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The ambivalence of conserving Busan’s colonial heritage

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The ambivalence of conserving Busan’s colonial heritage

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Content The Ambivalence of Conserving Busan’s Colonial Heritage
by
Hoondong No
A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degrees
MASTER OF HERITAGE CONSERVATION
May 2024
Copyright 2024 Hoondong No

ii
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to the members of my thesis committee.
Trudi Sandmeier has been a beacon in my academic and personal journey, providing unwavering
support and invaluable advice that has contributed significantly to my growth and maturity. I am
deeply grateful for Jay Platt's mentorship and unique approach to cultural preservation, which
has left an indelible mark on my heart and will be forever cherished. My time with Vinayak
Bharne over the past four years has been filled with joy and laughter; every moment shared with
him has been nothing short of bliss.
I would also like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my family - my father, mother, and
brother. You are the core of my being, my constant source of love and strength. I owe you my
deepest gratitude for your unwavering support and belief in me. Thank you for always being my
heart and my roots.

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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………………..ii
List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………………….iv
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………...vi
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..1
Chapter 1: History of Busan’s Colonial Period…………………………………………………...5
1.1 Korea’s First Open Port……………………………………………………………………………...5
1.2 Japan’s Outpost on the Continent…………………………………………………………………...12
1.3 The Historical Schism of Korea: From the Open Port Era to the Korean War……………………..15
1.4 Korean War, Destruction of Heritage……………………………………………………………….17
Chapter 2 Busans’s Demolished Heritage………………………………………………………..21
2.1 Busan Custom House……………………………………………………………………………….21
2.2 Busan Station and Post office………………………………………………………………………28
2.3 Amidong Stele Village……………………………………………………………………………...32
Chapter 3 Busan's Conserved Colonial Heritage………………………………………………...37
3.1 Busan Provisional Government Building…………………………………………………………...39
3.2 Busan Modern History Museum……………………………………………………………………44
3.3 Japanese Colonial Vernacular Architecture ………………………………………………………..48
Chapter 4: Comparative Approaches to Japanese Colonial Heritage in Busan and Other Port
Cities……………………………………………………………………………………………..56
4.1 Gunsan: Utilizing Anti-Japanese Sentiments in Transforming Colonial Heritage into Tourist
Resources………………………………………………………………………………………………..59
4.2 Pohang: A Different Narrative of Coexistence……………………………………………………..63
4.3 Busan: A Complex Tapestry of Colonial Legacies…………………………………………………67
Conclusion: Navigating Colonial Legacies and Cultural Identity in Busan……………………..72
Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………...75

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List of Figures
Figure i.1 Article 35 Criteria for Registration of Registered Cultural Property 2001…………….2
Figure i.2 The Japanese General Government Building…………………………………………..3
Figure 1.1 Ganghwa Treaty……………………………………………………………………….6
Figure 1.2 A map of the Korean Peninsula………………………………………………………..8
Figure 1.3 The port of Busan in 1906……………………………………………………………..9
Figure 1.4 The Transition Process of the Busan port coastline………………………………….13
Figure 1.5 Construction of the Gyeongbu (Seoul-Busan) Railroad Line………………………..14
Figure 1.6 1970s Shantytown in Choryang-dong………………………………………………..17
Figure 1.7 Daechong-dong Shantytown, Republic of Korea, Busan, 1950s…………………….19
Figure 2.1 Exterior View of Busan Customs Office in 1970s…………………………………...21
Figure 2.2 Photo of Busan Customs demolition…………………………………………………23
Figure 2.3 The cupola of the old customs house in front of the building’s replacement………...25
Figure 2.4 The current Busan Customs building on the site of the old Busan Custom House…..26
Figure 2.5 Busan Station…………………………………………………………………………28
Figure 2.6 Tatsuno Kingo………………………………………………………………………..29
Figure 2.7 Old Seoul Station and the new Seoul Station………………………………………...30
Figure 2.8 Busan Post Office…………………………………………………………………….31
Figure 2.9 A view of the Japanese cemetery in Ami-dong………………………………………32
Figure 2.10 Japanese cemetery headstones………………………………………………………34
Figure 2.11 Mural is painted on the wall of village……………………………………………...36
Figure 3.1 Busan Provisional Government Building…………………………………………….39
Figure 3.2 Gyeongnam Provincial Government Office………………………………………….41
Figure 3.3 Oriental Development Company Busan branch……………………………………...44
Figure 3.4 March 18, 1982, arson at the America Cultural Center………………………………45
Figure 3.5 Status of Busan Foreign Visitors (1/1/2023-3/31/2023)……………………………..46
Figure 3.6 Busan Modern Museum……………………………………………………………...47
Figure 3.7 Dongnae Villa and Jeongrangak……………………………………………………..48
Figure 3.8 Typical Japanese living space with tatami flooring and outer corridor Jeongrangak..50

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Figure 3.9 View of Dongnae Hot Spring. Courtesy of National Institute of Korean History…...51
Figure 3.10 A Korean singer named IU used Jeongrangak as background for her music video...52
Figure 3.11 Site photo of the current Dongnae villa……………………………………………..54
Figure 4.1 Pohang Gunsan Busan Location……………………………………………………...56
Figure 4.2 Piles of rice at Gusan Port……………………………………………………………60
Figure 4.3 Registered Korea Cultural property in Gunsan………………………………………61
Figure 4.4 A guest house built to mimic the form of a Japanese house…………………………63
Figure 4.5 Pohang Guryongpo Port View………………………………………………………..64
Figure 4.6 Tourist wear Japanese Traditional cloth in Pohang…………………………………..66
Figure 4.8 Status of Korea Cultural Heritage in Busan………………………………………….68
Figure 4.9 Busan's Public Opinion on Japanese Heritage……………………………………….68
Figure 4.10 Busan Wartime capital listed on the UNESCO site………………………………...69

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Abstract
The impact of the Japanese Empire on the early twentieth century architecture of East
Asia is significant. Colonial buildings remain throughout the region, and each nation has a
unique approach to the recognition and conservation of this colonial heritage. In Korea, Japanese
colonial heritage is viewed ambivalently. Korean conservationists have taken an attitude of
recognizing colonial remains as a legacy of Korea’s enlightenment while trying to dismantle and
hide them as shameful history.
Busan is one of the first harbors in Korea to open to Japan for trading. In 1877, the
modern urbanization of Busan began with a ninety-acre Japanese settlement at Choryang. In the
following decades, Japan built government buildings and Japanese villages to enable their
colonial rule. Japanese immigrants brought their architectural style and culture to Busan, forming
the contemporary structure of the city.
This thesis examines Korea's ambivalent attitude toward the conservation of Busan’s
colonial heritage built from 1897 to 1945. Through the analysis of selected colonial resources,
and whether they were demolished or conserved, either partially or completely, this thesis will
explore the challenges of how and whether to conserve colonial heritage.

Introduction
The relationship between Korea and Japan is as complex as it is close in terms of
geography. Until the twentieth century, Korea was geographically on the tip of mainland China,
serving as a conduit for Chinese culture and technology to Japan. Japan was flanked on its right
by a huge wall of water, the Pacific Ocean, so Japan had no choice but to rely heavily on the
continental culture coming from Korea. Japan's hunger for these advanced civilizations was the
basis for the dream of conquest of the Asian continent. Japan saw the Korean peninsula as a base
of operations for the continent. It was this ambition that led Japan to invade Korea in 1592.
The Japanese colonial period resulted in a breakdown of Korean cultural tradition. Japan
was able to export its new, modernized culture to Korea. This historical event contributed to the
rise of anti-Japanese sentiment among Koreans.1 Even today, on the 78th anniversary of Korea's
liberation, there are still active movements in South Korea to eliminate Japanese culture.
However, despite these anti-Japanese movements, the number of tourists visiting South Korea
and Japan every year continues to increase. The two countries successfully co-hosted the 2002
World Cup, and two-way cultural exchanges between Japan and South Korea have led to many
improvements in relations. A 1999 government survey showed that the younger the population,
the more they wanted Japan-South Korea relations to be future-oriented rather than stuck in the
past.2 There is ambivalence in Korea, with both anti-Japanese and pro-Japanese sentiments
1 Jong-Ho Choi, Jung, Han-Ul, and Jung, Heon-Ju. "An Empirical Analysis of the Factors Affecting Korean People's
Feelings towards Japan: Militarization, Economic Cooperation, and Identity." International Relations Studies 19, no.
1 (2014): 46.
2 Promotion of Friendly Cooperation and Development of a Future-Oriented Relationship between Korea and
Japan," Korea Foundation, accessed Feb 15, 2022,
https://www.kf.or.kr/kfNewsletter/mgzinSubViewPage.do?mgzinSn=77&mgzinSubSn=2859&langTy=KOR.

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coexisting at the same time.
In line with this improvement in bilateral relations, the manner in which cultural heritage
resources are identified and protected has evolved over time. The agency that oversees these
efforts is the Cultural Heritage Administration (CHA). In 2001, CHA decided to accept modern
cultural heritage, which had been excluded, as a cultural system through the registered cultural
property system.(Figure i.1) While the previous system only considered how to preserve the
original heritage of the past, which was mainly more than 100 years old, the registered cultural
property system began to discuss the relatively younger cultural heritage between fifty and one
hundred years old, namely the cultural heritage of the Japanese occupation period. Local
governments have taken note of this and have begun to recognize building built in the modern
era as local cultural resources.
2001 System of Registered Cultural Property
a) It commemorates the modern history of Korea or has great symbolic value.
b) It is the historical and cultural background of a region, and its value is widely
known to the public.
c) It imitates the architecture of an era.
d) It has great scientific and artistic value due to its excellent construction technology
and function, rare design, and materials, etc.
e) As a traditional building, it has important value for understanding the architectural
history of the period.
Notwithstanding the provisions of this Article, if a building or facility falls under any
of the above categories and is deemed to require urgent protection measures, it may be
registered as a cultural property even if it has not been constructed for more than 50
years.
Figure i.1 Article 35 Criteria for Registration of Registered Cultural Property (2001). Source: Cultural Heritage
Administration

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The demolition of the Japanese General Government Building in 1991 was a pivotal point in
this change in the perception of heritage. The tear-down sparked South Koreans' interest in
modern cultural heritage. Although it occurred at a time when anti-Japanese sentiment was at its
peak, the demolition of the Japanese General Government Building sparked public debate.
3 It is
a symbolic example of how South Korean society tries to find a balance between the pain of the
past and the preservation of cultural heritage in the present. The removal of colonial heritage is
3 According to a 1991 cultural ministry survey of 400 residents in Seoul, 65% supported either complete demolition
or relocation. A Blue House survey on August 9, 1993, with 1,500 participants, found 51.4% in favor of
demolition." Dong-A Ilbo, June 14, 1991.
Figure i.2 The Japanese General Government Building. Source: from
https://www.segye.com/newsView/20190222000985

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an important example of how South Koreans remember past historical events and reinterpret
them as cultural assets for the present and future.
I chose Busan as the center of my study because while discussions of cultural assets in
South Korea have focused on Seoul, discussions of cultural assets left behind in Busan have been
relatively slow to emerge. In fact, discussions of cultural heritage in Busan began in earnest in
2004 with the Modern Cultural Records Report. This study aims to take a closer look at Busan's
lost and preserved cultural assets and focus on the narratives behind them.
The research methodology will be a comparative analysis of Busan's cultural heritage
sites to investigate how they are currently perceived and how these perceptions were formed. It is
also important to understand how Busan's modern cultural heritage affects the city's current and
future identity. By conducting a comparative analysis of how Busan preserves and utilizes its
unique cultural heritage and how other cities preserve and utilize their modern cultural heritage,
explore the direction Busan should take in the future and new strategies for heritage
conservation.
This research will make contribution to understanding changes in social perceptions and
policy approaches to colonial cultural heritage in South Korea and will play a role in
rediscovering the unique historical and cultural values of Busan. It is also expected to broaden
the understanding of different interpretations and uses of modern cultural heritage through
comparisons with other regions in Korea.

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Chapter 1: History of Busan’s Colonial Period
1.1 Korea’s First Open Port
The commencement of Korea's era of port openings on February 26, 1876, marked a
pivotal moment where the Korean Peninsula began its journey towards modern development,
transitioning from the secluded society of the Joseon Dynasty to an early modern capitalist
framework. Prior to this, Korean architecture predominantly reflected traditional styles, deeply
rooted in the country's historical and cultural heritage. The introduction of Western-style
architecture by Japan during this period brought about a fundamental transformation in the urban
fabric of Korea. This architectural shift introduced entirely new building types and urban forms
that were previously non-existent in Korea’s traditional cityscapes. The fusion of these Western
architectural styles with Korea's indigenous designs created a unique hybrid landscape, which
not only redefined Korea's physical spaces but also signified a profound shift in societal values
and cultural perceptions. This blend of architectural traditions, as outlined by the Encyclopedia
of Korean Culture, was not just a physical alteration of cityscapes but a symbol of Korea’s
transition into the modern era and the complexities entailed in this journey of modernization.4
At the heart of this era was the increasingly assertive role of Japan in facilitating Korea's
reluctant embrace of modernization during the nineteenth century. The Unyo Warship (1875)
Incident stands out as a catalyst in this forced opening, wherein a Japanese warship forcefully
entered the waters off Ganghwa Island, triggering a clash with Joseon’s naval forces. This event
enabled Japan to impose the Ganghwa Treaty (1876) upon the Joseon Dynasty, thereby ending
4 “Opening of Ports." Encyclopedia of Korean Culture. Accessed July 8, 2023.
https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0001752.

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its historical isolationism.
In the years preceding its forced opening, particularly from the 1860s to the 1880s, the
Joseon Dynasty faced challenges in maintaining its traditional feudal structure while confronting
modernity and resisting Western imperialism. Japan's attempts to expand its influence added
another layer of complexity. However, with the signing of the Ganghwa Treaty, colonial forces
swiftly entered Korea, marking a turbulent era of transformation, and laying the foundation for
an intricate legacy of Korean modernization. (Figure 1.1)
Ganghwa Treaty
Article 1
Joseon is a self-reliant country and has equal rights with Japan.
Article 5
From the five provinces of Gyeonggi, Chungcheong, Jeolla, Gyeongsang and
Hamgyeong, two more convenient ports on the coast will be opened.
Article 9
The people of both countries are free to trade, and officials of both countries.
are not allowed to interfere or prohibit.
Article10
If a Japanese commits a crime at a designated port of Joseon, they are sent.
back to Japan for investigation and judgment. If a Korean commits a crime, they
are handed over to the Joseon government office for investigation and judgment.
Figure 1.1 Ganghwa Treaty Source from Encyclopedia of Korean Culture.

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The Treaty of Ganghwa, which consisted of twelve provisions, represents a pivotal point
in Korea's diplomatic history, marking the beginning of Korea's involvement in modern treaties
with foreign powers. While the treaty ostensibly established equality between Joseon and Japan,
as stated in Article 1, its underlying implications were far from equitable. Article 5's requirement
to open additional ports in the provinces of Gyeonggi, Chungcheong, Jeolla, Gyeongsang and
Hamgyeong under the guise of convenience served as a gateway for Japanese incursions into
Korean territory.
The provision of Article 9 for free trade between the two countries opened Korea to
Japanese economic influence without adequate safeguards for Korean interests. This lack of
restriction on trade activities by officials of either country left Joseon dynasty vulnerable to
exploitation and manipulation by Japanese traders.
Article 10, which stipulated that crimes committed by Japanese in designated Korean
ports would be dealt with in Japan, while Korean offenders would be tried under Korean law,
created an asymmetry of legal authority. This clause implicitly undermined Korea's sovereignty
by allowing Japan to exercise extraterritorial rights over its nationals in Korea.
These clauses and the broader context of the treaty reflected Japan's imperialist agenda
and subtly undermined the sovereignty of the Joseon Dynasty. The Ganghwa Treaty
inadvertently became the harbinger of a series of subsequent unequal treaties with Western
powers, including the United States, Britain, and Russia.5 Collectively, these treaties increased
the violation of Korea's autonomy, exacerbated Korea's vulnerability to foreign intervention, and
5 Ganghwa Treaty," Encyclopedia of Korean Culture, accessed January 15, 2024,
https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0001508.

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laid the groundwork for future colonial domination.
Considering these historical events and the shifting power dynamics in East Asia, the
city of Busan emerged as a strategic choice for Japan as an opening port based on its location.
Situated on the southeastern coast, Busan offered a natural harbor, making it easily accessible for
maritime trade and foreign ships. (Figure 1.2)
Figure 1.2 A map of the Korean Peninsula with yellow circles marking open ports; Busan was the closest
geopolitical location to Japan. Source: ( Figure by Author ).

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With its close distance to the Japanese mainland, Busan served as an ideal gateway for
trade between Japan and Korea. Its strategic location, just thirty miles from Japan's Tsushima
Island, made it a focal point for Japanese interests. Being the closest Korean port to Japan
geographically, Busan became indispensable for Japan's economic and political maneuvers.
The history of Busan as a diplomatic hub predates its coerced opening. It had already
been established as a vital port of exchange with a myriad of East Asian nations such as China,
the Philippines, and indeed Japan itself. This vibrancy is underscored by the existence of
Japanese merchant communities in the area, as far back as the sixteenth century. The dynamics
initiated by the Treaty of Ganghwa not only influenced the diplomatic landscape but also played
a role in shaping the urban development of Busan.
Figure 1.3 The port of Busan in 1906 Source from National Institute of Korean History.
The Choryang Japanese settlement is regarded as a pivotal development in the era of the
colonized open port of Busan. Following Ganghwa Treaty in 1877, the Joseon dynasty

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sanctioned an 81-acre area for a Japanese enclave around Yongdu Mountain. This zone, as an
extraterritorial region, was endowed with the privileges of free trade and residence, along with
assurances of political, economic, military, and religious liberties. The Choryang settlement was
tantamount to the establishment of a Japanese governmental presence in Busan.6 Kim's analysis
seeks to comprehend the impact of this enclave on Busan's urban development, proposing that
the settlement was pivotal in Japanese urban planning. According to Kim, the spatial centrality of
the settlement and the strategic placement of key institutions mirrored the configuration of a
traditional Japanese castle town. Ultimately, the inception of the port opening process by Japan
marked the commencement of colonization and set the stage for Japan to spearhead modern
development.
The surge of Japanese migration into Busan after 1880 significantly contributed to the
city’s modernization and transformation into a strategic outpost from the 1890s to the 1910s.7
Despite the initial concentration of Japanese settlers in the Choryang area, their activities
progressively permeated the broader Busan region.8 Although this development extended into
the Busan port, the Choryang settlement was confronted with physical constraints. To ameliorate
the efficiency of the settlement's residential areas, Japan introduced Busan's first road plan in
1890, which involved the construction of a new road facilitated by land acquisitions near
6 Young-Boon Kim, and Kim, Ki-Soo, "A Research Regarding the Position and Project Characteristics of the Busan
Major Building Structures of Modern Times." Journal of the Architectural Institute of Korea Planning & Design 29,
no. 3 (2013): 209.
7 Ki-Soo Kim, "A Report of Present Condition of Modern Architectural Heritage in Busan," in Proceedings of the
Korean Society of Architectural History Autumn Conference (Korean Society of Architectural History, 2011), 98.
8 JaeWoo Yoo, "The Urban Spatial Characteristics of the Busan Prefecture through the Busan Guidance Map, 1938."
Journal of the Regional Association of Architectural Institute of Korea 17, no. 6 (2015): 45.

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Yongdu Mountain. Nevertheless, these road enhancement projects were interim solutions.9
Securing development areas of the colonized city was intended to compose the port
system. For many colonized cities ‘the process of developing port space was a common invasion
strategy.10 For some colonizing powers, the United Kingdom; for instance, development of ports
and land, planned to spread railways, canals, and roads was the basis for economic development
and exploitation. Japan imitated this British strategy and established a colonial port plan. Busan
Reclamation Corporation (1902) surveyed the coastline of Busan to plan the reclamation. Junzo
Sato and Yoshiyasu Takashima, who contributed to inducing private participation, took over the
project as the first presidents of Busan Reclamation Co., Ltd. The endeavor led to the acquisition
of three acres through two major reclamation phases, the first spanning from June 1913 to
December 1917, and the second from June 1913 to December 1931. This reclamation not only
altered the natural contour of the coastline to a linear one but also contributed significantly to the
enlargement of the Choryang settlement.11 The reclaimed land facilitated the construction of a
new Japanese sector, erecting critical public edifices such as police stations, banks, hospitals, and
chambers of commerce.
After the opening of the port, Busan-Bu emerged as the epicenter of urbanization in
Busan. Historically, Dongnae was the downtown and principal area of Busan, synonymous with
the region itself and home to the administrative and commercial offices managing trade with
Japan. Originally a modest port village under Dongnae's jurisdiction, Busan’s status was
9 Ki-Soo Kim, 102.
10 Young-Boon Kim, 211.
11 Cho Sung-Tae, and Kang Dong-Jin. "Analysis of Change Process for Coastline of Busan Port - With Focus on
Time-series Approach after Modern Era." Journal of the Urban Design Institute of Korea Urban Design, 10, no. 4
(2009): 253.

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transformed by the opening of the port, with the centralization of modern infrastructure by Japan.
The development of roads and streetcars catalyzed the expansion of the Japanese commercial
district into Dongnae, leading to the eventual Japanese control over the commercial zone. By
1910, with the incorporation of Dongnae into Busan-Bu, the nomenclature 'Busan' began to
officially denote the region, supplanting the historical significance of Dongnae.12
1.2 Japan’s Outpost on the Continent
The Japanese government's nomination of Busan as the opening port of Joseon included
its military and political intention to advance to the continent. The inclusion of Busan, Incheon,
and Wonsan in the treaty as open ports in the Treaty of Ganghwa might be interpreted in many
ways. The reason for choosing Incheon was that it was the closest city to the capital, Seoul, and
for military threats. Wonsan was geographically located close to Russia, so it was a base to keep
Russia in check. Japan's demand for Busan in the treaty was to use it as a port for exporting
resources to Japan from the Korean Peninsula. Busan is geographically the closest port city to
Japan, as well as a Japanese settlement, so rapid development was possible.
12 Dong-Hyun Lee, "Conservation and Utilization of Modern Buildings in Busan," BDI Policy Focus, no. 117
(2011): 6.

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This marked the beginning of Japan's transformation of Busan into a strategic outpost on
the continent as part of its colonial expansion efforts. The plan for the reclaimed site included the
introduction of modern public and commercial facilities, which would come to symbolize
Busan's developmental zenith. Notable installations comprised governmental structures such as
Busan Station, the Post Office, and Customs, alongside private enterprises like shipping
companies, warehouses, and inns. In stark contrast to Busan's traditional one to two-story
thatched houses, these new edifices, particularly the government buildings, were constructed
using concrete, and the commercial district featured Japanese-style wooden architecture along
the newly established roads.13
13 Sung-Tae Cho, and Dong-Jin Kang, "Analysis of Change Process for Coastline of Busan Port - With Focus on
Time-series Approach after Modern Era," Journal of the Urban Design Institute of Korea Urban Design, 10, no. 4
(2009): 254.
Figure 1.4 The Transformation of the Busan port coastline. Source: courtesy of Cho Sung Tae.

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The urbanization strategy employed by Japan saw the metamorphosis of Busan into a
bustling open port and a nexus for product distribution, with a developmental trajectory that
emphasized the integration of land and maritime routes, particularly through Busan Station.14
The expansion of railroads was a critical component in facilitating Japan's exploitation of capital
and goods from its colonies, with Busan Station being the terminus for trains from the
peninsula's northern reaches and the western agricultural zones. The Gyeong-Bu Line, the
inaugural railway in Korea, served not merely as transportation infrastructure but also as a
historical indicator of Japan's exploitative practices.
The construction of a pier and the erection of Busan Station as part of the North Port
Reclamation Project underscored Japan's influence expansion across the Korean Peninsula.
14 JaeWoo Yoo, "The Urban Spatial Characteristics of the Busan Prefecture through the Busan Guidance Map,
1938." Journal of the Regional Association of Architectural Institute of Korea, 17, no. 6 (2015): 42.
Figure 1.5 Construction of the Gyeongbu (Seoul-Busan) Railroad Line Source: courtesy accessed from Busan
Modern History Museum and Nakdong Culture Center.

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Busan Port thus became a conduit for the influx of industrial goods from Japan and the outflow
of Korean resources and labor, effectively transforming Busan into an outpost for Japan's
wartime logistics.
1.3 The Historical Schism of Korea: From the Open Port Era to the Korean War
The transformation of Korea from the Open Port era to the tumultuous times of the
Korean War was marked by profound changes in the political, social, and economic fabric of the
nation. This period was influenced by the broader geopolitical landscape of East Asia,
particularly the Chinese Revolution, and the growing ideological divide between North and
South Korea. As a focal point, Busan reflected these sweeping changes and shaped its unique
historical trajectory.
After the open port era, Korea, newly exposed to foreign influence and international
trade, faced rapid and often turbulent transitions. The early twentieth century was a period of
considerable upheaval, with Japanese colonial rule having a profound impact on Korean society
and governance. The Japanese occupation introduced significant changes in infrastructure and
urban development, including the modernization of cities such as Busan, often at the expense of
Korea's autonomy and traditional cultural values.
The end of World War II in 1945 marked a critical juncture in Korean history. Japan's
surrender led to the liberation of Korea, but also to its division. The Soviet Union occupied the
north, while the United States took control of the south. This division set the stage for the
ideological split that would culminate in the Korean War. The city of Busan, located in the far
south, became a strategic location during this time, especially as tensions between the North and

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South escalated.
The Chinese Revolution of 1949, which led to the establishment of the People's
Republic of China, had a significant impact on the Korean Peninsula. The success of the
communist revolution in China emboldened communist North Korea and changed the
geopolitical dynamics of the region. It heightened the fears of the South Korean government and
its Western allies, especially the United States, about the spread of communism in Asia.
When the Korean War broke out in 1950, Busan's strategic importance increased. The
city became a key stronghold for South Korean and United Nations forces. As one of the few
regions in South Korea not overrun by North Korean forces, Busan became a temporary capital
and a key evacuation point. The city witnessed a massive influx of refugees that shaped its social
and urban landscape. The war resulted in significant destruction and loss of life, but it also
became a catalyst for a profound transformation of South Korean society.
During the war, Busan was more than a shelter; it was a hub of political, military, and
humanitarian activity. The city's ports, developed during the Open Port era, were instrumental in
receiving aid and military support from the allies. In addition, Busan's infrastructure, influenced
by past Japanese urban planning, played a critical role in its resilience during the war.
In the shadow of these events, the ideological divide between North and South Korea
solidified. The Korean Armistice Agreement in 1953 brought a cessation of hostilities, but the
peninsula remained divided, a division that has deeply affected Korean society, politics, and
international relations to this day. This period marked the emergence of two distinct Koreas with
divergent paths - one embracing socialist ideals influenced by China and the Soviet Union, and
the other aligning itself with the capitalist West.

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For Busan, the war and the events that preceded it marked a period of significant
transformation. The city served not only as a crucial bastion during the war, but also as a canvas
that reflected the broader strokes of Korea's turbulent journey from the Open Port era, through
the impact of the Chinese Revolution, and into the modern era.
1.4 Korean War, Destruction of Heritage
The Korean War, a watershed event in the history of the Korean Peninsula, had a
profound impact on the colonial legacy of Busan, a city that uniquely escaped occupation during
the conflict. Busan's status as a sanctuary during the Korean War positioned it as a critical site
for the preservation of Korean culture and history. As the only major city in South Korea to
remain unoccupied, Busan became a temporary administrative center, hosting government
Figure 1.6 1970s Shantytown in Choryang-dong, Dong-gu, Busan, Korea, 1970. Source:
http://busan.grandculture.net/Contents?local=busan&dataType=01&contents_id=GC04216964

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functions and a massive influx of refugees.15 This sudden transformation required the
repurposing of existing structures, including those from the Japanese colonial period.
Remarkably, some colonial buildings that might otherwise have been targeted for demolition
because of their association with Japanese rule were preserved out of necessity. These buildings,
often seen as symbols of oppression, found new life as administrative centers and public
facilities, inadvertently preserving a part of Korea's architectural history.
The invasion by North Korean forces during the onset of the Korean War in 1950
triggered a mass exodus of civilians from across the country, seeking refuge in the southern
regions. Busan, positioned at the southern edge of the Korean Peninsula, emerged as a crucial
sanctuary for these refugees, altering the city's demographic and architectural landscape
significantly. This influx profoundly affected the city’s existing structures, particularly those
erected during the Japanese colonial period.
The outbreak of the Korean War and the subsequent influx of refugees seeking safety in
Busan placed unprecedented pressure on the city’s resources, including its housing
infrastructure. The dire need for shelter led to the repurposing and, in many cases, the
dismantling of Japanese colonial buildings. These structures, once symbols of foreign dominance
and colonial rule, were transformed to meet the immediate needs of a population in crisis. The
materials from these buildings were often salvaged and used to construct temporary shelters for
the refugees, a testament to the pragmatism that prevailed in times of dire need.16
15 Cheol-Wook Cha, "Scars and Healing of Korean War Refugees Settled in Busan," Region and History, 36 (April
2015): 333.
16 Dong-Hyun Lee, "Conservation and Utilization of Modern Buildings in Busan," BDI Policy Focus, no. 117
(2011): 9.

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The war catalyzed a reinterpretation of Busan's colonial architecture. Buildings that
survived the war often acquired new narratives, shifting from symbols of Japanese imperialism
to markers of Korean resilience and adaptability.17 This recontextualization is significant in
understanding the evolving narrative of Korea's relationship with its colonial past.
The postwar period saw further changes. While some colonial buildings continued to
serve new functions, others were eventually demolished or renovated in the rapid modernization
and urban development that followed the war. This phase marked a shift in priorities from
immediate survival to reconstruction and development, often at the expense of historic
preservation.
The Korean War had a significant impact on the fate of Busan's colonial heritage,
showcasing the challenges involved in preserving historical legacies during times of conflict and
17 Ki-Soo Kim, "A Report of Present Condition of Modern Architectural Heritage in Busan," in Proceedings of the
Korean Society of Architectural History Autumn Conference (Korean Society of Architectural History, 2011), 100.
Figure 1.7 Daechong-dong Shantytown, Republic of Korea, Busan, 1950s. Source:
http://busan.grandculture.net/Contents?local=busan&dataType=01&contents_id=GC04219017

２０
societal transformation. The war brought about both the preservation and erasure of these
important cultural assets. The ambivalence of conserving Busan's colonial heritage stems from
the conflicting narratives and considerations surrounding these buildings.
Preserving Busan's colonial heritage presents a complex and nuanced challenge. The
decision to demolish certain buildings, such as the colonial headquarters, was driven by a desire
to reconstruct Korean national identity and distance from Japan's colonial past. However, critics
argue that maintaining these structures would have served as important reminders of the nation's
history.
While some colonial buildings were repurposed for administrative or public use, others
were deliberately destroyed during wartime to provide shelter for evacuees. These actions reflect
the difficult choices made in times of crisis when immediate needs take precedence over historic
preservation.

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Chapter 2: Busan’s Demolished Heritage
2.1 Busan Custom House
The disappearance of the Busan Customs House illustrates the importance of public
discourse regarding modern cultural heritage. While the Busan Customs House symbolized
Japan's colonial policy and could have been preserved because of the building's architectural
value, the administration's decision to prioritize development and progress at the time was a
major factor in its demolition.
Figure 2.1 Exterior View of Busan Customs Office in 1970s. Source: Courtesy of the Busan Customs
Museum.

２２
The establishment of the Busan Customs House was a symbolic building for Korea and
its international trade, which had been deprived of its diplomatic sovereignty by Japan. The
establishment of the customs service in November 1883 was the first step in Korea's cautious
march toward international modernization and engagement. As a result, the Customs Service's
role in customs administration and trade supervision became increasingly important. However,
the signing of the Treaty of Eulsa in 1905 marked the beginning of the Japanese occupation of
Korea, as Korea ceded its external sovereignty to Japan. With this treaty, control of the customs
office was transferred to Japan, and it was renamed "Busan Customs Office".18 This name
change was more than just an administrative change; it symbolized Japan's deepening influence
18 The Eulsa Treaty, signed in 1905 under Japanese coercion, was a pivotal moment in Korea's history, marking the
beginning of its formal colonization by Japan. This treaty effectively stripped Korea of its diplomatic sovereignty
and autonomy, as Japan assumed control over Korean foreign affairs and administration. The Eulsa Treaty is widely
regarded as illegitimate due to the circumstances of its signing, involving intimidation and manipulation by Japanese
authorities. It catalyzed the loss of Korean independence and opened the door for Japan to deepen its colonial grip
over Korea, leading to significant political and social changes in the Korean Peninsula. Source from Encyclopedia of
Korea Culture.

２３
over Korean affairs, both politically and economically, and reflected Japan's broader imperialist
ambitions for Busan.
19
The architectural style of the Busan Customs House, the result of a fusion of Eastern and
Western architectural techniques, displayed its authority with a four-story structure that towered
over the traditional one-story Korean houses in the vicinity. This architectural dominance was a
clear representation of Japan's colonial influence after the Eulsa Treaty of 1905. In stark contrast
19 Busan Customs. "Busan Customs." accessed February 5, 2023.
https://www.customs.go.kr/busan/cm/cntnts/cntntsView.do?mi=7407&cntntsId=2398.
Figure 2.2 Photo of Busan Customs demolition. Source: Courtesy of the Busan
Customs Museum.

２４
to the conventional wooden buildings of Korea, the Customs House embraced the Western
Renaissance style, using masonry and intricately carved granite to project Japanese power. The
building also featured an octagonal four-story tower, a hallmark of Western influence. However,
its distinctive L-shaped lower plan, reminiscent of traditional Korean architectural layouts, was
strategically incorporated into the design by Japanese architects, further symbolizing a unique
blend of Eastern and Western design philosophies.20
Although the Busan Customs House was a symbol of the Japanese occupation, after the
liberation of Korea, many government buildings were able to preserve the building by inheriting
its function. The Busan Customs House was recognized for its beauty by the citizens of Busan,
who used the building as a backdrop for their postcards and mailings. In 1973, it was recognized
as one of Korea's outstanding buildings and designated as Busan City Cultural Property No. 22
(Busan Customs House). However, the building could not withstand the waves of urban
development and modernization that swept through Busan in the second half of the twentieth
century. The decision to demolish the building on June 22, 1979, was the result of a broader
urban development plan that included the construction of the Busan Bridge. The demolition was
a poignant moment in Busan's history, symbolizing the complex interplay between the
preservation of historical heritage and the development of modernization.21
20 Young-Boon Kim, and Ki-Soo Kim. "A Research Regarding the Position and Project Characteristics of the Busan
Major Building Structures of Modern Times," Journal of the Architectural Institute of Korea Planning & Design,
29, no. 3 (2013): 208.
21 Busan Metropolitan City, "2005 Modern Cultural Heritage Investigation and Cataloging Project Report," Busan
Metropolitan City, 2005.

２５
Figure 2.3 The cupola of the old customs house in front of the building’s replacement,
the Busan Headquarters Customs Office. Source: Courtesy of the Busan Customs
Museum.

２６
The demolition of these designated heritage buildings was not only a physical act, but
also symbolic of the ongoing challenge of balancing heritage preservation with the demands of a
rapidly modernizing urban landscape. The demolition of the Busan Customs House sparked an
outpouring of civic activism about the need to preserve cultural heritage; this spontaneous citizen
participation demonstrates that awareness of the need to preserve cultural heritage is beginning
to grow.22 However, the demolition was announced through a top-down government decision,
and the opportunity to closely examine the architectural value and historical significance of the
building was overshadowed by administrative and pragmatic perspectives rather than community
opposition.
22 Rydia Park, and Dong-Jin Kang, "Analysis of Process of Public Debates on Modern and Contemporary Cultural
Heritage in Busan," Journal of the Urban Design Institute of Korea Urban Design, 24, no. 2 (2023): 74.
doi:10.38195/judik.2023.02.24.2.61.
Figure 2.4 The current Busan Customs building on the site of the old Busan Custom House. Source: Courtesy of
the Busan Ilbo.

２７
Busan has begun discussions on restoring the demolished Busan Customs House to
develop its tourism resources.23 The city believes that restoring the old Busan Customs House
will help increase the number of Japanese tourists and help the city register its history as the
capital during the Korean War with UNESCO. In front of the new Busan Customs building, only
the tower part that was left after the old building was demolished is preserved, and the Busan
Customs Museum keeps photos and plans from the time of demolition, so reconstructing the
building does not seem to be a problem. This restoration effort reflects Busan's complex
historical entanglement with the history of the Busan Customs House, from its inception to its
demolition. The history of Busan Customs House encompasses an ongoing discourse on KoreaJapan relations, modernization and development, and the preservation of historical heritage as
cities grow and develop. The building's historical trajectory is a symbolic example of Busan's
history of navigating its multifaceted past, present, and future.
23 "Let's Restore the Old Busan Customs House at North Port." accessed April 18, 2023,
http://www.kookje.co.kr/news2011/asp/newsbody.asp?code=0200&key=20110225.22002215246.

２８
2.2 Busan Station and Post Office
The Korean War, which broke out on June 25, 1950, posed a serious threat to Korea's
cultural heritage. The bombing and shelling of the war resulted in the loss of many modern
cultural assets. Even Busan, as the refugee capital, could not prevent this loss. The massive
influx of evacuees created a housing shortage, resulting in numerous shantytowns and a lack of
infrastructure.24 On November 27, 1953, Busan Station and the Busan Post Office building were
destroyed in the great fire. These buildings have significant historical value as an important
starting point for Japan's colonial aggression during the Japanese occupation and as early works
by the first generation of Japanese modern architects.
24 Busan Historical and Cultural Encyclopedia, "The Great Fire of Busan Station Square," accessed March 15, 2023,
http://busan.grandculture.net/Contents?local=busan&dataType=01&contents_id=GC04200974.
Figure 2.5 Busan Station. Source: Courtesy of the Busan Modern History Museum

２９
Tatsuno Kingo is considered the father of modern Japanese architecture, and his work
was a symbol of Japan's colonization. Educated in Europe, he was able to work on large
government projects with government support. His namesake "Tatsuno architecture" was
inspired by the German Neo-Renaissance style, and he perfected his own style with red brick and
pointed tops.
25 Busan Station was a prototype of his architectural style before he designed Tokyo
Station.
During Japan's colonial period, train stations and post offices played an important role in
the drive for modernization; transportation and communication links were essential to colonial
urban domination. Post offices facilitated cultural and economic exchanges between the colonies
25 Colonial Korea, "Tatsuno Kingo: The Face of An Empire," last modified July 29, 2018,
https://colonialkorea.com/2018/07/29/tatsuno-kingo-the-face-of-an-empire/.
Figure 2.6 Tatsuno Kingo. Source: Courtesy of Saga Shimbun https://www.saga-s.co.jp/articles/gallery/411371

３０
and mainland Japan by making them affordable and accessible to all classes, not just the
privileged.
26 Had Busan Station and the post office not been destroyed by fire, their role and
value can be measured by the example of Seoul Station. Seoul Station was completed in 1925,
after Busan Station was built, and is now designated as a national cultural treasure and used as an
exhibition space.
27
The loss of Busan Station and the Post Office is a great loss in the history of modern
Korean architecture. If they had remained, they would have been recognized as national cultural
heritage sites like Seoul Station, but due to the low social awareness of cultural preservation,
there is a lack of data on them. The history of these buildings symbolizes the complex
relationship between Korea and Japan, the process of modernization, and the development of the
26 Tristan R. Grunow, “Empire By Design: Railways, Architecture, and Urban Planning in Tokyo, Taipei, and
Seoul” (doctoral dissertation, University of Oregon, 2014), 172.
27 Cultural Heritage Administration of Korea, "Cultural Station Seoul 284, Ahn Chang-mo," last modified date
unknown,
https://www.cha.go.kr/cop/bbs/selectBoardArticle.do?nttId=58425&bbsId=BBSMSTR_1008&pageUnit=0&searchti
tle=&searchcont=&searchkey=&searchwriter=&searchWrd=&searchUseYn=&searchCnd=&ctgryLrcls=&ctgryMd
cls=&ctgrySmcls=&ntcStartDt=&ntcEndDt=&mn=NS_01_09_01.
Figure 2.7 Old Seoul Station and the new Seoul Station behind it. Source: Courtesy of Lee Junggyu

３１
city, and their absence leaves a gap in the current urban landscape of Busan.
Figure 2.8 Busan Post Office (demolished). Source: Courtesy of Korea Post Magazine

３２
2.3 Amidong Stele Village
‘
Busan's Amidong Stele Village is a cultural heritage site that reveals the complex
relationship between Korea and Japan. Unlike previous examples of demolished heritage,
Amidong is unique in that it utilizes Japanese headstones as an integral part of its living space.
The village explores the process of its formation, the attitudes of its inhabitants toward living in a
space associated with death, and the attitudes of contemporary Koreans toward embracing this
unique environment.
The history of Amidong is deeply intertwined with the turbulent history of Busan, from
the opening of the city to the Japanese colonial period, the Korean War, and modern times.
Figure 2.9 A view of the Japanese cemetery in Ami-dong, Busan, in 1909. Source: Courtesy of The Pukyung
Institute.

３３
During the Japanese occupation, Amidong, formerly known as Tanimachi, was considered a
backward neighborhood. The beginning of a major change was the establishment of a
crematorium and public cemetery for Japanese people. As the growing Japanese population
faced the problem of burying Japanese people who died in Busan, the cemetery was moved to
Amidong in 1906, and Amisan Crematorium and Cheongcheonsa were established.28 This led to
Ami-dong being perceived as a space of death. According to local resident Kim Sung-soon's
recollections, Ami-dong was then a cemetery with cherry trees, and Japanese-style headstones
were a prominent feature.29
It wasn't until after the Korean War that Ami-dong began to transform into a residential
neighborhood. Busan's population exploded from 470,000 in 1949 to over 850,000 in 1952, and
the influx of evacuees led to the formation of refugee camps and temporary shantytowns
throughout the city. After the 1953 Busan Station fire, the government embarked on a plan to
demolish the shantytowns, and the evacuees were forced to relocate to Amidong and the
hillsides. For these evacuees, the flattened Japanese cemeteries provided an easy foundation on
which to build their homes.30 In addition, the headstones of graves no longer visited by family
members were repurposed as excellent building materials for walls, stairs, etc. According to a
2015 survey by the city of Busan, 139 tombstones visible in Amidong were repurposed as
foundations, stairs, and supports for the town's infrastructure.31 It was a moment when the
28 Yang-Ri Park, "A Study on the Town Identity of Ami-dong Seen Through an Oral Data, "Journal of Koreanology,
no. 70 (2019): 235. https://doi.org/10.15299/jk.2019.02.70.223.
29 Hoe-Young Jeong, Woo, Shin-Koo, and Ha, Nam-Gu. "Spatial Structure of Tombstone Village in Ami-dong."
Journal of the Architectural Institute of Korea, Planning & Design 34, no. 2 (2018): 77.
30 Yang-Ri Park.
31 Busan Historical and Cultural Encyclopedia, "The People of Ami-dong and the Story of Tombstones," accessed
Dec 1, 2023, http://busan.grandculture.net/Contents?local=busan&dataType=01&contents_id=GC04201228.

３４
reluctant space of death was transformed into a place for evacuees to live.
“The stairs are also a tombstone, and if you look under this house, there is a silver tombstone,
and all the places that look exactly flat buried in the ground are tombstones. But we put cement
on top of it, so the sun goes down and you live on top of it, and there are a few places where
the tombstone is clearly visible, but everything else is hidden. House to house. You put a layer
of cement on the exposed ones so that no one can see the words. But there are some places
where the words are clearly visible”32
Initially, the residents of Amidong tried to erase the vestiges of death, but over time they
recognized and even embraced the unique historical and cultural identity of their community.
This gradual acceptance reflected a desire to distance themselves from the area's association with
death. For instance, local folklore included sightings of Japanese ghosts and ritualistic practices
such as placing Buddhist statues around homes, signifying a sense of intrusion into the realm of
32 Park, 13.
Figure 2.10 Japanese cemetery headstones are being used as building foundations, walls, and fences. Many
gravestones are unprotected, and some are colored with paint to cover up names. Source: Author.

３５
the deceased. However, as evidenced by the testimonies of residents, there was an unconscious
acceptance and coexistence with the remnants of death, as they could not be completely
hidden.33
The primary driver of this acceptance was the instinct to survive in the midst of
government-induced upheaval. Without Korea government support, residents displaced from the
city center had no choice but to make Amidong their home. The government-provided
evacuation camps were far from their sources of livelihood, forcing them to transform this oncefeared space of death into a living community. This transformation of Amidong is emblematic of
the poignant story of evacuees who, in the absence of government protection and support, were
forced to adapt to life in these difficult circumstances.34
33 Park, 16.
34 C Cha, Kong, Y., and Cha, Y, "The Formation and Cultural Change of Ah-mi Dong Mountain Town
Community," Cultural History Geography 22, no. 1 (2010): 10.

３６
Recently, Amidong has been rediscovered as a modern cultural heritage site. The city of
Busan included Amidong in its urban renewal project based on its special narrative as a "village
built on tombstones." Despite these efforts, the redevelopment was far from improving the lives
of the aging residents.
Amidong is an important space that reveals the cultural and historical layers shaped by
war, displacement, and survival. The history of the village reflects the nuances of power
dynamics, cultural clashes, and community identity formation, demonstrating the complexity of
urban communities formed in the shadow of conflict and displacement.
Figure 2.11 Mural is painted on the wall of village. Source: Photo by Iris

３７
Chapter 3: Busan’s Conserved Colonial Heritage
This chapter traces the journey of key architectural landmarks from the Japanese
colonial period and examines how they have been transformed and integrated into Busan's
modern landscape. It focuses on the Provisional Government Building, the Busan Modern
History Museum, and various examples of Japanese vernacular architecture, analyzing how these
structures have evolved from symbols of foreign domination to beacons of Korean cultural
identity and memory.
At the center of this narrative is the Provisional Government Building, a structure that
stands as a symbol of resilience and adaptability. Originally constructed during the Japanese
occupation, the building later played a pivotal role as the provisional government site during the
Korean War, embodying the nation's struggle and perseverance.35 Its architectural
metamorphosis and continued significance in Korean history is a profound example of the
country's approach to its past-one that respects and preserves historical memories while
repurposing them for future relevance.
Similarly, the Busan Modern History Museum, housed in the former Oriental
Development Company building, serves as a complex emblem of Korea's turbulent history. This
building, once an instrument of Japan's economic domination over Korea, has been transformed
35Hiroshi Kondo, “Remains of Colony of Japan in Busan - Focused on the Architecture,” Graduate School, Silla
University(2021), 8.

３８
into a space of education and commemoration, transforming a painful chapter into a source of
historical learning and reflection.36
The chapter also explores the vernacular architecture left behind by the Japanese. Often
referred to as "enemy property," these structures were initially viewed as remnants of a painful
colonial past. Yet many, such as Jeongrangak and Dongnae Villa, have been transformed into
luxury establishments, illustrating a nuanced approach to dealing with a painful past. Rather than
erasing the physical reminders of colonization, South Korea has chosen to repurpose them,
preserving history while adapting to contemporary needs.37
The transformation of these buildings is not only physical, but also symbolic, reflecting
a broader cultural and political shift in South Korean society. The repurposing of buildings that
once symbolized Japanese imperialism into spaces that serve Korean society makes a powerful
statement about ownership, control, and the reclamation of history. This adaptive reuse of
colonial architecture can be seen as a form of resistance and a way of reclaiming and
reinterpreting a painful past.
This chapter aims to unravel the layers of Busan's architectural heritage and offer
insights into how historic structures can bridge past and present. It emphasizes the importance of
preserving historic buildings not as static monuments, but as living, evolving entities that
continue to serve and reflect the society around them. The story of these buildings is emblematic
36 Kyungjun Jang, “Conservation and Share of Memory on Modern History -Focused on Operating Case of the
Busan Modern History Museum Daegusahak,” (2012) 106, 24.
37 Sukman Bae. “Busan Sujeong-dong Japanese-style House (Jeongrangak),” Busan History and Culture
Encyclopedia(2021),. Retrieved from http://busan.grandculture.net.

３９
of South Korea's broader narrative of coming to terms with its colonial legacy, transforming
symbols of occupation into icons of cultural pride and communal value.
3.1 Busan Provisional Government Building
The Provisional Government Building in Busan, once a symbol of the Japanese
occupation as the provincial government office for Gyeongsangnam-do, underwent a significant
transformation during the Korean War to become a beacon of national recovery. Originally
designed as a hospital in 1923, its purpose was changed mid-construction to serve as a provincial
government office. This reflected Japan's strategic intent to use Busan as a launching pad for
continental expansion.38
38 Busan Historical and Cultural Encyclopedia, "From Jobang to BEXCO: The Past, Present, and Future of Busan's
Economy," accessed September 18, 2023, http://busan.grandculture.net/Contents/Index?local=busan.
Figure 3.1 Busan Provisional Government Building. Source: Courtesy of Cultural Heritage

４０
Architecturally, the building is a prime example of the Uiyang style , a fusion of
Western architectural methods and traditional Japanese sensibilities.39 40 Along with other
notable buildings such as the Busan Post Office and the Busan Customs House, the Provisional
Government Building stands as a significant representation of Busan's late Uiyang architectural
era, which flourished notably during the period from 1910 to 1940.
41 Unlike the predominantly
wooden structures of the early Japanese colonial period in Busan, this building's brick masonry
construction and classical Greek and Roman design elements symbolize the authority and control
of the colonial regime.
39 The Uiyang style refers to architecture designed and constructed in Japan during the late Shogunate and early
Meiji period, mainly by master carpenters who had acquired their skills in the post-modern era. They were
constructed in various parts of the country to convey the breath of civilization to the common people by mixing
conventional wooden Japanese architecture with characteristic designs of Western architecture and sometimes
Chinese elements. Born at the beginning of the Meiji era, Western-style architecture reached its peak around the
10th decade of the Meiji era and disappeared after the 20th decade of the Meiji era, a period that coincided with the
flowering of civilization.
40 Kisoo Kim, "Restoration and Regeneration of Historical Buildings | Regeneration According to Functional
Changes, Busan Temporary Capital Government Building." Architectural Culture, 2006, no. 3. Accessed December
21, 2023. https://m.ancbook.com/contents/anc/2006/03/08.htm.
41 Kisoo Kim.

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The outbreak of the Korean War in 1950 redefined the building's role. As the war moved
the front lines to Busan and Daegu, the South Korean government designated Busan as the
provisional capital, and the building served as the headquarters of the provisional government.42
This change of role preserved the integrity of the building. At the same time, a new historical
narrative was superimposed on its original context. The Cultural Heritage Administration's
website outlines the building's role during the wartime, emphasizing national government and
pride, but omitting its prewar history.43
42 Busan Historical and Cultural Encyclopedia, "Busan Temporary Capital Government Building," accessed June 6,
2023, http://busan.grandculture.net/Contents/Index?local=busan.
43 J Je, and Song, B, "Modern Cultural Heritage in Busan and Issues of Historical Awareness - Focused on
'Registered Cultural Properties' in Busan." 港都釜山, February 28, 2017, 8.
https://doi.org/10.19169/hd.2017.2.33.141.
Figure 3.2 Gyeongnam Provincial Government Office. Source: Courtesy of Cultural Heritage

４２
The story of the provisional government building in Busan becomes more complicated
when one considers the resistance movement against the relocation of the Gyeongnam provincial
government office from Jinju. This opposition was not limited to Korean residents of Jinju, but
also included Japanese residents, reflecting a complex interplay of interests that transcended
national identities.44 This shared opposition to the relocation by both Korean and Japanese
communities underscores that the Gyeongnam Provincial Government Office, far from being a
vestige of Japanese influence, was seen as an important cultural asset with significance beyond
national boundaries.
There were both practical and symbolic reasons for opposing the move. For the people
of Jinju, the loss of the government office was not only a blow to local pride and history, but also
a potential economic setback. The office was a symbol of regional importance and played a vital
role in the socio-economic dynamics of the area. Similarly, for the Japanese residents, the
relocation represented a shift in the administrative and power structures to which they had
become accustomed during the colonial era. Their involvement in the resistance movement
suggests that the Gyeongnam provincial government had become integrated into the broader
socio-cultural fabric of the region, transcending its colonial origins.
The resistance in Jinju also highlights the complex layers of colonial legacies in Korea,
where certain colonial structures and institutions had become embedded in local communities to
the extent that their significance was recognized by a diverse population. This aspect of colonial
legacy, where the lines between oppressor and oppressed are blurred, offers a unique perspective
44 Hong Soon-Yeon, and Kim Ki-Soo. "A Study of Material and Fabricational Characteristic in the Change Process
of Kyongsang-namdo Provincial Office Building." Journal of the Architectural Institute of Korea, Planning &
Design 23, no. 9 (2007): 92.

４３
on the socio-cultural dynamics of Korea under Japanese rule.
While there are few specific articles detailing the nuances of the Jinju opposition
movement, the existing literature45 provides a basic understanding of the multifaceted nature of
Korea's colonial legacy and illustrates how certain colonial remnants have evolved to hold
significance beyond their original intent and national associations. This episode in Jinju is a
testament to the layered and complex history of colonial legacies in Korean cities like Busan,
where the past continually interacts with the present in shaping cultural identities and collective
memories. The recontextualization of the building's narrative has opened avenues for its
preservation as a cultural heritage site, but this narrative does not fully encompass its
multifaceted history. The selective focus on aspects of national pride and resilience during the
wartime reflects societal tendencies to remember history in a fragmented manner. While this
narrative captures a crucial period in Korea's modern history, it leaves gaps in the building's
comprehensive historical narrative.
As a cultural heritage site, the Provisional Government House in Busan reflects the
totality of Korea's complex historical journey. The building's architectural and historical
narratives should represent not only a period of colonial subjugation or national resilience, but
also the broader tapestry of Korea's modern and contemporary history. This approach would not
only honor the past, but also serve as a vital conduit for communicating Korea's historical
experiences to present and future generations.
45 Hong Soon-Yeon, and Kim Ki-Soo. "A Study of Material and Fabricational Characteristic in the Change Process
of Kyongsang-namdo Provincial Office Building." Journal of the Architectural Institute of Korea, Planning &
Design 23, no. 9 (2007): 93.

４４
3.2 Busan Modern History Museum

The Busan Modern History Museum, which has been under foreign control for nearly
half a century, reflects a multifaceted narrative of historical transition and cultural identity.
Initially functioning as a key structure for economic control during the Japanese occupation, it
later transitioned into the American Cultural Center under the U.S. Office of Foreign Public
Affairs after the liberation of Korea. This extended period of foreign management, unique in its
duration and nature, has played a key role in the building's preservation.
Built during the period of Japanese rule, the museum originally served as the Busan
branch of the Oriental Development Corporation, a Japanese company that played a key role in
dominating the Joseon economy. This corporation, particularly in Gyeongsangnam-do, was
Figure 3.3 Oriental Development Company Busan branch. Source from the Busan Modern History Museum

４５
central to Japan's agricultural colonization, ensuring a steady supply of rice and quickly
becoming the dominant landowner in Korea.46 47
After 1945, with the liberation of Korea, the building's ownership shifted to the United
States, serving first as housing for American troops and later as the American Cultural Center of
the U.S. Foreign Service.48 Despite the United States' allied status during the Korean War, the
building later became a focal point of anti-American sentiment in the 1980s, symbolizing
perceived imbalances in South Korea-U.S. relations. This sentiment culminated in various
46 Jae-Cheol Ahn. "The Composite Structure Characteristics of the Formerly the Busan Branch of Toyo Takushoku
Co. (Busan Modern History Museum)." Journal of the Architectural Institute of Korea, Planning & Design 35, no.
10 (2019): 63-70.
47 Oriental Development Company was a Japanese state-owned company founded in 1908 as a joint venture between
Japan and Korea, with the purpose of promoting food production in Korea. The company conducted or financed
various projects that allowed Japan to exploit Korean land and resources, such as Japanese immigration to Korea,
rice cultivation, and military industrialization. The scope of its activities was primarily limited to Korea and
Manchuria but expanded to mainland China and Southeast Asia as Japan's wars of aggression escalated. The
company was also the largest holding company in Korea, and used the cattle taxes collected in Korea as a source of
funding for its invasion projects. Source from National Institute of Korean History, "Oriental Development
Company," accessed January 15, 2024, http://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/kc/view.do?levelId=kc_o401300.
48 Busan Historical and Cultural Encyclopedia, "Busan Modern History Museum," accessed Dec 15, 2023,
http://busan.grandculture.net/Contents?local=busan&dataType=01&contents_id=GC04201228.
Figure 3.4 March 18, 1982, arson at the America Cultural Center (Former Busan Modern Museum).
Source from the Busan Modern History Museum

４６
incidents, including arson and occupation, that drew significant public attention and calls for its
return to Korean control.49 The concerted efforts of the citizens of Busan, as evidenced by
petitions and advocacy, culminated in the return of the building to Korean control in 1999,
facilitated by the American Council for the Return of Cultural Properties.
The transformation of the building into the Busan Modern History Museum was a
complex process marked by public discourse and differing perspectives on its historical
significance. In 1999, proposals to use the original structure as a history museum were met with
local opposition, citing its association with Japanese colonial rule. This opposition was balanced
by a counterproposal from the city of Busan, which included the development of a "Japanese
49 Kungjun Jang. "Conservation and Share of Memory on Modern History - Focused on Operating Case of the
Busan Modern History Museum," Daegu History 106 (2012): 24.
Figure 3.5 Status of Busan Foreign Visitors (1/1/2023-3/31/2023) Source from Korea Immigration Service

４７
street" to rejuvenate the surrounding commercial area, and eventually a consensus was reached.50
The public response to the museum's opening underscores the complex relationship
between Korea and Japan, especially in Busan, a city with close geographic and historical ties to
Japan. The mixed reactions - advocating the demolition of the museum due to its colonial past,
while supporting the creation of a Japanese-themed street - illustrate the nuanced attitudes
toward Japan. These complexities are further highlighted by the significant influx of Japanese
tourists after COVID, necessitating a strategic approach to tourism that accommodates Japanese
preferences while being sensitive to the city's colonial heritage. (Figure 3.5)
In essence, the Busan Modern History Museum embodies the complex web of historical
memory, identity, and socio-political dynamics in Busan. It not only represents the political
landscape of twentieth-century Korea under the influence of South Korea, Japan, and the United
50 Kungjun Jang. 26.
Figure 3.6 Busan Modern Museum. Source: Courtesy of Busan Modern History Museum

４８
States, but also reflects the democratic maturation within South Korea as evidenced by local
movements for the return and preservation of cultural heritage. The juxtaposition of local
resistance to the colonial past and embrace of its potential for tourism underscores the complex
interplay between historical memory and contemporary socioeconomic and cultural
considerations. This broader narrative of the Busan Modern History Museum thus epitomizes the
ongoing discourse on the intersection of history, identity, and modernity in South Korea.
3.3 Japanese Colonial Vernacular Architecture
As Busan is a city with many connections to Japan, there are many Japanese vernacular
buildings left in Busan. Jeongrangak and Dongnae Villa not only represent the colonial
architectural values of the Japanese colonial period, but also summarize the period of Busan's
modern history.
Figure 3.7 Dongnae Villa and Jeongrangak. Source: Courtesy of Visit Busan

４９
During the Japanese occupation, Busan's architectural landscape underwent significant
changes as various buildings were constructed to meet the needs of the Japanese colonizers.
These buildings, known as "enemy property houses," had a significant impact on Busan's
cityscape even after liberation. The term "enemy property" refers to the property of an enemy
country left in Korean territory, and generally refers to buildings left behind during the Japanese
occupation. After the liberation of Korea, the disposal of enemy houses was left in the hands of
the U.S. military, and it is estimated that there were about 14,000 Japanese houses in the city of
Busan.51 Many of these houses have been rebuilt and repaired throughout the history of the
Korean War, making it difficult to determine whether they are Japanese or not. Jeongrangak and
51 Busan Historical and Cultural Encyclopedia, "Confiscated Houses," accessed August 3, 2023,
http://busan.grandculture.net/Contents?local=busan&dataType=01&contents_id=GC04201228.

５０
Dongnae Villa are of great architectural and historical value because they retain the form of a
typical Japanese house even after liberation.52
Dongnae Villa was built in 1912 in Oncheon-Dong, Dongnae-Gu, Busan as a building
for Japanese to use the hot springs. Its owner, Fusataro Hazama, was a businessman who came to
Busan from Osaka and made a fortune and built his villa as well as a public bathhouse for
Japanese people to use. After the liberation of Korea, Dongnae Villa was used as an American
vacation home before becoming Korean property, and during the Korean War it was used as a
temporary residence for the vice president. Later, it was used as a high-class bar for local
52 Hiroshi Kondo, "Remains of Colony of Japan in Busan - Focused on the Architecture," Graduate School, Silla
University, 2021, 21.
Figure 3.8 Typical Japanese living space with tatami flooring and outer corridor Jeongrangak. Source: Author.

５１
businessmen and politicians in Busan,53 and today it is used as a traditional Korean restaurant,
outdoor wedding venue, and anniversary event venue.54
Figure 3.9 View of Dongnae Hot Spring. Source: Courtesy of National Institute of Korean History
Jeongrangak, located in Sujeong-dong, is a building that exemplifies the high-end
Japanese residential style during the Japanese occupation. It is in a hilly area overlooking the
Busan Sea, and due to its proximity to Busan Station, many high-end Japanese-style houses were
built in the area. Jeongrangak has shoin-zukuri style of the Japanese samurai class, and although
it has gone through several owners and has been converted into an upscale restaurant and a high53 Busan Historical and Cultural Encyclopedia, "Dongnae Villa," accessed October 26, 2024,
http://busan.grandculture.net/Contents?local=busan&dataType=01&contents_id=GC04206465.
54 Dongnae Villa, accessed July 15, 2023, http://www.dnbj.com/.

５２
end restaurant, it still preserves the Japanese style of living and was designated as a cultural
property by the Korean Register of Modern Cultural Heritage in 2007.55 56 It has been used as a
major filming location for Korean movies set in the modern era because it is a good
representation of Japanese houses during the Japanese occupation.57
55 Shoin-zukuri: A shoin is a room equipped with a tokonoma (alcove), a zashiki (a separate shelf), a tsuke-shoin,
and a chodai-geumae (a writing desk). Originally, it functioned as a study room, with an alcove as a sacred place for
storing Buddhist ritual objects, a shelf for stationery, etc., a desk for reading and writing in a tsuke-shoin, and a door
connecting to a bedroom in a chodai-gata. Source from Touken World, Shoin zukuri, https://www.toukenworld.jp/tips/26162/
56 Busan Historical and Cultural Encyclopedia, "Dongnae Villa," accessed October 26, 2023,
http://busan.grandculture.net/Contents?local=busan&dataType=01&contents_id=GC04206465.
57 Busan Ilbo, "Cafe Popularity Surge at Jeongnyanggak," March 8, 2021,
https://www.busan.com/view/busan/view.php?code=20210308000067.
Figure 3.10 A Korean singer named IU used Jeongrangak as background for her music video. Source:
Courtesy of FAVE Entertainment.

５３
The transformation of Jeongrangak and Dongnae Villa into "Yojeong" establishments
after liberation was crucial to the preservation of these structures, which are emblematic of the
Japanese colonial era. Originally upscale restaurants, these yojeongs evolved into places of
indulgence, serving as venues for alcohol consumption and female prostitution. This duality of
function reflects Busan's colorful history, especially during the Korean War when the city
became a political hub. Political figures were known to frequent these establishments, mixing
governance with leisure, giving rise to the term "Yojeong political period".58 This period marked
a distinct chapter in Busan's history, where the remnants of colonial architecture were repurposed
and deeply embedded in the city's socio-political narrative of the 1970s.59
In contemporary times, these buildings, especially Jeongrangak, have undergone another
layer of transformation. Once a symbol of Japanese colonization, Jeongrangak is now a venue for
traditional Korean customs and events. This shift in use is more than a mere change in function;
it represents a profound recontextualization of a painful colonial past into a living testament to
Korean culture and resilience. These buildings have been seamlessly woven into the fabric of
Korean society, actively reinterpreting, and healing historical traumas through cultural
engagement and celebration.
The continued preservation of Jeongrangak and Dongnae Villa is significant not only for
their architectural and historical value, but also for their role in bridging the past and present.
They stand as living monuments that encapsulate the history of the Japanese occupation while
58 C Cha, "Dongnae Villa: Discovering the Oncheonjang of Busan." Kookje Newspaper, 2021. http://kookje.co.kr.
59 Jae-Cheol Ahn, "The Composite Structure Characteristics of the Formerly the Busan Branch of Toyo Takushoku
Co. (Busan Modern History Museum)." Journal of the Architectural Institute of Korea, Planning & Design 35, no.
10 (2019): 63-70.

５４
paving the way for innovative uses in contemporary Korean society. Through various cultural
activities hosted in these spaces, they contribute to a deeper understanding of Busan's, and by
extension Korea's, complex modern history.
The story of Jeongrangak and Dongnae Villa is one of transformation and adaptation.
From colonial-era residences to modern cultural centers, these buildings reflect the dynamic
journey of Busan's heritage and illustrate how the city, and Korea as a whole, navigates its
complicated history, transforming sites of historical significance into beacons of cultural identity
and community cohesion. The preservation and use of these buildings play an important role in
understanding the modern history of not only Busan, but also Korea as a whole.
Figure 3.11 Site photo of the current Dongnae villa. The site promotes events related to traditional Korean
folklore, such as traditional Korean cuisine, courtly meals, traditional weddings, and reunions. Source: Courtesy
of Dongnae Byeljang

５５
The historical value of Jeongrangak and Dongnae Villa is not limited to their
architectural beauty; they are valuable sources for understanding the lifestyles, social relations,
and cultural characteristics of the Japanese occupation period. In particular, the presence of
traditional Korean customs and rituals in Jeongrangak demonstrates that the colonial architecture
of the past merges with contemporary Korean culture to create new meanings. This is important
as an example of the coexistence of past and present and the multifaceted nature of history.

５６
Chapter 4: Comparative Approaches to Japanese Colonial Heritage
in Busan and Other Port Cities
Figure 4.1 Pohang Gunsan Busan Location. Source: Figure by Author.
This chapter examines the complex relationship between Korea's colonial legacies
through the example of Busan and the other port cities of Gunsan and Pohang. The chapter
examines how cities like Gunsan, Pohang, and Busan have overcome their colonial past and
transformed this legacy from a symbol of oppression to an integral part of their modern identity
and cultural heritage. Each city's unique historical context and contemporary socio-political
dynamics have shaped its unique approach to the colonial legacy, which reflects broader national
attitudes and narratives about Japan's historical influence in South Korea.
In Gunsan, the transformation of colonial buildings and sites into tourist attractions
proves that perceptions of oppression can also be used as a tourist resource. However, the story

５７
of Gunsan, a former colonial port, is indicative of the attitudes of communities across South
Korea where sites associated with the Japanese occupation are being reassessed and repurposed
for tourism and cultural education.
In contrast to Gunsan's approach, Pohang tells a different story of coexistence and
integration between Japanese and Korean communities. Pohang's unique history of voluntary
relocation of Japanese people during the colonial era has created a different narrative than that of
Gunsan. The city's Guryongpo district, with its intact Japanese-style houses, bears traces of this
history. However, the city's efforts to transform these remnants into an aesthetically pleasing
contemporary memory has sparked public controversy and debate, highlighting the complexity
and sensitivity involved in reinterpreting colonial legacies.
Busan's multifaceted history as a port city, temporary capital during the Korean War,
and site of rapid postwar modernization requires a nuanced approach to its modern heritage.
However, the city's preservation strategies have often been influenced by a binary perspective of
pro- and anti-Japanese sentiments, resulting in selective heritage conservation. This selective
approach has resulted in the preservation of certain cultural properties while causing the loss of
many others.
In the post-liberation era, much emphasis was placed on overwriting Japanese colonial
influences with Korean historical and cultural significance. This was not only a reclaiming of
physical spaces, but also an assertion of national identity. Buildings associated with Korean
resistance or adaptable to Korean cultural needs were preserved and became symbols of Korean
resilience, such as the Provisional Government Building.

５８
Conversely, structures strongly associated with the Japanese occupation that did not fit
the narrative of Korean renewal were often neglected or demolished during modernization
efforts. This includes notable architectural landmarks such as the Busan Customs House, whose
historical and architectural value was overlooked.
This approach reflects the complexity of dealing with a city's colonial past. While it's
important to honor sites that symbolize national pride, it's equally important to recognize and
preserve a broader range of historical narratives, including uncomfortable or challenging aspects.
Such an inclusive approach to heritage preservation in Busan would ensure a more holistic
representation of the city's rich cultural and historical landscape, safeguarding the diverse stories
and experiences that have shaped the city.
Chapter 4 draws comparisons between these cities to highlight the multifaceted nature of
Busan's colonial history and its ongoing impact on contemporary culture and urban landscape.
Acknowledging the diversity of experiences and memories within different communities, the
chapter emphasizes the need for a nuanced understanding and interpretation of this history. The
chapter also explores how these cities' approaches to their colonial legacies reflect broader trends
in South Korea's relationship with its past and the challenge of balancing historical preservation
with the needs of modern society.

５９
4.1 Gunsan : Utilizing Anti-Japanese Sentiments in Transforming Colonial Heritage into
Tourist Resources
Gunsan, a city with a deep history as a colonial port, is demonstrating a transformative
approach to its Japanese colonial architecture, shifting from symbols of oppression to valuable
cultural heritage. This transformation plays a crucial role in defining Gunsan's modern identity.
Historically, Gunsan's significant urbanization began after its opening as an international
port in 1899, serving as a conduit for Japan's exploitation of Korean resources during the
colonial era.60 The city's landscape, marked by the remnants of this colonial past, initially evoked
resentment. Following Korea's liberation in 1945, widespread incidents targeting symbols of
Japanese imperialism were reported, reflecting national sentiment against the remnants of
colonial rule.61
60 Jae-Ho Jeon, "Changes in the Perception of Architectural Heritage from the Colonial Period and Anti-Japanese
Nationalism in Korea: From Remnants of Japanese Colonial Rule to a Modern Cultural Heritage”, 2020, 127.
61 Yeonsik Yi. "Conflicts between Japanese Government-General and South Korean Society on Japanese’
Repatriation from Korean Peninsula to Japan," Journal of Studies on Korean National Movement, no. 63 (2010):
245.

６０
However, the mid-1990s marked a notable shift in Gunsan's perspective, influenced not
only by evolving societal values but also by the transition from a centralized government system
to local governance. The city began to view these colonial legacies through the lens of tourism
development and cultural preservation, rather than merely as oppressive symbols to be
eradicated.62 This change in approach was further reinforced with the introduction of the
Registered Cultural Property system in 2001, a significant legislative move recognizing the
62 Eun-Jung Yang, and Park, So-Hyun, "Changes and Characteristics of Planning for the Historic Urban Core in
Gunsan City - Based on a Content Analysis of Gunsan’s Municipal Plans from the 1960’s to the 2010’s." Journal of
the Urban Design Institute of Korea, Urban Design 18, no. 5 (2017): 15.
https://doi.org/10.38195/judik.2017.10.18.5.5.
Figure 4.2 Piles of rice at Gusan Port. Source: Courtesy of Yonhap News

６１
importance of preserving and utilizing modern architectural heritage from the colonial period.63
(Figure 4.3)
In 2009, the "Modern Cultural City Project" was initiated with the intent of transforming
historical colonial sites into spaces of remembrance and cultural activities. This project resulted
in a significant transformation of Gunsan's landscape and significantly increased the number of
63 J. Choi, "Notification of the Status of Registered Cultural Properties." Cultural Heritage Administration. Accessed
July 7, 2023.
http://www.cha.go.kr/cop/bbs/selectBoardArticle.do?nttId=75368&bbsId=BBSMSTR_1045&mn=NS_03_09_0.
Cultural Heritage Name Narrative
Property 182 Shimatani Farm Warehouse
A building where cash,
documents, and Japanese
landlords kept illegal Korean
books and ceramics.
Property 183 Gunsan Hirotsu Street
Explore the lifestyle of Japanese
landowners during the Japanese
occupation and learn about the
history of rural theft.
Property 372 Japan Bank Gunsan Branch Financial institutions for grain
shipments and land sales to Japan
Property 374 Gunsan Joseon Bank Branch Chosun Bank built to steal South
Korea's economy
Property 600 Joseon Food Youngdan Gunsan Branch Evidence of Japan's history of rice
theft
Property 719-1 Floating Bridge Pier
Represents the character of
Gunson Port as a port for rice
collection during the Japanese
occupation.
Figure 4.3 Registered Korean Cultural property in Gunsan that describes the details of exploitation during the
Japanese colonial period. Source: Cultural Heritage Administration, http://hertiage.go.kr/heri/idx/idex.do

６２
tourists, as evidenced by the increasing number of visitors to the Modern History Museum from
2013 to 2019.64 65
Despite this positive shift, Gunsan's treatment of its colonial heritage reveals a complex
duality. Of the 22 registered cultural properties in the city, only six explicitly reference the
narrative of colonial exploitation, suggesting a selective emphasis on certain aspects of history.
66
Furthermore, the city's nationalist framework often emphasizes the history of Japanese
oppression, as evidenced by sites such as the Gunsan Resistance Museum and the Peace Girl
Statue, which commemorate the painful history of Japanese colonialism.
While this approach emphasizes the Japanese influence in architecture, it paradoxically
risks romanticizing the colonial era, especially when catering to the preferences of tourists. The
modern reinterpretation of these buildings, often more ornate than their original design, may
inadvertently glorify this period. The introduction of the Registered Cultural Heritage System by
the Cultural Heritage Administration in 2001 attempted to address the conflicts in modern
memory by moving beyond the binary evaluation of colonial legacies and seeking a more
nuanced understanding of Korea's complex history.
67
64 Sukjung Go, "Gunsan Modern History Museum Reached 950,000 Visitors Last Year," Newsis, January 10, 2020.
65 Hyunsook Kim, "Utilizing Modern Architectural Assets: Urban Regeneration in Gunsan." In Urban Regeneration,
Finding Answers On-site, edited by Hwang et al., 23-25. Seoul: Misewoom, 2019.
66 C. Jung, and Lee, H., "Phenomenological Study on the Formation of Collective Memory and Place Identity of
Tourists: Focused on Modern Cultural Heritage in Gunsan City," Journal of Tourism Research, 31, no. 4 (2019):
112.
67 Jae-Ho Jeon, "Changes in the Perception of Architectural Heritage from the Colonial Period and Anti-Japanese
Nationalism in Korea: From Remnants of Japanese Colonial Rule to a Modern Cultural Heritage." 2020, 129.

６３
Gunsan's evolution from a colonial outpost to a city that integrates its complex history
into a modern cultural heritage narrative exemplifies Korea's evolving relationship with its
colonial past. By reinterpreting and repurposing its colonial architecture, Gunsan has not only
preserved these structures but also integrated them into its contemporary urban fabric, offering a
nuanced perspective on its multifaceted history.
4.2 Pohang: A Different Narrative of Coexistence
In the study of colonial legacies, Pohang is a city that exemplifies the ambivalence of
Koreans. Unlike Gunsan, which focuses on exploiting its history of anti-Japanese sentiment and
Figure 4.4 A guest house built to mimic the form of a Japanese house. Source: Courtesy of Gowoodang

６４
subjugation for tourism, Pohang's modern legacy is a city shaped by the natural coexistence and
integration of Japanese and Korean people. Despite this history of natural and spontaneous
heritage, there is still a high level of anti-Japanese sentiment, which has led to the overwriting of
the history of resistance in the colonial heritage.
Pohang's Guryongpo district, with its streets of Japanese-style houses, is a good example
of Pohang's approach. Pohang's downtown, which has not changed much since the 1930s, has a
well-preserved colonial heritage. Guryongpo was settled by the voluntary migration of Japanese
fishermen from the Seto Inland Sea area to escape poverty. Unlike other colonial port cities, this
was a natural rather than forced migration, which led to the integration of Korean and Japanese
communities.68
68 J. Cho, and Kwon, S., "Lived in Guryongpo," Arko, 2009.
Figure 4.5 Pohang Guryongpo Port View. Source: Courtesy of Kyungbok News

６５
This historical background of Guryongpo does not fit the common narratives of other
cities about colonization. “Lived in Guryongpo (2009)”, Jo emphasizes that the Japanese
residents of Guryongpo saw it primarily as a place to make a living rather than as a symbol of
colonial rule. This harmonious coexistence created an indigenous landscape and cultural
heritage.
Despite this unique history, the preservation of Pohang's Japanese heritage is
controversial. By recreating a restored symbolic landscape next to the actual historic district,
Pohang has transformed negative memories into an aestheticized modern memory.69 Pohang
designated Guryongpo as a modern historical and cultural district and received the top prize at
the Landscape Awards organized by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport in 2012
in recognition of its preservation efforts.70 Since then, however, it has faced public criticism.
Critics questioned whether it was appropriate for South Koreans to wear Japanese kimonos while
sightseeing in a colonial legacy of the Japanese occupation. As a result, the Guryongpo Modern
History and Culture District was stripped of its designation as a modern history and culture
district in 2016.71
69 H. Chun, "A Study on the Integrated Social Studies Education Utilizing the Issues about the Modern Historical
Landscapes - Focusing on the Case of Guryongpo in Pohang City," Master's thesis, Korea National University of
Education, 2023.
70 Prime Economy, "Kwon Young-dae, Reflection on the Painful History of Guryongpo Japanese Residential Street
in Pohang," May 3, 2021. http://www.newsprime.co.kr/news/article/?no=542570.
71 H. Chun.

６６
This complex history of cultural preservation in Pohang reflects broader trends in South
Korea's approach to its colonial past. Cultural Heritage Administration's introduction of Cultural
Heritage System in 200172 was an attempt to link modern and traditional heritage. However,
contrary to its intentions, it has also sparked a debate about how to appropriately represent and
commemorate the colonial experience in places like Guryongpo, where the colonial past is not
necessarily synonymous with exploitation and conflict.
Pohang's experience illustrates how nuanced and often contentious the process of
reinterpreting colonial legacies is in South Korea. While Pohang's approach to Japanese colonial
72 Cultural Heritage Administration, "National Cultural Heritage Portal," Accessed July 19, 2023.
http://www.heritage.go.kr/heri/idx/index.do.
Figure 4.6 Tourist wearing Japanese Traditional clothes in Pohang. Source: Courtesy of Korea Backpaker.

６７
architecture and history is very different from places like Gunsan, it raises important questions
about how history is remembered, represented, and used in contemporary society. These
differences in approach also highlight the need for a more multifaceted understanding of South
Korea's colonial past-one that recognizes the diversity of experiences and memories within
different communities.
4.3 Busan: A Complex Tapestry of Colonial Legacies
Busan has had a tumultuous history since its opening, through the Japanese occupation,
the Korean War, and beyond. The perception of Busan's modern heritage is deeply intertwined
with its complex historical narrative. Approaches to this heritage reflect a unique mix of
recognizing, reinterpreting, and often struggling with the city's colonial past.
The binary view of pro- and anti-Japan tends to reject the "other" of Japan and erase this
memory from modern heritage discourse. Discussions of Busan's modern heritage tend to focus
on its architectural aspects or its use for local revitalization and tourism, rather than a holistic
historical understanding.73 (Figure 4.8)
73 J. Je, and Song, B., "Modern Cultural Heritage and Historical Perception in Busan: Focused on 'Registered
Cultural Properties'," Hyangdo Busan 33 (2017): 157.
Register
Number Name Time Enrollment
date
N 41 Busan Provisional Government Building
Japanese
Colonial
Period
Sep/13/2002
N 302 Busan Songjung Station
Japanese
Colonial
Period
Dec/04/2006
N 327 Busan Bokbyeongsan Drainage Reservoir July/24/2007

６８
N 328 Gyeongnam Commerce High School
Japanese
Colonial
Period
July/03/2007
N 329 Namsan Electric Office Building
Japanese
Colonial
Period
July/03/2007
N 330 Jeongrangak
Japanese
Colonial
Period
July/03/2007
N 349 Choryang House
Japanese
Colonial
Period
July/03/2007
N 359 Busan U.N. Memorial Park Sep/21/2007
N 376 Sungjigok Water Source Oct/24/2007
N 416 Diesel Electric Locomotive No. 2001
Japanese
Colonial
Period
July/03/2008
N 474 Liberation Army House
Japanese
Colonial
Period
Sep/24/2011
N 494 Busan Tram Apr/18/2012
N 554 Annals of Oceanography Sep/27/2013
N 568 Deok Hyung-kwan, Gyeongnam High School Oct/29/2013
N 573 Busan Cathedral Oct/29/2013
N 641 Busan National University Old Main Building Oct/30/2014
N 642 Busan University Rainbow Gate Oct/30/2014
N 647 Busan Baekje Hospital Dec/26/2014

６９
Following the example of Gunsan City's successful tourism industry based on colonial
heritage, the City of Busan conducted a survey on its modern heritage from April 2004 to
February 2005 with the help of research teams from four local universities. The survey examined
responses by age group to four items: 1) awareness of Japanese heritage, 2) opinions on the
preservation of Japanese heritage, 3) opinions on the need to preserve Japanese heritage, and 4)
reasons for removing Japanese heritage. The survey results illustrate this complex perception of
Busan's modern heritage.74 The results of the survey showed that 54% of the respondents agreed
that they should be selectively preserved and demolished, while 18.7% agreed that they should
be removed as much as possible, and 16.3% agreed that they should be preserved as much as
74 Busan Metropolitan City, "Modern Cultural Heritage Survey and Cataloging Project Report," 2005.
Figure 4.9 "Busan's Public Opinion on Japanese Heritage: Categorized responses on preservation -
'Possible Preservation,' 'Selective Preservation & Demolition,' 'Possible Demolition,' and 'Not
Interested.'". Source: Busan Metropolitan City http://www.busan.go.kr/index.
Figure 4.7 Status of Korea Cultural Heritage in Busan. Source: Korea Cultural Heritage Administration.

７０
possible. This suggests a change in the attitude of Busan citizens who recognize the educational
value of these heritage sites.75
In addition, Busan Metropolitan City has enacted a special ordinance to preserve and
manage the heritage of Busan, which was the temporary capital of the Republic of Korea during
the Korean War. The ordinance, which took effect on November 2, 2016, reflects an attempt to
broaden the view of modern heritage from a perspective limited to a specific period, such as the
Japanese colonial era, and to evaluate and preserve heritage in a more neutral and comprehensive
manner.
76 However, one cannot help but wonder whether the enactment of the ordinance is
intended to preserve purely colonial heritage, as the ordinance has as its "purpose" the listing of
the city as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Referring to the previous cases, the cultural and social understanding of modern
historical buildings in Busan is still in a transitional stage, reflecting different valuations and
historical meanings. This transitional situation emphasizes the need for continued discussion and
an integrated approach to understanding and preserving Busan's modern heritage.
75 D. Lee, "A Study on the Current Status and Utilization Plans of Modern Historical Buildings in Busan," Busan
Development Institute, 2003.
76 Ordinance on the World Heritage Listing, Preservation, and Management of the Heritage of Busan, the
Provisional Capital of the Republic of Korea, 2016.
Figure 4.10 Busan Wartime capital tentative designation list on the UNESCO site. Source: UNESCO World
Heritage Convention. https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6668/.

７１
Busan's history is multifaceted, reflecting the hybridity and multiculturalism created by
the interaction of Koreans and Japanese at different historical periods. Busan's modern heritage
includes not only its early experience of modernization as a port city, but also the turbulent years
of the Korean War and post-war reconstruction. However, Busan's modern heritage is often
overshadowed by the city's colonial past, which was characterized by discriminatory urban
planning and non-inclusive colonial development practices in both Japan and Korea. These
colonial influences are often seen as inauthentic or pseudo-modern, making it difficult for this
heritage to be recognized as part of Busan's true modern history.77
Busan's approach to its colonial and modern heritage must capture a complex narrative:
The city's history of cultural change and diverse social contexts requires a comprehensive
approach to the preservation and interpretation of modern historic buildings and sites. Such an
approach needs to consider not only the architectural value, but also the deeper historical and
cultural narratives that these heritage sites hold.
77 J. Kim, "Field Study on the Remnants of Japanese Imperialism in Busan," Northeast Asian Cultural Studies, 5.
Northeast Asian Cultural Studies Society, 2003.

７２
Conclusion: Navigating Colonial Legacies and Cultural Identity in
Busan
In the dynamic landscape of Busan, the remnants of colonial architecture stand as
enduring symbols of a multifaceted historical narrative. This paper critically examines the
complex interplay between the preservation, demolition, and transformation of these remnants,
revealing the intricate layers of cultural identity and historical memory that shape contemporary
Busan. The journey from a colonized port city to a modern urban center is fraught with
contradictions and complexities, reflecting broader socio-cultural sentiments about Japan's
colonial past in South Korea.
The transformative processes in Busan, juxtaposed with comparative insights from other
port cities such as Gunsan and Pohang, highlight different approaches to dealing with colonial
legacies. Each city's unique historical context and community sentiment have influenced its
specific approach, contributing to a broader understanding of South Korea's relationship with its
colonial past. In Busan, the selective preservation and reuse of colonial architecture highlights a
nuanced balance between erasing painful memories and embracing an important part of the city's
historical fabric.78
This study has highlighted the challenges and opportunities associated with the
preservation of colonial heritage. The cases of the Busan Provisional Government Building and
78 J. Je, & Song, B., “Modern cultural heritage and historical perception in Busan: Focused on 'Registered Cultural
Properties',” Hyangdo Busan, 33, 162.

７３
the Busan Modern History Museum exemplify the city's evolving cultural identity. These
structures have been transformed from symbols of foreign domination to beacons of Korean
cultural identity and memory.79 Similarly, vernacular architecture left behind by the Japanese,
initially perceived as "enemy property," has been repurposed, illustrating a nuanced approach to
dealing with a painful past.80
The preservation of Busan's colonial heritage is not without its challenges. The city's
colonial and modern heritage must capture a complex narrative that reflects the hybridity and
multiculturalism created by the interaction of Koreans and Japanese at different historical
periods. However, this heritage is often overshadowed by discriminatory urban planning and
non-inclusive colonial development practices in both Japan and Korea, making it difficult to
recognize this heritage as part of Busan's true modern history.81
The city's approach to colonial heritage has been deeply influenced by a binary
perspective of pro- and anti-Japanese sentiments. This has resulted in a selective approach to
preservation that often obscures the city's broader historical narrative. While the enactment of a
special ordinance for the preservation and management of Busan's heritage is a step toward
recognizing the city's complex historical journey, it also raises questions about the intentions
behind preserving purely colonial heritage (Ordinance on the World Heritage Listing,
Preservation, and Management of the Heritage of Busan, the Provisional Capital of the Republic
79 Hiroshi Kondo, “Remains of Colony of Japan in Busan - Focused on the Architecture,” Graduate School, Silla
University, 2021.
80 S. Bae, "Busan Sujeong-dong Japanese-style House (Jeongrangak)," Busan History and Culture Encyclopedia,
Accessed December 3, 2023. http://busan.grandculture.net.
81 J. Kim, "Field Study on the Remnants of Japanese Imperialism in Busan," Northeast Asian Cultural Studies, 5.
Northeast Asian Cultural Studies Society, 2003.

７４
of Korea, 2016).
Busan's history, interwoven with the legacies of its colonial past, presents an intricate
tapestry of cultural change and diverse social contexts. The city's approach to its colonial and
modern heritage must navigate this complex narrative, considering not only the architectural
value, but also the deeper historical and cultural narratives that these heritage sites hold. Such an
approach must be inclusive, recognizing the diversity of experiences and memories within the
community. The story of Busan's colonial heritage is emblematic of South Korea's broader
narrative of coming to terms with its colonial legacy, transforming symbols of occupation into
icons of cultural pride and communal value.
The preservation and interpretation of modern historic buildings and sites in Busan and
similar contexts are essential to communicating Korea's historical experience to present and
future generations. As such, cities like Busan play a crucial role in shaping narratives that
acknowledge historical complexity and embrace cultural diversity. This research underscores the
importance of reconciling the past while shaping a forward-looking cultural identity and
highlights the role of urban centers in telling a story that respects their complex past and
envisions an inclusive future.

７５
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８３

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Asset Metadata

Creator No, Hoondong (author)

Core Title The ambivalence of conserving Busan’s colonial heritage

School School of Architecture

Degree Master of Heritage Conservation

Degree Program Heritage Conservation

Degree Conferral Date 2024-05

Publication Date 01/26/2024

Defense Date 01/25/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Ami-dong,anti-Japanese,Busan,colonial heritage,conservation,difficult heritage,japan,Korea,Korean

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Advisor Sandmeier, Trudi (committee chair), Bharne, Vinayak (committee member), Platt, Jay (committee member)

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