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The underrepresentation of Latinas as K−12 school district superintendents: an evaluation study

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The underrepresentation of Latinas as K−12 school district superintendents: an evaluation study

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The Underrepresentation of Latinas as K-12 School District Superintendents: An
Evaluation Study
by
Kristine Shipman

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May 2021

© Copyright by Kristine Shipman 2021
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Kristine Shipman certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Monique Datta
Maria Ott
Darline Robles, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2021

iv

Abstract
The purpose of this study was to gain clarity about the barriers that senior-level Latina
educational leaders in California face on the pathway to the superintendency. This study
leveraged an adapted gap analysis framework (Clark & Estes, 2008) to examine the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences that served as accelerators or barriers to Latin leaders’
advancement to the superintendency. The study was grounded in a qualitative methods approach
incorporating semi-structured interviews of 13 senior-level Latina educational leaders from an
ethnically and geographically diverse sampling of California school districts. The study’s
findings indicated assets in the Latina leaders’ knowledge related to traditional promotional
pathways to the superintendency, and surfaced ongoing growth areas in the understanding of
essential domains of experience that are needed prior to serving in the superintendency.
Additional findings surfaced that senior-level Latina educational leaders demonstrate needs in
the area of self-efficacy, and attribution of success. Finally, organizational culture, and cultural
models as well as policies, procedures, and processes serve as barriers to the Latina leaders’
pathway to ascending to the superintendency.
Keywords: Latina, superintendent, intersectionality, equity, underrepresentation, bias,
pathway

v

Dedication
To my mother Arlene Shipman, a strong, loving, servant-hearted Latina woman who models
compassion, humility, grace, service, and sacrifice. May the world know more women like you,
and may more of us strive to become like you.

vi
Acknowledgements
To my dissertation committee members Dr. Monique Datta and Dr. Maria Ott, your
support, encouragement, and guidance has helped me grow tremendously and allowed me to see
my true value as a leader. To my capstone assistant Dr. Regur, thank you for your patience and
coaching through this process. To my committee chair, Dr. Darline Robles, you have been much
more than a guide on this dissertation journey. You have modeled grace, humility, and servant
leadership to me. I will be forever grateful for all of your support. To my entire cohort 12 family,
you stood by my side through the highs and the lows. Laura, Lana, Erin, and Astin, I couldn’t
have made it this far without you.
To my closest friends, Kira, Rowena, Melissa, Jewyl, Fabiola, Patti, and Shannon, thank
you for understanding this journey and holding space to discuss matters of gender equity, bias,
and representation. Your friendship and support has carried me through.
To my anchors, my parents, Larry and Arlene Shipman, you have modeled hard work,
dedication, and resilience to me every day of my life, without your encouragement I wouldn’t be
where I am. Your high expectations and desire for my sisters and I to have a college education
made this entire journey possible. My dear sweet sisters Laura, Kim, and Courtney, who I
lovingly call the Fource, you are the best cheerleaders a girl could ever ask for, I am so lucky to
have you as my built-in best friends. My JEM Boys, Jacob, Ezekiel, and Mason, you are my
comic relief and my motivation. Being your mom and bonus mom is my greatest
accomplishment. To my husband Chris, you have walked through every obstacle and success on
this journey with me. You remind me every single day how proud you are of me and you never
let me forget for a single moment how brilliant you think I am. You are an amazing husband and
I am so thankful to be sharing this life and this success with you.

vii
Table of Contents
Dedication ........................................................................................................................................ v
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ vi
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................... x
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. xi
List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................................... xii
Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem of Practice .................................................................... 1
Organizational Context and Mission ................................................................................... 1
Organizational Performance Goal ....................................................................................... 2
Importance of the Evaluation .............................................................................................. 5
Stakeholders and Stakeholders’ Performance Goals ........................................................... 6
Stakeholder for the Study and Stakeholder Performance Goal ........................................... 7
Purpose of the Project and Questions .................................................................................. 7
Methodological Framework ................................................................................................ 8
Definitions of Terms ............................................................................................................ 9
Organization of the Study .................................................................................................... 9
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ......................................................................................... 11
Influences on the Problem of Practice ............................................................................... 11
Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................... 20
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 37
Conceptual and Methodological Framework .................................................................... 37
Assessment of Performance Influences ............................................................................. 38
Participating Stakeholders and Sample Selection ............................................................. 45

viii
Data Collection .................................................................................................................. 46
Data Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 47
Trustworthiness of Data .................................................................................................... 48
Role of Investigator ........................................................................................................... 48
Chapter Four: Results and Findings .............................................................................................. 49
Participating Stakeholders ................................................................................................. 50
Determination of Assets and Needs .................................................................................. 51
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes .................................................................... 52
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes ..................................................................... 78
Results and Findings for Organization Causes .................................................................. 88
Findings by Research Question ......................................................................................... 97
Summary of Validated Influences ................................................................................... 101
Chapter Five: Solutions and Integrated Implementation/Evaluation .......................................... 105
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 105
Organizational Context and Mission ............................................................................... 106
Organizational Performance Goal ................................................................................... 106
Description of Stakeholder Group for the Study ............................................................. 107
Goal of the Stakeholder Group for the Study .................................................................. 107
Purpose of the Project and Questions .............................................................................. 107
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences .......................................... 108
Evaluation Plan and Methodology .................................................................................. 123
Limitations and Delimitations ......................................................................................... 135
Future Research ............................................................................................................... 136

ix
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 137
References ................................................................................................................................... 139
Appendix A: Interview Questions ............................................................................................... 152
Appendix B: Informed Consent ................................................................................................... 155
Appendix C: Recruitment Letter (Email) .................................................................................... 157

x

List of Tables
Table 1: Organizational Mission, Global Goal, and Stakeholder Goals 6
Table 2: Summary of Assumed Knowledge Influences on Stakeholder’s Ability to Achieve
the Performance Goal 26
Table 3: Summary of Assumed Motivation Influences on Stakeholder’s Ability to Achieve
the Performance Goal 30
Table 4: Summary of Assumed Organizational Influences on Stakeholder’s Ability to
Achieve the Performance Goal 35
Table 5: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Method of Assessment 40
Table 6: Summary of Motivation Influences and Method of Assessment 42
Table 7: Summary of Organization Influences and Method of Assessment 44
Table 8: Participant Pseudonyms and District Names 51
Table 9: Types of Sponsorship 65
Table 10: Latina Leader Pathways to Senior Leadership 70
Table 11: Dimensions of the Concept of Fit 96
Table 12: Knowledge Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data 102
Table 13: Motivation Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data 103
Table 14: Organization Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data 103
Table 15: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 113
Table 16: Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 117
Table 17: Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations 121
Table 18: Overview of CIPP Evaluation Model 124
Table 19: Implementation of the CIPP Evaluation Model with Dissertation Recommendations 125

xi

List of Figures
Figure 1: Gap Analysis adapted from Clark & Estes (2008) 21
Figure 2: Context, Input, Process, Product (CIPP) Evaluation Model 123

xii

List of Abbreviations
AASA School Superintendents’ Association

ACSA Association of California School District Superintendents

CALSA California Association of Latino School Administrators

CDE California Department of Education

1

Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem of Practice
In the state of California, Latinas are underrepresented in the role of school district
superintendent. According to 2018–2019 public school enrollment data, Latinx students
represent 54.5% of all enrolled school-aged children in the state (California Department of
Education, 2020). The percentage of Latinx superintendents statewide is disproportionate to the
ratio of Latinx school-aged children, with Latinx superintendents occupying 12.5% of all public
school district superintendencies. Latinas represent a fraction of that percentage, with their
representation equaling 4.9% of superintendents statewide and 11.6% of female superintendents
in the state (Association of California School Administrators, 2020). The increasingly diverse
landscape of California public schools represents a need for leadership that reflects the student
population served. This study sought to evaluate the influences that impact the recruitment,
retention, and advancement of Latina educational leaders into K-12 school district superintendent
positions in California.
Organizational Context and Mission
The context of this evaluation was the state of California, which served as the field of
study. According to the California Department of Education (2020), its mission is to "prepare
students to live, work, and thrive in a multicultural, multilingual, and highly connected world"
(p. 1). Yet, according to the most recent statistics collected by one of the state's leading
professional organizations for administrators, Latinx superintendents are in the minority in terms
of representation, with Latinas being the least represented in this group (ACSA, 2020). While
there has been a national focus over the past 20 years on advancing the Latinas academic
persistence and success, the rates of Latinas persisting in teaching positions and finding success
in the ranks of education administration are not growing proportionally to their White
2

counterparts (Gándara, 2015). This challenge of Latina underrepresentation is magnified in a
state in which Latinas represent approximately 18% of the total population.
Organizational Performance Goal
Through a review of literature and research, the challenges Latinas faced on the pathway
to the role of superintendent are not well documented. The context of this study was California’s
educational system, in which students of Latin descent are in the majority but the struggles of
leaders of Latin descent are not widely studied and published about.
In California, Latinx students comprise the statistical majority of school enrollment. This
study explored the concept that increasing Latinas’ representation as school district leaders will
increase equity and access for Latinx school-aged students. The previous assertion is based on
the findings of Gershenson et al. (2018) related to the benefit of students of color having teachers
in the classroom who look like them. This study evaluated the knowledge, motivational, and
organizational factors that accelerate or impede the leadership trajectory of a Latina educational
leader on the path to the role of superintendent. As such, the organizational goal outlined in this
study is to increase the representation of Latinas as K-12 school district superintendents from the
current total of 4.9% to 10% of the total California superintendent population by the end of 2021.
The goal is rooted in the current demographics of the state’s superintendents. According
to the Association of California School Administrators (2020), 107 of the 855 superintendents in
are of Latin descent, representing 12.5% of the total population. When this percentage is
narrowed down by gender, Latinas represent 4.9% of superintendents. The number of Latinas in
the superintendency varies significantly from the number of Latinas in the principalship:11.8%.
White women not of Latinx descent comprise 31.3% of principalships and 26.1% of
superintendencies (ACSA, 2020).
3

Related Literature
An examination of literature in the field of study reveals that Latinas’ pathway to the role
superintendency varies from that of their White male and female counterparts. This review of
research from the fields surfaces the challenges that Latinas face due to their intersectional
identities of identifying as female, and as an ethnic minority of Latinx descent. The literature
review evolves to further examine the shifting role of the superintendent, and the need for
Latinas as school district superintendents.
Quilantán and Menchaca-Ochoa (2004) identified Latina superintendents as twice
minorities because, in addition to facing the challenges of being a woman aspiring to the
superintendency, they meet additional challenges as candidates of a minority background. The
challenge of selection is not due to a lack of preparation or qualification but is the result of
outside influences that impact preparation, advancement, and recruitment opportunities. The
researcher posits that the mere identification as a twice minority candidate impacts an
educational leader's chances of selection for the role of superintendent. Prolman (2019) refers to
this experience as double discrimination.
The challenge of being a twice minority candidate presents a complex maze of challenges
to navigate on the pathway to the superintendency as well as additional biases such as double
discrimination bias and affinity bias (Prolman, 2019). Ortiz (2000) outlines key factors to the
superintendent succession and the power dynamics of the selection process. This seminal
research describes what a woman in leadership must overcome to enter that succession line.
Through further examination, Ortiz emphasizes gaps in how women are supported in
recruitment, retainment, and advancement to the position of superintendent.
4

The role of superintendent emerged out of a need to establish a manager of the
schoolhouse and school functions. In its original inception, the superintendent leaned heavily on
a business and managerial role (Grogan, 2000). In the early 1900s, the role shifted to being seen
as the reformer who brings restructure and authority (Grogan, 2000), leading almost exclusively
to the selection of men for the role throughout the early and mid-20th century. As the political
climate shifted in the 1970s, it prompted a shift in the perception of the role from one of scholar-
practitioner to that of businessman, educational statesman, and political strategist (Grogan,
2000). The 21st century brought frequent education innovation, resulting in a shift in what is
expected from the superintendent to what is now characterized as transformational leadership
(Brunner & Kim, 2010).
Mahitivanichcha and Rorrer (2006) referenced the continued representation of men in the
superintendency and the underrepresentation of women as relating to the historical context of the
American labor market. The researchers expanded on the concept of a demand-side labor market,
emphasizing that educational administration has evolved to require education administrators to
demonstrate instant availability and be immune from family care responsibilities, which are
deemed to reflect the characteristics of a married male worker. The resulting implications
manifest in what the researchers referenced as sex-segregated patterns of hiring for secondary
principal roles and superintendent positions due to societal perceptions of the married male
administrator as being readily available and the married female administrator being bound to
stereotypical domestic roles (Mahitivanichcha & Rorrer, 2006).
Rodríguez (2019) found that Latina leaders, specifically Mexican American female
superintendents, face restricted access in terms of the types of districts they are selected to lead.
Furthermore, the researcher found that Latinas are not selected to lead districts where White
5

students are the majority; instead, they are selected to lead districts that are predominantly
populated with whose cultural background matches their own (Rodríguez, 2019). Due to barriers
to being selected to lead a broad range of districts, Latinas tend to be isolated from other Latina
superintendents, resulting in their significant underrepresentation in that position (Rodríguez,
2019).
Importance of the Evaluation
Simon et al. (2011) emphasized the importance of school-aged children having school
system leaders who represent them in terms of gender and ethnicity. Despite the increasing
percentage of Latinx students in public schools, the number of ethnically and culturally similar
positive, aspirational models as superintendents has not increased proportionally (ACSA, 2020;
Cubillo & Brown, 2003; Skrla et al., 2000). Engaging and evaluating Latinas’
underrepresentation in the superintendency creates clarity regarding challenges to achieving
gender and ethnic parity in the highest office in public school districts. In research on Latina
school leaders in Texas and California, Martinez et al. (2020) referenced the paucity of research
related to this population’s leadership experiences. A thorough review of literature and extensive
examination of publications revealed Latinas superintendents’ underrepresentation studied
mostly in dissertation research. There is significant under-documentation of accelerators and
barriers to advancement in scholarly peer-reviewed research. The under-documentation serves as
a key influence regarding the importance of this study to the field. García (2010) attributed the
scarcity of scholarly research related to Latina superintendents’ lived experiences to their small
numbers. García (2010) argued against these themes by asserting that this underrepresentation is
reason to increase the body of research to increase the visibility of Latina superintendents’
experiences. Wiebe (2017) further amplified the need for research into California’s Latina
6

superintendents to better understand their experiences to support increasing representation in the
role. Wiebe referenced the growing Latinx student population as being a catalyst for examining
representative leadership in California school districts.
Stakeholders and Stakeholders’ Performance Goals

Table 1
Organizational Mission, Global Goal, and Stakeholder Goals
Organizational Mission
California will provide a world-class education for all students, from early childhood to
adulthood. The Department of Education serves our state by innovating and collaborating
with educators, schools, parents, and community partners. Together, as a team, we prepare
students to live, work, and thrive in a multicultural, multilingual, and highly connected
world.
Organizational Performance Goal
The representation of Latinas as K-12 school district superintendents will increase from the
current total of 4.9% to 10% of the total California superintendent population by the end of
2021.
This goal is supported by the California Department of Education’s goal that by the end of
2021, the CDE will monitor and report the ethnic and gender demographics of
superintendents, and assess the efficacy of leaders in the superintendent pipeline.
Senior-Level
Latina Educational
Leaders

By the end of
2021, 30% of
Latina senior-level
educational leaders
will express they
feel adequately or
highly prepared to
pursue the position
of school district
superintendent.
School Districts

By the end of 2021,
20% of school
districts within the
state of California
will conduct an
equity audit of
administrator hiring
practices to ensure
equity in the
recruitment and
hiring of
administrators.
California State Board
of Education

By the end of 2021,
20% of Board of
Education members
in the state of
California will
participate in implicit
bias training to
increase awareness of
their biases that
contribute to barriers.
to hiring Latina
superintendents.
Professional Education
Service Organization

By the end of 2021,
one or more
professional education
service organizations
will develop and
implement a
leadership
development pipeline
to support the training
and promotion of
Latinas into the role of
superintendent.

7

Stakeholder for the Study and Stakeholder Performance Goal
The stakeholder group at the center of this study consists of Latina educational leaders.
There is a paucity of research on the underrepresentation of Latinas in the role of superintendent,
which amplifies the need to examine the broader challenges of their recruitment, retainment, and
advancement. The leaders of focus are Latinas who by the nature of their role and title, are on the
path to the role of superintendent. They are individuals serving in the role of executive director
and beyond. The study did not include Latinas who have served as school district
superintendents.
The stakeholder goal is that, by the end of 2021, 30% of senior-level Latina educational
leaders will express they feel adequately or highly prepared to pursue the position of school
district superintendent. This goal is supported by the California Department of Education’s goal
that, by the end of 2021, it will monitor and report the ethnic and gender demographics of
superintendents and assess the efficacy of leaders in the superintendent pipeline. Failure to
complete this goal will result in the continued lack of a system to monitor and measure the
preparation of historically underrepresented gender and ethnic groups for, and their access to, the
superintendency. It will inhibit the state from increasing the representation of Latinas to 10% of
superintendents.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this study was to engage in a gap analysis to examine the root causes of
Latinas’ underrepresentation as school district superintendents by evaluating the recruitment,
retainment, and advancement of K-12 Latina educational leaders into the role. The analysis
focused on factors contributing to this problem as a result of gaps in knowledge, skills,
motivation, and organizational influences. The gap analysis began by reviewing the literature to
8

develop a list of possible causes and influences. The questions that guided this study are as
follows:
1. What is the Latina leader’s knowledge and motivation related to the role of
superintendent with the goal of increasing the representation of Latinas as K-12 school
district superintendents to 10% of the total superintendent population by the end of 2021?
2. What knowledge, motivation and organizational factors does a prospective Latina
superintendent need to possess to become qualified for consideration as a school district
superintendent?
3. What are the knowledge, motivational and organizational recommendations?
Methodological Framework
The methodological framework used for this study was Clark and Estes’s (2008)
knowledge, motivation, organization (KMO) gap analysis framework. This researcher leveraged
the KMO framework to investigate the disproportionate underrepresentation of Latinas in the
superintendency. The KMO framework (Clark & Estes, 2008) afforded the opportunity to
examine the knowledge barriers, motivational influences, and organizational barriers that
contribute to the systemic oppression of Latina females aspiring to the role of superintendent.
This study utilized a process of purposive and network sampling of senior-level Latina
leaders working in a range of school districts across the state. The evaluation began with the
development of a list of potential influences based in the literature review. Then, semi-structured
interviews were conducted. Interview transcripts were analyzed to extract emerging themes,
assets and needs related to each of the influences.

9

Definitions of Terms
• Gap Analysis is the process of analyzing current and actual performance with the desired
performance to provide an accurate perspective of how to develop an approach to moving
from the current levels of performance to a desired future state (Clark & Estes, 2008).
• Intersectionality is a framework that asserts that a range of social categories and
constructs including race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic status
intersect with an individual’s experiences that link to societal systems of oppression and
privilege (Bowleg, 2012).
• Latina refers to a woman or girl of Latin American origin living in the United States
(Merriam-Webster, 2002).
• Superintendency refers to serving in the role of a school district’s senior-most leadership
role, that of the superintendent (Grogan, 1996).
• Women of Color refers to individuals who self-identify as female and also self-identify as
having a traditionally marginalized racial/ethnic identity that is not of Western European
descent which includes but is not limited to individuals of Black, Indigenous, Latinx,
Asian, and other racial/ethnic backgrounds (Linder & Rodríguez, 2012).
Organization of the Study
This is a structured five-chapter study. The first chapter outlines the problem of practice
is outlined, defines key concepts, and presents the significance of the study. Chapter Two
presents historical context, current literature related to the influences within the study, and data
to expand on the scope and significance of the problem of practice. Subject matter about
knowledge influences, motivational factors, organizational challenges, and influences is
developed through Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis framework and through the
10

presentation of current literature. Chapter Three includes a detailed account of the process for
data collection and analysis. Chapter Four presents the results of the data analysis and a
summary of findings. Chapter Five presents the findings with recommendations based on data
analysis to address any gaps in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
(Clark & Estes, 2008).

11

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
The literature review in Chapter Two examines the influences surrounding the
underrepresentation of Latinas as K-12 school district superintendents. The literature review
begins with a general discussion of public perceptions of leadership, the role of the
superintendent, and the historical marginalization of Latinas. The gap analysis will identify the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences (Clark & Estes, 2008) that impact Latina
leaders’ recruitment, retention, and advancement to the superintendency.
Influences on the Problem of Practice
Leading While Female
The foundation for the literature review was an exploration of public perceptions of
women in leadership and the stereotypes and gender bias they encounter. The first section of this
chapter incorporates a review of the challenges women face in positions of leadership related to
public perception of leadership, stereotypes, and gender bias.
The underrepresentation of women of color in the superintendency elevates the need to
understand the limiting factors that female educational leaders face on the pathway to that
position. Through this introductory section, external perceptions of Latinas in leadership and
stereotypes they encounter paint a clearer picture of the impact of external influences on their
growth and advancement in educational leadership.
Public perceptions of leadership vary based on gender, resulting in genderized
stereotypes that impact Latina educational leaders’ progress. Cultural and professional norms
have created masculine myths about what a leader looks and sounds like, perpetuating gender
bias regarding the superintendency (Bjork, 2000). Gipson et al.’s (2017) research has outlined
that women possess traits like being communal, warm and collaborative, which are aligned with
12

a more facilitative and collaborative style. Despite possessing these desirable traits, senior-level
leadership positions across industry continue to be dominated by White men who think and
behave in a manner congruent with socially accepted masculine stereotypes of leadership.
Gipson et al. (2017) emphasize that genderized stereotypes of acceptable leader behavior are
rooted in White-male-dominant leadership traits related to what is deemed acceptable leader
behavior. Dresden et al. (2018) found that this stereotype threat manifests in certain male-
dominated occupations when male counterparts who are not as confident in their own leadership
see women in leadership positions as posing a gender threat to their advancement, leadership,
and dominance in the workplace. The research demonstrates that this is more prevalent when the
female leader shifts into a supervisory role over the male colleague (Dresden et al., 2018).
The phenomenon of men feeling threatened by women advancing into supervisory
leadership roles speaks to social role theory nested within role congruity theory (Eagly & Karau,
2002). Researchers assert that society holds socially acceptable behavior norms for each gender.
When women in leadership act in a manner perceived as not congruent with what society deems
the norm, they face prejudice and bias, as they are operating outside of the socially acceptable
norm for behavior based on gender (Eagly & Krau, 2002). Jardina and Burns (2016) build on the
concept of role congruity theory by noting that there has been a significant increase in the
number and percentage of college-educated women working in typically male-dominated fields.
Women in previously male-dominated occupations challenge gendered norms for acceptable
career aspirations and roles in the workforce (Jardina & Burns, 2016). Jardina and Burns’ work
emphasizes that, as a society, there has not been a significant evolution beyond social role theory
at work or in domestic life.

13

Stereotypes and Gender Bias
Women in the workplace encounter an invisible code of rules and norms. The lack of
evolution in perceived gender roles at home and at work further marginalizes women. Eagly and
Karau (2002) found the challenge of operating outside of the hegemonic norm is that women are
perceived less favorably than men, and women receive less favorable formal and informal
performance evaluations when leading in a manner aligned with masculine associated leadership
traits. Sandberg (2013) addressed the concept of prejudice and bias towards women in leadership
and advocated for banning the word bossy from descriptions of women in leadership. While this
Sandberg stopped short of calling out the systemic oppression women face, she spoke to the
concept of the struggles faced in pursuit of advancement and being seen as an equal. Works such
as Sandberg’s seek to combat the manifestations of stereotype threat and gender bias. Sandberg’s
argument surfaces the belief that women are more likely to encounter gender bias and prejudice,
impacting access to promotion when they behave in a manner not congruent with social norms
and stereotypes (Eagly & Karau, 2002).
Gender bias impacts female leaders’ self-efficacy to lead. As Dana et al. (2009)
emphasize, perceptions of male and female behavior are skewed to paint a more emotional and
less rational leadership style for women. The authors note that emotional expressions of
leadership, including anger, frustration, or compassion, are perceived differently for men and
women. Men in leadership who cry are viewed as compassionate and emotionally connected,
whereas a female leader who cries is deemed emotionally unstable, too sensitive, or ineffective.
The present and persistent nature of gender bias negatively impacts women in their pursuit of the
role of superintendent (Connell et al., 2015). The researchers determined that, while gender bias
toward leadership was blatant and overt in decades past, it was augmented over the past 10 years
14

to present in a subtle manner that is not as easily identifiable and even more difficult to detect
and report. The resulting impact on female leaders is an increase in anxiety and depression while,
which negatively impacts advancement.
Connell et al. (2015) revealed that the arc of gender bias towards women in leadership
moves beyond subtle expressions of bias through words; in its extreme form, it presents as
physical acts of intimidation and oppression that can result in extreme methods of intimidation
like unwanted physical touching. Clarke-Vivier and Stearns (2019) outline that instances of
unwanted physical touching and sexual harassment are under-documented in K-12 education,
especially among leaders. In a survey of 35 superintendents across California, female leaders
expressed that unwanted physical touching was the most frequent form of gender bias and gender
aggression they faced, and its frequency and significance are enough to trigger significant
emotional distress (Banuelos, 2008). These extremes are further evidence of the hegemonic
culture of leadership and reinforce the presence of gender bias and gender-based aggression.
The Superintendency
The second section of the literature review examines the superintendent as a leader and
influencer. Attention is given to the demographics historically associated with the role. The
review continues by determining what the literature says regarding the traditional pathway to the
superintendency.
Demographics of the Superintendency
The 2019–2020 study of superintendent salary and benefits by the School
Superintendents Association (AASA, 2020) reported that White individuals are the majority of
superintendents. Among women superintendents, 274, or 92.26%, identify as White, and 23, or
15

7.74%, identify as a race other than White. Among male superintendents, 882, or 93.04%,
identify as White, and 54, 6.43%, identify as a race/ethnicity other than White (AASA, 2020).
According to the Association of California School Administrators (ACSA, 2019), 42% of
superintendents (359) identify as female, and 56.84% identify as male. Further disaggregating
the ACSA data, 42 women, making up 4.9% of the state’s superintendents, identify as Latina,
whereas 224 (26.2%) identify as White women, and 300 (35%) identify as White men (ACSA,
2020).
In their research on the superintendency, Casserly et al. (2006) found that, although the
role of the superintendent has evolved over time, the composition of the superintendency in
urban school districts across the United States continues to be primarily male, with 70% of
individual surveyed identifying as men (37), 28% identifying as women (15) and 2% declining to
state. Success in the superintendency varies significantly based on gender and race (AASA,
2020). The data reveal significant differences in longevity, with 20% of superintendents of
Latinx descent serving six or more years, while more than 40% of their White counterparts have
held the role for more than six years (AASA, 2020). In addition to variances in gender
composition and longevity, the data demonstrate variances in superintendent selection for rural
versus urban districts as well as economically stable and non-economically stable districts. In the
2019–2020 AASA Superintendent Salary & Benefits Study, when self-reporting perceptions of
school districts’ economic conditions (on a scale of strong, stable, or declining economic
conditions), more than 32% of female superintendents reported the district they lead is in
economic decline as compared to 25% of male superintendents who reported the same (AASA,
2020). In terms of longevity, the data trends at a similar rate when reviewing the number and
percentage of individuals serving for less than one year, with only a couple of percentage points
16

of variance at that level (AASA, 2020). More women had served between one and five years in
the role, yet, as longevity increases, there is increased disparity with men serving in the 11- to
25- year range at a much higher rate than women. Currently, state and national data from AASA,
ACSA, and the California Department of Education (CDE) compare only two factors, such as
gender and race or gender and longevity, and do not triangulate the factors of gender, race and
longevity to examine disparities in length of service among women of color (AASA, 2020;
ACSA, 2019; CDE, 2020).
Pathway to Leadership’ Context and Conditions
As Gosmire et al. (2010) found, career paths and persistence in the role of superintendent
vary greatly between men and women. The traditional male pathway to the superintendency is
the progression from teacher to high school principal to superintendent (Robinson et al., 2017).
In contrast, the authors cite that the female pathway to the superintendency is progression from
teacher to elementary principal to central office director to superintendent.
In addition to variances in the pathway to promotion, leader selection is highly context-
specific (Gipson et al., 2017). Industry and role play a significant part in leader selection for
senior-level positions. Despite the fact that the education field is dominated by women, they are
not in the majority in the path to promotion to senior leadership. On the contrary, selection for
senior-level leadership positions, including the principalship, are context-specific (Gipson et al.,
2017). Men are sought out to lead healthy and thriving organizations, while women are sought
out for leadership during times of crisis (Smith, 2015).
There are differences in the time that women and men spend as teachers. Women have an
average of 10 more years of teaching experience than men, resulting in a delayed pursuit of
administrative roles (Young & McLeod, 2001). The average age at which a woman first becomes
17

a superintendent is 47, and the average age for a man is 43 years (Robinson et al., 2017). Women
spend an average of more than 10 years in the classroom (Robinson et al., 2017). While there,
women are more likely than men to be involved in roles that carry leadership responsibilities but
not leadership titles, as these are not formally viewed as leadership (Duevel et al., 2015).
Gosmire et al. (2010) connect this phenomenon to the historical origins of women entering the
workforce. The researchers assert that, because women were thrust into leadership in men’s
absence, the effects include a sudden assumption of leading versus a historically architected
pathway toward promotion, resulting in leadership being perceived as an afterthought for women
versus a right for men. This phenomenon has impacted women in pursuit of formal leadership
roles. The majority of female administrators do not intentionally pursue administrative positions;
instead they are serendipitously selected for the role. As a byproduct of not being intentionally
focused on advancement, female leaders tend to remain classroom teachers longer than their
male counterparts (Gosmire et al., 2010).
Latinas’ Representation in Education and as Superintendents
The third section of the literature review provides an examination of the representation of
Latinas in education and educational leadership. It includes a discussion of accelerators and
barriers to progress. The final component of this section reviews the presence of Latina
superintendents.
The National Education Association’s (2020) report on Hispanic demographics states that
there are 41.8 million Americans of Latinx descent, equating to 14.2% of the nation's total
population. Approximately 80% of the nation's Latinx Americans live in California, Texas,
Florida, New York, Illinois, Arizona, New Jersey, Colorado, and New Mexico. According to the
California Latino Economic Institute (2017), the number of Latinas in California is 7.4 million,
18

which is approximately 18% of the state’s total population. Despite its relatively high numbers,
the group continues to be underrepresented in professions that require advanced educational
certifications (Gándara, 2015). Even in teaching, which is viewed as an access point for
individuals of minority background, Latinas are still widely underrepresented, as only 8.7% of
female teachers identify as Latinas. While one in four female students in the nation's schools is
Latina, a mere one in 12 female teachers is Latina.
The principalship serves as a gateway for both men and women in accessing the
superintendency. The pathway to both of these roles varies significantly based on the candidate’s
gender and ethnicity. According to the National Center for Educational Statistics, 23% of school
principalships were held by individuals identifying as not White (Taie, 2019). Women comprised
a higher percentage of principalships than men, with 54% of the positions being held by women.
Further review of the data revealed that female leaders held 67% of the primary school
principalships and only 33% of high school principalships, demonstrating a greater
representation of men in secondary school leadership. Mahitivanichcha and Rorrer (2006)
attributed these rates to androcentric bias, gender barriers, and masculine values associated with
structural discrimination related to the increased selection of men for secondary principalships
and the superintendency.
Tallerico (2000) noted that candidates for the superintendency have different starting
points or divergent paths that either set them up for being selected for the position or hinder their
selection. Women and individuals of color face additional barriers to advancement due to
systemic biases and cultural exclusion. Martinez et al. (2016) discussed the presence of systemic
bias in the example of Latinx superintendents being predominantly hired in districts that are
urban, rural, or along the United States' border with Mexico.
19

According to Rodríguez (2019), the number of Latina superintendents, while increasing,
is not growing at a rate proportionate to the increase of Latinx students in American schools. The
researcher's discussion highlights that the challenge women of color face in being selected for the
superintendency goes beyond gender and emerges as a discussion of the "politics of fit." The
conversation around fit in this context takes on a unique tone when the only differing
characteristic between a Latina and her White female counterpart is race. Furthermore,
Rodríguez noted that one of the challenges for Latinas is grounded in second-wave Chicana
feminism, in that the Latina leader is no longer stereotyped as passive but is, instead, typed as
assertive and strong. This shifted perspective and style goes against White hegemonic norms of
leadership, further marginalizing Latinas and creating barriers to access. Latina leaders are one
of the most underrepresented minority groups in the superintendency, and, as such, their success
in accessing the position relies on much more than merely being qualified (Muñoz et al., 2014;
Quinlantan & Menchaca-Ochoa, 2004).
Research in California related to the underrepresentation of Latinas in the Central Valley
superintendency found that Latina superintendents referenced multiple barriers to accessing the
position related to stereotypes, personal insecurities, work life balance, and the Good Ol’ Boys
System (Cano, 2019). In addition, Latinas were 2.9% of superintendents despite the majority of
the area’s students being Latinx (Cano, 2019).
Wiebe’s (2017) found Latina superintendents in California faced representational and
structural intersectionality based on biased expectations of them due to stereotypes. The
participants’ narratives discussed feeling the need to prove themselves, having others blow small
mistakes out of proportion, and facing significant judgment (Wiebe, 2017). Structural
intersectionality manifested as discrimination, lack of access to appropriate resources for
20

preparation and support, and educational barriers when working to acquire the English language
(Wiebe, 2017). The barriers related to androcentric and gender bias, divergent pathways of
leadership, representational and structural intersectionality, and lack of access to resources
supports the importance of this research in providing access and opportunity to Latinas in
educational leadership (Mahitivanichcha & Rorrer, 2006; Tallerico, 2000; Wiebe, 2017).
Conceptual Framework
Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis framework allows for understanding the
organization’s current status through the lens of the knowledge factors, motivational factors, and
organizational barriers. By engaging with a modified gap analysis related to the problem of
practice, this researcher leveraged the model to examine knowledge, motivation and organization
gaps emerging as a result of the organization’s culture, current goals, and achievement.
The organizational context for this research is the state of California, and the focus is on
the conditions related to Latina leaders’ rate of promotion to the superintendency. While the state
is not the entity responsible for hiring superintendents, the problem of practice is not isolated to
one area of the state, resulting in the need to examine the statewide system. The need to disrupt
the current system can be evidenced by State Superintendent Tony Thurmond’s call to action in
June of 2020 to address implicit biases and institutional inequities in education (CDE, 2020).
Additional elements of the organization's culture can be found through the California School
Boards Association’s website and their statement on equity (CSBA, 2019), which emphasizes the
importance of addressing discrimination and disparities in achievement. The CDE and the
California School Boards Association explicitly mention a need to address implicit bias,
discrimination, and systemic oppression in the education system. Due to the cultural context and
21

the influences impacted by this context, this study examined the influences contributing to the
perpetuation of the problem of practice.

Figure 1
Gap Analysis

Note. This figure was adapted from Clark and Estes (2008).

22

Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influence, Knowledge and Skills
The gap analysis approach is designed to analyze the organization of focus on the
problem of practice through three interconnected lenses of knowledge, motivation and
organization. Understanding the critical knowledge influences on the problem of practice and the
elements that contribute to gaps in knowledge will enable the development of research-based
solutions to these gaps (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Declarative Factual Knowledge Influences
Latina Educational Leaders Need to Know the Preparation Experiences That Are
Key to Accessing the Superintendency. Regarding knowledge preparation experiences on the
pathway to the superintendency, Grogan and Andrews (2002) found preparation programs that
include courses in law, finance, theory, research, systems work and organizational development
yield the most benefit. Furthermore, they found that support with building capacity related to
solving complex problems and leveraging coursework through opportunities for real-life
application were key preparation experiences. Goodman and Zimmerman (2000) found that
engagement in a program focused on collaborative leadership, school governance, teaching and
learning, child development, and staff and community engagement is a prerequisite for a strong
working relationship between a superintendent and school board.
Latina Educational Leaders Need to Know What a Mentor Is, the Characteristics of
an Effective Mentoring Relationship, and What Networking Is. Latina educational leaders
understand the mentor's role to teach, advise, guide, and train them in the pursuit of the
superintendency (Muñoz et al., 2017). By connecting with veteran administrators, they will
understand the long-term positive impacts of leveraging the mentoring relationship in their
preparation for advancement. Additionally, they will know the characteristics of an effective
23

mentor to help them select one. Latina educational leaders will know that mentoring can be
formal or informal and can also be spontaneous (Copeland & Calhoun, 2014). They will
understand the function of mentoring as a support structure for capacity-building and can be
engaged at any stage of the journey.
To build their understanding of leveraging social capital, Latina education leaders
understand that networking activities provide an opportunity for socialization and interaction in a
manner that supports job advancement (Helms et al., 2016). Networking will be seen as an
opportunity to move beyond homosocial interactions to seek out professional, formal and
informal socialization opportunities to establish a broader social network.
Latina Educational Leaders Need to be Able to Describe How Male Privilege and
Systemic Oppression Impact Women in Pursuit of Promotion and Advancement. Women in
pursuit of advancement face systemic oppression in terms of expectations related to workload,
working patterns, and others’ perceptions of women who pursue advancement while balancing
their domestic status (Sherman et al., 2010). Women in pursuit of advancement understand the
potentially polarizing organizational climate they face on the path to advancement.
Conceptual Knowledge Influences
Latina Educational Leaders Need to Understand the Relationship Between Race,
Identity, and Leadership. The intersections of race, gender, and leadership have unique
implications for Latina educational leaders who may have engaged in leadership preparation
programs focused on stereotypically White-male-dominant leadership styles. Kezar and Lester
(2010) found Latina educational leaders understand there is a relationship between their gender,
their race, and how they lead. They also understand that how they lead will evolve and shift
24

through their leadership journey in relation to changes in social, community, and workplace
dynamics.
Latina Education Leaders Need to Know the Difference Between Mentorship and
Sponsorship as Well as the Benefits of Each. By developing a thorough factual understanding
of what mentoring is, Latina educational leaders understand that sponsorship moves beyond the
coaching, training, and advising that are characteristic of mentoring and shifts into influence and
advocacy to support them in intentional career advancement (Helms et al., 2016). Understanding
that mentoring can occur at any stage of the leadership journey, sponsorship is leveraged most
when advancing into senior-level roles. As Helms et al. (2016) cite, the leader understands that
the mentor’s primary function is teaching while sponsorship is designed to be leveraged. The
focus of mentoring is on supportive structures for knowledge development, while the function of
sponsorship is leveraging the relationship and the sponsor’s network to increase the mentee’s
visibility, viability, and opportunity.
Procedural Knowledge Influences
Latina Educational Leaders Need to Identify the Sequence of Appropriate Role
Experiences to Have Before Promoting to the Superintendency. For Latina educational
leaders, a procedural knowledge influence includes identifying and participating in appropriate
role experiences prior to seeking the superintendency. Robinson et al. (2017) outline that the
traditional superintendency trajectory for women is serving as a teacher, principal, central office
leader, and, subsequently, superintendent. Identifying these role experiences provides clarity
related to the pathway to the superintendency.
Latina Educational Leaders Need to Follow Best Practices to Select a High-Quality
Mentor to Support Their Professional Growth. An additional procedural knowledge influence
25

for senior-level Latina educational leaders is the ability to seek out best practices before selecting
of a mentor in support of her seeking the superintendency. Best practices that guide mentor
selection are understanding a mentor’s essential attributes, cultivating the mentoring relationship,
and seeking a mentor who will provide both emotional support and career preparation (Copeland
& Calhoun, 2014).
Metacognitive Knowledge
The metacognitive knowledge influence assessed was that Latina educational leaders
need to reflect on potential barriers to access and success in the superintendency. Latina
educational leaders must understand the accelerators and barriers to reaching the
superintendency (Davis & Bowers, 2019). They need to demonstrate the ability to reflect on
current barriers or accelerators related to gender, ethnicity, role experiences, and district needs
(Robinson et al., 2017).
Table 2 shows the stakeholders’ influences and the related literature.

26

Table 2
Summary of Assumed Knowledge Influences on Stakeholder’s Ability to Achieve the
Performance Goal

Assumed Knowledge Influences Research Literature
Declarative Factual
Latina educational leaders need to know the
preparation experiences that are key to accessing the
superintendency.
Grogan & Andrews (2002); Goodman
& Zimmerman (2000)
Latina educational leaders need to know what a
mentor is and know what a networking activity is.
Muñoz, Pankake, Mills, & Simonsson
(2017); Copeland &Calhoun (2014);
Helms, Arfken & Bellar, 2016
Latina educational leaders need to be able to describe
how male privilege and systemic oppression impact
women in pursuit of promotion and advancement.
Sherman, Beaty, Crum, & Peters
(2010)
Declarative Conceptual
Latina educational leaders need to understand the
relationship between race, identity and leadership.
Kezar & Lester (2010)

Latina education leaders need to know the difference
between mentorship and sponsorship as well as the
benefits of each.
Helms et al. (2016)
Procedural
Latina educational leaders need to identify the
sequence of appropriate role experiences to have
before promoting to the superintendency.
Robinson et al. (2017)
Latina educational leaders need to follow best
practices to select a high-quality mentor to support
their professional growth.
Howard et al. (2017)
Assumed Knowledge Influences Research Literature
Metacognitive
Latina educational leaders reflect on potential
barriers to access and success in the role of
superintendent.
Davis & Bowers (2019); Robinson et
al. (2017)
27

Motivation
The examination of motivational influences provides context into Latina leaders’
behaviors and dispositions on the pathway to the superintendency (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Through a review of influences related to motivation, this study sought to frame the emotional
and psychosocial implications of the leadership journey on the decision to opt into or out of the
leadership pathway (Elliot et al., 2013).
Value. The concept of value in the literature review is aligned with expectancy-value
theory (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000), which consists of the domains of attainment value, intrinsic
value, utility value, and cost value. Attainment value and utility value are two of the motivation
influences explored through this study to examine the impact the attainment of specific roles and
the perceived utility of specific role experiences, preparation activities, and learning have on the
Latina leaders motivation to continue on the pathway to the superintendency.
The influence related to value was that Latina educational leaders need to value the role
of mentoring, sponsorship and professional networking in their personal preparation for the role
of superintendent. In a study of women superintendents, mentorship, sponsorship, and
networking emerged as requirements for the role (Wallace, 2015; Helms et al., 2016). The
examination of literature found that female superintendents place an inherent utility value on the
role of mentorship and sponsorship (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). By examining the role of cost
versus utility value, female superintendents who purport mentorship and sponsorship as
necessary demonstrate that attainment value, utility value, and intrinsic value outweigh financial
costs and effort (Wigfield et al., 2017). The utility value explored through this study was the
value participants place on role experiences and the value assigned to particular ones.
Furthermore, attainment value was evaluated through the value that participants placed on the
28

role of superintendent. Gathering information regarding the types of opportunities and impact
that will occur as a result of role attainment created clarity around the culminated intrinsic value
that each participant placed on the role (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Self-Efficacy. Bandura (2006) outlines that the concept of self-efficacy is rooted in an
individual’s confidence and belief in their ability to control their motivation, behavior, and social
environment to produce a desired outcome. The purpose of including self-efficacy within this
literature review is to examine the extent to which participants exhibited self-efficacy in their
pursuit of the role of school district superintendent.
The influence related to self-efficacy is that Latina educational leaders need to feel
confident about their ability to secure leadership roles that are key access points to the
superintendency. Polka et al. (2008) highlight the impact that shifting social, political and
economic conditions have on the longevity of the female superintendent’s tenure, public
perception, some female superintendents’ feeling like victims of circumstance. These feelings
compound in the face of discrimination and bias, leading to feelings of isolation and loneliness.
Kurtz-Costes and Woods (2017) address this by stating that and individual experiences
diminishing feelings of competence which impact motivation and self-efficacy. Individuals in
the same leadership positions who exhibited increased self-confidence demonstrated increased
resilience, persistence and self-efficacy This demonstrates the impact of self-efficacy on the
ability to overcome negative public perceptions and shifting socio-political conditions that
threaten tenure. Harris (2007) found encouragement from other female superintendents
contributed to other women feeling the role is attainable. Seeing other Latinas in the role elicits
positive achievement and attainment emotions, increasing self-efficacy and motivation.
29

Conversely, the lack of representation of women of color in the role serves as a negative
reinforcing loop that diminish self-confidence.
Attribution. Weiner’s attribution theory of emotion and motivation (Perry & Hamm,
2017) builds on the concept of attribution related to locus of causality by exploring to what
extent a leader attributes their success or failure to factors that are inside of or outside of their
control (Weiner, 1972). Locus of causality is viewed through internal and external
perspectives. In the context of internal locus of causality, an individual attributes achievement
to something in their control. External locus of causality is when an individual views
achievement as outside of their control (Weiner, 1972). The significance of attribution in
relation to senior-level Latina educational leaders is the extent to which they view
advancement and achievement as a product of internal versus external locus of causality.
The attribution-related influence examined here is that Latina educational leaders need to
believe their success or failure in roles that are key access points to the superintendency is in
their control. Montas-Hunter (2012) found that, for a Latina to survive and thrive in a leadership
role, she must feel her leadership style aligns with her identity and culture. Dweck and Molden
(2017) emphasize the role of attributions on achievement, persistence, and ongoing effort. As
Dweck and Yeager (2017) outline, an individual’s mindset regarding their ability to gain
competence as within their control is a malleable mindset, also referred to as a growth mindset.
In contrast, individuals who view their intelligence as something they cannot change or improve
demonstrate a fixed mindset. Dweck and Yeager additionally found that an individual’s
orientation toward a growth mindset related to their intelligence and competence results in
increased effort toward a goal as well attributing goal attainment to personal success. This
phenomenon draws a clear connection between a growth mindset and attributing advancement
30

and promotion to one’s locus of control. The Latina leader must possess a growth mindset when
approaching roles on the pathway to superintendency.
Table 3 shows the stakeholder’s influences and the related literature.

Table 3

Summary of Assumed Motivation Influences on Stakeholder’s Ability to Achieve the Performance
Goal

Assumed Motivation Influences Research Literature
Value
Latina educational leaders need to value the role
of mentoring, sponsorship and professional
networking in their personal preparation for the
role of superintendent.
Wallace (2015); Helms et al. (2016);
Wigfield et al. (2017)
Self-Efficacy
Latina educational leaders need to feel positive
about their ability to secure leadership roles that
are key access points to the role of
superintendent.
Polka et al. (2008); Turner (2002); Kurtz-
Costes & Woods (2017); Harris (2007);
Bandura (2006)
Attribution
Latina educational leaders need to believe their
success or failure in roles that are key access
points to the role of superintendent is in their
control.
Montas-Hunter (2012); Dweck & Molden
(2017)

31

Organization
Analyzing the organizational factors that influence Latina leaders in their pursuit of the
role of superintendent builds context regarding conditions, culture, resources, and supportive
structures that accelerate or erect barriers along the pathway to promotion (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Examining these influences through the perspective of gap analysis provides a greater
understanding of the benefit of their presence and the impact of their absence in participants’
pursuits.
Resources. Clark and Estes (2008) identify that an organization and its employees need
materials, supplies, equipment, and additional resources to move the organization towards its
goals. Resources can come in the form of human capital, fiscal, time, research, materials, and
capacity-building. The following organizational influence and literature explore the purposes
behind the need for resources to support senior-level Latina educational leaders progress to the
superintendency. This literature review examines that impact of time, funding, and research as
essential resources.
Time and Funding Needed for Leadership Development. In reviewing available
superintendent preparation academies through ACSA, AASA, and the California Association of
Latino School Administrators (CALSA), each program relies on a significant time commitment.
Academy programs range in length from five days to 14 days over the school year. Additionally,
a wide range of leadership development offerings require partial or full days away from primary
responsibilities, which impacts the ability to participate in these offerings.
In a review of professional administrator organizations throughout the state, while
supplemental leadership academies and training programs are available for administrators to gain
32

preparation, each program has a significant cost. While some school districts offset these
academies’ costs, this is not a consistent practice, leaving the financial burden on the participant.
Research Needs to be Available That Provides Insight Into the Manner in Which
Latinas Access and Persist in the Superintendency. An examination of literature and case
studies revealed Latinas in leadership are largely absent (Méndez-Morse, 2000). While this is
partially due to the lack of representation, it reveals a lack of resources directed to exploring the
issues surrounding their absence. The lack of scholarly research on Latinas preparing for and
succeeding in the superintendency perpetuates a narrative of exclusion. Méndez-Morse (2000)
outlines that this lack of scholarly research and study is negligent and exclusionary. Increasing
research on the Latinas’ path serves to increase access to the position and serves as a framework
for developing a pathway to leverage throughout the leadership journey.
Policies, Procedures, and Processes. Clark and Estes (2008) cite that the presence or
lack of alignment of policies, processes, and procedures impacts how individuals at the
organization move toward the desired organizational outcomes. Furthermore, the authors outline
that examining policies, procedures, and processes provides clarity about the culture that is
embedded in the organization. The following organizational influence and literature explore the
need for policies, procedures, and processes to support senior-level Latina educational leaders’
progress.
The influence examined here is that policies, procedures, and processes need to be in
place to support equitable hiring practices related to roles that are access points to the
superintendency. The principalship has been deemed through research as essential on the
pathway to the superintendency. Therefore, it serves as a filter for the higher position (Young &
McLeod, 2001). Schlueter and Walker (2008) outline the importance of policies, procedures, and
33

processes aligned with a philosophy of second-order change when hiring school principals. The
researchers emphasize that how principals are selected and the values espoused during the
selection process impact the system’s ability to adapt to complex second-order change,
specifically as it relates to addressing students’ achievement disparities (Schlueter & Walker,
2008). In their review of principal selection criteria across districts, the authors found that, while
districts espoused the need to hire principals who can lead complex second-order change, the
criteria used for selection related primarily to professional characteristics versus qualities
associated with change agents (Schlueter & Walker, 2008). As Young and McLeod (2001)
emphasize that the principalship is essential role to attaining the superintendency, policies and
processes for principal hiring that align with a focus on change agency will increase access and
opportunity to a subset of leaders that may lack some of the typically acceptable qualities of a
principal.
Cultural Models and Cultural Settings. Reviewing literature associated with cultural
models provides the ability to determine the extent to which the cultural setting/environment
impacts Latina leaders’ progress toward the superintendency (Clark & Estes, 2008). In this study,
cultural models were examined through the lens of participants’ belonging to a specific ethnic
group and the impact of cultural norms and identity on how they acclimated to the male-
dominant leadership environment. Additionally, the literature associated with cultural models
surfaces how associations and social constructs within groups serve as accelerators or barriers to
advancement.
Examination of cultural settings related to the organizational culture included school
districts and the state of California, which served as the field of study. As Clark and Estes (2008)
note, patterns of organizational culture become engrained over time and surface in how the
34

organization functions as well as in the policies, procedures, and processes that become part of
its culture. The literature in this study examines the aspects of organizational culture that create
accelerators or barriers to participants’ pursuit of the superintendency.
The influence related to cultural models and settings is that Latina Leaders in pursuit of
the superintendency need to be aware of the barriers they face in environmental culture and
organizational group culture. Polka et al. (2008) found that females pursuing the superintendency
face barriers related to organizational and group culture. The authors found that, due to male-
dominant cultural models of networking, mentoring and association, female leaders are excluded
from informal opportunities for socialization and networking through the cultural construct of the
“good ole boys network” as well as gender bias in the screening and selection process due to
cultural models held by the individuals in charge of selection.
Table 4 shows the stakeholder’s influences and the related literature.

35

Table 4
Summary of Assumed Organizational Influences on Stakeholder’s Ability to Achieve the
Performance Goal

Assumed Organization Influences Research Literature
Resources
Time is needed for leadership development.

Need for funding allocated for leadership
development.
Muñoz et al. (2014)
Research needs to be available that provides
insight into the manner in which Latinas access
and persist in the superintendency.
Méndez-Morse (2000)

Policies, procedures, and processes
Policies and processes need to be in place to
support equitable hiring practices related to roles
that are access points to the role of superintendent.
Schlueter & Walker (2008)
Assumed Organization Influences Research Literature
Cultural models and cultural settings
Latina leaders in pursuit of the superintendency
need to be aware of the barriers they face in
environmental culture and organizational group
culture.
Polka et al. (2008)

Summary
The review of literature surfaced the knowledge, motivational and organizational
influences that serve as accelerators and barriers to the promotion of senior level Latina leaders
to the position of school district superintendent. The themes surfaced through the literature
served as a foundational aspect of this study as it provided clarity regarding the lived experiences
of senior level Latina educational leaders. The aforementioned knowledge, motivation and
36

organizational influences impact the mobility and promotional opportunity of Latina leaders on
the pathway to the superintendency. These influences were explored using the data collection
tools outlined in Chapter Three to examine the extent to which they currently impact
participants’ lived experiences.

37

Chapter Three: Methodology
The purpose of this study was to engage in a gap analysis to examine the root causes of
the underrepresentation of Latinas as school district superintendents by evaluating their
recruitment, retainment, and advancement into that role. The analysis focused on factors
contributing to this underrepresentation as a result of gaps in knowledge, skills, motivation, and
organizational influences (Clark & Estes, 2008). The gap analysis began by reviewing the
literature to develop a list of possible causes and influences. Three questions guided the gap
analysis:
1. What is the Latina leader’s knowledge and motivation related to the role of
superintendent with the goal of increasing the representation of Latinas as K-12 school
district superintendents to 10% of the total superintendent population by the end of 2021?
2. What knowledge, motivation and organizational factors does a prospective Latina
superintendent need to possess to become qualified for consideration as a school district
superintendent?
3. What are the knowledge, motivational and organizational recommendations?
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
Leveraging Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis framework allowed the researcher to
examine the organization through the lens of the KMO influences to address performance gaps at
the organization (Clark & Estes, 2008). The researcher utilized the KMO model to examine
knowledge, motivation and organization gaps that emerged as a result of the organization’s
culture, current goals, and achievement. The gap analysis framework (Clark & Estes, 2008) was
adapted and applied to examine the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
impacting the stakeholder group of focus.
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Assessment of Performance Influences
A critical aspect of the gap analysis was identifying the causes of performance gaps
related to knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors (Clark & Estes, 2008). Examination
of the cause in these areas provided clarity on their impact on participants’ pursuit of the
superintendency. Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis was adapted to focus on the
organization’s culture to provide clarity about gaps in the system and the cultural factors that
influence it.
Knowledge Assessment
The gap analysis was designed to analyze the organization’s problem of practice through
three interconnected lenses: knowledge, motivation and organization. Understanding the critical
knowledge influences on the problem of practice and the elements that contribute to gaps in
knowledge yielded research-based solutions in response to identified gaps (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Declarative Factual Knowledge Assessment
To assess declarative factual knowledge, this study sough to understand whether Latina
educational leaders can describe how male privilege and systemic oppression impact women in
pursuit of promotion and advancement. Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) emphasized that
declarative factual knowledge relates to low cognitive demand and relies on recall of facts,
specific details, and elements. The researchers recommended using questions to support recall of
essential knowledge from long-term memory by verifying information or involving low
embedding, which relates to recalling a task or isolated event. Through the interview questions,
the researcher evaluated individual declarative factual knowledge related to specific details and
elements that connect to interviewees’ potentially polarizing experiences.
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Procedural Knowledge Assessment
To assess procedural knowledge, this study sought to discern whether Latina educational
leaders identify appropriate role experiences to have before promoting to the superintendency.
Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) recommended asking participants to demonstrate their
knowledge of processes, routines, or sequences. Procedural knowledge questions allowed
interviewees to demonstrate conditionalized knowledge. Robinson et al. (2017) highlighted the
traditional leadership trajectory and essential role experiences for women pursuing the role of
superintendent. A sequence of questions focused on the process of advancement, essential role
experiences, and recognition of when a role should be sought, as aligned with Clark and Estes’s
(2008) procedural knowledge influences. This line of questioning sough to elicit common
conceptions of the promotional pathway as well as gaps in knowledge regarding essential role
experiences.
Metacognitive Knowledge Assessment
To assess metacognitive knowledge, this study examined whether Latina educational
leaders reflect on potential barriers to access and success in the superintendency. Metacognitive
knowledge is grounded in awareness and self-knowledge (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). The
researcher gathered responses on strategic knowledge and delved into self-knowledge related to
opportunities, access, and success. Davis and Bowers (2019) identified specific accelerators and
barriers in terms of Latina leaders’ advancement to the role of superintendent. Through
structured interview questions, the researcher identified participants’ knowledge and gaps in
terms of these accelerators and barrier. Identifying participants’ knowledge related to access and
gaps was essential to developing a holistic view of their experiences. Table 5 provides an
overview of the methods used to assess knowledge influences and the interview questions asked.
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Table 5
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Method of Assessment
Assumed Knowledge Influences Interview Questions
Declarative Factual
Latina educational leaders need to be
able describe how male privilege and
systemic oppression impact women in
pursuit of promotion and advancement.

Can you please share any barriers or biases you
might have encountered as a Latina on the path to
the superintendency.
● Did you mitigate these barriers or biases?
If so, how?
Procedural
Latina educational leaders need to
identify appropriate role experiences to
have before promoting to the
superintendency.
From your perspective, how does an individual
get promoted into the role of school district
superintendent?
What do you believe an individual needs to know
to be prepared for the role of superintendent?
As you have expressed that you are on the
pathway to the superintendency, how do you plan
to approach preparing yourself to pursue a
superintendency?
Building off of the previous question related to
preparedness, what leadership experiences do you
feel have best prepared you for the role of
superintendent?
Metacognitive
Latina educational leaders need to reflect
on potential barriers to access and
success in the superintendency.
In the state of California, Latinas are the least
represented individuals in the role of
superintendent, some might say that ethnic
diversity in the superintendency isn’t important,
what do you think?
What do you believe the reasons are for the
underrepresentation of Latinas in the
superintendency?
Can you describe an ideal environment that
would support a Latina in promoting to the role of
superintendent?

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Motivation Assessment
Clark and Estes (2008) stated that motivation is the aspect of behavior that gets
individuals to shift from inaction to action and impacts the amount of effort dedicated to achieve
a given task. Pintrich (2003) identified that motivation can be deconstructed into five distinct
families of achievement and motivation constructs: efficacy and competence beliefs, attribution,
intrinsic motivation, achievement value, and goals.
Self-Efficacy Assessment
Self-efficacy was assessed by examining whether Latina educational leaders feel
confident about their ability to secure leadership roles that are key access points to the
superintendency. Bandura (2006) stated that self-efficacy relates to an individual’s belief in their
capability to attain what they set out to attain. As there is no single measure to quantify self-
efficacy, efficacy beliefs can be elicited utilizing quantitative and qualitative methods of data
collection. In this study, the aspect of self-efficacy of focus was the participants’ confidence in
their ability to secure leadership roles that are access points to the superintendency. A structured
interview question and follow-up questions were asked to examine the connection between an
diminished feelings of competence and self-efficacy and leadership attainment (Kurtz-Costes &
Woods, 2017).
Attribution Assessment
To assess attribution, this study examined whether Latina educational leaders believe
their success or failure in roles that are key access points to the superintendency is in their
control. Weiner (1972) posited that attributions relate to causal search processes that consist of
three primary components related to locus of causality, stability, and controllability. Montas-
Hunter (2012) found that for a Latina to lead effectively, she must see the link between her
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leadership style, her effort, and her persistence. The examination of attribution provided the
researcher insight into the participants’ understanding of the locus of causality for success or
failure. Dweck and Molden (2017) expressed that attribution has a direct relationship with
achievement, persistence, and ongoing effort. Questions on attributions, understanding of locus
of causality, and controllability provided clarity in the analysis of gaps examined in this study.
Table 6 provides an overview of the methods used to assess the motivation influences as
well as the interview questions asked.

Table 6
Summary of Motivation Influences and Method of Assessment
Assumed Motivation Influences Interview Questions
Self-Efficacy
Latina educational leaders need to feel confident
about their ability to secure leadership roles that are
key access points to the superintendency.
To what degree do you feel
confident in your ability to
become a superintendent?
Follow-Up-
● What K-12 leadership
positions have you held?
● To what extent do you
feel these positions have
prepared you for the role
of superintendent?
Attribution
Latina educational leaders need to believe their
success or failure in roles that are key access points to
the superintendency is in their control.
What is your greatest success as
an assistant superintendent?
What do you attribute this to?
What is your greatest failure as
an assistant superintendent?
What do you attribute this to?

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Organization/Culture/Context Assessment
Clark and Estes (2008) asserted that effective organizations implement communication,
rewards, policies, procedures, and processes that drive its work in alignment with its goals.
While each aspect of the organizational influences added value, the influence of policies,
procedures, and processes surfaced as the aspect most closely linked with the current problem of
practice. Table 6 provides an overview of the methods that were used to assess the organizational
influences as well as the interview items that were implemented.
Policies, Procedures, and Processes Assessment
To assess policies and Processes, this study examined which of these were in place to
support equitable hiring practices related to roles that are access points to the superintendency.
Clark and Estes (2008) emphasized that, for an organization to be functional and effective, it is
necessary that organizational goals, policies, and processes be aligned. To validate alignment,
participants were asked about the presence of policies, procedures, and processes related to
hiring, equity, diversity, and inclusion. In their research on administrative hiring practices,
Schlueter and Walker (2008) emphasized the importance of aligning policies, procedures, and
processes with second-order change specifically related to addressing achievement disparities.
Asking participants to speak to the presence of and effectiveness of policies, procedures, and
processes such as these provided clarity into the organization’s strengths and gaps.
Cultural Models and Cultural Settings
To assess cultural models and settings, this study examined whether female leaders in
pursuit of the superintendency face barriers in environmental culture and organizational group
culture. Clark and Estes (2008) outlined that organizations develop different cultures over time
and that different groups may experience the organizational culture in different ways based on
44

cultural clashes and differing expectations. Polka et al. (2008) found that females pursuing the
superintendency faced barriers related to organizational and group culture. Participants
responded to questions related to their perception of the organizational culture as well as specific
experiences of encountering organizational cultural barriers related to group affiliation based on
gender and ethnicity. This information was essential to developing the organization's
organizational culture profile as it related to participants’ experiences.
Table 7 provides an overview of the methods used to assess the organizational influences
as well as the interview questions asked.

Table 7
Summary of Organization Influences and Method of Assessment
Assumed Organization Influences Interview Questions
Policies, processes, and procedures
Policies and processes need to be in place to
support equitable hiring practices related to roles
that are access points to the superintendency.
What policies or procedures exist
in your organization (if any) that
are focused on increasing diversity
and inclusion at the leadership
level?
● How effective do you think
these are?
● Why/why not?
Cultural models and cultural settings
Latina leaders in pursuit of the superintendency
need to be aware of the barriers they face in
environmental culture and organizational group
culture.
How would you describe the
organizational culture that you
navigate while leading?
As an administrator, to what extent
have you encountered
organizational culture barriers that
you believe are due to your gender
and ethnicity?

45

Participating Stakeholders and Sample Selection
The stakeholder group of focus for this study was senior-level Latina educational leaders
serving as executive directors, assistant superintendent, associate superintendent, chief academic
officer, or chief business officer in California public school districts.
Sampling
The survey was designed to be taken by cabinet-level Latinas leaders. The intent was to
select up to 13 interviewees. Interview participants with varying levels of experience and years
of service were included in the sample. The selected sample equates to approximately 50% of
the state population of Latina assistant superintendents in the state (ACSA, 2019). Participants
were selected through a blend of purposive sampling and may evolve into network sampling to
ensure a sufficient number of participants from a wide range of backgrounds (Johnson &
Christensen, 2019).
Recruitment
The sampling strategy began with purposive sampling of senior-level Latina educational
leaders who were CALSA members, the largest professional association of administrators who
identify as Latinx. After contacting everyone on CALSA’s list, the principal investigator
engaged in a broad-based internet search to review individual district websites to identify and
contact Latina leaders not included on the CALSA roster. Due to the slow response rate and after
exhausting the initial list of contacts, the principal investigator employed network sampling by
reaching out to a well-networked retired Latina superintendent who provided a list of leaders to
invite to participate. Through all three recruitment methods and by contacting 21 potential
participants, 13 respondents were interviewed. Invitations were extended through email utilizing
the approved recruitment letter and information sheet. Participants' recruitment resulted in the
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inclusion of leaders from Northern, Central, and Southern California in districts that ranged in
size and demographics.
Instrument: Interview Protocol
In alignment with Patton (2002), the interview protocol was developed as semi-
structured. The interview arch shifted from an introduction and opening questions to transition
questions and then settled into the main questions. Following that, additional transition questions
were followed by a conclusion. The interview protocol contained 17 questions, each aligned to a
research question. The study’s conceptual framework focused on the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences that impact Latina educational leaders’ recruitment, advancement,
and retention on the pathway to the superintendency. Each question was carefully developed to
explore a specific aspect of the conceptual framework.
In alignment with Merriam and Tisdell’s (2016) description of a structured interview, this
interview protocol was intentionally ordered to gather specific responses. The purpose of the
structured approach was to determine if the interview questions were sufficiently aligned to the
research questions without adding more questions during the interview. The researcher
determined a need to deviate slightly and adapt some of the questions to gain a deeper
perspective into the participants’ knowledge and motivational influences.
Data Collection
Following University of Southern California Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval,
participants were solicited via email through the University of Southern California. All
participants received an information sheet on the study that explained its purpose and procedures
and the interview’s focus. Scheduling occurred following receipt of participants’ consent. Each
47

interview occurred at a mutually agreed upon time, and a Zoom encrypted link was provided to
the interviewee to access the virtual interview platform.
Given the shelter-in-place guidelines due to COVID-19 during data collection,
interviews were held through an encrypted virtual video conference link in a Zoom personal
meeting room. Interviews were recorded with the participants’ consent and ranged in length
from 35 to 85 minutes. Interview audio files were uploaded to rev.com for secure and
confidential transcription. The researcher reviewed each interview to ensure the transcript
accurately captured its content and completed a review of each transcript to remove personally
identifiable information to ensure participants’ confidentiality.
Data Analysis
Prior to starting the interviews, the researcher engaged in a thorough examination of the
literature presented in Chapter Two to generate a list of a priori codes. Then, the researcher
developed an Excel codebook that outlined the a priori codes and then color-coded each item in
alignment with a corresponding influence from Clark and Estes’s (2008) KMO gap analysis
framework. Throughout the interviews, the researcher took note of codes that emerged and
added them into the codebook as open codes. The codebook was loaded into Atlas.ti version
8.4.5, and each code was associated by color with the aligned KMO influence.
As the principal investigator further refined the codebook, a priori and open codes were
grouped to reveal emerging axial codes aligned with the overarching influences and the KMO
influences. The researcher loaded each anonymized interview transcript into Atlas.ti for coding.
The researcher reviewed each transcript three times. The first review included the initial
identification of codes. The second review afforded the opportunity to add codes that may have
48

been overlooked during the first review. The third review was for the refinement and correction
of codes to ensure the associated content aligned with its designated code.
Following the thorough review of the interview transcripts for codes, the researcher
shifted to analyzing responses to determine the emergence of axial codes. Axial codes allowed
for organizing the interview data into themes to determine the extent to which they revealed
assets or needs related to the KMO influences.
Trustworthiness of Data
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) emphasize the importance of data triangulation to improve
reliability. To increase the trustworthiness, validity, and reliability of the responses, the
researcher triangulated the data. The school superintendent’s association (AASA) just released
its most recent study on the role of the superintendent (2020), and ACSA (2019) recently
published findings related to experiences and pathways to leadership. The second component for
triangulation was to calibrate interview findings against the literature review outlined in Chapter
Two. The third component of data triangulation was the qualitative data, themes, assets, and
needs that emerged as a result of engaging participants in a structured interview.
Role of Investigator
The investigator is a Latina educational leader on the pathway to the superintendency.
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) refer to this positionality as being an insider, which may surface
personal biases that, if not acknowledged, might influence the study’s outcomes. Additionally,
because the research participants are members of a historically oppressed group, it was important
to phrase questions so that the researcher conducted the interviews to produce a study with the
people, not of the people, as Merriam and Tisdell (2016) differentiate.

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Chapter Four: Results and Findings
The purpose of this study was to identify the knowledge, skills, and organizational
influences on senior-level Latina K-12 educational leaders’ advancement into the role of school
district superintendent. The study centered on a subset of senior-level Latina educational leaders
in the state of California. Recent data from ACSA (2019) outlines that there are approximately
26 Latinas serving in the role of assistant superintendent, or an equivalent title, statewide. A
complete study would have included all stakeholders; however, a representative sample of 13
senior-level Latina leaders was selected comprising 50% of all Latina assistant superintendents
in the state (ACSA, 2020). The following are the research questions framing this study:
1. What is the Latina leader’s knowledge and motivation related to the role of
superintendent with the goal of increasing the representation of Latinas as K-12 school
district superintendents to 10% of the total superintendent population by the end of 2021?
2. What knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors does a prospective Latina
superintendent need to possess to become qualified for consideration as a school district
superintendent?
3. What are the knowledge, motivational and organizational recommendations?
The process of data collection consisted of qualitative interviews facilitated through
Zoom video conferencing in a one-on-one format. Interviews occurred in increments of 35 to 85
minutes utilizing a semi-structured interview protocol. Prior to the analysis of interview
transcripts, a codebook was developed in alignment with influences that emerged from the
review of the literature. The influences and codes were aligned to Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap
analysis framework and the associated knowledge, motivation, and organization (KMO)
influences.
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The initial development of the codebook outlined a priori codes aligned to Clark and
Estes’s (2008) framework. This chapter will examine the influences, determining assets and
needs as they emerge from the interview transcripts. Findings from the interviews are
categorized by KMO influences in response to the needs outlined in Chapter Three.
Participating Stakeholders
Study participants were 13 senior-level Latina educational leaders serving at the level of
executive director or above in a public school district in California during the 2020–2021 school
year. Two participants served in elementary school districts, three served in high school districts,
and eight served in unified school districts. Two worked in the same school district, but none
were in a supervisory role over any other participant. To protect their identities, even those who
worked in the same district, pseudonyms were provided for all individuals. The participants
volunteered to be interviewed after receiving an email invitation from the principal investigator.
Confidentiality was maintained to not divulge which participants were from the same district,
and separate district pseudonyms were assigned to ensure their identities were not revealed. The
inclusion of individuals from a wide range of district sizes and demographics across the state
promoted a broad range of viewpoints to determine if trends and themes were unique to
geographic regions of the state or widespread in their occurrence.
Among participants’ job titles, one was an executive director, seven are assistant
superintendents, three are associate superintendents, and two held the title of chief/deputy. Their
years of experience in those roles varied from five months to five and a half years. Data on age
were not gathered, and all participants shared an ethnic background, as all identified as Latinas.
Interviews yielded a range of responses related to the desire to pursue the superintendency. Table
8 outlines the pseudonyms used for interviewees and their associated school district.
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Table 8
Participant Pseudonyms and District Names
Participant name
*pseudonym used
Participant district
*pseudonym used
Title
Angela Valley Elementary School District Assistant Superintendent
Carolina Pearl City Unified School District Chief of Instruction
Cristina Parkland Unified School District Deputy Superintendent
Laura Northland Unified School District Assistant Superintendent
Lucia Clairemont Unified School District Assistant Superintendent
Mari Mountain Unified School District Assistant Superintendent
Mariana West Coast Union High School District Assistant Superintendent
Paola Midcenter Unified School District Assistant Superintendent
Patricia Center Hill Union High School District Associate Superintendent
Sonia Santana Elementary School District Assistant Superintendent
Therese Promise Unified School District Associate Superintendent
Vianne Southland Union High School District Associate Superintendent
Yesenia Crescent Valley Unified School District Executive Director

Determination of Assets and Needs
The determination of assets and needs emerged from the analysis of qualitative data
captured through interviewing 13 senior-level Latina educational leaders in California public
school districts.
Data triangulation occurred by leveraging three sources of information. The first
component included the examination of data related to senior-level Latina educational leaders’
employment, which was accessible through the California Department of Education (CDE,
2020), ACSA (2020), and the California Latino School Administrators Association (CALSA,
2020). The second component of triangulation was a thorough review of literature available from
the field as outlined in Chapter Two. The third component of triangulation resulted from
qualitative data revealed through participant interviews conducted by the researcher.
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Prior to engaging in data analysis, the researcher reviewed the literature to facilitate
concept formation related to the emergence of themes across the literature in alignment with the
KMO influences (Clark & Estes, 2008). Following the literature analysis, the researcher
developed a codebook of a priori codes and noted their alignment with each of the KMO
influences to determine similarities in the data (Clark & Estes, 2008; Maxwell, 2012). Upon
review of the interview transcripts, additional axial and open codes were developed, and a coding
hierarchy was established to support the determination of themes from across the interviews. The
initial number of interviews planned was 10, but a review of transcripts revealed saturation had
not been reached. The researcher engaged in additional recruitment, resulting in the
incorporation of three additional interviewees who surfaced as a result of network sampling. The
final three interviews provided clarity to the themes, affording the researcher the opportunity to
determine assets and needs by influence.
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes
The results and findings are reported in alignment with each of the assessed KMO
influences evaluated in this study. Subsequently, categories that emerged from the literature are
aligned with each of the influences to expand the discussion to include similarity and contiguity-
based relations. The resulting analysis demonstrates the emerging themes, connections between
influences and categories, and an examination of the limitations of the research.
Factual Knowledge Influence
Latina educational leaders need to be able describe how male privilege and systemic
oppression impact women in pursuit of promotion and advancement. The construct of factual
knowledge relies on senior-level Latina leaders’ ability to demonstrate knowledge of basic facts,
information and terminology related to male privilege and systemic oppression. Additional
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concepts included in this section include participants’ factual knowledge related to networking,
sponsorship, and the role of preparation programs in supporting advancement.
The interview findings demonstrate that factual knowledge related to the presence of
male privilege and systemic oppression on the pathway to leadership is a strength and asset
among participants. Throughout the interviews, all leaders spoke to the presence of a male-
dominant leadership culture, the impact of that culture on how they present themselves, and the
challenges it presents on their pathway to the superintendency. The themes that emerged from
the interviews align with the knowledge elements from the literature review. Additional assets
emerged in terms of knowledge of leadership presence, networking, sponsorship and preparation
programs.
Male-Dominant Culture
Interview participants demonstrated strength in their factual knowledge related to male
dominant culture. Participants recalled specific facts related to how their organization operates in
a manner that is more congruent with male leadership characteristics and stereotypes than female
leadership styles. The interviewees recalled specific characteristics of male-dominant culture and
systemic oppression that contributed to feelings of marginalization.
Lucia expanded on feelings of marginalization when she shared the impact of male-
dominant culture on how she had to learn to navigate male-dominant leadership spaces. Lucia
described her personal disposition as being “humble,” operating with “humility,” and being
raised “culturally more humble.” She stated that, to be heard in meetings with groups of male
leaders, she found she needed to interject more, versus her typical disposition of waiting until
someone finished their thought, because “they just keep going right into another thought, and, if I
don’t interrupt, I won’t be heard.” Lucia explained that, in educational leadership, male
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communication styles were dominant, which was amplified during the shift to Zoom-based
digital meeting spaces amid the COVID-19 pandemic. Her experience reveals the struggle she
and other Latina leaders face in figuring out how to be heard without yelling. Lucia connects the
prevalence of male-dominant culture to both the manner in which men in her organization
communicate and to the language and stereotypes individuals associate with leadership. Lucia’s
experience related to hiring revealed implicit and unconscious biases and reinforced her
experience of operating in a leadership culture of male dominance.
Lucia recalled a time when another leader at her organization was discussing the
recruitment of a new leader for a vacant role. The individual stated, “We are looking for a strong
leader.” Lucia expressed that she felt the need to interrupt this thinking and push back on the
concept by asking, “How do you define strong, and how does that relate to me?” Lucia’s factual
knowledge asset related to understanding how male-dominant culture and systemic oppression
surfaced and equipped her with the confidence to surface biases she heard expressed by other
leaders at her organization. Despite her organization passing a board resolution to focus on
elevating women to executive positions and district-wide training addressing microaggressions,
Lucia outlined that the leadership population in her district is very male heavy and that Latinas in
executive leadership roles are few.
Digging deeper to understand the underlying reason school district leadership culture
evolved in a male-dominant manner, two themes emerged related to the factual knowledge
influence. Study participants demonstrated assets in the area of factual knowledge related to
historical promotional practices for male leaders and historical educational leadership
experiences of Latinas. Vianne provided context to the manner in which she observed men being
promoted into educational leadership throughout her professional journey. Vianne emphasized,
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“Many of the males had come up the ranks because they were athletic coaches, not necessarily
instructionally focused. They were in the position that they were because they knew somebody
that was hiring them. It wasn’t skill-based.”
The image that Vianne painted relates to what she referred to as the good old boy
network in which, through networking and informal associations related to common hobbies and
activities, men receive opportunities for advancement while women are excluded. Sonia’s
experiences further reinforced this phenomenon. As one of only two women in senior leadership
in her district, and the only Latina, Sonia faced the good old boy network through her daily work.
During the interview, she replayed recent experiences of entering into the superintendent’s
cabinet meeting room filled with a group of men bonding over sports and speaking of the sports
they played over the weekend, in which neither woman from the cabinet was invited to
participate. Sonia shared,
Here, at the top, these boys are all about football, so their social conversation is not my
language. So, they talk about…I know football, but I’m not…I don’t know about those
positions. I don’t know all that, but that’s what connects. That’s their bond, right? They
play basketball together. They play racquetball together. So, they have social structures
that I don’t fit into. I can’t say like, “Hey, let’s go play basketball together.”
Sonia’s ability to analyze the informal sports game through the lens of male exclusive social
structures demonstrates an advanced understanding of the extent to which male-dominant culture
creates barriers to Latinas’ leadership advancement as a result of social exclusion.
Patricia captured the essence of the contributing factors as being rooted in Latinas’ not
being provided equal access to educational options. Subsequently, Patricia expanded on her
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understanding of male-dominant culture and connected it to the underrepresentation of Latinas in
educational leadership. Patricia explained,
Historically, it’s been a male-dominated one and White-male-dominated position. I think,
here in my time, we did have one female Latina as superintendent, but her time here was
maybe, I think, two years, and it wasn’t a long stay, and then she got replaced by a male.
And so, it just it’s difficult to have Latinas in the superintendency when, if you peel it
back and you look at the root cause, we’re not even having a pool of entry into getting the
university so that they can start in that trajectory path towards superintendency.
Cristina’s factual knowledge led her to draw conclusions as to why men benefit from
accelerated leadership advancement while Latinas face multiple barriers. Her assertion was that
men in leadership benefit from increased access to informal social networking, and the
participant perceived that men in leadership benefit from the male-dominant culture by not being
required to serve in specific roles for extended periods to demonstrate competency before
promotion. Cristina explained,
You see some men serve in roles a super short period of time, and they’re just, like,
nobody cares that they haven’t had time within the role, or even showed that they have
had any success in the role and onto the next, onto the next. Whereas I’ve been a
principal and I served in the coordinator role for about three and a half years, which is
probably a longer period of time than I expected for sure. But I think the readiness for
men people tend to think comes faster.
The analysis of participants’ lived experiences reinforces that senior-level Latina
educational leaders possess assets in the area of factual knowledge related to understanding the
impact male-dominant culture has on Latina leader advancement. An unexpected finding was the
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depth of understanding the leaders demonstrate beyond factual knowledge. The interviewees
used their knowledge to understand how male-dominant culture manifests as a form of systemic
oppression and connected this manifestation as perpetuating the leaky pipeline related to Latina
leaders’ advancement. The impact of being consistently engaged in leading within a male-
dominant culture led to shifts in participants’ behavior. The behavioral shifts emerged as
hypervigilance and waiting to speak until a male leader had spoken first, impacting participants’
overall leadership presence.
Leadership Presence
Leadership presence emerged as a multi-faceted concept related to factual knowledge.
Interview participants introduced the concept of leadership presence by stating facts related to
physical disposition and physical characteristics of male and female educational leaders. While
the concept of leadership presence was not initially surfaced through the review of literature,
multiple participants recalled specific information, terminology, and experiences related to
leadership presence, as such, leadership presence surfaced as a theme related to factual
knowledge influences. The aspects of leadership presence that surfaced include orientation to the
work, physical presence, and leadership voice. Each of the leaders interviewed demonstrated a
different level of understanding related to factual knowledge in the area of leadership presence.
Strengths emerged in the aspects of factual knowledge the participants possessed related to
orientation to the work, and gaps emerged in the interviewees’ factual knowledge related to
physical presence and leadership voice.
Orientation to the Work
Consensus emerged among interview participants that the manner in which a Latina leads
is primarily grounded in the concept of servant leadership and humility. Each interviewee who
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spoke of servant leadership connected it to deeply personal experiences of religion, family
sacrifices and a deep commitment to the community. An orientation to the work grounded in
servant leadership deviates from what the interview participants viewed as the stereotypical
male-dominant leadership style that is expected at the senior leadership levels. While the leaders
in the study acknowledged that their orientation toward service was not the norm, they did not
view it as a liability. Instead, it was an asset, as it creates a culture grounded in empathy,
humility, and authenticity. Lucia’s experience of cultivating what she referred to as leading with
humility began in her experiences at Catholic school:
We were taught to work really hard in everything we did. God is always watching. Be
very ethical, hardworking, dedicated. Moral imperative is really what steers the hard
work and the commitment, and humility. With humility, there’s not an ambition to seek
more for ourselves, but rather to serve others.
Angela further built on the concept of her leadership presence as strongly rooted in a concept of
commitment and service through stories of her parents working in the fields. Angela recalled,
One of the things that’s always kept me going is thinking of my father working in the
fields and his picture of telling us how he would sleep when it was raining under the
trees. You think, “My goodness, we’ve never experienced anything like that in our lives.”
Right? At least I never have, because they did such a great job in raising us. I think if he
could do that for me, oh my goodness, what can I not do in that aspect.
Participants agreed that the servant leadership approach which is grounded in a culture of
humility has been perceived by others as being passive or not assertive enough. The perception
of passivity contributed to the under-selection of Latinas for advanced school district leadership
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roles. A number of interviewees noted that others’ perceptions of Latina leaders’ service-based
work orientation and leadership presence stemmed from a deficit mindset.
Therese combatted the deficit mindset related to Latinas as servant leaders. She
reinforced that Latinas with different dispositions and leadership styles that deviate from the
White hegemonic culture of leadership are essential at the decision-making table. Therese stated,
Because I am a Latina, is that I’m able to use my experiences, and that’s what drives me
in closing gaps and offering opportunities for our students. That’s why it’s important to
have representation. I think that there needs to be diversity in leadership. There’s a place
at the table for people at the center of power, and there’s a place at the table for people at
the margins, so that they can come together and have a new solution for the systemic
issues that are occurring in education.
Findings revealed that participants demonstrate a factual knowledge understanding of the
difference between the manner in which men in the organization and Latina leaders orient to
leadership. Additionally, participants showed a factual knowledge understanding of the male-
dominant physical presence and leadership voice.
Physical Presence
Latina leader interview participants demonstrated factual knowledge of physical presence
and leadership through recalling specific instances of feeling small, being viewed as invisible, or
being overlooked as a leader due to being surrounded by leaders whose physical characteristics
in terms of ethnicity, height, and gender varied from the Latina leaders. Multiple interviewees
shared information regarding biases encountered due to physical appearance. Several interview
participants felt the need to justify to the researcher that they dress professionally and
appropriately at work. The senior level Latina educational leaders recalled specific instances of
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being overlooked, being mistaken for the secretary, or having their male peers being
acknowledged as a leader and asked for help while the Latina leader superior was dismissed.
Patricia painted a picture of her experiences in navigating male-dominant culture in
speaking of the number of men and the physical stature of male leaders in the executive cabinet
and the underrepresentation of women when she stated,
My superintendent is a White male. My counterpart associate superintendent is a White
male, and then the CFO associate superintendent of business is male, Asian descent, and
then you have me, the female. So, that in itself just being the only female in the
superintendent’s council, sometimes it could be challenging to navigate.
Lucia expanded on Patricia’s experience and connected male leader stature to the concept of
leadership presence. Lucia shared,
The majority of CEOs are over six feet tall. So, there’s this perception that, for you to be
a leader, you even have to have a certain height to command a presence when you walk
into a room. So, I still feel that some of the obstacles around us is, when they think who
would be a strong leader in this position, they still use the word strong. So, we have to
really dig into what our definition of strong is.
Patricia and Lucia’s experiences represent the extent to which navigating a male-
dominant culture impacts the manner in which senior-level Latina leaders must operate. Patricia
shared,
It’s a challenge to navigate that you have two very domineering tall White men and then
you have this short Mexican curly-haired woman standing alongside them. Even just that
perception alone of who people then would gravitate to go to or would automatically
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assume I was just the secretary, quote, unquote, because there was no way I could belong
there.
Latina leaders are caught in a dilemma of how to lead amid the shift in perceptions of
them given second wave Chicana feminism. Whereas they used to be stereotyped as passive,
they are presently stereotyped as assertive, which can create cultural clashes with hegemonic
norms of leadership. Sonia explained she and her female leader colleague must communicate in
executive cabinet meetings to align with the hegemonic leadership norms:
We’re listening. We’re watching. We’re not always the first to offer our input. We’re
catching it all, and then we synthesize everything, and then we lay it all out on the table.
So it’s just a very different experience I think that I’ve noticed.
Sonia provided insight into how Latina leaders are not only hyper-aware of their physical stature
when they step into leadership spaces, but they also take great care to be conscious of how they
communicate to ensure they are heard by their male leader counterparts and not stereotyped as
aggressive or overly-assertive.
Networking
Interviewees demonstrated factual knowledge of networking by describing how their lack
of access to networking opportunities negatively impacted opportunities for advancement. The
senior level Latina educational leaders represented within this study described how women of
color in leadership have diminished access to professional networking as compared to their
White male peers and listed the types of informal and formal networking opportunities available
to their male counterparts. Interviewees mentioned that the male-dominant culture in their
districts created barriers to equity in terms of a lack of opportunities to socialize with male
colleagues outside of work. Sonia described differences in social structures and defined the
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concept of variances in social language between men and women in leadership. Sonia’s
previously stated reference to the sports-based informal networking highlighted the prevalence of
this occurrence through her experiences at her school district:
Here, at the top, these boys are all about football, so their social conversation is not my
language. So, they talk about... I know football, but I’m not... I don’t know about those
positions. I don’t know all that, but that’s what connects... That’s their bond, right? They
play basketball together. They play racquetball together. So, they have social structures
that I don’t fit into. I can’t say like, “Hey, let’s go play basketball together.” That
wouldn’t be a thing. So, I think that they probably don’t realize it that... not that I would
really even want to play basketball with them or anything like that, but I think they just
don’t realize that that social engagement is just as important to us as it is for them to
connect with each other.
The impact of exclusion related to informal networking had a negative impact on Sonia’s sense
of belonging. She stated, “not that I would really even want to play basketball with them or
anything like that, but I think they just don’t realize that that social engagement is just as
important to us as it is for them to connect with each other.” Sonia revealed that she will be
leaving her district in the very near future due to a promotion outside of her organization. In
explaining a key reason for selecting to leave Sonia emphasized that the organization that she is
going to places a priority on hiring diverse leadership and that there is broader representation of
women of color in leadership. She expressed that while she has loved the work she has done in
her previous district; she is hopeful that being on a team with more gender and ethnic parity will
provide her a greater feeling of belonging. Sonia’s explanation of the exclusionary social
structures correlated to her decision to pursue advancement outside of her school district.
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Patricia’s experiences mirror Sonia’s experiences related to male-oriented social
interactions during meetings. Patricia shared,
Something as simple as they engage in conversations here on sports which traditionally
has been, oh, that’s something male-oriented. Well, not all. Luckily, I love sports and I
know a lot about them. But even that like how they do their welcoming rituals of talking
about sports without even maybe recognizing that someone, even not me, someone else
in the group may feel left out because of their lack of knowledge or understanding of
sports. And that could just be even a cultural thing. The culture of the district is such that
it’s so male-dominated that there’s things that happen in certain areas that just get
overlooked.”
Multiple interview participants reference social interactions and welcoming rituals in leadership
meetings that include conversations that by their nature exclude women from engaging. Latina
leaders demonstrated factual knowledge strengths in the areas of describing and defining how the
lack of access to informal networks in the organization’s leadership structure hinders sense of
efficacy, agency, and belonging.
Sponsorship
Participant responses surfaced factual knowledge related to sponsorship by stating the
different ways that sponsorship surfaced along the leadership pathway. Their perspectives varied
regarding when sponsorship is most beneficial, or when it is needed. Themes resulted in the
identification of four sponsorship types. The first type is when the Latina leader received
encouragement from male leaders to pursue specific roles in the organization. This type of in-
organization sponsorship benefitted the sponsor due to advancing an internal candidate to take on
a broader scope of work and was mutually beneficial, providing advancement to the Latina
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leader and increased value to the organization. The second type of sponsorship was succession
planning, from which two interviewees benefitted and which positioned the Latina leader with
the appropriate role experiences and expertise for her to take over in the sponsor’s position. The
third type was a form of mentorship: acting as if the leader already had the role she sought. The
individual serving in the sponsorship role supported the emerging Latina leader to lead and act as
if she were already serving in the role she was pursuing. The fourth type of sponsorship moves
into the role of advocate actively seeking opportunities to advance the name and positive
reputation of the Latina leader to help increase her visibility in relation to recruitment for
advanced leadership roles. Lucia described advocacy:
To advocate is to speak to those who can help make those decisions. For instance,
speaking to board members, speaking to the superintendent. If you’re in a different
district, finding ways to…I know that there’s two superintendents, Latina
superintendents, nearby, and they helped each other get fellowships. So, they sponsored
each other and found opportunities to help each other with these fellowships that gave
them opportunities and access to other people who could then advocate for them to these
boards who were seeking new superintendents.
The first two types of sponsorship emerged in a manner that would directly benefit the
mentor. Table 9 outlines the type of sponsorship that emerged through the interviews.

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Table 9
Types of Sponsorship
Sponsorship Type Description
Type 1: In-organization
advancement
Encouragement and support from male leaders to pursue
advancement to specific roles in the organization into a role
that would provide greater support to the male leaders
sponsoring them.
Type 2: Succession Planning Succession planning was designed to position the Latina leader
with the appropriate role experiences and expertise for her to
take over for the leader. This was also referred to as grooming
throughout the interviews.
Type 3: Act as If Coaching and support for the Latina leader to mentally shift
her presence, speech, and thinking to act as if she were already
in the role of superintendent.
Type 4: Advocacy The advocate actively seeks out opportunities to advance the
name and positive reputation of the Latina leader to help
increase her visibility in relationship to recruitment for
advanced leadership roles.

In the instances surfaced through male leaders’ encouragement and succession planning,
both gestures were to continue the growth and success of the district in which the Latina was
already serving. Cristina stated,
I have to say that I’ve had so many people that I truly feel like they were looking out for
me. I do. I feel like I have been blessed in an immense way, and, honestly mostly for
males. My assistant superintendent, male. The deputy that I served for my previous
district, male. They made space and really saw the value that I add.
Participants’ sponsorship experiences predominantly aligned with in-organization
sponsorship, which reflected male leaders’ support of their advancement to a position in support
of the male leaders’ continued success. When the researcher asked Cristina why sponsorship was
more prevalent among male leaders, she cited the increased representation of men in high level
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leadership positions. The overrepresentation of men in leadership provided a greater opportunity
to sponsor individuals to promote. As a result of men being dominant in sponsorship, the male
leader’s implicit or unconscious biases affect which female leaders were sponsored for
advancement. Each example of sponsorship contained directly related to a senior-level Latina
leader promoting into a position such as executive director, area administrator, or assistant
superintendent. Multiple participants cited the lack of sponsorship in taking the step from senior
leadership to applying for the role of superintendent. While Latina leaders exist in organizations
where leadership is abundant, there is a scarcity of individuals around them offering sponsorship
support for advancement.
In participants’ experiences, while some sponsorship leads to senior leadership roles,
sponsorship is significantly lacking in the final step into the superintendency. Lucia clarified that
what is truly needed is an advocate to help to open doors and confront institutional biases so that
Latinas are seen as a qualified and as a viable match for the role of superintendent. Lucia stated,
“I think what Latina women could benefit from is having advocates like that, people who see,
who can call out those skills and those dispositions, and are able to advocate and encourage those
around them that have that capacity.” As Lucia noted, Latina leaders need sponsorship more
closely aligned with types two, three, and four of sponsorship as outlined in Table 9. Through the
exploration of individual leaders’ understandings of sponsorship, the leaders demonstrated
access to one or two types of sponsorship. However, at the time of this study, none of the
participants had a sponsor to support them in shifting from senior leader to superintendent.
Preparation Programs
Interview participants expressed varied levels of factual knowledge of preparation
programs available in support of promotion to senior-level leadership roles. Participants
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expressed a factual understanding related to preparation programs focused on preparing for the
superintendency or preparing to be a school district business official, but demonstrated limited
knowledge of preparation programs focused on preparing for positions served earlier in their
leadership tenure such as director, executive director, or assistant superintendent. The findings
demonstrated that access to these preparation programs occurred once the interviewees were
hired in a senior-level leadership position. The significance of this is the cost of participation in
some programs was offset by the school district’s contribution toward the tuition, but that
funding was not available prior to advancing to a senior leadership role. Limited evidence
surfaced from the interviews to note that any interviewees had awareness of or participated in
preparation programs early in their administrative career other than university coursework and
statewide requirements for administrative credentialing. Even though Latina leaders served in
entry-level administrative positions, the implications of the lack of access to or awareness of
preparation programs earlier in their careers minimized their ability to take deliberately informed
steps to stay on the pathway to the superintendency.
Interview participants cited a range of leadership preparation programs, including ACSA
academies, AASA academies, CALSA professional learning, and a Chief Business Official
(CBO) academy. The participants personally sought opportunities to participate in preparation
programs, especially for the superintendency. They provided limited information regarding
formal training programs and academies that were available prior to stepping into the role of
senior leader. In lieu of these programs, the participants expressed that opportunities for growth
occurred through building relationships with others in similar positions, seeking out personal
growth experiences, and leaning on personal research and exploration. Mari’s experience
deviated from that of other study participants, as her district provided ongoing support and
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development through mentoring, supervision and coaching during her early years as an
administrator as well as opportunities to participate in leadership pipeline development activities.
Mari provided advice to individuals seeking to pursue preparation for the role of superintendent
when she stated,
I would say they would need to make sure they’re in some type of program, whether it be
through the university or the district sometimes as partnerships like the leadership cohort,
because they’ll outline what the steps are…what is the pathway to promotion, but at the
same time, there has to be a commitment to learning on your own.
The knowledge that Mari gained about the preparation programs supportive of advancement
toward the superintendency referenced experiences she engaged in at her district, referencing the
need to engage in leadership development programs as well as personal growth and
development.
The scarcity of sponsors to support Latina leaders has affected their abilities to gain
sufficient factual knowledge in understanding and leveraging sponsorship for advancement. The
continued overrepresentation of men in senior leadership and the under-availability of sponsors
to support Latina leader advancement revealed a gap in the system.
Summary of Factual Knowledge Influence
The factual knowledge influences emphasize the importance of Latina leaders’ knowing
and ability to name various aspects of leadership development, strategic cultivation of
networking, mentoring, and sponsoring relationships, as well as demonstrating knowledge of
privilege and oppression. Each of these knowledge influences support the development of a
competent and highly prepared prospective superintendent.

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Procedural Knowledge Influence
Latina educational leaders demonstrated varied levels of procedural knowledge related to
knowing how to access appropriate role experiences before promoting to the superintendency.
The procedural knowledge influence examined participants’ knowledge of how specific role
experiences contributed to or limited the advancement of senior level Latina educational leaders
to the superintendency.
Interviews surfaced that, while each Latina leaders’ pathway to the superintendency was
different and each served in varied official leadership roles, the most essential element to
preparation for the role was not title-specific. The interviewees stated that, while roles such as
principal and director were important, their significance was not associated with the job title, but
in the types of learning and growth opportunities encountered in each role. The leaders
interviewed shared that, beyond following specific pathways for advancement, specific types of
experiences were essential to building their capacity for the superintendency. Themes emerged
related to the importance of role experiences related to navigating crisis leadership, managing
fiscal operations and budgets, and being positioned to interact and build relationships with the
school board. The majority of interview participants expressed gaps in knowing how to access
these specific role experiences in their current role to gain the requisite procedural knowledge.
While some of the senior level leaders expressed that navigating their school district through
COVID-19 helped to build experience related to crisis leadership, and some leaders accessed
academies to acquire fiscal operations knowledge, the leaders expressed they lacked the
procedural knowledge of how to access these experiences intentionally through their leadership
journey.
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Role Experiences
Findings related to role experiences revealed three primary pathways to the
superintendency. Interviewees demonstrated consensus that an important role experience was
that of school principal. Table 10 outlines pathways to senior leadership experienced by
participants.

Table 10
Latina Leader Pathways to Senior Leadership
Path 1 Elementary
Teacher
Informal
Teacher
leadership
role
Assistant
Principal
Principal Central
Office
Director
Level Leader
Assistant/
Associate
Super-
intendent
Path 2 Dual
Immersion
Elementary
Teacher
Informal
Teacher
Leadership
role
Assistant
Principal
Principal Director of
Migrant
Services,
English
Learner
programs, or
out of district
migrant
education
leadership
Assistant
Super-
intendent
Path 3 Secondary
School
teacher
Formal
site-based
leadership
role
Assistant
Principal
Principal Assistant/
Associate
Super-
intendent

Path 4 Counselor District
leadership
role
supporting
student
services
Central
Office
Director
level
position
Assistant
Superintendent/
Associate
Superintendent

Path 5 Secondary
School
teacher
Formal
site-based
leadership
role
Assistant
Principal
Principal Central
Office
district
leadership
role
Chief or
Deputy

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Respondents varied in their perception of whether serving as a secondary school principal
was more important than serving as an elementary school principal. However, the majority agree
that the principalship is an essential role experience. Deviations on the pathway or prolonged
service in a given role beyond the classroom were attributed to moving districts or sites. Patricia
further explained the relationship between the principalship and the superintendency when she
shared, “I think being a principal, I think really does prepare you if that’s your trajectory and
your journey for leadership to be a superintendent because it’s very similar.”
The majority of participants were serving in a position equal to or above the title of
assistant superintendent. Despite holding one of the most senior-level educational leadership
positions, each leader referenced the need to gain additional role experiences before feeling
prepared for the superintendency. Carolina reinforced the need for additional preparation to
pursue the superintendency when she expressed,
So it’s clear to me now that it’s not enough just to have a strong instructional
background. Because having a strong instructional background is just part of the job and
not all of the job. And so personally, I think that areas where I need to grow my
knowledge in would be finance, human resources, and labor relations. Those are the big
critical components that also in the superintendent role.
Essential Informal Leadership Experiences
The senior level Latina leaders navigating the pathway to the superintendency surfaced
procedural knowledge not previously revealed through the literature. The interview participants
surfaced informal leadership experiences that they need to proceed through and had to navigate
as one of the steps toward the superintendency. These informal leadership experiences included
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crisis leadership, managing fiscal operations and budgets, and mastering school board
relationships.
Crisis Leadership. Leading and navigating crises surfaced as an essential role
experience that Latinas leaders expressed was fundamental to experience on the pathway to the
superintendency, yet the Latina leaders interviewed lacked knowledge of how to gain access to
experiencing crisis leadership. The Latina leaders interviewed shared that learning how to
navigate crises depended on the coincidental occurrence of urgent or emergency related
situations arising versus gaining intentional knowledge related to crisis leadership along their
journey. As such, crisis leadership surfaced as an essential role experience that senior level
Latina educational leaders need access to in preparation for the superintendency. Study
participants described their observations of superintendents navigating safety, nutrition,
educational adaptation, mental health, and infrastructure needs amid the education field’s
response to COVID-19 and revealed personal feelings of inadequate preparedness to take on the
same level of crisis leadership due to a lack of experience. Lucia outlined the challenge of her
superintendent navigating crises in her context:
So, right now, it’s a time of a lack of clarity, a lot of confusion, but definitely very
political for sure. Every day, we see the politics, the pressure a superintendent gets from
various government agencies and the support he gets from other community partners. So,
definitely confusion, exhaustion, political tug and pull.
Lucia’s explanation of the impact of crises on leadership revealed her belief that the Latina
leader needs the procedural knowledge and experience of navigating crises to feel adequately
prepared to lead. Furthermore, three interviewees expressed avoidance from seeking
advancement to the superintendency until the crisis resolves due to the manner in which the
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COVID-19 response has affected superintendents. The justification for waiting is that, despite
navigating the instructional and teaching implications of leadership amid COVID-19,
interviewees felt that there were specific role experiences they lacked in fiscal and operations
management.
Managing Fiscal Operations and Budget. The need to gain experience managing
operations and budgets surfaced as an essential role experience that senior level Latina leaders
expressed they need to experience to be able to gain access to the superintendency. At the time of
this study, the participants served in instruction, equity, student support services, and human
resources. Cristina expressed her desire to build her capacity to develop fiscal management
experience in the educational setting. She stated,
I have served in large urban districts, but my desire is for a small district. So, my explicit
preparation for superintendency, I know that I will have to wear multiple hats as a
superintendent in a small district. So, I’m currently going through the CBO program. I’m
sure I’ll have a business person, but I need to have command of that budget.
Subsequently, Mariana noted the impact of having a gap in knowledge or delegating fiscal
responsibilities too much when she recalled,
I mean, superintendents are removed and in the very personal case of our superintendent.
It wasn’t malfeasance. It was that she trusted, she trusted people that were in positions to
be able to manage and do their job well. So, I think that the financial aspects, the
accounting aspects, all of those organizational practices, you have to have the knowledge
and you have to be vigilant and be involved in all of those details and at the same time,
not micromanage but you have to know what’s going on in your organization.
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Cristina’s desire for increased fiscal knowledge and skills as well as Mariana’s experience of
having a superintendent removed from the role related to fiscal oversight reinforce the need
surfaced by study participants related to the need to engage in role experiences that equip them
with sufficient knowledge in the areas of fiscal management and operations oversight.
School Board Relationships. Interview participants expressed the need to gain
procedural knowledge and experiences related to developing school board relationships to be
appropriately prepared to pursue the superintendency. Angela stated, “The board dynamic in
itself, it’s a very unique dynamic. That, I feel, that you need all of those pieces in order to move
into a superintendency because you really do have to make those critical decisions.” As Angela
expressed, a theme that emerged among more than half of the study participants is that building
board governance capacity is nuanced and complex. Patricia stated, “To be a successful
superintendent, you have to know how to navigate all the nuances of the board, just the existing
board and the nuances that are common with working with the union.” As Patricia and Angela
alluded to, the need to interact with, guide, and build relationships with the board of education is
one that can have direct influence on a superintendent’s success and tenure. Angela outlined,
It’s a lot of work on that end to ensure that the board is informed, has all the decision-
making and, at the same time, that your staff is able to produce all the information for the
board as well. I would say it’s, in a way that the superintendent is a middle person in
between the board, the staff, and the students, and it’s just making sure that they are
completely correlated together and that the collaboration is there and that there’s no
breakdown in communication.
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Angela’s concept of the superintendent as the middle man was furthered by Yesenia’s
perspective that many school boards lack key knowledge in the process of governing a school
board and managing the superintendent. Yesenia stated,
They mean well, they want to make a change, but they don’t really understand how the
district functions and what their role is that they only oversee the superintendent. I think
what causes some dysfunction is when they start involving themselves and hearing the
teachers or whoever comes to them, instead of the superintendent. So, I think that plays a
big role on whether someone becomes a superintendent or not.
As each of the Latina leaders noted, each school district’s board of education is the governing
body that hires, evaluates and makes decisions regarding superintendent retention. The role
experience of learning to lead alongside the board, build relationships with board members, and
build capacity in the board of education to lead in an equitable manner are essential to a
superintendent’s longevity. As Yesenia stated, “I think that’s the biggest downfall, is that if you
don’t really prepare your board for what their role is, then it’s going to make it a challenge.”
Summary of Procedural Knowledge Influence
The interviewees expressed feelings of not being ready for the role of superintendent yet.
These feelings aligned with their desire to accumulate experiences to feel qualified to accept the
position of superintendent. What emerged as a significant finding related to procedural
knowledge is that, while the interview participants followed a promotional pathway to
advancement that afforded them the opportunity to earn titles and roles to position them well to
apply for the superintendency, they reflected on needs to gain essential role experiences
necessary for success in the role.

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Metacognitive Knowledge Influence
Latina educational leaders need to reflect on potential barriers to access and success in
the superintendency. The development of metacognitive knowledge related to their ability to
advance to the superintendency related to the importance of being aware of barriers in the system
that might impede the pathway to the superintendency. The findings related to metacognitive
knowledge revealed that the participants’ knowledge of potential barriers required awareness of
the system as well as of their own insecurities and self-imposed barriers to advancement.
Barriers to Advancement
School board dynamics and personal perceptions of “not being ready yet” surfaced as the
primary barriers to pursuit of the superintendency. A broad understanding of the political
dynamics involved with the interaction between the superintendent and the school board led to
interview participants’ anxiety and avoidance. Expanding on how knowledge of board dynamics
was gained, each leader spoke of observing previous superintendents experiencing negative
board interactions that ultimately led to early termination or resignation. Yesenia painted a
picture of what she referred to as “toxic” board dynamics, sharing an experience of how multiple
board members made it so difficult for the superintendent to act that he parted ways with the
board and left the district before his contract expired:
So, they released my superintendent, and then they brought in an interim. And the interim
was only there for half a year, and then they brought in another interim for another half a
year. So I was, like, a year with two interim superintendents, and I was approached by the
board. But like I said, there were things that board members did that just were not with
what I knew a board should be doing. So, I had two board members who came in my
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office and offered me the position and said, “You need to apply for the superintendent
position.” But they were a split board.
Cristina described the board dynamics in her previous district were such that the board
was highly involved in all aspects of district operations, and the superintendent had to adjust
their leadership style to incorporate the board’s input. Cristina summarized her knowledge of the
relationship between the superintendent and the board by stating,
I think what happens to us as we dream about being a superintendent is that we think
we’re going to be able to step into that role and do all of the fabulous things that we’ve
had in our scope for our whole career. And then a hard reality takes over when you
realize that you work for a board, and they really set the direction and the tone for the
district, and you’re the vehicle and the conduit and the person to make those things
happen.
Yesenia and Cristina’s experience demonstrate similarities with the experience of other senior-
level Latina educational leaders. The ability of the interview participants to articulate their
observed experiences related to perceived barriers to accessing the superintendency demonstrates
an asset in the area of metacognitive knowledge.
Summary of Metacognitive Knowledge Influence
The findings of the interviews related to metacognitive knowledge were that the Latina
leader faces internal and external barriers to advancement. In multiple interviews, the
participants expressed that, although they have all of the leadership qualifications, they feel that
they are not ready for the role of superintendent yet. Subsequently, they viewed the shift to the
superintendency as providing less autonomy than their current role due to school board
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dynamics, which serve as a barrier to advancement. In this manner, knowledge of potential
barriers caused by a highly involved school board deter participants from the superintendency.
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes
Latina educational leaders need to feel confident about their ability to secure leadership
roles that are key access points to the superintendency. The concept of self-efficacy surfaced
through the exploration of interviewees’ agency and resilience. The findings related to the
concept of self-efficacy were that participants demonstrate a need for support in this area.
Self-Efficacy Influence
The concept of self-efficacy was explored throughout the interviews to determine the
extent to which the senior level Latina leaders believed in their own individual ability to
successfully attain the role of superintendent. Self-efficacy connects to personal beliefs related to
leadership role attainment as well as perception of future success and longevity in the role. The
exploration of the self-efficacy influence throughout this study included an examination of the
prevalence or lack of leader agency as well as the extent to which resilience manifested among
interview participants.
Agency and Self-Efficacy
The prevalence of self-efficacy ranged among interview participants on a spectrum from
feeling ready to pursue the role within the next 12 months to being ready within the next 10 years
or “when the time is right,” as Angela stated. The common feature among the interviewees who
were highly confident in their ability to pursue the superintendency is that both individuals had
set their sights on pursuing the position at a specific school district and had been preparing
themselves for months or years to pursue the role. This phenomenon of identifying a desirable
district to serve in created a need to fully develop skills that the district needs in a superintendent.
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Similarly, while a number of participants felt confident in or might consider pursuing the role in
the future, the caveat was related to their perception of whether district priorities aligned with
their personal values.
Needing to justify and assert their role as a leader was a common experience among
interview participants. The phenomenon of being mistaken for a support staff member or being
overlooked when a male leader was present contributed to lowered self-efficacy among three
interview participants. Patricia recounted multiple experiences of being perceived as a support
staff member. Patricia attributed this to her physical features, including height, skin tone,
clothing choice as well as hair style. She cited specific examples of having to prove she is a
leader when she recalled,
Oh, yeah, I’m constantly still asked if I’m the secretary because heaven forbid I’d be in
any other position than that. And so, there’s still that bias from parents, from outside
organizations that have come in looking for who’s in charge and you tell them, “Oh, no,
I’m in charge.” Or you get transferred a phone call and they’re like, “We’re looking for
someone.” “Yeah, I’m here, I’m the associate superintendent.” “No, but...” “No, it’s me.”
And it’s happened throughout. It happened when I was a principal. Someone coming on
site and insisting that there was no way I could be the principal because I guess their
perception of who the principal was wasn’t me, didn’t look like me.
The impact of these interactions has a significant impact on self-efficacy, and repeated
encounters that lead to feeling out of place further contribute to negative emotions related to
feelings of exclusion. The participants did not associate their feelings of diminished self-efficacy
with imposter syndrome, but did relate their experiences to a diminished sense of agency
impacting their desire to pursue advancement to the superintendency.
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Resilience
Resilience is the ability for an individual to swiftly recover from a setback and it is
comprised of three primary components which include anticipation, coping, and adaptation. The
interview protocol sought to surface the three elements of resiliency, yet through the interview
process coping and adaptation were the two forms of resilience that surfaced across participant
responses. Anticipation did not emerge as a finding related to participants’ experiences. As a
result, the exploration of resilience in this section focused on the two factors present, coping and
adaptation.
Resilience is demonstrated through an individual’s coping response to matters such as
increased workload, maintaining role stability through high turnover, and emotional recovery
after encountering oppression or bias. Paola’s experiences in navigating negative interactions
with male peers demonstrate her development of coping mechanisms to assist with emotionally
recovering when encountering biases. Paola recalls a specific example of navigating a negative
interaction and discerning how to respond within moments. Paola stated,
I had a director tell me “Gosh, it must feel so bad. I feel so bad knowing that here you
just received your doctorate, and all the educational program, but, here I am, a White
male, and people are going to automatically assume that I know more that you do.” And
it didn’t come from a warm fuzzy place, right? And my response back was related to,
“well, you could perceive that, but I think the truth be told, when people hear what comes
out of my mouth versus yours, where that level of intellect and drive and passion comes
from, they will listen to me” and then I left the room.
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This interaction was not Paola’s first experience with biases and emotionally recovering after the
encounter. Paola’s interaction demonstrates that she developed a set of tools to utilize as coping
mechanisms to assist with recovery and demonstrating resilience.
Adaptation is prevalent among Latina leaders as they navigate the leadership
environment. In the context of sitting on a predominantly male superintendent’s cabinet, Sonia
mentioned the need to adapt her behavior to focus on listening first, allowing the men to speak
and share ideas, and to frame her speech in a manner that is not abrasive. Paola further
emphasized the role of adaptation as she outlined the numerous shifts she had to make due to
unstable leadership at the superintendent level. She emphasized she had to learn to determine the
focus of the superintendent and quickly adjust her leadership and communication style to fit the
type of leadership style the superintendent expected. Despite Paola’s longevity in the role and
knowledge of the community and its needs, she found herself in a cycle of adapting to shifting
leadership styles out of self-preservation. In slight contrast, Laura framed adaptation in a
different context in her approach to maintaining a laser-like focus on positivity. Her approach to
leadership was to adapt and embrace an approach of consistent positivity to help her stay
motivated. She attributes this adaptation to the positive experiences of mentors, sponsors, and
other leaders that have encouraged her on her path.
A subsequent finding of exploring the adaptations of senior-level Latina educational
leaders relates to the leader’s response to instances of marginalization. Sonia connected an
experience of marginalization to feeling alone and isolated in a room of all White leaders and the
impact on her own feelings of efficacy and belonging. Sonia recalled,
I will never forget the moment that I went to a meeting at the department of education of
other instruction leaders. I’ve never felt so out of place in the room. I was the only person
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in the room that was a person of color, and I’ve never experienced that before.…certainly
was a striking moment for me to feel inferior to, “Wow, I feel really uncomfortable right
now. I know I have just as much to contribute as these women do, but let me just sit right
here for a second, and be quiet, and listen.”
Sonia’s experience as the only woman of color in a room of leaders emphasizes the social
emotional implications of feeling marginalized and how she drew on her personal reservoir of
resilience to adapt to the situation.
Summary of Self-Efficacy Influence
The interviewees demonstrate assets in the areas self-efficacy and attribution through the
development of resilience. The findings of this study were that the interviewees’ ability to adapt
and cope to organizational challenges is an asset. The adaptations described demonstrate the
ability to be nimble and flexible to survive or thrive in the environment in which they lead. The
extremes of adaptation among Paola’s, Sonia’s, and Laura’s experiences demonstrate that
organizational culture has a direct impact on the types of adaptations Latina leaders embody to
demonstrate resilience.
Attribution Value Influence
Latina educational leaders need to believe their success or failure in roles that are key
access points to the superintendency is in their control. The aspects of value explored through the
interviews centered around attainment value, utility value, and locus of causality. The Latina
leaders who participated in this study provided a depth of expertise and knowledge in clarifying
the impact that specific role experiences had on their advancement. Their belief that success or
failure in the role is within their control relates to the concept of value. Themes related to value
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surfaced as each leader discussed career advancement in relation to sacrificing family for career,
the perceived value of mentorship and sponsorship, growth mindset, and cultural identity.
Perception of Sacrificing Family for Career
The concept of attainment value related to the role of superintendent emerged as
interview participants discussed the decision of whether or not to pursue the superintendency or
to maintain the role of being a caretaker and nurturer for family members. Seven interview
participants surfaced their thinking related to the internal struggle that they faced regarding
whether the attainment value of becoming superintendent was worth being perceived as not
being fully available and present with children and the family. The senior level Latina leaders
that expressed this struggle related to motivation and attainment value expressed that the
decision to pursue any promotion included a need to grapple with the concepts of attainment
value regarding professional advancement and the perceived utility of the position contrasted
with personal priorities of being present with family. The decision-making process related to
whether to pursue promotion was complex and not simply a decision between family or career,
as it is rooted in key aspects of participants’ cultural identity.
Multiple interview participants emphasized the concept that Latinas take great pride in
being a nurturing influence and being a fully present member of the family. The concept of being
nurturing and present is not exclusive to child rearing, as it extends to taking great pride in
embracing domestic roles including cooking and hospitality as well as being a supportive
spouse/partner. The interview participants who discussed this concept re-emphasized that the
nurturing and domestic roles that they embraced did not come from a place of obligation but out
of a clear set of personal priorities that puts family first. Angela shared the importance of being
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present to raise her own children and how it led her to take a pause at the beginning of her
administrative career to focus on raising her family. Angela recalled,
In my fifth year as being a teacher, I transitioned into the role of associate principal. That
was really challenging. So, I was in that role for two years, but then got married and had
babies, and that changed everything. So, while I was in that stage of my life, I put
administration on pause and went back into the classroom.
When discussing the timeline to pursue the superintendency, Lucia stated she would wait until
her son was close to attending college so that she could be fully present for him. Vianne clarified
the role that navigating family responsibilities plays in the decision to pursue the
superintendency:
I think there’s a balance of how we believe strongly that family comes first, and in a
superintendency or in any leadership position of that level, it takes a lot of time away
from your family. So are you willing to... It’s a give and take, and do you have an
extended family? Do you have a partner that is going to help right with that, and it’s guilt,
right? Because we want to make sure that we’re attending to our family while we’re also
very passionate about the work we do. I think one reason is that, sometimes, we just
decide, I’m going to stay wherever I’m at because that means it’s going to be less time
for a family, right? We’re also in many homes what keeps the family together, right?
Each of the Latinas interviewed noted the importance of being present for family and
being involved in all aspects of child rearing. This phenomenon was not isolated to those who
were married and had children. Laura discussed that the decision to leave a senior leadership role
in another area of the state to return to her hometown was grounded in the desire to be present
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for nieces and be involved in their lives. Laura clarified that this was partially for family reasons,
but it was also to be a model for what her nieces could aspire to become.
Each of the leaders interviewed expressed a sense of pride in modeling hard work and
dedication for family and embraced the cultural model of a Latina as a nurturing caretaker while
also demonstrating that it is possible for a woman to have a high-powered leadership role outside
of the home. The concept of demonstrating confidence in negotiating attainment and utility value
related to family and career surfaced as a need for participants. This challenge of navigating
family versus career related to the need for support in clarity related to utility value. The
interviewees did not believe having a family created a barrier or contributed to career failure, but
it did result in a gap in alignment with the motivation influences related to the diminished
perception of the utility value of pursuing the superintendency due to the perceived personal
costs and benefits of taking on such a high-profile role outside of the home.
Perceived Value of Mentorship and Sponsorship
A theme that emerged from the interview data was that mentorship was viewed as
important for individual leader growth, but it was not viewed as essential for advancement.
Leaders interviewed stated that mentors were essential earlier in their career as they were still
developing as teachers and beginning leaders. Mentorship was most effective when it included
check-ins, encouragement, thought partnership, and job-embedded mentoring support to learn
through challenging situations. In some instances, leaders expressed that their supervisor fulfilled
this role, but some interviewees stated the mentorship was more effective when it came from a
leader who was not in an evaluative role. The perceived value of mentorship diminished as they
advanced to serve at the cabinet level. Once in a senior leader position, the desire for support
shifted to a desire for sponsorship, yet individuals who could engage in sponsorship at this level
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were less readily available. A theme emerged related to a misalignment between the availability
of mentoring and sponsorship along the leadership pathway. The leaders interviewed expressed
that mentorship was more desired when they were emerging leaders, but it was less readily
available, or they lacked an understanding of access.
However, at the emerging leader level, interviewees shared that sponsorship was more
prevalent with a supervisor who identified a talent for leadership and tapped them to serve in a
broader capacity and pursue advancement at their school site or department. In converse, as the
participants advanced into more executive and senior levels, mentorship was more prevalent, but
they assigned less value to it as leadership responsibilities increased. At this point, they placed a
higher value on sponsorship. While the senior-level leaders expressed that sponsorship was more
desirable while serving in a senior leadership capacity, there was a scarcity of sponsors available
to support the Latina leader in advancing beyond senior leadership into the superintendency.
The finding was that interviewees perceived the lack of sponsorship as having a negative
impact on the speed of their advancement to the superintendency. Despite the scarcity of
sponsors, participants placed a medium to high level of attribution value on sponsorship toward
promotion to the superintendency. Participants viewed the lack of sponsorship availability as
outside of their control.
Growth Mindset
The presence of growth mindset emerged as a finding related to interviewees’ believing
that their success or failure in the role was within their control. Despite the fact that multiple
participants experienced challenges in ascending to senior-level roles and experienced barriers to
accessing the superintendency, the majority expressed that, once they were selected for a
leadership role, they were able to adapt and find success in their job. The presence of a growth
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mindset and the internal motivation to adapt to new leadership challenges reveals that the
participants attributed their career success to their internal motivation, cognitive strengths, and
personal competence. Mari stated, “So, I would say that, to prepare for a position like this, it
would have to be, you’d have to have a growth mindset, and in any position that you’re in, lean
in and get as much training as possible.”
Cultural Identity
The finding of the study related to the concept of the Latina leader as the unifier
represented a high level of utility value on cultural identity related to success in leadership roles.
Furthermore, the senior-level Latina leaders interviewed placed a high level of attribution value
on the ability to authentically engage with the community in which she leads and to leverage the
role of superintendent to unify communities through deep equity work.
The interviewees’ cultural identity was that of facilitator of unity and togetherness
aligned with being a peacemaker. Sonia referenced that, to pursue the role of superintendent, she
would be inclined to pursue a role that prioritizes her natural tendency to focus on “togetherness”
as well as a desire to prioritize relationships. Patricia built on this concept of unity by
emphasizing the role of the superintendent as one connecting with and being part of the
community. Patricia’s comments align with the belief that, for a Latina leader to feel comfortable
pursuing the superintendency, she needs to feel connected to the community she would be
serving in, and her cultural identity would need to be one of feeling deeply connected with the
community. Carolina built on this concept of community connection and related it to equity work
and board relations. When Carolina was asked about the ideal environment that would support a
Latina in promoting to the role of superintendent she articulated,
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A community that allows authenticity and allows a candidate to be their authentic self,
but more importantly, a community that’s ready for true equity work. When I say true
equity work, that means that the board, specifically, has the political will to support a
Latinx leader that is creating initiatives, implementing work, creating goals that are based
on equity. And that they’re able to support that superintendent, even when there are
members of the community that don’t feel like that’s the right focus or that it’s not
creating quality, right?
Summary of Attribution Value Influence
A theme that surfaced related to role experiences is that participants were less concerned
with the title they held, and more connected with the learning and growth they gained as a result
of each role experience. This section of the study looked beyond the participants’ perceived
value of attaining specific positions to examine the Latinas leader’s perceived value of her
leadership presence throughout her leadership journey.
Results and Findings for Organization Causes
Policies, Procedures, and Processes Influence
Policies, procedures, and processes need to be in place to support equitable hiring
practices related to roles that are access points to the superintendency. Themes that emerged
from participant interviews related to policies, procedures, and processes centered around
equitable hiring practices and the process for superintendent hiring.
The interviews documented the following findings: the presence of policies, procedures
and processes that support equitable hiring practices for the role of superintendent are largely
absent from the participants’ school districts. Half of interviewees referenced that their district
was engaged in some type of equity-related work examining concepts such as implicit and
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unconscious bias, microaggressions, equity, and access. However, only two stated that their
districts had concrete policies or procedures to address diversity in hiring. A theme regarding
hiring was the significant role that search firm selection and school board member dynamics play
in the selection of the superintendent.
Policies That Support Equitable Hiring Practices
Interview findings revealed that policies that support equitable hiring vary significantly
by district. In more than half of the districts represented in this study, the interviewees expressed
that, beyond the required Education Code statements related to non-discrimination in hiring
practices, the policies had no specific language related to diverse hiring practices. In the
remaining districts, there was a broad spectrum of policies, as some districts simply passed a
board policy as a statement and others took steps to operationalize this work. Mari and Patricia
emphasized the broad spectrum of policy implementation related to equitable hiring practices.
Patricia referenced the role of hiring policies related to equity when she stated,
I wouldn’t say it’s…We have an equity policy which speaks to just diversity in the
workforce and equitable practices across our district, but I think, when you specifically
look at leadership, unfortunately, I have to say that’s one of our failures as a district.
Patricia’s experience mirrors the experience of the majority of interview participants in that their
school districts’ equity policies incorporated the required state language related to hiring but did
not extend far beyond that.
Mari’s experiences varied from that of the majority of interview participants serving as a
potential best practice. Mari painted a picture of how the work of equity in recruitment and
hiring has become an increased focus of senior-level leaders in her organization. Mari explained,
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So, we just had a new board policy…and then also it’s an anti-racism board policy, which
I think is really like, it should have happened a long time ago…but our policies are
changing and I feel good that it’s been a long time coming.
Through her interview, Mari explained how equity work was operationalized through an audit of
job descriptions, reviewing leadership preparation programs to ensure broader recruitment, and
building internal staff members’ capacity to recruit and promote leaders of diverse backgrounds.
Search Firm Impact on Superintendent Selection
A finding related to the superintendent hiring process centered around the involvement of
search firms. Interviewees discussed concerns regarding the role of search firms as a potential
manifestation of inequitable superintendent hiring practices. In California, the traditional process
of superintendent selection involves an application process and a series of interviews that
culminate with the school board’s selection of their candidate. Search firms have become more
prevalent in presenting viable candidates to the school board to interview. Paola clarified the
pivotal role that search firms play in deciding who is a candidate for interview when she stated,
I have been able to see that my perception of who gets the position is who is the search
firm that the board is contracting with. And, based on that search firm, who’s in the
lineup in the batting box to get the next job? So, it goes by network, and it goes by the
search firm that’s being selected because they have their queue.
In alignment with Paola’s perception, school boards contract search firms to bring forward
candidates who meet the board’s criteria. Paola expanded on this concept by describing how she
had seen Latinas held back from consideration by a search firm because promoting them would
create too much work to backfill in their organization. Paola explained,
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I’ve heard of situations where superintendents have been asked by search firms about
people, and then they’re given not a positive review, or they’re told, “Please don’t take
them, I need them here at this time,” and so the search firm doesn’t pick them because
they had a relationship with that superintendent.
Paola’s experience yielded a key finding related to the superintendent hiring process reinforced
through a range of interview responses. Specific search firms can limit access to a broad range of
candidates. Although search firms openly post superintendent position openings, they also filter
candidates they view as viable.
Summary of Policies, Procedures, and Processes Influence
The findings from the analysis of policies, procedures, and processes revealed a gap in a
statewide approach to increasing equitable superintendent hiring practices. Each participant’s
contextualized experiences demonstrated that the majority of districts where they work do not
have specific policies, procedures or processes related to equity-centered hiring practices. Mari’s
experience was the outlier, and, while it demonstrates promising effort, it is isolated to a single
district. A ripple effect of the lack of equity-focused hiring practices manifests in all aspects of
the organization. As discussed by the interviewees, search firms’ role in the selection of a new
superintendent is vital. However, the search firm is tasked with bringing the school board’s
wishes to fruition in terms of the types of candidates presented for consideration. As the school
board drives the approval of hiring policies and procedures, the interview participants noted a
significant gap in equity. The lack of a focus on equitable hiring is replicated in the
superintendent hiring process, representing a gap in providing structure and guidance to school
boards.

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Cultural Models and Cultural Settings Influence
Latina leaders in pursuit of the superintendency need to be aware of the barriers they face
in environmental culture and organizational group culture. In examining cultural models and
cultural settings through the interviews, themes surfaced related to the barriers Latinas encounter
when determining fit for the role of superintendent in terms of role experiences, polarizing
organizational climate, and the politics of fit.
The interview findings revealed that organizational cultural models sort Latina leaders
into positions not viewed as on the pathway to the superintendency at a higher rate than their
White counterparts due to their ethnic identity. Furthermore, the participants encountered
polarizing organizational climates throughout their leadership journeys, resulting in their need to
maintain high social awareness to find acceptance among their White colleagues. The final
finding related to cultural models and cultural settings was the concept of fit and how the process
of finding and being the right fit for the role of superintendent reflects the organizational culture
that senior-level Latina leaders navigate.
Role Experiences
Role experiences surfaced by the senior level Latina leaders relates to the influence of
cultural settings within this study. Multiple interview participants stated they started in their
careers as dual immersion or bilingual teachers. Their initial identification as multilingual
affected their career trajectory, as five participants being moved from their teaching role into a
role of leadership related to migrant education or supporting English learners. The interviewees
who followed this trajectory shared that their access to learning and growth centered around
professional learning services and supports connected to multilingual education and supporting
multilingual students.
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While the participants’ expertise was highly valued in the area of support for English
learner students and improving these instructional programs’ quality, they had limited access to
learning experiences in other essential leadership domains. In particular, they did not have
opportunity to develop competency in the areas of business services, negotiations and human
resources oversight. In alignment with this finding, Therese spoke to the phenomenon of Latina
leaders being isolated to specific types of roles due to ethnic identity when she stated, “We’re
quickly boxed into the English learner world. You’re brown, you’re Latina, we’re going to send
you to the district that has the most English learners.”
The interviewees’ experiences demonstrated that, while their leadership journeys were
expedited to advance them into leadership earlier in their careers related to supporting English
learners, serving in this role for multiple years limited opportunities for advancement and
changed the trajectory of their role experiences, creating a leak in the pipeline to the
superintendency.
Polarizing Organizational Climate and Politics of Fit
A finding that surfaced related to cultural models that Latina leaders navigate includes
the manifestation of polarizing organizational climates in a variety of contexts throughout their
leadership journey. The aspects of this climate that surfaced were political dynamics, navigating
school board relations, encountering microaggressions, and organizational instability.
Multiple study participants remarked on the polarizing impact of navigating tense
political dynamics throughout their leadership journeys. More than three-fourths of participants
expressed that their first encounter with political dynamics in leadership emerged during their
service as principals or assistant principals. The leaders who referenced this phenomenon
expressed that, while they were not quite prepared to understand the political culture and climate
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of the educational landscape, learning to navigate these challenges provided a solid foundation of
understanding to prepare them for future leadership opportunities. Sonia expressed that she did
not feel she had the proper training to navigate political dynamics when she stepped into the role
of assistant principal. Challenges in navigating the politics of leadership led Sonia to question
her ability to succeed in the role, as she shared “I was really young. I was very young. Honestly,
probably too young to be in that role because I didn’t quite understand yet all of the dynamics.”
Mariana shared that navigating organizational and community political dynamics served
as an important learning experience for her in her leadership journey when referencing her role
prior to serving in West Coast Union High School District:
The politics within the city certainly influenced the actions that occurred, things that I
was responsible for, things that were out of my control and that’s where I learned
really…because I’ve always wanted to be a superintendent once I got into education, but
I learned really the political nature of the superintendency and certainly higher
leadership.
The challenges of navigating school board dynamics were revisited by multiple interview
participants as a demotivating factor in pursuing the superintendency. Experiences with school
boards ranged from congenial to micromanaging to dictatorial and conspiratorial. The majority
of interview participants discussed navigating the complexities of board requests as the primary
factor for the lack of longevity in the role of superintendent. Mariana summarized the tenuous
relationship senior leadership can have with school boards when she stated,
In my ideal world, I would like to see a neutral board. A board that is not catering to
politics but a board that really has the emphasis of students, their success, and the success
and supports for our teachers. And I’m not saying that every board is completely political
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but there are elements of politics. I always call school boards the last bastion of true
politics because it’s such a local context.
Paola extended the conversation related to polarizing organizational climate to expose the
numerous microaggressions that Latinas in leadership encounter in school districts. Paola
recalled several instances of derogatory statements made to her that had hindered her leadership
when she shared,
I had an assistant superintendent who would make comments such as, “What do your
people eat for Thanksgiving?” I’ve had, “You speak so well for an English learner.
Where did you lose your accent? How come you don’t look like other Mexicans? I can’t
believe you’re Mexican.” Those are to name a few that just resonate and will completely
be ingrained in how I deliver and how I lead. It makes me a better professional. It gave
me thicker skin, and it made me realize that my role is also to build understanding for
other cultures that may not see or value Latinos on their leadership team, and that I
shouldn’t be a checkbox for equal opportunity.
Paola’s experiences reflected those of other interviewees. The microaggressions were subtle at
times and were perceived as stemming from unconscious bias. At other times, microaggressions
surfaced in a more hostile manner that intimidated the Latina leader. The microaggressions
directed toward one underrepresented group of leaders speak to the polarizing organizational
culture participants navigated while leading.
The concept of fit emerged as a two-part barrier to advancement to the superintendency.
The first aspect of the concept of fit relates to a lack of willingness to pursue a superintendency if
a candidate does not view herself as a fit. The second aspect are the perceptions of the board of
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education regarding the type of leader they perceive to be a fit for their district. Table 11 outlines
two different dimensions related to the concepts of fit.
As outlined in Table 11, if any aspect of the concepts of fit are lacking, the Latina leader
will choose to not pursue the role of superintendency. In the same manner, if any of the aspects
of concepts of fit are found to be lacking, the board of education will choose not to pursue the
candidate as a potential superintendent.

Table 11
Dimensions of the Concept of Fit
Dimension 1
Latina leader
perception of fit
Does the
Latina leader
view herself as
a fit?
Does the
Latina leader
perceive her
personality and
skills to be
aligned with
the board
priorities and
values?
Does the Latina
leader perceive
her values to be in
alignment with
those of the
district?
Does the Latina
leader perceive
herself to have a
connection with
the school district
community?
Dimension 2
Board of
education
perception of fit
Does the board
of education
view the leader
as a fit?
Does the board
of education
perceive the
leaders skills
and personality
to be aligned
with their
priorities and
values?
Does the board of
education view the
leader as having a
skills match with
the needs of the
district?
Does the board of
education perceive
the leader as being
a match with the
community?

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Exploring the concept of fit at a deeper level, Sonia stated there would need to be
significant clarity regarding the match of her skills and dispositions with the needs of the district
when she stated,
I think, at some point, there will be a district that needs Sonia and her leadership skills
and style to come in and do her part. I think it would be really, really clear about what
that district was looking for and about how much of a match my leadership style and my
leadership personality would contribute to that.
How a participant viewed the district values as aligning or not aligning with her personal values
determined whether she pursued the role. This factor was more prevalent than any other
comments made related to pursuing the position.
Summary of Cultural Models and Cultural Settings Influence
Each of the interviewees expressed that they would not consider applying for a
superintendent position they did not view as a personal fit for them. The politics of fit was a
deciding factor of whether the Latina leader would pursue the position.
Findings by Research Question
Following the review of themes aligned with the KMO (Clark & Estes, 2008) influences,
the following section organizes the findings in alignment with the research questions framing the
study. The themes emerged from a thorough review of literature on the area of focus as well as
through a thorough analysis of data surfacing from the interviews conducted in this study. The
first research question focused on the knowledge and motivation influences included in the Clark
and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis framework that affect senior-level Latina leaders in attaining the
goal of representation in the role of superintendent.
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The findings related to Research Question Two focus on the KMO factors that need to be
in place prior to a Latina leader advancing to the superintendency, focusing on the essential
components of preparedness.
Following the presentation of findings in alignment with the first two research questions,
a summary of validated influences outlines the assets and needs. Chapter Five will address the
assets and needs that surfaced by incorporating the findings pertaining to Research Question
Three and providing KMO recommendations to support attainment of the organizational and
stakeholder goals.
Research Question One: What is the Latina leader’s knowledge and motivation related to
the role of superintendent with the goal of increasing the representation of Latinas as K-12
school district superintendents to 10% of the total superintendent population by the end of
2021?
The findings in this section are aligned to Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis
framework. The findings of the study were that the participants demonstrate assets in the areas of
factual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge. The interviewees had a clear sense of the
extent to which male privilege and systemic oppression affect their pursuit of the
superintendency. All participants agreed that they navigate a male-dominant leadership culture
daily, and, as a result of this navigation, they demonstrate competence in explaining the extent to
which the barriers they encounter shape their individual leadership journeys.
While the Latina leaders in the study demonstrated differences of opinion regarding
whether serving in the principalship was the most important role in preparing them to pursue the
superintendency, most agreed on the critical role experiences leading to that role. Beyond the
specific job titles they felt were important, interview participants focused on the specific types of
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learning and growth experiences they gained in each role. Emphasizing the specific experiences
in each role created clarity that, while there is some value in holding specific job titles, specific
experiences are more important to being seen as a viable and competitive candidate for the
superintendency.
Each of the senior-level Latina leaders demonstrated a high level of awareness related to
barriers they might face when applying for the role of superintendent related to perceptions of fit,
and stereotypes associated with Latinas in leadership. Multiple interview participants also
described their understanding of potential barriers to success in the role and connected these to
being highly aware and in touch with the political and board dynamics in the school district
community.
Further exploring the data pertaining to the first research question, the findings were that
the participants demonstrate assets in self-efficacy and attribution. An examination of
participants’ self-efficacy revealed that the interviewees developed resilience and growth
mindset to support them in maintaining high self-efficacy. The experiences they shared
demonstrate that instances of encountering bias, oppression, and marginalization elicited
negative emotions. However, due to their self-efficacy, the leaders drew on their assets in coping
and adaptation to overcome these emotions and move forward on the leadership pathway.
Although the participants demonstrated high self-efficacy related to past leadership roles, past
experience did not translate to high self-efficacy related to pursuing the superintendency. Three
participants expressed high self-efficacy in feeling equipped to pursue the superintendency
within the next 12 months. As a result, the Latina leaders represented in the study demonstrated a
need in the area of self-efficacy related to pursuing the role of superintendent.
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Through the exploration of attribution, interview participants expressed internal locus of
causality related to their success or failure in the role of superintendent. Despite significant
barriers in the pathway to the superintendency, interview participants agreed that they still
possess internal locus of causality, demonstrating they believe that, once selected for a role, their
success or failure is within their control.
Research Question Two: What knowledge, motivation and organizational factors does a
prospective Latina superintendent need to possess to become qualified for consideration as
a school district superintendent?
The second research question centered around the KMO factors a prospective Latina
superintendent needs to possess to be considered qualified. The findings in this section are
aligned to Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis framework and calibrated with interview
responses from senior-level Latina educational leaders.
The knowledge factor that a prospective Latina superintendent must possess is awareness
of school board dynamics and of all aspects of school district operations, including instruction
and business services. An examination of literature and interview data revealed the Latina leader
needs to demonstrate a solid understanding of business processes and the ability to maintain
district fiscal health. Stereotypically, the types of roles Latinas are selected for are primarily in
the areas of instruction and support for English learner students. Demonstrating an understanding
of school board dynamics, school governance, fiscal and business operations, and developing
positive school board relationships are critical to finding success in the role of superintendent. As
the participants stated, the superintendent is the only direct employee of the school board, and, as
such, it is the superintendent’s responsibility to support a healthy board-superintendent
relationship.
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In regards to motivation, the prospective Latina superintendent needs to possess self-
efficacy, resilience, and a growth mindset. The development of self-efficacy relies on the ability
to develop a strong internal locus of causality. Resilience manifests through the development of
skills in the area of adaptation and coping. Through coping mechanisms related to encountering
overwhelming workload, organizational instability, and biases, the Latina leader exhibits
resilience, demonstrating strength and stability. Exhibiting a growth mindset surfaced through
interviews as an important factor in supporting the success of an aspiring Latina superintendent.
By embracing a growth mindset, the prospective Latina superintendent creates a clear vision for
those she leads.
Organizational factors surfaced as an area of need. As a result, the prospective Latina
educational leader will need to prioritize organizational factors to ensure a healthy organizational
culture and infrastructure. The interviews revealed that the majority of organizations in which
participants served lacked policies, procedures, and processes to ensure equitable hiring practices
focused on diversity and inclusion. This absence perpetuates a culture that lacks inclusivity.
Additionally, addressing organizational culture and intentionally shifting the leadership culture
away from a White hegemonic norm to an inclusive one is important to ensuring the prospective
Latina superintendent’s success.
Summary of Validated Influences
1. What is the Latina leader’s knowledge and motivation related to the role of
superintendent with the goal of increasing the representation of Latinas as K-12 school
district superintendents to 10% of the total superintendent population by the end of 2021?
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2. What knowledge, motivation and organizational factors does a prospective Latina
superintendent need to possess to become qualified for consideration as a school district
superintendent?
Tables 12, 13, and 14 show the knowledge, motivation and organization influences for
this study and their determination as assets or needs.

Knowledge

Table 12
Knowledge Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data
Assumed Knowledge Influence Asset or Need
Factual
Latina educational leaders need to be able
describe how male privilege and systemic
oppression impact women in pursuit of
promotion and advancement.
Asset
Procedural
Latina educational leaders need to identify
appropriate role experiences to have before
promoting to the superintendency.
Asset
Metacognitive
Latina educational leaders need to reflect on
potential barriers to access and success in the
superintendency.
Asset

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Motivation

Table 13
Motivation Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data
Assumed Motivation Influence Asset or Need
Self-Efficacy
Latina educational leaders need to feel
confident about their ability to secure
leadership roles that are key access points to
the superintendency.
Need
Attribution
Latina educational leaders need to believe
their success or failure in roles that are key
access points to the superintendency is in their
control.
Asset

Organization

Table 14
Organization Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data
Assumed Organization Influence Asset or Need
Policies, procedures, and processes
Policies and processes need to be in place to
support equitable hiring practices related to
roles that are access points to the
superintendency.
Need
Cultural models and cultural settings
Latina leaders in pursuit of the
superintendency need to be aware of the
barriers they face in environmental culture
and organizational group culture.
Need

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Chapter Five will leverage the empirical evidence surfaced through the triangulation of
data and the literature review to present the validated influences. Through an exploration of the
validated influences aligned with theory, a determination will be made regarding whether a gap
exists. Following the identification of gaps related to the influence, recommendations will be
outlined to support progress toward attaining the stakeholder goal.

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Chapter Five: Solutions and Integrated Implementation/Evaluation
Chapter Five incorporates recommendations aligned with the validated influences
discussed in Chapter Four. Chapter Four outlined an analysis of the findings following the
implementation of qualitative interviews. The data which surfaced from the interviews were
analyzed in alignment with Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis framework based on the three
influences included within the framework: knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences.
Through data analysis, themes emerged, revealing connections between influences and concepts
related to the underrepresentation of senior-level Latina educational leaders pursuing the
superintendency in support of responding to the first two research questions contained within this
study. Chapter Five includes a discussion of the answer to the third research question, followed
by a description of the organizational context of the field of study, an expanded description of
the stakeholder group interviewed, and a discussion of recommendations aligned with literature
from the field and theory related to the problem of practice.
Introduction
The third research question asked, “What are the knowledge, motivational and
organizational recommendations?” The analysis of interview responses and the emergence of
themes discussed in Chapter Four are organized in alignment with Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap
analysis framework to develop recommendations in alignment with the KMO influences. As
Clark and Estes’s gap analysis framework involves an iterative process, aligning the framework
with prioritized recommendations and the problem of practice creates a vehicle for moving
change forward to support the attainment of the stakeholder goals.

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Organizational Context and Mission
The context of this evaluation is the state of California, which serves as the field of study.
According to the California Department of Education (2020), its core belief is to “prepare
students to live, work, and thrive in a multicultural, multilingual, and highly connected world”
(p. 1). Yet, according to the most recent statistics collected by one of the state’s leading
professional organizations for administrators, Latinx superintendents are in the minority in terms
of representation, with Latinas being the least represented in this group (ACSA, 2020). While
there has been a national focus over the past 20 years on advancing Latinas’ academic
persistence and success in education, the rates of Latinas persisting in teaching positions and
finding success in the ranks of education administration is not growing at a rate proportional to
that of their White counterparts (Gándara, 2015). This challenge of Latina underrepresentation
magnifies itself in a state in which Latinas represent approximately 18% of the total population.
Organizational Performance Goal
The organizational goal outlined in this study is to increase the representation of Latinas
as superintendents in K-12 school districts from the current total of 4.9% to 10% of the total
California superintendent population by the end of 2021. The organizational goal decreases the
equity gap in representation between Latinas and their peers from all other racial and ethnic
groups. Doubling their representation as school district superintendents demonstrates an
intentional approach to bringing about equity in recruitment, hiring, and promoting Latina
leaders. A subsequent goal of the program is for 30% of Latina leaders to feel adequately or
highly prepared to pursue the position of school district superintendent. These data are important
to collect due to the fact that baseline data does not currently exist.

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Description of Stakeholder Group for the Study
The stakeholders at the center of this study were Latina educational leaders. There is a
paucity of research on the underrepresentation of Latinas in the role of superintendent, which
amplifies the need to examine the broader challenges of their recruitment, retainment, and
advancement to the role. The Latina leaders of focus are those who, by the nature of their role
and title, are on the path to the role of superintendent.
Goal of the Stakeholder Group for the Study
The stakeholder goal is that by the end of 2021, 30% of Latina mid-level educational
leaders will express they feel adequately or highly prepared to pursue the position of school
district superintendent. This goal is supported by the California Department of Education’s goal
that, by the end of 2021, it will monitor and report the ethnic and gender demographics of
superintendents and assess the efficacy of leaders in the superintendent pipeline. Failure to meet
this goal will result in the continued lack of a system to monitor and measure the preparedness of
historically underrepresented gender and ethnic groups prepared for and receiving access to the
role of superintendent. The resulting impact of failing to meet the goals will inhibit the state from
increasing the representation of Latinas to 10% of superintendents statewide.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this research was to engage in a gap analysis to examine the root causes
of the underrepresentation of Latinas as school district superintendents by evaluating the
recruitment, retainment, and advancement of K-12 Latina educational leaders into the role of
school district superintendent. The analysis will focus on factors contributing to this problem as a
result of gaps in knowledge, skills, motivation, and organizational influences. The gap analysis
began with a literature review to develop a list of possible causes and influences.
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The questions guiding this study were as follows:
1. What is the Latina leader’s knowledge and motivation related to the role of
superintendent with the goal of increasing the representation of Latinas as K-12 school
district superintendents to 10% of the total superintendent population by the end of 2021?
2. What knowledge, motivation and organizational factors does a prospective Latina
superintendent need to possess to become qualified for consideration as a school district
superintendent?
3. What are the knowledge, motivational and organizational recommendations?
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
The influences that surfaced as findings are organized according to the components of
Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis framework. The validated KMO influences are aligned in
this section with specific KMO recommendations.
Knowledge Findings and Aligned Recommendations
The knowledge influences assessed in this study were declarative factual, procedural, and
metacognitive. In the area of knowledge, participants demonstrated assets related to all three
assessed knowledge influences which include factual knowledge, procedural knowledge and
metacognitive knowledge. As they demonstrated strengths across all three of their domains of
knowledge, the researcher was left to consider whether to validate the area as a gap and to add
the category of considering whether the influence is an area where ongoing growth and
development is needed.
Factual Knowledge Findings and Recommendations
The factual knowledge findings centered on the concepts of the impact of male privilege
and systemic oppression on Latina leaders’ advancement toward the superintendency. The
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exploration of factual knowledge influences was grounded in the work of Sherman et al. (2010),
who noted that women in pursuit of advancement face systemic oppression in terms of
expectations related to workload, working patterns, and their domestic status.
Findings demonstrated assets in participants factual knowledge of male exclusionary
social structures that diminish the Latina leader’s access to networking, mentoring, and
sponsorship. An additional finding in the area of factual knowledge revealed that participants
expressed varying levels of knowledge of sponsorship based on their role in the organization.
Participants discussed four different types of sponsorship which include in-organization
advancement, succession planning, act as if, and advocacy. In alignment with the first factual
knowledge finding and additional finding, the recommendation is to build Latina leaders’ factual
knowledge related to the four types of sponsorship that can be leveraged to support professional
advancement.
The importance of the recommendation aligns with building senior-level Latina
educational leaders’ knowledge of the types of sponsorship that may be of benefit to them in
finding the appropriate type of support for advancement. Interview participants cited examples of
benefitting from in-organization sponsorship when they needed advocacy-based sponsorship.
Increasing Latina leaders’ awareness of the four types of sponsorship creates empowerment to
support them in developing agency to seek appropriate types of sponsorship relationships based
on their promotional and advancement needs. To further advance the Latina leader in embracing
the concept of sponsorship, the factual knowledge recommendation shifts from knowledge
development to empowerment by developing competence and confidence in the Latina leader by
identifying the desired level of sponsorship she would like to engage in, developing a list of
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potential sponsors, and supporting the Latina leader by providing sample letters and email
templates to support her in reaching out to attain the appropriate type of sponsorship.
The second factual knowledge finding centered around leadership presence. Interviewees
demonstrated a servant leadership work orientation grounded in humility, which they cited as a
leadership style outside of the male-dominant cultural leadership norm. They expressed that their
particular leadership presence had been misconstrued as passive or not assertive enough at times.
The aligned recommendation is to implement implicit and unconscious bias training at the
district and state level related to the leadership presence of leaders from different cultural
backgrounds. The recommendation to incorporate training for state board of education members
related to implicit and unconscious bias focused on leadership presence will support the
incorporation of conversations related to equitable representation and prioritizing diversity in
hiring practices.
Procedural Knowledge Findings and Recommendations
The procedural knowledge findings were grounded in the work of Robinson et al. (2017)
related to the importance of understanding and identifying essential role experiences that relate
to advancement to the superintendency. One of the procedural knowledge findings demonstrated
that participants displayed assets in procedural knowledge related to understanding the specific
position titles that support their advancement to the superintendency. Further investigation into
how interviewees gained procedural knowledge of the positions they needed to serve in to be
considered on the pathway to the superintendency revealed that they gained information through
informal interactions and by observing other leaders’ pathways. A recommendation to address
the lack of access of formalized structures to support Latina leaders in gaining procedural
knowledge regarding essential role experiences will require the establishment of a leadership
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academy for Latina mid-level and senior level educational leaders to develop proficiency in
essential domains of leadership experience. Partnering with CALSA, AASA and ACSA to
develop and implement the academy will support in leverage collective resources across the
entities to build background knowledge for aspiring and emerging Latina leaders to support their
early growth and development.
The second procedural knowledge finding surfaced the Latina leaders’ need to
demonstrate ongoing procedural knowledge growth related to their understanding of the types of
experiences in each role needed to be prepared for the superintendency. Although the
participants had a depth of understanding of specific roles and titles to hold, they demonstrated
an area of continued growth related to understanding the different domains of experiences that
needed to be garnered in preparation for the superintendency. Some interviewees needed to
understand fiscal operations and business services, and multiple participants revealed that
observing the response of their current superintendent to the COVID-19 pandemic revealed their
need to feel more confident in crisis leadership. In response to the areas for ongoing growth, the
recommendation is to develop and implement (through academies, workshops, and web-based
professional learnings) the essential domains of leadership framework that outlines what a Latina
leader must know and be able to do to be a competitive applicant for the superintendency.
Metacognitive Knowledge Findings and Recommendations
The metacognitive knowledge findings expanded on the work of Robinson et al. (2017)
related to the need to reflect on barriers and accelerators to advancement related to gender,
ethnicity, role experiences, and district needs. In relation to interviewees’ ability to reflect on
barriers, two findings surfaced: an external finding related to the school district board’s role and
an internal finding related to participants’ perceptions of their readiness for the role.
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The initial finding was that school board dynamics were a barrier to the decision to
pursue the superintendency. Interview participants identified that their observation of political
dynamics related to the school board deterred them from applying for the superintendency. The
challenge of navigating what could be toxic board dynamics surfaced across multiple interviews
as a key aspect affecting the desire to advance to the superintendency. Some of the interview
participants shared their direct interaction with the school board, but less than one-fourth of them
shared their experience of engaging in training to support them in navigating board dynamics. As
a result of this finding, the recommendation is to ensure all Latina leaders at the level of Director
and above throughout the state of California are provided no cost access to Masters of
Governance training facilitated by CSBA to support building their capacity and empowering
them to navigate complex board dynamics.
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Three classification categories were utilized to validate each knowledge influence as a
gap or as an area where ongoing growth is needed. The incorporation of ongoing growth areas
reflects the fact that a need exists as it relates to factual knowledge to ensure continued growth
and advancement of Latina leaders. Recommendations were made for all influences to build on
current strengths, remediate needs, or provide continued development to ensure gaps do not
emerge. The recommendations for each validated influence align with the literature or theoretical
models referenced in the table. Table 15 includes the assumed knowledge influences validated
through qualitative interviews and through a review of literature related to them.

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Table 15
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Knowledge
Influence
Validated
as a Gap?
Yes or No
Area (Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Findings and
Sub-findings
Recommendations

Factual:
Latina
educational
leaders need
to be able to
describe how
male privilege
and systemic
oppression
impact
women in
pursuit of
promotion
and
advancement.
N Women in
pursuit of
advancement
face systemic
oppression in
terms of
expectations
related to
workload,
working
patterns, and
their domestic
status
(Sherman et
al., 2010).
Interview participants
demonstrated assets in
their understanding of
male exclusionary
social structures that
diminish the Latina
leaders’ access to
networking, mentoring,
and sponsorship.
● Interview
participants
experienced
varying levels of
sponsorship based
on their role within
the organization
● Four different
types of
sponsorship
manifested
themselves as a
result of the
interviews.
Build Latina leader
factual knowledge
related to the four
types of
sponsorship.
Develop
competence and
confidence in
identifying the
desired level of
sponsorship she
would like to
engage in, develop
a list of potential
sponsors, and
support the Latina
leaders by
providing sample
letters and email
templates to
support her in
reaching out to
attain the
appropriate type of
sponsorship.
Interview participants
demonstrated a work
orientation of servant
leadership grounded in
humility which
interview participants
cited as being a
leadership style that is
outside of the male-
dominant cultural
leadership norm.
Implement implicit
and unconscious
bias training at the
district and state
level related to the
representation of
leaders from
different
backgrounds.

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Assumed
Knowledge
Influence
Validated
as a Gap?
Yes or No
Area
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Findings and
Sub-findings
Recommendations

Procedural:
Latina
educational
leaders need to
identify
appropriate role
experiences to
have before
promoting to the
superintendency.
Y The ability to
identify these
role
experiences
prior to
pursuing the
role of
superintenden
t provides the
Latina
educational
leader with
clarity related
to the
pathway to
the role of
superintenden
t (Robinson et
al., 2017).

Latina leaders
demonstrated assets in
procedural knowledge
related to
understanding the
specific position titles
that support their
advancement to the
superintendency.
Establish a
leadership academy
for Latina mid-level
and senior level
educational leaders
that develops
Latina leader
proficiency in
essential domains
of leadership
experience.
Partner with
CALSA, AASA
and ACSA to build
background
knowledge for
aspiring and
emerging Latina
leaders to support
their early growth
and development.
Latina leaders
demonstrated a need
in relation to the
individual leader’s
understanding of the
type of experiences
necessary within each
role to serve as
appropriate
preparation for the
superintendency.
Develop and
implement (through
academies,
workshops, and
web-based
professional
learnings) the
essential domains
of leadership
framework that
outlines what a
Latina leader must
know and be able to
do to be a
competitive
applicant for the
superintendency.

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Assumed
Knowledge
Influence
Validated
as a Gap?
Yes or No
Area (Y,
N)
Principle and
Citation
Findings and
Sub-findings
Recommendations

Metacognitive:
Latina
educational
leaders need to
reflect on
potential
barriers to
access and
success in the
superintendenc
y.
Y The Latina
leader needs
to
demonstrate
the ability to
reflect on
current
barriers or
accelerators to
advancement
as it relates to
gender,
ethnicity, role
experiences,
and the needs
of the district
(Robinson et
al., 2017).
Metacognitive
knowledge of the
barriers that exist as a
result of school board
dynamics surfaced as a
need. Interview
participants identified
that their personal
observation of political
dynamics related to the
school board served as
a deterrent from
applying for the
superintendency.
Ensure all Latina
leaders at the level
of Director and
above throughout
the state of
California are
provided no cost
access to Masters
of Governance
training facilitated
by CSBA to
support building
their capacity and
empower them to
navigate complex
board dynamics.

Motivation Findings and Aligned Recommendations
The motivation influences assessed in this study were self-efficacy and attribution. In the
area of motivation, participants demonstrated needs in two areas. As interview participants
shared how they navigated organizational challenges and barriers to advancement, needs in the
area of self-efficacy and attribution emerged. Table 16 includes the assumed motivation
influences validated through qualitative interviews and a review of literature related to the
influences as well as a summary of these influences to clarify the incorporation of specific
recommendations.
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Self-Efficacy Findings and Recommendations
Findings related to self-efficacy emphasized that shifting social, political, and economic
conditions affect the longevity of the female superintendent’s tenure and perception by the public
(Polka et al., 2008). As a result, some female superintendents may feel like victims of
circumstance (Polka et al., 2008). Study participants revealed that while they were confident in
their ability to secure senior leadership roles on the pathway to the superintendency, they
hesitated to pursue the superintendency at a young age due to perceptions of it being a short-term
role best taken on near the end of one’s career. This perception has limited the number of Latina
leaders seeking the superintendency. The recommendation is to implement mandatory state level
intervention overseen by the county office of education which includes coaching, professional
learning, and support for school boards in districts where superintendent average tenure falls
below four years. The process will align with the state level Differentiated Assistance process.
For school districts whose superintendent serves three years or less, the school board will be
required to engage in an internal equity audit facilitated by an approved state level provider
related to superintendent hiring practices to examine internal board dynamics that impact
superintendent working conditions.
Attribution Findings and Recommendations
Findings surfaced that participants held varying perceptions of attribution of success as it
related to promoting to the role of superintendent. The varied perceptions of securing a
superintendent position reflect participants’ perceptions of the organizational culture in which
they serve. The lack of gender and ethnic parity in the superintendency reinforced perceptions of
an external locus of causality related to securing the role. To support the Latina leaders in
remediating needs related to attribution, the recommendation is to develop a personal leadership
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self-assessment tool aligned with the essential domains of leadership experience framework to
support Latina leaders in self-reflecting on personal development.
Summary of Motivation Influence and Recommendations
Table 16 specifies the motivation gaps and the organization-specific recommendations to
support the remediation of these gaps.

Table 16
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Motivation
Influence
Validated
as a Gap?
Yes or No
Area (Y,
N)
Principle and
Citation
Findings and Sub-
findings
Recommendations
Self-Efficacy:
Latina
educational
leaders need to
feel confident
about their
ability to secure
leadership roles
that are key
access points to
the
superintendency.
Y Shifting social,
political, and
economic
conditions
have an impact
on the
longevity of
the female
superintendent’
s tenure and
perception by
the public
(Polka et al.,
2008).
Study participants
revealed that while
they are confident
in their ability to
secure senior
leadership roles that
are on the pathway
to the
superintendency,
there is fear and
hesitancy in
pursuing the
superintendency at
a young age due to
perceptions of it
being a short-term
role best served
near the end of an
individual’s career.
This perception has
limited the number
of Latina leaders
seeking to pursue
the
superintendency.
Implement
mandatory state level
intervention overseen
by the county office
of education which
includes coaching,
professional learning,
and support for
school boards in
districts where
superintendent
average tenure falls
below four years. The
process will align
with the state level
Differentiated
Assistance process.

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Assumed
Motivation
Influence
Validated
as a Gap?
Yes or No
Area (Y,
N)
Principle and
Citation
Findings and Sub-
findings
Recommendations
For school districts
whose superintendent
serves three years or
less, the school board
will be required to
engage in an internal
equity audit
facilitated by a state
approved state level
provider related to
superintendent hiring
practices to examine
internal board
dynamics that impact
superintendent
working conditions.
Attribution:
Latina
educational
leaders need to
believe their
success or
failure within
roles that are key
access points to
the
superintendency
is in their
control.
Y Weiner’s
Attribution theory
of emotion and
motivation
(Weiner, 1972)
surfaced the
concept of internal
versus external
locus of causality
(Perry & Hamm,
2017).
Findings
surfaced that
while Latina
leaders believe
success or
failure in a role
is within their
control, the
Latina
educational
leaders
demonstrate a
need in regards
to attribution.
Latina leaders
hold varying
perceptions of
attribution of
success as it
relates to
promoting to
the role of
superintendent.
Develop a personal
leadership self-
assessment tool aligned
with the essential
domains of leadership
experience framework
to support Latina
leaders in self-reflecting
on personal
development.

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Organizational Findings and Aligned Recommendations
The organizational influences assessed in this study were policies, procedures, and
processes as well as cultural models and cultural settings. The organizational influences
examined the cultural and organizational context related to the problem of practice. The field
relates to the state of California and, specifically, how the field has or has not created the
conditions for Latina leaders to find success in aspiring to the superintendency. As participants
shared how they navigated organizational challenges and barriers to advancement, findings and
recommendations were developed in alignment with assets and needs related to the field.
Policies, Procedures, and Processes Findings and Recommendations
Participants’ experiences revealed that they primarily gained access to the
superintendency through elementary and middle school principalships. Few participants gained
access to the high school principalship on their pathway to senior leadership. The literature
identified the high school principalship as a role that is viewed more favorable as an access point
for the superintendency (Davis & Bowers, 2019). In alignment with this finding, the
recommendation is that leaders at the state board of education level partner with ACSA and the
California School Boards Association to develop and implement state-level guidance, board
policy templates, and human resources best practices to support the implementation of a pipeline
development program to increase diversity in all senior level educational leadership positions.
Cultural Models and Cultural Settings Findings and Recommendations
A finding centered on organizational cultural models and cultural settings related to the
research of Polka et al. (2008), which outlined that female leaders face gender bias in the
superintendent screening and selection process due to cultural models held by the individuals in
charge of selection. The findings demonstrated that participants faced bias related to gender and
120

ethnicity when applying for the superintendency due to male-dominant cultural norms and the
cultural models related to perceptions of leadership held by the individuals in charge of screening
and selection. Recommendations to address barriers to the superintendent selection process
include
developing and implementing an equity assurances agreement document that every
superintendent search firm within California must abide by and incorporate an annual data
reporting summary from each superintendent search firm which will include reporting of
superintendent applicant pool demographics. Annual results from the search firm are aggregated,
published and an equity scorecard is developed for each superintendent search firm. Upon
completion of the annual equity scorecard, search firm rankings are published by CSBA and
ACSA. Additionally, the recommendation is to partner with CSBA to develop a list of interview
questions and data to request from a search firm seeking to be hired to conduct a superintendent
search.
Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations
Table 17 includes the assumed organizational influences validated through interviews and
a review of the literature related to the influences. It also presents a summary of the influences to
clarify the incorporation of specific recommendations and the remediation of gaps.

121

Table 17
Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Organizational
Influence
Validated
as a Gap?
Yes or No
Area (Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Findings and
Sub-findings
Recommendations
Policies,
procedures, and
processes:
Policies,
procedures, and
processes need
to be in place to
support
equitable hiring
practices related
to roles that are
access points to
the
superintendency.
Y The research
emphasizes that
the manner in
which principals
are selected and
the values that
are espoused
during the
selection process
impact the
ability of the
system to adapt
to complex
second-order
change
specifically as it
relates to
addressing
achievement
disparities for
students
(Schlueter &
Walker, 2008).
Latina
educational
leaders primarily
gained access to
the
superintendency
through
elementary and
middle school
principalships,
with few
participants
having access to
the high school
principalship,
which is a key
role for
accessing the
superintendency.
Partner with ACSA
and the California
School Boards
Association to
develop and
implement state-level
guidance documents,
board policy
templates, and human
resources best
practice documents to
support the
implementation of a
diverse principal
pipeline development
program in support of
increasing diversity
in the principalship.

122

Assumed
Organizational
Influence
Validated
as a Gap?
Yes or No
Area (Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Findings and
Sub-findings
Recommendations
Cultural models
and cultural
settings:
Latina leaders in
pursuit of the
superintendency
need to be aware
of the barriers
they face in
environmental
culture and
organizational
group culture.
Y Female leaders
need to be aware
of gender bias
they face in the
superintendent
screening and
selection process
due to cultural
models held by
the individuals in
charge of
selection (Polka
et al., 2008).
Latina leaders
demonstrated a
need in their
awareness of
biases faced
related to gender
and ethnicity
when applying
for the
superintendency
related to male-
dominant
cultural norms
and perceptions
of leadership
held by the
individuals in
charge of
screening and
selection.
Implement a
statewide equity
assurances agreement
that every
superintendent search
firm within California
must abide by and
incorporate an annual
data reporting
summary from each
superintendent search
firm which will
include reporting of
superintendent
applicant pool
demographics.
Annual results from
the search firm are
aggregated, published
and an equity
scorecard is
developed for each
firm. Upon
completion of the
annual equity
scorecard, search
firm rankings are
published by CSBA
and ACSA. Partner
with CSBA to
develop a list of
interview questions
and data to request
from a search firm
seeking to be hired to
conduct a
superintendent
search.

123

Evaluation Plan and Methodology
The Context, Input, Process, Product (CIPP) Evaluation model (Stufflebeam & Coryn,
2014) incorporates four stages of evaluation nested in a focus on continuous improvement:
including goals, plans, outcomes, and actions.
Grounding the evaluation in a research-based evaluation model allows for the needs that
surfaced from the qualitative interviews to be reviewed through the concepts of range of
application, feasibility in practice, and discernible impact to support the field in aligning
improvement efforts toward desired outcomes.

Figure 2
Context, Input, Process, Product (CIPP) Evaluation Model

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The CIPP evaluation model (Table 18) implementation in this study includes an
adaptation to focus on the aspects of the evaluation most essential to the field. The aspect of
context evaluation includes identifying beneficiaries and resources. The second phase of the
evaluation model focuses on input evaluation related to plans. The adapted input evaluation
includes the identification of the stakeholder group and surfacing the fiscal resources or budget
needed. The adapted implementation will focus on the development, implementation, and
monitoring of actions related to the study recommendations. The product evaluation emphasizes
outcomes, outlines the assessment method for determining progress in the implementation of the
study recommendation, as well as notating the manner in which impact and effectiveness will be
evaluated.

Table 18
Overview of CIPP Evaluation Model
Context Evaluation
(Goals)
Input Evaluation
(Plans)
Process Evaluation
(actions)
Product Evaluation
(outcomes)
The context
evaluation sets the
goals for the
program, needs,
resources, and
potential barriers.
Includes stakeholder
engagement,
identification of
strategies, allocation
of financial resources.
Evaluation of the
implemented actions
through qualitative or
quantitative
measures, feedback,
and quality measures.
Evaluation of the
impact of the
program, scale of
impact, transferability
of learnings and
sustainability.

125

Table 19
Implementation of the CIPP Evaluation Model with Dissertation Recommendations
Recommendation Context
Evaluation
(Goals)
Input
Evaluation
(Plans)
Process
Evaluation
(Actions)
Product
Evaluation
(Outcomes)
Build Latina
leader factual
knowledge related
to the four types
of sponsorship.
Develop
competence and
confidence in
identifying the
desired level of
sponsorship she
would like to
engage in, develop
a list of potential
sponsors, and
support the Latina
leaders by
providing sample
letters and email
templates to
support her in
reaching out to
attain the
appropriate type
of sponsorship.
Beneficiaries:
Latina leaders

Stakeholders
responsible for
implementation:
ACSA

Develop/
Implement:
Training to
support Latina
leader factual
knowledge
development
related to the
four types of
sponsorship.
Develop sample
letters and
templates to
empower leaders
to reach out for
sponsors.
Assessment:
Pre and post
survey to
determine the
current numbers
of Latina leaders
being sponsored
and the type of
sponsorship they
are engaged in.
Post survey to
identify the type
of desired
sponsorship.
Follow up
surveys at two
and four months
to determine to
what extent the
Latina leaders
have sponsors
supporting in the
type of desired
sponsorship.

126

Recommendation Context
Evaluation
(Goals)
Input
Evaluation
(Plans)
Process
Evaluation
(Actions)
Product
Evaluation
(Outcomes)
Resources:
Study
research
outlining the
four types of
sponsorship.
Web-based
resources
from national
and statewide
administrator
service
organizations.
Templates for
letters and
emails to
support
outreach for
sponsorship.

Budget:
Allocation of
fiscal resources
to ensure
implementation.

Monitor:
Director of
Educational
Programs at
ACSA
monitors
program
implementation
and participant
feedback
following each
learning
session.

Impact/
Effectiveness:
Gather qualitative
feedback
regarding how the
learning has
impacted Latina
leader growth and
advancement.
Quantify
effectiveness
through reviewing
pre and post
survey results to
determine the
extent to which
sponsorship has
supported the
Latina leaders
growth, agency,
self-efficacy, and
perceptions of the
role of
superintendent.

127

Recommendation Context
Evaluation
(Goals)
Input
Evaluation
(Plans)
Process
Evaluation
(Actions)
Product
Evaluation
(Outcomes)
Implement
implicit and
unconscious bias
training at the
district and state
level related to
increasing the
representation of
leaders from
diverse
backgrounds.

Beneficiaries:
District
leaders and
state board of
education
leaders.
Stakeholders
responsible for
implementation:
State Board of
Education, and
district level
leaders.
Develop/
Implement:
Development
is not needed-
connect with
research-based
practitioner to
facilitate.

Implement pre-
scheduled
facilitated
learning
sessions
developed in
alignment with
research and
best practices
in adult
learning
theory.
Assessment:
Leverage
assessment
instruments from
the research-based
practitioner
organization to
conduct pre and
post assessments
of participant
understanding of
implicit and
unconscious
biases.
Resources:
Internal
capacity
building
resources to
identify staff
that can lead
the
development
and
implementati
on of learning
sessions.

Budget:
State level
funding for state
board leader
training, district
level budget
allocation for
district and site
leader training.
Monitor:
Participant
learning and
internalization
of key concepts
through focus
groups, exit
interviews, and
follow up
contact at two,
four and six
months
following
training
attendance.
Impact/
Effectiveness:
This training will
support leaders in
striving to attain
the organizational
mission and vision.
Implement
ongoing
anonymous pulse
surveys to quantify
increases or
decreases in the
prevalence of
individuals
encountering
implicit or
unconscious biases
in the workplace.
128

Recommendation Context
Evaluation
(Goals)
Input
Evaluation
(Plans)
Process
Evaluation
(Actions)
Product
Evaluation
(Outcomes)
Establish a
leadership
academy for
Latina mid-level
and senior level
educational
leaders that
develops Latina
leader proficiency
in essential
domains of
leadership
experience.
Partner with
CALSA, AASA
and ACSA to
build background
knowledge for
aspiring and
emerging Latina
leaders to support
their early growth
and development.
Beneficiaries:
Aspiring
Latina leaders

Stakeholders
responsible for
implementation:
AASA and
ACSA
Develop/
Implement:
Structures for
communicating
and building
knowledge of
the
superintendent
pipeline.

Implement:
Communicatio
n structures
and learning
opportunities
to build
knowledge of
the
superintendent
pipeline.
Assessment:
Develop a survey
instrument to pre-
assess leader
knowledge of the
leadership pipeline
and implement
pulse instruments
throughout the
learning process to
quantify learning
and growth.

Implement pre and
post surveys of
Latina leaders’
perception of
readiness for
pursuing the
superintendency.
Resources:
Time
resources for
staff to
develop
training
documents,
marketing
materials and
outreach
materials.
Budget:
AASA and
ACSA will
dedicate fiscal
resources for the
development of
academy
curriculum to
implement
knowledge
development
training.
Monitor:
Director of
Educational
Programs at
ACSA and
Director of
Academies at
AASA
collaboratively
monitor the
learning.
Impact/
Effectiveness:
Leverage survey
results determine
the extent to which
aspiring Latina
leaders have can
articulate and
explain the steps
they will take to
prepare for the
superintendency.

129

Recommendation Context
Evaluation
(Goals)
Input
Evaluation
(Plans)
Process
Evaluation
(Actions)
Product
Evaluation
(Outcomes)
Develop and
implement
(through
academies,
workshops, and
web-based
professional
learnings) the
essential domains
of leadership
framework that
outlines what a
Latina leader must
know and be able
to do to be a
competitive
applicant for the
superintendency.
Beneficiaries:
Latina leaders

Stakeholders
responsible for
implementation:
AASA and
ACSA
Develop/
Implement:
A framework
that outlines
the essential
domains of
leadership
experience
Assessment:
Implement pre
and post surveys
of Latina leaders’
knowledge of
essential
leadership
experiences to
have to be
prepared for the
superintendency
and ranking of
the extent to
which the Latina
leader possesses
the essential
leadership
experiences.
Resources:
Research
from the
study related
to the
essential
domains of
leadership.
Additional
research from
the field.

Budget:
Fiscal resource
allocation will be
focused on staff
time dedicated to
the research and
development of
the framework.
Monitor:
The framework
will be
revisited
annually to be
updated and to
ensure that the
content
included is
appropriate to
the current
leadership
climate.
Impact/
Effectiveness:
Implementation’s
Impact and
effectiveness will
be determined
through focus
group feedback
from Latina
leaders who
engage in the
academies. Post
participation data
will be collected
at two, four and
six months
following
academy to
determine what
percentage of
participants
received formal
promotions.
130

Recommendation Context
Evaluation
(Goals)
Input
Evaluation
(Plans)
Process
Evaluation
(Actions)
Product
Evaluation
(Outcomes)
Ensure all Latina
leaders at the level
of Director and
above throughout
the state of
California are
provided no cost
access to Masters
of Governance
training facilitated
by CSBA to
support building
their capacity and
empowering them
to navigate
complex board
dynamics.
Beneficiaries:
Senior-level
Latina leaders

Stakeholders
responsible for
implementation:
CSBA
Develop/
Implement:
School board
governance
training for
aspiring leaders
Assessment:
Data related to
attendance,
participation, and
participant post
attendance surveys
will be
implemented.
Engage Latina
leaders in focus
group discussions
and coaching in
between sessions
to determine areas
for further learning
and support.
Resources:
Training
module
development,
outreach and
marketing
materials,
incorporating
research
related to
navigating
board
dynamics.
Budget:
Board
governance
training can be
sponsored by
the senior level
leaders district,
the CSBA will
have the option
to cover the
costs of training
on behalf of the
aspiring
superintendents.
Monitor:
Data related to
attendance and
participation in
the learning
sessions will be
monitored to
determine if the
number of
participants
attending is
increasing or
decreasing over
time.

Impact/
Effectiveness:
Data from post
attendance surveys
will be analyzed to
determine to what
extent the board
governance
training
remediated needs
surfaced through
the study. Notes
from focus groups
and coaching
sessions will be
analyzed to
determine
additional supports
for developing
experience in
governance.

131

Recommendation Context
Evaluation
(Goals)
Input
Evaluation
(Plans)
Process
Evaluation
(Actions)
Product
Evaluation
(Outcomes)
Implement
mandatory state
level intervention
overseen by the
county office of
education which
includes coaching,
professional
learning, and
support for school
boards in districts
where
superintendent
average tenure
falls below four
years. The process
will align with the
state level
Differentiated
Assistance
process.
For school
districts whose
superintendent
serves three years
or less, the school
board will be
required to engage
in an internal
equity audit
facilitated by a
state approved
state level
provider related to
superintendent
hiring practices to
examine internal
board dynamics
that impact
superintendent
working
conditions.
Beneficiaries:
Aspiring
Latina
superintenden
ts.

Stakeholders
responsible for
implementation:
AASA, ACSA,
CSBA
Develop/
Implement:
Nationwide
and statewide
superintendent
preparation
programs to
shift negative
perceptions of
the tenure of
superintendents
.
Assessment:
State level
database of
superintendent
tenure by district
and county.
County office of
education exit
reports following
required
intervention
assistance with
local school
boards.
Equity audit
results for school
boards in districts
where the
superintendent
tenure falls below
three years.

Resources:
Research,
staffing to
support,
marketing
materials,
social media,
and outreach.

Budget:
AASA and/or
ACSA will
cover the cost of
developing
content related
to shifting
perceptions. To
minimize costs,
content can be
incorporated
into pre-existing
learning
sessions, digital
materials and
web-based
learning.
Monitor:
Quarterly
turnover
monitoring ,
quarterly
calculations
and publication
of
superintendent
tenure by
district.
Heat maps will
be
implemented to
identify
statewide
hotspots for
decreased
tenure.
Impact/
Effectiveness:
Data from
quarterly
monitoring of
superintendent
tenure and
turnover will be
charted to
determine
quarterly and
annual trends to
determine the
extent to which
turnover decreases
and tenure is
increases due to
state intervention
and support.
132

Recommendation Context
Evaluation
(Goals)
Input
Evaluation
(Plans)
Process
Evaluation
(Actions)
Product
Evaluation
(Outcomes)
Develop a
personal
leadership self-
assessment tool
aligned with the
essential domains
of leadership
experience
framework to
support Latina
leaders in self-
reflecting on
personal
development.
Beneficiaries:
Latina
Leaders

Stakeholders
responsible for
implementation:
ACSA
Develop:
Personal
leadership self-
assessment tool
aligned with
the essential
domains of
leadership
experience
framework.
Assessment:
Qualitative
feedback will be
gathered from
participants with a
potential for focus
groups to surface
themes related to
the effectiveness
of the self-
assessment tool in
supporting
personal
development.
Resources:
Training,
framework
development,
staff to
implement
the training.
Budget:
Costs will be
supported
through ACSA.
Monitor:
The ACSA
Director of
Educational
Programs will
monitor the
quality of the
self-assessment
tool and
support with
refinements
and revisions
to ensure
relevance and
scalability to
other groups.
Impact/
Effectiveness:
Impact and
effectiveness will
be determined
based on the
number and
percentage of
leaders who
express that the
self-assessment
tool has supported
personal
development.

133

Recommendation Context
Evaluation
(Goals)
Input
Evaluation
(Plans)
Process
Evaluation
(Actions)
Product
Evaluation
(Outcomes)
Partner with
ACSA and the
California School
Boards
Association to
develop and
implement state-
level guidance
documents, board
policy templates,
and human
resources best
practice
documents to
support the
implementation of
a diverse
leadership pipeline
development
program in
support of
increasing
diversity in senior
leadership.

Beneficiaries:
Latina leaders

Stakeholders
responsible for
implementation:
ACSA and
CSBA
Develop/
Implement:
State level
guidance
related to
equitable hiring
processes and
practices to
support the
development of
a diverse
leadership
pipeline.
Assessment:
Develop quality
rubrics to provide
feedback on board
policies and
human resource
policies related to
increasing
diversity.
Resources:
Review state
level policies
and laws to
ensure
adherence to
law and
inclusion of
best practices.

Budget:
Collaborative
funding
between CSBA
and ACSA.
Monitor:
Review, revise,
and provide
support for
implementation
of guidance
and policies to
ensure
relevance and
alignment with
current
legislation.

Impact/
Effectiveness:
Analyze data
trends surfacing
across the state
with a comparative
analysis between
those
implementing state
guidance and those
who are not to
determine impact
on increasing
diversity in senior
leadership.

134

Recommendation Context
Evaluation
(Goals)
Input
Evaluation
(Plans)
Process
Evaluation
(Actions)
Product
Evaluation
(Outcomes)
Implement a
statewide equity
assurances
agreement that
every
superintendent
search firm within
California must
abide by.
Incorporate an
annual data
reporting
summary from
each
superintendent
search firm which
includes reporting
of superintendent
applicant pool
demographics.
Superintendent
search firms
receive an annual
equity scorecard.
Upon completion
of the annual
equity scorecard,
search firm
rankings are
published by
CSBA and ACSA.
Partner with
CSBA to develop
a list of interview
questions and data
to request from a
search firm
seeking to be hired
to conduct a
superintendent
search.
Beneficiaries:
Latina leaders

Stakeholders
responsible for
implementatio
n:
State Board of
Education,
local district
governing
boards,
superintendent
search firms
Develop:
Guidance
related to
equitable
recruitment and
operations of
superintendent
searches.
Assessment:
Implement
statewide surveys
of LEA school
boards to
determine the
extent to which the
guidance is being
incorporated into
the hiring process.
Resources:
List of active
search firms
within the
State of
California,
research
related to best
practices in
superintendent
hiring

Budget:
State Board of
Education will
allocate
resources
within the
annual budget
to support the
development
of the guidance
documents.
Monitor:
Data will be
collected
annually to
monitor the
rate of change
as it relates to
increasing
educational
leader diversity
throughout the
state.
Impact/
Effectiveness:
Collect state level
administrator data
to curate and
analyze trend data
related to gender
and ethnicity in
administrative
leadership roles.

135

Limitations and Delimitations
Due to the relatively small number of senior-level Latina educational leaders in
California, this study’s limitation was its small sample. While 21 potential participants from
across a wide range of district sizes throughout the state were contacted, 13 were willing to
participate. Invitations to participate in interviews were provided by email. Due to the COVID-
19 pandemic, the prevalence of remote working, and increased senior leader workload, there
were limitations in terms of who chose to participate. Additionally, due to the focus on
individuals with the title of executive director, assistant superintendent, or deputy superintendent,
small districts with a leader in the role of principal/superintendent without a formal cabinet were
not included in the sample, so the perspectives of leaders of small districts were not included.
Additionally, this study only focused on Latinas and did not encompass all women of color and
the interview participants had to have enough technological awareness to participate in a digital
interview. Individuals with limited technological proficiency may have had difficulty navigating
a digital interview, hindering their participation.
When recruiting participants, there was no filtering based on individuals who intended to
pursue the superintendency or did not plan to do so. Therefore, the qualitative data represent
individuals with both perspectives, which impacts the emergence of themes. As a result of not
filtering based on intent to pursue the superintendency, following the initial data analysis,
interview responses were categorized according to participants’ plans. Categorizing responses in
this manner surfaced critical themes that shed light on antecedents and consequences of the
support provided to Latina leaders throughout their leadership journeys. Limiting factors in this
study were the lack of board of education members’ voices and a lack of active Latina
superintendents as participants.
136

This study’s semi-structured interview protocol could be bounded and utilized by a
school district, county office of education, or other state organization. With adaptations, the
protocol can also be used when interviewing senior-level educational leaders of various racial
and ethnic backgrounds to provide a well-rounded perspective of the experiences of all women
of color in pursuit of the superintendency.
Future Research
There is a paucity of scholarly research related to the professional advancement of Latina
educational leaders to the senior leadership level and superintendency. Simon et al. (2011)
surfaced the need for school-aged children to see aspirational models reflected in the leadership
of their site/district. There is a need for scholarly research to reflect Latinas in leadership at a
deeper level regarding their leadership experiences and development. As Martinez et al. (2020)
expressed, there is a lack of research on this population’s advancement. Therefore, there is a
need for deeper research and publications that bring to light the challenges of Latinas in
leadership related to opportunities to lead, access to leadership opportunities, and the pathway to
advancement. The themes revealed a need for increased research on recruiting and hiring senior
leaders and identifying administrative leadership potential in female teachers of color. Additional
research is needed in the field related to the hiring practices school boards leverage related to the
superintendency, the role of search firms in the superintendent hiring and selection process, as
well as talent development pipelines for administrators. There is an additional need for research
related to surfacing and evaluating the components of successful superintendent training
programs and how these programs can be adapted to support the success of Latina leaders.
Further research would be beneficial in the area of exploring traditional and non-traditional
137

pathways of Latina leaders to the superintendency as well as a deeper study of the four levels of
sponsorship surfaced through this study.
Conclusion
This study evaluated the underrepresentation of Latinas as K-12 school district
superintendents in California. This study was important to the field because, despite the increase
in the percentage of Latinx students in public school and research demonstrating that school-
aged students benefit from having leaders in the system who look like them, there is a continued
lack of Latina aspirational models in school and district leadership (Cubillo & Brown, 2003;
Simon et al., 2011; Skrla, 2000). Senior-level Latina educational leaders were recruited and
interviewed as part of the study, with 50% of those at the assistant superintendent or equivalent
level within the state of California providing insight into the challenge of being
underrepresented. An adapted form of Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis framework was
leveraged to determine assets and needs related to the validated KMO influences. The study
incorporated four stakeholder goals in support of the broader organizational goals. By exploring
and validating gaps, the stakeholder goals were aligned with the influences, creating clarity
around the recommendations for the field.
The findings of the study reinforce that Latina senior level educational leaders possess
leadership characteristics and leadership dispositions of unity, equity, and servant leadership.
Furthermore, the interview participants demonstrated a deep commitment to the communities in
which they serve. When a senior level Latina leader makes the decision to pursue a
superintendent position she has embraced her efficacy, agency, skills and dispositions and has a
thorough understanding of the community she is choosing to lead, she believes herself to be a fit.
Therefore, barriers to the superintendency are not erected by the senior level Latina educational
138

leader, the barriers reflect an organizational culture within the field that has not yet shifted to
embrace a true equity mindset. There is a need to eliminate barriers and biases within the
leadership development pipeline and the superintendent selection process that impede the
pathway of senior level Latina educational leaders in accessing the role of superintendent. The
underrepresentation of Latinas in the superintendency is a reflection of dysfunction within the
system of superintendent preparation and hiring throughout the state of California. The children
of California deserve every opportunity for success, which includes having representative
leadership of their schools and districts. The recommendations outlined within this study provide
actionable steps to disrupt inequitable outcomes for senior-level Latina leaders, clearing the
pathway to the superintendency.

139

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Appendix A: Interview Questions

Intro
Thank you for taking the time to meet with me today. As my email shared, I reached out to you
for this interview as you have expressed that you identify as Latina and you also identify as
being an educational leader on the pathway to the superintendency. I have several questions that
I would like to ask you about your experiences to gain a better understanding of the pathway of
Latinas to the superintendency.

With your permission I would like to record this meeting. Each recording will be stored on my
password protected computer and once the interview is transcribed the interview will be deleted
from all devices. Please be assured that once transcribed all identifying information will be
removed and all responses will be kept anonymous.

Would it be okay with you if I record this interview through Zoom (wait for affirmative
consent)?

Opening Questions
Say: I would like to get to know a bit about you and your leadership journey.

1. How long have you worked in your current organization? (Background
knowledge – information gathering)

2. Would you please describe your leadership journey including what has led you to
your current role within your organization. (Background knowledge – information
gathering)

Transition Questions
Say: Thank you for sharing a bit about your background. I would like to take a few moments to
learn about the superintendency itself.

3. From your perspective, how does an individual get promoted into the role of
school district superintendent? (Knowledge: Procedural)

4. What do you believe an individual needs to know to be prepared for the role of
superintendent? (Knowledge: Procedural)

5. In the state of California Latinas are the least represented individuals in the role of
superintendent, some might say that ethnic diversity in the superintendency isn’t
important, what do you think? (Knowledge: Metacognitive)

6. What do you believe the reasons are for the underrepresentation of Latinas in the
superintendency? (Knowledge: Metacognitive)

153

7. Can you describe an ideal environment that would support a Latina in promoting
to the role of superintendent. (Knowledge: Metacognitive)

Main Questions
Say: I would appreciate the opportunity to learn a bit more about you and your unique path to the
superintendency.

8. How would you describe the organizational culture that you navigate while
leading? (Organization: Cultural Models & Cultural Settings)

9. To what degree do you feel confident in your ability to become a superintendent?
(Motivation: Self-Efficacy)
Follow-Up-
● What K-12 leadership positions have you held?
● To what extent do you feel these positions have prepared you for the role
of superintendent?
10. As you have expressed that you are on the pathway to the superintendency, how
do you plan to approach preparing yourself to pursue a superintendency?
(Knowledge: Procedural)

11. Building off of the previous question related to preparedness, what leadership
experiences do you feel have best prepared you for the role of superintendent?
(Knowledge: Procedural)

12. What is your greatest success as an (insert role of individual)? What do you
attribute this to? (Motivation: Attribution)

13. What is your greatest failure as an (insert role of individual)? What do you
attribute this to? (Motivation: Attribution)

14. Can you please share any barriers or biases you might have encountered as a
Latina on the path to the superintendency. (Knowledge: Declarative Factual)
● Did you mitigate these barriers or biases? If so, how?

15. As an administrator, to what extent have you encountered organizational culture
barriers that you believe are due to your gender and ethnicity? (Organization:
Cultural Models & Cultural Settings)

Transition
Say: I have two more questions, for this next one I would like to learn a bit more about the
organization in which you serve.

16. What policies or procedures exist in your organization (if any) that are focused on
increasing diversity and inclusion at the leadership level? (Organization: Policies,
Processes & Procedures)
154

● How effective do you think these are?
● Why/why not?

Conclusion

Say: Thank you very much for your time and allowing me to record this interview. If I have any
questions moving forward may I reach out to you in the future?

155

Appendix B: Informed Consent
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles CA, 90089

INFORMATION SHEET FOR EXEMPT RESEARCH

STUDY TITLE: The Underrepresentation of Latinas as K-12 School District Superintendents:
An Evaluation Study

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Kristine Shipman

FACULTY ADVISOR: Darline Robles, PhD

You are invited to participate in a research study. Your participation is voluntary. This document
explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to
you.

PURPOSE
The purpose of this study is to examine the root causes of the underrepresentation of Latinas as
school district superintendents by evaluating the recruitment, retainment, and advancement of
K-12 Latina educational leaders into the role of school district superintendent. We hope to learn
what the factors are that emerge as barriers to advancement as it relates to knowledge, skills,
motivation, and organizational influences. You are invited as a possible participant because you
are a senior level Latina working within a public-school district in the State of California.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a Zoom interview that
will take approximately 45-60 minutes. Zoom interviews will be recorded for the sole purpose of
transcript analysis.

If you decide to take part, you will be asked to select an interview time that works with your
schedule, and you will be provided a Zoom link and calendar invitation as confirmation.

CONFIDENTIALITY
The members of the research team, the funding agency, and the University of Southern
California Institutional Review Board (IRB) may access the data. The IRB reviews and monitors
research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.

156

Interview recordings will be provided to a confidential third-party transcription service. Video
interviews and completed transcripts will be saved to the hard drive of the researcher’s computer
that is password protected. Data will be stored for three years on the researcher’s computer and
will then be destroyed in accordance with university policy regarding retention of records.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about this study, please contact Kristine Shipman, Principal
Investigator, kshipman@usc.edu, (559) 287-2108 or Darline Robles, PhD, Faculty Advisor,
dprobles@rossier.usc.edu, (213) 740-3537.

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email
irb@usc.edu.

157

Appendix C: Recruitment Letter (Email)

Dear (Insert Participant Name),

My name is Kristine Shipman and I am a third-year doctoral student at the University of
California in the area of Organizational Change and Leadership. I am currently engaged in my
doctoral research which is an evaluation study of the underrepresentation of Latinas as K-12
school district superintendents in the State of California.

The study aims to examine the root causes of the underrepresentation by evaluating the
recruitment, retainment, and advancement of K-12 Latina educational leaders into the role of
school district superintendent.

As you are a senior level Latina educational leader in our State and on the pathway to the role of
superintendent, you provide valuable expertise that would be of great benefit to this research. I
am reaching out to see if you would be willing to participate in a virtual interview that would be
approximately 45-60 minutes in length as part of this research study.

To adhere to statewide requirements for physical distancing, all interviews will be conducted via
Zoom. Interview content will be kept confidential as well as responses being kept anonymous.

I greatly appreciate your consideration of my request to participate. Please feel free to reply to
this email with your response to this invitation.

Thank you for you for all you do to serve and support the students of our State.

Sincerely,

Kristine Shipman

Abstract (if available)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Shipman, Kristine Elizabeth (author)

Core Title The underrepresentation of Latinas as K−12 school district superintendents: an evaluation study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 04/15/2021

Defense Date 03/30/2021

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag advancement,assistant superintendent,Barriers,bias,education administration,equity,intersectionality,Latina,Latina leaders,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,Pathway,promotion,recruitment,retainment,school leadership,superintendent,underrepresentation,women in leadership,women of color

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Robles, Darline (committee chair), Datta, Monique (committee member), Ott, Maria (committee member)

Creator Email kristine_shipman@outlook.com,kshipman@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-445949

Unique identifier UC11668692

Identifier etd-ShipmanKri-9474.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-445949 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-ShipmanKri-9474.pdf

Dmrecord 445949

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Shipman, Kristine Elizabeth

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA