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The psychosociocultural model as it relates to Latino/a college students and their academic success: a literature review

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Content Copyright 2020 Rebecca Carreon

The Psychosociocultural Model as it Relates to Latino/a College Students and their Academic
Success: A Literature Review

by

Rebecca Carreon

A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF EDUCATION IN EDUCATIONAL COUNSELING

August 2020

ii

Dedication
In dedication to my husband and best friend who helped me see this work through to the
very end. To my family, especially my parents, who sacrificed it all to give me a better hope and
future.

iii

Table of Contents
Dedication…………………………………………………………………………………………ii
List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………………...v
List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………………….vi
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………..vii
Chapter 1: Introduction……...………….……………………....…………………………………1
Growth of Latino Population in the United States and Its Economic Implication……......1
What is Student Success, or Better Yet, Thriving?..............................................................2
Why I Will Be Using the Term Latino/a……...………………………………………......3
Defining Stress, Anxiety, and Depression……..………………………………………….4
Mental Health Among Latino/as………...…………………..……………………...……..5
College Student Mental Health…………………………..…………………………..……8
Theoretical Framework: PSC Model……………………..…………………………….....9
Intersectionality……………………………………..……………………………………10
Definition of Terms…………………..…………………………………………………..11
Chapter 2: Research Design and Approach…………..…..………...……………………………14
Using Personal Experiences as a Guide to My Research...……………..……………….14
Study Selection………………………..…………………………………………………14
Selection Process……………………..………………………………………………….15
Researcher Bias and Limitations………………………………..……………………….16
Chapter 3: Literature Review……....……………………………....………..…………………...17
The Psychosociocultural Model…………………...……………………………………..17
Psychological………………..…………………………………………………………...18
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Acculturative Stress…………………….………………….…………………….19
Stereotype Threat and Imposter Syndrome…………..…………………………..21
Anxiety and Depression………….………………………………………………22
Social………………..……………………………………………………………………23
Microaggressions…………….…………………………………………………..23
Campus Environment………………………………………….…………...……25
First-Generation Issues…………………………………………….…………….29
Familismo……………………………………………………………….……….30
Faculty-Student Relationships………………………………………….………..32
Cultural……………………………………………………………………………..……33
Cultural Capital…………………………………………………………….…….34
Chapter 4: Discussion…....…………………………………………………………………...….37
Personal Reflection………………………………………………………..……………..39
Recommendations………………………………………………………………………..44
References………………………………………………………………………………………..46

v

List of Tables
Table 1: Total Articles Identified for Each Theme in the Psychosociocultural Model………….16
Table 2: All Articles Utilized in this Work, their Authors, and their Themes…………………...37

vi

List of Figures
Figure 1: Prevalence of Mental Health in U.S. Adults in 2017…………………………………...6
Figure 2: Mental Health Services Received Among U.S. Adults in 2017………………………...7
Figure 3: PSC Model for Latino/a College Students…………………………………………….17
Figure 4: Culturally Engaging Campus Environments Model…………………………………..27

vii

Abstract
Latino/a college students who attend predominantly White institutions (PWIs) not only
experience the common stressors of time management and the like, but can also experience
imposter syndrome, stereotype threat, and microaggressions that deeply impact their ethnic
identity, sense of belonging, and academic performance. Understanding this is of utmost
importance to help create programs, services, and a college campus environment that cultivates
belonging and community for Latino/a college students. In this narrative literature review, I will
be discussing numerous factors through the lens of the psychosociocultural (PSC) model that
contribute to the Latino/a college student experience, its impact on their mental health, and
recommendations for future research and programming to help meet the needs of our Latino/a
student population.
Keywords: Latino/Latinas, college students, predominantly White institutions,
psychosociocultural model, mental health, first-generation, acculturative stress

1

Introduction
Growth of Latino Population in the United States and Its Economic Implication
The Latino/a population is one of the fastest growing populations in the United States. In
2016, the U.S. Census reported that 17.6% of the U.S. population identified as Latino or
Hispanic (U.S. Census Bureau, 2016). The number of Hispanics in the US is expected to rise to
28.6% by 2060. At the same time, another population is drastically changing in numbers and
demographic as well: the labor force (Tienda, 2016). The large population of Baby Boomers is
approaching retirement, leaving a large gap in the workforce that will need to be replaced. As the
Baby Boomer generation retires, there will be a need to replenish the labor force with new
workers. However, this will be a challenge as the birth rate has since declined. In 1970, about
one third of U.S. residents were under 18 years of age. In 2010, the same age group comprised
less than one fourth of the U.S. population (Tienda, 2016). The number of Baby Boomers
retiring outnumber the young generation that will soon enter the workforce.
With the changes of the workforce and the rising Latino/a population, the importance of
preparing our Latino/a youth so that they are academically successful is heightened. As Tienda
(2016) explained, “... history shows that the rise in educational attainment drove American
economic growth during the late nineteenth and through most of the twentieth century…” (p.13).
In addition, educational attainment is known to be a great force for social and economic mobility
in Latino/as (Castellanos & Gloria, 2007). Therefore, the success of our Latino/a students is one
that we cannot neglect. However, as Castellanos and Gloria (2007) noted, Latino/a college
students’ academic success has improved very little over the past thirty years and little has been
done to improve their college experience. In 2010, less than 10% of bachelor’s degree recipients
and 6% of doctoral degree recipients were Hispanic (Tienda, 2016). Those who do attend a
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college or university may struggle to persist and graduate. In 2013, 40% of all Latino/a college
students graduated within six years (Bravo, A., Chaney, C., & Robertson, R.V., 2014).
As a result, as educators, it is our responsibility to identify factors that can either hinder
or enhance the Latino/a learning experience and conversely, affects their ability to succeed
within higher education. These factors can be summarized into three crucial categories:
psychological, social, and cultural. The psychological, social, and cultural aspect of the
university context can play an integral role in the persistence and success of Latino/a college
students (Castellanos & Gloria, 2007). For this reason, my aim is to further understand how the
mechanisms within the psychosociocultural model influence a Latino/a student’s academic
success.
What is Student Success, or Better Yet, Thriving?
By and large, within the academic community, when defining student success, we
observe what is measurable through outcomes-based assessments. Institutions typically measure
students’ success through the collection of data regarding enrollment and completion rates and
grade point averages (Castellanos & Gloria, 2007). Certainly, these measures are important to
informing this work. The fact that 15 out of 100 Latino/s students will graduate from college and
four will earn a graduate degree, is important data to better understand the success of our
Latino/a college students (Castellanos & Gloria, 2007). However, as Castellanos and Gloria
(2007) explained, though some Latino/a student graduate and are deemed successful, their
college experience is marred with feelings of alienation, acculturative stress, and a culturally
incompetent learning environment. The idea is that, not only are our Latino/a college students
graduating, but they are leaving with a positive college experience that empowers them as they
step into the workforce.
3

Student success is more than getting the student to cross that stage on graduation day.
What is needed is a more holistic perspective and definition of student success. The term thriving
provides this holistic approach. A thriving student is one who is functioning optimally in these
three areas of student success: academic performance, interpersonal relationships, and
psychological well-being (Schreiner, 2018). Thriving students are able to manage their time, stay
engaged in their learning experience, form healthy relationships, identify ways to cope with
stress, and are involved within their campus community. They are able to maximize their college
experience by not only performing well academically, but also do well psychologically
(Schreiner, 2018). By thriving, a student forms a sense of purpose and belonging in their
education and college campus community, which in turn gives them a better sense of direction
and well-being as they venture into the next stage after graduation. This is where we want to see
our Latino/a students. The goal is not just to get them through to graduation, but to ensure that
they are thriving academically, socially, and psychologically. This certainly is a large feat as
Latino/a students face multiple barriers to their success.
Why I will be using the term Latino/a
The term Latino/a generally refers to individuals of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban,
Dominican, Central American, and South American descent. When referring to Latino/a college
students, I, too, will be abiding by this definition. Most recently, the term Latinx emerged to
remove the grammatical gender that is assigned in Latino or Latina. As Torres (2018) explained
using the term Latinx is done so in order to “...represent the variety of possible genders as well as
those who may identify as non-gender binary or transgender” (p. 284). Since its popularization in
recent years, the term Latinx has begun to emerge in scholarly work. Though scholars recognize
the value and are useful in creating discussions about gender and inclusivity, not all of them have
4

implemented the term into their own work (Torres, 2018). I, myself, will be opting to use the
more widely used term of Latino/a since the literature that I will be reviewing primarily uses this
term, and it will create a wider pool of literature during the process of searching for and selecting
studies in my work. Because Latinx has recently made its emergence into research literature, it’s
hard to determine whether or not this term will stand the test of time or make itself the primary
term used in Latino/a research studies. Keeping in mind that most readers, especially those from
an older generation, still search for literature under the term Latino/a and to ensure that they have
access to my work, I will be using the term Latino/a when referring to the students whom I will
be researching and discussing.
Defining Stress, Anxiety, and Depression
As I will be discussing various aspects of the Latino/a college student experience as it
pertains to psychological, social, and cultural components, it is important to define key
psychological terminology that will inevitably be discussed later. When considering mental
health, there is an array of illnesses and elements to mental health from loneliness to suicidality,
from fear to schizophrenia. Here I will be discussing common themes in mental health found in
college students: stress, anxiety, and depression. Stress, from a biological standpoint, is the
body’s response to a threat (Persson & Zakrisson, 2016). Often known as the “fight-or-flight”
response, stress prepares the body through the distribution of hormones to either flee or confront
a difficulty or threat. The production of such hormones like cortisol, adrenaline, and
noradrenaline causes an increase in heart rate, sweating, alertness, muscle tension, increased
breathing, and the slowing of the immune system (Persson & Zakrisson, 2016). However, as
Persson and Zakrisson (2016) noted, “... even in these modern days we cannot outrun biology
and the stress response backfires due to our sedentary lives” (p. 149). Today, the threats we face
5

take on a different form. These threats can come in the form of a busy schedule, a competitive
work environment, life stage transitions, conflict in relationships, and negative emotions. Some
of these stressors can be positive like purchasing a new home or having a baby. However,
negative stress, also referred to as distress, is associated with negative life events (e.g. the death
of a family member or loss of a job) and/or emotions and is perceived as outside of a person’s
coping abilities, and that leads to mental and physical problems.
Emotional distress can often lead to anxiety and/or depression (American Psychological
Association (APA), 2018). Anxiety is associated with feelings of worry, uneasiness, and tension
which can be followed by symptoms such as increased blood pressure, panic attacks, and
compulsive behavior. Anxiety can become persistent leading to excessive worrying and fear.
Depression, on the other hand, as described by the APA (2018), involves a loss of interest in
daily activities and can result in lack of energy, inability to concentrate, low self-worth, guilt,
and thoughts of suicide. According to the APA (2018), depression is the most common mental
disorder in the United States. Because students are often experiencing high levels of stress, there
is a need to discuss the mental health of college students as it relates to anxiety and depression.
Mental Health Among Latino/as
Mental illnesses are prevalent in the United States. In fact, as recorded in 2017 by the
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), one out of five U.S.
adults, regardless of sex, gender, age, or race, live with a mental illness; that is 46.6 million
people. Of course, mental illnesses vary and differ in terms of severity. The data provided by
SAMHSA includes all mental illnesses that meet the criteria of the Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), including mood, eating, anxiety, impulse control,
adjustment disorders, and substance use.
6

In Figure 1, we see that among the 46.6 million U.S. adults living with a mental illness,
the prevalence is highest among those who reported two or more races (28.6%) and White
(20.4%). Latino/as make up 15.2% of adults living with a mental illness. It is also important to
note, since we are primarily focusing on college students, that the prevalence of mental illness
was highest among young adults aged 18-25 (25.8%). The prevalence progressively decreased
among older adults. Furthermore, as seen in Figure 2, less than half (19.8 million) of adults
living with a mental illness received mental health services that year. Only 32.6% of Hispanics
living with a mental illness received mental health services. Similarly, young adults were less
likely to receive mental health services.
Though there are many factors that play a role in a person’s ability to receive mental
health services, a major influence is the stigma and attitude that mental health and mental health
services hold among people. Though often used interchangeably, stigma and attitude hold
different meanings. While attitude pertains to a person’s internal thoughts, feelings, and beliefs
about a subject, stigma is a collection of external perceptions and beliefs held by society (Fripp
& Carlson, 2017). As with all cases of discrimination and stereotypes, stigmas surrounding
Figure 1: Prevalence of Mental Health in U.S Adults in 2017
7

mental illnesses and seeking mental health services, are formed by the dominant perspective or
group, in this case, those who do not suffer from mental illness who discriminate and develop a
negative attitude towards the minority group, in this case, those who do suffer from mental
illness. It is this negative perception that influences the personal attitudes that people hold with
regard to mental illness and mental health services. Those who may need to seek mental health
services, may choose not to out of fear that they may be discriminated against or stigmatized
among their friends, family, and their world around them. As Fripp and Carlson (2017)
explained, “The way a provider views mental health issues, the way society views mental health,
or the way individuals view their issues all contribute to the decision-making process related to
treatment enrollment” (p. 83). As a result, if a person fears being perceived negatively and is
trying to avoid being discriminated against due to their mental illness, they may be less inclined
to seek help. This is especially true among the Latino/a population (Villatoro et al, 2014). There
are several factors that create barriers for Latino/as to seek mental health services. These
complex barriers include, but are not limited to: socioeconomic, structural, linguistic, and
cultural barriers (Rastogi, Massey-Hastings, & Weiling, 2012).
Figure 2: Mental Health Services Received Among U.S. Adults in 2017
8

College Student Mental Health
In the last decade, issues of mental health among college students have dramatically
increased (Kitzrow, 2009). Around 45% of college students report some impairment as a result
of a mental health condition (Turner & Llamas, 2017). Rates of depression and suicide have
doubled over the last 10 years among college students (Brittian et al., 2013). Universities are
seeing an increase in students seeking support to address mental health issues, with counseling
centers reporting an 86% increase in severe psychological problems among students (Eisenberg,
Gollust, Golberstein, & Hefner, 2007). The most recent National College Health Assessment
survey looked at 26,685 U.S. college students and found, in the past year, that 31% felt “so
depressed that it was difficult to function” and 6% were contemplating suicide, but only 10%
were treated for depression (Herman et al., 2011).
Although the causes of student mental illness cannot be reduced to a short list, common
factors include coping with the demands of education, sense of belonging, and academic self-
confidence (Watkins, Hunt, & Eisenberg, 2012). These factors can be further influenced by
social and cultural influences in the students’ lives. Latino college students face additional
challenges like having limited role models on the college campus and feeling alienated
(Castellanos & Gloria, 2007). Student mental illness can significantly affect their ability to
succeed academically, maintain interpersonal relationships, and remain productive in the
classroom and workplace (Turner & Llamas, 2017). Marsh & Wilcoxon (2015) also found that
some students that did not complete their college degree were due in part because of a mental
health issue.
Many forces come into play with regards to our Latino college student population, their
college experience, and their success in higher education. Most often, Latino/a students must
9

learn to negotiate with invalidating classroom curricula, attend campus events that are not
inclusive or devalue their cultural identities, balance multiple perspectives from other students,
juggle the demands of school and family obligations, and cope with the with the sense of not
belonging (Castellanos & Gloria, 2007). At the same time, there are internal factors within the
Latino student that profoundly affect their ability to succeed such as a sense of belonging,
anxiety, and depression (Castellanos & Gloria, 2007). It is important to understand and consider
the mental health of our Latino college students to improve wellness and academic success.
Theoretical Framework: PSC Model
When considering the many layers in the Latino college student experience, using the
psychosociocultural (PSC) framework can help better illustrate what these layers are composed
of and their effect on Latino student success. The PSC framework looks at three dimensions of
success: psychological (e.g. self-esteem, self-efficacy), social (e.g. networks, mentors, family
relationships) and cultural (e.g. values, acculturation, ethnic identity) (Castellanos & Gloria,
2007; Aguinaga & Gloria, 2015). These dimensions operate individually and collectively to
provide students success in higher education. All together, when the needs of these dimensions
are being addressed, students have a greater state of well-being and, as a result, are more likely to
succeed academically and graduate (Castellanos & Gloria, 2007). It should be understood that to
address these dimensions requires small successes through the everyday interactions and
experiences of Latino/a students, coming in the form of validation, social networks, and cultural
affirmation (Castellanos & Gloria, 2007).
I will discuss the multiple dimensions of the Latino students’ college experience through
the psychosociocultural (PSC) framework and how it relates to their success in college. Because
these dimensions are so interconnected, one may find repeated themes across the sections
10

discussing each component. Consequently, through the PSC framework, our discussion will
include themes like core Latino values such as familismo and comunidad, ethnic identity, cultural
congruity, sense of belonging, mentorship, self-esteem, and self-efficacy and its relation to
student success. Although many studies before this looked at these psychosociocultural themes
as deficits that influence students to decide to dropout, this is not the stance of this study. Rather,
I am looking to understand the multiple levels within the PSC model to better illustrate the
Latino/a college student experience and discuss its relevance to their success as seen through the
perspective of thriving. With this undertaking, I hope to provide higher educational institutions a
better understanding of the needs of our Latino student population and address them through
services that are culturally relevant and engaging. Taking these themes, I will review the current
body of knowledge as it relates to Latino college student mental health and its relationship to
success in higher education.
Intersectionality
To be clear, the narrative of the college student experience is unique and there are
multiple identities at work. The themes discussed are general experiences of the Latino college
student. It is important to note that within the Latino population lies a plethora of ethnic groups
with unique customs, values, and traditions. In addition, when speaking on financial constraints
among Latino college students or the first-generation college student experience, not all Latinos
are low-income and/or first-generation. Also, when discussing themes like acculturative stress
and sense of belonging, ethnic identity is not the only identity at work. For example, a
transgender Latino student may struggle with finding a sense of belonging as it pertains to not
just his ethnic identity, but to his gender identity as well. Students from all backgrounds have a
myriad of identities that make their narratives unique.
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In short, the occurrence of mental health issues among college students has risen
dramatically over the years (Kitrow, 2009). As higher educational institutions, seeking to
promote the success of students, it is important to also promote student wellness as it is a
powerful determining factor in student success. Although studies are beginning to emerge related
to mental health issues like anxiety and depression among college students, little is understood
about the mental health of Latino college students in particular and the various factors that can
contribute to stress, anxiety, and depression among the Latino college student population.
Through the lens of the PSC model, I will be reviewing existing literature on the Latino college
student experience and how it relates to mental health.
Definition of Terms
As I discuss the Latino/a student experience, particularly in a PWI, and the factors that
impact the former, I will bring to the forefront many concepts and terminology. Below are the
key terms that will be discussed with their corresponding definitions for reference. These are also
terms that were utilized during the study selection process that is discussed in Chapter 2.
● Acculturative stress: distress as result of the social, cultural, and psychological changes
an individual makes in the process of balancing two cultures, while often adapting to the
dominant culture (Mayorga, N. A. et al., 2018).
● Code-swicthing: the relationship between identity and language, in which individuals are
able to switch to a different language or vernacular to accommodate for differing social
roles and/or identities (Ellwood, 2008).
● Collectivistic: a value that emphasizes the prioritization of the well-being of the group
over the individual.
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● Cultural capital: unrelated to wealth, this consists of social assets, skills, and knowledge
that provides individuals with the ability for upward social mobility.
● Cultural congruity: the compatibility between personal values and institutional values
(Castellanos & Gloria, 2007).
● Eurocentric: the world as seen and interpreted through the Western or European
perspective and values.
● Familismo: a value found in Latin American culture in which the welfare of the family
takes precedence over the welfare of the individual (Villatoro et al., 2014).
● First-generation: in reference to nationality, a native-born citizen whose parents
immigrated from another country or a foreign-born citizen who immigrated with their
parents at a very young age
● First-generation college student: a college student whose parents did not attend or
graduate from a higher educational institution (House, Neal, & Kolb, 2019).
● Imposter syndrome: a psychological phenomenon in which an individual doubts the merit
of their accomplishments and has an irrational fear that they will be exposed as frauds
(Peteet, Montgomery, & Weekes, 2015).
● Microaggression: subtle, everyday comments or behaviors whether intentional or
unintentional that send a belittling or discriminatory message to an individual because
they belong to a certain group (Von Robertson, Bravo, & Chaney, 2016).
● Social capital: the beneficial assets of interpersonal relationships that can help an
individual gain upward social mobility. This can be manifested in the sharing of
information, values, and skills as a result of trust, reciprocity, and cooperation of the
social group.
13

● Socioeconomic status: the standing of a person or group in society based on their
education, occupation, and income.
● Stereotype threat: a person’s fear of affirming stereotypes associated with their social
group (Schmader, 2010).
● White-washed: a term used to describe a minority who has assimilated to Western
society. This person may not necessarily abandon their own cultural values but rather has
also embraced the customs and values of Western society. This term can be used
negatively to describe a non-white person who is not fulfilling a negative stereotype
associate with them.

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Chapter 2: Research Design and Approach
Using Personal Experiences as a Guide to My Research
As the author of this article, I will be using my own experiences as a Latina college
student during my time in undergraduate studies at a predominantly White institution (PWI) as a
guide in my search for relevant research. Based on my experiences, I know that Latino/a college
students often experience culture shock at PWIs, wrestle with their ethnic identities, struggle to
adapt to the rigorous curricula due to lack of preparation and social capital, and, as a result,
experience mental health issues. As a first-generation, Mexican-American, I also know the
stigma that surrounds mental health issues that often accompany immigrant families and/or Latin
American cultures and how that directly impacts the students’ help-seeking behaviors. However,
I can also attribute my academic successes to my cultural values that motivated me and the
family relationships that encouraged me.
Study Selection
I will be utilizing a literature review methodology. As Galvan (2016) noted, writing a
literature review consists of five important steps: planning, organizing, drafting, editing, and
redrafting. This is the methodology that I employed. First, in planning, Galvan (2016) explained
that a topic is defined and articles related to the topic are selected. Afterward, in the process of
organizing, the writer analyzes, synthesizes, and reviews all of the articles. Then the literature
review is actually written as a draft to be followed by editing and redrafting. A literature review
allows me to provide a comprehensive summary of findings in studies relevant to the theories
and models discussed in this review. The body of knowledge was located exclusively through
online databases. The primary source of the search for literature was USC Libraries which
connected me to other databases like JSTOR, Sage Journals, and ProQuest. The following
15

keywords were utilized to narrow down the search of relevant studies: acculturative stress,
depression, anxiety, psychosociocultural model, mental health, first-generation, Latino college
student, and well-being. The search was further narrowed down by filtering for peer-reviewed
literature published within the last 10 years that only studies Latino/a undergraduate students at a
PWI. However, exceptions were made for relevant foundational research and articles published
much earlier which includes topics on the psychosociocultural model, sense of belonging, and
ethnic identity development. The studies were also restricted to those written in the English
language. The selected articles originate from a breadth of fields to provide a multi-faceted
analysis of the mental health issues and trends in Latino/a college students. These fields include
counseling psychology, college student psychotherapy, student development, critical sociology,
public health, Hispanic higher education, youth adolescence orthopsychiatry, and diversity in
higher education.
Selection Process
Studies were retrieved utilizing the previously mentioned key words in the USC Libraries
database. Upon reviewing the results, titles were screened to locate articles that were relevant to
this study. From the relevant titles, abstracts were analyzed to determine whether the study met
the criteria of the study. Of those whose abstracts aligned with this study, the full article was read
to finally ensure that it met the criteria. The process took the span of several months, and all the
articles were consolidated into RefWorks for a more efficient process of retrieval and citation. At
the end of the selection process, thirty-three articles were chosen for this study. These articles
were categorized by themes and subject matter to better consolidate and organize the information
as they relate to the PSC model. The table below provides the number of articles that were
selected for each aspect of the PSC model. As you will notice, the total of articles in the table
16

does exceed the total of articles that I previously stated I selected for this work. This is due to the
nature of interconnectedness of the subject matter itself. Many of these articles discussed more
than one of these PSC components because it's challenging to speak of one without mentioning
the other.
Table 1: Total Articles Identified for Each Theme in the Psychosociocultural Model
Theme Number of Articles
Psychological 16
Social 10
Cultural 13

Researcher Bias and Limitations
Many of the researchers are Latino/a and share experiences similar to those of the
students whom they study. It is safe to assume that their personal narrative as Latino students in
higher education inspired their research and guided the framework of their studies. However,
even their narrative is limited in understanding the diverse complexities of the Latino/a college
student experience. Some limitations present in the studies include not testing for Latino/a
subgroups and thus limiting the narrative of Latino/a students from differing Latin American
cultures (Castillo et al., 2015). Also, in many of the articles that studied Latino/a college students
specifically had small study samples. These small study samples led to a pool of participants that
was not representative of the student population (Museus, Yi, & Saelua, 2017). Therefore, many
of the results do not provide a full picture of Latino/a college experiences at a predominantly
White institution which in turn prevents institutions from fully addressing the challenges of its
Latino/a student population.

17

Chapter 3: Literature Review
Because the college experience of Latino/a students is unique and not well researched,
not much is understood about their mental health and the factors that most contribute to mental
health issues. To gain a better understanding of the Latino/a college experience and how it relates
to stress, anxiety, and depression, I will be analyzing the psychological, social, and cultural
elements of success through the PSC model. This will allow the opportunity to examine more
efficient strategies that can be implemented to help Latino college students thrive and be
successful.
The Psychosociocultural Model
Gloria and Rodriguez (2000) utilized the PSC approach to provide a theoretical
framework for college counselors to offer more effective services to Latino undergraduate
students. By examining the psychological, social, and cultural dimensions against the university
context, as seen in Figure 3, Gloria and Rodriguez (2000) were able to gain a more accurate
understanding of the college experience as it relates to Latino college students and persistence.
What Gloria and Rodriguez (2000) found was that increased well-being resulted in improved
Figure 3: PSC Model for Latino/a College Students
18

skills to better navigate the university context and, ultimately, persist through graduation. Since
then, the PSC model has become an empirically tested conceptual framework that is used to
study Latino/a college student persistence (Castellanos & Gloria, 2007). An examination of
Latino/a college student mental health and academic success through the PSC model is,
therefore, in order.
Psychological
Students just entering college are already coming in feeling overwhelmed, as a result of
the rigors of high school and the competitive nature of college admissions (Kitzrow, 2009). This
age of young adulthood is critical as most mental disorders begin to manifest around this age
(Eisenberg et al., 2007). Poor sleeping habits, academic pressures, and developing interpersonal
relationships are just a few factors within the college environment that can be catalysts for these
mental health illnesses (Eisenberg et al., 2007). As stress levels remain high, students may
experience the challenge of coping with this stress. Students who are overwhelmed with stress
and are not able to find the support and means to cope with it can experience mental health issues
such as anxiety and depression (Castillo et al., 2015). In fact, the American College Health
Association National College Health Assessment found that depression and anxiety are the top
mental health issues experienced by college students (Wood, 2012). Several factors can
contribute to poor mental health including financial stressors. Students from low socioeconomic
backgrounds are found to experience poorer mental health (Eisenberg et al., 2007). All this to say
that poor mental health is a growing issue among college students, and it has a deep impact on
their academic success. Depression itself is found to be a large cause for poor academic
performance and even for students’ decisions to drop out of college (Herman et al., 2011). It is
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important to consider the unique factors that impact the psychological dimension of student
success among Latino college students.
Castellanos and Gloria (2007) narrowed the psychological aspect of the student
experience into two overarching themes: self-esteem and self-efficacy. These two are found to be
a large part of the Latino/a college student psychological experience that impact their persistence
and academic success. Reynolds, Svena, and Beehler (2010) noted that racism and perceived
discrimination in a student’s college experience is linked to psychological effects such as low
self-esteem, increased anxiety and depression, and difficulty concentrating. The study noted that
some students of color attempt to protect their self-esteem by distancing themselves from the
school and their academic performance (Reynolds et al., 2010). Similarly, self-efficacy can
impact the academic successes of Latino/a college students. Self-efficacy, particularly academic
self-efficacy, is the confidence that a student has in their ability to complete academic tasks
successfully. More so, students with high self-efficacy perceive academic failures as an
opportunity to learn and grow which in turn motivates them to seek out help from student
support services and faculty (Torres & Solberg, 2001). In fact, in the study conducted by Torres
and Solberg (2001) in which they surveyed 189 Latino/a college students, they found that self-
efficacy was significantly correlated to persistence intentions. Self-esteem and self-efficacy
within the PSC model are influenced through many dynamics found in the college experience
including acculturative stress, imposter syndrome, and stereotype threat.
Acculturative stress.
The transition into college is especially challenging for Latinos who come in often with
different cultural norms than the predominantly White institution (PWI). There is pressure to
abide by White American cultural norms, like individualism and independence from family; in a
20

PWI that Latino students can find stressful (Del Pilar, 2009; Castillo et al., 2015). This is referred
to as acculturative stress. Acculturation involves the psychological process of adopting to
another culture while still retaining their own cultural norms and values (Castillo et al., 2015).
This can be a difficult process when the two cultures are polarized. As a result, Latino students
find it a challenge to conform to PWI’s cultural norms of independence and self-reliance when
their cultural norms value collaboration and a willingness to put family before themselves
(Castillo et al., 2006; Castillo et al, 2015). This acculturative stress has been linked to poor
psychological adjustment which includes depression, in Latino college students (Castillo et al.,
2015). The acculturative process is stressful in both that students must adopt a culture contrary to
their own but also, and just as importantly, they wrestle to hold their heritage and culture tightly
(Castillo et al., 2015). The process of acculturation can make many Latino students feel alienated
and unwelcome (Castillo et al., 2006). A national longitudinal study by the U.S. Department of
Education found that discrimination was one of the major reasons that Latino students drop out
of college (Castillo et al., 2006).
What can make the acculturation process even more stressful is familial intragroup
marginalization. Latino students not only feel pressure from their campus to adopt the campus
culture while maintaining their own Latino heritage; they may also receive pressure from their
own family to not adopt the campus culture (Castillo et el., 2015). In adopting the culture of their
predominantly White institution, they risk distancing themselves from their family who may
consider this adoption of culture as becoming “white-washed” (Castillo, Conoley, Brossart, &
Quiros, 2007). This familial intragroup marginalization is linked to depression in Latino college
students as students struggle to feel like they belong in their two colliding worlds (Castillo et al.,
21

2015). The acculturative process becomes a never-ending tug-of-war between two cultures that
Latino/a college students are trying to consolidate.
Again there are differences to be considered even among the Latino student population.
For example, studies show that Puerto-Ricans and Mexicans who have lived in the U.S. for a
long period of time, experience more psychological problems compared to their counterparts
who were born and raised in their home countries (Del Pilar, 2009). Differences can also be
found between male and females as they are subject to different gender roles. Latino boys, in a
study on Latino adolescents, were found to acculturate more quickly than girls. Additionally,
another study showed that the adoption of another culture by females increased symptoms of
depression more so than in males (Castillo et al., 2015). In order for Latina students’ adoption of
White American cultural norms, they must let go of the gender role expectations strongly found
in Latin American culture which can create tension and division between the student and her
family.
Stereotype threat and imposter syndrome.
Another potential contributor to psychological distress in Latino/a college students is the
sense or belief that they are somehow frauds and have no place, intellectually, in higher
education. This is known as imposter syndrome. Students experiencing imposter syndrome feel
inadequate and the need to prove themselves academically worthy. This results in, as Peteet,
Montgomery, and Weekes (2015) put it, “an unhealthy pressure to succeed” (p. 176). Because
students experiencing imposter syndrome believe that they were admitted to the institution by
sheer luck and not their hard work and ability, they often doubt their own ability to do well in
their college courses. Consequently, these students experience test anxiety, low self-efficacy, and
decreased motivation in their academic endeavors (Peteet et al., 2015). This in turn may result in
22

poor test scores and academic performance, further perpetuating their belief that they are not
academically worthy of being at the institution.
Stereotype threat, similarly, causes students to feel self-doubt and decreased motivation
(Schmader, 2010). Students experiencing stereotype threat feel that they might confirm or
become a part of a negative stereotype associated with their demographic including race and
ethnicity. As a result, students facing stereotype threat are extremely vigilant of their behaviors
out of fear of conforming to these assumptions about their identity and ability. This can affect
students’ memories and academic performance as they become preoccupied with hypervigilance
and anxious thoughts. Students’ attention on a given task can be diverted to hypervigilance thus
impairing their working memory and, consequently, their academic performance (Schmader,
2010). In other words, because the Latino/a students are preoccupied with anxious thoughts and
vigilant of their immediate environment, they may not be focusing on the academic material
presented within the classroom.
Anxiety and depression.
In general, young adults undergo a stage filled with various transitions that result in
higher susceptibility to anxiety and depression (Mayorga et al., 2018). They are entering college,
moving out of their parents’ homes, forming their identities, and having to answer existential
questions regarding their purpose in life. This susceptibility can be heightened among Latino/a
college students who experience acculturative stress (Mayorga et al., 2018). As mentioned
earlier, Latino/a college students at a PWI are often at odds with the dominant culture of the
institution and their ethnic identity and culture. Most often, the values of these cultures differ in
one way or another. Choosing to adopt the dominant culture may cause Latino/a students to feel
like they are abandoning their previous cultural values —whereas students who attempt to retain
23

their cultural values may feel discriminated against or out of place. Other Latino/a students may
feel that they are unable to communicate their experience or feel rejected by their own campus
community. These feelings of discrimination, not belonging, or rejection lead to acculturative
stress (Mena, Padilla, & Maldonado, 1987). Gomez, Miranda, & Palanco (2011) found that
acculturative stress is related to depression, suicidality, and anxiety. What I find is that our
Latino/a college students are pulled in two cultural directions, which leads to feelings of
isolation, and can, in turn, lead to anxiety and depression.
Social
As explained by Castellanos and Gloria (2007), social connections are crucial in helping
Latino/a college students persist and graduate in higher education, especially when they are
connections that share similar values and beliefs. Students who interact with those who share
their principles feel that their own values are validated. Latino/a students at a PWI can find a lack
of these types of connections and, therefore, feel isolated and unvalidated. In the PSC model, this
social component of student success involves students’ relationships with family, peers, faculty
or staff, and the campus environment as a whole. The engagement in each of these social
spheres, or lack thereof, shape the student experience and influence their persistence and success
in higher education. As seen in the PSC model, mentors and family play a significant role in the
Latino/a college student experience. Within the context of these two social relationships are
dynamics like microaggressions, campus environment, first-generation status, familismo, and
faculty-student relationships that influence the social experience of students. I will be discussing
these dynamics in greater detail.
Microaggressions.
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A part of the experience that minority students, not just Latino/a college students,
undergo involves microaggressions at a PWI. As previously defined, microaggressions can be
subtle remarks or behaviors, intentional or unintentional, that send a discriminatory message to
an individual because they belong to a certain group (Von Robertson, Bravo, & Chaney, 2016).
It is a consistent and cruel false message to our students of color that they are somehow inferior.
Comments like, “You speak English so well” or “You don’t act Mexican,” are the kind of subtle
comments I experienced on campus, among classmates, friends, and faculty. Persistent
microaggressions can lead to strain on an emotional, mental, and physical level and, at times,
results in students of color dropping out (Yosso, Smith, Ceja, & Solorzano, 2009). However,
there is also significant data that show that students who responded to microaggressions with
community building and cultural capital, were able to succeed at a PWI despite experiencing
persistent microaggressions (Yosso et al., 2009).
In a study conducted by Yosso et al. (2009), Latino/a college students were interviewed
to discuss their experiences with microaggressions at the interpersonal and institutional level. A
Latino student shared being told by their faculty that they did not have office hours only to
overhear moments later the same instructor arranging an office hour appointment with a White
student. Another Latina student recounted that to her friends, she did not appear Mexican. Upon
telling her friends that she is Mexican, they began to make “Taco Bell jokes.” Microaggressions
that students experienced at an institutional level consisted of little access to faculty members of
color or few resources pulled from the university for cultural programming (Yosso et al., 2009).
Although studies have found that continuous patterns of microaggression lead to some
students of color to experience distress, perform poorly academically, and drop out of college,
Yosso et al. (2009) also found that, Latino/as persisted when they utilized their community
25

cultural wealth for support. Students of color may feel alienated and the sense of comfort and
identity are lost due to these microaggressions and overall acculturative stress. However, Yosso
et al. (2009) explained that research shows Latino/a college students, as a response, building
their own sense of community within the college campus through the creation of friendships with
other students of color, development of cultural student programming, and even creating a home
away from home in their dormitories by cooking culturally authentic meals and decorating the
space with culturally relevant items and images, as a means to culturally “nourish” and
“replenish” themselves. As one Latina student explained in this study, “Back home, school was
school, and home was home. I had my family at home...I didn’t need to reaffirm my culture
when I was at school. But, when I came here, I didn’t have that home...So, in a sense, my Latino
friends here became like a family to me.” (Yosso et al., 2009)
Campus environment.
To better understand the influence that the campus environment has on Latino/a college
students, I will be discussing a term coined by Kiyama, Museus, and Vega (2015): campus racial
culture. Kiyama, Museus, and Vega (2015) define campus racial culture as:
...the collective patterns of tacit values, beliefs, assumptions, and norms that evolve from
an institution’s history and are manifest in its mission, traditions, language, interactions,
artifacts, physical structures, and other symbols, which differentially shape the
experiences of various racial and ethnic groups and can function to oppress racial
minority populations within a particular institution. (p. 30).
The values, beliefs, and norms of an educational institution can be found embedded within the
traditions, practices, and even buildings on campus. Some students may find that these traditions
and practices align with their own social and cultural norms. However, for minority groups,
26

especially within a PWI, the opposite usually occurs: the student finds that the traditions of the
school do not align with or are foreign to their own social and cultural norms, fostering a sense
of alienation or hostility from the institution. This can be perpetuated through racial stereotypes,
low expectations from peers and instructors, being excluded by a Eurocentric curriculum, and
being made the voice of their ethnic group during class discussions and even in conversation
with peers (Kiyama et al., 2015). Furthermore, the lack of representation of Latino/as among the
student, faculty, and staff bodies can add onto a student’s sense that their culture is not valued at
their institution. The situation is further aggravated by the fact that Latino/a students are
expected to assimilate to these institutional norms and find a way to bridge their own cultural
values to that of the campus racial culture. The result of this negative campus environment is a
low sense of belonging, lack of class participation, and decreased persistence and degree
completion (Kiyama et al., 2015). Therefore, it is important to understand how a PWI can
develop a positive campus racial culture that can foster a sense of belonging among its minority
students and thus increase students’ persistence and degree completion.
The Culturally Engaging Campus Environments (CECE) Model illustrates the direct
influence that a CECE can have on a student’s sense of belonging, academic performance, and,
in turn, success in higher education as seen in Figure 4 (Museus, 2014). The CECE model
acknowledges that, though not the focal point of this theory, external influence such as family
dynamics and economic status as well as “precollege inputs” like academic preparation and
demographics also have a role on the student and their success in higher education. However, a
culturally engaging campus community can address students’ needs and engage their cultural
identities (Museus, 2014). In doing so, students feel that their values are validated and

27

that they have a place in the community of their institution.
As seen in Figure 4, a culturally engaging campus environment comprises nine
components: cultural familiarity, culturally relevant knowledge, cultural community service,
meaningful cross-cultural engagement, collectivist cultural orientations, culturally validating
environments, humanized educational environments, proactive philosophies, and holistic
support. Each one of these components can play a significant role in the development of a more
culturally engaging campus environment. Cultural familiarity refers to students being able to
connect with faculty, staff, and students who share similar backgrounds. The CECE model posits
that students who have these connections are more likely to succeed in college (Museus, 2014).
Culturally relevant knowledge gives students the opportunity through culturally relevant courses
to learn more about their ethnic backgrounds and the community that they are from. It allows
them to expand on their existing knowledge of their culture and become aware of current issues
and needs of their community. As a result, students feel that they have an open space on campus
Figure 4: Culturally Engaging Campus Environments Model
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for culturally relevant discussions (Museus, 2014). As mentioned before, oftentimes, Latino/a
college students feel that they need to assimilate and fear losing their connection to their culture.
Providing culturally relevant courses can help students strengthen their connection to their
culture. Having gained further knowledge about the issues and needs of their community,
students can give back through cultural community service. This will not only maintain a sense
of connectedness with the community outside of campus but also within (Museus, 2014).
Meaningful cross cultural engagement involves students from across different ethnic or cultural
backgrounds, giving them the space and opportunity to share their experiences in a productive
and safe way. The CECE model suggests that students who engage in these conversations
become more culturally aware and feel a greater sense of belonging (Museus, 2014). As
previously mentioned, many Latino/a students find themselves at odds with the values found in
most PWIs, which are often more individualistic compared to the collectivistic cultural values of
Latino/a students. The CECE model proposes that an educational institution with a collectivistic
orientation can help such students become more successful. Faculty and staff who cultivate a
culturally validating environment help Latino/a students feel a sense of belonging and reduce the
feeling of hostility and maladjustment to the PWI by showing students that they value their
cultural identities and narratives (Museus, 2014). This can be implemented successfully through
a humanized educational environment in which faculty and staff develop meaningful
relationships with their students, showing Latino/a college students that they are cared for. This
can also be accomplished through proactive approaches, in which faculty and staff go beyond
their call of duty to help connect students to several resources and provide holistic support.
According to the CECE Model, “undergraduates’ access to culturally engaging campus
environments is associated with higher levels of sense of belonging and, in turn, greater
29

likelihood of success in higher education” (Museus, Yi, & Saelua, 2017). A CECE takes the
initiative to connect students to peers and faculty members that share in backgrounds and
experiences. Students can be active change agents in the communities that they come from by
participating in acts of service. Students can expect to exchange different points of views and
learn about their own positions of power and privilege. Lastly, students need a culturally
validating environment within the institution, so that they may feel that the institution they are
attending understands their experiences and is working to provide services to address their
specific needs (Museus et al., 2017). In this way, a university can help students succeed
academically.
First-generation considerations.
First generation college students, that is students whose parents earned a high school
diploma or less, have a unique set of challenges of their own that can affect their mental health
and inhibit them from doing well academically and completing their undergraduate degree
(House, Neal, & Kolb, 2019). Furthermore, it is common to find that Latino college students are
the first in their family to go to college and, therefore, do not have the same social capital and
financial support as other students (Castillo et al., 2015). This may make it more difficult for
Latino students to gain access to resources and navigate the college campus. For first-generation
college students, the transition into a higher education institution is extremely challenging and,
as a result, they are often at higher risk of dropping out. Much of these challenges stem from a
lack of prior knowledge as to what to expect in college courses, what resources are available, and
where they can get access to these resources. Something as simple as knowing what office hours
are and how important they can be, is a piece of knowledge that many first-generation, Latino/a
students lack.
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These challenges also stem from a sense of lack of familial support in the sense that first-
generation college students do not have the luxury of consulting with their parents about what
decisions to make and what strategies to use to be successful in college. As a result, students may
not feel that their parents completely understand their educational experience and that they are
going through the journey alone. As a result, as House et al. found (2019) that first generation
college students experience more stress and mental health concerns than students who are not
first-generation college students. Moreover, first-generation college students fail to feel included
within their college campus community.
Familismo.
An integral part of Latino culture is the sense of familismo. Familismo gives Latino/as a
sense of loyalty, support, and obligation to their family (Villatoro et al., 2014). Familismo places
priority on the collective needs of the family and, consequently, the decisions made by members
of the family are strongly influenced by the opinions and needs of the family. Latino/a college
students, as mentioned previously, struggle in maintaining their cultural norms and values while
adopting those of their PWI, which can create a disconnect between the students and their
family. Moreover, for many first-generation Latino/a students, there can be an added layer of
family achievement guilt. As described by Covarrubias, Romero, and Trivelli (2014), family
achievement guilt is the student’s sense of guilt from having achieved more academic success
than their parents and/or siblings. Students experiencing family achievement guilt try to
minimize their achievement or refrain from speaking about their academic accomplishments. At
the same time, they may no longer be spending a significant amount of time with their family
because of academic obligations or living in their campus dorms. Because familismo places such
high importance on caring for the needs of the family, Latino/a students also struggle with a
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sense of guilt for not being available for their family due to academic obligations. A study by
Covarrubias et al. (2014) found that family-achievement guilt significantly predicts depressive
symptoms among all college students. This positive correlation was even stronger among first-
generation college students.
In this study, interestingly, male students reported more family achievement guilt than
females. Among Latino college students, there is a sense of obligation to support their family
financially. Gregerman (1998) found that Hispanics are likely to leave undergraduate studies or
transfer to a different university due to family obligations. They experience a sense of loyalty
and responsibility to their families. They learn to place their families before themselves and
believe that it is their duty to support their family emotionally, but above that, financially. As a
result, higher education is seen as less of a priority for Latino males who are instead seeking
employment to support their families. In 2007, it was reported that 45.5% of all Latinos between
the ages of 16 and 24 in the United States were employed full-time (Saenz & Ponjuan, 2008). As
Latino students choose to look for a job after high school graduation, fewer are likely to seek
higher education attainment.
However, familismo can also provide support to Latino/a students and, thus, help them
persist and be successful. Sometimes, students’ sense of obligation to support their families
financially, motivates them to graduate so that they can get higher paying jobs and, in that way,
help their family. A study found that 69% of first-generation college students reported that they
are going to college to help their families. On the other hand, only 39% of non-first-generation
college students reported the same (as seen in House et al., 2019). For many Latino/a college
students, college is seen as a ticket to a better life not only for them, but also for their families. In
addition, although first-generation Latino/a college students may not receive academic support
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from their families, they are still able to receive emotional support (House et al., 2019). Family
members can still play a positive role when providing encouragement to students.
Familismo also plays a critical role in how likely Latino/a students are to obtain mental
health services. Oftentimes, they seek emotional support and advice from family members.
Seeking help from others outside of the familial circle is frowned upon and seen as a shameful
display of their personal issues to the public. As the saying goes, “La ropa sucia se lava en casa”
(Dirty clothes are washed at home). The weight of the opinions of family members greatly
influences Latino/as in their perceptions and thoughts. As a result, Latinos who are in need of
mental health services may feel more confident in confiding with a family member and less
likely to be judged. They may want to avoid the stigma that family members perceive in seeking
mental health services. As part of tradition, family members may even recommend alternative
treatments like religious services and folk healers. According to Villatoro et. al. (2014), Latinos
with a strong family support system were more likely to utilize these informal mental health
services. Although they are informal services, they are more salient to the Latino culture.
However, Villatoro et. al. (2014) also found that Latino/as were more likely to seek mental
health services if their family supported or encouraged them to do so. Therefore, familismo,
when paired with positive attitudes toward mental health services, can increase the likelihood of
seeking help among Latino/as.
Faculty-student relationships.
Milem and Berger (1997) pointed out that not only is student involvement important, but
the partnerships that students form inside and outside of the classroom are as equally important.
In forming relationships with faculty, students are better able to connect themselves with the
academic community all the while receiving the academic support they need as they transition
33

from secondary to postsecondary school. According to Merriweather and Morgan (2013), faculty
mentorship provides the student with a positive personal and professional relationship.
Mentoring programs can consist of faculty, student mentors, and supporting staff. O’Keeffe
(2013) stated, “The relationship between a student and a key figure within the university can
ensure that the student does not exit their course prior to completion” (p. 608). Students building
relationships with key figures within the university fosters a sense of belonging and support.
More specifically, Latino/a college students benefit from positive relationships with faculty from
the same racial or cultural background. In a study with undergraduate students who were a part
of a faculty mentoring program, Latino/a students reported feeling more supported when they
were paired with faculty from a similar background (Rios-Ellis et al., 2015). This of course
comes as a challenge since there are far less Latino/a faculty in higher education.
Cultural
Thus far, I observed Latino/a college student mental health through the psychological and
social dimensions of the PSC model. During this time, I found that unique issues like
acculturative stress, imposter syndrome, and family achievement guilt can play a powerful role
in the Latino/a college student experience. In observing these issues, it is evident that these
dimensions are constantly overlapping with the students’ culture. Castellanos and Gloria (2007)
noted two significant facets of the cultural sphere in the PSC model: cultural congruity and
ethnic identity. Acculturation and familismo are also cultural considerations. These topics were
previously discussed in earlier sections. For example, with regards to cultural congruity, the fit
between personal and institutional values, I discussed culturally competent campus environments
and acculturative stress. Acculturative stress comes about when Latino/a students struggle to
maintain their cultural values while also adopting the cultural value of a PWI and is also tied into
34

ethnic identity. Family achievement guilt is strongly connected to Latino/a students because their
culture heavily values familismo. It is a challenge to address one dimension of the PSC model
without involving the others.
Heretofore, this paper has examined research primarily exploring how these
incongruencies of cultural values can harm our students’ mental health. It is important to note,
the purposes of presenting this issue is not to develop a deficit model, but rather to understand
the unique relationship that Latino/a students have with their college campus, their peers, and
faculty, understand their unique experience at a PWI, in order to provide better support that can
help alleviate this distress that can lead to poor mental health. With that being said, in order to be
effective in helping Latino/a college students, it is important to understand the strength of their
cultural values as well and use the essence of those values to provide adequate resources and
programs for students.
Therefore, in this last dimension, I will be observing a body of research that demonstrates
the strengths of Latin culture and how higher educational institutions can utilize these values to
better support their Latino/a student population.
Cultural capital.
The cultural values of our Latino/a students are valuable assets to their academic success
and social mobility. Oftentimes, these values can be perceived as a disadvantage that can lead to
academic failure of students. However, these values can often work as a buffer to challenges and
barriers that Latino/a college students face. Consequently, PWIs can provide critical support to
their Latino/a student populations by integrating these values into their programs and services.
As explained by Matos (2015), the cultural capital of Latino students provides skills and
strengths that can help them thrive in an environment that was not set up with students of color in
35

mind. For example, Latino/a college students possess aspirational capital, in which, in spite of
setbacks and failures, the student is sustained by their hopes and ambitions (Matos, 2015).
Latino/a parents provide students with aspirational capital through sayings that carry cultural
weight and significance such as, “Si se puede! (Yes, we can)” Latino/a parents often encourage
their children to work hard and not give up cultural values that strengthen our Latino/a college
students. Latino/a students also possess navigational and resistant capital which allows students
to be resourceful in environments that may impede their academic success (Matos, 2015). Most
importantly, Latino/a students possess familial capital.
As previously discussed, a deeply-rooted value in Latin culture is familismo. Although I
discussed ways in which familismo can contribute to stress in Latino/a college students, it is
important to note that this value plays a critical role in their success as well. In Matos (2015)
study, Latino/a college students at predominantly White institutions were asked how they felt
parental support and cultural values played a role in their academic success. Many of these
students discussed ways in which their family was a motivator for their persistence and success
in college. Some expressed that they wanted to set the example for their younger siblings, while
others viewed their degree attainment as a means to earn more money and, therefore, improve
the quality of life for themselves and their families.
With regard to parental support, students whose parents did not receive a high level of
education, still received encouragement and support (Matos, 2015). Although the parents were
unable to help directly with work or navigating campus life, they asked about school and offered
words of encouragement. Participants also shared being “bragged” about when they were
excelling in school at family gatherings and parents using themselves as “cautionary tales” of
what life is like without a college degree. When living on campus, participants noted that their
36

parents did everything they could to make their students feel at home, by cleaning the dorm room
on move-in day, packing leftovers, and sending care packages. Lastly, many shared that they
talked with their parents over the phone on a daily basis (Matos, 2015). This familial capital
helps students feel supported and cared for in a place that may otherwise feel alienating and
lonely.

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Chapter 4: Discussion
After organizing, synthesizing, and reviewing all articles, as mentioned before, many of
them touched on multiple areas of the PSC model. There were also common themes related to
generational status, family culture, perceived discrimination and racism, campus environment,
mental health, and student success.
Table 2: All Articles Utilized in this Work, their Authors, and their Themes
Authors and Year Published Themes
Aguinaga (2015) Generational status, academic persistence,
cultural congruity, university environment
Brittian et al (2013) Ethnic affirmation, ethnic centrality, ethnic
identity, mental health
Castellanos & Gloria (2007) Educational success, culture, strength-based
practices, PSC model
Castillo et al (2006) Ethnic identity, university environment,
academic persistence
Castillo et al (2015) Acculturation, acculturative stress
Covarrubias et al (2014) Family achievement guilt, generational status,
mental health, depression, self-esteem
Ellwood (2008) Codeswitching, ethnic identity
Eisenberg et al (2007) Depression and anxiety
Gomez et al (2011) Acculturative stress, perceived discrimination,
suicide attempts
Herman et al (2010) Depression, ethnic and racial differences, help
seeking
House et al (2019) Generational status, mental health, academic
stress, financial stress
Hunt et al (2012) Mental health, resource allocation
Kitzrow (2009) Mental health needs, student counseling
services
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Kiyama et al (2015) Campus racial climate, campus environment,
campus racial culture
Marsh & Wilcoxon (2015) College counseling, mental health, treatment
barriers
Mayorga et al (2008) Acculturative stress, emotion regulation,
anxiety
Museus et al (2017) Sense of belonging, campus environments,
culturally engaging campus environments
Museus (2014) Culturally engaging campus environments,
campus climates
Peteet, Montgomery, & Weekes (2015) Imposter phenomenon, ethnic identity, mental
health
Persson & Zakrisson (2016) Stress
Reynolds, Sneva, & Beehler (2010) Academic motivation, campus environment
Schmader (2010) Stereotype threat, academic performance,
working memory
Schreiner (2018) Thriving, academic success, sense of
belonging
Tienda (2016) Diversity dividend, economic implications,
demographics
Torres & Solberg (2001) Self-efficacy, family support, social
integration
Turner & Llamas (2017) Help-seeking, ethnic identity, mental health
Villatoro, Morales, & Mays (2014) Family culture, mental health, familismo
Von Robertson et al (2016) Critical race theory, racial microaggressions,
student success
Yosso et al (2009) Critical race theory, racial microaggressions,
campus racial climate

39

Reflection
This section examines the central themes and findings of our research concerning the
psychosociocultural model as it relates to the Latino/a college student experience at a PWI and
mental health. I will also integrate my own personal experiences as a first-generation, low-
income, Latina college student at a PWI to exemplify our findings. Firstly, when discussing the
psychological aspect of the PSC model, I discussed mental health issues that are unique to
minority students including Latino/as. These issues included acculturative stress, familial
intragroup marginalization, stereotype threat, and imposter syndrome, all of which are heavily
tied into students’ cultural identity and the struggle to integrate fully to the campus community
because of stark differences in cultural values and social backgrounds. Students feel pressured to
assimilate into the majority White culture, often at the cost of compromising their own cultural
values. Students can also feel isolated or misunderstood since many of their peers and instructors
do not share the same values or background as they do. For myself, I struggled most with
imposter syndrome and this sense of being alone. The institution that I attended had a miniscule
population of Latino/a students. In fact, I met only a handful of Latino/a students during my
entire four years at the institution, many of whom commuted, which made it difficult for me to
maintain my friendships with them since I lived on campus. It was difficult to find my niche on
campus. I found that among the groups of people with whom I spent my time, as much as I
enjoyed getting to know them, I felt that I couldn’t use the same kind of humor, references, or
phrases as I would with my Latino/a friends. I felt that I needed to explain to them why I talked
or behaved a certain way. I tried getting my friends to understand why I went back home every
weekend.
40

I was extremely aware of my Mexicanity, and I sensed that everyone around me was as
well. Whenever I introduced myself to peers, they often asked me where I was from to which I
responded, “Los Angeles.” Of course, that wasn’t the answer they were looking for because they
followed up with, “Well, where are your parents from?” I responded with, “Mexico” which
seemed to confirm their suspicion. It was this frequent exchange that made me feel like what
stood out most to the people around me were my differences and not the commonalities. There
was something foreign about me to my peers that never really made me feel like I was one of
them or a part of the overall culture in my campus community. I found myself being friendly and
talkative with custodial and dining hall personnel because they were the only Latino/as that I
encountered on a daily basis. I spoke Spanish with them and, in this way, I didn’t feel too far
from home. They were my way of feeling anchored to my Latina heritage. It was difficult feeling
that I couldn’t be myself fully and that most of my peers didn’t understand my viewpoints or
have the same familiarity with the foods, shows, and practices that I grew up with. My self-
awareness of my Mexicanity was further heightened by a sense of inferiority caused by imposter
syndrome. I often felt that I didn’t belong and was not on par with the rest of my peers who I
assumed were smarter and more successful than myself. I was afraid that they looked down on
me and assumed I was only admitted as a result of affirmative action. This was a constant
struggle for the majority of my first semester, feeling that I was inadequate and that others
simply saw me as a “dumb Mexican.” It took a lot of self-talk to remind myself of the rigorous
work and sacrifice I made to qualify and earn my spot in the school I was attending. My fear of
what others thought of me became my fuel to prove them and myself wrong.
Furthermore, in many social interactions, I was treated like the voice of my ethnic group,
and often had to deal with microaggressions. For example, on a car ride back to my dorm, as I
41

was getting to know a new friend, he asked me what my ethnicity was. I told him that I am
Mexican, to which he responded, “Oh, so you must have a feisty personality.” I am a soft-
spoken, introvert, but I understood why he would make this assumption. In short, these
experiences with microaggressions, imposter syndrome, and acculturative stress, I struggled to
feel understood and a sense of belonging. I found myself engaging in code switching to adapt to
the social environment I found myself in at a given time. For this reason, I struggled to feel that I
was behaving and speaking authentically. This, ultimately, later led me to develop adjustment
anxiety during the final two years of my undergraduate education. My grades significantly fell,
and I began to lower my course load, struggling to stay motivated in the classroom and in
completing my assignments. Though I sought mental health services in the beginning, it was
short-lived because of the stigma that surrounds mental health in my family. My family seemed
to spiritualize my anxiety and depression, and, as a result, I felt guilty for struggling emotionally.
With regard to the social and cultural aspect of the PSC model, the body of research
primarily discussed the importance of the students’ interactions with the campus environment,
this includes relationships with faculty, staff, and peers as well as the physical buildings,
traditions, and practices in the institution. Conversely, another theme that emerged was that of
how family relationships can play a large role in the academic experience and mental health of
our Latino/a student population. I understand that on the one hand, Latino/a students may
struggle to feel proud of their educational accomplishments due to family achievement guilt and
may instead prefer not to talk about their academic experiences and struggles with their family.
Students may not feel that they can seek academic advice from their parents, especially if they
are the first in their family to go to college. A sense of familial obligation can place pressure on
students to prioritize work and the financial well-being of their family over their own academic
42

success and well-being. On the other hand, familismo is shown to demonstrate significant
support and encouragement for Latino/a students. Many students see academic achievement in
higher education as a tool for social and economic mobility that will not only benefit themselves
but their families as well. For many students, making their families proud and helping them
through their education is a powerful driving force for their resilience in higher education.
Although first-generation college students may not feel that they can seek academic advice from
their parents, our results show that parents still make other efforts of encouraging their children
through helping them in move-in day, sending care packages, and staying in constant
communication.
At the time of my undergraduate studies, my campus was very engaged with student life,
athletics, and volunteer opportunities. Though I struggled with my own internal insecurities as a
result of acculturative stress and imposter syndrome, campus life kept me involved and
motivated. My higher educational institution is deeply focused on serving the community, a
value that I hold very dear to my heart. Through various programs and volunteer opportunities, I
was able to work at a preschool for underserved children, assist with a non-profit organization
that teaches young minority children on how to cook and eat healthy. I volunteered abroad in
Guatemala and Oahu, addressing issues of injustice and inequality. Because of this, not only did
I commit myself to work that I found fulfilling, but I also felt that my campus shared my value
for service.
The school’s engagement in athletics and school pride also resonated with my own
competitive spirit and pride. Being at the football games made me feel like I was part of the
team, part of the same spirit of pride. My institution was also located in a predominantly Latino
community, despite itself being a PWI. The proximity to local stores, restaurants, and
43

neighborhoods that pertained to my culture also helped me feel a little closer to home. In fact, the
main center for this school included familiar types of restaurants and markets that were
affordable to me. Something so small and mundane, for me, connected me to the lifestyle that I
was more familiar with.
It was also helpful to have a support system back home. Although my parents were not
familiar with the college experience nor were they entirely thrilled to have their hija move out of
the house to live in a dorm, they were always willing to help in what they could which included
bringing me food from home in Tupperware, calling me throughout the week to check in, and
offering words of encouragement when I was faced with a challenge. However, when
considering the facets of my family circle that were negatively affecting my mental health, I can
recall my feelings of immense guilt when I was unable to attend a family event because of a class
assignment. I began to struggle my second year when I began to question my choice in major and
career path. I felt so uncertain and afraid of the uncertainty. This was made worse by the fact that
my parents wanted me to choose a career that is generally known to pay well despite not
knowing or understanding the plethora of career paths and fields of studies that exist. During this
time, I was also experiencing anxiety and depression. I, myself, was not knowledgeable about
mental health issues and what to do when facing them, let alone my parents who turned to our
religion for an explanation. This was a difficult time in which I felt misunderstood and guilt-
ridden. It wasn’t until my mother suggested therapy that I decided to address my mental health
appropriately. This is similar to many Latino/a students who are deeply influenced by their
family’s views and attitudes on mental health care services.
To be sure, this study in no way encapsulates every aspect of the Latino/a college student
experience. As mentioned previously, even within the Latino/a college student population there
44

are significant differences that can influence their experience, mental health, and success on
campus. Therefore, I recognize that my research is limited in addressing other important
identities and narratives that should not be overlooked. I am encouraged and encourage the rest
of the community of scholars to investigate. It is pertinent to understand how these different
experiences shape the world of our college students and how this may affect their mental health,
and, subsequently, their academic success.
Recommendations for Programs and Future Research
In this wealth of literature, there remains so much more to be learned about the Latino/a
college student experience and how their campus environment can play a crucial role in their
mental health. Though Latino/a college students may experience additional stressors due to the
pressures of acculturation, stereotype threat, imposter syndrome, and may also wrestle with
additional socioeconomic barriers, they also have a wealth of cultural and social capital that they
derive from family and community building. We see that even when away from home, Latino/a
students cope with the culture shock, microaggressions, and find support when they connect with
colleagues and faculty who share their background. It is important that higher educational
institutions, especially predominantly White institutions, recognize this cultural and familial
strength and provide programs and resources that utilize these strengths. This is further
exemplified during my discussion of Culturally Engaging Campus Environments in which
institutions that created a positive campus racial culture were able to cultivate a deeper sense of
belonging in students.
Using the CECE model, I believe is crucial in the future development of not only
programs and services on campus for our students of color, but in the overall transformation of
the culture that so often perpetuates microaggressions, acculturative stress, and feelings of
45

alienation. It is also this model and its implementation that should be further studied to better
understand its impact on Latino/a college students’ sense of belonging and academic success.

46

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Abstract (if available)

Abstract Latino/a college students who attend predominantly White institutions (PWIs) not only experience the common stressors of time management and the like, but can also experience imposter syndrome, stereotype threat, and microaggressions that deeply impact their ethnic identity, sense of belonging, and academic performance. Understanding this is of utmost importance to help create programs, services, and a college campus environment that cultivates belonging and community for Latino/a college students. In this narrative literature review, I will be discussing numerous factors through the lens of the psychosociocultural (PSC) model that contribute to the Latino/a college student experience, its impact on their mental health, and recommendations for future research and programming to help meet the needs of our Latino/a student population.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Carreon, Rebecca (author)

Core Title The psychosociocultural model as it relates to Latino/a college students and their academic success: a literature review

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Master of Education

Degree Program Educational Counseling

Publication Date 07/28/2020

Defense Date 07/27/2020

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag acculturative stress,College students,first-generation,Latino/Latinas,Mental Health,OAI-PMH Harvest,predominantly White institutions,psychosociocultural model

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Advisor Tobey, Patricia (committee chair), Seli, Helena (committee member), Venegas, Kristan (committee member)

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