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The impact of cultural wealth and role models on the transformation of an individual’s future self

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The impact of cultural wealth and role models on the transformation of an individual’s future self

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The Impact of Cultural Wealth and Role Models on the Transformation of an Individual’s
Future Self
by
Norman Hopson

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

August 2022

© Copyright by Norman Hopson 2022
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Your Full Name certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Cathy Krop
Alan Green
Monique Datta, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2022

iv
Abstract
Research indicates that African American high school graduates have performed at a level falling
short of performance standards by not having the English, math, and reading skills and
knowledge needed to qualify for and succeed in college. The cognitive factors that impact
readiness include annual performance and educational standards, academic rigor, and in-class
performance. More importantly, are how non-cognitive factors such as school environmental
factors, culture, and socioeconomic factors, along with how accessible and non-accessible role
models impact college readiness. Using Bandura's social cognitive and Yosso’s cultural wealth
conceptual framework theories, the purpose of this qualitative study was to explore the
perspectives and cultural wealth of key stakeholders on the factors that impact college and career
readiness, emphasizing the influence of role modeling. This study looked at the dynamics of
modeling behavior and the relationships between the social environment, school environment,
and academic factors and the impact of these factors on student preparedness. Key findings
revealed that although accessible role models were the primary influencers, participants indicated
that inaccessible individuals, such as celebrities, professional athletes, or politicians, also
influence the behaviors and aspirations of African American youth. Findings also support how
students connect to role models, mentors, or influencers, helping to promote positive academic
outcomes and decision-making. Positive modeling is essential to motivating students for success.
Role models that provide supportive but honest feedback foster positive self-perceptions and
self-concepts, promoting confidence among African American students.
Keywords: African American students, role modeling, academic support, college
readiness, career opportunities

v
Dedication
To my wife, without your continued support and consistent encouragement, this would not have
been possible. You have endured my constant flux of change and I am blessed to have you in my
life and by my side. I love you!

To my father and mother, who are proud of my achievements and have helped to establish the
foundation for my success throughout my life. I thank you! A special thanks to my mother who
sacrificed everything! Despite your physical and mental status, I know your essence is still there.

To my children, everything I do is for you, to set an example for what is possible. You have the
support and potential to realize your dreams and goals. Go do it!

vi

Acknowledgements
I would like to extend my deepest gratitude and thanks to Dr. Datta for her invaluable
supervision, support, and friendship during the course of my EdD program. Her dedication and
commitment are genuine and unmatched. You are stuck with me! I would like to thank my
committee members, Dr. Green and Dr. Krop for the patience and extremely beneficial guidance
that helped shape the direction of my study. Also, to my peers and the various teaching faculty at
Rossier, I thank you for the experiences shared. These experiences have played a key role in my
overall development and enrichment throughout this program. Lastly, my appreciation is
extended to my family and friends for their encouragement and support through my studies.

vii

Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ vi
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. x
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ xi
Context and Background of the Problem ............................................................................ 2
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions .................................................................. 5
Importance of the Study ...................................................................................................... 6
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology .................................................... 7
Review of the Literature ..................................................................................................... 8
Historical Context ................................................................................................... 9
Academic Factors Affecting College and Career Readiness ................................ 14
School Environment Factors ................................................................................. 21
Behavior and Discipline Practices ........................................................................ 23
Lack of Equal Resources ...................................................................................... 25
Social Environment Impact on College and Career Readiness ............................ 27
Modeling and Role Models ................................................................................... 29
Types of Role Models ........................................................................................... 32
Role Models and Media ........................................................................................ 35
Media and Social Responsibility .......................................................................... 38
Conceptual Framework ......................................................................................... 39
Social Cognitive Theory and College and Career Readiness ............................... 39
Literature Review Conclusion .......................................................................................... 42
Methodology ..................................................................................................................... 42

viii

Research Setting................................................................................................................ 44
Participants ........................................................................................................................ 44
Instrumentation ................................................................................................................. 45
Data Collection Procedures ............................................................................................... 46
Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 47
Credibility and Trustworthiness ........................................................................................ 48
Findings............................................................................................................................. 48
Participants ............................................................................................................ 48
Raw Data and Analysis ......................................................................................... 50
Descriptive Data.................................................................................................... 50
Thematic Analysis ................................................................................................ 50
Research Question 1 ............................................................................................. 53
Research Question 2 ............................................................................................. 63
Research Question 3 ............................................................................................. 70
Additional Finding: Community Cultural Wealth Is King ................................... 74
Afrofuturism ..................................................................................................................... 78
Summary of the Findings .................................................................................................. 80
Recommendations ............................................................................................................. 86
Cultural Training Certification Programs ............................................................. 86
Entertainment Social Responsibility and DEI Consultant to Content and
Broadcast Companies............................................................................................ 88
Mentor Program for African American Youth ..................................................... 90
Limitations and Delimitations ........................................................................................... 91
Recommendations for Future Research ............................................................................ 92
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 92
References ..................................................................................................................................... 95

ix

Appendix A: Definitions ............................................................................................................. 116
Appendix B: The Researcher ...................................................................................................... 118
Appendix C: Protocols ................................................................................................................ 119
Appendix D: Ethics ..................................................................................................................... 122
Appendix E: Afrofuturism Image and Definition ....................................................................... 123

x

List of Tables
Table 1: Participant Demographics ........................................................................................... 49
Table 2: Thematic Analysis with Coding and Themes ............................................................. 52
Table C1: Interview Protocal Questions .................................................................................... 120

xi

List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................... 43

1

The Impact of Cultural Wealth and Role Models on the Transformation of an Individual’s
Future Self
Research indicates that African American students are not academically performing as
well as their White peers and lagging behind in college graduation enrollment and completion
rates (American College Test [ACT], 2018; Perna, 2000). A key factor to consider is whether
African American students are college and career ready at the time of graduation. The definition
of college readiness refers to high school graduates having the English, math, and reading skills
and knowledge needed to qualify for and succeed in college (ACT, 2010; Conley, 2008). College
and career readiness can lead to a career that equips students with the skills and knowledge
necessary to enter the workforce earning a livable wage, and, in turn, strengthens the economy
(College Board, 2017). If college readiness is not addressed, economic gaps may widen between
urban and non-urban communities, creating challenges for industries in finding qualified career-
ready candidates (Knight-Manuel et al., 2019). In addition, future students’ college readiness is a
concern among education leaders (Malin et al., 2017).
African American students are graduating high school ill-prepared for college and
careers. Evidence supports that these students have not met the needed math, English, science,
and reading scores, which are considered essential motivation factors impacting college
enrollment (ACT, 2018). Only 36% of African American students throughout U.S. high schools
choose to enroll in a 2 or 4-year college institution post-high school graduation (de Brey et al.,
2019). In fact, researchers from ACT report that of all the graduates who took the ACT in 2018,
38% were prepared for college curriculum, which is down from that of the 2017 graduates. This
benchmark reduces to 11% prepared in 2018 when looking at the college and career readiness of
African American students (ACT, 2018).
2

Additional cognitive factors that influence college readiness may include in-class
performance, teacher evaluations or perspectives, low expectations, or stereotypes (Williams et
al., 2018). Williams et al. also mentioned non-cognitive factors might include socioeconomic
status, social constructs and biases, unfair discipline practices, or culture and environment.
Caviglia-Harris and Maier (2020) suggested how overcoming non-cognitive barriers play a role
in academic success. Caviglia-Harris and Maier reported that conscientiousness is a major
determining factor related to academic performance. Conscientiousness is a characteristic that
reflects the diligence and an attitude of wishing to succeed. Many African American high school
students need the encouragement of educators, family, peers, and their community to gain
conscientiousness. Role models and mentors are often viewed as individuals of influence that can
encourage youth to follow a path of success (Johnson et al., 2020). The researchers explained
how role models and mentors continue to be viewed as a remedy for young Black youth and their
academic and social challenges in education and socially. Yarrow et al. (2020) highlighted the
need for mentors to motivate African American youth and promote college readiness. Yarrow et
al. explained how mentors from families, early exposure to college, and activities that promote
self-motivation help inspire youth to attend college. The following study focuses on the cognitive
and noncognitive factors, specifically targeting the impact that modeling has on the college and
career readiness of African American students.
Context and Background of the Problem
For the purpose of this study, college and career readiness is defined as the awareness and
cultural wealth of an individual, that mentally prepares to navigate the complexities of future
3

opportunities and goals. The researcher intentionally decided upon this definition as the
individual’s self-perception is essential to personal, academic, and professional success.
The lack of college enrollment of African American high school graduates is not a recent
problem. Research indicates that African American high school graduates have performed at a
level falling short of performance standards, with these students meeting readiness benchmarks
ranging from 3% in 2007 to 6% in 2016 (Asamsama et al., 2016; Laird & Ghering, 2016). In
2019, only 45% of all students that took the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) indicated readiness
for college (College Board, 2019). Those students who were successful in meeting standard
benchmarks are more than likely to have completed four years of English, three years of math,
three years of natural sciences, and three years of social sciences in high school (College Board,
2019). Although African American students who took the SAT have shown gains, this group still
performs well behind other groups in college enrollment rates.
College readiness is associated with high school graduates having the sufficient English,
math, and reading skills needed to qualify for and succeed in college, based on standardized
testing and in-class performance. Historically, a high percentage of African Americans high
school graduates struggle to meet current performance standards on the SAT and ACT college
exams, which are considered important indicators for college readiness (ACT, 2018; College
Board, 2019). Looking at results for both exams, only 15.6% (SAT) and 11% (ACT) of African
American test takers demonstrate college readiness (ACT, 2018; College Board, 2019). These
percentages indicate a large number of African American students still struggle to meet testing
performance standards. Educators understand the importance of classroom performance and the
pedological efforts needed to prepare African American students in the skills needed (Duncheon
& Muñoz, 2019). Classroom performance and grades rely on teacher judgment and are assigned
4

based on several tasks measured over time such as tracking academic knowledge, skills,
behaviors, and effort (Bowers, 2011; Brookhart et al., 2016; Farkas et al., 1990; Kelly, 2008). In
many cases, teachers are faced with inflexibility in instructional decision making and the threat
of sanctions by not teaching to the test (Williams et al., 2018). Teaching to the test narrows the
focus of classroom practices and relies on remediation skills-based instruction versus critical
thinking, which negatively impacts cognitive development of African American students
(Williams et al., 2018). This highlights the challenges in what educators have identified as a lack
of strategic or coordinated efforts to help develop the cognitive skills that play an essential role
in preparing these students for success (Duncheon & Muñoz, 2019).
In addition to the college readiness skills discussed, student motivation can impact a
student’s decision to enroll in college. Motivation is defined as the process that initiates, guides,
and sustains goal-directed activities (Martinez et al., 2020; Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2020).
Motivation consists of factors that are personal in nature which influences choice, effort,
persistence, and achievement (Martinez et al., 2020). Two areas that can impact motivation are
the social constructs within media and the social environment (Bandura, 1989; Challenger et al.,
2020; Moody, 2020). Motivation is often viewed as a key factor in college readiness and
academic success (Turner, 2019).
Social constructs, such as in media, can influence the motivation of African American
youth (Challenger et al., 2020). In many forms of media, African Americans and other
underrepresented groups are portrayed as violent or at-risk students. These stereotypes and labels
can influence the perceptions of underrepresented students within public schools, decreasing
self-efficacy and lowering academic motivation (Challenger et al., 2020). These perceptions can
cause teachers to view African American youth as poor academic performers and unable to meet
5

classroom expectations (Lynn et al., 2010; Uwah et al., 2008). Negative reinforcement impacts
motivation and creates a distance between African American youth, their schools, and their
communities (Challenger et al., 2020).
The social environment, which includes where one lives, cultural factors, and the groups
and interactions to which people belong, influence and motivate African American students to
enroll in college (Bandura, 1989). Bandura’s social cognitive theory underscores the importance
that the social environment of an individual plays in behavioral adjustments and motivation
(Bandura, 1989). The behavioral and motivational adjustments by the individual are guided by
what Bandura describes as observational learning and role modeling, the process in which people
learn from one another (Bandura, 1989, 2001, 2005). Thus, a role model can be someone in an
individual’s social environment that can impact behavior, motivation, or self-perceptions. Moody
(2020) noted that role model influence and participation from teachers, mentors, and family
members of African American students directly relate to college enrollment and student
motivation. Key studies have shown that role model involvement help motivate and increase the
odds of students’ enrollment into both 2 and 4 year universities regardless of discrimination,
socioeconomic disparities, and behavioral challenges (Isik et al., 2018; Moody, 2020). In
addition, media and technology’s environmental influences, based explicitly on entertainment,
can play an essential role in motivating students to enroll in college (Cordero-Gutiérrez &
Lahuerta-Otero, 2019).
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore the perspectives and cultural wealth
of key stakeholders on the factors that impact college and career readiness as defined by the
researcher, emphasizing the influence of role modeling. These stakeholders include professionals
6

that work in the entertainment and media arenas. These stakeholders are knowledgeable of the
factors that influence college and career readiness among African American high school
students, including the influences of role models. The goal was to identify how to inform and
motivate more African American high school seniors to pursue higher education. These efforts
may lead to increased earning potential, diverse employment opportunities over time, and may
help improve socioeconomic positioning. The following research questions guided this study.
1. What are the barriers African American students experience in order to be college and
career-ready?
2. What modeling behaviors impact the college and career readiness of African
American students?
3. How do role models support the college and career readiness of African American
students?
Importance of the Study
The lack of college and career readiness among African American students is essential to
address, as it will help identify ways to improve successful transitions of these students into
college as well as to become contributing members of society (Bryant, 2015; Knight-Manuel et
al., 2019). Role models are a key to achieving these goals (Isik et al., 2018; Moody, 2020).
African American students greatly benefit from having a strong support network that includes
role models to provide educational encouragement and helps students stay focused on their
future plans (Boboc & Nordgren, 2013). Students who have access to role models who they
personally know and can identify with experience reduced risky behaviors, improved grade
performance, and increased self-esteem (Yancey, 2002).
7

Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
This study uses Bandura’s (2001) social cognitive theory (SCT) as a basis to explore
college readiness among African American high school students. Often used to examine
cognition, motivation, and behavior, the SCT supports highlighting and understanding the
importance of social modeling on influencing and motivating student learning and self-regulation
(Koenka, 2020). The SCT is used to understand the intentionality around self-development,
adaption, and change and how the environmental, behavioral, and cognitive factors influence
motivation around this change (Bandura, 2005). The study also, uses the cultural wealth
framework. Cultural wealth is the collection of knowledge, skills, abilities, and contacts used by
communities of color to navigate the challenges of racism and oppression (Yosso, 2005).
Environmental influences are supported by SCT, which examines the mental perspective
on human functioning that is influenced by the social environment and plays a significant role in
motivation (Bandura, 2001; Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2020). Student learning takes place over
time in a variety of settings (home, school, media) and other cultural settings (Brizio et al.,
2015). These social and cultural constructs play a diverse role in establishing student self-
perception (Brizio et al., 2015). In addition, students who have experienced or have been
exposed to negative modeling in their social or personal environment create coping strategies
that directly impact motivation and self-efficacy (Reid‐Quiñones et al., 2011; Schunk &
DiBenedetto, 2020). Self-efficacy and self-regulation play a key role in motivation and self-
regulation, as it helps one to persevere despite obstacles and failures (Bandura, 2001; Schunk &
DiBenedetto, 2020).
This study is based upon qualitative research principles. Qualitative research studies are
interested in understanding the individuals’ or stakeholders’ interpretations and meanings of their
8

experiences, as well as any constructs that exist in their worlds (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The
goal was to examine the educators' perspectives and experiences on how modeling and role
models, as a component of SCT, impact the college and career readiness of African American
students.
Review of the Literature
In 2018, the American College Test (ACT) reported that only 38% of high school
graduates in the United States demonstrated college and career readiness. Among these statistics,
African American students are not meeting the benchmark English, math, reading, and science
scores considered essential for college enrollment (ACT, 2018). Although African American
students may benefit from having a strong support network, a gap in literature exists regarding
the perspectives of key influencers and stakeholders concerning the career and college readiness
of African American high school students. This study aims to address this gap in literature.
This literature review is presented in several sections and looks to review the factors that
influence college and career readiness among African American high school students. The
review begins by looking at the historic context and legal history around the laws and
educational movements that have influenced college-readiness over time. This section is
followed by research surrounding academic factors that examine how policies impact the way
educators and school systems track achievement of proficiency with performance measures and
tests. Next, school environmental factors are examined to understand potential influences on
student self-perception and self-efficacy. Lastly, the literature review presents how culture,
socioeconomic factors, and role models, impact college readiness.
9

Historical Context
Academic rigor, classroom performance, and testing all play an important role in African
American student college and career readiness. These factors impact college enrollment and
graduation rates, as well. This section is a review of academic historical factors that determine if
students are college and career-ready, specifically looking at the legal history of equitable
education, annual performance measurements, and required standardized testing. Background
information is provided about defining historical moments as they relate to African American
students and education. Information is also included on African American students and
assessments. The research around these academic factors presents influences that affect the
college and career readiness of African American students.
Equitable educational opportunities have influenced the college and career readiness of
African American students. The legal history provides information on the legalities and
educational acts to support the rights of all students to public education (Office for Civil Rights
[OCR], 2020; Walsh, 2019). State and local governments are obligated to provide fair, equitable,
and quality education to all students (OCR, 2020; Walsh, 2019). College and career readiness are
a central focus for educational reform, however many discrepancies surrounding this readiness
can be linked back to inequitable education and resources pre-civil rights movement. The
following subsections present movements and laws that have prompted change for equal and
equitable access to quality education.
Civil Rights Movement and Desegregation of Schools
A key goal of the civil rights movement was to desegregate public schools across the
United States, ensuring fair access to quality education and resources (Library of Congress,
2020). African American lawyers from the National Association for the Advancement of
10

Colored People (NAACP) brought lawsuits to court, arguing every child, regardless of race,
deserved a quality education (Library of Congress, 2020). In 1954, lawsuits and the landmark
Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education barred segregation in schools (Library of
Congress, 2020). Hale (2018) explained that the Civil Rights Movement highlighted the need for
equal funding for quality education, including access to the same resources that had previously
been limited to White schools. Yavuz (2016) suggested that efforts of leaders in education to
“utilize effective educational policies and fiscal and human resources to improve the college and
career readiness of underprivileged urban students could be considered the Civil Rights
movement of the 21st century” (p. 2). Yavuz indicated that the current lack of college readiness
and success among African American high school students is a social justice issue and a problem
that the U.S. educational system needs to address. The Civil Rights Movement was the beginning
of many actions taken to support equal educational opportunities for all students.
Elementary and Secondary Education Act
The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965 was the start of many
defining historical moments as they relate to African American students and education. In its
beginning, the U.S. federal government was not involved in the nation’s education system
(Casalaspi, 2017). Before 1965, most educational responsibilities fell on the state levels of
government. Frankenberg and Taylor (2015) explained how the Elementary and Secondary
Education Act (ESEA) of 1965 transpired after the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The ESEA
provided federal funding to schools that were neglected in the past, and the funding became a
critical means for desegregating schools (Frankenberg & Taylor, 2015). President Lyndon B.
Johnson signed ESEA into law, which provided resources to ensure disadvantaged students had
equitable access to quality education (Casalaspi, 2017). ESEA funds were authorized for
11

educational support such as professional development and resources such as instructional
materials, educational programs, and promotions for parental involvement (Casalaspi, 2017;
McGuinn & Hess, 2005; Reed 2014). The ESEA was the first of many acts to yield needed
funding to struggling schools and underserved populations. Along with desegregation, many
White school systems faced educating African American students from impoverished
neighborhoods (Frankenberg & Taylor, 2015). The ESEA funding was especially beneficial to
poor communities with a high population of African American students.
Equal Educational Opportunities Act
In 1974, the Equal Educational Opportunities Act (EEOA) was passed by Congress.
Congress passed this law mandating “no state could deny equal educational opportunity to any
individual by, among other things, the failure of an educational agency to take appropriate action
to overcome language barriers that impede equal participation by students in an instructional
program” (Walsh, 2019, p. 1). In Section 1703, the Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974
set a foundation among school systems that “No State shall deny equal educational opportunity
to an individual on account of his or her race, color, sex, or national origin.” This section also
noted that any school system that practiced deliberate segregation was to take affirmative action
to remove the “vestiges of a dual school system” (EEOA, § 1703). Although this act did not
specifically address college and career readiness, the law set the stage for equal access to
education for all students and discouraged the practice of separate but equal school systems.
A Nation at Risk
In 1983, President Ronald Reagan’s education secretary, Terrel H. Bell, presented a key
report, A Nation at Risk, presenting disturbing statistics concerning the U.S. public educational
system (U.S. Department of Education, 1983). Gardner (1983) explained that researchers behind
12

the report investigated the declining status of the U.S. educational system, identified problem
areas, and presented recommendations to address educational concerns. Although based on half-
truths and questionable data, A Nation at Risk report presented the United States with an
imminent danger of economic decline or technological inferiority based on a failing educational
system (Floden et al., 2020). Like other educational reforms, A Nation at Risk was based on
policies and politics (Teasley, 2019). Often, education reform efforts failed to examine the
educational needs of African American communities. According to Teasley (2019), educational
funding has shifted from equitable distribution and an emphasis on rural and poor communities
to a funding system supporting measuring educational achievement.
No Child Left Behind
The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 presented a need to ensure equal
educational access to all students. NCLB reauthorized the Elementary and Secondary Education
Act (1965) and included suggestions and recommendations to improve the progress and
achievement of students. NCLB reauthorized the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of
1965 and emphasized a need to improve student’s educational progress with disabilities and
students at risk of being left behind. Students with disabilities and African American students in
poor-performing school systems were able to benefit from these changes to educational policy
(Steinberg & Quinn, 2017). The NCLB held schools, districts, and states accountable (Jennings
& Lauen, 2016). Although disabilities were one of the main concerns of NCLB, educational
systems were expected to improve student achievement among all students.
Common Core State Standards
In 2010, the lack of consistency among state-level educational standards was addressed
with a nationwide set of Common Core State standards (CCSS). CCSS represented a necessary
13

shift away from dissimilar content guidelines in the core subject areas of language arts and math
(Porter et al., 2011). CCSS presented an opportunity to create a national curriculum that would
benefit all students. Porter et al. (2011) listed four benefits to having a national curriculum,
including a) shared expectations, b) focus, c) efficiency, and d) quality of assessments. Some
educators feel the CCSS have created a new test-centered curriculum that focuses more on
testing than learning. Marks and Reid (2013) stated:
Many reformers cite the lack of resources and innovation as their rationale for pursuing
change in schools serving Black students. The success of these reforms is typically
measured by state standardized test scores, high school graduation rates, and for a
minority of high schools, college acceptance rates. (p. 218)
CCSS focuses on academic achievement and college completion, however more testing and
assessments became part of the national curriculum. Wasserberg (2017) conducted a study
examining the perspectives of high-achieving African American students and reported
participant students identified feeling stereotyped as academically inferior and were less likely to
view standardized testing of the CCSS as a valid measurement of achievement.
Every Student Succeeds Act
Another measure taken to ensure equal educational opportunities for all students is the
Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA). According to the United States Department of Education
(2019), the ESSA was the act formerly known as NCLB. The ESSA ensures four basic
principles, including a) stronger accountability for better academic results, b) increased
flexibility and local control, c) options for parents of students, and d) emphasis on evidence-
based solutions (ESSA, 2015). One of the largest federal education bills ever passed, ESSA
established federal spending on schools and represented a national commitment to equal
14

education (Darrow, 2016). The ESSA contains a prominent emphasis on college and career
readiness that was lacking from NCLB (Hackmann et al., 2019). Hackmann et al. noted that state
educational agencies (SEAs) were required to address college and career readiness based upon
the U.S. Department of Education’s “categorization and integration of ESSA components into
six sections: long-term goals; consultation and performance management; academic assessments;
accountability, support, and improvement for schools; supporting excellent educators; and
supporting all students” (p. 2). This approach resulted in individual states being held
accountable, adapting standards to promote educational practices that support college and career
readiness.
Academic Factors Affecting College and Career Readiness
There are many academic factors that impact college and career readiness. The following
section discusses annual performance and educational standards and how academic rigor, in-
class performance, and testing all play an important role in African American student college and
career readiness. These factors also impact college enrollment and graduation rates.
As a result of laws and policies put into place to support equal education, educators and
school systems are now mandated to meet specific standards and report student progress and
achievement of proficiency with performance measures and tests. The U.S. government
recognizes high school graduates’ college and career readiness as an essential measure of
educational success (U.S Department of Education, 2020). However, historical trends in
reporting support how high school graduates have struggled to meet annual performance
standards that affect college readiness. Yavuz (2016) explained that the lack of college access for
high-poverty school districts led the U.S. Department of Education to focus on reforms ensuring
every high school student graduating is college and career ready.
15

The ESSA transitioned the U.S. government educational responsibilities to individual
states to establish accountability measures (U.S. Department of Education, 2019). Under the
ESSA, each state is required to provide all students with academic standards that support
preparedness for college and careers (U.S. Department of Education, 2019). Annual performance
tests and assessments on the four core subjects (math, science, history, and language arts) are
used to identify a lack of college and career readiness among prospective high school graduates
(Mann & Martin, 2016). Annual performance measures may include prep-testing programs, in-
class performance, and rigorous coursework within the core subject (Rimfeld et al., 2019).
However, many high school graduates fail to meet the minimum performance standards of math,
English, science, and reading (ACT, 2018). Successful performance and academic achievement
in these four core subjects are considered significant indicators for college readiness (ACT,
2018). Therefore, access to prep-testing programs is essential to the success of underrepresented
students (Williams et al., 2016). The researchers noted the importance of providing equal access
to prep-testing programs and offering tutoring and support for coursework in core subjects such
as math, English, and science. These core subjects are part of the annual performance evaluations
used to determine college and career readiness (Williams et al., 2016).
The Early Assessment Program (EAP) test is an annual performance test that provides the
state of California with indicators of college readiness. The EAP helps identify high school
juniors deemed college-ready for the California State University system (Houser & An, 2015).
Using data from the EAP, the researchers analyzed the properties of academic and demographic
factors. Houser and An (2015) reported how the EAP results are designed to help educators
improve coursework alignment using the assessment results. In addition to annual performance
assessments, and many colleges require standardized testing.
16

Standardized Testing
Standardized testing is often used to measure college and career readiness. Throughout
the history of educational reform, many measures have introduced or supported the idea of
standardized testing to compare student achievement and hold schools accountable for higher
standards of teaching (Churchill, 2015). Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and
Careers (PARCC) and Smarter Balanced Assessment Systems (SBAC) are two key consortia,
established to help states to assess college and career readiness (Olson, 2019; Zhang & Kang,
2016). Addressing a need for national learning standards, Slover and Muldoon (2020) explained:
When the U.S. Department of Education awarded $350 million to two consortia [PARCC
and the Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium] of states in September 2010 to
develop new assessments measuring performance of the Common Core State Standards,
state commissioners of education called it a milestone in American education. (para. 1)
Prior to CCSS, many college placement tests measured knowledge of core content. Since CCSS,
Slover and Muldoon (2020) noted that many standardized tests measure a range of knowledge
and skills that are essential to college and career readiness. Over the years, states have opt-out of
the PARCC and SBAC, due to political factors and communication challenges at the state levels
(Slover & Muldoon, 2020). States that elected to opt out, have spent millions to develop new
assessments or have decided to use independent national tests systems such as the ACT and SAT
(Olson, 2019; Slover & Muldoon, 2020; Zhang & Kang, 2016). Regardless of the origins of the
assessment, many African American students are at a disadvantage when taking these exams.
African American students from underserved and underrepresented areas may not experience the
same level of test preparation and college preparation as more affluent schools (Ford & Helms,
2012). The researchers explained:
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Given the different lived experiences of African Americans and Whites, the notion that
tests are colorblind, neutral, and unbiased measures is a fallacy. And adopting an
assumption of equal opportunity to learn is naïve and an excuse to absolve decision-
makers of accountability for the improper use and abuse of tests. (p. 187)
Despite unequal access to college preparation, the tests are designed with the well-prepared
student as a basis. Standardized tests are academic instruments administered to high school
students under controlled conditions (U.S. Department of Education, 2020). Testing is used to
evaluate students’ capabilities, including intelligence, cognitive skills, and aptitude. The U.S.
education system uses standardized testing to assist with college admissions and program
placement (U.S. Department of Education, 2020). The most common standardized tests given for
college and career readiness include the American College Testing Program (ACT) and the
Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT).
According to the U.S. Department of Education (2020), the ACT is a test given to high
school juniors and seniors to determine college readiness. The ACT evaluates efficiencies in
reading, math, English, and science. The main difference is the ACT has a designated science
section, whereas the SAT does not. The SAT is also given to high school juniors and seniors to
determine college readiness. Unlike the ACT, the SAT has two major parts: reasoning and
knowledge. The reasoning and knowledge portions evaluate skills in reading and writing.
Evidence indicates that African American high school graduates perform at a level that
falls short of performance standards, impacting college readiness and college enrollment
(Asamsama et al., 2016). The ACT (2018) showed that African American students did not meet
proficiency in math, English, science, and reading scores. Compared to the 2018 reported results,
there was a visible decline in the 2019 SAT results, indicating that only 45% of students
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demonstrated readiness for college, with 20% of African American students demonstrating
readiness (College Board, 2019).
In 2017, the College Board reported that fewer than half of all students taking the SAT
were prepared for college, highlighting consistent results for the previous five years. The ACT
reported that fewer graduates who took the ACT in 2018 were ready for college than graduates
of 2017. The ACT report also indicated a decline in students meeting three of the four
benchmarks in math, English, science, or reading (ACT, 2018). Understanding the influence of
state accountability pressures placed on high school students is important. Whaley (2018)
stressed educational stereotyping concerning achievement and capabilities combined with the
pressure of assessments present many African American students with testing anxieties.
Assessments and African American Students
Educational assessments are designed to test and measure the career and college
readiness of every student, regardless of race. However, with different life experiences and
opportunities, comparisons of students across races using assessments are not always telling. The
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) is a congressionally mandated program
used by high schools to report performance indicators centering around core academic skills of
math, reading, science, and English (Roderick et al., 2009). Capturing student performance data
is essential to the U.S. Department of Education. Data helps the U.S. Department of Education
assess schools to determine if they are meeting the college readiness requirement needs of
students on the district, state, and federal levels. According to Roderick et al. (2009), the U.S.
Department of Education invests in stringent assessment and accountability tools to evaluate
career and college readiness.
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Data is also used to compare students’ readiness and performance by ethnicities.
Comparing the high school graduates from 1991 to 2002, the NAEP test scores indicated that
less than 23% of African American students were considered college-ready (Roderick et al.,
2009). ACT.org presented a detailed statistical report in 2018, on the condition of college and
career readiness. The report indicated that college achievement exams, such as the ACT, are used
to measure student indicators of cognitive ability and skills and content knowledge, with an
expectation of 50% achieving a grade of B or higher in at least one college-level introductory
course (ACT, 2018; The Huge Racial Gap, 2017). The ACT 2018 test results by subject data
show significant disparities in African American students (ACT, 2018). The report indicated that
of the 1.9 million students that took the ACT, 13% were African American (ACT, 2018). Of
these African American student test takers, 11% demonstrated college readiness in all four
subject areas of math, science, reading, and English. A deeper look shows that 34% to be
college-ready in English, 16% ready in reading, 14% ready in math, and 10% in science (ACT,
2018). In all, the data presented in the report supports that college readiness levels for African
American students lag behind Whites and Asian students (ACT, 2018).
Walpole et al. (2005) reported that African American students from urban areas were
seldom provided the necessary preparations or information about assessments and admission
testing. These students may be ill-informed about the importance of admission testing and how
the tests are administered. Moreover, African American students are often first-generation
college-bound students; therefore, African American students interested in attending a college
may be dependent on their school or counselors for testing information (Walpole et al., 2005).
Many first-generation college-bound students view admission testing as an obstacle to
higher education, hindering their participation. Additionally, when underprepared African
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American students do manage to take assessment tests, they score consistently lower than their
White counterparts, resulting in feelings of discouragement (Walpole et al., 2005). These
feelings of inadequacy often lead to students who are less likely to apply or pursue a college
education (Walpole et al., 2005). Many factors impact underrepresented student perceptions
regarding college and career readiness. Understanding these factors may help students recognize
the importance of admission testing.
College Readiness Defined
High school students who are college-bound demonstrate readiness through a variety of
factors and skills. Harris et al. (2017) explained how college readiness requires college-bound
students to demonstrate mastery of specific content knowledge, skills in core academics, and
non-cognitive skills such as socioeconomic status, social constructs, discipline practices, and
environment. College readiness performance levels are specific in English, math, and reading
skills and mastery of performance levels is required to ensure success in general education
classes at many higher education institutions (Conley, 2008; Roderick et al., 2009).
College readiness definitions have many parts and are comprised of a variety of internal
and external factors relative to the learning environment (Conley, 2008). Conley and Barefoot
highlighted college-ready factors, organizing them into four areas, which includes cognitive
strategies, academic knowledge, behaviors, and contextual skills. The first factor, cognitive
strategies, involves problem-solving, reasoning, understanding, and paying attention to details.
The second factor is academic knowledge. Academic knowledge looks at the performance in the
core academic subjects of high school, including history, science, English, math, and language
arts. The third factor is academic behavior and covers a student’s self-efficacy. The final factor,
contextual skills and awareness, which are the knowledge and skills that students acquire in
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different situations, that can help with navigating the college application process successfully
(Conley, 2008; Roderick et al., 2009).
School Environment Factors
This section reviews school environmental factors that impact student self-perception and
self-efficacy. Factors may include discrimination or excessive inequities in education, such as a
lack of college preparation courses or college-prep classes. The following sections detail various
school environmental factors that influence the college readiness of African American students.
Discrimination and educational inequalities among African American students negatively
affect academic outcomes. Discrimination may involve intentional or unintentional stereotyping
of students based on race. African American students are often stereotyped as lazy, less
intelligent, unmotivated, and behavioral concerns (Durante & Fiske, 2017). Discrimination in an
educational setting can increase deviant behavior, diminished expectations, and deter college
considerations (O’Hara et al., 2012). Discrimination often makes African American students feel
unwelcomed or devalued within their school system (O’Hara et al., 2012). The authors indicated
early discrimination was related to negative academic expectations and college planning among
African American students. O’Hara et al.’s findings highlight discrimination experienced by
African American students could predict potential college enrollment among high school African
American juniors and seniors.
Educational discrimination negatively affects adolescent’s academic positioning in their
formative years. Durante and Fiske (2017) noted students might feel inferior to others if they
experience discrimination and stereotyping. Feelings of inferiority may lead to irregular behavior
or behavior issues, eroding academic expectations. O’Hara et al. (2012) predicted an
unlikelihood of discriminated students applying for college. Also, negative messages and the
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stereotyping stigmas of African Americans as not being smart enough may create problems at
schools, leading to negative academic persistence, decreased educational motivation,
engagement, and class performance (Neblett et al., 2006). Although studies highlight the impact
that discrimination has on African American students, one key result of discrimination is
academic perception (Havlik et al., 2020). Academic perception is the student view of their
academic ability and overall awareness to meet the requirements needed to attend and succeed in
college (Havlik et al., 2020). In addition, O’Hara et al. (2012) indicated discrimination against
African American students negatively influences from applying and enrolling in college.
Negative stereotypes can play a role in African American students’ underperformance
which impact college and career readiness. Awareness of these stereotypes can trigger responses
that impede both performance and psychological engagement, which is a phenomenon known as
"stereotype threat" (Steele & Aronson, 1995). Stereotype threat are the responses to stereotypes
about the perceived inferior ability about their group and is described as a social psychological
issue derived from the perception that African Americans are intellectually inferior (Aronson et
al., 2002; Steele & Aronson, 1995; Whaley, 2018). African American students who experience
negative stereotyping by both teachers and peers face barriers to successful academic
performance (Whaley, 2018). There are two ways in which underachievement can be attributed
to stereotypical threats that undermine academic achievement in these students (Aronson et al.,
2002). First, stereotypical threats influence academic performance by presenting anxieties.
Anxiety often occurs during high stakes testing and being called upon to speak in public
(Whaley, 2018). Secondly, stereotypical threat can cause African American students to
disassociate from environments where they feel they cannot be successful (Aronson et al., 2002).
This disassociation limits engagement and motivation, which can negatively impact the academic
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performance of African American students (Aronson et al., 2002; Whaley, 2018). Overall,
stereotyping in education can also negatively impact behavior and discipline among African
American students (Whaley, 2018).
Behavior and Discipline Practices
Behavior and discipline are often highlighted as potential barriers to academic
achievement. Researchers at The Institute for Education Sciences (2012) suggested schools
should assess schoolwide behavior problems and implement strategies that are research-based
and proven to reduce negative behavior while fostering positive interactions. Gregory and Fergus
(2017) noted that schools should focus on a more supportive approach to behavior that will
encourage students to remain in school and encourage college and career readiness.
Behavior
Disciplinary practices can have a negative impact on student behavior. Many schools
adhere to zero-tolerance policies resulting in disciplinary practices that are exclusionary and have
failed to reduce problematic behaviors (Johnson et al., 2018). Johnson et al. also shared African
American students are often subject to disproportionate disciplinary practices, including
suspensions and expulsions. Many educational researchers have expressed how disciplinary
action often has adverse effects on African American students. For example, LaForett and De
Marco (2020) stated “disproportionate rates of suspension and expulsion for students of color
relative to their White peers are a significant equity issue in the U.S. education system” (p. 295).
LaForett and De Marco suggested that educational systems adopt a more comprehensive
approach, integrating social and emotional learning and train educators in classroom
management interventions and racial equity approaches. LaForett and De Marco explained how
schools should shift their approach to discipline and addressing behaviors. To encourage and
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motivate at-risk African American students, schools need to focus on student-centered
development, using methods to helps students acquire social and emotional competencies
(LaForett & De Marco, 2020). If self-regulation is taught early in a student’s education, students
would be able to understand and manage their behavior (Lee et al., 2019). Many social and
emotional programs teach students skills such as emotion literacy, self-regulation, social skills,
and problem-solving (Lee et al., 2019). Johnson et al. (2018) stressed the importance of
addressing discipline disparities as the consequences amongst African-American students lead to
lower graduation, college enrollment, lower-paying jobs.
Discipline Practices
Discipline of African American students is often reported as a top concern for educators.
However, disproportionate educational discipline practices on African American students,
especially males, are still an issue in school systems (The Civil Rights Project, 2020; Gregory &
Fergus, 2017; Monroe, 2005). Studies have found that African American male students are two
to five times more likely to be suspended compared to their White counterparts (The Civil Rights
Project, 2020; Monroe, 2005). National trends reveal constancy in African American students
disproportionately affected by inappropriate assessment and disciplinary policies (Liou &
Rotheram-Fuller, 2019). Monroe (2005) reviewed school discipline policies, identifying that the
criminalization of African Americans as a basis for developing educational policies and creating
a gap between other ethnicities.
African American students are still disproportionately affected by disciplinary policies. A
report from the Center for Civil Rights Remedies at the UCLA Civil Rights Project and the
Learning Policy Institute analyzed federal data from the 2015–16 school year. The report found
significant racial disparities in educational disciple still exist (The Civil Rights Project, 2020).
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African American students lost 103 days of instruction due to disciplinary action per 100
students enrolled. This number is 82 more days than the 21 days of instruction of their White
peers lost due to suspensions (The Civil Rights Project, 2020).
Larson et al. (2018) examined how proactive educational management and culturally
responsive teaching are relative to African American student behavior. The researchers
determined that educators in schools with predominantly African American students focused
more on student behavior than planning meaningful culturally diverse lessons (Larson et al.,
2018). Larson et al. shared that a primary focus on behavior in a predominantly African
American population school negatively affects the instruction students receive in the classroom.
Effectively engaging students help deter negative behaviors that undermine classroom instruction
(Liou & Rotheram-Fuller, 2019). Although discipline is a real concern, the lack of resources is
also a challenge and can have a negative impact on the college and career readiness of African
American students.
Lack of Equal Resources
Many educational reforms are based on the need to address the lack of equal educational
resources among public schools. Although many educators and administrators are aware of
educational gaps in learning, resources continue to be unequal in distribution among
communities with the most needs (Wang et al., 2019). Wilcox (2020) stated that many
organizations such as the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), the National Association for
the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), and the Equity and Education Committee (EEC)
have identified that school segregation still exists and have expressed concern for the lack of
access to gifted and advanced placement courses for African American students.
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Wilcox (2020) reported that inequalities and privilege are the two foremost concerns in
creating education policy. In a study of a school district with a history of racial inequity
regarding African American students, Wilcox explained some of the measures the government
required of the district to address needed changes. The federal government required the particular
school district to adhere to establish diversity, equity, and inclusion committees to ensure a
provision of equal educational opportunities. Wilcox also noted that the school complied in
forming the committees but failed to advertise and publicize the meetings, preventing many
African American families from having representation. Wilcox explained that many White,
middle-class standards dominate school curriculum, creating a culture where educators still have
low expectations of students from low-income and marginalized families.
Schools serving a large African American student population often offer fewer advanced
classes in math, science, and English that could help with college preparation (Bryant, 2015;
Kolluri, 2018). The author explained that current college-going resources still vary in
accessibility across the lines of race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status, supporting a need to
expand college preparation courses among underserved communities. Schools with a large
African American population may also lack enough school counselors to help students prepare
for college and placement testing (Bryant, 2015). The researcher found that schools with more
minority educators, counselors, and resources support a positive educational outlook and
increase the chances that African American students will be motivated to consider higher
education opportunities. Along with the challenged outlined by the lack of resources, the social
environment of these students can impact college and career readiness.
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Social Environment Impact on College and Career Readiness
This section reviews social environmental factors that impact student motivation and
behavior. The social environment is defined as the groups in which one is associated, the
neighborhoods that one lives in, social relationships, and the cultural surroundings (Casper,
2001). The social environmental factors that can that influence college and career readiness
among African American students include school culture, socioeconomics, and role models.
School Culture
For many African American students, school culture is a factor that influences motivation
for applying and attending college. School culture is comprised of interconnected school systems
(Nevalainen et al., 2017). According to Fullan (2007) school culture can be defined as the
guiding beliefs and values evident in the way a school operates. ‘School culture’ can be used to
encompass all the attitudes, expected behaviors and values that impact how the school operates
(Fullan, 2007).
Every school system is different, and schools have unique ways of meeting their vision and
mission goals. School culture often represents the practices and assumptions of the school
community and educational stakeholders (Nevalainen et al., 2017). School culture may also
represent a combination of values and lifestyles that occur within a specific region. Culture often
influences the college readiness of high school students and their desire to go to college (Bryan
et al., 2015). If the school culture includes educators stereotyping African American students,
there may be a lack of motivation among students to pursue higher education (Wilcox, 2020). A
positive educational culture may include supportive educators, parents, and the community, and
members (Wilcox, 2020).
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The educational community plays a role in helping develop a positive and motivating
culture for students. Knight-Manuel et al. (2019) focused their study on understanding how
students viewed college-going culture within their schools. The researchers reported that
educators felt academic engagement was the responsibility of the students rather than a shared
responsibility of the school for developing a positive perspective concerning college readiness.
There is an expressed concern that African American students may feel the burden of college
readiness is an independent process (Knight-Manuel et al., 2019). School culture supports
students’ learning needs and includes educators and counselors who foster an environment that
motivates the educational success of students. The economic status is another important factor to
consider, as it relates to the educational support of the student.
Socioeconomics
Socioeconomics influences college and career readiness of African American high school
college-bound students. Dinecola et al. (2015) examined college readiness regarding school
environment and socioeconomic factors. Specifically, Dinecola et al. studied how poverty or
schools with a predominantly African American population affected college readiness. Schools
with larger populations of students in low-income or ethnic minority groups did not demonstrate
college readiness through annual assessments. Whereas schools with a lower minority and
poverty population were more likely to demonstrate high levels of college readiness (Dinecola et
al., 2015). The researchers determined that there was a link between poverty and school size,
which impacts academic achievement and career and college readiness.
Similar to the findings of Dinecola et al. (2015), Xing et al. (2019) indicated that
socioeconomic status is important to college and career readiness. Xing et al. conducted a study
of over 12,000 students to examine participation in courses and activities designed to support
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college and career pursuits. Xing et al. sought to identify a relationship between student
participation and college or work attainment one year after graduating from high school. The
study found that socioeconomic status was the primary predictor throughout all post-high school
education and career outcomes. Higher socioeconomic status increased the likelihood of
attending college and getting better jobs. Xing et al. stated that school reform was needed to
extend access to courses and activities designed to support college and career pursuits.
Grant programs, such as the Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate
Programs (GEAR UP), are intended to increase student preparedness for higher education
(Lunceford et al., 2017). Lunceford et al. studied 836 students, both with and without access to
the GEAR UP resources, to seek an understanding concerning early preparation for college.
Examining student’s preparedness for college, revealed differences among socioeconomic status
and racial lines (Lunceford et al., 2017). Many researchers have found that race, ethnicity, and
socioeconomic status still influence college preparedness and access (Dinecola et al., 2015;
Lunceford et al., 2017; Xing et al., 2019).
Modeling and Role Models
African American high-school students need encouragement from educators, family,
peers, and their community, and they need positive modeling experiences (Johnson et al., 2020).
Bandura (1977a, 1989, 2005) defined modeling as when a person observes the behavior of
another and then imitates that behavior. Bandura (1977a) also stated that learning could be
accomplished by observing the behavior of other individuals in a social setting, then working to
make sense of what was observed to model or reproduce this behavior. The experience and effect
of learning from modeling often occur in stages. Bandura (1977a) indicated four distinct stages
of learning, including a) attention, b) retention, c) reproduction, and d) motivation. The first stage
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is attention, where learners see the behavior that is to be reproduced. The second stage is
internalizing and retaining the behavior they have observed by mentally rehearsing what is
observed. The third stage is where the information and behavior attained are converted into
action. Lastly, the learner will be motivated to imitate the behavior. Bandura’s (1977a, 1989,
2005) definition of observation and modeling helps to connect to learning, which is the
foundation in the relationship between the role model and students.
Modeling is an efficient method of learning any new skill or knowledge (Bandura, 1986).
Through the process of observation, modeling plays an important role in the development of
cognitive and meta-cognitive skills and interpersonal skills that begin from childhood through
adulthood (Salisu & Ransom, 2014). The types of model strategies integral in facilitating this
development are disposition modeling, task and performance modeling, meta-cognitive
modeling, and modeling as a scaffolding technique. Disposition modeling helps convey personal
values or ways of thinking, like acting with integrity or setting high expectations, to the student
(Salisu & Ransom, 2014). This type of modeling is important in guiding the development of
individual character and community. Task and performance modeling demonstrates a task that
students will be expected to do independently (Salisu & Ransom, 2014). In education, this type
of modeling is typically done before activities like science experiments or solving mathematical
equations and is designed so that students can first observe what is expected of them (Salisu &
Ransom, 2014). Meta-cognitive modeling presents how students think, problem-solve, or analyze
information to make conclusions on what was learned. This type of modeling requires
verbalizing the thought process while visually working through a problem (Salisu & Ransom,
2014). Lastly, modeling as a scaffolding technique requires modeling the task for students first
and then allowing them to begin and work through the task independently (Salisu & Ransom,
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2014). These strategies help to underscore the importance of modeling in student development.
Equally important is the effectiveness of the modeling process.
Several factors contribute to the effectiveness of modeling. Bandura (1989, 2005) stated
that the more desirable the model is for an observer, the more likely it will be that the individual
will imitate the model. Desirability is influenced by the prestige the model has on the observer.
The effectiveness of the model is also influenced by how relatable the model is to the observer
(Bandura, 1977a,1989, 2005). Models that are relatable are more likely to be effective (Bandura,
1989, 2005). For students, Johnson et al. (2020) explained how role models and mentors help
influence young African Americans facing social challenges and academic decisions.
Role models are individuals that students look up to and admire. Role models can
influence and motivate students to learn and pursue a college education. Kemper (1968) defined
a role model as a person who has the skills and displays techniques that the observing person
lacks but could learn. The expression role model is centered on two key constructs (Gibson,
2004). The first construct is the term role and the need for individuals to identify with other
people in important social roles (Bell, 1970; Slater, 1961). The second construct is the term
modeling, as previously discussed, which is the psychological alignment of cognitive skills and
behavior between a person and an observing individual (Bandura, 1977b, 1986).
For students, role models can significantly impact learning (Kearney & Levine, 2020).
Role models help influence individual self-perception, the environment in which students live,
and the decisions around the self-management of student lives (Kearney & Levine, 2020). Role
models can impact attitudes and behaviors of children and adults by being an ethical template,
being an example of achievement, and being a nurturer (Allen, 1993). According to Allen, a role
model as an ethical template shows the observing individual how to conduct themselves in a
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given situation, such as a teacher demonstrating professional conduct to students. Additionally,
Allen stated that a role model as an example of achievement demonstrates to children and young
adults how they can accomplish specific goals and achievements. Lastly, a role model as a
nurturer provides more personal and targeted educational needs to the student or individual
(Allen, 1993).
The student connection to role models and motivators, specifically in an educational
setting, can help initiate positive academic outcomes and decision-making (Kearney & Levine,
2020; Strasser-Burke & Symonds, 2020). A central outcome to role modeling is motivation,
which includes goal or behavior adoption, reinforcement, and achievement (Morgenroth et al.,
2015). Role models provide students with motivators such as family participation and teachers
who can influence African American students, providing encouragement and motivation around
academic performance (Kearney & Levine, 2020). Additionally, role models with successful
careers can provide the guidance and context that provides the motivation that increases student
self-efficacy and outcome expectation, leading toward attaining higher aspirations in educational
and career plans (Lee et al., 2019; Lent et al., 1994). The type of role model that a student
identifies with is important as role models may influence college and career readiness decisions.
Types of Role Models
Various types of positive role models can be found throughout society. Gibson (2004)
noted how positive role models contain three characteristics and can invoke self-efficacy in other
individuals by providing role-expectation, information and skill expertise, and role models also
have insights into individuals’ self-concept. Bird et al. (2012) stated that a role model could be
classified into two categories, accessible or inaccessible, related to the proximity of the
observing individual. An accessible role model is a person that has a personal relationship with
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the observing individual (Bird et al., 2012). This type of individual could be a family member,
teacher, or someone that the observing individual has regular access to (Bird et al., 2012).
Inaccessible role models do not have a personal relationship with the observing individual and
tend to be celebrities or other public figures, such as musicians, actors, athletes, or billionaires, in
which access is not readily available (Bird et al., 2012). Bird et al. also indicated that accessible
role models were more effective than inaccessible role models due to the personal relationship or
level of interaction with the observing individual.
Specifically looking at African American students, this group of young adults primarily
turn to adults they have regular access to as role models, such as parents, siblings, aunts, and
uncles (Bird et al., 2012; Strasser-Burke & Symonds, 2020). Strasser-Burke and Symonds (2020)
found that these choices were based on regular access to the individual, who could provide
emotional and cognitive support. The educational and professional modeling effect or impact can
be strong when role models have the same characteristics as the student being influenced
(Kearney & Levine, 2020). Therefore, students also tend to select role models of the same gender
or race as themselves (Kearney & Levine, 2020).
Papageorge et al. (2018) explained how same-race teachers effective role models for
schools could be serving African American students. African American teachers tend to teach
culturally relevant pedagogies and have higher academic expectations for African American
students, which builds relationships with the student and can lead to college readiness (Kearney
& Levine, 2020; Papageorge et al., 2018). Cultural relevant pedagogies can include educators’
efforts at understanding student behavior in a given situation as well as helping students
understand and navigate cultural and social challenges that they face (Kearney & Levine, 2020;
Papageorge et al., 2018). Teachers who are accessible and act as role models for students help
34

influence motivation and college aspirations (Kearney & Levine, 2020; Papageorge et al., 2018).
Test scores also improve when same-race teachers are assigned to African American students
(Egalite et al., 2015; Kearney & Levine, 2020; Papageorge et al., 2018). A 7-year study of 2.9
million public school students in Florida examined whether test scores were impacted in
response to their teacher assignment (Egalite et al., 2015). The researchers found that the
standardized test scores improved when Black, White, and Asian students were assigned to a
same-race teacher compared to when these students were assigned to teachers outside of their
race (Egalite et al., 2015).
There is a challenge for students looking to have access to same-race teachers for
consideration as role models (Papageorge et al., 2018). In 1954, the Brown v. Board of Education
school ruling and the move to school integration resulted in a significant displacement of African
Americans from the teaching profession. This movement negatively affected the access to same-
race teachers for many African American students (Papageorge et al., 2018; Thompson, 2021).
This lack of access to same-race teachers negatively impacts African American students and
limits the options of these students from identifying relatable role models outside of their family
unit and community. When regular access to same-race educators not available, or there are no
individuals available to function as accessible role models to these students, inaccessible
individuals are selected as role models (Strasser-Burke & Symonds, 2020; Yancey et al., 2011).
Yancey et al. (2011) studied 442 low-income students and found that 34% of the students
selected celebrity figures, such as actors or singers, as role models, whereas 7% selected doctors,
lawyers, or teachers. However, the less affluent teens with no access to powerful and socially
constructive adults outside the family were more likely to identify media figures as their role
35

models (Yancey et al., 2011). The results of Yancey et al.’s (2011) research highlighted the
importance of understanding the role media plays in role model selection.
Role Models and Media
The potential effect of students selecting role models through media outlets can impact
social behavior through three key attributes; the provisioning or delivery of information, role
modeling and preference, and time usage (La Ferrara, 2016; Kearney & Levine, 2020). With a
lack of same-race accessible role models, some students seek inaccessible role models from
mainstream media or social media. Direct access to role models identified by these students is
not practical due to the celebrity or high profile of these individuals (Bird et al., 2012; La
Ferrara, 2016; Gordon, 2016; Kearney & Levine, 2020). However impractical, these inaccessible
role models can also present motivational and aspirational outcomes in the observing induvial
that can be achieved (Bird et al., 2012; La Ferrara, 2016; Gordon, 2016; Kearney & Levine,
2020).
Provisioning of Information
Media can offer students positive aspects that can influence decisions of career and
college readiness. A primary function of media is to provide information and content. Most
obvious is the delivery of this information via the news, but information can be embedded in
other forms of media content, such as entertainment programs (La Ferrara, 2016; Kearney &
Levine, 2020). These entertainment programs can have content designed specifically for the
purposes of educating viewers (La Ferrara, 2016; Kearney & Levine, 2020). Examples include
programs like Sesame Street, created to inform children on numeracy, literacy, and cultural
awareness on a wide scale, and “The Cosby Show,” which intentionally embedded pro-social
36

messaging around African American middle-class life, education, achievement, and personal
agency (Kearney & Levine, 2020; Matabane & Merritt, 2014).
Role Modeling and Preferences
Media exposure can also impact development outcomes, positive or negative, affecting an
individual’s preferences (La Ferrara, 2016; Kearney & Levine, 2020). These outcomes are
typically influenced by “social norms and culture” (La Ferrara, 2016). Exposure and portrayal of
various models in media glorifying a situation, activity, or person can promote positive attitudes
and behavior changes, whereas the denigration by media will lead to negative attitudes and
behavior changes (La Ferrara, 2016; Kearney & Levine, 2020). Cultivation theory builds upon
this, presenting that the consistency of the images and values in most media forms can lead to
shared beliefs among a diverse group of people (Gerbner et al., 1994). As a result, the cultivation
theory predicts that the more media is consumed, the more the influences of these messages are
consumed and emulated (Gordon, 2016). Consumption of positive messages in the media could
present motivating influences that support African American students lacking accessible role
models with optimistic career and college readiness outlooks.
Time Usage
The time spent consuming media can indirectly affect an individual’s behavior by
diverting attention away from other activities (La Ferrara, 2016). A key example of this is when
students prefer to watch television or play video games versus studying or doing some other
productive activity (La Ferrara, 2016; Kearney & Levine, 2020). Similarly, Rideout et al. (2010)
performed a study over 6 years (2004–2010) reviewing recreational media usage of a total of
2,002 children ages eight to 18. Rideout et al. noted that recreational media usage was defined as
media use, including television, films and video, computers, video games, music and audio,
37

print, and time spent using a cell phone for media consumption. The result of the study over this
period revealed an increase in the amount of time spent consuming media, from six hours and 21
minutes to seven hours and 38 minutes per day (Rideout et al., 2010). The study also presented
that the youth spending more time with media reported lower grades; however, the researchers
could not determine if lower grades were a direct cause of the increased media usage (Rideout et
al., 2010).
Some media platforms make it easier for students to identify and gain access to role
models, such as social media. Social media is defined as a group of web applications created on
the technological foundational aspects of Web 2.0, and that allow the creation and exchange of
user generated content such as blogs, forums, dialogues, videos, and images (Eley & Tilley,
2009; Kaplan & Haenlein 2010). In general, social media platforms functions as convenient and
ease of use websites that allow for social communication, the facilitation and creation of online
communities, the sharing of information with these communities, and the communication
between individuals and communities. From the lens of the educational processes, social media
can direct interactions between teachers and students (Dao, 2015; Tezci & İçen, 2017).
Social media tools can also help teachers address the growing and changing needs in
today’s educational learning process, which centers around addressing the needs of an active
learner (Tezci & İçen, 2017). Tezci and İçen stated that active learning leads to the learner
creating individualized content, contributing to learners’ motivation. In a limited study of high
school students’ use of social media, Tezci and İçen presented data indicating that education and
entertainment are the key consumption areas of these students. These focus areas tend to be
susceptible to the social dimension aspects of social media (self-presentation or self-expression).
These focus areas are the social interaction between the users, which refers to a person’s desire to
38

control other people’s impressions about themselves, which is specifically advantageous for role
models or teachers in order to consider student tendencies and use social media effectively in
behavior adjustment and the learning-teaching process (Tezci & İçen, 2017). The challenge that
educators face is whether the role model on the social media platform is someone the student
would want to follow.
Media can present several barriers that can influence self-efficacy and perceptions.
Specifically, African American students can be vulnerable to television’s influence due to the
high consumption of media and their ethnic-identity development (Ward, 2004). Also, the
underrepresentation or unfavorable betrayal of African Americans in the media has a negative
impact on African American viewers’ self-perceptions and self-esteem (Ward, 2004). This
misrepresentation introduces limits and challenges in these individuals looking to identify
positive role models that they can relate to and emulate (Ward, 2004).
Media and Social Responsibility
Media and society are linked, and the role media plays in communicating in society can
impact societal development. Media informs, entertains, and educates viewers, all of which have
been proven effective in increasing public awareness and participation (Yadav, 2020). This
communication allows information to disseminate throughout society to those who otherwise
may or may not have access (Yadav, 2020). It is the responsibility of the media companies to
ensure that the information delivered is held to some form of standard and integrity (Middleton,
2009; Yadav, 2020). Thus, the Hutchins commissioned report of 1947 on the Freedom of the
Press, helps to define the social responsibility that guides media behavior (Middleton, 2009;
Yadav, 2020). This report includes that media provides: clear information in a truthful,
comprehensive, and intelligent manner; allows for an exchange of comment and criticism; is
39

representative of the diversity within society, provides clear goals and values of society; and
make available their intelligence information (Middleton, 2009; Yadav, 2020). The areas
outlined in the Freedom of the Press report serve as a guide for the media industry. Building
upon the Hutchins report, Siebert, Peterson, and Schramm pinned the first formal theory of social
responsibility of the press in the 1956 book, Four Theories of the Press (Middleton, 2009). The
social responsibility theory states that it is the media’s responsibility to use its powerful status to
ensure appropriate delivery of information to audiences, if it fails to meet this responsibility,
regulatory steps may be needed (Middleton, 2009).
Conceptual Framework
The following section will outline the conceptual framework and the factors that
influence student motivation and self-efficacy. Leveraging SCT, the goal is to show the
dynamics and relationships between the social environment, school environment, and academic
factors and the impact of these factors on student preparedness.
Social Cognitive Theory and College and Career Readiness
Many factors influence an individual’s college and career readiness. These factors, which
include personal, behavioral, and environmental, interact with each other unidirectionally in what
Badura calls the triadic reciprocal determinism (Bandura, 1986, 1989). Environmental influences
such as culture, socioeconomic, media, and technology play a role in affecting individual student
behavior and personal factors (such as beliefs and thoughts). The theory that supports examining
behavioral and environmental influences is Bandura’s social cognitive theory (SCT). The SCT
examines the intellectual perspectives on human functioning influenced by the role played by the
social environment on motivation, behavior, and learning (Bandura, 2001; Schunk &
DiBenedetto, 2020).
40

Bandura’s SCT supports how individuals learn through observation and modeling
(Bandura, 1989). Bandura (1989) described social learning as simply learning from one another.
Just as many African American students are influenced and motivated by role models and social
culture, SCT looks to recognize that behaviors are learned through examining the environment
(Walumbwa et al., 2017). SCT is considered a theoretical foundation for many educational
researchers focused on attention and motivation (Bandura, 1989; Khechine & Augier, 2019).
This study seeks to explore the perspectives of key stakeholders that are knowledgeable of
cognitive and noncognitive factors that influence college and career readiness among African
American high school students, including influences of role models and how modeling behaviors
under SCT can impact outcomes (Bandura, 1989, 2001, 2005). Figure 1 presents a visualization
of these factors as it relates to the relationship between SCT and college readiness. This diagram
highlights a relationship between the social and school environment, academic factors, and the
student. Environmental factors such as socioeconomic, school culture, and role models can
impact student self-perceptions or self-efficacy, which can lead to behavioral changes that
include motivation and future aspirations.
In addition, cultural wealth is included in the framework. Yosso defined a cultural wealth
model that consists of six forms of capital, aspirational, navigational, linguistic, social, familial,
and resistant capital. Aspirational capital is the hopes and dreams an individual may have,
navigational capital is the skills an individual has to navigate social institutions. Linguistic
capital refers to the various language and communication skills an individual obtains within their
community, social capital peers, and other social contacts that an individual utilizes to gain
access to social institutions. Familial capital is the individual extended familial and community
41

networks, and resistant capital refers to the knowledge and skills that are fostered through
oppositional behavior that challenges inequality (Yosso, 2005).

Figure 1
Conceptual Framework

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Literature Review Conclusion
The college and career readiness of African American students is a significant problem.
These students encounter numerous factors that make it challenging for them to gain the
necessary cognitive skills to be college-ready. The review of the literature in this study described
the key factors that can impact the college and career readiness of these students, which include
both cognitive and non-cognitive factors. Cognitive factors primarily include academic
performance and standardize testing. African American students are performing below standard
in testing.
The non-cognitive factors described in the literature review were social environment,
school environment, and role models. These factors play a significant role in the readiness of
African American students. The review of the literature detailed the impact of the components of
these non-cognitive factors, along with how these areas impact college and career readiness and
student aspirations. These components include discrimination, unfair discipline practices, and
socioeconomic variables. Negative encounters in these areas can lead to poor academic
performance and decreased motivation.
Methodology
The research design was a qualitative methodology using a basic study approach to
explore perspectives through interviews. The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore the
perspectives of key stakeholders that are knowledgeable of the factors that influence college and
career readiness among African American high school students, including the influences of role
models. A qualitative methodology is a product of the inquiry process and presents the
researcher with a process to explore and understand a specific issue (Creswell & Creswell,
2017). Since this study looked to explore perspectives of stakeholders that are knowledgeable of
43

influences for African American college and career readiness, the qualitative methodology using
interviews was appropriate.
Qualitative studies are used to gather participant perspectives relative to the focus of the
study. To address the research questions, (see Table 1), concerning the college and career
readiness of African American students, the qualitative methodology has been selected to be
used for this study. The goal was to highlight findings that identify how cognitive and non-
cognitive factors, impact the college and career readiness of African American students.
The research population of this study consisted of key stakeholders that are considered
and are knowledgeable of factors that influence college readiness among African American high
school students. With a focus on collecting detailed information, a qualitative researcher should
focus on gathering information concerning the aspects of the situation (Yin, 2015). Using
purposive sampling, in which individuals are logically selected and are representative of the
population, the study sample included eight participants (Creswell & Creswell, 2017; Yin, 2015).
Although some qualitative methodologies recommended a specific sample size, Yin (2015)
found that having criteria regarding a specific sample size was irrelevant due to the nature of a
basic qualitative study. A smaller sample size of eight key stakeholder participants provided
sufficient data concerning the factors that role models present that influence college and career
readiness among African American high school students.
The qualitative study included interviews conducted using an interview protocol. Using
the three main research questions, interviews were conducted using semi-structured, open-ended
questions. Interviews are an essential source of data collection and appropriate to explore the
perspectives of key stakeholders (Creswell & Creswell, 2017).

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Three research questions guided this study:
1. What are some barriers to African American students and their ability to be college
and career-ready?
2. What modeling behaviors impact the college and career readiness of African
American students?
3. How do role models support the college and career readiness of African American
students?
Research Setting
To explore the perspectives of key stakeholders that are knowledgeable of the factors that
influence college and career readiness among African American high school students, the
research setting involved conducting interviews via Zoom. As the United States is still
recovering from the COVID-19 pandemic, precautions concerning the safety of participants is
considered, resulting in the decision to use virtual interviews. Primarily focusing on the Greater
Los Angeles area, participant recruitment used a combination of personal contacts and snowball
sampling. Snowball sampling is when a participant in a study recommends other participants to
be sampled (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). These stakeholders included actors, directors,
musicians, producers, and entertainment executives. This group work closely with modeling,
mentoring, or supporting high school students having knowledge and experiences that are
relevant to the focus of the study.
Participants
In qualitative studies, smaller sample sizes provide researchers with data-rich details
(Marshall et al., 2013). Using purposive sampling, the target sample size of the study were eight
stakeholder participants, who were recruited using personal contact information and snowball
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sampling. The criteria for the key stakeholders include entertainment professionals having a
connection with youth services or support that includes mentoring, providing educational
information, or supporting African American high school students. All of which are involved in
some form of direct or indirect role modeling function and provide a level of cultural wealth that
is beneficial to the study.
Upon IRB approval, recruitment for participation began. Initial recruitment involved
contacting key stakeholders via hopson@usc.edu. A recruitment email letter was sent to each
potential participant with the study information, purpose, and criteria for participation. The
researcher’s contact information was provided to the participants. The participants contacted the
researcher to ask questions and to schedule a time for an interview. The total of eight participants
provided adequate support to answer the research questions. Participant information is being kept
confidential, and participants were assigned a code to protect their identity. Participant
information was stored on a secure computer throughout the study. The researcher was the only
individual with access to participant information.
Instrumentation
Interviews were the primary instrumentation used in this qualitative research study.
Throughout the interview process, open-ended questions were used to help examine participants’
experiences, perceptions, and examples to answer the research questions. Open-ended questions
allowed the participants an opportunity to share ideas, thoughts, and feelings. Throughout the
interviews, the researcher kept notes in an online document program. Phillippi and Lauderdale
(2018) emphasized that descriptive notetaking is essential to the interview process as the
notations can be referenced throughout the study and compared against transcripts.
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A semi-structured interview protocol (see Appendix A) was used to guide the interviews.
The interview protocol presented an organization of open-ended questions used during the
interviews to offer concise and uniform discussion flow, using the same format for each
participant. The interview protocol helped the researcher gather feedback to answer the study
questions concerning the influence of role models on the career and college and career readiness
of African American high school students. Castillo-Montoya (2016) reported an interview
protocol is essential for successful interviews. To help with conducting interviews, the researcher
will utilize Castillo-Montoya’s (2016) recommended four-phase interview protocol framework,
which includes:
1. Ensuring interview questions align with research questions
2. Using inquiry-based communication by asking open-ended questions
3. Using interview protocols and documenting feedback
4. Interview review by a professional to check for clarity and alignment
First, the researcher reviewed the interview protocol questions with the committee chair
to check for alignment with the research questions. Then, the researcher ensured that the
questions supported inquiry-based communication using the open-ended questions. Before
starting any interviews, the researcher used Microsoft Word to document feedback and important
observations during the interviews.
Data Collection Procedures
Once the researcher received IRB permission, data collection began. The researcher
shared an information sheet for exempt studies with each participant before initiating the
interviews. The information sheet for exempt studies included a summary of the study purpose,
design, and time involvement, for each participant to review and agree to participate. Participants
47

were also notified, in writing, that they may withdraw from the study at any time without any
consequences. Upon receipt of agreement from the participants, the researcher began scheduling
and conducting interviews.
If participants met the criteria to participate and have agreed to the information provided,
a 60-minute interview was scheduled for each participant. Using Zoom, each interview was
audio-recorded, with the recordings transcribed for further analysis. Questions contained in the
interview protocol was used to guide the interview sessions. Data was collected by taking
descriptive notes in Microsoft Word, via the Zoom transcript, and through the Zoom audio
recordings of the interviews for analysis. The researcher also used member checking to verify
that the information in the transcripts represents the statements participants provided in the
interview sessions.
Data Analysis
Data analysis included preparing the transcript data, data review, coding, and theme
development. Before analysis, the audio recordings were transcribed through the service Zoom.
Then, transcripts were uploaded into the computer-assisted qualitative data analysis program,
NVivo. NVivo is a qualitative analysis software utilized by many researchers to help with coding
and developing themes. The researcher used NVivo version 12, which supports textual files for
transcript analysis.
Using the NVivo software helped with identifying and organizing codes and patterns
which emerged into themes. The researcher used the recommendations of Braun and Clarke
(2006) for a thematic coding process, which involved three steps: a) open coding, b) axial
coding, and c) selective coding. Assigning codes is part of the first step of open coding and is
based on identifying words and phrases specific to the study. Axial coding involved identifying
48

patterns such as groups or pairs of data. The last step, selective coding, helped establish the order
of themes by frequency (Braun & Clarke, 2006). As codes and themes emerge, the researcher
reported on the findings.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
In qualitative studies, credibility and trustworthiness demonstrate an accurate account of
the findings. Credibility reflects the process of how data was gathered and interpreted accurately
(Creswell & Poth, 2016). The researcher used the recommendations of Creswell and Poth (2016)
by taking measures to inform participants via the information sheet for exempt studies, ensuring
participant confidentiality, taking notes, audio-recording and transcribing interviews, and using
data collection software. The accuracy of details, processes, and descriptions supports the
trustworthiness of a study. For this study, the researcher established trustworthiness with
thorough documentation and reporting (Yin, 2015).
Findings
The purpose of this study was to explore the perspectives of key stakeholders on the
factors that impact college and career readiness, emphasizing the influence of role modeling. The
qualitative method was used to examine the purpose of this study. The qualitative methodology
allowed for data collection through a series of targeted interviews that revealed and provided
insights into the factors that impact college and career readiness of African American students.
As a result, this section presents the data and findings relevant to the research questions
presented in this study.
Participants
Twenty-three entertainment professionals were invited to participate in the study. Eight
participants responded to the invitation for participation (see Table 1). The eight purposefully
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sampled participants for this study are entertainment professionals with a combined total of 122
years working in the entertainment sector. The personal experiences of these participants helped
inform on the environmental and non-environmental factors as well as individual characteristics
that can influence the career and college readiness among African American students, including
the impact of accessible or inaccessible role models.

Table 1
Participant Demographics
Participants Years in industry Profession
Participants 1 30 Actor
Participants 2 30 Executive
Participants 3 16 Comedian/athlete
Participants 4 30 Artist
Participants 5 10 Musician
Participants 6 6 Below the line producer
Participants 7 30 TV/film/live producer
Participants 8 5 Emmy winner/writer/director

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Raw Data and Analysis
The raw data analyzed in this study was captured from individual interviews performed
utilizing Zoom. These interviews were semi-structured and averaged 38 minutes per interview.
The audio data was transcribed via Zoom, which has a feature option that allows for the
automatic transcribing of audio files. These transcripts were saved to the cloud, downloaded to a
local device, and subsequently converted to a file type supported by the qualitative analysis
software, NVivo. To confirm and verify the accuracy of the transcript, the researcher replayed
each interview and compared it to the associated physical Zoom video interview in real-time.
This process revealed a few anomalies between the transcript and the actual Zoom file, and
corrective efforts were made during this process.
Descriptive Data
The qualitative methodology used by this study allowed for narrative data that was
descriptive in nature. The richness of this data allowed the researcher to capture a unique context
around the interviewee’s life experiences. The interviewees were prompted by open-ended
questions presented in the researcher’s interview protocol. The fundamental interview questions
were designed to elicit individual experiences, perceptions, and beliefs that were influential
throughout the individual’s life. These interviews were thematically analyzed using inductive
coding to identify the themes. The findings identified by the researcher are presented in the
following sections.
Thematic Analysis
As discussed in the methodology section, an analysis of the data collected from the
interview transcripts, was performed to identify themes relevant to environmental and non-
environmental factors and individual characteristics that can influence African American
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students’ careers and college readiness. The themes that emerged were based on the thematic
analysis and coding process performed on the interview transcripts. This process considered
narrative frequency, relevance, and alignment with the research questions. Table 2 presents the
common phrases from the data analysis, codes, and themes. The results and findings of this study
will be presented in discussion form, using the defined themes in Table 2. In an attempt to
protect the identity of the interviewee, the study uses the following “[redacted]” to redact any
information within a quote that, can potentially reveal the interviewee’s identity. The goal is the
provide a clear representation of ideas obtained from the interviews.

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Table 2
Thematic Analysis with Coding and Themes
Common phrases or terms Codes Themes
Society
Family
Childhood and upbringing
Lifestyle
Racism
Society and family are
influential.
Boxed in by low expectations;
stereotyping by society
Career opportunities
Professional opportunities
Challenges/barriers
Economic
Racism
Lack of opportunities Lack of opportunities in careers
and professional settings.
Politics
Socioeconomics
Income gap

Societal and political factors Political and societal factors;
limit forward mobility
Entertainment and society
Social media
Movies
Television
Music

Entertainment and influence Influence of media content
Family
School
Peers
Home

Family and community Influence development
Role model
Behavior

Role models and impact Impact on behavior
Personal assets
Personal characteristics
Individual characteristics Impact future perceptions

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Research Question 1
The first research question in this study focused on the barriers African American
students’ experience around career readiness. The four themes that emerged from the data
analysis include (a) boxed in by low expectations, (b) stereotyping by society, (c) lack of
opportunities in careers and professional settings, and (d) political and societal factors limit
forward mobility.
Boxed in by Low Expectations
The first theme about barriers to career and opportunity was low expectations. The theme
emerged as all eight of the participants shared personal experiences of facing lower expectations
than peers or being “placed in a box.” For example, Participant 6 reported:
I definitely feel that being a Black woman in a room, I’m constantly questioned in terms
of what I know, if it’s accurate, and what are the other people in the industry doing,
meaning like what do the White men say. So yep, I’m still continuing that fight today.
This example reflects the experiences of other participants as they faced similar instances of
lower expectations to succeed. Participants 5 and 8 shared their concerns about having limited
career opportunities due to these low expectations. Participant 8 shared, “I think [it] is very
challenging to have the autonomy to actually really tell your story the way you want to tell it and
not try to fit into boxes that society puts on you.” Similarly, Participant 5 stated, “I believe we’re
just being put in the boxes, one of the biggest challenges for African Americans and
opportunities.” Reflecting on his response, Participant 5 followed up by sharing that “being in
the [redacted] area, I feel like there’s a kind of a glass ceiling, you know, in terms of opportunity,
so I feel like I’m limiting myself at a certain point by staying in the [redacted] area.” Other
participants also shared this inward view. It seemed as though when someone had low
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expectation for them, they viewed it as a challenge to overcome. Participant 3 expressed that,
“because we were known as badass [redacted] in the community in general, made me not want to
prove them right.” Also, Participant 7 described how being an African American woman limits
her access to clients and opportunities to expand her business due to how she is viewed, saying
that “it’s not that they stand in your way it's that they have their perceptions.” This resulted in her
having to partner with a male booking and promoting agency when starting out, in order to be
taken seriously in a “male dominated industry.” She stated, “I may have had a chip on my
shoulder, yeah I’m a female so, I am gonna be tough.” She followed this statement by saying:
My strength doesn’t come from being tough, but by being smart see. So, you know, all I
gotta do is just sit here to strategize and just figure out a way on how to move this ship to
go where I want it to.
These collective experiences help to show the continued challenges and barriers that low
expectations present. More importantly, navigating these challenges has proven to be variable
and requires a unique skill set, built upon awareness, as demonstrated by the participants' shared
experiences.
Stereotyping by Society
The second heme found to be a barrier for African American students was centered
around stereotyping and society. Seven of the eight participants shared that they experienced
stereotyping in society and expressed an understanding that this is a challenge African American
youth face today. Participant 3 said that there is “this whole perception of what Black is, just like
a lot of Black people themselves have this perception of what Black is, and if you’re not the
stereotype you’re not really Black. So, the stereotypes dominates.” In another example,
Participant 3 shared:
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Generalization and stereotypes can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy and the fact that
society as a whole doesn’t recognize, you know, long-term systemic issues with the
African American Community or that our country has kind of knowingly or unwittingly
contributed to, and because of that it’s hard. You have to get in to show who and what
you are and that you are the right person for whatever that may be, a job or just as a
human being, but it’s hard to overcome and get that opportunity because when society
looks at you a certain way they kind of closed doors and when these doors get close it
makes it very, very difficult for you to open these doors.
The self-fulling prophecy comment was insightful. A self-fulling prophecy is a false definition of
the situation that creates a new behavior that makes the original false situation come true
(Merton, 1948). American youth, specifically African American youth, have core beliefs and views
about themselves, which impact behavior (Weinstein et al., 2004). This core belief could be
positive or negative, and thus a positive environment in which an individual resides can provide
positive reinforcement as it relates to a self-fulfilling prophecy (Weinstein et al., 2004). This idea
of the influence of society was present in six out of eight interviews. For example, Participant 3
provided additional feedback that took a historical perspective of stereotyping from a creative
position by stating:
You talking about 150 to 200 years of socialization of creating stereotypes and
generalizations, and trying to get somebody to change that when they’re writing is to
embrace it and to display these things of so you’re talking about something that’s deep
rooted in the process of creation of all the work and all the things that you see and it can
be videos, it can be commercials, it can be movies, you know all these things. That’s the
big issue that makes it difficult to really get a foundation.
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Participant 4 noted that in her journey to be an artist, she “kind of learned the politics behind,
you know, being able to maneuver as the Black artists.” This was an issue for her because she
shared, “people assume that if you’re Black artist, you are painting Black art, and I’m painting
landscapes.” This challenge caused her to take steps to hide her identity in order to effectively
market herself without influencing and to have her art seriously considered. She stated that she
was attempting to have the work speak for itself, which she felt was “political in itself.” Further
discussion revealed the importance social stereotypes play in the development and self-concepts
of an individual.
One outlier regarding stereotyping revealed how immediate and extended family
members can have an unintentional impact on motivation and expectations for an individual.
This insight was shared by participant 6 who described how she was raised and that her family
did not have a bar set for her. Participant 6 shared, “it was, you know, don’t get pregnant too
soon. Don’t shame the family, and get a job. Like there was no bar.” Upon a short reflection,
Participant 6 continued “I think to myself with how driven I am naturally, what if someone
planted a seed. You know, like you can be a doctor, I probably would have just ran with that.”
These discussion points from the interviews helps to highlight how stereotyping presents
barriers for African Americans. These generalizations can lead to a self-fulling prophecy for
these individuals. Society can have the biggest impact due to negative constructs around
predetermined expectations for African Americans. The family dynamic can also play a factor,
but the intentionality around this appears not to come from a position of negativity.
Lack of Opportunities in Careers and Professional Settings
The third theme concerning college and career readiness barriers was the lack of
opportunities in career and professional settings. This theme identifies how limited or the lack of
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professional and career opportunities can impact individual development and overall career
readiness. All participants shared experiences from varying perspectives, specifically from an
occupational point of view. One common finding that resulted from the interviews was around
wealth and financial resources. Lack of funding or access to financial support is one barrier
creating a lack of opportunities for African Americans in this study. For example, Participant 1
felt strongly about the lack of wealth that African Americans face, sharing that the wealth gap is
something that is directly related to opportunities for African Americans and believes that this
gap is something “that cannot change overnight." He then gave an example of how wealthy
athletes go broke, not due to fiscal irresponsibility, but because of the obligation to help their
entire family and community. He then contrasts this against the generational wealth that is
secured in the white community, in which he believes that the obligations are less broad and
wealth is typically passed down to the immediate family. Participant 3 further added that “the
biggest limitation is you know, do you have enough money where you can really, really focus on
your craft. Very few people have that earned ability to solely focus on your craft.” Participant 8
also expressed:
I think that’s been some of the larger challenges that I’ve been able, that I’ve kind of have
tried to navigate ways around. I think resources are a constant challenge for us, to even
have the necessary budgets and opportunities even dive into some of these spaces to do
the type of work that I do.
In addition, Participant 6 shared, “I would definitely say financial challenges” when asked what
the biggest challenge for her was and what she felt African Americans face regarding
opportunities. The lack of financial resources creates limits in many ways, including college
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tuition or career training programs. More importantly, not having access to such wealth or
financial resources creates or increase the barriers to success.
Another important finding was the lack of knowledge and guidance navigating the
professional space. For example, while discussing her interactions and thoughts around African
American youth, Participant 6 stated that “this singular path of sacrifice that they have to make,
maybe I can help them get to success in a shorter time. By knowing some of these things and
how to navigate them, because I literally started knowing nothing.” This sentiment was
supported by Participant 2 when she said:
With young people, especially those who may be a little bit quieter, they don’t quite
know what questions to ask right, so they’re a little bit tentative when it’s an in-person,
like how do I approach her or how do I approach him, it can be a bit daunting for a lot of
young people. So sometimes, it’s just the safer spaces that we create for them to feel like
they can come up and ask a question.
Participant 2 followed up with
You have to think about what we can establish and build and support from their point of
view because I think sometimes there’s sort of this automatic idea that we’re helping
them most by giving them access to an internship. Well, what if it’s unpaid, right, what if
you have young people who have other ways that will support them that we may know
nothing about, so that’s why their voices are so important in all of this.
These perspectives emphasized how a lack of, or limited knowledge can increase the barriers to
opportunities and increase negative self-perceptions. This discussion led to the role that
technology plays around knowledge acquisition. The digital divide is a challenge within the
African American community in that it limits college and career readiness. For example,
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Participant 2 explained that “there are still a big divide across the country who don’t even have
access to broadband right, so it’s a big thing.” A report from the Brookings Institute found a
significant demand in jobs requiring digital skills. Between 2002 and 2016 the number jobs that
require a high level of digital knowledge, value digital skills, and frequently use technology rose
from 4.8% to 23.0% (Muro et al., 2017).
The digital divide defines or describes the gap between American communities with
access to information technologies, such as high-speed internet, and those who do not. This
divide also includes the low representation of African Americans in the technology workspace.
Participant 4 shared that a “big obstacle is that technology is kind of taken over everybody’s
industry, and you have to be able to master computer and technology even if you are a creative
person otherwise nobody’s gonna be able to see it.” Participant 8 also mentioned that he is
working with “different kinds of technology in various arenas” and he was trying to stay on top
of the technology-based changes in this space. To add, Participant 6 shared “access to technical
tools and technology was paramount and that really separated, like the people who are just in the
class from the people who are leading.” Unfortunately, addressing the digital divide is difficult.
The digital divide disproportionately impacts individuals from underserved communities, with
one in three African Americans (14 million) who do not have access to computer technology in
their homes. More importantly, just 35% of Black households do not have broadband (Simama,
2020).
Throughout the data analysis in this section, one area that was an outlier but important to
include, is the discussion around addiction and the impact on career and professional
opportunities. While two of participants indicated that addiction was at the family level,
Participant 6 shared his struggles with addiction and how it negatively impacted his professional
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opportunities, but how his community supported him, and he was able to overcome this
challenge.
I went to college of music at 17 only for a semester, and then I started touring with this
hip hop group doing giant shows, playing for 10,000 people concerts, and immediately
just tried to live that rockstar life, and I continue to live that life for about maybe seven
years, and it will absolutely struggle. So, I moved to [redacted] and lived in there for two
years. Then I moved back here and had all these amazing opportunities and ruined them
because of my addiction, and it was extremely hard to get out of that, even with such an
amazing community who had my back and didn’t give up on me, which was great. The
industry is very dangerous for someone like me, who has an addictive personality. So,
breaking out of that, it’s been a few years now, but getting out of that was the hardest
thing I ever had to do, and it definitely almost ruined my career and my life.
Looking at the addiction rate a bit more closely, the 2018 census indicates that 6.9% of African
Americans have a substance use disorder compared to a rate of 7.4% among the total population
(Kaliszewsk, 2022). Addiction is a challenge that plagues many communities throughout the
United States. The self-destruction associated with addiction can negatively impact families and
destroy an individual’s mental and physical wellbeing. This challenge causes damage that
extends beyond professional or college opportunities,
Political and Societal Factors Limit Forward Mobility
The fourth theme concerning college and career readiness barriers was political and
societal factors that limit forward mobility. This barrier can be categorized as systemic
discrimination. Systemic discrimination is the policies or practices presented as neutral but has a
discriminatory effect on a group. This discrimination can ultimately limit individual rights to
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opportunities (Mahzarin et al.,2021). Participant 1, for example, noted that in society the
politicians “changed the rules when things don’t go their way, they feel things are slipping, and
people in power are not allowing us the opportunity to be on equal ground.” Participant 1
continued:
Everyone else outside of that box has had to quote-unquote had to play the politics, and
the reason why we have to play the politics is because we are not in control. Listen, it’s
politics in everything that we do, but we have to play by more strict rules than our non-
Black counterparts do to get to a third of the place to where they are.
Further, Participant 5 presented an alternate view and stated, “once society finds out you’re good
at one thing or you seem like you could be good one thing, then that’s what they categorize us
as.” This statement shows the differing view of how society can limit upward mobility once
some form of access is achieved. To underscore this, Participant 1, well accomplished in his
profession, added
A challenge now would be the fact that you know I’ve been around so long that in this
case, for anyone who’s been fortunately around it’s a type, there are certain roles that I
just will not even get any type of consideration for because people know who I am they
know what I am and there’s a box, and I don’t mind that box because that box is what has
allowed me to be blessed and fortunate enough to be around as long as I have.
Participant 8 shared differing views of barriers to success, noting that the generations of
challenges from societal factors that African Americans faced throughout the United States, were
tantamount to trauma. This trauma has worked to dwarf the self-perceptions and future outlook
of African Americans. Participant 8 also explained:
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Trauma really kills our imagination. So oftentimes, we’re so stuck in this repetitive cycle
of trauma that we don’t necessarily even have the capacity to think about a 50-year
trajectory or hundred-year trajectory or what our grandchildren are going to be doing or
what types of spaces are we created for them, because we’re so caught up in the day to
day of just trying to get by. So, I feel like the challenges are numerous in terms of where
we’re at currently in society, but I feel like the main trip for us to get out of that is when
you start to create and cultivate spaces for us to really thinking and consider what our
future what needs to look like and how did we start to kind of make the steps toward that.
Participant 4 shared a potential solution to the social or political challenges when they discussed
how organized social groups or Greek organizations such as sororities could provide a benefit.
Participant 4 articulated:
I followed my mother’s footsteps and joined both the professional and the Greek social
sorority. These social organizations, because you know I look at all the ills of life, of the
things that needs to be changed. The homelessness, you know folks not having things to
eat, the mental, you know mental ills of society, and being a political science major,
everything gets my attention, but the reason that I join the sororities is because I am an
artist and if I only have one dollar, what am I going to do with my dollar. I’m going to
join this organization where there’s 200 members, and everybody brings in their dollar,
so now we have $200, and therefore we’re able to feed that family, and it’s all just one
dollar. So that’s one of the reasons that I joined them, you have like-minded individuals
that understand that it takes a village in order to make, create any change, and we don’t
have to look to our government or anybody else to take care of each other.
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Participant 4 also stated that another way to affect real change that can create opportunities for
African Americans is to engage the middle class in the social movement. Participant 4 said,
“what the political scientists would say is that you need the middle class to put pressure on
individuals at the top.” Participant 4 reasoned that more people are in the middle class than in the
top tier, and if we can get engagement from the middle class in social issues, long-term and
permanent change can be achieved. This dialogue was prompted by a discussion around interest
convergence, which is the idea that the interest of Blacks in achieving racial equality will be
accommodated only when it converges with the interests of those in power (Lee, 2007).
Therefore, identifying solutions to issues that can benefit all parties involved may garnish greater
adoption.
The barriers that African American students face can lead to a lack of career readiness.
The findings from the interview participants suggest that low expectations and stereotyping can
impact both motivation and self-perceptions of an individual. In most cases, the impact produced
a sense of perseverance in the interviewees, which motivated them to work harder in order to not
affirm the negative perceptions. The findings also suggest that political and societal factors are
systemic and deeply rooted and can have a negative impact on readiness, making it challenging
for African American students to navigate these complexities. Identifying solutions to help
address the challenges that stem from indicated barriers will require further discussion and
support from both political and societal entities.
Research Question 2
The second research question in this study looked at how the modeling of behaviors by
African American students can impact readiness. Two themes were identified from the data
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analysis, these include (a) the influence of entertainment content and (b) the influence of family,
peers, school, and community.
The Influence of Entertainment Content
The first theme around modeling behaviors was the influence of entertainment content.
The content created for the varying entertainment mediums can impact the self-perceptions and
the self-concept of an individual African American youth (Cordero-Gutiérrez & Lahuerta-Otero,
2019; Matabane & Merritt, 2014). For example, Participant 2 stated:
Those popular sitcoms like Good Times and The Jefferson’s, and so I think about all of
those influences as a child that I experienced that in some way, I think, helped to shape or
sort of helped me to think about sort of this larger narrative and piece for my life.
Participant 3 provided more context and detail:
Entertainment has more impact, you know there’s five agents of socialization. It’s the
family, they start first, and their primary, and then school, then religion, then you have
peers and the last one is media. Those are the five agents of socialization and the media
dictates and decides what is successful or not, right. Sociologists says the media shapes
kids’ values, shapes their beliefs, also shows them what successful also shows them what
they should and shouldn’t be.
Participant 3 further added that “number one, the problem with entertainment is there’s not
enough roles for African Americans and we’re typecast, and that type is exuded by you know the
media and ourselves, and it’s just an accepted point of view society has at this point.” Participant
2 supported this idea through an executive lens and added:
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The industry at large has blown up, I mean I don’t know any other way to say it, it can be
hugely influential across our culture across identity, I will be the first to say there’s a lot
of media and entertainment that may not necessarily be the most positive.
The statement that not all entertainment is positive is supported by Participant 5. He looked at
the role mobile devices and the internet played on the mentality of youth and how this is creating
a sort of disconnect that causes isolation and impacts the level of engagement between their
peers. Participant 5 described one troubling situation when he was volunteering at a school in his
area. Participant 5 shared:
[Caught a few kids] watching porn on their iPhones, they will never have an
understanding of or like natural sex anymore, because this is the first thing that they’re
seeing before they even understand what it means to be sexual. So, the entertainment
industry is a very, very dangerous thing in that regard.
Exposure to negative media is a concern, and there is additional web and media content that can
be considered questionable and may influence young adults into negative or harmful behaviors.
For example, World Star Hip Hop (WSHH) is a popular website that hosts a collection of user-
uploaded videos, mostly of working-class youth from inner-city America, that include everything
from rap battles, videos, poetry, and comedy, among others (Pichler & Williams, 2016).
However, the site also hosts more risqué user uploaded content, such as content that features
individual altercations, weekly fight compilations, and sexually explicit videos. Although this
site is extremely popular and is used to be considered “authentic” in the hip-hop community, the
risqué content viewed by youth can impact both behavior and self-perceptions. WSHH is not the
only site that contains risqué content. Sites like the debunked MySpace, Facebook, OnlyFans,
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Instagram, and Tic-Tok can contain risqué content that speaks more to societal behavior than to
the companies that profit from this content. Participant 3 also shared:
Now kids have their own social media and they’re like, creating their own culture, so
now it’s almost out of the media hands that’s ran by adults, because one thing about their
peers, your peer group is the only group where adults don’t control the narrative.
Participant 5 added:
[that entertainment] can either be a truth-teller, something that unifies people, or it’s
something that divides. It all depends on who’s telling the story or who’s sharing their art
and what are they sharing it for. The beautiful thing, it really is such a beautiful thing, but
it’s so dangerous, especially when it comes to young people watching the wrong stuff,
and you know, whatever the wrong stuff is, it’s like the entertainment industry is literally
molding the youth.
Participant 6 then provided statements regarding entertainment that were forward-looking related
to messaging around potential and perceptions around youth. She stated that:
Storytelling is the most powerful way that I think we communicate just as people, so if
you combine that, then I definitely think entertainment will or has already kind of
overtaken what we assumed to be formal education because that’s the lens that they’re all
learning through first before we get them in the classroom.
This is a powerful statement, but it is also important to whom these African American youth are
paying attention to. Participant 8 stated “Entertainment is where we get a lot of our messages,
where people get messages about us, whether good or bad.” These statements were significant
and helped to underscore the sentiments of the real impact and influence that entertainment can
have on African American youth.
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Family, Peers, School, and Community, Can Significantly Influence Individual Development
at a Young Age
The second theme relevant to modeling behaviors was the influence of family, peers,
school, and the community. This is considered the social environment of an individual, engages
with African Americans in personal settings, and can have direct and indirect effects impact on
the behavior of African American youth (Moody, 2020; Whitaker et al., 2012). The participants
in this study all indicated their social environment, whether positive or negative, played an
important role in their overall development. Participant 2 shared that her parents “really instilled
the sense of strong family values and connections and helping other people, and that was so
important.” Participant 2 then expanded upon this by discussing her family and school
environment, expressing that she:
Didn’t have access to a whole lot in terms of resources from the public schools that I
attended. So, in terms of thinking about how that impacted my dreams and my vision, and
my desire. I would say I owe all of it to my mother, my parents, who really instilled in us
the value of education that it was something that no one can ever take away from you,
and so I think, for me, it really fueled this desire to not only to make the family proud but
to really excel in my career, and I knew that I could do that.
Also, while speaking about his family, Participant 1 discussed that his mother helped to shape his
view on the importance of education due to her forcing him to attend a Saturday school, that
directly led to his first job being well above minimum wage. As a result, Participant 1 stated he
was “very obedient to listening to her and then realizing how what she was telling me was
beneficial, so I would say I was respectful and obedient as a child.”
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Looking at the community, the church played an important factor for six of the
participants during their childhood. For example, Participant 5 stated that “the church, in fact to
me, I think in the biggest ways just shows me how important community is and how important it
is to have a village to support one another and uplift one another.” Participant 2 shared that
growing up, there were:
A lot of churches relatively in this small community, but that was the important piece, it
was community, so whether we were in school, whether it was church, whether it was
family, it was all community, and I think that’s where I get a lot of my interest in serving
and giving back.
Finally, Participant 1 discussed a situation around the church that has stayed with him. He shared
that he had to give a speech in church at the last minute at a young age. His mother helped him
memorize the speech just before getting up to recite it in front of the congregation. The thing that
stood out for him was that his mother was proud, and that impacted him. The importance of the
church in the African American community is well known. The impact that this community asset
can have on youth cannot be understated.
Neighborhoods and schools each have influences that can impact an individual. The city,
town, or state can have extreme variations in how an individual is perceived or treated. To
underscore, Participant 4 shared that she grew up in a divorced household and that her mother
lived in Texas and her father lived in California. She explained that joint custody was her living
1 year in Texas and the alternate year in California until she was in high school. She described
the experience of this situation as a “transient lifestyle” that introduced a number of challenges.
In Texas, she faced direct racism, whereas, in California, it was a bit more of a “mix of all the
different colors in the rainbow.” She ultimately had to adapt and “be open to change, flexible to
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new ideas, new experiences, and new people, because every year was going to be something
different.” She then added that her situation forced her “to learn how to entertain myself to
become comfortable with being me, without listening to other people’s judgements.”
From a school perspective, Participant 6 stated that she “felt that being a minority kind of
identity, probably as soon as preschool.” Participant 3 indicated that his aggression was stoked as
a result of his school. Sharing how he felt in school made him aware of the negativity around
him. In describing his school experience, Participant 3 shared:
Ours was like considered a low-class school, because they had mostly Black kids, and
when you go to junior high, that’s where you start meeting all the kids that was going to
be in your graduating class, and you meet all these kids that you didn’t know anything
about and they kind of looked down on us because we were from you know the East end.
Negative experiences in school and from peers can significantly impact self-perception that can
affect the self-efficacy and motivation of African American youth.
The social environment, in some cases, can have more of an impact on an individual’s
behavior. This impact is sported by Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, which states
that the environment you grow up in impacts every facet of your life. Ecological systems theory
is the most accepted explanation that explains social environments’ influence on human
development (Härkönen, 2001).
The influence of environmental factors on African Americans youth can play a
significant role in self-perception and motivation. The participants in this study have all
expressed the importance that either immediate family members, the church, school, or peers
have had in their lives. Despite the varying dynamics that exist within these environments, it is
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clear that the impact of an individual’s social environment is significant and should not be
understated.
Research Question 3
The third research question in this study is based on how role models support the
readiness of African Americans students. The theme that was identified to address this question
was how role models can have a direct impact on behavior. Role models can act as a guide to
help with both psychology and to shape the future direction of an induvial.
Role Models Can Have a Direct Impact on Behavior
The theme of role models and their influence on student behavior is relevant to answering
the third research question. As stated, role models are individuals that students look up to and
admire and can significantly impact and influence the behavior of these students. Role models
can be accessible or inaccessible. An accessible role model is someone who an individual has
direct access to, whereas inaccessible role models are individuals who are not accessible directly.
Each of these role model types is very distinct but can significantly impact behavior.
Accessible Role Models
All participants expressed that a family member acted as a role model in some form. This
experience was typical due to the accessibility of these individuals in the family and social
environment. For example, Participant 3 shared that his father taught him “to be the best we can
be and always told us that you know we were something special even if somebody didn’t think
you were something special.” Participant 3 stated that this teaching stayed with him and was one
of the reasons that he works as hard as he does. Participant 3 also shared that his father would
warn him about his peers, stating that “he would always say, those people on the streets aren’t
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your friends, he said your families are your friends”. This statement was important to understand
as it relates to trust.
Participant 2 also shared that her father and mother were one of her main role models
when she was young. Participant 2 articulated that her “mother and my dad really instill the
sense of strong family values and connections and helping other people, and that was so
important for us.” This lesson has stayed with her and has influenced who she is today. In
another example, Participant 4 shared that her role model was her father, and the creativity that
was promoted while she was young helped encourage her to pursue art as a career. However, her
father did provide cautionary guidance as well. Because of his experience as an artist, he knew
the struggle of being able to support yourself as an African American painter, and thus he
encouraged painting as a hobby but not a professional career. Lastly, Participant 4 described how
his family was influential in his life growing up:
My mom’s a pastor, and my dad is a pianist, and I grew up playing music in a church. I
got my first drum set when I was two. On my dad’s side of the family, everyone’s pretty
musical, so we had a lot of family jam sessions so that just community and music was
instilled in me at a very young age.
These experiences help to underscore the importance family plays in shaping views of
African American youth. Individuals outside the family unit can also be accessible role models
to these youth. Participant 2 expressed that it requires a bit of work to identify these individuals
who will be invested in your success and “who can really be a mentor, people who you could
hop on a call with you could troubleshoot ideas.” Being available is a key component, even it is
just a single occurrence. Participant 8 shared an experience when he met Cornell West during an
event at his school. He was fortunate to meet and have a conversation with him after the event,
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and this altered his perceptions and value of education, which led him to apply to and attend a
prominent four-year university. Participant 3 added that “you have to have a positive role model
that can be that connect and also influence young African Americans, because if you don’t, then
you have the people that have more of a negative impact.” He then provided an example of how
a role model provided him positive and supportive feedback, using his attributes as a positive
instead of a negative:
At one of my jobs, and that was kind of the thing that kind of changed my whole
perspective in my direction, I met a comedian, [redacted], unfortunately, he passed away
in a plane crash, but instead of him saying, hey [redacted], you a loudmouth, he’d say hey
dude, you’re funny you should get on stage.
Supportive but honest feedback is critical in helping to foster positive self-perceptions and self-
concepts. Participant 5 shared a story of a role model that had a pivotal moment in his youth. He
explained:
There was a point in high school where, my freshman year, I didn’t want to be a
professional musician anymore, I wanted to be actor, so I didn’t join band my freshman
year and, at the end of that year, the band director came up to me, and he was furious,
because he’s my teacher in middle school and he wanted to know why was not in band,
or why I wasn’t signed up for my sophomore year. I told him I wanted to be an actor, he
said absolutely not, you have too much talent, and I need you, so he took me out of acting
and put me in a band for my sophomore year. And so, I guess that was a huge event
because, you know, otherwise, I probably wouldn’t be where I’m at right now.
This personal story is one example of how a role model can significantly impact an individual.
Inaccessible Role Models
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Inaccessible role models were also discussed with the research participants. These
inaccessible individuals can be celebrities, professional athletes, or politicians. Participant 2
briefly said how images of African Americans on popular television shows helped to influence
her views. However, when describing the factors that helped to decide her career path, she also
shared that “growing up, in terms of images that we saw on TV, we may have had one or two
reporters who looked like me, where I could see myself represented in those areas that I thought I
may want to pursue someday.” Participant 2 then added that television programs that featured
positive individuals who she could identify with helped her to think about college and what it
may look like to have a successful career beyond college. Participant 7 also shared her
admiration for Richard Pryor. She stated that his comedy records at the time inspired and
motivated her to seek a career in the entertainment industry. Participant 4 looked at this from a
general point of view and wished that “more African American entertainers and sports
personalities would become activists because that’s the only place where people are actually
listening or paying attention, no matter what color you are.” Participant 4’s comments stemmed
from deep discussions about media, personalities, and activism. Her thinking was that
“entertainment is big primarily because sports and entertainment is the only place that you see
African Americans in particular excelling. So, we’re going to have to use sports and
entertainment to get the voice of our people.” She went on to provide examples to support her
claim, discussing Kaepernick and the impact that he had on society during his kneeling protest.
She also mentioned the lawsuit against the NFL by the former head coach of the Miami
Dolphins, Brian Flores, alleging that the league discriminated against Flores and other Black
coaches for racial reasons, denying them head coaching, offensive and defensive coordinators,
and general managing positions. The culmination of this conversation was that the influences of
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entertainment celebrities on society and the individual is real, and “you only need one minute to
create some change”.
Referring back to Bandura’s theory around observational learning, where individual
behavior is learned or modified from the environment through the process of observation,
suggests that any individual could be a role model, whether intentional or not. Therefore, a key
finding of this study posits that role models are dynamic, based on the situation and
environmental settings. However, it is the individual’s accessibility and intentionality as role
models that are most effective in helping to change the behavior, aspirations, and self-
perceptions of a person.
Additional Finding: Community Cultural Wealth Is King
As a result of the interviews, unique traits, skills, and abilities began to present
themselves as each participant shared their story. This insight was particularly important because
although each person’s experiences were different, there was commonality in how they were
treated in their social and political environments. This treatment by external factors and family
and biological factors reveal traits, skills, or characteristics that they each used to make sense of
themselves. This situation is what Yosso’s (2005) research defines as community cultural wealth.
Using this as a foundation while reviewing the interview transcripts, each participant described
experiences that addressed most of Yosso’s cultural wealth capital. For example, Participant 8
described navigational capital by stating, “There is a plus I feel growing up in the hood … you
learn quick, you study people, everything is self-taught. You relate it to strategy; you size people
up.” Participant 1 described the navigational skills he learned from his mother when he was
younger. She helped him navigate the educational system that he used to obtain the knowledge
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that led to his first job. Participant 1 also shared the following when discussing business
ownership and dealing with society:
If you do own your company, you’re not going to, in my opinion, be able to, get your
company to that fortune 500 level without servicing the masses of all races. It is going to
be very challenging to do that just servicing Black people or just Asian people or just
Hispanic people. You need to expand. So, at some point, you’re gonna have to play the
politics. When someone comes into your store, you can’t just talk to them any kind of
way as the owner of the company.
This description can be considered a combination of both navigational and linguistic capital.
Many of the shared experiences build off linguistic capital when discussing code-
switching, which involves adjusting one’s style of speech, appearance, behavior, and expression
to optimize the comfort of others in exchange for fair treatment, quality service, and employment
opportunities (Simama, 2020). Participant 8 provided her thoughts on code-switching, stating, “I
think it’s about language and communication. I don’t see it as code-switching. I want the person
to get what I’m saying because communication is the key that moves things forward.” Participant
4 described her experience with linguistic and aspirational capital in how she learned the “skill of
the gift of gab” from her parents. She said that her “parents growing up were open-minded
individuals and being articulate, you’re going to talk to everybody. You’re not going to be
limited. Therefore, just having a flexible personality would push you forward and upward on that
ladder of success.”
Familial capital was also widely identifiable throughout the interviews. Participant 2
regularly attributed her educational drive, aspiration, and motivation to her parents. Participant 3
discussed how his drive came from his father repeatedly telling him that he “needed to be 100%
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in anything that we’ve done or did or would do” and he further went on to attribute his
aspirations and motivation by saying that this “drive motivates me and what comes with that is, I
believe that I can be successful in whatever I do.” For most of the participants, the family was
where their self-perceptions, motivation, and self-concepts were first defined or initiated.
Participant 8 shared how his siblings, but specifically his mother, were able to “implement some
really core things for us, around how we navigated society, which I think was also really
critical.” This experience also touches upon the navigational capital learned from his family.
Social capital was also important in helping to both make connections that can help to
achieve real goals. Participant 2 provided discussions on how her “dad really instilled the sense
of strong family values and connections and helping other people, and that was so important for
us.” She then added that this core value was important, that “it was my community, whether we
were in school, whether it was church, whether it was family, it was all community, and I think
that’s where I get a lot of my interest in serving.” Building this social capital is what Participant
2 believes that young African American youth needs to invest more time in. She described her
reasoning:
I think the other thing that is important for people who are younger or early career should
consider, is really surrounding yourself with people who really want to see you succeed
and who can really be a mentor. So, it was people who you could hop on a call with you
could troubleshoot ideas, you could say, hey here’s my resume, can you take a look at it.
Acquiring social capital can be challenging to identify and build sustainable relationships. There
is an innate problem with navigation, establishing these relationships, or dealing with rejection.
In either case, social capital is important for African Americans to navigate.
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Lastly, resistant capital looks at the knowledge or skills that foster oppositional behavior.
This oppositional aspect was a bit sensitive when the participants discussed areas that they felt
were unfair. This negative treatment, along with the experiences that they saw their families or
members in the community go through, helped to shape their views. An example is when
Participant 7 described experiences of her being passed up or completely minimized, or belittled
when working to establish her business. She described:
[The] biggest challenge is when someone makes you mad in the industry, this
motherfucker, how do I not that give them that side of me. It is important, you know how
to keep your cool because no one’s going to tolerate your attitudes when you want
something from them.
Participant 3 described how he resisted being limited by others’ constructs about him. He stated
he “always tried to prove the doubters wrong,” focusing his efforts on powering through any
negative views and barriers that he felt would prevent him from reaching his goals. Participant 3
further expressed that he realized that Black people did not have to go out of their way to show
society that African Americans are not the stereotypes and that it is okay to be educated and not
always look to be “cool.” Resistance capital is acquired based on the experiences over time by
the individual. The challenge is to ensure that these defensive or survival mechanisms are not
defeating or demotivating.
Community capital wealth is an essential component of the African American experience.
Each individual within this community has unique and similar interactions with both society and
the family unit. These experiences manifest differently for each person with the hopes of simple
survival. The question is whether society will commit to acknowledging the strengths of this
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community capital to serve a larger purpose of struggle, equality, and inclusion, and how to
better relate to African American youth.
Afrofuturism
The interview process included a visionary question intended to engage thought and
discussion around the forward-looking ideas and concepts in the African Americans sphere.
Afrofuturism is a way for Black people to see and expand on new ideas and shape a future of
their own. This approach is done by blending the African diaspora with science, technology, and
philosophy. A more technical definition is that speculative fiction treats African-American
themes and addresses African-American concerns in the context of 20th-century technoculture
(Dery, 1994). Although there are many interpretations of Afrofuturism, they all have themes of
reclamation, liberation, and the reimagination of the past and future through a Black cultural
lens.
When asked whether they had heard of Afrofuturism, only Participants 2 and 8 had heard
of the term, but were unaware of the definition. An image, see appendix F, was then provided to
the participants that included a definition, and they were asked to give initial thoughts and how it
may relate to or impact the African American community. All participants “loved” the definition
and concept and expressed that it should be discussed and strategically applied. Participant 1
shared that he loved that the definition looks to inspire hope. He then returned to his initial
thoughts on the limitation and lack of access that normal African Americans have “from a
financial standpoint, our challenges from a legislative standpoint are extremely tough to
overcome. Not to say that we cannot.” However, he added, Afrofuturism may help to inspire new
ideas and approaches to addressing this limitation. Participant 2 said that she loved the idea and
stated:
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What came to my mind first was about how we can take some of what our ancestors,
inventors, and creators throughout our black history into how we’re thinking about
Afrofuturism, for us and for those who will come behind us.
Participant 2 then elaborated in detail:
I think you know there’s an opportunity to get more of this kind of a discussion into local,
national global conversations finance leaders, but I think science, technology, and
philosophy on their own on, those three it helps to shape so much more of the list of
things that we just talked about in terms of challenges with African Americans and this
day and time. So, I think there’s a lot that can be gleaned from this that we can help shape
even how we talk about some of the importance of the African diaspora so there’s a lot
here.
This was a solid response despite being the first time with this definition. Participant 5 was very
positive about this concept. He expressed a bit of personal concern with the African American
community in general as it relates to Afrofuturism:
It’s really tough right now to see this and you know, be extremely hopeful for the entire
African American Community to come to terms of this. Because right now we are so
divided and to be able to have the entire like African American Community that adopt
this, I don’t know what we would need to do, because there’s so many distractions [and]
people are so confused because of how they’ve been molded right, and they don’t even
know who they are. And a lot of African Americans so overworked that they have never
ever had time to even understand what self-care is and self- reflection and because they
are just constantly, constantly pushing and working to try to survive here. So, even to
except this as a concept when there’s so much weight, it is almost out of the question for
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a lot of African Americans I know.
Lastly, Participant 6 shared that she was really excited about this topic. She stated that she gets a
bit anxious when “so much of entertainment is exploring looking backwards, and I understand
that we need to populate the canon of media that tells our historical contributions to American
history, but looking forward, that excites me to no end.” This position was especially true when
looking at the ideas that blend technology and science. Participant 6 said that she could not really
imagine any limits with this for the African American community. Afrofuturism works to
imagine or reimagine an optimistic future. Introducing or finding ways for African American
youths to rethink self-perceptions or aspirational goals will help with their career and college
outlook.
The inclusion of community capital wealth and Afrofuturism in this study helps to
provide additional insight into the African American mindset or views. Although each
participant shared experiences from a diverse point of view, commonalities still exist as a result
of the constructs and systemic challenges brought forth by the African American experience.
Additionally, a desire for more forward and inspirational thinking for African Americans was
expressed, specifically around opportunities and aspirational outlooks. All this helps inform on
the real challenges that African American youth face today when working to navigate the social
and political environment.
Summary of the Findings
Academic rigor, in-class performance, and testing play an essential role in the college and
career readiness of African American students. In addition, many students look up to individuals
believed to be significant, competent, and successful (Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2020). Therefore,
understanding the personal experiences of these participants helps to recognize the factors that
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can influence the career and college readiness among African American students, including the
impact of role models.
The following section includes the summary of findings, implications, and
recommendations. A summary of the findings includes a discussion of the findings and how it
relates to empirical. Implications include how the findings could have theoretical or practical
influences on supporting the career and college readiness of African American high school
students. Recommendations include ideas on how the findings could be expanded in future
research and practice. The section concludes with a reflection on the purpose and focus of the
study and how the findings contribute to positive social change.
Discussion of Research Question 1
The first research question was: What are the barriers African American students
experience for college and career readiness? Three themes were identified as relevant to barriers
and included (a) Low Expectations and Stereotyping by Society and Family, (b) Lack of
Opportunities in Careers and Professional Settings, and (c) Political and Societal Factors Limit
Forward Mobility.
Low Expectations and Stereotyping by Society and Family
Many African American students experience low expectations and stereotyping set by
society. All participants expressed a positive family environment as essential to facing college
and career readiness barriers, despite the varying family dynamics. However, participants shared
how some immediate and extended family members could unintentionally establish low
expectations based on their own experiences. Low expectations and stereotyping present barriers
for African American students, leading to self-fulling prophecies. Wilcox’s (2020) study that
determined how a lack of motivation among students to pursue higher education could be caused
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by a school culture that involves educators stereotyping African American students is supported
by the findings in this study. Bryant (2015) also showed how schools with minority educators,
counselors, and resources supported a positive educational outlook that helped increase the
motivation factors of African American students to consider higher education opportunities. The
findings from the current study builds upon Bryant’s findings, supporting how society can have a
significant impact due to negative constructs around predetermined expectations for African
Americans.
Lack of Opportunities in Careers and Professional Settings
Five of the participants in this study shared how a lack of funding or access to financial
support creates a barrier to opportunities for many African American students. Limitations to
financial resources, including college tuition or career training programs, may discourage
African American students from seeking opportunities. These findings align to Kolluari’s (2018)
study that emphasized that current college resources vary in accessibility across race, ethnicity,
and socioeconomic status, thus there is a need to expand college preparation. More importantly,
participants of the current study noted that not having access to such wealth or financial
resources could limit student opportunities, thus increasing the barriers to success.
Political and Societal Factors Limit Forward Mobility
Martinez et al. (2020) explained how college enrollment of prospective students depends
on motivated high school students who are college-ready. However, as participants from this
study shared, many African American high school students are faced with limitations to upward
mobility once some form of access is achieved. For example, participants noted that changes are
needed in social issues to achieve long-term and permanent change. These findings support
Dinecola et al.’s (2015) study, who determined that poverty or schools with a predominantly
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African American population affected college readiness, noting a connection between college
readiness, school environment, and socioeconomic factors.
Discussion of Research Question 2
The second research question was: What modeling behaviors impact the college and
career readiness of African American students? Two themes were identified from the data
analysis, including (a) the Influence of Entertainment Content and (b) Family, Peers, School, and
Community.
Influence of Entertainment Content
When role models are not accessible in person, many youths turn to media and
entertainment for motivation and aspiration (Kearney & Levine, 2020). All of the participants
from this study discussed how varying entertainment mediums could impact the self-perceptions
of African American youth, both positively and negatively. Participants also emphasized how
there are not enough roles for African Americans in the entertainment industry, and some of the
African American influences that some youth follow are not always positive role models. These
findings support the work of La Ferrara (2016), who shared that media exposure influences
youth and their developmental outcomes, positive or negative. Participants from the current
study indicated that exposure to negative media is a concern, emphasizing questionable material
and exposure could influence young adults into negative or harmful behaviors.
Family, Peers, School, and Community
Accessible role models can have the most significant impact on youth. This finding was
highlighted by Bird et al. (2012), who stated that accessible role models were more effective than
inaccessible role models, as accessible individuals can build a personal relationship with the
youth. African American youth often seek support from adults as role models, such as parents,
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siblings, aunts, uncles, grandparents, or other influential members of their local community
(Strasser-Burke & Symonds, 2020). Participants from the current study noted the social
environment as essential to modeling behavior. Participants shared the important role of the
community and the church. For example, the importance of the church in the African American
community is well known and has provided many African American youths with positive,
supportive role models. In addition, participants shared the importance of neighborhoods and
schools and their influence that can impact an individual. These findings support the work of
Kearney and Levine (2020) and Papageorge et al. (2018), who determined that accessible
teachers act as role models helping influence and motivate students.
Discussion of Research Question 3
The third research question was: How do role models support the college and career
readiness of African American students? One theme was identified as relevant to role models and
support for college and career readiness; role models can have a direct impact on behavior.
Bandura (1989) claimed desirable models were more likely to motivate individuals to
imitate the model. In the current study, all participants shared that family members were the most
common role model to African American youth as they are the most accessible in the student’s
social environment. Participants stated how parents offered encouragement to seek out
opportunities. Although accessible role models were discussed as being primary influencers,
participants also shared how inaccessible individuals, such as celebrities, professional athletes, or
politicians, could also influence the behaviors and aspirations of African American youth. The
findings support many past studies on role models and influencing youth. For example, Cordero-
Gutiérrez and Lahuerta-Otero (2019) highlighted how environmental influences found in
entertainment outlets do play a role in motivating students to enroll in college. Therefore,
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positive models in entertainment are essential to supporting African American students, who
may be impacted by television’s influence and exposed to underrepresentation or unfavorable
betrayal of African Americans. Without positive models, African American students may
experience a negative impact on self-perceptions and self-esteem (Ward, 2004).
Implications
The findings from this study have theoretical and practical implications. The qualitative
descriptive study findings could help role models, mentors, after-school program leaders,
educators, parents, counselors, and key figures in African American communities understand and
support the motivational needs of youth concerning college and career readiness. The following
sections present the implications of the findings.
Theoretical Implications
The theoretical foundation of the current study used Bandura’s (1989) social cognitive
theory (SCT). Many African American students are influenced and motivated by role models.
Walumbwa et al. (2017) explained how SCT could be used to examine the influencers of one’s
environment. The findings support the use of the SCT, similar to past researchers that have used
SCT to examine motivating factors that support college readiness (Khechine & Augier, 2019).
SCT helps bring awareness to the impact modeling has on African American youth, supporting
college readiness, and inspiring them to seek opportunities. The findings from this study
indicated that accessible and inaccessible role models influence and motivate students.
Practical Implications
The findings from this study have practical implications for educators, career counselors,
and other stakeholders who mentor youth. Role models are essential to the success of many
students as they provide motivators such as family participation. Mentors and educators also
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influence African American students, providing encouragement and academic motivation
(Kearney & Levine, 2020). African American students need access to successful role models that
can help them aspire to educational and career planning (Lee et al., 2019). Role models help
influence college and career readiness decisions among students; therefore, having access to
positive role models is essential to the motivation and success of African American Students.
Recommendations
The findings from this qualitative descriptive study provide information on the
importance of having positive, accessible and inaccessible models that encourage and motivate
African American students’ career and college readiness. Using the research summarized in
previous sections, the following recommendations are based on the findings, literature review,
methodology, and research design. Recommendations for implementation include focusing on
verticals or elements that relate to different levels of business and society, such as creative and
business entertainment professionals, entertainment creative companies, and youth mentoring
programs.
Cultural Training Certification Programs
With a focus on creative and business entertainment professionals, the findings revealed
that societal and entertainment could influence the self-perception and motivation of an
individual. One recommendation is to introduce a culturally responsive training program that can
help incrementally reverse the negative constructs that exist in society by leveraging the
influential power of entertainment mediums. People of color constituted nearly 43% of the U.S.
population in 2021, and their share is increasing by about half a percent a year. This trend,
combined with diverse audiences’ heavy engagement and consumption of entertainment content,
underscores the importance of diversity as a first-order business imperative for the film industry.
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Audiences of color are becoming an increasingly important market anchor, and diverse content
sells.
A culturally responsive training program can equip entertainment professionals and
companies with the information and tools needed to create authentic and relevant content that
can positively influence individuals and society as a whole while, remaining profitable.
Targeting entertainment professionals such as content creators, broadcast companies, and
distributors from various entertainment mediums, the program looks to expand the professional
environment and create opportunities that can enhance the purpose and needs of individuals from
diverse cultural and ethnic backgrounds. Social constructs of these professionals can lead to
intentional and unintentional discrimination via the content distributed, which can play a critical
role in the overall social development and expectations of individuals, specifically African
American youth. Research shows that students spend more time with entertainment mediums in
high school than with their parents (Fox & Edwards, 2022). This situation can result in
entertainment having a significant impact on an individual’s psychosocial development. A
culturally responsive training program will assist with this development by deepening
entertainment professionals’ cultural self-awareness, helping to understand the link between
cultural self-awareness and cultural competence. The program will also aid in creating culturally
responsive creative content that will ultimately influence society as a whole. The overall goal is
to provide the tools and information these professionals need to manage a creative environment
that can be aware of any cultural differences or misunderstandings within the content and the
creative process. The program will include one three-day session, that requires a 2–3year
continual educational certificate renewal. This training is to be held in-person due to the level of
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interaction and complexity of the program’s content. Three key modules will be offered as part
of the program, each designed to address the areas discussed earlier.
1. Inventory of emotional intelligence. Participants will evaluate individual competency
in self-awareness, empathy, self-control, and problem-solving.
2. This module focuses on engagement. It defines the roles and responsibilities of the
creator and authorizer of content by explaining when and how to use the informing,
guiding, collaborating, and confirming techniques.
3. Presents techniques and tools that define a dynamic and culturally responsive creative
environment. This module will target practices that are inclusive and will maximize
creative content outcomes.
Entertainment professionals need to learn to understand the perspectives, the impact, and the
behaviors of their audiences, specifically the African American community, to realize the
potential influences on society. The evidence is clear, households of color accounted for a
disproportionate share of the households viewing each of the top 10 films released via streaming
platforms in 2021 (Hunt et al., 2022). Therefore, there is a need to create relevant, authentic, and
aspirational contents that can help foster positive developmental outcomes in the individual and
society.
Entertainment Social Responsibility and DEI Consultant to Content and Broadcast
Companies
Recommendations for implementation include a focus on creative entertainment
companies. The Entertainment Social Responsibility (ESR) and Diversity Equity and Inclusion
(DEI) consultants work to research and identify possible entertainment-focused opportunities and
solutions to ensure equal opportunity, inclusion, and core human and civil rights. In contrast, the
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DEI component works to assess the current demographic and company goals around
entertainment content creation and delivery. The focus is to provide recommendations and offer
potential solutions on steps to reach those goals. The primary responsibility is centered around
increasing inclusion throughout the workplace decision making and leveraging the diverse
knowledge and skills to ensure authentic representation is organic within the organization at all
levels. These topics are to be aligned with the company’s core values and designed to
complement the entertainment product. In addition, ESR seeks to engage stakeholders through a
series of discovery meetings that lead to a commitment to creating consistent and compelling
messaging around potential initiatives. These stakeholders are content creators, broadcast
companies, and distributors from various entertainment mediums (i.e., television, social media,
music, sports).
Once an initiative is selected, the ESR consultant will work to identify the desired results
around initiatives that cultivate awareness, track the awareness campaign, and create what
Malcolm Gladwell defines as stickiness. Stickiness is the quality that compels people to pay
close, sustained attention to a product, concept, or idea. The two key components vital to a
successful campaign are the alignment of celebrities and message consistency. Reflecting back
on Bandura’s (1989) SCT, the initiatives will be authentically woven within the entertainment
content. The goal is that the consumption of this content is to help influence self-perception and
motivation within an individual. The ESR and DEI advisor plays an essential role in ensuring
defined initiatives result in better brand recognition and helping to establish a competitive
advantage for the company through well-defined messaging and transparent accountability.
These initiatives are designed to help to inspire and provide consistent awareness around a
defined topic.
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Mentor Program for African American Youth
Traditional mentor programs’ top goals are to provide an intimate and caring adult
relationship that will function role models for African American youth. Additional program
goals include academic enrichment, leadership development, career exploration, college
preparation, and life and social skills (Garringer et al., 2017). The recommended program is to
offer both a combined site-based and community-based program. Site-based programs are more
likely to emphasize academic and career readiness, college access, and educational attainment
(Garringer et al., 2017). Community-based programs typically target social services, such as
family support, positive health behaviors, life skills, mental health, substance abuse prevention,
and violence prevention (Garringer et al., 2017). This combination of the two programs is
important to ensure that the complete needs of the student are met.
For African Americans, mentor programs can offer the support to overcome the structural
barriers that exist in achieving upward economic mobility. Structural barriers are obstacles that
collectively affect a group disproportionately and perpetuate or maintain stark disparities in
outcomes. Structural barriers include policies, institutional practices, cultural representations,
and other norms that favor an advantaged group while systematically disadvantaging a
marginalized group (Aspen Institute Roundtable on Community Change, 2004).
The low college-going rates help to justify the need for comprehensive mentor programs.
A survey published by the National Mentoring Partnership (2020) reported that 1.8 million
young adults participating in structured mentor programs are 55% more likely to enroll in
college, 78% more likely to volunteer regularly, and 130% more likely to hold leadership
positions. In addition, these programs can be instrumental in helping youth become college and
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career-ready through fostering relationships that can lead to an increase in self-efficacy, self-
perceptions, and aspirations.
Limitations and Delimitations
This qualitative study is presented with a number of limitations and delimitations. These
limitations include the sample size of the interviewees that are available to be interviewed for
this study. Although the intention was to secure as many potential interviewees for this study, the
fact that the researcher had limited access to the interviewees that meet the criterium presented a
challenge. Another limitation is that the truthfulness of these participants was out of the control
of the researcher. The goal was to present a process and environment that can solicit responses
from the participants that are as truthful as possible. Lastly, Covid restrictions have had a
tremendous effect on social and work settings throughout the United States. Although these
restrictions were relaxed as of June 2021, there is still a risk of infection due to varying mutated
Covid strains. As a result, interviews were done online via Zoom, which introduced challenges
that are both technical and non-technical in nature. Non-technical limitations include the physical
environment of the participant, which included variables that the researcher was unable to
address.
Delimitations introduce in this study are guided by the research questions. The choices
made were to obtain information that the researcher believes will be beneficial to the study. First
includes the interview protocol questions incorporated in the interview process. These questions
were designed to solicit responses and data to inform on the stated purpose of this study. The
scope of the interviews was limited to discussion and topics that help to address the stated
research questions. Next is the selection of the targeted population of the interview participants.
The researcher has made an attempt to identify a population of diverse interviewees in targeted
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occupational fields that are best suited to add value to this study. However, the experiences of
this population as it relates to the study varied due to the occupational goals. This intentional
decision introduced insights through the response data that proved beneficial. The researcher did
not include an interviewee in the population that did not have the desired experiences that align
with the purpose of the study.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study used a qualitative descriptive approach to explore the perspectives of
entertainment professionals concerning their viewpoints on environmental and non-
environmental factors or individual characteristics that can influence the career and college
readiness among African American students. Future researchers may consider interviewing
students to gather their perspectives on positive and negative role models to understand the value
and influence of role models among African American students. In addition, while this study
explored perspectives concerning both accessible and inaccessible role models, future
researchers may consider focusing on one type of role model to provide more depth on how
accessible or inaccessible role models contribute to influencing the academic and career decision
of youth. In-depth descriptions from participants were the goal of this research; however, future
researchers may consider conducting a quantitative survey study to quantify different role model
types to understand the value placed on each type. More research is needed on supporting and
motivating African American youth through role modeling.
Conclusion
Environmental, behavioral, and personal influences such as culture, socioeconomic,
media, and technology play an essential role in persuading and motivating students. This
qualitative descriptive study helped identify themes relevant to environmental and non-
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environmental factors or individual characteristics influencing African American students’
careers and college readiness. The aim of this study was to explore the perspectives and cultural
wealth of key stakeholders who are knowledgeable of factors that influence college and career
readiness among African American high school students, including influences of role models and
how observational learning under SCT leads to social comparisons or motivational outcomes.
Using a qualitative descriptive approach provided the opportunity to gather lived experiences and
perspectives from participants who are key stakeholders, have professional or volunteer
connections with youth services or have knowledge of motivating, mentoring, tutoring, or
working with African American high school students. Findings support a need to provide African
American students with an optimistic future that inspires generations of African American
students to seek academic and career opportunities. Findings also support how students connect
to role models, mentors, or influencers, helping to promote positive academic outcomes and
decision-making. Positive modeling is essential to motivating students for success. Role models
that provide supportive but honest feedback foster positive self-perceptions and self-concepts,
promoting confidence among African American students.
The findings support the importance of the entertainment industry as a whole, including
the impact of celebrities and influencers on African-American youths' self-perception, aspiration,
and motivation. Leveraging entertainment platforms can be a resource that provides African
Americans and the viewing audience at large the opportunity to use media to their advantage.
The recommendations presented in this study, specifically around the entertainment social
responsibility and DEI consultant, can be considered essential for entertainment companies need
to be mindful of the content being developed and delivered. This content should offer viewers
space for self-reflection, an opportunity to see themselves positively represented, and to discover
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their voice through their lived experiences that can encourage viewers to take action and make
tangible changes in their environment. The key is for these content owners to make a deliberate
and conscience effort around social responsibility and DEI, designed to collaborate, support, and
not hinder the creative process. It is essential to leverage the popularity, creativity, and the
influence these entertainment professionals provide. Essentially, let them do what they do but
ensure that the content meets any stated social responsibility and DEI goals. The result ensures
that the entertainment delivered leverages consistent and thoughtful messaging throughout the
development process.
Lastly, a potential blind spot is that the coordinated efforts around implementing any
recommendations could be viewed as delivering partisan propaganda or working to indoctrinate
individuals, especially the youth, into a specific way of thinking. The current environment is
very polarized, and the development of a carefully designed communication plan should be
implemented to ensure that the goals of this plan are clear, simple, and leave little to no room for
misinterpretation. Entertainment is an important and functional tool within society. Leveraging
this entertainment to help address individual self-perception and motivation can have wide-
reaching effects on the individual and society.
We are what we see and experience and these lived experiences matter! James Baldwin
stated that "Children have never been very good at listening to their elders, but they have never
failed to imitate them." This statement highlights that we all have a responsibility to our youth
and to each other, despite our cultural differences. These responsibilities and differences should
be seen as an asset and leveraged by any means possible for the betterment of society.

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Appendix A: Definitions
Several key terms are related to the focus of this study. The terms include:
Academic support system: An academic support system for students is a network of
family members, educators, or community members that provide guidance, knowledge, and
motivation (Cross et al., 2018). Many African American families and community members
provide emotional and instrumental support to help cope with the stressors and demands of daily
life. Academic support involves positive peer influence and support from family, community
members, and educators (Gaydosh & McLanahan, 2021).
Career readiness: Career readiness is the ability of an individual to make career decisions
by considering factors such as family, organization, society, and economy, which may influence
career development (Mahmud et al., 2019). Turner (2019) shared career readiness also involves
the ability to identify career goals and achieve them.
College readiness: A student is considered college-ready if they possess characteristics
such as cognitive strategies, cognitive knowledge, critical thinking, college and career
awareness, and skills including motivation, determination, and goal setting (Turner, 2019).
Wachen et al. (2018) explained how college readiness is academic and social readiness and
students that demonstrate academic momentum.
Motivation: The processes that instigate and sustain goal-directed activities (Schunk &
DiBenedetto, 2020). Motivation is often viewed as a key factor in college readiness and
academic success (Turner, 2019).
Modeling: As part of Bandura’s Social Learning, modeling emphasizes the importance of
observational learning, or learning that occurs in the absence of overt performance by the learner
(Bandura & Walters, 1963; Bandura, 1977). Many students who demonstrate academic success
117

and determination have been influenced by a role model or modeling behavior (Johnson et al.,
2020).
Self-efficacy: The perceived capabilities to learn and perform actions at designated levels
(Bandura, 1977a, 1997). Many students that demonstrate college and career readiness believe in
their strengths and abilities to succeed. This belief in oneself is self-efficacy.
Role model: A person who has the skills and displays techniques which the observing
person lacks and from whom the observing person can learn (Kemper, 1968).

118

Appendix B: The Researcher
As a Black man, I am uniquely positioned to provide insight into this problem. Growing up in
an economically challenged area, I can fully identify how African Americans are negatively
perceived, specifically within the educational system and society. This negative perception has
resulted in direct and indirect messaging that has informed my personal and professional views. The
most impactful for me is that Blacks are considered not hard-working, incapable, and are too
aggressive. Assumptions and biases like these have developed for me over time and can potentially
taint the research outcomes. These assumptions and biases can be present in the interview protocol
questions, the physical interview process (body language and audible variations during questioning),
and in the interpretations of interviewees’ responses.
To mitigate the possibility of affecting the research outcomes, the following steps will be
implemented to ensure credibility. These steps include triangulation, which is to use multiple sources
of data to cross-check information and ideas in this study. Next, member checking will be used to
confirm that the interview responses were accurate and as intended. Lastly, is to be mindful of my
position through critical self-reflection of any bias and assumptions that could affect the research
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Credibility is an important criterion and must be established to ensure the trustworthiness of
the research. Credibility works to confirm the validity and truthfulness of research findings. It is the
goal of the researcher to take the appropriate steps to support these efforts accordingly.

119

Appendix C: Protocols
Three research questions guided this study:

1. What are some barriers to African American students and their ability to be college
and career-ready?
2. What modeling behaviors impact the college and career readiness of African
American students?
3. How do role models support the college and career readiness of African American
students?

Respondent Type: Professionals that work in the entertainment and media arenas.

Introduction to the Interview:

Hello and thank you for taking the time to meet with me today. Again, I am going to ask a few
questions you about your experience and thoughts around role models and how it impacts college
and career readiness of African American students.

There are no right or wrong answers, and I would ask that you to be as honest as possible. So,
please speak freely and as candied as possible.

Lastly, in order to be as thorough as possible, I would like your permission to record this session.
Our conversation will be strictly confidential, and I will not share any identifying details with
anyone.

If at any point you want to take a break or stop the interview please let me know.

Any questions before we begin?

Ok, thank you again for your time! Let’s get started!

Table C1
Interview Protocol Questions
Interview questions Potential probes RQ addressed Key concept
addressed
Q type
(Patton)
A. What is your job title/role and how
long have you been an educator?
What do you like about it?

1. Describe the school variables you
believe that are designed to help
influence college and career
readiness in African American
students?
What are a few examples?

RQ1 Academic
Factors

Knowledge

2. What do you feel should be changed
or modified to help aide in the
promotion of college readiness?
Can you describe these changes or
modifications in a bit more detail?
RQ1 Academic
Factors
Feeling/
Opinions
3. Overall, how effective do you
believe these school variables are in
preparing these students for college
or careers?
Can you describe any barriers that
may exist?

RQ1 Academic
Factors

Experiences
and
behaviors

4. What do you think are the
challenges that these students face in
preparing for college?
Can you elaborate a bit more on
this?

RQ1 Academic
Factors
Opinions and
values

5. Please describe an example of how
or when you have modeled behavior
in the classroom?
Describe your thoughts on the
impact of this modeling?

RQ2 Environment Opinions and
values
6. How important do you think
modeling is, as it relates to college
and career readiness for African
American students?

Why do you feel this way?

RQ2

Environment

Opinions and
values

120

Interview questions Potential probes RQ addressed Key concept
addressed
Q type
(Patton)
7. How you have you incorporated
modeling in your teaching process?
How effective do you feel it was? RQ2 Environment

Experiences
and
behaviors
8. What concerns do you have with
implementing modeling for
students?
How would you address this (these)
concerns?
RQ2 Environment Opinions and
values
9. Describe your thoughts on the
importance role models have on
student development?
How would you define a role
model?
RQ3 Modeling Experiences
and
behaviors
10. Describe any challenges or
limitations with using role models in
general in support of student
academics?
What steps would you use to address
these challenges?
RQ3 Modeling Opinions and
values
11. Under want conditions do you feel
that role models have the most
impact?
Please provide a few additional
examples of these conditions and
any impact?
RQ3 Modeling Experiences
and
behaviors
12. What are your thoughts on mentors
and mentees being of the same race?

What other characteristics are
important?

RQ3 Modeling

Opinions and
values

Conclusion to the Interview:

This was great! I want to thank you again for you time and rich information that you provided. I you have any additional questions or
feedback please don’t hesitate to email or call me. Also, would it be possible to reach-out to you, if I have any follow-up or clarifying
questions? Again, thank you and have a good rest of your week!
121
122

Appendix D: Ethics
Ethics and privacy were important considerations for this study. The participants can be
considered high profile within their field, in which anonymity and confidentiality were essential to
secure participation. The researcher worked to ensure that this anonymity was protected so as not to
impair the data collected via the interview session. This step was accomplished by repeated email
negotiations and conversations that addressed participant requirements for participation in the study.
Participants were each provided the language from the USC Information Sheet for Exempt Research,
required by the IRB and university to achieve informed consent. This language outlined and worked
to inform the participant of their rights for their involvement. To this end, the researcher values and
appreciates each participant’s availability and holds confidentiality of great importance.

123

Appendix E: Afrofuturism Image and Definition

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Asset Metadata

Creator Hopson, Norman (author)

Core Title The impact of cultural wealth and role models on the transformation of an individual’s future self

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2022-08

Publication Date 07/26/2022

Defense Date 06/23/2022

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag academic support,African American students,career opportunities,college readiness,OAI-PMH Harvest,role modeling

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Datta, Monique (committee chair), Green, Alan (committee member), Krop, Cathy (committee member)

Creator Email hhopsn@gmail.com,hhopsn@hotmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC111375315

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