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The first-time manager journey: a study to inform a smoother leadership transition

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Content The First-Time Manager Journey:
A Study to Inform a Smoother Leadership Transition
Julie Eydman
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
May 2024

© Copyright by Julie Eydman 2024
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Julie Eydman certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Kenneth Anthony Yates
Kimberly Hirabayashi
Patricia Elaine Tobey, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024

iv
Abstract
Leadership skills are often overlooked in the promotion of first-line managers, despite their
crucial role in organizational success. Functional experts promoted to manage people for the first
time often struggle due to limited leadership experience, insufficient training, and inadequate
organizational support. Guided by the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analytical framework, this
study leveraged a modified Delphi mixed methods consensus-building approach that captured
insights from 53 experienced corporate leaders. The study identified the most critical success
factors in the areas of leadership knowledge, motivation, and organizational support systems that
are essential to effective new leader development. The prioritized recommendations provide a
pragmatic playbook for smoothing the shift to management by emphasizing (a) activating an
organizational support system that cultivates continuous learning, (b) embracing self-motivating
individual mindsets like self-efficacy and attribution of success to effort, (c) developing specific
conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive leadership skills deemed most vital, and (d)
embedding an efficacy evaluation framework that links leader development to organizational
success. By learning from prior research and today’s cross-industry experienced leaders, this
study illuminates the core knowledge areas, motivational drivers, and organizational support
mechanisms that foster true leadership success.
Keywords: leadership development, first-time leadership, early manager transitions,
Delphi

v
Dedication
To Dominic, my incredibly supportive partner who encouraged me to pursue my passions,
helped me focus, and served as my sounding board and thought partner.
To my sons Max and Andrew, thank you for your patience with me and for listening to my rants
about the difficulties of doctoral studies.
To my mom, who inspired me to be independent and continues challenging me to aim high.
To my dad, who I know is smiling with pride from above. You have been my biggest cheerleader
since I was little, and you continue to uplift my spirits and elevate my confidence in all I do
today.
To the universe for guiding me through my journey and grounding me to hold space for the
contradictions of this world.

vi
Acknowledgments
I am deeply grateful to my incredible dissertation chair, Dr. Tobey, who supported and
encouraged me throughout the process, and to Dr. Yates, who introduced me to the Delphi
survey approach and who spent hours in Zoom meetings guiding my thought process and helping
me interpret my desired outcomes before I had clarity to be able to articulate them.
I am grateful to many of USC’s fantastic faculty members who forced my mind to build
new neural pathways and develop hundreds of “aha” moments because of the brilliant ways they
cultivated learning and facilitated stimulating in-class discussions. Thank you, Dr. Muraszewski,
Dr. Madni, Dr. Hinga, Dr. Jennifer Phillips, Dr. Rosenthal, Dr. Wilkins-Langie, Dr. Hyde, Dr.
Lynch, Dr. Canny, Dr. Maccalla, and Dr. Ferrario.
My classmates who helped me expand my mind to different perspectives and validated
my ideas—I am forever grateful to you all. I have learned so much from you.
My brilliant network of professional colleagues who have graciously offered their time to
participate in my study and even spread the word within their networks to further support my
research—this study would not have been possible without you all.
I am grateful to my workplace, including my peers and staff, who continuously served as
an experimental audience when I incorporated ideas inspired by my learnings into my working
environment.
Finally, I am grateful for my friends and family, who did not judge me for my 3.5-year
complete disappearance into doctoral studies and patiently waited for me to reappear and
reconnect.

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Table of Contents
Abstract...........................................................................................................................................iv
Dedication........................................................................................................................................v
Acknowledgments..........................................................................................................................vi
List of Tables..................................................................................................................................ix
List of Figures..................................................................................................................................x
Chapter One: Introduction...............................................................................................................1
Context and Background of the Problem ............................................................................1
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions ..................................................................3
Importance of the Study ......................................................................................................3
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology .....................................................4
Definitions...........................................................................................................................6
Organization of the Dissertation..........................................................................................7
Chapter Two: Literature Review .....................................................................................................8
First-Time Manager Transition Challenges.........................................................................8
Gap Analysis Conceptual Framework...............................................................................23
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences...............................26
Summary............................................................................................................................43
Chapter Three: Methodology.........................................................................................................44
Research Questions............................................................................................................44
Overview of Design...........................................................................................................45
Research Setting ................................................................................................................45
The Researcher ..................................................................................................................46
Survey Method, Data Source, and Measurement ..............................................................47
Validity and Reliability .....................................................................................................66

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Trustworthiness and Credibility ........................................................................................67
Ethics.................................................................................................................................68
Limitations and Delimitations...........................................................................................69
Chapter Four: Results....................................................................................................................73
Participants ........................................................................................................................74
Research Question 1: What Leadership Tasks and Behaviors Do Expert Corporate
Leaders Identify As Important for Early Career Managers to Develop Into
Performant Leaders?..........................................................................................................85
Research Question 2: How Can Organizations Best Support Growing Leaders to
Effectively Transition From an Individual Contributor Role? ..........................................98
Research Question 3: What Onboarding and Training Recommendations Can Be
Made for First-Time Managers Promoted From Functional Individual
Contributors? ...................................................................................................................105
Chapter Five: Recommendations.................................................................................................117
Discussion of Findings ....................................................................................................118
Recommendations for Practice........................................................................................121
Recommendations for Future Research...........................................................................137
Conclusion.......................................................................................................................139
References ...................................................................................................................................141
Appendix A: R1 Survey Instrument ............................................................................................153
Appendix B: R1 Qualitative Analysis.........................................................................................162
Appendix C: R2 Survey Instrument ............................................................................................178
Appendix D: Coefficient of Variation Analysis..........................................................................187
Appendix E: KMO Tables...........................................................................................................191

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List of Tables
Table 1: Round 1 Knowledge Items Quantitative Analysis..........................................................86
Table 2: Round 1 Motivation Items Quantitative Analysis...........................................................89
Table 3: Knowledge Items: New Themes From Round 1 Qualitative Analysis...........................91
Table 4: Motivation Items: New Themes From Round 1 Qualitative Analysis............................92
Table 5: Round 2 Knowledge Items Quantitative Analysis..........................................................93
Table 6: Round 2 Motivation Items Quantitative Analysis...........................................................96
Table 7: Round 1 Organizational Support Items Quantitative Analysis.......................................99
Table 8: Organizational Support Items: New Themes From Round 1 Qualitative Analysis......101
Table 9: Round 2 Organizational Influence Items Quantitative Analysis...................................103
Table 10: Round 2 Recommendations Quantitative Analysis.....................................................113
Table 11: Summary of Findings From Two Sequential Survey Rounds.....................................119
Table 12: Most Important Conceptual Knowledge Elements and Recommended Learning
Outcomes.....................................................................................................................................129
Table 13: Most Important Procedural Knowledge Elements and Recommended Learning
Outcomes.....................................................................................................................................131
Table 14: Most Important Metacognitive Knowledge Elements and Recommended Learning
Outcomes.....................................................................................................................................132

x
List of Figures
Figure 1: Gap Analysis Conceptual Framework for the Study .....................................................24
Figure 2: Delphi Study Structure for Survey Formulation, Data Collection, and Analysis..........49
Figure 3: Round 1 Survey Sections, Data Types, and Research Question Mapping ....................61
Figure 4: Round 2 Survey Sections, Data Types, and Research Question Mapping ....................62
Figure 5: Importance and Agreement Thresholds Used in this Study...........................................65
Figure 6: Survey Response and Acceptance Rates........................................................................75
Figure 7: Participant Age Range and Gender Distribution............................................................77
Figure 8: Participant Ethnicity Distribution ..................................................................................78
Figure 9: Professional Industry Distribution .................................................................................79
Figure 10: Organization Size Distribution.....................................................................................80
Figure 11: Years of Experience Distribution.................................................................................81
Figure 12: Management Level Distribution ..................................................................................82
Figure 13: Career Start Distribution ..............................................................................................83
Figure 14: Participant Leadership Development Activities ..........................................................84
Figure 15: Change in Consensus Levels Between Round 1 and 2 ................................................98
Figure 16: Panelist’s Recommendations of Leadership Development Activities for New
Managers .....................................................................................................................................106
Figure 17: Panelist’s Self-Reported Most Helpful or Influential Leadership Development
Activities......................................................................................................................................109
Figure 18: Panelist’s Perspectives Regarding the Time Needed for New Manager Onboarding111
Figure 19: First-Time Leader Empowerment Model ..................................................................122

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Chapter One: Introduction
An estimated 50% to 75% of U.S. managers lack the competencies required for the
demands of their jobs (Hogan et al., 1994), with first-line supervisors failing to convince their
team members to adopt the group’s goal as their own. Two-thirds of managers do not have the
skills needed for successful people management (Bolman & Deal, 2017). A leader is assumed to
be able to build a shared vision amongst direct reports (Hogan & Kaiser, 2005; Senge, 1990) but
may not possess the relevant job competencies directly after being promoted to a people manager
from an individual contributor.
The problem of practice addressed in the study is the lack of preparedness of first-time
managers to successfully transition from individual contributors to team leaders equipped to
empower their team members to accomplish organizational goals. The study sought to
understand what experienced corporate leaders see as important skills and behaviors for leaders
transitioning from functional expert roles to people management roles. The study, guided by the
Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework, served as a needs assessment to inform a firsttime people management accelerated corporate training program and focused on uncovering the
most sought-after leadership skills, leadership behaviors, and organizational support systems that
equip successful leaders to perform in their role effectively.
Context and Background of the Problem
Leadership skills play little or no role in first-line manager promotion (Hogan et al.,
1994; Sillett, 2015). Promotion due to strong individual employee performance may not result in
a successful transition to a manager role when the employee fails to adjust to their new role. The
process of leadership transition, sometimes described as becoming a manager (Bolander et al.,
2019; Segal, 2017), presents a vast number of emotional challenges reported by early managers,

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including the fear of uncertainty, overwhelm, frustration, stress, anxiety, and lack of confidence
(Bolander et al., 2019; Hay, 2014; Pearce, 1982; Segal, 2017; Sillet, 2015).
A career in corporate people management requires no formalized education, and yet
formal leadership training has been shown to improve leadership behaviors and organizational
performance significantly (Seidle et al., 2016; Sørensen et al., 2023; Tafvelin et al., 2019). The
lack of preparedness of first-time managers to lead a team may result in their team’s inability to
reach organizational goals. Research shows the importance of goal setting in organizations and
that employee goal commitment translates into a significant improvement in the performance of
individuals and teams (Locke & Latham, 2019; Porter & Latham, 2013; Smither & London,
2009). As all leaders, first-time managers are positioned to play a critical role in coaching
employees during goal setting and evaluating their team’s goal attainment. Failure to focus on
goals-related practices is a missed opportunity to improve organizational performance (Shinkle
et al., 2019).
While thousands of leadership books, articles, training resources, and development
programs exist, there is a lack of clear articulation of data-informed prioritized leadership topics
for today’s first-time developing leader. Research shows that leadership training substantially
impacts changes in leadership behavior (Sørensen et al., 2023). Still, there is no clarity about the
link between leader competencies and team effectiveness toward organizational goal attainment.
This research was developed to add to the knowledge base of understanding the most soughtafter leadership skills, behaviors, and organizational support systems that cultivate an
environment for first-time manager development.

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Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
The study’s primary objective was to capture expertise from experienced corporate
leaders to assess learning needs and build a research-informed training roadmap for early-stage
leaders entering the people management position for the first time. While many optional
leadership development opportunities are available for managers to explore inside and outside of
their workplace, early managers struggle to adjust due to the abrupt transition to the new role,
lack of organizational support systems, and lack of intention to focus on learning how to lead
(Bolander et al., 2019; Hay, 2014; Pearce, 1982).
This study assessed the leadership knowledge and skills, behaviors, and organizational
support needed for incoming leaders to effectively leverage their teams to reach organizational
objectives. The data from this research informed ways to ease the early leadership transition and
shorten the learning curve for new leaders to become performant, goal-oriented leaders and
change agents.
The following research questions were explored in the study:
1. What leadership tasks and behaviors do expert corporate leaders identify as important
for early career managers to develop into performant leaders?
2. How can organizations best support growing leaders to effectively transition from an
individual contributor role?
3. What onboarding and training recommendations can be made for first-time managers
promoted from functional individual contributors?
Importance of the Study
The lack of preparedness of new managers is important to address because for-profit
companies’ financial success depends on the achievement of leader-defined organizational goals.

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Meeting organizational goals is crucial for the success and longevity of any business. Achieving
specific targets and objectives helps organizations measure their progress over time and allows
them to identify areas for improvement and create a clear path forward. Meeting goals also helps
to establish accountability and responsibility within the organization, as individuals and teams
are held responsible for their contributions to achieving these goals (Gagné, 2018). This level of
accountability can motivate employees to work more efficiently and effectively, leading to
higher levels of productivity and overall success for the organization (Shinkle et al., 2019).
The first-time manager transition timeframe presents an opportunity to develop
foundational leadership skills to position an organization for long-term success and growth and
ensure that the company remains competitive, productive, and accountable. Additionally,
centering on leadership skill building during the critical transitional period is essential for
creating a workplace culture that values and supports all employees (Costanza et al., 2016;
Tohidi & Jabbari, 2012), which can lead to improved job satisfaction and a more engaged and
productive workforce.
By defining and prioritizing essential tasks and behaviors for early managers, providing
managers with a roadmap to develop key leadership skills, and equipping organizations with
data-informed recommendations for shortening the leadership learning curve, organizations can
potentially accelerate organizational agendas, reduce friction and failure created by first-time
leadership transitions, and improve overall job satisfaction and performance.
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
The leader’s journey begins and is shaped by the first-time people management role. The
Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis theoretical framework was used to conduct a needs
assessment to identify success factors for newly promoted managers’ knowledge, motivation,

5
and organizational influences (KMO). The framework guided the identification and analysis of
the elements within each of the three KMO factors influencing performance. From the
knowledge perspective, managers being promoted from individual contributors may not
immediately possess the leadership knowledge and skills required for driving team performance.
From a motivational perspective, new managers may lack business-aligned goal orientation and
the self-efficacy to perform in their new role. Finally, from an organizational influence
perspective, companies may not have the necessary support mechanisms to develop newly
promoted leaders effectively.
The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis was an appropriate needs assessment framework
to guide the discovery of desired leadership skills, knowledge, motivations, and organizational
support systems at the entry-level manager stage. The framework was leveraged to identify new
leader learning opportunities based on experts’ perceptions of success factors of performant
leaders and to formulate recommendations to position first-time managers on a successful
development path in corporate environments.
Expert leaders at multi-level for-profit organizations were asked to participate in the
study. The mixed-methods exploratory study was conducted using a modified Delphi survey data
collection approach developed to gain expert consensus (Dalkey & Helmer, 1962). Consensusbuilding methods such as the Delphi survey technique assist with decision-making when there
may be contradictory or insufficient information (Hasson et al., 2000; Keeney et al., 2006). It is
assumed that multiple rounds of questioning enhance the reliability of the gained consensus
(Powell, 2003; Yang, 2003). Originally designed to be conducted in person and elicit qualitative
responses, the Delphi technique was modified to leverage modern survey capabilities and collect
quantitative and qualitative data. The technique was applied using a Qualtrics survey to ask

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expert leaders a series of questions in multiple rounds. During each round, the participants were
allowed to contribute feedback incorporated into the next round of questions for further
convergence of opinions.
Definitions
The following terminology clearly and concisely explains the study’s key terms,
concepts, and constructs.
Attainment value, as defined in Eccles’ (2009) expectancy-value motivational theory,
refers to the evaluation of perceived importance or value for a particular goal or outcome.
Goal commitment refers to the process of accepting organizational goals as one’s own
(Nguni et al., 2006); also referenced as “organizational commitment,” the term is defined as “a
strong belief in and acceptance of the organization’s goals and values” (p. 150). Porter and
Latham (2013) note that “the commitment a leader elicits from employees to a department’s
goals is critical for high performance” (p. 64).
Growth mindset is a view that intelligence is not fixed, and one can continually grow
knowledge through learning (Dweck, 2009).
Leadership competencies or leader success characteristics refer to specific skills that are
needed to perform in the leadership role and measure job success (Tavitiyaman et al., 2014).
Organizational goals refer to an “end state not yet attained and focused on attaining”
(Gagné, 2018, p. 84) in an organizational setting.
Shared vision is an assumed alignment between a leader and subordinates relating to
organizational goals (Senge, 1990) or when “each shares responsibility for the whole, not just for
one piece” (p. 9). Tosey et al. (2015) introduced a unique term, “teampreneurship” (p. 10),

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insisting that gaining a shared vision, rather than cultivating employee individualism, is critical
to team success.
Reflexivity or self-reflection refers to examining one’s feelings, reactions, and motives
(Bolander et al., 2019).
Self-efficacy refers to perceived confidence in personal ability to accomplish a task
(Bandura, 2000).
Organization of the Dissertation
Five chapters were used to organize this study. The first chapter represents an overview
and context of the problem of practice, describes the purpose of the research project, presents the
research questions, details the importance of the study, and provides an overview of the
conceptual framework that guides this study. The second chapter reviews prior research and
literature relating to first-time leadership challenges, leadership development topics, and other
topics relevant to the study. The second chapter expands on the concepts and theories that framed
the study. The third chapter details the research methodology, including research questions,
study design, setting, and research methods. In addition, the third chapter covers data validity
and reliability assumptions, ethics, limitations of the study, and researcher identity statements.
The fourth chapter focuses on the research data analysis of both qualitative and quantitative data
resulting from the study. Finally, the fifth chapter connects findings from prior studies with this
research and provides recommendations for practice and direction for future research.

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Chapter Two: Literature Review
The literature reviewed in this chapter is organized into three sections. In the initial
section, prior research on first-time leadership transitions is explored. The initial section reviews
the prolonged nature of the transitional process, the emotional and practical challenges first-time
managers face, and the success and failure resulting from the transition. The second section
introduces the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis conceptual framework that guided the study.
Finally, the third section leverages the key elements from the gap analysis framework to review
prior academic findings related to leadership skills and knowledge, motivations, and
organizational influences associated with leadership development and effective leadership.
First-Time Manager Transition Challenges
Transitioning from an individual contributor to a manager can be a challenging
experience (Bolander et al., 2019; Hay, 2014; Pearce, 1982; Segal, 2017; Sillet, 2015). Individual
contributors primarily focus on their work and deliver results based on their functional expertise.
However, as a manager of other team members, the focus shifts to leading and supporting a team
of individuals toward achieving a common goal (Belker et al., 2012; Hogan & Kaiser, 2005;
Holmberg & Tyrstrup, 2010; Tosey et al., 2015); this requires a shift in mindset, as managers
must prioritize and balance their work with their team’s needs and priorities.
While navigating the transition to management is challenging for new leaders, the bumpy
journey is a normal part of development in leadership roles (Bolander et al., 2019).
Becoming a Manager: A Journey
One of the recurring themes in early leadership empirical literature is the notion of
becoming a manager as a lengthy ongoing development process rather than an instant event
(Hay, 2014; Parker, 2004; Segal, 2017). Leadership is a continuous journey that may involve a

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lifelong pursuit of developing and honing one’s skills and abilities. It requires individuals to
constantly learn and adapt to new situations, challenges, and opportunities that come their way.
The literature points out that the early leader needs to understand that leadership skills can be
developed and improved over time through dedicated effort and practice (Hay, 2014; Parker,
2004; Segal, 2017).
In an autobiographical reflection on becoming a department head, Parker (2004)
characterized the leadership journey as the metamorphosis of ongoing learning about oneself and
leadership. In this reflection, written by the academic researcher, the author articulated the
numerous challenges he faced throughout his career. Parker (2004) conveyed that the various
complexities of his career have moved him to step away from the management position.
Hay (2014) conducted a qualitative study to examine the identity work experienced by 35
managers throughout their development as leaders. The study explored emotions associated with
early-stage management. It noted that participants perceived the transition as not something that
occurs overnight utilizing a title change but as a rather lengthy and uncomfortable process
involving the ongoing reflexivity of actions and reactions. The author suggested incorporating
these findings into management education. One clear theme from the manager interviews was
that becoming a manager is perceived as a process that will never be complete.
Segal (2017) offered a meta-analysis of another perspective on leadership as a journey.
Unlike Parker’s (2004) self-reflection, Segal (2017) explored the leadership journey as a process
that requires willing and purposeful interactions between the developing leader and the world.
The complex web of all inputs the leader receives includes influences within and outside the
organization. The continual state of development within the organization comes from ongoing
exposure to events, people, decisions made by others, procedures, policies, and the workplace

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environment. Additional influences are present in the mind of a leader outside of the
organizational setting. According to Segal’s (2017) synthesis of the literature on this topic,
growing as a leader does not stop in the workplace but continues to be influenced by the
everyday world of actions and the leader’s reactions to those actions.
Leadership is not a destination but a continuous journey of learning and development.
Successful leaders are committed to self-improvement, seeking feedback, and continuously
updating their skills and knowledge (Bolander et al., 2019; Hay, 2014; Van Velsor et al., 1993).
With ongoing learning and practice, leaders can cultivate the necessary competencies to lead
their team to success.
Emotional Challenges
Early leaders report many emotional challenges immediately after being promoted and
throughout the transitional period. Multiple empirical papers reported that early managers
struggle with fear of uncertainty, overwhelm, frustration, stress, anxiety, tension, lack of
confidence, and self-doubt (Belker et al., 2012; Bolander et al., 2019; Hay, 2014; Pearce, 1982;
Segal, 2017; Sillet, 2015). The discomfort is associated with being positioned as a new leader.
Furthermore, the new managers silently struggle and do not reach out for help because they
believe they are expected to have leadership skills they do not yet possess (Hay, 2014; Parker,
2004).
Expectations Versus Reality of Management
During the critical period of becoming a first-time manager, the new leaders’ self-identity
is mismatched with the social identity of a manager (Hay, 2014; Holmberg & Tyrstrup, 2010;
Parker, 2004; Pearce, 1982; Van Velsor et al., 1993). The discrepancy between first-time leaders’

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perception of themselves and others within the organization has been shown to introduce tension
during the leadership development process.
Hay (2014) found that a person’s social identity as a manager may not align with their
understanding of themselves. New managers reported experiencing uncertainty about how to act
as a manager, and their struggles were amplified by the belief that having the title of manager
was perceived as automatically being a competent one. Furthermore, the expectations of the
managerial identity brought discomfort, but since the social identity of a manager demands
professionalism, the new managers reported avoiding expressing their emotions or seeking help.
Several managers expressed a significant concern about the expectations that they were able to
come up with a solution for every problem (Hay, 2014; Parker, 2004). The notion of always
getting it right generated frustration and fear in the newly promoted managers, especially given
their beliefs that their new managerial identity may be threatened if they ask for help (Hay,
2014).
While all leaders may face problems throughout their careers, first-time managers
experience a larger discrepancy between felt expectations and their reality when entering the
role; this has been showcased by Pearce’s (1982) research that measured responses to problems
experienced by new managers who were in positions for two years or less, compared to problems
experienced by veteran managers. The study showed that 77% of new leaders experienced
problems with their perceived expectations going into the role. Furthermore, Parker’s (2004)
study found that leaders were expected to be confident and knowledgeable immediately after
being made manager (Parker, 2004), which presents a gap in what the manager can realistically
accomplish at the transitional stage of their career.

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In examining perceptions of leadership effectiveness, Van Velsor et al. (1993) found that
leaders who were less confident in their leadership ability were rated more highly by their direct
reports than those who self-reported as effective leaders. Leaders who underrated themselves
were perceived as more willing to take steps to improve and had greater self-awareness,
expressed as a positive leadership trait by their direct reports. Van Velsor et al. (1993) study
found that the opposite was also true: the managers who considered themselves highly effective
leaders were underrated in terms of leadership effectiveness by their subordinates. The findings
suggest that managers may hold certain beliefs about their competencies, but those beliefs may
not match the perceptions of their direct reports, which may stand in the way of them effectively
leading a team.
Holmberg and Tyrstrup (2010) proposed that it is typical that organizational stakeholders
hold expectations about management skills and leadership abilities of managers, while it is
common that the reality of behavior often differs from these expectations. In this study, 62
managers described leadership in writing based on specific situational events. When examining
the managers’ narratives from crisis-management situations, the researchers concluded that the
actual reactions of leaders were misaligned with expectations around how leaders should address
crises. One manager noted that the demands and expectations are conflicting, further confirming
that the perception and reality of leadership are not aligned.
Self-Doubt and Imposter Syndrome
Imposter syndrome, a term coined by Clance and Imes (1978), is a psychological pattern
in which an individual doubts their accomplishments and has a persistent fear of being exposed
as a fraud despite evidence of their competence and success; this can lead to feelings of

13
inadequacy, self-doubt, and anxiety, which leads new managers to undermine themselves
(Pedler, 2011) and thus negatively impact the new leader’s performance in the role.
For a newly promoted manager, imposter syndrome can be particularly challenging. In
Hay’s (2014) study on the identity work of 35 Master of Business Administration (MBA) alums,
new managers expressed nervousness about leading people and thoughts about not being good at
their jobs. Managers reported doubting their abilities and qualifications to lead a team and
questioning whether they deserved the promotion or whether others perceived them as
competent. Additionally, managers reported a lack of confidence, which may result in hesitation
to make decisions, reluctance to speak up or assert themselves, and difficulty delegating tasks to
their team members. As a result of their incompetent perceptions, managers reported feeling
overwhelmed, stressed, and anxious, which ultimately hindered their ability to lead effectively.
Mindset: Fixed Versus Growth
Fixed and growth mindsets are different perspectives or beliefs individuals can have
about their abilities and intelligence (Dweck, 2009). A fixed mindset is a belief that intelligence
and abilities are fixed traits that cannot be changed, and their inherent talents and abilities largely
determine an individual’s success. In contrast, a growth mindset is the belief that abilities and
intelligence can be developed and improved through dedication, effort, and continuous learning.
Data from the annual Learning and Development survey conducted by the Chartered
Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD; Crowley & Overton, 2021) indicated that
employees felt encouraged to innovate in organizations where the learning function resides
within the line of business. Creating a climate for learning supports the growth mindset and
allows employees to make mistakes without fear of being reprimanded (Garvin et al., 2021).
Garvin et al. (2021) posit that organizations can maintain a supportive learning environment

14
consisting of psychological safety, appreciation of individual differences, openness to new ideas,
and time for reflection.
Dweck’s (2009) theory of intelligence posits that managers with a fixed mindset may
avoid challenges and view failure as a sign of their lack of ability. They may focus on proving
themselves and seeking validation rather than taking risks and embracing new opportunities.
Finally, they may give up quickly when faced with difficulties, as they believe their limited
abilities cannot be improved.
Considering the perspectives of others is another aspect of developing a growth mindset.
A study exploring the relationship between leader communication style and employee job
satisfaction (Fix & Sias, 2006) found that managers who are perceived as those who consider the
perspectives of others while avoiding telling people what to do were found to influence
employee satisfaction positively. When managers approached a situation with an open mind and
a willingness to learn from others, they were likely to be receptive to new ideas and experiences.
In contrast, managers who used commands and threats demotivated individuals from operating
autonomously and were linked to decreased job satisfaction on their team.
Those who believe that leadership ability is a fixed trait may avoid focusing on
developing their managerial skills (Dweck, 2009). On the other hand, managers with a growth
mindset embrace challenges and view failure as an opportunity to learn and improve. According
to this theory, managers with a growth mindset see their abilities as malleable and believe they
can develop and improve through hard work and perseverance. They are more likely to take
risks, learn from mistakes, and seek feedback and constructive criticism to help them grow and
develop.

15
Harmful Emotions
The new managers’ emotional struggles undoubtedly reflect on the individual’s state of
mind and the ability to function optimally as a leader (Belker et al., 2012; Bolander et al., 2019;
Hay, 2014; Hogan & Kaiser, 2005; Segal, 2017). Empirical evidence suggests that first-time
managers experience unpleasant emotions, particularly in the early stages of transitioning to a
people manager.
In a meta-analysis of literature on leadership personality and organizational effectiveness,
Hogan and Kaiser (2005) pointed out that regulating one’s emotions can predict a successful
leader. The researchers suggested that intrapersonal skills such as the ability to control emotions,
showcasing patience, and tolerance of ambiguity are notable leadership qualities associated with
managerial effectiveness but also are hardest to train in an organization.
Belker et al.’s (2012) manual-style guide designed for first-time managers discusses
emotional balancing as a needed skill for a developing leader. Belker et al. (2012) suggested that
emotional intelligence is crucial for a new manager because it allows them to effectively
navigate the complex interpersonal dynamics of leading a team. Managers with strong emotional
intelligence can understand and regulate their emotions, which helps them stay calm and focused
in high-pressure situations. Conversely, a manager with low emotional intelligence may be
unable to communicate effectively, resolve conflicts, or motivate their team members to achieve
their goals.
Stress management is also suggested in Belker et al.’s (2012) guide as a technique
managers should fine-tune. Belker et al. (2012) pointed out that stress is unavoidable in the
workplace and that for the manager to help others deal with stress and chaos at work, they must
first regulate their stress levels. Belker et al. (2012) explains that an inappropriate reaction to a

16
stressful scenario may diminish the manager’s ability to successfully resolve the situation,
ultimately stating, “it’s hard to think clearly when you are uptight and nervous” (p. 216).
Hay’s (2014) research about manager identity reveals suppressed emotional struggles
resulting from the contradiction between the managers’ self-identity and their perceived social
identity. Hay (2014) highlights a multitude of self-reports of uncomfortable emotions from
managers who felt that they had to live up to a certain image of a leader, which did not feel
natural or fitting for the new managers.
Finally, Segal’s (2017) literature review emerged with a theory that the troubled
emotional state of managers plays a significant role in their development as a leader. Segal
(2017) argued that if not for the dread and ongoing conflict of early leadership, managers would
not have the opportunity to live through the turbulent experiences that force them into leader
development. Bolander et al. (2019) presents a similar argument that the process by which
managers act out of character through overwhelming emotions of struggle and uncertainty is the
learning process that makes a leader. This mentality may be a clue to understanding the
unavoidable leadership development process for those who enter the role. Holmberg and
Tyrstrup (2010) also argued that a key part of managerial development occurs when managers
are immersed in everyday activities and interact in their organizational contexts.
Practical Challenges
In addition to emotional challenges, several studies indicate that early managers report
feelings of incompetence when taking on new responsibilities associated with organizational
procedures and processes, which they have not been involved in before their promotion to
management (Bolander et al., 2019; Sillett, 2015; Smither & London, 2009; Toor, 2011). Three

17
common mentions of first-time managers’ hardships include constant interruptions, difficulty
with goal setting, and a lack of practical managerial skills.
Interruptions
Shortly after new leaders begin acting in their new role, they come to realize that the dayto-day activities of managerial work are riddled with constant interruptions arising from
unforeseen events, pivots in priorities, frequent stakeholder and subordinate inquiries, and urgent
requests from their supervisors (Bolander et al., 2019; Holmberg & Tyrstrup, 2010; Parker,
2004). Interruptions are a significant challenge for first-time leaders because they take away time
and space from strategic and planning tasks, which the manager perceives as their primary
responsibility as a leader.
The Bolander et al. (2019) study examined the managerial progression and offered
insights into the day-to-day experience of shifting from the individual contributor to adapting a
leader identity. Using early manager narratives as qualitative data, the researcher noted that
interactions with subordinates, peers, and supervisors are central to managers’ sense-making and
adoption of their new identity. Bolander et al. (2019) found that while the new managers’
perceived interruptions as something that takes them away from focusing on longer-term
priorities, the study emphasized that being interrupted by everyday events as a manager is a
healthy and normal process conducive to learning to become a leader.
Like Bolander et al. (2019), Holmberg and Tyrstrup (2010) described that the reality of
constant interruptions in a manager’s work life takes away from the strategic work of getting
team members and stakeholders’ buy-in on organizational goals. Leaders live through everyday
adjustments and the generation of temporary solutions to urgent problems. This study presented
leadership as a realm that is primarily driven by events rather than led by intentional leadership

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activities. The findings revealed that leaders move through a sequence of actions from
interruption-based confusion to interpretation and solution formulation. While the interruptions
were found to be disruptive for managers, they served as a way for the new managers to develop
leadership skills.
Parker’s (2004) study honed on managerial interruptions in the context of managers not
having enough time to learn about management because they are expected to jump into their role
of a leader instantly. This leadership reflection drew attention to the notion that the manager’s
time and attention are often demanded for problem-solving. The expectation is that the manager
has answers to problems, and problem-solving becomes their daily routine after entering the
leadership role.
Goal Setting Process
Much research has been conducted on the importance of goal setting in organizations and
that goal commitment and attainment translate into business outcomes (Locke & Latham, 2019;
Porter & Latham, 2013; Smither & London, 2009). As all leaders, first-time managers are
expected to play a role in goal setting and the evaluation of their team’s goal attainment. Failure
to focus on practices related to goals and goal setting is a missed opportunity to improve
organizational performance and reach business outcomes (Shinkle et al., 2019).
Setting clear goals and objectives for employees is a critical aspect of leadership. Locke
and Lathan (2019) summarized a significant amount of prior literature that provides evidence of
the benefits of setting and seeing through challenging, specific employee goals. However, the
goal-setting process can be bottlenecked with first-time leaders, especially when they lack
experience and knowledge related to the goal-setting process. Leaders are perceived as those
who set goals, formulate strategies, and provide a vision. Still, in reality, new leaders experience

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fragmented reactions and make short-sighted decisions (Holmberg & Tyrstrup, 2010), thus
creating misalignment between organizational goals and the individual goals of their team
members.
Lack of Practical Skills and Incompetence
First-line managers are often chosen based on their functional talent rather than
leadership skills (Hogan et al., 1994); this presents a problem because most new leaders do not
perceive leadership as a skill when entering the position. Zhao et al.’s (2016) study of project
managers suggested that leadership competencies are critical to the success of projects, and yet
promotions are not screened based on the candidates’ leadership skills. A large body of literature
designed to guide leaders through their development, such as Belker et al.’s (2012) guide to firsttime management, presented leadership as a recognized skill to be studied by new managers.
However, many organizations do not have internal learning and development departments. Of
those that do, many do not require newly promoted managers to take specific learning actions
once in the new role.
Hogan et al. (1994) suggested that leadership success can be forecasted using assessment
instruments that evaluate cognitive abilities, personality, and other attributes. The authors
suggested that leadership effectiveness can be increased by increasing the focus on the leader
selection process. While this method may improve organizational outcomes if the selection
process is focused on screening for leadership competencies, the approach could backfire since
inexperienced leaders without a formal leadership education would likely not be selected for
leadership roles due to their lack of prior experience in a managerial role.

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Leadership Success and Failure
Good leadership promotes effective performance (Hogan & Kaiser, 2005), especially
when leaders can project a vision to their team members and stakeholders by explaining the
initiatives’ significance, purpose, and meaning. Hogan and Kaiser’s (2005) literature review
posited leadership as a consequential phenomenon that significantly impacts organizations.
Hogan and Kaiser (2005) discussed ways bad leadership can result in performance degradation
and decrease employees’ quality of life. Evidence showed that 65% to 75% of employees
attribute job dissatisfaction to managerial incompetence (Hogan & Kaiser, 2005).
Alper et al. (2000) linked organizational conflict management with team performance and
emphasized that leaders who promote cooperative rather than competitive approaches to conflict
resolution achieved a greater supervisory effectiveness rating. The evidence served as an
example that the failure of a leader to leverage their team to drive organizational performance
may stem from the leaders’ inability to cultivate collaboration on their team. Leaders are at the
heart of team efficacy and organizational performance, and first-time leader competence was
found an important predictor of organizational outcomes (Shinkle et al., 2019). Establishing a
shared team vision that aligns with organizational goals reduces leadership failure and ensures
long-term success as a leader.
Alignment with Organizational Goals
While management skills allow the new manager to plan and direct organizational
resources, leadership skills equip the manager to align, motivate, and inspire people to commit to
organizational objectives and reach goals (Holmberg & Tyrstrup, 2010; Wajdi, 2017). The
distinction between management and leadership is frequently mentioned in leadership literature,

21
particularly emphasizing organizational goal alignment amongst levels of management and
employees.
Porter and Latham (2013) studied the relationship between goal commitment and
departmental performance and found the link to be positive and significantly related.
Interestingly, a distinction was made between employees’ learning goals and performance goals.
While the relationship with team performance was found in both types of goals, it was stronger
for learning goals, which were defined as a goal to focus attention on acquiring new knowledge
for performing a task. This paper suggested that leaders should understand how to motivate their
team members to commit to assigned goals.
A similar distinction between motivating to do your best to accomplish goals versus
encouraging the pursuit of challenging goals as an indicator of higher performance was noted in
Smither and London’s (2009) literature. Smither and London (2009) validated the link between
goal attainment and organizational performance, emphasizing that dedicating time to cascading
organizational goals and relating them to individual team member goal setting is in the
organization’s and employee’s best interest and is an important area of focus for the first-time
leader.
A study was conducted to investigate the role of perceptions of goal legitimacy in
organizational goal attainment to take the goal-setting theory further (Shinkle et al., 2019). The
study concluded that higher organizational performance was associated with the amount of
priority given to employees directly involved with the goal’s attainment. Positioning employees
at the center of goal achievement, the researchers also noted a positive link between employee
perception of goal credibility and organizational transparency relating to organizational goals.

22
Establishing a Shared Vision
Gaining a shared understanding of team vision is critical to team success (Hogan &
Kaiser, 2005; Tosey et al., 2015). A collective understanding of vision fosters team member
performance because the way forward becomes clear to team members.
Senge (1990) argued that “new leadership roles require new leadership skills” (p. 7) and
that building a shared vision is a critical skill that can predict organizational outcomes. The
leadership steps to gaining a shared team vision include encouraging personal vision,
communicating and asking for support, approaching visioning as an ongoing process, and
distinguishing positive from negative vision (Senge, 1990).
While analyzing leadership’s impact on organizational commitment and job satisfaction
in educational settings, researchers found that leader commitment to goals influences team
member commitment (Nguni et al., 2006). Organizational commitment, as measured by the
acceptance of organizational goals and values, was found to correlate to the willingness to exert
effort on behalf of the organization. This study noted that a transformational leadership approach
that cultivates establishing and reiterating shared visions with employees has implications for
organizational commitment and employee retention.
Prior literature reviewed above explains and validates an extensive list of challenges
associated with first-time leadership transitions. The next section introduces a conceptual lens
through which additional literature on specific leadership skills, behaviors, and organizational
support systems was explored. The topics explored in the following sections informed the study
design and methodology formulation.

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Gap Analysis Conceptual Framework
Clark and Estes (2008) developed a framework to improve organizational performance
by analyzing gaps in knowledge, skills, motivations, and organizational support concerning
goals. The framework emphasizes the alignment of individual performance goals with broader
organizational goals. This study leveraged the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework to
examine first-time leadership gaps between current and desired organizational performance
levels and develop strategies for closing those gaps. The framework was applied to the three key
factors influencing employee performance: knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
(KMO). As visualized in Figure 1, the framework emphasizes recognizing and examining the
distinct components in each of the three factors contributing to performance.

24
Figure 1
Gap Analysis Conceptual Framework for the Study
Note. Adapted from Turning research into results: A guide to selecting the right
performance solutions, by R. E. Clark and F. Estes, 2008, Information Age Publishing, Inc.
Copyright 2008.
The first influencing component, knowledge, refers to the skills and knowledge necessary
for newly promoted managers to perform their jobs effectively. Organizations can conduct
assessments or evaluations of the managers’ knowledge and skills to identify knowledge gaps
and compare this to the desired level of knowledge and skills (Clark & Estes, 2008). From the
knowledge factor of the framework, managers being promoted from individual contributors may
have insufficient competency in factual, conceptual, procedural, or metacognitive knowledge
required to lead teams as part of their new role.
The second component, motivation, refers to the intrinsic and extrinsic factors that drive
manager behavior and performance. To identify motivational gaps, organizations can assess

25
managers’ engagement levels, satisfaction with work tasks and responsibilities, and alignment
with organizational goals and values (Clark & Estes, 2008). New managers may lack businessaligned goal orientation and the self-efficacy to perform expected leadership functions in their
new role.
Organizational influence is the third component and refers to the organizational
structures, policies, and culture that impact new managers’ ability to perform and thrive in their
new roles. To identify organizational influence gaps, organizations can assess leadership
development resources provided by the organization, policies and procedures, communication
channels, and organizational culture (Clark & Estes, 2008). First-time managers may not receive
formal manager training and may lack scaffolding support from their direct supervisor.
Overall, the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis conceptual framework serves as a needs
assessment for the innovation of learning programs for first-time managers. By identifying and
addressing gaps in leadership skills, behaviors, and support systems, organizations can improve
the performance of growing leaders and achieve desired outcomes.
The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis is an appropriate theoretical framework to aid in
the discovery of the most desired skills, attitudes, and organizational support systems at the
entry-level manager stage. For-profit corporations depend on revenue generation to survive,
which requires performant leaders to drive teams toward accomplishing business goals. Business
goal alignment across the organization is integral to a business’ success. Organizational leaders
are responsible for cascading goals down from top leadership through the layers of the
organization and, ultimately, to individual contributors. Business goal identification,
benchmarking, and gap analysis are at the core of the Clark and Estes (2008) theoretical
framework. By leveraging the expert knowledge of experienced leaders, the framework was used

26
to identify opportunities for developing first-time managers’ skills and behaviors related to
effective team leadership and organizational goal achievement.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
As part of research design, it was essential to consider the desired levels of managers’
knowledge about leadership, their motivation to succeed in the new role, and organizational
influences that support or hinder their performance as leaders to conduct a gap analysis (Clark &
Estes, 2008). The subsequent sections summarize the KMO factors and their influence on
developing a well-rounded leader.
Knowledge Influences
Krathwohl’s (2002) type of knowledge, also known as the knowledge dimension, is a
framework that describes different types of knowledge that learners can acquire. The framework
was developed by Krathwohl (2002) as a revision of Bloom’s taxonomy (1956).
The knowledge dimension categorizes knowledge into four types, consisting of factual,
conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge, which are hierarchical and build on one
another. The four types of knowledge are interrelated, and learners must acquire all of them to
become proficient in a subject or skill. Krathwohl’s (2002) knowledge dimension was used to
evaluate and analyze first-time managers’ knowledge. The following sections consolidate
insights from existing literature regarding essential leadership skills and knowledge required for
effective leadership practices.
Factual Knowledge
Factual knowledge is the foundational knowledge that learners acquire, such as basic
concepts, terms, and facts (Krathwohl, 2002). Factual knowledge is essential for understanding
more complex ideas and building expertise in a particular area. As part of leadership

27
development and transition from the individual contributor role, factual knowledge about
leadership is crucial for first-time managers to acclimate to their new role. The study explored
the perceived importance of factual knowledge necessary for early managers to be successful.
Leadership Styles. Understanding and exploring various leadership styles plays a role in
developing leadership and management abilities (Breevaart et al., 2014; Heres & Lasthuizen,
2012; Zhao et al., 2016). A new leader must understand the possibilities and identify leadership
styles that resonate with the type of leader they would like to become. Understanding the various
leadership styles is one of the key factual knowledge elements that equip leaders to make
conceptual associations with their own leadership identity.
Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion. Learning the importance of practicing diversity,
equity, and inclusion within a team setting is another topic for leader development. Awareness of
issues associated with lack of inclusion in the workplace, knowing ways to recognize and
address issues of injustice, and creating ceremonies that cultivate feelings of belonging and
inclusive environments are keys to promoting team members’ self-esteem and their willingness
to exceed performance expectations (Cottrill et al., 2014; Kuknor & Bhattacharya, 2021).
Conceptual Knowledge
Conceptual knowledge involves understanding the relationships between different pieces
of information, such as categories, principles, and theories (Krathwohl, 2002). Conceptual
knowledge allows leaders to organize information into meaningful frameworks and to make
connections between different ideas. The importance of various conceptual knowledge elements
listed in this section was examined using survey response data as part of the study. The following
conceptual topics have been identified as most critical for leadership development, as evidenced
by prior research and literature findings.

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Management Versus Leadership. Leadership topics have been extensively studied over
the past decades, revealing complexities and nuances that vary by organizational context. One
topic that often appears in the literature is how leadership and management differ or are similar
(Dinibutun, 2020; Ishimaru & Galloway, 2014; Toor, 2011; Wajdi, 2017). Leadership involves
inspiring and motivating a group toward a common goal, while management involves planning,
organizing, and controlling resources to achieve specific objectives. Leadership focuses on
people and vision, while management focuses on processes and tasks. A leader needs to know
the conceptual differences and overlaps between management and leadership to achieve longterm goals.
Organizational Culture. Organizational culture is another leadership concept frequently
mentioned in leadership literature as a construct necessary for leaders to understand (Tohidi &
Jabbari, 2012; Warrick, 2017). It is important because it affects how employees behave, interact,
and make organizational decisions. By understanding and shaping the culture, leaders can
promote a positive work environment, improve productivity, increase job satisfaction, and
achieve strategic goals.
Employee Motivation and Engagement. Leaders directly influence employee
engagement (Decuypere & Schaufeli, 2020; Gemeda & Lee, 2020; Shuck & Herd, 2012), a
critical topic for new leaders to grasp as they enter the people management role. Decuypere and
Schaufeli’s (2020) study suggested that employee engagement is influenced by leader role
modeling, expression of social relationships between leader and employee, and emotional
synchronization of behavior. Furthermore, Decuypere and Schaufeli (2020) argued that job
characteristics and psychological need satisfaction, defined as a motivational influence, create a
relationship between positively perceived leadership styles and employee engagement. Another

29
study showed that leaders who exhibit qualities perceived by employees as transformational for
the organization can encourage employees to exceed expectations related to creative behavior
(Gemeda & Lee, 2020). Shuck and Herd (2012) presented a conceptual relationship between
leadership behavior and the development of employee engagement, thus concluding that leader
behavior is an influencing factor in employee motivation and workplace engagement.
Procedural Knowledge
One of the necessary skill sets for new managers is learning the various protocols and
procedures associated with the new role. Procedural knowledge involves performing how to do
something (Krathwohl, 2002). This type of knowledge is broken down into three categories for
the manager. First, the manager must gain the subject-specific skills needed to perform new
procedures. Second, the manager must be able to use subject-specific techniques and methods
related to the managerial procedures. Finally, the manager must understand how to use criteria
for determining when it is appropriate to follow the managerial procedures. The procedures at
for-profit organizations typically include annual goal setting, employee performance evaluation,
budgeting, decision-making, delegation, problem identification and resolution, crisis
management, and change management.
Goal Setting Process. The goal-setting process is particularly important for performant
leadership since individual goals shape team outcomes, and employees look to their leaders for
direction regarding goal setting. In addition to establishing team direction and setting
expectations, the goal-setting process is a key indicator of effective leadership because
challenging goals result in improved performance (Locke & Latham, 2019; Porter & Latham,
2013; Smither & London, 2009).

30
Employee Performance Evaluation Process. The employee performance evaluation
process provides a structured framework for assessing individual performance, providing
feedback, identifying strengths and areas for improvement, aligning goals, promoting employee
development, and making informed decisions related to compensation, promotions, and career
progression (Smither & London, 2009; Tafvelin et al., 2019). Given that the leader is positioned
to evaluate and manage performance, this procedure is critical to learn as a first-time manager.
Budgeting. Budgeting is yet another important procedural skill since it equips leaders to
allocate resources effectively, exercise financial control, and manage financial risks (Pardey,
2007). Furthermore, standard budgeting procedures are important for aligning budgets with
strategic objectives, making informed decisions, evaluating organizational performance,
promoting employee accountability and transparency, and ensuring the organization’s financial
stability and sustainability (Wheelan, 2010).
Decision Making. Decision-making is critical in leadership because it determines the
course of action, shapes outcomes, and impacts the organization’s success. Leaders must weigh
alternatives, assess risks, and make informed choices to guide their teams and achieve goals. In a
qualitative study that explored factors that influence the decision-making process within
organizations, the participants agreed that “leadership decision-making is one of the most
dynamic, challenging, and ongoing concepts in every organization” (Ejimabo, 2015, p. 11).
Hallo et al. (2020) found that the human aspect of decision-making can be the most challenging.
The study noted that leaders often consult with friends and family for decision validation,
especially when complex or ill-defined problems arise with no clear problem definition or end
goal.

31
Delegation and Empowerment. Research found a direct link between leadership
empowerment behavior and employee attitudes and behavioral intentions in the workplace (Choi
et al., 2016; Dewettinck & van Ameijde, 2011). Delegation and empowerment are important
skills to gain, especially in early-stage leadership, because delegating tasks promotes efficiency,
allows for fair workload distribution, develops team members’ skills, fosters a sense of
ownership and accountability, and frees up leaders to focus on strategic tasks, ultimately leading
to job satisfaction, higher productivity, engagement, and growth within the organization.
Problem Identification and Solving. Problem identification and decisive problemsolving are critical leadership processes. They enable leaders to proactively address challenges,
seize opportunities, and drive continuous improvement, resulting in increased efficiency,
innovation, and overall organizational success (Kerns, 2016; Nickerson et al., 2012). Research
affirmed that the capacity of leaders to identify problems to solve, opportunities to pursue, and
challenges to address is of utmost importance for the success of organizations.
Crisis Management. Crisis management or emergency response skills are also crucial
for leaders as they enable them to mitigate risks, ensure the safety and well-being of individuals,
maintain operational continuity, and minimize the negative impact of crises on the organization
(Bowers et al., 2017; Kuknor & Bhattacharya, 2021). During an unforeseen disruption of a crisis,
such as a pandemic, employees benefit from leadership commitment to fostering an inclusive
work environment (Kuknor & Bhattacharya, 2021). Some organizational crisis events are more
predictable and culminate from conditions leading up to the event. Bowers et al. (2017) argued
that organizations can prepare in advance by recognizing and understanding the organization’s
current culture and selecting an appropriate leader to guide crisis management.

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Communication. Another key procedural skill for leading and managing an organization
is communication skills, which allows leaders to deliver narratives clearly and effectively to
stakeholders, peers, supervisors, and direct reports. Many papers discussed communication as a
critical element in successful leadership (de Vries et al., 2010; Men & Jiang, 2016; Nordby,
2014). Communication is often mentioned in leadership studies in the context that effective
communication is essential for building relationships with team members, delegating tasks,
providing feedback, resolving conflicts, and achieving organizational goals (de Vries et al.,
2010). New managers must establish strong communication skills to lead their teams
successfully and become effective leaders.
The Process of Cultivating Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion. Numerous research
offered evidence that cultivating a diverse workforce result in higher quality work, greater team
satisfaction, and better decision-making (Cottrill et al., 2014; Ely & Thomas, 2020), with impacts
amplified during a global crisis (Kuknor & Bhattacharya, 2021). The ceremonies associated with
embracing diversity in the workplace are yet another learned process for early managers.
Change Management. The change management process was frequently mentioned in
leadership literature and is an important procedural skill for a leader because it enables them to
navigate and facilitate transitions effectively, inspire and engage employees, mitigate resistance,
adapt to evolving circumstances, and drive successful organizational change initiatives,
ultimately fostering growth and innovation (Burnes & Jackson, 2011; Graetz & Smith, 2010)
Metacognitive Knowledge
Metacognitive knowledge involves understanding how one learns, thinks, and remembers
information. Metacognitive knowledge allows managers to monitor and regulate their learning,

33
set goals, and evaluate their progress (Krathwohl, 2002). Regular self-reflection is a way to
develop a leader’s identity over time (Bolander et al., 2019; Hay, 2014).
Leaders who use metacognition can better evaluate their thought processes, identify
biases and assumptions, and make more informed decisions (Bolander et al., 2019). By taking a
step back and reflecting on their thinking, leaders can avoid making impulsive or uninformed
decisions and instead make more thoughtful and strategic choices. By regularly analyzing
various situations, new leaders build a mind muscle to self-reflect based on situations that
occurred and inform decisions based on positive, neutral, or negative feedback and outcomes.
Metacognitive knowledge allows leaders to better understand their strengths, weaknesses,
and tendencies (Segal, 2017); this can help them identify areas where they need to improve and
develop strategies for doing so. It can also help them understand how their thought processes
might impact their interactions with others, allowing them to adjust their communication style as
needed.
Leaders who use metacognition are better equipped to analyze complex problems and
develop creative solutions. By reflecting on one’s thinking and learning processes, leaders can
identify patterns and connections that may not be immediately apparent and use this information
to develop innovative approaches to problem-solving.
Finally, by practicing metacognition leaders can better communicate their thought
processes and decisions to others (de Vries et al., 2010). By reflecting on one’s thoughts and
understanding how they arrived at a particular decision or conclusion, they can better explain
their reasoning to others clearly and concisely, helping to build trust and respect among team
members.

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The full list of leadership skills and knowledge derived from leadership development
literature is outlined in Table F1 and was referenced to formulate survey items in this study.
Motivational Influences
Motivation influences learning and performance (Schunk et al., 2008). Schunk et al.
(2008) suggested that what individuals learn influences their motivation, thus creating a cyclical
process of learning and motivation. When goals are reached, it conveys to individuals that they
are capable and motivates them to set new goals.
Clark and Estes (2008) described organizational motivation as having three elements:
active choice, persistence, and mental effort. In a leadership transition, the active choice is when
a manager’s intention is expressed through action, persistence is when a manager continues to
show effort despite distractions, and mental effort is when a manager finds new ways to source
solutions and ideas (Clark & Estes, 2008). By drawing from the motivational theory constructs,
this study leveraged concepts of Bandura’s (2000) self-efficacy theory, Eccles’ (2009)
expectancy-value theory, and Anderman and Anderman’s (2009) attribution theory to design
survey questions that sought the most important opportunities in the motivation of managers.
Self-Efficacy Theory
The self-efficacy theory was developed by psychologist Albert Bandura (2000) and is a
concept that describes an individual’s belief in their ability to achieve a particular goal or
perform a specific task successfully (Elliot et al., 2017). The construct of self-efficacy was used
to examine behaviors that expert leaders think are necessary for effective leaders within an
organization.
According to the self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 2000), individuals’ behavior, thoughts,
and emotions are influenced by their beliefs about their capabilities to perform specific tasks.

35
Individuals with high levels of self-efficacy are more likely to engage in tasks, persist in the face
of difficulties, and recover quickly from setbacks. Conversely, individuals with low levels of
self-efficacy may avoid challenging tasks, doubt their abilities, and give up quickly in the face of
difficulties.
Self-efficacy beliefs are based on four primary sources of information: mastery
experiences, vicarious experiences, social persuasion, and physiological and emotional states
(Pajares, 2009). Mastery experiences refer to an individual’s previous successes or failures in
similar tasks, which can influence their beliefs about their abilities. Vicarious experiences refer
to observations of other people’s successes or failures in similar tasks. Social persuasion refers to
feedback or encouragement from others, which can influence an individual’s self-efficacy
beliefs. Finally, physiological, and emotional states refer to an individual’s physical and
emotional reactions to a task, which can affect their self-efficacy beliefs.
The self-efficacy theory examines the behaviors experts believe are critical for leaders to
exhibit in performing leadership tasks (Bandura, 2006). Using this construct is appropriate
because self-efficacy levels can predict performance and goal achievement. Overestimating or
underestimating efficacy can lead to issues due to its critical influence on motivation (Usher &
Schunk, 2019), which is why examining managers’ self-efficacy can serve as an indicator to
predict the likelihood of the manager to succeed in a role as a first-time supervisor.
Expectancy Value Motivational Theory
Expectancy value theory (Eccles, 2009) is a psychological construct explaining how
individuals make decisions and choices based on their beliefs and attitudes toward the outcomes
they expect. This theory suggests that individuals consider two main factors when making
decisions: their expectation of success and their value on the outcomes of the decision.

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The expectancy component of the theory refers to an individual’s belief about their
ability to achieve a particular outcome (Eccles, 2009). This belief is based on their previous
experiences, knowledge, and skills. For example, suppose a manager believes they are good at
problem-solving and have effectively solved problems in prior circumstances. In that case, they
will likely have a high expectancy of success in solving problems as a leader.
The value component of expectancy-value theory is also a factor in decision-making and
motivation (Eccles, 2009). It refers to an individual’s evaluation of the importance or worth of a
particular outcome or goal. This evaluation is based on personal beliefs, attitudes, and goals. For
example, suppose a manager holds value in translating organizational goals to their team
members to cultivate an outcome-oriented culture. In that case, this manager will make time and
effort to communicate and explain organizational goals to their team members, thus seeking
alignment with members of their team.
According to Eccles (2009), different values can influence an individual’s motivation and
decision-making. The first type is intrinsic value, which refers to an individual’s inherent
enjoyment, interest, or satisfaction from an activity or goal. For example, someone who
experiences feelings of personal fulfillment when successfully reaching a business outcome may
find the process of goal setting intrinsically rewarding, regardless of whether they receive
external recognition or rewards. The second type of value is extrinsic, which refers to the
external rewards or benefits an individual receives from achieving a particular outcome or goal.
Examples of extrinsic rewards include money, praise, or recognition. The third type of value is
attainment value, which refers to the usefulness or practicality of an activity or goal in achieving
or fulfilling other needs. For example, a manager may value learning a new skill because it could
help them advance in their career or improve their overall quality of life.

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The value component of expectancy-value theory suggests that individuals will be most
motivated to pursue a particular task or goal when they perceive the outcome as valuable in one
or more ways (Eccles, 2009). When individuals perceive that an outcome has high intrinsic,
extrinsic, or attainment value, they are more likely to be motivated to pursue it. According to
Eccles’ (2009) expectancy-value theory, individuals will be most motivated to pursue a
particular task or goal when they have a high expectancy of success and a high value placed on
the outcome. Conversely, if the expectancy or the value is low, the individual will be less
motivated to pursue the task or goal. This theory has been applied in various contexts, including
education, health, and career development. In the study context, the theory was leveraged to
develop survey questions that measure the managers’ perceived value expectations about
translating organizational goals and establishing a shared vision amongst team members.
Attribution Theory
Anderman and Anderman’s attribution theory (2009) is a social psychological theory that
attempts to explain how individuals judge the causes of behavior. For example, suppose a
manager leads a team to outperform a goal target. In that case, they will intuitively attribute the
success to a specific cause, such as their ability, effort, or external factors. Similarly, suppose the
manager fails to reach a specific outcome. In that case, they will inherently rationalize by
attributing failure to lack of ability, lack of effort, or some other factor that is perceived to be out
of their control.
The attribution theory (Anderman & Anderman, 2009) was developed using a model of
attributions designed by Bernard Wiener of the University of California at Los Angeles, which
was particularly useful for educational researchers in school settings. The theory suggests that
attributions perceived by individuals can be leveraged to predict their behavior. The attribution

38
theory also suggests that people may adjust their attributions based on additional information
they receive about the situation. For example, if someone is consistently late to meetings, others
may initially assume this is due to the individual’s lack of punctuality. Still, if new information is
provided that the person has a long commute and encounters traffic on their way to work,
attribution beliefs will be adjusted accordingly.
Anderman and Anderman’s (2009) theory highlights the complex nature of how
individuals make judgments about behavior and emphasizes the importance of considering both
dispositional and situational factors in these attributions. This theory was applied as part of the
survey instrument design to formulate questions about leaders’ attribution beliefs.
As detailed in Table F2, the motivational theories of self-efficacy, expectancy-value, and
attribution were incorporated into the study design. The constructs guided the articulation of
desired leadership behaviors expected in an organizational setting.
Organizational Influences
The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis conceptual framework was used to identify
desired organizational settings influencing successful first-time leader transitions. Organizational
barriers are an important element that impacts managers’ ability to succeed as a leader, which
was examined in the study.
New managers are vulnerable during the transitional period. They are hungry for
knowledge that will help them shape their new managerial identity (Sillett, 2015), but multiple
organizational barriers can negatively impact their performance during this stage. These include
high workload and time pressure expectations, lack of clarity about their new responsibilities in
the role, and little or no formal training on managing other people (CIPD, 2015).

39
Organizational influence refers to an organization’s ability to effectively influence its
internal and external environment (Clark & Estes, 2008), including the outcomes generated by
incoming leaders. In the context of the study, organizational influences were analyzed through
the lens of resources that are made available for new leaders, organizational policies and
procedures related to leadership development, and the overall cultural setting and models
surrounding first-time leaders.
Leadership Development Resources
Tosey et al. (2015) conducted a study to review the educational model of an innovative
leadership learning program in Finland. New leaders were immersed in a micro replica of an
organizational environment with a team, employees, a budget, and a real mission. As part of this
innovative program, aspiring leaders who participated were allowed to apply management skills
in an environment that resembled a real workplace, thus positioning such learning as immersive.
The study concluded that the immersive learning environment is a highly successful framework
for leadership training. Ninety-one percent of trainees were employed in management positions
within 6 months of graduating from the training program.
Unfortunately, this type of learning environment is hard to come by within today’s
organizations. The pandemic in 2020 has significantly reduced funding for formal learning and
development at companies, with around a third of organizations reporting reduced budgets, use
of external consultants, and decreased staffing headcount in Learning and Development (L&D)
functions (Crowley & Overton, 2021). Many corporations do not have a dedicated in-house L&D
department, and in many cases, organizations do not engage with outside leadership training
programs. The smaller the company, the fewer chances that formal training will be offered to
newly promoted managers.

40
The data from an annual L&D research by the CIPD (2021) indicates that organizations
that value and adopt a more sophisticated approach to learning using innovative technology
generate increased interest in learning and are more likely to foster a supporting learning
environment for employees. However, generalized training is sometimes not as meaningful or
impactful to companies. Leaders report that training strategies aligned with business priorities
and within the business lines generate the most value for their organizations.
Policies and Procedures
Leaders at organizations report that the lack of clarity about management policies is one
of the performance barriers for first-time leaders (CIPD, 2015). Additionally, formal managerial
procedures and expectations to follow them immediately after becoming a manager may directly
impede first-time managers’ ability to learn due to increased workload, time pressures, and lack
of initial leadership experience (Holmberg & Tyrstrup, 2010; Parker, 2004; Sillett, 2015).
Formal leadership education is often not required for a people management role. Sillet
(2015) reveals that “no or little targeted training on managing other people” (p. 47) is provided
during the first promotion. Once a new leader is promoted, few organizations require mandatory
training, and training opportunities are often communicated as recommendations and not as
requirements for leadership positions (Sillet, 2015). The new leader’s supervision may suggest
informal training but is typically not mandated, leaving the new leader to decide on their own
whether training is necessary.
Organizational policies and procedures directly influence the first-time managers’ ability
to perform (Clark & Estes, 2008). With expertise from experienced leaders, the study sought to
understand the policies and procedures most conducive to supporting new leaders during their
development process.

41
Cultural Setting
In a 2014 study of over 1,800 UK managers, nearly half of managers characterized the
culture within their organization as challenging and unsupportive (Lucy et al., 2014). Managers
explained this phenomenon for reasons such as an imbalance between resources and demands,
lack of support from senior leadership, and work pressure from uncontextualized cascading work
priorities.
Organizational culture is essential for creating a learning environment within an
organization (Costanza et al., 2016; Garvin et al., 2021). It encourages open communication
continuous improvement, fosters innovation, builds trust and respect, and helps attract and retain
talented employees. A positive culture that values learning creates a supportive and productive
work environment where employees feel comfortable sharing ideas, adapting to new situations,
and engaging in development opportunities. It can also lead to innovation and the development
of new products, services, and processes that can help organizations stay competitive and
succeed over the long term.
Costanza et al. (2016) examined the connections between an adaptive organizational
culture and the longer-term survival of organizations. They found that organizations with more
adaptive cultures are more likely to survive. The researchers defined an adaptive culture using
three elements. First, the organization must acknowledge and anticipate change by paying
attention to customers and macro environments that impact the business. Second, the
organizational culture must be open to accepting and actively planning for change. Finally, the
organization must be willing to take risks. The broader organizational culture influences
everyone within the organization, and a lack of wide adaptive beliefs can impact the ability of
managers to develop into high-performing leaders effectively.

42
Adaptive organizations are learning organizations, or those where continuous learning is
engrained in organizational culture (Costanza et al., 2016; Garvin et al., 2021; Senge, 1990).
Senge (1990) noted that a third of Fortune 500 companies disappeared within the first thirteen
years of operation and argued that learning organizations are the only ones with a competitive
advantage that can survive the reality of a changing environment. Senge (1990) classified a
problem of leaders as heroes, describing that leaders who rise in times of crisis focus on shortterm events rather than on systematic forces and collective learning. Additionally, Senge’s
(1990) paper suggested that effective leadership entails positioning the leader as a designer,
teacher, and steward. A culture where a leader acts as a designer fosters learning rather than
devising practical prescribed plans. A leader acting as a teacher means developing insightful
views of reality. Finally, the steward leadership approach described by Senge brings a sense of
personal purpose and commitment to the organizational mission.
Cultural Models
While the organizational cultural setting explicitly impacts the manager’s choices
regarding leadership development, the cultural models silently influence the new managers’
progression in their evolving careers. Cultural models are defined as internal mental structures or
schemas of the managers’ understanding of how the world works or how the world should work
(Bennardo & De Munck, 2014; Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Cultural models play an
important role in the generation of behavior based on the managers’ interpretation of what is
valued and considered ideal in an organization, what should be pursued or avoided, and what are
the assumed rules of interactions with others within the workplace environment (Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001).

43
The organizational setting, culture, policies, procedures, and the availability of leadership
development resources can significantly influence first-time leader transitions; as detailed in
Table F3, the research design aimed to inform a recommendation on how organizations can
effectively support new leaders.
Summary
The literature review in this chapter synthesized prior research on first-time manager
development while examining findings from studies that oriented around the transitory process
of becoming a manager, findings relating to the various emotional and practical challenges that
early managers face, and findings around leadership effectiveness criteria. Findings from prior
studies shaped the research design and instrumentation of this research.
Because of the direct applicability to the study, it was decided that the study would be
guided by Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analytical framework, as reviewed in this chapter. Based
on expert opinion and emerging consensus, the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences for cultivating successful early leadership transition were examined as part of the
study. The knowledge gap analysis element of the study was grounded in exploring the factual,
conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge required for performance-growing leaders.
The motivation gap analysis element of the study leveraged the self-efficacy theory (Bandura,
2000), expectancy-value theory (Eccles, 2009), and attribution theory (Anderman & Anderman,
2009) to identify the behavioral elements necessary for motivating developing leaders. Finally,
the study’s organizational influence gap analysis element focused on interrogating organizational
resources, policies, procedures, cultural settings, and cultural models that influence managers
throughout their leadership development journey.

44
Chapter Three: Methodology
The study aimed to seek what experienced leaders feel is most important for the new
managers to succeed in their leadership roles. The study was designed to serve as a foundation
for developing evidence-based training models conducive to shortening the leadership learning
curve of today’s newly promoted managers in a corporate environment. Leveraging the Clark
and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework, the study assessed needs in leadership knowledge and
skills, behaviors necessary for leadership growth, and organizational support systems.
At the beginning of this chapter, an overview of the study and the research setting is
provided. Then, the researcher’s positionality is disclosed in the context of how it may have
impacted the study. The next section describes the research methodology in more detail,
including the participants, instruments used, data collection procedures, and the data analysis
process. Finally, data validity, trustworthiness, reliability, credibility, and ethical considerations
are addressed, as well as the limitations and delimitations of the study.
Research Questions
The following research questions were explored in the research study:
1. What leadership tasks and behaviors do expert corporate leaders identify as important
for early career managers to develop into performant leaders?
2. How can organizations best support growing leaders to effectively transition from an
individual contributor role?
3. What onboarding and training recommendations can be made for first-time managers
who are promoted from functional individual contributors?

45
Overview of Design
The researcher took a pragmatic approach to examine the specific organizational problem
and aimed to utilize any available research methods (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). To develop a
rounded understanding of the topic, a convergent mixed methods research design was used, in
which both quantitative and qualitative data were collected in parallel, analyzed separately, and
then connected. To perform the needs assessment using a systematic analytical approach guided
by Clark and Estes’ (2008) analytical framework, the researcher conducted online surveys to
collect quantitative and qualitative data. The mixed-methods study adapted instrumentation using
the Delphi survey technique to build a consensus among expert leaders (Dalkey & Helmer,
1962). Using the Delphi approach, survey respondents were asked to answer closed-ended
questions and optionally provide qualitative answers to open-ended questions. The participants
were recruited through the researcher’s professional colleagues and acquaintances network. The
researcher recruited an expert leadership panel by reaching out to potential participants with at
least one year of managerial experience in a people management role at a for-profit multi-level
organization.
Research Setting
The study was announced, distributed, and conducted online using a Qualtrics survey
instrument. This convenient administration method allowed for timely and standard data
collection (Robinson & Leonard, 2019). The data were gathered in a digital format conducive to
quantitative analysis. Participants were able to take the survey in a setting of their choice and fill
out the questions at their preferred pace.
While the researcher aimed to collect at least 30 responses from expert leaders across
various professional fields, 63 responses were collected. The target participant population was

46
employed at for-profit organizations with at least three levels in the chain of command. The
reason for targeting such organizations was that the researcher aimed to assess leadership
training needs within complex organizations where goals must be cascaded through the chain of
command.
The researcher expected the data to vary as each expert panelist reached their current
position through various personal experiences. Each participant may have held different opinions
regarding the importance of specific knowledge, skills, and expected behaviors in leadership
roles. Leader opinions about organizational support systems, culture, and models were also
expected to vary among individuals. Additionally, the researcher expected new leader training
and development recommendations to vary based on each participant’s individual experiences as
a leader.
The Researcher
I spent thirteen years leading teams in multiple for-profit organizational settings. While I
deliberately sought out leadership development opportunities throughout my career, my
professional development had been primarily shaped by observing other leaders, trial and error,
and limited coaching from my superiors and external experts. It was not until eleven years into
my management career that I pursued formal leadership education.
My positionality stems from the intersection of identities, structures, and lived
experiences that allow for a personal interrogation of motivations, world views, values, and
beliefs (Secules et al., 2021). Given my current role as a tenured team leader in the private
sector, I reflect on when I was first promoted to manage a team. As a Ukrainian Jewish
immigrant female employed in a technology-related occupation and with English as my second
language, I struggled to transition from being an individual contributor to a leader. My

47
professional journey made me hypothesize that new leaders may arrive unprepared and
unequipped to lead direct reports and successfully drive organizational agendas. Simultaneously,
I recognize that I may lack other perspectives on the topic. As I dove deeper into the research
space, I was committed to holding space for internal contradictions and conceptual duality that
shape my positionality in examining leadership.
As part of this study, I sought out and interacted with professionals in leadership
positions at multi-level for-profit organizations and recruited them as participants. Given my
positionality, I held awareness to avoid making assumptions about the study hypothesis as I
communicated with participants. Additionally, I held the same awareness in designing survey
descriptions, prompts, and item responses to retain a neutral position on the topic and avoid
respondent bias as it pertains to selecting survey responses during administration.
Survey Method, Data Source, and Measurement
The mixed-methods study leveraged a survey instrument and purposeful sampling to
recruit participants who were readily available and accessible to the researcher (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The exploratory research aimed to understand the gaps in new managers’
knowledge, skills, behaviors, and organizational support systems by studying their experiences in
for-profit corporate organizations.
The Delphi survey technique was adapted for the study. The approach was originally
developed to build expert consensus for estimating bombing requirements in 1951 as part of the
research sponsored by the United States Air Force (Dalkey & Helmer, 1962) and later published
as a general research approach. Originally developed to collect qualitative data in person, the
approach was later modified and adapted in nursing and other industries to assist decisionmaking when disagreement emerged (Hasson et al., 2000; Keeney et al., 2006; Sajesh, 2018). A

48
modified Delphi survey technique was used to collect quantitative and qualitative data. The tasks
and behaviors described in the survey items were formulated based on a prior literature review,
informed by evidence from studies focused on identifying key factors that influence leader
performance in required skills, behaviors, and organizational factors. In Round 1 of the survey,
participants were presented with the items and asked to rate the importance of each item. Each of
the main three sections of the survey included an open-ended question allowing the respondents
to add their opinions, feelings, and leadership experiences using their own words (Robinson &
Leonard, 2019) to inform the next survey round. In the second round of the survey, the same
participants were presented with a modified list of items that included items developed during
Round 1 analysis. Figure 2 illustrates the research process leveraged for this study. First,
information from prior studies (as reviewed in Chapter 2) was organized into KMO categories
and synthesized into the initial formulation of leadership factors that appeared on the survey
instrument. Then, Round 1 survey was deployed using the modified Delphi structure for data
collection. Next, qualitative data from Round 1 was analyzed and fused into the second-round
survey instrument, which was then deployed. Finally, when both rounds of data collection were
completed, the final analysis was conducted to inform recommendations for designing the firsttime leader playbook.

49
Figure 2
Delphi Study Structure for Survey Formulation, Data Collection, and Analysis
Participants
The target population consisted of experienced leaders who possessed a minimum of one
year of managerial experience and were employed in a for-profit company with a hierarchical
structure comprising three or more levels of command. Organizations structured with multiple
chains of command require management to relay organizational goals and desired outcomes to
employees underneath them. Active people managers employed in leadership positions during
survey participation were considered appropriate stakeholders because they experienced the
transition from individual contributor to manager at some point in their careers. The stakeholders
were positioned to hold insight regarding their knowledge and motivations as leaders having

50
served in a managerial role. Additionally, it was assumed that the stakeholders held an
understanding of organizational influences and support systems accessible within their
workplace, which positioned them to be able to reflect on this information during the study. The
study assumed that having some leadership experience and self-selecting to participate on the
expert leader panel positioned participants as experts in leadership.
Participants were recruited in and outside the researcher’s acquaintances network through
word of mouth, email outreach, LinkedIn, and social media outreach. To intentionally diversify
the participant pool, the researcher reached out to colleagues employed in different industries,
employed across varied leadership roles within their organizations, and located in a variety of
different US locations. The researcher pursued purposeful and convenient sampling to find at
least 30 potential participants.
Purposeful sampling is used to select participants that meet certain criteria or
characteristics relevant to the research questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). It is a non-random
sampling method that allows the researcher to select and recruit participants based on their
knowledge, experiences, perspectives, or other relevant factors. Purposeful sampling allowed the
researcher to focus on a specific population of interest and obtain relevant and meaningful data
for answering the research questions.
Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling method used in academic research,
where participants are selected based on their easy accessibility and willingness to participate
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The researcher selected the most convenient and available
participants to participate in the study. She also asked participants and non-participants to recruit
additional participants through their leader networks, thus creating a snowball effect to find more
expert leaders eligible to participate in the survey panel. It is important to note that the researcher

51
anticipated that the sample may not represent the full leadership population and may not reflect
the diversity or variation present in the population. The researcher was aware of the possibility of
selection bias and the inability to generalize the findings to the wider population. Given the short
timeframe required for completing the dissertation study, convenience sampling allowed the
researcher to collect data quickly and easily.
Instrumentation
The study leveraged the Delphi survey technique (Dalkey & Helmer, 1962) and featured
two rounds of data collection using the same respondent population. For the first round of data
collection, the Qualtrics online survey consisted of four parts and 19 questions and was estimated
to take under 20 minutes to complete, on average. See Appendix A to review the full survey
instrument.
The first part of the Round 1 survey provided a statement of consent to set expectations
on how the data would be used and featured one screening question to validate the desired
audience of expert leader participants. If the respondents did not qualify to participate, they were
taken out of the survey and served a thank you message. The second part of the survey asked ten
background questions to collect information about participants’ demographics, work experience,
and educational background. The third section was the main section, featuring three Delphi-style
questions related to assessing the importance of various leadership knowledge topics, behaviors,
and organizational support systems needed for effective leadership. Each of the three Delphistyle question groups contained an optional open-ended response box that could be used for
filling in additional statements that may have been missed. The final section of the survey
featured two questions intended to capture the recommendations of expert leaders on training

52
incoming first-time managers. One of the questions in the final section was open-ended and
allowed for qualitative data collection.
For the second round of data collection, the instrument was adjusted to reflect data
collected from some of the open-ended questions asked in the first round. After Round 1, the
qualitative data were analyzed, coded, and transformed into new statements presented in Round
2 of the survey. Collecting background data was not necessary in Round 2 because the survey
was configured to retain that data from the first round; this reduced the length of the second
survey, thus reducing the average time needed to complete Round 2. The three groups of Likertstyle prompts first presented in the main section of the Round 1 survey were presented in the
Round 2 instrument, containing the same items. Additionally, panelist-added statements were
synthesized and presented for the second round of importance rankings of leadership skills,
behaviors, and organizational influences. The recommendations responses from the first round of
the survey were also translated into statements and presented for the expert panel to rank in
Round 2.
The main section of the survey instrument was guided by the Clark and Estes (2008) gap
analysis framework to assess the importance of specific leadership skills, knowledge, behaviors,
and organizational support systems. The assessment items presented to the expert panel
participants in the survey, rooted in prior research and literature, are listed, and discussed below.
Knowledge Assessment
The first survey item in the main section was intended to build consensus amongst expert
leaders on the knowledge and skills required for effective leadership. The list of leaders’ tasks
was constructed based on the literature review described in the previous chapter. Each leadership
item was then mapped to the type of knowledge needed to perform it using Krathwohl’s (2002)

53
categorization that includes factual, conceptual, procedural, or metacognitive knowledge. The list
of 18 leadership skills and knowledge served as a catalog of items in the survey instrument.
● Recognize their role as an organizational change agent whose role is to drive
organizational performance beyond solely managing tasks and workload of their team
(Dinibutun, 2020; Ishimaru & Galloway, 2014; Toor, 2011; Wajdi, 2017); Conceptual
knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002)—management versus leadership.
● Promote a positive team culture and work environment by cultivating open
communication, mutual respect, and collaboration (Tohidi & Jabbari, 2012; Warrick,
2017); Conceptual knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002)—organizational culture.
● Recognize and appreciate individual achievements, provide growth opportunities, and
encourage a sense of purpose to motivate and engage employees (Decuypere &
Schaufeli, 2020; Gemeda & Lee, 2020; Shuck & Herd, 2012); Conceptual knowledge
(Krathwohl, 2002)—employee motivation and engagement.
● Initiate a formal goal-setting process regularly, translate broader organizational goals
to the team, guide team members to articulate individual goals, monitor progress
towards goals, and provide feedback (Locke & Latham, 1990; Smither & London,
2009); Procedural knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002)—goal setting process.
● Regularly engage in conversations with direct reports about their performance and
use formal mechanisms to evaluate individual performance (Smither & London,
2009; Tafvelin et al., 2019); Procedural knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002)—employee
performance evaluation process.
● Manage an annual budgeting process, collect project feedback from the team, secure
funds needed for team initiatives, seek cost savings opportunities, and gather

54
appropriate approvals (Pardey, 2007; Wheelan, 2010); Procedural knowledge
(Krathwohl, 2002)—budgeting.
● Make informed decisions by gathering relevant information, analyzing options,
consulting with key stakeholders, and considering long-term implications (Ejimabo,
2015, p. 11); Procedural knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002)—decision-making.
● Delegate work and empower teams by clearly defining tasks, assigning them to team
members, providing necessary resources and support, establishing clear expectations,
and periodically reviewing progress (Choi et al., 2016; Dewettinck & van Ameijde,
2011); Procedural knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002)—delegation and empowerment.
● Actively listen, observe, and engage in identifying problems, analyze root causes,
develop creative solutions, and collaborate to implement effective problem-solving
strategies (Kerns, 2016; Nickerson et al., 2012); Procedural knowledge (Krathwohl,
2002)—problem identification and problem-solving.
● If a crisis occurs, swiftly identify the situation, establish clear communication
channels, coordinate resources, make informed decisions, prioritize actions, and guide
their team toward resolution (Bowers et al., 2017; Kuknor & Bhattacharya, 2021);
Procedural knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002)—crisis management.
● Exhibit effective communication skills by communicating clearly, actively listening,
and encouraging two-way feedback to ensure mutual understanding with team
members and stakeholders (de Vries et al., 2010; Men & Jiang, 2016; Nordby, 2014);
Procedural knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002)—communication skills.
● Actively promote and embrace diverse perspectives, create inclusive policies and
procedures, provide equal opportunities for growth and development, and foster a

55
culture of respect and belonging for all team members (Cottrill et al., 2014; Ely &
Thomas, 2020; Kuknor & Bhattacharya, 2021); Factual and procedural knowledge
(Krathwohl, 2002)—process of cultivating diversity, equity, and inclusion.
● Successfully manages change by communicating the need for change, involving key
stakeholders in the planning process, providing support and resources, addressing
resistance, and continuously monitoring progress (Burnes & Jackson, 2011; Graetz &
Smith, 2010); Procedural knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002)—change management.
● Practices self-reflection by regularly reflecting on their thoughts, biases, and actions,
seeking feedback from others, remaining open to different perspectives, and adjusting
their approach accordingly to promote continuous learning and personal growth
(Bolander et al., 2019; Hay, 2014; Veslor et al., 1993); Metacognitive knowledge
(Krathwohl, 2002)—reflecting on past situations.
● Analyzes options by gathering relevant data, evaluating potential outcomes,
considering the pros and cons of each option, consulting with relevant stakeholders,
and using critical thinking to make informed decisions (Hallo et al., 2020; Kerns,
2016; Nickerson et al., 2012); Metacognitive knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002)—critical
thinking.
● Learns from failure by fostering a culture of psychological safety, encouraging open
and honest discussions about mistakes, analyzing root causes, identifying lessons
learned, and implementing changes to prevent similar failures in the future (Burnes &
Jackson, 2011; Hogan & Kaiser, 2005); Metacognitive knowledge (Krathwohl,
2002)—learning from failure.

56
● Studies different leadership approaches, reflect on their values, strengths, and
preferences, seeks feedback from others, and adapts their leadership style (Breevaart
et al., 2014; Heres & Lasthuizen, 2012; Zhao et al., 2016); Factual and metacognitive
knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002)—leadership identity formation.
● Promotes a growth mindset, believes that abilities and intelligence can be developed
through dedication, effort, and continuous learning, allowing for personal and
professional growth (Dweck, 2009; Fix & Sias 2006); Metacognitive knowledge
(Krathwohl, 2002)—growth mindset.
Motivational Assessment
The second survey item in the main section was intended to build consensus amongst
expert leaders relating to the behaviors exhibited by effective leaders. The list of sought-after
leader behaviors was rooted in the theories of learning and motivation described in the previous
chapter. The list of six leadership attitudes, constructed based on prior research about leadership
and motivation, served as a catalog of attitudes that expert leaders deem important for
performant leaders:
● Demonstrates self-confidence in performing management job responsibilities (Elliot
et al., 2017); Self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 2000)—self-efficacy in managerial tasks.
● Exhibits self-confidence in leading a team to reach organizational goals (Porter &
Latham, 2013); Self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 2000)—self-efficacy in leadership
tasks.
● Attributes success and failures to their efforts (Dweck, 2009; Garvin et al., 2021);
Attributions theory (Anderman & Anderman, 2009)—does not blame failure on lack
of ability.

57
● Shows personal value in ensuring that each team member adopts team goals as their
own and commits to attaining goals (Nguni et al., 2006; Porter & Latham, 2013;
Senge, 2019); Expectancy value theory (Eccles, 2009)—attainment value in goal
commitment.
● Shows personal value in establishing a shared direction amongst team members
(Hogan & Kaiser, 2005; Tosey et al., 2015); Expectancy value theory (Eccles,
2009)—attainment value in shared vision.
● Shows personal value in deriving team goals based on broader organizational goals
and regularly communicating goals to team members (Porter & Latham, 2013);
Expectancy value theory (Eccles, 2009)—attainment value in translating and
cascading goals.
Organizational Support System Assessment
The third survey item in the main section was designed to build consensus amongst
expert leaders about how an organization can effectively support growing leaders. Effective
leadership is critical for driving organizational performance and achieving desired results.
Investing in new leader development can enhance leadership capabilities, align leaders with the
organization’s goals, and improve overall performance (Garvin et al., 2021; Senge, 1990; Sillett,
2015). Similarly to the knowledge and motivational sections, the list of four ways in which
organizations can foster an environment for leadership development was presented to expert
leaders, who were asked to indicate the level of importance of each item:
● Organizations should support leadership development by offering training programs,
mentorship opportunities, access to relevant literature and resources, and coaching

58
sessions (Crowley & Overton, 2021; Pedler, 2011; Seidle et al., 2016; Tafvelin et al.,
2019; Tosey et al., 2015)—organizational resources.
● Organizations should implement policies and procedures that guide employee
performance evaluation systems, encourage leadership development, and offer
incentives and rewards for leadership development efforts (CIPD, 2015; Seidle et al.,
2016)—organizational policies and procedures.
● Organizations should create and maintain a culture that values and promotes
continuous learning and growth for their leaders in cultural settings (Costanza et al.,
2016; Lucy et al., 2014; Senge, 1990; Tafvelin et al., 2019)—organizational cultural
setting.
● Organizations should model desired leadership behavior by clearly communicating
what is valued and considered ideal in the organization, what should be pursued or
avoided, and what the assumed rules of interactions with others within the workplace
environment (Bennardo & De Munck, 2014; Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001)—
organizational cultural models.
Data Collection Procedures
The survey was constructed and activated after the University of Southern California
Institutional Review Board’s (IRB’s) approval. Before the data collection, the researcher piloted
the survey with five colleagues to ensure that item phrasing was comprehensive, survey design
best practices were followed, and formatting was accessible. The expected time to complete the
survey was estimated at 20 minutes during the pilot.
The prospective participant pool was recruited and vetted by the researcher using email
outreach, LinkedIn direct messaging of the researcher’s connections in the platform, and other

59
personalized outreach methods. As part of outreach, potential participants were informed of the
study objective and the approximate time to complete the survey. Individuals were then invited
to participate in an expert leadership panel if they met the qualifying requirements of one or
more years of leadership experience and being employed in a multi-level organization with three
or more levels in the chain of command. Some of the participants and non-participants were
asked if they knew other leaders who would be willing to take part in this research. Once the
confirmed participant population reached 50 people, the researcher distributed the Round 1
survey by sharing a Qualtrics survey link through email or an individual chat message,
depending on the original outreach method. The first survey remained open for four weeks to
give ample time for each participant to complete it.
Data were collected using a Qualtrics survey instrument, which was administered online.
The survey was accessible on either a mobile device or a computer. The Qualtrics online survey
tool was selected because it is easy to use, offers comprehensive data analysis and reporting
features (Robinson & Leonard, 2019), and can export data for offline analysis. Online survey
administration was the most convenient and lowest-cost method of reaching the desired audience
of stakeholders (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Before the second round of data collection could be administered, the Round 1 survey
was deactivated, and the data were analyzed and leveraged to inform the Round 2 survey
instrument. After Round 1, data were analyzed and synthesized into Round 2 prompts, and the
individual Round 2 Qualtrics survey links were distributed to all participants. The two surveys
were configured to ensure linkage of responses between the two rounds; this eliminated the need
to ask demographic questions twice and allowed for focusing the second round primarily on
consensus building. Two more weeks were provided to participants to complete the second

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round. The researcher sent each participant two reminders to improve Round 2 response rates.
Finally, once enough responses were collected, the second round survey was deactivated, and the
complete analysis began.
Data Analysis
The first step for data analysis was to organize and prepare the data. Qualtrics offers a
way to export data for further analysis using spreadsheet software such as Microsoft Excel. The
responses were compiled into a clean dataset in preparation for the analysis. The Delphi study
(Dalkey & Helmer, 1962) consisted of two rounds of data collection. Once the first round of data
was received, data were de-identified while maintaining the connections between quantitative
and qualitative open-ended responses, which ensured accurate interpretation during the analysis.
Data analysis from the first round was a foundation for the next survey round.
Round 1 Analysis
As depicted in Figure 3, the initial round of data included both quantitative and
qualitative responses. Background data were in quantitative format. Data collected from
importance rankings relating to items about leadership skills and knowledge, behaviors, and
organizational influences was also quantitative and was supplemented with qualitative responses
provided by the respondents using open-ended questions. The respondent-provided
recommendations to improve first-time leadership development were also in a qualitative format.
All qualitative data from Round 1 was analyzed, coded, and transformed into quantitative items
for the second survey round. The initial survey round was a foundation for creating the next one,
consistent with the Delphi methodology (Dalkey & Helmer, 1962). Figure 3 maps the data that
resulted from Round 1 to the specific analysis to inform each of the three research questions.

61
Figure 3
Round 1 Survey Sections, Data Types, and Research Question Mapping
Round 2 Analysis
The second round of data included only quantitative items and focused primarily on
consensus building amongst the expert panelists. During the initial round, participants were
asked to contribute inputs they deemed important for effective leadership in skills, behaviors,
and organizational influences. These responses were then turned into new items and included in
the Round 2 survey alongside the original items. A similar approach was taken with qualitative
data collected from the recommendations survey section. The qualitative data collected from the
expert panel was consolidated and translated into items presented in a new question in Round 2.
The expert panel was then asked to rank the importance of recommendations from the new list.

62
Figure 4 maps the data groupings that resulted from Round 2 to the specific analysis to inform
each of the three survey questions.
Figure 4
Round 2 Survey Sections, Data Types, and Research Question Mapping

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Each of the three main survey sections and an open-ended recommendation question
yielded qualitative data to add depth to the analysis. Analysis of qualitative data collected from
open-ended panelist responses was guided by Creswell’s (2014) six-step data analysis approach:
(a) data organization, preparation, and sorting; (b) reading all qualitative data; (c) emergent
coding; (d) development of themes; (e) creation of narrative; and (f) interpretation.
The researcher calculated the mean, median, standard deviation, and coefficient of
variation of the quantitative rankings data to analyze the relative consensus levels of importance
of statements relating to effective leadership skills, behaviors, and organizational influences.
Consensus Measurement Approach
The study utilized several approaches to measure leader expert opinions on the
importance of leadership skills, behaviors, and organizational support systems that equip leaders
to be successful in their roles.
Delphi studies utilize successive survey rounds until consensus is achieved. While there
are no specific rules for measuring the achievement of an expert consensus, other researchers
have used common methods in the past. Sajesh (2018) claimed that the lack of a universally
accepted method for determining consensus was a drawback of the Delphi approach and
recommended using a combination of approaches for triangulation. Valerino-Perea et al. (2020)
used three measures to determine the level of consensus: calculate percentages of agreement,
mean values, and coefficient of variation. The coefficient of variation was calculated as the ratio
of the population standard deviation to the population mean.
For this study, a combination of measurement approaches was used for the data analysis:
measures of central tendency, level of agreement, and coefficient of variation.

64
Measures of Central Tendency
In the analysis of Delphi studies, it is common to employ measures that describe the
central tendency of the data, including mean, median, and mode, amongst other measures (von
der Gracht, 2012). The mean and the median were considered the most comprehensive measures
to analyze the levels of importance of items rated by the expert panelists. The mean represents
the average value of importance scores for each item presented on the survey. Given that the data
were derived from a rating scale of 1–100, the median represents the midpoint across responses
for each item.
Level of Agreement Regarding Importance of Items
Consensus measurement is essential to Delphi analyses and data interpretation (von der
Gracht, 2012). Determining the degree of agreement, which involves assessing the percentage of
panelists who assign a rating equal to or higher than a specified threshold, represents a widely
used approach for measuring consensus. In alignment with previous Delphi studies (Habibi et al.,
2015), this research aimed to establish a minimum consensus threshold of 75%. The researcher
deemed that a high level of agreement was reached for items where at least 75% of experts rated
the importance of each item to be 75% or more to measure the level of agreement for this study.
Figure 5 exhibits the thresholds of importance and consensus levels for this study.

65
Figure 5
Importance and Agreement Thresholds Used in This Study
Given the small dataset of responses, the researcher expected limitations in the statistical
power of the collected quantitative data as it pertained to the reliability and generalizability of
the results.
Coefficient of Variation
Some researchers noted that deciding how many consensus rounds are required for
Delphi studies and when to stop is subjective (Holey et al., 2007), while others recommended
statistical techniques (Yang, 2003). Shah and Kalaian (2009) suggested that the Coefficient of
Variation (CV) was the best approach for obtaining reliability in a Delphi study. The CV is a
statistical measure expressing the relative variability of a set of data points relative to their mean.
It is a normalized measure of dispersion and is particularly useful when comparing the variability
of datasets with different units or scales. Calculating the CV involves three steps: (a) finding the
mean of the dataset, (b) calculating the standard deviation of the dataset, and (c) dividing the
standard deviation by the mean and multiplying by 100 to obtain the percentage value. The
resulting coefficient of variation is a percentage that indicates the relative variability of the data.

66
A higher CV suggests greater relative variability, while a lower CV suggests lower relative
variability. For this analysis, the researcher used CV to compare levels of variability from Round
1 to Round 2 survey results to determine whether the levels of agreement converge in the second
round. A decreasing CV over rounds suggests increasing agreement. CVs are discussed in the
summary sections of the analysis for each research question to analyze levels of consensus
among the two rounds of sequential surveys.
Validity and Reliability
Validity and reliability are important in research as they assure the quality and accuracy
of the study’s findings (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Validity ensures that the research measures
what it intends to measure, while reliability ensures that the measurements are consistent and
dependable.
Validity in academic research refers to the extent to which a study accurately measures or
assesses what the researcher intends to measure (Salkind, 2014). Internal validity refers to the
extent to which a study accurately establishes a relationship between variables being analyzed.
External validity, on the other hand, relates to the generalizability of the research findings to the
larger population or real-world settings, assessing the extent to which the results can be applied
beyond the specific study context. To reduce threats to the external validity of the findings, the
researcher aimed to diversify the participant recruitment to the best of her ability by seeking
leader panelists across varied industries and having different professional and personal
backgrounds. A diverse participant sample can allow for some data generalizability, thus
enhancing external validity (Salkind, 2014). Additionally, to ensure that the responses accurately
reflected the measurement of constructs assumed by the study, several subject matter experts
were consulted regarding the item validity before the survey administration.

67
Reliability in academic research refers to the consistency and stability of the
measurement or instrument used to collect data, ensuring that it produces consistent results under
similar conditions (Salkind, 2014). It indicates the extent to which the measurement is free from
random error and can be trusted to provide accurate and dependable findings. To maximize the
reliability and dependability of the data, the researcher standardized survey administration and
ensured consistent procedure across all participants. Additionally, the researcher administered a
pilot survey with a small sample to identify any potential issues with survey items, response
options, or formatting; this allowed for the refinement of the survey instrument and helped
improve the reliability of measurement.
The modified Delphi technique called for multiple rounds of surveys and panelist
feedback (Dalkey & Helmer, 1962), allowing the participants to revisit their collective responses
twice and confirm their answers. This method created a feedback loop of response validation, or
member checking, in which initial questions were returned to the participants to validate their
answers and ensure the data rang true (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Additionally, the quantitative
ranking data were collected twice from the same panelists at different times, thus creating a form
of triangulation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) to strengthen the data reliability as the panel moved
toward consensus.
Trustworthiness and Credibility
Data trustworthiness and credibility were also considered since the study design
incorporated both quantitative and qualitative paradigms. The trustworthiness of this mixed
methods study was enhanced by combining both quantitative and qualitative data collected from
the same participants and focusing on related concepts (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).

68
Additionally, converting relevant qualitative data into quantifiable form further supported the
convergence of findings.
As a measure to improve the credibility of qualitative data, the researcher used peer
member checks to validate findings. During the qualitative data analysis stage, conducted after
the first round but before the second round, the researcher consulted with peers and subject
matter experts to ensure that her synthesis of qualitative responses translated well into the Round
2 survey instrument prompts. This process helped ensure that the findings matched reality and
crystalized that the data measured what was intended to be measured (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
To improve the reliability of qualitative data, the researcher strived for maximum
variation when selecting the participants. Purposefully seeking diversity in sample selection
allowed for a broader application of findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) and enhanced
transferability of findings.
Ethics
From an ethical standpoint, the researcher was responsible for being explicit to
stakeholders about the role of research and for being clear about how the study would be
conducted (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). To preserve the integrity of the study, the researcher
protected the rights of participants and strived to ensure that the research did no harm.
The findings from this study may benefit the Learning and Development departments
within for-profit organizations that rely on leaders to drive business outcomes. Leadership
training policies and procedures may be adjusted because of findings from this research. While
the changes may financially benefit the organization in the long term, change management may
introduce new overhead costs and reprioritization of current leader onboarding initiatives. The
researcher was aware that the scope of the study and its expected outcomes are influenced by the

69
underlying assumptions made about the problem of practice. Since the researcher had limited
access to study participants, she knew the potential lack of diversity in research subjects may
influence data collection and interpretation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Participants were fully
informed about the purpose of the study and how data will be used. Participation was optional,
and personally identifiable information was deleted after both survey rounds were deactivated.
The researcher plans to distribute the final report to the study participants upon completing this
dissertation.
The researcher’s worldview may have impacted the study design, survey administration,
and interpretation of research findings (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The researcher held
awareness that the issues of positionality, power, assumptions, bias, and identity can impact a
research study, and her identity can shape the assumptions and influence how data may be
interpreted. Additionally, the researcher’s position of power relative to participants may have
created imbalances in the research process, potentially leading to bias in the data collected. For
this reason, she did not recruit leaders from her workplace for this study. Furthermore, the
researcher recognized that implicit biases could influence the study’s design, interpretation, and
reporting. The researcher engaged in reflexivity to remain aware of her biases, assumptions, and
identities and proactively take measures to mitigate impact on the study.
Limitations and Delimitations
Given the study design, methodology, and sampling chosen by the researcher, several
research limitations and delimitations were anticipated, including the possibility of sampling
bias, lack of participant diversity, limited topical scope, self-selection bias, and limited statistical
power (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Pazzaglia et al., 2016).

70
Purposeful and convenient sampling may have introduced bias into the study results
(Pazzaglia et al., 2016). The researcher leveraged her professional network to recruit the expert
panel and select participants based on their accessibility or availability, which led to a nonrepresentative sample that may not have accurately reflected the larger population; this may have
limited the generalizability of the findings and undermined the external validity of the study
(Salkind, 2014).
Convenience sampling may also have led to a homogenous sample, as participants were
chosen based on who was willing to participate. The sampling methodology resulted in a
predominantly White participant panel. This lack of diversity may have limited the insights
gained from the study, as the full range of perspectives or experiences within the target expert
leader population may not have been fully captured. Consequently, the results may not apply to
broader populations or specific subgroups. Additionally, participants were self-selected to
participate in the study, introducing a self-selection bias. Individuals who volunteered to
participate may have unique characteristics or motivations that differ from those who did not,
potentially skewing the findings; this could have undermined the study’s internal validity and
raised questions about the conclusions’ accuracy.
While the researcher aimed to review a broad range of leadership literature and prior
research, additional relevant topics may have been omitted and, therefore, were not represented
in the survey instrument. This may have restricted the study’s topical scope and limited the range
of variables examined. As a result, the study’s findings may not have fully accounted for the
complexity of the research topic.
Given a small sample size, the study likely had limited statistical power (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The small sample and data set limited data analysis and finding formulation.

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Consequently, this may have limited the study’s ability to draw robust conclusions or make
meaningful inferences. Data gaps were identified as part of the analysis, thus limiting the
analytical process to a smaller data set. Some of the participants did not select some scores of
importance during the survey response process. Nine responses were considered incomplete
because 70% or more of the scores in the main section were not provided and were omitted from
the analysis.
Another possible limitation was the divergence in survey responses between the two
rounds of data collection; this indicated that some of the panelists expressed a difference of
opinion on the same question across the two rounds. In some cases, over 30 days had elapsed
between the rounds, and the prompts may have been interpreted differently during the second
round, or the participants’ opinions may have evolved, resulting in different answers across time.
Finally, it is important to note that contradictions were found in the recommendations
elements of the respondent data, which may have limited some of the findings. During the first
round of data collection, the leaders were asked to (a) indicate which leadership development
had the greatest impact on their growth as a leader and (b) provide development activity
recommendations for new leaders. During the second round of data collection, the same
participants were presented with a synthesis of leadership development activities based on their
original input. They were asked to rate the activities on a scale of importance. Surprisingly, some
of the most recommended activities in Round 1, such as mentoring and formal leadership
training, were not rated as highly as expected in Round 2 by the same participants; this can be
attributed to several limiting factors: (a) it was possible that participants recalled that they had
already provided recommendations in Round 1, and therefore, did not take the time to examine
the same recommendations presented in Round 2 thoroughly, (b) it was possible that the list of

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leadership development activities did not accurately reflect the participants’ initial inputs
because the researcher used different words during the qualitative synthesis process, (c) it was
possible that instead of rating the importance of each list item, participants rated the items in
relation to one another, thus creating a varied scale of answers across time.
Addressing the study limitations and delimitations for future research is recommended.

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Chapter Four: Results
The study sought to understand what experienced corporate leaders see as important
attributes for leaders transitioning from functional expert roles to people management roles. The
objective was to translate findings into practical recommendations for first-time leader
transitions, while minimizing the difficulties faced by early managers. The Clark and Estes
(2008) gap analysis framework guided the research design to uncover the most sought-after
leadership skills, leadership behaviors, and organizational support systems that equip successful
leaders to perform in their roles effectively.
This mixed methods study leveraged the Delphi survey technique, adapted from Dalkey
and Helmer (1962), to obtain a consensus among expert leaders through two successive rounds
of surveys. Figure 2 (in Chapter 3) illustrates that the survey content was informed by prior
literature and findings on leadership and that the survey was designed so that the qualitative data
collected from the first round informed the instrument implemented in the second round.
Data collection began with snowball sampling in September 2023, and a panel of 53
leader experts (n = 53) completed the first round of survey responses. In Round 1, panelists rated
the importance of 18 leadership skills and behaviors, six leadership attitudes about motivation,
and four organizational actions supporting leader development. The panelists had an option to
contribute additional input for each of the three categories and provide qualitative input for
recommendations for first-time leadership development. The Round 1 survey instrument appears
in Appendix A.
After Round 1 of the survey and before the second round, all qualitative responses were
coded, synthesized into quantitative prompts, and added to the second survey. Analysis of
qualitative data from the Round 1 survey is included in Appendix B. Resulting from the

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qualitative analysis and synthesis, three additional leadership skill prompts were added to the
Knowledge section of the survey, three new leadership behavior prompts were added to the
Motivation section of the survey, and six new organizational support items were added to the
corresponding section. Finally, 16 concrete new manager development recommendations were
synthesized from the qualitative responses in Round 1 of the surveys, which were then added to
the Recommendations section of the Round 2 survey. The second survey round commenced in
November 2023 and yielded 44 responses (n = 44). The Round 2 survey instrument appears in
Appendix C. At the end of data collection, both surveys had been closed, and the data were
prepared for analysis.
Participants
This study utilized a purposeful sampling technique and snowball sampling to assemble a
a panel of experienced leaders. Participants were recruited within the researcher’s network and in
various leadership communities on LinkedIn and Facebook. Some outreach resulted in snowball
sampling, and both participants and non-participants volunteered to share information about the
study within their professional networks. To diversify the participant pool, the researcher reached
out to colleagues employed in different industries across varied leadership roles and located in
various U.S. locations.
Panel Size
The invitations to participate in the initial survey round resulted in 63 responses. Ten
responses were omitted from the sample for the following reasons: one response did not pass the
initial screening question, and nine responses were considered incomplete because 70% or more
of the ratings in the main section were not provided. In total, 53 Round 1 responses (n = 53)
were accepted for the initial qualitative analysis, yielding an initial 84.1% data acceptance rate.

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For Round 2, 44 responses (n = 44) were submitted and accepted for analysis, yielding an 83%
response rate and a 100% data acceptance rate since all participants who initiated Round 2 have
completed at least 70% of survey items. Because the study featured a sequential design using a
Delphi consensus building technique, all the accepted qualitative and quantitative responses (n =
53) were analyzed after the initial survey round, and 44 quantitative responses (n = 44) were
analyzed from the second round. Figure 6 explains the flow of surveys and the response
acceptance rates for each round.
Figure 6
Survey Response and Acceptance Rates

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The participant’s background information was considered important for both rounds of
data collection and is described in the next section. Background information was omitted from
the second round of data collection to avoid asking for information twice and reduce the time
required for completing the second survey. Data from both rounds was linked between rounds
using Qualtrics advanced parameter features for sequential surveys.
Participants were asked nine background questions, which consisted of three
demographic questions and six questions relating to their professional and educational
backgrounds.
Demographic Distribution
The three demographic survey questions inquired about the participants’ age range,
gender, and ethnicity.

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Age Range and Gender
As shown in Figure 7, participant age ranges were selected by all participants, indicating
that the most selected age group was 45 to 64 years old (43%, n = 23), the second most selected
group was ages 35 to 44 (32%, n = 17), followed by the age group of 25 to 34 (13%, n = 7), and
finally the age group of 55 to 64 (11%, n = 6). 57% of the participants identified as male (n =
30), and 43% identified as female (n = 23) on the survey.
Figure 7
Participant Age Range and Gender Distribution
Note. The graph displays the age range and gender distribution for all accepted responses of the
participant population (n = 53).

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Ethnicity
The participant population ethnicity was predominantly White (79%, n = 42). 9%
indicated their ethnicity as Black or African American (n = 5), 8% identified as Asian / Pacific
Islander (n = 2), 8% identified as Hispanic or Latino (n = 2), one person preferred not to identify
their ethnicity, and one person selected the choice “Prefer to self-describe” but did not fill in the
answer. Figure 8 shows the ethnicity distribution.
Figure 8
Participant Ethnicity Distribution
Note. n = 53.

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Professional Background
Participants were asked five questions about the industry and size of their organization,
professional background, and experience.
Industry
Thirty six percent of the respondents indicated that they work in the Technology industry
(n = 19), 23% (n = 12) described their industry in writing, likely because it was not presented on
the list of choices, 21% indicated Finance or Banking as their industry (n = 11), 11% work in
Education (n = 6), 6% in Professional Services (n = 3), and 4% in Entertainment or Media (n =
2). Those who selected “Other” described their industries as follows: Utility, Consumer
Products, Retail, Data and Analytics, Insurance, Advertising, Healthcare, Manufacturing, and
Biopharma. Figure 9 shows the industry distribution.
Figure 9
Professional Industry Distribution
Note. n = 53.

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Number of Employees
More than half, or 51% of panelists (n = 27) indicated that they work at companies with
over 3,000 employees, 21% (n = 11) stated that they work at companies with 101 to 500
employees, 11% (n = 6) said they are at companies with 1 to 100 employees, 9% (n = 5) at
companies with 501-1,000 employees, 4% (n = 2) at companies with 1,001 to 2,000 employees,
and 2% (n = 1) at a company with 2,001 to 3,000 employees. One respondent indicated that they
do not know how many employees work at their organization. Figure 10 shows the organization
size distribution.
Figure 10
Organization Size Distribution
Note. n = 52.

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Years of Experience
The panelists reported a wide range of years of experience, starting from 3 years to 35
years. 53% (n = 28) reported 10 or fewer years of experience, while 47% (n = 25) reported over
10 years of experience. 32% (n = 17) reported 20 or more years of experience. The most popular
written answers were 5, 10, and 20 years of experience, suggesting that respondents selected
rounded numbers perhaps due to lack of remembering exactly how many years they have been
managing teams. Figure 11 details the inputs for the years of experience item and shows the
frequency of each input.
Figure 11
Years of Experience Distribution
Note. X-axis represents the number of panelists indicating their years of experience (n = 53).

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Management Level
When asked to describe their current role, 55% of respondents (n = 29) indicated that
they are managers of other people managers, 39% (n = 21) indicated that they manage individual
contributors in their role, and 6% (n = 3) chose to specify their management level by explaining
that they currently manage (or managed in the past) both individual contributors and other people
managers. Figure 12 illustrates the distribution of participant’s management levels.
Figure 12
Management Level Distribution
Note. n = 53.

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Leadership Career Start
When asked how the panelists began their careers in people management, most selected
that they were promoted within their organization (73%, n = 38). 19% (n = 10) indicated they
applied to a management position outside their organization and got the job. Four panelists chose
to describe their career start in their words:
● I started my organization and hired people.
● I applied for the position and was selected for a managerial role in my organization.
There were no promotions in place.
● Air Force 20 years career.
● I was at a startup, and somebody had to do it.
Figure 13 illustrates the distribution of how the panelists began their careers in
management. One person did not answer this question.
Figure 13
Career Start Distribution
Note. n = 52

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Educational Background
Respondents were presented with a list of 11 leadership development activities and were
asked to select those they participated in. More than one option could be chosen. Panelists also
had an option to select the “Other” category and specify another development activity not on the
list.
Leadership Development Activities
All 53 participants selected at least one value for this item, while one person selected 11
different activities. Respondents most frequently selected four activities. Figure 14 depicts the
frequency with which expert leaders selected each leadership development activity. Readings,
such as management books or publications, were selected the most (77.3%, n = 41), with
informal leadership coaching or mentoring as the next most selected value (73.6%, n = 39). 21%
of expert leaders (n = 10) indicated they are pursuing or have completed a doctoral degree in
management or leadership.
Figure 14
Participant Leadership Development Activities
Note. n = 53.

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Research Question 1: What Leadership Tasks and Behaviors Do Expert Corporate
Leaders Identify As Important for Early Career Managers to Develop Into Performant
Leaders?
Using a mixed methods data collection approach, Round 1 of the survey generated
quantitative and qualitative data that informed the first research question. The qualitative data
were analyzed after the completion of the Round 1 survey and used to formulate new prompts
that were presented to the same participants for ratings in the second survey round. The
upcoming sections, which contextualize the response to the initial research question, will delve
into quantitative and qualitative findings derived from the analysis of Round 1. Meanwhile, the
Round 2 data analysis discussion will focus exclusively on quantitative findings.
According to the leader expert panel responses, both rounds of surveys yielded high
levels of importance of literature-informed knowledge associated with effective leadership.
Additionally, consensus amongst participants had been confirmed through two sequential rounds
of surveys.
Round 1: Quantitative Results
The Round 1 survey shown in Appendix A was organized into three sections, with each
listing literature-informed (a) leadership knowledge and skills, (b) attitudes exuded by leaders,
and (c) organizational support systems designed to support leaders in an organizational setting.
Participant experts were asked to rate each knowledge item on a scale of importance from
0% to 100% to identify the most critical leadership skills. The data were then normalized and
analyzed using a combination of criteria measures: (a) the average score (mean) for each item
was calculated by summing all scores and dividing by the number of participants, (b) the CV was
calculated by dividing the standard deviation by the mean, (c) the level of agreement was

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calculated by dividing the number of panelists who ranked each item above 75% by the total
number of panelists. Items selected for the Round 1 Top Leadership Skills list met the 75%
threshold for importance (indicating a high level of importance) by at least 75% of expert leaders
(indicating a high level of agreement regarding the importance of each item). Items that did not
meet this threshold were considered as those with moderate level of agreement since some
consensus still existed for those items.
Knowledge: Top Leadership Skills
The Round 1 knowledge items list consisted of 18 Likert-style prompts pertaining to
skills of leaders. Using the mean score, all 18 items met the level of importance ranking of 75%
or more. However, consensus threshold was met for only 14 out of the 18 items. 4 items were
determined as not meeting the agreement threshold since less than 75% of panelists ranked those
items with 75% or higher level of importance. Table 1 shows the measurements associated with
knowledge items and breaks the Round 1 items list into two sections: items that met the level of
agreement threshold and items that did not. The items listed below in Table 1 are sorted
primarily by levels of agreement amongst experts, and secondarily by the average ratings of
importance.
Table 1
Round 1 Knowledge Items Quantitative Analysis
Survey items: leadership knowledge influences Mean Median CV Agreement
level
R1 top leadership skills: items above the 75% level of agreement threshold
Promotes a positive team culture and work environment
by cultivating open communication, mutual respect, and
collaboration.
92.38 100 4% 92%
Learns from failure by fostering a culture of psychological
safety, encouraging open and honest discussions about
91.71 99 5% 91%

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Survey items: leadership knowledge influences Mean Median CV Agreement
level
mistakes, analyzing root causes, identifying lessons
learned, and implementing changes to prevent similar
failures in the future.
Exhibits effective communication skills by
communicating clearly, actively listening, and
encouraging two-way feedback to ensure mutual
understanding with team members and stakeholders.
90.87 95 2% 89%
If a crisis occurs, swiftly identifies the situation,
establishes clear communication channels, coordinates
resources, makes informed decisions, prioritizes actions,
and guides their team towards resolution.
90.46 95.5 4% 89%
Actively listens, observes, and engages to identify
problems, analyzes root causes, develops creative
solutions, and collaborates to implement effective
problem-solving strategies.
89.90 95 4% 87%
Delegates work and empower teams by clearly defining
tasks, assigning them to team members, providing
necessary resources and support, establishing clear
expectations, and periodically reviewing progress.
89.02 92.5 5% 87%
Recognizes and appreciates individual achievements,
provides growth opportunities, and encourages a sense
of purpose to motivate and engage employees.
89.50 93 5% 85%
Promotes a growth mindset, believes that abilities and
intelligence can be developed through dedication, effort,
and continuous learning, allowing for personal and
professional growth.
88.90 90 4% 85%
Makes informed decisions by gathering relevant
information, analyzing options, consulting with key
stakeholders, and considering long-term implications.
87.65 95 8% 85%
Actively promotes and embraces diverse perspectives,
creates inclusive policies and procedures, provides equal
opportunities for growth and development, and fosters a
culture of respect and belonging for all team members.
87.40 96 9% 81%
Recognizes their role as an organizational change agent
whose role is to drive organizational performance,
beyond solely managing tasks and workload of their
85.23 87 9% 81%

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Survey items: leadership knowledge influences Mean Median CV Agreement
level
team.
Practices self-reflection by regularly reflecting on their
own thoughts, biases, and actions, seeks feedback from
others, remains open to different perspectives, and
adjusts their approach accordingly to promote
continuous learning and personal growth.
86.42 93 0% 77%
Regularly engages in conversations with direct reports
about their performance, uses formal mechanisms to
evaluate individual performance.
82.52 82.5 7% 77%
Successfully manages change by communicating the need
for change, involving key stakeholders in the planning
process, providing support and resources, addressing
resistance, and continuously monitoring progress.
86.13 90 7% 75%
Items below the 75% level of agreement threshold
Analyzes options by gathering relevant data, evaluating
potential outcomes, considering the pros and cons of
each option, consulting with relevant stakeholders, and
using critical thinking to make informed decisions.
85.71 90 9% 74%
Studies different leadership approaches, reflects on their
own values, strengths, and preferences, seeks feedback
from others, and adapts their own leadership style.
82.85 90 2% 68%
Initiates a formal goal setting process regularly, translates
broader organizational goals to the team, guides team
members to articulate individual goals, monitors
progress towards goals, and provides feedback.
81.65 85 0% 68%
Manages an annual budgeting process, collects project
feedback from team, secures funds needed for team
initiatives, seeks cost savings opportunities, gathers
appropriate approvals.
74.61 80 8% 60%

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Motivation: Top Leadership Attitudes
The motivation influences section of the survey listed a total of six statements that were
derived from research-based constructs. Each statement described leader behaviors, and panelists
were asked to rate the importance of each prompt. Using the mean score, all listed items passed
the threshold of 75% or more on importance scores. However, using the level of agreement
threshold of 75% or more, only four out of the six items passed. Table 2 displays mean, median,
CV, level of agreement, and identifies which items met the thresholds and were considered as
most important. The items are presented in a ranked order; sorted primarily by levels of
agreement amongst experts, and secondarily by the average ratings of importance.
Table 2
Round 1 Motivation Items Quantitative Analysis
Survey items: motivational influences Mean Median CV Agreement
level
R1 top leadership attitudes: items above the 75% level of agreement threshold
Shows personal value in establishing a shared direction amongst
team members.
86.74 90 16% 90%
Shows personal value in deriving team goals based on broader
organizational goals and regularly communicating goals to
team members.
86.08 89 14% 82%
Exhibits self-confidence in leading a team to reach
organizational goals.
85.56 90 17% 82%
Demonstrates self-confidence in performing management job
responsibilities.
84.30 87.5 17% 76%
Items below the 75% level of agreement threshold
Shows personal value in ensuring that each team member adopts
team goals as their own and commits to attaining goals.
80.00 80.5 21% 74%
Attributes success and failures to their own efforts (does not
blame failure on lack of ability).
79.45 80 22% 74%

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Round 1: Qualitative Results
Qualitative data were collected exclusively during Round 1 of data collection. The
purpose of collecting qualitative data was to offer expert leader panelists an opportunity to
describe important leadership qualities that may have been omitted from the survey prompts. All
qualitative data were analyzed, coded, and synthesized into Round 2 survey prompts. Two of the
five open-ended survey questions asked the panelists for qualitative inputs that pertained directly
to RQ 1: (a) a question that prompted additional critical leadership knowledge items, (b) a
question that prompted additional leadership motivational items. The following section describes
the results for each of the two qualitative items.
Additional Knowledge Items
Panelists were asked to describe “skills and behaviors not listed above that leaders must
possess to be effective” to identify additional critical knowledge items not included in the
original literature-informed list. Eleven panelists (n = 11) provided qualitative inputs for this
open-ended question. All qualitative data were analyzed and thematically coded. Each response
was then either mapped to the originally defined knowledge item or assigned a new theme not
covered on the original list (not presented in the first survey). The analysis and coding process of
panelists’ qualitative inputs is detailed in Table B1. Table 3 describes three new leadership skillrelated themes that emerged from the qualitative analysis. Each new skill was categorized as
either factual, conceptual, procedural, or metacognitive knowledge type (Krathwohl, 2002) and a
new corresponding knowledge statement was developed in preparation for Round 2 of the
survey.

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Table 3
Knowledge Items: New Themes From Round 1 Qualitative Analysis
Theme New survey prompt developed for Round 2 survey
Conceptual knowledge influence: meaningful connections between different ideas
1 Autonomy Promotes autonomy by setting clear expectations and providing
necessary supporting resources, allowing individuals the freedom
to make decisions within their roles.
Procedural knowledge influence: steps for accomplishing specific managerial tasks
2 Trust building Demonstrates consistent actions and behaviors to enhance
trustworthiness and integrity as a leader.
3 Maximize
employee potential
Provides opportunities for skill development in areas of an
employee’s individual strengths to maximize employee potential.
Additional Motivation Items
After filling out the Likert-style ratings in the motivation section of the Round 1 survey,
respondents were asked to describe “any additional leadership attitudes not listed above
exhibited by effective leaders” to identify new motivation items that were considered important
by expert leader panelists. Two panelists (n = 2) provided qualitative inputs for this question.
The qualitative data were analyzed and associated with Bandura’s (2000) self-efficacy
motivational theory construct, as discussed in Chapter 2. The analysis of panelist’s qualitative
inputs for the leadership motivational influences (detailed in Table B2) resulted in the
formulation of three new Likert-style leadership motivation items. Table 4 shows researchinformed motivational themes and the new prompts developed for Round 2 survey.

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Table 4
Motivation Items: New Themes From Round 1 Qualitative Analysis
Theme New survey prompt developed for Round 2 survey
1 Self-efficacy in empathy
(Bandura, 2000)
Believes that they have an ability to experience empathy
by sensing and understanding what others may be feeling
or thinking.
2 Self-efficacy in adaptiveness
(Bandura, 2000)
Believes in their ability to quickly adapt, change direction,
and remain flexible in approaching new situations.
3 Self-efficacy in recognizing
their own lack of expertise
(Bandura, 2000)
Demonstrates an ability to acknowledge their own
professional limitations, and willingly seeks assistance
when faced with challenges beyond their expertise.
Round 2: Quantitative Results
The qualitative inputs from Round 1 was analyzed in preparation for the second round
survey. New item prompts were developed based on a synthesis of open-ended responses related
to the most critical leadership skills and behaviors identified by experts. The study participants
were then asked to rate larger lists of knowledge and motivation items, including the original
items and new Likert-style items. The measurement techniques for Round 2 quantitative analysis
were the same as for Round 1. The 75% thresholds for level of importance and agreement were
used once again.
Knowledge: Top Leadership Skills
The Round 2 knowledge items list consisted of 21 Likert-style prompts pertaining to
skills of leaders; three new items resulting from the qualitative analysis were included in the list
of the original 18. Using the mean score to measure the perceived importance of skills, all 21
items met the level of importance ranking of 75% or more. However, consensus threshold was

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met for only 17 out of the 21 items. In Round 2, four items did not meet the consensus threshold
of 75%. The rank-ordered list in Table 5 shows the measurements associated with R2 knowledge
items and breaks the items list into two sections: items that met the level of agreement threshold
and items that did not. Four items introduced in R2 are noted as newly added in the table below.
One new item that was added in the R2 survey did not meet the agreement threshold and was
excluded from the final list of most important.
Table 5
Round 2 Knowledge Items Quantitative Analysis With New Items
Rank Survey items: leadership knowledge influences Mean CV Agreement
level
R2 top leadership skills: items above the 75% level of agreement threshold
1 Promotes a positive team culture and work environment by
cultivating open communication, mutual respect, and
collaboration.
91.23 12% 93%
2 If a crisis occurs, swiftly identifies the situation, establishes
clear communication channels, coordinates resources, makes
informed decisions, prioritizes actions, and guides their team
towards resolution.
90.30 11% 93%
3 Makes informed decisions by gathering relevant information,
analyzing options, consulting with key stakeholders, and
considering long-term implications.
89.61 13% 91%
4 New R2 item: Demonstrates consistent actions and behaviors
to enhance trustworthiness and integrity as a leader.
90.00 16% 89%
5 New R2 item: Promotes autonomy by setting clear
expectations and providing necessary supporting resources,
allowing individuals the freedom to make decisions within
their roles.
89.45 12% 89%
6 Learns from failure by fostering a culture of psychological
safety, encouraging open and honest discussions about
mistakes, analyzing root causes, identifying lessons learned,
and implementing changes to prevent similar failures in the
future.
88.57 14% 86%
7 Actively listens, observes, and engages to identify problems,
analyzes root causes, develops creative solutions, and
86.37 16% 86%

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Rank Survey items: leadership knowledge influences Mean CV Agreement
level
collaborates to implement effective problem-solving
strategies.
8 Exhibits effective communication skills by communicating
clearly, actively listening, and encouraging two-way feedback
to ensure mutual understanding with team members and
stakeholders.
90.20 12% 84%
9 Delegates work and empower teams by clearly defining tasks,
assigning them to team members, providing necessary
resources and support, establishing clear expectations, and
periodically reviewing progress.
87.73 14% 84%
10 Actively promotes and embraces diverse perspectives, creates
inclusive policies and procedures, provides equal
opportunities for growth and development, and fosters a
culture of respect and belonging for all team members.
85.89 19% 82%
11 New R2 item: Analyzes options by gathering relevant data,
evaluating potential outcomes, considering the pros and cons
of each option, consulting with relevant stakeholders, and
using critical thinking to make informed decisions.
86.18 14% 80%
12 Recognizes and appreciates individual achievements,
provides growth opportunities, and encourages a sense of
purpose to motivate and engage employees.
86.00 16% 80%
13 Successfully manages change by communicating the need for
change, involving key stakeholders in the planning process,
providing support and resources, addressing resistance, and
continuously monitoring progress.
84.20 20% 80%
14 Practices self-reflection by regularly reflecting on their own
thoughts, biases, and actions, seeks feedback from others,
remains open to different perspectives, and adjusts their
approach accordingly to promote continuous learning and
personal growth.
82.50 19% 80%
15 Recognizes their role as an organizational change agent
whose role is to drive organizational performance, beyond
solely managing tasks and workload of their team.
84.80 17% 75%
16 Promotes a growth mindset, believes that abilities and
intelligence can be developed through dedication, effort, and
continuous learning, allowing for personal and professional
growth.
83.50 16% 75%

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Rank Survey items: leadership knowledge influences Mean CV Agreement
level
17 Regularly engages in conversations with direct reports about
their performance, uses formal mechanisms to evaluate
individual performance.
83.36 18% 75%
Items below the 75% level of agreement threshold
New R2 item: Provides opportunities for skill development in
areas of an employee’s individual strengths to maximize
employee potential.
81.80 17% 73%
Initiates a formal goal setting process regularly, translates
broader organizational goals to the team, guides team
members to articulate individual goals, monitors progress
towards goals, and provides feedback.
83.95 18% 68%
Manages an annual budgeting process, collects project
feedback from team, secures funds needed for team
initiatives, seeks cost savings opportunities, gathers
appropriate approvals.
74.70 27% 59%
Studies different leadership approaches, reflects on their own
values, strengths, and preferences, seeks feedback from
others, and adapts their own leadership style.
75.39 27% 55%
Motivation: Top Leadership Attitudes
The Round 2 motivation items list consisted of nine Likert-style prompts pertaining to
skills of leaders; three new items were added in the list of the original six from Round 1. Using
the mean score to measure the perceived importance of skills, all items met the level of
importance ranking of 75% or more. However, consensus threshold was met for five out of the
nine items. Four items did not meet the agreement threshold of 75%. Table 6 shows the
measurements associated with R2 motivation items, and breaks the items list into two sections,
isolating items that met the level of agreement threshold from the items that did not. Items
introduced in Round 2 are noted as newly added in Table 5. Some items that were presented in
Round 1 but did not meet the agreement threshold in Round 2 were deprioritized for not meeting

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the threshold. The list is presented in a ranked order, primarily sorted in descending order by
level of agreement, and secondarily sorted by the average score.
Table 6
Round 2 Motivation Items Quantitative Analysis With New Item
Rank Survey items: leadership motivation influences Mean CV Agreement
level
R2 top leadership attitudes: items above the 75% level of agreement threshold
1 New R2 item: Demonstrates an ability to acknowledge their
own professional limitations, and willingly seeks assistance
when faced with challenges beyond their expertise.
90.23 12% 88%
2 New R2 item: Believes in their ability to quickly adapt, change
direction, and remain flexible in approaching new situations.
88.53 13% 84%
3 New R2 item: Believes that they have an ability to experience
empathy by sensing and understanding what others may be
feeling or thinking.
87.05 17% 86%
4 Shows personal value in establishing a shared direction amongst
team members.
85.84 16% 81%
5 Attributes success and failures to their own efforts (does not
blame failure on lack of ability).
81.29 21% 76%
Items below the 75% level of agreement threshold
Shows personal value in deriving team goals based on broader
organizational goals and regularly communicating goals to team
members.
84.16 19% 74%
Exhibits self-confidence in leading a team to reach
organizational goals.
83.51 19% 74%
Demonstrates self-confidence in performing management job
responsibilities.
81.14 19% 67%
Shows personal value in ensuring that each team member adopts
team goals as their own and commits to attaining goals.
78.37 22% 63%

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Summary: Research Question 1 Results
Using the Delphi survey approach to gain a consensus amongst leader experts, the
resulting data yielded a list of the 22 most critical skills, behaviors, and attitudes that performant
leaders must portray within a corporate organizational context. The data that resulted from this
study effectively answered the research question, “What leadership tasks and behaviors do expert
leaders in corporations identify as important for early career managers to develop into
performant leaders?” Leveraging the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analytical framework, the final
list of tasks and behaviors comprised of 17 leadership knowledge attributes (detailed in Table 5)
and five leadership motivation attributes (detailed in Table 6), consisting of items that met the
75% or more rating of importance by at least 75% of panel participants.
For the items that appeared in rounds one and two, the panelists’ levels of consensus
increased slightly during the second sequential survey round; this was observed by analyzing the
change in CV for the 17 items presented in both rounds (see Table D1). The CV was considered
an indicator of trending consensus as the number of rounds increased. A converging CV signaled
that the levels of consensus increased over time, as there was less variability in the ratings in the
sequential rounds of surveying.
As depicted in Figure 15, the consensus levels between aggregate responses from rounds
one and two converged for 53% of items, meaning that panelists showed increased agreement on
items when presented with the same items for the second time. Consensus level remained
constant for 12% of items and diverged for 35% of survey items. The divergence of agreement
indicates that panelists expressed a wider range of answer variability during the second round
compared to the first round.

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Figure 15
Number of Survey Prompts That Changed in Consensus Levels Between Round 1 and 2
In summary, the data collected through this study provided a concrete list of 22 leader
attributes in the category of knowledge and motivation, which are considered valuable for
managers to succeed in their role as team leaders.
Research Question 2: How Can Organizations Best Support Growing Leaders to
Effectively Transition From an Individual Contributor Role?
Like the data collection and analysis conducted for RQ 1, a mixed methods approach was
leveraged for answering RQ 2. For this question, quantitative data were used from both rounds of
data collection, and qualitative data were used to support the second round. The upcoming
section delves into findings derived from the analysis by each round and ends with a summary of
findings to answer the second research question.
Round 1: Quantitative Results
Participant panelists were asked to rate each survey item about organizational influences
on a scale of importance from 0% to 100% to identify the organizational support systems that

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expert leaders consider critical. The data were then analyzed using a combination of measures:
(a) the average score (mean), (b) the CV, and (c) the level of agreement.
Organization: Top Organizational Supports
The Round 1 list of items pertaining to organization support for leaders consisted of four
Likert-style items. Using the mean score, all presented items passed the threshold of 75% or
more on importance scores. However, using the level of agreement threshold of 75% or more,
only three out of the four items passed. Table 7 displays mean, median, CV, and level of
agreement measurements, and identifies which items passed the thresholds from R1 survey. The
list is sorted in descending order by level of agreement.
Table 7
Round 1 Organizational Support Items Quantitative Analysis
Survey items: organizational influences Mean Median CV Agreement
level
R1 top organizational supports: items above the 75% level of agreement threshold
Organizations should create and maintain a culture that values
and promotes continuous learning and growth for their
leaders.
90.54 97.5 14% 88%
Organizations should model desired leadership behavior by
clearly communicating what is valued and considered ideal in
the organization, what should be pursued or avoided, and what
are the assumed rules of interactions with others within the
workplace environment.
87.38 95 21% 82%
Organizations should implement policies and procedures that
guide employee performance evaluation systems, encourage
leadership development, and offer incentives and rewards for
leadership development efforts.
85.16 91.5 21% 78%
Items below the 75% level of agreement threshold
Organizations should support leadership development by
offering training programs, mentorship opportunities, access
to relevant literature and resources, and coaching sessions.
85.24 90 20% 73%

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Round 1: Qualitative Results
One of the five qualitative questions from Round 1 pertained to RQ 2: a question that
prompted additional organizational supports that enable effective leaders to succeed in their
roles. The qualitative data were analyzed, coded, and synthesized into Round 2 survey prompts.
The following sections describe the results of the associated qualitative prompt.
Additional Organizational Support Items
In the Round 1 survey, six leader panelists (n = 6) responded when asked to describe
“organizational support systems not captured above.” In Chapter 2, organizational influence was
defined as the ability of an organization to effectively influence its internal and external
environment (Clark & Estes, 2008). The qualitative data from this open-ended prompt was
analyzed and coded into thematic categories initially used for organizing literature-informed
items about organizational influences in Chapter 2. These categories included (a) organizational
resources made available for new leaders, (b) organizational policies and procedures related to
leadership development, (c) cultural setting, and (d) cultural models surrounding first-time
leaders. The analysis of panelist’s qualitative responses regarding organizational influences
(presented in Table B3) resulted in the formulation of six new Likert-style items that were then
added as new importance ranking prompts in the Organizational Support section of the Round 2
survey. The new prompts and categorization are presented in Table 8.

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Table 8
Organizational Support Items: New Themes From Round 1 Qualitative Analysis
New survey prompts developed for Round 2 survey
Resources
1 To enhance decision-making, organizations should empower leaders to seek external
expertise and perspectives, while also providing the necessary resources to support this
endeavor
Policies and procedures
2 Organizational policies should support transparency about salary and total compensation for
employees
3 Organizational procedures should mandate setting and measuring leader accountability
goals, such as employee engagement scores.
4 Organizations should leverage leader performance metrics, like employee engagement
scores, to proactively assess and enhance leadership effectiveness as time progresses
Cultural setting
5 Organizations should support collaborative leadership development at all levels of
leadership, rather than limiting it to specific ranks
6 Organizations should distinguish between leaders from different demographic groups and
support leader development with a diversity, equity, inclusion, and belonging lens
Round 2: Quantitative Results
The Round 2 survey instrument contained a revised Likert-style section about
organizational influences on leader development. This section contained the original items from
Round 1 and new items derived from qualitative responses in Round 1. Once again, the expert
panelists were asked to rate statements describing how organizations should support leaders. The
measurement techniques for the second round of quantitative analysis were the same as for the
first round, and the 75% thresholds for levels of importance and agreement were used again.

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Organization: Top Organizational Supports
The Round 2 organizational influence items list consisted of 10 Likert-style prompts, and
included the four original Round 1 items, plus the six new items developed from Round 1
qualitative leader inputs. Using the mean score to measure the perceived importance of
organizational supports, nine of the 10 items met the level of importance ranking of 75% or
more. Using the expert agreement threshold to identify the most critical items, five out of the 10
items were confirmed as most important. Table 9 shows the measurements associated with R2
organizational support items. The list is broken out into two sections: items above 75%
importance and agreement level, and items that exceeded the importance threshold but did not
meet the agreement levels. The list is sorted in descending order based on levels of agreement
and the average score.

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Table 9
Round 2 Organizational Influence Items Quantitative Analysis With New Items
Rank Survey items: organizational support influences Mean CV Agreement
level
R2 top organizational supports: items above the 75% level of agreement threshold
1 Organizations should create and maintain a culture that values
and promotes continuous learning and growth for their leaders.
88.98 13% 88%
2 Organizations should model desired leadership behavior by
clearly communicating what is valued and considered ideal in the
organization, what should be pursued or avoided, and what are the
assumed rules of interactions with others within the workplace
environment.
85.93 18% 81%
3 Organizations should support leadership development by offering
training programs, mentorship opportunities, access to relevant
literature and resources, and coaching sessions.
84.88 19% 79%
4 Organizations should implement policies and procedures that
guide employee performance evaluation systems, encourage
leadership development, and offer incentives and rewards for
leadership development efforts.
83.63 18% 79%
5 Organizations should support collaborative leadership
development at all levels of leadership, rather than limiting it to
specific ranks.
84.79 18% 79%
Items scored above 75% average, but below the 75% level of agreement threshold
Organizational policies should support transparency about salary
and total compensation for employees.
80.79 22% 69%
To enhance decision-making, organizations should empower
leaders to seek external expertise and perspectives, while also
providing the necessary resources to support this endeavor.
78.91 24% 65%
Organizations should leverage leader performance metrics, like
employee engagement scores, to proactively assess and enhance
leadership effectiveness as time progresses.
76.21 26% 60%
Organizational procedures should mandate setting and measuring
leader accountability goals, such as employee engagement scores.
75.37 31% 58%
Item scored below the 75% average and level of agreement threshold
Organizations should distinguish between leaders from different
demographic groups and support leader development with a
diversity, equity, inclusion, and belonging lens.
72.00 43% 58%

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While the first round data confirmed the importance of three of the four items originally
presented, the second round presented a different outcome. First, one first round item that did not
make the list of most important items was rated more highly in Round 2, thus changing the rank
of importance for the list. Second, only one of the six new items that were introduced in the
Round 2 survey passed the importance rating threshold of 75%. Additionally, one of the new R2
items in the Round 2 organizational support section did not meet either the average score
threshold or the agreement level threshold.
Summary: Research Question 2
Employing the Delphi survey method to establish a consensus among expert leaders, the
generated data compiled the top five crucial organizational factors that can efficiently bolster
leaders in a corporate setting. The data from two survey rounds informed the second research
question, “How can organizations best support growing leaders to effectively transition from an
individual contributor role?” Leveraging the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analytical framework,
the data yielded a final list of the five most critical organizational support mechanisms,
consisting of items that met the 75% or more importance rating by at least 75% of expert leader
panelists. The full list of most critical items is shown in Table 10.
For all four of the organizational influence items that appeared in both survey rounds, the
levels of consensus increased during the second sequential round survey; this was observed by
analyzing the change in CV, as presented in Table D2. A converging CV signals that levels of
consensus increased in the second sequential round, as there was less variability in the ratings
amongst participants.

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Research Question 3: What Onboarding and Training Recommendations Can Be Made for
First-Time Managers Promoted From Functional Individual Contributors?
Data were collected and analyzed using a two-pronged approach to inform answers to the
third research question. First, leader participants were asked an open-ended question, “Which
leadership development activities do you recommend for first-time managers?” during the first
survey round. Forty-two panelists provided answers, which were then thematically coded and
synthesized into 16 distinct recommendation statements. Then, the recommendations were
presented to panelists in the second survey round for validation, and participants were asked to
“rate the importance of each recommendation for successful first-time leader transition.” Fortythree participants scored the new Likert-style items in Round 2. In addition to the
recommendation question in both surveys, another relevant question regarding the panelists’
leadership development was asked during the first survey round. The next section delves into the
analysis of recommendations data to support findings for the third research question.
Round 1: Qualitative and Quantitative Results
Three Round 1 survey questions pertained to developing answers for RQ 3: (a) a
qualitative open-ended question that asked the panelists for recommendations for new leader
development activities, (b) a qualitative open-ended question that asked which of the leadership
development activities the panelists found most helpful or influential for their development as a
leader, and (c) a quantitative question that presented a picklist of time frame options and asked
how long should it take for the new manager to become fully trained in leading a team. The
following section analyzes the data collected from the three questions.

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Recommendations For Leader Development Activities
Round 1 leader panelists were asked to recommend leadership development activities for
first-time managers, and 42 participants (n = 42) responded. The qualitative inputs were
analyzed and coded with keywords that describe the general categories of leadership
development activities. The qualitative analysis utilizing data coding is presented in Table B4.
The frequency of recommendations within each of the 16 identified categories is shown in Figure
16 and detailed in Table B5.
The top three recommended development activities included mentoring, which was
recommended by 56% of panelists (n = 23); coaching, recommended by 48% (n = 20); and
formal training, recommended by 45% (n = 19) of those who chose to provide recommendations.
Reading was also highly recommended by 19% of participants (n = 8), and some panelists
specified book titles as their recommendations.
Figure 16
Panelist’s Recommendations of Leadership Development Activities for New Managers
Note. Concepts synthesized from qualitative inputs from survey participants (n = 42).

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Based on the coded categories, 16 descriptive prompts were developed for presentation to
the participants in Round 2 of the survey for ranking. The Likert-style item prompts were based
on the researcher’s synthesis of recommendations provided by the study participants in Round 1
and included a definition of each recommendation for clarity. To validate the accuracy of the
translation of each category into a corresponding prompt to be displayed on the Round 2 survey,
the researcher consulted with two peer colleagues. The following Round 2 items were developed:
● Mentorship: Managers should seek support from an experienced leader to provide
valuable insights, share personal experiences, and guide new leaders to grow, learn,
and navigate their leadership roles more effectively.
● Coaching: Managers should seek support from a coach to assist the new leader in
enhancing specific skills, achieving objectives, and unlocking their full potential
through a structured and goal-oriented process.
● Formal training: Managers should pursue formal leadership training and education in
or outside their workplace.
● Reading: Managers should explore the literature on leadership topics.
● Networking: Managers should practice building and maintaining relationships with
peers, colleagues, and industry contacts to exchange information, support, and seek
opportunities for professional development.
● Institutional knowledge: Managers should review information relating to past
organizational experiences and decisions to inform future decision-making.
● Shadowing: Managers should learn by observing others in a similar leadership
position, seeking guidance and insights to gain practical experience and a deeper
understanding of the role.

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● Empathy training: Managers should learn to develop and enhance their capacity to
understand and share the feelings, perspectives, and experiences of others, fostering
more compassionate and supportive interpersonal interactions.
● Reverse mentoring: Managers should receive guidance from less experienced or
junior employees to gain valuable insights, perspectives, and knowledge.
● Journaling: Managers should journal regularly; this may include recording daily
events, articulating emotions, setting goals, or other memos with the goal of
organizing thoughts, tracking personal growth, and gaining a better understanding of
their emotions.
● On-the-job learning: Managers should gain practical hands-on experience by
performing actual managerial tasks using existing process templates, frameworks, and
prior examples.
● Learning outside the workplace: Managers should pursue external communities such
as professional associations or contacts outside the organization to develop leadership
skills.
● Embody the role: Managers should act with confidence and competence, even if they
don’t initially possess the required skills or knowledge. They hope their self-assured
demeanor will eventually lead to genuine competence or success through learning and
experience.
● Feedback from supervisor: Managers should learn from direct feedback from their
leadership.

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● Introspection: Managers should regularly engage in self-reflection to help them gain
insights into their actions and emotions, leading to improved self-awareness and more
effective decision-making.
● Learn from the failure of others: Study historical failures and past mistakes of
organizational leaders.
Most Helpful Leader Development Activities
Directly after the educational background question, panelists were asked, “Which of the
leadership development activities selected above did you find most helpful or influential for your
development as a leader?”; this was an open-ended question, and 91% of round-one participants
(n = 48) wrote responses. The data were coded with keywords, like the procedure used for the
“Recommendations” data. The analysis is presented in Table B6. The frequency of the most
helpful or influential leader development activities is shown in Figure 17 and detailed in Table
B7.
Figure 17
Panelist’s Self-Reported Most Helpful or Influential Leadership Development Activities
Note. Qualitative data summarized based on participant responses (n = 48).

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Like the recommendations data, the topmost helpful leadership development activities
were (a) Mentoring, mentioned by 52% of panelists; (b) Coaching, mentioned by 29% of
panelists; (c) Formal training, mentioned by 21% of panelists, and (d) Reading, mentioned by
19% of panelists. Interestingly, a few mentions differed from the qualitative inputs from the
question where participants provided recommendations for new leaders. Three panelists
mentioned “Commitment to learning.” While that statement did not refer to a specific leader
development activity, one of the participants stressed the importance of remaining committed to
“self-discovery and awareness” as part of leadership development. Two panelists mentioned that
learning through gaining experience was most influential for them as leaders. Finally, one
panelist described an immersive formal training that included “exposure to senior leadership as
part of the program” and noted that this aspect had the greatest impact on their leadership
development.
While this question was not utilized to formulate additional questions for the second
survey, the data provided insight. This set of data indicated that the recommendations leaders
provided for new managers did not always match the development activities that were influential
in their own journey as leaders. The discrepancy signals that expert leaders may have realized
that their leadership progression could have benefited from additional development activities that
may not have been readily available during the early stages of their own leadership development.
New Leader Development Timeframe
The panelists were asked to express their opinion regarding “approximately how long it
should take for the new manager (without any prior management experience) to become fully
trained to lead a team.” 71% of respondents (n = 36) selected answers indicating that it takes

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under one year for a new leader to gain leadership competence, while 29% (n = 15) indicated
that over 12 months are needed; this indicates that the first year of management is likely the
prime time frame for initial leadership training and development. The timeframe distribution data
is depicted in Figure 18.
Figure 18
Panelists’ Perspectives Regarding the Time Needed for New Manager Onboarding
Note. Duration of time needed for onboarding (n = 51).

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Round 2: Quantitative Results
The Round 2 survey instrument contained a new scoring section called
Recommendations and featured 16 statements that were developed based on panelists’
qualitative inputs in Round 1. Like the other survey sections, the expert panelists were asked to
“rate the importance of each recommendation for successful first-time leader transition” on a
scale from 0% “Not Important” to 100% “Very Important.” The 75% thresholds for levels of
importance and agreement were used again to analyze the data that resulted from this question.
Top Recommendations for First-Time Managers
The data from participants’ importance scores showed that nine of the 16
recommendations were rated above 75% importance. Only two of the 16 recommendations had a
consensus above 75%, meaning that most of the panelists ranked their recommendations below
the 75% level of importance on average; this was a surprising finding since the prompts were
generated from the participants’ own words. They had written the development
recommendations for first-time leaders themselves, but when presented with a paraphrased
version of each recommendation, some selected lower than expected scores. Table 10 shows the
mean, CV, and agreement levels for each recommendation item. The list is broken out into three
sections: items above 75% importance and agreement levels, items that exceeded the mean
threshold but did not meet the agreement level threshold, and items that fell below the threshold
on both criteria.

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Table 10
Round 2 Recommendations Quantitative Analysis
Rank Item Mean CV Agreement
level
R2 top recommendations: items above the 75% level of agreement threshold
1 Feedback from supervisor: Managers should learn from direct
feedback from their leadership.
87.00 16% 84%
2 Coaching: Managers should seek support from a coach to assist
the new leader in enhancing specific skills, achieving objectives,
and unlocking their full potential, through a structured and goaloriented process.
80.00 27% 76%
Items scored above 75% average, but below the 75% level of agreement threshold
On-the-job learning: Managers should gain practical hands-on
experience by performing actual managerial tasks using existing
process templates, frameworks, and prior examples.
83.42 22% 74%
Empathy training: Managers should learn to develop and enhance
their capacity to understand and share the feelings, perspectives,
and experiences of others, fostering more compassionate and
supportive interpersonal interactions.
80.12 29% 74%
Mentorship: Managers should seek support from an experienced
leader to provide valuable insights, share personal experience, and
guidance that enables a new leader to grow, learn, and navigate
their leadership role more effectively.
85.67 17% 72%
Networking: Managers should practice building and maintaining
relationships with peers, colleagues, and industry contacts to
exchange information, support, and seek opportunities for
professional development.
83.81 21% 72%
Introspection: Managers should regularly engage in self-reflection
to help them gain insights into their actions and emotions, leading
to improved self-awareness and more effective decision-making.
81.02 23% 70%
Shadowing: Managers should learn by observing others in a
leadership position similar to their own, seeking guidance and
insights to gain practical experience and a deeper understanding of
the role.
77.42 24% 67%
Formal training: Managers should pursue formal leadership
training and education in or outside of their workplace.
76.12 30% 60%
Items below the 75% average score and below the level of agreement threshold

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Rank Item Mean CV Agreement
level
Reverse mentoring: Managers should spend time receiving
guidance from less experienced or junior employees with the goal
of gaining valuable insights, perspectives, and knowledge.
72.38 34% 60%
Learning outside of the workplace: Managers should pursue
external communities such as professional associations or contacts
outside the organization to develop leadership skills.
73.33 34% 56%
Institutional knowledge: Managers should spend time reviewing
information relating to past organizational experiences and
decisions, with the intention to inform future decision-making.
73.26 31% 53%
Learn from failure of others: Study historical failures and past
mistakes of organizational leaders.
73.60 28% 52%
Reading: Managers should explore literature on leadership topics. 72.40 27% 49%
Embody the role: Managers should act with confidence and
competence, even if they don’t initially possess the required skills
or knowledge, in the hope that their self-assured demeanor will
eventually lead to genuine competence or success through
learning and experience.
65.10 43% 45%
Journaling: Managers should journal regularly. This may include
recording daily events, articulating emotions, setting goals, or
other memos with a goal of organizing thoughts, tracking personal
growth, and gaining a better understanding of their emotions.
51.35 51% 20%
This data potentially contradicts both the qualitative findings from panelists’ written
recommendations for first-time leaders and their provided inputs regarding the development
activities that were most influential to the participants as leaders. For instance, both sets of
qualitative data placed “Mentoring” at the very top of the list, with over half of the participants
indicating that mentoring was helpful for leadership development. However, the scoring from the
final round placed “Mentorship” as the fifth most important development activity, and out of the
43 individual participants who ranked this item, 72% (n = 31) ranked the item above the 75%
level of importance.

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Another surprising contradiction was that a recommendation for “Feedback from
supervisor” was the most highly ranked item in Round 2. Only one panelist provided this
recommendation during the first survey round, and it did not appear to be a widely popular
recommendation amongst the panelist experts. However, when shown to the participants in the
second survey round, this statement received an average importance score of 87% and a
consensus level of 84%, which was above the threshold for this study.
Summary: Research Question 3
The third research question sought to capture the leadership development
recommendations from expert leaders to set up new managers for success as they transition from
individual contributors to people managers. By analyzing a combination of three datasets related
to informing this question, including (a) qualitative inputs of recommendations, (b) qualitative
inputs of activities that impacted the leaders themselves, and (c) ratings of importance of each
activity, a few contradictions were observed. The final scoring of items did not confirm the high
importance of 14 of the 16 identified recommendations. As a result, a short list of the two most
important new leader onboarding activities was determined as the most important (see Table 10).
Six of the items in this section had a 30% or higher CV, indicating a wide scale of
disagreement regarding the importance of those items. For instance, some panelists selected a
0% level of importance, while others picked a 100% level of importance for the same item. The
six items with an elevated CV included recommendations for formal training, reverse mentoring,
learning outside of the workplace, gaining institutional knowledge, embodying the managerial
role, and journaling. The dramatic differences in ratings indicate that participants’ opinions vary
greatly for some of the recommendations.

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Coaching was the top leader development recommendation from expert panelists. It was
confirmed as the most critical, appearing at the top of the lists across all three datasets related to
RQ 3. Coaching was recommended by almost half (48%) of participants in the Round 1 survey.
It was indicated as the most influential leader development factor by 29% of panelists, which
was more than any other factor on the list. In the final survey round, 76% of panelists scored
coaching at a 75% or higher level of importance.

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Chapter Five: Recommendations
Early managers continue to find it challenging to adapt to their new roles as leaders due
to a lack of leadership competencies at the time of promotion to management and insufficient
support within the organization (Bolander et al., 2019; Hay, 2014; Pearce, 1982). This study
addresses the problem of first-time managers lacking the preparedness to transition effectively
from individual contributors to team leaders who can empower their team members to achieve
organizational goals. The study’s objective is to understand what experienced corporate leaders
consider to be important skills, behaviors, and organizational support systems for leaders
transitioning from functional expert roles to people management roles.
Using the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analytical framework and a modified Delphi mixed
methods technique, the study assesses the needs of leadership knowledge and skills, behaviors,
and organizational support mechanisms necessary for newly promoted leaders to leverage their
teams to reach organizational objectives effectively. The data collected from this research
informs a concrete plan to equip the organization and the individual with a playbook for early
leadership development. This framework paves the path for managers to embrace continuous
learning to become performant, goal-oriented leaders and change agents.
The following research questions are explored in the study:
1. What leadership tasks and behaviors do expert corporate leaders identify as important
for early career managers to develop into performant leaders?
2. How can organizations best support growing leaders to effectively transition from an
individual contributor role?
3. What onboarding and training recommendations can be made for first-time managers
promoted from functional individual contributors?

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Discussion of Findings
The study highlights the importance of specific leadership skills and behaviors necessary
for today’s corporate leaders. Prior research in leadership development serves as a foundation for
this study by asking modern-day experienced leaders to rate the importance of certain leadership
skills, attitudes, and organizational support systems. The research narrows down and prioritizes
the most critical leadership attributes that prepare and support today’s leaders to face the
challenges associated with transitioning from a functional expert to a leader capable of
leveraging their team to achieve business goals.
The resulting lists of the most important leadership success factors were curated through
a double-round Delphi survey that asked experienced leaders to provide ratings of each
leadership skill, behavior, or organizational support. As part of the survey process, the
participants on the leader expert panel had an opportunity to provide feedback and additional
recommendations. Leader agreement levels were measured, and only the items that met 75% or
more consensus levels were considered for the final list of recommendations for practice.
Guided by the gap analysis framework by Clark and Estes (2008), leadership success
factors and recommendations for leadership development were identified by this research.
Findings revealed 17 essential leadership knowledge topics and behaviors, five critical leadership
attitudes, and five concrete ways that organizations can best support leader development to foster
successful new manager transitions that position leaders for success. Additionally, two most
crucial leader development activity recommendations emerged from this study. Table 11
summarizes the findings from both rounds across the four main groupings of data, including (a)
knowledge items, (b) motivation items, (c) organizational support system items, and (d)
recommendations items. The counts of confirmed most important items are bolded.

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Table 11
Summary of Findings From Two Sequential Survey Rounds
Round 1 summary, n = 53 Round 2 summary, n = 43
Knowledge
items
Motivation
items
Org.
influence
items
Knowledge
items
Motivation
items
Org.
influence
items
Recommend.
items
Total number of items
in each round 18 6 4 21 9 10 16
Number of items above
importance threshold
(75% or more)
18 6 4 21 9 9 9
Number of items below
importance threshold 0 0 0 0 0 1 7
Number of items above
consensus threshold
(75% or more)
14 4 3 17 5 5 2
Number of items below
consensus threshold 4 2 1 4 4 5 14
Changes in items and rankings in R2
Number of items added
to R2 (based on
qualitative input)
3 3 6 16
Number of Items that
gained consensus level
in R2
3 4 1 n/a
Number of Items that
lost consensus level in
R2
1 3 0 n/a
R1 ranges R2 ranges and comparison
Level of importance
range (out of 100%) 75%–92% 80%–87% 85%–91% 75%–91% 78%–90% 72%–89% 51%–83%
Level of agreement
range (out of 100%) 60%–92% 74%–90% 73%–88% 11%–27% 12%–22% 13%–43% 17%–51%
Coefficient of variation
range (answer
variability)
12%–28% 14%–22% 14%–21% 55%–93% 63%–88% 58%–88% 20%–84%
Average coefficient of
variation (answer
variability)
17% 18% 19% 15% 19% 17% 28%
Convergence of opinion
from R1 to R2 n/a n/a n/a yes no yes n/a

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The initial round of mixed methods data collection (n = 53) yielded relatively high
rankings in levels of importance (all items were ranked above the 75% threshold), and high
levels of consensus (21 of 28 items met the agreement threshold). As more items were derived
from R1 qualitative responses and added to the second round of data collection for a total of 40
Likert-scale items, shifts in both levels of importance and agreement began to emerge. In the
second round (n = 43), one of 40 items did not meet the level of importance threshold, and 13
items out of 40 did not meet the agreement threshold (27 of 40 items met the agreement
threshold). As the rounds progressed and a sample size declined, the ranges of scores widened,
which was reflected in the coefficient of variation measurement.
Additionally, the second survey round featured a new, lengthy section asking participants
to rank the importance of recommendations for new leader development. The items in this
section were extrapolated from the first round of respondents’ qualitative inputs. Data resulting
from this section had relatively wide range of responses (scores of importance ranged from 51%
to 83%), wide range of agreement (between 17% and 51% agreed on the importance of the listed
items), and a wide CV range (20% to 84%).
An above average coefficient of variation was found for some of the survey items, which
signals respondent answer variability that translates to potential disagreement amongst the
participants on the topics presented in the survey instrument. This potentially indicates that some
leadership behaviors that used to be considered important in the past may no longer be perceived
as crucial in today’s corporate environments. It also signals subjectivity in how leadership
behaviors are perceived within the leader community. For instance, while typical leadership
development training includes topics about different leadership styles, only 55% of leader
participants agreed that it is important to study different leadership approaches during new leader

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onboarding. Similarly, only 59% rated the knowledge of the budgeting process as an important
leadership skill. In contrast, 93% of leaders highly ranked that leaders should “promote a positive
team culture and work environment by cultivating open communication, mutual respect, and
collaboration,” a topic rarely included in some of the formal corporate leadership training
agendas.
The potential differences of opinions from the panelists are important to highlight as part
of findings from this study. Prior literature on leadership development topics, as reviewed in
Chapter 2, offers a wide variety of views about leader training settings, duration, topics, and
training delivery mechanisms. Like the differing viewpoints of researchers who focused on
investigating various leadership-related topics in the past, this study signifies that there are likely
no right or wrong answers associated with an organizational leadership development approach.
The findings from this study equip organizations and early leader employees with a datainformed playbook to accelerate new leader transitions, creating an efficient path to develop
successful and performant leaders. Derived from discoveries from prior literature and findings
from this study, specific recommendations for practice are described in the next section.
Recommendations for Practice
Four recommendations from prior literature and this study’s findings are discussed in the
following section. The recommendations focus on the organizational influence on leadership
development within a corporate environment and the individual leader’s responsibility to become
performant and successful by committing to independent structured learning. Figure 19
showcases the four-component process for empowering today’s leaders and organizations to
effectively drive first-time leader transitions with a lens of performance.

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Figure 19
First-Time Leader Empowerment Model
Recommendation 1: Activate an Organizational Support System for New Leaders
Prior research had identified numerous challenges associated with first-time manager
transitions. First, new leaders face emotional challenges such as mismatched leader-follower
expectations, self-doubt, fixed mindset beliefs, and negative emotions (Belker et al., 2012;
Bolander et al., 2019; Hay, 2014; Pearce, 1982; Segal, 2017; Sillet, 2015). Second, new leaders
experience practical challenges associated with constant work interruptions, insufficient time for
learning, and a lack of practical management skills (Bolander et al., 2019; Sillett, 2015; Smither
& London, 2009; Toor, 2011). Finally, unprepared new leaders sometimes make decisions in
misalignment with broader organizational goals (Porter & Latham, 2013; Smither & London,
2009), which impacts organizations negatively. The evidence-based information regarding the
specific issues typically faced by newly promoted managers should be easily accessible and
available to both new leader and their direct supervisors. Awareness and understanding of the

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challenges associated with the transition promotes the motivation of the direct supervisor to
create a supportive learning environment for the developing leader (Ambrose et al., 2010).
According to this study, most experienced leaders highlight the first year following a new
manager’s promotion as the prime period for leader development. The findings of this study
suggest that direct supervisors play a significant role in the initial phase of new leader
development. Eighty-four percent of leaders who participated in this study agreed that it is most
critical that new managers “learn from direct feedback from their leadership”; this can be
achieved by ensuring that the professional relationship between the direct supervisor and the new
manager is built on support and encouragement, fostering an environment that is perceived as
both physically and psychologically safe (Ambrose et al., 2010). Ambrose et al. (2010) state that
providing challenging work, a sense of autonomy, and connecting rewards with desired behavior
enhances learning and promotes enjoyment and satisfaction.
Furthermore, the findings of this study indicate that coaching is an important support
mechanism that influences leader development. Three out of every four experienced leaders
confirmed that “managers should seek support from a coach to assist the new leader in enhancing
specific skills, achieving objectives, and unlocking their full potential through a structured and
goal-oriented process.” Numerous prior literature supports these findings (Crowley & Overton,
2021; Pedler, 2011; Seidle et al., 2016; Tafvelin et al., 2019; Tosey et al., 2015). Thus, it is
recommended that the direct supervisor should assume the role of a coach and mentor or
encourage the early leader to seek guidance from another coach of their choice. Coaching
practice can be accomplished by establishing clear, challenging goals, and giving frequent and
detailed feedback (Ambrose et al., 2010).

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This research confirms that functional experts promoted to people managers require
support from their direct supervisor and the broader organization. The experienced leaders who
participated in this research confirmed the importance of organizational support and narrowed
down the most critical ways support can be provided. The following five organizational actions
that support new managers are recommended:
1. Organizations should create and maintain a culture that values and promotes
continuous learning and growth for their leaders—this can be achieved through
recognizing and rewarding employees who engage in learning (Ambrose et al., 2010).
2. Organizations should model desired leadership behavior by clearly communicating
what is valued and considered ideal in the organization, what should be pursued or
avoided, and what the assumed rules of interactions with others within the workplace
environment—this can be accomplished through cultural modeling (Bennardo & De
Munck, 2014; Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001).
3. Organizations should support leadership development by offering training programs,
mentorship opportunities, access to relevant literature and resources, and coaching
sessions—this can be accomplished by having these resources readily available for
new leaders (Crowley & Overton, 2021; Pedler, 2011; Seidle et al., 2016; Tafvelin et
al., 2019; Tosey et al., 2015).
4. Organizations should implement policies and procedures that guide employee
performance evaluation systems, encourage leadership development, and offer
incentives and rewards for leadership development efforts—this can be achieved
through establishing formal organizational policies and procedures (CIPD, 2015;
Seidle et al., 2016).

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5. Organizations should support collaborative leadership development at all levels rather
than limit it to specific ranks—this can be accomplished through cultivating a
company culture where chains of command are deemphasized about leader
development activities.
The key recommendation from this and prior research is for the organization to
demonstrate commitment to supporting new leaders through their transitions. By modeling the
desired behavior, providing resources, and scaffolding for new leaders, the organization shows
deliberate and explicit support for growing leaders.
Recommendation 2: Equip the First-Time Manager With the Self-Motivating Principles
Required to Seek Self-Improvement as a Leader
As part of a successful transition from individual contributor, this research suggests that
newly promoted people managers should become aware of and embrace self-motivating
principles that will allow them to seek out and achieve self-improvement as leaders.
Self-Efficacy Theory in Practice
As described in Chapter 2, the self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 2000) informs that
individuals’ actions, thoughts, and feelings are shaped by their perceptions of their ability to
accomplish tasks. When managers hold beliefs of high levels of self-efficacy in becoming
performant leaders, they are more likely to succeed in learning and applying leadership skills in
practice, persist in the face of difficulties, and recover quickly from setbacks. Conversely,
managers with low levels of self-efficacy in their ability may avoid challenging managerial tasks,
doubt their abilities, and give up quickly when perceptions of challenges arise.
Learning and motivation to improve self-efficacy beliefs can be achieved through several
strategies (Ambrose et al., 2010; Mayer, 2011). The new leader should seek opportunities to

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observe other leaders they value, respect, and admire. Growing managers should also seek
feedback to validate their behaviors, engage in the goal-directed practice of managerial tasks,
and occasionally pursue more challenging tasks. As confirmed through reaching high expert
consensus levels, this study informs recommendations for new managers to focus on building
confidence in three specific attitudes that will enhance their motivation to build self-efficacy in
leadership qualities successfully:
1. The ability to quickly adapt, change direction, and remain flexible in approaching
new situations.
2. The ability to experience empathy by sensing and understanding what others may be
feeling or thinking.
3. The ability to acknowledge their professional limitations and willingly seek assistance
when faced with challenges beyond their expertise.
Attribution Theory in Practice
Anderman and Anderman’s (2009) attribution theory explained in more detail in Chapter
2, informs that individuals make judgments about the causes of their behavior. Managers who
believe that success can be attributed to effort and not ability are likelier to persist and invest
effort into their leadership development. During the second survey round, this study confirmed
the importance of a motivational mindset that can reinforce learning ability in an early manager:
a leader who attributes success and failures to their efforts and does not blame failure on lack of
ability is likely to succeed.
This motivational mindset can be developed through continuous feedback loops with the
direct supervisor, in which the feedback identifies concrete skills and points to specific ways to
obtain the skills identified (Ambrose et al., 2010; Mayer, 2011).

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The construct of attribution theory (Anderman & Anderman, 2009) is also transferable to
how the new leader will likely approach motivational tactics to encourage their team members in
their tasks. The cascading effect of holding the knowledge of key motivational principles further
amplifies the leader’s effectiveness because they can apply their knowledge in practice.
Expectancy Value Theory in Practice
Eccles’ (2009) expectancy-value theory, introduced in Chapter 2, explains that
individuals make decisions based on their beliefs and attitudes toward the outcomes they expect
to achieve. This theory suggests that managers consider two primary factors as part of their
leadership development process: their expectation of success and the value they attribute to the
consequences of their development as leaders. The value factor, sometimes called the attainment
value of expectancy-value theory, is a factor in motivation (Eccles, 2009). It refers to the new
manager’s evaluation of the importance or worth of a particular outcome or goal. For example,
suppose a manager places personal value on conveying organizational objectives to their team
members to foster a results-driven environment. In that case, they will be more likely to dedicate
time and effort to communicate and elucidate these goals to their team. This study highlights a
crucial motivational factor that successful leader-in-development are expected to hold: Believing
in personal value in establishing a shared direction amongst team members. The new leader can
seek and internalize the rationale behind the importance of establishing a team vision (Ambrose
et al., 2010).
This statement passed the importance and consensus thresholds of this study.
Additionally, prior studies confirm that gaining a collective understanding of a team vision
fosters team success because having clarity motivates team members to contribute towards
attaining the vision (Hogan & Kaiser, 2005; Tosey et al., 2015). If the early leader believes that

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having a vision and gaining a team’s commitment is valuable, they are more likely to formulate
and communicate a team vision. By understanding Eccles’ (2009) expectancy-value theory and
its role in outcomes, the new managers van become active learners who find value in learning
and practicing key leadership behaviors.
Recommendation 3: Provide the First-Time Manager With the Most Important Leadership
Topics, As Identified by the Findings of This Study, to Facilitate Independent Learning
While the previous recommendation focuses on building a foundation for an effective
first-time leader transition by internalizing evidence-based motivational principles, this
recommendation focuses on building specific skills and knowledge elements required for leaders.
Based on the recommendations provided by experienced leaders who participated in this study,
new leaders should focus on attaining specific procedural, conceptual, and metacognitive
knowledge elements.
Krathwohl’s (2002) knowledge dimensions, described in Chapter 2, provide a framework
to categorize different types of knowledge that new managers can acquire. The knowledge
elements are organized into four types: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive
knowledge. The dimensions are hierarchical, with each one building upon the previous. As part
of the design of this study, prior research and literature on leadership served as a foundation for
articulating concrete leadership skills within each categorization.
Developing Conceptual Skills
Conceptual skills guide a new leader to make meaningful connections between ideas
(Krathwohl, 2002). According to the findings of this study, four conceptual skills were identified
as most important for new leaders to learn, as shown in Table 12. The findings of this study
suggest that this list of conceptual skills and learning outcomes should be prioritized and

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included in the organizational playbook for new managers. Conceptual skills are typically
developed through practice, exposure to multiple perspectives, seeking out challenging
problems, and reflecting on one’s experiences and observations (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2000).
Table 12
Most Important Conceptual Knowledge Elements and Recommended Learning Outcomes
Conceptual knowledge Learning outcome
Understanding the link between perceptions
of a positive team culture and individual
performance.
Promote a positive team culture and work
environment by cultivating open
communication, mutual respect, and
collaboration.
Understanding the connection between
enabling team member autonomy and
individual performance.
Promote autonomy by setting clear
expectations and providing necessary
supporting resources, allowing individuals
the freedom to make decisions within their
roles.
Recognizing that leaders’ actions influence
employee motivation and engagement.
Recognize and appreciate individual
achievements, provide growth
opportunities, and encourage a sense of
purpose to motivate and engage employees.
Understanding the distinctions and overlaps
between management and leadership.
Recognize their role as an organizational
change agent whose role is to drive
organizational performance beyond solely
managing tasks and workload of their team.

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Developing Procedural Skills
Procedural skills are required for the practical application of steps for accomplishing
managerial tasks, and it is recommended to provide a list of the essential procedural topics and
learning outcomes to early leaders. According to the findings of this study, the nine most critical
procedural skills necessary for leaders are identified in Table 13. Procedural skills are effectively
learned through hands-on practice, guided instruction, feedback, and repetition in a structured
learning environment (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2000). The learning outcomes listed in Table 13
are derived directly from the survey prompts and rephrased into objective-oriented statements.

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Table 13
Most Important Procedural Knowledge Elements and Recommended Learning Outcomes
Procedural knowledge Learning outcome
Crisis management If a crisis occurs, be prepared to identify the situation, establish
clear communication channels, coordinate resources, make
informed decisions, prioritize actions, and guide the team
toward resolution.
Decision making Make informed decisions by gathering relevant information,
analyzing options, consulting with key stakeholders, and
considering long-term implications.
Trust building Demonstrate consistent actions and behaviors to enhance
trustworthiness and integrity as a leader.
Problem identification and
solving
Actively listen, observe, and engage to identify problems,
analyze root causes, develop creative solutions, and
collaborate to implement effective problem-solving
strategies.
Task delegation and
employee empowerment
Delegate work and empower teams by clearly defining tasks,
assigning them to team members, providing necessary
resources and support, establishing clear expectations, and
periodically reviewing progress.
Clear communication with
team members and
stakeholders
Exhibit effective communication skills by communicating
clearly, actively listening, and encouraging two-way
feedback to ensure mutual understanding with team members
and stakeholders.
Process of cultivating
diversity, equity, and
inclusion on the team
Actively promote and embrace diverse perspectives, create
inclusive policies and procedures, provide equal
opportunities for growth and development, and foster a
culture of respect and belonging for all team members.
Change management Successfully manages change by communicating the need for
change, involving key stakeholders in the planning process,
providing support and resources, addressing resistance, and
continuously monitoring progress.
Employee performance
evaluation process
Regularly engage in conversations with direct reports about
their performance and use formal mechanisms to evaluate
individual performance.

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Developing Metacognitive Skills
Practicing metacognitive skills equips the first-time leader to self-reflect and evaluate
their thought process. Managers can utilize metacognitive knowledge to monitor and regulate
their learning, establish goals, and assess their progress autonomously (Krathwohl, 2002). Four
metacognitive knowledge influences were identified as most critical in this study and are
outlined in Table 14. The list of metacognitive skills should be prioritized in the new leader
development program, building on conceptual and procedural skills for leadership.
Metacognitive skills are acquired through reflection, self-awareness, setting goals, monitoring
progress, and employing strategies to regulate one’s thinking processes (Bolander et al., 2019;
Hay, 2014).
Table 14
Most Important Metacognitive Knowledge Elements and Recommended Learning Outcomes
Metacognitive skill Learning outcome
Learning from failure Learns from failure by fostering a culture of psychological
safety, encouraging open and honest discussions about
mistakes, analyzing root causes, identifying lessons learned,
and implementing changes to prevent similar failures in the
future.
Reflecting on past situations Practices self-reflection by regularly reflecting on their
thoughts, biases, and actions, seeking feedback from others,
remaining open to different perspectives, and adjusting their
approach accordingly to promote continuous learning and
personal growth.
Critical thinking Analyzes options by gathering relevant data, evaluating
potential outcomes, considering the pros and cons of each
option, consulting with relevant stakeholders, and using
critical thinking to make informed decisions.
Growth mindset Promotes a growth mindset, believes abilities and intelligence
can be developed through dedication, effort, and continuous
learning, allowing personal and professional growth.

133
Recommendation 4: Embed a Leader Efficacy Evaluation Framework to Assess First-Time
Leader Development
The fourth and final recommendation from the research turns back to the organization,
suggesting that a formal leader efficacy evaluation framework should be implemented. One of
the most critical organizational actions to support new leaders, validated by this research, affirms
that “organizations should implement policies and procedures that guide employee performance
evaluation systems, encourage leadership development, and offer incentives and rewards for
leadership development efforts.” This statement, rated as one of the essential leader support
factors, informs that an evaluation system is crucial to implement.
Implementing an evaluation framework for leadership development is important for
assessing the effectiveness of the first-time manager transition, enabling the organization to
identify strengths, areas for improvement, and the overall impact of learning on leadership
capabilities. It provides evidence-based insights that inform decision-making, refine strategies,
and allocate resources efficiently to foster continuous growth and development in organizational
leadership. According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s (2016) evaluation model, it is critical to
establish organizational performance indicators in advance to ensure that learning outcome
attainment can be measured throughout the process.
The New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) was designed to be
leveraged in an implementation and evaluation plan for organizational change processes. The
framework features four levels of evaluation, with each level planned in reverse order, starting
from Level 4, while implemented starting with Level 1.

134
Level 4: Results
The fourth level of training evaluation is intended to measure the degree to which the
organization’s goals, measured by organizational performance indicators, are being achieved
because of the application of new skills. Presented first, given the importance, this level of
evaluation unlocks the ability to justify the resources allocated to develop and implement
training programs for new leaders. The fourth level of evaluation is especially meaningful in
organizations where leadership does not perceive training as a revenue-generating mechanism.
By evaluating this level, an organization can link training to business performance by examining
its leading indicators, such as revenue, profitability, or customer satisfaction. This process helps
reinforce organizational commitment to leadership development initiatives.
To implement Level 4 evaluation using Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s (2016) model, the
organization should measure the impact of the new leader development program on internal
organizational outcomes; this can include analyzing data such as employee engagement scores,
retention rates on the new manager’s team, productivity metrics, and leadership effectiveness
assessments to determine the broader impact of the development initiatives on the organization’s
goals and objectives, that is, external outcomes.
Level 3: Behavior
The third level of evaluation is designed to measure the degree to which first-time
managers apply what they learned to their day-to-day work activities. In short, the critical
behaviors necessary to achieve the internal and external outcomes are measured in Level 4. By
reinforcing the skills and knowledge on the job and monitoring learned behaviors, the
organization can assess whether the early leaders can leverage the newly acquired knowledge.
Employees‘ active usage of new knowledge and skills is an indicator of successful learning

135
progression. The training initiative may be questioned if the new skills are not being used in the
workplace.
To implement the Level 3 evaluation of new leader development using Kirkpatrick and
Kirkpatrick’s (2016) model, the direct supervisor should assess the transfer of learning to the
workplace by measuring the new leader’s critical behaviors; this can involve collecting feedback
from the new manager’s direct reports, collecting feedback from the manager’s stakeholders and
peers about changes in behavior, and tracking performance metrics or leading indicators of
success. As such, the measure of Level 3 is a collaborative effort on the part of new managers
and their supervisors. As Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) note, it is not enough for upper
leadership to sign off on new knowledge and skills; they must also sign on to reinforce,
encourage, and hold new managers accountable.
Level 2: Learning
The second level of training evaluation identifies the degree to which learners acquire the
knowledge, skills, and attitudes directly after each knowledge element is introduced and learned,
which enables the performance of the critical behaviors measured in Level 3. The second level of
evaluation presents data on how much of the desired learning outcomes were met. In addition to
evaluating knowledge, skills, and attitudes, the framework urges managers to evaluate the
confidence and commitment to use the new skills. In line with the motivational principles
covered in the second recommendation, confidence is characterized by the degree to which
managers feel self-efficacious in their ability to apply the new knowledge on the job. Measuring
commitment helps identify the degree to which leaders-in-development are committed to
leveraging the new knowledge moving forward.

136
To implement Level 2 evaluation, the direct supervisor should assess the extent to which
the early leader has gained knowledge and skills; this can be done through pre-and post-training
assessments, observations of performance, and a formal performance evaluation process to
measure the acquisition of specific leadership competencies (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Level 1: Reaction
The first level of evaluation is the most basic method to measure the level of favorability
of new managers to leadership topics. At this level of evaluation, the organization gains data on
whether learners perceive the training positively or negatively. While assessment at this level is a
useful mechanism to understand whether the training was well received, this level does not
provide sufficient data on the effectiveness of the training and doesn’t facilitate ways to improve
it.
To implement Level 1 evaluation of new leader development using the Kirkpatricks’
(2016) model, the direct supervisor should gather feedback from the new manager regarding
their progress and satisfaction with the development program through surveys or regularly
scheduled one-on-one conversations. This feedback should focus on aspects such as the
relevance of the topics to their day-to-day work, the effectiveness of the consumed content, and
the overall experience of self-paced learning. Analyzing this feedback allows for immediate
insights into the program’s initial impact and areas for improvement.
Data Reporting
The Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) evaluation model enables a diagnostic analysis of
the new leader training program. However, the authors suggest that by strategically timing
measurements for each level, organizations can gain a comprehensive understanding of the
effectiveness of training programs and identify areas for refinement or enhancement. As such,

137
measurements for Level 1 can be taken during or immediately after the educational content is
consumed, while for Level 2, measurements can be conducted after the completion of the
training. Level 3 measurements require a longer period post-training because behavioral and job
performance changes may take more time. Finally, Level 4 measurement necessitates an even
longer period because it is intended to assess broader impact of the training on organizational
objectives.
Recommendations for Future Research
Five further research directions are recommended based on findings from this study.
While the study compounded information that informs early leader development tactics, some of
the study’s limitations signal further investigation on the topic.
First, it is recommended that this research be conducted with a larger sample size and an
increased number of survey rounds. The Delphi technique improves with more survey rounds
because each round allows for the refinement and further convergence of expert opinions over
time (Yang, 2003). Additional rounds help to clarify uncertainties, reconcile divergent
viewpoints, and achieve consensus among participants, enhancing the validity and reliability of
the study’s findings. This study featured two rounds and 44 participants, thus limiting the ability
to generalize findings more broadly. Because some of the responses were contradictory across
the two rounds, increasing the number of participants and the number of rounds would
potentially reduce the contradictions found during the analysis.
Second, because the expert panel consisted of predominantly White participants, it is
recommended that the focus be on recruiting for more racial diversity in future iterations of this
research. Increasing diversity in research participants may enhance the findings’ validity,
generalizability, and applicability to broader populations. Alternatively, further insight may be

138
gained if the leader panel recruitment will hone in on a specific underrepresented racial group,
which may generate new insight from specific populations of leaders.
Third, improving the qualifying criteria for vetting leadership expertise is recommended
in future research. For this study, individuals were asked to self-select themselves as participants
based on two factors: (a) during recruitment, the instrument was labeled as the “Leader Expert
Panel” survey, suggesting that only experts can participate, and (b) the survey contained a
qualifying question indicating that only those who are “experienced leaders with 1+ years of
people management experience” can participate. While this approach may have been effective,
there was not a way to confirm levels of expertise within the sample. For future research, it is
recommended to put in place an additional mechanism of expertise assessment, such as vetted
leader recommendations or requirements of specific leadership credentials or formal
recognitions.
Fourth, it is recommended that further reasons for contradictions found within the study
be examined. For example, some of the leadership development recommendations provided by
leaders were identified as contradictory because the advice they offered to first-time managers
did not match what they considered influential for their leadership development. One possible
hypothesis could be that while leaders attribute their leadership success to specific factors, they
also realize that they could have achieved better outcomes by pursuing different leadership
development activities. It is recommended that this hypothesis be explored with additional
research.
Finally, the quantitative analysis indicates that levels of agreement are widespread for
some of the leadership topics, as indicated by an above-average coefficient of variation (CV) in
responses; this signals a difference of opinion amongst experienced leaders, and it is

139
recommended that further investigation be conducted into why certain survey prompts elicited a
wider scale of responses. In contrast, others elicited a narrow scale of responses.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this study tackles one of the most critical yet overlooked issues facing
organizations today—the profound challenges first-time managers face in transitioning from
individual contributors to effective leaders. Functional experts are often promoted into
management roles without adequate preparation, training, or organizational support systems in
place. The emotional turmoil of imposter syndrome, self-doubt, and fear of failure, coupled with
the practical realities of navigating new responsibilities like coaching, goal-setting, and fostering
optimal team dynamics, can derail promising leadership journeys before they even begin.
Adding to prior literature on leadership development, the study identifies the most
essential leadership skills, behaviors, and organizational support systems necessary for
successful leadership transitions, offering valuable insights for today’s organizations and
individual managers aiming to navigate the challenges of the transition from a functional expert
to a team leader. By prioritizing data-informed leadership success factors and providing practical
recommendations, this research contributes to the effective organizational development of
performant, goal-oriented leaders capable of driving organizational success while reducing the
distress associated with new manager transitions.
This research represents a call for organizations to proactively invest in cultivating
tomorrow’s leaders from day one of their managerial tenures. By identifying the essential
leadership knowledge areas, motivational mindsets, and comprehensive organizational initiatives
that foster leadership success, this study provides a pragmatic playbook for smoothing the
transition to management.

140
In an era of unrelenting change and disruption, fortifying the leadership capabilities
within an organization is no longer a luxury—it is an imperative for survival. This study
represents a vital step towards that transformation, illuminating the path for first-time managers
and providing organizations with a data-driven framework for developing world-class leaders.

141
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Appendix A: R1 Survey Instrument
Thank you for choosing to participate in the leader expert panel survey. The insights collected
will be used for developing a new data-informed leader development training program for firsttime managers. This survey is anonymous, and participation is voluntary.
SCREENING SECTION
This survey is for experienced leaders with 1+ years of people management experience at forprofit organizations (your organization must have at least 3 levels of organizational structure).
Q1 Do you meet the criteria for participating in this survey? (Yes / No)
Skip to end of survey, if answer is “No”
PERSONAL INFORMATION
Your personal information will be used to connect Round 1 with Round 2 survey data, and will
be anonymized directly after data collection.
Name: (open-ended)
Email: (open-ended)
BACKGROUND SECTION
Please answer the following background questions.
Q2 What is your age group?
● 18 to 24
● 25 to 34
● 35 to 44

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● 45 to 54
● 55 to 64
● 65 or over
Q3 Gender: How do you identify?
● Female
● Male
● Non-binary
● Prefer to self-describe (Please fill in)
● Choose not to disclose
Q4 Ethnic origin: Please specify your ethnicity.
● White
● Hispanic or Latino
● Black or African American
● Native American or American Indian
● Asian / Pacific Islander
● Other (Please fill in)
● Choose not to disclose
Q5 What industry best describes your company? (picklist)
● Education
● Entertainment or Media
● Finance or Banking
● Professional Services
● Technology

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● Other (Please fill in)
Q6 Approximately how many employees work at your organization?
● 1–100 employees
● 101–500 employees
● 501–1,000 employees
● 1,001–2,000 employees
● 2,001–3,000 employees
● 3,000 or more employees
● I don’t know
Q7 How many years of management experience do you have? (numerical entry)
Q8 How would you best describe your current role? (picklist)
● First line manager—I manage individual contributors
● Manager of managers—I manage other people managers
● Other (Please specify)
Q9 How did you begin your career in people management? (picklist)
● Was promoted from an individual contributor role within an organization
● Applied and was selected for a manager role outside of my organization
● Other (Please specify)
Q10 What leadership development activities have you participated in? (check all that apply)
● Pursuing or completed a Bachelors’ Degree in Management/Leadership
● Pursuing or completed a Masters Degree in Management/Leadership
● Pursuing or completed a Doctoral Degree in Management/Leadership
● Pursuing or completed Professional Certification in Management/Leadership

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● Classroom-style training at my workplace
● Online (asynchronous) training at my workplace
● Classroom-style training outside of my workplace
● Online (asynchronous) training outside my workplace
● Received formal leadership coaching or mentorship
● Received informal leadership coaching or mentorship
● Readings (e.g. management books, publications, etc.)
● Other (Please specify)
Q11 Which of the leadership development activities selected above did you find most helpful or
influential for your development as a leader? (open-ended)
MAIN SURVEY SECTION
Leaders like you often wear a variety of hats. For the following questions, think of the ideal
leader as one who is motivated and committed to the company’s vision and mission, and
effectively leverages their team to reach organizational goals.
Knowledge Assessment Section
Q12 The following items describe skills and behaviors exhibited by leaders. On a scale of 0%
(not important) to 100% (very important), please rate the importance of each item as it pertains
to leader effectiveness.
● Recognizes their role as an organizational change agent whose role is to drive
organizational performance, beyond solely managing tasks and workload of their team.

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● Promotes a positive team culture and work environment by cultivating open
communication, mutual respect, and collaboration.
● Recognizes and appreciates individual achievements, provides growth opportunities, and
encourages a sense of purpose to motivate and engage employees.
● Initiates a formal goal setting process regularly, translates broader organizational goals to
the team, guides team members to articulate individual goals, monitors progress towards
goals, and provides feedback.
● Regularly engages in conversations with direct reports about their performance, uses
formal mechanisms to evaluate individual performance.
● Manages an annual budgeting process, collects project feedback from team, secures funds
needed for team initiatives, seeks cost savings opportunities, gathers appropriate
approvals.
● Makes informed decisions by gathering relevant information, analyzing options,
consulting with key stakeholders, and considering long-term implications.
● Delegates work and empower teams by clearly defining tasks, assigning them to team
members, providing necessary resources and support, establishing clear expectations, and
periodically reviewing progress.
● Actively listens, observes, and engages to identify problems, analyzes root causes,
develops creative solutions, and collaborates to implement effective problem-solving
strategies.
● If a crisis occurs, swiftly identifies the situation, establishes clear communication
channels, coordinates resources, makes informed decisions, prioritizes actions, and
guides their team towards resolution.

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● Exhibits effective communication skills by communicating clearly, actively listening, and
encouraging two-way feedback to ensure mutual understanding with team members and
stakeholders.
● Actively promotes and embraces diverse perspectives, creates inclusive policies and
procedures, provides equal opportunities for growth and development, and fosters a
culture of respect and belonging for all team members.
● Successfully manages change by communicating the need for change, involving key
stakeholders in the planning process, providing support and resources, addressing
resistance, and continuously monitoring progress.
● Practices self-reflection by regularly reflecting on their own thoughts, biases, and actions,
seeks feedback from others, remains open to different perspectives, and adjusts their
approach accordingly to promote continuous learning and personal growth.
● Analyzes options by gathering relevant data, evaluating potential outcomes, considering
the pros and cons of each option, consulting with relevant stakeholders, and using critical
thinking to make informed decisions.
● Learns from failure by fostering a culture of psychological safety, encouraging open and
honest discussions about mistakes, analyzing root causes, identifying lessons learned, and
implementing changes to prevent similar failures in the future.
● Studies different leadership approaches, reflects on their own values, strengths, and
preferences, seeks feedback from others, and adapts their own leadership style.
● Promotes a growth mindset, believes that abilities and intelligence can be developed
through dedication, effort, and continuous learning, allowing for personal and
professional growth.

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Q13 If there are any additional skills and behaviors not listed above that leaders must possess to
be effective, please describe them here: (open-ended)
Motivation Assessment Section
Q14 According to prior research, motivation influences leadership performance, and a number of
motivational factors are relevant to leadership development. On a scale of 0% (not important) to
100% (very important), please rate the importance of each item as it pertains to leader
effectiveness.
● Demonstrates self-confidence in performing management job responsibilities.
● Exhibits self-confidence in leading a team to reach organizational goals.
● Attributes success and failures to their own efforts (does not blame failure on lack of
ability).
● Shows personal value in ensuring that each team member adopts team goals as their own
and commits to attaining goals.
● Shows personal value in establishing a shared direction amongst team members.
● Shows personal value in deriving team goals based on broader organizational goals and
regularly communicating goals to team members.
Q15 If there are any additional leadership attitudes not listed above exhibited by effective
leaders, please describe them here: (open-ended)
Organizational Influences Section
Q16 Research shows that organizational barriers and support systems impact managers’ ability
to succeed in the role of a leader. On a scale of 0% (not important) to 100% (very important),

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please rate the importance of organizational actions that effectively support leaders in their
leadership development journey.
● Organizations should support leadership development by offering training programs,
mentorship opportunities, access to relevant literature and resources, and coaching
sessions.
● Organizations should implement policies and procedures that guide employee
performance evaluation systems, encourage leadership development, and offer incentives
and rewards for leadership development efforts.
● Organizations should create and maintain a culture that values and promotes continuous
learning and growth for their leaders.
● Organizations should model desired leadership behavior by clearly communicating what
is valued and considered ideal in the organization, what should be pursued or avoided,
and what are the assumed rules of interactions with others within the workplace
environment.
Q17 If there are any organizational support systems not captured above, please describe them
here: (open-ended)
RECOMMENDATIONS SECTION
In this final section of the survey, please provide your recommendations for onboarding and
training for new managers.
Q18 In your opinion as an experienced leader, approximately how long should it take for the
new manager (without any prior management experience) to become fully trained to lead a team?

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● Under 3 months
● Over 3 months, under 6 months
● Over 6 months, under 12 months
● Over 12 months
Q19 Which leadership development activities do you recommend for first-time managers (e.g.
formal training, coaching, books, etc.)? (open-ended)
CLOSING STATEMENT
Thank you for your participation in this survey. Once we have analyzed the results, we will
provide you with a summary and request additional input.

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Appendix B: R1 Qualitative Analysis
Using open-ended questions, Round 1 survey asked panelists to provide additional
feedback for each of the three areas using the KMO framework. Participants were asked to
describe any additional (a) skills and behaviors, (b) leadership attitudes, and (c) organizational
support systems not listed in each of the Likert-style prompts. Additionally, respondents were
asked to provide recommendations of leadership development activities for first-time managers.
The tables below include qualitative responses and themes assigned by the researcher.
R1 Knowledge Influences Qualitative Response Analysis
The following table (Table B1) displays how each qualitative response from the
knowledge survey section was mapped to either previously defined skills or behaviors or
assigned a new skill or behavior. Each new skill or behavior was also mapped to a categorization
of either factual, conceptual, procedural, or metacognitive knowledge element (Krathwohl,
2002). This coding exercise resulted in the formulation of three new Likert-style prompts for
Round 2 of the survey. Exact wording for new prompts that were included in the Round 2 survey
instrument is presented in Appendix C.
Table B1
Leader Knowledge: Qualitative Analysis
Comment
number
Qualitative data Skills and behavior themes
(knowledge type mapping)
1 Honesty openness and transparency in
communication skills. Engendered trust and
psychological safety amongst employees in chain
of command.
NEW: Trust building
(Procedural knowledge)
EXISTING:
Communication
Learning from failure
2 Understanding the unique strengths of each
individual and helping to put them in a position to
NEW: Maximize employee
potential (Procedural)

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Comment
number
Qualitative data Skills and behavior themes
(knowledge type mapping)
use them as much as possible.
3 This is mentioned in various ways above, but
“asking for help” is a critical aspect to leading
people and leading yourself. If you can’t identify
when you need help or can’t accept when it’s
offered you won’t have the resiliency or the ego
elasticity to truly lead.
Earnig trust is another area that is baked in here
but is so crucial right now for many organizations.
Once trust is eroded with leaders it is nearly
impossible to get it back. That trust has to be
earned over time through consistent actions as you
describe above.
Autonomy. Empowering autonomy at increasing
levels across organizations is important not only to
build next generation of leaders but also because
large organizations are too complex for solutions
to be top down. Leaders who empower their
people and drive increasing levels of autonomy
will reap rewards like employee engagement,
innovation, and cross function problem solving
NEW: Trust building
(Procedural knowledge)
NEW: Autonomy (Conceptual
knowledge)
EXISTING:
Learning from failure
Change management
Self reflection
Delegation
Empowerment
4 Additional responsibilities would be: Raising the
talent bar and along with blameless culture
building a culture of accountability
EXISTING:
Learning from failure
5 The reality is all of these are completely needed
for the modern leader of people. The variation of
how much depends on the individual leadership
style, company culture and the level of
impact/change you believe the organization can
accept.
n/a
6 Generally I’ve seen effective managers be strong
in these areas:
* They are motivated by and understand the
business problem(s) for the folks they manage
* They actively match their folks with the
intersection of motivation and business need,
moving them between orgs if needed
* They provide consistent and clear feedback on
NEW: Maximize employee
potential (Procedural)

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Comment
number
Qualitative data Skills and behavior themes
(knowledge type mapping)
areas of improvement and development
7 Servant leadership is key, period. EXISTING:
Problem identification and
solving
8 Hiring the right people (not “culture fit,” which is
problematic, but rather qualified); asking the right
questions; influencing without authority
EXISTING: Communication
9 A lot of politics tends to follow good leaders so I
would add knowing how to manage the political
environment and be well liked among peers is a
soft skill that tends to be overlooked. Keep in mind
being well liked doesn‚Äôt mean saying yes to
everything or never having conflict but rather
being able to manage conflict in a respectful way
to identify solutions for the greater good.
EXISTING: Communication
10 Knows how to hear and listen to people EXISTING:
Problem identification and
solving
11 I think being adaptable (nimble) is important,
especially with multiple priorities and changing
goals.
EXISTING:
Learning from failure
Change management
Problem solving
R1 Motivational Influences Qualitative Response Analysis
The following table (Table B2) displays how each qualitative response from the
motivation survey section was mapped to either previously defined motivational influences or
assigned a new motivational item. Each new motivational item was also mapped to a related
construct based on Bandura’s (2000) self-efficacy theory. This coding exercise resulted in the
formulation of 3 new Likert-style motivational influence prompts for Round 2 of the survey.
Exact wording for new prompts is presented in Appendix B.

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Table B2
Leader Motivations: Qualitative Analysis
Comment
number
Qualitative data Motivational construct
mapping
1 Empathy, empowering, supportive Self-efficacy in practicing
empathy
2 Too often we emphasize leadership as being
confident and dominant. Your confidence can and
should ebb and flow as you tackle unknown
challenges. Learning is critical as a leader and it
would be impossible to be fully confident and
learning/improving at the same time.
Self-efficacy in adaptiveness
Self-efficacy in knowing
when their expertise is
limited
R1 Organizational Influences Qualitative Response Analysis
The following table displays how each qualitative response from the organizational
support survey section was mapped to a new organizational item and categorized into themes
previously used to develop the Round 1 prompts, which include (a) resources, (b) cultural
setting, or (c) policies and procedures. This coding exercise resulted in the formulation of six
new Likert-style organizational influence prompts for Round 2 of the survey. Exact wording is
presented in the table below (Table B3), as well as in Appendix C.

166
Table B3
Organizational Influences: Qualitative Analysis
Comment
number
Qualitative data Organizational support category
and new prompt
1 Leadership perspectives should include
OUTSIDE the organization itself. Too often
companies only look within. Instead we should
be learning about techniques and styles across
industries.
Leadership trainings are often segmented by
rank / company hierarchy. But leadership in
the workplace doesn’t appear that way. The
challenges you face have to be evaluated and
solved for above you, beside you, and below
you within the organization. I would love to
see more collaborative leadership and
development sprints where folks at all levels
get a chance to train together. It’s harder and
harder for those at the top to stay connected to
the work on the ground.
Transparent salary and total compensation
information for all employees at all levels. It’s
2023, and every year the company is not
working toward salary transparency is another
year the company is making their leaders jobs
harder.
Resources:
To enhance decision-making,
organizations should empower
leaders to seek external expertise
and perspectives, while also
providing the necessary
resources to support this
endeavor.
Cultural setting:
Organizations should support
collaborative leadership
development at all levels of
leadership, rather than limiting it
to specific ranks.
Policies and procedures:
Organizational policies should
support transparency about
salary and total compensation for
employees.
2 Organizations should have people
accountability goals for leaders, such as
employee engagement scores
Policies and procedures:
Organizational procedures
should mandate setting and
measuring leader accountability
goals, such as employee
engagement scores.
3 To measure performance equitably
organizations must establish quantifiable
benchmarks for each level of staff and are
made public. Furthermore organizations should
be prepared to evolve the benchmarks as the
skill sets and talent bar of employees change
and evolve
Policies and procedures:
Organizations should leverage
leader performance metrics, like
employee engagement scores, to
proactively assess and enhance
leadership effectiveness as time
progresses.

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Comment
number
Qualitative data Organizational support category
and new prompt
4 Organizations have to get over the ‘cliché’ of
offering these programs and services which are
just a check marks on a person’s performance.
Unless these programs, procedures are directly
aligned to organizational and personal
goal/mission that is tangible to both the leader
and the team, many of these are not as
impactful as they could be.
Same as above
5 Ensuring equitable access to resources for
people from different demographic groups (and
that could include different resources or
different intervention points based on trends);
embed DEIB (diversity, equity, inclusion,
belonging) performance criteria in people
manager’s performance reviews/evaluations;
and provide intervention support for folks who
report their managers/managers with poor
performance so it doesn’t hurt their whole team
Cultural setting:
Organizations should distinguish
between leaders from different
demographic groups and support
leader development with a
diversity, equity, inclusion, and
belonging lens.
6 All are very important, the org should also set
aside funding for these activities..
Covered in resources prompt
R1 Recommendations Analysis
The following table (Table B4) displays qualitative responses to the recommendations
survey prompt and shows the mapping process of each response to a set of keywords. Keywords
were then counted in a frequency table (see Table B5). Finally, 16 new Likert-style prompts for
Round 2 of the survey were developed to represent respondent feedback. Respondents were
asked to rate the importance of each item in the Round 2 survey. Exact wording for new prompts
is presented in Appendix C.

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Table B4
Leader Development Activity Recommendations: Qualitative Analysis
Comment
number
Qualitative data Keywords
1 Seek a mentor that will help you to distill and refine your
personal management experiences and shape your
management style.
Mentoring
2 Formal training, mentorship‚Äôs/coaching, and assigned
readings.
Formal training
Mentoring
Coaching
Reading
3 Formal training and coaching Formal training
Coaching
4 Mentorship, Coaching, Books, Self Learning. I also believe
best leadership qualities and development activites are often
best developed outside the workplace, IE: on teams, through
organizations on in communites
Mentoring
Coaching
Learn outside of
workplace
5 Mentoring/coaching, reading, online or in person courses Mentoring
Coaching
Reading
Formal training
6 Get a mentor in your workplace that is senior to you but not in
your specific department. Ideally someone at your bosses
level. This is invaluable to have a more seasoned voice you
can get advice from or simply share a challenge.
Start a journal. Reflecting on conversations, decisions,
emotions, etc is important and can help reduce emotional
burden and decision fatigue. This will also help you identify
patterns in your own decision making.
Build a network of peers at your company. This is where you
will get your most valuable information and signals, even more
than from your boss. Don’t be afraid to introduce yourself to
other leaders across the organization. That network is your
lifeline.
Make a plan, 30/60/90 or whatever works for you but don’t
rush to implement it. LISTEN and LEARN before you rush to
Mentoring
Journaling
Introspection
Networking
Institutional
knowledge

169
Comment
number
Qualitative data Keywords
act. Many leaders assume the only thing missing or preventing
teams from succeeding in the past is them. That is folly. Don’t
disregard the work of those that came before you. Learn from
it, understand the history of your team, your scope, the
companies history etc. The more you know BEFORE you
implement change the better it will be received and the more
likely you will be to sustain change.
Cast a vision. Maybe it’s a sentence, maybe it’s a bulleted list,
but you will need a Northstar. Take time to figure out what that
is and then keep it visible. It will help you make decisions big
and small that are to come.
7 All of the above! But mostly mentoring, holistically. Meaning
peer and up the ladder
Mentoring
Networking
8 Coaching and mentoring from a successful leader within the
organization.
Coaching
Mentoring
9 Formal training is an essential foundational learning activity.
Coaching and mentorship are key to reinforcing successful
leadership behaviors.
Formal training
Coaching
Mentoring
10 One cannot be fully prepared for the challenges of becoming a
people leader for the first time. There will always be unique
and nuance situations that books or training cannot cover. To
be successful new managers should be paired with Sr. Leaders
as mentors to help guide them through the challenges of
leading people and managing an organization
Mentoring
11 Templates and examples for goal setting and formal feedback
like 1:1s, LinkedIn learning courses, to find a mentor
On-the-job learning
Formal training
Mentoring
Feedback from
supervisor
12 Formal training, as well as a focus on learning the work of
their direct reports.
Formal training
Reverse mentoring
13 New managers should have a manager coach which will
shadow them for a year. This will allow the new manager to go
through a full employee management cycle (onboarding (if
there are new team members, mid year, end year reviews,
providing regular feedback to team, staff meetings, etc.).
Coaching

170
Comment
number
Qualitative data Keywords
14 In regards to the question above, I believe that you can teach
an individual contributor what it means to be a people manager
vs. an individual contributor, and introduce them to various
leadership philosophies and practices in 3-6 months--but that
the “training” is never done. Leader can learn, evolve, and
improve forever.
In regards to the development activities I’d recommend, I
would say a combination of “theory” (e.g. books, formal
training) and active coaching via personal mentorship.
Coaching
Formal training
Reading
Mentoring
15 Coaching/mentoring with experienced leaders Coaching
Mentoring
16 Formal training and access to mentor/ sponsor coaching Formal training
Mentoring
Coaching
17 * mentor to handle strategic path
* onboarding buddy to help with logistics of new folks
* practice managing folks
Mentoring
Networking
18 Faking it ‘till you make it. Embody the role
19 Regular coaching Coaching
20 Mentorship, coaching, books (Maxwell), then training Mentoring
Coaching
Reading
21 Thinking, Fast and Slow Reading
22 Mentorship and coaching, formal training. Mentoring
Coaching
Formal training
23 I would suggest starting with “Start with Why” and other work
of Simon Sinek. Empathy training.
Reading
Empathy training
24 Combination of formal and informal training and resources, as
well as access to wellnesa modalities.
Formal training
On-the-job learning
25 formal training, mentorship Formal training
Mentoring
26 Coaching Coaching

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Comment
number
Qualitative data Keywords
27 Formal training before starting (or within first month in role);
resource kits for standard people management activities along
with pedagogy; diversity equity inclusion belonging
professional development to be an inclusive leader; shadowing
of experienced people managers; multiple mentors internally to
provide more hands-on coaching/support in first 6-months in
role
Formal training
Mentoring
Shadowing
28 I am saying under 3 months because as a leader you are never
fully trained you need to jump in and keep learning. Some of
my favorite nooks have been, ‚ÄúYou‚Äôre a Badass‚Äù,
‚ÄúRadical Candor‚Äù, ‚ÄúTurn this Ship Around‚Äù,
‚ÄúCritical Conversations‚Äù
Reading
29 Formal training and coaching/mentoring would be the most
beneficial activities.
Formal training
Coaching
Mentoring
30 Find someone that‚Äôs good at it, and become a student again! Mentoring
31 Training, ongoing support, external and internal learning,
knowing what every position in an organization does and
preferably spends a few days doing each job to understands
it‚Äôs strength and weakness, understand processes and how
to set up efficiency while creating a team of productive, happy
employees
Institutional
knowledge
Formal training
32 Formal training alogn with coach/mentor for support. Formal training
Coaching
Mentoring
33 Learn how to demonstrate empathy Empathy training
34 Formal training and role playing to expedite their experience Formal training
Embody the role
35 Formal training and coaching Formal training
Coaching
36 Mentoring, formal management training class, presentation
and communication skills.
Mentoring
Formal training
37 Definetly coaching and talking with the team members to gain
an understanding of what they think their roles and
resposibilities are. After that looking at the customers and
Coaching
Reverse mentoring

172
Comment
number
Qualitative data Keywords
deliverables of the group, perfroming a gap analysis and either
confirming adequacy of the team or identifying gaps and
correcting them.
38 Books and connecting with peers for advice Reading
Networking
39 Coaching from someone who has successfully managed, and
lead is an essential part of becoming an new manager.
Coaching
40 Formal training, mentorship/coaching. Formal training
Mentoring
Coaching
41 Feedback from peers and employees, understanding
organizational structures outside of and beyond the one they
are employed in. Anything about individual strength based
value to org to empower self and employees. Learning about
how existing corporate structures have often failed minority
groups and women and being cognizant of those pitfalls
Reverse mentoring
Learn outside of
workplace
Learn from failure of
others

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Table B5
Leadership Development Recommendations: Keyword Frequency
Keyword Frequency
Mentoring 23
Coaching 20
Formal training 19
Reading 8
Networking 4
Reverse mentoring 3
Learn outside of workplace 2
Embody the role 2
On-the-job learning 2
Empathy training 2
Institutional knowledge 2
Shadowing 1
Feedback from supervisor 1
Introspection 1
Journaling 1
Learn from failure of others 1
R1 Most Helpful Leadership Development Activities Analysis
The following table (Table B6) displays qualitative responses to the survey question
about leadership development activities that were most helpful or influential for the participants
in their own leadership journeys. Table B7 shows frequencies at which each keyword was used
by participants.

174
Table B6
Most Helpful or Influential Leadership Development Activities Reported by Panelists:
Qualitative Analysis
Comment
number
Qualitative data Keywords
1 Observing and learning from my peers and other leaders within
my organization was the most helpful for my personal
development as a leader
Shadowing
2 Informal Leadership mentorship Mentorship
3 Informal leadership training/coaching Coaching
4 I find that informal mentorship and time at task are the most
helpful. Time in position is important as business needs change
over time and you have to adjust and reflect to move forward.
Mentorship
On-the-job learning
5 Pursuing advanced degrees Formal training
6 Mentorship - I‚Äôve benefited greatly from the mentors I have
had the good fortune to work with during my career.
Mentorship
7 Reading Reading
8 Having an executive coach and my USC doctoral program. Coaching
9 Professional coaching Coaching
10 Coaching/Mentoring Coaching
Mentoring
11 Mentorship and business coaching 1:1 and small group Mentoring
Coaching
12 Informal mentorship Mentoring
13 In-person “Experienced Leaders” program at First American.
Content was meaningful but exposure to senior leadership as
part of the program had the greater impact.
Formal training
14 Following examples of good leadership and a commitment to
self discovery and awareness.
Shadowing

175
Comment
number
Qualitative data Keywords
Commitment to
learning
15 Completing a Masters Degree in Management/Leadership Formal training
16 None
17 informal leadership coaching or mentorship Coaching
Mentoring
18 Classroom style workshops Formal training
19 Experience has been the most significant development activity,
by far. Management books have probably influenced me most
of the activities in the list, followed by my executive coach.
Experience
Reading
Coaching
20 Individual learning Commitment to
learning
21 Informal leadership coaching and mentorship has been the most
helpful. Boeing Leadership Center’s Senior Leadership
program was also very good.
Coaching
Mentoring
Formal training
22 Readings Reading
23 Mentorship from other mentors. Mentoring
24 Online training outside of my organization Learn outside of
workplace
25 Mentorship Mentoring
26 books Reading
27 books. Always love me a good book. Reading
28 All were helpful, they key was trying to learn versus the
specific mechanism
Commitment to
learning
29 Informal mentorship Mentoring

176
Comment
number
Qualitative data Keywords
30 Informal coaching and mentorship Coaching
Mentoring
31 It’s tough to say as all have been beneficial in different ways,
for different purposes. But if I had to choose, I would say that
personal/informal mentorship from a couple key people over
the years made the most significant impact on how I lead.
Mentoring
32 Nothing beats experience and getting advice from mentors
(which is experience in itself).
Mentoring
33 In field experience. Experience
34 reading and informal mentorship Reading
Mentorship
35 Classroom style training at workplace Formal training
36 Leadership and coaching with seasoned leaders Coaching
37 Formal leadership coaching and mentorship Coaching
Mentoring
38 Informal coaching and mentorship Coaching
Mentoring
39 Mentorship Mentoring
40 Mentoring; Doctoral degree; readings Mentoring
Formal training
Reading
41 Informal coaching and mentorship Coaching
Mentorship
42 Reading Reading
43 Received formal leadership coaching or mentorship
Received informal leadership coaching or mentorship
Readings (e.g. management books, publications, etc
Coaching
Mentoring
Reading

177
Comment
number
Qualitative data Keywords
44 Online (asynchronous) training Formal training
45 Both types of mentoring Mentoring
46 Pursuing my degree and informal mentoring. Formal training
Mentoring
47 Classroom style at my company & informal mentorship. Formal training
Mentoring
48 Mentorship and feedback from employees and managers Mentoring
Feedback from
supervisor
Table B7
Most Helpful or Influential Leadership Development Activities: Keyword Frequency
Keyword Frequency
Mentoring 25
Coaching 14
Formal training 10
Reading 9
Commitment to learning 3
Shadowing 2
Experience 2
Learn outside of workplace 1
On-the-job learning 1
Feedback from supervisor 1

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Appendix C: R2 Survey Instrument
Thank you for your continued participation. The insights collected will be used for developing a
new data-informed leader development training program for first-time managers. This survey is
anonymous, and participation is voluntary.
This is the second and final survey for this study. The information collected from the first round
has been analyzed and will be presented to you in this round.
MAIN SURVEY SECTION
Leaders like you often wear a variety of hats. For the following questions, think of the ideal
leader as one who is motivated and committed to the company’s vision and mission, and
effectively leverages their team to reach organizational goals.
Knowledge Assessment Section
Q12 The following items describe skills and behaviors exhibited by leaders. On a scale of 0%
(not important) to 100% (very important), please rate the importance of each item as it pertains
to leader effectiveness.
● Recognizes their role as an organizational change agent whose role is to drive
organizational performance, beyond solely managing tasks and workload of their team.
● Promotes a positive team culture and work environment by cultivating open
communication, mutual respect, and collaboration.
● Recognizes and appreciates individual achievements, provides growth opportunities, and
encourages a sense of purpose to motivate and engage employees.

179
● Initiates a formal goal setting process regularly, translates broader organizational goals to
the team, guides team members to articulate individual goals, monitors progress towards
goals, and provides feedback.
● Regularly engages in conversations with direct reports about their performance, uses
formal mechanisms to evaluate individual performance.
● Manages an annual budgeting process, collects project feedback from team, secures funds
needed for team initiatives, seeks cost savings opportunities, gathers appropriate
approvals.
● Makes informed decisions by gathering relevant information, analyzing options,
consulting with key stakeholders, and considering long-term implications.
● Delegates work and empower teams by clearly defining tasks, assigning them to team
members, providing necessary resources and support, establishing clear expectations, and
periodically reviewing progress.
● Actively listens, observes, and engages to identify problems, analyzes root causes,
develops creative solutions, and collaborates to implement effective problem-solving
strategies.
● If a crisis occurs, swiftly identifies the situation, establishes clear communication
channels, coordinates resources, makes informed decisions, prioritizes actions, and
guides their team towards resolution.
● Exhibits effective communication skills by communicating clearly, actively listening, and
encouraging two-way feedback to ensure mutual understanding with team members and
stakeholders.

180
● Actively promotes and embraces diverse perspectives, creates inclusive policies and
procedures, provides equal opportunities for growth and development, and fosters a
culture of respect and belonging for all team members.
● Successfully manages change by communicating the need for change, involving key
stakeholders in the planning process, providing support and resources, addressing
resistance, and continuously monitoring progress.
● Practices self-reflection by regularly reflecting on their own thoughts, biases, and actions,
seeks feedback from others, remains open to different perspectives, and adjusts their
approach accordingly to promote continuous learning and personal growth.
● Analyzes options by gathering relevant data, evaluating potential outcomes, considering
the pros and cons of each option, consulting with relevant stakeholders, and using critical
thinking to make informed decisions.
● Learns from failure by fostering a culture of psychological safety, encouraging open and
honest discussions about mistakes, analyzing root causes, identifying lessons learned, and
implementing changes to prevent similar failures in the future.
● Studies different leadership approaches, reflects on their own values, strengths, and
preferences, seeks feedback from others, and adapts their own leadership style.
● Promotes a growth mindset, believes that abilities and intelligence can be developed
through dedication, effort, and continuous learning, allowing for personal and
professional growth.
3 new items added from Round 1 qualitative inputs
● Promotes autonomy by setting clear expectations and providing necessary supporting
resources, allowing individuals the freedom to make decisions within their roles.

181
● Demonstrates consistent actions and behaviors to enhance trustworthiness and integrity as
a leader.
● Provides opportunities for skill development in areas of an employee’s individual
strengths to maximize employee potential.
Motivation Assessment Section
Q14 According to prior research, motivation influences leadership performance, and a number of
motivational factors are relevant to leadership development. On a scale of 0% (not important) to
100% (very important), please rate the importance of each item as it pertains to leader
effectiveness.
● Demonstrates self-confidence in performing management job responsibilities.
● Exhibits self-confidence in leading a team to reach organizational goals.
● Attributes success and failures to their own efforts (does not blame failure on lack of
ability).
● Shows personal value in ensuring that each team member adopts team goals as their own
and commits to attaining goals.
● Shows personal value in establishing a shared direction amongst team members.
● Shows personal value in deriving team goals based on broader organizational goals and
regularly communicating goals to team members.
3 new items added from Round 1 qualitative inputs
● Believes that they have an ability to experience empathy by sensing and understanding
what others may be feeling or thinking.

182
● Believes in their ability to quickly adapt, change direction, and remain flexible in
approaching new situations.
● Demonstrates an ability to acknowledge their own professional limitations, and willingly
seeks assistance when faced with challenges beyond their expertise.
Organizational Influences Section
Q15 Research shows that organizational barriers and support systems impact managers’ ability
to succeed in the role of a leader. On a scale of 0% (not important) to 100% (very important),
please rate the importance of organizational actions that effectively support leaders in their
leadership development journey.
● Organizations should support leadership development by offering training programs,
mentorship opportunities, access to relevant literature and resources, and coaching
sessions.
● Organizations should implement policies and procedures that guide employee
performance evaluation systems, encourage leadership development, and offer incentives
and rewards for leadership development efforts.
● Organizations should create and maintain a culture that values and promotes continuous
learning and growth for their leaders.
● Organizations should model desired leadership behavior by clearly communicating what
is valued and considered ideal in the organization, what should be pursued or avoided,
and what are the assumed rules of interactions with others within the workplace
environment.
6 new items added from Round 1 qualitative inputs

183
● To enhance decision-making, organizations should empower leaders to seek external
expertise and perspectives, while also providing the necessary resources to support this
endeavor.
● Organizations should support collaborative leadership development at all levels of
leadership, rather than limiting it to specific ranks.
● Organizational policies should support transparency about salary and total compensation
for employees.
● Organizational procedures should mandate setting and measuring leader accountability
goals, such as employee engagement scores.
● Organizations should leverage leader performance metrics, like employee engagement
scores, to proactively assess and enhance leadership effectiveness as time progresses.
● Organizations should distinguish between leaders from different demographic groups and
support leader development with a diversity, equity, inclusion, and belonging lens.
RECOMMENDATIONS SECTION
In this final section, we have compiled recommendations from expert leaders using the
information collected in Round 1 of the surveys. These responses were provided to the prompt to
“recommend leadership development activities for first-time managers.”
Q20 Please rate the importance of each recommendation for successful first-time leader
transition (slider scale 0% “Not Important” to 100% “Very Important” to indicate level of
importance):

184
● Mentorship: Managers should seek support from an experienced leader to provide
valuable insights, share personal experience, and guidance that enables a new leader to
grow, learn, and navigate their leadership role more effectively.
● Coaching: Managers should seek support from a coach to assist the new leader in
enhancing specific skills, achieving objectives, and unlocking their full potential, through
a structured and goal-oriented process.
● Formal training: Managers should pursue formal leadership training and education in or
outside of their workplace.
● Reading: Managers should explore literature on leadership topics.
● Networking: Managers should practice building and maintaining relationships with peers,
colleagues, and industry contacts to exchange information, support, and seek
opportunities for professional development.
● Institutional knowledge: Managers should spend time reviewing information relating to
past organizational experiences and decisions, with the intention to inform future
decision-making.
● Shadowing: Managers should learn by observing others in a leadership position similar to
their own, seeking guidance and insights to gain practical experience and a deeper
understanding of the role.
● Empathy training: Managers should learn to develop and enhance their capacity to
understand and share the feelings, perspectives, and experiences of others, fostering more
compassionate and supportive interpersonal interactions.

185
● Reverse mentoring: Managers should spend time receiving guidance from less
experienced or junior employees with the goal of gaining valuable insights, perspectives,
and knowledge.
● Journaling: Managers should journal regularly. This may include recording daily events,
articulating emotions, setting goals, or other memos with a goal of organizing thoughts,
tracking personal growth, and gaining a better understanding of their emotions.
● On-the-job learning: Managers should gain practical hands-on experience by performing
actual managerial tasks using existing process templates, frameworks, and prior
examples.
● Learning outside of the workplace: Managers should pursue external communities such
as professional associations or contacts outside the organization to develop leadership
skills.
● Embody the role: Managers should act with confidence and competence, even if they
don’t initially possess the required skills or knowledge, in the hope that their self-assured
demeanor will eventually lead to genuine competence or success through learning and
experience.
● Feedback from supervisor: Managers should learn from direct feedback from their
leadership.
● Introspection: Managers should regularly engage in self-reflection to help them gain
insights into their actions and emotions, leading to improved self-awareness and more
effective decision-making.
● Learn from failure of others: Study historical failures and past mistakes of organizational
leaders.

186
CLOSING STATEMENT
Thank you for your participation in this research. Once we have analyzed the results, we will
provide you with a summary report.

187
Appendix D: Coefficient of Variation Analysis
The Coefficient of Variation (CV) measure was calculated and used for analyzing the
variability of answers to the questions presented in both Round 1 and two surveys. The measure
was used as an indicator for opinion convergence or divergence over time. The tables below
show the change in CV between the two rounds of surveys and identify whether the opinions
converged (CV reduced in R2), diverged (CV increased in R2), or remained the same (CV
unchanged in R2).
RQ1 Sequential Consensus Trend
Table F1 shows CVs for both rounds, percent change, and identifies the consensus trend
for data associated with answering the RQ 1 of this study, which was “What leadership tasks and
behaviors do expert leaders in corporations identify as important for early career managers to
develop into performant leaders?”
Table F1
Coefficient of Variation Trend Analysis for RQ1
Item CV
R1
CV
R2
Change Consensus
trend
Promotes a positive team culture and work environment by
cultivating open communication, mutual respect, and
collaboration.
14% 12% –2% converge
If a crisis occurs, swiftly identifies the situation, establishes
clear communication channels, coordinates resources, makes
informed decisions, prioritizes actions, and guides their team
towards resolution.
14% 11% –3% converge
Makes informed decisions by gathering relevant information,
analyzing options, consulting with key stakeholders, and
considering long-term implications.
18% 13% –5% converge
Shows personal value in establishing a shared direction
amongst team members.
16% 19% 3% diverge
Attributes success and failures to their own efforts (does not
blame failure on lack of ability).
22% 17% –5% converge

188
Item CV
R1
CV
R2
Change Consensus
trend
Learns from failure by fostering a culture of psychological
safety, encouraging open and honest discussions about
mistakes, analyzing root causes, identifying lessons learned,
and implementing changes to prevent similar failures in the
future.
15% 14% –1% converge
Actively listens, observes, and engages to identify problems,
analyzes root causes, develops creative solutions, and
collaborates to implement effective problem-solving
strategies.
14% 16% 2% diverge
Exhibits effective communication skills by communicating
clearly, actively listening, and encouraging two-way
feedback to ensure mutual understanding with team members
and stakeholders.
12% 12% 0% same
Delegates work and empower teams by clearly defining tasks,
assigning them to team members, providing necessary
resources and support, establishing clear expectations, and
periodically reviewing progress.
15% 14% –1% converge
Actively promotes and embraces diverse perspectives, creates
inclusive policies and procedures, provides equal
opportunities for growth and development, and fosters a
culture of respect and belonging for all team members.
19% 19% 1% same
Analyzes options by gathering relevant data, evaluating
potential outcomes, considering the pros and cons of each
option, consulting with relevant stakeholders, and using
critical thinking to make informed decisions.
19% 14% –5% converge
Recognizes and appreciates individual achievements, provides
growth opportunities, and encourages a sense of purpose to
motivate and engage employees.
15% 16% 1% diverge
Successfully manages change by communicating the need for
change, involving key stakeholders in the planning process,
providing support and resources, addressing resistance, and
continuously monitoring progress.
17% 20% 2% diverge
Practices self-reflection by regularly reflecting on their own
thoughts, biases, and actions, seeks feedback from others,
remains open to different perspectives, and adjusts their
approach accordingly to promote continuous learning and
personal growth.
20% 19% –1% converge
Recognizes their role as an organizational change agent whose
role is to drive organizational performance, beyond solely
managing tasks and workload of their team.
19% 17% –2% converge

189
Item CV
R1
CV
R2
Change Consensus
trend
Promotes a growth mindset, believes that abilities and
intelligence can be developed through dedication, effort, and
continuous learning, allowing for personal and professional
growth.
14% 16% 2% diverge
Regularly engages in conversations with direct reports about
their performance, uses formal mechanisms to evaluate
individual performance.
17% 18% 0% diverge

190
RQ2 Sequential Consensus Trend
Table F2 shows CVs for both rounds, percent change between the two rounds, and calls
out the consensus trend for data associated with answering the RQ 2 of this study, which was
“How can organizations best support growing leaders to effectively transition from an individual
contributor role?”
Table F2
Coefficient of Variation Trend Analysis for RQ2
Item CV
R1
CV
R2
Change Consensus
trend
Organizations should support leadership development by
offering training programs, mentorship opportunities, access
to relevant literature and resources, and coaching sessions.
20% 19% –1% converge
Organizations should implement policies and procedures that
guide employee performance evaluation systems, encourage
leadership development, and offer incentives and rewards for
leadership development efforts.
21% 18% –3% converge
Organizations should create and maintain a culture that values
and promotes continuous learning and growth for their
leaders.
14% 13% –1% converge
Organizations should model desired leadership behavior by
clearly communicating what is valued and considered ideal in
the organization, what should be pursued or avoided, and what
are the assumed rules of interactions with others within the
workplace environment.
21% 18% –3% converge

191
Appendix E: KMO Tables
The tables in this section include full lists of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences leveraged throughout this study. The three tables combine both prior literatureinformed and expert-informed factors that influence leadership as identified by this study. Table
E1 summarizes knowledge influence with the categories of factual, conceptual, procedural, and
metacognitive elements, describes each construct as synthesized from prior literature, presents
the prompt used in this study, and discloses the expert panelist consensus levels for each item.
Table E2 showcases the motivational influences, prompts from the study, psychological
constructs associated with each item, and consensus levels. Finally, Table E3 displays the
organizational influences, organized into resources, policies and procedures, cultural settings,
and cultural models—each item is mapped to prompts used in survey instruments of this study,
and show corresponding expert consensus levels.
Items that did not meet the consensus minimum of 75% are italicized. Items that were
added to the lists as part of this research (were not found in prior literature) are noted as new.
Table E1
Knowledge Influences, Literature and Study Informed
Knowledge
influence
Literature-informed
knowledge influence
Survey prompt presented to
panelists
Consensus
level
Factual knowledge influence: information and facts that managers need to know
Leadership
styles
Aware of various
leadership styles such as
transactional,
transformational, servant,
etc.
Studies different leadership
approaches, reflects on their own
values, strengths, and preferences,
seeks feedback from others, and
adapts their own leadership style.
55%
Diversity,
equity, and
inclusion
Holds knowledge about
concepts of diversity,
Actively promote and embrace
diverse perspectives, create
inclusive policies and procedures,
82%

192
Knowledge
influence
Literature-informed
knowledge influence
Survey prompt presented to
panelists
Consensus
level
equity, and inclusion in
the workplace.
provide equal opportunities for
growth and development, and foster
a culture of respect and belonging
for all team members.
Conceptual knowledge influence: meaningful connections between different ideas
Management
versus
leadership
Conceptualizes the
distinctions and overlaps
between management and
leadership.
Recognize their role as an
organizational change agent whose
role is to drive organizational
performance, beyond solely
managing tasks and workload of
their team.
75%
Organizational
culture
Promotes a positive team
culture and work
environment by
cultivating open
communication, respect,
and collaboration.
Promote a positive team culture and
work environment by cultivating
open communication, mutual
respect, and collaboration.
93%
Employee
motivation and
engagement
Recognizes that leaders’
actions influence
employee motivation and
engagement.
Recognize and appreciates
individual achievements, provide
growth opportunities, and
encourage a sense of purpose to
motivate and engage employees.
80%
Autonomy n/a New item: Promotes autonomy by
setting clear expectations and
providing necessary supporting
resources, allowing individuals the
freedom to make decisions within
their roles.
89%
Procedural knowledge influence: steps for accomplishing specific managerial tasks
Goal setting
process
Initiates and directs a
formal goal setting
process.
Initiate a formal goal setting
process regularly, translate broader
organizational goals to the team,
guide team members to articulate
individual goals, monitor progress
towards goals, and provide
feedback.
73%

193
Knowledge
influence
Literature-informed
knowledge influence
Survey prompt presented to
panelists
Consensus
level
Employee
performance
evaluation
process
Guides team members to
regularly evaluate
individual performance.
Regularly engage in conversations
with direct reports about their
performance, and use formal
mechanisms to evaluate individual
performance.
75%
Budgeting
process
Manages team budget. New item: Manage an annual
budgeting process, collect project
feedback from the team, secure
funds needed for team initiatives,
seek cost savings opportunities,
gather appropriate approvals.
59%
Decision
making
Makes informed
decisions by gathering
information, analyzing,
and considering
implications.
Make informed decisions by
gathering relevant information,
analyzing options, consulting with
key stakeholders, and considering
long-term implications.
91%
Delegation and
employee
empowerment
Delegates work and
empowers team
members.
Delegate work and empower teams
by clearly defining tasks, assign
them to team members, provide
necessary resources and support,
establish clear expectations, and
periodically review progress.
84%
Problem
identification
and solving
Actively listens and
observes to identify
problems and seeks
solutions.
Actively listen, observe, and engage
to identify problems, analyze root
causes, develop creative solutions,
and collaborate to implement
effective problem-solving
strategies.
86%
Crisis
management
Effectively responds to a
crisis situation.
If a crisis occurs, swiftly identify
the situation, establish clear
communication channels,
coordinate resources, make
informed decisions, prioritizes
actions, and guides their team
towards resolution.
93%
Communication Communicates clearly
with team members and
stakeholders.
Exhibit effective communication
skills by communicating clearly,
actively listening, and encouraging
two-way feedback to ensure mutual
84%

194
Knowledge
influence
Literature-informed
knowledge influence
Survey prompt presented to
panelists
Consensus
level
understanding with team members
and stakeholders.
Process of
cultivating
diversity,
equity, and
inclusion
Actively promotes and
embraces diversity,
equity, and inclusion on
the team.
Actively promote and embrace
diverse perspectives, create
inclusive policies and procedures,
provide equal opportunities for
growth and development, and foster
a culture of respect and belonging
for all team members.
82%
Change
management
Manages change by
communicating needs
for the change,
overseeing plans and
implementation of
change initiatives.
Successfully manages change by
communicating the need for
change, involving key stakeholders
in the planning process, providing
support and resources, addressing
resistance, and continuously
monitoring progress.
80%
Trust building n/a New item: Demonstrates consistent
actions and behaviors to enhance
trustworthiness and integrity as a
leader.
89%
Maximize
employee
potential
n/a New item: Provides opportunities
for skill development in areas of an
employee’s individual strengths to
maximize employee potential.
73%
Metacognitive knowledge influence: self-reflection to evaluate thought process
Reflecting on
past situations
Practices self-reflection
to analyze their own
thoughts, biases, and
actions.
Practices self-reflection by
regularly reflecting on their own
thoughts, biases, and actions, seeks
feedback from others, remains open
to different perspectives, and
adjusts their approach accordingly
to promote continuous learning and
personal growth.
80%
Critical
thinking
Analyzes options to make
informed decisions.
Analyzes options by gathering
relevant data, evaluating potential
outcomes, considering the pros and
cons of each option, consulting with
relevant stakeholders, and using
80%

195
Knowledge
influence
Literature-informed
knowledge influence
Survey prompt presented to
panelists
Consensus
level
critical thinking to make informed
decisions.
Leadership
identity
formation
Reflects on various
leadership approaches
and adapts their own
leadership style.
Studies different leadership
approaches, reflects on their own
values, strengths, and preferences,
seeks feedback from others, and
adapts their own leadership style.
55%
Learning from
failure
Encourages open and
honest discussions about
mistakes and identifies
lessons learned.
Learns from failure by fostering a
culture of psychological safety,
encouraging open and honest
discussions about mistakes,
analyzing root causes, identifying
lessons learned, and implementing
changes to prevent similar failures
in the future.
86%
Growth
mindset
Believes that abilities and
intelligence can be
developed.
Promotes a growth mindset,
believes that abilities and
intelligence can be developed
through dedication, effort, and
continuous learning, allowing for
personal and professional growth
75%
Table E2
Motivation Influences, Literature and Study Informed
Literature-informed
motivation influence
Survey prompt presented
to panelists
Psychological
construct
Consensus
level
Demonstrates selfconfidence in performing
management job
responsibilities.
Demonstrates selfconfidence in performing
management job
responsibilities.
Self-efficacy
(Bandura, 2000) in
management
67%
Exhibits self-confidence in
leading a team to reach
organizational goals.
Exhibits self-confidence in
leading a team to reach
organizational goals.
Self-efficacy
(Bandura, 2000) in
leadership
74%

196
Literature-informed
motivation influence
Survey prompt presented
to panelists
Psychological
construct
Consensus
level
Attributes team success or
failure to level of effort and
not to ability.
Attributes success and
failures to their own
efforts (does not blame
failure on lack of ability).
Attribution
(Anderman &
Anderman, 2009)
76%
Shows personal value in
ensuring that each team
member adopts team goals
as their own and commits to
attaining goals.
Shows personal value in
ensuring that each team
member adopts team goals
as their own and commits
to attaining goals.
Attainment value
(Eccles, 2009) in
goal commitment
63%
Hold value in establishing a
shared vision amongst their
team members.
Shows personal value in
establishing a shared
direction amongst team
members.
Attainment value
(Eccles, 2009) in
shared vision
81%
Hold value in translating
organizational goals to their
team members.
Shows personal value in
deriving team goals based
on broader organizational
goals and regularly
communicating goals to
team members.
Attainment value
(Eccles, 2009) in
translating and
cascading
organizational goals
74%
n/a New item: Believes that
they have an ability to
experience empathy by
sensing and understanding
what others may be feeling
or thinking.
Self-efficacy in
empathy (Bandura,
2000)
86%
n/a New item: Believes in
their ability to quickly
adapt, change direction,
and remain flexible in
approaching new
situations.
Self-efficacy in
adaptiveness
(Bandura, 2000)
84%
n/a New item: Demonstrates
an ability to acknowledge
their own professional
limitations, and willingly
seeks assistance when
faced with challenges
beyond their expertise.
Self-efficacy in
recognizing their
own lack of
expertise (Bandura,
2000)
88%

197
Table E3
Organizational Influences, Literature and Study Informed
Literature-informed
organizational influence
Exact prompt presented to the panelists Consensus
Level
Resources
The organization offers
leadership development
resources for a successful
leadership transition
Organizations should support leadership development
by offering training programs, mentorship
opportunities, access to relevant literature and
resources, and coaching sessions.
79%
n/a New item: To enhance decision-making, organizations
should empower leaders to seek external expertise and
perspectives, while also providing the necessary
resources to support this endeavor
65%
Policies and procedures
The organizational
policies and procedures
support leadership
development
Organizations should implement policies and
procedures that guide employee performance
evaluation systems, encourage leadership
development, and offer incentives and rewards for
leadership development efforts.
79%
n/a New item: Organizational policies should support
transparency about salary and total compensation for
employees
69%
n/a New item: Organizational procedures should mandate
setting and measuring leader accountability goals,
such as employee engagement scores.
59%
n/a New item: Organizations should leverage leader
performance metrics, like employee engagement
scores, to proactively assess and enhance leadership
effectiveness as time progresses
60%
Cultural setting
The cultural setting
formally supports the
leaders’ ability to
successfully transition
into a leadership role
Organizations should create and maintain a culture
that values and promotes continuous learning and
growth for their leaders.
88%

198
Literature-informed
organizational influence
Exact prompt presented to the panelists Consensus
Level
n/a New item: Organizations should support collaborative
leadership development at all levels of leadership,
rather than limiting it to specific ranks
79%
n/a New item: Organizations should distinguish between
leaders from different demographic groups and
support leader development with a diversity, equity,
inclusion, and belonging lens
58%
Cultural model
Informal assumed
commitment for a
“learning community”
culture in the
organization that supports
the new leaders’
professional and personal
growth.
Organizations should model desired leadership
behavior by clearly communicating what is valued and
considered ideal in the organization, what should be
pursued or avoided, and what are the assumed rules of
interactions with others within the workplace
environment.
81%

Abstract (if available)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Eydman, Julie (author)

Core Title The first-time manager journey: a study to inform a smoother leadership transition

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2024-05

Publication Date 05/07/2024

Defense Date 03/19/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Delphi,early manager transitions,first-line manager,first-time leadership,first-time management,front-line manager,leader motivation,leadership development,leadership skills,Management,management promotion,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Tobey, Patricia Elaine (committee chair), Hirabayashi, Kimberly (committee member), Yates, Kenneth Anthony (committee member)

Creator Email eydman@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113925335

Unique identifier UC113925335

Identifier etd-EydmanJuli-12897.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-EydmanJuli-12897

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Eydman, Julie

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20240509-usctheses-batch-1149 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu