G., Rivara, F., & Feudtner, C. (2000). Bullying: children hurting children. Pediatrics in
Review, 21(6), 183-190.
Glew, G. M., Frey, K. S., & Walker, W. O. (2010). Bullying update: are we making any
progress?. Pediatrics in Review, 31(9), e68-e74.
Goldenberg, C. (2008). Teaching English language learners: What the research does--and does
not say. American Educator, (Summer), 8-44.
Gregory, A., Cornell, D., Fan, X. (2011). The relationship of school structure and support to
suspension rates for black and white high school students. American Education Research
Journal, 48(4), pp 904 – 934.
Groundspark. (2014). www.groundspark.org
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

132

Grumm, M., & Hein, S. (2012). Correlates of teachers’ ways of handling bullying. School
Psychology International.
Hanish, L. D., Kochenderfer-Ladd, B., Fabes, R. A., Martin, C. L., & Denning, D. (2004).
Bullying among young children: The influence of peers and teachers. Bullying in
American schools: A social-ecological perspective on prevention and intervention, 141.
Holt, M. K., & Keyes, M. A. (2004). Teachers’ attitudes toward bullying. Bullying in American
schools: A social-ecological perspective on prevention and intervention, 121-139.
Hong, J. S., & Espelage, D. L. (2012). A review of research on bullying and peer victimization in
school: An ecological systems analysis. Aggression and Violent Behavior.
Kahn, J. H., Jones, J. L., & Wieland, A. L. (2012). Preservice teachers' coping styles and their
responses to bullying. Psychology in the Schools.
Kasen, S., Berenson, K., Cohen, P., & Johnson, J. G. (2004). The effects of school climate on
changes in aggressive and other behaviors related to bullying. Bullying in American
schools: A social-ecological perspective on prevention and intervention, 187-210.
Knight, P. (2002). A systemic approach to professional development: Learning as practice.
Teaching and Teacher Education, 18, 229-241.
Kochenderfer-Ladd, B., & Pelletier, M. E. (2008). Teachers' views and beliefs about bullying:
Influences on classroom management strategies and students' coping with peer
victimization. Journal of School Psychology, 46(4), 431-453.
Kyriakides, L., & Creemers, B. P. M. (2012). Characteristics of effective schools in facing and
reducing bullying. School Psychology International,
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

133

Kyriakides, L., Kaloyirou, C., & Lindsay, G. (2006). An analysis of the revised Olweus
Bully/Victim questionnaire using the rasch measurement model. British Journal of
Educational Psychology, 76(4), 781-801.
Limber, S. P., & Small, M. A. (2003). State laws and policies to address bullying in
schools. School Psychology Review, 32(3)
Lovett, M. W., Lacerenza, L., De Palma, M., Benson, N. J., Steinbach, K. A., & Frijters, J. C.
(2008). Preparing teachers to remediate reading disabilities in high school: What is
needed for effective professional development? Teaching and Teacher Education, 24,
1083-1097.
Maxwell, J. A. (2012). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach. Sage publications.
Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. John Wiley
& Sons.
Nansel, T. R., Overpeck, M., Pilla, R. S., Ruan, W. J., Simons-Morton, B., & Scheidt, P. (2001).
Bullying behaviors among US youth. JAMA: the journal of the American Medical
Association, 285(16), 2094-2100.
Nansel, T. R., Overpeck, M. D., Haynie, D. L., Ruan, W., & Scheidt, P. C. (2003). Relationships
between bullying and violence among US youth. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent
Medicine, 157(4), 348.
Nicolaides, S., Toda, Y., & Smith, P. K. (2002). Knowledge and attitudes about school bullying
in trainee teachers. British Journal of Educational Psychology,72(1), 105-118.
Novick, R. M., & Isaacs, J. (2010). Telling is compelling: The impact of student reports of
bullying on teacher intervention. Educational Psychology, 30(3), 283-296.
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

134

Olweus, D. (1994). Bullying at school: basic facts and effects of a school based intervention
program. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, 35(7), 1171-1190.
Olweus, D. (1995). Bullying or peer abuse at school: Facts and intervention. Current Directions
in Psychological Science, 4(6), 196-200.
Olweus, D. (1996). Bullying at school.
Olweus, D. (2006). Bullying at school: Knowledge base and an effective intervention programs.
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 794(1), 265-276.
Olweus, D., & Limber, S. P. (2010). Bullying in school: Evaluation and dissemination of the
Olweus Bullying Prevention Program. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 80(1), 124-
134.
Ong, F. (2003). Bullying at school. California Department of Education.
Polanin, J. R., Espelage, D. L., & Pigott, T. D. (2012). A meta-analysis of school-based bullying
prevention programs' effects on bystander intervention behavior. School Psychology
Review, 41(1), 47-65.
Rigby, K. (2007). Bullying in schools: And what to do about it. Acer Press.
Robers, S., Zhang, J., Truman, J., & Snyder, (2010). Indicators of School Crime and Safety:
2010. NCES 2011-002/NCJ 230812. National Center for Education Statistics.
Rueda, R. (2011). The 3 dimensions of improving student performance. New York, NY:
Teachers College Press.
Salmivalli, C., Lagerspetz, K., Björkqvist, K., Österman, K., & Kaukiainen, A. (1998). Bullying
as a group process: Participant roles and their relations to social status within the group.
Aggressive Behavior, 22(1), 1-15.
Sandholtz, J. H., & Scribner, S. P. (2006). The paradox of administrative control in fostering
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

135

teacher professional development. Teaching and Teacher Education, 22, 1104-1117.
Sherer, Y. C., & Nickerson, A. B. (2010). Anti‐bullying practices in American schools:
Perspectives of school psychologists. Psychology in the Schools, 47(3), 217-229.
Skiba, R. J., Ritter, S., Simmons, A., Peterson, R., & Miller, C. (2006). The Safe and Responsive
Schools Project: A school reform model for implementing best practices in violence
prevention. Handbook of school violence and school safety: From research to practice,
631-650.
Skiba, R., & Peterson, R. (1999). The dark side of zero tolerance: Can punishment lead to safe
schools?. The Phi Delta Kappan, 80(5), 372-382.
Skiba, R. J., & Peterson, R. L. (2000). School discipline at a crossroads: From zero tolerance to
early response. Exceptional Children, 66(3), 335-396.
Smith, P. K. (2004). Bullying: recent developments. Child and adolescent mental health, 9(3),
98-103.
Smith, P. K., & Brain, P. (2000). Bullying in schools: Lessons from two. Aggressive
Behavior, 26, 1-9.
Smokowski, P. R., & Kopasz, K. H. (2005). Bullying in school: An overview of types, effects,
family characteristics, and intervention strategies. Children & Schools, 27(2), 101-110.
Stuart-Cassel, V., Bell, A., & Springer, J. F. (2011). Analysis of state bullying laws and
policies. Office of Planning, Evaluation and Policy Development, US Department of
Education,
Sutton, J., & Smith, P. K. (1999). Bullying as a group process: An adaptation of the participant
role approach. Aggressive Behavior, 25(2), 97-111.
WHY CULTURE MATTERS

136

Sutton, J., Smith, P. K., & Swettenham, J. (1999). Bullying and ‘Theory of Mind’: A Critique of
the ‘Social Skills Deficit’ View of Anti‐Social Behaviour. Social Development, 8(1), 117-
127.
Swearer, S. M., & Doll, B. (2001). Bullying in schools: An ecological framework. Journal of
Emotional Abuse, 2(2-3), 7-23.
Swearer, S. M., Espelage, D. L., Vaillancourt, T., & Hymel, S. (2010). What can be done about
school bullying? Linking research to educational practice. Educational Researcher,
39(1), 38-47.
Swearer, S. M., Wang, C., Maag, J. W., Siebecker, A. B., & Frerichs, L. J. (2012).
Understanding the bullying dynamic among students in special and general
education. Journal of School Psychology, 50(4), 503-520.
Wei, H., Jonson-Reid, M., & Tsao, H. (2007). Bullying and victimization among Taiwanese 7th
graders: A multi-method assessment. School Psychology International, 28(4), 479-500.
Wei, H. S., Williams, J. H., Chen, J. K., & Chang, H. Y. (2010). The effects of individual
characteristics, teacher practice, and school organizational factors on students' bullying:
A multilevel analysis of public middle schools in Taiwan. Children and Youth Services
Review, 32(1), 137-143.
Wesley, P. W., & Buysse, V. (2001). Communities of practice expanding professional roles to
promote reflection and shared inquiry. Topics in Early Childhood Special
Education, 21(2), 114-123.
Yoon, J. S. (2004). Predicting teacher interventions in bullying situations. Education &
Treatment of Children (ETC), 27(1)

WHY CULTURE MATTERS

137

Appendix A: Interview Protocol

Interview Protocol

1. What is your role at this institution?
2. Have there ever been instances of bullying at your school?
3. What was the incident that started the anti-bullying efforts?
4. What factors influenced your school’s anti-bullying efforts?
5. How does your school respond to incidents of bullying?
6. What is your role in promoting anti-bullying at your institution?
a. What is your involvement with issues of bullying on your school campus?
7. Explain the basics of the anti-bullying efforts your institution has in place
8. Tell me what is being done to help students feel more connected to your institution
9. What policies and preventive measures do you think are critical to have in place to foster an anti-
bullying culture at your institution?
10. What offices or staff is involved in anti-bullying intervention/training?
11. How are teachers, staff and administrators involved in anti-bullying efforts?
12. How prepared does your staff feel in relation to bullying?
13. How are students involved in anti-bullying efforts?
14. How are parents involved in anti-bullying efforts?
15. Think of an example of when you helped a student that had a problem with bullying. Explain the
situation and tell me about what things are important to have in place to support a student that is
having problems with bulling.
16. Tell me about any strategies that you think may help with problems of bullying
17. What support services or programs do you know of that may help with problems of bullying?
18. What policies do you think a school needs in place to address the problem of bullying?
19. What staffing needs do you think the school needs in place to help with problems of bullying?
20. How have these efforts changed?
21. What is an ideal PD?

WHY CULTURE MATTERS

138

Appendix B: Observation Protocol

Observation Protocol

School Name: _______________________________________ Date: _______________

Type of Observation:
_____________________________________________________

Participants: ______________________________ Materials: ____________________________

Researcher: ________________________________________________________

Time Started: ____________ Time Ended: ____________ Total Time: ___________

Environment
What are you looking for? Notes
Location:

What does the environment look like?

Physical setup:

How are the participants grouped?

WHY CULTURE MATTERS

139

Who is leading?
What is the agenda?

Interactions
What are you looking for? Notes
Context:

Noteworthy interactions:
• Students

• Parents

• School staff

• Community

Engagement of participants:

Overall tone:

WHY CULTURE MATTERS

140

Appendix C: Bully Awareness Committee Agenda

AGENDA

Bully Awareness Committee
May 1, 2013
7:15 a.m.- 7:45 a.m.

Meeting
called
by
Assistant
Principal
1

Attendees:
Teachers,
Counselors,

Student
Reps,
Parent
&
Community
Reps,
visitors

Please read:

Please bring:

Location

7:15 a.m.-7:25 a.m. Student Representatives
Implementation

(F)

Rm 204
7:25 a.m.-7:40 a.m. Bully Awareness on LLMS TV
Introduce
the
emails
address
and
website,
and

remind
students
the
about
the
definition
of

bullying.

(F)

Rm 204
7:40 a.m.-7:50 a.m. Other Business
Shirts
should
be
here
next
week.

(F)

Rm 204
Additional
Notes:

1.

http://www.cameronernst.com/Cameron_Ernst_Official_Website/Love_on_the
_Road.html

2.

http://www.thinkb4youspeak.com/

(F)
Facilitator,
(P)
Presenter

LLMS…..got
your
BAC

ü Detailed
agendas
are
provided
for
each

meeting:
time
frames,
topics,
and
logistics.

They
also
include
a
facilitator,
time

keeper,
and
recorder.

ü The
audience
will
engage
in
courteous,

respectful,
active,
and
non-‐judgmental

communication.

ü All
participants
will
be
open-‐minded.

ü All
participants
will
arrive
prepared.

ü All
participants
will
be
on
task.

ü Adhere
to
confidentiality.

WHY CULTURE MATTERS

141

Appendix D: Let’s Get Real Curriculum Overview

(Groundspark, 2014)

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Bullying is maintained by the culture and climate of an organization

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Promising practices in preventing bullying in K-12 schools: student engagement

PDF

Promising practices of anti-bullying: safe and supportive environments for all students

PDF

Policies and promising practices to combat bullying in secondary schools

PDF

Promising practices in the prevention of bullying: using social and emotional skills to prevent bullying

PDF

A case study in promising practices in anti-hazing education training for fraternity advisors

PDF

A case study of promising practices of anti-cyberbullying efforts in a middle school

PDF

A case study of promising practices in the prevention of sexual assault in postsecondary institutions

PDF

Teaching literacy to Latino English learners in kindergarten, ready or not: an evaluation study

PDF

Utilizing school counselors to increase the number of rural high achieving low-income students at selective colleges: an evaluation study

PDF

The importance of teacher motivation in professional development: implementing culturally relevant pedagogy

PDF

Antecedent to acclimation: the mediating influence of acculturation on international student adaptation

PDF

Promising practices to promote and sustain a college-going culture: a charter-school case study

PDF

Promising practices for building a college-going culture for LatinX students: a case study of a large comprehensive high school

PDF

A comparative study of language arts instruction in triply segregated high schools

PDF

School culture, leadership, professional learning, and teacher practice and beliefs: A case study of schoolwide structures and systems at a high-performing high-poverty school

PDF

Promising practices for building a college-going culture: a case study of a comprehensive high school

PDF

Strategies for inclusion of students with autism: an online professional learning curriculum for general education teachers

PDF

Building a college-going culture: a case study of a continuation high school

PDF

Developing cultural competence in relation to multilingual learners

PDF

Low teacher retention rates in private schools

Asset Metadata

Creator Osowski, Stephanie A. (author)

Core Title Why culture matters: a case study to determine the promising practices in the prevention of bullying in K‐12 schools

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/28/2014

Defense Date 03/19/2014

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag bullying,bullying prevention,effects of bullying,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,professional development,school culture,structures,systems,teacher beliefs

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Ahmadi, Shafiqa (committee chair), Mora-Flores, Eugenia (committee member), Stowe, Kathy (committee member)

Creator Email osowski@usc.edu,sosowski@roadrunner.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-385760

Unique identifier UC11297111

Identifier etd-OsowskiSte-2422.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-385760 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-OsowskiSte-2422.pdf

Dmrecord 385760

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Osowski, Stephanie A.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA