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The impact of conflict and resilience on leadership: a mixed methods study of female elementary principals leading change

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The impact of conflict and resilience on leadership: a mixed methods study of female elementary principals leading change

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Content Running head: CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 1
THE IMPACT OF CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE ON LEADERSHIP: A MIXED METHODS
STUDY OF FEMALE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS LEADING CHANGE

by
Martha Ruth Monahan

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2019

Copyright 2019 Martha Ruth Monahan

CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I dedicate this work to my mother, Susan Maxwell Monahan, who, with my father,
Thomas Redmond Monahan, taught her daughters to be compassionate, courageous leaders.
Through this journey it became evident in my research, as it has in my own experience,
that resilient leaders gain strength from their team. I am fortunate to have several teams that have
supported me throughout my life, my career and my incessant aspiration to earn a doctoral
degree. First, there is my family team: my sisters Katherine Monahan and Susan Monahan
Parkinson have been sources of strength, inspiration and encouragement since they were born.
My children, Laura Burgee Soran, Kevin Thomas Monahan and Brendan Arthur Burgee, studied
with me as I earned a master’s degree many years ago and were my strongest supporters as I
pursued my doctorate. My grandchildren, Ciaran Cameron, Niall Redmond and Lyra Mae
supported me with laughter and joy – and they look fabulous in USC gear (fight on)!
Then there is my team of peers: my biggest cheerleaders: Wendy Wax, Irene Ramos,
Kristin McCue, Dr. Sara Woolverton, Dr. Melissa Moore, Grace Long, Jennifer Gerson, Carly
Omizo, Richard Lindstrom, Diana Murphy and Dana Bashor; my mentors: Alan Friedenberg and
Dr. Al Koppes, O.Carm.; as well as my colleague and friend Jerry Harris and the Cotsen Art of
Teaching Foundation.
Finally, my USC team: dissertation chairs: Dr. Angela Hasan, Dr. Margo Pensavalle and
Dr. Shilby Sims; professors: Dr. David Cash, Dr. John Roach, Dr. Rudy Castruita, Dr. Michael
Escalante, Dr. Artineh Samkian and Dr. Alison Keller Muraszewski; and the mighty Wednesday
night EDL cohort, who offered wisdom, strength and humor. Thank you all for walking beside
me.
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements 2
List of Tables 5
List of Figures 6
Abstract 7
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 8
Statement of the Problem 10
Purpose of the Study 12
Importance of the Study 13
Limitations and Delimitations 13
Definition of Terms 14
Organization of the Study 15
Theoretical Framework 16
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 18
Women in Leadership 18
Adversity Faced by Leaders 21
Challenges of School Principals 21
Conflict Experienced by Women in Educational Leadership 23
Leadership Theory 27
Resilience 29
Feminist Ecological Theory 40
Chapter Three: Methodology 44
Research Questions 44
Research Design 44
Sample Population 47
Survey Respondents’ Resilience Rating on Connor Davidson Resilience Scale 49
Instrumentation 51
Quantitative Instrumentation 52
Qualitative Instrumentation 53
Data Collection 54
Quantitative Data Collection 55
Qualitative Data Collection 56
Data Analysis 56
Quantitative Data Analysis 57
Qualitative Data Analysis 57
Summary 59
Chapter Four: Findings 61
Participants 63
Research Question One 63
Primary Sources of Conflict: Survey 64
Primary Sources of Conflict: Interviews 66
Summary of Research Question One: Data related to Primary Sources of Conflict 77
Protective Factors: Survey 79
Protective Factors: Interviews 81
Summary of Research Question One data related to protective Factors 89
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 4

Research Question Two 90
Theme 1: Negative Impact of Conflict 91
Theme 2: Common Strategies to Cope with Conflict have Contributed to Resilience 96
Theme 3: Resilience has Improved Leadership 100
Summary of Research Question Two Data 105
Summary of Data 105
Chapter Five: Conclusions 108
Discussion of Findings 109
Implications for Practice 114
Future Research 115
Conclusion 116
References 118
Appendix A Connor Davidson Resilience Scale Survey Data 135
Appendix B Survey Instrument 137
Appendix C Interview Guide and Questions 138
Appendix D Connor Davidson Resilience Scale Authorization 140
Appendix E Informed Consent to Take Part in Non-Medical Research 141

CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 5

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Literature corresponding to Feminist Ecological Framework (Ballou et al., 2002) 34
Table 2: Methodology Overview 47
Table 3: Qualitative Interview: Experience and Resilience Score of Principals 50
Table 4: Data Collection/Review 55
Table 5: Mixed Methods Sequential Explanatory Design Procedures Adapted from Ivankova,
Creswell, and Stick (2006) 58
Table 6: Methodology related to Research Questions 62
Table 7: Conflict That Impacts Leadership (n=24) 65
Table 8: Research Themes and Instrumentation: Primary Sources of Conflict Identified by
Instrument 76
Table 9: Protective Factors Actors That Contribute to Resilience in Leadership (n=24) 80
Table 10: Research Themes and Instrumentation: Protective Factors 89
Table 11: Research Themes: RQ2 Principal’s Perception of the Impact of Conflict and
Resilience on Leadership 105
Table 12: Themes Related to Theoretical Framework 106

CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 6

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Median weekly earnings of men and women. From U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 20
Figure 2: Change in weekly earnings 1979-2016. From U.S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics (2017). 20
Figure 3: Metatheory of resiliency and resiliency (Richardson, 2002). 31
Figure 4. Integrated Occupational Resilience Framework (Kossek & Perrigino, 2016). 37
Figure 5: The ecological model (Balogun-Mwangi, Matsumoto, Ballou, Faver, & Todorova,
2016). 41
Figure 6: Sequential explanatory process adapted from Creswell, 2007. 57

CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 7

ABSTRACT
This study utilized feminist ecological theory and resilience theory to identify the causes
of conflict experienced by female elementary principals leading change in their schools as well
as protective factors that contribute to their resilience as leaders. It also explored the relationship
between the conflict faced by the leaders and the development of resilience in their leadership.
The purpose of this study was to examine the reciprocal relationship between conflict and
resilience from the perspective of female educational leaders. The study was a mixed-methods,
sequential explanatory investigation. A quantitative survey was distributed to principals, which
included the 10-point Connor Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC 10), as well as 14 questions
related to the sources of conflict and protective factors. Data was analyzed for 24 female
respondents who had been principals for three or more years. Eight participants were randomly
selected to participate in interviews. Transcripts of interviews were coded through a two-cycle
coding process to identify themes, patterns, relationships and connections, then triangulated
using the CD-RISC 10 and quantitative data collected from survey respondents. Findings from
this study indicate that the primary sources of conflict for participants were the volume and
scope of tasks, conflict caused by adults, and the misalignment vision between the school and the
school district. Primary protective factors included self-efficacy, experience and vision, as well
as the support of family and or peers. Principals in this study also indicated that experience with
conflict supported the development of resilience that improved their leadership. Results of this
study contribute findings to bridge the gap in the literature related to the occupational
environment’s influence on the development of resilience in female leaders as well as the
development of resilience in educational leaders.
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 8

CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
The role of an educational leader is complex. School leaders are expected to
simultaneously be instructional leaders, visionaries, public relations specialists, financial
planners, counselors and mediators for students, staff, parents and community members, all
while constantly maintaining a calm demeanor of professionalism (Fullan, 2018; Speck & Knipe,
2005). The conflict that arises from all stakeholders and the necessity of making daily decisions
that impact lives demands significant strength, compassion and the resilience to persevere.
Resilience theory suggests that leaders who have greater capacity to recover from adversity are
more successful (King & Rothstein, 2010). A significant body of research has been focused on
resilience in leadership as resilience has been identified as highly desirable quality in private
sector leaders, yet research in school leadership is less comprehensive (Kossek & Perrigino,
2016; Leithwood, Harris, & Hopkins, 2008; Richardson, 2002; Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004).
Multiple studies have been carried out that indicate that additional challenges, are unique to
women in leadership, these include: gender bias, male-dominated culture, gender role
incongruence and the pressure to balance home and work life (Eckman, 2004; Eckman, 2001;
Miller, Washington, & Fiene, 2006; Wallace, 2015). Successful women in educational leadership
must be flexible and able to evolve, as leadership is a dynamic process that transforms the leader
as she shapes the goals of the group, motivates the group toward achievement of those goals and
defines that culture of the organization around the vision. Resilience goes beyond merely coping,
as the women who experience conflict recover and learn from their experience and become
stronger and more knowledgeable as a result of the experience (Baldwin, Maldonado, Lacey, &
Efinger, 2004; Connor & Davidson, 2003; Ledesma, 2014; Wolin & Wolin, 2010). The
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 9

reciprocal relationship between the conflict that is faced by female educational leaders and
resilience related to their leadership development was the focus of this study.
The building of resilience in response to adversity or conflict is a burgeoning area of
research in leadership but it is an ageless concept. Joseph Campbell’s analysis of the singular,
recurring pattern in mythology of the hero’s journey has been applied to social sciences,
primarily psychology, over the past several decades and is also being applied to the study of
leadership (Bennis, Sample, & Asghar, 2015; J. Campbell, 2004). In Campbell’s analysis, each
journey begins with a protagonist rejecting a call to duty before being sent to an unfamiliar place
for an adventure. Often this is a place of exile, as the result of a weakness in the hero. Bennis and
Thomas, in their leadership research, describe this process as the hero’s own personal crucible, a
transformative experience through which an individual comes to a new or an altered sense of
identity (Bennis & Thomas, 2002; Bennis et al., 2015). During the period of exile, the hero
receives encouragement, insight and/or knowledge, or from another. Through the experience,
having gained the knowledge and guidance, the hero gains the ability to overcome trials and
builds strength and confidence with which he or she returns stronger and wiser (Bennis et al.,
2015). It is the hypothesis of this study that the experience of responding to conflict in the role of
principal strengthens their resilience and contributes to their development as stronger leaders.
There are commonalities among resilient leaders. However, in the majority of leadership
studies these conclusions are based upon are androcentric, deficit models that are either derived
from leadership experiences of exclusively men or of experiences of women in comparison to
those of men (Ballou, Matsumoto, & Wagner, 2002). There is wisdom in the journey of female
leaders as they are experts in their own experience (Ballou et al., 2002) and this study explored
the stories of elementary principals who led significant school instructional and cultural changes
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 10

in their careers. The identification and analysis of sources of conflict and sources of strength for
the principals in this study will contribute to the limited body of knowledge in resilience
literature focused on school leaders.
Statement of the Problem
It is essential that educational leaders have a certain level of resilience, or the ability to
think keenly when embroiled in conflict, as well as the ability to derive meaning and knowledge
from setbacks and failures (Christman & McClellan, 2008; Morrison, 2012; Patterson, Goens, &
Reed, 2009; Reivich & Shatté, 2002). The level of conflict in school leadership is high and
successful educational leaders must have a high level of resilience to cope, or even thrive, under
stressful conditions. Resilient leaders embrace challenges and grow through adversity (Allison-
Napolitano, 2014; Arias, 2016; Bennis & Thomas, 2002; Bennis et al., 2015). Understanding
complex leadership dispositions requires understanding how leaders interact with challenges
with the assumption that individuals are complex and have the ability to adapt.
Diversity of leadership is a vital factor, which ensures that organizations thrive, and the
underrepresentation of women in leadership roles negatively impacts all stakeholders in K-12
education (Madsen & Andrade, 2018). The underrepresentation of women in top leadership
positions perpetuates the construct that, while women belong in the workplace, there continue to
be barriers to higher levels of leadership (D. E. Campbell & Wolbrecht, 2006; Carli & Eagly,
2011; Shakeshaft, 2019). Young women need role models who make key decisions rather than
simply supporting those made by men. This need for role models in all areas of life for young
women effects opportunities, access and choices including college, career, family and political
leaders (D. E. Campbell & Wolbrecht, 2006). The effect of underrepresentation of women in
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 11

educational leadership has impacted and will continue to impact generations of citizens as both
men and women forge their identity, unlock, and possibly transform their leadership potential.
Great strides have been made in the last century in increasing the number of women
aspiring to and attaining leadership positions in the workforce. The field of education has long
been a mainstay in employment of women who make up the majority of K-12 educators in the
United States, with approximately 76% of all teachers (Bitterman, Goldring, & Gray, 2013). It
would seem, based on this data, that women would hold the majority of leadership roles.
However, the higher the position in education, the lower the percentage of women holding it.
The position of school principal in the United States is held by 51.6% women (Bitterman et al.,
2013). Of those, 58.9% are at the elementary level and 28.5% are secondary principals (Dana &
Bourisaw, 2006). At the superintendent level only 23% of the positions are held by women
(Wallace, 2015). Although this number has increased by 0.7% annually since 1990, women
continue to be underrepresented as leaders of school districts in our nation (Wallace, 2015). To
address the underrepresentation at higher levels of leadership a deeper understanding of the
effects of occupational characteristics is essential (Kossek & Perrigino, 2016).
Although each leader is unique and it is not appropriate to generalize to all women, there
are many factors that are common among female leaders that may cause conflict that a majority
of their male colleagues do not experience (Dzubinski & Diehl, 2018; Eagly & Carli, 2007).
Gender role expectations create internal and external barriers for qualified women who aspire to
be educational leaders, as they must balance role expectations and gender expectations. The
ability to “do it all” becomes more challenging as the hours, responsibility and stress increase at
each level of leadership (Derringtom, & Sharratt, 2009). Additionally, women often experience
judgment and resistance as they move from the culturally expected feminine role as teacher into
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 12

the traditionally male role of administrator (Carli & Eagly, 2011; Christman & McClellan, 2008;
Nichols & Nichols, 2014; Whitaker & Lane, 1990).
There is a significant gap in the literature of women’s leadership theory, styles and
practice from a woman’s point of view, without comparison to her male counterparts (Ballou et
al., 2002). Androcentric bias in leadership research defines a female leader’s experience through
the lens of the deviation from the “norm”, in other words, the white, male leader. This deficit
model has dominated research of leadership. There is a gap in the literature as neither the social
and occupational environment’s influence on the development of resilience in female leaders nor
the development of resilience in educational leaders have been thoroughly researched (Kossek &
Perrigino, 2016)
Purpose of the Study
This study explored the reciprocal relationship between conflict and resilience and their
effect on increasing leadership capacity among female principals who lead change in public
elementary schools in the Los Angeles area. The researcher identified the primary sources of
conflict as well as primary sources of resilience that these principals perceive to have had an
impact on their leadership through the theoretical lens of the female ecological model (Ballou et
al., 2002). In addition, this study examined the participant’s experience with adversity and their
perceptions of the role of conflict in developing their leadership skills through the lens of
resilience theory. The following research questions guided the study:
1. What are the primary sources of conflict and protective factors for female elementary
principals leading change?
2. How do female elementary principals perceive that conflict and resilience have impacted
their leadership?
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 13

Importance of the Study
This research contributes to the limited body of literature related to resilience in both
educational leaders and female leaders. It provides insight into the experience of school leaders
by identifying the primary sources of conflict and resilience for female principals. It provides a
deeper understanding of the resilience of female principals and will help educational leaders
reflect on their own response to conflict in order to increase their capacity to lead through
adversity.
Knowledge gleaned from this study provides insight into resilience that will benefit
school leaders, human resources personnel, superintendents and educational organizations that
strive to increase the effectiveness of school leaders. By reflecting on the results of this study,
leaders may provide structures to support themselves or their coworkers in reacting to conflict to
build more confident, competent and resilient leaders. The results of this study may also be
beneficial to professional organizations such as the Association of California School
Administrators (ACSA) and The National Association of Elementary School Principals
(NAESP) as well as graduate schools of education to improve leadership development materials,
programs and curriculum for current and aspiring elementary principals.
Limitations and Delimitations
There are factors of this research that limit the generalization of its findings. The
participants were not randomly sampled. They were recruited through the Cotsen Art of
Teaching Foundation, an organization devoted to increasing the effectiveness of teachers and
administrators through mentorship and professional development opportunities in Southern
California. Due to the unique nature of the members of the organization as well as the
socioeconomic and cultural diversity of the Los Angeles and Orange County area, results may
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 14

not be generalizable to national or global populations. All principals selected for interviews were
purposefully selected (Creswell, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) because they were (a) female
and (b) had been elementary principals for three or more years. The 38% response rate, sample
size of 24 survey respondents meeting criteria, and eight interviews participants met saturation
criteria for this study, but may limit generalization on a larger scale. Additionally, this study
relies solely on self-reported data, which was collected over a single, five-month period of time.
The race, ethnicity, socio-economic level, age and culture of women have an impact on their
experience as school leaders and these factors were not explored in this study. These limitations
may be a threat to the external validity of the study (Creswell, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Definition of Terms
Leadership: Although scholars agree that there is no single definition of leadership, for
the purposes of this study, “Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of
individuals to achieve a common goal” (Northouse, 2016, p. 3).
Leadership Development: “The expansion of a person’s capacity to be effective in
leadership roles or processes, enabling people to work together in productive and meaningful
ways” (McCauley & Van Velsor, 2004, p. 22).
Protective Factors: Internal and external elements, including: positive affect, finding
positive meaning in stressful situations, supportive relationships and a strong sense of self-
efficacy, that mitigate the negative impact of stress and help build resilience (Caza & Milton,
2012; Richardson, 2002; Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004).
Resilience: The ability to bounce back from challenging experiences (adversity, conflict,
frustration, failure, uncertainty, or increased responsibility) through adaptation and positive
coping (Luthans, Norman, & Hughes, 2006; Masten, 2007; Perry, 2002).
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 15

Resilience in leadership: The ability to think keenly when embroiled in conflict and to
derive knowledge and meaning from setbacks and failures and the ability to make the best of
each situation while inspiring others to move forward with confidence (Allison-Napolitano,
2014; Reivich & Shatté, 2002).
Resilience in organizations: “Resilience refers to a capacity for continuous
reconstruction. It requires innovation with respect to those organizational values, processes, and
behaviors that systematically favor perpetuation over innovation.” (Hamel & Välikangas, 2003,
p. 3).
Unconscious gender bias: Also referred to as second-generation gender bias. “When a
person consciously rejects gender stereotypes but still makes evaluations based on stereotypes”
(Hill, Miller, Benson, & Handley, 2016, p. 21).
Organization of the Study
This study was designed to address the research questions by initially identifying key
sources of conflict and resilience in elementary principals through a feminist ecological lens.
Next, resilience theory was utilized to examine how the conflict and protective factors contribute
to the resilience of effective leaders of change in elementary schools. Chapter Two is a review of
relevant literature beginning with the challenges that women in leadership and school principals
face. The balance of the literature review is on theory related to this study, including: Leadership
Theory, Resilience Theory, Resilience Theory as it relates to Leadership, and Feminist
Ecological Theory. Methodology in Chapter Three includes Preliminary Research, Theoretic
Framework, Sample Population, Instrumentation, Data Collection and Data Analysis. For this
study, data was collected from principals through surveys, the results of focus groups and
through semi-structured interviews. In Chapter Four, findings of the qualitative research is
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 16

presented and Chapter Five summarizes the findings with implications and recommendations for
future research. All research is related to the theoretical framework, which provides a template to
answer the research questions and organizes the collection and analysis of data to find meaning
in the experiences of the participants.
Theoretical Framework
This is a study of the experience of educational leaders using resilience theory (Connor &
Davidson, 2003; Ledesma, 2014; Reivich & Shatté, 2002) with a feminist ecological theory lens
(Ballou et al., 2002). School principals who drive change in their schools experience a high level
of conflict as leaders. Scholars, such as Bolman and Deal, Sergiovanni and Fullan, have
developed leadership frameworks that are the standard curriculum for educational leadership
courses. Bolman and Deal (2017) developed a four-frame model including political, structural,
human resource and symbolic frames. Sergiovanni (2001) touted authentic leadership and Fullan
(2018) envisioned leadership around five dimensions: moral purpose, understanding change,
knowledge creation, relationship building and coherence making. Each of these frameworks are
valuable to men and women, yet the androcentric view of these leadership constructs is mired
with limitations and it is important to build an understanding of leadership based on the reality of
the lived experiences of women in leadership (Ballou et al., 2002; Blackmore, 2013)
Ballou et al.’s (2002) feminist ecological model provides a conceptual framework to
examine internal and external factors that cause conflict and build resilience in the experience of
women leaders in education. The model offers a lens to identify the “multiple and pluralist
influences on human beings” (Ballou et al., 2002, p. 118) that contribute to resilience in
elementary principals. Incorporating feminist therapy theory, critical psychology, social justice
in psychology, liberation psychology, ecological theory, critical theory, and transformative
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 17

multiculturalism, it is a frame for examining the multidirectional influences and interactions that
forge women as educational leaders based on their personal experiences.
This study used the feminist ecological model to examine the stressors that cause conflict
and protective factors that foster resilience in the individual. In addition, resilience theory was
utilized to analyze the principals’ perception of their growth as leaders due to the disruptive
experience of conflict and change. This conceptual framework focused the development of
methods of inquiry, investigation, analysis, and interpretation in the study of the experience of
women elementary principals who led change in their schools.

CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 18

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Successful school principals positively and profoundly impact school culture, student
achievement, retention of staff, family and community engagement. Within a context of high
stakes assessment, tight budgets and conflicting demands from stakeholders, the principal’s
personal and professional skills and values establish a culture for learning (Brennan & Mac
Ruairc, 2017; Fullan, 2018; Maulding, Peters, Roberts, Leonard, & Sparkman, 2012). While the
percentage of female school principals (52%) is less than that of teachers (76%), the majority of
elementary principal positions are held by women (Bitterman et al., 2013), which makes this
population a valuable group for research on female leaders. While there is a significant body of
literature focused on leaders and organizational leadership, the bulk of the research of both
educational leadership and of women in leadership has taken place in the past decade (
Blackmore, 2017; Bennis et al., 2015). Themes arose in the literature related to conflict and
resilience in leadership and to women who lead schools. This literature review is organized
around three primary themes: women in leadership, the adversity or conflict faced by school
principals and female leaders, and resilience in leadership. Additionally, this literature review
reflects on relevant theory that frames the study.
Women in Leadership
Women in the United States have made significant strides in attainment of leadership
positions in the last century yet, due to an historic underrepresentation of women in leadership,
the perspective and diversity of women in leadership is underutilized and it has not been the
subject of a significant quantity of scholarly research (Devnew & Storberg-Walker, 2018).
Leadership positions were predominantly occupied by men through the end of the 20
th
century
and, until recently, the majority of research of leadership has focused solely on leadership at or
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 19

near the top, which has left a significant gap in the understanding of women in leadership
(Hilton & O'Leary, 2018).
Many metaphors have been used to describe the challenges to women striving for equal
opportunities in the workforce. In the early 20
th
century, “the concrete wall” was used to describe
the absolute barriers that women faced, including explicit rules and norms (Eagly & Carli, 2007).
The concrete wall metaphor was based on the assumption the men were the wage earners and
women’s place was in the home (Eagly & Carli, 2007). In 1939, women made 58 cents for every
dollar that a man made. In the mid 1950s women made 64%, but that fell to 58% in the 1960s.
This fall can be attributed to the increased educational level of men who attended college
through the GI Bill (O'Neill, 1985).
In 1964, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act made employment discrimination unlawful on
the basis of sex, race, color, national origin and religion (Eagly & Carli, 2007). With the legal
barriers to women in the workplace breaking down, there was a shift away from total exclusion
from positions of authority to exclusion from high levels of leadership, shifting the metaphor
from the concrete wall to the “glass ceiling” in the mid 1980s (Eagly & Carli, 2007).
Discrimination in employment practices was so prevalent that a commission was established by
congress to investigate in 1995 and an extensive report of findings was released (Glass Ceiling
Commission, 1995).
Increasingly, women are making significant gains in both achievement and
compensation. Women earn more than 50% of bachelor’s degrees (Bitterman et al., 2013). In
2016, women’s earnings ranged from 74% to 83% of men’s among workers age 35 and older
(U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2017).
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 20

Figure 1. Median weekly earnings of men and women. From U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Earnings of women with degrees have climbed significantly faster than men between
1979 and 2016, yet they still make only 82 cents for every dollar that men make (U.S. Bureau of
Labor Statistics, 2017). Additionally, fields that are predominantly staffed by women, including
education, are frequently subjected to lower pay and lower status (Yoder & Kahn, 2003).

Figure 2. Change in weekly earnings 1979-2016. From U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2017).
A path for women to high levels of leadership exists, but while there are no exclusionary
laws or openly endorsed norms, there are visible and invisible barriers that make successful
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 21

routes hard to find. The inaccessibility of top leadership positions to women is at least partially a
function of the conception, recognition, and rewards of the traditional leadership construct
(Hilton & O'Leary, 2018). Our society, and women themselves are not seeing women as leaders
because organizations are not providing transparent access to leadership roles, which relegates
women to a covert path with powerful invisible barriers due to cultural views about gender and
to structures in the workplace that favor men (Eagly & Carli, 2007; Hilton & O'Leary, 2018).
This phenomenon has been labeled second generation or implicit gender bias, and the illusive
path to for women’s access to top leadership has been illustrated as a labyrinth (Carli & Eagly,
2011; Stead et al., 2017). While access to educational leadership positions for women has opened
up, school boards, businesses and government continue to be dominated by men (Blackmore,
2017).
Adversity Faced by Leaders
Female elementary principals experience high levels of conflict and adversity as they
endeavor to lead because there are always divergent demands from a wide range of stakeholders.
Balancing the desires of some against the needs of the students an extremely challenging task
(Brennan & Mac Ruairc, 2017). This level of adversity has the capacity to weaken or even break
aspiring leaders, yet other leaders develop through challenging experiences and become stronger,
more capable leaders (Bennis et al., 2015).
Challenges of School Principals
School leadership has been proven to have the second highest impact on student learning,
after that of the classroom teacher, and thus the role of a principal is essential (Bush & Glover,
2014). The expectations of school principals over the course of the last 20 years have grown
exponentially and include, among other things: assuring the safety of students and staff; leading
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 22

innovation while maintaining school traditions and culture; connecting and supporting students,
staff and families; being responsive to parents and stakeholders; maintaining a positive school
climate; carrying out federal, state and district initiatives; complying with all laws, policies and
regulations while increasing student achievement and delivering results (Fullan, 2018; Maulding
et al., 2012). Changes are often pushed on schools through the site administrator without
consideration of the relationships that have been built at the school site (Maulding et al., 2012).
Amid this culture of increased accountability, resources have remained the same or have
diminished. There is more vulnerability to sanctions with the higher demands of both the
community and the state, which necessitates long hours for little more pay than the teachers that
they supervise (Hoffman, 2004).
In a study of burnout among school principals, participants reported that major stressors
were (a) demands from parents and teachers, (b) feeling that their leadership was questioned and
(c) overload (Friedman, 2002). Principals are expected to make decisions, after gathering
feedback from all stakeholders, establish and maintain a shared vision, set high standards and
develop professional learning plans that meet the needs of teachers with disparate needs and skill
sets, respond to real and perceived crisis, all the while constantly communicating and promoting
their schools (Friedman, 2002; Smulyan, 2000). School administrators are also impacted by the
changing nature of the workplace, which includes a shift in traditional commitment between
organization and employee lessening job security, employer expectations to prioritize work over
family, increased work-home demands due to the rise in dual-career couples, single parent
families and the need to care for aging parents as well as the loss of boundaries between work
and home life due to digital communication (Kossek & Perrigino, 2016). In a 2015 study of
principals, Wells and Klocko reported the following as primary stressors, which are ranked from
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 23

greatest to least stressful, “insufficient time to get the job done, constant interruptions, volume of
paperwork, work-life balance, keeping up with email communication, loss of personal time, job
expectations of the principal, conducting teacher evaluations, diminished revenues, and feelings
of being overwhelmed with job demands” (Klocko & Wells, 2015). The expectation of collective
or distributed leadership demands even greater interpersonal skills and resilient, strategic
leadership (Day, 2014). Yet, Waite and Bogotch (2017) found that, despite the pressure, school
leaders want to make a difference and almost all have a commitment to making a better world for
students. All of these factors contribute to the conflict that principals feel as they build their
leadership capacity.
Conflict Experienced by Women in Educational Leadership
Women who recognize the individual barriers that they face become stronger, more
effective leaders who see the contributions of a range of diverse individuals (Devnew &
Storberg-Walker, 2018). An abundance of research indicates that gender has no biological basis
and is no more than a social construct, which is embedded in culture and society (Dzubinski &
Diehl, 2018). In fact, female leaders more often support staff development, focus on instruction
and teacher efficacy to effect instructional improvement (Grogan & Shakeshaft, 2010).
Nonetheless, this androcentric leadership construct continues to maintain internal and external
barriers to leadership for women.
Gender bias. There is substantial research that indicates that people are predisposed to
believe that men are more capable leaders than women and, despite increased numbers and
influence of women in educational leadership, there is evidence that there remains a lack of
respect or recognition of female leaders due to sex and race discrimination and a negative
perception of women’s capabilities (Eagly & Karau, 2002; Heilman, Wallen, Fuchs, & Tamkins,
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 24

2004; Reynolds, 2002; Shakeshaft, 2019). Female leaders who are as assertive as men are seen as
less likable (Northouse, 2012). The fundamental attribution error is that when women lead with a
confident direct style, they are perceived as self-serving. When men lead in this same manner,
they are perceived as well intended strong leaders. Therefore women must work harder to be
seen as well intentioned, likable leaders (Iverson, Allen, & Gordon, 2017; Keegin, Stuhlmacher,
& Cotton, 2017; Kossek & Perrigino, 2016). Role congruity theory provides insight to the
challenges that strong female leaders face (Ritter & Yoder, 2004). There is evidence that high
agency in female leaders tends to elicit an assumption of low communality, and communality is
highly valued in women (Heilman & Okimoto, 2007). As a result, exhibiting agentic traits, such
as assertiveness and dominance, gives an advantage to men over women because exhibiting
agency undermines perceived communality for women more than men (Eagly & Karau, 2002).
Despite the research that validates these differences, the majority of female teachers, leaders and
community members do not recognize gender imbalance in leadership (Moreau, Osgood, &
Halsall, 2007).
A fundamental challenge to women’s leadership arises from the mismatch between the
qualities traditionally associated with leaders and those traditionally associated with women
(Carli & Eagly, 2011). Unconscious, 2
nd
generation gender bias, or implicit bias in which
stereotypes are rejected but assumptions and evaluations are made based on gender remain
prevalent (Madsen & Andrade, 2018). These assumptions are correlated with the reality that
female principals are most often hired at the elementary level, yet despite the evidence, many
female educators do not recognize gender bias in educational leadership (Moreau et al., 2007;
Young, 2005). In a seminal experiment, Phillip Goldberg (1968) studied women’s prejudice
toward other women in an experiment in which female students evaluated written essays that
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 25

were identical, except for a male or female authors name. Essays attributed to female authors
received lower evaluations unless the essay was written on a feminine topic. More recent
replications have had mixed results, however, a study by Anderson and Francis Flynn (2003), in
which half of a class of Columbia Business School students were given identical case studies of a
venture capitalist but half of the class received it with a male first name (Howard) and half with a
female (Heidi). Results of this small experiment indicate that there is still bias toward females in
a male field (Maria Katsarou, 2017). Students felt Heidi was significantly less likable and more
selfish than Howard. Students rejected the assertive woman but praised the same leadership style
when they believed the leader to be a man. A negative correlation for women between power and
success is evident while the relationship is positive for men (Maria Katsarou, 2017).
Additionally, bias for male leaders can underplay the success of female leaders, attributing it to
their hard work rather than to their ability and attributing their failures to their being
overwhelmed by the difficulty of the work (Eagly & Carli, 2007). In a 2014 study of student
achievement in relation to the gender of the school leader, results indicate that, although staff
rated female principals’ leadership skills far lower than their male counterparts, student
achievement under male and female leaders was equal (Nichols & Nichols, 2014).
There is also a negative relationship between motherhood and women’s salaries (Blau &
Kahn, 2017). In a 2007 experiment in which students evaluated male and female job applicants
who were equally qualified whose only difference was their parental status, mothers were seen as
less competent and committed. The students suggested offering lower salaries to the women
while the fathers were seen as more committed and higher salaries were suggested (Correll,
Benard, & Paik, 2007). All people, even those who view themselves as advocates for gender
equality, have unconscious gender bias and it is critically important to be aware of internal and
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 26

external biases in order to begin to break down the barriers for women (Madsen & Andrade,
2018; Ross, 2014).
Work-non-work interface. There is minimal research on the balance between work and
home in the literature as it relates to resilience and management (Kossek & Perrigino, 2016).
Women experience internal conflict as they balance their roles as leaders and the traditional
expectations of their gender as they manage two lives, one leading a school and another leading a
household (Nichols & Nichols, 2014). Despite the shift to a majority of women from the home
into the workforce, women are estimated to do 1.6 times the amount of housework as men, on
average (with wives averaging 1.7 times the housework of husbands, and married mothers
averaging 1.9 times the housework of married fathers) (Bianchi, Sayer, Milkie, & Robinson,
2012). Men are increasingly more involved with childcare, yet married women care for their
children 2.1 hours for every hour that a married man contributes (Bianchi, Robinson, & Milkie,,
2006). Married mothers in 1975 spent an average of 9 hours per week with their children
compared to married fathers 2.5 hours. In 2000, married mothers spent an average of 13 hours
caring for their children compared to married men’s 6.5 hours. Women consider being a mother
very rewarding and, although they spend more time with their children than their mothers did,
the majority of women feel that they are spending too little time with their children (Bianchi et
al., 2006). Women give up time for themselves or their own interests to care for children, so the
more time spent at work, the less time that they have for themselves. Additionally, the job
demands often encroach on their personal lives through email, etc. (Bianchi et al., 2006).
Increased work demands combined with family obligations make women feel more time pressure
and the more time they spend at their jobs, the less satisfied they are with the amount of time
they have for themselves, yet some female leaders believe that the experience of balancing these
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 27

responsibilities can improve their leadership (Nichols & Nichols, 2014). Men report that the
hours that they spend working do not increase their feelings of time pressure (Bianchi et al.,
2006). Roles and lifestyle choices are shifting for men as well as women and additional research
into work-non-work balance would offer insight into ways to foster resilience in all school
principals (Kossek & Perrigino, 2016).
Leadership Theory
The leadership frames by Lee Bolman and Terrence Deal (1991) have dominated
educational leadership curriculum for the past three decades. Their situational leadership theory
analyzes leadership behavior through four frames of reference: structural, human resource,
political, and symbolic (Bolman & Deal, 2017). In their model, structural leaders focus on the
relationship of structure, strategy, and environment for their organizations. They are
implementers who emphasize rationality, analysis, logic, fact, and data (Palestini, 2013). Human
resource leaders are passionate about people. They are effective leaders because they support and
empower others through coaching, participation, motivation, teamwork, and building
interpersonal relationships. Political leaders emphasize the importance of building a power base:
allies, networks, coalitions. They are advocates and negotiators, they understand politics and are
comfortable with conflict. The symbolic leader believes that their essential role is to provide
inspiration. They use symbols, tell stories, and frame experience in ways that give people hope
and meaning (Palestini, 2013). Bolman and Deal (2017) make the distinction between
management and leadership in education, stating that organizations need management to provide
consistency, control and efficiency while leadership is needed to provide purpose, passion and
imagination.
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 28

While Bolman and Deal provide a frame to build an understanding of educational
leadership, their model is based on research of almost exclusively male leaders as, due to the
underrepresentation of women in leadership, research and theory have been normed on men
(Devnew & Storberg-Walker, 2018). Androcentric bias, when male experience is treated as the
norm and female realities are either not considered or are relegated to the abnormal, is assumed
(Epp, Sackney, & Kustaski, 1994). Epp et al. (1994) state that, although there is nothing wrong
with research identified as androcentric, findings may not be relevant to women in leadership as
it is incomplete. By identifying the bias within the framework, analysis of the results may be
viewed through a lens of what may be missing, what may have been overlooked, and what has
not been stated (Epp et al., 1994). The androcentric nature of leadership research perpetuates the
dominant discourse of the model leader: strong and male (Iverson et al., 2017). According to
Iverson et al., the dominant discourse of femininity and masculinity has an impact on male and
female leaders as it provides parameters for expected behavior in all contexts (workplace, home,
etc.). The dominant masculine discourse is consistent with the Western view of an autonomous
leader who holds the right of self-determination and self-government. He is strong, in control,
analytical and decisive while the feminine discourse paints a picture of a leader who is nurturing,
collaborative, supportive and caring (Iverson et al., 2017). Women in leadership are valued for
collective views of leadership that is less hierarchical and focused on care rather than power
(Eagly & Carli, 2007; Iverson et al., 2017; Stead et al., 2017). Although women leaders have
largely been ignored in research, studies on leadership and gender have increased, which has
increased understanding of how gender influences leadership (Eagly & Carli, 2007). Scholars
remain conflicted about differences of leadership style by gender and whether a clear pattern of
differences exists. Most agree that there is no universal claim about all women leaders because of
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 29

variations in background, culture, race, socioeconomic status, class, etc., yet, a significant body
of research asserts that commonalities exist among women leaders and that differences exist in
leadership style between male and female leaders (Eagly & Carli, 2007). Benis et al., believe that
it is necessary to ask serious questions of leaders in addition to examining the impact of failure
on leadership development (Bennis et al., 2015). Research of female leaders from their point of
view may identify unique characteristics so that their leadership and resilience could be
enhanced.
Resilience
Resilience is a broad idea of the capacity of an individual or system to withstand or
recover from disruptions, which “can be examined at many levels of analysis, from the molecular
to the global, over varying time scales, and also from many disciplinary perspectives, ranging
from ecological to computer sciences” (Masten, 2007, p. 923). The Latin root of word resiliency
is resiliendum, which means to bounce back and to have the ability to find resources to overcome
adversity (Low Dog, 2012) and the root of the word resilience is resiliens: the pliant or elastic
quality of a substance (Ledesma, 2014). Both of these definitions allude to a quality of flexibility
that assures survival.
Resilience theory. The foundational research into resilience focused on developmental
assets and protective factors, as the concept of resilience was based on a list of traits that
individuals did or did not have (Garmezy, 1991; Wolin & Wolin, 1993). Internal factors of
resilience include the individuals personality, resources and personal factors that allow a person
to cope with disappointment and adversity (Ledesma, 2014). Richardson (2002) developed a
metatheory to examine the shift in resilience research through multiple disciplines, which was
based on three waves of resilience inquiry and theory development.
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 30

There was great debate between researchers during the first wave of research as scholars
argued whether resilient characteristics, protective factors or developmental assets, were genetic
or learned (Garmezy, 1991; Masten, Best, & Garmezy, 1990). A seminal resilience study of the
children of schizophrenic parents by Norman Garmezy concluded that resilience played a
significant role in mental health (Masten et al., 1990). Early studies focused on the role of
genetics but evidence suggests that resilience is built over time and can be learned (Coutu, 2002;
Crane, Searle, Kangas, & Nwiran, 2019; Harms, Credé, Tynan, Leon, & Jeung, 2017; Mishra &
McDonald, 2017). Highly resilient people are adaptable and flexible and thrive despite disruptive
change (Siebert, 2005). A key factor with resilient people is self-efficacy, they expect to bounce
back and believe that they have the skills and will do so (Bandura, 2006; Coutu, 2002; Kossek &
Perrigino, 2016; Ledesma, 2014; Siebert, 2005).
The second wave of research focused on the process of acquiring resilient qualities
through an adaptive process in which personal qualities and protective factors are developed. The
seminal work in this area is by Frederic Flach (1990) who believed that resilient qualities could
not be obtained without disruption and reintegration, a coping process that results in self-
understanding, knowledge, growth and stronger resilient qualities (Flach, 1990). Building on
Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory of human development, in which all behavior is the
result of the confluence of behavior, personal factors and the environment, Flach (1990)
postulated that resilience is an ongoing process based on multiple disruptive experiences
throughout life and the development of resilience requires introspection and cultivation by the
individual. Disruption does not necessarily lead to resilience, as individuals may move through
the process and into loss or dysfunction (Richardson, 2002). In this second wave of process, (See
Figure 3) it is not possible to access innate characteristics of resilience without disruption
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 31

because homeostasis does not require change, improvement or growth (Richardson, 2002). The
resilience process is one in which the effect of stressors and protective factors impact the process
through a disruptive experience toward positive growth (building resilience), then move back to
their comfort zone (moving past the disruption with no growth), or into loss or dysfunction
(becoming a victim of the experience). An individual’s capacity for resilience is increased by
protective factors and psychosocial assets, which could include positive affect, emotional
intelligence, and extraversion (Campbell-Sills, Cohan, & Stein, 2006; Richardson, 2002; Tugade
& Fredrickson, 2004). These protective factors provide balance in stressful situations, which
would otherwise threaten the persons sense of self-worth or ability to cope, yet overcoming
adversity through risk, mitigated by personal protective factors builds resilience (Crane et al.,
2019; Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004).

Figure 3. Metatheory of resiliency and resiliency (Richardson, 2002).
The third wave of resilience theory integrates the belief that there is an innate drive of
resilience in everyone to seek wisdom, harmony, and self-actualization and that inquiry, which
can lead to understanding of how people can access their motivation to grow through adversity
(Richardson, 2002). In this view, resilience stems from the collective unconscious of each person
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 32

as well as from external spiritual, social and ecological supports. Richardson’s (2002)
metatheory indicates that building resilience is an ongoing process that can increase self-efficacy
and have practical applications for all aspects of life. Third wave inquiry includes postmodern,
ecological and feminist theory through an interdisciplinary study of physics, philosophy,
psychology, neuroscience and Eastern and Western religious beliefs (Masten, 2007; Richardson,
2002).
Based on research, the acquisition of resilience is a dynamic process that occurs over
time in which thoughts, behaviors and actions evolve based on personal experience (American
Psychological Association, 2002; Caza & Milton, 2012; Mishra & McDonald, 2017). Resilience
among people is evenly distributed with the majority of people who display average resilient
qualities (in the middle of the bell curve) and the people on the extremes who have symptoms of
post-traumatic stress or post-traumatic growth (Seligman, 2004). Resilient individuals are not
immune from stress, or negative emotions and in a 2004 study, high-resilient and low-resilient
participants reported equal levels of stress (Allison-Napolitano, 2014; Tugade & Fredrickson,
2004). Highly resilient people, however, reported feeling more energized, positive and eager to
move forward amidst their frustration (Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004). These people cope more
effectively under stressful conditions due to more personal resources and positive affect (Z.
Wang, Li, & Li, 2017). As resilience has been identified as a highly desirable quality, and even
an essential skill, in employees, students, leaders, organizations, etc., a significant shift in
resilience research over the past decade has focused on the process of building resilience,
particularly related to careers (Mishra & McDonald, 2017).
Recent research has focused on how experiencing stress impacts the development of
resilience (Crane et al., 2019; Seery, Holman, & Silver, 2010). Seery et al. (2010) found that
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 33

greater resilience is built in response to two to four adverse experiences. Although study
participants developed resilience through facing any adversity, including traumatic events, the
greatest gain in resilience was in response to moderate adversity (Seery et al., 2010). Reflecting
on the experience of stress is a major component that research has proven to increase resilience
(Crane et al., 2019).
Resilience in organizations and leadership. There is a growing body of research in
resilience as it relates to employment, organizations and leadership as organizations strive to be
competitive in a rapidly changing world (Coutu, 2002; Hamel & Välikangas, 2003; Kossek &
Perrigino, 2016; Patterson et al., 2009). Personal resilience is significantly influenced by
immediate surroundings, yet social context and occupational influence is just beginning to be
examined in management literature (Kossek & Perrigino, 2016). Leadership capacity has been
found to increase as a leader’s resilience and emotional intelligence increase (Maulding et al.,
2012). A resilient leader is defined as one who, when faced with chronic stress or a crisis, is able
to recover, learn and grow as a result (Patterson et al., 2009). Resilience is an essential element
of leadership and is seen as the cornerstone of an effective leader as the resilience of the school
leader may positively or negatively impact school culture (Bennis et al., 2015; Maulding et al.,
2012). Leaders are often the target of the frustration of others, but resilient leaders move through
adversity, adapting and taking appropriate action (D. E. Reed & Blaine, 2015). A review of the
literature identifies core attributes of resilient people in key areas that benefit educational leaders.
Table 1 highlights the qualities of resilient leaders and the relationship to Ballou et al.’s (2002)
Feminist Ecological Framework.

CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 34

Table 1
Literature corresponding to Feminist Ecological Framework (Ballou et al., 2002)
Influences that
contribute to
resilience
Highlights Research
Positive Worldview
(Individual, Micro,
Macro-Exo)
See opportunities and possibilities in
problematic situations.
View the environment as complex and
changing.
Believe in the ability to turn negative
situations to positive.
Have a wide range of interests.
View changes as opportunities.
Recognize rewards and see life as
rewarding.
Look for new sense of meaning in
trauma.

Coutu (2002)
Matsen (2007)
Arias (2016)
Tugade & Fredrickson (2004)
Bennis et al., (2015)
Benson et al. (2014)
Kossek & Perrigino (2016)
Baldwin et al. (2004)
Youssef & Luthans (2007)
Z. Wang et al. (2017)

Positive Sense of Self
(Individual)
Believe that they are capable, valuable
and hold power.
Have a strong sense of self-esteem.
Positive ambient mood.

Coutu (2002)
Wolin & Wolin (2010)
Tugade & Fredrickson (2004)
Benson et al. (2014)
Kossek & Perrigino (2016)
Reed & Patterson (2007)
Baldwin et al. (2004)
Ledesma (2014)
Patterson & Reed (2007)
Bandura (2006)
Youssef & Luthans (2007)
Lazaridou & Beka (2015)

Are Flexible
(Individual)
Able to view situations from multiple
perspectives.
Open to new ideas.
Creative: find creative solutions to
solve problems.
Have tolerance for ambiguity.
Transitions can empower.
Accept contradictions.
Believe that change in manageable.
Positively cope and adapt.

Wolin & Wolin (2010)
Bennis & Thomas (2002)
Siebert (2005)
Patterson & Reed (2007)
Tugade & Fredrickson (2004)
Allison-Napolitano (2014)
Z. Wang et al. (2017)
Lazaridou & Beka (2015)

CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 35

Table 1, continued
Influences that
contribute to
resilience
Highlights Research
Are Focused
(Individual)
Maintain a strong sense of purpose
and/or vision.
Commitment to personal and
professional goals.
Establish boundaries.
Maintain values during crisis.
Persevere.

Arias (2016)
Bennis & Thomas (2015)
Kossek & Perrigino (2016)
Baldwin et al. (2004)
Patterson & Reed (2007)
Bush & Glover (2014)
Lazaridou & Beka (2015)

Are Collaborative
(Micro)

Have a social support base.
Elicit the support of others.
Learn from the experiences of others.
Interact with networks of others
(socially and professionally).
Rely on strongly established bonds with
others during difficult times.
Recognize strengths and weakness of
self and others.
Display patience and sense of humor
during change and crisis.
Provide support and feedback to others.
Recover quickly.
Reflect on challenging experiences.

Wolin & Wolin (2010)
Arias (2016)
Tugade & Fredrickson (2004)
Bennis & Thomas (2015)
Benson et al. (2014)
Lazaridou & Beka (2015)

Organized
(Individual)
Can identify themes and find order in
chaotic situations to structure
ambiguity.
Manage multiple tasks simultaneously.
Discern which information is relevant
and structure a plan.
Recognize when they need help.
Act after careful planning.
Day (2014)
Patterson & Reed (2007)
Baldwin et al. (2004)

Resilience is a characteristic that employers desire and is the primary indicator of the
success of a leader – above education and experience (Coutu, 2002). Conflict in leadership is
inevitable and leaders embrace, embody and use the positive energy that conflict creates to
become stronger and to thrive (Eagly & Carli, 2007). Empirical research has shown that positive
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 36

emotions increase resilience during negative experiences and, in fact, people may become more
resilient to adversity after navigating each setback (Shakeshaft, 2019; Tugade, Fredrickson, &
Feldman Barrett, 2004). Kossek & Perrigino (2016) did an extensive study of current, published
management studies and found several prominent themes: 1) resilience is determined
individually and occupationally within a multi-tiered system, 2) resilience related to accessing
resources (capacity, traits, processes) and these resources are not mutually exclusive, 3)
resilience is developed through both negative and positive experiences, 4) resilience is viewed as
dynamic, 5) all occupations had job specific triggers in addition to triggers that were common to
all occupations, and 6) work-related stress affected non-work life in a primarily negative way.
Based on their research, they developed a framework for resilience in relationship to the work
and non-work factors that is relevant for this study. Figure 4 is a conceptualization of that model
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 37

and shows the process through which resilience is continuously built.

Figure 4. Integrated Occupational Resilience Framework (Kossek & Perrigino, 2016).
As resilience is built through an evolution of responses to multiple and or chronic
stressors over time, Kossek & Perrigino’s (2016) framework is dynamic. It integrates resources:
traits, capacities, and processes into a process model through which these factors and contextual
influences interact to determine how an individual’s will respond to stressors (Kossek &
Perrigino, 2016). These stressors are mediated by personal resilience and are moderated by
occupational and organizational contexts to shape positive or negative outcomes that will impact
future responses to stressors.
Career resilience, the process of persevering, adapting and thriving despite changes,
challenges and disruptions and is developed over the span of a career, has been the subject of an
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 38

increasing number of studies over the past 30 years (Mishra & McDonald, 2017). Resilience in
the workplace is a complex, multidimensional developmental trajectory that requires the
utilization of personal characteristics within the work context and is important to develop to cope
with expected or unexpected adversity, disruption or change (Caza & Milton, 2012; Gu & Day,
2013; Mansfield, Beltman, Price, & McConney, 2012). Mishra and McDonald (2017)
synthesized the current research on career resilience and identified personal and contextual
factors that impact resilience in the workplace. Primary personal traits include:
conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness, extraversion and agreeableness (Mishra & McDonald,
2017). The research has also found that people who build high levels of resilience also have a
sense of locus of control, high self-efficacy and high self-esteem. Resilient workers develop
skills over time that they rely on to persevere through challenges and have a positive attitude and
behaviors (Gu & Day, 2013; Mishra & McDonald, 2017). Contextual factors that increase the
development of resilience include a supportive workplace, autonomy, and feedback, as well as a
supportive family (Maher, 2013; Mishra & McDonald, 2017). While these factors are applicable
to all, women in leadership positions have stressors and protective factors that are unique to their
gender.
Resilience in women. Women in leadership build resilience in the context of their life
experience. Women take on multiple roles, which have beneficial effects that include
opportunities for experience in different settings, greater social support and increased self-
complexity (Barnett & Hyde, 2001; Nichols & Nichols, 2014). Barnett & Hyde (2001) found that
a strong commitment to family does not prevent a strong commitment to work or the reverse.
However, balancing multiple responsibilities is essential to assure overall well-being (Barnett &
Hyde, 2001). In 2004, a qualitative study of high-profile, successful leaders at the national level
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 39

by Baldwin et al., found that major challenges that the women had or were facing were: family
problems, poverty, job challenges, racism, sexism, childhood trauma and health issues. The
respondents, including former Attorney General Janet Reno, shared resilient qualities that
allowed them to move through adversity were: determination, a sense of purpose, spirituality,
education, professional accomplishment, a sense of humor and support from others – including
both colleagues and family (Baldwin et al., 2004). In a study of women in educational
leadership, Christman and McClellan identified factors that contribute to the resilience among
female leaders, which includes: perseverance, drive, appreciation of interpersonal relationships,
desire to succeed, support from others (family, friends, colleagues), desire to be a model and
voice for minority women, excitement, competence and experience (Christman & McClellan,
2008). Participants in this study indicated that they integrated masculine and feminine leadership
styles into their experience based on the context, issue or organizational culture. Some suggested
supports to foster resilience from the respondents included: mentoring, recognition for leadership
capacity and approaches based on individual needs and strengths (Christman & McClellan,
2008).
In their study of female superintendents, Reed and Patterson (2007) found similar
resilient qualities, including: realistic perspective, efficacy, values, optimism and taking action
based on personal values. Key themes in the experience of these superintendents were: 1) the
ability to remain focused and committed to values, 2) the ability to understand the current reality,
anticipate challenges and tolerate complexity and ambiguity, 3) the ability to be realistically
optimistic and to inspire hope in others, 4) cultivation of a strong support base among family,
friends, colleagues and spiritual sources, and 5) the ability to act courageously, maintain
alignment with values and vision, and learn from mistakes (Reed & Patterson, 2007).
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 40

Identifying the sources of stress as well as protective factors from a woman’s perspective has the
potential to contribute to the growing body of knowledge and theory as it relates to female
leaders.
Feminist Ecological Theory
Ballou et al.’s (2002) feminist ecological model provides a conceptual framework to
examine internal and external factors that cause conflict and build resilience in the experience of
women leaders in education. The model offers a lens to identify the “multiple and pluralist
influences on human beings” (Ballou et al., 2002) that contribute to resilience in elementary
principals. Incorporating feminist therapy theory, critical psychology, social justice in
psychology, liberation psychology, ecological theory, critical theory, and transformative
multiculturalism, it is a frame for examining the multidirectional influences and interactions that
forge women as educational leaders based on their personal experiences.
The visualization of the model is similar to Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) bio-ecological model, the
center of which is the individual whose development is affected by the interactions and
influences of greater spheres of influence. Like Bronfenbrenner’s, the feminist ecological model
includes rings of influences and interactions beginning with the inner circle at the level of the
individual. Factors within each ring interact with the individual and with one another constantly
and dynamically and the outer rings can have just as much or more influence on the individual as
the inner rings (Ballou et al., 2002). Ballou et al., state that the feminist ecological model
“represents many aspects of individuals and their interaction with other influences as well… it
recognizes intellectual, emotional, physical, and spiritual dimensions of the person, and it
indicates that the coordinates of race-ethnicity, class, sex-gender, and age all interact profoundly
with these dimensions of the individual” (p. 121).
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 41

Figure 5. The ecological model (Balogun-Mwangi, Matsumoto, Ballou, Faver, & Todorova,
2016).

The inner ring includes aspects of physical, intellectual, emotional and spiritual
dimensions of the individual. The next circle, the microsystem, includes factors in the
individual’s immediate environment including intimate relationships with friends and family as
well as those with peers, friends and experiences in the workplace or community organizations.
Ballou, et al (2002), do not limit the definition to include only biological family members, but
also commitments and bonds that they describe as affectional. The macro-exosystem, which
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 42

includes regional, state, and national influence, also has a significant impact on the experience of
an individual, or, in the case of this study, an educational leader. Policies developed by leaders of
educational systems, government, social institutions, academic disciplines, and religious
institutions, with little input from the individuals that their policies effect, often cause conflict.
The final ring is the macro-exosystem, which includes worldviews, values, human rights,
politics, environmental impact, and global distribution of resources and economics. Awareness
of this level is essential to the individual leader due to the need of a frame for multiple
perspectives: connecting the personal to the political, to the theory and to actions (Ballou et al.,
2002).
Ballou et al (2002) also included planetary/climatic conditions as the individual is
necessarily linked to all living systems. The environment effects social structures, personality
and physical lives through dramatic conditions, such as natural disasters and through pervasive
careless disregard of the planet, which leads to pollution, over use of natural resources, global
warming, and inadequate distribution of food and resources. This inequitable distribution of
resources can contribute to civil unrest, violence, wars, and has a profound impact on the ability
to provide educational opportunities to students. Time and history affect the individual as well as
all other systems in the model. Time includes socio-historical events and conditions,
environmental events, and transitions that take place during the lives of individuals or groups.
Ballou et al (2002) represented the categories of race/ethnicity, gender, class, age and sexual
orientation with coordinates which intersect all of the other circles as these factors are ever
present and impact the experience of the individual at all levels.
This study used the feminist ecological model to examine the stressors that cause conflict
and impact resilience in the individual. Through this framework, internal factors (personality,
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 43

experience, personal resources) and external factors were identified and analyzed (Klocko &
Wells, 2015; Ledesma, 2014). This conceptual framework focused the development of methods
of inquiry, investigation, analysis, and interpretation in the study of the experience of women
elementary principals who are leading change in their schools with a premise that as leaders
become more resilient they are more adept at identifying courses of action to respond to
challenging events with greater confidence and skill (Klocko & Wells, 2015). As women are an
integral part of educational administration, studies that examine their personal and professional
experiences are important resources to increase understanding and to allow reflection on practice
(Reynolds, 2002).

CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 44

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Elementary school principals face unprecedented pressure to meet the demands of
students, staff, parents, state and federal mandates and expectations for student achievement.
Like most educational leaders, they have a strong desire to make a difference while working
under a significant amount of pressure to meet demands from multiple stakeholders (Waite &
Bogotch, 2017). The breadth of expectations causes conflict that may lead to burn out or may
build resilience that increases their capacity to lead.
Previous chapters provided an overview of the study and a review of relevant literature
and theory that frames the study. This chapter provides the details of the study design, including
methodology, research design, instrumentation, data collection, data analysis, ethical
considerations and limitations (Bianchi et al., 2012).
Research Questions
Research questions to guide the design, process and data analysis were developed and
refined through the initial, exploratory phase of the study with the goal of identifying factors that
contribute to women forging themselves as educational leaders (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). All
research is aligned to following questions:
1. What are the primary sources of conflict and protective factors for female elementary
principals leading change?
2. How do female elementary principals perceive that conflict and resilience have impacted
their leadership?
Research Design
Mixed method design, in which elements of both quantitative and qualitative research are
combined in a single study, was chosen for this research to deepen the understanding of conflict
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 45

and resilience experienced by female elementary principals. The researcher chose a mixed
methods approach as the research questions were best addressed using a structured, quantitative
approach followed by an emergent and comprehensive qualitative approach (Teddlie &
Tashakkori, 2010). Qualitative and quantitative methods complement each other in this study to
develop a deeper understanding of the experience of educational leaders (Creswell & Clark,
2018; Lieber & Weisner, 2010).
Quantitative data collection in the initial phase of the study provided both a foundation
and a trajectory for exploring the primary areas of adversity and strength among resilient
principals. The second, qualitative phase of the study allowed the researcher to gain a deeper
understanding of the experience of female principals leading change in their schools from their
perspective. The combined data from quantitative and qualitative research provides depth and
breadth and increases validity through triangulation in this study (Creswell & Clark, 2018;
Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2010). This study is a mixed methods, sequential explanatory
investigation into the reciprocal relationship between conflict and resilience in elementary school
principals who lead change in their schools. From a constructivist paradigm, this research is
designed to identify factors that contribute to women building resilience as educational leaders
based on their personal reflection on experience. Throughout the process, the researcher and
participants constructed knowledge on the leadership journey together on how factors interact to
strengthen, or weaken, their leadership. Findings of this study add to the knowledge base on
women in leadership and may lead to the development of strategies to support leadership
development among principals leading change in their organization.
This mixed method study is qualitative dominant. To explore the sources of conflict and
factors contributing to resilience for female school leaders and to assess the principals’
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 46

individual and collective level of resilience, surveys were distributed to 98 principals on the
Cotsen Art of Teaching Foundation’s electronic mailing list, which included questions to
determine basic demographic information, perceived sources of conflict and resilience, and a 10-
question Connor-Davidson Resilience scale (CD-RISC 10). The survey responses were then
filtered to identify principals who (a) identified as female and (b) reported that they had served as
principal for more than two years. Male principals were intentionally removed from the sample
as comparison between genders is not within the scope or philosophy of this study. Based on the
results of the survey, individual, structured, open-ended interviews were conducted to investigate
the respondents’ perspective on resilience in their leadership (Creswell & Clark, 2018). A
structured, open-ended interview protocol was chosen to focus the interviews to effectively use
time, to increase the validity of the data by minimizing the variation in interviews of different
subjects, and to aid in the comparison and analysis of responses (Patton, 2002). The mixed
methods approach was chosen as a way to efficiently gather quantitative data from a larger group
of administrators, which provides validity through triangulation of the in-depth interview data of
a small number of participants (Creswell, 2014; Maxwell, 2012). Table 2 represents an overview
of methodology for this study.

CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 47

Table 2
Methodology Overview
Data
Collection
Method
Research
Question
Addressed
Method of Analysis Rationale Function Implementation
Surveys RQ 1 Data collected and
analyzed through
Qualtrics data
collection and
analysis software

Foundational
data

Triangulation/val
idity

Quantitative

Sample selection

Quantitat
ive
resilience
measure
ment
Distributed to
98 principals

Format: email
survey

Interviews RQ 1

RQ 2

Responses
transcribed and
coded to emerging
themes and plotted
on the Feminist
Ecological
Framework

Hand coding and
coded through
NVivo qualitative
data analytic
software

Triangulation

Depth/breadth

Qualitative

Develop
insight
into
interior
experienc
es,
thoughts,
perceptio
ns

Gather
insight
into
personal
experienc
e and
worldvie
w
Individual
interviews

Structured,
open-ended

Sample Population
As a primary element of this study is reflection on conflict and resilience as it relates to
leading school change, an essential quality for the principals in this study is that they have led or
are in the process of leading change in their schools, therefore participants were selected
purposefully to meet the criteria (Patton, 2002). Maxwell (2012) laid out reasons for choosing
the setting and sampling for a research project, which include: deliberate selection of individuals
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 48

or cases that are critical for testing specific theories and selecting participants with whom you
can establish relationships that will best answer your research questions. All participants in the
study were female elementary school principals who were leading instructional change at their
schools. The schools that these principals led were participating in the Cotsen Art of Teaching
Foundation mentorship program at the time of the study. Cotsen sponsors a lead teacher (mentor)
who works with several other teachers (fellows) on campus to look deeply at their teaching to
improve instructional practice in the areas of balanced literacy or math. Participation in Cotsen is
voluntary and highly selective. Principals who participate in the program are held to high
standards and are expected to focus on staff development as they refine their own practice as
leaders. Cotsen principals were chosen for this study as they had recent experience leading
instructional improvement initiatives in their schools in addition to being geographically
accessible to participate in in-person interviews (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). The Cotsen professional development and mentorship program is a good to great model in
which schools and teachers are selected to participate in deep reflection on individual or
organizational practice to improve instruction over a two-year period. Schools in southern
California are chosen based on their motivation to change practice through collaboration and
mentorship.
A letter and survey from the researcher, with a cover letter from the executive director of
the foundation, was distributed to all Cotsen principals through their electronic mail list.
Participants were randomly selected for interviews from survey respondents who had the
experience that was critical to answering the research questions (Maxwell, 2012). Criteria for
each interview participant includes: (a) having been in their position for three or more years as
there is a steep learning curve in the first two years as a principal and data may have been
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 49

compromised as a result, (b) having led significant change in their schools, and (c) identified as
female. Principals who met the criteria were recruited for interviews through voluntary consent
obtained through the survey response.
The first, quantitative phase of the study included 98 school principals who were on the
electronic mailing list of principals who were active participants in the Cotsen program in
December of 2018. Of these principals, 37 (38%) responded to the survey and 24 of these
respondents met the criteria for the study. The CD RISC 10 was used to gauge the resilience of
the group of principals as a whole and to triangulate the qualitative data collected from
individual participants in the interviews.
Survey Respondents’ Resilience Rating on Connor Davidson Resilience Scale
Results on the CD-RISC 10 for the 24 respondents who met criteria for the study
indicated that these principals had a high degree of resilience with a Scaled Score for sample
34.833 (836/24) by comparison to the national normed median score of 32. Respondents
resilience scores were high in the second quartile, based on normed lowest to highest quartiles 0-
29, 30-32, 33-36 and 37-40 (Campbell-Sills et al., 2006). The 10 questions that make up the
scale all relate to a self-reflection on individual resilience. All respondents indicated that,
“having to cope with stress can make me stronger,” with 79% of those responding that this is
“often true” or “true nearly all of the time.” Additionally, 100% of respondents indicated that
they could achieve their goals, even if there are obstacles “often” or “nearly all of the time”.
Appendix A includes a table with the survey responses to the CD-RISC 10 for all 24 principals
who were female and had been serving as elementary principals for three or more years. None of
these respondents answered, “not at all true” or “rarely true” to any of the questions that
measured resilience.
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 50

Eight participants for interviews were randomly chosen from the 13 survey respondents
who met criteria and also indicated that they were willing to participate in one-hour, semi-
structured interviews. Six out of the eight principals interviewed had more than 10 years of
experience in the role, which was relevant as their views were not likely to be skewed by
immediate circumstances at their school or in education in general. Table 3 shows the years of
experience and Connor Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC 10) level for each interview
participant. Two participants scores fell slightly below the normed national CD-RISC 10 average
of 32 while the other eight scored well over the national average.
Table 3
Qualitative Interview: Experience and Resilience Score of Principals
Participant Years of Experience CD-RISC 10 score
Wendy 21 30
Judith 13 35
Jodi 4 31
Irene 20 37
Katherine 17 35
Susan 19 34
Liz 3 38
Sara 14 33

Participants in the study led elementary schools in Los Angeles County or Orange
County, California. Contextual information for interview participants follows. Pseudonyms were
used to protect the identity of the participants in the interviews.
Wendy has been an elementary principal for 21 years. She is married and has adult
children. She is White and has her master’s degree in education. Her score on the CD-RISC 10,
30, is slightly below the national normed average of 32.
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 51

Judith has been an elementary principal for 13 years. She is single and has a preschool
aged child. She is Hispanic and has her master’s degree in education. She scored 35 on the CD-
RISC 10.
Jodi has been an elementary principal for four years. She is married and has three
children, an infant, a toddler and a preschooler. She is Asian and has her master’s degree in
teaching. Her score on the CD-RISC 10 is 31.
Irene has been an elementary principal for 20 years. She is married and has no children.
She is Hispanic and has her doctorate in educational leadership. Her score on the CD-RISC 10 is
37.
Katherine has been an elementary principal for 17 years. She is married and is the mother
of two elementary aged children. She is White and is in the process of earning her doctorate in
educational leadership. Her score on the CD-RISC 10 is 35.
Susan has been an elementary principal for 19 years. She is married and has two adult
children as well as two grandchildren. She is white and has her master’s degree in literacy. Her
score on the CD-RISC 10 is 34
Liz has been an elementary principal for three years. She is married with one elementary
aged child. She is white and has her doctorate degree in education. Her score on the CD-RISC 10
is 38.
Sara has been an elementary principal for 14 years. She is single and has no children. She
is Hispanic and has her doctorate degree in education. Her score on the CD RISC 10 is 33.
Instrumentation
This mixed method study was completed in two sequential phases; the quantitative
information was collected first utilizing a survey then qualitative data was collected through
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 52

individual interviews. Quantitative survey data was collected and analyzed prior to development
of the interview protocols. Interview questions were developed based on a review of the
literature and on the responses to the quantitative survey. Interview transcripts were analyzed to
identify themes. Interview and survey data were triangulated to validate the findings.
Quantitative Instrumentation
In the first phase in this explanatory sequential mixed method study, the quantitative
results provided foundation and direction. After an exhaustive evaluation of surveys utilized in
prior studies, the researcher designed a survey to gather data in three areas related to the research
questions, including (a) four questions to gather general demographic information such as age,
and number of years in the principal role, (b) 14 questions to identify sources of conflict and
resilience and (c) the 10-question Connor Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC 10). The CD-
RISC 10, which was developed as a measure of resilience that is generalizable to multiple
populations, was used with permission and consists of a 10 questions that measure stress and
coping ability (Connor & Davidson, 2003). This self-assessment provided a basis to identify
more resilient respondents as well as triangulation for data gathered later during the interview
process (Richardson, 2002). The CD-RISC 10 is a five-point scale (Appendix A) in which
respondents rate themselves in response to items such as, “I am able to adapt when changes
occur,” from 0 (not at all) to 4 (true nearly all of the time). The CD-RISC 10 has been found to
be valid relative to other measures of stress in multiple studies (Connor & Davidson, 2003). The
10 question scale has been used in over 100 studies in multiple countries and populations and the
10-question version has been found even more valid and reliable among the general population
than the original 25 question scale (Aloba, Olabisi, & Aloba, 2016; Campbell‐Sills & Stein,
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 53

2007; Coates, Phares, & Dedrick, 2013; Gulbrandsen, 2016; L. Wang, Shi, Zhang, & Zhang,
2010).
The survey includes 14 additional questions to identify sources of stress and resilience
and their level of their impact on the leader. All responses were measured on the 5-point Likert-
style scale for consistency and for accurate data analysis. Responses to these questions provided
data to answer RQ 1, What are the primary sources of conflict and protective factors for female
elementary principals leading change? for a large sample of principals in addition to validating
the data, which was gathered during the subsequent interviews. The sequential explanatory
process is constructivist at the core and the results of the survey provided relevant data and
guided the development and refinement of interview questions for quantitative phase (Agee,
2009).
Qualitative Instrumentation
A constructivist perspective was appropriate for the second phase of this sequential
examination of school leaders, as the goal was to gain insight into the interaction of conflict and
resilience through their experience. Qualitative methods provided that necessary depth to gain
understanding of meaning, context, identifying influences to develop causal explanations
(Maxwell, 2012). Individual and group interviews were effective instruments to gather
descriptive data about the experiences of female principals in their own words (Bogdan &
Biklen, 2007). Individual, semi-structured open-ended interviews provided an opportunity for
participants to share their perspective on their experience with conflict, protective factors in their
lives and their perspective on how these elements had affected their leadership in a format that
maintained the focus of the study.
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 54

Interviews. To develop this deeper understanding through the examination of their
personal experience, a phenomenological approach was chosen to investigate the perceptions of
successful principals with respect to their resilience and leadership through standardized, open-
ended interviews allowing for in-depth data from multiple perspectives (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016; Patton, 2002; Weiss, 1994). This method was chosen to observe thoughts, feelings or
intentions and gain insight into how the subjects interpret their experiences of conflict and
resilience (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The goal was to identify causal relationships and construct
meaning with the participants, as women are experts in their own experience and there is wisdom
in the journey of female leaders (Ballou et al., 2002).
After a thorough examination of interview protocols utilized in prior research and the
evaluation of the effectiveness of the interview questions used in a 2017 pilot study, the
researcher used the themes that emerged in the first, quantitative phase of the study to develop
open-ended interview questions. A structured, open-ended, eight-question protocol (Appendix C)
was developed to maximize efficient use of time, to assure that interviews of different
participants were consistent, to increase the ease of data analysis and so that the exact instrument
was available to provide validity for the research (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 2002).
Data Collection
Data collection began after permission was granted to move forward by the Institutional
Review Board (IRB) of the University of Southern California, which protects the welfare,
privacy and rights of human subjects in addition to providing ethical oversight of all research.
Prior to the IRB process, the executive director of the Cotsen Art of Teaching Foundation had
given permission to contact Cotsen principals for recruitment as participants in the study. A
schedule for data collection and analysis is illustrated in Table 4.
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 55

Table 4
Data Collection/Review
December January February March April
Surveys

Analysis

Interviews

Analysis
X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

The instruments utilized in this sequential explanatory mixed methods approach provided
deeper understanding in addition to assuring that the findings were internally valid and consistent
(Johnson, Onwuegbuzie, & Turner, 2007).
Quantitative Data Collection
Surveys were distributed to 98 principals who were members of the Cotsen organization
through the Cotsen Foundation’s electronic mailing list. The purpose of the study, voluntary
participation and assurance of confidentiality were outlined on a cover letter using Qualtrics data
collection and analysis software. Respondents who voluntarily agreed to take part in the 7-
minute survey, began by responding to the 10-question Connor Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-
RISC 10), which assessed their self-perception of resilience, followed by 14 questions to identify
sources of conflict and resilience in their lives. Basic demographic information was then
collected to allow the researcher to filter respondents who meet the criteria for the study. Upon
completion of the survey questions, an option to volunteer to participate in one-hour interviews
was given and respondents had the option of providing their contact information for follow up.

CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 56

Qualitative Data Collection
Eight respondents who met the criteria for the study, (a) female and (b) had served as
principal for three or more years, were randomly selected from the pool of volunteers.
Structured, open-ended interviews were conducted by a single researcher. Each participant was
asked to respond to eight predetermined questions during a one-hour, in-person interview.
Interviews were audiotaped and transcribed to capture the perspective of the respondent as
accurate and fairly as possible and to gather exact quotes to validate the data (Patton, 2002).
Permission to audiotape was requested prior to each interview. Field notes of major points, key
phrases and observations were taken to facilitate analysis (Creswell, 2007; Patton, 2002). After
the interview, details about the setting and reflections about the interview were recorded to
provide context during data analysis (Patton, 2002).
Data Analysis
In this sequential, explanatory mixed methods study, quantitative data was analyzed
initially to inform the subsequent qualitative data collection and analysis (Onwuegbuzie &
Combs, 2010). Analysis began after survey data was collected and then immediately after each
interview to organize, synthesize and interpret the data using a phenomenological approach
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). After the two major sequential phases of data analysis, findings from
both quantitative and qualitative data were compared to triangulate the results (Onwuegbuzie &
Combs, 2010). Creswell’s (2007) sequential explanatory model represents the data analysis
process (Figure 6).
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 57

Figure 6. Sequential explanatory process adapted from Creswell, 2007.
Quantitative Data Analysis
The quantitative data was evaluated in relationship to the research questions. The Connor
Davidson Resilience Scale results were analyzed per the assessment manual, yielding a mean and
standard deviation for the group as well as a raw resilience score for each respondent (Appendix
A). Responses to the factors that cause conflict and contribute to resilience in leadership were
quantified through Qualtrics analytic software to yield a mean and standard deviation for each
element. The three factors with the highest mean score for the group were used to plan the
interview guide for the qualitative phase of the study.
Qualitative Data Analysis
Individual audiotaped interviews were transcribed using Otter ai, a web-based recording
and transcription system, and edited for accuracy through a process of listening to the audiotaped
interview while editing the transcript. Reflection to look for insight was the beginning of the
analysis, as the time immediately following an interview is an essential time to reflect on the
experience and on the information and on the context (Patton, 2002). A two-cycle coding process
followed, to evaluate the data while the content is still fresh. The first cycle of coding initially
summarized pieces of the data prior to the second cycle of pattern coding, which grouped the
data into fewer categories or themes (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Miles, Huberman, & Saldana,
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 58

2014). Data was charted in matrix for ease of identification of relationships, themes and
connections (Creswell, 2007; Miles et al., 2014). Additionally, NVivo analytical software was
used to analyze the transcripts to look for themes and categories. After a thorough qualitative
analysis of the data, the matrix was analyzed quantitatively using frequency data and patterns in
the transcript (Onwuegbuzie & Combs, 2010). Finally, qualitative findings underwent critical
analysis to compare and contrast with the quantitative data collected to complement and
triangulate the survey data (Maxwell, 2012).
Table 5

Mixed Methods Sequential Explanatory Design Procedures Adapted from Ivankova, Creswell,
and Stick (2006)

Phase Procedure Product
Quantitative Data Collection • Web based survey (n=24) • Numeric data

Quantitative Data Analysis • Data screening
• Frequencies
• Qualtrics report

• Descriptive statistics

Connecting Quantitative and
Qualitative Phases
• Purposeful selection
• Developing interview
questions

• Interview participants
• Interview protocol

Qualitative Data Collection • Individual, structured,
open-ended interviews
(n=8)
• Otter AI

• Text documents
(transcripts, researcher’s
notes)

CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 59

Table5, continued
Phase Procedure Product
Qualitative Data Analysis • Coding and thematic
analysis
• Within and across-case
theme development
• NVivo 12

• Visual model of multiple
case analysis
• Codes and themes
• Categories

Integration of the
Quantitative and Qualitative
Results

• Interpretation and
explanation of both
quantitative and
qualitative results
• Discussion
• Implications
• Future research

Summary
The methodology presented follows a mixed method, sequential explanatory approach
that is qualitative dominant. The emphasis on the qualitative inquiry places primary focus on the
lived experiences of eight female principals with conflict and resilience as they led change in
their schools recognizing that there is value in their journey and they are experts in their own
stories (Ballou et al., 2002). To guide and complement the qualitative interview component,
quantitative data was collected through surveys of 98 principals who lead change in their
organizations. This quantitative data was utilized to identify suitable participants for the
interviews and to develop relevant interview questions in addition to triangulating the data.
Individual survey respondents who met criteria (female, three or more years as a principal, and a
leader of change in their school) were purposefully selected to participate in one hour individual
interviews All data was analyzed throughout the process utilizing a constant comparative coding
cycle to drive ongoing data collection and to identify patterns and themes that lead to meaningful
findings (Miles et al., 2014). Throughout the process, careful consideration of any personal bias
was reflected upon to minimize reactivity and maximize reliable and valid findings (Maxwell,
2012). This chapter provided an overview of the sample population, research questions,
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 60

instrumentation, data collection and data analysis for the study. In the following chapter, the
researcher reported the results of the study in relation to the research questions.

CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 61

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
The role of school principals in ensuring the success of their schools is second only to
teachers in terms of increasing student achievement. Principals establish a vision for a
community of learners, while navigating conflicting demands from stakeholders, increased
accountability and limited budgets. Principals face significant conflict as they work with
stakeholders within and outside of the school community who have an array of priorities.
The findings of this mixed methods study are reported in this chapter. Specifically, the
sources of conflict and protective factors for elementary school principals and their personal
perceptions on how conflict and resilience have impacted their leadership. Quantitative data from
the subset of 24 principals who met study criteria (female principals who have led change in their
schools for three or more years) was collected and analyzed prior to gathering qualitative data
through eight semi-structured interviews, which were designed to answer the following research
questions:
1. What are the primary sources of conflict and protective factors for female elementary
principals leading change?
2. How do female elementary principals perceive that conflict and resilience have impacted
their leadership?
The primary purpose of this study was to identify the sources of conflict and protective
factors that female elementary principals experience as they lead change in their schools and to
gain insight into their perception of how conflict and resilience impact their leadership.
Quantitative data was collected and analyzed to determine the level of resilience of the
respondents and to identify the primary sources of conflict and primary protective factors that
contribute to the leader’s resilience. The collection of qualitative data was designed to delve
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 62

deeper into the experience of individual principals through the interview process. Interview
protocols were, in part, influenced by the results of the survey in addition to being designed
around the themes identified in the review of literature prior to data collection. The analysis of
this data identified consistent patterns of conflict and resilient strategies among the participants.
Table 6 illustrates the methodology that was utilized with groups of participants related to each
research question.
Table 6
Methodology related to Research Questions
Data Collection Instrument Participants Research Questions Addressed
Survey 24 female, elementary principals 1.
Interview Eight female, elementary principals 1. & 2.

To answer the first research question, an in-depth analysis of the survey data collected
revealed conflict and protective factors among elementary principals as they led their schools.
Additionally, their responses alluded to broader feelings about conflict and sources of support
that sustain them during stressful times. At the culmination of the analysis connections were
made between the survey responses and the interview transcripts of respondents, which
triangulated the data to identify inconsistencies and validate the findings.
The second research question, was designed to investigate the perception of the extent of
the effect of conflict as well as each participant’s reflection on her own resilience as a leader.
This question endeavored to reveal the participants’ belief as to whether or not the experience of
conflict impacted their development of resilience.

CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 63

Participants
Demographic items on the survey identified participants who were female elementary
school principals who had been in their position for three or more years. The schools that these
principals led were participating in the Cotsen Art of Teaching Foundation mentorship program
at the time of the study. Cotsen sponsors a lead teacher (mentor) who works with several other
teachers (fellows) on campus to look deeply at their teaching to improve instructional practice in
the areas of balanced literacy or math. Participation in Cotsen is voluntary and highly selective.
Principals who participate in the program are held to high standards and are expected to focus on
staff development as they refine their own practice as leaders.
Research Question One
What are the primary sources of conflict and protective factors for female elementary
principals leading change?
Expectations of principals are extensive as, in addition to responsibility for the academic
success and wellbeing of student, they are required to respond to the expectations of disparate
constituencies, which results in significant conflict and overload (Stronge, Richard, & Catano,
2008). To answer the first research question, in depth analysis of the survey responses and
interview transcripts revealed strong themes related to the experience of conflict and common
protective factors that contributed to the resilience of these leaders. Research question one is a
two-component question, to identify (a) the sources of conflict and (b) protective factors.
Primary sources of conflict that emerged in this study were (a) the volume and range of tasks that
are required, (b) misalignment of the principal’s vision for the school and that of “the district” or
supervisors including district administration and/or board of education, (c) adult interactions,
including conflict caused by parents and by staff, and (d) gender bias in the organization. There
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 64

were two primary protective factors that contributed to the leader’s resilience: (a) personal
qualities of the leader including vision, dedication and perseverance, and (b) the support of a
family and/or peers.
Primary Sources of Conflict: Survey
The quantitative survey was designed based on feminist ecological theory (Ballou et al.,
2002) to identify sources of conflict and resilience experienced by respondents. Responses were
rated on a five-point Likert scale with responses: Not true at all (1), Rarely true (2), Sometimes
true (3), Often true (4) and True nearly all of the time (5). Table 7 contains response data from
all respondents who met study criteria regarding the impact of conflict experienced from
different dimensions based on the feminist ecological model (Ballou et al., 2002). The primary
source of conflict for participants indicated on the survey was the number of tasks or the volume
and scope of responsibilities of site administrators (mean 3.17, SD 0.75). Of the 24 participants
in the survey, 17% indicated that the variety and quantity of tasks required rarely caused conflict
that impacted their leadership. No participants indicated that this had no impact. The next
greatest source of conflict for survey respondents was expectations or directives from supervisors
Survey data indicated that eight out of 24 principals believed that expectations or directives from
district supervisors or leadership rarely caused conflict that impacted their leadership, 12
indicated they sometimes caused conflict, three indicated that they often caused conflict and one
indicated that they cause conflict nearly all the time. Survey respondents reported that conflict
caused by parents (mean 2.75, SD .88) or faculty (mean 2.71, SD .84) also caused conflict that
impacted their leadership.

CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 65

Table 7
Conflict That Impacts Leadership (n=24)
Not true at
all
(1)
Rarely
true
(2)
Sometimes
true
(3)
Often
true
(4)
True
nearly all
of the
time (5)
Mean Standard
Deviation
The number of tasks or
the volume and scope
of responsibilities of a
principal creates
conflict that impacts
my leadership

0 4 13 6 1 3.17 0.75
Expectations or
directives from
supervisor(s) or district
leadership staff create
conflict that impacts
my leadership

0 8 12 3 1 2.88 0.78
Individual parents or
the parent community
at my school creates
conflict that impacts
my leadership.

1

9

10

3

1

2.75

0.88
Individual faculty
members or faculty
resistance to change
creates conflict that
impacts my leadership.

1

9

11

2

1

2.71

0.84
Responsibility for the
care of my home/family
creates conflict that
impacts my leadership.

2

9

4

1

1

2.42

0.70

CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 66

Table 7, continued
Not true at
all
(1)
Rarely
true
(2)
Sometimes
true
(3)
Often
true
(4)
True
nearly all
of the
time (5)
Mean Standard
Deviation
Conscious or
unconscious gender
bias creates conflict
that impacts my
leadership.
9

9

5

1

0

1.92

0.86
Policies, laws or
regulations create
conflict that impacts
my leadership.
2

9

10

3

0

2.58 0.81

Primary Sources of Conflict: Interviews
Three primary themes emerged through qualitative data collection that were aligned with
the results of the survey. In the experience of the eight principals interviewed the first three
major sources of conflict all came from the individual’s immediate environment, or their
microsystem and include: (1) the broad scope of the job, (2) misalignment between district
expectations or initiative and the principal’s vision for the school, and (3) adults, including
parents and staff (Ballou et al., 2002). A fourth theme emerged in the interviews that was related
to world-views/human rights, or the macro-exosystem: all principals reported experiencing
gender bias in their organization that may have negatively impacted their leadership. This was in
contrast to the survey results, which indicated that 21 of the 24 respondents believe that
conscious or unconscious gender bias rarely or never caused conflict that impacted their
leadership. This split perspective aligns with the literature that finds that individuals, even
women, often are not aware of gender bias (Madsen & Andrade, 2018; Ross, 2014).
Theme 1: Conflict caused by the number of tasks or the volume and scope of
responsibilities. Principals in the study shared a common concern about the volume, diversity,
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 67

and the unpredictability of tasks that they are expected to complete while attending to their
primary focus as instructional leaders (Spillane & Lee, 2014). The primary source of conflict for
survey respondents was echoed in the qualitative phase. Interview responses provided a deeper
understanding of the stress caused by the high number of responsibilities. Liz summed it up by
stating, “I feel like I'm always in a rush, always in a rush, and I don't feel I have enough time to,
sometimes, plan or prepare for things as much as I would like to because there's just me.” Wendy
shared a more detailed account of the challenge of the number of tasks:
With deadlines, and then just, you know, the day-to-day, events that happen on a campus
that can't be anticipated. Much of our job is handling things that come up. You may come
in with a to do list, you know, I've got my SPSA (Single Plan for Student Achievement) I
need to start working on. I have a school news article I need to write. I'm writing a grant
for some extra, special funding. But among those things are the day-to-day issues that
arise up at schools.
Irene’s initial interview response when asked about the causes of conflict was:
I think just trying to be a leader, while trying to manage the day-to-day stuff that's
happening. The arguing supervision aids, the, the parent that isn't nice at an IEP meeting
or isn't nice to a teacher or that kind of thing.
Susan summed up the feeling of all of her peers and the findings of this study that the major
conflict faced by female elementary principals is the overall scope and volume of tasks with the
following statement about the overall requirements of the position in her statement, “this is not
sustainable. I mean the job. I don't know how I can keep this up. I mean, I know that I am the
right person for this job. It's just that it's exhausting. The job is exhausting.”
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 68

Theme 2: Misalignment between district level demands and the principal’s vision as
an instructional leader. Interview participants described demands from the “District” as
something that was a challenge to successful leadership at the site level. All of the principals
who participated in the interviews shared their commitment to being present in classrooms and
the described the conflict that they experience when choosing between finding the time to spend
with faculty, which is required to effectively lead instructional improvement, and meeting the
demands placed on them by key decision makers off the school site. “I'm prevented from going
to the classroom, every single day, because I'm, I'm stuck at my computer working on a project
that has been handed to me,” shared Sara.
Wendy’s perception of the conflict that she experienced balancing district demands and
the reality of her daily experience at the site was very straight-forward:
It definitely comes from a disconnect between what is happening on the ground meaning
at the school site, and the perception of the time that principals may have to complete
tasks that are assigned by our supervisors such as assistant superintendents or directors
or, or even the superintendent in in some regards, and, and the lack of knowledge of how
much time each project might take a principal.
Irene’s perspective was that the district decision makers did not understand the pressures of
school principals when assigning tasks, stating:
I'll talk about demands placed on principles by, say, the district office for items that, you
know, may be important. But again, our first our first priority is what's happening at the
school site. So I think sometimes that pressure put on us by you know, district demands,
prevent us from getting out into classrooms as often as we can, developing that relational
piece with students.
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 69

Judith shared her frustration with advocating for additional support for students from her district:
Getting through the hoops that I have to jump through or the staff has to jump through
sometimes to get the services that we need for those kids can take in a monumental
amount of time and effort and tears from staff members, and other kids and parents. So
that can be a big one (source of conflict).
Through the perspective of the eight principals interviewed, district initiatives,
administrative tasks and advocating for the needs of the school cause significant conflict for site
administrators. The volume and scope of responsibilities negatively impacts their ability to lead.
Judith shared, “This is not sustainable. I mean the job. I don't know how I can keep this up. I
mean, I know that I am the right person for this job. It's just that it's exhausting. The job is
exhausting.” There was, overall, a feeling of being overwhelmed by the scope of the
principalship. Judith continued, “I just don't know that I can do it for another 10 years”.
Meeting requirements based on state and federal mandates, timelines, and budgetary
requirements were also mentioned by over half of the study participants, which aligned with the
survey data in which 13 out of 24 principals indicated that policies, laws or regulations created
conflict that impacted their leadership.
Theme 3: Conflict caused by adults. Another primary source of conflict at the site level
for the principals interviewed was adult interaction with administration and/or among
themselves. All eight principals mentioned conflict created by parents as having a negative
impact on their leadership, while five of the eight shared examples of conflict caused by teachers
and three of the eight cited incidents with classified staff. When asked what causes her the most
conflict, Jodi phrased it this way, “It’s mostly with adults trying to work out differences. It's
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 70

teacher to parent conflict, teacher to teacher conflict, classified staff, parents, parent and teachers
union, unions versus district.”
Conflict caused by parents. All eight principals reflected on conflict caused by the
parents of their students. Wendy shared an example of a common challenge that principals have
with parents regarding student discipline and the balance between maintaining confidentiality
and providing transparency:
So there is a lack of understanding, I think, generally speaking about confidentiality
issues when it comes down to perhaps discipline that involves multiple children. You
know, I have a pretty involved community and with that comes that they want to know
exactly what and how I will handle issues among children and they want to make sure
that there are consequences and they want to know what those consequences are, and
often are unwilling to accept that my response may be that I will not discuss what
consequences are given. I can just assure them that there was a consequence, or will be a
consequence. So, I think parents have a misperception then that sometimes principals
don't handle situations because they're not given, they're not privy to, all of the
information. They're not privy to the amount of time that goes into an investigation to
determine all sides have a problem or an issue. You know, because, they see one side,
and they're very black and white and principals have to take the time to do as thorough an
investigation as they can. And it may not always turn out to be exactly how a parent
perceives the issue to be. So, I think, in that regard, we're principals, and I'll speak about
myself, sometimes we're, we're, we're not held to the esteem that we're handling things in
the correct manner when we, in fact, know that we are but the perception is different. It is
sometimes difficult to deal with as a human being. I know I've done the best I can do, but
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 71

it's not being looked at that way by others or appreciated. Not that I need appreciation,
but just understand that my role is to gather facts and make determinations based on what
I gather.
Liz’s example of the challenge of maintaining positive relationships with families after
conflictual situations is another example of a principal’s experience navigating conflict with
parents:
And resiliency is difficult with family sometimes, you know, if there's a family that is
really upset about something that happens, like you still need to greet them in the
morning, like they may want to walk by you and not talk to you or, you know, whatever.
But you still have to put that smile on and make sure they feel welcome. And you still
have to like you know, call them two weeks later and be like, ‘Hey, you know, just
following up, I know, we had a rough week.’
Conflict caused by faculty and staff. Conflict with faculty and staff were also a source of
challenge for all of the principals that were interviewed. Leading instructional improvement in a
school puts pressure on the entire organization. Five principals shared examples of conflict
caused by interaction with and between teachers and three principals shared stories of conflict
with classified staff members. Katherine explained her experience with the diplomacy needed to
lead teachers at her school in the following way:
We expect staff to collaborate at very high level, we expect during our PLC meetings,
that they are looking at data that they are very open to what's happening in their
classroom; that their teaching is very public. And that is very intimidating for some
people, you know, people who are confident in their craft, and, and good at what they do
in the classroom, aren't always the best team players either. So, you know, being able to
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 72

negotiate meetings like that, where you're kind of vulnerable, you know, relationships can
fall apart, sometimes if the wrong thing is said, or if someone isn't being diplomatic about
the way they share something.
Another challenge for principals was the skill and patience required to support teachers who
experience anxiety in their lives that impacts their work. Susan shared:
I have a staff member right now who is really dealing with things like anxiety, like really
high levels of clinical anxiety. And she's a phenomenal educator, but this is this is a
critical thing. Like she needs to get help, and you know, the her first interactions with me,
when I first realized that things were not going well, for her, were really, she's very
abrasive with me, and I was like, what's going on there, like, you know, before, I would
have been offended, I think when I was younger, I would have been like, I'm principal,
I'm going to tell you, you know? You just can't do that after you've been in the seat at for
a while. You just you have to figure out how to support them and how to get them back to
that place where they're phenomenal educators and they've got their ducks in a row.
Classified staff members frequently spend the length of their career at a single site and are most
often inherited by principals. This can pose a challenge if the expectations of the principal and
the office staff are not aligned. Judith shared that a current source of conflict was her relationship
with her office manager:
A source of conflict is, obviously, with my staff. My office manager and I, we don't
always see eye to eye on what her role is. And sometimes she's going to be like, “I have
to do that too?” and I just want to say, “yes, you have to do that, too”. The most recent
example was, I had someone else translate these certificates and, I said, “now, you need
to prepare their certificates and make sure that dual immersion teachers get the Spanish
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 73

certificates”. She said, “Really, I have to do that, too?” “Yes, you need to do that, too”.
And then you deal with the fuchi face, right? And then you're like, “how can I support
you?” because they obviously don't feel supported. That's a source of conflict.
There were varying degrees of challenges with different groups (parents, teachers, staff) among
the principals. However, each principal interviewed reported interactions with or among adults as
being a primary source of conflict that impacted their leadership.
Theme 4: Gender bias. Gender bias was a sources of conflict for female leaders that has
been identified in the literature, which aligned to the experience of participants in this study
(Carli & Eagly, 2011; Madsen & Andrade, 2018; Ross, 2014). In a contrast to their responses to
the survey, which indicated that 75% of respondents believed that conscious or unconscious
gender bias rarely or never impacted their leadership (mean 1.92, SD .86), all of the eight
principals shared that gender bias existed in their district and that a bias toward male leaders had
impacted their leadership to varying degrees. Common themes among these principals were, (a)
that they had to work harder and be better qualified than male principals, and (b) that their male
peers had been given greater access to leadership opportunities at the district level. Sara summed
it up by speaking of a male principal in her district, “I have to work so much harder to have my
piece considered in decisions where as he is sought out for everything. He's got the ear of
everybody. I missed that day in administrative training in how to schmooze. It's not the same
rules. Sometimes it feels like we are not playing the same game.” Her perspective that she was
not adept at the game of self-promotion was echoed by three other interview participants and has
been a subject of literature on women and leadership (Carli & Eagly, 2011; Eagly, 2008; Madsen
& Andrade, 2018).
Jodi’s experience with the need to prove herself as a woman was similar:
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 74

Oh, gender, something I think about all the time. Okay. Yeah, I feel like you have to
work twice as hard and be more educated, more experienced to get the same job. It's, it's
just how you are perceived. I mean, one of my questions in my interview for the job I
have now was, like, what do you think your greatest weaknesses, right? And I said, well,
it's going to be the perception, as this young Asian leader, you know, that I got power
against some, some tough, tough situations. And I said, Well, you go in there, and you
put on the Wonder Woman pose and you, you know, looks can be deceiving. Just
strength. It’s quiet strength that comes, but takes a lot of repetitions of proving yourself.
Right? Whereas, if you're male, that's the first. That's the default.
Aligned with Grogan & Shakeshaft’s (2010) findings, Wendy shared that she believed that men
have an advantage in gaining power while she, as a woman, is more focused on doing the best
for others rather than advocating for herself:
I do believe in education, and our district, and in other districts I've been in, there still a
good old boys club. And it's really prominent in this district, by the way. So, I think I
have to, as a leader, a woman, a female leader, I think I have to work harder to be
considered to, you know, as someone whose opinion is valued. I feel I'm smarter than
some of my colleagues who happened to be male. And I, you know, I, I do feel that way.
It's sad, but I feel I have to work harder to be included in decision making, to be asked to
be on committees that make decisions that affect the district as a whole. So, I actually
have to ask, whereas some of my male counterparts are asked, ‘so, oh, can I be on this
interview panel? For this particular position?’ ‘Oh, yeah, Wendy, I guess, I guess you can
be.’ Whereas there are some males who are consistently asked, and they are always on
the decision-making committees. I think one of the reasons that happens is, I feel as a
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 75

woman, that I have this need to get things done? Like, I am focused on my, my job, what
it all entails. And I think sometimes I think sometimes some men are less focused on the
actual task of the principalship, and more focused on being seen in a particular light.
Being seen as smart. Go-getters. I think, in my case, I'm more behind the scenes. But I
get everything done. And I do it well.
Regarding perceptions at the site level, Katherine shared that she sees bias within her staff, “I do
think that, that staff will follow a man without the same kind of criticism that a woman might
get, especially when the staff is primarily female. So, while, like it's coming out of my mouth,
and I hate saying it, I think it's still true.” Jodi shared an experience navigating gender bias with a
supportive make colleague. “It's like an assumption that they will handle things differently, or
they have a certain experience, or they have, they will have that connection. Like maybe with a
male (student, staff member), someone who is going through something that needs like a male
role model, right, or maybe a chauvinistic parent. Okay. That's usually a time where like, one of
the male principles will say, ‘Hey, I know this is your caseload, but maybe I should have the
conversation’”.
Katherine, who was earning her doctorate degree, shared a synopsis of a conversation
with her diversity professor during which she recognized that gender bias may exist in her
district that she had not recognized:
I was saying, you know, I know my identity. I'm white, I'm middle class, I come from a
Christian background. You know, I'm straight. Like, I have not felt a lot of personal
discrimination, I don't have to think about race, on a daily basis, like those aren't part of
my identity. And the professor said, “so you never feel discriminated against as a
woman?” And like, really, like I haven't really felt discriminated against as a woman.
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 76

And then the comeback was, “so when was the last time there was a female
superintendent in your district?” We've never had a female superintendent in our district
and I would be shocked if we did and anytime soon. And I was like, oh, so maybe there
isn't that feeling for me. You know, that I just don't think about because I'm happy, where
I, where I'm at, but maybe it does exist.
Although the survey responses regarding gender bias mirror the literature, which
indicates that the majority of female leaders do not recognize gender imbalance in leadership,
through exploring the question in the context of the interview, all of the principals shared
experiences of gender bias in their current or previous district. In both the quantitative survey
responses and the qualitative interviews, principals indicated that they experienced a high degree
of conflict in their position. Table 8 illustrates the major sources of conflict that emerged in this
study and their alignment with current literature on women in leadership.
Table 8
Research Themes and Instrumentation: Primary Sources of Conflict Identified by Instrument
Themes Surveys Interviews
Scope of the job Revealed the number of tasks and the
scope of responsibilities had the greatest
negative impact on leadership (Fullan,
2018; Spillane & Lee, 2014).
Revealed that principals view the job as
exhausting and unsustainable (Spillane & Lee,
2014).
Misalignment
between District
and Site vision
Revealed that expectations or directives
from supervisors had the second greatest
negative impact on leadership (Fullan,
2018).
Revealed that district mandates and initiatives
prevented them from spending time in classrooms
and threatened their vision for their site as an
instructional leader (Fullan, 2018; Maulding et al.,
2012).
Adults: Parents and
staff
Revealed that conflict with parents and
teachers had the third greatest negative
impact on leadership (Friedman, 2002).
Revealed that the primary source of conflict at the
school site was adult interactions (Friedman,
2002).
Gender Bias Revealed that there is no overall
perception of gender negatively
impacting leadership (Madsen &
Andrade, 2018).
Revealed that gender bias is evident at the district
level in all cases and 50% of respondents saw
gender bias causing conflict at the site level
(Madsen & Andrade, 2018; Ross, 2014).

CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 77

Summary of Research Question One: Data Related to Primary Sources of Conflict
A primary source of conflict for participants in this study was the volume and scope of
tasks that are required of site leaders. All of the principals in the study shared a common
concern about the volume, diversity, and the unpredictability of tasks that they are expected to
complete while attending to their primary focus as instructional leaders (Spillane & Lee, 2014).
Women in this study shared their challenge with the conflict that they experienced as they
endeavored to serve as instructional leaders and visionaries while, simultaneously: managing
tasks related to the budget, planning, and mandated reports; acting as counselors for students,
staff, parents and community members; and constantly maintaining a calm demeanor of
professionalism (Fullan, 2018; Speck & Knipe, 2005). The conflict that arises from all
stakeholders and the necessity of making daily decisions that impact lives demands significant
strength, compassion and the resilience to persevere, which, analysis of the data indicates, is in
abundance in the principals who participated in this study. These findings are aligned with those
found in a 2015 study of principals by Wells and Klocko, which identified common challenges
for school leaders were: lack of time to complete all duties, incessant interruptions, paperwork,
job expectations of the principal, and feelings of being overwhelmed with job demands (Klocko
& Wells, 2015).
Demands or initiatives that were initiated at the district level were described as a source
of conflict that impacted successful leadership at the site level. These principals shared that the
district placed demands on the site administrator without consideration of the relationships that
have been built at the school site or the vision of the principal (Maulding et al., 2012). Principals
are expected to establish and maintain a shared vision, set high standards and develop
professional learning plans that meet the needs of teachers with disparate needs and skill sets. All
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 78

of the principals who participated in the interviews shared their commitment to being present
with their teachers to support the shared vision for ongoing instructional improvement
(Friedman, 2002; Smulyan, 2000). They described the conflict that they experience when
choosing between finding the time to spend with faculty, that is required to effectively lead
instructional improvement, and meeting the demands placed on them by key decision makers off
the school site. This misalignment led to a high level of internal conflict as principals attempted
to balance their vision with that of their supervisors.
Leaders are often the target of the frustration of others, and another primary source of
conflict articulated by the principals interviewed was adult interactions with administration
and/or among themselves (D. E. Reed & Blaine, 2015). All eight principals reported that conflict
created by parents had a negative impact on their leadership, while five of the eight leaders
shared examples of conflict caused by teachers and three of the eight cited incidents with
classified staff. This finding aligns with a study of burnout in school principals in which
participants reported that a major stressor was addressing the demands from parents and teachers,
and the feeling that their leadership was questioned (Friedman, 2002).
Gender bias in within the organization was another source of conflict for principals in this
study. This was a finding in which the quantitative data collected in the survey did not correlate
with the qualitative data that emerged through analysis of interview transcripts. Survey results
indicated that 75% of respondents believed that conscious or unconscious gender bias rarely or
never impacted their leadership but all of the eight principals shared that gender bias existed in
their district. This divide, however, aligns with literature on unconscious gender bias, which
shows that many female educators do not recognize gender bias in educational leadership
(Moreau et al., 2007; Young, 2005). Common themes among these principals were that (a) they
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 79

had to work harder and be better qualified than male principals and (b) that their male peers had
been given greater access to leadership opportunities at the district level. All of the interview
participants shared that a bias toward male leaders had impacted their leadership to varying
degrees. It is critically important to be aware of internal and external biases in order to begin to
break down the barriers for women (Madsen & Andrade, 2018; Ross, 2014). Although conflict
impacted the leadership of principals studied, each had protective factors that contributed to their
resilience as educational leaders.
Protective Factors: Survey
The second component of research question one explores the protective factors that
contribute to the resilience of female elementary principals. Analysis of survey results indicates
that respondents have an array of protective factors, both internal and external, that contributed
to the development of resilience when faced with conflict (Caza & Milton, 2012; Masten, 2007).
The principals in this study found strength through the individual dimension as they have a
strong sense of self-efficacy and see their personality (mean 4.71, SD .45) as the primary factor
that contributes to their resilience as leaders (Ballou et al., 2002). The next greatest external
contributor to resilience is derived from the microsystem: the support of and family (mean 4.25,
SD .83) and peers (4.21, SD .87). Survey results indicate that 79% of respondents believe that
peers contribute to their resilience often or nearly all of the time, with only one respondent
indicating that peers “only rarely” contribute to her resilience. Table 9 illustrates the responses of
the 24 participants in the survey. Of particular significance is 17 of the 24 respondents indicated
that personal characteristics contributed to their resilience nearly all of the time, with the other
seven indicating that this is often true. All survey participants also indicated that their experience
contributed to their resilience with 18 out of the 24 indicating that this was true often or nearly
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 80

all of the time. Based on this, there appears to be a high level of confidence in their personal
leadership skills among the principals surveyed.
Table 9
Protective Factors Actors That Contribute to Resilience in Leadership (n=24)

Not true
at all
Rarely
true
Sometimes
true
Often
true
True
nearly all
of the time
Mean Standard
Deviation
My peers/co-workers
contribute to my
resilience as a leader.

0

1

4

8

11

4.21

0.87

My supervisor(s) or
district leadership staff
contribute to my
resilience as a leader.

0

2

8

9

5

3.71

0.89
My family contributes
to my resilience as a
leader.

0

1

3

9

11

4.25

0.83
My friends contribute
to my resilience as a
leader.

1

0

2

13

8

4.13

0.88
My education
contributes to my
resilience as a leader.

My experience
contributes to my
resilience as a leader.

0

0

6

11

7

4.04

0.73

My personality
contributes to my
resilience as a leader.

0

0

0

7

17

4.71

0.45
My faith or spirituality
contributes to my
resilience as a leader.
1

2

3

10

7

3.87

1.08
My gender contributes
to my resilience as a
leader.
4

1

9

7

3

3.17

1.21
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 81

Protective Factors: Interviews
Two primary themes emerged during the interviews related to the experience of the eight
principals interviewed regarding the primary protective factors: (a) personal qualities, including
strength, dedication and vision, and (b) having a team, including family, peers and mentors.
These themes were aligned with the survey responses and indicate a strong sense of self-efficacy
among these principals as well as an appreciation for family and peers.
Theme 5: Personal qualities. Personal qualities were the main protective factor that the
principals in this study perceive as having contributed their development of resilience, primarily
personal characteristics and experience. Personal qualities, including experience, dedication and
perseverance, as well as a deep, personal commitment to a vision for their school were important
resilient qualities for principals in the study. This is aligned with research that indicates that
people who build high levels of resilience also have a sense of locus of control, high self-efficacy
and high self-esteem (Mishra & McDonald, 2017). Perseverance to succeed despite any conflict
that they faced and a sense of self-efficacy were the primary qualities that emerged in this study
and these align with what Christman and McClellen (2008) identified as factors that contribute to
resilience in their study of women leaders. Analysis of the interview transcripts provides a
deeper understanding of their perspective that strengths that had the most impact on building
resilience include individual dedication and perseverance as well as a personal vision of a path to
increase student achievement.
Dedication and perseverance were discussed by all principals. A primary theme that
emerged in all interviews was the individual commitment of each principal to succeeding despite
the conflict that they faced. In describing their commitment, five of the eight principals became
emotional, indicating the depth of their connection to their work. Katherine shared her feelings
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 82

by stating, “I'm not going to let anybody around me fail. Because I that's, that's the only way that
I'm going to make sure that I'm successful is every single person on this stuff has to be
successful”. Irene broke down as she shared her commitment to her community:
I'm unwilling to accept defeat. I really own a tremendous sense of responsibility for this
place and I don't take it lightly. It weighs on me, but if not me then who else? So, I think
that it was my responsibility to make it work to get everybody through it. It's like,
something happens in your family, the mom and dad have to step up. Somebody has to
step up. So it was going to have to be me. And there was just no way around it. So it is
what it is, you know, like I was taught responsibility was important. And you don't take it
lightly. So, absolutely. I didn't think I was gonna cry. And this, you know what, guys?
The passion. That's where the passion is.
A high degree of self-confidence and perseverance were expressed by Judith:
This school is lucky to have me the district's lucky to have me. Like having that kind of,
you know, confidence and attitude about like, I am the right person and moving forward.
So just never physically giving up. I think we have different levels of resilience in
different areas of our lives. Like, I'm much more resilient in my professional life, then, I
would say, in my ability to lose weight. I just go, ‘damn, I'm off the track again, let me
get back on it,’ and I never giving up. It's okay to have moments of defeat, and feel it. But
being able to bounce back rather effortlessly. I think. At this point, we always, always
bounce right back. Always. It’s part of your person. It's part of my personality. I have
always been that way.
Reflecting on what keeps her persevering, Liz shared:
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 83

Will? Determination? Time? Consistency? Doing what I say? Meaning what I say? We
all I feel, you know, I want to do a really good job because these are kids and it's their
lives. Like, it's not just a job where you're going and punching a clock or if there's a
failure somewhere, you know, ‘oh, well.’ These are people.
Irene summed up the sentiment of the group nicely, “I hate conflict. I hate it. You know, if you're
in this job, you're going to deal with it. So you either succumb to it, or you have to make your
way through it. So it's a necessity." The commitment to the school, the work, the teachers and the
kids were evident in the perseverance described by all principals. This dedication was also
supported by participant’s vision for their schools.
Vision. Common to the principals in the study was a commitment to students and a vision
for instructional excellence. This vision, although sometimes at odds with the expectations of
other stakeholders, supported these principals to build resilience in response to the conflict they
experienced. Judith shared her priority in her statement, “Who you serve matters. So stay loyal to
your servant, you're serving students, and you're serving the community.” The Cotsen philosophy
is a good to great model, so it was not surprising that a strong vision for instructional
improvement was evident among the participants in the study. One example of this commitment
to improving teaching was made clear by Sara, who shared how she delegated tasks to her
assistant principal that were not aligned with her vision:
My heart and background is all instruction. Like, I love teaching and learning and that's
where I want to spend my time. And so for me to be able to do that I have to really
prioritize, like, what is my AP doing? She's not getting to do a lot of instructional things,
because she’s on the student safety plan, and she's doing, you know, PBS, and she's doing
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 84

all these other things, because I want to focus on readers and writers and CGI. So having
to delegate is, in order to prioritize.
Katherine also explained how her vision for her school guided the decisions that she made to
prioritize signature teaching practices:
Our school focuses our signature practices are reading, writing, workshop and CGI. So I
constantly have to defend our practices. Our district is very innovative, like our
superintendent’s, very innovative, it's very tech driven. There are so many opportunities
to go in a million different directions. And, for me, helping the staff make choices about,
“does this fit under our umbrella of our signature practices or not? Because if it doesn't,
you know, we can do it.” But then you're not going to have the energy and the time and
expertise in these other levels, that we're seeing our signature practices, and that's our
vision. So I'm always constantly negotiating that our district.
This vision for leading instructional improvement is the keystone of the Cotsen mentorship
model and it was expressed by all of the principals interviewed. It was imperative that these
leaders spent the time with their teachers to instill that vision and it was also important to have a
supportive team.
Theme 6: Having a team. The other major theme that emerged regarding protective
factors was the benefit of a supportive team. The primary two categories of individuals or groups
who supported the principals based on survey data were family were validated through analysis
of the transcripts of interviews, in which by all participants shared the value of positive
relationships for their resilience. Irene shared, “Having a team. Whether that's a team of people
at the school, like colleagues and teachers and you know, an administrative team, or it's a team of
people at home, just like taking over so that you don't have to deal with that kind of stress.”
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 85

Judith shared the importance of positive relationships: “My experiences in conversations
contribute to resiliency, because I surround myself with people that are positive and people that
are going to keep me going. I'm not going to surround myself with negativity.”
Susan echoed the importance of associating with positive people:
So I think everyone around me has always been pretty positive and forward thinking for
the most part. So I'm always kind of in tune with that and attracted to that. There are
people who are a little more negative, I would say than they need to be, but I don't
surround myself with that person or that conversation for a long period of time. Because
why? Yeah. Why? Why do that? I've got so much more to be grateful for then to hear
things that are not, you know, really helping anything. Right?
A supportive family and/or partner is a protective factor. Seven of the eight principals
who were interviewed shared that their family or their partners contributed significantly to their
resilience as leaders, which aligns with survey responses. When asked about the people who
support her, Jodi enthusiastically shared how her husband is a major source of support for her as
she balances being a principal with being the mother of three young children:
Like who's on your team? I’ve got tons of people. Okay. So, at home, my husband
planned this point in his life 10 years ago. Like he knew the neighborhood that he wanted
to move to knew where he wanted to practice, set up his practice walking distance to the
house, scoped out the school that has a little chickens, like old fashioned schoolhouse feel
that's walking distance from this place, and he turned his nine to five commuting,
hospital job into a private practice where he could set it hours. So, he had that mapped
out. Okay, he's a super planner. So, then I have him. He's a huge part because he does the
daily grind. He drops off the kids. His parents, my in laws, do pick up. They help pack
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 86

lunches. When they were little, they did all the baths and nail cutting and all of that,
because that was my time when I would stay for like, like 5150 holds.
Irene also shared the support of her husband, who became a principal after she did, when asked
who supported her:
My amazing husband, okay, he's awesome. You know, he's, it was interesting, because he
worked at the district office in tech for a while. And when it was just me as a principal, I
would come home and vent, and sometimes he didn't take my side. And that would really
infuriate, 'I just want you to take my side’, you know, and then when he got to be a
principal, like he, he started to see what I was talking about. He, so, he is amazingly
supportive. He's probably the kindest, most helpful person that there could ever be in the
world. So yeah, he will always step in to help, you know, with whatever. He keeps me
alive. He's the one who cooks. So, I don't have to cook. I don't mind cleaning. Cook the
dinner. I'll clean up. I don't care.
The support of a partner and/or family who contributed in the home and who provided emotional
support to the principal who was experiencing conflict at work, was described as having high
value by seven out of the eight of the principals interviewed. Principals also expressed the
benefits of a network of peers to enhance resilience.
Connection with other principals and/or the support of mentors is a protective factor.
Four of the eight principals in the qualitative phase of the study shared their ongoing connection
with a mentor and seven of the eight noted that a regular, ongoing connection with other
principals helped them to remain resilient. Judith shared the two peers that she reaches out to
when she doesn’t feel resilient:
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 87

I have a principal colleague in Anaheim, and I have someone who's a coach in my former
district, who I still speak with a great deal about anything if I need to. If you're not in
education, you just don't get it. So, you don't really have those conversations with people
outside of education. And then I have a wonderful mentor, who I kind of talks to when I
need to if it's like really, really critical.
Katherine shared her ongoing connection to former colleagues who mentored her while she was
an aspiring principal:
I have had good female mentors in my career, to this day. And I think having someone
who has already been where you're at, that you trust that you can talk to is really
essential. Someone who believes in you and makes you feel good. My principal, when I
was an assistant principal, is like a second mom to me. Like I still talk to her all the time.
And she's since retired and but we still get together and like she's like a mommy. I was
with her for only, I was only with her for two years, but I feel like she like that
transitional period between being a teacher and being at a principal like that AP those two
years were so life changing, that she had such an impact on me. We’re still really, really
close. And then my first superintendent, she came to me as an assistant principal and said,
‘look, I'm going to have this opening next year and, and this is yours.’ Like, this is yours
to lose basically, like I want you in the seat, this is what needs to happen. And even
afterwards I trusted her in such a way, because of the way she invested in me, that if I had
a problem, I would go to her directly and tell her what was going on. And she would help
me problem solve it when I don't know.
When remembering the influence that a mentor had that continues to contribute to her resilience,
Liz shared her experience:
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 88

When I was an assistant principal, I remember my principal at the time. You know, one
of the teachers like went off on her. We were in a meeting, it was three of us, it was me,
the principal, and a teacher, and the teacher just went off on her like just unleashed. And
after the meeting, the principal and I were talking and I was, like, shocked by her
perspective, because the first thing out of her mouth was, like, ‘I wonder what is going on
with her?’ Like, ‘she is really struggling’ like ‘something's not right’. Like, ‘we need to
figure out.’ Like, instead of taking it personally, she was more like, ‘okay, she needs my
help’. Like, ‘something's not right here’. Like ‘she's overly stressed to maybe something's
going outside of work’. But, ‘you know, her class is kind of a mess this year.’ Like, you
know, it was it, she didn't take it personally. Like she turned it around and was like, ‘how
do I support this person?’ I think that comes with time and being in the role, because that
was not my initial reaction when I was younger.
This experience had clearly shaped the principal that Liz became. Sara brought up her desire to
connect with a mentor, sharing, “I wish I had an official mentor. I feel as principals, we should
definitely have that coaching and person that we can always like, bounce ideas off of. I have a
part time assistant principal, but it's still not the same. It's not the same.”
Six of the eight principals shared that they connect with a network of other principals
made up of former colleagues or principals in their district to combat a feeling of isolation. “You
can feel like you're an island as a principal. And so being able to let people in that you're you
trust?” shared Wendy. Katherine put it this way:
I think having like a posse of principal friends is important. So, we have a whole group of
principals whose name start with K. So we call ourselves the K crew. And there's a K
crew text thread. And so it’s like, ‘you wouldn't believe what happened today.’ ‘Oh, I
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 89

believe that - listen to this,’ you know, there's just this like camaraderie of people that get
it because the job can be isolating. So, like, I could talk to my husband, but he doesn't, he
doesn't get it on the same level as a colleague will, or principal will, so the five of us are
tight. So, I think having principal friends is really important.
Summary of Research Question One Data Related to Protective Factors
The support of family, peers and mentors was valued highly by the participants in this
study as a significant protective factor that supports their resilience as leaders. Table 11
illustrates the primary findings related to protective factors for the participants in the quantitative
and qualitative phases of this study. The findings are aligned with other research as indicated.
Table 10
Research Themes and Instrumentation: Protective Factors
Themes Surveys Interviews
Individual:
Personal
Strengths

Revealed that the leader’s personality and
experience were the major factors that
contribute to their resilience as leaders
(Bandura, 2000; Campbell-Sills et al., 2006;
Crane et al., 2019).
Revealed that self-efficacy and self-
confidence contributed significantly to
resilience (Bandura, 2000; Campbell-Sills
et al., 2006; Crane et al., 2019).
Vision No survey items directly assessed the impact
of vision as a protective factor. However, a
correlation may be made to the conflict
caused by directives from supervisors.
Revealed that a strong vision for student
achievement and improving instructional
practices contributed significantly to
resilience (O'Day, 2002; Patterson, et al.,
2009).
Team:
Family Revealed that family support was the third
greatest factor contributing to resilience
(Arias, 2016; Christman & McClellan, 2008)
Revealed that a partner and/or extended
family contributed significantly to
resilience (Arias, 2016; Christman &
McClellan, 2008)

CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 90

Table 10, continued
Themes Surveys Interviews
Peers Revealed that peer/co-worker support was
statistically equal to family support as a factor
contributing to resilience (Arias, 2016;
Christman & McClellan, 2008).
Revealed that other principals and school
site leaders contributed significantly to
resilience (Arias, 2016; Christman &
McClellan, 2008).
Mentors No survey items directly assessed the impact
of mentors.
Revealed that long-term relationships with
mentors contributed significantly to
resilience (Patterson et al., 2009).

Principals in this study also relied on the vision that they had developed for their school
as a component of their commitment to instructional improvement, which guided their decisions
and supported resilience (Christman & McClellan, 2008; O'Day, 2002; Reed & Patterson, 2007).
This vision for leading instructional improvement is the central to the Cotsen mentorship model
and it was expressed by all of the principals interviewed. It was imperative to these leaders that
they spent the time with their teachers to instill that vision.
The other major theme that emerged regarding protective factors was the benefit of a
supportive team. High quality relationships have been found to support the building of resilience,
and the support of family, peers and mentors was valued highly by the participants in this study
and cited as a significant protective factor that supported their resilience as leaders (Caza &
Milton, 2012). In addition to discovering the sources of conflict and protective factors that
contribute to principals’ resilience, participants related their perspective of the impact of conflict
on their leadership.
Research Question Two
How do female elementary principals perceive that conflict and resilience have impacted
their leadership?
Three primary themes emerged through analysis of the data collected in the interviews of
the eight principals. The first was that conflict or stress has negatively impacted their leadership,
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 91

their home life and their health. The second was that the participants had common strategies to
cope with the conflict that contributed to their resilience. Finally, these principals shared their
belief that resilience that they have developed as a result of dealing with conflict has allowed
them to persevere as they have faced other obstacles.
Theme 1: Negative Impact of Conflict
All principals who were interviewed reported that conflict had a negative impact, causing
disruption of homeostasis (Richardson, 2002). Study participants reported that conflict distracted
from the more important facets of leadership, including being present instructional leaders and
connecting with students. The pressure that was caused contributed to significant stress and
principals reported a high degree of frustration (Friedman, 2002; Klocko & Wells, 2015). The
principals in this study also reported that conflict on the job had a significant negative impact on
their life at home as they tried not to carry the stress of the job home but struggled with
compartmentalizing their job. They expressed that they were not completely present with their
own families. This aligns with current literature on women in the workforce related to the
internal conflict as they balance their roles as leaders and the traditional expectations of their
gender as they manage their desire to lead a school and to lead a household (Bianchi et al., 2012;
Nichols & Nichols, 2014). Conflict on the job was also reported as having had a negative impact
on the health of the principals interviewed. Symptoms reported by the principals in this study
range from an impact on sleep for the majority of principal participants up to severe symptoms of
stress that led to the hospitalization of two of the principals in the study, who shared stories of
periods of severe burn out in their careers (Friedman, 2002).
Impact on instructional leadership. All principals in this study reported that the conflict
that they faced in their job kept them from being the instructional leaders that they strove to be.
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 92

Jodi shared, “It's a distraction. Okay. It can be it can be a distraction, sometimes, okay.
Sometimes the conflict is important, like to find what's best to support the teaching and learning
of students. But sometimes it's trivial, right? When it's trivial, then it's a distraction to the work
you do.” Wendy shared that conflict is a constant challenge to her leadership, stating, “some of
these pressures prevent, prevent me from being the type of leader I want to be. The leader that is,
you know, seen in classrooms every single day”. Susan expressed her occasional exhaustion
brought on by the conflict she experienced on the job, stating, “and it's just, it's, it's a it's a
challenge. And, you know, sometimes you just you, you give it all and then you're just spent.
And that's hard, because you can't. You have to fake it.” Wendy, who has been a principal for
over two decades, shared that she does not know how much longer she will remain in the
position due to the conflict that she experiences:
This job, this job does slowly kill people. I fervently believe, god, with everything we
have to put up with and deal with - and we're just human beings. And I think people
forget that. Principals are human too.
Impact on home life. The principals in this study also reported that conflict on the job
has a significant negative impact on their life at home, which they constantly tried to keep in
check. All principals interviewed shared that they try not to carry the stress of the job home but
struggle with compartmentalizing their job. Sara shared that she works very long hours and then
has little energy for other things:
So, it's a constant effort, you know. For me, it's, it's not an eight-hour job I'm working
generally in the neighborhood of 11 to 13 hours a day. When I get home and I'm
exhausted, it's dinner, shower, and that is not great quality of life.
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 93

Liz shared that she is exhausted by constantly trying to be the best for her family and while doing
her best for work:
And I go to bed really early, like I’m spent, like by the time I go home and I make dinner
and we check homework and you know, bath time. So, I have a third grader and, you
know, I put her to bed and then it's like, okay, now I got do the dishes, I gotta set up for
tomorrow. And then I'm out like 9:30. There's nothing left. Yeah, so it's this constant like
mommy guilt constant, like, I could be a better wife, I could be a better mom, I can be a
better principal. And, you know.
Irene also shared her frustration with the lack of time for herself and her husband:
So that has affected me outside of the job. And then just fatigue, going home exhausted,
nothing more to give, right? And I think it would be harder for me if we had children. But
we don't so you know, that's, at least, you know, not, I'm not bearing that burden of guilt.
But yeah, it's hard for us to find time to do things. And then, you know, still have time to
do our own things, too.
Katherine became emotional as she reflected on the demands of her life, which included
enrollment in a doctoral program:
You know, I, we all play so many different roles, but I'm also a mom, and I'm also a
graduate student. So like, there's so many pieces that we do. And, you know, sometimes
if, if a day is emotionally exhausting, like you go home, and, and you're kind of spent.
And so then to give, I’m sorry, I might get emotional, but then to give of yourself to your
children, and to give of yourself to your husband and to make sure that your marriage is
healthy, and that you're, you know, like I don't want to talk about instruction anymore.
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 94

And yet, we're going to sit down and struggle over sixth grade dividing fractions, you
know, like, like, it's sometimes you're spent, and that's hard.
All of principals interviewed shared their challenge with trying to leave work at school.
All expressed that they had difficulty compartmentalizing their work so that it did not encroach
on their home life. Several also shared their challenge separating their identity as a principal with
their identity as a family member. Wendy shared her thoughts regarding bringing work home,
stating:
I try not to do that. But there are days that I do like, last night I was here until seven. It's
about a 30-minute drive home get home. At 7:30, my husband's retired, so dinner was
ready. But it's dinner, you know, and then just maybe check email. And not much past that,
you know, then it's, it's bedtime just to wake up and do it all over again.
Judith shared that she believes that her expectations of herself as a woman make it difficult to
separate work from home. She shared:
So, keeping things in separate box, I try and compartmentalize as much as I can. But I kind
of feel like, this is very gender biased, but like, I kind of feel like women don't
compartmentalize as well. And so, you know, you can't just be like, “Okay, I locked my
office door, and I'm going home,” and it's it's going to stay in that box. Because it doesn't.
Wendy shared that she believes that the principal job is not one that she can separate from who
she is. She shared:
Taking stress home? It’s our life. You live it. It's not a job that you leave the office and
close the door. You think about it on your way home. You think about it when you are
running. I have my best conversations with parents in my head when I am running
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 95

because then I can say the things that I actually want to say. But it is, you are constantly
thinking about it.
In addition to the impact that conflict had on home life, participants also reported that there was
an impact on their well-being.
Impact on health. Conflict or stress on the job was also reported to have a negative
impact on the health of the principals interviewed. Symptoms reported by the principals in this
study range from an impact on sleep (poor sleep or exhaustion causing school leaders to have no
energy for anything but sleep at the end of the day) to severe symptoms of stress that led to
hospitalization of two of the principals in the study. Four of the eight principals interviewed
shared that conflict at work had an impact on their quality or quantity of sleep. Liz, who is the
principal with the least experience in the role, shared that she has difficulty turning off thoughts
related to conflict at school:
I'm such a light sleeper. I sometimes wonder if I'm actually sleeping. Because I've got
like, the tape loop in my head and what needs to be done or tomorrow? Or, like what's
coming up? And, you know, it's like, it just runs? And so, like, I'll look at the clock and
it's, you know, 12:30, I look at the clock. It's 1:15, I look at the clock, it's, you know, 2:30
I look at the clock. It's three o'clock, you know, and then finally feel some peace usually
around for 4:30 or 530.
Susan echoed Liz’s thoughts, sharing that at night she processes things that happened at school
during the day:
The struggle: that I can let it go. But of course, it’s sleepless nights. Nights where you
wake up, and you think, “Okay, I know what to do,” you know? Because you, sort of,
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 96

process it in the middle of the night sometimes. I don't sleep. I don't sleep very well, at
all. I can't remember last time I slept through night.
Two of the principals interviewed, both of whom had served as principals for about 20
years, reported significant health problems, which they attributed to the stress of the job. Wendy
shared her experience of one particularly stressful time in her tenure when she experienced
significant conflict caused by the teachers at her school resisting changes, shared:
I lost like 20 pounds in a month’s time. I do believe if I had taken my doctor’s advice,
who said, “I can write you stress leave,” that I would not have come back. And I said,
“No, not going to do that. I'm gonna go to work and face it.” And I do believe that made
me a little bit stronger each day.
Irene, in passing, shared, “I had just come back from having an angiogram because they thought
I had a heart attack, or like some kind of heart episode.” When probed she shared that the
conflict that she was experiencing at work during that time caused her to have panic attacks that
mimicked the symptoms of heart failure. These experiences of both newer and more veteran
administrators seem to indicate that conflict has caused a noticeable level of anxiety in the lives
of these women.
Theme 2: Common Strategies to Cope with Conflict have Contributed to Resilience
A resilient leader is defined as one who, when faced with chronic stress or a crisis, is able
to recover, learn and grow as a result and there was consensus among the principals in this study
that the experience of conflict in their jobs had made them more resilient leaders who are better
prepared to take on challenges (Patterson et al., 2009). These successful leaders shared strategies
that they had utilized to build their resilience in response to conflict in their work environment,
or to “reintegrate” in the resilience cycle (Richardson, 2002). The first strategy shared was taking
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 97

time to reflect on or process their stressful experiences, a primary resilient factor identified in the
Integrated Occupational Resilience Framework (Kossek & Perrigino, 2016) The second strategy,
which these leaders strived to integrate, was finding time for self-care. In reflection, challenging
experiences supported the leaders in this study to become more resilient. They reported that they
became more adept at identifying courses of action to respond to challenging events with greater
confidence and skill (Klocko & Wells, 2015). This reflection often led to development of
empathy toward the individuals who were the source of conflict. Principals in this study also
built resilience in response to the conflict at their schools by finding some time to practice self-
care. This was reported to be a challenge for all principals who were interviewed, yet most
indicated that it should be a priority even if it happened only intermittently. This self-care was a
way for principals to increase positive emotions, which has been found to increase resilience
during negative experiences and to become more resilient to adversity after navigating each
setback (Shakeshaft, 2019; Tugade et al., 2004).
Self-reflection or processing. Recent research has proven the reflecting on stress or
conflict increases resilience (Crane et al., 2019). One of the practices that helped the principals to
build resilience was reflecting on challenging experiences to gain perspective. This reflection
often led to development of empathy toward the individuals who were the source of conflict.
Additionally, the leaders reported gaining a better understanding of what caused the challenge
and how to improve the outcome in future events. This processing rarely happened during the
school day due to lack of time. Sara shared, “The commute helps actually. As I'm driving, if I
can, like switch channel, and like, put my mind at a different place than that I can come home
and be mom.” Judith also shared that processing, even in short bursts, is beneficial to her, stating
that she reflects, “in the car, when I'm driving, or in the shower. Like, on the spot, it's difficult to
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be reflective, obviously. But there's always a minute or two, there's always a minute or two
throughout the day.” Jodi shared her challenges empathizing with the people who caused the
conflict:
If I can make myself realize that it's not, you know, everybody's dealing with their own
thing, whatever it is, that's like, causing the conflict. Usually it's when there's somebody
who is mentally unstable. It's usually someone who is either has a strong sense of, they
feel like they're losing control, or there's fear that's driving this kind of aggressive
behavior, right? And then that aggression then manifests as angry emails or
confrontations in person or name-calling or kind of the bullying behavior. I hate that
word. But that's what it can feel like, adult bullying, right?
Judith empathized on the cause of the adult’s bad behavior by recognizing that the context
impacts behavior:
And remember, the system created all behaviors, right? Keep in mind that people have
been in a system or in a place for a long period of time. And that, itself, has contributed to
certain behaviors and mindsets. Be mindful of that it's not the person necessarily, right.
Just be careful because, think about their history, where they've been, their background,
everything that's contributing to that behavior before you make a judgment. Right? Or
before you want to, I don't know, make a decision that might not be a good one in the
long run. But even if you do make that decision, just be reflective about it. Think about it.
I mean, physically, like, you're going to feel like defeated sometimes. And you're going
to experience failure. And we're going to experience moments where we're like, maybe
I'm not the best person, or, damn, I wish I didn't go that way.
Liz shared that she processes with her husband and he helps her reflect on her emotional state:
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I have conversations with my husband. And he'll say, okay, you need to have like a
litmus test of when you feel like you're there because you can't, when you're in it, you
can't process that. You’re kind of crossing over to, like, not healthy stress levels. So, I
remember one year when we were talking about it. He said, if you're not spending at least
three nights at home with us, that you're not in a happy place.
Practicing self-reflection with or without another person was a successful strategy to cope with
conflict and to help build resilience. The second strategy that the principals in this study utilized
was caring for themselves.
Self-care. Principals in this study have built resilience in response to the conflict at their
schools by finding some time to practice self-care. This was reported to be a challenge for all
principals who were interviewed, yet most indicated that it should be a priority even if it
happened intermittently. Susan, who has been a principal for almost two decades, shared her
commitment:
Take care of yourself first, before anything else. The job, the school, will always be there
with you or without you, it's going to be there. It's going to be there. You must prioritize
your family and yourself first above anything.
A primary factor in building resilience while under stress is paying attention to emotional health
and well-being (Arias, 2016). Katherine shared her struggle with focusing on her needs, but
stressed the importance of it:
I think self-care is really important for principals, because you see so many principals
that are, you know, like, I look at my friends and how many have gone through divorces.
And, you know, there's so many effects of giving yourself to this lifestyle. And I wish I
could say that I'm really good at self-care. But I'm just not like it's not.
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Wendy, who has been a principal for almost 20 years, was the only participant who shared that
she made time for regular exercise. She shared:
I am a triathlete. So, on a lot of days, I try to get my training in. That is, it's extremely
sporadic, particularly in the spring, right. So. So that's hard. But I do use exercise and
training to try to help reduce the stress of the job. But there are days that the job saps all
my energy. And there isn't that literally, I could not go for a run. Even if I wanted to,
right?
Jodi had a holistic lifestyle approach to wellness. She shared:
Eating healthy and doing things that you'd like. Getting sunshine and fresh air and
exercise like, general? I mean, practicing mindfulness, either as much as you preach it?
You know, like, it's hard to make sure that you take time to do that.
Liz shared what several other principals mentioned in this way, “I wish I could say I was better
at self-care. But I like to read a lot.” All agreed that self-care was a priority and that, when
practiced, it helped them to be more resilient.
Theme 3: Resilience has Improved Leadership
Conflict in leadership is inevitable and leaders embrace, embody and use the positive
energy that conflict creates to become stronger and to thrive (Eagly & Carli, 2007) and the
participants in this study all reported that the resilience that they have developed in response to
that conflict has made them more effective as leaders. Principals shared that the resilience that
they have developed has contributed to their ability to persevere in the face of obstacles, that
their leadership capacity has increased as their resilience and emotional intelligence have
increased in response to their experience (Maulding et al., 2012). Richardson (2002) called this
development of greater strength in response to adversity, resilient reintegration, and Kossek &
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Perrigino (2016) named it, adaptive performance. The experience of failure was also reported to
have contributed to increased self-efficacy and resilience among the school leaders in this study.
Failure has shaped them as leaders as they have persevered through it. Working through public
failure has also been a positive model for the teachers that they led, as their teachers were
expected to take risks as they improved their instructional practices. They reported feeling more
confident due to having faced the challenges and that their personal resilience has had a positive
impact on their school culture (Bennis et al., 2015; Maulding et al., 2012). Principals shared that
the resilience that they have developed has contributed to their ability to persevere in the face of
obstacles and that they feel more confident due to having faced the challenges. Four of the eight
leaders shared that their experience of failure has increased their efficacy as school leaders.
Response to conflict has increased perseverance. Perseverance was the primary theme
that emerged related to building resilience in this study. All of the principals in this study
commented that, in the face of conflict, they persevere. Wendy shared, “I'm gonna go to work
and face it. And I do believe that made me a little bit stronger each day. You have to be resilient
to be in this position for any length of time.”
Judith focused on the difference that she is making as principal to help her persevere. She
shared:
But also be mindful that you're not the only one doing that. So that's where your role is in
terms of facilitating proper customer service and outstanding instruction. And I that's
your role, like, it's really a fascinating role. And it's fun, but it's draining. Yeah, super,
super draining, but that builds resilience, right?
Liz shared that conflict, however unpleasant, is something that you learn to work through as a
leader, stating:
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I hate conflict. I hate it. I guess. So, I, you know, if you're in this job, you're going to deal
with it. So, you either succumb to it, or you have to make your way through it. So it's a
necessity.
Katherine shared that resilience is essential for principals, stating, “you can't just tolerate it for an
amount of time. You have to figure it out. You have to be resilient or it's just not sustainable.”
Susan shared that conflict has caused her to develop a resilient “thick skin” as a leader, stating:
You know, of course, you you're constantly dealing with very difficult situations as a
principal, because they deal with people also and children. So yeah, you, kind of, I think
I've developed a thicker skin for sure. I don't take a lot of things personally anymore
where I did in the beginning. That makes me a much better leader.
Conflict, from the perspective of the participants in the qualitative phase of this study, has caused
them to develop resilience that helps them to persevere in the face of additional conflict or
stressful situations. Respondents reported that the conflict that they have faced has also led to
failure at times. Even their failures have contributed to resilience among leaders in this study.
Experiencing failure has built resilience. Even the experience of failure has increased
self-efficacy among the school leaders in this study. Failure has shaped them as leaders as they
have persevered through it (Seery et al., 2010). Working through public failure has also been a
positive model for the teachers that they lead, as the teachers are expected to take risks as they
improve their instructional practices. Katherine shared, “it's okay to bomb, and if you bombed -
great, because you learned something.” This attitude was prevalent among participants in this
study as they shared their commitment to modeling resilience for their staff. Judith put it this
way:
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You know what I mean, and I'm not afraid to be vulnerable, I'm not afraid to say that
didn't go well. Right. So, I think it helps me in terms of leadership, because I'm able to
establish I think, authentic relationships because of it. Because people are able to see that,
okay, she's obviously not perfect. She makes mistakes, too, and is willing to admit them.
So therefore, she's open to taking risks. So therefore, I will be open to taking risks. And
therefore, I will also not be afraid to make mistakes. And I will also not be afraid to share
whatever conflict I might be having, as you know, an employee here at school. So in that
sense, I think it supports leadership because it helps be open, transparent, been able to
establish good relationships. On the negative side, it (conflict) might impact in the sense
of a bad decision that might be made. But it's never with the intent of, you know, causing
harm or anything of that nature. So, in that sense, I think it's a positive thing. Positive,
because I tend to have very strong rapport and relationships with my staff. So, and I've
always had that feedback. So, I would say it's a good thing, it helps with that kind of
thing.
Katherine talked about being resilient enough to fail in front of her teachers when she models
lessons. She shared:
The resiliency piece comes in when you say, yeah, this totally bombed. And I'm glad it
didn't bomb for you, because I'm going to try it again, rather than just like put the strategy
away. Because that happens too, right? If we, if we're not successful, the first time we do
something, we put it away. And we can't do that if we're going to continually move
forward.
She added that in her head she says, “I screwed that up, I could have done that better. And then
just learn from it. My staff struggles with resilience.”
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Sara also shared that resilience in light of failure is important to model when leading
instructional change:
I think, kind of, setting those kind of tones for the staff that, you know, resiliency is
important to us. Like, we are okay with failure, we are okay with trying new things and
we're going to be reflective about it, we're going to talk about it, we're not going to give
up on things that we know to be evidence based just because it didn't go well the first
time. And trying to model that for other people knowing that's important to move a
school forward. I also have to practice that myself so that they see it in me and they know
that I need it.
Jodi added that conflict can lead to positive outcomes, stating, “but when it is something that
turns into a kind of a productive conversation and constructive conversation, then we end up at
the end of it being better off.” Liz shared her perspective that, “every opportunity, every, every
experience is an opportunity for growth for learning. So, it's a way to frame situations that are
difficult to, to grow from them.” Wendy shared:
I think it's just to not give up ever, your ability to never give up. I mean, physically, like,
you're going to feel like defeated sometimes. And you're going to experience failure. And
we're going to experience moments where we're like, maybe I'm not the best person, or,
damn, I wish I didn't go that way. But move forward. Move forward. It's okay to have
moments of defeat, and feel it. But being able to bounce back rather effortlessly. I think.
At this point, we always like that. Always, always bounce right back. To me (resilience)
means grit, pulling up the, you know, your boots and, and just keep plugging along.
That's, that's my definition of it. You know, you get knocked down and you get up. And I
think principals get knocked down a lot. And God bless us, we can get back up.
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Summary of Research Question Two Data
Three themes emerged related to the leaders’ perspective of how conflict and resilience
had impacted their leadership. These include: impact of conflict on sleep and health, strategies
used to cope with conflict that helped to build resilience, and the belief that building resilience in
response to conflict had improved their leadership. Table 11 illustrates the major themes
identified through analysis of the interviews related to the second research question.
Table 11

Research Themes: RQ2 Principal’s Perception of the Impact of Conflict and Resilience on
Leadership

Themes

The impact of
conflict/stress
Conflict/stress negatively impacted home life and health in
addition to distracting from primary goals/vision (Eagly & Carli,
2007; Nichols & Nichols, 2014).

Coping with conflict has
contributed to building
resilience
Conflict contributed to the development of resilience through
self-reflection (Crane et al., 2019; Mishra & McDonald, 2017;
Patterson et al., 2009).

Resilience has improved
leadership
The development of resilience has contributed to perseverance in
the face of obstacles and even failure has helped build resilience
(Bennis et al., 2015; Maulding et al., 2012).

Summary of Data
This chapter presented an analysis of the data collected during this investigation.
Participants for this study were all elementary school principals who had been leading change in
their schools and were participating in the Cotsen Art of Teaching teacher mentorship program.
Quantitative survey data from 24 women who had been elementary principals for three or more
years was analyzed and considered in the development of a semi-structured interview protocol to
answer two research questions related to the experience of conflict and resilience by female
elementary principals. Eight randomly chosen women from the 24 principals were interviewed to
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gain a depth of understanding about the experience of conflict and resilience in their role as
principals.
Through this process, evidence emerged from the data to answer research question one by
identifying the primary sources of conflict and protective factors that support resilience for
participants. Primary sources of conflict, aligned to the theoretical framework, included: conflict
caused by the volume and scope of tasks (microsystem), conflict caused by adults (microsystem),
and misalignment between the school vision and that of supervisors or “the District”
(microsystem; Ballou et al., 2002). Additionally, conscious or unconscious gender bias
(macrosystem) was reported to occur in all districts in the study. Primary protective factors
include self-efficacy based on experience, vision and resilience (individual), as well as a
supportive team of peers and/or family (microsystem). Table 12 provides a visual of the findings
of this study related to the Feminist Ecological Model (Ballou et al., 2002), Metatheory of
Resilience and Resiliency (Richardson, 2002), and the Integrated Occupational Resilience
Framework (Kossek & Perrigino, 2016).
Table 12
Themes Related to Theoretical Framework

Theme Name Theoretical
Framework
Connection
Author
1: Conflict Volume/Scope of Job Microsystem
Stress Trigger
Ballou et al., 2002
Kossek &
Perrigino, 2016
2: Conflict Adults: Parents/Staff Microsystem Ballou et al., 2002
3: Conflict Misalignment of Vision Microsystem Ballou et al., 2002
4: Conflict Gender Bias Macrosystem Ballou et al., 2002
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 107

Table 12, continued

Theme Name Theoretical
Framework
Connection
Author
5: Protective Factor Self-efficacy Individual
Personal
Hardiness
Ballou et al., 2002
Kossek &
Perrigino, 2016
6: Protective Factor Team: Peers/Family Microsystem Ballou et al., 2002
7: Impact Negative Impact of Conflict Disruption Richardson, 2002
8: Impact Coping Strategies to Build Resilience Reintegration Richardson, 2002
9: Impact Experience of Conflict and Resilience
Increase Leadership Capacity
Resilient
Reintegration
Adaptive
Performance
Richardson, 2002

Kossek &
Perrigino, 2016

Research question two, regarding the principals’ perception of the impact of conflict and
resilience on their leadership was investigated through the analysis of qualitative, interview data.
Interview transcripts were coded and analyzed to identify three themes, which aligned with
resilience theory. The first theme, that conflict experienced by principals had a negative impact
on home life and health, considered disruption by Richardson (2002). The next theme, that the
participants coped with stress through reflecting on or processing the conflict, aligned with the
resilient process on reintegration (Richardson, 2002) and Kossek & Perrigino’s (2016) process in
the individual and occupational context. Participants also noted that they believed that self-care
was important to building resilience, but was difficult to fit in. The final theme related to how
the principals in this study perceive that conflict and resilience impact their leadership relates to
what Richardson (2002) would define as resilient integration and Kossek & Perrigino (2016)
would call adaptive performance: that the resilience built through their experience with conflict
has made them better leaders.
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CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS
This chapter concludes a mixed methods study of the sources of conflict and protective
factors that contribute to the resilience of female elementary principals who led change through
the lens of their personal experience, including: a summary of findings related data that was
collected through a survey and through interviews then analyzed, implications for practice, and
suggestions for future research.
There is a gap in the literature related to the social and occupational environment’s
influence on the development of resilience in female leaders as well as the development of
resilience in educational leaders and this study endeavored to contribute to the research in both
of these areas (Kossek & Perrigino, 2016). Diversity of leadership is a vital factor, which ensures
that organizations thrive and the underrepresentation of women in leadership roles negatively
impacts all stakeholders in K-12 education (Madsen & Andrade, 2018). Educational leaders
experience a high level of conflict and successful principals must have a high level of resilience
to cope, or even thrive, under stressful conditions. Resilient leaders embrace challenges and grow
through adversity (Allison-Napolitano, 2014; Arias, 2016; Bennis & Thomas, 2002; Bennis et
al., 2015). A deeper understanding of how leaders interact with challenges with the assumption
that individuals are complex and have the ability to adapt is essential as it is evident that
educational leaders must have a certain level of resilience as well as the ability to derive meaning
and knowledge from setbacks and failures (Christman & McClellan, 2008; Morrison, 2012;
Patterson et al., 2009; Reivich & Shatté, 2002). The purpose of this study was to gather data to
identify the primary causes of conflict and sources of strength for female elementary principals
leading change in their schools and then to examine the relationship between the conflict faced
by the leaders and their development of resilience in their leadership.
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 109

This study utilized a mixed-methods, sequential explanatory design to investigate the
reciprocal relationship between conflict and resilience in elementary school principals who are
leading change in their schools. From a constructivist paradigm, this research was designed to
identify factors that contribute to women building resilience as educational leaders based on their
personal reflection on experience. Throughout the process, the researcher and participants
constructed knowledge on the leadership journey together on how conflict and resilience interact
to strengthen, or weaken, their leadership. Quantitative data collection in the initial phase of the
study provided both a foundation and a trajectory for exploring the primary areas of adversity
and strength among resilient principals. The second, qualitative phase of the study allowed the
researcher to gain a deeper understanding of the experience of conflict and resilience by female
principals leading change in their schools from their own perspective. The two research
questions guided the study were: 1) What are the primary sources of conflict and protective
factors for female elementary principals leading change? and 2) How do female elementary
principals perceive that conflict and resilience have impacted their leadership? In answering
these questions, participants provided data that was analyzed to identify emerging themes that
were the basis for the findings of this study.
Discussion of Findings
Conflict in leadership is inevitable. Research question one asked, “What are the major
sources of conflict and protective factors for female elementary principals leading change?”
There is strong evidence in this study that the primary sources of conflict, (a) the scope of the
job, (b) adult members of the community and (c) misalignment between the principal’s vision
and district initiatives. These data gathered from participants in the survey and aligns with
themes that became clear during through analysis of the interview transcripts. The conflict
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 110

experienced by the principals in this study was consistent despite varied demographics of school
communities. To compare the experiences and perceptions of study participants with the results
of published research on a broader scale, participant’s perceptions were aligned to current
literature in resilience theory and leadership theory, as well as to the Feminist Ecological Model.
Although the literature is limited regarding resilience in female elementary principals, studies of
principals of all genders indicate similar sources of conflict that aligned with the respondents in
this study, including: an overwhelming breadth of tasks (Fullan, 2018; Maulding et al., 2012),
conflict between personal or site vision and initiatives from district, state, etc. (Maulding et al.,
2012), and the demands of adults in the community as well as criticism of their leadership
(Friedman, 2002; Hoffman, 2004). Gender bias and home/life balance are also sources of conflict
for female leaders identified in the literature that aligned to the experience of participants in this
study (Carli & Eagly, 2011; Madsen & Andrade, 2018; Ross, 2014).
Primary protective factors for these women leading schools, personal sense of self-
efficacy, supportive family and peers, was also consistent across settings. One surprise, that is
nonetheless consistent with the literature, is the difference between the respondent’s answers to
the question related to their experience of gender bias on the survey (nine out of 24 did not
believe that it caused conflict at all) and the stories that they shared regarding the conflict that
they experienced due to gender bias in their organizations (all perceived an impact in their
district) (Carli & Eagly, 2011; Madsen & Andrade, 2018).
Two primary themes that emerged related to the experience of the eight principals
interviewed regarding the primary protective factors are also aligned with current literature on
resilience in leadership. Respondents indicated that their personal qualities, including strength,
dedication and vision were the primary factors that supported them as leaders when they
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experienced conflict. These resilient qualities figure predominantly in the literature as well
(Bandura, 2006; Coutu, 2002; Kossek & Perrigino, 2016; Ledesma, 2014). The second theme
that emerged, having a team, including family, peers and mentors also aligns to current research
on protective factors that support successful leaders (Christman & McClellan, 2008; Maher,
2013; Mishra & McDonald, 2017).
There is strong evidence that, despite the challenges that are inherent in the role of
principal, the women leading elementary schools who participated in this study have become
strong and resilient leaders. The conflict that they have faced has had some negative effects by
distracting them from important functions of their job and has also impacted their lives outside of
work and, their health. This negative impact is aligned with the research on female leaders and
school leaders (Eagly & Carli, 2007; Nichols & Nichols, 2014). Also aligned with the literature,
the principals in this study believe that conflict has caused them to develop resilience as leaders
through their process of self-reflection and by forcing them to pay attention to self-care strategies
(Crane et al., 2019; Mishra & McDonald, 2017; Patterson et al., 2009). Finally, the principals
interviewed believe that the development of resilience is a valuable process that has made them
better leaders (Bennis et al., 2015; Maulding et al., 2012). Irene summed up the perspective of
the participants in this study with a beautiful visual of resilience in her experience as principal:
I kind of picture in my head, a willow tree, you know, you can pull on those branches and
pull on them, and you could pull them the leaves all the way down to the ground, you
know, and they generally don't break. But do you know, they might snap back every so
often. I'd say is resilience, you know, being willing to come back in the next day, after a
really tough day and put on a smile and move ahead. Being able to, you know, bounce
back or recoup from a setback, you know, rebuilding, whatever it is. You need to rebuild,
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whether it's a relationship with a staff member, or a parent or a kid. I don't know, I guess
that's what I would say is resilience, just being willing to come back again.
Additional findings of note are related to limitations of the methodology and other factors
that impact the experience of female elementary principals leading change that were not
investigated in this study. The first is that, common to all eight principals interviewed in the
study was a vision for instructional excellence. This vision, although sometimes at odds with the
expectations of other stakeholders, supported these principals to build resilience in response to
the conflict. A strong vision for student achievement and instructional improvement has been
found to contribute significantly to the resilience of school leaders, yet this was not explored in
the survey (O'Day, 2002; Patterson et al., 2009). A second theme that emerged in the interviews
but was not queried in the survey was the impact of a mentor. This topic has been the identified
in a significant amount of current research relating to women in leadership and in the workplace
and, similarly, impacted the participants in this research (Fawver, 2014; Malin & Hackmann,
2016; Pincott, 2014; Zachry, 2009).
In addition to gender, the feminist ecological model includes three other factors that
intersect all systems, which were not investigated in this study: age, race and class. Evident to
the researcher during this study was a difference in the responses of interview participants whose
age or career stage differed. A correlation could be made between the age and career stage of the
principal and the level of frustration with the number of tasks as well as the severity of health
and life balance concerns. Ngunjiri and Gardiner (2017) recently developed a model in which
gender, race, and other factors intersect. Their model considers the impact of power and privilege
as well as culture and context on female leaders, which would expand on the scope of the
findings in this study (Ngunjiri & Gardiner, 2017). Class was not identified in this study and,
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 113

although ethnicity was shared by participants, the small sample size makes the impact of
race/ethnicity on the experience of principals is unknown.
Another factor that may have had a significant impact on the experience of the principals
in this study is the demographic make-up of the community in which they serve. The size of the
school, socio-economic level of the majority of families, prevalence of English Language
Learners or students with special needs, among other factors, can have a profound influence on
the experience of the entire school community. One of the notable, anecdotal findings of this
study is that principals at the schools that were designated Title I, were not as concerned with
securing funding for school improvement. The Local Control Funding Formula (LCFF) had
provided them with options to support their schools with staff and materials, which is the intent
of LCFF. Principals who led schools with fewer unduplicated students shared their experience
with writing grants and/or fundraising as a significant additional expectation of the job. These
differences impacted the experience of the principals and were not considered in this study.
One final observation of note is that five of the eight interview participants had strong
emotional reactions when describing their experience with conflict in their role as principal.
Based on the tears, the conflict they have faced has had a deep impact in these women who lead.
As discussed in the findings of this study, principals have little time to process their stressful
experiences and, as the researcher was an elementary principal herself, there was a common
understanding and an easy connection during the short interview. Although this was the first time
that participants had met the researcher, these principals quickly let down their guard when given
an opportunity to sit with a peer and share challenging experiences. This indicates that these
principals are willing, perhaps eager, to share their experiences with others and this opportunity
to process may be valuable in building resilience in school leaders.
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Implications for Practice
Several recommendations may be made to support resilience among female school
leaders. Based on the finding that principals experience conflict due to disparate ideas of the
direction for the school, school site leaders and their supervisors should engage in conversations
to develop a shared vision that would align district and site level goals and initiatives. This
dialogue would benefit the individuals and their organizations, as it would provide transparent
guiding focus to align fiscal, curricular, professional development and other decisions at all
levels. Based on the finding that the volume and scope of responsibilities of school leaders
causes significant conflict, principals should be provided with adequate support (staff) in order to
delegate managerial and clerical tasks so that they can effectively lead instruction and connect
with students, staff and families at their school site. The previously noted alignment of vision
would also support the prioritization of responsibilities for school principals. As a primary
protective factor that was found to build resilience is a supportive network of peers and/or
mentors, districts and/or professional organizations should create opportunities for connecting
with peers within and outside of the school district. Opportunities could include job-alikes, in
which principals get together to brainstorm solutions and share experiences, as well as
conferences or professional development experiences with their peers. Based on the finding that
the conflict experienced in the role as principal effects the home life and the health of school
leaders, districts and/or professional organizations should focus on health and wellness by
considering opportunities to participate in mindfulness, exercise and health habits at no or low
cost to employees and, when possible, integrate wellness into the culture and practice of
leadership. School districts and researchers should consider the results of this study and conduct
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 115

similar research on the development of resilience, as it is essential to successful educational
leadership.
Future Research
More research is needed on resilience in both principals and female educational leaders,
as resilience is a critical component to successful leadership. Suggestions for future research
could include a similar study with a broader scope that would include a larger sample size to be
more generalizable to the general population. A similar study could be done that considers race,
ethnicity, age, culture, etc., as the intersection of gender with these factors significantly impacts
the experience of educational leaders. School districts and researchers should also involve
principals in additional research to understand their needs in order to provide appropriate
professional development and/or mentorship that would strengthen their leadership skills to
become more effective leaders. Another area of research that could be explored could include a
cross-case comparison of female principals at different stages of their careers. Based on the
incidental findings of this study, this would be valuable to explore how the experience of conflict
and resilience differs over time.
This study should also be replicated with different populations of educators including:
district level supervisors, assistant principals, teachers and student service providers to increase
effective leadership at all levels. Another difference that was noted in the data collected was
nuance in the responses of participants related to their family make up. A similar study focused
on single parent administrators and single administrators without children would be valuable to
see how those significant life status differences may impact their experience and perspective.
Finally, due to the gap in the literature regarding both women in leadership and elementary
principals leading change, more research on both of these populations would increase
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 116

understanding of the needs of these leaders that would support building resilience to improve the
school environment for all stakeholders.
Conclusion
Although the results of this mixed methods study could not be generalized to all school
principals due to the small sample size, unique nature of the population studied and the brief
period of time during which the study was conducted, clear themes emerged that provide insight
into the experience of conflict and resilience and its impact on the lives of female elementary
principals. Based on the results of this study, several conclusions were drawn and are aligned
with previously established research of women in leadership and of educational leaders. First,
that conflict experienced by female elementary principals was significant and sources of this
conflict were common across the school leaders in this study, regardless of the demographics of
the school community and the principal herself (life/career stage, family make up). This conflict
had an impact on the home life and the health of principals. Conscious or unconscious gender
bias also continues to impact educational leadership across school districts. Common protective
factors also were evident in this study. Female elementary principals believed that having a
supportive home and/or peer network is instrumental to their ability to cope with conflict and
build resilience. Interaction with these family/peer teams provided an opportunity to process
experiences, receive feedback and is a source of physical and/or emotional support. There was a
strong sense of self-efficacy, self-confidence and vision among female school leaders. The
experience that women have had in their role as principals and the resilience that they have
developed in response to conflict they have endured has contributed to their belief that they can
face challenges and will be successful leading their schools. These findings indicate that
principals in this study have strong protective factors that support the development of resilience
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 117

in response to conflict. This reciprocal relationship between conflict and resilience was perceived
by the participants in this study to increase their leadership capacity.

CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 118

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CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 135

APPENDIX A
Connor Davidson Resilience Scale Survey Data
Connor Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) (n=24)

Not true at all Rarely true Sometimes
true
Often true (3) True nearly
all of the time
I am able to adapt
when changes
occur.
0

0

0

5

19

I can deal with
whatever comes
my way.
0

0

0

11

13

Having to cope
with stress can
make me stronger.
0

0

5

11

8

I tend to bounce
back after illness,
injury or other
hardships.

0

0

1

7

15

I believe that I can
achieve my goals,
even if there are
obstacles.
0

0

0

6

18

I try to see the
humorous side
when I am faced
with problems.

0

0

3

5

16

Under pressure, I
stay focused and
think clearly.
0

0

1

15

8

I am not easily
discouraged by
failure.
0

0

2

12

10

CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 136

I think of myself as
a strong person
when dealing with
life’s challenges
and difficulties.

0

0

0

9

15

I am able to handle
unpleasant feelings
like sadness, fear
and anger.
0

0

1

13

10

Raw Score (SUM)

Scaled Score
13

26

94

282

87

528

CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 137

APPENDIX B
Survey Instrument
The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC 10) is a brief, self-rated instrument that aims
to quantify resilience and consists of 10 items, each with a 5-point response where 0 = not true at
all, 1 = rarely true, 2 = sometimes true, 3 = often true, and 4 = true nearly all of the time. Connor
and Davidson (Connor, K., & Davidson, J., 2003).

1. I am able to adapt when changes occur.
2. I can deal with whatever comes my way.
3. I try to see the humorous side when I am faced with problems.
4. Having to cope with stress can make me stronger.
5. I tend to bounce back after illness, injury or other hardships.
6. I believe that I can achieve my goals, even if there are obstacles.
7. Under pressure, I stay focused and think clearly.
8. I am not easily discouraged by failure.
9. I think of myself as a strong person when dealing with life’s challenges and difficulties.
10. I am able to handle unpleasant feelings like sadness, fear and anger.
RQ 1: What are the primary sources of conflict and protective factors for female elementary
principals leading change?
For the following questions, please answer based on your experience as an elementary school
principal: Scale: 0 = not true at all, 1 = rarely true, 2 = sometimes true, 3 = often true, and
4 = true nearly all of the time
(Conflict)
1. The number of tasks or volume and scope of responsibilities creates conflict that impacts
my leadership.
2. Expectations or directions from supervisor(s) or district leadership staff creates conflict
that impacts my leadership.
3. Individual parents or the parent community at my school creates conflict that impacts my
leadership.
4. Individual faculty members or the faculty resistance to change creates conflict that
impacts my leadership.
5. Responsibility for the care of my home/family creates conflict that impacts my
leadership.
6. Conscious or unconscious gender bias creates conflict that impacts my leadership.
7. Policies, laws or regulations create conflict that impacts my leadership.
(Resilience)
1. My peers/co-workers contribute to my resilience as a leader.
2. My supervisor(s) or district leadership staff contribute to my resilience as a leader.
3. My family and/or friends contribute to my resilience as a leader.
4. My education and experience contribute to my resilience as a leader.
5. My personality contributes to my resilience as a leader.
6. My faith or spirituality contributes to my resilience as a leader.
7. My gender contributes to my resilience as a leader.
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 138

APPENDIX C
Interview Guide and Questions
Welcome and thank you for your participation today. My name is Martha Monahan and I am a
graduate student at The University of Southern California.
• This interview will take approximately sixty minutes and will include eight questions that
explore your experiences, in particular, as related to past and/or current challenges, in
your role as a female elementary school principal.
• I would like your permission to tape record this interview, so I may accurately document
and transcribe the information you convey. If at any time during the interview you wish
to discontinue the use of the recorder or the interview itself, please let me know.
• All of your responses are confidential and will remain confidential. The purpose of this
study is to discover how female experience conflict and build resilience, in the context of
their work lives. The goal is to uncover similarities across strategies used by these
women in order to be resilient in their leadership roles.
• At this time I would like to remind you of your written consent to participate in this
study. I am the responsible researcher, specifying your participation in this research
study. You and I have both signed and dated each copy, certifying that we agree to
continue this interview. You will receive one copy and I will keep the other, under lock
and key, separate from your reported responses. Your participation in this interview is
completely voluntary. If at any time you need to stop, take a break, or don’t understand
one of the questions, please let me know. You may also withdraw your participation at
any time, and may choose to withdraw your data from the study, for up to two weeks
after the interview. This grace period will give you the time to reflect upon your
participation and interview responses, and to decide whether you would like your data
included in the study.
• Do you have any questions or concerns before we begin? Then with your permission we
will begin the interview.

RQ 2: How do female elementary principals perceive that conflict and resilience have impacted
their development as leaders?
Interview Questions

• What are the major sources of conflict for you?
• How does this conflict impact your leadership?
• What do you feel are the major factors that contribute to your resilience as an educational
leader?
• Do you believe that you have developed resilience as a result of your experience leading
educational change?
• What has helped you to build resilience as a leader?
• Do you believe that handling conflict has helped you develop resilience as a leader? How
has it contributed?
• Have you or do you experience conflict regarding home/work balance? (if not mentioned
in initial statement)
CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 139

• How do you think that your gender has impacted your development as an educational
leader?

CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 140

APPENDIX D
Connor Davidson Resilience Scale Authorization

CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 141

APPENDIX E
Informed Consent to Take Part in Non-Medical Research

CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 142

CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 143

CONFLICT AND RESILIENCE IN ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS 144

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study utilized feminist ecological theory and resilience theory to identify the causes of conflict experienced by female elementary principals leading change in their schools as well as protective factors that contribute to their resilience as leaders. It also explored the relationship between the conflict faced by the leaders and the development of resilience in their leadership. The purpose of this study was to examine the reciprocal relationship between conflict and resilience from the perspective of female educational leaders. The study was a mixed-methods, sequential explanatory investigation. A quantitative survey was distributed to principals, which included the 10-point Connor Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC 10), as well as 14 questions related to the sources of conflict and protective factors. Data was analyzed for 24 female respondents who had been principals for three or more years. Eight participants were randomly selected to participate in interviews. Transcripts of interviews were coded through a two-cycle coding process to identify themes, patterns, relationships and connections, then triangulated using the CD-RISC 10 and quantitative data collected from survey respondents. Findings from this study indicate that the primary sources of conflict for participants were the volume and scope of tasks, conflict caused by adults, and the misalignment vision between the school and the school district. Primary protective factors included self-efficacy, experience and vision, as well as the support of family and or peers. Principals in this study also indicated that experience with conflict supported the development of resilience that improved their leadership. Results of this study contribute findings to bridge the gap in the literature related to the occupational environment’s influence on the development of resilience in female leaders as well as the development of resilience in educational leaders.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Monahan, Martha Ruth (author)

Core Title The impact of conflict and resilience on leadership: a mixed methods study of female elementary principals leading change

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 07/23/2019

Defense Date 07/19/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag conflict,elementary,feminist ecological model,gender bias,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,Principal,resilience,resilience theory,Women

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Hasan, Angela (committee chair), Pensavalle, Margo (committee member), Sims, Shilby (committee member)

Creator Email marthamonahan@gmail.com,monahanm@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-185690

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Legacy Identifier etd-MonahanMar-7562.pdf

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Document Type Dissertation

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Rights Monahan, Martha Ruth

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