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The role of educational leadership on the participation in the National Program of Science and Technolgy Fairs at Escuela A in the Central Region of Costa Rica

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The role of educational leadership on the participation in the National Program of Science and Technolgy Fairs at Escuela A in the Central Region of Costa Rica

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Content Running head: ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 1
THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP ON THE PARTICIPATION IN
THE NATIONAL PROGRAM OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FAIRS
AT ESCUELA A IN THE CENTRAL REGION OF COSTA RICA
by
Beatriz Spelker-Levi
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2016
Copyright 2016 Beatriz Spelker-Levi
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 2
Dedication
I would like to dedicate this dissertation to my entire family and friends, beginning with
my parents who cultivated my beliefs and values in a multicultural setting that I have always
cherished. My father, Joseph H. Spelker III, has been talking about the significance of an educa-
tion my entire life, along with the importance of history. My mother, Maria Beatriz Spelker,
taught me the meaning of persevering and never being held back by others opinions or beliefs.
My sisters, Cynthia Alicia and Ana Maria, watched the girls for me endlessly and tirelessly along
with their own children—José Juan, Patricia Isabella, and Jonathan Adrian. I am so glad that we
grew up in the same home, and I love all of you.
Moving on to my immediate family, when I told my husband, Benjamin Levi, that I
wanted to get a doctorate, he said, “If you don’t get it, you will always wonder what it would
have felt like.” It feels great, and I love you! I thank my daughters, who are my heartbeat—
Matalina Wray Guadalupe Levi (“My Sunshine”) and Apalila Xiomara Levi (“Mi Chiquita”) are
young, beautiful girls who are beginning their formative years. They have studied along with me
for the last 2½ years. It is my hope that they grow to be strong, independent women who value
persistence, perseverance, and their education.
To my extended family members—the Valdezes, the Macias, the Jacobos, the Levis: I
want them to please know that I know that I am loved and that I love them all in return. The
kindness of my godmother, Nina Clara, cannot be surpassed by anyone.
I am grateful to my support system of friends who stayed behind me through this journey
by taking care of the girls, calling to check in on me, or just sending me well wishes and positive
thoughts—the Villas, Sonia, Fabi, Steve, Tammy, as well as all the Bunco Mamas. To the
studios who have taught my daughters the significance of hard work and, most importantly, joy,
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 3
Leiali’inani Hula Academy and Melodie’s—I thank you. I thank all of you for your well wishes,
and be certain that I appreciate all of your support.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 4
Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge my dear friend, Patricia Dawn Brent-Sanco, who took this
journey with me—we did it! I am grateful to our dissertation chair, Dr. Escalante, who worked
so hard to get us through the process, along with Dr. O—thank you! I would also like to thank
my dissertation committee: Dr. Garcia; Dr. Sheehan; and especially Dr. Verdugo, who encour-
aged me to go for my dissertation.
Enormous thanks go to my Paramount family, where I have worked during the last 24
years with so many different people, schools, staffs, and students (some of whom I now employ):
• My many mentors, beginning with Scott at Los Cerritos, who told me I should consider
becoming an administrator; and Stella at Collins who mentored me as an assistant
principal and throughout my principalship.
• The co-interim superintendents, Dee and Dr. Verdugo, who always encouraged me to
do my best.
• Our talented assistant superintendents who have guided me throughout the years, Dr.
Stark and Dr. Morales.
• All the Paramount staff with whom I have worked but I will not list because I do not
want to forget anyone who has had an impact on me.
I do have to send a shout out to Morrie, Julianne, and the Collins staff—they are all
fabulous. As well, thanks to the Human Resources Department, whose staff I have now joined
and enjoy working with. It is a great venture to learn new things with a wonderful group of hard-
working people.
Most importantly, I would like to acknowledge the dissertation group. All of us worked
so hard and brought our strengths to the table, especially Team Central members Christin,
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 5
Fernando, Jenn, and Pat. The hard work paid off, and I look forward to crossing paths with them
in our future endeavors. Well done, team, well done!
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 6
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 4
List of Tables 9
Abstract 10
Chapter One: Introduction 12
Background of the Problem 13
Statement of the Problem 14
Purpose of the Study 16
Research Questions 16
Importance of the Study 16
Definition of Terms 17
Organization of Study 18
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 20
History of Costa Rica 21
Political History 22
Economy 23
Educational System 25
Globalization 27
Economics of Globalization 29
Effects of Globalization on Education 30
Wagner’s Seven Survival Skills 32
Critical Thinking and Problem Solving 32
Collaboration Across Networks and Leading With Influence 33
Agility and Adaptability 33
Initiative and Entrepreneurialism 33
Effective Oral and Written Communication 34
Accessing and Analyzing Information 34
Curiosity and Imagination 34
Multinational Corporations 35
Impact of CINDE 36
Impact of Investments of Intel and Other MNCs 37
STEM Education and PBL 38
PBL 39
Connections Between STEM and PBL 40
Connections to Local and National Science Fair Participation 41
Leadership in the 21st Century 43
Bolman and Deal’s Leadership Framework 44
Kotter’s Change Model 45
Principal as Leader 47
Professional Development and Training for STEM Educators 50
Professional Learning Communities 51
Next Generation Science Standard 52
Chapter Summary 53
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 7
Chapter Three: Research Methodology 54
Research Questions 54
Frameworks Utilized 55
Method of Study 57
Description of Research Team 59
Population and Sample 59
Instrumentation 60
Survey Protocol 60
Interview Protocol 62
Observation Protocol 63
Data Collection 63
Data Analysis 64
Validity, Credibility, and Trustworthiness 65
Limitations and Delimitations 66
Chapter Summary 66
Chapter Four: Results 68
Participants 69
Interviewed Participants 70
Surveyed Participants and Observations 71
Frameworks 72
Leadership 72
STEM PBL 73
Change 73
Twenty-First-Century Learners 74
Findings for Research Question 1 74
A Vision for Implementation 75
Significance of the School Director 78
Summary: Research Question 1 80
Findings for Research Question 2 81
Teacher Collaboration and Professional Development 81
Teachers’ Knowledge and Use of STEM PBL and the Scientific Method 84
Summary: Research Question 2 88
Findings for Research Question 3 89
Authentic Leadership 89
Outside Resources: Omar Dengo Foundation 91
Summary: Research Question 3 94
Findings for Research Question 4 94
Clear Expectations for 21st-Century Soft Skills 94
Level of Implementation in STEM PBL 97
Summary: Research Question 4 99
Chapter Summary 99
Chapter Five: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations 102
Summary of Findings 104
Research Question 1 105
Research Question 2 107
Research Question 3 109
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 8
Research Question 4 110
Implications for Practice 111
Recommendations for Future Research 113
Conclusion 113
References 116
Appendices
Appendix A: Recruitment Letter 122
Appendix B: Summary of Research Proposal 123
Appendix C: List of Research Sites 124
Appendix D: Teacher Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 125
Appendix E: School Director Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 129
Appendix F: Government Official Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 133
Appendix G: Business Partner Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 137
Appendix H: Parent Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 141
Appendix I: Student Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 146
Appendix J: Teacher Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 150
Appendix K: School Director Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 152
Appendix L: Government Official/Business Leaders Interview Protocol: English
Spanish Versions 154
Appendix M: Parent Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 156
Appendix N: Student Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 158
Appendix O: Observation Protocol 160
Appendix P: Consent Form 166
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 9
List of Tables
Table 1: Identification of Study Participants 61
Table 2: Interviewed Study Participants 71
Table 3: Survey Data Collection 72
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 10
Abstract
The most important way to improve and sustain a country’s global economy is through
the education system. Over the past 3 decades, Costa Rica has invested in multinational corpo-
rations and has focused on improving the country’s education systems as it focuses on develop-
ing students to acquire 21st-century skills and foundational knowledge in science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Educational shifts have included policies requiring all
schools to participate in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología [PRONAFECYT]). The purpose of this study was to
identify the role of educational leaders and those of government and business in implementing
and participating in the PRONAFECYT in primary schools in Costa Rica. The study examined
leadership practices and the role of school leaders in the development, implementation, and
overall impact of the PRONAFECYT initiative.
The principal finding from the case study was that leadership is integral to the success of
the PRONAFECYT from all sectors in Costa Rica: government, business and education.
Together, these partnerships have given Costa Rican students access to tools and opportunities
that prepare them to be stronger, competitive, and knowledge- and technology-ready citizens.
Additional findings highlighted the need for greater access to resources, training, and profes-
sional development via teacher collaboration and ongoing leadership development for all stake-
holders in the school system through trainer-of-trainer models. The vision established by Costa
Rica has proven to guide a positive change in education across the country. With the continued
support by the Ministry of Public Education and the Ministry of Science, Technology, and Tele-
communications, as well as foundations such as the Omar Dengo Foundation, Costa Rica will
continue to focus on education through the use of STEM project-based learning, use of soft
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 11
skills, and infusion of technology throughout curricular content areas that will allow the nation to
continue to advance and thrive in preparing students to compete globally.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 12
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
As the world becomes more interconnected with the ease of accessibility to information
and advancements in technology, the workforce must be adequately prepared to respond to the
ever-changing needs of the global market. To be prepared, nations must supply their human
capital with the resources and skills necessary to generate success in the marketplace, which
currently centers on a knowledge-based economy (Spring, 2008). Since the 1980s, Costa Rica
has worked with political and education leaders to address the necessary changes brought about
by multinational corporations (MNCs) to ensure that students are better prepared for the global
economy (Spring, 2008).
Intel grounded itself into the Costa Rican economy by investing in training workers to be
better prepared workers via the areas of science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) edu-
cation (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], Development
Centre, 2012). In an effort to encourage the knowledge-based workers that the schools were
beginning to produce, Intel propelled the science fair initiative in Costa Rica. Schools began to
engage in preparation for the science fair under the guidance of the Ministry of Public Education
(MEP); the Ministry of Science, Technology, and Telecommunications (Ministerio de Ciencia,
Tecnologia, y Telecomunicaciones [MICITT]), the National Board for Scientific and Technologi-
cal Research (CONICIT) and the University of Costa Rica (UCR; Valencia, 2009). The focus on
STEM became so important in Costa Rica that in the 1990s, Law 7169, the Science and Technol-
ogy Development Promotion Act, created the National Science Foundation whose mission was to
peak student interest in science.
The science fairs began to enjoy such success that a national decree was passed in 2004
that made science fairs mandatory across the nation (Valencia, 2009). After multiple years of
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 13
science fair participation, it was noted that not all schools were participating in the
PRONAFECYT initiative at the same level. Research has shown that leadership is an important
tool in creating an effective learning environment for student success, especially during times of
change and development (Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005).
Background of the Problem
A United National Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO; 2003)
report highlighted the success of investment in education, indicating that Costa Rica had the
highest literacy rate in the Central American region and was fourth among all Latin American
countries—with Uruguay, Argentina, and Cuba occupying the top three spots. The reported 95%
literacy rate for Costa Rica was achieved as a result of sound investment in primary education
(Costa Rica Investment Promotion Agency [CINDE], Department of Research, 2015). Although
the literacy rate is high according to the Programa Estado de la Nacion (PEN, 2013) report,
opportunities to break multigenerational poverty are still necessary, and these opportunities can
be improved through a focus on the sciences and mathematics in the education of primary
students. The MEP has recognized the need to help students fulfill their right of education for all
inhabitants of Costa Rica. In addition, throughout the country, foundations have been set up to
assist with the MEP’s goal to educate all the populace. The Fundacion Omar Dengo (Omar
Dengo Foundation; 2015) was founded in 1987 with a mission to develop technological literacy
for as many segments of the Costa Rican society as possible: beginning with youth, who are
given exposure to robotics and advanced microworlds, to servicing senior citizens, who are
taught how to use both e-mail and the Internet. The foundation also creates office productivity
tools for women entrepreneurs in micro and small businesses.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 14
The sense of competition has greatly impacted the need to develop strong education
systems that properly prepare students to become successful in the global market. The demands
of globalization have led the global markets to create common educational practices and policies
based on technology, human capital, and life-long learning, thus requiring a knowledge-based
workforce (Spring, 2008). Educational leaders must therefore prepare for the PRONAFECYT
initiative to meet the needs of all students in Costa Rica.
As STEM project-based learning (PBL) is the mechanism to foster the science fair initia-
tive, leaders must propel the importance for teachers to understand its importance (Northouse,
2013). Staff members must receive proper staff development for teachers to be effective in the
transmission of STEM–PBL lessons (Wilson, 2011). Inquiry-based training will assist teachers
in processing the importance of questioning and the deep learning that it can foster (Krajcik,
2014). All learning opportunities can be forged for staff only by a leader who is in tune with
innovative 21st-century learning experiences (soft skills).
Statement of the Problem
Costa Rica has undergone many changes since gaining independence in 1859 (Biesanz,
Biesanz, & Biesanz, 1999). Since its independence and the abolishment of its military, Costa
Rica has focused on education, students, and teachers (Palmer & Molina, 2006). With education
being the primal focus, education has morphed to fit the globalized demands of INTEL and
CINDE (Biesanz et al., 1999). During this time, the world has undergone what Friedman (2007)
described as a “flattening” process. As a result of globalization, educational systems are no
longer competing with other school systems in the same city, state, or even nation. Globalization
necessitates a change in the types of skills students develop that will ensure that they are globally
competitive (Friedman, 2007).
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 15
Interconnectedness of societies is an old phenomenon (Chanda, 2007); however, societies
throughout the world have undergone drastic changes over the last few decades as a result of the
powerful forces of globalization (Armstrong, 2007). Misra (2012) defined globalization as the
“integration of economies and societies through cross country flows of information, ideas, tech-
nologies, goods, services, capital, finance and people” (p. 69) that has led to a highly competitive
and rapidly changing environment for countries throughout the world.
In recent years, the Costa Rican economy has experienced growth due to the forces of
globalization, as expressed through the influence of MNCs. In order to benefit from the effects
of foreign direct investment (FDI) and to continue its current trajectory of economic growth and
opportunity, Costa Rica must ensure that its educational system prepares students with the
requisite skills to enter the knowledge-based economy of the 21st century.
Toward that end, government policies have emphasized the development of STEM
programs and 21st-century learning skills as a national initiative. One component of this initia-
tive has been compulsory participation in the Costa Rican national science fair. In order to
successfully pursue this mandate, educational leaders and the schools they serve have been com-
pelled to rapidly adapt their approach to education through the integration of technology and the
implementation of 21st-century skills based on STEM programs. Although this policy has been
established at the national level, local individuals struggle with implementation due to the need
for school leaders and teachers to develop new skill sets. Without strong leadership in support of
the development of innovative teaching practices, Costa Rican schools will not have the ability to
sustain economic development through the building of human capital.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 16
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to understand the effects of educational leadership on the
participation in the PRONAFECYT in primary schools in Costa Rica. The study identified the
role that school leaders have had in the development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT
initiative. Additionally, the study explored how schools may have restructured their educational
programs by focusing on the sharing of leadership and teacher training. Specifically, the study
examined leadership practices, instructional strategies, and professional development practices at
various school sites to identify key components of successful implementation of the
PRONAFECYT initiative.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided this study:
1. What is the role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
Importance of the Study
The MEP is interested in determining the effects that leadership has in the
PRONAFECYT initiative in terms of a high participation rate in the science fairs versus limited
participation in the science fairs. It is imperative to identify the leadership practices that have led
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 17
to high participation in the PRONAFECYT initiative. Schools in Costa Rica must continue to
maintain innovative practices because educational systems are no longer competing with other
school systems in the same city, region, or even nation but rather are competing with schools
around the world (Wagner, 2008).
Definition of Terms
For the purpose of this study, the following terms are defined:
CINDE: This agency was created in 1984
to provide information and to promote Costa Rica to outside investment companies or
prospects on the educational quality and trends, labor pool and regulations, free trade
zone and investment incentives, economic indicators, suppliers and vendors, as well as
life in Costa Rica. (CINDE, 2015, p. 3)
FDI: This term refers to direct investment into production or business in a country by a
company in another country, either by buying a company in the target country or by expanding
operations of an existing business in that country (Larraín, Lopez-Calva, & Rodríguez-Clare,
2000).
Globalization: This term refers to “changes in economics that affect production, con-
sumption, and investments, which in turn affect larger segments of the world’s population. It has
a direct impact on cultural, geopolitical, and social changes, including education” (Spring, 2008,
p. 16).
MEP (Ministerio de Educacion Publica de la Republica de Costa Rica): The Costa Rican
MEP is
a world leader in providing quality and accessible education to the children in K–12
public education in Costa Rica. Its mission is to promote the development and
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 18
consolidation of an exceptional education system that provides access to quality educa-
tion to the entire population, centered on personal development and the promotion of a
Costa Rican society united through opportunity and social equality. (CINDE, 2015, p. 7)
MICITT: This is the Ministry that oversees and promotes the PRONAFECYT in Costa
Rica.
PEN: This is an organization that was created in 1994 that creates a report approximately
every 2 years in regard to the state of the Costa Rican educational system. The last report was
published in 2013 and provides recommendations to improve the welfare of the state of the Costa
Rican people via the educational system.
STEM PBL: This is a
method of teaching science, technology, engineering, and mathematics in a format that
engages students to work in a collaborative mode to be accountable for their own learning
through discussions, group interactions, questioning, and delving deeply into their own
knowledge base. (Capraro, Capraro, & Morgan, 2013, p. 43)
Twenty-first-century skills (soft skills): These skills are “a blend of content knowledge,
specific skills, expertise, and literacies” (Partnership for 21st Century Skills [P21], 2009, 21st
Century Student Outcomes section, para. 1).
Organization of Study
This dissertation is comprised of five chapters. Chapter 1 provided an overview of the
study: the background to the problem, the problem statement, the purpose of the study, research
questions, significance of the study, as well as definitions for key terms.
Chapter Two includes a review of the literature that is comprised of the history of Costa
Rica as well as the impact that globalization has had on education in Costa Rica. The
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 19
frameworks used to examine leadership were Bolman and Deal’s (2003) leadership framework
and Kotter’s (1996) change framework, as well as the STEM–PBL framework developed by
Capraro et al. (2013) that examines effective administrative and instructional practices via pro-
fessional development opportunities that promote STEM–PBL education. A supplemental
framework that was also examined was Wagner’s (2008) seven survival skills.
Chapter Three presents the research methodology used in the study, including the re-
search team and why a qualitative study is most appropriate for this case study. Also included
are a description of the population and sample as well as the instrumentation to be used in the
study. The chapter describes how the research will be collected and why it will be valid, credible,
and trustworthy, including the limitations and delimitations.
Chapter Four offers insight into the findings of the study, including a detailed description
organized by the four research questions. Chapter 5 presents a summary of the study including a
conclusion and possible implications for practice. Also included are suggestions for future
research opportunities relating to the same phenomenon.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 20
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Globalization and interconnectedness have been the principles used by the Central
American country of Costa Rica, and these have allowed the country to develop human capital, to
create various platforms for technological advances, and to change its economic landscape. An
economic strategic plan was developed that included building relationships with MNCs, which
led to improvements in the educational system that have allowed the country to play a role in the
international marketplace (OECD, Development Centre, 2012). An increased amount of re-
sources have been allotted to the educational system to create a greater focus on STEM areas.
The increase in financial resources along with the greater focus on STEM education have led to
Costa Rica’s participation in a national science fair and a greater emphasis on technologically
based career opportunities.
This literature review consists of five areas. The first area focuses on the history of Costa
Rica in conjunction with the country’s social, political, economic, and educational development.
The second area focuses on globalization, the theoretical perspectives of globalization, 21st-
century skills, and the effects of globalization on Costa Rica’s economy and educational system.
The third area examines the influence of MNCs, the role that these MNCs have played in devel-
oping the Costa Rican economy, and the impact of CINDE and FDI. The fourth area provides an
overview of STEM PBL and how these skills prepare students for participation in local, national,
and international science fairs. The final area of this literature review focuses on leadership. It
examines Bolman and Deal’s (2003) leadership framework, Kotter’s (1996) change framework,
and effective administrative and instructional practices via professional development opportuni-
ties that promote STEM–PBL education and facilitate positive outcomes for students who
participate in local and national science fairs.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 21
History of Costa Rica
Costa Rica has a rich history and culture. Located between Nicaragua and Panama in
Central America, Costa Rica borders both the Caribbean Sea and the northern Pacific Ocean.
Costa Rica has a landmass of 51,100 square kilometers (Central Intelligence Agency [CIA],
2014). The population is approximately 4.7 million people and in area is about the size of the
state of West Virginia. Separated by rugged mountains, Costa Rica has over 100 volcanoes.
Costa Rica’s coastal plains, tropical climate, and rich biodiversity set it apart from other coun-
tries in Central America. The landscape makes it a beautiful place for tourists to explore; 25% of
the country is protected in national parks (CIA, 2014).
In the early 16th century, Costa Rica was explored by Christopher Columbus, who first
sighted the region on September 18, 1502. Columbus called it costa rica (“rich coast”) based on
the many native people he observed wearing ornate gold ornaments (Daling, 2002). In 1563
Governor Juan Vasquez de Coronado established the first permanent settlement in the Central
Plateau of Cartago; however in 1723 the eruption of the Irazu volcano destroyed a large part of
the town. In 1823 this town became known as San José, which is now the capital of Costa Rica
(Daling, 2002).
San José is the most heavily populated city in Costa Rica with the following ethnic
breakdown: 83% Whites, 3% Blacks, 1% American Indians, 1% Chinese, and 1% other (CIA,
2014). The main religion in Costa Rica is Catholicism, and 73% of Costa Rican’s identify
themselves as Catholic. The age composition of Costa Rica consists of 41% under the age of 24;
43.8% are between the ages of 25 and 54, and 13.8% are 55 years or older. Approximately 1.5
million people live in San José, with the remainder of the population living in the other six
provinces: Alajuela, Cartago, Guanacaste, Heredia, Limon, and Puntarenas (CIA, 2014). A
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 22
peaceful lifestyle is maintained by Costa Ricans, as indicated in their national slogan, “Pura
Vida” (Daling, 2002).
Political History
Costa Rica has had two brief periods of violence and political strife. On September 15,
1821, Costa Rica gained independence from Spain. In 1823, Costa Rica joined the Republic of
the United States of Central America along with Guatemala, Nicaragua, Honduras, and El Salva-
dor (Daling, 2002). In 1824 Costa Rica elected its first head of state, Juan Mora Fernandez, who
built houses, schools, and created an elite class of influential coffee barons. Costa Rica gained its
full independence status as a country in 1838. In 1847, José Maria Castro Madriz became the
first president and is known for being the founder of the republic (Mitchell & Pentzer, 2008).
The development of Costa Rican democracy stems from three key events. The first event
began with General Tomas Guardia taking over the country and ruling as a dictator until 1882.
Guardia’s leadership is known for some of the most progressive reform efforts in the areas of
education, military policy, and taxation (Mitchell & Pentzer, 2008). Guardia was considered a
social reformist; he established Costa Rica’s social security system, established minimum wage
guidelines, and regulated working conditions (Lopez, 1996). The first democratic elections were
held in 1889. The second pivotal event occurred in the 1940s. After incumbent President Dr.
Rafael Angel Calderon refused to relinquish power, a civil war began. José Figueres Ferrer
(“Don Pepe”), one of Costa Rica’s most influential leaders, defeated Calderon and implemented
vast reforms in public policy and civil rights. Between 1948 and 1952, women and Blacks
gained the right to vote, the Communist party was banned, banks were nationalized, term limits
for presidents were established, and a new constitution was adopted (Daling, 2002). During Don
Pepe’s three terms, Costa Rica began to participate economically on a global scale.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 23
The final paramount event that took place was the dismantling of the Costa Rican army
(Lopez, 1996). Although Costa Rica has no army, the country have been able to sustain both
peace and democracy and has spread those values to other countries in Central America. In 1987
President Oscar Arias Sanchez created a peace plan with Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Honduras
that guaranteed free elections, a cease fire by all participating countries, and basic democratic
freedoms.
The first woman president, Laura Chinchilla, was elected in Costa Rica in 2010. During
her terms, she worked to increase spending in education, promote job and economic develop-
ment, and develop technical enterprises on a global scale. On February 7, 2014, Luis Guillermo
Solis was elected and is the current president of Costa Rica.
Economy
The ability to maintain political stability has aided Costa Rica in building economic
progress that exceeds that of other countries in the region. The economic history starts with the
coffee boom. The production of coffee began in 1740 when Costa Rica was still a small colony.
The coffee barons who owned farms and sold coffee became the leaders of the country. Wealthy,
large coffee growers created greater advantages for themselves by controlling the market and
buying out smaller farms. Ticos were those individuals who were subject to work in the labor
force and did not own land (Daling, 2002). Costa Rica provided high wages that attracted work-
ers from other regions on Central America and kept the Ticos out of poverty and causing civil
unrest (Booth, 1998).
Direct import of coffee to Europe began in 1845, thus opening the door to the global
marketplace. From 1850 to 1890, the sale of coffee accounted for almost 90% of the country’s
export revenue. General Tomas Guardia instituted regulations on exports and imports as well as
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 24
the formation of unions and labor organizations in 1882 (Booth, 1998). The government ex-
panded its role in order to control the coffee barons’ political and economic influence. In 1871,
the construction of the railroad began from San José to the Atlantic Ocean; this paved the way for
a new industry, bananas.
Costa Rica’s tropical climate made it an ideal place for growing banana crops. Transpor-
tation of the banana crops was via the railroad system. The new industry came at a time when
coffee production had slowed and the economy needed revitalizing (Booth, 1998). After World
War I, coffee and bananas would continue to be the main export and backbone for the Costa
Rican economy. Costa Rica maintained an average annual growth of 6% from 1951 to 1979.
In 1984 a key event occurred with the creation of CINDE. The mission of the coalition
was to promote national development and economic opportunities for Costa Rica. Funded by the
United States Agency for International Development (USAID), CINDE provided the much-
needed boost to the economy after the 1980s recession. Many foreign investors have been
attracted to Costa Rica; and the country has expanded its exports to include microprocessors,
medical equipment, textiles, and microchips (CIA, 2014). Part of the attraction lies in the fact
that Costa Rica has implemented economic policies that encourage foreign investment, and the
educated work force is able to meet the demands of the growing corporations (Mitchell &
Pentzer, 2008). CINDE is deeply invested in the Costa Rican educational system to meet the
needs of the country’s future.
In addition, in 1994 the creation of the State of the Nation project in Costa Rica (PEN,
2013) called for accountability of the educational position along with discussion about where it
wanted to be in terms of social, economic, and political standing. Over time, education was
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 25
deemed just as important, if not most important, in terms of assisting with the future direction of
the country (PEN, 2013).
Educational System
Costa Rica has been able to maintain lower poverty rates than other countries in Central
America and boasts an overall better quality of life due to the focus on education, economic
development, and improving living conditions in rural areas (Lopez, 1996). In 1814 the first
school was founded at the end of the colonial era, and the Universidad de Santo Tomas was
founded in 1843. Education has been free as well as mandatory since 1870 (CINDE, 2015). In
1869 the first public school, the Colegio de San Luis Gonzaga, opened in the city of Cartago
(Mitchell & Pentzer, 2008). The UCR opened in 1941 under the leadership of President Guardia.
When the army was dismantled in 1949, it was decided that the money would provide financial
resources for a free public education for all citizens. In 1949 the Costa Rican constitution was
amended to include Title VII, which guaranteed free access to public education at the primary
and secondary levels (Booth, 1998). The literacy rate in Costa Rica is 96.2%, and 7.1% of the
country’s gross domestic product (GDP) is invested in education (CINDE, 2015). The Funda-
mental Law of Education, approved in 1957, set up guidelines and goals for the Costa Rican
educational system, including the establishment of the MEP (Daling, 2002).
The MEP oversees the educational system that includes public primary and high schools
as well as provides licenses to private schools in Costa Rica. There are over 2,800 preschools
and over 4,000 elementary schools in Costa Rica (CINDE, 2015). Primary schools consist of
Cycles I and II; high school programs consist of Cycles III and IV. Primary education is required
between the ages of 6 and 13, and almost every child in the country is enrolled in primary edu-
cation. A child must be at least 6 years 6 months old to begin to attend school. Both the first and
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 26
second cycles of school last for 3 years. three years. Ninety percent of all elementary schools are
public. Elementary schools are established in remote areas of the country so that children in
these areas can participate in a free education (CIA, 2014). Secondary education allows students
to choose one of three tracks: academic (5 years), artistry (5 years), or technical (6 years). All of
the tracks enable students to acquire a high school diploma as well as allow them to qualify for
education at the university level if the qualifying exam is passed (Mitchell & Pentzer, 2008). The
academic track is considered the college preparatory track. The artistry track allows students to
earn a professional certification, and the technical-vocational track offers students a professional
certification that allows them to enter the workforce. The MEP introduced programs in English
and computer sciences in efforts to create and maintain a workforce that is on par with interna-
tional standards (CINDE, 2015).
To be sure that students are prepared for entrance into college and the workplace, Costa
Rica has established a mandatory testing system that takes place during the sixth grade, ninth
grade, and during the final year of high school. The Pruebas Nacionales de Sexto is taken in
Grade 6 and includes assessment of math, social studies, Spanish, and science. The final exams
that students must pass to earn a diploma are referred to as Bachillerato and include assessing
math, social science, Spanish, English, French, biology, and civics (Mitchell & Pentzer, 2008). If
proficiency on these exams is not demonstrated, students will not qualify to receive a diploma or
allowed to attend a university. For that reason, some students drop out of school during the high
school years, particularly in rural areas (Mitchell & Pentzer, 2008). For this reason, the MEP has
introduced programs that foster both English competency and technological literacy in all
schools; these programs encourage students to stay in school and stay on track (CINDE, 2015).
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 27
In the most recent State of the Nation Report (PEN, 2013), it is indicated that education is
the key to breaking the ties of generational poverty and ensures that riches are evenly distributed
throughout society. Task 4 in the report recommends that there is to be a follow-up to new
programs that have been implemented, such as “thinking scientifically” in primary schools along
with math as part of the new school initiatives (PEN, 2013, p. 34).
Globalization
According to Spring (2008), globalization is a phenomenon that is characterized by
increased economic integration among nations and movement of people, ideas, and customs
across geographical borders. Theodore Levitt has been credited with creating the term globaliza-
tion and defining it as the global changes that occur that affect production, consumption, and
investment (Stromquist, 2002). Globalization represents what occurs in spatial and time in a
society and the shifts in perspectives that drive people to rely upon one another in a global
manner (Scheuerman, 2014).
The word cosmopolitan predates the term globalization as it is derived from the Greek
word kosmopolites, meaning citizens of the world. The meaning behind the term indicates that
humans are all connected in a single community (Dicken, 2003). There is a value in trade— via
FDI, international stock and trade, and a global workforce suggests that people certainly live in a
global society (International Monetary Fund [IMF] Staff, 2008). Nevertheless, the momentum
for establishing a global society was born out of the need to explore, learn, and grow. Watson
(2015) described globalization as the “process by which the experiences of everyday life, marked
by the diffusion of commodities and ideas, can foster a standardization of cultural expressions
around the world” (p. x). Globalization is the extension of markets and industries beyond
national borders (IMF Staff, 2008).
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 28
Globalization came to light from the basic human urge to seek a better life and has been
driven by many personalities who fall into one of the following categories: traders, preachers,
adventurers, and warriors (Chanda, 2007). An example of one of the first effects of globalization
was when humans began to disperse themselves across the globe. According to Chanda (2007),
early villagers traveled in search of the unknown, looking for better life conditions as well as
searching for land. Trade became the second example of the effects of globalization. Societies
transformed as the introduction of new goods, services, and markets that did not exist in certain
geographical regions of the world began to rise with the work of the trader (Chanda, 2007).
These traders were people who produced and carried products and services to consumers around
the globe, thus creating an interconnected world. The needs and wants of consumers demanded
new trade routes that spurred the global journey toward interconnectedness. Transportation is the
vehicle that supported in connecting the world. In early times, transportation ranged from camel
caravans to ship voyages; and now with e-commerce, the world has found ways to connect,
thereby creating global markets and marketplaces (Chanda, 2007). Costa Rica has used its com-
modities and human capital to propel itself as a player in the global marketplace.
Communication and events can occur globally within seconds across the globe. Global-
ization creates increased possibilities for advancement that these connections bring. Globaliza-
tion represents four popular trends: population, science and technology, integration and
interdependence, and governance (Scheuerman, 2014). Population trends indicate where human
capacity can be found and generated into a workforce; science and technology trends include the
Internet and other forms of communication as well as scientific advances that promote
advancement in products, goods, and services (Blanchard, 2010). According to Dicken (2003),
trends seen in governance show how international laws regulate transnational and economic
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 29
activity; integration and interdependence comprise all areas of economic life, including trading of
goods and services across geographical borders.
Economics of Globalization
The global economy has flattened the world in terms of skills and technology (Friedman,
2007). Costa Rica transformed itself from an exporter of bananas to microchips, thus represent-
ing its ability to meet the demands of a global society (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). Costa Rica has
worked to develop a workforce that was prepared to meet the demands that the MNCs expected,
and this achievement has allowed Costa Rica to reap the economic benefits from the partnerships
(Rodríguez-Claire, 2001). A new workforce of problem solvers, innovators, and inventors who
are self-reliant and able to think logically is one of the critical foundations that drive an econ-
omy’s innovation capacity. National economies have changed from being isolated entities to a
system of international networks that depend on one another for productivity and economic
growth.
The flat-world platform has created an emergence of collaborative business models that
are unprecedented in history (Friedman, 2007). Costa Rica has attracted one of the highest levels
of FDI per capita in Latin America (CIA, 2014). These partnerships have allowed Costa Rica to
work with various corporations and business partners that have enabled the country to compete in
global markets to which it previously did not have access. International trade agreements have
spurred on global economic progress through trade agreements and elimination of trade barriers.
Greater imports provide consumers with a variety of products and encourage domestic products
to remain competitive. Exports are a source of economic growth that provide domestic jobs and
new industries (IMF Staff, 2008). Data from the IMF Staff (2008) indicate that countries that
have embraced globalism have grown economically and that those who have not seem to be left
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 30
behind. World Bank economists David Dollar and Aart Kraay noted that globalization has con-
tributed to a reduction in poverty rates as well as a reduction in income inequalities (IMF Staff,
2008).
In Bound Together, Chandra (2007) traced the growth of trade from “camel commerce to
e-commerce” (p. 41). Transportation and communication networks have emerged, causing a
seamless international payment and clearing system that has transformed how nations do busi-
ness. According to Chanda, “the method of recording business transactions has evolved from
Sumerian clay tablets to tablet PCs” (p. 69). These recent advances in technology have been
credited with being the driving force behind globalization. Due to the speed in which businesses
can buy and sell goods, nations that do not embrace the tenets of globalization find that they are
outside of the economic equation.
According to Zakaria (2011), between 2000 and 2007 the world economy grew at its
fastest pace in nearly 4 decades. Income per person across the globe rose 3.2%. One of the
pillars of Costa Rica’s economic development has been its trade liberation policies. These poli-
cies have allowed trade exports to exceed 37% of its GDP (CINDE, 2015). Costa Rica’s ability
to transform its products, goods, and services, along with the diversification of the economy,
have led to its ability to compete globally. In addition to the investments in imports and exports,
Costa Rica has prepared its human capital workforce to meet the needs of a global society.
Effects of Globalization on Education
According to Spring (2009), globalization is defined not only in terms of economic
growth or prosperity but also in the approach to global education. Globalization is intertwined in
the processes that affect education, human capital, and discourses on economic development and
multiculturalism (Spring, 2009). Four approaches have been identified as the means to attain a
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 31
global education: the world culture view, the world system approach, a postcolonial analysis, and
a cultural approach (Spring, 2008). The world culture view is grounded in the idea that Western
ideas of schooling should serve as a model for the rest of the world. The world systems frame-
work proposes that education is a human right and that world standards should ensure that access
to a quality education is equitable. The postcolonial framework views globalization as a vehicle
to impose practices that favor the rich and disenfranchise large masses of citizens. Finally, the
culturalist framework questions the idea that Western models of education are imposed; rather, it
recognizes different forms of knowledge and models (Spring, 2008). The approach that develop-
ing countries take in their educational system can determine the path of their economic develop-
ment and their level of participation in a global society. Developing countries that persist in
using postcolonial educational models that leave masses of citizens without access to education
will not be able to compete in key global sectors.
Clifton (2011) identified the key factor that will spur economic development and global
competitiveness in the creation of well-paying and meaningful jobs. Three kinds of workers will
be the channel for this kind of sustained growth: entrepreneurs, inventors, and super mentors.
Educational programs are paramount in producing the kind of workforce that is needed to thrive
in a global society (Blanchard, 2010; Clifton, 2011; Dicken, 2003). Costa Rica’s willingness to
invest in education has paid big dividends for the country. A workforce has been created that is
recognized for high educational standards and a high productivity level (CINDE, 2015). The
MEP has established programs to support literacy in computer science and the mastery of English
as a second language (CINDE, 2015).
Costa Rica has 113 technical schools with over 50 different specialty areas, including
accounting, banking, computer programming, electronic, software development, industrial
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 32
maintenance, and network informatics (CINDE, 2015). A high school education in Costa Rica is
focused on achieving competitive skills needed for the workforce and assisting in successfully
completing a college degree. The national plan to create a multilingual, technologically literate
citizenry has been Costa Rica's response to increased global demands for human capital that is
equipped with 21st-century skills (CINDE, 2015; Wagner, 2008).
Wagner’s Seven Survival Skills
According to Wagner (2008), education is the key to closing the educational achievement
gap. He has identified seven survival skills: (a) critical thinking and problem solving, (b) collab-
oration across networks, (c) agility and adaptability, (d) effective oral and written communica-
tion, (e) accessing and analyzing information, and (f) curiosity and imagination. These skills
were developed using input from business leaders from around the globe to describe the ideal
worker’s abilities. These skills illustrate how globalization has affected education. Students
need the aforementioned skills to allow them to adapt to various settings and environments at a
high level.
Critical Thinking and Problem Solving
Society continues to change to meet global needs. It is for this reason that students must
be able to “think critically and apply [what they know] to new problems” (Wagner, 2008, p. 30).
The P21 (2009) report indicated that students need to know how to use their knowledge and
skills: by thinking critically, applying knowledge to new situations, analyzing information, com-
prehending new ideas . . . [and making] decisions” (p. 9). Companies will continue to look to
recruit knowledge-based workers who “think how to continuously improve the companies’
products, process, or services” (Wagner, 2008, p. 30).
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 33
Collaboration Across Networks and Leading With Influence
Despite the educational system where students compete among one another for the
highest grades, at work in the professional arena, workers tend to rely on teams and committees
to accomplish a task (P21, 2009; Wagner, 2008). It is for this reason that students must learn
how to efficiently work well with other students. Today’s companies, both locally and globally,
require a knowledge-based workforce that can excel in both working with a team and independ-
ently when needed (P21, 2003).
Agility and Adaptability
Today’s technological advancements has revolutionized society similarly to what the
Industrial Revolution did for the 18th century (Salpeter, 2008). As such, knowledge-based
workers must be ready to adapt to changing and emerging technologies to remain competitive in
today’s global economy (Wagner, 2008). In order for the knowledge- based worker to learn how
to adapt to changing circumstances, schools must teach students how to become lifelong learners.
“Lifelong skills development must become one of the central pillars of the new economy” (P21,
2003, p. 6), as it encourages a student to desire to continue learning and to adapt to changing
circumstances. As a result, this particular survival skill must be instilled within students early in
their academic careers.
Initiative and Entrepreneurialism
Entrepreneurship has always been at the forefront of innovation and change. Therefore,
to become a highly productive, knowledge-based worker, students need to learn how to foster
and develop their individual creativity at an early age. “Developing, implementing and communi-
cating new ideas to others, staying open and responsive to new and diverse perspectives” (P21,
2009, p. 9) are fundamental aspects of innovation that will eventually lead to entrepreneurship.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 34
Entrepreneurs are responsible for the technological changes that have revolutionized society.
Therefore, educators must continue to instill this creative skill in today’s students.
Effective Oral and Written Communication
Wagner (2008) stated that college professors “report that poor writing skills are one of
their major concerns about incoming students” (p. 30). Besides writing skills, not only is effec-
tive oral communication fundamental to perform day-to-day responsibilities, but it is also a
requirement for leadership positions. “Business leaders want employees who can . . . communi-
cate effectively and work independently” (P21, 2003, p. 10). Therefore, students must be able to
develop these skills early on, both inside the classroom and with extracurricular activities. In the
case of those students whose native language is not English, they must be able to communicate
effectively both in English and in their primary language.
Accessing and Analyzing Information
One of the benefits of the Internet age is that there is an array of information readily
available at one’s fingertips. A knowledge-based worker, however, must be able to access the
information and filter it accordingly in order to achieve a desired result. “Studies show the pro-
portion of the labor force employed in occupations that make extensive use of interactive and
analytic cognitive skills has increased substantially” (P21, 2003, p. 10). As a result, schools must
teach students how to think critically about their learning in order to focus on the most important
points.
Curiosity and Imagination
Wagner (2008) stated that “the questions that students ask matter far more for learning
than the answers they have memorized” (p. 30). This is because curiosity leads to imagination
that, in turn, fosters innovation and entrepreneurship. However, for students to be able to
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 35
develop an inquisitive nature, educators must also provide effective learning environments that
foster curiosity as part of the core academic curriculum.
Wagner’s (2008) seven survival skills should become an integral part of the academic
curriculum if a country wants to effectively create a knowledge-based workforce that will
succeed in today’s global economy. For a country such as Costa Rica, where MNCs are begin-
ning to demand these skills from the workforce, it becomes imperative for the educational system
to evolve and teach these skills to the youth and to those already in the workforce. According to
Wagner, the world has changed and students need skills that will enable them to thrive in a global
knowledge economy.
Multinational Corporations
MNCs were attracted to Costa Rica through FDI and agencies such as CINDE that have
contributed significantly to the education in Costa Rica (OECD, Development Centre, 2012;
Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). Costa Rica employed specific strategies to attract MNCs that were
rooted in growing the national economy and to create jobs. During the mid 1980s through the
1990s, Costa Rica used an economic development model that incorporated trade liberalization,
export promotion, tax incentives, and an opening of the economy to new markets—both exports
and imports (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). These incentives were created to attract FDI and to
promote nontraditional exports (OECD, Development Centre, 2012). New institutions such as
the Costa Rican Ministry of Foreign Trade (COMEX), the Foreign Trade Corporation of Costa
Rica (PROCOMER) and CINDE have worked to determine new, unconventional markets that
Costa Rica could become a part of as well as to develop strategies to attract FDI (OECD,
Development Centre, 2012).
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 36
Impact of CINDE
Transitioning from an import-based economic model to an export-based one was sup-
ported by CINDE, a private, nonprofit organization. Founded in 1983 by prominent business
people, CINDE has been supported not only by the Costa Rican government but by USAID as
well (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). The primary mission of CINDE is to assist with the development
of the Costa Rican economy by attracting FDI from MNCs and businesses. CINDE initially
directed its efforts toward attracting investment in agriculture and apparel manufacturing. Even-
tually, CINDE realized that Costa Rica was unable to remain competitive in the unskilled labor-
intensive industries and therefore created a strategic plan that focused on sectors associated with
electrical, electronics, and telecommunications (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). These areas were
selected due to their fast growth in other countries and because they were thought to be a good
match for Costa Rica’s skilled workforce, knowledge of English, and the country’s political
stability (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). In 1995 DSC Communications established a manufacturing
plant in Costa Rica, followed by Sawtek, Merrimac, and Remec Industries. Through these part-
nerships, CINDE acquired a firsthand knowledge of how to attract and keep foreign direct
investors in Costa Rica (OECD, Development Centre, 2012).
CINDE’s growing knowledge of the electronics field and how to promote Costa Rica as a
worthy candidate for FDI helped the agency to create a campaign to attract Intel to the country.
CINDE used this knowledge to create a presentation for Intel in order to be placed on a list of
possible locations (OECD, Development Centre, 2012). After several visits to the country, Intel
placed Costa Rica as a top contender on the list of four countries: Costa Rica, Brazil, Chile, and
Mexico. In November of 1996, Intel announced that it had selected Costa Rica as the location of
its new assembly and testing plant. The investment was projected to be somewhere between $300
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 37
million and $500 million (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001) and represented a stepping stone in working to
create a knowledge base economy.
Impact of Investments of Intel and Other MNCs
Intel’s investment has had a profound impact economically as well as educationally in
Costa Rica. The country was chosen as a location for Intel due to the location-specific advan-
tage, as Intel already had three plants in Asian countries and would be able to provide easier
access to the U.S. market (Monge-Naranjo, 2007). The magnitude of the investment had Intel
somewhat concerned that it would be unable to follow through on such an undertaking. How-
ever, as Larrain et al. (2000) pointed out, in the 2 years following Intel’s arrival,
the growth rate of the Costa Rican economy went from an average of 4.9 percent between
1990 and 1996 to an average of 7.3 percent between 1997 and 1999. More importantly,
the growth rate in Costa Rica in the two years after Intel started operations—8 percent in
both 1998 and 1999—was the highest in Latin America; taking the two years combined, it
has been the highest in the last three decades in Costa Rica. (p. 11)
Considering the success of the investment as well as the reputation that Intel had for using
strict guidelines and thorough site selection process, other MNCs knew that they could rely on
Intel’s opinion of the Costa Rican country as a legitimate location for future investments. During
the past 10 years, 120 companies have set up in Costa Rica and have employed more than 66,000
people. Products from Intel comprise 20% of Costa Rica’s national exports (OECD, Develop-
ment Centre, 2012).
In addition, Intel has invested in training for its employees and in the higher education
system in Costa Rica. Intel continues to rely on training programs to prepare workers properly.
The training programs provide specialized professional development in manufacturing and in
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 38
research and development (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). Prior to selecting Costa Rica, Intel identi-
fied areas that had to be improved upon in the educational system, specifically in technology
education. Due to Intel’s presence in Costa Rica, the country has been able to continue establish-
ing global relationships with MNCs globally and to expand its use of a export-based economic
growth model (OECD, Development Centre, 2012). Intel continues its investment with Costa
Rica by collaborating with the MEP and public universities as well as promoting the professional
development of its employees in all areas of STEM (CINDE, 2015).
STEM Education and PBL
STEM education is the integration of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.
The more desirable approach to STEM education involves an integrated STEM model that
integrates the teaching of science and mathematics disciplines by infusing the practices of scien-
tific inquiry, technological and engineering design, mathematical analysis, and 21st-century
interdisciplinary skills (Johnson & Delawsky, 2013). STEM education seeks to incorporate all of
the disciplines by having students engage with real world problems using 21st century skills
(Johnson, 2012).
Globally, educational sectors have conveyed the importance of the STEM fields of study.
Research has stated that 1 out of 3 jobs in the next 3 years will come from a STEM field (Fried-
man, 2007). Global leaders have expressed the importance of the connection between technol-
ogy and global citizenship with respect to a global STEM reform movement (Holbrook, 2007).
Although Costa Rica has a planned drive to ensure that all students are exposed to STEM via the
PRONAFECYT initiative, it is imperative to ensure that leaders are monitoring schools’ progress
to comply with the initiative. Three main goals are the catalyst for the STEM reform: increasing
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 39
the number of students who pursue advanced degrees and careers in STEM, expanding STEM
participation in the workplace, and increasing students’ STEM literacy (Johnson, 2012).
PBL
PBL is an approach to learning that is teacher facilitated and student driven. This instruc-
tional approach teaches concepts through a project. The project is guided by an inquiry focus
question that allows students to acquire their own knowledge through a process that incorporates
interdisciplinary subjects. This approach is beneficial to students, as they are able to develop a
plan to solve a focus question that they have created as they generate new ways of communicat-
ing their results. The teacher becomes the facilitator who provides guidance on the structure of
the project and oversees the process that students undertake. Students use their technological
skills and work collaboratively with a team to solve real-world problems (Bell, 2010).
According to Capraro et al. (2013), students can participate at a higher engagement level
with subject matter and will therefore have a deeper understanding of the subject. PBL includes
mathematics, reading, and writing projects as well as many science-based connections to current
events. Students have the ability to be accountable for their learning as they collect research,
examine the data, and select a way to show what they have learned in the form of a project.
Three learning outcomes that PBL fosters are personal responsibility, independence, and self-
discipline. The facilitator helps all students stay on track with daily goal setting throughout the
project. Learning in this matter is motivating to students, as it allows students to use all of the
21st-century skills needed to be successful in the global society (Bell, 2010: Capraro et al., 2013;
Wagner, 2008).
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 40
Connections Between STEM and PBL
STEM PBL is the combination of the two concepts joined together. STEM is a represen-
tation of what students need to know and learn, while PBL is how they will learn the subject
matter. Capraro et al. (2013) defined STEM PBL as
ill-defined task within a well-defined outcome situated with a contextually rich task
requiring students to solve several problems which, when considered in their entirety,
showcase student mastery of several concepts of various STEM subjects. (p. 2)
The core subject is provided by STEM, while the authentic occurrence by which a student can
engage with the subject matter is provided by PBL (Capraro et al., 2013).
According to Slough and Milam (2013) there are eight concepts that comprise the the-
oretical framework for STEM PBL. The eight concepts are split into two categories: design of
learning environments and foundations in the learning sciences. As one designs programs that
support STEM PBL, one must consider the learning environment. The framework indicates that
the environment should make content accessible, make thinking visible, help students learn from
others, as well as promote life-long learning (Slough & Milam, 2013). Instruction should
provide opportunities for students to ask questions, conduct investigations, collect data, and
allow for students to verbalize their theories. The modeling of the scientific method that uses
deductive reasoning, and hypothesis creation helps to develop critical thinking skills in students.
The belief is that students must learn how to learn from one another (Capraro et al., 2013). In
order to learn from one another, students must listen to others, devise discussions, and compre-
hend norms and social structures (Slough & Milam, 2013).
The second part of the STEM–PBL framework consists of the foundations related to
learning the sciences. This category involves discovering the concepts of preexisting knowledge,
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 41
teaching for understanding, metacognition and feedback, and revision and reflection (Slough &
Milam, 2013). What students know influences what students observe and the connections they
make. Factual knowledge must be used and placed into a conceptual framework in order for it to
become working knowledge (Capraro et al., 2013; Mayer, 2011). Teaching strategies must be
used that stimulate multiple senses and different learning modalities (Mayer, 2011). Students
must be actively engaged with new content to see the connections to current understandings
(Slough & Milam, 2013). Effective STEM–PBL instruction must include opportunities for
students to reflect on their learning as well as to receive constructive feedback from their teachers
(Capraro et al., 2013). The theoretical framework for the design of STEM PBL expects students
to be prepared to compete in national science fairs as well as to be prepared for successful careers
in the 21st century.
According to Capraro et al. (2013, p. 45), there are nine steps in developing STEM–PBL
lessons: (a) “determine the real problem,” (b) “state the real problem,” (c) “identify alternative
perspectives,” (d) “determine constraints,” (e) “gather information,” (f) “generate possible solu-
tions,” (g) “choose the best solution,” (h) “plan the steps for implementing the solution,” and (i)
“adapt the solution.” The aforementioned steps are facilitated by the teacher, who guides the
students with multiple open-ended questions to move them through the process (Capraro et al.,
2013). Friedman (2007) indicated that this process is similar to the process that is used to solve
problems and search for solutions in today’s global workplace.
Connections to Local and National Science Fair Participation
Costa Rica has made STEM as well as PBL education a national educational priority.
Financial resources have been specifically allocated toward the development of creating a
STEM-literate society in which students have been mandated to participate in science fairs.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 42
National science fairs began in Costa Rica in 1987 and were managed by the MEP, the MICITT,
CONICIT, and the UCR. The reason to develop this organization was to cultivate students’
interest in science and to promote students’ skills in the areas of science and technology (Valen-
cia, 2009).
Costa Rica has hosted 20 regional science fairs that have involved over 700 schools. A
National Decree (#31900 MEP-MICITT) was passed that made science fairs mandatory at each
school, and created a national calendar that was expected to be followed by schools (Valencia,
2009). Executive Decree No. 31900 MEP-MICITT defines the implementation of the science
fair program as well as the responsibilities of the organization involved. These responsibilities
include each school organizing a science and technology fair “to ensure compliance with guide-
lines, to begin a headquarters for the execution of the science fair, to encourage and motivate
school wide participation, promote teacher training, and assure the involvement of schools by
establishing liaisons and marketing” (Valencia, 2009, p. 25).
Science fairs in Costa Rica are organized beginning at the local school level up to the
national level, with guidelines set by the MEP, MICITT, CONICIT, and public universities
(Valencia, 2009). Science fairs are structured into four levels. Beginning with the science fairs
at the school sites (i.e., the Institutional Science and Technology Fairs), the winners attend the
Circuit Science and Technology Fairs that cover entire municipalities. The winners of the latter
move on to the Regional Science Fairs, and will be eligible to participate in the National Science
and Technology Fair. Winners from the national competition will attend the Intel International
Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF; Valencia, 2009).
The Intel ISEF was established in 1950. Millions of students compete worldwide for an
opportunity to participate in the ISEF. Over 70 countries now participate in Intel’s ISEF, where
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 43
more than 600 individual and team awards are presented. Awards range from $500 to $5 million
dollars (Bencze & Bowen, 2009).
Costa Rica prepares students for science fair participation so that they can compete with
students from around the world. Students participate in modules that are part of the planned
training of students (Valencia, 2009). Modules cover topics included in the science fair; how-
ever, they do not provide instructional practices that support student success. A focused effort
has been made to motivate students in the fields of STEM. The country has invested in its
national educational system, and the resources received from MNCs have enabled the science fair
programs in Costa Rica to grow substantially (CINDE, 2012; Valencia, 2009). It is unclear what
specific training teachers receive (Valencia, 2009).
Leadership in the 21st Century
Strong leadership has driven the investment in Costa Rica’s economic and educational
investment strategies to transform the organizational structures and priorities of the nation
(Booth, 1998; Lopez, 1996). Key leadership strategies can be seen in Costa Rica’s rich and
peaceful political history, such as the social reform efforts by President Guardia (Booth, 1998).
Influencing a group of individuals and directing workers energies to common goals is a process
that leaders employ; leaders provide movement for change to occur as well as engage workers in
activities that align people and provide motivation (Northouse, 2013).
The last part of the literature review will examine leadership frameworks and the multi-
tude of facets that are required to support attaining the organizational goals. Bolman and Deal’s
(2003) frames provide a framework for the main components of how to provide effective leader-
ship to an organization. Next, Kotter’s (1996) change model provides an eight-step process to
create and maintain change. The role of the site administrator is pivotal in maintaining
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 44
motivation as well as ensuring that professional development will play a role at the school site to
meet the organizational goals.
Bolman and Deal’s Leadership Framework
Bolman and Deal’s (2003) four frames of leadership can provide an opportunity for
school administrators to identify pressing issues on their campus as they pertain to student per-
formance, as well as to identify how the current organizational structures may perpetuate inequal-
ity and/or success on school campuses. School organizations as a whole are rather complex in
that schools are “populated by people, whose behavior is notoriously hard to understand and
predict” (p. 25). The bureaucracy created by some organizations may hinder actual student per-
formance. Bolman and Deal have presented four leadership frames that can help leaders identify
roadblocks within their organizations so they can address the issues as well as enhance the
potential of personnel and promote organizational change: structural, human resources, political,
and symbolic.
Structural frame. “The structural frame involves the emphasis of formal relationships
and roles” (Bolman and Deal, 2003, p. 14). Division of labor and how that division supports the
organization’s goals are a consideration. When the structural frame is in place, it is believed that
all trains run on time. It is the frame that most leaders utilize because managing a school well is
essential for the smooth execution of daily routines.
Human resources frame. The human resources frame deals strictly with how leaders
interact with people within the organization. Bolman and Deal (2003) described how important
it is to “tailor organizations to individuals—to find ways for people to get the job done while
feeling good about what they are doing” (p. 14). The human resources frame asks leaders to
invest in their workforce to increase their knowledge base and their overall satisfaction with the
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 45
job at hand. According to Bolman and Deal, a “company prospers because of having a more
talented, motivated, loyal, and free-spirited team than its competitors” (p. 135).
Political frame. Compulsory education relies on public monies to exist and can often be
found in the middle of political struggles. It is for this reason that Bolman and Deal (2003) noted
that, within organizations, there is always a constant “bargaining, negotiation, coercion, and
compromise” (p. 15) that are habitual circumstances of everyday life. It is for this reason that
leaders must possess the “political skills and acumen” (p. 15) to be able to mediate conflict
between opposing views so as to maximize student performance.
Symbolic frame. According to Bolman and Deal (2003), it is important that leaders
understand how important the symbols are when studying an organization, as they shed light on
the culture and value of the organization. An organizational culture is both a product and a
process. It is a product because “it embodies accumulated wisdom from those who come before
us. [In addition it is a process,] it is constantly renewed and re-created as newcomers learn the
old ways and eventually become the teachers themselves” (Bolman & Deal, 2003, p. 244).
Kotter’s Change Model
People are in constant motion, and change is inevitable, even though when one is consid-
ering change, it can make one uneasy and some may not know where to start. Kotter (1996)
developed an eight-step process that can guide any organization to successful change: (a)
creating urgency, (b) forming a powerful coalition, (c) creating a vision for change, (d) com-
municating the vision, (e) removing obstacles, (f) creating short-term wins, (g) building on the
change, and (h) anchoring the change in corporate culture.
Step 1: Create urgency. According to Kotter’s (1996) book, Leading Change, the most
vital component in committing to a process of change is setting the stage of urgency in order for
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 46
the organization to be motivated to change. Honest dialogues should take place surrounding data
that show people the need for change. During this process, it is imperative to provide potential
threats and develop scenarios that show what could happen in the future. This process will allow
the organization to examine opportunities for change.
Step 2: Form a powerful coalition. Convincing people that change is necessary takes
strong leadership but can be accomplished (Kotter, 1996). Tapping into key people from within,
along with leading an actual change, will assist with building the coalition. Identifying leaders as
well as key stakeholders is the second step in this change process. According to Kotter (1996),
team building is important with this change coalition as well as including members of all stake-
holder groups within an organization.
Step 3: Create a vision for change. A clear vision that people can understand will assist
with the process of change. As the values of the central change are clear, creating a short sum-
mary that the change coalition can describe in 5 minutes or less will set the tone for change. The
vision speech should be practiced and utilized often for all to grasp an understanding of the
change at hand (Kotter, 1996).
Step 4: Communicate the vision. According to Kotter (1996), communicating the
vision as often as possible will determine the success of the change because other day-to-day
communications could get in the way. Not only should the vision be communicated during
discussions of change, but also it should be part of everyday life in the organization. Anxiety
will be high; therefore, talking openly and honestly about fears will address individuals concerns.
Step 5: Remove obstacles. By this point in the change process, the vision is clear and
has been discussed at length; thus, this is the time to address barriers. This process involves
examining the main roles of leaders and ensuring that they are on board with the change as well
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 47
as recognizing and rewarding people who opt for making change happen. The identification of
resistors is crucial; individual conversations by the leaders must address barriers (Kotter, 1996).
Step 6. Create short-term wins. Allowing for team members to feel victory in the
change process will allow team members to quickly celebrate the short-term wins. Finding suc-
cessful projects that are in line with the new vision will diffuse the ammunition that nay-sayers
need during change. Be strategic in this victory, as the triumph will propel the momentum for
new change (Kotter, 1996).
Step 7: Build on the change. Real change takes time, and quick wins are just the
beginning. At this point the leader must create more wins that build on one another. Each
success provides an opportunity to build on what went right and what has to be modified and/or
improved. Setting goals to build on the momentum of successes can keep ideas fresh as well as
foster the ideals of continuous improvement (Kotter, 1996).
Step 8: Anchor the changes in corporate culture. In order for change to be sustained,
the core of the culture must be on board with the vision so that the change has solid ground in the
organization’s culture. In order to maintain change, the conversations must continue about the
change process so that stories can be repeated about the successes of the new vision (Kotter,
1996).
Principal as Leader
Effective leaders must possess behaviors necessary for leadership in the 21st century. In
order to meet the criteria to be successful as a principal, the leader must possess certain attri-
butes: being visionary, a self-starter, inspirational, and a motivator (Engels, Hotton, Devos,
Bouckenooghe, & Aelterman, 2008). Movement of a staff is necessary to promote direction,
purpose, and meaning to the collective group (Bolman & Dean, 2003). The system of meaning
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 48
influences how people think and how they act at school (Engels et al., 2008). A leadership theory
that has been associated with this form of motivating environment is called authentic leadership,
using the components developed by Terry (1993). Authentic leadership is the vehicle that can
influence teachers’ behaviors and attitudes by inspiring teachers as the principal gives individual
considerations to each teacher (Engels, Hotton, Devos, Bouckenooghe, & Aelterman, 2008).
Bennis (2003) indicated that leaders must possess four critical characteristics to be effec-
tive. They must have the ability to engage others through a created shared vision. Second, they
must have a clear voice that is distinctive to constituents and characterized by purpose, a sense of
self, and self-confidence. Third, they must operate from a strong moral code and maintain a
belief in a higher good that fuels their efforts. Finally, leaders must be able to adapt to relentless
pressure to change. Utilizing the above strategies will assist in building trust and allow for a
positive school culture to be maintained. A high-trust work environment feels supportive,
motivating, productive, and comfortable (Hurley, 2006). Authentic leadership encompasses all
of the aforementioned characteristics (Bass & Riggio, 2006).
Characteristics of principal leaders. As a leader, the focus of the principal should be to
engage staff in a shared vision of ensuring efficient ways of teaching that promote in-depth
learning (Fullan, 2001). Teachers must participate in the practice of being a collective force that
works together to improve achievement (Fullan, 2001). Fullan (2001) indicated that building the
capacity of the team to develop goals as a staff will ensure a coherent conceptualization of what
must be done for students. As the building continues to develop itself, lateral capacity building
ensues and allows for deep learning to be a part of the makeup of the culture of the school. A
focused vision by the principal is the key to maintaining a focus for all (Bolman & Deal, 2003).
The principal’s goal is to inspire and motivate staff, as the teachers are the practitioners who
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 49
delve into the craft on a daily basis (Bass & Riggio, 2006). Professional learning communities
work to develop the processes of focused and shared decision making (DuFour, DuFour, Eaker,
& Many, 2006).
Authentic leaders. According to Terry’s (1993) approach, following the authentic action
wheel he designed will assist leaders in the practical view of being an authentic leader by provid-
ing a guide on how to do leadership. The action wheel is divided up into two parts: (a) the
actions that can be taken by the leader and the leadership team as well as (b) the moral reason as
to why decisions are made (Northouse, 2013). The purpose of the two parts is the assurance of
leadership creating “authentic decisions” versus “unauthentic decisions” (Northouse, 2013, p.
255). The six major areas on the wheel allow the leader to determine which of the six areas is a
concern: mission, power, structure, resources, existence, and meaning (Northouse, 2013). Part 1
of the process would be to locate the problem on the authentic action wheel to identify the real
concern. Part 2 would provide the leader with a way to respond to the issue in the organization in
an authentic manner. Bolman and Deal (2003) described how great leaders have an internal
compass that drives their sense of self and self-confidence. Great leaders always know where
their west is and have it in mind with every activity that takes place because the desired direction
is always in mind (Bolman & Deal, 2003). Passion from the internal compass must be passed on
to teachers to assist them with daily tasks at work. The ability to inspire is a function of an
authentic leader (Northouse, 2013).
Working from a strong moral code allows for education to make sense as a profession due
to an abiding belief that every human life is sacred and no task is more important than nourishing
and developing the extraordinary potential in all students (Bolman & Deal, 2003). Teachers must
be treated as individuals, and time must be provided to each and every one of them to build on
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 50
their individual considerations (Bass & Riggio, 2006). Administrators make decisions daily, and
decisions cannot all be based only on reason and courage; hope and understanding must also be
utilized by principals and teachers. Those day-to-day decisions shape a school’s culture and
climate. Wisdom can be learned over time if principals learn from both successes and failures
(Bolman & Deal, 2003). Bass and Riggio (2006) indicated that those who can stimulate the
intellect of teachers should practice this task on a daily basis, as it is important to look at old
problems in new ways.
Professional Development and Training for STEM Educators
Professional development is a component that should be utilized in today’s schools to
prepare teachers. Therefore, it is important to understand the characteristics of adult learners
(Hunzicker, 2011). According to Hunzicker (2011), the most effective professional develop-
ments are comprised of learning opportunities to engage teachers by utilizing the following
characteristics: being supportive, job embedded, instructionally focused, collaborative, and
ongoing. The supportive characteristic allows for intrinsic motivation to be tapped throughout
the process of professional development. Personal and professional needs must be considered as
the goals of the school are combined with the needs of the adult learner. The process of combin-
ing individual needs along with school goals assists with strengthening the teacher’s commitment
to professional development along with the ongoing process that it entails (Hunzicker, 2011).
Effective professional development for teachers has to be job embedded in order for it to
be both relevant and authentic (Hunzicker, 2011). This characteristic involves engaging teachers
through their daily activities so as to build coherence requires that time is taken to consider pos-
sibilities and try out new ideas as well as participate in analyzing the effectiveness of their
actions. The instructional focus is what emphasizes the area content as well as student learning
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 51
outcomes. The emphasis on subject area and how to teach according to individual needs creates
an opportunity to differentiate the professional development in responding to the teacher’s daily
needs (Hunzicker, 2011). The final two characteristics of being collaborative and ongoing stress
the importance of following a format that matches the concept of professional learning communi-
ties (PLCs).
Professional Learning Communities
According to DuFour et al. (2006), PLCs are teams that are prepared to work with col-
leagues in teams to assure that there is a community focus on the learning of each student. The
team members work “interdependently” to achieve “common goals” (p. 3). The process of being
a PLC encompasses the goals of the importance of collective inquiry, being action oriented,
having a commitment to continuous improvement, as well as being results oriented (DuFour et
al., 2006). DuFour et al. indicated that when PLCs are in place, teams realize that there can be
incongruence with the educational system and then work as a team to develop systems to meet
the needs of all students in a manner that is ongoing and systematic.
Importance of teams. Conversations that take place among team members used to be
private; however, now, with meaningful collaborative teams, conversations can be productive for
staff, students, and administrators’ learning (DuFour et al., 2006). As the team engages in cycles
of collective inquiry and action research, all team members can forge ahead together with a
deeper understanding of content for themselves as well as for their students (DuFour et al., 2006).
Role of assessment. All organizations have goals to attain, and the team starts with
knowing where students begin as well as what the end result should be (DuFour et al., 2006).
The team then transitions into creating short-term goals as well as planned actions to attain the
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 52
short-term goals. It is imperative that the teams be monitored for the attainment of the short-term
goals in order for the long0term goals to be reached (DuFour et al., 2006).
The role of the administrator in supporting PLCs is to ensure that support structures have
been provided so that the team members can work with one another as a productive team and to
provide appropriate allotted time for teams for conversations to take place as often as possible
(DuFour et al., 2006). Most importantly, teams must be aware of the overall goals of the organi-
zation so that they can set targets along the way to work toward reaching the overall goals.
Short-term wins and validation along the way can be motivating for teams. When certain team
members do not wish to participate, it is imperative for the administrator to speak to these
member because they can hinder the entire process for the team (DuFour et al., 2006).
Next Generation Science Standards
According to the National Research Council (as cited in Wilson, 2011), effective STEM
staff development must allow teachers sufficient time to be engaged in the actual activities and
learning experiences so that they can have a deeper understanding of content rather than partici-
pating in a 1-day workshop model. Developing teachers’ understanding of scientific processes as
well as crosscutting concepts will assist them in their development of the understanding of
STEM-based teaching (Krajcik, 2014). A deeper understanding of learning tasks along with
assessment that will measure learning performances (e.g., PBL) or learning goals is paramount
for educators (Krajcik, 2014). Educators will have to be trained in the process of contextualizing
learning via an inquiry question along with additional focus questions that will keep students
motivated about the learning task on hand (Krajcik, 2014).
As teachers use the process of PLCs and target the needs of their students as a team,
teachers can delve further into collaborative discussions via STEM PBL (Fulton, Doerr, &
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 53
Britton, 2010). Administrators will have to be supportive in their role of maintaining the success
of the teams as the latter are monitored for short-term as well as long-term goals.
Chapter Summary
The literature review began with an overview of Costa Rica’s history as well as where it
stands today. A historical perspective was provided so that the reader could understand how
globalization assisted with developing Costa Rica into a predominantly knowledge-based work-
force. Frameworks were provided to guide what next steps the future may hold. The literature
review described an array of opportunities for leadership development via authentic leadership
and PLCs by way of planning for STEM PBL, which has a direct link to student success with
science fair participation.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 54
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Globalization has resulted in increased competition among countries for economic
growth. Costa Rica has initiated many actions designed to increase the nation’s competitiveness.
In the educational system, changes have been made to increase the development of student com-
petencies in the areas of STEM, with one of those changes being mandated participation in the
PRONAFECYT. Unfortunately, there is currently a disparity in the levels of success across the
country in both participation in and the quality of the PRONAFECYT initiative at individual
school sites. The current literature does not reference how leadership in education has been
impacted by the policy change regarding participation in the PRONAFECYT taking place across
schools in the country of Costa Rica.
The State of the Nation Report provides initiatives that have been set; however, detailed
steps have not been created as to how to achieve the initiatives at high levels (PEN, 2013). The
purpose of this study is to understand the effects of educational leadership on participation in the
PRONAFECYT by primary schools in Costa Rica. This study will identify the role that school
leaders have in the development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. Addition-
ally, the study will explore how schools may have restructured their educational programs by
focusing on the sharing of leadership and teacher training.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided this study:
1. What is the role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 55
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with the
21st-century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
Frameworks Utilized
In approaching the study’s purpose, the dissertation group utilized the following frame-
works: Bolman and Deal’s (2003) four-frame leadership model, Kotter’s (1996) change process
model, the STEM–PBL model developed by Capraro et al. (2013), along with the supplemental
framework of Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century skills. The frameworks provided a structure to the
study’s protocols as well as outlined standards for comparing the findings so as to provide
conclusions about the findings.
In Reframing Organizations, Bolman and Deal (2003) identified four distinctive frames
from which people view their world via a leadership capacity: structural, human resources,
political, and symbolic. In the structural frame, leaders value goals and efficiency just as they
value analysis and data, setting clear expectations, and holding people accountable for results in
an effort to solve organizational problems with new policies and rules of thorough restructuring.
In the human resources frame, there is a focus on the interactions among individuals and organi-
zational needs whereby leaders value relationships and mindsets, seeking to lead through facilita-
tion and empowerment. The political frame is rooted in political science and views organizations
as arenas of possible conflict and competition among different interests for limited resources.
Leaders who are politically framed spend a great deal of their time lobbying, networking, and
creating coalitions to establish power and influence. The final frame, the symbolic frame, is the
most subjective because facts are seen as interpretive rather than objective. The symbolic leader
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 56
feels that the team is the core of the organization’s success; great attention is paid to myth, ritual,
ceremony, and other symbolic frames (Bolman & Deal, 2003).
In his book, Leading Change, Kotter (1996, p. 23) developed an eight-step process that
can guide any organization to successful change: (a) “creating urgency,” (b) “forming a powerful
coalition,” (c) “creating a vision for change,” (d) “communicating the vision,” (e) “removing
obstacles,” (f) “building on the change,” and (g) “anchoring the change in corporate culture.”
The first step in the process is extremely pertinent as it sets the tone for the urgency to create
change. Secondly, reaching out to key people to build an alliance assists with the process of
change. According to Kotter, a clear vision that describes the new change assists with momen-
tum for change. Communicating this vision with all members of the organization demonstrates
that the new vision is indeed part of a new process. Step 5 in the process of change is the time to
address barriers. Addressing barriers is the responsibility of the leader. Individuals who do not
wish to be a part of the new change process must not be allowed to be an obstacle to change. Just
as important, Step 6 is where short-term wins must be celebrated; these celebrations build short-
term capacity for the organization. Step 7 allows for the wins to build on one another. This
process maintains fresh ideas in the cycle of continuous improvement. Finally, Step 8 describes
the constant cycle of following the previously listed stages in order to anchor the change in the
culture of the organization (Kotter, 1996).
According to Capraro et al. (2013, p. 45), there are nine steps when developing STEM–
PBL lessons: (a) “determine the real problem,” (b) “state the real problem,” (c) “identify alterna-
tive perspectives,” (d) “determine constraints,” (e) “gather information,” (f) “generate possible
solutions,” (g) “choose the best solution,” (h) “plan the steps for implementing the solution,” and
(i) “adapt the solution” The framework indicates that the environment should make content
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 57
accessible, make thinking visible, help students learn from others, as well as promote life-long
learning (Slough & Milam, 2013). The aforementioned steps are facilitated by the teacher, who
guides the students with multiple open-ended questions to move them through the process of
learning (Capraro et al., 2013).
Wagner (2008, p. 14) outlined seven survival skills for the 21st century: (a) “critical
thinking and problem solving,” (b) “collaboration across networks,” (c) “agility and adaptabil-
ity,” (d) “initiative and entrepreneurship,” (e) “effective oral and written communication,” (f)
“accessing and analyzing information,” and (g) “curiosity and imagination.” The seven skills for
survival permeate through the STEM–PBL method. These various frameworks provided addi-
tional structure to the study’s protocols as well as outlined standards for comparing the findings
so as to provide conclusions.
Method of Study
Creswell (2014) stated that qualitative research has key components that distinguish this
type of research method from the quantitative method: It occurs in the natural setting; the re-
searcher is the primary instrument of data collection; data analysis is inductive and deductive to
both capture pivotal moments and then reflect upon them; participants assist with meaning
making; research is emergent; and “rich narrative descriptions are included when the data is
interpreted” (p. 184). According to Creswell, emergent research is not preconceived and follows
a process as the researcher is the key instrument.
The qualitative method was chosen for this study because it seeks to gather meaning and
understanding about the process that is undertaken when leaders foster an initiative. Data will be
collected via interviews of government officials, regional directors and observations of school
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 58
principals at their respective sites to determine the level of implementation of the science fair
initiative at specific school sites.
Patton (2002) indicated that interviews are used to find out information that cannot be
gained by observation alone. According to Weiss (1994), interviewing gives one access to the
observations of others. In the course of interviewing, one learns about people’s internal thoughts
and perceptions and how they interpret those perceptions (Weiss, 1994). Interviews were con-
ducted as part of this study to capture the regional directors’ perceptions of their role in their
respective regions’ attainment of understanding of the national science fair initiative. Qualitative
interviews can be used in two ways: as a prevailing strategy or in combination with other meth-
ods of data collection. In addition, this study also used formal observations of the schools to
determine whether perceptions about preparation for the PRONAFECYT are indeed correct.
According to Merriam (2009), observational data represent an encounter with a problem
or phenomenon for the purpose of gathering data. Observations should be systematic and address
a specific research question. Bogdan and Biklen (2007) indicated that capturing natural phenom-
enon via the use of field notes requires accurate, detailed, and rich descriptions of the who, what,
where, and how of what is taking place. The use of the qualitative design method shapes the
process in which the problem was identified, how the research questions were developed, and
how the data will be collected—indicating that it is a bound study (Creswell, 2014). The follow-
ing methods were used to triangulate the data: interviews, observations and a review of docu-
ments (McEwan & McEwan, 2003).
The aim of the study was to assess the impact of educational leadership on participation
in the PRONAFECYT in Costa Rican primary schools. The study will identify the role that
school leaders have in the development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 59
Additionally, the study explored how schools may have restructured their educational programs
by focusing on sharing of leadership and teacher training.
Description of Research Team
Under the guidance of University of Southern California (USC) professor, Dr. Michael
Escalante, this case study was conducted by a research team as a thematic dissertation. The team
began to meet in the fall of 2014. Initial research was conducted via a literature review, and team
members presented research on Costa Rica’s history and educational system, along with the four
frameworks described. All data were collected through collaboration of the 18 members of the
USC thematic dissertation group during a single trip to Costa Rica in June 2015. All interviews
were conducted in teams so that one member would be asking questions while the other member
was an engaged listener. Due to the sharing of interview and survey protocols, there may be
some overlap in terms of data presented across the 18 case studies.
Population and Sample
To successfully answer all four research questions, the sample population will include
political and educational leaders (regional directors) as well as school directors, school site
science coordinators, and teachers. Classroom observations were also conducted. The study
used purposeful sampling to identify the participants for this study. Purposeful selection strategy
intentionally selects particular settings, persons, or activities to provide information that is rele-
vant to the research questions and goals of the study (Maxwell, 2013). Gaining access as well as
consent must be a planned part of a research study (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). The role and inten-
tions of the researcher should be overt and conducted in a cooperative fashion (Bogdan & Biklen,
2007). Dr. Escalante and his assistant, Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft, began this process when they sent a
recruitment letter to the Minister of Public Education (see Appendix A). The Summary of the
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 60
Research Proposal was sent in March of 2015 (see Appendix B). The schools were chosen by
Alicia Porras, Vice Minister of Public Education, and Natalie Valencia, Director of the
PRONAFECYT initiative. The MEP granted the thematic team access to government officials,
regional directors, school directors, science coordinators, teachers as well as to the respective
school sites and their parents and students.
The research team was looking to compare the differences between highly effective
schools and schools that are ineffective based on their level of implementation in the
PRONAFECYT initiative. The team was provided with the names of 18 schools from which
data were collected (see Appendix C) through surveys, interviews, and observations. The two
schools that were the subjects of this case study are School A and School B, both located in the
city of San José, Costa Rica. Table 1 contains a summary of study participants.
The first public figure identified as a potential participant is the General Counsel of Costa
Rica, Silvia Ugalde Fernandez, who was contacted by one of the research assistants through the
Costa Rican Consulate in Los Angeles. A meeting was held on May 5, 2015, at USC’s Univer-
sity Club, where the first interview for the study was conducted. Further meetings were held on
June 15–22 in Costa Rica. Observations took place in schools during the period June 17–19.
Instrumentation
Survey Protocol
Fink and Resnick (2001) depicted surveys as a “means to collect, describe, compare or
explain the individual and/or societal knowledge, feelings, values, preferences, and behaviors”
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 61
Table 1
Identification of Study Participants
Participant Title Affiliation Survey Interview Observation
Alicia Porras Vice Minister of MEP X
Public Education
Carolina Vasquez Vice Minister, MICITT X
Soto PRONAFECYT
Nathalie Valencia Director, MICITT X
PRONAFECYT
Vanessa Gibson Aftercare Director CINDE X
Mary Helen Bialas Director Consejo de Promocion X
Alicia Vargas Director, Teacher UCR X
Training Program
Patricia Arias Regional Science Fair MEP, San José, X
Director Occidente
Ana Lourdes Acuña Coordinator Omar Dengo Foundation X
Ana Hernandez Program Evaluator Omar Dengo Foundation X
Eduardo Monge Project Development Omar Dengo Foundation X
18 school sites Directors MEP X
Note. MEP = Ministry of Public Education; MICITT = Ministry of Science, Technology, and
Telecommunications; CINDE = Costa Rica Investment Promotion Agency; UCR = University of
Costa Rica; PRONAFECYT = Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 62
(p. 2). Survey protocols were created in January-February 2015 by the research team after con-
ducting extensive research on Costa Rica as well as the frameworks that to utilized in study:
Bolman and Deal’s (2003) four frames of leadership, Kotter’s (1996) change process, the
STEM–PBL framework of Capraro et al. (2013), and Wagner’s (2008) seven survival skills.
The creation of the survey instruments was a collaborative effort by research group
members, who were divided into four teams to create questions pertaining to an assigned frame-
work. Teams were then reunited with the main researchers to narrow the questions down, and a
23-question document was created. The entire group then worked together to clarify and review
the instruments for redundancy (see Appendices D-I).
Interview Protocol
Patton (2002) indicated that interviews are used to find out information that cannot be
gained by observation alone. According to Weiss (1994), interviewing gives the researcher
access to the observation of others. In the course of interviewing, one can learn about people’s
internal thoughts and perceptions and how they interpret those perceptions (Weiss, 1994). Inter-
views will be conducted as a part of this study to capture the perceptions of government officials
and directors regarding their role at their respective schools with respect to preparing teachers to
implement the PRONAFECYT.
The research group members worked collaboratively in two teams during February-
March 2015 to create a semistructured interview instrument and ensured that questions were
aligned to both the research questions and the survey questions. Then the entire group reunited
with the main researchers for approval of the interview instrument (see Appendices J-N).
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 63
Observation Protocol
According to Merriam (2009), observational data represents an encounter with a problem
or phenomenon for the purpose of gathering data. Observations should be systematic and address
a specific research question. Bogdan and Biklen (2007) indicated that capturing natural phe-
nomena via the use of field notes requires accurate, detailed, and rich descriptions of the who,
what, where, and how of what is taking place. Observations will be conducted in this study to
capture activities that engage students to prepare them for participation in the PRONAFECYT
initiative. The use of the qualitative design method shaped the process in this study for which the
problem was identified, how the research questions were developed, and how the data will be
collected (Creswell, 2014).
Research group members collaboratively developed the observation instrument in
February-March 2015. The researchers divided into two teams in order to ensure that questions
were aligned to the survey questions and then reunited with the main researchers to approve the
observation instrument (see Appendix O).
Data Collection
Data for this study trip will be collected during a single trip to Costa Rica in June 2015.
Prior to arriving in Costa Rica, the research team contacted all potential participants to ensure
that appointments were scheduled with political figures, regional directors, and directors of
schools and that surveys were distributed. The interviews were recorded for future data analysis
once the interviewee provided consent (see Appendix P) and agreed to be recorded. Four popula-
tions were addressed. Interviews were conducted with political figures, a CINDE representative,
regional directors, foundation employees, school directors, and site science coordinators; and
teachers were observed at their school sites to see the PRONAFECYT initiative in action.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 64
Different methods were utilized to provide a depth of data that allowed for triangulation of data.
Triangulation is the act of collecting data from a diverse range of individuals and settings by
utilizing a number of methods of varying strengths. By so doing, the researcher reduces the risk
that the conclusions will reflect the biases of a specific method (Maxwell, 2013).
The interviews with political leaders and education leaders assisted in understanding their
perspectives on how the initiative for the national science fair should be impacting the leadership
of the school sites. In addition, observations of classrooms were conducted to gain firsthand
knowledge of the implementation of the science fair initiative in the classroom to either validate
or negate the survey responses of the regional science fair directors. Utilizing various methods is
valuable in providing divergent perspectives, thereby creating a more complex understanding of
the phenomena studies.
Data Analysis
The process of data analysis involves finding patterns and themes from the data gathered.
According to Creswell (2014), data analysis involves preparing the data for analysis to gain a
deeper understanding of the data, as the researcher represents the data in order to interpret and
make larger meaning of the data. The data analysis was performed both individually and col-
laboratively.
Creswell (2014) described six steps for data analysis in qualitative research. First, the
data must be organized. Dedoose is the program that was used to assist with the coding of the
data, which included transcribed interviews, field notes, and the sorting of the codes accordingly.
The second step involved reviewing all the data so that the research team could get a general
sense of what the data had to offer. Steps 3 and 4 worked together via the Dedoose program, as
the process involved detailed analysis of the coding system whereby the team determined not
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 65
only first-level general codes but second-level codes as well. This process was carried out in
conjunction with generating detailed descriptions of the setting as well as categories and themes
for analysis. Step 5 involved determining the themes that were represented in the qualitative nar-
rative. The final step involved answering the question, “What lessons have been learned”
(Creswell, 2014, p. 197)?
Validity, Credibility, and Trustworthiness
This study implemented several steps and checkpoints to assure that the findings would
be accurate and credible. To begin with, during the literature review process, the Dedoose
program was used to create a first-cycle coding system so that correct references would be made
by all team members. Research team members coded their own readings individually as well as
collectively and uploaded them to the Dedoose program, which allowed for second-cycle coding
to occur.
The university Institutional Review Board (IRB) process commenced in March 2015 with
the initial application process of all team members becoming certified in the Collaborative
Institutional Review Board Training Initiative (CITI). This is an online training program that
explains ethical conduct toward human subjects in research projects. All members participated,
and the IRB process was completed to prepare researchers for the experience of international
research in Costa Rica. Informed consent was granted to the thematic research team (see Appen-
dix P).
All participants will be made aware that their participation was voluntary, that their well-
being was of the utmost importance to the researchers, that strict confidentiality would be main-
tained, and that they could end their participation at any time (Glesne, 2011). To gather pertinent
data from participants, it is imperative to set a tone of trustworthiness in order for interviewees’
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 66
shared perspectives to be as accurate as possible (Maxwell, 2013). Initiating conversations with
regional directors was assigned to team leaders, and the team of 18 was divided into three teams
of six to begin the relationship building with the regional directors.
Limitations and Delimitations
Because the research team resides in the United States and the study participants were in
Costa Rica, geographical disparities posed a limitation for this case study. The research group
members were all working professionals; therefore, all of the data collection had to take place
during a narrow 8-day time frame in June 2015.
As the research team aimed to observe the effects of educational leadership in participa-
tion in the PRONAFECYT initiative in Costa Rican primary schools, all individuals were not
surveyed or interviewed. School directors, site science coordinators, and teachers completed a
survey and were interviewed. The sample population of this study purposefully did not include
first- to third-grade students. As the research questions were designed to determine how educa-
tional leadership as well as shared leadership could have an impact on the PRONAFECYT, it
was deemed appropriate to survey students only in the fourth and fifth grades.
Chapter Summary
In summary, Chapter 3 has described the research methodologies that will be imple-
mented to ascertain the impact of leadership on the participation in the PRONAFECYT initiative
at primary schools in Costa Rica. Included were the study’s frameworks and research design
models, along with the sample and population, the instruments utilized, and how the data were
collected both individually as well as via collaborative efforts. Through data collection involving
interviews with political leaders, surveys with educational leaders, and observations of school
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 67
directors, science coordinators, and teachers at their sites, the researchers were able to gather
ample data that were triangulated during the data analysis process.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 68
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
This chapter presents the results of the case study conducted in Costa Rica to examine the
role of leadership on participation in the PRONAFECYT in the primary schools of Costa Rica.
This study identified the role that school leaders and teachers play in the promotion and imple-
mentation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. Leadership practices, instructional strategies, and
professional development practices were identified at six schools in the Central Region of San
José. The study explored how schools may have restructured their educational program by
focusing on STEM and PBL.
Data gathered from surveys, interviews, and observations, as well as the literature review,
were analyzed and triangulated to identify trends and themes. The triangulated data were ana-
lyzed through the viewpoint of the frameworks that spoke directly to the leadership characteris-
tics, model for change, and implementation of STEM programs that were identified. This
chapter presents the findings from the analysis of the information gathered from surveys, inter-
views, and observations, as well as literary frameworks and sources. The presentation of the data
collected is framed to answer the following research questions:
1. What is the role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 69
Each research question was crafted to examine how the PRONAFECYT initiative has had an
impact on the role that school leaders and teachers play in the promotion and implementation of
the initiative.
Participants
The participants selected to be part of this case study were from a sample population of
school administrators, teachers, government officials, and business partners in Costa Rica.
School sites and administrators were selected from 18 schools and divided by region. Three
regions were selected: Central, Oeste, and Occidente. From these regions, three groups were
created; each group studied six schools within their region. This study focused on the compari-
son of two schools in the Central Region and also the Central Region as a whole. The Central
region is situated in the heart of San José. Schools in the region are considered urban schools,
and each school is faced with challenges that are representative of urban school sites. All of the
schools except one is considered a public school run by the MEP. For the purpose of discussing
the findings for this study, the primary school that was the focus school will be referenced as
School A and comparison school referred to as School B. The region in its entirety will be
referred to as the Central Region.
School A is located in the Catédral District of the Central region. It is an active school in
the heart of the downtown area, a block away from the main square that contains the cathedral of
the city. The school has a population of 550 students from first through sixth grade, 121 of
whom receive additional instructional support. The school has active parental involvement, a
robotics lab, a computer lab, a dental clinic, and cultural programs. School A’s mission and
vision is very simple: “Persevere and you will succeed.”
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 70
School A occupies a two-story building that contains classrooms on both floors and a
large courtyard in the middle which is used as the playground, soccer field, and assembly area.
Murals can be found on the walls, along with religious relics throughout the school. In between
the robotics lab and the computer lab, on the second floor, is the cafeteria, which serves only
fresh, nutritious food daily. In the main entrance of the building sits a large sculpture of a dove
that can be seen by all who enter. This sculpture contains the names of domestic abuse victims
listed on the engraving because the school has taken up this cause. Although the School Director
had over 20 years of administrative experience, she had been in her position at School A for only
3 months. Consistency in leadership was found with the Science Fair Coordinator, who had been
at this school for over 10 years.
School B is in the heart of the city in the Zapote District. The school is comprised of
single-story buildings attached by walkways surrounded by grass, trees, and gardens. Students
are allowed to play throughout the school in all grassy areas. The Director at School B had
worked at the school for the past 14 years and had spent the previous 2 years in her current posi-
tion. The school has a significant amount of parental involvement, a robotics lab, a computer
lab, and a dental clinic; and it runs cultural events such as the cultural event that was observed on
the day of the visit.
Interviewed Participants
During the visit to School A, the Director and science coordinator-teacher were formally
interviewed. Permission was given for the interviews to be recorded. The recorded interviews
were then transcribed and coded. The coding system involved both the frameworks and the
research questions. Themes that emerged during the data analysis are presented in this chapter to
answer each research question along with the supporting data. The synthesis and analysis of the
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 71
data provide an understanding of what the role of educational leadership has played with respect
to participation in the PRONAFECYT in the Costa Rican primary schools. Interviews were
transcribed and coded as well as triangulated with the surveys and observations in order to
develop themes for the study (see Table 2).
Table 2
Interviewed Study Participants
Participants Title Affiliation
Sylvia Ugalde Fernandez Costa Rican Consulate General Government
Carolina Vasquez Soto Vice Minister, MICITT Government
Alice Porras Vice Minister of Education MEP
Patricia Arias Director MEP
Natalie Valencia Director MICITT
Vanessa Gibson Director CINDE
Mary Helen Bialas Director Consejo de Promocion
Ana Lourdes Acuña Coordinator Omar Dengo Foundation
Ana Hernandez Program Evaluator Omar Dengo Foundation
Eduardo Monge Project Development Omar Dengo Foundation
School site administrators Directors Central Region
Teachers Study participants Central Region
Parents Study participants Central Region
Note. MEP = Ministry of Public Education. MICITT = Ministry of Science, Technology, and
Telecommunications; CINDE = Costa Rica Investment Promotion Agency.
Surveyed Participants and Observations
Survey data were collected from School A as well as five additional schools in the
Central Region. Survey data were also collected from seven government officials and three
business partners. At School A the data were collected from the Director, 16 teachers, 39 stu-
dents, as well as from nine competed parent surveys and 12 observations conducted. At School
B, the Director, 20 teachers, 126 students, and 2 parents completed surveys and there were 11
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 72
observations. For the Central Region, a total of six directors, 85 teachers, 50 parents, and 358
student surveys were collected from the six schools in the region (see Table 3).
Table 3
Survey Data Collection
Director Teacher Student Parent
Location surveys surveys surveys surveys
School A 1 17 39 12
School B 1 20 126 2
Central Region 6 85 358 50
Frameworks
Leadership
Three frameworks were used in this study to create lenses through which the findings
would be analyzed: Bolman and Deal’s (2003) four frames of leadership, the STEM–PBL
framework developed by Capraro et al. 2013, and Kotter’s (1996) theory of change. Wagner’s
(2008) seven survival skills for 21st-century learners were also used to connect the concepts of
globalization and the global STEM initiative with the data that were gathered.
Bolman and Deal (2003) identified four frames by which leadership styles can be defined:
human resources, political, structural, and symbolic. Leaders who work from the human re-
sources frame see their organization as an extended family and believe that the human capital
needs of an organization are paramount to its success. The actions and thoughts that define the
political frame are rooted in the principles of political science. In this frame, leaders view the
organization as an arena with conflicting and competing ideas. Leaders who work in the struc-
tural frame emphasize goals, specialized roles, and formal relationships. Finally, leaders who are
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 73
viewed as symbolic and work within this frame draw from the notion that the organization is a
cultural entity with rituals, ceremonies, and heroes. The frames were used to discover leadership
traits and characteristics that were exhibited by the leaders in this study.
STEM PBL
STEM PBL is the combination of the interdisciplinary areas of science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics with the mastery of those subjects using real-world, hands-on
projects. Capraro et al. (2013) defined STEM PBL as an ill-defined task with a well-defined
outcome. Students are required to solve several problems that, when viewed in their entirety,
showcase students’ mastery of a concept. The well-defined outcome helps to establish expecta-
tions for student learning outcomes and the guidelines for the completion of an assignment.
STEM PBL has developed into an educational theory and set of instructional practices that
include an eight-concept theoretical framework (Slough & Milan, 2013). These eight concepts
are divided into two categories: design of learning environments and foundations in the learning
sciences. Using this framework, the researcher was able to identify concepts that comprise the
STEM–PBL framework when examining each school’s implementation of the PRONAFECYT.
Change
Due to the national transformation that has taken place in the country of Costa Rica, it
was necessary to establish an understanding of the steps that were taken toward the implementa-
tion of the PRONAFECYT initiative. Kotter’s (1996) eight-step change process was used to
identify how the process of change has occurred and the potential next steps for the implementa-
tion of the PRONAFECYT initiative.
Kotter (1996) defined the change process as a series of steps through which leaders
should guide their organization. These steps provide a clear path to change implementation: (a)
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 74
establishing a sense of urgency, (b) creating the guiding coalition, (c) developing a vision and
strategy for the change effort, (d) clearly communicating the change vision, (e) empowering
broad-based actions, (f) generating short-term wins, (g) consolidating gains to produce more
change, and (h) anchoring new approaches in the culture. The data collected for the study were
analyzed to identify characteristics consistent with the steps in the change process.
Twenty-First-Century Learners
According to Wagner (2008), in order for students to compete globally and be able to
engage in global markets, they must acquire seven survival skills. Educational leaders in Costa
Rica refer to these skills as soft skills. These seven survival skills have been identified as critical
thinking and problem solving, collaboration across networks, agility and adaptability, initiative
and entrepreneurialism, effective oral and written communication, accessing and analyzing
information, and curiosity and imagination. Using these seven skills (soft skills), the researcher
was able to identify trends in instructional practices and the instructional priorities of site and
system leaders.
Findings for Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, “What is the role that educational leaders play in implement-
ing the PRONAFECYT initiative?”
Leadership is a complex phenomenon, and educational leadership has multifaceted com-
ponents that affect mission statements and new educational initiatives. The educational leader is
most important in developing a clear mission and vision as well as in creating a sense of buy-in
and urgency. One of the key ways to develop a clear mission and vision is to effectively commu-
nicate the vision and empower the constituency for sustained growth. The purpose of the
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 75
research question was to seek an understanding the role that site and system leaders in Costa Rica
have played in the implementation of the science fair initiative:
1. What have system leaders done to assist with the science fair initiative?
2. What have site leaders done to support staff and teachers in order to effectively
implement the initiative?
3. Has the school leader clearly communicated the purpose and urgency of the science
fair initiative?
4. Does the site leader elicit feedback to improve the implementation of the science fair
initiative?
The data analysis and triangulation revealed two common themes: (a) a vision for the
implementation of STEM and PBL and (b) the significance of the school director.
A Vision for Implementation
As a result of the implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative, a multitiered system
of leadership has been created starting with system leaders consisting of both the Vice Minister
of Public Education and the Vice Minister of Science and Technology, the Director of the
MICITT, three Regional Science Fair Directors and Site Administrators, School Site Science Fair
Coordinators, and educational agencies that promote STEM PBL, such as the Omar Dengo Foun-
dation. As a group, these educational leaders have worked together to establish the science and
technology fair program. Alicia Porras, Vice Minister of Education, described this relationship
by noting, “It’s a matter of leading together, not only one ministry and the other—both of us have
to lead towards a common goal, which is the science and technology fairs, but we have to do it in
a partnership” (interview, June 17, 2015).
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 76
The vision for the implementation of a national science fair has been a joint effort be-
tween the MEP and the MICITT since the issuance of National Decree No. 31900 MEP-MICITT
that formalized the creation of the PRONAFECYT. The vision was to create a national program
that would prepare students to develop an understanding of the scientific method process and
provide a forum for them to showcase their learning. Carolina Vasquez-Soto, Vice Minister of
MICITT, indicated in a personal interview that “the team that leads the process of science and
technology with young people and children must be people who are committed, and these
students need to see there is someone who loves science more than anything else” (June 15,
2015). Mary Ellen Bialas, the Director of the Council for Promotion, contended during her inter-
view that
policy has to be in place, and in this case, Costa Rica has to be combined between the
Ministry of Science and Ministry of Education. They have to play in the same field
together to get this out, because it happens in the schools but the Ministry of Science
happens to have the budget to help promote it. (June 15, 2015)
Regional Science Director, Patricia Arias noted that “we have to encourage the innova-
tion skills in children and adolescents so that this results in a society based on innovation, in a
desire—which is very important” (interview, June 23, 2015). Ana Hernandez of the Omar
Dengo Foundation commented, “We believe that the program was conceived as the possibility
that the kids have to work in scientific research. That is marvelous. That is the project we wish
to strengthen. We have to propel it” (interview, June 22, 2015). Nathalie Valencia, Director of
the PRONAFECYT, stated that
this administration has a national plan of technology which is aimed at creating human
capacity and resources in the field of science and technology. One of the key aspects is to
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 77
develop and build up the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs. (interview,
June 13, 2015)
Survey data also indicated that the communication of the purpose of the science fairs was
important in establishing a vision for the program at each school site. When asked if there is a
school-wide vision for the science fair, 83% of the government officials surveyed indicated that
they believed there was a school-wide vision. for the science fair. Fifty-six of the School A
teachers surveyed indicated that they either agreed or strongly agreed that there was a school-
wide vision for the science fair at their school, in comparison to the 50% of teachers at School B
and 63% of the teachers in the Central Region.
Observations at four of the six schools in the Central Region demonstrated that the direc-
tors, teachers, and students understood the vision of the science fair initiative and that their
implementation was evident. At School A, the researcher was able to observe over 30 students
giving oral presentations on their projects during the actual science and technology fair day. At
School B, because a particular student had been on the day of the science fair, the researchers had
the welcome opportunity to observe her presentation of findings, and her classmates were
observed asking questions. At both schools, directors, science fair coordinators, and parents
could articulate the vision for the science fair initiative.
Interviews, observations and survey data indicated that there is a vision for the imple-
mentation of the PRONAFECYT. Both system-level leaders, regional directors and school site
directors, were communicating about and placing importance on the science fair initiative.
Kotter (1996) contended that establishing a sense of urgency, creating the guiding coalition,
developing the vision and strategy, as well as clearly communicating goals would assist with the
change process in ensuring that change is sustainable. The results of this researcher’s analysis
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 78
indicated that at School A there has been communication of the importance of the science and
technology fair; the Science Fair Coordinator as well as the School Director communicate the
vision to all.
Significance of the School Director
System-level leaders provided the guidelines and regulations outlined in the decree for
participation in the PRONAFECYT initiative; however, it was up to the school director-principal
to implement the initiative at a high level. Per the framework of Bolman and Deal (2003),
authentic directors could work from the human resources frame to build the capacity of science
coordinators and teachers by making them pull together as a family to build their students’
abilities by providing a clear understanding of the initiative, along with the needed resources.
Interview data indicated that the school site director was key in the process of program
implementation. Patricia Arias, Science Fair Coordinator, implied that the most important source
for the implementation of the science fair was that of human resources (June 15, 2015). Mary
Helen Bialas discussed the importance of the leaders at the local level: “They must be playing
and participating” (June 15, 2015). Alicia Porras, Vice Minister of Education, indicated during
her interview that “the main person that is responsible for the development of the school is of
course the principal” (June 17, 2015).
The Omar Dengo Foundation has been working with school directors for over 20 years:
“If we do good work in kindergarten and primary schools, then in the high school we are going to
have better scientific thinkers because they have had good conditions to be good investigators”
(Ana Hernandez, June 22, 2015). According to Natalie Valencia, Director of the
PRONAFECYT, noted that “a principal who is committed, involved in the educational commu-
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 79
nity, and empowers his teachers, makes a difference, and we are able to notice that in the visits
we make to different schools” (interview, June 13, 2015).
Survey question 1 asked participants if they believed that the school director plays a
critical role in assuring that teachers implement the PRONAFECYT. Of the government
officials surveyed in the Central Region, 85.7% indicated that they either agreed or strongly
agreed that the director plays a critical role. All of the business partners surveyed indicated that
they strongly believed that the director plays a critical role. At School A, 68.8% of the teachers
surveyed indicated that the director plays a critical role, in comparison with 65% of School B
teachers. When reviewing data as a region, 87% of teachers surveyed at all six schools indicated
that they believed that the school director plays a critical role.
Question 2 on the survey asked participants if they believed that teachers needed the
support of the school director to fully implement the program. At School A, 81.3% of teachers
who had been working with their School Director for just 3 months indicated that needed the
support of the Director, as compared to 100% of the teachers at School B and 91% of the teachers
surveyed in the Central Region. All of government officials and business partners indicated that
teachers needed the support of the school director.
Observation data from School A clearly showed the strong leadership and direction in
regard to the PRONAFECYT initiative. A bulletin board that was available for all to see con-
tained the timeline for the science and technology fair at the site. Both School A and School B
utilized a science fair coordinator; and at both sites, the coordinators felt supported by the direc-
tor. Both sites were provided time for trainings and given timelines to ensure that the initiative
was followed as a process. In addition, the Science Fair Coordinator at School B indicated that
time was provided to give workshops to teachers so that they felt prepared for the
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 80
PRONAFECYT initiative. Site directors worked closely with the coordinators to motivate
teachers, explain the process, provide resources, and establish schedules and school guidelines.
In addition, science coordinators communicated to parents information about pertinent dates and
timelines. Interestingly, at School A, 81.3% of teachers surveyed indicated that they believed
that the School Director communicated the purpose and urgency of the science fair, compared to
only 55% of teachers at School B and 76% of teachers from the entire Central Region.
Site directors worked to motivate not only teachers but also students by recognizing their
efforts in the science fair. According to Kotter (1996) celebrating short-term wins is a way to
assist in building on initiatives. Survey data for the Central Region indicated that 82% of teach-
ers believed that student participation in the fair had been recognized.
Examination of the data confirmed that the role of the school director is significant to the
success of the PRONAFECYT initiative. Multiple frames, as described by Bolman and Deal
(2003), are used in order to provide the structural leadership supports to organize the school’s
fair, empower human capacity to carry out the fair, steer through the political climate to secure
funding for the fair, and be viewed as the symbolic leader who imagines all of his or her students
participating in the PRONAFECYT.
Summary: Research Question 1
At School A educational leaders play a pivotal role in implementing the PRONAFECYT
by beginning not only with understanding but also communicating the vision of the fair. Accord-
ing to Bennis (2003), leaders must possess critical characteristics to be effective. They must have
the ability to engage others through a created shared vision. The vision is then transformed into
guiding principles and regulations that have to be supported completely by the school site
director. The school site director is paramount to the successful implementation of the program
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 81
and the leadership building with staff to set the stage for the vision to encourage the initiative via
the use of PBL across the curriculum.
Findings for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, “How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from
teacher practices at less successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?”
Professional development is a component that is utilized in today’s schools to prepare
teachers. The most effective professional developments are comprised of learning opportunities
to engage teachers by utilizing certain characteristics such as being collaborative (Hunzicker,
2011). In order to understand the role of educational leadership in the participation in the
PRONAFECYT, it is necessary to examine and identify instructional practices that affect the
level of implementation of science fairs at individual schools.
The dissection of collected data indicated that teacher practices contained two themes: (a)
teacher collaboration and professional development and (b) teachers’ knowledge and use of
STEM PBL and the scientific method.
Teacher Collaboration and Professional Development
DuFour et al. (2006) described a process for creating a culture of collaboration. The
process of being a PLC encompasses the goals of the importance of providing the teacher with an
opportunity for collective inquiry, being action oriented, having a commitment to continuous
improvement, as well as being results oriented. Teachers at successful schools had greater
opportunities to engage in this process, as compared to teachers at schools with less successful
implementation of the science fair program. This study found that both Schools A and B had the
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 82
opportunity to engage in the process of teacher collaboration and still desired additional profes-
sional development.
For a PLC to be engaging for teachers, they must choose and organize topics for them-
selves (Bennis, 2003). Interview data indicated that in order for the science fair program to grow,
teachers needed additional professional development. Mary Helen Bialas underscored this theme
of teacher training being key: “You need teacher training incentives to bring teachers up to speed
on what they would like to see in the curriculum” (interview, June 15, 2015). Vice Minister
Carolina Vasquez noted:
Well the first thing is to preserve curiosity, posing questions and not remain satisfied with
just one answer; but before preparing students, we need to prepare educators. . . . We are
trying to generate a training module, hopefully online, virtual and modal, for science
teachers so they can have access to more material that is generated specifically for science
and technology. (interview, June 15, 2015)
Natalie Valencia commented on the changes in curriculum:
I believe that the transformation of the curriculum is fundamental in the sense that inves-
tigation has to be integrated as a component of the science curriculum. In order to teach
science, you have to do it practically, and investigation is a key component to accomplish
this. (interview, June 13, 2015).
Currently, school site directors work with science coordinators and regional directors to
provide training to teachers. According to the Director at School A, “the Science Society has
taken the role they are supposed to by providing training and counseling for the teachers in
everything related to the science fair” (interview, June 16, 2015). The trainings are step-by-step
actions by the MEP as a means to implement the science and technology fair process at the site.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 83
The Director of School A continued with the elaboration of how the science fair process is
planned out:
The regional officer, Don José, began the process by inviting the coordinators to a meet-
ing where regulations were passed out. Our Science Fair Coordinator returned and
created the science fair committee, and duties were assigned. They decide how the
science fair is going to be this year. What improvements have been made? What are we
going to remove from the previous one because it was not good? They go there and offer
this talk and training so we are ready for the fair. (interview, June 16, 2015)
In addition, the Science Fair Coordinator at School A explained that “the information is listed on
the web page and describes how a project should be used. I download the information for the
teachers for them to use as they wish” (interview, June 16, 2015). The Science Fair Coordinator
was very clear about her role in the science fair:
My job is to let the teachers know where to find the information, remind them of due
dates, and to hand things over in advance. If a teacher needs help on a subject, I give it to
her. If they have concerns and if I’m able to help them, I do, and if not, I’ll find someone
that can resolve the problem so I can help them. So whatever they need and we can get it
out of the way, I try to resolve it for them. (interview, June 16, 2015)
During the researcher’s visit to School B, the Director stated, “We prepare ourselves at
the beginning. First, we hold a director meeting where the science fair process are reviewed, and
after that a science fair committee is formed—an institutional committee” ( June 19, 2015).
Survey data indicated that teachers at Schools A and B and throughout the region would
like to receive additional training. Teachers were asked whether they were provided with ade-
quate training to prepare students for the science fair program. Of the teachers who responded to
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 84
the survey, 43.8% indicated that they received adequate training, compared to only 30% at
School B and 43% in the Central Region. Teachers were also asked if the training they received
was useful. Of the teachers at School A who responded, 62.5% felt the training was useful,
compared to 50% of School B and 63% in the Central Region.
Teachers were asked via survey if they felt they were provided with yearly training on the
science and technology fair guidelines. At School A, 35% indicated that they received yearly
training, compared to 25% at School B and 35% in the Central Region as a whole. Teachers
were also asked if there was a school curriculum plan to prepare students for the science fair. Of
the teachers who responded at School A, 75% indicated that they agreed or strongly agreed that
there is a school curriculum plan, compared to 55% at School B and 67% in the Central Region
as a whole.
Observation data indicated that teachers had received more professional development in
soft skills rather than regarding the science fair itself. In informal conversations with teachers
during the observation of the science fair at School A, it was evident that teachers had an under-
standing of the scientific inquiry process. Both Directors and Science Fair Coordinators at
Schools A and B were primarily responsible for providing training and professional development
materials. They frequently mentioned the need for more resources and training opportunities, as
well as opportunities to work together. This study found that although teachers had received
some form of training, many did not view the training as adequate for the implementation of the
science fair.
Teachers’ Knowledge and Use of STEM PBL and the Scientific Method
Costa Rica has had to respond to the change in the global and economic world landscape.
An area of transition has been a focus on STEM education aimed at producing a knowledge-
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 85
based worker for the 21st century. The curricular shifts have been outlined in the State of the
Nation Report, which provides the initiatives that have been set (PEN, 2013). The curricular
shifts are geared to offer students more opportunities to experiment, develop curiosity, and
problem solve. Current research confirmed that students who are given opportunities to work
collaboratively using the principles of PBL and inquiry are able to develop the necessary skills to
compete in a global society (Wagner, 2008).
Interview data supported the finding that teachers had knowledge of and use the princi-
ples of STEM PBL and the scientific method, including inquiry. The School A Director dis-
cussed the importance of students generating interest in the learning about the scientific method:
Teachers explain to students why things happen. That things are not just there—they have
an origin. They have a reason for being, and how do they exist. Why do they exist? So
the child themselves learns to ask himself about the reasons for the things that surround
him—his own existence, the reason for things. (interview, June 16, 2015)
The Science Fair Coordinator at School A noted that “we have trained them to build it for them-
selves” (interview, June 16, 2015). In comparison, School B’s Science Fair Coordinator ex-
plained the process for teaching students STEM PBL:
We start by explaining what the objectives are. Students then select a subject area to
study. We then work on the investigation problem. We explain to them what an investi-
gation problem is and how you have to link it to the project title you have selected.
Students work in groups of no more than three students. I then encourage them to
observe, read on the subject, and research online. In the cognitive aspect, let’s say that
this would be all the knowledge they get from the investigation: the ability to search in
different resources. We integrate assignments, because when they have to write
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 86
something down, we work with writing, grammar, and oral expression. (interview, June
19, 2015)
It was mentioned that at both Schools A and B that content teachers team up to assist one
another, “One teacher teaches science and math, while the other will teach Spanish and social
studies” (School A Director, June 16, 2015). According to Ana Lourdes Acuña of the Omar
Dengo Foundation, the Foundation works with teachers and schools to develop an understanding
of scientific research. She stated that
all of our focus is set on how to do a real scientific research in the STEM sciences and
how data is logged and how the results happen. It has to be about the scientific process,
not about the fair. (interview, June 22, 2015)
The Science Fair Coordinator at School A talked about the importance for students to
understand the significance of choosing their topics for study:
Students need to understand the purpose for their project. For example, the general
objective is to study about sharks in Costa Rica. A more specific objective would be to
study a type of shark species that exist in Costa Rica and its contributions to nature.
(interview, June 16, 2015)
School Director B was specific in discussing the shift in instructional practices at the
school: “Teachers have to pose questions and get students curious about learning. It’s no longer
teaching from the blackboard but rather encouraging them to think critically” (interview, June 19,
2015).
Survey data indicated that teachers not only had knowledge of the process of scientific
inquiry but provided students opportunities to engage in scientific inquiry. When teachers at
School A were asked if they provided students opportunities to engage in scientific inquiry as
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 87
part of their regular instruction, 87.5% stated that they agreed or strongly agreed. When teachers
at School B responded to the same question, 90% of those surveyed indicated that they provided
inquiry opportunities for students; additionally, 89% of teachers in the Central Region responded
that they had provided inquiry opportunities to students during regular instruction.
Data from surveys indicated that 68% of responding teachers at School A had utilized
PBL as part of their instruction, compared to 75% of teachers at School B, and 65% of teachers in
the Central Region. Students’ survey data revealed that students felt that their teachers helped
them learn the scientific method by using science and technology activities. At School A, 97.4%
of students surveyed indicated that they agreed or strongly agreed on this question, compared to
93% at School B and 90% in the Central Region.
Observation data from School A further indicated that teachers provided opportunities for
students to engage in scientific inquiry and utilized PBL in regular instruction. Student class-
rooms were configured in small groupings of 4–6 students for students to collaborate with one
another. This process was evident during School A’s science and technology fair. Science fair
projects were comprised of both individual students and teams of two to three students. Students
utilized the scientific method on their project boards that contained general objectives, specific
objectives, and inquiry questions that addressed the what, why, and when, as well as a general
conclusion.
Both Schools A and B had active robotics programs. The fully equipped labs were
donated by the Omar Dengo Foundation. Students worked in teams to create various mechanical
structures and working parts. One student shared his robotic hand; another student shared a
mechanical recycling machine that picks up garbage and takes it to the closest trash can. During
the day of the observation, students were observed using expository text while on the Federal
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 88
Emergency Response Agency (FEMA) website to respond to constructed response questions as
well as vocabulary analysis. In another classroom, students were given general objectives and
asked to research and gather information to solve real-world problems.
During the science and technology fair at School A, students were observed presenting
findings as well as describing the data collection for their respective science projects. Students
and parents shared that their teachers had helped them prepare for the fair.
When reflecting about the interview, survey, and observation data, it was apparent to this
researcher that teachers were creating opportunities for students to engage in ill-defined tasks
using well-defined outcomes, which are the foundation for STEM PBL. Teachers were engaging
students in an interdisciplinary approach to solving hands-on, real-work projects. The theory of
STEM PBL developed by Capraro et al. (2013) is divided into two parts: design of learning envi-
ronments and foundations in the sciences. Learning environments are set up to be guided by the
principles of collaboration, questioning, and inquiry. Finally, it was found in this study that
teachers were providing opportunities for students to engage in scientific inquiry and utilize PBL
in their teaching. These two practices generate success and therefore significantly influence the
distinction between successful schools and less successful schools.
Summary: Research Question 2
Teachers at School A were utilizing successful instructional practices, such as PBL and
inquiry, to guide their instruction. Students indicated that their teachers could assist them with
learning the scientific method and that their teachers provided projects for them to work on in
collaborative groups. Teachers at both Schools A and B would benefit from additional profes-
sional development via teacher collaboration in order to afford them the opportunities to use data
as an indicator for next steps with instruction.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 89
Findings for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, “How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to
equip students with 21st- century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?”
Leaders in Costa Rica have dedicated themselves to ensuring that students are prepared
for the future. This preparation begins in the primary schools and continues throughout each
student’s educational experience. School leaders, directors, and teachers are preparing students
at the primary level by focusing on 21st-century skills, which are referred to as soft skills in
Costa Rica. As discussed earlier, soft skills are overarching skills that are woven into all curricu-
lar content areas. Working to motivate staff to prepare students is of paramount importance for
the PRONAFECYT initiative to be implemented successfully. As well, outside resources, such
as the Omar Dengo Foundation, have a significant effect on the development of soft skills.
Authentic Leadership
According to Bolman and Deal (2003), leaders who are able to work within multiple
leadership frames are also able to motivate the members of their organization by providing mean-
ingful leadership opportunities in various areas of their organizations to assist employees to
become innovative. Fullan (2001) noted that engaging staff in a shared vision of ensuring effi-
cient ways of teaching that promote in-depth learning is a way to get all staff to participate.
Kotter (1996) also highlighted the fact that in order for an organization to move forward and
change, there must be buy-in from all stakeholders. This buy-in can occur when authentic
leaders work to develop goals for their staff that will create a lateral capacity in innovation for
teachers as the director continues to inspire (Fullan, 2001; Terry, 1993). Interview data revealed
that site and system leaders all work as authentic leaders. At a system level, Mary Helen Bialas,
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 90
Director for the Council on Promotion, stated that leaders have worked to train teachers in inno-
vative ways that are, in essence, a demonstration of authentic leadership:
I think there were definitely programs in the previous administration that were helpful.
They started doing online training of teachers, videos of good teaching in math and in
science that were put up so teachers could view them. That was a little more innovative
in the way they could reach teachers. . . . We have to have leaders at all levels in order for
the system to work and grow. That means leadership at the national level, universities,
outside organizations and school sites. (interview, June 15, 2015)
The Science Fair Coordinators at both School A and School B talked about the leadership
roles that they were given to support the science fair. Each coordinator indicating feeling sup-
ported in the role by the School Director. The Science Fair Coordinator at School A noted that
“she [Director] helps keeps us organized by reminding us and by allowing me to meet with
teachers as often as needed” (interview, June 16, 2015). The interview data revealed that authen-
tic leadership was used by both site and system leaders to promote the teaching of skills through
the science fair process.
Teachers at all schools in the Central Region were asked via survey if teachers are given
the leadership capacity to make decisions about projects for the science fair. Of the 85 teachers
who responded in the Central Region, 60% responded that they either strongly agreed or agreed,
compared to 56.3% of School A teachers and 50% of School B teachers. Teachers were also
asked if the Director elicits feedback from teachers to enhance the implementation of the science
fair. Of the teachers who responded at School A, 68% indicated that they either strongly agreed
or agreed, compared to 65% at School B and 76% in the entire Central Region.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 91
Observation data at School A revealed that although the Director had only been in the
position for a short time, only 3 months, she provided teachers with leadership opportunities. In
consideration of her short time at the site, it was evident that staff members had worked hard to
meet the criteria for the PRONAFECYT with the authentic leadership of the Science Fair Coor-
dinator, who had been at the site for many years. As soon as the Director arrived, she made a
point of communicating with the science fair committee to ascertain the vision for the science
fair at this school.
Overall, authentic leadership was evident in the interview, survey, and observation data
collected during the visit to Costa Rica. Both system and site leaders understood that leadership
is needed at multiple levels to implement the PRONAFECYT initiative.
Outside Resources: Omar Dengo Foundation
The MEP has recognized the need to help students fulfill their right to an education as
citizens of Costa Rica. Foundations have been set up throughout Costa Rica to assist with the
MEP with the goal to educate all the populace. The Omar Dengo Foundation (2013) was
founded 28 years ago in 1987. The mission is to develop technological literacy for as many
segments of the Costa Rican society as possible. Beginning with youth, who are given exposure
to robotics and advanced micro worlds. Omar Dengo has become a staple in some of the primary
schools in Costa Rica. The robotics labs help equip students with skills necessary to participate
in the PRONAFECYT.
According to Eduardo Monge, Project Developer for Omar Dengo, “the Foundation is a
nonprofit organization focused on human development through education and the use of technol-
ogy for the development of abilities of children and also of teachers in their everyday work in the
classrooms” (interview, June 22, 2015). Ana Hernandez, Program Evaluator for Omar Dengo,
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 92
noted: “Since the beginning, we worked with the Ministry of Education, we work to push people
to another level” (interview, June 22, 2015).
Both School A and School B had robotics labs that have been set up by the Omar Dengo
Foundation. The robotics labs assist students in developing the technical skills necessary for the
fair, and the computer lab allows for various uses that build critical thinking skills. Both Direc-
tors at Schools A and B indicated that the Omar Dengo Foundation reaches out to primary
schools and that it is up to the schools to meet the criteria for the Foundation to set up both the
computer lab and the robotics lab. The School A Director stated, “We have to provide them with
air conditioned rooms which also provide the necessary infrastructure like electric wiring, tables,
shelves, and chairs” (interview, June 16, 2015). In return, the Foundation sets up computers,
robotics equipment, and a trainer to implement the program. The School A Director further
noted that “they are also in charge of providing a teacher as well” (interview, June 16, 2015).
The teacher is funded by the MEP and comes to train staff on the use of the two labs as well as on
how to work with students. Ana Hernandez, Project Evaluator, commented: “We believe that the
program conceived as the possibility that the kids have to work in scientific research is marvel-
ous. That is the process we wish to strengthen” (interview, June 22, 2015).
Survey data on soft skills showed a consistent focus across the surveyed population.
From government officials to students, all stakeholders had a strong background on the soft skills
and the necessity of mastering them. Question 9 asked participants if they were familiar with the
soft skills, and the overwhelming majority either strongly agreed or agreed. For instance, 100%
of government officials and business partners indicated that they were familiar with the soft
skills, as well as 100% of the directors in the Central Region. Of the teachers surveyed at School
A, 87.6% indicated that they were familiar with soft skills, compared to 90% from School B and
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 93
89% of teachers from the region in its entirety. Question 9 for students asked if they knew about
the soft skills, and 94% of School A students responded affirmatively, compared to 80% of
School B students and 82% of students in the Central Region. One hundred percent of parents
surveyed at School A indicated that students were aware of what soft skills were.
Question 10 inquired about school directors speaking about the importance of soft skills
and their impact on student achievement. Government officials responded overwhelmingly
(100%) that they agreed or strongly agreed, and 66% of business officials indicated that they
agreed or strongly agreed that school directors spoke of the importance of soft skills. Of the
teachers surveyed at School A, 87% indicated that the Director spoke to them about the impor-
tance of the soft skills, compared to 80% at School B and 87% in the Central Region. Survey
data indicated that there was a strong correlation of focus amongst various groups of educational
key players.
Observation data revealed that both schools actively participated in the computer labs and
robotic labs, because collaborative student technical equipment was viewed near the computer
terminals and posted student work, in the form of handouts, was found in the computer labs
during site visits—evidence that the students had been working in the labs. Schedules were set
up whereby the rotation of students throughout the lab could be observed. At School A, the
robotics lab was utilized in 4-week intervals during an after-school program. The program was
held two times a week 3-hour sessions for interested parents who signed up their children. At
School B, the robotics lab was utilized by all students at the school. Students went to the robot-
ics lab four times during a 2-week rotation during the school year. Moreover, both Schools A
and B had all students work in the computer lab at various times within the week. Students’ work
folders contained expository text for vocabulary development and critical thinking activities.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 94
Summary: Research Question 3
This study found that the use of authentic leadership was evident in promoting the
development of the science fair at School A. Moreover, outside resources such as the Omar
Dengo Foundation have been instrumental in setting up computer and robotics labs at primary
schools to assist students in the development of soft skills in preparation for the science and
technology fair. Although training has been provided by the Omar Dengo Foundation, teachers
and the Foundation are interested in more in-depth professional development.
Findings for Research Question 4
Research Question 4 asked, “How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT
affected instructional practices?”
The Costa Rican PRONAFECYT has given students the opportunity to learn the scien-
tific method, has engaged students in the process of scientific inquiry, and has increased their use
and knowledge of soft skills, including a focus on inquiry-based instruction. Benefits are possi-
ble only due to positive changes in instructional practices and a shift in instructional focus areas.
Two themes emerged when the researcher reviewed how the initiative has affected instructional
practices: (a) clear expectations for 21st-century skill building and (b) levels of implementation.
Clear Expectations for 21st-Century Soft Skills
Educators in Costa Rica refer to 21st-century skills as soft skills. The seven skills are
identified as (a) critical thinking and problem solving, (b) collaboration across networks, (c)
agility and adaptability, (d) initiative and entrepreneurship, (e) effective oral and written commu-
nication, (f) accessing and analyzing information, and (g) curiosity and imagination (Wagner,
2008). This study found strong evidence that demonstrated a consistent emphasis on the soft
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 95
skills that prepare students for the future and subsequently expand their capabilities to lead and
innovate.
Interview data from leaders consistently showed an awareness and understanding of the
importance of soft skills. According to Mary Helen Bialas, Director of the Center of Promotion,
stated:
We know that 21st century skills. Working with the team. Being innovative. We know all
those skills. We actually did some research last year, and we found not only the teachers
felt the students were provided with opportunities, but those teachers who participated in
the science fairs felt that they became more innovative with their teaching. . . . It allows
them the opportunity to explore their interest, and it allows the opportunity to think with
their hands, so to speak. (interview, June 15, 2015)
Ana Lourdes Acuña of the Omar Dengo Foundation talked about the necessity for innova-
tion in education and goals that she felt the country should focus on: “We want to be a country
that goes hand in hand with science, technology, and innovation to be able to give a qualitative
leap towards development” (interview, June 22, 2015). She went on to define the work of the
foundation in terms of building innovation:
When we talk about innovation, when we work with children and talk about innovation, I
divide the word into three sections: in- nova-tion. In meaning, I am doing nova, meaning
something new, and the end syllable meaning action. In short, it’s taking what you know
and doing something new. At our Foundation, we use technology as tool to assist with
innovation, but we never lose sight that in the end what we are doing is increasing the
level of skill of the people and students we serve. We see the level of productivity, which
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 96
in the end will have an effect on the countries development conditions. (interview,
June 22, 2015)
According to Carolina Vasquez, Vice Minister of Science, “the process of continuous improve-
ment is always very important and from this process we take on new projects. . . . The teacher
training project is part of the review that has been made . . . and I want to make that commit-
ment” (interview, June 15, 2015). The Director of School A noted, “My institution, too, my
society. So then it helps students become more creative, more critical, to think more, to develop
their full cognitive potential” (interview, June 16, 2015). Teachers at School B also discussed
how they teach students the soft skills and incorporate them throughout the curriculum. The
Science Fair Coordinator at School B noted, “Students are able to work on a variety of skills like
critical thinking, oral communication, collaboration, and analyzing information. They develop a
real curiosity for the subject they are studying” (interview, June 19, 2015). Overall interview
data from both site and system leaders indicated a focus and emphasis on the soft skills.
Teachers were surveyed about working together to plan and prepare for the science fair.
At School A, 44% of teachers surveyed felt that they worked together, compared to 55% at
School B and 63% of teachers in the Central Region as a whole. Students were asked if their
teachers gave them group projects where they would have to solve problems and work together.
At School A 97.4% of students surveyed agreed or strongly agreed that their teachers had pro-
vided these types of projects, compared to 89% at School B and 86% in the Central Region.
Observations indicated that teachers had received professional development in soft skills.
Although no specific professional development was observed during the school visitations, the
students at both School A and School B utilized the scientific method as well as soft skills in
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 97
classwork that was observed via demonstration lessons, computer lab sessions, and the ability for
students to communicate during oral presentations.
Level of Implementation in STEM PBL
As indicated earlier, Wagner’s (20080 survival skills include critical thinking and prob-
lem solving, which are related to inquiry-based instruction. Costa Rica has changed its educa-
tional system in order to develop knowledge-based workers who can think critically as well as
work collaboratively (Wagner, 2008). According to leaders in Costa Rica, various levels of
implementation are continuing. Mary Helen Bialas noted:
Taking kids out of my little community where I live right now—and that’s great, under-
standing your community—but you have to be part of this whole world. Our curriculum
is very much focused on Costa Ricans’ regionalism and what happens to Costa Rica.
There’s another thing I think that has to happen is we have to globalize our curriculum a
little more. (interview, June 15, 2015)
Although there have been many gains with instructional practices utilizing soft skills,
Vanessa Gibson with CINDE was wondering about levels of implementation:
My point is, I think they definitely have to solve the issue regarding how we approach and
how we teach this new generation, which by the way, has its own challenges for the
generational gap that we have. At the same time, the soft skills, which I think is also
missing for our educational system. For the changes of the global market, we need people
that are outgoing. (interview, June 22, 2015)
Ana Hernandez from the Omar Dengo Foundation, which provides technology-based
assistance to primary schools, was aware of the levels of implementation at various school sites:
We have not worked enough with the educators so they can guide students through a real
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 98
scientific investigation. . . . Because otherwise we believe that the teachers in general,
let’s say that they might not give this type of initiatives the importance that they should.
(interview, June 22, 2015)
Mary Helen Bialis noted, “I hope that everybody sees that that’s important. . . . One of our big
concerns is that it could be too costly and something that could be cut from a budget, whereas
this is really developing a workforce. (interview, June 15, 2015)
Survey participants were asked to respond to two additional questions regarding soft
skills. Question 11 asked if they believed students develop soft skills through participation in the
science fair. Of the government officials who responded, 85.7% indicated that they agreed or
strongly agreed that students develop soft skills through science fair participation, along with
67% of the business partners surveyed. Of the teachers who responded at School A, 87.6%
indicated that they agreed or strongly agreed that students develop soft skills through science fair
participation, compared to 85% of teachers at School B and 84% of the teachers in the Central
Region. Students were asked if they could improve their soft skills when they completed
projects. Of the School A students surveyed, 92.1% indicated that they agreed or strongly
agreed, compared to 89% at School B and 88% of the students surveyed in the Central Region.
The last survey question asked teachers if they received training on how to integrate the soft
skills in the classroom. Of the teachers who responded at School A, 62.5% indicated that they
had received training, compared to 50% of the teachers at School B and 47% of teachers in the
Central Region.
Observation data demonstrated a systematic level of implementation for the science and
technology fair initiative at Schools A and B. Students were observed in collaborative groups in
either the computer lab or in their classrooms to solve real-world problems. Directors at both
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 99
Schools A and B spoke about the need for the development of the soft skills across curricular
areas and were focusing on an integrated approach to teach students the soft skills.
Summary: Research Question 4
Teachers in the Central Region have utilized successful instructional practices such as the
use of 21st-century skills (soft skills) to guide their instruction. Students at School A indicated
that their teachers were able to assist them with learning the scientific method and that projects
were assigned to them in collaborative groupings. Although the data demonstrated that teachers
were utilizing successful practices at both School A and School B, the data from system leaders
also indicated that additional professional development at a deeper level is necessary to further
develop overall knowledge of the scientific method so as to further develop education in Costa
Rica.
Chapter Summary
The purpose of this case study was to examine the effects of leadership on student par-
ticipation in the PRONAFECYT in the Costa Rican primary schools. This case study found eight
themes that answered the four research questions that were presented.
The first and second themes connected with Research Question 1 were the link between a
vision for implementation of STEM and PBL and the significance of the school director in this
implementation. Because leadership is the catalyst for change, both system leaders and directors
communicated the vision for the PRONAFECYT initiative at both School A and School B. Par-
ticipants provided tangible examples on how system leaders and directors played pivotal roles in
the implementation of the science and technology fair initiative.
The third and fourth themes that were evident in answering Research Question 2 involved
teacher practices of collaboration and professional development as well as teachers’ knowledge
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 100
and use of STEM PBL and the scientific method. As Costa Rica has moved from being an
agrarian workforce to a knowledge-based workforce of 21st-century thinkers, the MEP has
instituted changes to the educational system, such as the MICITT. Various leaders have been
systemized, such as Regional Science Fair Directors, to communicate the initiative in a consistent
and thorough manner. The Regional Science Fair Directors provide professional development to
site coordinators and, in turn, the site coordinators return to their respective sites and prepare
teachers. Data indicated that systems are in place for professional development in 21st-century
skills.
As globalization continues to bring changes to the educational system in Costa Rica,
teachers are now at the forefront of ensuring that students develop these skills. Themes 5 and 6
were evident in the findings for Research Question 3, which related authentic leadership and
outside resources such as the Oman Dengo Foundation in the continued development of 21st-
century learners. The authentic leader must communicate the vision, provide support and
resources, as well as maintain the momentum and drive for the PRONAFECYT initiative.
Foundations such as Omar Dengo continue to work with primary schools in Costa Rica to
continue to develop human capital of the future for Costa Rica. The Omar Dengo Foundation
provides resources such as robotics and computer labs that assist in the development of the
PRONAFECYT initiative. Triangulated data provided examples of resources both inside and
outside of the school that have given successful schools support in their efforts toward imple-
mentation of the PRONAFECYT initiative.
Moreover, the changes in the PRONAFECYT initiative have been made clear as the
seventh theme of teachers providing clear expectations on 21st-century skills (soft skills) as a
crucial necessity in instructional practices, as asked in Research Question 4. Consequently, the
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 101
eighth theme demonstrated the levels of implementation for STEM PBL. Although professional
development has been provided, it has been offered at a superficial level with schedules and
timelines for the initiative. Educators are expected to instruct students in developing 21st-
century skills and therefore need a deeper level of professional development to enhance their
knowledge base of the significance of the scientific method, as well as the importance of all
components of the scientific method.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 102
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Global leaders have articulated the significance of the connection between technology
and global citizenship with respect to global STEM reform (Holbrook, 2007). Utilizing the
principles of globalization, Costa Rica actively sought out opportunities to enrich its educational
system. These opportunities manifested themselves because Costa Rica gained partnerships with
other countries through FDI and invested resources into education, educational governmental
agencies, and nonprofit foundations. Costa Rica’s national educational reforms have guided
education to implement STEM (PEN, 2013). Strong leadership that has driven the investment in
Costa Rica’s economic and educational systems is the driving force (Booth, 1998; Lopez, 1996).
Leaders in Costa Rica must work to motivate staff in engaging themselves in the national science
and technology fair initiative in order to gain the skills in STEM that will strengthen the work-
force in the future.
The PRONAFECYT, which is mandated via the national decree #31900 MEP-MICITT
was passed in Costa Rica to ensure that all schools would participate in the national science and
technology fair initiative as a means to ensure that the country prepares students to be 21st-
century learners. This comparative study examined the role of leadership in the researcher’s
primary school (School A), compared to a primary school (School B) in the Central Region of
Costa Rica, in preparing to implement the PRONAFECYT initiative.
Chapter One provided an overview, including the purpose, significance, background, and
the organization of the study. The chapter also included definitions of key terminology pertain-
ing to Costa Rica, leadership, and change.
Chapter Two detailed a review of the literature pertaining to the PRONAFECYT in Costa
Rica, leadership, change, and 21st-century skills. This chapter also detailed a historical review of
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 103
Costa Rica that encompassed its development as a nation, including economic, political, and
educational growth over time. The education system in Costa Rica was described in depth to
give breadth to the details of the current K–12 education system, its policies, infrastructure, and
participation in the PRONAFECYT initiative.
Chapter Three presented the research methodology used in this study, discussing why a
qualitative approach was appropriate. Also included was an explanation of the sample and popu-
lation, as well as the instrumentation utilized in the study. The chapter described how the data
were collected and analyzed.
Chapter Four offered insights into the findings of the study, including data analysis for
each research question. A detailed description was provided for the evident themes that arose for
each research question.
Chapter Five presents a summary of the study and includes a conclusion and possible
implications for practice. Also in this chapter are suggestions for future research opportunities
relating to the same phenomenon.
The purpose of this study was to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation in the PRONAFECYT by primary schools in Costa Rica. This study also identified
the role that school leaders have in the development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT
initiative. Additionally, the study explored how schools have restructured their educational
programs by focusing on the sharing of leadership and teacher training. Specifically, the study
examined leadership practices, instructional strategies, and professional development practices at
various school sites to identify key components of successful implementation of the
PRONAFECYT initiative.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 104
The research team examined the problem through the following frameworks: two in the
area of leadership—Bolman and Deal’s (2003) framework and Kotter’s (1996) change frame-
work—as well as the STEM–PBL framework developed by Capraro et al. (2013) that examines
effective administrative and instructional practices via professional development. A supplemen-
tal framework that was examined was Wagner’s (2008) seven survival skills, which outline the
21st-century skills. The frameworks assisted in providing guidance in answering the following
research questions:
1. What is the role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
To answer these questions, the team utilized a qualitative case study approach by gather-
ing the necessary information. The triangulated data included surveys; interviews; and observa-
tions of students, teachers, science fair coordinators, and school directors; business leaders,
including individuals from foundations and CINDE; and government agencies including the
MEP and the MICITT.
Summary of Findings
Through the analysis of data gathered through interviews, observations, and surveys,
eight themes emerged: (a) a vision for implementation, (b) the significance of the school director,
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 105
(c) teacher collaboration and professional development, (d) teachers’ knowledge and use of
STEM PBL and the scientific method, (e) authentic leadership, (f) outside resources (e.g., Omar
Dengo Foundation), (g) clear expectations regarding 21st-century (soft) skills, and (h) level of
implementation of STEM PBL.
Research Question 1
What is the role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative? Upon analysis of the data, two themes emerged that addressed Research Question 1: a
the vision for implementation and significance of the school director. As indicated in the litera-
ture review, the MEP oversees the educational system in Costa Rica in a multitiered system of
leadership via the Vice Minister of Public Education and the Vice Minister of Science and Tech-
nology. In addition, there is a Director at the MICITT and three Regional Science Fair Directors
who have established guidelines for the PRONAFECYT initiative. Stemming from the highest
level of leadership, a vision of implementation is stated clearly through guidelines. The guide-
lines adhere to Executive Decree #31900 MEP-MICITT, which provides timelines for science
and technology fairs beginning at the school site, regionally, and concluding at the national level.
The executive decree is the first sign of a written policy that the vision of implementation and the
significance of the PRONAFECYT initiative in Costa Rican primary schools is paramount.
Triangulation of data determined through interviews, surveys, and observations that all
stakeholders at School A and in the Central Region as a whole were aware of the science and
technology fair initiative due to significant support from the School Director. Because the
Director of School A has been at her site only for the last 3 months, she utilizes the human
resources frame to get to know everyone as well as to establish trust. Leaders who work in the
human resources frame aim to establish working relationships with all stakeholders in the
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 106
organization. They attempt to make everyone feel good about the organization and their contri-
bution to the organization’s success (Bolman & Deal, 2003). The Director was observed walking
around and mingling with everyone with whom she came into contact, as well as high fiving
students. In addition, the structural frame was observed in the effort to ensure that staff was
informed of the vision, timelines, as well as expectations for participation in the PRONAFECYT
initiative. Within the structural frame, leaders establish clear responsibilities, rules, policies, and
procedures. Systems and systems management are clearly defined and maintained (Bolman &
Deal, 2003).
The Regional Science Fair Directors held meetings with site Science Fair Coordinators so
that the latter can return to their sites to share pertinent information with school staff. As
observed at School A, the Science Fair Coordinator A subsequently shared the information with
the Director, who proceeded to support the Science Fair Coordinator by having the coordinator
create a committee to run the yearly site science and technology fair. The communication of
expectations via memos, committee meetings, staff meetings, and modeling by the Director and
the site Science Fair Coordinator assisted with an understanding of the PRONAFECYT initia-
tive.
As a result, it can be asserted that this researcher found it evident that there is a vision for
implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative and that multiple levels of organizational lead-
ership could describe the initiative’s vision beginning with the government policies via the
national decree, the MEP, and the MICITT; the regional science fair coordinators; the site coor-
dinators; directors; and the structural plans and timelines that were followed at School A. As
data affirmed, the Director at School A has been significant in assisting with the implementation
of the vision and supports the staff accordingly.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 107
Research Question 2
How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT? A review
of the data indicated that two themes emerged for Research Question 2: teacher collaboration and
professional development as well as teachers’ knowledge and use of STEM PBL and the scien-
tific method. As examined in the literature review, Costa Rica has worked to ensure that all
students experience STEM PBL via the PRONAFECYT initiative. In Costa Rica, exposure to
STEM PBL was planned via three goals: increasing the number of students who pursue advanced
degrees and careers in STEM, expanding STEM participation in the workplace, and increasing
students’ STEM literacy (Johnson, 2012). The curricular shifts were outlined in the State of the
Nation Report (PEN, 2013). This report specifically recommended that there be follow-up to
new programs that have been implemented, such as “thinking scientifically” (PEN, 2013, p. 34)
in primary schools as a new curricular focus. A comparison of School A and B indicated that
both schools were engaged in successful teacher practices such as informational meetings led by
the site science coordinator, forms of collaboration, and both staffs requesting additional profes-
sional development.
A review of the triangulated data indicated that successful instructional practices such as
STEM PBL and inquiry were used to guide instruction. Students indicated that teachers provided
projects for them to work on in collaborative groups. Forms of collaboration were utilized in an
extremely structured format. Much of the collaboration occurred in informational meetings
where timelines were reviewed so that significant dates would not be forgotten. At both School
A and School B, teachers indicated that they needed more professional development. The litera-
ture review indicated that in order for teacher collaboration to be highly effective, teachers must
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 108
be empowered by being in charge of the process and reviewing data to determine next steps for
professional development (DuFour et. al., 2006). Teachers must participate in the practice of
being a collective force that works together to improve student achievement (Fullan, 2001).
Although Schools A and B had their teachers collaborating at an emergent level, the role of
assessment was not clear with respect to driving the process for job-embedded professional
development.
At School A, the curricular changes based on the scientific method were evident as the
researchers walked the site’s science and technology fair. Students’ projects were worked on
collaboratively and contained all of the components of the scientific method: guiding question,
methods, observations, data, and conclusions. As triangulated data revealed, this curricular
change initiative will take time to develop and needs the Director to build up the science commit-
tee to follow Kotter’s (1996) change model to build sustainability of the initiative. This process
begins with the communication of the urgency of the curricular change to STEM, then utilizing
the science committee as the small coalition of staff who believe in the change, celebrating short-
term wins to build on the curricular changes to anchor them, and continuing to incorporate them
into job-embedded professional development for the staff. In order for change to be perpetual,
the foundation of the culture must be on board with the vision so that the change has solid ground
in the organization’s culture (Kotter, 1996).As a result of these findings, it can be asserted that
teachers at School A worked together in collaborative groupings at an emergent level and need
more opportunities to develop working together in teams to determine next steps for job- embed-
ded professional development in developing their understanding of STEM PBL and the scientific
method via the role of assessment.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 109
Research Question 3
How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with the 21st-
century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT. Upon
examination of the data for Research Question 3, two themes emerged: authentic leadership and
the significance of outside resources (i.e., Omar Dengo Foundation).
A review of the literature demonstrated that the national plan to create a technologically
literate citizenry has been Costa Rica’s response to increased global demands for human capital
that is equipped with 21st-century skills (CINDE, 2015; Wagner, 2008). This plan can take
effect only with the authentic support of leaders as well as the community beyond school sites,
such as foundations.
The Omar Dengo Foundation (2013) was founded in 1987 to build technological literacy
for all of the inhabitants of Costa Rica. The leadership within the foundation is authentic in the
sense that it truly believes passionately about the scientific method as a focus for the foundation
within primary schools, as indicated in interviews and surveys.
The triangulated data that were examined indicated that primary schools that prep a
building with proper infrastructure such as electricity, air conditioning, and alarms will receive
support with science education from the Omar Dengo Foundation, just as Schools A and B have.
It was observed at School A that students had access to a computer lab, robotics lab, and a
teacher who was funded by the MEP to teach the additional courses to students. In addition, the
teacher trainer came to the site and provided professional development with respect to teaching
the scientific method to interested teachers. In order to develop the interest for all teachers to be
trained, the leader must work from the political frame of leadership in negotiating with all staff
regarding the benefits of participating in professional development provided by the Omar Dengo
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 110
Foundation. Leaders within the political frame manage the organization by managing the
competitive power struggles and conflicts through bargaining, negotiating, compromise, and the
establishment of coalitions (Bolman & Deal, 2003).
The educational leaders are most important in developing effective communication of the
vision for the PRONAFECYT initiative to maintain sustained growth. This leadership includes
not only the school director but also the site science fair coordinator who keeps the teachers and
the director apprised of information related to the fair. The authentic leader engages staff in a
shared vision of ensuring efficient ways of teaching that promote in-depth learning in a way to
get all staff to participate (Fullan, 2001). As a result, it can be asserted that authentic leadership
from the site—the school director, and the science fair coordinator—as well as from the Omar
Dengo Foundation assists with the development of equipping students with 21st-century skills
that lead to participation in the PRONAFECYT initiative in primary schools.
Research Question 4
How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional prac-
tices? Analysis of the data indicated two themes that emerged for Research Question 4: clear
expectations for 21st-century (soft) skills and the level of implementation of STEM PBL. As
described in the literature review, STEM PBL is an approach to learning that is facilitated by the
teacher and student driven. This approach is most beneficial to students because they are able to
develop a focused question that they have created and then work via soft skills on how they will
communicate the results (Bell, 2010). As the modeling of the scientific method is presented to
students, it develops deductive reasoning as well as hypothesis creation that fosters students’
critical thinking. The idea evolves from students learning from one another, which can only
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 111
occur when students listen to one another, participate in discussions as well as comprehend and
follow norms and social structures (Slough & Milam, 2013).
When triangulated data were examined for School A, it was noted that students were
observed working in teams and listening to one another as well as asking one another pertinent
questions—all of which is part of soft skills and the beginning of STEM–PBL instruction. The
second phase of STEM–PBL instruction involves discovering concepts of prior knowledge,
teaching for understanding, as well as feedback and reflection and revision (Slough & Milam,
2013). As observed in the computer lab at School A, students were analyzing the Federal
Emergency Management Agency website in responding to open-ended critical questions with
which they were provided. This project was built upon prior knowledge as well as reflection as
students discussed with one another their interpretations for answers. As such, due to interview
findings, it can be asserted that there are different levels of implementation of STEM PBL across
primary schools in the Central Region.
Implications for Practice
This study highlighted how leadership propelled the PRONAFECYT initiative at a
primary school in the Central Region of San José, Costa Rica. Governmental policies have
emphasized the development of a STEM initiative that integrates programs that teach 21st-
century learning skills. One component of the initiative has been the compulsory participation in
the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT. The following recommendations are meant to serve as sup-
portive suggestions to help propel the vision of PRONAFECYT at a deeper level:
School A had a vision for the implementation of the science fair; however, not all stake-
holders were clear on the schoolwide vision for School A. Additional steps should be taken to
develop schoolwide goals that align to the national vision for implementation of the
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 112
PRONAFECYT. Interestingly, 82% of government officials surveyed indicated that there was a
vision for implementation of the PRONAFECYT, but a much lower percentage of teachers at
School A indicated that there was a schoolwide vision for the implementation of the science and
technology fair. Clear communication from regional science directors is needed to ensure that
the vision and process of implementing the PRONAFECYT is clear. One recommendation
would be to hold an annual mandatory regional coordination meeting led by the regional science
fair directors and attended by the school directors and the science fair coordinators.
Data indicated that teachers felt prepared to teach students the scientific method and
scientific inquiry but needed more information on how to prepare students for the science fair. In
addition, data indicated that teachers would benefit from deeper levels of collaboration time to
plan together in grade-level teams regarding science preparation. Teachers can lead the process
of determining job-embedded professional development topics by utilizing data as a means to
determine their next steps. Directors indicated that financial resources to support the science fair
would assist in the implementation of the PRONAFECYT at individual school sites. Additional
resources should be allocated to each school site.
Interview data highlighted that there are varying levels of participation among teachers.
Additional professional development is necessary to prepare teachers. A trainer-of-trainer model
would benefit primary schools. Professional development seminars hosted by the MEP, the
MICITT, and the Omar Dengo Foundation would prepare a team of teachers on how to connect
the teaching of the scientific method to the science fair. Training teams from all the primary
schools would assist in calibration for the PRONAFECYT. Teams would return to their respec-
tive sites and develop goals for their school and an action plan for the upcoming science fair.
This process would assist with the curricular objective of monitoring the new initiative of STEM.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 113
In addition, this model would develop leadership and generate additional participation in the
PRONAFECYT.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study examined the leadership practices, instructional strategies, and professional
development at various school sites in Costa Rica to identify the key components of successful
implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. It is recommended that the study be replicated
throughout different regions in Costa Rica to ensure equity in primary school participation in the
PRONAFECYT. The study could also be replicated at the high school level to compare partici-
pation in the PRONAFECYT at primary schools to high school participation in the
PRONAFECYT.
Consideration should be given to replicating the study in another country that is imple-
menting a STEM–PBL initiative in order to develop globalization. This comparison would yield
valuable information in regard to leadership characteristics that generate success. Moreover, it
would be fascinating to determine how mandatory science fair participation, as is the case in
Costa Rica, is a factor in 21st-century STEM–PBL learning as compared to another country that
does not have mandatory science fairs.
Conclusion
This case study examined the effects of leadership on the PRONAFECYT initiative in a
primary school in the Central Region of San José, Costa Rica. With globalization becoming a
major force for economic change, developing nations must quickly adapt to be able to gain access
to and benefit from the global economy. Costa Rica’s plan is to implement changes through the
educational system. Educational leaders are forward thinking and are on a quest to ensure that all
students are equipped with the 21st-century skills needed to compete in a global workplace. The
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 114
idea is to have citizenry that is forward thinking and technically capable of being 21st-century
workers. Financial resources were used to create schools supported by the MEP and nonprofit
foundations. Part of this focus has been the creation of a national decree that established manda-
tory science fairs at every school in Costa Rica. This study looked to discover the leadership
capabilities that have led to a successful PRONAFECYT initiative.
In order for leadership roles and efforts to be understood as having an effect on student
participation in the PRONAFECYT initiative, this study began with an introduction, statement of
the problem, and purpose for this study. Four questions were developed to guide the research in
line with the purpose of the study. A literary analysis was conducted, and history of the country
was included in the literature review. Data were gathered from interviews, surveys, and observa-
tions during a single trip to Costa Rica. The frameworks of leadership, change, STEM PBL, and
21st-century skills were utilized to provide lenses from which to analyze the data.
Leadership practices at the researcher’s primary site (School A) and at School B were
compared to schools in the Central Region as a whole. This study found that there was a clear
vision for the implementation of STEM PBL, that the role of the school director is significant in
terms of a site’s implementation of the PRONAFECYT, that teachers were aware of and used
both STEM PBL and the scientific method, that teachers collaborated at an emergent level on the
PRONAFECYT, that the Omar Dengo Foundation played a role as an outside resource to the
school, that there were clear expectations for 21st-century skills to be utilized, and that there
were differing levels of implementation of STEM PBL.
The focus on educational success through the use of STEM PBL, 21st-century skills, and
the infusion of technology throughout curricular content areas has allowed Costa Rica to advance
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 115
its standing and level of participation in the global workforce. Leadership plays a pivotal role in
site participation in the PRONAFECYT initiative.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 116
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Appendix A
Recruitment Letter
DATE
Dear XXX,
On June 15, 2015, a group of 18 doctoral students from the University of Southern California,
Rossier School of Education, will travel to Costa Rica as part of a study team led by Dr. Michael
Escalante. The purpose of our research is to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT) in
primary schools in Costa Rica. Specifically, we are interested in the roles of primary school
leaders in preparing and implementing this initiative. As part of our study, the following ques-
tions will be addressed:
1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with
21st-century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practice?
We would appreciate an opportunity to speak with you, members of the Ministry of Education,
and educational leaders at regional and school site levels. It is our goal to conduct surveys and
interviews to gather data to address these research questions. Your input will be invaluable to
our study.
Thank you for considering our request. We are available to meet with you any time between
from June 15 and June 19. Please feel free to contact any member of our study team if you have
any questions.
Sincerely,
USC Doctoral Students
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 123
Appendix B
Summary of Research Proposal
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 124
Appendix C
List of Research Sites
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 125
Appendix D
Teacher Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 126
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 127
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 128
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 129
Appendix E
School Director Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 130
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 131
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 132
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 133
Appendix F
Government Official Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 134
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 135
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 136
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 137
Appendix G
Business Partner Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 138
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 139
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 140
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 141
Appendix H
Parent Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 142
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 143
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 144
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 145
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 146
Appendix I
Student Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 147
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 148
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 149
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 150
Appendix J
Teacher Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 151
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 152
Appendix K
School Director Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 153
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 154
Appendix L
Government Official/Business Leaders Interview Protocol: English and
Spanish Versions
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 155
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 156
Appendix M
Parent Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 157
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 158
Appendix N
Student Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 159
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 160
Appendix O
Observation Protocol
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 161
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 162
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 163
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 164
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 165
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 166
Appendix P
Consent Form
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089
INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NONMEDICAL RESEARCH
THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN PARTICIPATION IN THE NATIONAL
PROGRAM OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FAIRS IN COSTA RICA
You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You
should ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to understand the effects of educational leadership on participation in
the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs in primary schools in Costa Rica.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a 15-minute survey, a
30-minute audiotaped interview, and/or a 10-minute classroom observation. You do not have to
answer any questions that you don’t want to answer; if you don’t want to be taped, you can still
participate in this study.
CONFIDENTIALITY
There will be no identifiable information obtained in connection with this study. Your name,
address, or other identifiable information will not be collected.
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN PRONAFECYT INITIATIVE 167
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Principal Investigator:
Dr. Michael Escalante, University of Southern California,
mescalan@usc.edumailto:mescalan@usc.edu; mailto:mescalan@usc.edu
Co-investigators:
Oryla Wiedoeft, Assistant to Dr. Escalante,
wiedoeft@usc.edumailto:wiedoeft@usc.edu
Patricia Brent-Sanco, Principal, Paramount Unified School District, pbrent@usc.edumailto:pbrent@usc.edu
Cindy Chavez Swenson, MWP Lecturer, University of California, Merced,
ccswenso@usc.edumailto:ccswenso@usc.edu
Jesus Corral, Senior Director, Los Angeles County Probation Dept.,
jesuscorral1@gmail.commailto:jesuscorral1@gmail.com
Ricardo Esquivel, Principal, Partnership to Uplift Communities, ricardoe@usc.edumailto:ricardoe@usc.edu
Carin Fractor, Teacher, Saugus Union School District,
fractor@usc.edumailto:fractor@usc.edu
Miguel Gonzales, Assistant Principal, Santa Barbara Unified School District
gonzalmm@usc.edumailto:gonzalmm@usc.edu
Denise Harshman, Coordinator, Orange County Department of Education
harshman@usc.edumailto:harshman@usc.edu
Mathew Kodama, Assistant Principal, Pasadena Unified School District
mathewwk@usc.edumailto:mathewwk@usc.edu
Jennifer Lashier, Assistant Principal, Arcadia Unified School District, lashier@usc.edumailto:lashier@usc.edu
April Leon, Teacher, West Covina High School,
aprilleo@usc.edumailto:aprilleo@usc.edu
Omar Lopez, Clinical Associate Professor, Assistant Director of Field Education, USC School of Social Work,
omarl@usc.edumailto:omarl@usc.edu
Christin Molano, Principal, Glendale Unified School District, cwalley@gusd.netmailto:cwalley@gusd.net
Fernando Marquez, Teacher on Assignment, Oro Grande School District,
fmarquez@usc.edumailto:fmarquez@usc.edu
Maribel Martinez, Principal, Lynwood Unified School District Mart632@usc.edumailto:Mart632@usc.edu
Wendy Poffenberger, Assistant Principal, Long Beach Unified School District,
wpoffenb@usc.edumailto:wpoffenb@usc.edu
Bea Spelker-Levi, Principal, Paramount Unified School District,
bspelker@paramount.k12.ca.usmailto:bspelker@paramount.k12.ca.us
Richard Storti, Vice President of Administrative Services, Fullerton College, rstorti@usc.edumailto:rstorti@usc.edu
John Tung, Assistant Principal, Arcadia Unified School District, johntung@usc.edumailto:johntung@usc.edu;
mailto:johntung@usc.edu; mailto:johntung@usc.edu
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edumailto:upirb@usc.edu

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The most important way to improve and sustain a country's global economy is through the education system. Over the past 3 decades, Costa Rica has invested in multinational corporations and has focused on improving the country's education systems as it focused on improving the country's education systems as it focuses on developing students to acquire 21st-century skills and foundational knowledge in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Educational shifts have included policies requiring all schools to participate in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencias y Tecnologia (PRONAFECYT). The purpose of this study was to identify the role of educational leaders and those of government and business in implementing and participating in the PRONAFECYT in primary schools in Costa Rica. The study examined leadership practices and the role of school leaders in the development, implementation, and overall impact of the PRONAFECYT initiative. ❧ The principal finding from the case study was that leadership is integral to the success of the PRONAFECYT from all sectors in Costa Rica: government, business and education. Together, these partnerships have given Costa Rican students access to tools and opportunities that prepare them to be stronger, competitive, and knowledge- and technology-ready citizens. Additional findings highlighted the need for greater resources, training, and professional development via teacher collaboration and ongoing leadership development for all stakeholders in the school system through trainer-of-trainer models. The vision established by Costa Rica has proven to guide a positive change in education across the county. With the continued support by the Ministry of Public Education and the Ministry of Science, Technology, and Telecommunications, as well as foundations such as the Omar Dengo Foundation, Costa Rica will continue to focus on education through the use of STEM project-based learning, use of soft skills, and infusion of technology throughout curricular content areas that will allow the nation to continue to advance and thrive in preparing students to compete globally.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Spelker-Levi, Beatriz (author)

Core Title The role of educational leadership on the participation in the National Program of Science and Technolgy Fairs at Escuela A in the Central Region of Costa Rica

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 05/03/2016

Defense Date 02/19/2016

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Costa Rica,Educational Leadership,Globalization,MEP,MICITT,Ministry of Public Education,Ministry of Science Technology and Telecommunications,National Program of Science and Technolgy Fairs,OAI-PMH Harvest,Omar Dengo Foundation,primary schools,project-based learning,PRONAFECYT,trainer-of-trainer,twenty-first century skills

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael (committee chair), Garcia, Pedro E. (committee member), Sheehan, Richard (committee member), Verdugo, David J. (committee member)

Creator Email beaincharge@gmail.com,spelkerl@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-246664

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Document Type Dissertation

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